Between Film Video and The Digital Hybri PDF

Between Film,
Video, and
the Digital
International Texts in Critical
Media Aesthetics
Volume 10
Founding Editor:
Francisco J. Ricardo
Series Editors:
Francisco J. Ricardo and Jörgen Schäfer
Editorial Board:
John Cayley, George Fifield, Rita Raley, Tony Richards, Teri Rueb
Volumes in the series:

New Directions in Digital Poetry, C.T. Funkhouser
Cybertext Poetics: The Critical Landscape of New Media Literary
Theory, Markku Eskelinen
Creative Enterprise: Contemporary Art between Museum and
Marketplace, Martha Buskirk
The Engagement Aesthetic: Experiencing New Media Art through
Critique, Francisco J. Ricardo
Software Takes Command, Lev Manovich
3D: History, Theory and Aesthetics of the Transplane Image,
Jens Schröter
Projected Art History: Biopics, Celebrity Culture, and the
Popularizing of American Art, Doris Berger
When the Machine Made Art: The Troubled History of Computer Art,
Grant D. Taylor
The Internet Unconscious: On the Subject of Electronic Literature,
Sandy Baldwin
Between Film,
Video, and
the Digital
Hybrid Moving Images in the
Post-Media Age
Jihoon Kim
Bloomsbury Academic
An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Inc
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© Jihoon Kim, 2016
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Kim, Jihoon author.
Title: Between film, video, and the digital: hybrid moving images in the
post-media age / Jihoon Kim.
Description: New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2016. | Series: International
texts in critical media aesthetics; v. 10 | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015049419 (print) | LCCN 2016008629 (ebook) | ISBN
9781628922936 (hardback) | ISBN 9781628922912 (epdf) | ISBN 9781628922929
(epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Motion pictures–Philosophy. | Digital media–Philosophy. |
Image processing–Digital techniques. | BISAC: SOCIAL SCIENCE / Media
Studies. | ART / Digital.
Classification: LCC PN1995 .K485 2016 (print) | LCC PN1995 (ebook) | DDC
791.43/01–dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015049419
ISBN: HB: 978-1-6289-2293-6

PB: 978-1-5013-3955-4
epub: 978-1-6289-2292-9
epdf: 978-1-6289-2291-2
Series: International Texts in Critical Media Aesthetics

Cover design by Clare Turner and Eleanor Rose
Cover image: Double/Psycho by Andrew Neumann adn58@rcn.com
Typeset by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of

Korea Grant funded by the Korean Government (NRF-2014S1A5A8018764)
For Sun Joo Lee,
my dearest intellectual colleague
and emotional companion
Contents
Editor’s Foreword ix
Acknowledgments xv
List of Illustrations xix
Introduction: Hybrid moving images and the

post-media conditions 1
1 Videographic moving pictures: Remediating

the “film stilled” and the “still film” 47
2 Digital glitch video and mixed-media

abstraction: Materialism and
hybrid abstraction in the digital age 99
3 Transitional found footage practices:

Video in and out of the cinematic fragments 145
4 Intermedial essay films: “Memories-in-between” 197
5 Cinematic video installations:

Hybridized apparatuses inside the black box 241
Afterword 295
Notes 301
Index 355
INTRODUCTION
Hybrid moving images and

the post-media conditions
Hybrid moving images

and medium specificity
Media artist Jim Campbell has produced a number of pieces
consisting of images made with LED displays of photographic
and filmic materials. In these pieces, the low-resolution electronic
displays, combined with digital image processing, transform
the photochemical material into a series of pixels. Accordingly,
the images waver between the discreteness of the digital and the
continuity of the analogue, taking on multiple levels of hybridization
derived from material and technical aspects of the pieces. This is
illustrated in Home Movies 300-1 (2006, Figure 0.1), a work which
projects the 16-mm moving portrait of an anonymous family onto a
double Plexiglas screen while its 300 LEDs diffuse the footage into
a series of noises as the minimal units of digital visual information.
At the same time, the viewer is also able to see the discreteness of the
minimized units when watching the display from a distance. What
captures the viewer’s attention, then, is the ghostly registration
of family members, such as a smiling mom, a child on a swing, a
toddling child, etc., which is perceived as continuous. As Richard
Shiff notes, Home Movies 300-1 positions the viewer “at the single
door that opens to both classes of image, to representation and
to abstraction.”1 Yet it could also be added that the ambivalence
2 Between Film, Video, and the Digital
Figure 0.1 Jim Campbell, Home Movies 300-1 (2006), installation view,
60 ¥ 50 ¥ 3 inches. Video installation: custom electronics, 300 LEDs,
courtesy of the artist.
caused by the digital processing of the analogue image leads to other

