Original citation:

Renart, Laura and Banegas, Dario Luis, eds. (2013) Roots & routes in language
education : bi-multi-plurilingualism, interculturality and identity. Selected papers from the
38th FAAPI Conference. Buenos Aires: APIBA. ISBN 9789872030704

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Renart, Laura
Roots & routes in language education: Bi-multi-plurilingualism,
interculturality and identity.Selected papers from the 38th FAAPI Conference /
Laura Renart y Darío Luis Banegas. - 1a ed. - Buenos Aires: Asociación de
Profesores de Inglés de Buenos Aires - A.P.I.B.A., 2013.

E-Book.

ISBN 978-987-20307-0-4

1. Capacitación Docente. 2. Enseñanza de Inglés. I. Banegas, Darío Luis II.

Título
CDD 420.711

Fecha de catalogación: 10/07/2013

1° Edición: Septiembre de 2013.

Diseño: Sebastián Kladniew

© 2013, APIBA
Roots & routes in language education:
Bi-multi-plurilingualism, interculturality
and identity
Selected papers from the 38th FAAPI
Conference

Edited by
Laura Renart
Asociación de Profesores de Inglés de Buenos Aires (APIBA),

FAAPI 2013 Organising Association

Darío Luis Banegas

Asociación de Profesores de Inglés de Zona Andina y Línea Sur (APIZALS)
Contents
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... ii
From the editors ................................................................................................................................... iii
From FAAPI President ......................................................................................................................... vi
38th FAAPI Conference ....................................................................................................................... ix
1 Lessons from research on immersion programmes in Canada ........................................................... 1
Fred Genesee
2 The landscape of English language teaching: Roots, routes and ramifications ................................. 17
Cristina Banfi
3 Communicating across cultures: encounters in the contact zone ...................................................... 35
Claudia Mónica Ferradas
4 Narrative inquiry within Argentinean EFLTE: Crafting professional identities and knowledge
through  students’  narratives ................................................................................................................ 44
María Cristina Sarasa
5 Designing intercultural and bilingual e-material for primary and secondary schools ........................ 56
Silvana Barboni and Liliana Simón
6 Border pedagogy: Towards re-routing roots in intercultural education ............................................ 73
Florencia Verónica Perduca
7 Pensamiento crítico, reflexión, conciencia cultural crítica: características de la interculturalidad en la
lectura en lengua extranjera ................................................................................................................. 86
Melina Porto
8 Cultural bonding in the 21st-century language classroom ................................................................ 98
GabrielaN.Tavella and S. Carina Fernández
9 Interweaving critical reading of media texts and culture in a first year teacher training college ...... 109
Claudia Naom and Leandro Carreño
10 Meet the words: a philological and socio-cultural approach to discourse analysis at teacher training
college .............................................................................................................................................. 124
Florencia I. Viale
11 Future teachers: Identities, trajectories and projections ............................................................... 136
Flavia S. Bonadeo and Maria Susana Ibáñez
12 Cultural awareness and language enhancement through microblogging ....................................... 147
Paola Lorena Barboza and Ana Cecilia Cad
13 Digital identity and teacher´s role in the 21st century classroom ................................................. 158
Nora Lizenberg
14 ¿Se puede hablar de oportunidades de aprendizajes intraculturales? ........................................... 171
María E. Lizárraga
15 Reading and interacting with electronic texts: A multimodal process?......................................... 182
Yael Alejandra Hasbani
16 The future teacher of English in Argentina: The roles of the humanities, of research and of
collaboration in the new curricula...................................................................................................... 198
María Susana Ibáñez and Raquel Lothringer
17 Using Spanish in academic English language learning ................................................................ 210
Nancy C. González
18      The  use  of  multimodal  resources  to  explore  a  text’s  voices ......................................................... 223
Rosa Inés Cúneo and Natacha Carolina Sánchez Romera
19 Reflecting on identity and intercultural issues through literature ................................................. 236
María Ximena Maceri
20 Computer and Internet mediated narrative construction in EFL ................................................... 248
María Cecilia Chiappero, Agustín Massa, and Claudia Elizabeth Schander
Notes on contributors ........................................................................................................................ 262
About the editors............................................................................................................................... 267
Acknowledgements

APIBA wishes to thank:

APIZALS for sharing their experience of editing the 37th FAAPI Conference Selected

Papers (2012) to support APIBA in producing the 38th FAAPI Conference Selected Papers

(2013).

The Members of the Academic Committee, all Members of various FAAPI Associations,

for their conscientious and invaluable work.

ii
From the editors
While Laura is working on these selected papers in Buenos Aires, Darío is in Esquel. Laura

knows that beyond her door, Spanish, Portuguese, English, Chinese, and many other

languages are there, interacting, living, inhabiting different settings and identities which

come to shape and be shaped by a constellation of voices. She knows that there are children

and teenagers learning some of these languages at school, at home, with the help of their

families and the internet. Darío knows that beyond his doors, Spanish, Welsh,

Mapudungun, English and others are being used to create and recreate the world. He knows

that there are children attending a mapudungun-español school in Lago Rosario, Chubut.

All these languages attest to our roots and routes in all directions and reveal who we are.

Bi-multi-plurilingualism, interculturality and identity in language education are

growing in different directions (Aronin & Singleton, 2008; Blackledge & Creese, 2010;

Hornberger & Link, 2012; Kramsch, 2009; Taylor & Snoddon, 2013) and may be seen, as

Weber and Horner (2012) discuss, in terms of languages or in terms of linguistic resources

and repertories (see Greer, 2010). An interest in bi-multi-plurilingualism, interculturality

and identity is not new in FAAPI conferences and Argentina. Ferradas (2003, 2006, 2009)

discusses the intercultural speaker, the concept of otherness, identity, and self by building

bridges with literature. Banfi and Rettaroli (2008) and Renart (2003) have also contributed

to this interest by examining bilingualism and bilingual education in Argentina.

The XXXVIII FAAPI Conference focused on such a fascinating topic of language

education and the 20 selected papers which constitute the body of this publication evidence

iii
the different branches we may find and explore. We may group the contributions under

three main categories: (1) reflective and theoretical discussions (Papers 2, 3, 6, 10, 13, 14,

16, and 19), (2) research-based reports (Papers 1, 4, 7, 11, and 12), and (3) classroom

accounts and materials (Papers, 5, 8, 9, 15, 16, 18, 20). It is also remarkable to see how

unifying areas of interest emerge from the authors: language teacher education (e.g. Papers

2, 7, 9, 10, 11, 16, 19, and 20), literature (e.g. Papers 3, 15, 15, and 19), and the use of

digital resources (e.g. Papers 12, 13, 15, 18, and 20). In terms of languages, it may be

interesting to note that two papers (7 and 14) are written in español and the rest in English.

Editing these contributions has been a powerful learning experience and a drive to

engage in critical examination of the literature, reflective practices, and research. The

presence of concepts such as border pedagogy (Paper 6), digital identity (Paper 13), digital

narratology (Paper 15), and aprendizajes intraculturales (Paper 14) has been eye openers to

new routes which may motivate us all to develop our curiosity further. Curiosity killed the

cat. Yet, curiosity may help teachers live professional lives more fully.

Laura and Darío

References

Aronin, L., & Singleton, D. (2008). Multilingualism as a new linguistic

dispensation.International Journal of Multilingualism, 5(1), 1 – 16.
Banfi, C., & Rettaroli, S. (2008). Staff profiles in minority and prestigious bilingual
education contexts in Argentina. In A. de Mejía & C. Hélot (Eds.), Bridging the gap
between prestigious bilingualism and the bilingualism of minorities (pp. 140 – 182).
Clevendon: Multilingual Matters.
Blackledge, A., & Creese, A. (2010). Multilingualism: A critical perspective. London:
Continuum.

iv
Ferradas, C. (2003). Meeting the other, learning about ourselves: cultural awareness in the
language classroom. In Humanizing our practices: Minding the whole person. FAAPI
2003 Conference Proceedings (pp. 19 – 27). Salta/Córdoba: FAAPI/ASPI.
Ferradas, C. (2006). Diverse readings, plural responses.In N.L. Séculi & M.B. Lembo
(Eds.), XXXI FAAPI conference. Multiple literacies: Beyond the four skills. Conference
Proceedings (pp. 17 – 23). Rosario: APrIR.
Ferradas, C. (2009). Communicating identities: Finding a voice in English. In D. Fernández
(Coord.), XXXIV FAAPI Conference Proceedings. Teachers in action: Making the
latest trends work in the classroom (pp. 20 – 24). Bahía Blanca: FAAPI.
Greer, T. (2010). Identity in interculturality: Using (lack of) cultural knowledge to disalign
with an identity category. The Language Teacher, 34(3), 3 – 7.
Hornberger, N.H., & Link, H. (2012). Translanguaging and transnational literacies in
multilingual classrooms: A biliteracy lens. International Journal of Bilingual
Education and Bilingualism, 15(3), 261 – 278.
Kramsch.C. (2009). The multilingual subject. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Renart, L. (2003). Bilinguality and bilingualism in Argentina: A look at privileged
bilingualism. In Humanizing our practices: Minding the whole person. FAAPI 2003
Conference Proceedings (pp. 28 – 33). Salta/Córdoba: FAAPI/ASPI.
Taylor, S.K., & Snoddon, K. (2013). Plurilingualism in TESOL: Promising controversies.
TESOL Quarterly, 47(3), 439 – 445.
Weber, J., & Horner, K. (2012). Introducing multilingualism: A social approach.
Abingdon/New York: Routledge.

Disclaimer:

The editors made every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information contained in this
e-book. However, the editors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the
accuracy, completeness or suitability for any purpose of the contents and disclaim all such
representations and warranties whether expressed or implied to the maximum extent
permitted by law. Any views expressed in this publication are the views of the authors only.

v
From FAAPI President
Siempre es motivo de satisfacción para FAAPI no sólo la realización de un nuevo

Congreso, sino también la publicación de una Selección de Artículos presentados para cada

oportunidad.

Este Congreso organizado por APIBA en Buenos Aires pone en blanco y negro tópicos

que están en la agenda de la enseñanza de las lenguas en los últimos años, cuyo abordaje es

más que oportuno realizar.

La enseñanza de las lenguas tiene facetas fascinantes. Esta tarea ha sido motivo de

interés no sólo de profesores, sino mucho de pedagogos, lingüistas y psicólogos. Este

desvelo por la enseñanza de las lenguas permite contar con una larga tradición que se

remonta al siglo XVI,  desde  el  método  de  “gramática-traducción”  descripto  por  primera  vez  

por Valentin Meidinger (1756-1822), creador del método y con el fin de enseñar el francés.

A partir de entonces, han sobrevenido nuevos métodos y enfoques, y llegamos a este siglo

XXI con la globalización –con sus luces y sus sombras- la internacionalización que deviene

de la primera, y la irrupción de la tecnología, los medios sociales, paredes del aula que caen

para dar lugar allí aprendizaje ubicuo, donde la sacralización del libro se desdibuja para dar

lugar a nuevos modos de comunicación y aprendizaje.

Vivimos rodeados de sofisticados aparatos electrónicos -que habrían hasta intimidado a

nuestros ancestros- que  facilitan  ¿?  la  comunicación  con  “los  otros”  que  hasta  pueden  están  

lejos. Pero debemos subirnos a la ola, y buscar familiarizarnos con nuevos términos que se

van acuñando: lectoespectador, internauta, interactividad, multitareas, multimodalidad,

vi
multimedialidad, hibridización, aprendizaje ubicuo; sin dejar de lado conceptos

sociolingüísticos como la otredad y el racismo.

En los años 1970s se empezó a manejar el concepto de competencia comunicativa; en

este milenio, ya hablamos del desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa intercultural, ya

que el cambio de centuria nos enfrenta cambios socio-históricos, y debemos estar

preparados para desaprender lo aprendidos y reaprender un nuevo rol como educadores.

Y esta re-adaptación pone a los profesores en la encrucijada de decidir o seguir las

directivas institucionales de que los celulares deben desaparecer del aula, o demostrar que

nos sirven para desarrollar las clases, usando Facebook o Twitter de manera significativa.

También irrumpen en el aula las redes sociales y las tablets, de tamaños diversos, con un

lector de libros, que puede ilustrar una clase de lengua o literatura.

Es un fenómeno que se da en todas las sociedades, y en términos de Clifford, se trata

de definir términos relativo a los viajes, en condiciones globales de cambio: las rutas

(routes) que se transitan, y las raíces (roots) que se poseen, que forjan la individualidad y la

historia de particulares mapas e historias, con conceptos como grupos minoritarios,

inmigrantes o etnicidad ligados a los caminos (roads) que recorren las personas. Es ver a los

inmigrantes como personas que luchan para aprender una lengua que les permita participar

en la vida social de la nueva comunidad, ya que su sentido de identidad está unido de

manera inextricable con la lengua materna.

En Argentina dada la conformación de la población, se dice   que   “venimos   de   los  

barcos”,  dicho  que  deja  fuera  a  los  grupos  originarios.  Entonces  cuestiones  de  identidad,  la  

otredad, las lenguas en contacto, el bilingüismo, el plurilingüismo son una constante. En

vii
una vuelta de tuerca, asistimos a la revalorización de nuestra L1 en el aprendizaje,

impensada hace veinte años.

Sudhoff juega con las palabras wor(l)d, mundo-palabra, cuando señala que el

aprendiente interculturalmente competente es más consciente de las convenciones

culturales que subyacen al mundo/a las palabras con que se encuentra y usa, que a la

gramática y la forma. Es que justamente el reconocimiento de las similitudes y diferencias

culturales promueve claramente el internacionalismo, que es el vínculo entre grupos por

encima de las fronteras de los estados y naciones, al decir de Byram.

Es sobre estos temas tan convocantes que distintos colegas han decidido generosamente

compartir sus estudios, experticia y conclusiones con otros colegas.

Están invitados a leerlos, y a través de ellos, seguir abriendo puertas que dan al

conocimiento, el disfrute intelectual y el aprendizaje continuo. ¡FAAPI se regocija!

Prof. Cristina Emilia Mayol, M.A.

Presidente

viii
38th FAAPI Conference

FAAPI 2013 Organising Committee & APIBA Executive Committee

President: Analía Kandel

Vice-President: Corine Arguimbau
Secretary: Belén Tur
Treasurer: Cecilia Cicolini
Deputy Treasurer: Laura Karina López (Web & Social networks)
Members:
Laura Renart (Academic Team)
Mariángeles Portilla (Virtual Platform)
Valeria Kharsansky (Volunteers & Social Programme)
Laureana Moreno (Administration)

Collaborators: Mariela Enrici, Silvia Rettaroli, Luciana De Bartolis (Treasury); Darío

Banegas, Luciana De Bartolis (Academic Team); Liliana Simón & Jennifer Verschoor (Virtual
Platform e-moderators); Selected Papers E-book Co-editors: Darío Banegas & Laura Renart

FAAPI Executive Committee

President: Cristina Mayol (APIM Misiones)

Vice-President: Gabriela Tavella (APIZALS Zona Andina y Línea Sur)
Secretary: Emma del Valle Figueroa (APISE Santiago del Estero)
Treasurer: Marisel Girardi (ACPI Córdoba)
Members:
Perla Angélica Pereyra (AsCaPi Catamarca)
Ricardo Javier Palma (APIT Tucumán)
María del Rosario Baigorria (APISN San Nicolás)
Ana Isabel Agüero de Renner (APISE Santiago del Estero)
Accounts Committee:
Claudia Naom (APIBA Buenos Aires)
Silvia Pérez (APIT Tucumán)

ix
Academic Committee:

Coordinators: Laura Renart (APIBA) and Darío Luis Banegas (APIZALS)

Mariel Amez (APrIR Rosario)

Alicia Artusi (APIBA Buenos Aires)
Darío Luis Banegas (APIZALS Zona Andina y Línea Sur)
Cristina Banfi (APIBA Buenos Aires)
Claudia Ferradas (APIBA Buenos Aires)
Emma Figueroa (APISE Santiago del Estero)
Silvia Iummato (APIBA Buenos Aires)
Mario López Barrios (ACPI Córdoba)
Claudia Naom (APIBA Buenos Aires)
Cristina Mayol (APIM Misiones)
Ricardo Javier Palma (APIT Tucumán)
Silvia Rettaroli (APIBA Buenos Aires)
Sandra Revale (APIBA Buenos Aires)
Gabriela Tavella (APIZALS Zona Andina y Línea Sur)
María Teresa Viñas Urquiza (APIBA Buenos Aires)
Elizabeth White (APIBA Buenos Aires)

Conference Coordination: Paula De Gennaro

Conference Organisation: Ana Finochetto

Conference Web: www.apiba.org.ar/faapi13

Federación Argentina de Asociaciones de Profesores de Inglés (FAAPI) and its Teacher

Associations
www.faapi.org.ar
info@faapi.org.ar

Asociación de Profesores de Inglés de Buenos Aires (APIBA)

www.apiba.org.ar
info@apiba.org.ar

x
Selected Papers
1 Lessons from research on immersion
programmes in Canada
Fred Genesee
McGill University

1. Introduction

Several popular forms of French immersion are available for English-speaking students in

Canada; they vary with respect to the grade when French-L2 is first used to teach academic

subjects and how much academic content instruction is provided through the L2. Academic

content refer here to subjects prescribed in the school curriculum whose primary focus is

not language –such as mathematics, science, and history. Immersion in languages other

than French exists in Canada; but, the focus in this review will be on French immersion. In

early total immersion, all school subjects in Kindergarten to Grade 2 are in French.

Instruction in English begins in Grade 3 and increases in each subsequent grade until about

50% of instruction is provided in French and 50% in English by the end of elementary

school (age 11). In early partial immersion, about 50% of instruction in each elementary

school grade is provided in each language, beginning in Kindergarten. In middle

immersion, use of the L2 for content instruction is delayed until grade 3, and in late

1
immersion the L2 is not used for content instruction until grade 7 (more detailed

descriptions of these programs are provided in Genesee, 2004, and in Paradis, Genesee, &

Crago, 2011). Students in middle and late immersion receive traditional French-L2

instruction in the grades preceding use of French for content instruction.

The following general goals are common to these programs:

 age/grade-appropriate levels of competence in speaking, listening, reading

and writing in the L1,

 advanced levels of functional proficiency in the L2, and

 grade-appropriate levels of achievement in prescribed academic subjects

(e.g., mathematics, science, history).

These general goals have motivated much of the research reviewed in this article. Student

learning outcomes have usually been evaluated by comparing the performance of

immersion students to that of students in the same grade in monolingual school programs

that use the L1 for all instruction or to their performance on standardized tests with norms.

In   Genesee’s   research,   immersion   and non-immersion students were selected to be

comparable with respect to socio-economic status and academic ability so that these factors

would not influence test performance in favor of one group.

The following review is organized with respect to L1 outcomes, achievement in non-

language content subjects, and L2 outcomes. Findings within each of these sections are

organized according to important questions which are often asked about each of these

topics. Most research has evaluated the learning outcomes of students in general. However,

many educators, parents, and policy-makers have questioned the suitability of immersion

education for students who might be at risk for academic difficulty in school. This issue is

2
addressed in a section on the Suitability of Immersion Education for All Students. This is

followed by a brief section on Pedagogical Issues.

2. Student outcomes

2.1. First language outcomes

2.1.1. Do immersion students acquire the same competence in English-L1 as students in

monolingual programs?

Evaluations   of   immersion   students’   L1   skills   have   consistently   shown   that,   in   the   long   run,  

there is no significant difference between their skills and those of students in monolingual

English programs (Genesee, 2004; Lambert & Tucker, 1972; Swain & Lapkin, 1982). In the

case of evaluations of early total immersion, it has been found that immersion students often

score significantly lower than non-immersion students during the primary grades, when all

instruction is in French, on tests of reading and writing in English; they demonstrate no such

lags in speaking and listening comprehension. These lags disappear within one year of

receiving instruction in English. The rapid catch-up in reading and writing in English that

early total immersion students experience is often attributed to the transfer of reading and

writing skills in French to English and the fact that they have extensive exposure to English

outside school. The same pattern of results has been found in immersion-type programs for

majority language students in other countries – for example, in Japanese-English immersion

programs in Japan (Bostwick, 2001), Russian-Estonian immersion programs in Estonia

(Mehisto & Asser, 2007), and Spanish-English bilingual programs in the U.S. (Lindholm-

Leary, 2001).

3
2.1.2. Is more and early instruction in English advantageous?

Evaluations of alternative forms of immersion have indicated that students acquire the same

levels of L1 competence as non-immersion students regardless of when instruction in English

begins (early vs. delayed or late) and regardless of how much instruction they receive in

English (50% in the beginning or none) (Genesee, 1981). To the contrary, there is evidence

that, in some cases, the English language skills of immersion students are superior to those of

students in monolingual non-immersion programs despite reduced exposure (Lambert,

Genesee, Holobow, & Chartrand, 1993). The home language advantage demonstrated by

some immersion students has been attributed to their extended exposure to French in school

which, in turn, is thought to have additive effects on their English language development.

2.1.3. Does linguistic similarity matter?

Immersion-type programs have been implemented in a variety of languages in communities

around the world, including languages that are typologically different; for example,

Mohawk-English (Jacobs & Cross, 2001), Hawaiian-English (Slaughter, 1997), Japanese-

English (Bostwick, 2001), Hebrew-French-English (Genesee & Lambert, 1983), Chinese-

English (Johnson, 1997), Estonian-Russian (Mehisto & Asser, 2007), and Swedish-Finnish

(Björklund, 1998). Some of these language combinations also entail different orthographies

(e.g., Japanese-English and Chinese-English). There is no evidence from evaluations of

these programs that typological differences, with or without orthographic differences,

influence student outcomes significantly.

4
2.2. Academic outcomes

2.2.1. Do immersion students attain the same levels of academic achievement as non-

immersion students?

Evaluations of immersion   students’   achievement   in   their   non-language school subjects

indicate that they achieve the same levels of competence as comparable students in

monolingual English language programs -- in mathematics, science, history, and other

subjects. Parity with non-immersion students is often exhibited even in early total

immersion programs when students receive all academic instruction through their L2,

provided the assessment is conducted in the L2 and modifications are made to take into

account that full competence in the L2 has not been acquired. Parity with students in

monolingual programs has been found even in the case of secondary school students who

were studying advanced level mathematics, science, physics, and other school subjects in

French (Genesee, 2004).

2.2.2. Is the academic achievement of immersion students with low academic ability

jeopardized?

Parents and educators often believe that students with below average academic ability are

not good candidates for immersion because they will struggle to acquire new skills and

knowledge if they are taught through a non-native language in which they lack proficiency.

Genesee (1976) found that below average students in immersion scored at the same level as

below average students in monolingual English programs on a variety of academic

achievement measures, including standardized achievement tests and examinations

mandated by the government, in subjects such as mathematics and science. While the

5
below average students in both programs scored significantly lower than their average and

above average peers in their respective programs, the below average immersion students

were not further disadvantaged in academic achievement as a result of participation in

immersion.

Students who struggle academically in school are often advised to switch to a

monolingual program on the assumption that they will struggle less in a monolingual

English program. In fact, academic difficulty is often the main reason for students

switching out of French immersion in Canada. Indeed, Bruck (1985a, 1985b) found that

students who switched out of early French immersion in Montreal scored significantly

lower on a number of achievement measures than students, on average, who remained in

immersion. She also found, however, that the academic difficulties of the students who

switched were no worse than those of a sub-group of students who remained in immersion

despite low academic performance. Of particular interest, the immersion students who

switched expressed significantly more negative attitudes toward schooling (and immersion

in particular) and exhibited more behavioral problems than students who remained in

immersion despite academic difficulties. Bruck suggested that it was not academic

difficulty per se that caused the students to switch out of immersion; rather, they switched

because they had motivational and behavioral problems coping with poor academic

performance.

6
2.3 Second language outcomes

2.3.1. What level of L2 competence do immersion students acquire?

The French-L2 proficiency of Canadian immersion students has been found to be significantly

superior to that of non-immersion students in monolingual English programs with

conventional French-L2 instruction which usually consists of instruction for about 45-50

minutes in French per day with a focus on vocabulary and grammar. This has been found to be

true for speaking, listening, reading, and writing. In comparison with students who speak

French as a native language, immersion students often score at the same level on tests that

assess comprehension skills –listening and reading. Their performance on tests of language

production - speaking and writing - are generally very impressive. They are able to understand

and make themselves understood in all school contexts, and they demonstrate an uninhibited

and creative use of French for communication that is seldom achieved by students in

conventional French-L2  programs.  At  the  same  time,  immersion  students’  use  of  French  is  less  

than native-like: (a) they make numerous grammatical errors; (b) they often have restricted

vocabulary and simplified grammar; and (c) their usage is non-idiomatic (see Lyster, 2007).

These gaps in L2 competence have led to discussions of how best to integrate language and

content instruction to maximize L2 proficiency, a point discussed later in the section on

Pedagogical Issues (e.g., Lyster, 2007; Swain, 1998).

Research on immigrant children who spoke neither English nor French as an L1 and who

participated in French immersion programs has shown that they performed as well as

monolingual children who spoke only English (Swain, Lapkin, & Hart, 1990; Swain &

Lapkin, 2005). Of particular note, Swain and her colleagues found that acquisition of literacy

skills in the heritage language (L1) had a significant and positive correlation with the

7
immigrant   students’   acquisition   of   French-as-a-third language. These findings underline the

importance  of  promoting  literacy  in  immigrant  students’  heritage  language.  

2.3.2. Does competence in the L2 depend on students’  level  of  academic  ability?    

Studiesof elementary and secondary school immersion students have revealed interesting

and differential effects of academic ability on L2 achievement. Genesee (1976) found that

below average students in both early and late immersion scored lower on tests of French

reading and writing than average and above average students in the same programs;

similarly, the average students in both program types scored lower than the above average

students. In contrast, while average students in late immersion also showed advantages on

measures of speaking and listening in comparison to average and below average students,

there were no differences among the ability sub-groups in the early immersion program on

measures of L2 speaking and listening. Overall, these results suggest that early immersion

is more effective for students with different levels of academic ability than immersion

programs at the secondary level.

2.3.4. Does more L2 exposure result in higher levels of L2 proficiency?

The relationship between L2 exposure and achievement in immersion programs is complex.

On the one hand, students intotalimmersion programs generally acquire higher levels of

French proficiency than students in partialimmersion programs (Genesee, 2004; see also

Cenoz, 2008). On the other hand, students in two-year late immersion (grades 7 and 8)

have been found sometimes to perform as well as early total immersion students despite the

fact that the former have significantly less exposure to French in school (Genesee, 1981).

8
One explanation for these findings is that older L2 learners need relatively less exposure to

the L2 because they are better learners overall than younger learners. As well, older

learners who are already able to read and write in the L1 are able to transfer these skills to

French, making learning French relatively efficient. Students in late immersion are also

self-selecting and, thus, are highly motivated to do well.

Pedagogical factors are also probably important. Evidence for this comes from research

that compared two types of late immersion – one that was teacher-centered and one that

was student-centered (Stevens, 1983). In the teacher-centered program, native English-

speaking students spent 80% of their school day in French, while in the student-centered

program students spent 50% of their school day in French. Stevens (1983) found that,

despite the time advantage of the students in the teacher-centered program, students in the

student-centered program scored as well on a variety of French language measures. She

argued that students in the student-centered program achieved such impressive French

language skills because their program permitted more active use of French and, as well,

learning was more individualization insofar as students were given opportunities to choose

what they would study and how they would meet curricular objectives.

2.3.5 Is age an important factor in L2 achievement?

It   is   widely   believed   that   ‘younger   is   better’   when   it   comes   to   L2   learning.   However,  

evidence in support of this belief most often comes from studies on L2 learning in non-

school settings. Evidence from research in schools is more complex. Research in Canada

has shown, on the one hand, that students in early total French immersion generally achieve

significantly higher levels of French proficiency than students in programs with a delayed

9
(middle elementary grades) or late (secondary school) starting grade (Genesee, 1981; see

also Wesche, Toews-Janzen and MacFarlane, 1996, for a review). On the other hand,

Canadian research also shows that students in two-year late immersion can sometimes

achieve the same or almost the same levels of proficiency in French as students in early

total immersion in some domains of language, even though early immersion students begin

studying through French earlier and may have had 2 to 3 times more exposure to French

than late immersion students (Genesee, 1981). Similar findings in favor of older learners

have also been reported in evaluations of less intensive forms of L2 instruction in other

countries (e.g., Burstall, 1974; Krashen, Long & Scarcella, 1979).

3. The suitability of immersion for all students

Educators, parents and policy makers often believe that students who are at risk for

academic difficulty should not participate in immersion because such students are likely to

struggle in monolingual programs and, therefore, are likely to struggle even more in

programs where they are taught through a language they do not know. Research in

Canada has examined the suitability of immersion for at-risk students with the following

learner and background characteristics which often put them at a disadvantage in school

(Genesee, 2007): (a) low academic ability (or intelligence) (Genesee, 1976), (b) low socio-

economic status (Bruck, Tucker, & Jakimik, 1975; Genesee, 2004), (c) poor L1 abilities

(Bruck, 1978, 1982), and (d) minority ethnic group status (Genesee, 1992; Jacobs & Cross,

2001). It has been found consistently that English-speaking students who are at risk for the

above reasons can attain the same levels of competence in English-L1 and in academic

domains in immersion as comparable at-risk students in monolingual programs. At the

10
same time, at-risk students benefit from immersion by acquiring advanced levels of

functional proficiency in French.

4. Pedagogical issues

Notwithstanding the overall effectiveness of various forms of immersion, there is concern

over   students’   competence   in   French,   as   noted   earlier.   There are several possible

explanations  why  students’  in  immersion struggle with some aspects of French. It may be that

the  strong  focus  on  content  that  characterizes  immersion  teacher  instruction  focuses  learners’  

attention on content more than on language per se. In other words, as long as students

understand what is being said about content and as long as they can communicate about

academic content in meaningful ways, the accuracy with which they use language to

communicate may go unnoticed, unchecked, and, thus, underdeveloped. Moreover, teachers

and students are not held accountable for L2 outcomes to the same extent as they are for

achievement in their other school subjects. It may also be that teachers who are teaching

content through French-L2 tend to rely on linguistic forms, including vocabulary, grammar,

and discourse-related skills, that students have already acquired in order to ensure that input

about  content  is  comprehensible  and  mastered.  Thus,  the  complexity  and  accuracy  of  students’  

competence in French may be limited by the language input they receive from their teachers.

In a related vein, errors in language made by students during content classes may receive little

or unsystematic attention from teachers for the sake of keeping communication going, but

with the unfortunate side effect of stunting   students’   accurate   use   of   French.     In   any   case,  

educators and researchers in Canada, and the U.S., have turned their attention on how to

11
optimize language learning in immersion programs while maintaining high levels of academic

achievement.

There is growing recognition that it is critical when teaching through an L2 that

teachers   systematically   and   explicitly   promote   development   of   students’   L2   skills   at   all  

times since students have little opportunity to learn the L2 outside school. This means

that teachers who are teaching non-language-based content subjects, such as mathematics

or science, should be familiar with the academic language skills of their discipline and be

able to plan instruction that promotes those language skills at the same time as students

are learning discipline-specific skills and knowledge. It is especially important that this

be done during the lower grades so that students can comprehend complex academic

content taught through the L2 in higher grade. If students do not acquire advanced

academic language skills in the L2 early on, they will not have the sophisticated language

and literacy skills they need to handle academic instruction taught through the second

language in the higher grades. Researchers and educators working in Canada and in the

U.S. have proposed strategies for promoting language development in immersion

programs (e.g., Echevarría, Vogt & Short, 2008; Genesee, 1991; Hamayan, Genesee, &

Cloud, 2013; Lyster, 2007; Snow, Met & Genesee, 1989; Swain, 1998).

5. Summary

Various forms of immersion education have been implemented and evaluated in Canada. In

general, these programs have been shown to be very effective. In particular,

12
1) English-speaking students in immersion programs demonstrate competence in their L1

that is comparable to, and in some cases better than, that of similar students in

monolingual programs.

2) Immersion students attain grade-appropriate levels of achievement in academic

domains.

3) Immersion students achieve levels of functional proficiency in French-L2 that are

significantly superior to that of students who received conventional French-L2

instruction.

3) However, the L2 competence of immersion students can be enhanced if teachers are

more systematic and explicit in integrating language and content instruction, especially

if these efforts are coordinated across grade levels.

4) L2 outcomes are also enhanced when students are given plenty of opportunities to use

the language actively in interaction with teachers and other students.

5) Immersion education has been shown to be effective even with students who might be

at risk for difficulty in school due to low academic ability, poor first language skills,

and low socio-economic background.

6) In general, students who have greater exposure to French-L2 achieve higher levels of

proficiency than students who have less exposure.

7) In contrast, more exposure and instruction in English-L1 does not necessarily result in

greater levels of proficiency in that language.

There are many advantages to bilingualism – the ability to communicate and interact

with others, the ability to access information from electronic and other sources in multiple

languages, for cognitive enrichment, and for personal, cultural, and educational enrichment.

13
Second/foreign language immersion programs are an effective way to students to acquire

competence in additional languages.

References

Björklund, S. (1998). Immersion in Finland in the 1990s: A state of development and

expansion. In J. Cenoz & F. Genesee (Eds.), Beyond bilingualism: Multilingualism and
multilingual education (pp. 85-102). Clevendon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Bostwick, M. (2001). English immersion in a Japanese school. In D. Christian & F.
Genesee (Eds.), Bilingual Education (pp.125-138).Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
Bruck, M. (1978). The suitability of early French immersion programs for the language
disabled child. Canadian Journal of Education, 3, 51-72.
Bruck, M. (1982). Language disabled children: Performance in an additive bilingual
education program. Applied Psycholinguistics, 3, 45-60.
Bruck, M. (1985a). Predictors of transfer out of early French immersion programs.Applied
Psycholinguistics, 6, 39-61.
Bruck, M. (1985b). Consequences of transfer out of early French immersion
programs.Applied Psycholinguistics, 6, 101-120.
Bruck, M., Tucker, G.R., & Jakimik, J. (1975). Are French immersion programs suitable
for working class children? Word, 27, 311-341.
Burstall, C. (1974). Primary French in the balance. Windsor, England: NFER Publishing
Co.
Cenoz, J. (Ed.) (2008). Teaching through Basque: Achievements and challenges. Clevedon,
U.K.: Multilingual Matters.
Echevarria, J., Vogt, E., & Short, D. 2008. Making content comprehensible for English
language learners: The SIOP Model (3rd Edition). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Genesee, F. (1976).The role of intelligence in second language learning.Language
Learning, 26, 267-280.
Genesee, F. (1981). A comparison of early and late second language learning.Canadian
Journal of Behavioral Science, 13, 115-127.
Genesee, F. (1991). Second language learning in school settings: Lessons from immersion.
In A. Reynolds (Ed.), Bilingualism, multiculturalism, and second language learning:
The McGill conference in honor of Wallace E. Lambert (pp. 183-202). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Genesee, F. (1992). Second/foreign language immersion and at-risk English-speaking
children.Foreign Language Annals, 25, 199-213.
Genesee, F. (2004). What do we know about bilingual education for majority language
students? In T. K. Bhatia & W. Ritchie (Eds.), Handbook of bilingualism and
multiculturalism (pp. 547-576). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Genesee, F. (2007). French immersion and at-risk students: A review of research findings.
Canadian Modern Language Review, 63, 655-688.

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Genesee, F., & Lambert, W. E. (1983). Trilingual education for majority language
children.Child Development, 54, 105-114.
Hamayan, E., Genesee, F., & Cloud, N. (2013). Dual language instruction from A to Z:
Practical guidance for teachers and administrators. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.
Jacobs, K, & Cross, A. (2001). The seventh generation of Kahnawà:ke: Phoenix or
Dinosaur. In D. Christian & F. Genesee (Eds.), Bilingual Education (pp. 109-121).
Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
Johnson, R. K. (1997). The Hong Kong education system: Late immersion under stress. In
R.K. Johnson & M. Swain, M. (Eds.), Immersion Education: International
Perspectives (pp. 171-189). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Krashen, S., Long, M., & Scarcella, R. (1979). Age, rate, and eventual attainment in second
language acquisition.TESOL Quarterly, 13, 573-582.
Lambert, W.E., Genesee, F., Holobow, N., & Chartrand, L. (1993). Bilingual education for
majority English speaking children.European Journal of Psychology of Education, 8, 3-
22.
Lambert, W.E., & Tucker, G.R. (1972). The bilingual education of children: The St. Lambert
experiment. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Lindholm-Leary, K. J. (2001). Dual language education. Avon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Lyster, R. (2007). Learning and teaching languages through content: A counterbalanced
approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Mehisto, P., & Asser, H. (2007). Stakeholder perspectives: CLIL programme management
in Estonia. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 10(5), 683-
701.
Paradis, J., Genesee, F., & Crago, M. (2011). Dual language development and disorders: A
handbook on bilingualism and second language learning (2nd Ed.). Baltimore, MD:
Brookes.
Slaughter,   H.   (1997).   Indigenous   language   immersion   in   Hawai’i:   A   case   study   of   Kula  
Kaiapuni   Hawai’i.   In   R.K.   Johnson   &   M.   Swain   (Eds), Immersion education:
International perspectives (pp. 105-129). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Snow, A., Met. M., & Genesee, F. (1989). A conceptual framework for the integration of
language and content in second/foreign language instruction.TESOL Quarterly, 23,
201-218.
Stevens, F. (1983). Activities to promote learning and communication in the second
language classroom.TESOL Quarterly, 17, 259-272.
Swain, M. (1998). Focus on form through conscious reflection. In D. Doughty and J.
Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 64-82).
NY: Cambridge University Press.
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (1982). Evaluating bilingual education: A Canadian case study.
Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (2005). The evolving socio-political context of immersion
education in Canada: Some implications for program development. International
Journal of Applied Linguistics, 15, 169-186
Swain, M., Lapkin, S., & Hart, D. (1990). The role of mother tongue literacy on third
language learning.Language, Culture and Learning, 3, 65-81.

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Wesche, M., Toews-Janzen, M., & MacFarlane, A. (1996). Comparative outcomes and
impacts of early, middle and late entry French immersion options: Review of recent
research and annotated bibliography. Toronto: OISE/UT Press.

16
2 The landscape of English language
teaching: Roots, routes and
ramifications
Cristina Banfi
MEGCBA,  ENS  en  LV  “SBS”,  IES  en  LV  “JRF”,  ISP  “JVG”,  UB,  UBA

1. Introduction

This paper will sketch the current landscape of the teaching of the English language in

Argentina and, to some extent, Latin America. It will trace the roots that reflect the

background of English language teachers and English language professionals. Then it will

outline the options or routes followed by teachers as part of their continuing professional

development and work life. Finally, the ramifications of these options in relation to our

context, with particular emphasis on the past two decades, will be presented and some

current trends will be briefly discussed.

17
2. Roots and routes

When we explore the professional roots of English language teachers we first turn towards

their educational background. As members of FAAPI associations in Argentina what

teachers have in common is a degree of Teacher of English. This may have been obtained

at  a  university  or  teachers’  college;;   it   may   be  generic,   i.e.   for  all   levels  or  specializing  to  

teach in Primary or Secondary schools; it may even have been designed as a four or two-

and-a-half-year degree. However, in spite of this evident diversity, many teachers are not

aware that their course of studies can trace its roots to the pioneer plan included in the

decree issued by President Julio Argentino Roca and his Education Secretary, Dr. Juan

Ramón Fernández on February 10 th, 1904 as part of the creation of the institution currently

known   as   IES   en   Lenguas   Vivas   “Juan   Ramón   Fernández”   (see   Banfi & Moyano, 2003).

The number in between parenthesis indicates the number of weekly periods taken by

students over the course of each year.

1styear 2ndyear 3rdyear

Foreign Language (12) Foreign Language(12) Foreign Language(12)
Geography (3) History (3) History (3)
Special Pedagogy(12) Special Pedagogy(12) Special Pedagogy(12)
Spanish and its literature (3) Spanish and its literature (3) Spanish and its literature (3)
Argentine History(3) Argentine History(3) Argentine History(3)
General Psychology(3) Child Psychology (2) Moral and Logic(3)

This is my translation of the Spanish terms used in the decree. Note that where the

translation says Geography / History, the original plan referred to Geografía / Historia de

ese pueblo to draw a distinction with Argentine Geography / History. This is owing to the

fact that this generic plan was intended for teacher training programmes in English, French,

18
German  and  Italian.  In  those  days,  the  reference  to  “the  people  who  speak  that   language”  

did not require further clarification. Nowadays it could be considered a more ambiguous

term and, yet, the content of the courses has not varied significantly. In the first instance

only English and French were implemented. This programme was a great innovation for the

time in that it provided specific and specialised education for language teachers, something

that was viewed as a matter for the State to be involved in directly. This model would be

emulated and expanded in subsequent plans in different institutions at various stages.

A trait that appears evident in that plan, and that has continued to be present in the

design of these programmes, is its interdisciplinarynature. Contents and approaches are

drawn from different disciplines and, with the passing of time, new disciplines that

emerged were incorporated, e.g. (Applied) Linguistics, Phonetics, Discourse Analysis, to

mention some. One of the current challenges in the curricular design of teacher education

programmes   is,   in   fact,  finding  ‘space’   in   any  given  plan   for  all  the  content  areas  that  are  

deemed  ‘necessary’.  A  related  challenge  is  the  nature  of teacher educator appointments and

the level of (in-) flexibility when it comes to updating content in rigidly assigned slots. This

is not a minor issue and is linked to the academic vs. professional nature of the programmes

and institutions. Pierce (1991) writes:

Although most studies fail to define the term [discipline] explicitly, they typically
assume that boundaries of disciplines closely follow those of academic departments.
The use of such boundaries may seem to fix overly concrete limits on a highly
abstract phenomenon, excluding too large a number of people with interest in the
subject. But its importance in creating and maintaining disciplinary communities
makes the academic department the building block from which disciplines are
created.(Pierce, 1991, pp. 22-23)

19
 A related aspect of the programmes that has been present from the outset is the

devotion of considerable time to the language development of prospective teachers, hence

the   presence   of   a   significant   number   of   hours   allotted   to   ‘Foreign   Language.’   This  

overarching objective has on occasion distorted the boundaries between instrumental

content/skills development and those areas that are discipline-bound (see Banfi & Iummato,

1998).

At a comparativelevel, the common ground that Argentine teachers share may lead us

to the mistaken belief that this is the way teachers of English have always been educated

everywhere. However, models for educating foreign and second language teachers are as

varied as the contexts and traditions where they exist. There are various reviews of foreign

language teacher education in Europe (Kelly et al, 2002), in various countries from a US

perspective (Pufahl, Rhodes & Christian, 2000), in Chile (Vivanco Torres, 2012), in

Mexico (Ordoñez, 2009), in Colombia(Moss & Salamanca, 2012). Some elements that can

be observed in the programmes in many countries in Latin America are the recent creation

or major reform of English language teacher education programmes reflecting the

expansion of English language teaching in schools and the active participation of agencies

such as the American Embassy and the British Council.

The parameters for differentiation are not only geographical or national but temporal.

The late 1990s saw the passing of new educational legislation (Ley Federal de Educación –

LFE – Ley24.195 and Ley de Educación Superior – LES – Ley24.521) and the birth of

Licenciaturas for teachers (i.e. two year university conversion courses for holders of

tertiary level degrees) and postgraduate courses, particularly Master’s  programmes.  There  

20
was also the formalization of different in-service and continuing education courses and

programmes with greater or lesser recognition at an official level. Professional associations

have played a part in providing information about these programmes as they appeared and

expanded to ensure that teachers had access to the information necessary to make a choice

(e.g. Moyano, 1999a &b for the summary produced by APIBA following the 1999 APIBA

Seminar). They also participated in the field of courses with accreditation. Crucially, they

have acted as networks where teachers could share experiences and information (see

APIBA SIGs, Kandel, 2002).

A concomitant effect of the LES was the segmentation and differentiation of two sub-

sectors within the Higher   Education   area,   i.e.   ‘universities’   and   ‘non-universities

institutions,’   as   labelled   in   the   law,   a   clear   distinction   in   status.   A   direct   effect   of   the  

passing of the LES and a related law concerning funding of education (Ley 24.049 – Ley de

Transferencia de Servicios Educativos) was the transfer of non-university higher education

institutions to the sphere of the provinces and the City of Buenos Aires. There is

insufficient time to analyse this situation in depth here (see Banfi 2013 and forthcoming),

but we can say that the effect has not been altogether felicitous in strengthening the

teaching profession and raising the status of teachers. Several projects to reform the LES

have been under study in Congress but have not yet obtained sufficient consensus to redress

this situation, as well as other shortcomings of the current law. It would be most important

for  teacher’s  associations,  as  well  as  colleges,  to  play  a  role  in  these  discussions,  although  

to date they have been underrepresented.

