CARBOHYDRATE

Goal 2: Understand the Basic Molecules of Life: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Nucleic acids, Amino
acids and proteins
Learning objective
2a (i) Differentiate between monosaccharides with respect to their basic structure, source
and function.
2a (ii) Differentiate between disaccharides with respect to their composition, and source.
2a (iii) Differentiate between polysaccharides with respect to their composition, linkage,
location and function.

Reference:-Ferrier, D.R., Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews – Biochemistry 7th ed. (Chapter 7;

page 83 – 86, Chapter 11; page 125-126, Chapter 14; page 157-158)

Dr Rajashekara B Rao
Associate Professor of Biochemistry
AUA, Antigua.
Prepared by:
Office: GC 27
Phone: 1-268-484-8900, Extn: 1098
email: rrao@auamed.net

NOTE: Structures of the molecules are given ONLY for understand purpose. No need to
memorize them

The basic aspects of carbohydrates

 These are one of the important macromolecules present in our body

 By definition, they are polyhydroxy alcohol derivatives of aldehydes or ketones i.e. they
have many alcohol groups (-OH) and with aldehyde(-CHO) or Keto (C=O)

 Classical examples are glucose and fructose

Note:- Structure are given below only for understanding.

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Why do we need carbohydrates/ what are their functions in the body:

 They are the main sources of energy. When they are broken down to smaller molecules-
CO2 & H2O, they release energy which is trapped as ATP, the common currency of energy
in the body

 They also have structural functions – one of the major component of extra cellular matrix
is a mucopolysaccharides, a type of carbohydrate

 They are also component of nucleic acid (DNA&RNA), blood group substances,
antibodies(Immunoglobulins)

 Excess carbohydrate in our body, is converted to fat (triacylglycerol /triglycerides (TAG))

and stored

Types of carbohydrates

Monosaccharides

They have one monosaccharide units and when they are hydrolyzed, they give CO2, H2O & ATP

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Example:

1.Glucose (also referred as dextrose)

 has 6 carbon atoms

 major source of energy in the body

 It is an aldo sugar(has aldehyde as the functional group)

 Main clinical significance: Increased concentration of glucose in the blood is

observed in diabetic patients. They get excreted in urine in these patients (normal
urine does not contain glucose). In chronic diabetic patients glucose (aldo sugar) is
reduced to sorbitol (an alcohol) which causes cataract.

OR

Ring structure of glucose

(Common form present in body)

2.Fructose

 6 carbon compound, an example of keto sugar (has ketose as the functional

group)

 A component in sucrose

 Present in semen and the sperm cells use fructose as the energy source for their
metabolism
3.Galactose

 6 carbon compound (In certain disease, galactitol formed from galactose

accumulates and cause cataract)

 A component in lactose

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 4.Ribose

 5 carbon compound

 Component of nucleotides (nucleotides are building blocks of nucleic acids -DNA

& RNA) (Note:-Deoxyribose, a component of DNA, is a modified version of
ribose)

5.Glyceraldehyde and Dihydroxy acetone

 3 carbon compounds

 Intermediate in glycolysis

Modified monosaccharides

i) Amino sugars (Glucosamine, Galactosamine)

 They are components of mucopolysaccharides

 They may be acetylated (N -acetyl Glucosamine, N -acetyl galactosamine)

ii) Acidic sugars (uronic acid)

Example: Glucuronic acid, Iduronic acid

 They are components of mucopolysaccharides

DISACCHARIDES

Disaccharides -Carbohydrates with 2 monosaccharide units and these units are linked through
glycosidic bonds.

Name Composition Source

- 2 glucose residues
- Linkage: α (1→4)
1. Maltose Present in malt and also
Hint: 1→4 means 1st carbon formed when
(malt sugar) of first glucose is linked to the starch/glycogen undergo
4th carbon of second glucose. partial hydrolysis
“α " represents the isoforms
(see the structure below)

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 - 2 glucose residues
- Linkage: α (1→6)
2. Isomaltose Is formed when
Hint: 1→6 means 1st carbon
of first glucose is linked to the starch/glycogen undergo
(malt sugar)
6th carbon of second glucose. partial hydrolysis
:“α " represents the isoforms.
(see the structure below)

3.Sucrose Sugar cane

Glucose and fructose Sugar beet
(cane sugar or
Pineapple
table sugar)
Carrot roots
4.Lactose Found in milk and dairy
Glucose and galactose products
(milk sugar)

Maltose

Isomaltose

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 POLYSACCHARIDES

 Carbohydrates with 10 or more monosaccharide units

 Some carbohydrates are made up of only one type of monosaccharide unit, while
some have more than one type of monosaccharide unit.
Examples
1. Starch

 Storage form of carbohydrate in plants. Food sources include tubers, potatoes, breads,
pasta, and rice.

 Structure -It contains 2 components– Amylose & Amylopectin (Note: Both the
components are made up of only glucose)
o Amylose: has unbranched structure with many glucose residues and these glucose
residues are joined by α (1→4) glycosidic linkage
o Amylopectin: It has a branched structure with many glucose residues joined by α
(1→4) and α (1→6) glycosidic linkage at branching point

 Function:
o Starch is source of dietary glucose, which is used as energy source in the cell.
Starch is broken into glucose in gastro intestinal tract during digestion

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2. Glycogen
 Storage form of carbohydrate in animals. Glycogen is stored in liver, kidney, muscle
 Structure: - highly branched with many glucose residues joined by α (1→4) and α (1→6)
glycosidic linkage at branching point
 Function: -
o Glycogen is broken into glucose in gastro intestinal tract during digestion
o Stored in human liver: Liver glycogen can give rise to glucose which is used to maintain
normal blood glucose level
o Stored in human muscle tissue: Muscle glycogen is used as energy source for muscle
contraction

3. Mucopolysaccharides ( Glycosaminoglycans/GAGs )

 They are unbranched polysaccharides, made up of repeating disaccharide units.

 Components of disaccharides units are amino sugar and acidic sugar.

 The amino sugars are either glucosamine or galactosamine (carry sulfate groups/may
be acetylated)

 The acidic sugars (uronic acid) are either glucuronic acid or iduronic acid

 Carboxyl groups and sulfate groups give a strong negative charge to the
glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) which is needed for their function.

 Example: Heparin, chondroitin sulphate, keratan sulphate, hyaluronic acid, dermatan

sulphate, heparan sulphate.

 Functions
o Major component of extra cellular matrix
o Anticoagulant (Heparin)
o Tensile strength, compressibility & elasticity of cartilage (chondroitin sulphate)
o Lubricants & shock absorber in joints (hyaluronic acid)
o Jelly-like consistency of vitreous humor of eye (keratan sulphate)