layers of hybridization: of still and moving images, of recorded and
simulated images, and of luminous and pixelated images.
Campbell’s work exemplifies the ways in which contemporary
media art pieces across various platforms and genres, ranging
from avant-garde cinema to video installation, provide a fresh
look at the photographic inscription of reality either by bringing
the still photograph to life or by unearthing the photographic
stillness embedded in the moving image, both achieved with the
help of digital technologies. This new breed of practices fosters
hybrid visual forms that make porous the boundaries between
live-action and animated images, as well as between the recorded
and the manipulated. On an even more complex level, Campbell’s
images are based on the combinatory employment of photography,
film (both with digitized data), and digital video (as replaced by
the LEDs) that results in the dynamic coexistence of stasis and
motion. Thus, they are structurally either both photographic and
filmic or of these. The co-presence of the two media amounts to
a form of moving image that reveals both the differences and the
similarities between them through an array of technical processes
allowing the coexistence of, and the exchange between, their
properties.
Digital technologies play a pivotal role in formulating the aesthet
ics of co-presence that Campbell’s images present to their viewer.
INTRODUCTION 3
While grounded in the combination of custom LEDs and

computational algorithms, his self-devised digital imaging system
alludes to this double nature of digital video, to the extent that its
resulting visual expression integrates photographic representations
and at the same time radically transforms them according to the
ways in which the series of discrete elements (pixels) comprising
them are manipulated. In this sense, Campbell’s ambiguous visual
expressions reflect the situation that the ongoing proliferation of
digital technologies in the terrain of art practice during the last
two decades has unsettled the status of the moving image. From
the 1990s onward, digitization has subsequently precipitated the
flexibility of media images because they are grounded in numerical
codes subject to putatively unlimited manipulations. Since then,
numerous art practitioners across different fields have responded
to the volatility of image by creating new works of art that could
obscure established distinctions between different media arts,
including cinema, video art, and digital art. These artworks have
presented certain types of moving images in which the different
forms of media coexist and influence each other, such as the images
emblematized by Campbell’s works. The fact that these images are
based on the merger of the properties of these media and articulate
the phenomena of border crossings between their corresponding
arts raises the following three questions. First, if these images remain
highly ambiguous, what can we identify as an artistic medium in
this combinatory system (i.e., what is its key medium: found film,
photography, computer algorithm, or, an array of LEDs)? Second,
if these images disallow the belief in a single medium’s directive
role in shaping a particular sensible form, how can we reconfigure
the notion of a medium vis-à-vis the variety of practices producing
them? And finally, what theoretical framework can we use to
describe the growing exchange between previously distinct media
and the emergence of the art forms based on this exchange?
In response to these three questions, this book characterizes
these images as “hybrid moving images,” an array of impure image
forms characterized by the interrelation of the material, technical,
and aesthetic components of existing moving image media—namely,
film, video, and the digital. The term “hybrid” denotes its two
etymological underpinnings, firstly, “a mixed form of two concepts
from two language systems, the Latin hibrida (mixed blood),” and
secondly, “the Greek hubris—excess,”2 which suggests that the
form transgresses the boundaries of each system. Various literary

and cultural studies based on poststructural, postmodern, and
postcolonial theories have elaborated upon these two meanings of the
term in association with the concepts of multiplicity, heterogeneity,
fusion, diversity, and difference, using them to describe conditions in
which different linguistic or cultural systems meet and interact so as
to blur the previously maintained distinctions between themselves
and others, including an array of conceptual dichotomies such as
the global and the local.3 More specifically, hybridization refers to
“the two-way process of borrowing and blending between cultures,
where new, incoherent and heterogeneous forms of cultural practice
emerge in . . . [the] third spaces.”4 Seen in this light, hybrid moving
images point to the in-between spaces of existing audiovisual media,
as well as to certain forms produced by an array of interrelations that
drive the mutual influences between the media. These images, then,
enable us to redefine each medium’s identity not as self-determined,
but as constructed through its transfer to, and appropriation of,
other media and forms.
The term “moving image” refers to a category of images in
motion broader than the images that have traditionally been
discussed in a discourse grounded in a sharp distinction between
one art form and another. In this sense, the uses of the term have
often been associated with a rejection of medium-essentialist
thinking in the context of changing and emerging relationships
between different artistic forms and means. Noël Carroll develops
his concept of the “moving image” by way of his attack on the
doctrine of modernist medium-specificity thesis, which consist of
the three arguments that (1) a medium is defined by a physical
substance (2) it maintains its unique essence derived from its
intrinsic material qualities, and (3) the unique nature of the
medium indicates or dictates each art’s own domain of expression
and exploration. Carroll draws upon various counterexamples,
including the nonfigurative films of the avant-garde practices,
image processing in video, and the cinema based upon digitally
composite images, in order to demonstrate that the forms and
styles of film are not necessarily determined by a limited set of
techniques such as the cinematographic representation of reality
through the film camera and certain methods of montage.
Carroll’s use of the term “moving image” is related to his
definition of a medium as being irreducible to a single material
INTRODUCTION 5
entity. For him, a medium is “generally composite in terms of its