21
 Teachers’ multiple and often overlapping jobs have taken them down various roads.

Teachers of English in Argentina may work in the state or private sector or both. They may

teach at one or more educational levels (i.e. Pre-school, Primary, Secondary, Higher

Education).   The   courses   they   teach   may   fall   under   the   label   of   ‘curricular’   or   ‘extra-

curricular’.   Other   possible,   and   often   concurrent,   jobs   may   include:   materials   writer,  

examiner for examiner body, consultant or advisor for different institutions, teacher

educator, etc. (see APIBA, 2006). Along these paths teachers have often needed to go back

to   ‘school’   to   update  their   knowledge-base and acquire news skills in areas as diverse as

educational management, age group specialization, school management, online teaching,

etc., all in the spirit of the much-discussed continuing professional development(see Craft,

2000 and Banfi, 1997). This often took teachers down the road of degree-plus programmes

(NB: Licenciaturas are undergraduate degrees according to Argentine law, even if for

teachers they are second degrees, see Marquina, 2004 for clarification), and has frequently

implied making a choice between specializing, changing track (or even discipline), or

taking a broad outlook.

Along the road teachers often realize that there are different benefits and challenges

associated with the diverse professional and educational paths they have chosen.

3. Ramifications

Now we turn to some further changes and trends that have characterised the last two

decades and that have had considerable impact on the education and professional practice

of English language teachers in our country and, to some extent, in our region. One
22
overarching feature that has characterised this period has been that of almost permanent

change. This trait is not exclusive to our area or profession but probably a defining

characteristic of the Zeitgeist. Let us concentrate on those changes that are most specific to

teachers of English.

As we have mentioned, the last two decades have seen the emergence of a range of

new degrees and institutions that provide teaching qualifications and degrees-plus

qualifications for teachers. During the 1990s we saw a number of instances of what has

come to be known as Transnational Education (Banfi, 2002). Whereas before the only

possibility to specialise at postgraduate level was to change discipline or go abroad, almost

overnight, a number of options became locally available. Also, the passing of the Ley de

Educación Superior lead to the appearance of different Licenciaturas, initially the only

way, as an intermediate step, to access local postgraduate courses (Álvarez & Dávila,

2005). This would later change with the introduction of Artículo 39bis of the law (see

Banfi, 2003), but Licenciaturas, nevertheless, became part of our landscape to the present

as are some MA programmes of interest to teachers. We have yet to see if full-blown four-

year Licenciaturas and Doctorates in relevant disciplines are to follow.

Another change in educational options for teachers was the emergence of new types of

providers of different kinds of certification and accreditation. This is a 21 st century

development that is still very much in its early stages. Various agents are taking part in this

growing   ‘market’   ranging   from   university   extension departments to publishers and

examination groups, sometimes in conjunction, and, in many cases, with profit motivations.

23
We will probably see considerable growth in this area (for a discussion of the issues, see

McGettigan, 2011).

In parallel to these formal developments, and to some extent preceding them, we have

seen great expansion in the area of the organisation of conferences, workshops, courses and

other  events  …  of  all  sorts.  Many  senior  members  of  our  associations  remember  when  the  

association was the single most important, if not the only, source of such activities (e.g. see

testimonies in Day, 2002). This was some time ago, however. Over the last two decades we

have experienced what I will label a Cambalache situation (for an early discussion of this,

see Banfi, 2000). In the very mixed bag of events we often find a wide variation in the

quality  of  speakers,  material,  content,  etc.  If  we  review  a  list  of  events  presented  as  ‘teacher  

development’  in  a  given  year  or  even  month,  we  find  pseudo-conferences organised by an

individual with a profit motive, or sponsored activities with commercial backing;

presentations given by researchers or practitioners, others by individuals with vested

interests (e.g. author or bestselling book looking for a platform); and even activities almost

akin to yoga or Reiki. It is not a question of dismissing any of the above as more or less

useful or even attempting to rank them: it is clear that they are essentially different and

hardly comparable. Some of these events have helped communicate certain notions,

methods and approaches vary widely. Thus, ideas such as multiple intelligences (Gardner

1983, 1993), intercultural approaches (Byram, 1997 Colbert, 2003, MEGCBA 2009), Task-

Based Learning (Willis, 1996, Willis & Willis, 2007), CLIL and Content-Based instruction

(see Mehisto, Marsh & Frigols 2008,Met 1999), bi-, multi- and plurilingual education

(Genesee, 2002, García, 2009, and Hamel, 2008), the benefits of an early start in language

learning (Banfi, 2010 and MEGCBA, 2010), and the educational value of teaching

24
additional languages (MEGCBA, 2001 and Banfi, 2012) are now present in the rationales

of   teacher’s   projects   as   described,   for   example,   in   the   III Jornada de Intercambio de

Experiencias Pedagógicas de Idioma Extranjero de los DDEE 19 y 21 in July of this year

as well as the Jornadas Buenos Aires y sus Idiomas, held at the Legislature of the City of

Buenos Aires since 2010. Professional associations play a crucial role in the development

of critical appreciation necessary to develop awareness among their members of the

difference between activities of substance and relevance and those that have other

objectives. In other words, there is a place for everything, but different things belong in

different places.

The growth of post-degree activities, particularly postgraduate degrees, has led to the

incipient emergence of research in the area. Much of the work done as part of these courses

is contributing to a better understanding of the issues in the field, but its reach is still

limited, often to the institution or even a cohort of students. There is still great need to share

and communicate these findings. We should be particularly tentative in this respect

because, even though we may have entered an Age of Research (Banfi, 2007), there is still a

scarcity of research positions or positions that combine research and teaching: individuals

have commitment and good will to conduct research, but a proper research structure

requires institutionalised support and initiatives. There are some opportunities for research

projects such as those promoted by the INFD Instituto Nacional de Formación Docente,

but  there  is  almost  no  room  for  what  could  be  labelled  ‘curiosity-driven  research’.  There  is  

much to learn from those who have explored educational research in other contexts (e.g.

Genesee, 2006).

25
 The need to form networks among teachers and communicate the results of research

has led to the appearance of different publications and forums. The English Language

Journal – ELJ, edited by Aldo Blanco between 1970 and 1989, was a pioneer publication,

possibly too innovative for its time. The newsletter and e-forum ELT News and Views,

published between 1994 and 2000 by Martin Eayrs were important in disseminating

information and getting the ball rolling. Both these publications were the result of the

determined effort of individuals and had difficulties to be sustained in the long run. The

annual Revista Lenguas Vivas published  by  the  IES  en  Lenguas  Vivas  “J.R.  Fernández”  has  

institutional support and brings the concerns and work of academics and practitioners from

the different languages taught at that institution. The launch of the Argentinian Journal of

Applied Linguistics - AJAL in 2013 is an auspicious event that will hopefully mark the

beginning of a new era in academic publications in our midst. Issues such as the Open

Access debate are bound to have great impact among us as well (for an introduction to this

controversial debate, see Freedman & Anyangwe, 2012). As Milner-Gulland (2013) very

aptly puts it (my emphasis):

At the moment most open access is based on an author-pays mode. However this also risks

imposing substantial inequalities, and means that many people who are best placed to

translate their knowledge into practice – authors outside academia and in poorer countries –

are precluded from publishing their work. Put crudely, we are moving from a position in

which the less privileged can write but not read, to one where they can read but not

write – neither is conducive to open dialogue.

Much has been said about the increasing access to information from all over the world

that globalization and information technologies have brought. This access has forever

26
changed the way language teachers can obtain material for teaching (e.g. authentic audio

and video texts, ready-made teaching materials, automated exercises, etc.) as well as

academic and professional publications for teachers (for very early examples, see Banfi &

Day, 1995). A question that is inescapable if we think about access to information, though,

is   that   of   selection.   How,   assuming   it   is   true   that   we   have   access   to   ‘everything   there   is’  

(and that is a leap in itself), are we supposed to sift through it and get to what really matters

to us?

In the professional arena the status of teachers has been much discussed (e.g. Banfi,

1997, 2006). There is a clear tension between two quite distinct outlooks: one that views

teachers as professionals vs. another that considers them workers. This tension manifests

itself in the organisational structures of professional associations on the one hand and

unions on the other, with significant differences in outlook. Related to this is the porous

nature of the English language teaching profession. A defining characteristic of associations

is the need to possess officially recognised teaching qualifications as the entry requirement

to the profession. Yet, as we are well aware, there are numerous cases of individuals who

engage in the teaching of English, and even teacher development and coordination, without

any such qualifications. Some analyse this as a consequence of the increasing demand for

teachers of English that makes it possible for students, and even those who have no specific

studies, to get formal and informal jobs as teachers. Others refer to the fact that there are so

many   job   opportunities   for   teachers   of   English,   many   much   more   ‘glamorous’   than   the  

classroom, that many qualified teachers opt out of the education system. Yet others blame

the deceitful and unscrupulous for exploiting the ignorance and misconceptions that the

general public have as regards what it takes to be a teacher of English. They are probably

27
all partly right. Whatever the case, the fact is that we are dealing with an increasingly

heterogeneous and diverse sector with multiple needs and interests. This is a challenge to

professional associations as they cannot think of an ideal or unique type of member but

rather an increasingly diversified reality. The dichotomy between Native and Non-Native

Teachers interestingly presented and reconciled by Peter Medgyes seems to be nowadays

moving in favour of the Non-Native Teacher (though, see Phillipson, 2009 on the native

speaker fallacy). Given the plethora of resources and the ubiquitousness of English

(internet, SAP, cable, see Graddol, 1997) we can safely say that the balance is tipped in

favour  of  the  professional  teacher  to  the  detriment  of   “the   native  speaker  with   a   vocation  

for  teaching”.

If we go beyond the individual level or even the sector and we look around us, we will

notice that many of the changes we have discussed so far have taken place as a

consequence of changes further afield that may involve policy (educational and other),

markets, and other collectives. Teachers cannot abstract themselves away from these

changes or, if they do, they will have to learn to live with their effects. Crucially, in the

period we are discussing, there have been policy changes that have affected the teaching of

English specifically. There has been legislation and government regulation at the national

and jurisdictional levels on curricular design and teacher education. In these changes, the

teaching profession and its representative organisations have had limited representation.

This is partly because we simply lack the strength in numbers and dedicated resources that

other groups have. On the other hand, we have seen the expansion of the teaching of

languages and, in particular, English. This is a worldwide phenomenon but in some

countries and regions it has had quite significant impact in terms of the demand of teachers.

28
The manner in which this demand is met and the long-term projection of this trend vary

considerably from country to country as does the role of the State and of other providers in

this arena.

Another trend that seems to be acquiring significant momentum is the development of

regional links and projects. The ELT N&V e-forum was an early example of these links and

there have been some conferences and other events that have brought project leaders to

share common concerns (e.g. see the British-Council-organised  Policy  Dialogues  “English  

for   the   Future”,   Cartagena,   October   2012   www.britishcouncil.org/colombia-policy-

dialogues-english-for-the-future.htm). Several projects that can be viewed as regional at

some level are being launched. The programmes Ceibal en Inglés in Uruguay (see Banegas,

2013; Banfi & Rettaroli, forthcoming) and the CiSELT teacher development programme in

Chile are hiring teachers and trainers based regionally to work in various capacities, e.g.

materials design, teaching using IT, etc. Whether this is outsourcing of some kind or

networking and capacity-building at a regional level remains to be seen (for some related

issues see Fairclough, 1989; Phillipson, 1992; and Pennycook, 1994).

Opportunities for collaboration and collaborative projects can be found at levels other

than the regional and have great potential, for example to bridge the gap between different

kinds of language education (see Banfi & Rettaroli, 2008). Or it can serve to bring different

types of experiences to bear when analysing complex situations, such as in the project

SEEDS (Toledo, 2012).

29
4. Conclusions

We touched on the issues of quality when discussing event organisation and we should

return to this at this stage. Quality and separating the wheat from the chaff will certainly

become a central concern in the years to come. References to instances of pseudoscience

(e.g.  Emoto’s  crystals; readers need go no further afield than the Wikipedia entry to check

this) or the bastardisation of scientific results (see Dörnyei,   2009’s   critical   review   of   the  

misuse of the results of lateralization research) have a short life expectancy in teacher

development activities. When assessing faculty for university or teacher educator positions

we will have to start making distinctions between different degrees, different kinds of

publications and not simply ticking boxes or adding apples and oranges. We should be

prepared  to  raise  the  bar,  make  it  clear  that  ‘not  everything  goes,’  or  that  there  is  a  place  for  

everything, but everything should be in its rightful place.

If I need to think of a conducting thread for our reality, it would be the notion of

change. We can be sure that change is not innocuous, but remaining unchanged only makes

us move backwards. We have to learn to live with the fact that change is and will continue

to  be  a  permanent  feature  of  our  time  and,  if  we  don’t  adapt,  we  recede.  Also,  change is not

only some external force we should deal with. We are also capable of generating change. It

is up to us to take stock of these developments and direct our destiny, both individual and

collective. So, in the spirit of plurilingual education, we can safely say Plus  ça  change,  …  

plus on a besoin de changer. The more things change, the more we need to change.

Notes

Manuscripts can be obtained contacting the author at cbanfi@gmail.com

30
Previous versions of this paper have benefitted from corrections and comments from Graciela
Moyano and the editors of this volume. Needless to say, any errors or misinterpretations that
remain  are  the  author’s  sole  responsibility.  

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34
3 Communicating across cultures:
encounters in the contact zone

Claudia Mónica Ferradas

Instituto  de  Enseñanza  Superior  en  Lenguas  Vivas  “Juan  Ramón  Fernández”

1. Introduction

Our identities are transformed by everything we learn, and this is particularly evident in

foreign language learning, which involves an encounter between self and other:

Every time language learners speak, they are not only exchanging information with
their interlocutors; they are organizing and reorganizing a sense of who they are and
how they relate to the social world. They are, in other words, engaged in identity
construction and negotiation (Norton, 1997, p. 410).

Rather than encouraging learners to hide behind the mask of an ideal native speaker, thus

sacrificing their own multiple and fluid identities, the overall aim of foreign language

education,   in   Michael   Byram’s   words,   should   be   the   development   of   an   ‘intercultural

speaker’:

a learner with the ability to see and manage the relationships between themselves and
their own cultural beliefs, behaviours and meanings as expressed in a foreign language,
and those of their interlocutors, expressed in the same language—or even a combination
of languages—which may be the interlocutor’s  native  language  or  not(Byram 1997, p.
12).

35
In fact, the development of intercultural awareness is at the core of the national guidelines

for foreign languages in Argentina (Núcleos de Aprendizajes Prioritarios de Lenguas

extranjeras, subsequently referred to as NAPs):

La perspectiva plurilingüe e intercultural […]  apunta  a  tornar  visibles  las  relaciones

entre las lenguas y culturas que están o podrían estar en el currículum y a
sensibilizar hacia la pluralidad constitutiva de estas lenguas y culturas. Apunta,
asimismo, a contribuir a que la enseñanza de lenguas en el contexto escolar
reconozca el papel del español en tanto lengua de escolarización y sus distintas
variedades y valorice el lugar de las otras lenguas y culturas maternas diferentes del
español que circulan en Argentina. Desde esta premisa, los NAP de LE [Núcleos de
Aprendizajes Prioritarios de Lenguas Extranjeras] privilegian tanto el saber de y
sobre las lenguas y el lenguaje, como la formación de ciudadanos/as respetuosos/as
de las diferencias lingüísticas y culturales, favoreciendo actitudes que promueven
nuevas formas de ser y estar en el mundo y de situarse frente a la diversidad
sociocultural y lingüística.
Esta perspectiva de enseñanza de lenguas, entonces, promueve enfoques
multidisciplinarios y combina el aprendizaje de lenguas con la capacidad de
reflexión y disposición crítica necesaria para convivir en sociedades de gran
diversidad cultural; en otras palabras, propicia la participación activa en procesos
democráticos y contribuye a la educación para la ciudadanía y la paz. (NAPs 2)

To achieve these aims, which go beyond the acquisition of the language system, the NAPs

are structured into six strands (ejes): the four macro-skills, reflection on the language being

learnt and intercultural reflection, which links language learning to the acquisition of

democratic values and behaviours and the development of citizenship skills.

On the basis of this conception, intercultural awareness is now a transversal objective

in foreign language curricula in different regions of Argentina. However, teachers often

find it challenging to plan classes with an intercultural focus. Often used to syllabi

traditionally designed to develop the four macro skills and only occasionally encourage

metacognitive reflection, teachers may find the intercultural focus an overwhelming

addition to their very busy agendas. This is related to the fact that intercultural concerns are

36
often perceived supplementary aspects of English language teaching, rather than integral,

transversal ones.

2. Materials from the contact zone

It is my contention that what McRae (1991, p. 3)  calls  ‘representational’  materials  can  help  

us focus on intercultural issues. These materials include literary works, but also texts

produced and distributed unconventionally, as well as any kind of multimodal texts (verbal,

auditory and/or visual) which involve the imagination of the receiver: comics and graphic

novels, advertisements, graffiti, song lyrics, films, video clips, blogs, v-logs, hyperfiction

….   Such   texts   are   rich   in   cultural   content,  often   metaphorically   expressed,   and   challenge  

readers’  schemata.  English,  as  an  international  language,  can  open  doors  into  a  wide  range  

of cultures that express themselves in English. A whole world of multicultural texts is at

our disposal (Ferradas, 2010).

In particular, texts in which intercultural encounters are illustrated may help teachers

highlight  intercultural  aspects  and  encourage  students’  personal  response  and  reflection  on  

identity. Such texts can contribute to developing an awareness of difference, overcoming

stereotypes and leading to a respectful encounter with otherness. They illustrate what Mary

Louise Pratt calls encounters in the contact zone: “the space in which peoples

geographically and historically separated come into contact with each other and establish

ongoing relations, usually involving conditions of coercion, radical inequality and

intractable  conflict”  (Pratt, 1993, p. 6).

Dealing with this potential conflict, which Pratt considers unavoidable in colonial

situations, is the challenge we need to be aware of and face in our hyperconnected post-

37
millennial context. The contact zone may be our own neighbourhood, our Facebook page,

the  classroom…  Our  aim  should  be  to  educate  citizens  who  do  not  just  tolerate but respect

and enjoy diversity and are ready to consider their own views and customs critically. How

can we empower students to express their own meanings, learn about others and negotiate a

respectful position in the encounter with difference?

3. Travelling and translation revisited

In the constant encounters with otherness we undergo in the post-millennial world, we have

become what James Clifford in his book Routes calls travelling cultures. His use of the

adjective  “travelling”  is  not  to  be  taken  literally,  for  it  embraces  not  only  “the  ways  people  

leave home and return, enacting differently centered worlds, interconnected

cosmopolitanisms” (1997, pp. 27-28)   but   also   “sites   traversed”,   as   “the   travel,   or  

displacement, can involve forces that pass powerfully through –television, radio, tourists,

commodities,  armies.’  (Clifford, 1997, p. 28).

In  Clifford’s  use,  “travel”  is  a  “translation  term”.

By   “translation   term”   I   mean   a   word   of   apparently   general   application   used   for  

comparison  in  a  strategic  and  contingent  way.  “Travel”  has  an  inextinguishable  taint  
of location by class, gender, race, and a certain literariness. It offers a good reminder
that all translation terms used in global comparisons –—terms  like  “culture”,  “art”,  
“society”,   “peasant”,   “mode   of   production”,   “man”,   “woman”,   “modernity”,  
“ethnography”— get us some distance and fall apart. Tradittore, traduttore. In the
kind of translation that interests me most, you learn a lot about peoples, cultures
and histories different from your own, enough to begin to know what you are
missing. (Clifford 1997, p. 39, my emphasis)

38
Clifford’s   concept   of   translation, understood as movement, both from one language to

another and from one cultural locus to another, seems particularly suitable to frame the

intercultural awareness we aim at when teaching and learning a foreign language.

4. Exploring routes to express our roots

When   our   “translation”,   like   that   of   planets   around   the   sun,   involves   changing   places  

(though tourism, displacement, exile, or simply virtually on the web or social media), we

find   ourselves   facing   the   challenge   of   “translation”   in   the   sense   of   finding   the   words   to  

express our own meanings —explain our customs, express our values, often to others who

see the world from a very different perspective. This is, according to Claire Kramsch, the

central problem of foreign language  learning:  “wanting  to  express  one  world  view  through  

the  language  normally  used  to  express  another  society’s  world  view” (1992, p. 20).

However, in aiming at intercultural awareness, very often the emphasis is laid almost

exclusively on otherness, on difference, to such an extent that learners may feel that their

cultural  identity  is  at  risk,  as  was  the  case  when  the  “native  speaker  model”  was  prevalent.    

Instead, when selecting materials and strategies to approach them interculturally, teachers

need to make sure learners can profit from the enriching experience of coming into contact

with otherness by reflecting on their own values and identity and on the construction of

their self-image. While teaching the language system, teachers can focus on activities

which aim at developing the linguistic repertoire learners need to express their own

meanings in English.

We can contribute to intercultural awareness by putting representational texts from

different cultures in contact, making sure texts which may be   representative   of   students’  

39
identities are part of the selection. Besides, the varieties of English used in texts from

different contexts can encourage reflection on the role of English as an international

language and develop awareness of the cultural and   linguistic   diversity   of   “world  

englishes”.

Personal response and reflection based on comparison can be encouraged by means of

‘textual  intervention  activities’ (Pope, 1998) that invite students to adapt the text, change it

and extend it creatively. The silences in the text (information and opinion gaps) are left for

readers  to  fill  in  with  their  own  reading.  Transposing  situations  in  the  text  to  the  students’  

own cultural context can prove particularly enriching, as they will need to find the words to

express their own customs and views and will find opportunities to reflect on their own

identities.

5. Constructing identity

By  putting  the   foreign   language  and  culture   in   contact  with  the   students’  own  reality,  the  

comparison invites students to read both cultures  from  a  ‘third  place’  which  keeps  a  critical  

distance from both worlds. At the intersection of multiple native and target cultures, the

major  task  of  language  learners  is  to  define  for  themselves  what  this  ‘third  place’  that  they  

are engaged in seeking will look like, whether they are conscious of it or not. (Kramsch,

1993, p. 257).

By reflecting on similarities and differences, by discussing how to describe their own

context and customs and express their own vision of the world in a foreign language,

students may become aware of the values expressed in the text and wonder how

representative they are of what they consider their own identity—and how stereotypical.

40
Texts which exemplify encounters in the contact zone can illustrate potential conflicts in

the   students’   context   vicariously.   Racial,   social   and   gender   issues,   cultural  

misunderstandings, bullying, etc. are themes which such texts deal with, and the teacher

can  then  find  appropriate  ways  of  reflecting  on  the  students’  own  circumstances  and  teach

them the language necessary to describe them and discuss them.

6. Suggested resources

Some of my favourite examples of authentic texts (which can be adapted by the teacher) to

bring the contact zone into class are:

 Telephone conversation by the Nigerian Nobel Prize Wole Soyinka (racial

prejudice)

 Kill to Eat by the aboriginal writer Oodgeroo Noonuccal (the values and beliefs of

Aboriginal  Australians  as  compared  to  that  of  “the  white  man”)

 Robert and the Dog by the Nigerian writer Ken Saro Wiwa (different sets of values

connected with culture and social class)

Some of the most productive resources for the Argentine context are texts written in

English about Argentina, not only travel literature from the nineteenth century but more

recently published accounts that illustrate culture clash as well as attempts at mutual

understanding. Some highlights are:

 Tales of the Pampas by William Bulfin

 Goodbye Buenos Aires by Andrew Graham –Yooll

 The Whispering Land by Gerald Durrell

41
  El Ombú and Other Stories by William Henry Hudson

 Sebastian’s  Pride by Susan Wilkinson

 ‘Faith  Hard  tried’:  The  Memoir  of  Jane  Robson

 In Patagonia by Bruce Chatwin

 Out of Patagonia by Janet Dickinson

Apart from providing relevant vocabulary, as well as glossing and paraphrasing strategies

to describe the Argentine context and way of life, these texts can become provocative

starting points for discussion, critical consideration of stereotypes and defamiliarisation of

cultural features which may have been naturalised. An elementary level version of the story

of the encounter between the Welsh and the Tehuelche in Chubut, available at

www.claudiaferradas.net under   “intercultural   activities”,   intends   to   prove   that   even  

linguistically complex texts can be adapted to suit the level and maturity of different

classes. Such texts can provide an opportunity, as early as possible, to reflect on conflict

resolution, encourage respect for diversity and develop democratic citizenship skills.

Our selection of texts and strategies to approach them can make a significant contribution

towards peaceful global citizenship with a local impact, if we highlight not only our

differences but what all human beings have in common.

References

Bulfin, W. (1997). Tales of the pampas (bilingual edition).Buenos Aires: L.O.L.A.

Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters.
Byram, M., A. Nichols & D. Stevens (Eds.) (2001). Developing intercultural competence in
practice. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Chatwin, B. (1977). In Patagonia. London: Jonathan Cape.

42
Clifford, J. (1997). Routes. Travel and translation in the late twentieth century.Cambridge, Mass:
Harvard University Press
Consejo Federal de Educación (2012). Núcleos de Aprendizajes Prioritarios. Lenguas Extranjeras.
Educación Primaria y Secundaria. . Available at:
http://www.me.gov.ar/consejo/resoluciones/res12/181-12_01.pdf. Last accessed: July 20, 2013
Dickinson, J. A. (2008). Out   of   Patagonia…   A   collection   of   short   stories   set   in   the   beautiful  
provinces of the South of the Argentine. Ushuaia: Zagier & Urruty Publications.
Durrell, G. (1961 / 1975). The whispering land. New York:Penguin.
Ferradas, C. M. (2010).Outside Looking In: intercultural and intermedial encounters in ELT –
Closing Plenary IATEFL Cardiff 2009.In Beaven, B. (Ed.),IATEFL 2009 Cardiff Conference
Selections(pp. 16 - 20). Canterbury: IATEFL.
Ferradas, C.M. (2011). The Anglo-Argentine web. Available at www.claudiaferradas.net
Graham-Yooll, A. (1999). Goodbye Buenos Aires. Nottingham: Shoestring Press.
Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and culture in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
McRae, J. (1991). Literature with a small  ‘l’. London and Basingstoke: Macmillan.
Noonuccal, O. (1997). Kill to Eat In Global Tales, Stories from Many Cultures, London: Longman.
Norton, B. (Ed.). Language, identity and the ownership of English.TESOL Quarterly,31, 409–429.
Norton, B. (2000). Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity and educational change.
Harlow: Pearson Education/Longman.
Pope, R. (1998). The English studies book. London: Routledge.
Pratt, M.L. (1992). Imperial eyes. Travel Writing and Transculturation. Abingdon and New Cork:
Routledge.
Robson,   J.   (2000).   ‘Faith   Hard   tried’:   The   Memoir   of   Jane Robson. In I.A.D. Stewart (Ed.),
(2000). From Caledonia to the Pampas.
Saro Wiwa, K. (1997). Robert and the Dog. InGlobal Tales, Stories from Many Cultures, London:
Longman.
Soyinka, W. Telephone Conversation. Available at: http://lit205a.blogspot.com.ar/2008/01/week-
10-telephone-conversation-by-wole.html. Last accessed: July 15, 2013.
Wilkinson, S. (1988). Sebastian’s  Pride. England: Michael Joseph.

43
4 Narrative inquiry within
Argentinean EFLTE: Crafting
professional identities and knowledge
through  students’  narratives
María Cristina Sarasa
Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata

1. Introduction

This paper summarizes a narrative inquiry developed naturalistically during 2007-2011

with sophomores attending the course Overall Communication (OC), in the English

Foreign Language Teacher Education Program (EFLTEP), School of Humanities,

Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Argentina. It considers students’   identity  

descriptions as textual interventions and written biographical narratives emerging after

exploring a syllabus unit on Irish Studies. Categories of analysis derived from narrative

investigation of these texts are interpreted in their local setting. Discussion of results

examines how narratives allowed undergraduates to (re)conceptualize their academic

identities and trajectories.

44
2. Research rationale and design

This research stems from narrative investigations on good university teaching practices, as

recounted   by   students,   and   memorable   professors’   biographies by the Education and

Cultural Studies Research Group, School of Humanities, Universidad Nacional de Mar del

Plata, Argentina (Álvarez, Porta & Sarasa 2011; Álvarez & Sarasa, 2007; Sarasa, 2008). It

aims at describing narratively textual interventions and biographical narratives written by

OC students in the EFLTEP, examining undergraduates’   productions   and   their   reported  

observations on theseexperiences. The study also aims at discussingsome implications these

pedagogical interventionsbear for EFLTE. Its twoancillary goals are to elucidate students’  

insights into these class activitiesinvolving their family and academic existences and to

appraise the educationaloutcomes of student–created stories.

Narrative inquiry in education (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990;Clandinin& Murphy,

2009) involves “a  way of thinking about  experience.”  As  a  methodology,  it  means adopting

“a   particular   narrative   view   of   experience   as   phenomena   under   study”   (Connelly   &  

Clandinin, 2006, p 477). In EFLTE (Johnson & Golombek, 2011),narrative inquiry

includes research and development to enhance teachers’   personal practical knowledge. In

this case, the narrative process adopted in the classes, and the current narrative analysis, are

in  themselves  forms  of  inquiry  in  “the  phenomenal  world  in  which  experience  is  mediates  

by  story”  (Xu  &  Connelly,  2009, p. 222).

This small scale ethnographic study(Wilson & Chadda, 2010) was undertaken during

2007-2011 with sophomores attending the subject OC, which endeavors to boost awareness

of the global status of English (Canagarajah, 2006) through exploring print and media texts,

45
striving to render contents relevant to EFLTE (Álvarez, Calvete, & Sarasa, 2012). This

naturalistic research (Bowen, 2008) involved OC syllabus second unit on Irish Studies

(Calvete & Sarasa, 2007). First, from 2007 to 2010, thirty undergraduates(S1—S30, out of

four small cohorts totalling fifty six) voluntarily responded in writing to the  essay   “I Am

One of the People”  (Patterson,  2006b)  composing their parallel textual interventions(Pope,

1995).In this paper, Northern Irish writer Glenn Patterson(2006b) defined his identity

embracing his private Belfast domain within the public European realm. Patterson (2006a,

2006c) observed how roots and routes (Clifford, 1997) forged individual and communal

trajectories. Second, in 2011, students explored the films Michael Collins (Jordan, 1996)

and The Wind that Shakes the Barley (Loach, 2006). Among other questions, they

considered representations of Irish heroes (Ó Giolláin, 1998) shown in these pictures.

Afterwards, undergraduates narrated common people’s   praiseworthy   lives   orally.   Then,  

nineteen (SI—SXIX, out of a total a large single cohort of thirty) freely wrote their

contribution, providing feedback on this class experience.

This paper addresses categories of analysis derived from a purposive sampling

(Teddlie & Yu,   2007)   of   students’   textual   interventions   and   biographical tales in their

context of production and reception (Pavlenko, 2007). Drawing on the theoretical literature

(e.g. Clandinin, Steeves & Chung, 2007),the author interpreted the written productions

conceptually,  uncovering  emerging  themes  in  students’  written  accounts  (Corbin  &  Strauss,  

2007; Polkinghorne, 2007).

46
3. Discussion of results

Volunteered   texts   problematized   undergraduates’   identities,   exploring   the   itineraries   they  

wished to follow as students and prospective educators. When composing their writings,

students found sustenance along their demanding course of study. Thus, life-writing

encouraged life-learning (Pope, 2002). Similarly, undergraduates explored a professional

knowledge landscape (Clandinin & Connelly, 1996), reaching into the teaching identity

they wished to acquire and the stories they wanted to enact as future educators (Clandinin,

Downey, & Huber, 2009).

Textual   interventions   derived   from   “I Am One…”   (Patterson, 2006b) disclosed rich

immigrant   origins.   As   S4   indicated,   “I am one of the descendants of the three hundred

thousand European immigrants who flocked into Argentina during the late nineteenth

century and the  first  half  of  the  twentieth.”  Next,  S19  explained  that  “I am one of the great

great-granddaughters of… an Italian immigrant who arrived in Argentina together with a

large number of Italian, German, and Spanish   immigrants   in   the   1880s.”   S18   displayed   a  

mature awareness of her roots, indicating that

I am one of the many people who find themselves lost in a melting-pot of identities.

I am neither Italian, nor Spanish, nor Uruguayan, nor Native American, nor English,

nor Arab, nor Argentinean, but somehow I am a bit of all that…

Concurrently, S3 revealed her all-encompassing  background:  “I am one of the people who,

born in a melting pot and speaking three languages, find myself torn among three cultures:

a mother culture which is already a mixture of many others…”

47
 These origins became a source of strength.  S25  asserted  that  “I am one of the people

who are extremely proud of her Italian grandfather, who fought in WWI.”  Then,  S28  stated  

that

I am one of the million people who live in a country that has officially welcomed

other peoples since 1853 and has absorbed  these   peoples’  culture  since  then.  I  am  

one of the people who live in a country where everybody is proud of their foreign

lineage.

Students’   pride   in   their   background   was   mirrored   in   their   relatives’   biographies,   the  

common—though heroic—lives undergraduates retold after watching the two films.  SVI’s  

and   SXVI’s   great-grandparents had fought the two World Wars and had immigrated into

Argentina to build a family life based on hard work. SXV`s grandfather had “had  to settle

in a country which was not his  homeland  and  adapt  to  it,”  witnessing  how  his  siblings  and  

wife   passed   away   but   being   “strong enough to survive   and   live   without   them…”.  

Ancestors’   migrant   existences   surfaced   in   written   considerations   on   the   class   experience,  

when the group created shared knowledge.SVI  remarked  that  “this gave us a kind of family

feeling, our families had all gone more or less through the same things, all—or most—of us

are immigrant descendants and our stories melted into one...”

These  ancestors’  itineraries  were  successful because their pains had been rewarded by

the family ties they had constructed. Therefore, “all   of   the   stories   were   teachings   of  

courage, endurance and   most   important  of   love”   (SVII). SVIII   praised   these   biographies’  

value, since students had told true stories of ordinary people—mainly our grandparents—

who had suffered because they underwent many hardships, mainly because they had had to

48
flee from their country, had fought a war, had worked very hard since they were kids, but

who had been happy too because they got married and had kids, succeeded in life, (or)

accomplished their goals.

Eventually, tales signified pride in a non-essentialist heritage while infusing students

with  their  protagonists’  valour.  These  undergraduates,  empowered  by  their  telling, gathered

strength to continue an arduous course of study. The textual interventions dwelt on the

EFLTEP’s  challenging   nature.  S4  stated  that  “I am one of the few people who, after five

years, still struggle in the English Language Teacher Education Program.”  Similarly,  S15  

was   “one of those English students…   able   to   survive   the   ‘jungle   of   the   state   university.’

One of those who prefer to remain at university no matter what, rather than choose the easy

option   of   ‘fleeing’   to   ‘safer’ private institutions.”   S13   indicated   that   “I am one of the

hundreds of students who complain that the Course is TOO HARD but who keep on trying

every  day  to  get  their  degree,”  adding  that  “I am one of the people who after so many years

of being in the educational system can compare it to a Trail of Tears.”  More  identities  were  

marked   by   these   difficulties:   “I am one of the students who have taken very long to

complete   their   degree,   maybe   longer   than   physicians   take   to   qualify.   Why   then   didn’t   I  

change to a private institution if it was so difficult for me?” (S19). Finally, S21 linked

textual  interventions  with  relatives’  biographies  by  disclosing  the  perseverance  needed  and  

the lessons learned.

I am one of the hundreds  of  students  of  English…  who really never thought that the

course of study was going to take such a long time! But who still believes and

49
 knows that getting a University degree is almost a privilege nowadays and that,

therefore, giving up or quitting is not an option.

Likewise,   students  who  told  their   families’  epic   narratives found that thosespelt hope

for their future. Shared accounts of relatives overcoming difficulties became stimulating

within their trying EFLTEP context. SIV explained that

We are now convinced that although our course of study gets harder and harder,

experiences   such   as   the   ones   we   gained…   in   (this   subject)   make   students   reflect  

upon their future as teachers. And in spite of all adversities, we can make it

happen.

Furthermore, these tales encouraged students to visualize their teaching practices

optimistically. SXVII believed that

What mattered was… creating a bond, a human perspective so many times absent at

University… which I feel is so much necessary if we are to work   “teaching”  

people…  I  hope  (we)  can  understand…  that  every  time  we  step  into  a  class it is not

only up to the teacher to make it memorable, it is also up to us.

Inquiring narratively into relatives’   biographies   empowered   students.   For   SV,   “as I

finished talking I realized I had felt comfortable…  I also realized that many other students’  

unheroic characters, especially grandparents, had gone through tough situations just as my

grandmother  had.”  According  to  SXVII,  “it was marvellous to share these narrations about

great people, who were close to us, and who touched our hearts and changed our lives

forever.”   Wisdom   was   derived   from   the   class,   since   “all of us were surely left pondering

50
not just on grammar or on pronunciation but on what is really important in life.”   (SVII)

Finally, SVIII explained that

We were given the opportunity to speak about something that we regarded as

meaningful  and  we  were  eager  to  share  it  with  the  rest  of  the  class…  I  know  that  we  

are studying to be language teachers so we have to pay a lot of attention to how we

say something instead of what we say… but this class was different because we

were paying attention to what we wanted to say instead of how we said it.

Ultimately, this narrative inquiry evolved from a   “pedagogy   of   life-telling”   (Elbaz-

Luwisch 2002, p.408) to a pedagogy of life-learning (Goodson, 2012). Students elaborated

not  just  their  “roots”  but  the  “routes by  which  they  have  been  arrived  at”  (Patterson,  2006c,  

p.  171).  They  also  discovered  that  their  families’  roads  were  connected.

4. Conclusion

What are some of the implications of this narrative inquiry into ties between EFLTE and

academic identities (Tedder & Biesta, 2007)?Bauman (2009, pp. 157-163) argues within

“education   in  the   liquid-modern  setting,”  students  need   “counsellors  who  show  them   how  

to walk rather than teachers who make sure that only one road, and that already crowded, is

taken.”  These  counsellors  should  help  students  “to  dig  into  the  depths  of  their  character  and  

personality, where the rich deposits of precious ore are presumed to lie…”   This EFLTE

class strived for linguistic and cultural authenticity by working with students’  own   expert

51
NNSE productions (Canagarajah, 2006; Morris, 2001) unearthing stories as experiential life

processes (Bathmaker, 2010; Huber, Caine, Huber, & Steeves, 2013).

Likewise, instructors and students created knowledge from class-generated texts

(Trahar, 2009). Consecutively, a narrative pedagogy intervention facilitated the encounters

to produce these accounts constructing identities which shape consecutive teaching

practices. Understanding derived from life-stories and identity papers constitutes narrative

learning proper, suitably meaningful when sustained during scaled-up inquiries (Goodson

& Gill, 2011). Undergraduates experienced narrative research while working towards

agency development (Bruner, 1996), acting upon the family roots revealed in their texts to

envision academic and professional routes. This occurred when students became aware of

how their—and  their  families’— lives’  plots  (Biesta  &  Tedder,  2008)  helped  them  imagine  

a hopeful future. Thus, students came to own the English language to voice their meaning

(Bakhtin& Holquist, 1981; Pope, 2002) translating themselves away from NSE-NNSE

dichotomies  (Rushdie,  1991).  Thus,  “appropriating  the  language  by  confidently  using  it  to  

serve  one’s  own  interests  according  to  one’s  own  values,  helps  develop  fluency  in  English”

(Canagarajah, 2006, p. 592).

This paper highlighted the centrality of attending to lives and experiential knowledge

in EFLTEPs. Students bring to class rich linguistic and cultural existences and family

stories—which   are   undergraduates’   tales   too.   These   narratives   embody   “roots   and   routes,  

fixed   and   entrenched   in   one   sense   and   on   the   move   in   another”   (Friedman,   2002,   p.   22).  

Indeed, future EFL teachers can learn the language while learning from lives and for their

professional lives (Biesta & Tedder, 2008) within a reflexive teaching and learning context.

52
This was an occasion for balancing family identities, understanding origins, projecting

expectations, and representing identities to others meaningfully (Mosselson, 2006). These

results also suggest the emancipatory significance (Nelson, 2011; Nunan & Choi, 2010;

Smolcic,   2011)  of   sharing   biographical   knowledge   in   EFLTEPs   to   contribute  to  teachers’  

development by implementing scaled-up interventions to support narrative inquiry in these

fields.

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5 Designing intercultural and
bilingual e-material for primary and
secondary schools
Silvana Barboni

Liliana Simón
Universidad Nacional de La Plata
Programa de Educación Plurilingüe e Intercultural Pcia Bs. As.

1. Introduction

1.2 The challenge of a plurilingual pedagogical perspective in ESOL

The last decade has been witness to deep theoretical changes in ESOL education in the

province of Buenos Aires. The changes introduced at regulatory levels since 2006 have

brought about the recognition of English as an international language in the context of a

provincial system of education which is in turn nurtured by the linguistic and cultural

diversity present in its 4.7 million students (Barboni & Porto, 2011). This diversity is the

result of sustained migratory processes especially from neighbouring countries, increased

interaction with an international community in our present knowledge society reality and

policy changes in line with national and regional development policies. The change

processes required considering two main principles in the ESOL education provided by the

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state which do not constitute the ways in which English was traditionally taught in non-

compulsory educational settings in Argentina: social justice and social practice. Social

justice refers to intercultural awareness principles guiding teaching while social practice is

the principle at the basis of a discourse perspective of language teaching.

On the one hand, the principle of Social Justice stems from a need to recognise the

multiple identities that are conveyed in the use of languages and the diverse linguistic and

cultural backgrounds that students reveal in educational institutions of the province. This

diversity is constituted by the diverse trajectories that students bring to the English class in

formal schooling under present educational laws. Unlike ten years ago, when secondary

education was not compulsory and English was not a compulsory subject in all primary

schools, the present legal frame challenges educators and policy makers to develop

inclusive educational strategies. These strategies are aimed at embracing an understanding

of English as one of the languages present in the province of Buenos Aires among other

languages such as Guaraní, Wichi and Mapuche as well as Spanish. While Spanish bears

the status of the language of schooling, indigenous languages remain to be the mother

tongue for a great part of the children attending schools in the province. English in this

context  acquires  the  status  of  an  international  language  that  “allows speakers from different

linguistic and cultural backgrounds [...] to have their voices heard and to interact directly

without   the   need   of   mediators   or   translators”   (Byram,   2009)   in   an   international   context.  

Social justice in the English class is present when the teaching strategy used "enables the

creation of a learning context which is not threatening to students´ identities but that builds

multiplicities of language uses and linguistic identities, while maintaining academic rigour

and upholding high expectations”  (García, 2009, p. 318).

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 On   the   other   hand,   the   principle   of   Social   Practice“places   learning   through   an  

additional language as a result of collaborative social practices in which students try out

ideas and actions (Lave & Wenger, 1991), and thus socially construct their learning

(Vygotsky, 1978). Learning is seen as occurring through doing (Dewey, 1897). Thus, an

action-based pedagogy falls within this principle. In the field of language education, this is

often   referred   to   as  task   based   pedagogy   (Ellis,   2009)”   (García, 2009, p. 323). An ESOL

pedagogy stemming from this principle embraces a communicative curriculum prescribed

as part of the learning experiences that children should undergo during formal schooling

with a strong emphasis on a task based pedagogy. This is to be translated in school

programmes that present learning English through using it by solving problems (Ellis,

2003, 2010). Emphasis is given to interactive processes to address some of the present day

concerns with literacies: knowing languages will multiply improved communication

strategies (García, 2009: 5-18) in multiple contexts of use for work, study, entertainment or

any other purpose. Languages, whether it be the mother tongue, a second language or a

foreign language, are seen as a resource to the development of translanguagings, that is to

say,   “multiple  discursive  practices”  (Ibid,  2009:  45   - 47) necessary in a world of constant

interaction among people. In this respect, Canagarajah (2011) advocates a focus on what

he calls performative competence, that is, the type of knowledge conveyed through

interactive skills and strategies that people use when they are using and learning to use

languages in specific situations (of use).

These ideas relate to some of the main objectives of the ESOL curriculum of Primary

education which is to help children find ways of saying and doing things in English in a

sheltered environment: one that encourages them to take risks –a necessary condition to

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learn languages. On the other hand, they connect with the theoretical foundation of the

ESOL curriculum for Secondary education when it says:

English being an effective resource for international communication and the spread of

technical-scientific knowledge and literature, it allows access to:

•  advances  of  science and technology for its use and adaptation in the development of

self projects;

•  other  cultures  and  a  reflection  about  self  culture;;

•  an  education  in  agreement  with  present  day  work  requirements  and  with  new  modes  

of production;

•  updated  information  in their original language.

All of the above address language as an object of study as well as the construction of

knowledge on how to do something, that is to say, knowledge to address communicative

situations inside and outside the classroom. (ESOL Secondary Level Curriculum Design,

200, p. 155).

