A Brief History of Atomic Theory
A Brief History of Atomic Theory
A Brief History of Atomic Theory
A Brief History of Atomic Theory
Today we have a very good theory of the structure of the atom and how chemistry works, that has been
tested many, many times. It has helped us to make just about everything we use. But how did we find
out about this? There was not one sudden “eureka1” moment, instead ideas of the model of the atom
have been tested and changed through history as experiments showed the models to be wrong.
The atom in Greek philosophy
In about 400 BC Greek philosophers were already trying to find out what things are made of. Leucippus
is credited with (given credit for, believed to have had) the original idea of atomism (the idea that matter
was made up of very small particles). Democritus (circa. 460 – circa. 370 BC) was a student of his and
because he believed his teachers idea was correct and he developed it further. He labelled what he
thought was the basic part of all matter the "atomos"
meaning uncuttable. His ideas however was a hypothesis,
entirely based on reasoning, it had no experimental
evidence.
According to Democritus, atoms of different shapes,
arranged and positioned differently relative to each other,
accounted for the different materials of the world. The
atomic theory of Democritus suggested an explanation of
the changes that occur when matter is chemically
transformed.
At the time the Greeks believed that you could arrive at the
truth through reasoning and so made little attempt to make
observations and experiments. They did not use the
Fig. 1 Democritus scientific method.
Aristotle was another Greek philosopher who lived about the same time as Democritus, he hypothesized
(made a hypothesis) that everything was made up of five basic elements: earth water air fire and aether.
The aether is the material he thought filled space, the material between stars and the planets.
Although Aristotle’s idea was incorrect he was the star philosopher of the time and his hypothesis was
accepted as being correct, and the ideas of Democritus and Leucippus were almost forgotten for nearly
two thousand years.
1
“eureka” ‐ The moment of a sudden unexpected discovery, he exclamation 'Eureka!' is famously
attributed to the ancient Greek scholar Archimedes. He reportedly proclaimed "Eureka!" when he
stepped into a bath and noticed that the water level rose—he suddenly understood that the volume of
water displaced must be equal to the volume of the part of his body he had submerged.
1
History o
of atomic th
heory First Yearr English Scieence
The rise of experime
entation
7th century the Scientific Revolution b
In the 17 began. Theree were threee different w
ways of lookin
ng at the
world –tthat of Aristo
otle, magic aand the mech
hanical. Up to this time A
Aristotle and magic were the most
common n views, evenn if people like Newton aand Galileo b
believed in attoms.
During tthis period m
more and more people staarted using ccareful obserrvation and eexperimentss to test
ideas, peeople like Ro
obert Boyle (1627‐1691) or 50 years llater Antoinee Lavoisier (1
1743‐1794).
The Che
emical Atom
Lavoisie
er, and later Joseph‐Louiss Proust (175
54‐1826) using careful m
measurementt of mass beffore and
after che
emical reactions establisshed the concept of masss conservatio on (the masss before and after
remainss the same) aand constant chemical co omposition (tthe proportio
ons of chemiicals for each
h reaction is
always cconstant).
It was JJohn Dalton (1766‐1844)), an English scientist, wh
ho took
these iddeas a step fforward. In 1
1808 he deveeloped a theory that:
• All matter iss composed o
of extremelyy small particcles
called atoms.
• Atoms cannot be createed or destroyyed.
• All atoms off the same element are tthe same, and different
elements haave differentt types of ato
oms.
• Atoms comb ds in simple whole
bine to creatte compound
number ratiios.
• Chemical reactions are tthe rearranggement of ato
oms, one
nnot change into another one.
element can
Fig. 2 Joh
hn Dalton
Althou
ugh there is aa lot that Dallton did not know (or gott wrong)
about ch
hemical com
mpounds, these ideas he h
had about thhe atom are still useful.
For abou
ut 100 yearss the atom w
was imagined
d like a solid ball, strong aand indivisib
ble.
The nexxt step ‐ Insid
de the atom
JJ Thompson worked or of Physics at
d as Professo
Cambrid dge Universitty and was doing experimments with aa
cathodee ray tube (firrst made by a German ph hysicist in
1869).
This devvice has two electrodes in
n a vacuum cconnected to
o
a high vooltage power supply.
2
History of atomic theory First Year English Science
In 1897 JJ Thompson showed that a ray of particles came out of the cathode and went in a straight line
to hit to end of the tube. He noticed that a magnet would make the rays bend. He also showed they
moved in an electric field too, and were bent toward a positive charge. This meant that they had a
negative electric charge. He measured the charge/weight ratio Fig. 3 A cathode ray tube
of these particles and discovered that they were about 1000
times smaller than an atom.
This meant he had found something that was inside the atom, and so Democritus’s old model of the
atom had to change. His new model was called the “plum pudding” model named after an English
dessert. It is easier to imagine a watermelon with the seeds being the electrons, surrounded by red
positive stuff.
He received a Nobel prize for his work, but was also a great teacher (seven of his assistants and his son
also won Nobel prizes). One of his pupils was a man called Ernest Rutherford.
Rutherford did a lot of research on radioactivity, and showed that and alpha particle (one of the types of
nuclear radiation) is in fact a helium nucleus moving very fast. This is why it is dangerous to humans as
it contains a lot of energy (a heavy particle moving quickly).
He wanted to use alpha particles to test the plum pudding model of the atom. He set up an experiment
using gold foil as a target for the alpha particle. Why gold? Well it can be made very thin without it
breaking, in fact the gold foil was only a few atoms thick. He expected the alpha particles to pass right
through the foil, after all they were heavy and fast and the atoms of gold big and soft (according to the
plum pudding model).
Most of the particles did pass through the gold, but try to image his surprise when some of the alpha
particles bounced back. He said it was like “shooting a 15 inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and having
it bounce back at you".
3
History of atomic theory First Year English Science
He had shown that his teacher’s hypothesis was wrong, and that inside the atom was a small dense
nucleus, with a positive charge and lots of empty space around it. This meant that the atomic model had
to be changed again. The new model is called the Rutherford model.
The next important development came in 1914 when Danish physicist Niels Bohr revised the model
again. It had been known for some time that the light given out when atoms were heated always had
specific amounts of energy, but no one had been able to explain this. Bohr suggested that the electrons
must be orbiting the nucleus in certain fixed energy levels (or shells). The energy must be given out
when 'excited' electrons fall from a high energy level to a low one, or absorbed when the electron
moved for a low level to a higher one. These packets of energy where later given the name “photons”.
This also explained why the negatively charged electrons didn’t just fall into the positively charged
nucleus.
Since then there have been many changes to the model, both theoretical, using mathematical models,
and careful observation and experiment. The current model is called the “Electron cloud model” and a
simplified version is what you use in physics and chemistry.
But what about the nucleus? We still only have a positively charged particle, the proton, in the nucleus.
It had been known since Rutherford’s experiments that the atomic mass was a little more than twice
the atomic number, but it could not be explained. It was not until 1932 that James Chadwick discovered
and weighed a particle that had no charge, the Neutron.
Now we know that even the neutron and the proton are not indivisible, and that they contain particles
called quarks. We will leave that story for another day though.
Timeline of atomic models
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NSAgLvKOPLQ&list=PLNu_b0xZNFqaxGrY0kc2Rww05SsIsjSRH
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IdSUqsq1yY8 (video) Talks about Dalton’s theory and how it is
different to what we know today.
4
History of atomic theory First Year English Science
History of the Atom (Dalton to Bohr) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=‐4Us5PTb4J8
Rutherford's experiment (audio and cartoon)
http://www.learnerstv.com/animation/animation.php?ani=121&cat=chemistry
5