basic constituents”5; and “an art form then is composed of multiple
media.”6 Here film serves as a telling example for validating these
two arguments. As to the first argument, even though film is defined
as a medium on the basis of a filmstrip, its resulting image is not
necessarily derived from a camera’s recording of profilmic reality,
but includes “flicker films,” which can be made by the alternation
of blank and opaque leader without photographic emulsion. Also,
as to the second argument, even though film is defined as an art
form of a moving image that bears a photographic impression of
reality, this does not necessarily include a filmstrip but embraces
video, to the extent that video “may be developed . . . to the point
where most of us would have little trouble calling a commercial
narrative made from fully high-definition video a film.”7 Based
on these two arguments, Carroll paves the way for reconfiguring
a technological medium as constitutively hybrid: that is, there is
no single element of a medium that ahistorically ordains a single
set of forms and styles; instead, it is differentiated into multiple
components, which supports the idea that “a single art form may
sustain different, nonconverging potentials and possibilities”8
for diverse and aesthetic approaches and formal developments.
Carroll’s discussion of a filmstrip could be such a case, given
that it is associated not simply with realist cinema but also with
flicker films and handmade films. For both forms are distinct from
each other in terms of their different aesthetic approaches to the
materiality of the filmstrip, as well as in terms of the differences in
the techniques and other materials that intersect with the filmstrip.
This differentiation of forms leads him to denounce the idea that
a medium’s identifiable “pure” domain immediately determines
a particular set of forms whose aesthetic effects are indicative of
its most genuine essence. Instead, it allows Carroll to take on a
pragmatic view on the relation between a medium and its forms
or styles: “It is the use we have for the medium that determines
which aspects of the medium are relevant, and not the medium that
determines the use.”9 More significantly, this pragmatism indicates
that Carroll’s concept of a medium embraces the historical
variability or reinvention of its components as well as its possible
border crossing with other media. As to the impact of digital video
and computer-based special effects on the production of feature
films, he suggests that these testify to the increasing intersections
between film and other moving image media that were anchored
in their distinct art forms (video art and computer art), as well as
to the innovation of film’s mediality and aesthetics vis-à-vis the
development of these media: “Film is not one medium but many
media, including ones invented long after 1895, and even some
of which have yet to be invented. Video and computer-generated
imaging, for example, are film media . . . in the sense that they may
be components of what we now call films.”10
D. N. Rodowick tellingly demonstrates that Carroll conflates
an objection to the medium-specificity argument with an exclusion
of anything that is regarded as materially or technically specific to
a given medium. Carroll convincingly testifies to the constitutive
multiplicity of a moving image medium and the extent to which its
components are open to stylistic variation and historical invention,
both of which demystify the belief in a medium’s univocality
and in its power to dictate forms of an art as manifestations of
its predetermined essence. But there is no reason that dismissing
these two lines of the medium-specificity argument prevents us
from abandoning any observation of what components a medium
is composed of and what effects they produce. Rather, Carroll’s
suggestion of a medium’s internal and external hybridities is based
on his identification of a medium’s components and of their relation
to aesthetic effects, all of which he excludes from his concept of
the moving image. Thus what Carroll ironically validates, for
Rodowick, is that “nothing . . . would disallow specifying media
with a strong kinship (film, video, and digital imaging) as having a
variable distinctiveness containing overlapping as well as divergent
elements or qualities.”11 The media’s characteristics associated
with their hybridity, such as historical variability and openness to
different materials, forms, and practices, then become compatible
with the concept of medium specificity—one which is not reducible
to the medium-specificity arguments of a medium’s teleological
essence and of the absolute distinctiveness of its forms, but
nonetheless requires us to observe a medium’s composite properties
and discern differences and similarities between them and those of
other media. Ultimately, what Rodowick proposes is a dialectic of
medium specificity and hybridity with regard to a medium’s internal
differentiation and its possibilities for being aligned with what is
outside it: “I am happy to admit as many hybridizations of media as
artists can invent in their actual practice. But what makes a hybrid
INTRODUCTION 7
cannot be understood if the individual properties being combined