2. The setting of the project

The teacher meetings developed with ESOL teachers across the Province of Buenos Aires

as from 2010 reveal a pervasive concern of teachers in the public sector with teaching

materials. Through the 134 districts of the province, teachers have acknowledged

difficulties to work with the ESOL textbooks in the market, in particular, in contexts of

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vulnerability. It is evident that the textbook industry studies the populations that are likely

to buy those textbooks and develops a target user as the aim of their publishing projects. In

all cases, they are considering those audiences who invest in books for the commercial

reasons associated to their activity.

The state system of education of the province receives a 20% intake of students within

the social vulnerability index. That intake reaches higher percentages in schools located in

certain areas of poverty and deprivation of the "conurbano" in the province of Buenos

Aires. Also, these schools receive immigrant populations and certain minority groups

established in the territory. The state is responsible for these citizens since children in these

contexts need to have their identities and their linguistic diversity recognised.

The collection "Cuadernos  para  el  Aula  de  Inglés"  (“Workbooks  for  the  English  class”)  

was in fact developed for these contexts of vulnerability. Though it is not the intention of

the Ministry of Education to develop a publishing enterprise as a body of the state, it bears

the responsibility to cater for the needs of those who are often neglected and whose

vulnerability is sometimes the reason for their exclusion. In this context of inclusion and

social justice, the project was released to provide resources to schools where vulnerability

rates reach high percentages. Thus, approximately twenty thousand children for each

educational level, out of a hundred and eighty thousand, are entitled to their "cuadernos".

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3. How are these principles realised in the design of ESOL materials for compulsory

schooling in the Province?

When   designing   “Cuadernos   para   el   Aula   de   Inglés”,   a   set   of   aspects   were   considered   in  

relation to the principles of social justice and social practices. These aspects were:

 An understanding of English as an international language and of language learning

as  a  process  of  developing  a  “translanguaging”  understanding  of  language  use.

 A strong local contextual reference as part of a Latin American perspective.

 A task-based pedagogic perspective considering a focus on content, language and

thinking skills integration in activities.

 A  digital  support  for  the  analogic  publication  in  the  structure  of  “the  digital  corner”

3.1. ESOL learning for translanguaging practices

It is a well recognised fact that people use today the languages available to them to develop

better communication practices. That is part of what researchers are studying in connection

to the ways in which linguistic diversity and plurilingualism is improving the way people

communicate around the world. These practices, which refer to the ways people use

“language”   have   been   called   “translanguaging”   and   can   be   described   as   the   “multiple  

discursive practices in which bilinguals engage in order to make sense of their bilingual

worlds (García, 2009, p. 319).”  This  notion  was  taken  up  for  the  construction  of  interaction  

in the materials developed. As the example in picture 1 in the appendix shows, the flexible

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use  of  languages  before  different  interlocutors,  the  use  of  “non  translatable  terms”  such  as  

che or pichi - both exponents of indigenous language terms reflect that translanguaging has

become natural in our provincial context. The interactions intend to exemplify the

systematic, strategic, affiliative and sense-making process that is carried out by bilinguals

to include and facilitate communication with others, but also to construct deeper

understandings and make sense of their worlds which are lived in different languages.

3.2. From the local to the international

The situations present in the material refer to genuine language uses in the local context to

speak about our local reality. By means of geographical references, explicit allusions to our

natural world in this part of the world and a clear understanding of the world from the eyes

of Latin America, with its ecology problems and its social reality, the teaching of English

becomes highly contextualized in our own land to help us talk about us in an international

context. There is a strong presence of our local natural world with explicit references to

Latin American geographical mobility and sociocultural practices. An example of this can

be found in picture 2 of the appendix in which a picture story is presented.

3.3. Solving problems to learn language and content.

The tasks developed in the material include a wide set of information gap, reasoning gap

and information gap tasks, involving different levels of work in terms of thinking skills,

from lower order to higher order ones aiming at the uttermost objective of critical thinking.

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All the tasks amount for the construction of a set of four final projects among which

teachers and students can choose depending on their interests and contextual circumstances.

These final inclusive projects are third generation tasks with an educational ethical

dimension accounting to students´ citizenship education. Picture 3 in the Appendix shows

examples of these tasks.

3. 4. Digital component in the digital corner

Once the "Cuadernos para el Aula de Inglés" were published, the second stage of the

Project was ready to start. This second stage involves the integration of Learning

Technologies in the classroom. Technology is already present in many secondary schools in

the   province   of   Buenos   Aires   with   the   National   Programme   called   “Conectar   Igualdad”  

which started in 2010. Also this year (2013) the primary schools of the province of Buenos

Aires   are   launching   a   new   project   called   “Aulas   Digitales”;;   thus,   primary   schools   will  

receive netbooks to be used in primary school classrooms. Thanks to these programmes,

students have now the opportunity to enhance their learning with the use of technology in

the language classes.

However, computers are not enough to make the big change in the 21st century

learners. Even though teachers from the Province of Buenos Aires have been receiving

training sessions on Learning Technologies delivered by the programme   “Conectar  

Igualdad”  and the programme of Plurilingualismand Intercultural Education of the Province

of Buenos Aires, we are aware of the fact that teachers still have difficulties in the use of

technologies in their classroom. Teachers need to be confident in order to offer effective

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technology integration with appropriate strategies in their real contexts. Therefore, we

decided to create a special place for teachers of English who can find motivating e-

activities triggered by the content developed in "Cuadernos para el Aula de Inglés" called

“Digital  Corner”  (“Rincón  Digital”).

The following text is the introduction of the e-book  “Digital  Corner”:

The main focus of the Digital Corner materials is to help and guide
English teachers to walk together the paths towards Learning
Technologies. We all know how technologies have invaded our teaching
context and that we cannot resist its integration anymore. We know that
each teacher has a personal and unique scenario in his/her own class;
therefore, we will suggest different paths to take together with
technology, your students and you.
Remember that you together with your students will be leaving your
digital footprints when you walk through the paths of the web. Hope
this e-booklet will help you throughout your digital way.

All   the   activities   suggested   in   the   “Digital   Corner”   were   already   tested;;   all   the   webtools  

used are free and all the photos and pictures used are free as well. In this way, we have tried

to avoid copyright issues and we teach teachers how to create online material free of legal

problems. The webtools recommended are user-friendly and appropriate to the age and

level of knowledge of the students and their learning context.

The e-activities   suggested   by   “Digital   Corner”   involve   the   “students   learn   by   doing”  

principle mentioned by Dewey (1897). The four skills are present throughout the e-book:

reading, writing, speaking and listening. Once the students finish with their tasks, all the

projects can be uploaded to a school/class/student blog , wiki, school webpage, etc. In these

virtual environments students have the opportunity to share their work not only with their

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classmates but also with other institutions, their parents and, of course, the rest of the

world.

Reading and writing activities have always been easy to carry out in our classes

whereas listening and speaking tasks have presented more difficulties as regards the use of

the different technological gadgets we have used in the last years. Nowadays, the

convergence of technologies and the growth of webtools have solved many of our

problems. For example, using tools like Voxopop students have the possibility to record

themselves, to listen to their partners and also to leave a comment on the place. An example

of this task is shown on Picture 4 in the appendix.

Also computer skills are part of the practice in the e-book, such as a puzzle game

where the students drag and drop the pieces of the puzzle. We have to bear in mind that

many students will be touching computers for the first time in their lives. You can see the

puzzle on picture 5 in the appendix.

Sharing different stories, legends and rhymes from the cultures that come together in

the English classrooms is  also  present   in  the   “Digital   Corner”  project.  Students  play   with  

games  like  “I  spy  with  my  little  eye”  with  the  pictures  offered  by  the  “Cuaderno  de  Trabajo  

del  Aula  de  Inglés”.    You  can  see  an  example  in  picture  6  in  the  appendix.  Students  do  not  

only play the game but compare the games with the ones they have already learned in their

own language and culture. Also students are encouraged to listen and read stories from a

diversity of aboriginal cultures that meet in the classroom. An example of the story of can

be seen on picture 7 in the appendix.

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4. Concluding remarks

The development of highly contextualized ESOL materials for vulnerable sectors in our

society needs to be understood as part of the responsibility of the state to cater for the

resources and means to guarantee compulsory education. A local perspective may help

ESOL educators approach school intakes that have been traditionally left out of the system

and for whom English was for too long a neglected subject in their education. If we wish

that that happens, it becomes essential to understand the practical, particular and possible

(Kumaravadivelu, 2003; 2006) dimensions of a pedagogic framework that aims at an

education for all paradigms.

As regards technology, we would like to conclude saying that we all know we are

living in a digital world, but maybe we are not aware of the fact that with the advance of

technology we are reaching a stage of normalization in the use of technology in the

language classrooms around the world (Bax, 2003). Ten years ago Bax said that pens and

textbooks were fully normalized whereas computers had not yet reached the stage of

normalization in the classrooms. With the help of the political programmes initiated by the

state, we as teachers have in our hands the possibility to enhance learning through

technology and to help develop computer skills that will be necessary tools in our 21 st

century students.

Cuadernos de Trabajo para el aula de inglés

Educación plurilingüe e intercultural
Webpage:
http://servicios2.abc.gov.ar/lainstitucion/organismos/lenguasextranjeras/plurilingue/index.html

66
References

Barboni, S., &M. Porto (2011). Enseñanza de inglés e identidad nacional en la Argentina
del bicentenario: ¿Qué tensiones y qué posibilidades se abren con la incorporación del
inglés en el currículum de la Escuela? In Barboni, S (Ed),Enseñanza de inglés e
identidad nacional a los 200 años de la Revolución de Mayo(pp. 13 – 68). La Plata:
Eds Al Margen.
Bax, S. (2003).CALL— Past, present and future.Department of Language Studies,
Canterbury Christ Church University College, Canterbury, UK.Retrieved from:
http://moodle.bracu.ac.bd/pluginfile.php/6302/mod_resource/content/1/Stephen%20Ba
xs%20Call%20past,%20present%20and%20future.pdf Last accessed to: July, 2013.
Byram, M. (2009).Intercultural citizenship and foreign language education.Retrieved from:
http://www.frl.auth.gr/sites/congres/Interventions/FR/byram.pdfLast accessed to: April
2012.
Canagarajah, S. (2011). Codemeshing in academic writing: Identifying teachable strategies
of “translanguaging”. The Modern Language Journal, 95(3), 401-417.
García, O. (2009). Bilingualeducation in the 21st century: A global perspective. West
Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell.
Ellis, R. (2009). Task-based language teaching: Sorting out the misunderstandings.
International Journal of Applied Linguistics.19 (3), 221 – 246.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2003). A postmethod perspective on English language
teaching.World Englishes, 22(4), 539-550.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2006). Understanding language teaching: From method to
postmethod. New York: Routledge.

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Appendix

Picture 1.Translanguaging

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Picture 2. Ecology in Context

69
Picture 3. Task Examples

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Picture 4. Voxopop Talkgroup

Picture 5. Online Puzzle

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Picture 6. “I  see  with  my  little  eye”  Game

Picture 7.Legends from different cultures

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6 Border pedagogy: Towards re-
routing roots in intercultural education
Florencia Verónica Perduca
IES  en  Lenguas  Vivas    “Juan  Ramón  Fernández”,  Buenos Aires
Universidad del Litoral, Santa Fe

1. Introduction

The currently developing socio-linguistic reality of English, as both a global and a local

language, brings in shifting configurations of power relations, cultural mappings, identity

constructions and educational politics. The paradoxical globalisation and transculturation of

English has shattered the illusion of linguistic fixity, cultural homogeneity and of a pristine

“imagined   community”   (Anderson,   1991,   p.   2).   This   is   redefining the boundaries of

linguistic, geo-political and educational policies and paving the way for more critical and

integrationist  pedagogies  that  can  create  and   scaffold   more   “glocal”  (Brooks  &  Normore,  

2010) perspectives and literacies. In this light, the terrain of English teaching/learning

becomes inextricably linked to the rapidly changing parameters of language, place, identity,

history and power.

In a world populated by evolving Englishes, travelling cultures, transnational identities

and expanding borderlands,   Assimilationist   (“English   Only”)   models,   based   on   the  

73
achievement of native-speaker-like performance, and curricular designs structured upon

English language, culture andidentity fall apart and no longer hold. Integrationist models,

focused on the development of new literacies for intercultural interpretation, foreground the

educational value of moving back and forth between cultural systems and of negotiating

difference within the contact zone of the classroom.

Within this framework, Border Pedagogy, which conceives of school in general, and

the   classroom   in   particular,   as   a   “cultural   borderland”   (Giroux,   2005,   p.   24)   proposes  

working actively with how roots are constantly re-routed in our transculturalised world.

The aim of this paper is to delve into how border pedagogy has crossed the boundaries

of educational discourse by means of contesting received notions on language, culture,

identity and pedagogy within the arena of ELT. The five sections that follow develop how

border pedagogy proposes working with English as a glocal language, a travelling culture,

a transnational identity, a transdisciplinary subject and a resource material for active work

on intercultural interpretation. In doing so, this paper intends to explore to what extent

border   pedagogy   can   contribute   to   scaffolding   teachers’   and   students’   minds   to   mediate  

dialectically between different levels of cultural signification and to transform otherness

into difference through intercultural mediations.

2. Blurring the boundaries of language

It is in discourse that power and knowledge are joined

together.
(Foucault, 1980, p. 100)

English, seen as an evolving language, is being instrumentally used within the educational

arena, and particularly within the realms of border pedagogy, as a clear example of a how

74
languages develop as representation systems, as discursive sites for ideological interaction

and conflict, and as vehicles for cultural and identity (re)configurations.

For some time after its transplantation by settlement and colonial administration,

English was still centred on England, and its collective imaginary still constructed it as the

voice  of  authority,  regarding  it  in  Bakhtinian  terms,  as  “monolithic,  monological,  univocal,  

single-voiced”  (1992,  p.  293).  English,  as  the imperial language, continued expanding and

spreading  worldwide,  always  patrolling  its  borders,  in  pursuit  of  a  ‘perfect  copy’,  a  replica  

of itself.

However, in the process of becoming a world language, English travelled, hybridised

and othered itself. Hence, owing to displacement, formally and functionally, English

camouflaged   from   ‘mother   tongue’,   to   ‘stepmother   tongue’   and   to   ‘the   other  tongue’.   By  

the end of the nineteenth century, the English of the formerly colonised subjects had started

to flourish within their own languages and literatures and acquired an importance which

both challenged and dismantled the dominance of the original centre.

Today English is far from being regarded as a European language, and its development

is hardly determined by usage or native-speaker models. Control of the language seems to

be  actively  held  by  the  ‘others’,  who  have  aimed  to  deconstruct  Manichean  binarity  as  well  

as hegemonic discourses of otherness, subalternity and voicelessness, seeking to construct a

space of enunciation of their own. This has paved the way for creolisation, interculturality,

and border-crossing processes in different cultural configurations. And yet in all cases,

English has resulted in hybridity, a key term to refer to the state of transnational identities,

and as evidenced in postcolonial, diasporic and border communities.

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 In  Rushdie’s  terms,  those  formerly  subjected  to  Empire  started  to  “strike   back  with  a  

vengeance”  (Thieme,  2001,  p.  19)  by  means  of  conquering  English  through  different  modes

of appropriation, subversion and resistance. Rather than silenced by acculturation and

assimilation, formerly colonised subjects were empowered by transculturation, a process

whereby members of subordinated groups appropriated materials transmitted by dominant

or metropolitan cultures. This term was coined in 1940 by Cuban Sociologist Fernando

Ortíz  proposing   his   notion  that  “intercultural  contact  is   not  unidirectional  a  process,   but  a  

two-way   dynamics”   (Bass,   1999,   p.   372).   Mary   Louise   Pratt   (1992,   p. 50) adds that the

process   of   borrowing   and   lending   “explodes   in   all   directions   within   the   contact   zone”,  

allowing languages to reconfigure not only identities but also cultures.

3. Exploring the porosity of cultures

Culture is by nature heterogeneous and it

necessarily works through the realm of borders.
(Saldívar, 1997, p. 9)

Border pedagogy posits that if English language is always in flux, relational, dialogical and

contested,  then  the  cultures  that  it  represents  are  always  ‘in  the  making’  and  in  a  constant

process   of   ‘becoming’   through   intercultural   mediation.   This   pedagogy   critically   explores  

that  throughout  the  nineteenth  century,  English  ‘Culture’  and  the  ‘Nation’  were  conceived  

of   as   “patterned,   homogeneous   shared   instances:   imagined   communities” (Johnson &

Michaelsen, 1997, p. 54). That conception of culture, bound to a specific fixed location,

with a homogenous population, and an identity of its own, established a straightforward

connection between territory, community, culture and identity. Such notion rested on the

76
premise that there exists cultural homogeneity in a given location, ignoring the fact that

what pervades human groups is actually heterogeneity.

As from the twentieth century, the notion of a world divided into cultural islands has

been contested by the fact that people, groups and symbols are interconnected both

regionally and transnationally. Indeed, border pedagogy explores how boundaries that

separate communities are porous and how collectives can no longer be assimilable to a

fixed  specific  space.  James  Clifford  (1999,  p.  3)  poses  that  “culture  is  to  be  understood  as  

writing/collage, a pastiche composed by heterogeneous elements in which historical and

political phenomena interact and overlap endlessly in never-ending  processes”. In his book

Routes (1999),  he  homonymically  plays  with  “routes”/”roots”  to  delve  into  the  paradox  that  

culture   entails.   In   his   seminal   essay,   “Travelling   Cultures",   Clifford,   drawing   on   from    

research conducted by Michel de Certeau (1988), Pierre Bourdieu (1986) and Clifford

Geertz (1973), refers to the phenomenon of spatial practices resulting from interactions

between  “dwelling  and  travelling”  experiences  within  the  context  of  historical  processes  of  

dislocation.   Culture   is   the   “ever-changing result of the dialogue between what travels

[routes] and what dwells [roots], and the ensuing conflicts, as well as resistances, which

emerge  from  that  interaction”  (Clifford,  1999,  p.  3).

Border pedagogy delves into how culture is the vehicle or medium whereby the

relationship between groups is transacted within its borders in a complex interplay of

identities. The border stands as an interstitial space for identity reconstruction and

reconfiguration.   In   the   same   way   as   James   Clifford   puns   with   “Routes”/”Roots”   to   delve

into   the   interstices   of   “travelling   cultures”,   Louis   Kaplan   (1997,   p.   10)   homonymically  

plays   with   “border”/”boarder”   to   refer   to   the   “bo(a)rder”   and   to   inscribe   the   oxymoronic  

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condition of those who are straddling the frontier, of those being within and without,

assuming oscillating identities in their differential play.

Border pedagogy underscores that through processes of translocation and transposition,

English  has  remapped  itself  and  ‘gained  in  translation’.  English  has  developed,  not  only  as  

it surpassed  its  own  boundaries  through  (post)colonialism,  but  also  as  it  let  ‘others’  cross  its  

frontiers   through   migration   and   diaspora.   These   “cross-overs”   have   operated   as   a   rite   of  

passage, not only in terms of its language and culture, but also in terms of the multiple

identities conferred by English.

4. Expanding the frontiers of identity

Border is the space where the nation and identity either

end or begin.
(Saldívar, 1997, p. 14)

The representation of these shape-shifting, multiplying, increasingly fragmented subject

positions has become a central transdisciplinary object of study and a particular concern of

border pedagogy. Indeed, the constitution of transnational identities in Englishes, springing

from   interconnected  “travelling   cultures”,  characterises the experience of both border and

diasporic communities the world over. However, these cultures are endowed with different

identity configurations, and are characterised by different material conditions.

On the one hand, border cultures inhabit a defined geopolitical territory, whose

boundaries divide two sides at the same time as they create a borderland. It is in this contact

zone where border subjects engage in intricate processes of cultural conflict, interaction and

crossing-over. Border subjects refuse to fuse into a single conglomerate and struggle for

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both the acceptance of difference and the (re)territorialisation of the deterritorialised

(Deleuze & Guattari, 1977, p. 155).

On the other hand, diasporic communities result from migration, cultural

transplantation and displacement processes (Ashcroft et al., 1995, p. 430). And even though

the diasporic experience binds the multiple communities of a disperse population together,

there is no specific geo-political boundary framing them. Diasporic cultures mythologise

home as a desired place, impossible to return to (Rushdie, 1991). There occurs a split by

means of which longing for the imagined home prevails over the actual geographic location

which is inhabited. These migrants, as well as their descendants, have a discontinuous

relation between their illusory home country and the experience of the physical return to it

as visitors (McLeod, 2000, p. 209).

Nonetheless, what brings both diasporic and border communities closer together is

their interstitial condition. Interstitial subjects acquire knowledge in the various specific

locations in which they inhabit and resist their aggregation to an arbitrary unified whole.

Speakers of Englishes the world over enact and recreate their identities in the breaches left

open within discursive and social relations (Johnson & Michaelsen, 1997, p. 173), being

discontinually located as insiders/outsiders. The relation they establish with the places they

inhabit is that of a dichotomy: fluctuating between being, and not being, either at home or

within  the  border.    Border  pedagogy  posits  that  it  is  in  this  “border  zone”,  such  as  the  one  

that English language represents, where cultural symbols, references and meanings can be

read transculturally.

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5. Broadening the borders of pedagogy

Border pedagogy decentres as it remaps.

(Giroux, 2005, p. 22)

Against the background of such evolving Englishes, cultures and identities, which frame

our rapidly shifting global environment, it is necessary to generate and promote evolving

pedagogies; that is to say, pedagogical apparatuses that can offer fruitful educational

responses to transculturality, hybridity and liminality. Our multiplying identities, cultural

configurations and communities (postcolonial, diasporic, border) pave the way for the

development of new pedagogies that can create and/or scaffold more glocal perspectives

and  literacies,  that  is  to  say  “the  meaningful  integration  of  the  local  and  the  global”  (Brooks  

& Normore, 2010, p. 50). A central vehicle for the development of the glocalisation of

culture is the deconstruction of literacy within the very educational arena. This implies

including previously marginalised reading stratagems, pedagogical apparatuses and

curricular designs such as the ones posed by critical pedagogy, intercultural pedagogy and,

in particular, border pedagogy.

Critical pedagogy is posited as central to any educational practice that takes up

questions of how individuals learn, how knowledge is produced, and how subject positions

are constructed. This pedagogy has regained a sense of alternative by means combining

strategies for the critique of hegemonic discourses with stratagems to construct new forms

of identity and social relations (Giroux, 2005, p. 70).

The tenets of critical pedagogy have   been   crucial   to   ELT’s   rite   of   passage,   from  

assimilationist   (“English   only”)   educational   policies   to   integrationist   (multicultural/  

intercultural) ones; from monolingual transmission models, based on native speaker-like

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performance, to multilingual transactional models, more sensitive to multiculturalism and

built around “expert-speaker”  (Jenkins,  2003,  p.    81)  and/or  “intercultural-speaker”  (Byram,  

1997, p. 21) achievement. These educational responses to the transculturation of English

have contributed   to   the   democratisation   of   knowledge   and   “cultural   capital”   (Bourdieu,  

1986, p. 47). While multicultural policies fostered the coexistence and mutual

understanding of cultural and linguistic differences, intercultural policies encouraged the

exchange and interaction   between   them,   dwelling   on   the   “in-between   spaces”   that   enable  

the flux and interplay of identities.

This is when border pedagogy can complement and even supplement other pedagogies.

Border pedagogy uses school, the classroom, as a site of active reading, reflection and

hands-on work on our evolving languages, cultures and identities. It proposes using our

“travelling  cultures”  to  work  glocally and transdisciplinarily. This presupposes not merely

an acknowledgment of the shifting borders that both undermine and reterritorialise different

configurations of language, culture, power, and knowledge. It also links the notion of

schooling with the broader category of education to a more substantive struggle for a

democratic society that acknowledges that culture happens in the interstices, the

borderlands,   “the   spaces   between   and   within”   (Clifford,   1999,   p.     5).   Border   pedagogy  

points to the necessity to create suitable conditions for students to write, read, speak, and

listen in a language in which meaning becomes multi-accentual and dispersed, and resists

permanent closure (Giroux, 2005, p. 21). This entails a language in which one speaks with,

rather than exclusively for or about, others.

Border pedagogy offers the opportunity for students of English to become border

crossers by means of delving into the multiple references that constitute different cultural

81
codes, experiences and languages. In this way, issues on transculturation, hybridity and

liminality naturally come to the fore and pave the way for active work on critical cultural

awareness and intercultural interpretation.

6. Crossing the borders of ELT

The concept of border crossing has come to represent a project and a commitment to the

democratisation   of   school   and   society   in   search   for   a   “notion of commonality without

which a re-founding   of   democratic   politics   seems   impossible,   even   unimaginable”  

(Couldry, 2006, p. 4). In this way, both teachers and learners in the ELT classroom can

become discursive agents who move across borders transforming otherness into difference.

The point of departure is the premise that our diverse languages, cultures and identities

connect us to each other more than they separate us, especially as such borders are

continually changing and mutating within the fast forward dialectics between globalisation

and transculturation.

Border pedagogy, in this sense, becomes proactive and performative in that it is not

merely  about  “deconstructing  discourses,  but  about  creating  modes  of  individual  and  social  

agency that enable rather  than  shut  down  democratic  values”  (Giroux,  2005,  p.    7).Border  

pedagogy  poses  that  our  main  challenge  as  educators  is  to  “construct  a  policy  of  difference”  

(13) drawing on from the contribution of Postmodernism, Feminism, Marxism,

Postcolonialism, not only as theoretical standpoints, but also as enabling tools for teachers

to design hands-on   pedagogical   apparatuses   to   work   towards   the   active   “construction   or  

mobilisation  of  difference”  (Manzanas  &  Benito,  2003,  p.  90).  

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 To such end, border pedagogy suggests the instrumental use of postcolonial theory and

border theory with a two-fold purpose. On the one hand, they can be used as dislocating

discourses which challenge how imperial centres of power have constructed themselves as

‘selves’  against  ‘others’  through  totalising  discourses.On  the  other  hand,  they  can  be  used  

to   raise   awareness   about   the   contact   zone   “as   the   space   where   cultures   meet,   clash   and  

grapple”  (Pratt,  1992,  p.    25).  

Border pedagogy poses that this approach will be of special value to learners if they are

offered texts in Englishes (written, visual and electronic), belonging to different disciplines,

which  both  affirm  and  interrogate  the  complexity  of  the  students’  own  languages,  histories,  

cultures and identities, as well as those of others.

Border pedagogy suggests a set of stratagems to follow so that students can be given

the opportunity to deconstruct hegemonic discourses and develop counter-discourses, on

the one hand, and to engage in intercultural mediation and border crossing, on the other.

This implies reading texts critically and acutely to raise awareness about the origins and

mechanisms of intolerance and inequality (Giroux, 2005, p. 21). This also entails making

visible the historically and socially constructed places and borders we inherit, and that

frame our discourses and social relations, and subsequently signalling forms of

transgression in which existing borders forged in dominant epistemes can be challenged

and redefined.

Within   the   project   of   “voice   and   difference”,   culture   is   seen   as   a   shifting   sphere   of  

multiple and heterogeneous borders where different histories, languages, experiences and

discourses   (including   those   “forgotten”,   “erased”   or   missing”)   intermingle   amid   diverse  

relations of power and privilege; for   example,   within   the   “cultural   borderland”   known   as  

83
school   (25).   This   in   combination   with   a   “multi-centric   perspective”   may   create   the  

necessary   pedagogical   conditions   for   students   of   Englishes   to   engage   in   “cultural  

remapping as a form of resistance, and to become border crossers in order to understand

otherness in its own terms, creating borderlands for the fashioning of new identities within

existing  configurations  of  power”  (20).

This evolving pedagogy delves into understanding how dynamic identity is as it

moves into the borderlands crisscrossed within a variety of evolving languages, cultures,

identities and borders. To border pedagogy, there are no unified subjects, only learners,

whose multi-layered and often contradictory voices and experiences intermingle to stress

the importance of keeping difference within the borderland called school to be able to

mediate interculturally.

References

Anderson, B. (1991) Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of

nationalism. New York: Verso.
Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G., & Tiffin, H. (1995).The postcolonial studies reader. London:
Routledge.
Bakhtin, M. (1992). The dialogic imagination. London: Routledge.
Bass, R. (Ed.). (1999). Border texts: Cultural reading for contemporary writers. Boston
and New York: Houghton Mifflin.
Bhabha, H. (1994). The location of culture. London: Routledge.
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In Richardson, J. E. (Ed.), Handbook of theory of
research for the sociology of education. New York: Greenword Press.
Brooks, J., & Normore, A. (2010).Literacy for a glocal perspective.Educational
Policy,24(1), 52-82.
Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Clifford. J. (1999). Routes: Travel and translation in the late twentieth century.
Cambridge: Harvard University.
Corbett, J. (2008). An intercultural approach to English language teaching. Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters.

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Couldry, N. (2004). In the place of common culture, what? The review of education.
Pedagogy and Cultural Studies,26(1), 4.
Deleuze, G.,& Guattari, F. (1977).Anti-Oedipus.New York: Viking.
Derrida, J. (1981). Writing and difference. Illinois: University of Urbana.
Foucault, M. (1980).The history of sexuality.Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Giroux, H. (2005). Border crossing: Cultural workers and the politics of education.
London: Routledge.
Johnson, E.,& Michaelsen, S. (1997). Border theory: Limits of cultural politics.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.
Manzanas, A.,& Benito, J. (2003).Intercultural mediations, hybridity and mimesis in
American literatures. Rutgers University: Transaction Publishers.
McLeod, J. (2000). Beginning postcolonialism. London: Manchester University.
Pratt, M.L. (1992). Imperial eyes: Travel writing and transculturation. London:
Routledge.
Rushdie, S. (1991). Imaginary homelands. London: Granta Books.
Saldívar, J. D. (1997). Border matters: Remapping American cultural studies.
Berkeley: University of California.
Thieme, J. (2001). Postcolonial con-texts. London: Continuum.

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7 Pensamiento crítico, reflexión,
conciencia cultural crítica:
características de la interculturalidad
en la lectura en lengua extranjera
Melina Porto
UNLP-Conicet

1. Introducción

Este trabajo informa sobre un estudio realizado en 2009-10 que utiliza el Modelo de

Competencia Intercultural (MCI) de Byram (1997, 2009, 2012) para investigar la

dimensión cultural de la lectura en lengua extranjera en un contexto universitario. Este

modelo sirve como sustento teórico y también se constituye en una medida de análisis. Los

participantes, diez estudiantes del Profesorado y Traductorado de Inglés en la Universidad

Nacional de La Plata (UNLP), de entre 18-20 años, leyeron un fragmento de Desert Wife

(Faunce, 1961) y produjeron una respuesta textual junto con una entrevista individual. De

los cinco saberes (savoirs) o dimensiones de conocimiento, habilidades y actitudes en los

queconsiste este modelo, la conciencia cultural crítica (saber comprometerse) (savoir

s’engager) predominó en los resultados. Esto significa que los participantes evidenciaron

86
un elemento de criticidad y reflexión con respecto al contenido textual, procurando

encontrar sentidos ocultos e interpretaciones alternativas, con gran complejidad y

profundidad de análisis.

El trabajo está dividido en dos partes. En la primera, describo la investigación llevada a

cabo. Esta descripción incluye el MCI de Byram, aspectos metodológicos como la

definición de los instrumentos de recolección de datos y el uso del MCI como medida de

análisis, y los resultados. En la segunda parte, ilustro los resultados con el caso de Victoria

(pseudónimo). También hago hincapié en la implicancias pedagógicas que se desprenden

de esta investigación al resaltar que la conciencia cultural crítica o savoir   s’engager

posibilita que la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras sea verdaderamente educativa y se refleja

en la actualidad en la noción de educación intercultural para la ciudadanía (Byram, 2012).

2. La investigación

El objetivo general de esta investigación fue describir y comprender cómo la población

estudiada en este contexto (estudiantes del Profesorado y Traductorado de Inglés en la

UNLP, de entre 18-20 años) entendió el contenido cultural de textos literarios narrativos en

la lectura en inglés como lengua extranjera. En este trabajo la atención se centra en un

fragmento de Desert Wife (Faunce, 1961, p. 173-181) escrito en inglés. Los participantes

respondieron al texto produciendo una tarea escrita llamada respuesta textual (entre varias

otras tareas) en su lengua nativa, el español, y fueron luego entrevistados para expandir

acerca de sus interpretaciones. Ambos instrumentos de investigación fueron analizados

87
utilizando el Modelo de Competencia Intercultural (MCI) de Byram (1997, 2009, 2012).

Los resultados indican un alto nivel de conciencia cultural crítica, central en el MCI.

Una respuesta textual es un formato de respuesta a la lectura adaptado de Ollman

(1996) que permite el surgimiento de respuestas idiosincrásicas a un texto. Requiere del

recuerdo de información y del resumen, pero va más allá al incentivar también respuestas

imaginativas y personales. Para producir una tarea de respuesta textual, estos participantes

tuvieron que dar sentido a las pistas culturales del fragmento y a la información cultural

contextualizada del mismo, relacionar esta información con sus parámetros culturales

propios, y al hacerlo, traer a la superficie sus experiencias, conocimiento y bagaje

relevantes para la interpretación. Como las instrucciones no requirieron que los

participantes recordaran cada parte del texto exactamente, tuvieron la libertad de responder

a aspectos específicos del fragmento que les llamaron la atención. Las instrucciones que los

participantes recibieron fueron las siguientes:

Realice una lectura propia/personal del contenido del texto. Plásmela por
escrito utilizando un formato de ensayo/texto que de respuesta a las
siguientes preguntas:
¿Cómo describiría Ud. a la cultura reflejada en este texto?
Desde una perspectiva cultural, ¿cuál es el tema del texto?
Esta tarea NO es una síntesis ni un resumen de la historia. No está permitido
hacer un simple resumen del tipo El cuento empieza por ....sigue con ....
termina cuando ... Sí puede ejemplificar su tarea escrita con eventos o
situaciones de la historia.

Se administraron entrevistas individuales diferidas que tuvieron lugar

aproximadamente una semana después de la lectura del fragmento. Los participantes

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tuvieron a disposición no solamente su respuesta textual sino también el fragmento mismo

utilizado como disparador para la lectura. Esta decisión metodológica alejó la atención del

factor   ‘memoria’,   cuyo eje es el recuerdo de información textual, y permitió las lecturas

críticas que se revelaron como centrales en esta investigación.

3. Modelo de Competencia Intercultural

Este modelo constituye el sustento teórico de esta investigación. Fue propuesto inicialmente

por Byram en 1997 y desarrollado más adelante (2009, 2012). Consiste en cinco saberes

(llamados savoirs por el autor). Estos saberes son saber ser (savoir être) (que consiste, por

ejemplo, en actitudes de interés y curiosidad), saberes (savoirs) (que se refieren al

conocimiento de diferentes aspectos de la vida como el trabajo, la educación, las

tradiciones, etc., en una sociedad determinada), saber comprender (savoir comprendre)

(que implica la habilidad para interpretar y relacionar estos saberes), saber aprender /saber

hacer(savoir apprendre/savoir faire) (que implica la capacidad para el descubrimiento y la

interacción), y saber comprometerse (savoir  s’engager) (que está implicado en el concepto

de conciencia cultural crítica). Este último saber es central para posibilitar que la enseñanza

de lenguas extranjeras sea verdaderamente educativa (a diferencia de mero entrenamiento),

es captado por la noción de educación intercultural para la ciudadanía (Byram, 2008; Osler

& Starkey, 2005; Starkey, 2007) y explica las dimensiones ideológica y política

involucradas necesariamente en la enseñanza de una lengua extranjera (Byram, 2001). Otro

elemento importante en este modelo es el aspecto relacional, también señalado por

Kramsch (1993, 1998), Bennett (1993, 2009) y otros, que ha cobrado vida en la figura del

hablante intercultural o mediador intercultural (Byram, 2009).

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4. Análisis y resultados

El modelo fue utilizado en esta investigación para analizar los datos recolectados. En

particular, se observó la presencia de estos saberes en las respuestas textuales y las

entrevistas). Los resultados de este estudio indican un alto nivel de conciencia cultural

crítica (savoir   s’engager). Los participantes manifestaron la capacidad de reconocer y

articular las dificultades encontradas en el proceso de percibir una cultura desde adentro (es

decir, una perspectiva insider), así como la capacidad de aceptar que la perspectiva cultural

propia y los valores y expectativas propios influyeron en las visiones que adoptaron. La

descentralización en relación a los códigos culturales propios les permitió la toma de

conciencia sobre su relatividad cultural. Fueron capaces de explorar las reacciones propias

ante los comportamientos propios y ajenos, y pudieron ponerse en el lugar del Otro por

medio de la imaginación. En este sentido se evidenció la "tercera perspectiva" de Kramsch

(Kramsch 1993, p. 210) que permitió a los lectores adoptar no sólo una visión insider sino

también outsider e híbrida en la comprensión de las culturas presentes en el fragmento

dado.

La tarea de respuesta textual trajo a la superficie la conciencia cultural crítica de estos

lectores, que las entrevistas sirvieron para respaldar.Esta criticidad fue motivada por temas

diferentes y específicos del fragmento de Desert Wife y condujo a reflexiones que

evidenciaron pensamiento crítico, definido como el pensamiento de nivel más elevado (o el

tipo de pensamiento que se regula y controla a sí mismo), que involucra procesos de

análisis, síntesis y evaluación (Waters, 2006). Sin embargo, estos lectores fueron más allá

del pensamiento crítico en estos términos en pos de una conciencia cultural crítica, o

conciencia social crítica, es decir, una criticidad y reflexión conectadas con una dimensión

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social, con cuestiones de ciudadanía, y de humanidad y naturaleza humana desde una

perspectiva filosófica.

Los temas recurrentes que condujeron a este tipo de respuesta en Desert Wife fueron

elde la dominación y la autoridad entre distintas poblaciones, las culturas primitivas versus

dominantes, los animales también como representantes culturales (no sólo los humanos).

En conjunto, esta profundidad de respuesta se evidenció en la respuesta textual (así como

en otros instrumentos de investigación no descriptos en este trabajo) y fue luego justificada

ampliamente en las entrevistas. Todos los participantes ofrecieron análisis de este tipo, en

mayor o menor profundidad. Incluyo aquí ejemplos producidos por Victoria (seudónimo).

5. Ilustración de resultados: el caso de Victoria

El fragmento de Desert Wife tiene lugar en el contexto de una reserva indígena en los

Estados Unidos y describe una celebración navideña en un contexto estadounidense nativo,

presentada al lector a través de la mirada de la narradora, Hilda, y su compañero, Ken.

Hilda y Ken son estadounidenses que trabajan en el lugar e introducen a los navajos en la

idea de una celebración navideña, en la que se entrelazan la cultura estadounidense y la de

los nativos. Faltan aquí los elementos típicos de una celebración navideña estadounidense.

La narradora se ve confrontada por los códigos culturales de los navajos, que por ser

diferentes a los de ella misma motivan su nostalgia y su añoranza de su tierra natal.

El tema de la dominación fue recurrente para la mayoría de los participantes y

constituye un buen ejemplo de la criticidad y reflexión de estos lectores (en cursiva en la

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respuesta textual de Victoria más abajo). Resalto en negrita las instancias de duda, recursos

modalizadores, modalidad, lenguaje tentativo y lenguaje vago y general. Estas instancias

son reveladoras de la decisión de Victoria de no tomar completa responsabilidad por sus

interpretaciones, es decir, decide presentar sus interpretaciones y luego atenuarlas, o

distanciarse de ellas por medio de estos recursos. Victoria explora el tema de la

dominación   mediante   la   dicotomía   “cultura   estándar”   versus   “grupo   minoritario,”  

recurrente en todo el extracto. También está presente la noción de integración, evidenciada

en el contraste terreno ajeno – propio territorio. La dominación proviene, en opinión de

Victoria, del hecho de que la narradora intenta dominar en un territorio que no es su tierra

nativa o, en otras palabras, en la reserva de los navajos. Esta lectora cita el episodio del

lavado de los platos (en el cual Hilda, la narradora estadounidense, debe pedirle a las

mujeres navajos que laven los platos o no lo hubiesen hecho) como muestra de esta

dominación. Subrayo las citas directas del fragmento que utiliza Victoria en su respuesta

textual.

Por otro lado, si mis sospechas son ciertas, quienes intentan integrarse aquí
forman parte de lo que podríamos considerar “cultura   estándar”  
(norteamericana), al menos en relación a la cultura del grupo minoritario de
los navajos. Quizás por eso, incluso en  “terreno  ajeno”, se generan escenas en
que aparentaría producirse una sutil dominación por parte de quienes sin ser
miembros de la tribu ni de la celebración que tiene lugar en ella, representan la
cultura estándar:
Other women I set to peeling onions and potatoes, and very handy they were at
it too.
After the meal was over, the women cleaned the soot from the tubs and boiler
with sand, while I scalded the spoons and pans. They were willing enough to do
it, though they would have gone away and left everything dirty, if I had not
suggested the dishwashing. I thought it best they do some little thing for their
meal.

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 Es como si, a pesar de hallarse inmersos temporalmente en otra cultura, el
hecho   de   pertenecer   a   la   “cultura   estándar”   concediera   ciertos   derechos  
implícitos de dominación, al menos sutil,y obligara implícitamente al grupo
minoritario a aceptar el status quo incluso en su propio territorio.
(Victoria, respuesta textual, Desert Wife)

Victoria explica con más detalle la idea de dominación en una parte de la entrevista (en

cursiva en el extracto), siguiendo las mismas líneas (la dominación es sutil, hay un

privilegio   implícito   de   dominación   en   lo   que   ella   llama   la   “cultura   estándar”).   Evalúa   el  

contenido textual usando adverbios como paradójicamente y comenta sobre lo que llamó su

atención como punto de partida para su interpretación.

Melina: Hablás de dominación, eso es muy interesante.

Victoria: "Dominación", me refiero a que en un momento dado, por
ejemplo hay dos casos puntuales...
M.: Sí, los que citás acá.
V.: Los que cito ahí, en los cuales se genera una sutil situación de
dominación en la cual el que pone las reglas, o el que intenta ponerlas al
menos, es el foráneo, es decir, paradójicamente ellos están en un...
insertos en una cultura que no es la suya, y sin embargo están diciéndoles
qué hacer.
M.: Sí.
V.: Es decir, con su cultura, con sus costumbres.
M.: Sí.
V.: Eso es lo que por ahí me llamó la atención.
M.: Y ¿por qué los dominados aceptan?
V.:Y claro, o sea, por eso pongo más abajo que habría una suerte de cosa
implícita, de..de... quizás contacto implícito, ¿no?, en el cual la... la
cultura mayoritaria o la cultura estándar, en este caso, que podemos
llamar cultura estándar, tendría cierto privilegio de dominación. Quizás
por eso tampoco se genera ese recelo ante... Yo creo que el recelo incluso
es... Estoy pensando en el término inglés "take over", o sea, esa cosa de...
de que el foráneo o el extranjero pueda asumir el control.

(Victoria, entrevista, Desert Wife)

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 El análisis de Victoria en el siguiente fragmento de su respuesta textual está

relacionado con la idea de tomar más de lo que uno necesita. La participante cita del texto

el extracto que retrata a los navajos paseándose con carne cruda bajo sus brazos por miedo

a que otros la roben, pone esto en perspectiva y ofrece una opinión crítica sobre Hilda, la

narradora (también llamada San Chee). Victoria señala que la narradora no es consciente de

que en su cultura la gente también roba. Nótese una vez más la tendencia de Victoria de

respaldar sus afirmaciones con citas directas del texto (las marco con subrayado).

Ciertos factores contemplados desde el punto de vista de la “cultura  estándar”  

(cuya mirada, por otra parte, es la que conduce al lector a introducirse en la
cultura de los navajos), focalizan en lo que podrían considerarse aspectos
negativos de la tribu: “What   they   did   not   eat   at   once   they   were   afraid   to   put  
down because some one would steal it, so all the evening they strolled about
with  great  raw  beefsteaks  in  their  hands.”  (…)  “There  was  a sort of appreciation
in the Navajo, but it was the sort that wanted all they could get from any one
who  wasn't  looking.”

La narradora pasa por alto el hecho de que, al menos en este último caso,
tampoco su cultura queda excluida de esta conducta negativa.
(Victoria, respuesta textual, Desert Wife)

Se evidencia aquí una actitud crítica y reflexiva. Victoria va más allá de la descripción,

aprecia la diversidad y explora interpretaciones diferentes y alternativas en la

representación de otra cultura. En el caso específico de la idea del robo, un elemento

particular de la cultura propia se emplea para explicar aspectos de la otra cultura. Victoria

observa de manera crítica la cultura y la sociedad propias, evaluándolas desde la

perspectiva de la cultura C2 (en este caso, la de la narradora y la de los navajos), lo cual

garantiza el distanciamiento crítico y la descentralización de las propias creencias. Estas

son características centrales de la comprensión intercultural.