cannot be distinguished.”12
Taking Rodowick’s discussion above as a point of departure, this
book characterizes hybrid moving images as being grounded in and
indicative of the dialectic of medium specificity and hybridity, or as
being produced by a set of artistic practices that aspire to reconfigure
the concepts of a medium and its specificity vis-à-vis hybridization.
To be sure, these images cannot be fully contained within Carroll’s
concept of the moving image, in which any observation on the
differences of media in their material and technical components,
as well as the notion of a medium as such, is eliminated. Rather,
these images ask us to keep our eye on the material, technical, and
aesthetic dimensions of the media involved. For they are based
on the changes in a medium’s internal components or in the ways
that they are combined differently with other media elements that
have hitherto not been regarded as contained within its art form.
Seen in this light, what I call hybrid moving images are inseparable
from the images that each of the three media has produced on its
own (filmic, videographic, and digital images), and much more
from the differences and similarities between these images. At
the same time, central to these images is the fact that they result
from the different relations between media that frequently cross
the generic and disciplinary borders between their corresponding
arts. To summarize, the hybrid moving images demonstrate that it
is more productive to identify different moving images grounded
in the variability of a single medium or the differing combinations
of more than two media, rather than insisting upon the “moving
image” as a general category.
These two aspects of hybrid moving images, the constitutive
compositeness and variability of a medium, as well as the possibility
for its alliance with other media, echo Berys Gaut’s discussion of a
medium. In a way similar to Carroll and Rodowick, Gaut asks us
to distinguish two ways of conceiving a medium: a medium as “the
kind of stuff out of which artworks are made” and a medium as
that which is “constituted by a set of practices that govern the use
of the material.”13 For Gaut, the latter notion demonstrates that the
material alone cannot invariably determine the medium of an art
form: as with painting, for instance, it includes not only oil pigment
and a canvas, but also chalk, charcoal, tempera, woodcut, etc.,
and it is up to a set of practices and their underlying conventions
what material is adopted and how the material realizes an artwork

that constitutes a painting. But this functionalist view alone
is not sufficient because the materials “also play a role in finely
individuating the media of painting—as instanced by oil painting, as
opposed to watercolors or frescos.”14 The reciprocal complimentary
relationship between the materials and a set of practices can be
applied to the media of the moving image. For instance, celluloid
may be used both for the record of profilmic reality and for the
graphic rendering of nonphotographic imagery with handmade
techniques, but the latter use is limited in comparison to computer
graphics in terms of the degree of flexibility by which an image can
be manipulated. Considered this way, I define an artistic medium as
a set of material and technical components, which not only allows
for but also is constituted by formal variations of artistic expression.
The idea of a medium being determined by an array of technical
and aesthetic conventions suggests that an art form can be seen
as involving more than the components of one medium when it
is realized. This is certainly suggested by Carroll and Rodowick,
but Gaut elaborates upon this in his notion of “nesting,” referring
to the phenomena by which “media can contain other media.”15
The medium of the moving image serves as a telling example of
this phenomenon of “nesting,” since it encompasses different types
of images, each of which can be discerned by the specific medium
producing that image, such as celluloid, analogue video, digital
video, computer graphics, etc. To push this point further, the hybrid
moving images are seen to testify to more different aspects of
nesting than Gaut’s original concept proposes. While Gaut speaks
of only the plurality of the media that are incorporated in a given
art form, for example, the moving image, hybrid moving images
based on the intersection of film, video, and the digital demonstrate
that there are other levels of incorporation at play: first, the
incorporation of more than two distinct media components—for
instance, the mixture of film’s components and those of video—
into the form of a moving image, which is made by a set of artistic
practices that throw these media in a new relation; and second, the
incorporation of old moving image media into the digital as the
digital adopts and reworks the old media’s formal components by
converting their material and technical elements into digital codes.
These two levels of incorporation suggest that the phenomena
of nesting in the digital age have become so complex that it is
INTRODUCTION 9
insufficient merely to acknowledge that a medium contains several