94
6. Implicancias pedagógicas

Las interpretaciones de Victoria en este contexto revelan el dilema profundo implicado en

el hecho de que el reconocimiento del Otro siempre conlleva también el fracaso para

conocer a ese Otro (García Canclini, 2003). Dicho en otras palabras, existe un horizonte

más allá del cual siempre hay algo que permanece opaco, inasequible y oscuro, tanto en la

lectura en lengua extranjera como en la comprensión de otra cultura, o de un miembro de

otra cultura. Victoria hace visible esta imposibilidad por medio de su uso recurrente de

modalidad y lenguaje tentativo y vago: nada en la comprensión del Otro es certero.

Todas las características de la lectura de Victoria en este contexto demuestran

pensamiento crítico y reflexividad, y van más allá del pensamiento crítico per se en pos de

una conciencia cultural crítica, o conciencia social crítica, es decir, una criticidad y

reflexión conectadas con una dimensión social, con cuestiones de ciudadanía, y de

humanidad y naturaleza humana desde una perspectiva filosófica. Ejemplos en esta

dirección son las disquisiciones acerca de los conceptos de cultura estándar y cultura

minoritaria, cultura dominante, grupo minoritario, etc. Estos son elementos centrales en el

Modelo de Competencia Intercultural de Byram (savoir   s’engager) que reflejan la noción

actual de educación intercultural para la ciudadanía (Byram, 2012).

7. Conclusiones

Este trabajo informa sobre un estudio que utilizó el Modelo de Competencia Intercultural

(MCI) de Byram (1997, 2008, 2012) para investigar la dimensión cultural de la lectura en

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lengua extranjera en un contexto universitario. Más allá del sustento teórico que ofrece el

MCI, en este caso este modelo también se constituyó en una medida de análisis. Partiendo

del análisis de dos instrumentos de investigación, una respuesta textual y una entrevista

individual, los resultados indican un alto nivel de conciencia cultural crítica. Esta

conciencia cultural crítica, o conciencia social crítica, reveló una criticidad y reflexión

conectadas con una dimensión social, con cuestiones de ciudadanía, y con aspectos de

humanidad y naturaleza humana desde una perspectiva filosófica.

Referencias

Bennett, J.M. (1993). Cultural marginality: Identity issues in intercultural training. En M.

Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience (pp.109-135). Yarmouth, ME:
Intercultural Press.
Bennett, J.M. (2009). Cultivating intercultural competence: A process perspective. En D.
Deardorff (Ed.), The SAGE handbook of intercultural competence (pp.121-140).
California: Sage Publications, Inc.
Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Byram, M. (2001). Language teaching as a political action. En M. Bax & J. Zwart (Eds.),
Reflections on language and language learning. In honour of Arthur van Essen (pp. 91-
104). Amsterdam y Filadelfia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Byram, M. (2008). From foreign language education to education for intercultural
citizenship. LICE Series. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Byram, M. (2009). Intercultural competence in foreign languages. The intercultural speaker
and the pedagogy of foreign language education. En D. Deardorff (Ed.), The SAGE
handbook of intercultural competence(pp.321-332).California: Sage Publications.
Byram, M. (2012). Conceptualizing intercultural (communicative) competence and
intercultural citizenship.En J. Jackson(Ed.), Routledge handbook of language and
intercultural communication(pp.85–97).Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Faunce, H. (1961). Desert wife. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
García Canclini, N. (2003). Noticias recientes sobre la Hibridación. Revista Transcultural
de Música, 7.Texto   presentado   en   la   II   Reunión   del   Grupo   de   Trabajo   “Cultura   y  
Transformaciones   Sociales   en   Tiempos   de   Globalización”   del   Consejo  
Latinoamericano de Ciencias Sociales (CLACSO), Caracas, del 9 al 11 de noviembre
de 2000.

96
Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and culture in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Kramsch, C. (1998). Language and culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ollmann, H. (1996). Creating higher level thinking with reading response.Journal of
Adolescent and Adult Literacy,39(7), 576-581.
Osler, A.,& Starkey, H. (2005).Citizenship and language learning: International
perspectives. Staffordshire: Trentham Books.
Starkey, H. (2007). Language education, identities and citizenship: Developing cosmopolitan
perspectives. Language and Intercultural Communication, 7, 56-71.
Waters, A. (2006). Thinking and language learning. ELT Journal, 60, 319-327.

97
8 Cultural bonding in the 21st-century
language classroom
GabrielaN.Tavella

S. Carina Fernández
Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Facultad de Lenguas, AUSMA
Huellas Servicios Educativos, San Martín de los Andes

1. Introduction

This paper intends to reflect the result of classroom experiences in two completely different

learning contexts, one being with young adults at university level and the other, with young

learners at a language school. In the light of Content and Language Integrated Learning

(CLIL), we will try to show how intercultural awareness can be developed no matter the

age or learning objective of the target group.

Our projects are aimed at creating awareness of the importance of cultural bonding

among our students. We believe that this aspect of language learning can be exploited

independently of the learners' age, the learning aims and the classroom environments.

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2. Cultural bonding

We intend to foster cultural bonding by developing intercultural communicative

competence, as defined by Byram, Gribkova   and   Starkey   (2010,   p.10),     the   “ability   to  

ensure a shared understanding by people of different social identities, and [the] ability to

interact with people as complex human beings with multiple identities and their own

individuality.”   Creating   bonds is a natural characteristic of human beings. When we are

born, we depend on our parents; our family represents security and the natural environment

where we start socialization. Then, kindergarten is the place where, as kids, we start

socializing with our peer group; and this continues throughout our whole life.

In order to fully develop our self- esteem we need to belong to a group, we need to promote

a sense of belonging. Robert Reasoner’s (1992) programme on building self-esteem in the

classroom fosters five basic attitudes which influence the level of self-esteem: the sense of

security, the sense of identity, the sense of belonging, the sense of purpose and the sense of

competence. He considers adults should encourage the creation of an accepting

environment through the implementation of specific tasks aimed at creating bonds and

group pride. This will contribute to enhance students´ self-esteem, students´ affective side.

In other words, our proposal is taking the individual as the starting point, being cultural

bonding with participants of the wider community, the final target.

Providing our learners with competences for their cognitive and affective development

is of utmost importance in our teaching practice. Sharing and learning with others need to

be fully developed in order to grow as human beings.

Nowadays, interchange is totally favoured by communication and information

technologies. The emergence of the internet has contributed to foster cultural bonding.

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Bearing in mind that students have opportunities to get in touch with people from around

the world and to access information on varied and numerous cultures, it is essential to give

them the tools to confront these new challenges. This is one of the reasons why it is so

important to introduce learners into cultural similarities and differences from an early stage,

but not leaving aside those whose contact with the second language takes place later on in

life. It is not only significant to create bonds but also to create cultural bonds or better

intercultural bonds.

3. CLIL and cultural awareness

CLIL pedagogies place cultural awareness back on the agenda. The 4Cs framework

developed by Coyle (2007) does not separate subject matter and language. It focuses on the

interrelationship between content (subject matter), communication (language), cognition

(learning and thinking) and culture. This framework puts culture at the core. This involves

being socially aware of the self and others; “intercultural   learning   and   understanding  

potentially permeate CLIL   learning   and   teaching,   ...”   (Coyle,   2007,   p.9);;   “the 4Cs

Framework espouses sociocultural theory where social construction of knowledge and

culturally embedded learning permeate the whole”   (p.11). In the CLIL Compendium, the

culture dimension is meant to “build intercultural knowledge and understanding, develop

intercultural communication skills, learn about specific neighbouring countries/regions

and/or minority groups and introduce the wider cultural context”. Having this theoretical

background in mind is that we understand that our experiences can be among the research

which tries to study the role of culture in CLIL. “... rich CLIL environments promote the

learners' skills to decentre, take on and mediate between different cultural perspectives ...”  

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(Sudhoff, 2010, p. 35).

Developing intercultural communicative competence is a challenge in the 21st century

classroom context. CLIL   lessons   give   us   the   opportunity   to   work   on   a   “triple- focussed

approach”   (Sudhoff,   2010,   p.   36), foreign language learners combine learning of the L2,

content and interculturality. “The linguistic and cultural competences in respect of each

language are modified by knowledge of the other and contribute to intercultural awareness

...”  (CEFR, 2001, p.43).

4. Teaching contexts

4.1 Adults at an ESP university context

Our research context is an ESP course at university level with future tour guides. To

introduce this context, we should trace back the origin of this course of studies in our

community. There was a need of tourist guides to respond to the requirements of an

international tourist centre. It is important to point out that San Martín de los Andes could

be  considered  a  “melting  pot”  where  there  are  descendants  of  European  immigrants  known  

as  “NYC  (nacido  y  criado)”,  born  and  raised; people coming from other parts of the country

“VYQ   (venido   y   quedado)”,   came   and   stayed;;   and   Mapuche   people.   In   other   words,  

intercultural communication has always been a distinctive feature of our community.

Within these cultural contexts, English was considered the language to be included in the

curricula so as to give future professionals the tools to communicate with foreign visitors.

Consequently, we considered that the development of local identity was a must in the

design of the English syllabus. The projects to be described intend to provide learners with

relevant language to share aspects of our culture in order to empower their communication

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skills and create bonds with other groups.

Some of our students have had previous experiences with the language. However, they

report these instances as being mainly grammar-oriented. Thus, in most cases, it is the first

time that learners feel the need to use the foreign language to share aspects of their culture

with people from other countries.

Throughout their course of studies, students are confronted to varied situations in

which they need to reflect upon their own culture. Teaching practices are intended to

connect the foreign language to other areas in the curriculum (Content). Students are asked

to retell local legends, describe historical buildings in town, talk about our ancestors and

give information about regional hand- made products. Culture and language are

permanently and explicitly interacting. “...we attempt to anticipate students´ language needs

(Language Dimension) i.e. we try to preview possible language problems and provide

support strategies for each of the content/ skills, aimed at being developed, once needs are

identified. Tasks are carefully planned, scaffolded and presented in a logical way. They are

not based on grammatical complexity but on cognitive abilities.”   (Tavella & Fernández,

2010). The aim is, as Marsh states, to build “knowledge as construction instead of

instruction.”  (as cited in Barbero, Damascelli &Vittoz, 2009, p.104).

“Language support tasks operate at a number of language levels. They normally

support the learner at the level of vocabulary, grammar, function and textual organization,

and in listening, speaking, reading or writing”  (Barbero, Damascelli &Vittoz, 2009, p.105).

For instance, when we want our students to be able to retell local legends, we need to give

them support tasks at text level. We provide them with sentence starters so that they can

structure their oral speeches and express themselves more confidently.

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 First, students get together in groups organized as they wish and start writing their

legends. The teacher corrects the drafts and then, they choose the modality for their

presentation. Role- plays, short videos and puppet shows have been some of their choices.

Students’  reports  reveal  that  they  have  enjoyed  working  together  with  a  specific  aim,  learnt  

from the others and increased oral practice, as numerous repetitions were needed in order to

produce a fluent oral speech. They have gained in language and cultural development. This

activity is aimed at further developing language as well as cultural bonding. “...  

interculturally competent language learners are (more) aware of the cultural conventions

underlying the wor(l)ds they encounter and use”  (Sudhoff, 2010, 32).

4.2 Young learners at a language school

As regards our other context, the objectives are to broaden young learners´ views of the

world around them, to respect otherness and to promote values related to cultural diversity.

English Language courses offered at Huellas Language School are built around the idea

that multiple opportunities should be provided in order to guarantee successful language

learning. Not everybody learns in the same way and this should also be reflected in

language classes. At Huellas, language learning is placed within a wider context. Students

are encouraged to develop a myriad of skills through a variety of contents. We will refer to

one of the areas particularly relevant to this paper.

Children join different year- round projects connected to varied ethnic and/or minority

peoples and countries. The project we will talk about has been designed to encourage

intercultural   awareness.   These   classroom   actions   “enable the individual to develop an

enriched, more complex personality and an enhanced capacity for further language learning

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and greater openness to new cultural experiences”  (CEFR, 2001, p.43).

As opposed to university students who have already been in touch with the content

proposed in the L1 through other subjects in the curricula, most of our young learners (8 to

12 years old), coming from state- run schools in the province of Neuquén, have not yet

been introduced to these topics in the school curricula. Most of the contents are presented

for the first time.

When we talk about English-speaking countries, geographical features, traditions,

festivities, typical dishes, clothing, music and society are among the topics that are tackled.

Young learners are introduced to these cultures through a variety of activities: cooking,

crafts, web searches, role- plays, oral presentations. Depending on the characteristics of the

country to be dealt with and the interests of the group of students in particular, we choose

among the activities mentioned above. As we want to make sure that all our students join

in, we design classroom actions that cater for different learning styles. When students get

in touch with other realities, they are generally able to respect cultural differences and value

cultural similarities. We believe that cultural awareness is of utmost importance in our

community.   Then,   it   should   be   encouraged   from   an   early   age.   “Experiencing   and  

understanding a foreign language in a content- based way opens doors to intercultural

learning   processes.”   (Sudhoff, 2010, p.32). It is worth mentioning that in the assessments

we carry out at the end of each academic year, culture projects have always been mentioned

as young learners´ favourites.

5. Role of the teacher in both contexts

In the section above we have described two very different teaching contexts, age and

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learners´ aims vary widely. Nevertheless, the teacher´s role and the teacher´s challenges are

the same.

Learners are placed at the centre of the learning process. Respecting learners’  

differences is one of our most important proposals. Teachers have to take “key decisions

about what will be taught, how it will be taught, when it will be taught, and how it will be

assessed will be made in reference to the learner.”  (Nunan, 1999, p. 11).

Teachers are conceived under Underhill’s idea (1999) of facilitator. “By Facilitator I

mean a teacher in any educational setting who understands the topic, is skilled in the use of

current teaching methods and techniques, and who actively studies and pays attention to the

psychological learning atmosphere and the inner processes of learning on a moment by

moment basis, with the aim of enabling learners to take as much responsibility for their

learning as they can”  (p.126).

Working with culture is more risk- taking for the teacher, language queries cannot

always be predicted and preplanned. This aspect can be very challenging or even,

overwhelming for the 21st- century language teacher. At times they feel that they cannot

cope with students´ demands. Nevertheless, we believe that student- centred approaches

which place culture at the core have more benefits than drawbacks.

6. Next steps with adults at the university context

We are now in the process of gathering data to re-evaluate the contents which form part of

the English syllabus. Surveys are being carried out so as to know the opinions of students

(future professionals) and teachers of other subjects about the relevance of the topics. The

idea is to update the syllabus according to the present needs of a community that is in

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constant growth and change.

Another aspect to be considered for the reformulation of the syllabus is the cultural

background of the students we receive. This is a very important trait if we want to

strengthen local identity in a town where there is such a myriad of origins and realities.

7. Next steps with young learners at Huellas

Critical reflection is adopted as a means to help the project grow. Asking ourselves

questions about our teaching, about our attitudes, about our students is our constant

position. We intend to be self- critical in order to reformulate and adopt changes when

needed (Tavella, 2004). This reflection is considered an essential component of all the

projects implemented at Huellas. Consequently, new ideas and new groups widen the

original objective of our culture projects.

We still need to incorporate aspects of our local identity in a community which is an

international tourist centre and a very small town where people from different origins and

cultures live together. This need has emerged from students´ own comments in class.

8. Conclusion

In neither of the above described contexts, we are talking about a language or a culture

class, both, language and culture, are interconnected and form part of the same classroom

practices.   “In   foreign language learning contexts, the immanent tie between language and

culture   bears   a   significant   potential   for   intercultural   learning   processes.”   (Sudhoff,   2010,  

p.31) Language is noticed, analysed, taught and expanded in terms of the cultural content

we want to deal with.

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 We consider that learning how to respect and value others is very enriching for young

learners. When students learn this from an early age, they are ready for cultural bonding. In

the case of adult learners, who have in most cases had previous contacts with other cultures,

it is relevant to use the L2 as a means to revalue their own culture and be able to share it

with others.

By recognising cultural similarities and differences, we clearly promote

internationalism, “the bonding of groups across national and state frontiers”  (Byram, 2011,

p.11). Thus, we educate to know, to do, to live together and to be (UNESCO, 1998).

References

Barbero, Damascelli & Vittoz (2009). Integrating the Common European Framework of
Reference (CEFR) with CLIL. In Marsh & Mehisto; Wolff, Aliaga, Asikainen, Frigols-
Martin, Hughes & Langé (Eds.), CLIL Practice: Perspectives from the Field (pp.102-
109). Finland, University of Jyväskylä: CCN.
Byram, M., Gribkova, B., & Starkey, H. (2002). Developing the intercultural dimension in
language teaching: a practical introduction for teachers. Retrieved from:
http://www.lrc.cornell.edu/director/intercultural.pdf
Byram, M. (2011). Intercultural citizenship from an internationalist perspective. Journal of
the NUS Teaching Academy, 1(1), 10-20.
CLIL COMPENDIUM Retrieved from: http://www.clilcompendium.com/
Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages:
Learning, teaching and assessment. Cambridge: CUP.
Coyle, D. (2007). Content and Language Integrated Learning: Towards a connected
research agenda for CLIL pedagogies. International Journal of Bilingual Education
and Bilingualism, 10(5), 543- 562.
Delors, J. (1998). Learning: The treasure within. Report to UNESCO of the International
Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century. Paris: UNESCO Publishing.
Retrieved from: http://www.unesco.org/delors/fourpil.htm
Marsh, D., & Wolff, D. (Eds.). (2007). Diverse contexts – converging goals: CLIL in
Europe. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
Nunan, D. (1999) Second Language Teaching and Learning. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Reasoner, R. (1992). Building self-esteem in the elementary schools. California: Consulting
Psychologists Press, Inc.
Sudhoff, J. (2010). CLIL and intercultural communicative competence: Foundations and
approaches towards a fusion. International CLIL Research Journal, 1(3).

107
Tavella, G. (2004). Enhancing language learning through affective approaches
(Unpublished MA dissertation). Leeds, UK: Leeds Metropolitan University.
Tavella, G., & Fernández, C. (2010). CLIL in an ESP context. Proceedings from 1º
Congreso/VI Jornadas 2010 El conocimiento como espacio de Encuentro. General
Roca: FADEL, UNCo.
Underhill, A. (1999). Facilitation in language teaching. In J. Arnold (Ed.), Affect in
language learning (pp. 125- 141). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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9 Interweaving critical reading of
media texts and culture in a first year
teacher training college
Claudia Naom

Leandro Carreño
ISP Joaquín V. González

1. The genesis of our work

Teacher Training Colleges in Buenos Aires include some form of Cultural Studies in their

Curricula. This is done through various subjects namely Literary Studies, History and

Language.   ISP   “Joaquín   V.   González”   includes   two   further   subjects:   Geography   and  

Culture of the USA and Geography and Culture of the British Isles. The approach to

Cultural Studies provided by these subjects is saturated with media texts but can students

actually read these texts critically?

There were three main purposes to our work. On the one hand, the aim was to raise

students’  awareness  on  issues  concerning  the  construction  of  the Other in the written media

and how language contributes to this construction. On another level, we wanted to

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introduce students to critical reading while furthering the deconstruction of the discursive

mediation of the social sphere. A third purpose was to introduce students to research work

during their first year course.

For  the  first  stage  of  the  research,  a  group  of  students  from  ISP  “Joaquín  V.  González  

was asked to participate in a project which would study the construction of the Other in the

media. At preliminary stages, students suggested working with a particular case published

in several articles from The Guardian, in particular how this newspaper chose to present the

riots which involved the Muslim and Sikh communities in 2011. The case was chosen

because, at the time, students had been discussing immigration in Britain and had been

shocked by the amount of violence and injustice the riots had caused. They carried out

thorough investigation of these communities, which required reading about immigration in

Britain, trying to understand the difference in the religious approaches of the ethnic groups

and the cultural diversity in terms of their respective sets of values and traditions. They

presented these findings in September 2012 during a seminar organised by EDAPI (Equipo

de Desarrollo Académico, Publicación e Investigación from Instituto de Educación

Superior Joaquín V. González). One of the elements which students contributed to the

project was how members of the Sikh community are confused with the Middle East

Muslim community and how all immigrant groups have to bear the effect of stereotyping,

which is the result of constructing an Other of special characteristics based on how the

cultural features of singular groups are seen by members of the various immigrant

communities.

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 Primarily,  we  decided  to  adopt  Donald  Matheson’s  concept  that  “language  and human

society are inextricable”  (Matheson,  2005,  p.3).  We  thus  analysed  language  trying  to  reach  

the representations of the world that were reflected in the media texts chosen.

Results, though preliminary, demonstrate how various types of analyses can further

students’   understanding   of   media   cultures   in   relation   to   the   construction   of   the Other.

Students were made aware of the multicultural feature of British society and in what way

racial issues seem to be blurred in the written media, especially in a newspaper like The

Guardian, whose foundational purpose was precisely to avoid discrimination.

2. Some basic concepts

For many academics1, the role that language plays is that of giving shape to what people

think or experience. However, people may also think outside the conventions of language.

(Montgomery, 1995 in Matheson, 2005 p.5). This happens when individuals are

consciously thinking and can make choices which are different from certain socially

accepted linguistic conventions. For example, they may make a conscious effort not to use

gendered language. But when they are not consciously thinking, they may resort to current

socially determined patterns of language and these patterns are culturally and ideologically

loaded. As a result, journalists and media producers hardly ever avoid vocabulary

determined by power structures. For authors such as Van Dijk (2000), there is a systematic

ideological bias which can be analysed through the language used in the media. Matheson

(2005) suggests that a critical analysis of media texts is not only linguistic but it is an

analysis   of   the   results   of   “the   dominance   of   certain   social   interests”   and   what   these   have  

imprinted in language.

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 Some consideration on the concepts of power and culture needed to be made clear and

were discussed with the students participating in the project. We agreed with Fairclough

(1989), Matheson (2005), and Van Dijk (2000) that dominant groups use language to

maintain unequal relationships in society. By the same token, culture is thought to be a site

of the struggle of many power groups to keep their dominance, their power (Matheson,

2005).

For Gramsci (1932-1933), power is how certain groups manage to persuade others in

society that their ideas and interests are right. In other words, those with more power

impose their perspectives making these appear as natural truths beyond dispute.

Furthermore, the notion of truth needs to be revised. The media are not simple channels of

communication which open a view to what is assumed to be true. Social sciences and the

study of signs (Semiotics) have contributed to question the notion of truth in the media

since   the   1950’s.   (Branston.&   Stafford, 2010, p. 12). In terms of Foucault (1966), each

society creates its own system of truth, according to its beliefs, values and idiosyncratic

characteristics, that is why, he goes as far as to identify five necessary elements for the

construction of truth:

the centering of truth on scientific discourse, accountability of truth to

economic and political forces, the diffusion and consumption of truth through
what we now know as the media, the control of the distribution of truth by
political and economic apparatuses, and the fact that truth is the issue of a
whole political debate and social confrontation(Foucault: 1966, p. 131).

The notion of truth was central to our study since it is essential for the media to create

the idea that what they publish is true. Moreover, the construction of an Other in the

media depends on the views of the Other which prevail at a certain historical period.

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 The analysis of views on the Other date back to 20th Century Cultural Anthropology.

Anthropologists consider three moments in history which determine how the hegemonic

culture constructed the Other. A first stage was early Colonialism, during which Europeans

needed to know and interact with the colonised Other, but understanding was not expected.

This interaction gave rise to later developments of Colonialism and concepts such as

Metropolis versus Colony, where the former meant Europe while the latter obviously meant

the colonies. The notions of Us and the Other clearly reflect this division. When

Colonialism was well developed in the 20th Century, the relationship with the colonies

changed and Europeans needed an understanding of the Other. As a result, diversity was

acknowledged while there was acceptance of the fact that each cultural group satisfies its

basic needs in such a way that this is comprehended only by the members of that particular

culture. Functional Anthropology explains this process. After decolonisation, the Other is

seen as a product of inequalities, in other words: the result of unequal distribution of power

within society. The Other is not a member of the hegemonic culture. (Lévi-Strauss in

Llobera, J., 1988).

The problem of racism and the media also needs to be addressed. Van Dijk states that

although the media purposely deny racism, they have an important role in its reproduction.

Since public discourse potentially reaches a large audience, it is this

latter, social form of denial that is most influential, and, therefore most
damaging: it is the social discourse of denial that persuasively helps
construct the dominant white consensus. (Van Dijk, T., 2000, p. 543)

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3. Our work

We asked a group of students taking their first year course at Joaquín V. González if they

would like to join a research group that would try to determine how the British and

American written media constructed representations of others.

At this point, we must add a caveat. We questioned ourselves from which standpoint

we could carry out our work without either taking the rigid stand of the hegemonic culture

or the weakened stand of the Other, those belonging to different ethnic groups. It was

agreed with students that we would always keep in mind the position from which we would

question a text i.e. acknowledging the limitations that our own culture imposed on us.

At a first meeting, students stated their interest in a case that had taken place in the UK

in the year 2011. In particular they concentrated on the death of three Muslim young men

who had been murdered when they were protecting a petrol station from looters. A car

charged against the crowd killing two of them while the other man died in hospital. The

riots had started a few days before, after the killing of Mark Duggan in an exchange fire

which involved a special police group that deals with gun crime in the African and

Caribbean communities. This event led to riots all over England and, in Birmingham, it

gave rise to the killing of Haroon Jahan and two other men. This was thought to be a racial

crime. Both the Sikh and the Muslim communities mourned the three men killed in

Birmingham.

The articles the students worked with were published in The Guardian a few days after

the incidents mentioned above. The reason why we chose the Guardian was mainly because

of its development in terms of principles and beliefs. Since its beginning, this newspaper

has claimed an objective approach towards their job, stating ideas such as "comments are

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free,  but  facts  are  sacred”.  It  is  in  this  context  that  we  wanted  to  analyse  whether  those  solid  

principles were actually carried out in their daily delivery of news.

In addition, and for the sake of the investigation, we decided it was necessary, at least at

first, to narrow down the number of sources from which we were taking articles, so as to

make the analysis more reliable.

Once the choice of newspaper articles was settled, we began our analysis from

different perspectives. Fairclough (1995) states that media texts are communicative events

in   which   there   are   “major   temporal   and   spatial   disjunctions”,   i.e.   they are produced at a

different time and place from those of their consumption. As a result, he claims that they

are based on a chain of communicative events and involve the public and the private

sphere. This is discussed below. It was also established that the articles were news reports

because they contained the following features typically present in the genre:

1. Most of them were event-based and communicatively-based.

2. They aimed at objectivity as they presented a diversity of voices, opinions,

perspectives of the event being discussed.

3. They were informative not evaluative or persuasive. (However, they were opinion

forming).

4. Most of the sources were interviews made to demonstrators.

The following features were considered singular, especially the last, but essential to

construct an assumption of truth on the part of the reader.

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 5. The reports drew from the speech of the father of one of the dead boys. Interestingly

enough, one could see how the bereavement of the relatives of the dead men was

made public in the photos chosen by the newspaper, in the captions, in some of the

quotations. This managed to build sympathy towards the families of the victims.

6. One of the articles was exclusively made up of direct quotations from different

participants in the demonstration after the death of the boys, thus giving the

impression of a live interview on TV or radio. Only the voices of those involved

were present, which personalised the event.

For Fairclough (1995 p. 43), one important concern is whose voices exercise

constraints   in   the   structuring   of   media   texts.   This   will   directly   affect   the   “ethos”   (the  

trustworthiness of the newspaper, its credibility) of newspaper articles. The Scott Trust plc

is the present owner of The Guardian and The Observer. The aim of the trust is stated in the

following words:

To secure the financial and editorial independence of the Guardian in

perpetuity; as a quality national newspaper without party affiliation;
remaining faithful to its liberal tradition; as a profit-seeking enterprise
managed in an efficient and cost-effective manner. (The Guardian
News and Media Archive)

One of the topics of discussion was whether in this world ruled by market forces, it is so

easy to maintain these aims and how much the printed media have to leave aside to

compete with such media outlets as TV, the Web, etc.

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4. Applying functional systemic analysis

To establish the interaction between the concepts mentioned above, namely, power, culture,

an assumption of truth and how language is used to create an Other, we needed to

understand how institutions such as newspapers use language to reflect their own interests

and intentions.

Discourse allows us to understand (among other things) the interaction between people,

people and the world, institutions and people, the powerful and the weak members of

society. So discourse is part of a network of relations where language, power and identity

have a role. (Matheson, 2005 p.1).

The linguistic choices made in the articles were analysed on the basis that language

users have a limited range of options given by language to choose words and combine

them.  In  the  reports  analysed  several  examples  of  these  euphemisms  were  found.    “Acts  of  

retribution”  was  used  instead  of  “revenge”;;  “mown  down”  is  a  euphemism  for  “run  over”.  

This metaphor was used to indicate not an accident but a wilful action to destroy, to uproot

somehow. This referred to the three Muslim men killed by the hit-and-run driver-who

apparently was a new black immigrant - when the former were guarding a petrol station

from rioters .These choices show the site or location or position from which the writer

chooses to write. (Matheson, 2005 p.20)

Another interesting point is labelling, which constitutes a support for prejudice.

Examples from the reports the group worked on led us into thinking that racial tension lies

not only in the case of Whites against all others. In this particular case, it is old immigrants

against new immigrants though both are not white and both are poor. This conclusion was

reached based on the following:

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1. The  use  of  metonymical  words  such  as  “the  worshippers”  (the  Sikhs  and  Muslims),  

which  connotes  religiosity  and  thus  a  high  moral  standard  opposed  to  “the  looters”,  

which refers mainly to Jamaican and other Black youths who were allegedly

looting stores.

2. A very interesting use of the words MAN and MEN. In reference to those hit-and-

run   individuals.   One   article   states:   “two   boys   and   a   man   were   arrested”,   which   is  

typical of police reports. The identities are hidden, of course, but there is avoidance

of any adjectives regarding race. This indicates the choice of neutrality that the

journalist has made in order to appear objective. But, when the words are used to

refer to the Sikh and Muslim members, the word man and men are used to refer to

culturally shared knowledge. Only men go out to protest, women stay behind. So

here, the underlying effect is not to associate the people with crime but with

identity.

3. Many   times   the   word   “community”   is   used   in   reference   mainly to the Sikhs and

Muslims  who  live  in  the  area  of  Birmingham.  References  to  the  community  are  “its  

fortitude”,   “its  tolerance”,  etc.  all  of   which   indicate  positive   values.   While,  on  the  

other hand, Winson Green, the geographical name of the area, is associated with

crime,  looting  and  men  behind  masks  who  are  also  referred  to  as  “the  outsiders”.  In  

turn,   members   from   the   community   are   referred   to   as   “locals”.   An   area   in  

Birmingham known as Edgbaston is classified as upmarket by one member of the

community while another area, Soho, is classified as poor in the claim he makes

against the authorities for having changed the constituency boundaries.

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 4. “Immigrants   in   the   1960’s”   is   contrasted   directly   with   “new   immigrants”.   This  

binary opposition reflects the internal conflict mentioned above.

5. “Some   African-Caribbean   and   White   mourners   passed   on   their   condolences…”  

Here, attention is drawn to the quantifier SOME. This quantifier rules out ALL,

MOST, or merely African-Caribbean and Whites. The journalist made some

concession to members of the group of new immigrants, who are in another article

identified as Jamaicans. The aim here is clearly to appear objective while, at the

same time, pinpointing the racial difference and the category of immigrants

members of the community are.

As was mentioned above, one of the texts (The Guardian: Friday, December 9 th, 2011) was

entirely based on quotations from one participant in the riots, a boy of 16. It is an

interesting form chosen by the journalist to report the event. The journalist seems to have

chosen the voice of this teenager to ridicule the reasons why rioters went out on the streets.

“The  first  thing  that  came  to  my  mind?  Let’s  get  wild,  let’s  do  it.”      

In addition, we found interesting issues to discuss which contribute to questioning the

notion of truth in the statements found in the articles. Following Trew (1979), we analysed

one of the articles which presents a statement by the Prime Minister. The journalist states:

“David   Cameron   said   on   Wednesday   that   the   riots   had   brought   out   ‘some   of   the   best   of  

Britain”.  David  Cameron  seems  to  reflect  the  views  of  the  social  groups  who  hold  power  in  

Britain and who prefer to hide inequalities and injustices while expressing solidarity with

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victims of these injustices. However, a deeper analysis of the statement highlighted the

strategies made possible through language choices.

The   noun   ‘riot’   effectively   conceals   the   main   participant:   the   agent.   A   ‘riot’   is  

associated with unrestrained behaviour, which we should be able to attribute to human

actors.   However,   ‘riot’   here   effectively   masks   the   doers   of   the   action   thus   diverting   the  

attention   from   the   real   protagonists.   As   regards   the   type   of   process   represented   by   ‘bring  

out’,  it  also  successfully  disguises  the doer  as  if  the  action  had  been  performed  ‘by  itself’  or  

had come about spontaneously while at the same time involving an actor . In this case, this

actor  has  an  unidentified  collective  reference,  which  we  take  it  to  be  ‘the  rioters’.  Finally,  

Cameron takes   advantage   of   the   event   to   focus   on   ‘the   best   of   Britain’,   which   is   not  

accidentally in final (thus focal) position. This strategy obliterates the events and the actors

and places emphasis on a much more crowd-pleasing ending.

The rest of the article highlights the attitude of the Sikh and Muslim communities, who

decided not to demonstrate after the killing of three of their members. This contrasts

heavily with other members who expressed a different reaction- mostly young people-and

who   were   “shouted   down”.   The   article   ends   with   “A   handful   of   masked   youth   walked  

away”   and   “some   younger   contingent   sniggered   as   he   spoke”.   They   were   the   same  

teenagers   shaking   their   heads   later,   as   “the   tide   of   opinion   turned   against   street   protest”.  

This obviously associates riots to both young people and masked people, which is the

position that the newspaper takes throughout a series of articles on the event.

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 Therefore,  it  seems  that  the  newspaper’s  stand  establishes  a  binary  opposition:  violent  

youths against peaceful middle aged men. In the same vein, other articles contrast newly

arrived   Jamaicans   and   recent   immigrants   from   Eastern   Europe   with   the   “substantial  

Pakistani  community  since  the  1960s”,  thus  pitching  old  immigrants  against  newly  arrived  

immigrants.

The police are also mentioned in some of the articles. In one, young men who were

approached by the media outside a mosque stated that the police had failed to protect them.

In another article, the police are said to have kept a low profile. The narrative of the events

following the death of the three young men expresses the idea that violence is subdued,

that members of the community are keeping an attitude of self-control but that wrath runs

underneath.

5. Our conclusions

We set out to work on awareness of the construction of others in British society in the

written media. By analysing how language is used in a particular newspaper, we began to

understand how this paper made linguistic choices to express a certain position, which is

sometimes capable of hiding meanings. The study has to be continued to confirm that this

also happens in other newspapers in order to reach more solid generalisations, therefore

more research and analysis need to be carried out . We also presented students with a

different way of reading texts while questioning the concepts of truth and power manifest

in them. Students participating in the project felt empowered as they carried out the

reading of theoretical material and applied it to the analysis of texts. Although preliminary,

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this work has allowed them to distance themselves from any piece of news and take a

critical stand on the way information is presented.

We feel that our work has only begun and we think it is by no means a final piece of

work. Nonetheless, students learnt to look for more in texts than meets the eye. They

became much more interested in immigration in the UK and in understanding a

multicultural society a fact that, we feel, may have given them an insight into their own

society.

Notes
1. It is not within the scope of this paper to discuss Linguistic Relativism and its
limitations, but the work of Gumperz and Levinson (Gumperz, John J. and Levinson,
Stephen C. editors. 1996. Rethinking Linguistic Relativity. New York. Cambridge
University Press) can be referred to. An interesting paper by Lera Boroditsky, a
cognitive psychologist, can be accessed online at http://www.idealibrary.com. She
states:   “Because   English   speakers   often   use   horizontal   metaphors about time, they
might grow to think about time horizontally even when not explicitly processing a
spaciotemporal  metaphor.”

References

Branston, G., & Stafford, R. (2010). The  media  student’s  book (5th Edition). London and
New York: Routledge.
Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and power. London and New York: Longman.
Fairclough, N. (1995). Media discourse. London: Edward Arnold.
Foucault, M. (1966).The order of things.New York: Random House.
Gramsci, A. (1932-33). Cuadernos de la cárcel.(1982) Edición Crítica de Valentino
Gerratana: Cuaderno 11. México. ERA. p. 296-297
Lévi-Strauss, C. (1988). Las tres Fuentes de la reflexión etnológica. In Llobera, J. (Ed.),La
antropología como ciencia (pp. 47 – 54).Barcelona: Anagrama.
Matheson, D. (2005). Media discourses. Analysing media texts. Glasgow: Open University
Press.
Trew, T. (1979).Theory and ideology at work.In R. Fowler, B. Hodge, K. Kress& T. Trew
(Eds.), Language and control (pp. 185 – 213). London and New York: Routledge.

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List of articles

The Guardian
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/aug/09/riots-spread-birmingham-liverpool-
bristol?INTCMP=SRCH

http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/aug/10/birmingham-riots-three-killed-
crash?INTCMP=SRCH

http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/aug/10/birmingham-riots-anger-
deaths?INTCMP=SRCH

http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/aug/10/uk-riots-david-cameron-
response?INTCMP=SRCH

http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/aug/11/uk-riots-birmingham-muslim-sikhs

http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/aug/12/birmingham-riots-tariq-jahan

http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/aug/13/uk-riots-death-dudley-
road?INTCMP=SRCH

http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/aug/18/birmingham-riot-victims-
buried?INTCMP=SRCH

http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/aug/18/birmingham-riots-funerals-winson-green

http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/aug/20/riot-footage-shots-fired-
police?INTCMP=SRCH

http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/aug/31/birmingham-hit-run-deaths-sixth-
man?INTCMP=SRCH

http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/oct/10/learning-england-riots-perspective-
responsible?INTCMP=SRCH

http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/dec/05/morality-of-rioters-summer-
riots?INTCMP=SRCH

http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/dec/08/rioter-profile-hate-police-
victimise?INTCMP=SRCH

http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/dec/09/rioter-profile-law-obeying-
us?INTCMP=SRCH

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10 Meet the words: a philological and
socio-cultural approach to discourse
analysis at teacher training college
Florencia I. Viale
IES  Nº  28  “Olga  Cossettini”  

1. Introduction

Decades of structuralist submission were swept away in the seventies when the

functionalists came up with the idea that language cannot be understood, and therefore

analysed, without considering the context within which words come to life. This situation,

both of a linguistic and extra-linguistic nature, unravels a number of factors that will

condition the choice of syntax, meaning, register and roles that encode the pre-existing

ideas which we intend to communicate. Thus, Pragmatics – understood as the study of

language in use, and in vogue in the 70s – gained new significance and became an inherent

component of the hitherto omnipotent Linguistics.

The concept of communicative language ability coined by Bachman in 1990, however,

lacks a fundamental component for effective language development, which has been

neglected for years and which presupposes great proficiency: the metaphoric competence

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(Littlemore & Low, 2006). Metaphors are closely bound to our reality and, consequently,

filter in our everyday reasoning. Their significance has been widely acknowledged insofar

as humans think, express and live by metaphors (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980).

Contrary  to  Saussure’s  notion  of  arbitrariness,  language  can  only  become  significant  to  

the learner when it can be attached to a particular reality, and that reality is nothing but a

metaphoric representation of the world around us. Research on the origin and etymology of

certain expressions – totally artificial at first sight- might expose revelatory data. By

encouraging students to hear the story the word has to tell we teachers are also encouraging

a more empathetic attitude towards both the system and its speakers insofar as the new

discoveries contribute to shed light on the apparently obscure bond between form and

meaning.  Halliday’s  reference  to  language  texture  is  nothing  but  a  metaphor,  and metaphors

are the guiding principles of human thought and behaviour. By exploiting its sensory effect,

learners are introduced to a completely new world of meaning. Words gain new

significance because their story, the very essence of their existence helps the learner grasp

its  full  signification.  It  is  only  through  this  “non-arbitrary”  approach  that  their  hidden  voice  

becomes heard.

The present paper intends to pose a reflection on the way language should be presented

to, analysed and experienced by advanced college students in order to enhance successful

processing and production. Personal experience at this level reveals a general tendency to

failure  at  comprehension  skills,  the  result  of  the  students’  incapacity  to  see  language  from  

“above  and  beyond”  (Halliday,  1989).

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2. What is meaning?

Hayakawa (1990, p. 34) states that according to common belief

Every word has a correct indisputable meaning and that teachers and books are the
supreme  authority  in  matters  of  meaning  and  usage.  […]  (However)  The  writing of
a   dictionary   is   not   a   task   of   setting   up   authoritative   statements   about   the   “true  
meanings”  or  words,  but  a  task  of  recording,  the  best  of  one’s  ability,  what  various  
words have meant to authors in the distant and immediate past. The writer of a
dictionary is a historian, not a lawgiver.

The Merriam-Websters Encyclopedia defines meaning as “the sense of a linguistic

expression, sometimes understood in contrast to its referent.”  This  sense,  however,  can  be  

approached through different perspectives to reconstruct a different object of analysis.

Definitions, however, are often far from enlightening. Citing Borges (as cited in Foucault,

1966, p. xvi) we come across the following entry:

animals are divided into: (a) belonging to the Emperor, (b)embalmed, (c) tame, (d) sucking pigs, (e)
sirens, (f) fabulous, (g)stray dogs, (h) included in the present classification, (i) frenzied,
(j)innumerable, (k) drawn with a very fine camelhair brush, (l) et cetera,(m) having just broken the
water pitcher, (n) that from a long way offlook like flies.

Following  Foucault’s  analysis,  what  is  demonstrated  through  this  fabulous  taxonomy  is  the  

“limitation of our own (thoughts), the stark impossibility of thinking that(p. xviii)”  taking  

into consideration that language is often incapable of encompassing the vastness of

experience.

Thus, we might have to acknowledge different angles to the process of defining a

word: its denotative value (direct specific meaning), its connotative implications (the

associated idea), its pragmatic significance (the bond between the word and its context and

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users), or its rhetorical power (or effectiveness). Hayakawa (1990) distinguishes between

extensional and intensional meaning, the former related to what the utterance points at in

the physical  world  and  the  latter  referring  to  what  is  “suggested  inside  one’s  head  (p.  37).”  

In all cases, the link between the expression and its referent might vary considerable. For

this reason, it is necessary to re-conceptualise our attempts at defining words, in particular

when dealing with advanced EFL courses.

Having clarified this semantic taxonomy it is worth relating the class observation that

gave birth to the present discussion.

3. Case study

After years of lecturing and evaluating English Language at teacher training college, I have

recurrently noticed that students/teachers-to-be,who are almost on the verge of obtaining

their degrees, are still struggling to successfully make sense of written texts, not to mention

the added difficulty of encoding their own views in the production of their own material.

Serious  comprehension  mistakes  are  recurrent,  board  after  board,  in  spite  of  the  candidates’  

use of supporting dictionaries. At first the conflict seemed to stem from the complexity of

the input and the time constraints, before which the helping tools proved ineffective. When

discussing the same samples in class alongside the students, I gradually realised that the

main trouble lay in the ineffective use of the dictionary definitions. Advanced students still

seemed to show overreliance on the entries that best fit the use in the given text without

ever questioning the true significance of that denotation, or, what is more, its origins.

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 This comprehension deficiency desperately called for a different approach to the

analysis of texts, making the most of the data provided in dictionaries, but encouraging a

more inclusive and open-minded decoding of the information.

As a result of this change in perspective, discourse analysis launched in the different

direction, oriented towards a true understanding of the words in question by actually

“meeting   them   face-to-face”.   This   figure   of   speech   meant   the   critical   discussion   of   the  

meaning of words by observing their background and their applications in other spheres,

thus gaining a clearer –and more visual – interpretation of their use in the given context.

4. A semantic parable

Bevan (as cited in Hayakawa, 1966, p. 76) introduces the following argument within the

field of Politics, a discussion that can perfectly well apply to other spheres in which

language is the medium of expression – which after all means every single aspect of

human activity.

He (the student of politics) must also be on his guard against the old words (added
emphasis), for the words persist when the reality that lay behind them has changed.
It is inherent in our intellectual activity that we seek to imprison reality in our
description of it Soon, before we realize it, it is we who become the prisoners of the
description. From that point on, our ideas degenerate into a kind of folklore which
we pass to each other, fondly thinking we are still talking of the reality around us.

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This linguistic chaos must inevitably call for some order, within which to understand what

is hidden in each word we utter, in an attempt to gain further sensitivity about the meaning

of language.

5. The order of things

According to Foucault there is a syntax that binds not only words among themselves but

also holds together words and the thing. This binding follows four main processes of

resemblance, namely: convenience, emulation, analogy and sympathy. To search for

meaning,  then,  is  “to  bring  to  light  a  resemblance”  (Foucault,  1966,  p.  33).  In  other  words

To search for the law governing signs is to discover the things that are alike. The
grammar of beings is an exegesis of these things. And what the language they speak
has to tell us is quite simply what the syntax is that binds them together. The nature
of things, their coexistence, the way in which they are linked together and
communicate is nothing other than their resemblance. And that resemblance is
visible only in the network of signs that crosses the world from one end to the other.
‘Nature’   is   trapped   in   the   thin   layer   that   holds   semiology   and   hermeneutics   one  
above the other; it is neither mysterious nor veiled, it offers itself to our cognition,
which it sometimes leads astray, only in so far as this superimposition necessarily
includes a slight degree of non-coincidence between the resemblances.

Words reveal themselves as enigmas to be solved, truths to be unveiled, in which case

language is not absolutely arbitrary but, instead, it conveys a hidden meaning which is

waiting to be discovered.

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 6. Natural or conventional signs?

Back to Greek times, Plato introduced the argument of the nature of the link that inter-

related the two constituents of the sign. In Cratylus, Socrates – Plato’s  fictional  interlocutor  

– is is thouroughly questioned about whether names are "conventional" or "natural", that is,

whether is a system of arbitrary signs or whether words have an intrinsic relation to the

things they signify. Lyons   (1971)   states   that   it   was   the   philosopher’s   task   to   “discern   the  

‘reality’  that  lay  behind  the  appearance  of  things.  Thus  was  born  the  practice  of  conscious  

and   deliberate   etymology.”   The   term   itself   betrays   its   origin   (etymo- meaning   “true”   or  

“real”).  

According to Foucault the essence of the sign is inseparable from its analysis;

consequently, we can say that the meaning of language is latent in each word, yet recreated

through the mediation of cognition.

According to Saussure, the nature of the linguistic sign is arbitrary in that there is no

direct connection between the signifier (the shape) and the signified (the concept). Still,

there is enough evidence to support the opposite. Simply by resorting to a philological and

etymological analysis of certain terms it can easily be observed that, at least in its origins,

the link between form and meaning was quite motivated. The two concepts contain in their

inner structure the meaning they intend to convey: philology derives from the Greek

φιλολογία, philos (love) and logos (reasoned word); etymology in turn combines the

Greek etymon (true sense) and the suffix –logia (the study of). From this two-fold

perspective, the analysis of language cannot be done exclusively done on the grounds of the

exclusive denotative value of words, since both its connotation and rhetorical force will

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only be grasped insofar as the reader is capable of tracing relevant clues to achieve full

understanding of the true meaning conveyed.

I strongly support the view that  the  key  to  effective  language  analysis  lies  in  “meeting”  

the words, mingling with their past and present, their evolution and the hallmarks they have

left behind. This perspective, however, requires a particular attitude towards language:

passion to discover the truth hidden behind words, and in doing so, readiness to fall in love

with the art of generating meaning each language possesses.

7. Hands-on experience

What follows is an account of some extracts discussed in class as part of the reading

comprehension training. From each passage I have selected the items which I exploited

applying the etymological-cultural approach introduced above.

SAMPLE 1:

a)  Discussion  of  “mind”  related  words:  Collocations  and  lexical  chains.  

b) Video session to illustrate  the  expression   “Dangerous  minds”:  Child-net international -

cyber bullying.

c) Discussion of the term BULLYING. First a derivational and inflectional analysis was

done in order to identify the starting of this concept: bull-y-ing   →   bully (noun= a

blustering browbeating person, one habitually cruel to others who are weaker; verb = to

treat abusively, to affect by means of force or coercion) →  bull  (noun  =  bovine;;  verb  =  

to advance forcefully and often violently). Visual implications:

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 Figure 1. Bullying

Source: bullfightingmaza.blogspot.com

SAMPLE  2:  short  story  “Your  obituary,  well-written”  by  Conrad  Aiken  (1927)  in  parallel  

discussion  with  the  movie  trailer  to  “The  Bucket  list”  (Reiner,  2007)  in  order  to  approach  

the discussion of death euphemisms. Origin of the expression: KICK THE BUCKET. The

bucket is associated with the tool on which the hangman used to stand. If the bucket was

kicked, the man would surely die. The analysis of the etymology of the idiom makes the

link between the bucket and death less arbitrary.

SAMPLE  3:  Reading  comprehension  “Cars  and  real  men”  (Walenn,  1992,  p.  111)  Extract:  

“I  cannot  see  how  it  is  possible  to  confuse  driving  a  car  with  having  sex,  and  suspect  many  

people boast of their driving prowess.”   Discussion   of   the   term   PROWESS. Prow-ess

(distinguished  bravery,  extraordinary  ability)  →  Prow  (the  bow  of  a  ship).  In  this  case  the  

analogy alludes to sailing, an inherent constituent of the British culture. Visual implication:

Figure 2. Prow

Source: http://thiseclecticlife.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/05/prow-of-ship.jpg

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SAMPLE 4: Reading Comprehension – Equal   at   work?   (O’Connell,   1984,   p.   28-29)

Extracts:  “Hedged about by our own self-images…”  and  “Women  of  all  types  have  blazed

trails  in  new  areas…”  In  both  cases  the  participle  verbs  allude  to  nature.  Thus,  in  order  to  

make sense of the link that binds form and meaning it is fundamental to go back to it. The

“hedge”  clearly  refers  to  a  tangible object (a fence or boundary formed by a dense row of

shrubs or low trees). When applied to affect, it connotes a similar enclosure, but of an

emotional type. The visual representation speaks for itself:

Figure 3. Hedge

Source: http://schrocklawnscapes.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/hedge.jpg

In  the  second  case,  the  reference  is  to  “fire”.  The  highlighted  element  denotes  “an  intensely  

burning   fire”   but   the   metaphoric   extension alludes to a definite hallmark. The visual

implication evokes a farming context and conveys the idea of ownership and permanence:

Figure 4. Blaze

Source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-

hj07Tz7vsDA/TxjvES2c8YI/AAAAAAAAAAc/spYjiW4OpGs/s1600/branding.jpg

SAMPLE 5:  Reading  Comprehension  “How  Green  were  my  Fingers”  (by  Peter  Buckham,  

Punch   Magazine).   Expression   on   the   spotlight:   “London   locusts”.   Beyond   understanding

the   denotation   of   word   “locust”   what   is   necessary   here   is   to   grasp   the   value   of   such   an  

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insect and its effect on country life. Its allusion evokes a biblical tale thus referring to the

damaging effect they might have on people, very much like a plague.

SAMPLE 6: Newspaper  article  “Relaxing  in  the  part  the  Iron  Lady  makes  a  friend.”  (Daily  

Mail,  March  19,  2012)  Allusion  to  the  “Tory  wets”.  The  act  of  “belonging  to  a  moderate  or  

liberal  wing  of  the  Conservative  party”  doesn’t  actually  illustrate the choice of expression.

If  we  add  to  this  the  property  of  “lacking  strength  of  character”  we  might  get  a  little  closer  

to the nature of this expression. If, on the other hand, we relate this to the verb form and its

allusion  to  “the  act  of  urinating  on  one’s  trousers”  we  can  immediately  visualise  a  child  in  

this  situation.    Thus,  being  a  “wet”  derogatorily  refers  to  being  “like  a  child”.  

SAMPLE 7.  Cambridge  Proficiency  Released  Use  of  English  paper  (2006).  Extract:  “When  

television condones or censors, it is measuring the opinion of at least part of the

population; when audiences boycott certain  shows…”  The  three  choices  allude  to  “control  

over   a   situation.”   The   first   term   finds   its   roots   in   the   Latin   condonare (give up, often

applied to Matrimony and giving  way  to  the  discussion  of  “divorce”).  The  second  can  also  

be  traced  in  the  Latin  language  meaning  “appraise,  value,  judge.”  The  last  term  results  from  

a proper name and results from the behaviour of the Irish Charles Boycott and his refusal to

lower rents for his tenant farmers.

8. Final considerations

This methodology has been welcomed among students, who most of the times had been

ignorant to the real interpretations of words, prior to the suggested tips. The general

tendency was for students to feel lost before the triggering questions but, once scaffolded

throughout the analysis of the chosen words, they managed to see the significance of this

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 technique and even manifest some wonder at the possible associations that could be

established.

In conclusion, and quoting Joseph Conrad in Lord Jim we, language teachers, can and

should  aspire  to  achieve  this:  “[…]  by the power of the written word, to make (students)

hear, to make (them) feel--it is, before all, to make (them) see.”

References
Foucault, M. (1966). The order of things. New York: Routledge.
Hayakawa, S.I. (1990). Language in thought and action. USA: Harcourt Brace and
Company.
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago and London: The
University of Chicago Press.
Littlemore, J., & Low, G. (2006).Metaphoric competence and communicative language
ability. Applied Linguistics, 27(2), 268 – 294.
Lyons, J. (1971) Introduction to theoretical Linguistics. Edinburg: OUP.
Halliday, M.A.K, & Hasan, R. (1989). Language, context, and text: Aspects of language in
a social-semiotic perspective. USA: Oxford University Press.
Merriam- Websters online dictionary. At
O’Connell,  S.  (1984). Focus on proficiency. Glasgow: OUP.
Saussure, F. (1983). Course in general linguistics. New York: Open Court Publishing
Company.
Video links: Childnet international - cyber bullying retrieved July 2012.
Walenn, J. (1992). Passport to Cambridge proficiency.  Student’s  book.  London:  Macmillan  
Publishers Ld.
Online Dictionary of Etymology

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11 Future teachers: Identities,
trajectories and projections
Flavia S. Bonadeo
ISP Nº 8  “Almirante  G.  Brown”  

Maria Susana Ibáñez

ISP  N°  8  “Almirante  G.  Brown”  and  UNL

1. Introduction

These are times of change in teacher education since during 2013 and 2014 the curriculum

designs for teacher education are to be revised (Res. 167/12 CFE, Res. 2373/12, Ministry of

Education) for new curricula to be implemented in 2015 at the latest. These changes

respond to other innovations --compulsory inclusive secondary education and the

incorporation of information technology to school everyday practices, among others. Future

teachers will teach in schools which differ greatly both from those they knew as students

and from the perceptions about school that permeate teacher education. In this light, reform

can be taken as an opportunity to accommodate our programmes to these new cultural

demands.

This process compels us to make informed decisions that need to incorporate our

students’   voices  among  other  valuable,  significant  sources.  This  perception   motivated  our  

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research group to inquire into the trajectories, identities and projections of the future

teachers of English with the purpose of constructing a knowledge-base which can

illuminate reform and change teaching practices.

In this article we intend to briefly present the theoretical categories and the

methodological choices in our study and then concentrate on the interpretation of the

students’   perceptions   of   the   teaching   profession   and   their   assessments   of   their   own  

trajectories in the light of narrative identities (Ricoeur, 1991 in Holler & Keppler,

2013)and the travel chronotope (Bakhtin, 1981).

2. Conceptual framework

One of our research aims was to identify and analyze the evaluations our students make of

their trajectories in our institution, how they narrate their identities as members of our

college community and how they envisage their profession in their imaginative projections.

Trajectories are understood as the paths students choose, either purposefully or by

default, to complete their course of studies. Even though the curriculum prescribes a

duration   and   a     route   by   establishing   course   requirements,   students’   self-constructed

trajectories include shortcuts, detours, halts and times different from the prescribed ones

(Nicastro & Greco, 2009, p. 23-4). Trajectories can be approached statistically by analysing

and correlating quantifiable data and by making generalizations, but this approach fails to

capture the uniqueness and individuality of trajectories and the role perceptions and

expectations play in the way students navigate through the course. As in discourse the

narrative of a trajectory is displayed in time and space, a concept that we have found useful

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for our analysis is that of the chronotope, i.e. the way in which time and space are

represented in narrative (Bakhtin, 1981, p. 84).

Ricoeur defined narrative identity as “the  sort  of  identity  to  which  a  human  being  has  

access   thanks   to   the   mediation   of   the   narrative   function”   (1991, in Keppler, 2013). The

students’  narrative  identities  respond  to  the  relationships  they  establish  in  their educational

community, to what they think, feel and do in that community, and to the way they relate

their educational trajectories and their imaginative projections. The latter (Atkins &

Mackenzie, 2013) involve the future which is imagined out of the materials provided by the

understanding of the norms governing our lives. Coincidentally, the identification and

acceptance of norms also contributes to narratives of identity, independently of the efforts

one may make towards self-narrative and of the evaluations  made  of  oneself  and  one’s  life  

(Atkins, 2010, p. 1-2).

3. Methodological approach

Given the complex nature of our object of inquiry, our research group opted for a combined

quantitative-qualitative methodology. We designed a number of instruments for data

collection, each with multiple purposes: a survey, the analysis of institutional records,

workshops and interviews. The on-line survey, which contained closed and open questions

and which was answered by 110 students, yielded information about their family, social,

educational and cultural backgrounds. Some questions inquired about the reasons for

choosing to become teachers of English and their assessment of the course, which rendered

information we then used to plan subsequent stages of data collection. The analysis of

institutional records allowed us to place second to fourth year students in three groups

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according to how their trajectories approximated the one proposed by the curriculum. Out

of each group, we selected six students whose characteristics were close to the tendencies

which had emerged in the survey with respect to gender, provenance, work status and

previous educational histories.

Two workshops were then carried out involving the selected students and three

students from the first year, who were randomly chosen. In the first workshop the students

were asked to write a very short spontaneous narrative text about the moment they decided

to become teachers of English and about what it meant to be a teacher of English today. In

the second workshop they had to draw their progress along the course, including the forces

that benefitted them and the obstacles they had found. In both workshops students

commented on their production and these comments were audio recorded, transcribed and

analysed following the proposal made by Critical Discourse Analysis (Fairclough, 2004).

The analysis of discourses produced by the students, which employed the categories of

chronotope and agency, permitted us to identify some self-narratives and some

representations of the teaching profession, the teaching of English, schools, the teacher

education institution, studying and learning, and about the participants involved in the

different educational processes of which students had been part or of which they planned to

be part.

In order to delve into these representations we interviewed three students who had

participated in the workshops and who were representative of the three different groups

referred to above. The interviews were semi-structured, and organized as a conversation

where the interviewers told students what our doubts were regarding what had been said

during the workshops, and students clarified that which we said we did not understand. We

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centered on what they meant by vocation, what they intended to do when they graduate,

how they related to the educational community and how important different subjects were.

The analysis of interview and workshop transcripts, written and graphic productions and

survey answers allow us to describe trajectories, to approach  students’   narrative   identities  

and to inquire into their imaginative projections, since CDA provides the tools to access

beliefs and ideologies via linguistic analysis.

4. The  travel  chronotope  in  students’  trajectories

The   chronotope   of   students’ trajectories could be described as a travel chronotope

(Bakthin, 1981) because of the presence of progress and halts, of sequences relating

adventure, the experience of metamorphosis and the finding of threats and obstacles along

the way. Within this chronotope students included a sequence which predated the beginning

of   their   studies   at   college,   and   which   consists   of   a   series   of   events   and   decisions:   “being  

sent”  by  their  parents  to  a  language  school  is  a  stage  in  most  of  their  narratives;;  all  students  

include a moment when they understand that their studies of the foreign language are not an

imposition any longer but a source of joy, and many of them narrate the moment when they

realize they want to devote their lives to teaching English with great emotion. This moment

is mostly associated to the space of the language school and not to secondary school. What

is more, in all narratives the language school is represented as a site of pleasure, fun and

friendship, while English lessons at secondary school are not associated to enjoyment to the

same degree, but to a more chaotic and dull experience. This preparatory stage seems to be

part of most trajectories, since 84 % of the surveyed students attended a language school

before entering our institution. Sometimes the decision to be teachers is not made during

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secondary school studies, but later in the course of other studies, generally at university --

36 % of the students started and dropped a different course. After this moment of decision,

which students associate to a crisis in their lives, another landmark is the entrance exam,

which in our college is necessary because of material conditions. Being part of those who

could start the course is evaluated as a huge achievement.

One of the obstacles students mentioned when narrating their experience is the course

load, since it makes it difficult for them to study as much as they need to. When asked

about   what   they   meant   by   “studying”   and   how   different   it   was   from   “learning,”   it   was  

possible to notice that the difference was not easy for them to explain. In the individual

interviews one of the students said that they learn throughout the year and only that which

is significant to them, and that they study to pass exams, not necessarily to learn. In the

interviews we also asked them what an exam meant to them. Nobody said that passing an

exam meant that they had learned something important. To them passing an exam means

that   they   have   succeeded   in   “fulfilling   the   teacher’s   expectations”   (“conformar al

profesor”), that they are responsible but also lucky, and that they have studied with the right

method. Not passing an exam means that they have to try again, to study differently, and to

conquer their fears. In the language they use, many associate success or failure with chance

(“me fue bien, me fue mal”), depriving outcomes of any form of agency.

Students in the senior year acknowledge that the steepest obstacle in their trajectory

was the freshman year. A student said that he expected the course to be easier and more like

secondary school, but it took him a year and a half to adjust to the demands of higher

education. Other obstacles are mentioned, such as that of living far from home, having

attended secondary school abroad, having had to interrupt the course due to pregnancy or

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disease.   Trajectories   are   sometimes   delayed   by   failed   exams,   but   also   by   teachers’  

absences, by the computer –diversions such as games and social networking make it

difficult for students to concentrate on assignments--, and by inadequate study methods. If

trajectories are delayed, students need to find a new group of classmates to move on with,

and  not  finding  it  constitutes  yet  another  obstacle.  When  speaking  about  “difficult”  courses,  

they frequently resort to a metaphor: monster courses (“materias   monstruo”). Quite

tellingly, in travel chronotopes it is usual to find monsters along the road, and also to

experience metamorphoses (Bakhtin, 1981, p. 111). Regarding this, there is a common

moment  of  joy  in  students’  trajectories,  when  they  realize that they were right to choose the

teaching course. They describe this moment, which is associated with the teaching

workshops and the beginning of their practicum, as filled with emotion and as a turning

point in their studies –practically as a metamorphosis.

Along their progress towards their degree, students experience other moments of joy

and fulfillment which in the drawings they produced are represented with bridges, and

among which they include the teaching workshops and some extracurricular activities –

lectures, conferences, dancing lessons, theatre workshops. Other bridges represent the

actions   of   significant   people:   teachers’   advice   and   encouragement,   the   support   of  

classmates, parents and friends. Although parents are always presented under a favorable

light, students also say that they feel embarrassed when having to disclose to their parents

that they have failed an exam. Parents are also presented as demanding figures at the

moment of telling them about the decision to drop a university course to take up English

teaching, and when consulted about the possibility of not completing the practicum in a

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fourth year but in a fifth year of studies, which is regarded as a very tough decision to

make.

5. Imaginative projections and identity narratives

We said  above  that  the  chronotope  of  the  students’  trajectories  was  traversed  by  visions  of  

their future as teachers. In one of the writing tasks, one of the students wrote about the

teacher as oppressed by the system, and of a duty to be morally committed (“Ser profesor

hoy   implica   mucho   compromiso   intelectual   y   moral.   …   Pero   el   cambio   depende   de  

nosotros”). In spite of this assertion and of the recurrent relationship established between

teaching and words like sacrifice, struggle, devotion, duty, we notice that when asked about

what is to be a teacher of English today, they do not include the word school in their

answers. On top of this, when asked in the workshops about how they evaluate state-run

secondary schools, the most frequent response is generalized fear. We therefore infer that

although they may claim to be committed to social change, they envisage their teaching as

taking place at private schools or language institutes, and that they imagine they will deploy

their activities inside a classroom, not inside a school or a community. The students we

interviewed individually admitted to intending to start working at private institutions or at

rural schools, and justified this by saying that they thought they needed to learn a lot more

before teaching at urban state-run secondary schools. The data emerging from the survey

also suggest the existence of competing projections: even though students showed a slight

preference   for   state   schools   as   workplaces   (66   %),   working   at   someone   else’s   language  

school or starting their own ranked significantly high, 64 % and 41 % respectively (students

could mark more than one answer for this question).

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 Though the students who were interviewed said that they had chosen to be teachers

because they were driven by a vocation, they also acknowledged that not all teachers seem

to  feel  the  same  drive:  they  have  noticed  that  some  go  about  their  work  as  if  it  were  “just  

another  job”.  A  teacher,  they  say,  should  feel  a  great  wish  to  teach,  a  passion  they  should  

harbour till the day they retire. They identify themselves with the passionate, driven type of

teacher, from which we can infer that their identity is being shaped at this moment of their

lives by this attitude towards the profession and by this projection. Their utterances are

modalised in terms of obligation and necessity –deontic modality (Heyvaert, 2003, p. 84):

teachers need to teach, they should teach. In their identity narratives, they enter college in

an attempt to fulfill a strong desire, and they feel an equally strong responsibility towards

others --mainly parents and teachers.

The students we worked with see themselves as ethically responsible for their failures,

but as sharing the merit of their achievements with parents, teachers and classmates. They

are grateful for their support to the point that a student even said that if she is successful at

a course, the teacher of that course is successful too, because s/he was able to prepare a

student to pass the final examination. Actually, 90 % of the surveyed students admitted to

being either satisfied or very satisfied with the programme proposal. They say they are to

blame for their bad choices –for attending too many courses at the same time, for not

submitting assignments on time, for not adjusting to higher education more quickly. They

think of themselves as grown up enough to take responsibility for their mistakes, but as still

dependent for the assessment of their self-worth on what parents and teachers think of

them. From this we infer that though they engage in self-narrative efforts to present

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themselves   as   adults,   needing   emotional   and   economic   parental   support   and   teachers’  

positive feedback fissures their intended adult identities.

6. Towards changes in curricular reform and teacher education

Before we debate a new curriculum and in order to assess our practices, it is necessary to

learn about the students who are being educated to teach at inclusive secondary schools.

Our study shows that they hold a higher regard for the language school they attended as

teenagers than for secondary schools as a site for their future teaching. They have mixed

feelings about secondary schools: they say they are committed to social change, but feel

fear of state-run secondary schools and express uncertainty about their performance. This

representation suggests that colleges need to historise secondary education and the status of

EFL in state-run schools for students to be able to critically examine the purposes and

challenges of our discipline.

Out of what we found in our study, we think it would be recommendable to bridge the

gap between learning, studying and assessment, so that exams become instances where to

account   for   learning   rather   than   to   fulfill   teachers’   expectations.   For   students   to   stop  

thinking that when assessed they are   subjected   to   chance   and   to  their   teachers’   whims,   it  

could be interesting to give them a say in the design of their exams --assessment criteria

included-- as part of their learning experience. This could cement their intended adult

identities and make them feel less dependent on teacher approval for the completion of

courses.

In order to make an appropriate content selection, we should be aware that our students

re-narrate their identities many times during their education. Some of those narratives are

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associated to what they feel incapable of doing, to the point that some courses are perceived

by them as monsters. It would be ethical to counter this perception by trying to make

contents more meaningful to a prospective teacher and breaking down assessment into

smaller units for students to be able to learn and cope with academic demands without so

much damage to their self-image.

For curricular reform and teacher education practices to continue holding a fruitful

dialogue with our present culture, we have inquired into the trajectories, identities and

projections of a group of future teachers of English. We hope these findings will be useful

for those engaging in changes that will contribute to an improvement in both college and

secondary school teaching practices.

References
Atkins, K. (2010). Narrative identity and moral identity. New York: Routledge.
Atkins, K., & Mackenzie, C. (2013). Practical identity and narrative agency. New York:
Routledge.
Bakhtin, M. (1981). Forms of time and the chronotope in the novel. M. Holquist & C.
Emerson (Eds.), The dialogic imagination (pp. 84-258). Austin: University of Texas
Press.
Fairclough, N. (2004). Analysing discourse.Textual analysis for social research. London
and New York: Routledge.
Holler, C., & Keppler, M. (Eds.).(2013).Rethinking narrative identity. Persona and
perspective. Amsterdam: John Benjamin Publishing Company.
Nicastro, S., and Greco, M. (2009). Entre trayectorias. Escenas y pensamientos en espacios
de formación. Rosario: Homo Sapiens.
Pacífico, A., Ibáñez, M. S., & Bonadeo, F. (2011). Los estudiantes del Profesorado de
Inglés del ISP Nº 8 Almirante Guillermo Brown: Un acercamiento al perfil socio-
cultural, a las trayectorias educativas y a las representaciones y valoraciones de la
profesión docente y de los recorridos por la formación. (Unpublished research project).
Instituto Nacional de Formación Docente, Argentina.

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12 Cultural awareness and language
enhancement through microblogging
Paola Lorena Barboza

Ana Cecilia Cad

Facultad de Lenguas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba

1. Introduction

“Teachers  need  to  integrate  technology  seamlessly  into  the  curriculum  

instead of viewing it as an add- on,  an  afterthought,  or  an  event.”  
Heidi- Hayes Jacobs, Educational Consultant

We live in an interconnected information society in which the skills to learn how to decode,

code and reproduce information are highly valued. Therefore, it is important to include the

teaching of literacy skills in the EFL classroom not only through the conventional teaching

approaches but also through the inclusion and exploitation of new information and

communication technologies. Technological developments have triggered a change in the

traditional concept of literacy which has been enlarged to encompass the news skills that

are necessary to interact effectively in new social and learning communities. The use of

technological tools in the classroom benefits students greatly. According to Lee (2011)

students can become more autonomous learners, become more culturally knowledgeable

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while developing language skills such as reading and writing. XXI century students are

embedded in a global grid in which messages have a fleeting characteristic: images intrepid

with sounds and words moving at incredible rapidness. Therefore, it is a must that students

learn to interact with these messages. Within the classrooms, teachers need to work with

these multimodal messages (Kress, 2010), i.e. messages pertaining to different modes, so as

to train students in digital literacy; in other words help learners to handle different kind of

technological software and hardware.

These new technologies help students communicate across a wide range of distant

realities. Therefore, it is a must that students learn to participate in a responsible and

respectful way in the virtual global environment. Social networks are a good source for

collecting information about other people´s culture as well as a great media for interaction

with members of other communities. This interaction process turns to be really enriching

since to be able to share their culture students have to be more aware of their own cultural

practices. Learning about other people´s cultures helps to gather more understanding about

“the   other”;;   therefore,   stereotypes   will   be   less   likely   to wrap up students´ judgment,

avoiding episodes of xenophobia.

Considering the vast amount of time that our students spend on social networks, we

decided to integrate them into our classrooms as a teaching/ learning tool as well as a

motivating ally. By teaching /learning tool we mean having students practice their writing

skills in an enclosed community where they can get peer feedback as well as teacher

feedback, promoting new ways of reading (reading multimodal messages) and contributing

in audiovisual and   written   formats,   fostering   the   understanding   of   other   people’s  

perspectives,   applying   critical   thinking,   and   enhancing   students’   cultural   awareness.   The  

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motivating ally definition we attribute to social networks lies in the sole intention of raising

students’  motivation  through  the  inclusion  of  a  non- conventional task (use of Twitter) into

their school environment.

In this paper we carried out a classroom action research. This work was motivated by

our experience of working with teenagers and perceive how difficult is to keep them

motivated and engage them in writing activities. In this paper, we want to share the

outcome of our research which for us has been a very positive one since we used a social

network, Twitter, to enhance language skills as well as raise cultural awareness among our

students. By means of the social network, students adopted a much more active role in their

learning and participated more in classroom activities more willingly, while teachers

acquire the role of facilitator encouraging students´ participation, and the use of their

problem- solving capacities (Lee, 2011).

2. Theoretical framework

There are different kinds of social networks co- habiting the World Wide Web, such as

Facebook, Twitter or Flickr. Our decision to make use of Twitter was based on the already

existing knowledge that the students in our context shared about this application. Students

have always shown interest in using it and they are willing to try new ways to gain more

profit from it. Also, since Twitter helps to create a learning community in which some

students feel more self- confident that in regular classroom settings, they tend to participate

and interact more in the virtual environment, than they would do in class (Yunus, 2012).

This increase in participation goes in line with Krashen´s hypothesis (1982) of the low

affective filter. The more comfortable and self-confident our students feel, the more

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willing to participate they will be. Besides, social networks offer the possibility for students

to establish community bonds that will compel them to participate more (Yunus, 2012).

The theoretical foundation of this project lies on both the constructivist and

interactional approaches of learning that according to Lee (2011) are the approaches that

feed CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning). We will draw on Lev Vygostky´s

Social Development Theory. According to Vygostky, learning is the result of social

interaction (Vygotsky in Wertsch, J. V, 1985) since students learn by being in contact with

more knowledgeable others who will help students gather the knowledge they need to

achieve a desired goal. Through different software that favors a constructivist approach

and inquiry- based  learning,  teachers  can  create  a  space  “for  building  learner  communities,

fostering collaboration, engaging learners in multiliteracies, and creating opportunities for

global audience interaction and feedback”   (Alameen,   2011,   p   355). Students will make

contributions, agree or disagree with their peer´s contributions and propose new sub- topics

for interest. Within this frame for interaction students will develop a great deal of learning

autonomy by making meaningful contributions, getting feedback and looking for links to

share to the class.

Since students interaction took place in the classroom, this is project was a case of

synchronous e- learning. One of the advantages of synchronous e- learning is that students

tend to feel part of a community rather than isolated (Hrastinski, 2008). Also, students tend

to feel more motivated. According to Kock´s media naturalness hypothesis (Kock in

Hrastinski, 2008), synchronous e-learning  shares  some  elements  that  characterize  “natural”  

media (e.g.: the possibility to observe our peers´ body language) contributing to

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psychological arousal. The fact that students can observe their peers´ reactions to their

contribution makes learners commit to their learning (Hrastinski, 2008).

3. Methodology and development

We outlined the project to be carried out with upper- intermediate students at their 4th and

5th year of secondary school (15 and 16 year olds respectively) at a private institution. The

number of students in 4th year is 27, and the number of students in 5th is 23. Each classroom

is equipped with a smart board and our students have their own smart phones. The weekly

class schedule comprises two classes of 95 minutes each.

The   topic   unit,   “The   teenager   and   their   relationship   with   the   technology   of   XXI  

century”,  was  developed  in  8  consecutive  classes.  Four  of  them,  i.e.  two  weeks,  were fully

devoted to the use of Twitter in classroom. In those classes, students were requested to

participate   by   “twitting”   their   contributions.   We   set   2   as   the   minimum   number   of  

contributions they could make and 4 as the maximum number of contributions. We set this

limit to the number of contributions due to the following reasons: if students had been

allowed to participate freely, some might have chosen not to participate at all. Then, those

students who normally liked expressing themselves without giving too much thought to

their contributions would have to think carefully what they were going to write so as to get

a good grade based on the relevance of their comments. Besides, if we had not provided a

maximum for the number of contributions, there would have been students making more

posts than we were capable of keeping track and checking.

Two weeks prior to the first Twitter session, we created a special Twitter account to

carry   out   the   activities   and   asked   students   to   start   “following”   it.   We   did   not   use our

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personal accounts, while students did use theirs. (They could opt for creating an alternative

account for classroom tasks but they decided against it.) Right before the first class, we

“twitted”   about  the   upcoming Twitter sessions to motivate students to participate and get

actively involved.

On the very day of the first session, we shared a code of conduct and behavior with the

students that stated what was acceptable and what was not during sessions in terms of:

behavior, contributions and the sole purpose of the social network in class. The code also

outlined the criteria that would be used for evaluation. Those students who failed to follow

the code were subjected to school rules for misbehavior.

Sessions were carried out through the main use of videos,  students’  oral  presentations  

and  readings  that  served  as  triggers  for  debate  and  discussion  through  “twits”  that  appeared  

on the screen of the interactive whiteboard so as students followed the class interaction.

Regarding   contributions   or   “twits”,   students were asked to make contributions (two

minimum contributions) at different times:

a- During the first session: a video was shown to engage students in an active

Twitter discussion.

b- On the second and the third sessions: some students had to prepare oral

presentations. As a follow up, the remaining students were asked to contribute

to these presentations with insightful comments, questions or links about the

specific topic. Students were asked to read about the presentation topics before

coming to the classroom.

c- The fourth session consisted of a closure activity in which a survey was carried

out to gather insights about the outcome of the activity.

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Our teacher roles varied from following Twitter interactions, walking around the room

answering students’   questions,   to   posting   new   questions   or   comments   to   instigate   further  

debate to make sure students were fully engaged in the task. Students were graded

according to the number and relevance of contributions, the respect and adherence to the

code of conduct,   the   oral   presentations   performance   and   the   respect   to   their   peers’  

contributions and perspectives. (Refer to appendix 1 for detailed criteria).

Before embarking on a project involving social networks, teachers have to become

acquainted with their school policy about their use. In this specific case, we had to write a

letter asking the authorities of the institution for permission to make use of this social

network. In that letter, the purpose of the use of the social media was clearly stated as well

as the activities that were going to be carried out in the classroom. Permission was granted

to make use of Twitter in the classroom setting only. Therefore, tasks outside the classroom

were ruled out.

4. Outcome

In terms of students´ overall participation, different tasks were proposed through the use of

Twitter, and most of them made more contribution than the minimum required, which it can

be taken as an indicator of students´ motivation and readiness to participate about the

different topics being dealt with. This arousal in motivation is in accordance to Hrastinski´s

(2008) claims about the effects of synchronous e- learning on students´ psychological

arousal.

The classes which involve Twitter use were four. Students had to respond to polls,

make contributions to other peers´ oral presentations, pose questions for further discussion,

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present their views on the topic at hand, and finally express their opinion about the use of

Twitter in the classroom. At the end of the session, we went through the comments that our

students have posted to check the relevance of their messages, the number of twits, and the

language  employed  by  the  students.  When  analyzing  the  quality  of  the  students  “twits”  we  

observed that over half of the contributions were relevant to the topic and sparked further

debate. Whereas the rest just focus on agreeing or disagreeing with their peers´ line of

thought.  Some  contributions,  such  as  “I  agree  with  Pia”,  were  dismissed  due  to  their  lack  of  

relevance to the topic. As regards the enhancement of students´ language, we could notice

that students were more than ready to point and check their peers´ mistakes as well as ask

for  clarification  when  students  “twits”  were  not  clear  enough.  As  Dörnyei  (2001)  stated  it  is  

noticeable how students´ production increases when they perceive their environment as

comfortable and friendly (learning situation level), the task as relevant, and they have clear

goals and objectives. Besides, it should be pointed out that at no time did the teachers have

to censor a “twit”   because   it   could   have   been   considered   pejorative   or   insulting   against  

other peers or cultures being studied. Moreover, students displayed a genuine interest to

keep on learning about other people´s customs and system of beliefs.

From our teaching point of view, we consider that it was a very rich learning and

teaching experience. Since we discovered that it is possible to integrate social networks

within the classroom to serve a main two- fold purpose: motivating adolescent students to

work inside the classroom and keeping up- dated with current social trends that have an

impact on learning. We make our claim based on the number of contributions we got,

mainly from those students who tend to participate less in regular classrooms settings due

to shyness or lack of confidence. Taking into account our students´ comments, we believe

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that the use of Twitter help them improve their writing skills since they express that due to

the limited number of characters that Twitter allows they have to look for way to condense

their message. Thus, using Twitter also promoted drafting, rewriting and the use of online

dictionaries and thesaurus.

Since students were working in a well- known virtual environment, they felt at ease

and more self- confident; as a consequence, they were more willing to participate (Dörnyei

2001). Students had to write for a specific audience, so they were more committed to their

learning and tended to pay careful attention to what they wrote (Hrastinski, 2008). Since all

students could read what the others´ had written they tended to ask more questions to check

the linguistic accuracy of their contributions; thus, we can say that this task help the master

a little more the foreign language.

Besides, the teachers presented material about the content unit (the use of the Internet

and social networks) that prove to be positively challenging for the students since students

had to investigate about other culture´s usage of technology and social media. Thus, this

material prompted research as well as cultural awareness.

5. Conclusion

We acknowledge that fact that this project was carried out in a privileged environment in

which students had access to smart phones and teachers had smart boards in their

classrooms. We are aware that this is not the normal classroom setting of the majority of

Argentinian teachers; however, we still believe that it is imperative to share our experience

as an attempt to raise awareness about changes that are taking place in the learning

environment and that, little by little, (should) influence our teaching practices.

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As educators, it is a must that we keep up-date with the latest social trends that have a

bearing on our education setting. Technological developments have brought about new

ways to communicate that rely more on a combination of modes that just on the written one

(Kress, 2010). This change in the nature of messages caused a broadening in the concept of

literacy, so to be literate nowadays we have to be acquainted with the use of technologies,

digital literacy. At the same time, technology has made it possible for us to communicate

with people in different areas of the globe; therefore, teaching our students to be respectful

of their and other´s culture is key to a harmonious interaction between peoples.

This new century challenges teachers to embrace technology and use it in meaningful

ways. Technological environments are natural for our students who we born in technology

embedded houses, thus they perceive the virtual world as a comfortable place (Krashen,

1982) from where they can make valid contributions. However, we should not forget the

importance of teaching of values that regulate interaction since they are important in the

regular classroom setting as well as in the virtual setting.

References

Alameen, G. (2011).Learner digital stories in a Web 2.0 Age.TESOL Journal,2(9), 355-

369.
Dörnyei, Z. (2001) Motivational strategies in the language classroom.Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Hrastinski, S. (2008).Asynchronous and synchronous e-learning.EDUCAUSE
Quarterly,31(4).
Krashen, S. (1982- (Internet version 2002) retrieved 2011) Second language acquisition
and second language learning. Retrieved from
http://sdkrashen.com/SL_Acquisition_and_Learning/SL_Acquisition_and_Learning.pd
f
Kress, G. (2010). Multimodality: A social semiotic approach to contemporary
communication. USA and Canada: Routledge.

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Lee, L. (2011). Blogging: Promoting learner autonomy and intercultural competence
through study abroad. Language Learning & Technology, 15(3), 87–109.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Yunus, M. (2012). Integrating social networking tools into ESL writing classroom:
Strengths and weaknesses. English Language Teaching, 5(8), 42.

Appendix 1

Criteria for the assessment of students´ contributions in Twitter

a. Contributions should be relevant to the subject matter being discuss
b. They should clearly state a perspective for analysis
c. If a contribution counters another, that contribution must also include a reason for the
opposition and present a new point of view.
d. Contributions that include a link should be followed by a comment about its
relevance.
e. Each student must comply with a minimum of 2 (two) and a maximum of 5 (five)
contributions.

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13 Digital identity and teacher´s role
in the 21st century classroom
Nora Lizenberg
Instituto  Superior  de  Profesorado  “Joaquín  V.  González”

1. Introduction

While the digital identity of our students and their technology related behaviour tells as

much about themselves and the way they learn, we seem to ignore this valuable information

to create good practices. At the same time, we do not use technology in the same way in our

everyday life and in our role as teachers. In addition, the netbooks in our classrooms are not

generating any real change in teaching or learning, as the Horizon Report 2013 for Latin

America indicates (NMC, 2013). But we live in the network society (Castells, 2000) inside

and outside the classroom.

Therefore, the network society calls for a new role for EFL teachers – that of designers

of ecosystems of learning, where the English class is everywhere and at any time, rather to

have technology in the classroom. The design of these ecosystems demands both a teacher

with a critical view on technology and knowledge society (UNESCO, 2005), and a learning

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design that not only aims at language competence of the items stated in a syllabus, but also

competence development for long-life learning that helps learners overcome the cognitive

divide poor teaching with technology in education creates.

2. Who are our students?

In the 21st century, as a teacher of English, all my dreams seem to have come true as

regards access to technology. But an old saying goes: beware of what you dream, for it may

come true. In fact, for many schools and teachers it has become a nightmare, even to the

point of forbidding computers, mobile phones at school or blocking Internet access. So

what has happened? Even if connectivity and ubiquitous devices are not available

everywhere for everyone, it is a fact that society has evolved in such a way that technology

influences every aspect of life to a point of no return. Even if somebody has not access to

Internet, the format and language of the information they get from traditional media such as

TV or radio has been modified, or their attention span, or their ways to get in touch with

others.

Students are on the net. This identity makes sense as long as they receive feedback

from the community. Identity exists, thus, because they relate to others and are accepted as

such by them. For Wenger (2001, p. 187) there is a profound connection between identity

and practice. Developing a practice requires the formation of a community whose members

can engage each other and thereby recognize each other as participants.

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 A digital identity is thus the representation through a set of features of the identity of

an individual that is used in some processes of interaction with others in distributed

networks for recognition of the individual.

According to Windley (2005) identity is defined as collections of data about a subject

that represent their traits, preferences and attributes. Thus, it is possible to know who we

are or what our credentials (attributes of that identity) are. In this sense, a digital identity is

the representation of learning through a set of visible features in an instructional context,

the real identity of an individual processes are developed in interaction with others in

distributed networks, and is susceptible of being used in the practice of instructional design

and educational assessment processes.

Huynh (2012) states that although it has a long way to go, no expert can deny that

digital identity is changing the way of building the self-image of young people. It is

therefore essential that school offers means to assess through this image under construction,

or taking it into account. The distinction between private space and public space, data

protection, and e-reputation are factors to consider, deleting certain boundary between the

personal and the public. (Zapata-Ros & Lizenberg, 2012).

Our students do not wait until they see their friends to contact them. Their attention

span is conditioned by the length of a You Tube video – about 3 minutes on average. Their

power of synthesis makes them summarise messages into 140 characters – Twitter

maximum. Whenever there is something they need to know they will just google it, or ask

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somebody on the net – often  somebody  they  don’t  know.    They  express  themselves  through  

mash-ups and transmedial messages.

So they are goal oriented, with great power of synthesis, they convey meaning through

media convergence, short attention span and divergent thinking. These are the inhabitants

of our 21st century classrooms. This is the culture we breathe in our classroom.

3. Who are we?

We, teachers of English, seem to have a split personality in this 21st century world. We

share in various degrees several characteristics with our students. Many of us cannot turn

our mobiles off – we   just   silence   them   because   we   might   be   receiving   an   “important”  

message or call. We yearn for contact with long lost friends and use digital social networks

such as Facebook or Myspace to get in touch and keep relationships, or to know our

acquaintances’,   relatives’   and   friends’   whereabouts.   We   text   how   we   feel,   where   we   are,  

what we think, what we do not want to forget. We let off steam in less than 140 characters

or   through   a   shareable   commented   picture.   Marc   Prensky’s   deterministic   distinction  

between digital native or digital immigrant according to age (Prensky, 2001) has given way

to more accurate labellings according to habits of use, such   as   David   White’s   continuum  

between digital visitors and digital residents (White& Le Cornu, 2011), and we seem to

find ourselves at different points on this line depending on the aspect of our lives we

scrutinise: leisure time, holidays, business, information gathering, contact with people or

any other we may think of.

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 Unfortunately, there is sometimes no consistency between our habits inside and outside

the classroom. More often than not, we include technology for the sake of motivation, using

digital means for activities which could be equally well done on paper. As teachers, we

seem hard to move out of an instrumental rationality that leads us to find the right tool with

the right method for our language teaching objective. One reason for this resistence might

be, as some authors mention (Buckinham, 2008; Cabello, 2006; Dudeney &Hockly, 2008)

that most teachers do not really believe technology is producing a real change or

improvement in learning in general. Perhaps, these poor results in learning derive from the

fact that we are still using ICT under structural or cognitive frameworks instead of under a

sociocognitive one, much more adapted to the networked use of ICT we have today

(Warshauer & Kern, 2000).

4. Where is the English classroom?

Dictionary.com defines classroom as   “any place where one learns or gains experience.”  

Then, the classroom can be anywhere in the physical or digital world, as ubiquitous as we

choose. Because we do not want our students to learn English only when they are within

the walls of the school or at the institute with us, but we would rather have them learn

everywhere they are, ending task. Therefore, learning English can take place at school or

institute, and also at home, while travelling, while playing at unpredictable places. And at

unpredictable times, because the classroom can be set during the school hours, and also

whenever the student can and/or want to learn English, for as long as he can or want to stay

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in it. The flexible and ubiquitous condition of the 21st century classroom is the main feature

of the 21st century learning environment.

However, not any environment becomes a learning one, that is, not any environment

becomes a classroom. There should be a learning intention set by the teacher, the student or

even better, agreed by both. Technology as a motivational agent only is a short-term

investment. We all know by now that netbooks in the classroom –or any technological

gadget or program will not create learning intention. In fact, many times ends up being a

disruptive element which is resented rather than appreciated.

Do we need technology in the classroom? I would pose that we rather need the

classroom everywhere,all the time by creating learning environments that take into account

digital identities of the actors involved, the interculturality between the physical and the

digital world and the teacher who works as a learning designer, and that we can have it

thanks to technology. In this way, we can take advantage of the highly valuable face-to-

face, synchronous and spatial time together with the students to enhance those aspects of

learning  that  students  more  and  more  rarely  have  the  chance  to  practise  when  they’re  not  in  

the physical classroom. We already have actors in the classroom who are immersed in a

technological world, so we have technological mindware in the classroom, and this is what

makes a difference.

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5. Identity and digital culture in the classroom.

We can say that we are in a 21st century classroom because both teachers and students are

immersed in a world that is affected by technology, and our culture, habits and feelings are

changing because of it.

As teachers, we need to deepen our understanding of the role and consequences of

digital technologies in contemporary culture, including all areas of activity such as

performing arts, telecommunications, information technology, philosophy, law and of

course, education. By scrutinizing our habits ten years ago and today, we will be able to

spot at least a couple of changes in ourselves. Not only in what we do, certainly in what we

are as well. Therefore, our identity is also built by how and when we show ourselves

online, what we do, who we connect with, how often and what for. We may consciously do

so or not, maybe we are not as careful with this outer image of ourselves as we are when we

choose  our  clothes  to  go  to  work.  And  the  same  happens  with  our  student’s  identity.

So we show who we are when standing in front of the class and what can be googled

from us on the Internet. And how much do we know about our students? From the

institution they attend, the way they look, how they talk, how they behave in class, the

information other teachers or the school authorities can give us we outline their identity.

However, we usually ignore their digital identity we do not take into account what they

prefer to do or have on line. Knowing who your students are, and build together with them

a classroom ethos that would let you infuse digital culture in the classroom, including

ethical behaviour and awareness of digital identity.

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 Do we know which games or type of games do our students play online? Which tool do

they use to get in touch with their friends? How often are they online? What topics are they

interested in? How aware are they of their choice of privacy levels? What kind of access do

they have to technology? How is technology used in their families? All this is invaluable

information to build our 21st century classroom.

6. Language teachers as designers of ecosystems of learning

Most activities that include ICT for learning English seem to be, in fact, ways to enhance

teaching, but barely enough to enhance learning in such a way that we take advantage of

our new competences in the digital world and the possibilities technology opens. As

teachers of English, we pave just one part of the road of language learning. This is why

developing lifelong learning skills on how to learn a language together with the stated

syllabus content of the course become central in our role.

If learning can occur anywhere and at any time, if our classroom can expand as much

as we want in time and space, if self-learning competences are to be developed instead of

designing lesson plans for individual sequential isolated language items we could think of

ecosystems of learning in which those traditional lesson plans are just one more element in

a more global and holistic planning.

Why an ecosystem of learning? Because all its elements compose an environment in

which learning is sustainable during the current course but its lifespan can be extended

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much longer. Its constituents: technology, content, textbooks, students, teacher, school,

digital environment interact in complex relationships.

And the role of the teacher as designer is critical in this new model of teaching. We can

think of three types of teachers: the technical expert who effectively applies methods and

techniques designed by others, the cognitive teacher who analyses the context and the

students and take decisions on non-behavioural competences acting in an autonomous and

reflexive mode. And there is a third type: the critical teacher. A teacher who takes into

account different dimensions to design ecosystems of learning: instrumental,

semiological/aesthetic, curricular, pragmatic, psychological, productive,

selective/evaluative, critical and organizational curricular, attitudinal and researchable

(Cabero, 2007); alive and ever changingenvironments where learning takes place.

Ecosystems of learning suit work best under pedagogies such as Problem Based

Learning (Ng, 2008), Task Based Learning (Willis-elt), or Project Based Learning (Beckett

& Chamness Miller, 2006) because they offer multiple opportunities for interaction

between their components and help the development of a variety of competences and

higher order skills. Flipped classrooms (Peachey, 2012) seem to make the most of face-to-

face instances, by allowing teachers to provide on-the-spot feedback when acquired

knowledge is put at stake during the activities in the classroom.

An ecosystem, as defined by Encyclopaedia Britannica, is a complexity of living and

non-living organisms, their physical environment, and all their interrelationships in a

particular unit of space. Therefore, a learning ecosystem may include:

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  Living elements: learners and teachers, school administrators and/or

authorities

 Non-living elements: learning goals, technology, textbook, devices such as

netbooks, PCs, mobile phones, tablets.

 Supporting relationships: projects, social networks, activities, curated

content

 Unit of space: physical classroom and all the digital environments

Designing an ecosystem of learning needs clear linguistic competence goals, validated

ways to evaluate them and deep knowledge of the students. Once these elements are

assured, the rest is highly flexible and dependable on   context,   students’   and   teachers’  

preferences,  teacher’s  creativity  and  technological  availability.

So the task of a teacher as a designer would be to create with their students that

environment by setting a task, project or problem in the traditional way, provide a bank of

resources where students can access to explanations and practice of various types, help the

students develop their own personal learning environment, and foster participation in a

community learning of practice, leaving the face-to-face classroom time to help them with

the core of the problem, task or project.

It is always best to start small – departing from creating a community of learning with

the same tools your students use, making them produce similar digital items to the ones

they consume – games, pages, audio files, videos, accepting evidence of linguistic

competence   in   different   formats   to   suit     different   students’   intelligences   and   adapting   to  

167
students contexts, curating preferences and habits sites and tools they might be interested in

and show you care, and above all, promoting a passion to learn.

7. Conclusions

David Perkins (2012) states that we should educate for the unknown. Understanding our

students’  relation  to  technology  and  our  own  relationship  with  it  will  help  us  design critical

use of technology in ecosystems of learning that will foster language competence

development, even after we are no longer with them in the classroom.

We need to help them find how to go on learning the language they need. And let

them share their  productions.  Instead  of  just  testing  vocabulary,  grammar  or  structures,  let’s  

help   them   make   their   knowledge   visible.   Let’s   ask   ourselves:   how   do   I   know   they   have  

really  learnt?  How  can  they  show  all  the  class  they’ve  really  learnt,  taking  advantage  of the

particular   traits   of   each   one’s   identity?   And   then,   let’s   design   the   learning   environment  

accordingly.

Our ecosystems of learning will become living and changing environments which will

contain a combination of traditional and technological artifacts, and both new and tried-

and-tested methodologies, without fixed boundaries and highly personalised, so that

language learning competence could go on after our course finishes and becomes part of the

students’  usual  digital  environments.  

168
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170
14 ¿Se puede hablar de
oportunidades de aprendizajes
intraculturales?

María E. Lizárraga
I.E.S. N°4- I.E.S. N°5, Jujuy

1. Introducción

En el caso de la clase de inglés como lengua extranjera–una realidad común a un conjunto

social– donde los estudiantes y su docente construyen esa realidad interpretando

experiencias y generando comportamientos devenidos de un conocimiento culturalmente

adquirido, se nos plantean importantes interrogantes: qué tan compartidos son esos

conocimientos entre el grupo y el docente, qué tan aceptados son los comportamientos

culturales de los estudiantes por el docente , qué tan tomadas en cuenta son las diferencias

que se producen por roles no compartidos en el conjunto social– por la franja etaria de los

estudiantes, por los intereses tan distintos del grupo y del docente –; y principalmente , qué

tan socialmente elaborada puede ser una realidad traída de una cultura distinta, vehiculizada

por la lengua extranjera.

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 Si las oportunidades de aprendizaje que se van a dar dentro de este contexto socio-

cultural se van a dar a partir de las pautas culturales pre-establecidas en los constructos

sociales del grupo de pertenencia, se puede inferir –de acuerdo a las interpretaciones

realizadas– que existiría una nueva categoría no tenida en cuenta por estudios teóricos

previos, si el factor de interculturalidad no está tan presente en los constructos sociales de

referencia, sí está lo que se ha interpretado como intracultural.

Es el propósito de este artículo definir esta categoría nueva que emerge de un trabajo de

investigación (Lizárraga, 2012) que ha buscado dar respuestas a distintas preocupaciones

nacidas tras años de práctica de enseñanza de inglés como lengua extranjera en escuelas

públicas de la provincia de Jujuy.

2. Lengua y cultura

El ambiente institucionalizado se ha alejado cada vez más del lenguaje cotidiano, del

lenguaje que los alumnos y alumnas traen a las aulas, del lenguaje con el que construyen su

realidad, su mundo. Nuestros alumnos y alumnas viven un realidad donde hay nuevos

modos de significar; hay una nueva manera de ser y una nueva manera de comprender,

puestas de manifiesto a través de un discurso multimodal. Cabe entonces preguntarnos

como enseñantes de lenguas extranjeras dónde nos paramos para entender este nuevo

discurso, qué oportunidades brindamos a nuestros estudiantes para que puedan aprender la

lengua extranjera, qué acciones llevamos a cabo para generar un paradigma educativo

distinto que ayude a superar esta brecha abierta entre la nueva manera de ver e interpretar y

significar el mundo de nuestros alumnos y la nuestra.

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Lo que se ha buscado con el trabajo de investigación mencionado es preguntarnos en qué

condiciones sería posible para el docente de inglés como lengua extranjera ) en escuelas

públicas de Jujuy posicionarse de otra manera frente a esta nueva realidad, y producir un

primer aporte para señalar, en todo caso, un primer paso o necesidad, como lo es producir

con los docentes de LE (inglés) una reflexión crítica sobre las pautas culturales de

aula/clase y de escuela/institución tal que permita hacer visible lo que hoy se ha

naturalizado. Desde este trabajo se sugiere que a partir de esta reflexión crítica sería posible

proponer, entre los docentes de LE (inglés) como cuerpo docente organizado, una forma de

trabajo que busque modificar la cultura de lo individual instalada hoy para pensar en las

pautas que permitirían generar una comunidad de aprendizaje o una cultura del aprendizaje

colectivo. Desde este posicionamiento se debe entender en primer lugar que el objeto de

estudio que enseña es el más complejo de todos los objetos, que lo que enseña no es

únicamente un sistema lingüístico sino un hecho cultural. Interpretamos que no puede

separarse la lengua de la cultura que ésta representa, pero entendemos que ante todo se debe

capitalizar la cultura del aprendiente–que es nuestra propia cultura– para hacer base en ella,

y a partir de ella llevar al aprendiente a construir o resignificar la realidad que le

presentamos a través de la lengua objeto, pero vista a través de los códigos culturales de los

aprendientes; en otras palabras hacer uso de aprendizajes intraculturales, de los

conocimientos socialmente elaborados y compartidos juntamente docentes y estudiantes.

3. Aprendizaje intracultural

El análisis de las oportunidades de aprendizaje que vamos a hacer bajo la luz de las pautas

culturales, se apoya en el concepto de representación social definido por Denise Jodelet

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(1994,  p.  36),  como  “una  forma  de  conocimiento,  socialmente  elaborado  y  compartido,  que  

tiene un objetivo practico y que contribuye a la construcción de una realidad común a un

conjunto   social”.   Este   concepto   de   representación   social   se   encuentra   inmerso   en   el   de  

cultura   tal   como   lo   concibe   Spradley:   “el   conocimiento   adquirido   que   la   gente   usa   para  

interpretar   experiencias   y   generar   comportamientos”   (1980,   p.   :6;;   traducción propia), que

según Jodelet son socialmente elaborados y compartidos.

De ahí la categoría del intérprete que el aprendizaje que se está llevando a cabo en el

aula de lengua extranjera tiene más el carácter de intracultural que de intercultural. La

ventaja que debe tomarse desde este posicionamiento es precisamente afianzar el

conocimiento de la propia cultura, y en contextos áulicos como los que se dan en la escuela

pública de la provincia de Jujuy donde asisten estudiantes de los diversos puntos cardinales

de la provincia, o inclusive del otro lado de la frontera, se debe tender a promover el

reconocimiento de la diversidad de culturas que se manifiestan dentro de la propia aula.

Existe la interculturalidad vehiculizada por la lengua extranjera que trae inherente su

cultura, pero también existe lo intracultural si se observa que la red de pautas culturales

presente se ha tejido desde la diversidad de culturas que se posicionan en la propia aula, y

que si no se recuperan en un tejido social valorado y afianzado como digno de ser tenido en

cuenta, son las que contribuyen al individualismo y al aislamiento.

Entonces vemos por qué se haría menester revisar el concepto intercultural para dar

mayor énfasis a lo intracultural–categoría del intérprete–, entendida esta como la red de

conocimientos culturales compartidos que los aprendientes traen como aprendizaje desde su

cultura, y empezar a construir los aprendizajes significativos desde las pautas culturales

establecidas e institucionalizadas, desde una comunidad que ayude a entender la

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importancia de la construcción de conocimiento en colaboración, en cooperación, y no en

forma tan individualista como se produce esta construcción.

4. ¿Contenido global o local? La cuestión de la identidad en la clase de lengua

extranjera

Analizar qué enseñamos cuando decimos que enseñamos inglés, cómo lo enseñamos, por

qué lo enseñamos, son preguntas que generalmente se hace cualquier docente enseñando

cualquier disciplina, pero éstas adquieren una doble dimensión en la clase de LE. La clase

de  LE  es  un  espacio  intercultural,  como  dice  Geneviève  Zarate  (1993),    “es  en  la  clase  de  

lengua extranjera donde se establecen los parámetros que articularán las relaciones entre la

lengua  nativa  y  la  LE.”

Pero ¿por qué los estudiantes de la escuela secundaria pública de la provincia de Jujuy

no pueden establecer comunicación en la lengua extranjera después de haber estudiado la

misma por seis años? Ese es uno de los principales interrogantes que motivó el estudio. Lo

que se analiza desde el aspecto cultural es que generalmente la cultura local no es tenida en

cuenta, lo que no se hace es enseñar la lengua localmente, a través de contextos que le sean

significativos al aprendiente, a través de sus intereses culturales. Como dijo Henry

Widdowson en ocasión de dictar el Seminario English, whose English? Defining the

Subject,   y   se   cita   textualmente:   “….redefining   the   definition   of   what   the   English   subject  

means  in  our  local  schools,  to  our  local  people.”

El hecho de haber analizado sistemáticamente innumerables situaciones de clase en los

contextos áulicos mencionados durante casi una década hasta ahora, permite llegar a la

conclusión que no importa cuán presente los docentes tengan el concepto de

interculturalidad para sus prácticas de enseñanza, su posición nunca es verdaderamente

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clara en el aula de lengua extranjera. La cuestión que emerge entonces es qué posición

debería tomar el docente en la clase de LE que lo conduzca a cumplir con todos los

requerimientos de su rol: mediador entre los aprendientes y su objeto de estudio, mediador

entre los aspectos lingüísticos y culturales de su programa de enseñanza, mediador entre la

LE y la cultura que ésta trae aparejada; qué posición tomar para poder, y cito textualmente

de Hall (1990, p.29): “...to  understand    not  the  foreign  culture  but  the  local  one.”,  y  actuar  

en consecuencia, es decir, ayudando a sus estudiantes cuando los mismos se encuentran en

el difícil proceso de adquisición de nuevos códigos lingüísticos, brindando esta ayuda

desde la comprensión de que el aprendiente difícilmente podrá lidiar con dos aspectos a la

misma vez, el código lingüístico y el cultural que trae aparejado esta nueva realidad de

aprendizaje; por lo tanto lo importante sería revalorizar la propia cultura del aprendiente si

se sabe que todo aprendizaje debe estar anclado en los conocimientos previos, este código

cultural propio ayudará al aprendiente a construir significado en la clase de LE sin perder

su identidad cultural.

En relación a la enseñanza de inglés como LE, Widdowson (1999) también señala que:

“….it  is  necessary  to  teach    global  English  through  local  issues.”  Este  enunciado  puede  ser  

interpretado de esta manera: focalizando en el contexto local se creará la atmósfera

apropiada para que los estudiantes no pierdan el sentido de identidad en la clase de LE,

necesitamos redefinir el contenido de lo que enseñamos: la LE en términos globales, pero

en un contexto particular, local. Esto ayudará también a los estudiantes a ver al docente no

como un modelo de cultura de otro grupo de personas que están fuera del aula y de su

propia realidad, sino como un mediador entre ellos y su objeto de estudio, especialmente en

las primeras etapas de aprendizaje de la LE..

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 El docente se encuentra en una posición de ventaja al poder seleccionar con qué

enseñar lo que eligió priorizar según el grupo de aprendientes con que le toca trabajar. En

esta jerarquización de conceptos se privilegia un alto porcentaje de contenido de forma –

como surge del análisis de las clases observadas y de otras fuentes– por la situación de poco

contacto de los aprendientes con la lengua extranjera. De este modo el aspecto cultural

quizás no sea tan relevante en su escala de valores, pero de ninguna manera significa que

no esté presente, pues la lengua es inherente a la cultura. Tampoco el docente – como ya se

refirió  anteriormente─    será  visto,  porque  lo  elige  así,  como  un  modelo  de  esa  cultura,  sino  

únicamente como mediador entre lo que ese aprendiente todavía visualiza como un objeto

de estudio más dentro de la variada gama de nuevos aprendizajes que debe realizar en el

ámbito escolar. En este nivel – el del aprendiente novato– el concepto de las

representaciones sociales que se deben construir no pasan tanto por las de la cultura

extranjera, sino por una consolidación de las representaciones sociales locales construidas

en conjunto dentro de un ámbito que los aprendientes irán conociendo cada vez mejor en el

transcurso del dictado de clases del periodo escolar.

El docente de LE debería diseñar su programa de enseñanza sin perder de vista el

hecho de que ambos aspectos, el lingüístico y el cultural, comparten el mismo nivel de

importancia; debería tomarse una decisión en la elección de los contenidos de modo tal que

éstos puedan ser la base sólida desde dónde se construya el aprecio por la propia cultura

antes de esperar que los aprendientes puedan construir conocimiento contrastando o

comparando la cultura de la LE con la propia. Priorizar los contenidos que se enseñarán al

igual que elegir   el   enfoque   metodológico   ─   técnicas,   estrategias,   actividades,   recursos  

didácticos,  bibliografía─  que  será  puesto  en  práctica  durante  los  procesos  de  e-a, requiere

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tomar una valiente decisión, muy bien definida, en el contexto institucional donde uno

trabaja, y adherir firmemente a ella. Como docentes que pertenecen a una comunidad

definida necesitamos identificar los componentes, conceptos básicos de la lengua que

incluimos en nuestro programa que son globales, que se enseñan desde principios generales

y con características generales donde quiera que ésta se enseña, pero también necesitamos

explicarlos desde los principios culturales locales que harán el aprendizaje significativo

para esos estudiantes quienes también pertenecen a esa comunidad definida.

Se analiza entonces que hay que redefinir los contenidos de lo que se enseña en

términos globales pero en contextos locales, ya que el objetivo de nuestros esfuerzos es

lograr    la  comunicación─  el  objetivo  de  nuestro  programa─  ,  se  debe  comprender  que  todo

acto de comunicación está primero ligado a la comunidad de pertenencia de sus actores. Ya

que nuestra realidad es siempre local, se debe permitir al estudiante apropiarse de la lengua

objeto dentro del marco de su propia identidad cultural.

Estela Klett (1998) dice que la principal preocupación del profesor de LE es que la clase

no es motivadora ya que es ` un lugar de pura simulación pedagógica, fuera de la realidad:

hablamos pero no decimos nada´ (Bourdieu, 1987, citado en Klett). En el aula de LE el

discurso no tiene ni las convenciones ni los modos de la interacción comunicativa. Esa es la

razón por la que Bourdieu califica la relación con la lengua como `déréaliseé´ (fuera de la

realidad). Por eso consideramos que un basamento cultural sólido puede ser el paliativo a la

inconsistencia  pragmática  del  discurso  del  aula.”

5. ¿Se puede hablar de oportunidades de aprendizajes intraculturales?

178
El conocimiento es un constructo que vive en el lenguaje, tener la oportunidad de acceder al

conocimiento de una lengua extranjera es tener la oportunidad de aprender a construir e

interpretar la realidad de una manera distinta, desde un lugar donde el aprendiente de esa

LE se para como actor de un proceso y en una circunstancia diferente a la de su posición

para construcción de conocimiento e interpretación de la realidad que hace desde su lengua

nativa. Si lo que ayuda al aprendiente en esa construcción de significado es el contexto –

interpretado este como la situación, el conocimiento, el texto, el ambiente–, el aula de

lengua extranjera genera situaciones donde se privilegia el aspecto gramatical de la lengua

objeto, a través de textos– orales y escritos– diseñados para alcanzar ese objetivo: el

conocimiento de la gramática de la lengua, y en un ambiente institucional que no favorece

la espontaneidad del pensamiento desestructurado. Por lo tanto, se interpreta que la

categoría de interculturalidad pasa a un segundo plano pues la cultura que la lengua objeto

trae va a estar presente únicamente en la intertextualidad –en la interacción del aprendiente

con el texto escrito y leído fundamentalmente basado en ejercicios gramaticales–; y, como

ya hemos analizado, la oralidad está ausente cuando de pensamiento espontáneo se habla.

Concluimos entonces que la intertextualidad, desde el concepto de Bloome y Egan-

Robertson (1993) , es decir la construcción del conocimiento a través de la interacción del

aprendiente con el texto leído y escrito, pero socialmente mediado por la comunidad

cultural donde se llevan a cabo los aprendizajes, esta construcción –decíamos– se da con

muy pocas oportunidades de aprendizaje por la calidad de los mismos –textos meramente

gramaticales, presentados a través de fotocopias, pizarrón, libros, y con poca o nula

interacción comunicativa–. Y en la interacción con el texto oral la oportunidad es casi nula,

no hay diálogo en la lengua objeto en el aula, la interacción siempre se produce en la lengua

179
nativa. En consecuencia, el conocimiento cultural se está construyendo desde otro

posicionamiento, desde la propia cultura, es decir se están produciendo aprendizajes

intraculturales.

Los nuevos ambientes institucionalizados deberían convertirse en ambientes de estudio

donde el contexto regional logre imbuirse del contexto global que trae aparejado la

enseñanza de la lengua extranjera, y se genere conocimiento que no pase únicamente por el

hecho lingüístico en sí, sino que se lo funde en el contexto cultural. ¿Cómo hacerlo? ¿Cómo

enseñar textos y producir contextos que promuevan estas oportunidades?He aquí el gran

desafío que queda plasmado en la siguiente cita de la Prof. Silvia Helman tomada de su

ponencia De la lengua a la cultura: la clase de lenguas extranjeras como construcción de un

espacio de representaciones contrastivas, en Actas del Congreso de enseñanza de lenguas

extranjeras en el nivel superior, UNT (1998).

... la clase de lenguas extranjeras debe convertirse en el espacio ideal en donde

los aprendientes accedan a la dimensión cultural de la lengua del otro, sin perder de
vista los valores de su propia lengua.... La humanidad debe aprender a convivir y a
enriquecerse con lo diferente, lo cual no significa perder su identidad cultural. Decía
el gran maestro quichuista Domingo Bravo: los pueblos pueden ser mancillados,
pero mientras tengan en alto su cultura difícilmente podrán ser dominados.

Referencias

Babot de Bacigaluppi, M.V, & Helman de Urtubey, S. (1991). Representaciones sociales e

identidad  cultural  en   la  clase  de   lenguas   extranjeras”.  Ponencia  presentada    en   las   VI  
Jornadas Regionales de Investigación en la Fac. de Humanidades y Cs. Sociales UNJU.
Bloome, D., & Egan-Robertson, A. (1993).The social construction of intertextuality in
classroom reading and writing lessons.Reading Research Quarterly,28(4), 304-333.
Brown, H.D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language
pedagogy (2nd edition). New York: Addison Wesley Longman.
Byram,, M.; Zárate, G. ; Neuner (1998) Sociocultural competence in language learning
and teaching . Alemania, Consejo de Europa.

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Hall,E.(199084). Le langage silencieux. Seuil, Collection Points, Paris The silence
language. Anchor Books. NY.
Helman de Urtubey, S.( 1998). De la lengua a la cultura: la clase de lenguas extranjeras
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Tucumán, Argentina.
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15 Reading and interacting with
electronic texts: A multimodal process?

Yael Alejandra Hasbani

I.E.S.  en  Lenguas  Vivas  “Juan  Ramón  Fernández”
Universidad Nacional del Litoral

Literature is a combinatorial game

(Aarseth, 1997)

1. Introduction:  Let’s  play!  

The developments of ICTs and electronic devices have brought about a fundamental

breakthrough in what has been traditionally considered as unquestioned actions: reading a

book, writing a text, watching a film will be no longer performed as they have traditionally

been. The written text, together with the hegemony of the Book, (Piscitelli, 2011) have lost

their exclusive roles as sources of Knowledge. This marks a radical shift in epistemological

positions: it conjures up a scenario where different devices, interfaces and types of texts

challenge the long withstanding  “power  of  the  Book”  (op.cit.).

Conversely, contemporary literature will not be a mere witness in these processes of

shift in epistemological paradigms: on the contrary, it is the location where many of the

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battles for hegemony and power are taking place nowadays. Complemented by technology,

literature has become a site for reflection, for experimentation and for (re)creation

(Piscitelli, 2011).

Furthermore, contemporary literature has been witness to the impact and influence of

different media, namely film industry, television techniques and videogames strategies

(Aarseth, 1997; Mora, 2012; Page, 2011). It has become the product of the intersection and

combinations of those semiotic systems: it is the result of a technological process of digital

convergence and the development of new cultural habits (García Canclini, 2007). New

types of texts, hybridized forms, born out of various multimodal elements combined with

the characteristics of print tradition, force us to reconsider what literature is today and what

it can be done with it. Highly influenced by computing technology and other devices, it is

argued   that   contemporary   literature   has   become   “electronic”   (Hayles,   2008)   and   the  

transposition into new mediums has further turned it into multimedial (Page, 2011).

Moreover, these hybrid electronic texts (half text/half digital artifacts) will make

readers question how they are interpolated by them and what role they will assume when

experiencing/reading and who they are. Highly characterized by the new media

(GarcíaCanclini, 2007; Mora, 2012), readers have become a hybridized combination of

“reader  and  spectator” and their own identity needs (re)considering. Their bodies have also

been challenged by the development of electronic devices and the blending processes

(Mora, 2012; Page, 2011; Piscitelli, 2011); to such an extent that the boundaries between

body and machine, self and other, are becoming blurred.

Specifically, it is the purpose of this paper to explore these concepts from the

theoretical perspectives of digital humanities, media studies, electronic literature and digital

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narratology. “The   Tell-Tale   Heart”   from   Ipoe   Vol.1,   an   electronic   adaptation   of   Edgar

Allan  Poe’s  short  story  for  iPad, will be used as illustrative to exemplify the concepts to be

discussed. The readers will go beyond the boundaries of their bodies, (re)define their own

self-identity and touch the text, interacting with it in this electronic adaptation of the short

story.

2. Hybrid texts: expansions from the print tradition

Together with the outburst of devices and technology, new types of texts have been

produced. Many scholars even urge for the development of a new narrative theory

altogether to analyze them and the proposal of a taxonomy of subgenres (Hayles, 2008;

Mora, 2012; Page, 2011). Even though consensus has not been reached yet, there is

agreement on the concept that mutations in the processes of perception in general have

occurred:   living   in   the   information   era,   “thinking   has   become   more   ‘image’   than   it   has  

always  been”  (Mora,  2012,  p.  39).  

Following this, text and image will form a communion in most electronic multimedia

texts, giving birth to a hybrid made up of various elements and apart from language. Rather,

meaning would be put across through the interaction of language, images, sound,

illustrations,  typography  and  the  readers’  interaction.

Since many of the electronic multimedia texts are not approached through print, the

digital devices themselves become the door into this type of literature. As a result, pages

are  to  be  accessed  through  screens,  either   mobile  devices’  screens  (such  as  the  one under

scrutiny in this paper- iPods, iPads, iPhones, other tablets, etc.) or computers screens. The

hybridization process further extends to the pages -a species of page/screens (own

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translation  and  coinage  for  “pant/página”  (Mora,  2012), a unit of perception and interaction

from where subjects would experience the texts. Mora (2012) explains that screens have

become   “the   frames   and   targets   for   literature”,   reproducing   in   that   unit   different  

mechanisms and elements that constitute multimedia electronic literature: words, images,

sound, hypertextual links. These page/screens bear strong resemblances with the techniques

employed in other semiotic systems, such as film or videogames; however, they may

expand those by adding an interactive layer. Significantly, these hybrid units enhance the

possibilities of literature by (re)mixing intermedial, audiovisual and border-like elements to

achieve a mayor expressive potential (Mora, 2012, p.88). Following Hayles (2008, p.13)

“the   page   is   transformed   into   a   complex   topology   that   rapidly   transforms from a stable

surface  into  a  ‘playable’  space  in  which  [subjects  are]  active  participants.”

Multimodality,   as   defined   by   Daniel   Punday   (in   Page,   2011,   p.   20),   “focuses   on   the  

way that communicational structures can invoke different senses (hearing, sight and touch)

using   different   semiotic   channels   (text,   image,   audio   recording,   video)”.   Adding   to   this  

definition,   Machin   (2007)   uses   Kress   and   Van   Leeuwen’s   expansion   on   Halliday’s  

metafunctions   of   language   to   address   the   different   functions   of   ‘visual   grammar’.   Even  

though  this  paper  will  not  address  ‘visual  grammar’,  it  is  fundamental  to  state  at  this  point  

that different modes used in electronic multimedia texts will inevitably carry meaning

potential, metaphorical associations and connotation. Challenging even more the traditional

hegemony of the written text, multimodality brings to the surface how language is not the

only conveyor of communicative functions.

Punday proposes expanding multimodal and, instead, he suggests using multimedia;

however, I consider this to be reductionist, since the two terms aim at different concepts. In

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the present discussion, multimediality and multimodality will be subsidiary to each other:

multimediality being the combination of different existing media (computers, videogame

consoles, mobile phones, mp5 players, tablets) with multiple uses (Punday in Page, 2011)

and multimodality focusing on the different modes or semiotic systems that carry meaning

potential (Machin, 2007).

A complement to the term multimedia, is the concept of intermediality proposed by

Hayles:

When literature leaps from one medium to another –from orality to writing, from
manuscript codex to printed book, from mechanically generated to electronic
textuality - it does not leave behind the accumulated knowledge embedded in
genres, poetic conventions, narrative structures, figurative tropes, and so forth.
Rather, this knowledge is carried forward into the new medium typically by trying
to   replicate   the   earlier   medium’s   effects   within   the   new   medium’s
specificities”(Hayles, 2011, p. 58)

By extension, the object of study for this analysis will correspond into an intermediated

example of a both multimedia and multimodal text, as it will be described further on.

3. New identities: Read/spectators. (Re)considering bodies & machines

Much has been already discussed within literary tradition over the term reader and about

his/her passivity or activity, agency or reception. (Re) defining the characteristics of the

identity of readers within media studies and electronic literature is quintessential. García

Canclini (2007) explains these characterizations over fields of action and reception, and

contrasts them with the definition of spectator as being wider in scope and fields of

specification (p. 31). Basically, the author clarifies that spectators are shaped by different

logics and trigger various dispositions depending on which context they are involved in.

GarcíaCanclini also proposes another category to define this subject that does much more

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than readers or spectators:   internauts.   Following   the   critic,   “an   internaut   is   a   multimodal  

agent that reads, sees, listens and combines together diverse materials that come both from

the tradition of reading and that of the spectacle context”   (op.cit. p. 32).

For this paper, the concept of internaut could possibly be the adopted to explore the

characteristics   of   this   subject.   However,   Mora’s   (2012)   term   read/spectator (own

translation and coinage from the Spanish version lectoespectador) will be used to define the

subjects that experience and interact with electronic multimedia and multimodal literature.

Following   the   author,   “readers   of   the   printed   tradition   differ   from   read/spectators in that

the latters have to negotiate much more elements than only meaning potential or intention”  

(Mora,  2012).  So  much  so  that  “they  have  to  make  a  decision  as  to  what  he/she  considers  

‘legible’  or  not;;  each  and  every  one  determines  the  extent  of  participation  with  the  text  and  

the  device  chosen  for  its  approach”  (Mora,  2012,  p.  78).    Interestingly, read/spectators as a

definition of these subjects bring to the surface the spirit of hybridity, combination of

activities and expand the concept of internaut.

Even though there is still no consensus on how to define these subjects that read, use,

play (Hayles, 2008), interact and experience electronic texts, there is general agreement

among critics on the transformation bodies have undergone with their contact with

technology: a new type of subjectivity and identity is appearing; one that combines the

bodies  with  the  machines.  Mora  (2012)  explains  that  we  are  all  “technological  beings”  and  

that there has been a shift in the perception of organic-technological frontiers: the author

rightly insists on the change in the perception of the technological context as now being

fully integrated into the organic reality. In fact, Mora proposes expanding the concept of the

body to incorporate technology in it and thus further hybridize it.

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 Coincidentally, Hayles (2008, p. 47) agrees on the fact that the humans  “have  [always]  

been   shaped   by   their   technology”.   She   extends   this   by   enlarging   on   the   fact   that   “People  

and machines are both embodied, and the specificities of their embodiments can best be

understood in the recursive dynamics where they coevolve with one   another”   (op.cit.

p.129).

Undoubtedly, the body and the machine or the device can no longer be regarded as

separate entities: quite on the contrary, the two concepts have been (re)defining themselves

with the increase in electronic multimedia literature and the development of portable

technology.

4. To  read  or  to  interact?  That  is  the  question…

Reading practices are particularly challenged by the proliferation of new types of texts;

traditional linearity has lost its hegemonic position together with the written text, since

reading practices have been (re)defined by technological innovations, transforming reading

into a non-linear hypertextual process (Piscitelli, 2011).

Marie-Laure Ryan (in Page, 2011, pp. 35, 37 & 59) explains that it is interactivity itself

the most significant distinction between old and new media, but it is also the most

complicated feature to define. She proposes a classification following the conceptual

metaphor [Interaction is an onion] (op. cit., p.35), with 5 levels according to outer, middle

and inner layers and interactivity becoming more complex in the inner layers reaching the

core. It must be borne in mind that other authors have also proposed to reconsider the

relationship between readers and these new texts. Aarseth (1997) has coined the term

ergodism to explain the processes undergone by readers when they have to make decisions

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upon  the  electronic  texts.  For  the  purpose  of  this  paper,  I  will  adopt  Ryan’s  classification,  

by which,

in the outer layers, interactivity concerns the presentation of the story, and the story
exists prior to the running of the software; in the middle layers, interactivity
concerns   the   user’s   personal   involvement   in   the   story,   but   the   plot   is   still  
predetermined; in the inner layers, the story is created dynamically through the
interaction between the user and the system (Ryan in Page, 2011, p. 37)

Following this classification, the present paper will explore an electronic multimedia text

that could be classified among those belonging to the outer layers of interactivity, as it will

be shown in the forthcoming section of analysis.

5. Electronic multimedia literature in focus. Micro-example: The Tell-tale Heart, or

iPod/iPad’s  intermediation

Figure 1 Figure 2

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 Figure 3 Figure 4

“Ipoe  collection”  is  an  application specially designed for iPpad and iPod that consists

in   two   volumes   with   electronic   adaptations   of   some   of   Edgar   Allan   Poe’s   most   famous  

short-stories  and  poems,  such  as  “The  Oval  Portrait”,  “Annabel  Lee”,  “The  Masque  of  the  

Red   Death”,   among   others. It has been created by the company Play Creatividad and

developed with the framework of COCOS 20, a framework for building games, demos, and

other graphical/interactive applications.

It can be argued that intermediation is present in this text by the possibility this

collection offers to access and interact with the texts with different devices, either Ipod or

Ipad, and allowing for portable ubiquitous interaction to take place. The electronic text The

Tell-tale Heart is included within Vol. I and the read/spectator can start interacting by

choosing the language, reviewing the text and connecting to different social networks,

assessing the application, as it can be seen in the previous screenshots (c.f. Fig. 1, 2, 3 & 4).

Within the text itself, several elements essential for the narrative development and

interpretation have been made interactive by tempting read/spectators to enter the text and

interact by touching them.

The screen/pages of the text offer an interesting hybridization between the print

tradition and the multimodal/multimedia elements: the layout is clearly the one of an old
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book, this can be seen through the choice of colour for the pages, and they also contain

interesting elements to interact with the story, as the following shots clearly show where the

pictures and the text form an interesting communion (c.f. Fig. 5, 6, 7 & 8). To pass on the

screen/pages, there is the possibility of touching the arrow on the right hand side towards

the bottom of the page in the iPad, or there is the need of literally passing the page by

simulating the same movement with print pages.

Figure 5 Figure

6 Figure 7

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 Figure 8 Figure 9

Multimodality is present here as an interesting layer of meaning potential, clearly

manifested in the choice of soundtrack, crescendos and the sounds of the beating heart

rising in their intensity and force as the story develops. Typography is another element

withing multimodality that cannot be overlooked, incorporating in this case, different lines

and words especially made bold for the creation of mood, salience and narrative

development. The hues of red, black and sepia colours chosen throughout the text can be

associated with the melancholic and troubled mind of the narrator of the story, and this can

bear a parallel relationship with the use of sounds along the narrative (c.f. Fig.5, 10, 14, 16,

&17).

Multimediality features are present in this text by the intersections of mediums such as

film (present in the cut-scenes that are incorporated in the narrative and the use of sound

and music), videogame techniques and animation (c.f. Fig. 10 & 11).

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 Figure 10 Figure 11

In any choice the read/spectators make, they have to transcend their bodies and touch

the text and the visual multimodal components that accompany it. In their experiencing the

text, they (re)define who they are and what they have to do. Sometimes there are

illustrations that change the moment the subjects touch them (c.f. Fig. 6 &9) or at other

times, it is the light of a lantern darkening the text or lighting it up(c.f. Fig. 12 & 13), or

participating in the dismembering of the body of the old man (c.f. Fig. 14 &15), or rather

moving the screen/page upwards  to  discover  “the  tell-tale  heart”  (c.f.  Fig.  16).  Perhaps  the  

most striking feature is seen in the last screen/page where the read/spectators by touching

the screen leave their fingerprint there (c.f. Fig.18), together with the troubled protagonist

of   the   story   and   thus   becoming   more   involved   in   the   “deed”,   a   sort   of   accomplice,  

challenging their traditional roles and becoming new selves. By trascending their bodies,

touching and interacting with this text the very identity of the subjects is challenged, and

the involvement radically modified.

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 Figure 12 Figure 13

Figure 14 Figure 15

Figure 16 Figure 17

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 Figure 18

Indeed, interactivity in this electronic multimedia text , following Hayles’ (2008)

categorization, will correspond to those within the outer and middle layers of the narrative,

where interaction takes place but it is not related to the programming itself or altering the

development of the narrative story-line. It must be noted that interactivity in this text is not

compulsory: the read/spectator can indeed choose if he/she want to trascend their bodies

and touch the text or not. However, if he/she does so, there are a number of elements that

will be missed.

6. New horizons? Drawing  some  conclusions…  

In this paper I have set out to explore how reading and interacting take place in electronic

multimodal/multimedial contemporary literature. In order to achieve this, I have adopted

different concepts within media studies, electronic literature and digital narratology, such as

multimodality, multimediality, hybridity, reading and interactivity, and I have set out to

challenge the longwithstanding hegemony of the book and written text in the analysis of

these concepts.

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 I have also explored how limited some terms were and I have suggested two new

coinages, such as screen/page and read/spectator together with the expansion of the

concept of the body and identity, as a result, and representing the further process of

hybridity that even terminology is experiencing and evidencing.

In particular, I have selected one text from Ipoe Collection, The Tell-Tale Heart to

illustrate the ideas under scrutiny. I have shown how the adaptation of the text presented the

hybridity in its design of its screen/pages, interpolated the read/spectators to interact with

it, integrated multimodal and multimedial elements and expanded the limits of devices by

being accessible and portable. Also I have shown how boundaries became blurred between

the read/spectatorsand the text, by incorporating them within the narrative (c.f. p. 10).

To sum up, new practices of (re)creating and (re)reading contemporary electronic

literature are opening up new horizons, forcing us to reconsider our own roles, our

identities,    and  tempting  us  to  cross  the  frontier  that  separates  our  bodies  from  machines…  

Maybe, it is an invitation to start playing the game of literature, a combinatorial game

(Aarseth, 1997).

References
Aarseth, E. (1997). Cybertext. Perspectives on ergodic literature. Baltimore/ London: The
John Hopkins Universtity Press.
García Canclini, N. (2007). Lectores, espectadores e internautas. Barcelona: Gedisa.
Hayles, K. (2008) Electronic literature. New horizons for the literary. Indiana: University
of Notre Dame Press.
Ipoe Collection. Volume I (2013) [Application for Ipad/Ipod] Play Creatividad.
Machin, D. (2007). Introduction to multimodal analysis. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Mora, V. (2012). El lectoespectador. Deslizamientos entre literatura e imagen. Ciudad
Autónoma de Buenos Aires: Seix Barral

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Page, R. & Thomas, B. (Eds.).(2011). New narratives. Stories and storytelling in the
Digital Age. Lincoln & London: University of Nebraska Press.
Punday, D. (2011).From synesthesia to multimedia: How to talk about new media
narrative. In R. Page &B. Thomas (Eds.), New narratives. Stories and storytelling in
the digital age(pp. 19 – 34).Lincoln & London: University of Nebraska Press.
Piscitelli, A. (2011) El parenthesis de Gutenberg. La religión digital en la era de las
pantallas ubicuas. (Litwin Lectures 2010). Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires:
Santillana.
Ryan, M. (2011).The interactive onion: Layers of user participation in digital narrative
texts. In R. Page & . Thomas (Eds.), New narratives. Stories and storytelling in the
digital age (pp. 35-62). Lincoln & London: University of Nebraska Press.

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16 The future teacher of English in
Argentina: The roles of the humanities,
of research and of collaboration in the
new curricula

María Susana Ibáñez

Raquel Lothringer
Universidad Nacional del Litoral

1. Introduction

We are scholars. For our field to grow we need to encourage

a true proliferation of ideologies and methodologies,
rather than to seek uniformity or conformity
Henry Gates

According to the proposal made by the Consejo Federal de Educación (Res. 167/12) and to

the schedule designed by the Ministry of Education (Res. 2373/12), during 2013 and 2014

the curriculum designs for teacher education are to be revised for new curricula to be

implemented in 2015 at the latest. This is a turning point in teacher education, since it is

inscribed in a major process which includes deep changes in secondary school and in

special education and which aims at nationally unifying teacher education respecting local

198
contexts. At this point, therefore, it becomes most necessary to critically study the texts

which guide the way teachers are educated, for the sake of producing new ones which will

be attuned to this new inclusive secondary school and which will be oriented to current

conceptions of language teaching and of youths.

We propose a critical reading of the document by which this reform is to be guided in

the field of ELT (Proyecto de Mejora para la formación inicial de profesores para el nivel

secundario, 2011), and of seven circulating curriculum designs. Some of these designs are

being implemented at universities and some at Institutos de Formación Docente (Cfr. Res.

30/07) from different regions of the country, some are more than ten years old and various

others are the result of recent reform. We review the relevance that different designs give to

three key issues -the humanities, research and collaboration- to start to approach the way in

which teacher education, the teaching profession and the role of teachers of English within

the Argentinean educational system are being envisaged in the present, establishing a

comparison between the attendance load devoted to some humanities –to Literary and

Social Studies—, to research and to collaboration –especially under the form of ICT-- in

designs which are yet to be reformed, and one which has recently been modified. This latter

one states that authors have taken into account Res. 24/07, and does not mention the

recommendations made in PM.

We inquire into the role given to the humanities because teachers should become active

citizens if they are to educate future generation in democratic values (Nussbaum, 2010, p.

2; cfr. Johnson, 2006; Gates, 1993). Hopefully, curriculum change will allow us to veer –or

stay-- away from an education centered on technical skills and primarily aimed at

contributing to economic growth. We take an interest in the place given to research because

199
knowledge about education is not only constructed out of experience, but also out of formal

projects and subsequent communication of findings. If future teachers are not encouraged

to inquire into the way their students learn, into what they need to learn and into how

education could be changed for the better, education in our country will heavily rely on

theories and didactic proposals made in other contexts (cfr. Tello, 2006). Finally, the

relevance of collaboration is addressed since we understand teaching as the making of a

number of decisions which are never made in isolation but as part of school communities

(Reagan & Osborn, 2002). As foreign language teachers we need to be taught how to

become active members of these communities if we want to make a significant contribution

to Argentinean education. All these issues have been explored in a key document which we

address in the following section.

2. Federal proposal about the humanities, research and ICT in FL teacher education

“Proyecto   de   mejora   para   la   formación   inicial de   profesores   para   el   nivel   secundario”  

(henceforth PM) is a user-friendly non-binding document produced by a team of highly

qualified specialists who advocate for a plurilingual approach to FLT, which provides

direction and focus for the task of curriculum design. According to this proposal, the

education imparted at teacher education colleges is highly valuable, since what teachers

know about teaching is usually constructed out of their classroom experience as students.

Besides, teacher education is envisaged as an opening stage paving the way for lifelong

professional development.

The text is highly critical of the knowledge transmission model and hinges on four

learning foci which place the humanities in a conspicuous position: learning, citizenship,

200
interculturality, discursive practices. It does not prescribe course names or course load.

Instead, it enumerates the experiences students should undergo and the key types of

knowledge and conceptual frameworks they should construct to perform successfully as FL

teachers. The text proposes a set of objectives to be achieved and of activities to be

experienced by the learners to attain those aims, highlighting the role to be played by ICT

and collaborative work. No doubt the PM opens a vast territory that challenges teacher

educators to make informed didactic decisions at the moment of producing new designs. It

also imposes a series of responsibilities on administrators concerning educational policies

during the course and also after graduation to accompany newly graduates as they start to

interact with their different work environments.

The text elaborates on what future teachers need to understand and what experiences

they need to undergo (cfr. Perkins, 1993, 1995) during their education and also during the

first years of their teaching profession. One of the issues of central concern in this text is the

importance to be given to the construction of citizenship, considering that English is both an

imperial language and the language of global communication, and that it has become part of

many different social processes –colonization, migrations, multilingualism. Future teachers

need to understand the ideological component to their teaching and the cultural processes

they enter when using one or another language. To promote the understanding of these

issues, the humanities within the curriculum become central, since they could provide the

tools to reflect and analyze situations and visions regarding these social processes. The

humanities consist of all studies which centre on human experience, ways of thinking and of

feeling, and they include languages, art, literature and philosophy, as well as studies which

are also known as social sciences, such as history and psychology.

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 The humanities are concerned with possible ways of feeling and thinking, with

provisional, speculative and imaginative ways of understanding which differ greatly from

the methods of empirical sciences, which positivist thinkers propose as the only valid form

of knowledge (Wierzbicka, 2011). Though practically all fields within the EFL teacher

education curriculum are based on the study of the human being – Modern Languages and

Education being part of the humanities – we study the role given to Literary and Social

Studies in the current curricula, considering that the study of literary texts and of history

and culture have a direct impact on the understanding of the social processes which result

in the construction of citizenship and of human intercultural experience.

Another element to be formally included in new EFL teacher education curricula is that

of interculturality, the understanding of which is also dependent on the way the humanities

need to be taught. As shown by J. A. Belz (2003), intercultural contact does not necessarily

result in cultural understanding. This implies that future teachers will not only need to

interact with texts in English, but also to adopt a dialogic attitude that will enable them to

understand and communicate with people whose culture differs from theirs, be they

foreigners or nationals. Awareness of alterity, mediation, cultural diversity, dialogue and

difference could be attained by means of the study of various disciplines –EFL, Phonetics,

Linguistics, Pedagogy— but again here Literary and Social Studies are most fertile, since

they aim precisely at studying the historical, cultural and artistic processes which take place

in foreign communities, which in new designs can be made to compare to related ones

which take place in our country.

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 Regarding Learning, PM proposes the following:

la     interlengua     (…)   emite     señales     sobre     el     estadio     del     aprendizaje     en    

que se encuentran los aprendientes y es por este motivo que la interacción
debería ser tema de constante reflexión e investigación para todo alumno-
futuro profesor y para todo docente en ejercicio. (p. 154)

This assertion suggests that research into the way languages are learned and taught, and

into education in general, should be given a relevant role in the new curricula. What is

more, when considerations are made as to what genres could be taught, the research article

is mentioned. That is the reason why we inquire into the role given to research in the

current curricula: if the design, management, execution and communication of collaborative

research projects, both disciplinary and educational, are part of teacher development, they

are also included among the responsibilities of teacher education institutions. In the inquiry

into curricular designs that we present in this paper, we assume that the teaching of research

methodologies is informed by the teaching of academic writing, and as a consequence we

consider that both contribute to an education in research. We have estimated the course

load devoted to the teaching of both, though there is a chance that research and academic

writing should be addressed in courses other than those especially designed to that purpose.

Related to the issue of research is that of collaboration, since no researcher will attain

significant achievements if working in isolation. An interesting innovation of PM is the

inclusion of considerations regarding what teachers learn in the first years of their

professional careers. At this stage of learning and also throughout the initial, undergraduate

stages, collaboration becomes central. If learning is envisaged as a social activity that takes

place in communities of practice, understanding will only happen if students are made to

experience genuine collaboration, both within and outside the classroom and in real and

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virtual environments. ICT becomes relevant as a means of communication but also as a

way of encouraging collaboration, since educational technologies are specifically designed

to allow people to communicate and to work together beyond geographical constraints. ICT

is likely to make it possible for graduates to continue working with their educators and

former classmates once they start to work as teachers, to access the foreign cultures they

teach about, and to include collaborative work in their secondary school teaching.

3. Current designs, old and new

In order to evaluate the nature and scope of the changes that are to be introduced in

curriculum designs if they are to comply with the general guidelines provided by PM, we

have read a small sample of seven documents produced between 2001 and 2012 in a

heterogeneous set of academic institutions operating under various educational jurisdictions

(national and provincial universities, teacher training colleges) and located in different parts

of our country. Six designs were written before or coincidentally with the publication of the

PM, and one was completed shortly after. Though there is no mention of PM in the latter,

we expected to find a greater course load devoted to the humanities, research and ICT

considering the key role those fields have acquired in recent years, but as can be seen in

Table 1 below, that was not the case.

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 Total Literary and Research Collaboration
Institution Type Date attendance Social and and ICT
load Studies Academic
Writing

Nº 1 IFD 2001 4320 544 64 0

* (12,6%) (1,48%)

Nº 2 IFD 2004 4698 1024 96 64

(21,79 %) (2,04 %) (1,36%)

Nº 3 National 2005 3150 330 110 0

University (10,47) (3,49%)
*

Nº 4 IFD 2009 2384 480 224 80

* (20,13%) (9,39) (3,35 %)

Nº 5 IFD 2011 4064 544 0 0

* (13,38%

Nº 6 Provincial 2011 3408 384 96 96

University (11,26%) (2,81 %) (2,81)

Nº 7 IFD 2013 5040 736 96 112

* (14,60%) (1,90 %) (2,22%)

* In these designs the content of some courses is selected by each college

Table 1. Course load in seven teacher education institutions

It should be noted that our scrutiny was of a quantitative nature and aimed at inquiring

into the importance ascribed to ITC, to academic writing/research and to the subjects

included in the cultural field in terms of the number of 40-minute attendance periods

devoted to them by the jurisdiction. It should also be noted that some jurisdictions included

courses where institutions could make a curricular proposal that responded to their contexts

and educational policies (marked with an asterisk in Table 1). There is a possibility that

ICT, research and cultural related matters should be included in these courses, but still that

was not a jurisdictional decision.

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 From the data collected (see Table 1 above) it is clear that, regardless of significant

variations in the total load proposed in the designs, the number of hours devoted to Literary

and Social Studies ranges from a relatively low percentage (10,47%) to a non-negligible

one (20,13%). But if we turn our attention to ICT and to Research and Academic Writing

we can observe either a dramatic absence or a very low incidence of these subjects.

Besides, we cannot overlook the fact that a reading of the contents of three occurrences of

workshops or seminars hinging on ICT aim exclusively at the development of technical

competences, while only one centres on ICT and education. As regards Academic Writing

and Research, there is a tendency to include them in the Formación para la práctica

profesional field and/or in that of Formación General, which means that the language used

is not always English but also Spanish. In our opinion this is a serious shortcoming. To

begin with, teachers need to communicate in both languages as part of their professional

development; also, as John Flowerdew (2007) points out,

With the pressures of globalization and the marketinization of the academy

(Aronowitz 2000; Giroux and Myrsiades 2001), more and more scholars
need to write for international journals, which are invariably in English
[…].  The   challenge   for   most   EAL   writers   to   write   at   an   appropriate   level  
for publication in international journals is considerable. (p. 14)

Besides, teachers are also likely to teach academic writing in their professional practice,

which calls for the learning of academic writing in the FL during their education.

The results provide evidence that the goals proposed by PM will not be reached unless

significant changes are made to the older designs and sustained action is carried out in the

areas of comparative neglect detected. A comparison between pre-PM designs and the post-

PM design yields that though the three contents we have explored are sometimes included

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by the jurisdictions, the attendance load proposed by the newer design does not differ

greatly from that of some older ones. This signals a need to draw the attention of

jurisdictional teams and of the teacher educators who will be invited to participate in the

process of reform to the recommendations made by PM, because those recommendations,

while responding to current perspectives in teacher education, seek to attain some national

coherence at the level of curricular planning.

4. Concluding remarks

In keeping with the epigraph we chose for the Introduction to this paper, we are far from

advocating that uniformity and conformity are desirable in teacher education or in any other

field. However, if teaching degrees are to be valid all over the country, educational reform

has to be carried out on the basis of federal agreement, and though PM does not force

change but recommends courses of action, it expresses views which are shared by

representatives of prestigious institutions from all over the country. Each jurisdiction may

adapt the proposal made in PM to the region, and each institution, in turn, to their students,

but PM recommendations cannot be disregarded.

Once the curricular reform is completed, teacher educators will have to adapt to the

demands of the new designs for curricular reform to grow into real change. Even today,

before the reform is completed, some changes can start to be introduced to attune our

teaching to PM recommendations. For instance, probably it will soon be no longer enough

to teach about the cultural and historical processes of English speaking countries --a

relationship will have to be established with ours in order to promote intercultural

competence. Also, it may not be necessary to wait for the creation of a course exclusively

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devoted to research, since scientific enquiry can be tackled from the very first years of

teacher education by initiating students in academic writing, in the epistemological

foundation of the disciplines taught and in the research methodologies those disciplines

favour. The same holds true of/for the teaching of ICT: if a course were introduced in the

curriculum but it were aimed exclusively at the development of technical abilities, it is

likely to do very little for the teaching of collaboration. If, on the contrary, ICT is

incorporated to teacher education to promote learning processes --for example, as a means

to favour group processes, a better disciplinary understanding and linguistic and

intersubjective abilities--, it is likely to bear an impact not only on course outcomes, but

also and especially on the quality of future secondary school teaching, as our students will

most probably incorporate their learning experience to their professional practice.

We do not believe that we need to wait for big reforms to reflect about what our

students need if they are to become good secondary school teachers. Once reforms are made

teacher educators will have to be ready to abandon their comfort zones and implement them,

which calls for changes that could very well start much earlier than the reforms themselves.

After all, as Henry Thoreau said in Walden,  “Things  do  not  change;;  we  change.”  If  we  do  

not, teacher education will not either.

References

Belz, J. A. (2003). Linguistic perspectives on the development of intercultural competence

in telecollaboration. Language Learning & Technology, 7(2), 68–99.
Consejo Federal de Educación (2007). Resolución 30/07. Retrieved from
http://www.e.gov.ar/consejo/resoluciones/res07/30-07.pdf
Consejo Federal de Educación (2012). Resolución 167/12. Retrieved from
http://www.me.gov.ar/consejo/resoluciones/res12/167-12.pdf.
Flowerdew, J. (2007). The non-Anglophone scholar on the periphery of scholarly

208
 publication.In Linguistic inequality in scientific communication today, Carli, Augusto
& Ammon, Ulrich (Eds.), Aila Review Vol. 20. Amsterdam/Philadelphia, John
Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 14-27.
Gates, H. (1993). Loose Cannons: Notes on the Culture Wars. New York, OUP.
Instituto Nacional de Formación Docente (2011). Proyecto de mejora para la formación
inicial de profesores para el nivel secundario. Retrieved from
http://portales.educacion.gov.ar/infd/ensenanza-de-las-ciencias.
Johnson, K. (2006). The sociocultural turn and its challenges for second language teacher
education, TESOL Quarterly, 40(1), 235-257. Retrieved from:
Ministry of Education, Argentina (2012). Resolución 2373/12. Retrieved from
http://repositorio.educacion.gov.ar:8080/dspace/bitstream/handle/123456789/109643/r
e2373.pdf?sequence=1
Nussbaum, M. (2010). Not for Profit: Why Democracy Needs the Humanities. Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press.
Perkins, D. (1993). Teaching for understanding.American Educator, 17, 28-35. Retrieved
from: http://www.exploratorium.edu/ifi/resources/workshops/teachingforunderstanding.html.
Perkins, D. (1995). La escuela inteligente. Del adiestramiento de la memoria a la
educación de la mente. Barcelona: Gedisa.
Tello, C. (2006). Formación docente y conocimiento. Un binomio en crisis: el caso
argentino. Educere, 10(33), 283-301.
Reagan, T. & Osborn, T. (2002). The foreign language educator in society: Toward a
critical pedagogy. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Wierzbicka,  A.  (2011).  Defining  ‘the  humanities’. Humanities Australia, 2, 53-61.

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17 Using Spanish in academic English
language learning
Nancy C. González
Instituto Balseiro, Bariloche

1. Introduction

In this paper I explore teachers' and learners' beliefs and attitudes towards the use of

Spanish within the context of my adult academic EFL classes. To do this, first I review

some literature on this issue and on learning at large; then I reflect upon my work

environment and the instances when it would be convenient to resort to L1 analyzing the

particular reasons for tipping the scales in favor of translation to foster language learning.

2. Background

Most teachers my generation in Argentina have been led to believe that a successful

English lesson should rule Spanish out. In methodology classes we were given tools to

discourage students from using L1 and encourage them to always speak English. This

might be why, although we know in the light of current research that there is no reason why

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we should not use translation when we deem it more effective than the English explanation,

we cannot help but feel that we are committing some kind of methodology crime if we

translate.

On the other hand, students more often than not resort to Spanish to make sense of the

teaching contents we present, and it is only natural that they do so, Spanish being the

linguistic background they possess. If we asked our adult students about this question, we

would see that they do not share our beliefs and attitudes to translation.

3. Literature review

From the beginnings of the 1970s, with the advent of communicative teaching and the

Direct Method practitioners to the English teaching world, translation has been generally

out of fashion. This has been so, probably, due to the negative attitude towards the

Grammar Translation Method against which these practices were reacting. Although GTM

is unsatisfactory in many aspects, the use of translation does not make us advocates of this

method  and,  what  is  more,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  use  of  students’  first  language  (L1)  

should not be considered in the context of a communicative approach. As a matter of fact,

from the 1980s there has been a number of authors in the field of second language

acquisition who claimed that the use of L1 in the L2 classroom is necessary and, at times,

essential to facilitate second and foreign language learning.

Among the large amount of literature, I selected some to analyze this issue from

different perspectives.

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3.1. A sociolinguistic perspective

I  found  the  sociolinguists’  views  particularly  interesting because they refer to the social and

individual conflicts entailed by the L2 language learning process. In chapter 7, Second

language learning as participation and re-construction of selves (Lantolf, 2002), Aneta

Pavlenko and James Lantolf (2002) view language   learning   “not   as   the   acquisition   of   a  

new set of grammatical, lexical and phonological forms but as a struggle of concrete

socially constituted and always situated beings to participate in the symbolically mediated

lifeworld   of   another   culture.”   They see second language learning as the struggle for

participation in the second language community. In fact, they note that the metaphor

“participation”   has   emerged   to   complement   the   metaphor   of   “acquisition”   in   language  

learning. The individuals undergoing this process are marginalized and feel threatened in

their individuality because all their cultural/cognitive background which constitutes their

selves is challenged when confronted to this new cultural/cognitive knowledge expressed in

and through the new language. It is interesting to read the immigrant stories quoted in this

book, to get an overall idea of the deep personal impact suffered by these people struggling

to  acquire  a  language  to  participate  in  the  new  community’s  social  life.  

Earlier but still frequently quoted literature addresses the same issue from the same

perspective. In a provocative article, Elsa Auerbach (1993) gives a sociopolitical rationale

for the use of the L1 in ESL classrooms. She primarily addresses the situation of immigrant

ESL learners studying in the United States. Her conclusions, however, are applicable to any

second  language  learners  in  any  context.  In  this  article,  she  states  that  “everyday  classroom  

practices, far from being neutral and natural, have ideological origins and consequences for

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relations   of   power   both   inside   and   outside   the   classroom.”   Auerbach   (1993)   summarized  

her  conclusion  as  to  using  L1  in  the  classroom  in  the  following  way:  “Starting  with  the  L1  

provides a sense of security and validates the learners’  lived  experiences,  allowing  them  to  

express  themselves.  The  learner  is  then  willing  to  experiment  and  take  risks  with  English.”  

Liliana  Piasecka  seconds  Auerbach’s  position  when  she  states,  “One’s  sense  of  identity  

as an individual is inextricably bound  up  within  one’s  native  language....  If  the  learner  of  a  

second language is encouraged to ignore his/her native language, he/she might well feel

his/her  identity  threatened”  (Piasecka,  2012).

Although   our   EFL   students’   backgrounds   are   not   the   same   as   the   immigrants’  

backgrounds   described   in   Pavlenko’s   and   Lantolf’s   chapter,   I   think   that   they   also  

experience the same emotional turmoil while acquiring the L2. After all, our students are

also trying to be part of a new language community and until they have acquired the

necessary linguistic competences to work effectively in this new environment, they are

bound to feel somehow marginal and threatened.

3.2. Applied linguistics

The   Applied   Linguists’   perspective   is   no   less   interesting.   In   chapter   6   of   their   book:  

Between Worlds: Access to Second Language Acquisition, David E. Freeman & Yvonne S.

Freeman (2006) analyze why and how teachers should try to make the best of their students

by respecting their learning styles and by celebrating their first language and culture. Since

cooperative learning is proposed by these authors as one of the most appropriate situations

for L2 acquisition, an amount of L1 interaction should both be expected and welcome. Peer

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teaching is prompted as a resourceful mechanism for making students interact and acquire

the language, no matter if this peer coaching is conducted in the L1 or the L2.

Seeking to prove how being aware of the importance of the first language helps both

teachers and learners, they provide concrete examples on how to make the best use of the

L1, such as their preview, view and review technique. Basically, they suggest using the L1

for preview so that everyone knows what is going to happen in class, using the L2 for the

activities and closing again with the L1 to summarize the key ideas and raise questions on

the lesson.

One of the first and main advocates of mother tongue use in the communicative

classroom has been David Atkinson (1993). Atkinson points out the methodological gap

present at that time in the literature, concerning the use of the mother tongue, and argues a

case in favor of its restricted and principled use mainly in accuracy-oriented tasks. He lists

the following appropriate uses for the L1 in the L2 classroom.

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Figure  1.  Atkinson’s  (1993)  list  of  appropriate uses for the L1 in the L2 classroom.

Tomlinson’s  concept  of  “inner  voice”  is,  in  my  view,  crucial  to  understand  the  process  of  

L2 acquisition and to reassess the impact of L1 in this context. A  rough  definition  of  “inner  

voice”  is  “speech  in  the  mind”; it is the internal voice we use when talking to ourselves or

when repeating what we have heard or read. Although the inner voice is different from the

public voice, it does use a variety of the same language. Examples of inner speech

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utterances are: "Not again!", "Poor guy", "Allright, nothing very unusual.", "Why so much

work?", "Why did I do that?", "What to do now?", "Weird. Doesn't make sense."

(Tomlinson, 2001).

Tomlinson  argues  that:  “It  is  very  difficult  to  use  an  inner  voice  when  learning  an  L2  

from formal instruction. When we learned our L1 we did so in what was primarily a private

and personal way. We talked to ourselves before we talked to others and even when we

talked out loud we were often using a private voice which was self-directed. However,

when we learn an L2 in the classroom we are usually required to use a public voice from

the very beginning. We are not normally given time to talk to ourselves but are required to

participate in public interaction. Our L1 inner voice is inhibited by the need to produce L2

utterances which will be subject to public scrutiny. So, instead of developing thoughts and

ideas in our heads before speaking them aloud, we put all our mental energy into finding

the right L2 words in the right form and the right order. We use the L1 inner voice for

translating from L1 to L2 and for monitoring the correctness of our utterances in the L2.

And in most cases we do not develop an L2 inner voice for a very long time, mainly

because most of the activities we participate in as beginners demand instant responses and

ask us to report our experience rather than to process it. Other reasons are that we are afraid

to be "ungrammatical" in our heads in case this interferes with what we say aloud and

because the de-contextualized triviality and blandness of much of the language we are

required  to  process  and  produce  does  not  encourage  thought.”  (Tomlinson,  2001).

Considering these professional opinions can shed some light on our discussion

because, if our thoughts and ideas are shaped in our L1 and this becomes evident when

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trying   to   acquire   an   L2   or   L3,   shouldn’t   we   as   language   teachers   prioritize   clear  

understanding of ideas before we demand correct encoding of these ideas in the foreign

language?

3.3. The neurosciences

These relatively new sciences have offered fascinating insights into the human brain which

have helped understand human cognition and emotion. For the purpose of this analysis, I

will just consider some aspects of Cognitive Learning which also apply to language

learning.

Cognitive Neuroscience distinguishes two types of learning: Emotional and Cognitive.

Emotional Learning is characterized by being quick, unconscious and effortless. On the

other hand, Cognitive Learning is described as being slow and difficult, requiring a

conscious effort and consuming a lot of energy. It may also even be deemed dangerous if

new knowledge contradicts existing knowledge which the brain considers essential for

surviving.

Our bulk of existing knowledge consolidated in hebbian networks or neural networks is

called Security Zone or Comfort Zone. Learning implies widening this Comfort Zone, a

process which entails defeating initial fear, confusion, and rejection. Additionally,

Cognitive Learning has two mortal enemies: boredom, caused by low dopamine levels, and

anxiety, caused by high dopamine levels. To overcome all these strong emotions and

succeed through all the stages of learning, we need to come to terms with the new

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knowledge, that is to say we need to understand, because when we understand we make the

necessary neural connections which can, in their turn, allow us to go beyond our Comfort

Zone.

Thus, being learning such a complex process and understanding such a key factor for it

to take place, we might consider using L1 to facilitate the necessary understanding prior to

language learning.

4. My personal teaching experience

It has always been my feeling that adult learners in particular, being cognitively oriented,

value translation and benefit from it. To estimate the extent of this assumption, I designed a

short   questionnaire   which   addressed   students’   feelings   and   attitudes   towards   the   use   of  

Spanish. Surveyed student population consisted of young adults distributed in six courses

ranging from beginner to high-intermediate level. I should point out that, besides collecting

data, giving out the quiz resulted in a lively class discussion about learning strategies in

general and about the use of Spanish to make sense of English, in particular.

This was the questionnaire given:

USE OF TRANSLATION IN THE EFL CLASS

Students’  Questionnaire

1- How do you feel when you translate a new word / new words into Spanish?
a- Relieved, because you get the meaning clear.
b- Guilty, because you should understand without having to translate.
c- Don’t  have  any  special feeling,  because  it’s  all  part  of  learning.

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 2- How necessary is it for you to find the Spanish equivalent for a new word / words?
a- Very necessary, I cannot do without it.
b- Not so necessary, I feel I can manage without it.
c- It depends, at times I need it badly  but  some  other  times  I  just  don’t
.
3- Do you want to add any ideas on this issue?

And these were the overall results:

Question 1: a = 22% b = 0% c = 78%

Question 2: a = 39.3% b = 28.2% c = 62.5%

It is interesting to note that beginners felt more   inclined   to   choose   “a”   answers   whereas  

intermediate and high-intermediate  students  preferred  “c”  answers.

For   the   last   question,   some   interesting   issues   concerning   learners’   strategies   popped   up,  

among which I transcribe the following:

“In  Physics,  it  is  good  to  realize  that  a  new  word  like  “chiral”  doesn’t  have  a  clear  meaning  

neither in Spanish nor in English, so sometimes there is only one barrier to overcome:

Physics”.

“Para   entender,   necesito   establecer   una   relación   entre   el   significado   de   la   frase en inglés

con  el  sentido  de  la  frase  en  español.”

“I  think  it’s  better  to  try  to  understand  the  complete  sentence  and,  only  when  it’s  necessary,  

to  translate  a  specific  word”

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5. My reasons for translating

1- It’s   clear   and   it   saves   time:   Consider,   for   example,  teaching   the   word   “coil”   in   an  

engineering  students’  class.  Would  you  have  them  check  it  up  in  an  English-English

dictionary  or  would  you  simply  say  it  means:  “bobina”?

2- It  lowers  anxiety.  In  a  particular  class,  I  explained  the  meaning  of  “wrap”  by  saying:

“When   you   buy   a   birthday   present,   the   shop   assistant   wraps   it   up   in   a   nice   color  

paper, maybe ties a ribbon around it and they might also stick a card for you to

write”.  While  I  was  miming  the  actions,  I  noticed  a  student’s  lost  blank  look  and  I  

asked him:  How  would  you  say  “wrap”  in  Spanish?  He  said  “envolver”,  still  blank-

faced.  Then  he  said:  “But  I  thought  it  meant  “atrapar”  because  I  saw  the  word  in  a  

NatGeo documentary program being used in connection to how an octopus catches

its  preys…  ah…ok,  I  get  it,  it’s  the  way  it  catches  the  prey”  In  this  way,  the  initial  

anxiety caused by the apparent ambiguity was solved.

Lowering anxiety becomes relevant to favor intellectual cognitive learning which,

according to the neurosciences, is difficult, slow and consumes a lot of energy.

3- It tackles prior knowledge: We know that activation of prior knowledge is always

useful to integrate new input in existing cognitive schemata. Besides, from a

sociolinguistics perspective, addressing students previous knowledge empowers

their identity, that is, who they are and what they know become relevant.

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6. Conclusion

Foreign language teaching-learning is such a varied and dynamic field that I believe that the

mother tongue should be incorporated naturally as another useful instrument in the

communicative foreign language classroom. This does not mean denying the fact that our

students need as much exposure as possible to L2 during class time which, in many cases,

will be the only time when they encounter the language. Besides, it is also true that when

students try to communicate in English, they activate necessary cognitive strategies to

acquire the linguistic ability which they would not activate otherwise, like negotiating

meaning, for example.

However, whenever we are confronted with something new, it is a natural instinct to

look for similarities with things that are familiar, to try and draw some comparison with

what we already know. Consciously or unconsciously, we bring what we know to what we

do not, making it impossible to learn anything entirely from scratch. Thus, it is not possible

to learn a foreign language without relying to some extent on your mother tongue, and the

impulse to look for similarities and to draw conclusions based on them is as strong here as

in any other learning context.

Even in the classroom using the most direct language-teaching methods, the learner

will still, out of necessity, conduct an internal dialogue or rationalization in his native

tongue. This impulse will be stronger with the greater the incidence of apparent similarities.

We, as teachers, might do well in warning our students against these dangers of

overgeneralization. In this respect, the overuse of the L1 in the L2 classroom may be

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prejudicial. All in all, it is always for us teachers to decide when and how we are going to

resort to L1 to enhance learning of L2.

Decision making is a fascinating component of our classes because it is based on our

theoretical and experiential knowledge but it is also exciting free play. When it comes to

deciding whether to translate or not, I believe teachers should trust the criteria that mind

dictates but also the intuition and creative spark present in our hearts and guts.

References

Auerbach, E. (1993). Reexamining English only in the ESL classroom.TESOL Quarterly,

27(1), 9-32.
Atkinson, D. (1987). The mother tongue in the classroom: A neglected resource? ELT
Journal, 41(4), 241-247.
Freeman, D. E., & Freeman, Y. S. (2001). What are key concepts, models and theories in
bilingual education? In D. E Freeman & Y. S Freeman (Eds.), Between worlds: Access
to second language acquisition (pp. 176-223). Cambridge: Heinemann.
Lantolf, J. P. (2002). Second language learning as participation and re-construction of
selves. In Lantolf, J. P (Ed.), Sociocultural theory and second language learning.
(pp.155-178). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Logatt Grabner, C. (2011, January 9). Las Etapas del Aprendizaje. [Web log
post].Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BeXiLK5MWw&lr=1&user=aeducar
Logatt Grabner, C., & Castro,M. (2011). El gran secreto: "Por qué somos como
somos" .Editorial LPF
Logatt Grabner, C,.& Castro, M. (2011). El Libro de las Reglas Mentales"Neurociencias
aplicadas al cambio y desarrollo humano". Editorial LPF
Piasecka, L. (2012). Variable  effects  of  foreign  language  learning  on  learners’  identity. In
E. Piechurska-Kuciel& L. Piasecka (Ed.), Variability and stability in foreign and
second language learning contexts: Volume 2. (pp.116-133). Cambridge: Cambridge
Scholars.
Tomlinson, B. (2001). The inner voice: A critical factor in L2 Learning. Journal of the
Imagination in Language Learning and Teaching, Volume VI. Retrieved from
http://www.njcu.edu/cill/vol6/tomlinson.html

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18 The use of multimodal resources to
explore  a  text’s  voices
Rosa Inés Cúneo

Natacha Carolina Sánchez Romera

Universidad Nacional de San Juan

1. Introduction

our  speech  …  is  filled  with  others’  words,  

varying  degrees  of  otherness  and  varying  degrees  of  ‘our-own-ness’
Bakhtin, 1968

The idea that a text is filled with the voices of others,apart   from   the   writer’s, has been

present in the field of discourse studies for several decades now. Experienced writers bring

voices to the text to achieve various effects and experienced readers can spot those voices

and explore their significance in the overall meaning of a text. In the world of EFL, in

which most readers are still in the process of developing the strategies that will make them

more proficient language users, identifying such voices can bea challenge.

This paper is part of the pedagogical component of a research project carried out at the

Facultad de Filosofía, Humanidades y Artes, Universidad Nacional de San Juan. It presents

some visual and digital tools for the identification and exploration of the multiple voices

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which are present in a written text. We believe that going beyond the verbal or linguistic

component of a text and using multimodal resources as an aid in reading comprehension

can  help  students  discover  a  text’s  voices: a task which is often back-grounded in the EFL

reading class. Our general research perspective is informed by Systemic Functional

Linguistics (SFL) (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004), and our approach to the identification of

‘voices’   or   sources   is   based   on   research   by   Murcia   Bielsa   and   O’Donnell (2011). We

further support our proposal by drawing on Multimodal studies (Jewitt, 2008; Kress& Van

Leeuwen,2001) as we believe that the EFL classroom can be enriched by teachers and

students working with a multiplicity of modes, rather than focusing on the linguistic mode

exclusively.

We firmly believe that if students are guided in an adequate learning environment, they

can become aware of the presence of various voices in a text and of the impact those

choices have in the construction of meaning.

2. Attribution to sources: the voices brought to a text

A  text’s  words  or  ideas can be presented  as  the  writer’s,  or  attributed  explicitly  or  implicitly

to external sources. In the field of EFL, the study or analysis of sources in a text has been

traditionally associated with reported speech structures; however, language offers other

ways of attributing information. Moving away from form-dominated perspectives, we

endorse a meaning-centered approach to the exploration of sources, which includes other

linguistic resources apart from the conventional subordination or coordination patterns

covered in reported speech lessons. Within the SFL framework, Martin and Rose (2007, p.

52) claim that the words and thoughts of others can be introduced into a text by means of
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several linguistic resources. These resources are presented below, with examples drawn

from our research corpus:

 projecting clauses, i.e. subordinated or coordinated clauses traditionally

associated with reported speech. (“This young generation has known so

much  sadness  and  anguish,”  he  said  in  an  interview  that  year.)

 projecting within clauses, i.e. with no subordination structure. This is

realized by verbs embodying verbal and mental processes known as

projecting verbs in the SFL framework. (But Mr. Sábato was criticized for

initially appearing to support the military dictatorship. The New York

Times, May 2, 2011)

 naming speech acts; i.e. using words -often nominalizations- which imply

one   or   more   voices,   such   as   ‘discussion’,   ‘debate’,   ‘protest’,   etc.   (...he

helped draft a statement of protest concerning writers who had disappeared.

The New York Times, May 2, 2011)

 using   “scare   quotes”,   i.e.   the   writer’s   use   of   punctuation   to   separate  

him/herself from the words used. (After nine and a half months of

investigation,   the   commission   produced   “NuncaMás,”   which   compiled  

evidence  of  about  9,000  “disappeared”  persons. The New York Times, May

2, 2011).

To this list, in line with Murcia Bielsa and  O’Donnell’s  proposal,  we  add  the  introduction  

of voices by means of circumstantial elements:

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  adverbial elements used to attribute ideas or information, such as  ‘according  

to’,   ‘in   the   words   of’.(In a rare 2008 interview with the newspaper

Pagina12, Ms. Walsh...The Washington Post, January 12, 2011)

Focusing on the effect that attributing information may have, Murcia Bielsa and  O’Donnell

(2011) have explored sourcing as part of a study of the presence of power and ideology in

discourse. Drawing on research by White on the Appraisal Framework (Available at

http://www.grammatics.com/appraisal/AppraisalGuide/UnFramed/Stage4-

Intertextuality.htm), these authors explain the various purposes of bringing -or choosing not

to bring- voices to a text, and present a classification of sources along the following lines:

a) who is presented as holding responsibility for   the   information;;   b)   the   writer’s  

endorsement or disendorsement of the information; c) the placement of the information in

the text; and d) descriptive features of the source (including its independence and status)

which   help  construe  the  source’s   credibility. The  authors  explain  that  a  ‘fact’ or piece of

information can be:

 unsourced

 sourced

If sourced, the information can be:

1. endorsed or unendorsed, depending on whether the responsibility for what

is said is shared by the writer or not;

2. introduced by direct or indirect quotation;

3. introduced by a personal/ impersonal; singular / plural; ornamed/unnamed /

anonymous source;

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 6. introduced by a source enjoying high, middle or low

independence(depending on the interests at stake in relation towhat is being

said);

7. introduced by a source enjoying high or low status in society.

In general terms, when no sources are cited, the information is presented as true facts. On

the other hand, when writers attribute information to a source, they often do it as a way of

“shaping opinions, favoring information which fits their position, and disfavoring

information which goes against their position”   (Murcia Bielsa& O’Donnell,   2011).

Needless to say, these effects are extremely relevant in any critical approach to the study of

texts, and are often discussed as instances of intertextuality, which Fairclough defines as:

... basically the property texts have of being full of snatches of other texts,
which may be explicitly demarcated or merged in, and which the text may
assimilate, contradict, ironically echo, and so forth. (Fairclough, 1992, p.
84).

External voices which are - in   Fairclough’s   words - “explicitly   demarcated” would

represent, for a traditional form-based linguistic framework, a case of direct speech, and

those  voices  that  are  “merged   in” the discourse would fall into the category of indirect or

reported speech.

These considerations, which may be familiar to discourse analysts, can be kept away

from the EFL classroom on the assumption that this type of analysis should be reserved for

native speakers or very advanced classes. We claim that through the use of some

pedagogical tools, in particular through the use of multimodal resources, teachers can help

students from various levels to reflect critically on the presence and effect of the sources

brought to a text.
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3. Multimodality as a resource

As educators have become well aware of, today’s  children  and  adolescents  are  a  new  kind  

of students. They are “digital  natives” (Prensky, 2001) who were born and are being raised

surrounded by visual, electronic and digital texts which Kress and Van Leeuwen (2001),

among other researchers, call “multimodal  texts”.  According to Anstey and Bull (2010), a

multimodal text is one that combines two or more of the five recognized semiotic systems:

linguistic, visual, audio, gestural and spatial.

In a 2007 study involving a group of British students from three to sixteen, Eve

Bearneand her research team (in Walsh, 2004) explored the skills and strategies used by the

students for reading screen-based texts. The researchers could not assert if   the   learners’  

manipulation of multimodal texts was actually affecting their learning process or if they

were developing cognitive abilities different from those necessary for reading traditional

print-based texts, a dilemma that is likely to remain unanswered for some time. However,

what  became  evident  in  Bearne’s  study  was  that  for  the  younger  generations  reading  is  not  

just reading in the traditional  sense  of  the  term;;  rather,  it  is  ‘reading  and  viewing’.  The  way  

these  learners  “make”  meaning  has  definitely  changed.

Multimodality in the world of education implies, as Kress (2005, p. 5) explains,

moving   away   “from representation primarily through writing to representation primarily

through image”.     How   can   we   bring   a   multimodal   approach   to   the   reading   of   a  

mostlymonomodal text in an EFL class? We argue for the integration of print and visual

modes, and agree with Walsh (2008, p. 1) when she claims that multimodal texts and print-

based   texts   are   different   but   “not   mutually   exclusive”.     We   believe   we   can   bring   in   the  

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 multimodal resources of image and screen to highlight various aspects of a text and guide

students to identify text elements -in this case,   a   text’s   voices- which may be otherwise

passed up.

Researchers and practitioners in the field of EFL need to respond to the demands

brought about by the new generations of learners and devise pedagogical tools to cater for

the particular characteristics of these young learners.

4. Tools proposed

We present a few ideas for the use of multimodal resources to identify and explore voices

in a text. The list is by no means exhaustive. Resourceful teachers will certainly find ways

of expanding it based on their  students’  needs  and  interests.  

a. Speech bubbles

The  first  and  most  basic  suggestion  is  the  drawing  of  simple  ‘speech  bubbles’  next  to  what  

a  writer  presents  as  somebody  else’s  words  or  ideas.  This  does  not  require  any  sophisticated  

technology and can be done quite easily in any classroom context. For example, the voices

in the following made-up text can be highlighted graphically as follows:

avoice
When he entered the room, he thought he was alone, but when he heard
a voicecalling his name he realized there was someone else. The Whosev
oice?
mysterious voice asked:  “Are you looking for me?”This
questionscared him at first, but he did not panic. He knew he had to
mysterious
voice remain calm, and be the “tough  guy”...
family and
friends?
Figure 1.Illustration of the use of speech bubbles

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This tool can be used in different ways, from a simple exercise in which students are asked

to draw a bubble next to a sourced reference, to a more complex task in which, apart from

drawing, students are asked to colour code the graphic forms following specific criteria, for

example using Murcia Bielsa and   O’Donnell’s   classification   presented   above.   Moving  

away from the traditional approach to Reported Speech, we could also ask students to

identify names of speech acts (such as the question in the previous example) and make

them reflect on how these are used to represent external voices.

b. Digital conceptual mapping

A   slightly   more   sophisticated   resource   is   the   digital   tool   called   ‘IHMC   Cmap’  

(http://cmap.ihmc.us/download/), which can be used for a multiplicity of purposes and can

easily be adapted to visually represent voices in a text. For example, a Cmap can be used to

help students discover and illustrate the argumentative pattern in a text. This may be

regarded as a complex reading comprehension activity. Yet, we believe that this digital tool

can help to make the challenge more accessible to modern day visual learners.

The example below illustrates the use of a C-map to identify the positions construed

through the various voices present in the selected text, which is part of the corpus of our

research project. For this task, we rely on the three argumentation categories proposed by

Martin and Rose (2008) within the SFL framework. These authors claim that, depending on

the positions deployed in a text, argumentation can take one of the following forms:

exposition, with a single-position   defended,   mostly   through   the   writer’s   own   voice;;  

challenge, with two competing positions put forward and only one presented as valid; and

discussion, with various positions presented and one generally favoured above the others.
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In general terms, expositions are more likely to be single-voiced, and challenges and

discussions tend to contain a multiplicity of voices.

Through the use of visual representations afforded by C map, students can be guided to first

identify the voices and corresponding positions in a given text(Figure 2) and then to

discover the argumentative pattern (Figure 3).This can become an effective way of dealing

with the seeming complexity of such tasks.

Figure 2. Identifying voices and positions in  “Argentina Senate to Vote on Gay Marriage”,  
The New York Times, July 14, 2010

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Figure 3.Identifying a   text’s argumentation pattern in   “Argentina Senate to Vote on Gay
Marriage”,  The  New  York  Times,  July 14, 2010

Figure 2 above clearly shows that the text under analysis presents a multiplicity of

perspectives but favours only one of the positions. Figure 3, in turn, guides students to help

them define the argumentative pattern, in this case, a discussion.

It is through the visual representation that the task can become accessible to students

and the reading comprehension process can be enhanced. Such combination of linguistic,

visual and digital modes can be used to improve reading comprehension skills in a way

which is more appealing tocurrent day learnersand morecompatible with their surrounding

environment.

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 c. On-line cartoon strip maker

Taking the visual component one step further, the use of a tool such as ToonDoo

(http://www.toondoo.com/) to create on-line cartoon strips may allow students to represent

the voices in a text, bringing in images and photographs to accompany the words. This

resource can be used for a variety of tasks, ranging in complexity depending on the

students’  level.  

Figure 4 shows a traditional reported speech exercise, in which students have to

provide the actual words of a reported version contained in a given text. This

transformation exercise, which is likely to appear in most language courses, becomes a

more appealing activity when it is channelled through visual and digital modes as in the

example provided.

Figure 4.Photographs representing voices in   “Maradona: ‘All you could hear was Messi
crying’". Marca.com, February 13, 2013

Using ToonDoo, students can create their own characters, either based on photographs or

on image banks, i.e. life-like or picture-based representations. In the illustration above,

which relates to a text about well-known figures, web-images can be used in the

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representation. In the case of texts such as short stories or other texts which contain

fictional characters, students may be asked to imagine what such voices might look like,

using descriptive features in the text or other contextual or cultural information, such as the

social roles played by the participants. They can then decide what resources to use in their

graphic creation.

The type of speculation involved in guessing what a source might look like can become

an interesting topic for discussion, as many times decisions made by students will be based

on stereotypes or preconceptions. Teachers might use such opportunities to challenge any

negative or prejudiced view.

The three tools illustrated above show that visual and digital resources can be adapted

to suit the needs and interests of students with varying degrees of linguistic sophistication,

with tasks adjusted accordingly. Once a teacher becomes familiar with these tools, a world

of unlimited possibilities opens up, which is likely   to   enrich   the   students’   learning

experience.

5. Closing remarks

We believe that the tools presented constitute simple resources to help students discover

aspects of a text which may go unnoticed in an EFL class. Through initial guidance and

explicit instruction, students may start to recognize the identities construed in a text instead

of viewing it as a single-voiced, indisputable cultural product. This is clearly a worthwhile

educational objective.

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References

Anstey, M., & Bull, G. (2010).Helping teachers to explore multimodal texts. Curriculum
Leadership. An electronic Journal for leaders in education, 8 (16), front page. At
http://www.curriculum.edu.au/leader/helping_teachers_to_explore_multimodal_texts,3
1522.html?issueID=12141
Bakhtin, M.M. (1981). The dialogic imagination: Four essays. Austin: University of Texas
Press.
Barrionuevo, A. (July 14, 2010). Argentina Senate to Vote on Gay Marriage. The New York
Times, pp. A11.
Barrionuevo, A.(May 2, 2011). Ernesto  Sábato,  Argentina’s  Conscience,  Is  Dead  at  99.The
New York Times, pp. A 25.
Brunati, V. (February 13, 2013). Maradona: "All you could hear was Messi crying".
Marca.com, n.p. Retrieved from
http://www.marca.com/2013/02/13/en/football/international_football/1360774376.ht
ml
Fairclough, N. (1992). Discourse and social change. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Halliday, M.A.K., &Matthiessen, C. (2004).Introduction to functional grammar (3rd
edition). London: Edward Arnold.
Kress, G. (2005).Gains and losses: New forms of texts, knowledge and learning.Computer
and Composition: An International Journal, 22(1),5-22.
Kress, G., &Van Leeuwen, T. (2001).Multimodal discourse(1st edition).Bloomsbury, USA:
Hodder Arnold Publication.
Jewitt, C.(2008).Multimodality and literacy in school classrooms.Review of Research in
Education, 32, 241-267.
Martin, J., & Rose, D. (2007).Genre relations: Mapping culture. London: Equinox
Publishing Ltd.
Murcia, S., &O’Donnell  M.  (2011).Language and power in English texts. Course material
developed for a PhD Program at the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. Retrieved
from http://web.uam.es/departamentos/filoyletras/filoinglesa/Courses/LFC-
SFL/PowerDoctoradoV9-readingsweek2.pdf
Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, Digital immigrants. On the Horizon.MCB University
Press, Vol. 9 No. 5, October 2001, 1-6.
The Washington Post (January 12, 2011).Argentine's books entertained children but carried
messages. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
dyn/content/article/2011/01/11/AR2011011107123.html
Walsh, M. (2005). Reading visual and multimodal texts: how is 'reading'
different?Multiliteracies& English Teaching K-12 in the Age of Information &
Communication Technologies 2004.

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19 Reflecting on identity and
intercultural issues through literature
María Ximena Maceri
Pontificia Universidad Católica Argentina,

ISFDyT N°24 (Quilmes), EES N°11 (San Miguel), EES N°10 (José C. Paz)

1. Literature, culture and empty mirrors

Analysing the different reasons why literature can be used in the language classroom, Lazar

(1993) refers to some features generally associated to the literary text: its potential to

engage the reader and arise motivation, its authenticity and educational value, the fact that

it exposes language creatively and so students may gain language awareness and develop

interpretative abilities and, last but not least, the possibility that literature gives to students

to discuss cultural elements and establish connections between the culture presented in the

literary  text  and  the  reader’s  own  culture.  In  this  regard,  the  author  states  that  “literature  can  

provide students with access to the culture of the people whose language they are  studying”  

(Lazar, 1993, p.16). Nonetheless, the relationships between literature and culture can be of

a complicated nature. The author claims that this is so due to different factors: a) the

complex relationship between culture and literature; b) the fact that literature reflects only

236
some aspects of the culture it derives from, which implies that it cannot be thought of as a

full and factual reliable cultural description; c) how culture is defined will inevitably alter

the way in which literature is understood; and finally, d) the fact that literature written in

English nowadays is representative of so many divergent cultures, it may be interesting to

identify  the   “imposition  of  particular   imperialistic  values”  (Lazar,  1993,  p.16). In view of

this and in reference to how literature can be read cross-culturally, it may be argued that

one factor that can counteract the complexity existing between culture and literature is the

fact that many themes are recurrent in different cultures. Thus, it might be very useful to

establish relationships between the literary text and the culture studied in the classroom in

order to bridge the gap that may exist between the student and the culture represented in the

text.

Delving into the meanings of culture, it might be appropriate at this stage to identify

some of its features in order to be able, eventually, to search for agreement on what is it to

be taught in a language classroom where the use of literature is associated to the analysis of

cultures. The Collins English  dictionary  refers  to  culture  as  the  “total  of  the  inherited  ideas,  

beliefs, values and knowledge, which constitute the shared bases of social action [...]

activities and ideas of a group of people with shared traditions, which are transmitted and

reinforced  by  members  of  the  group.”  If  literature  can  help  students  discover  new  forms  of  

life and different ways of seeing the world, this inevitably constitutes a further step in the

development of their own identity. Being able to experience a different culture through the

use of literature implies that the individual has the possibility to examine his or her own

culture, too. This introspection allows for new thoughts and new comprehensions. Identity,

then,  is  to  be  regarded  as  “the  state  of  having  unique  identifying characteristics held by no

237
other person or thing [...] the individual characteristics by which a person or thing is

recognized   [...]   that   relation   that   holds   only   between   any   entity   and   itself.”   (Collins  

dictionary). In an attempt to establish a clear relationship between culture and identity, it

becomes evident that there is a close link between the two of them. The individual

characteristics that make one person have a specific identity –by extension, a social group

sharing identity features- contribute to the configuration of the cultural patterns to which

that person or social group adheres and, at the same time, they are the basis for their

individual and collective action. In this way, it may be argued that identity and culture can

be regarded as complementary: one allowing for the existence of the other.

In this context, after acknowledging the value of literature in the language classroom

and its potential for the analysis of culture and the development of identity, there only

remains one term to bring to the equation, that is the concept of interculturalism. Meer and

Modood (2012) write extensively on the differences between interculturalism and

multiculturalism and state that the first one is connected with

something greater than co-existence   […]   interculturalism   is   allegedly   more   geared  

toward   interaction   and   dialogue   than   multiculturalism   […]   interculturalism   is  
conceived   as   something   less   ‘groupist’   or   more   yielding   of   synthesis   than  
multiculturalism   […]   interculturalism   is   something   more committed to a stronger
sense of the whole (Meer & Modood, 2012, p. 177).

Though the differences between interculturalism and multiculturalism can shed some light

on how to work better inside the classroom, some questions still linger on: Are we as

teachers prepared to work with these concepts in mind? Do we simply observe

multiculturalism in our classrooms or we go further to think in terms of interculturalism

and integration? What is interculturalism in our contexts, how is it to be understood in the

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field of teaching foreign languages? And, what consequences does it bring to the daily

work in the classroom? What fictional settings do we encounter in the literature we teach

that might explore the concepts of culture, identity and interculturalism? More importantly,

what is our standpoint as educators in regard to these terms and what are the implications?

In an article summarizing the basis for a doctoral study conducted by Tammy

Schwartz, the author recalls the words by poet Adrienne Rich and uses them to introduce

the subject of the latent relationship between schooling and identity development. Rich

illustrates   what   often   becomes   a   sad   reality:   “When   someone   with   the   authority   of   a  

teacher, say, describes the world and you are not in it, there is a moment of psychic

disequilibrium,   as   if   you   looked   into   a   mirror   and   saw   nothing.”   (Schwartz, 2004, p.16).

The article by Schwartz is concerned with the problems that exist in a community of

Appalachian descent in the United States, where a group of young female students are sent

in a mission to recover part of their collective identity through the analysis of written texts.

Their discovery helps both the students and the author to come to terms with some images

generally associated to the neighbourhood they live in and the concluded work reflects how

their own culture is clearly different from the hegemonic one. In the final lines of her work

Schwartz   raises   another   question   that   could   be   added   to   the   ones   above:   “Can   teachers,  

principals, and the districts in which they work create learning spaces so that diversity is

privileged over uniformity?”   (Schwartz,   2004,   p. 21). Hopefully, professionals who are

aware of the intercultural nature of their classrooms and who have an interest in working

for the plural and the diverse will not surrender to the image of the empty mirrors reflecting

no one in particular and will work towards filling those mirrors with images of multiple

voices.

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2. Discussing two examples

One way to work with literature in the name of diversity can be through the selection of

texts whose characters and themes embody the difficulties of being different in hostile

environments. This paper explores the construction of identity and issues regarding

interculturalism in two literary texts written by female authors. The first one is the famous

and Pulitzer winner novel by Toni Morrison Beloved, which explores the lives of a former

slave woman and her family around the times of the Reconstruction in the United States.

The novel exposes the reader to one of the crudest possible realities of a woman who

commits infanticide in order to prevent her children from becoming slaves. Morrison

artfully constructs a narrative loaded with memorable scenes, most of them with a high

degree of explicit brutality that illustrate the hardships of black female identity construction

in the context of abolition. The second text is a short story published in 1994 in a volume

called       “Did   my   mama   like   to   dance?:   and   other   stories   about   mothers   and   daughters”  

written by the Cuban-American author Cecilia Rodríguez Milanés. The short story is titled

“Abuela  Marielita,”   and tells us about a woman who has come to live in the United States

with   her   daughter’s   family   after   migrating   from   Cuba   in   the   1980’s.     The   story   is   full   of  

domestic details that describe a compassionate character who has begun to feel forgotten

even  in  the  house  she  inhabits  and  surrounded  by  her  own  daughter’s  family.  In  spite  of  the  

obvious differences these two texts have in connection to length, setting, plot  and  author’s  

background , it is possible to think of them as interesting examples to bring about class

discussion of issues related to discrimination, gender violence, cultural respect and

treatment of the other in upper-intermediate and advanced groups. By focusing on different

moments of the texts it will be shown that they both share a profound concern with identity,

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especially as it is built by female characters in unfavourable contexts where marginalization

is a threatening factor and the protagonists are considered either outsiders or members of

unprivileged groups.

2.1. Beloved

Beloved tells the story of a woman, Sethe, who escaped slavery in the last days of her

fourth pregnancy. She carries the burden of thousands of memories that take her from the

present back to the painful days when she was enslaved. From the opening of the novel, the

author creates a rhetoric web that continually balances between the present and the past,

insisting on the latter with the intention of setting the mood and establishing one of the

main themes in the narrative, which is the recovery of memory. One of the first examples in

the text that leads to the question of identity construction is connected with the events

around  the  engraving  of   Beloved’s  tomb.  The   narrator  explains how Sethe and her fourth

child,   Denver,   decided   to   come   to  terms   with   the   ghost  of   Sethe’s   third   baby,   also   a   girl,  

who carries the name that gives title to the novel. In a domestic spiritual ceremony, they

called the ghost to come and stop what made the   house   so   “...spiteful.   Full   of baby’s  

venom.”  (Morrison,  2005,  p. 3). When the ghost did not give any sign of understanding the

message, mother and daughter began the following conversation that eventually led to a

crude recollection:

“‘For  a  baby  she  throws  a  powerful  spell,’  said  Denver.

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‘No  more  powerful  than  the  way  I  loved  her’,  Sethe  answered  and  there  it  was  again.  The  

welcoming cool of unchiseled headstones, the one she selected to lean against on tiptoe, her

knees wide open as any grave. [...]  Ten  minutes,  he  said.  You  got  ten  minutes  I’ll  do  it  for  

free. [...] Not only did she have to live out her years in a house palsied at the baby´s fury at

having its throat cut, but those ten minutes she spent [...] were longer than life, more alive,

more pulsating   than   the   baby’s   blood   that   soaked   her   fingers   like   oil.”   (Morrison,   2005,  

p.3).

Identity in the case of Sethe is mostly associated with brutality and sexual violence. As

a former slave, she grew up being treated as chattel, she formed her personality and learned

social roles in a dehumanising context that could only repeat itself. She was an orphan

daughter who hardly heard of her own mother and how she threw away her other babies

keeping Sethe, the only one not born out of rape. She was a wife who consummated her

marriage outside in the cornfield not far from the sight of other people and was never

allowed to fully legitimise the sacrament. Finally, she was a mother who traded the

engraving  of  her  daughter’s  tomb  for  ten  minutes  of  sex,  making  this a traumatic moment

that would linger in her mind and heart forever. She lost her two elder boys and cut her

baby’s  throat  in  an  act  of  horror  and  desperation.    

Regarding Beloved, the mysterious character who first seems to come to occupy the

place of the dead baby, the readership does never get to know who she really is. In a brief

analysis   of   Beloved’s   identity,   Anatol   (2010)   provides   different   interpretations   that   range  

between the worlds of the possible and that of the supernatural. She argues that Beloved

may   have   been  an  enslaved  girl  who  escaped  sexual  exploitation  and   found  Sethe’s  home  

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when running away. In line with the supernatural interpretations that coincide with the

ghost story genre –a classification most critics adhere to-, Beloved may be read as either the

personification   of   Sethe’s   baby   girl   or   as   “a   compilation   of   all   the   enslaved   peoples   who  

died”   (Anatol,   2010)   in   the   Middle   Passage   and   to   whom   Morrison   dedicates   the   novel.  

Despite the interpretation that each reader wants to adopt, it is evident the author intended

not to provide a definite answer in this regard. The character's identity remains elusive,

which implies the author is concerned with problematising the issue of identity

construction. The social group originated with the arrival to the United States of the black

community for indentured labor creates a culture delineated by slavery, a feature that is

evident not only from the thematic aspects of the novel but also from the structural one.

The text is built in a circular, almost elliptical way, taking the reader from one point to the

centre and then to the outside again, resembling memory and its tricks. This resource is

used by Morrison with the clear intention of showing another identity pattern which is the

rich oral tradition of African American culture.

2.2. Abuela Marielita

This   short   story   presents   a   different   setting,   Miami   in   the   1980’s,   a   city   that   was   rapidly  

transforming due to complex social and demographic changes. One of the innovations was

connected with the mass emigration of Cubans who departed from the Mariel harbour in

their native country and became political refugees in the United States. But this new wave

of  Cuban   migrants  was  different  from  that  of  previous  decades.  In  the  1950’s   most  of  the  

Cubans who arrived in the United States belonged to the upper classes that had the means

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to   escape   of   Fidel   Castro’s   administration.   In   the   1960’s   the   Cuban   migrants   that   finally  

made their way into the United States belonged mainly to the middle classes. Whereas the

marielitos, name given to the Cubans who came via the Mariel boatlifts between April and

October 1980, were said to belong to a lower social stratum : some of them were ex-

convicts and mental patients that Castro had released on purpose to ship them out of the

island. In addition to the social differences, the marielitos had already experienced the

communist system imposed on Cuba, so their needs and ways of thinking were somewhat

different from those of their countrymen who were already settled in the country from

previous years. The arrival of the marielitos generated resentment in various sectors:

among non-Hispanic whites who felt that another group of foreigners was again taking

advantage of their lands and jobs; among the black community who saw with envy how

these new Cuban exiles were receiving preferential treatment while they were still

discriminated against and relegated within the labour force; and among other Cubans who

already held positions in various spaces of society but understood their reputation was

threatened by the arrival of these individuals who were considered the scoria of society, to

use a term that was employed both by Fidel Castro and the North American media.

Abuela Marielita is an excellent portrait of the tensions existing regarding the arrival of

these  people.  The  first  lines  of  the  text  read  as  follows:  “My  daughter  doesn’t  want  people  

to know that I came through the port of Mariel, so she tells them that I came by way of

Spain in January 1980, four months before I actually arrived  en  los  cayos.”  (Kothari,  1994,  

p. 93). The technique of stream of consciousness is used by the author to take the reader

through different moments of the main character´s life: her last days in Cuba, the people

she met during the crossing, what happened to the rest of the members of her family and the

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difficulties encountered during her early days in the United States. Throughout the

narrative, the author proposes an intense dynamics of descriptions made from the point of

view of Soledad, the grandmother of the family who is a former marielita. Through

exquisitely   detailed   accounts   the   family   is   introduced:   Michael,   Soledad’s   son-in-law,

whose business allows the whole family to have a good economic position and buy as many

air-conditioning systems as are needed to fight the heat –instead  of  Soledad’s  insistence  in  

using  a  fan  and  enjoying  the  weather  outside;;  Gertrude,  Soledad’s  daughter,  with  whom  the  

protagonist seems to have a more distant relationship than she would prefer; and the two

children, Marcos and Gracielita, who are spoilt and naughty. Once the relationship between

Soledad and the family members has been well described, there comes the introduction of

two important characters, Yamile, the humble single mother who moves to the little room

the family rents at the back of their house, and her baby Luz. At the time these two

characters are presented, the narrator makes it clear that it was about them she was meant to

talk about, so all the successive lines lead the reader to the climax of the story while the

domestic portrayal continues to marvellously describe a fascinating household as it is

observed by its eldest member. Soledad becomes an example of how the marielitos were

treated both in the community at large and within the Cuban immigrants, but she also

epitomises old age and how senior citizens are disrespected or looked down on because

they may not be interesting regardless the life experiences they have to tell.

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3. Conclusion and further suggestions

The two stories presented above are only examples in which literature relies heavily upon

cultural   elements   to   attract   the   reader’s   attention   and   generate   genuine   bonds.   An  

interesting activity to carry out inside the language classroom, both to enhance speaking

skills and critical thinking, would be to study how these stories are read, understood and

ascribed  with  meaning,  both  in  the  culture  that  has  produced  them  and  in  the  student’s  own  

culture. In order to raise intercultural awareness, these two texts could be used to reflect

upon the tensions that exist between groups with different identity patterns, different needs

and cultural heritage who come to live within societies that do not seem ready to accept

variety. Is it possible to fill in the empty mirrors and create learning spaces for the rich and

the diverse? This question will ultimately be answered in as many ways as literature

classrooms may there be. What is important to remember is that the link between culture

and literature is very close indeed. Consequently, teachers and researchers may want to

explore this richness in order to allow learners and readers in general to become aware of

the deep meanings hidden in narratives so strongly based on cultural elements. In this 21st-

century world, so globalised, with communication and technology in the palm of our hands,

one of the ways in which real understanding can be fostered is through the teaching of new

values oriented to plurality and difference. Professionals working in the field of English and

education cannot turn their backs on the fact that reality nowadays demands a more

complex analysis of texts including more comprehensive approaches to the reading of

materials so as to facilitate reflection both on the foreign culture and the culture each

person identifies with.

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References

Anatol, G. L. (2010). Language matters II: Reading and teaching Toni Morrison [online].
Retrieved March, 10, 2013, from
http://www2.ku.edu/~langmtrs/lmII/discussions/beloved.html
Collins English dictionary. (1998). Glasgow: HarperCollins.
Kothari, G. (1994). Did my mama like to dance? and other stories about mothers and
daughters. New York: Avon Books.
Meer, N., & Modood, T (2012). How does interculturalism contrast with multiculturalism?
Journal of Intercultural Studies, 33(2), 175-196. Retrieved April 24, 2013 from
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07256868.2011.618266
Morrison, T. (2005). Beloved. London: Vintage.
Rodríguez Milanés, C. (1992). No accents allowed. The Women's Review of Books, 9, 11-
12. Retrieved April, 24, 2013 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4021317
Schwartz, T. (2004). Writing and neighborhood voices: it depends on where you grow up
at. Voices from the Middle, 12(1), 16-22.

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20 Computer and Internet mediated
narrative construction in EFL
María Cecilia Chiappero

Agustín Massa

Claudia Elizabeth Schander

Facultad de Lenguas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Argentina

1. Introduction

The purpose of this contribution is to share our experience in the educational use of

Information Technology and Communication (ICT) in higher education from a practical

standpoint, and to show some of the applications we developed in 2011: the materials

design project "Múltiples Narrativas y Enseñanzas de la Lengua. Las TIC's como Medio

para la Creatividad" was organized by the department of Distance Education at Facultad de

Lenguas, within the framework of Proyecto Aulas en Red, 2011, Universidad Nacional de

Córdoba. This was an interdisciplinary work in which language teachers, pedagogues,

computer technicians and graphic designers contributed to the development of specific

materials. This paper aims at showing how we used Moodle 2.3 to create and design an

interactive narrative specially written for our students taking the course English Language I

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at School of Languages, UNC, so as to help them integrate the different contents of the

units of the course in an interactive and engaging way. This descriptive presentation shows

how to use technology mediated resources and implement Computer Assisted Language

Learning (CALL) and blended learning, following a narrative thread (Litwin, 2010) in

order to create an innovative resource and to lower the number of drop outs in the first year

of the course of studies.

2. Theoretical framework

2.1. CALL materials

In the 1980s, while CLT was becoming part of mainstream language teaching, different

educational technologies started to be applied in the field of language teaching. This led to

the development of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL), a term coined by the

interested participants in the 1983 TESOL convention in Toronto. Beatty (2003), one of the

authorities   in  the   field,  defines  CALL  as   ‘any  process   in  which  a   learner  uses  a  computer  

and,   as   a   result,   improves   his   or   her   languages’   (p.7)   whereas Chapelle (2005), another

leading authority on computer-assisted   language   instruction,   defines   CALL   as   ‘the   broad  

range   of   activities   associated   with   technology   and   language   learning’   (in   Brown,   2007,  

p.200).

CALL is employed in and out of the classroom. Beatty (2003) states that materials for

CALL can include those which are purpose-made for language learning and those which

adapt existing computer-based materials, video and other materials. In either case, the

introduction of CALL materials in the language class has aided learning in multiple ways.

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Research has showed that computers are needed in the language classroom and that CALL

“can  substantially   improve  achievement  as  compared  with  traditional   instruction”  (Meich,  

Nave & Mosteller, 1996 in Beatty 2003).

At the moment, much research is studying the advantages and disadvantages of

computers in providing communicative tasks which foster learning (Burbules & Callister,

2001; Chapelle, 2001; De Alba, 2000; Dedé, 2000; Litwin, 2000; Singh, 2003), yet little is

known about the use of narrative as the unifying or integrative resource to develop and

practice the foreign language. In fact, different technological devices such as video,

television, audio CDs, the Internet and computer software can aid language teachers pursue

communicative goals in the classroom, as the medium. Now, as to the content, little is

found in the bibliography. Brown (2007) points out that CALL materials are particularly

useful for non-native-speaking teachers since a wide array of authentic written and oral

texts are available at the touch of a key. Moreover, CALL materials have moved from a

behaviourist   instructional  design  to  a  constructivist  design   since  they   “have  gone   from   an  

emphasis on basic textual gap-filling tasks and simple programming exercises to interactive

multimedia   presentations   with   sound,   animation   and   motion   video”   (Beatty,   2003,   p.11).  

These advances in Information Technology have led to the introduction of typical

communicative activities such as online quizzes, puzzles and games. Another breakthrough

related to CLT and CALL has been the introduction of Computer Mediated Communication

(CMC).   CMC   refers   to   “communication   by   email,   bulletin   boards,   chatlines   within   MOO  

(Multi-user domains, Object Oriented) environments”   (Beatty,   2003,   p.62).   CMC   offers  

learners different opportunities to interact with others and engage in negotiations of

meaning using the second language. CMC together with different CALL resources

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available in our teaching environments can be used as the means to engage our students in

tasks which are meaningful and highly motivating.

2.2. A case for Case Development

Teaching through case study and analysis offers a novel and interesting strategy for the

treatment of issues and problems of the curriculum. If the cases are well selected, they

favour understanding of the topic under study. Selected cases allow us to address issues

whose complexity we may not dare to tackle. In addition, personal interests may arouse

teachers’  and  students’  motivation,  and they can be invitations to keep thinking, to promote

meaningful experience. Two are the job prospects for planning cases: the first is to select

real cases, and the second, to build cases for teaching. In both situations the strategy

through case work can be a way to address an issue or overcoming the particular strategy

chosen from the proposed methodology for the treatment of a subject. Cases are an

invitation to think, understanding that thought and reflection are processes inherent to the

human condition. To think is to believe, assume, guess, look for reasons, devise, invent.

The qualities of good cases are to stimulate thought, finding reasons and enjoyment or

pleasure in that activity (Litwin, 2004).

The case is a tool or instrument for teaching a subject. The form of the case is a

narrative, that is, a story which tells a story, describes how an event happened. Good cases

contain dilemmas, situations of difficult or complex problem resolution, which is bound to

stimulate thought and reflection.

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 Cases must bridge the relevant topics in the curriculum. They must relate to the topic to

be taught. It is likely that given the complexity of the facts, the case can be related to

several topics, but the biggest concern is that the topic should be related or relevant to

substantive matter of the syllabus. A good case provokes discussion, encourages

participants to take sides, to recognize disputes and find good reasons to continue

analysing. It should also awaken the interest of students and challenge them to think.

2.3. A case for blended learning

The term blended learning is applied to a variety of teaching and learning situations.
Generally it is applied to a course where learners and teachers meet in a face to face class
and in which the course contains a parallel self-study component such as web based
materials. A blended learning course can be much more profitable than each of its parts and
positive outcomes can be easily appreciated when both, teachers and technology are
assigned clear roles. In such a course teachers add value to the teaching itself and
technology comes in support of a course where learners have access to technology outside
the class.

According to Barrett and Sharma (2007),

blended learning, done well, can exploit the best of both worlds
(the online and the in class components). Carefully chosen online
materials can enhance the classroom component of the course. The
outside world can be brought into the classroom, improving
motivation and generating interest.

Singh (2003) sees blended learning   rather   as   “a combination of multiple delivery media

designed to complement each other and  promote  meaningful  learning”. This is often a mix

252
of traditional instructor-led training; synchronous online conferencing or training,

asynchronous self-paced study, and structured on-the-job training from an experienced

worker or mentor (Singh, 2003, p.3).

3. The Experience

In the first stage of the materials design project, the ICT department accompanied and

guided all the Language I teachers in the teaching approach to be used: building up

narrative using different technological resources. It is worth mentioning that several

languages are taught at the School of Languages (English, French, Italian, German and

Portuguese) and in this particular case all the languages were involved.

This was an interdisciplinary enterprise since a pedagogical assistant guided the

members of the chair who participated and also instructed them as follows:

a) Keep in mind that the cases are narratives, stories, and as such we should have some

interest in narrative and its qualities which are attractive to our readers / students,

beyond the didactic intentions such cases could offer.

b) Cases must be complex enough so that we can profit from them. A complex case

will be rich in learning opportunities and will also be of interest to our students.

c) Cases are a starting point, a roadmap. From them will emerge what will allow us to

submit or implement the selected content. Think of the cases, then, in terms of a

hypertext.

d) When it comes to resources, think for example of:

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e) Written texts: newspaper articles, fragments of stories, novels, poems, letters,

emails, flyers, advertisements, chat dialogues, tweets, postings.

f) Visual texts: movies, series, drama, animation, music videos, interviews,

documentaries.

g) Audio texts: songs, radio programmes, telephone conversations, interviews.

h) Texts, iconic paintings, images of sculptures, photographs, symbols, among others,

in order to give life to your case.

i) The task of drafting the case will not be detached from the task of selecting the

resources. If you think of a great event, a wonderful story, but you cannot create or

find resources that can recreate the case, efforts will have been wasted. This is

particularly crucial in case design for foreign language teaching.

j) It is important to keep track of resource availability at the time of writing your

cases.

k) The decision to work with a film, series, play, short story or novel, for example,

may seem, at first glance, unoriginal. However, you can always work with new

voices. You can tell a part of the story in the voice of a minor character or a new

character, a character witness who may give a new twist to the story. You can focus

less on what the resource says and more on what it does not say, on what is not, on

what we do not know for sure.

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4. Case design

Following the instructions compiled, translated and listed above, we worked on the design

of a case which had several links to be visited, such as maps, images and background

information. We produced a map content of notions and visual hypertexts; each notion that

we named and articulated on the map had brief explanations, examples and

recommendations for exploration or testing.

4.1. The case

Case Images, resources Activities designed using

Moodle (Platform)
-1-
And finally the day came! After so Exercise on phrasal verbs
many chat conversations on based on the letter and set
expressions
Facebook, emails and text Facebook, emails, text
(Moodle: cloze)
messages I was going to meet messages
Jake, my keypal. My grandma Reading comprehension:
would panic even though she had Visual: an old envelope True or False
met my grandpa on a blind date in
El Durazno, back in the sixties.
And to think that in those days in
the USA, pioneers such as
Licklider o Kleinrock were
already creating a worldwide web!
-2-
And there I was, on the verge of Visual: computer and Chat
doing what in the 21 st century is a webcam
common thing to do: going on a
date with a person whom I
“accidentally”   met   online.   In   fact,  
I am not quite sure if I can say that
we   met   “by   chance”, unless a
purposeless click can be regarded
as   an   “accident”.   Respond   to  

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Jake’s   friend   request,   I   read,  
Confirm?..and, accidentally or not,
I clicked. And, to tell you the
truth, I had no idea how this story
would end up. Late at night, while
I was picking up my emails or
doing some homework, a small
chat  window  popped  up  “Hi!”  and  
I   would   go   “How   r   u?”   and  
endless online (or real?)
conversations would follow. Once
or twice we used the webcam on
Skype but then I got tired of
having to dress up to meet him
“face   to   face”,   and   after   making  
up some excuses, we resumed our
traditional and safe letter typing
chat.
-3-
Adding a friend of a friend of Headlines on abuse Forum to express opinion
mine on Facebook just because I
liked his profile pic and because,
according to his wall, we had the
same book and music interests,
turned out quite interesting. To be
honest, more than once the
frightening   question   “How   do   I  
know  if…?”  crossed  my  mind.  My  
fears were quite real. Cases of
inappropriate or even dangerous
online dates were on the news
every day. Even while I was
chatting, I came across terrifying
cases on YouTube which
sometimes put me off this
relationship.

256
-4-
To cut a long story short, by a Oyster card Listening + fill in the
twist of fate, I ended up taking a gaps
course in London. I let him know
about it, of course. When he
suggested meeting up at the Mc
Donald’s   on   Leicester   Square,   I  
didn’t   have   the   slightest   idea   of  
how to get there. Fortunately, I
remembered the day I got lost in
the middle of Rome and I used
Google Earth to find the hotel.
So, I turned to Google Earth and
with the touch of a key I found the
Mc   Donald’s   I   was   looking   for,  
right in the heart of London! I was
so worried about my date that I
lost all track of time. I was
running late and   I   didn’t   have  
enough time to get ready.
Anyway, I was determined to face
the   challenge.   “In   any   case”,   I  
thought,   “it’s   a   public   place…  
what   can   go   wrong?”   I   grabbed  
my Harrods´ bag with the new top
I had bought and rushed to the
tube station. It was the peak hour
and cars were crawling nose to
tail, as it is always the case in
hectic   cities.   I   wasn’t   used   to   the  
hustle and bustle of the city after
having lived so many years in the
tranquillity of my hometown, El
Durazno.
-5-
When   I   arrived   at   McDonald’s,   it   Screen Synonyms & antonyms.
dawned on me that I might be Word formation
looking quite shabby and my hair
untidy. I decided to go to the

257
ladies’  to  tidy   myself   up  and   look  
a bit more respectable. Toilets in
this chain of restaurants are
supposed to be spotless. The
whole place smelt of a blend of
disinfectant and recently baked
apple pie with cinnamon aromas. I
washed my hands and face,
brushed my teeth, used some
deodorant, changed my top, did
my hair, touched up my make-up
and put some gloss on my lips
again. I wanted to impress him! I
looked at myself once again. Yes,
now I could go and meet my
friend!  I  walked  out  of  the   ladies’  
and tried to spot him.
-6-
I did remember his well-defined Useful sights Project work
features from the picture he had
sent me. Could he be that one Who was Ray Kroc?
standing   below   Ray   Kroc’s   What is Wimbledon?
portrait? No, too old. What about What is Derby?
that tall one in a striped sweater? (Moodle: multiple choice
Not him. He was next to a girl and exercise)
they seemed to be madly in love
with   each   other.   Mmm…   Yes!  
Definitely! My heart was telling
me my friend was that blond guy
fidgeting with his keys, standing
right by the entrance and looking
at a screen right in front of him.
But…  what  was  he  staring  at?  The  
news? An important match?
Wimbledon? Derby? A few meters
further back, a security guard was
also watching what was being
shown on that screen. I tried to ask
the guard if something serious had

258
happened, but he actually ignored
me. Perhaps Jake was looking so
restless because he had lied to me.
What if he was going out with
another girl and she happened to
be   in   there?   And   if   he   didn’t  
dare…?   What   if….?   Enough!   I  
decided to stop making things up
and comparing my reality with
those incredible stories in the
news, warning people against the
dangers of Internet dating. With
my head up high and a dazzling
smile, I walked towards Jake,
determined to win his heart. When
I was just a few feet from him, I
couldn’t   help   catching   a   quick  
glimpse of the screen. Oh, no, I
couldn’t   believe   my   eyes!  
Flabbergasted, I found out that the
42 inches of the LCD screen
displayed every single scene of
what   was   going   on   in   the   ladies’  
lounge I had just left. No doubt, Visual: a picture of Mc Vocabulary work
Jake   had   seen   it   all.   “And   now   Donald’s   (Leicester  
what?”   “What   should   I   do?”   I   Square)showing CCTV
wondered. I had to face up to the cameras
situation. Surely he had
recognized me on the screen. I
also knew that he would notice my
accent the moment I uttered a
word. And I was not wrong at all.
I took a deep breath and talked to
him with a clear, sonorous
“Jake’’?
-7-
Today we are living happily A cottage house Write a paragraph
together in a typical English comparing El Durazno
cottage in Burford in the with Burford

259
Cotswolds. I enjoy the peace and
quiet of this off the beaten track
place. And to think that it all
happened thanks to the laptop I
bought to carry out a teaching
project at university!

5. Final comments

The old and the new were brought together in our educational setting, to carry out a

collaborative blended learning project which would integrate narrative (case development,

Litwin et al., 2004) and technology. It is widely known that narrative is one of the oldest

genres, and it is present in every aspect of human activity. According to Coles (1989)

stories can transform thought and action. Litwin et al. (2004) explained the importance of

the use of narrative in education:

La didáctica recupera hoy el valor de las narraciones

como forma de conocer y también de comunicar la
experiencia, ofreciendo nuevos marcos interpretativos
para la inclusión de diferentes estrategias en las
propuestas educativas.

Blended learning combines multiple delivery media that are designed to complement each

other and promote learning and application-learned behaviour (Singh, 2003). The

pedagogical experience, we believe, fulfils the requirements enumerated by Singh, (2003,

p.9):

260
 The Pedagogical dimension is concerned with the
combination of content that has to be delivered
(content analysis), the learner needs (audience
analysis), and learning objectives (goal analysis).
The pedagogical dimension also encompasses the
design and strategy aspect of e-learning.

References
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Beatty, K. (2003). Teaching and researching computer-assisted language learning. Essex:
Pearson Education Limited.
Brown, D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy
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Bruner J. C. (1972). El proceso de la educación. Méjico: Uthea.
Bruner J. C. (1977). La educación, puerta de la cultura. Madrid: Visor.
Burbules N., & Callister T. (2001).Educación: Riesgos y promesas de las nuevas
tecnologías de la información. Barcelona: Granica.
Chapelle, C. (2001). Computer applications in second language acquisition.Foundations
for teaching, testing and research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Coles, R. (1989).The call of stories: Teaching and the moral imagination.Boston:
Houghton Mifflin.
De Alba, A. (2000). El curriculum universitario frente a los retos del siglo XXI:
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Año VIII N 16. Julio de 2000. Universidad de Buenos Aires.
Dedé Chris (comp.). (2000). Aprendiendo con tecnología. Buenos Aires: Aique.
Litwin E. (Coord.). (1997).Enseñanza y tecnología en las aulas para el nuevo siglo.
Buenos Aires: El Ateneo.
Litwin, E. (comp.). (2000).La educación a distancia. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu.
Litwin, E., Maggio, M.; Lipsman, M. (Comp).(2005).Tecnología en las aulas.Las nuevas
tecnologías en las prácticas de la enseñanza.Buenos Aires: Amorrortu.
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1 – 12.http://jw1.nwnu.edu.cnRetrieved June 13, 2013.

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Notes on contributors (in alphabetical order)
Banfi, Cristina holds   a   Teacher’s   degree   from   INES   en   LV   “JRF”,   an   M.Phil.   in  
Linguistics from the University of Cambridge and a Ph.D. in Linguistics from University
College London. She has worked in educational institutions at all levels, from pre-school to
higher education. She has organised and participated in international conferences, published
papers and books and edited journals. She was president of APIBA (two terms), Head of
the Department of Languages at Universidad Católica Argentina and International Affairs
Officer at the CONEAU (Comisión Nacional de Evaluación y Acreditación Universitaria).
She is currently Director of Foreign Languages at the Ministry of Education of the City of
Buenos Aires and teaches at IES en  LV  ‘J.  R.  Fernández’,  ISP  ‘J.V.  González’,  ENS  ‘S.B.  
de   Spangenberg’,   Universidad   de   Belgrano   and   Universidad   de   Buenos   Aires.   Her   main  
areas of interest are: educational management and research, professional development,
theoretical and applied linguistics and bilingual education. cbanfi@gmail.com

Barboni, Silvana is Head Teacher of ELT Methodology at La Plata State University. She
holds an MA in TEFL from the University of Reading and is now completing her Doctoral
Studies at the University of London. She coordinates the Programme of Plurilingual and
Intercultural Education of the Province of Buenos Aires. silbarboni@gmail.com

Barboza, Paola Lorena holds a degree in TEFL from the Faculty of Languages, National
University of Córdoba (UNC). She currently teaches secondary level at Colegio G.
Taborín, and tertiary level at IFDNSSC (Didactics area). She is also working on two
research projects on the fields of vocabulary acquisition and materials development
(CIFAL, UNC). paolbarboza@gmail.com

Bonadeo, Flavia is a teacher of English (ISP Nº 8) and holds a degree in English from
Universidad Nacional del Litoral, where she is an MA candidate in Specialized Didactics.
She teaches Didactics and Assessment and coordinates the Practicum in the Teacher
Education  Programme  at  ISP  Nº  8  “Almte.    Brown”. flaviasb2@gmail.com

Cad, Ana Cecilia is an EFL teacher graduated from Facultad de Lenguas, Universidad de
Nacional de Córdoba and former Fulbright scholar. At present she teaches adolescents at
Colegio Hno. Gabriel Taborin. She participates in a materials design group at ADILE, Area
Didáctica del Centro de Investigaciones (FL- UNC) anaceciliacad@hotmail.com

Carreño, Leandro Graduate from INSP Dr. Joaquin V. Gonzalez - holds a diploma in
School Management - Coordinates international exchanges for Colegio Champagnat -
Teacher of Geography and Culture of The United States and The British Isles at INSP. Dr
Joaquín V. González

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Chiappero, María Cecilia es actualmente Docente Investigadora y Profesora Titular Full
Time de la Cátedra de Lengua Inglesa I. Se ha desempeñado en diversos cargos en distintas
universidades y terciarios de la Provincia de Córdoba.

Cúneo, Rosa holds a Masters Degree in Applied Linguistics. She has taught language
courses at the School of Philosophy, Humanities and the Arts of the National University of
San Juan for over twenty years and has conducted extensive research in culture and
linguistics.

Ferradas, Claudia is an experienced presenter and ELT author who travels the world as a
teacher educator. A graduate from the I.E.S. en Lenguas Vivas   “Juan  Ramón   Fernández”,  
Buenos Aires, she holds an MA in Education and Professional Development from the
University of East Anglia, and a PhD in English Studies from the University of
Nottingham, UK. In Argentina, she is a lecturer at the I.E.S. en Lenguas   Vivas   “Juan  
Ramón  Fernández”  and  on  the  MA  programme  in  Literatures  in  English  at  the  Universidad  
Nacional de Cuyo, Mendoza. She also works as an ELT and Education Consultant for the
British Council Argentina. In the UK, Claudia is a teacher trainer for NILE (Norwich
Institute for Language Education). claudiaferradas@yahoo.co.uk

Genesee, Fred is Professor in the Psychology Department at McGill University, Montreal.

He has conducted extensive research on alternative forms of bilingual and immersion
education; his current research interests include language acquisition in pre-school bilingual
children, cross-language adopted children, and the language and academic development of
students at-risk in bilingual programs. He has served as a consultant on second/foreign
language and bilingual education in countries around the world, including Japan, Spain,
Germany, Estonia, Hong Kong, Latvia, Russia, and Italy. He is the author numerous
professional and scientific research reports and books, including Learning Through Two
Languages: Studies of Immersion and Bilingual Education (Newbury House, 1987),
Educating Second Language Children (Cambridge, 1994 ), Classroom Based Evaluation in
Second Language Education (Cambridge, 1996), Beyond Bilingualism: Multilingualism
and Multilingual Education (Multilingual Matters, 1998), Dual Language Instruction: A
Handbook for Enriched Education (Heinle & Heinle, 2000, with Nancy Cloud and Else
Hamayan), Trends in Bilingual Acquisition (John Benjamins, with J. Cenoz), and Dual
Language Development and Disorders (with J. Paradis & M. & M. Crago, Brookes, 2004).
fred.genesee@mcgill.ca

González, Nancy Cristina is a graduate of Universidad Nacional de La Plata. She has

experience teaching English in companies, schools and universities in La Plata, Buenos
Aires and Bariloche, and has specialized in ESP. She is currently working at Instituto
Balseiro and Universidad Nacional de Rio Negro in Bariloche. nangonzalez@yahoo.com

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Hasbani, Yael, English  Teacher   from  IES  “Juan  Ramón   Fernández”  (Buenos  Aires)   is  a  
student   at   “Postítulo   de   Especialización   en   Educación   y   TIC”   (Ministerio   de   Educación).  
Former assistant and teacher of Contemporary Literature (Lenguas Vivas, Buenos Aires),
she works at secondary school and as course facilitator at ESSARP centre.
yaelalejandrahasbani@gmail.com

Ibáñez, Maria Susana received her degree in English from Universidad Nacional del
Litoral, and an M. A. degree from Universidad de Córdoba, where she is a doctoral
candidate.    She  teaches  Literature  at  I.S.P.  “Alte.  Brown”  (Teacher  training  and  Translation  
Programmes) and Literary Theory at UNL. ma.susana.ibanez@gmail.com

Lizárraga, María E. es profesora de Lengua y Literatura Inglesa egresada de la UNJU.

Dicta Didáctica de la Lengua Inglesa en el IES N°5, S.S.de Jujuy. Aquí presenta una
sección de Tesis de Maestría en Didáctica de las Lenguas de UNT.
maria_lvenencia@hotmail.com.

Lizenberg, Nora holds a Master in Open and Distance Learning from Universidad
Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED) in Spain. Nora is a lecturer for Multimedia
Applied to the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language at Joaquin V. Gonzalez
Teaching Training College in Argentina and co-lecturer for Management, Planning and
Organization of Virtual Learning at University of Alcala in Spain. She is also Technical
Secretary for the Researchers Education Virtual Program at Universidad Tecnológica
Nacional, in Argentina. She has published several articles, and a book on topics related to
virtual learning and faculty training in educational technology both in Spanish and English.
She researches on topics related to transactional presence in distance learning, digital
identity in virtual learning environments and teacher training for Educational Technology.
nlizenberg@gmail.com

Lothringer, Raquel is an English Language and Literature teacher from Instituto del
Profesorado (Paraná) where she taught English Literature, and former Head of the Modern
Languages Department  (Facultad  “Ciencias  de  la  Educación”- UNER). Raquel is currently
an on-line tutor and materials designer at Licenciatura en Inglés (UNL) and at Área
“Educación  a  Distancia”  (UNER). rlothringer@arnet.com.ar

Maceri, María Ximena graduated from UCA and is a licenciada from UTN. She currently
teaches Language and Culture at ISFD y T N°24 in Bernal and English Language at high
schools in Greater Buenos Aires. She does research on Northamerican Literature at UCA
and works as a consultant for GS Consultora Educativa. maria.ximena.maceri@gmail.com

Massa, Agustín Abel holds the degrees of Teacher of French and English granted by the
School of Languages, UNC. He holds a degree in Pedagogy granted by Facultad de
Educación, UCC. He was an Assistant Teacher to the chair of Special Didactics I. Currently

264
he is an Assistant Teacher to the Chair of English Language I and teaches English I and II
at Escuela de Turismo Marcelo Montes Pacheco. He also teaches at Colegio Monserrat.
agumassa@yahoo.com.ar

Naom, Claudia was a Teacher Trainer at ISPJVG and IES en Lenguas Vivas JRFernández
for more than 20 years. She is currently leading a research team started two years ago and is
member of FAAPI Executive Committee. cnaom@fibertel.com.ar

Perduca, Florencia, English teacher and literary translator, holds and MA in Literary
Linguistics. Florencia teaches literature in Englishes, cultural studies, and literary and
postcolonial theory. She carries forward research projects on intercultural education and
border pedagogy and is the author of intercultural magazines and resource materials.
florencia.perduca@gmail.com

Porto, Melina, profesora titular por concurso público en la cátedra Lengua Inglesa II
(UNLP). Investigadora del CONICET. MA ELT, Universidad de Essex, UK. Doctora en
Ciencias de la Educación, UNLP, con tesis dirigida por Michael Byram y evaluada por
Henry Widdowson. melinaporto2007@yahoo.com.ar

Sanchez Carolina N. is an English teacher who has always loved using technology in her
daily lessons. She was a Fulbright scholar in 2011-2012 and is now enrolled in the
“Especialización  en  Docencia  y  TICs”.  She  is  also  part  of  a  research  project  carried  out  at  
the UNSJ.carolina.sanchez.romera@gmail.com

Sarasa, María Cristina holds a major in EFL and an MA in Higher Education from
Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Argentina. She is a full-time tenured teacher
educator at the Department of Modern Languages, School of Humanities, and a researcher
with the Education and Cultural Studies Research Group. She is a full-time tenured teacher
educator at the Department of Modern Languages, School of Humanities, and a researcher
with the Education and Cultural Studies Research Group.mcsarasa@hotmail.com

Schander, Claudia is a graduate EnglishTeacher and Translator from Facultad de Lenguas,

Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. She is currently a teacher of English Language I and III
at Facultad de Lenguas, UNC. She is also teaching Linguistics at the teacher-training
college   “J.   Zorrilla   de   San   Martín”.   Researcher   in   the   field   of   Applied   Linguistics   at  
Facultad de Lenguas, UNC. claudiasamban@gmail.com

Simón, Liliana is a teacher of English, administrator of UNLP VLEs, and a British Council
E-moderator. She worked as a co-coordinator for Conectar Igualdad, BA. She develops e-
material,   delivers   presentations   and   courses   on   Learning   Technologies,   “Plurilingual   and
Intercultural Programme and ADULP/UNLP. She obtained a fellowship at Open
University, UK. lilianaesimon@gmail.com

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Tavella, Gabriela N. / S. Carina Fernández are ESP lecturers at FADEL, UNCo. They
coordinate courses for young learners and adolescents at a language school. They are
interested in language methodology and learning issues. Gabriela holds an MA and a
Postgraduate Diploma in Education. She is vice-president of APIZALS and member of the
AJAL editorial board.gaby.tavella@gmail.com

Viale, Florencia works  at  Saint  Patrick’s   Bilingual  School  teaching  3,  4  and  5   year-olds.
She is lecturer and Head of the Research and Publications Department at IES Nº 28. She is
a Cambridge trainer at Asociación Rosarina de Cultura Inglesa. She has lectured throughout
the country and abroad. florenciaviale01@hotmail.com

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About the editors
Laura Renart is a graduate  of  Instituto  Superior  del  Profesorado  “Presbítero  Dr.  Sáenz”,  
Buenos Aires, and holds an MA in Education and Professional Development from the
University of East Anglia, UK. She is a tutor at ISP "Dr Saenz", Universidad Virtual de
Quilmes and Universidad Nacional del Litoral. Since 2008 she is the coordinator of the
English  Secondary  section  at  St  Michael’s   College.  Laura  regularly  contributes  to  teacher  
training programmes in the UK with Norwich Institute for Language Education, is also a
Main Suite Speaking Examiner for Cambridge ESOL Examinations and a trained e-
moderator for British Council Chile. Laura has also done teacher training both at home and
abroad (Colombia, China, UK and Ireland with the British Council and Norwich Institute
for Language Education). She has presented extensively at conventions in Brazil, Uruguay,
Paraguay, Mexico, Spain, USA and UK as well as in local educational events. Laura has
published her work in educational journals. An active member of Asociación de Profesores
de Inglés de Buenos Aires (APIBA), her main research interest has to do with bilingualism
in the local context. E-mail: renartlaura@gmail.com

Darío Luis Banegas is a teacher of English, and holds an MA in ELT and a PhD in
Applied Linguistics from the University of Warwick where he is an associate fellow. He
works as a secondary school teacher and curriculum adviser at Ministerio de Educación del
Chubut. He is also involved in distance and face-to-face teacher education programmes and
research projects. He has published in international journals and has participated in national
and international conferences. In 2012 he was a project manager with the British Council.
Darío is the president of APIZALS and the editor of the Argentinian Journal of Applied
Linguistics (AJAL). His main interests are CLIL, materials development, teacher
motivation, and action research for teacher development. E-mail:
D.Banegas@warwick.ac.uk

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