media. Rather, what is required is to examine the relations between
the media constituting the medium of the moving image. The
notion of hybridization, then, serves as a framework for theorizing
the two levels of incorporation as more complex types of nesting
than those discussed by Gaut.
Finally, like Rodowick’s claim, Gaut’s idea of nesting suggests
that it is still indispensable for us to identify the properties of a
medium that constitutes an art form and to differentiate them from
those of other media that engage in shaping the form. In this view,
it is meaningful to ask, for instance, what features are specific to
digital images in contrast to traditional photochemical images, even
when the former perceptually resembles the latter. Here the notion
of specificity is not necessarily defined in terms of uniqueness as it
is asserted by the traditional medium-specificity argument. For in
this case, the representation of photographic imagery as such is not
unique to photochemical media such as photography and film, but
shared by the digital. This suggests that the specificity of a digital
image can be identified only in comparison to photochemical
images, that is, according to what conventions of photochemical
media the digital adopts and what new properties it adds to those
conventions in order to allow for new expressive possibilities in the
resulting image. Gaut’s concept of “differential properties,” that is,
“properties that distinguish one group of media from another group,
but that are not necessarily unique to any particular medium,”16
provides us with a useful analytic framework for discussing the
media of the moving image and the relation between them. The live-
action imagery based on the bond between the lens and profilmic
reality, for instance, is specific to film, video, and the digital in
contrast to other media (for instance, literature and music), but
is not unique to any of them. This notion of specificity, which is
comparative and relational, is particularly helpful in examining
hybrid moving images, since their impurity can be illuminated by
identifying what properties are shared by the media constituting the
images and what features pertain to each of them individually. To
be sure, careful attention to the formal dimension of the artwork is
particularly crucial to this conception of medium specificity. For it
is on the level of form that the structural similarities and differences
between diverse media images are negotiated and interrelated while
simultaneously being made visible.
Post-media conditions
This book contextualizes the emergence of hybrid moving images
across different genres and platforms within the larger contexts
of the “post-media” age. In doing so, it argues that the images’
material, technical, and aesthetic hybridities derive from and at the
same time are expressive of “post-media conditions,” which I define
as an array of conditions that have posed fundamental challenges
to the traditional definition of artistic media—namely, that a
media’s material and technical components immediately determine
its forms and expressive possibilities, which are exclusively distinct
from the forms and expressive possibilities of other media. It was
both the discourses on contemporary art criticism and the studies
on new media and media art that coined the term, and these have
developed the debates about those conditions since the late 1990s. In
contemporary art criticism, Rosalind E. Krauss played a determining
role as she proposed and elaborated upon the term “post-medium
condition” in a series of her writings, and the discourses on
contemporary art by Jacques Rancière and Nicolas Bourriaud,
among others, are more or less in alliance with Krauss’s argument
on that condition. Meanwhile, such thinkers as Lev Manovich and
Peter Weibel, whom I consider as pertaining to the “new media
camp,” have introduced the term “post-media condition” as a
response to the discourses mainly circulated in the contemporary
art criticism bloc. Although the difference of a keyword in the two
discursive domains—“medium” in the domain of contemporary
art criticism and “media” in that of new media camp—implies a
conspicuous front line that has persisted in regard to how to evaluate
the impacts of electronic and digital technologies on the forms and
practices of art, the discourses in both domains have reached three
common points of post-media conditions that lay the groundwork
for this book: (1) the demise of the modernist medium specificity,
that is, the proliferation of electronic and digital technologies
that has led to the dissolution of the boundaries between one art
form and another, which were previously sustained by a media’s
unique properties; (2) as a response to the demise of the modernist
medium specificity, a renewed awareness of what media’s material,
technical, and aesthetic components are and what artists can do with
those components; and, (3) as a result of this renewed awareness,
INTRODUCTION 11
the emergence of artistic practices by which the media’s components

have new, previously uncharted relationships with those of other
media in ways that go beyond its formal boundaries. The last two
conditions, I shall argue, suggest not the total abandonment or
loss of medium specificity per se, but a reconfiguration of medium
specificity in tandem with media hybridity.
Krauss’s concept of the post-medium condition means that the
pervasive power of electronic and digital media challenges Clement
Greenberg’s idea of medium specificity so profoundly that it
transcends the traditional definition of artistic medium in general.
Television and video cannot be contained within the purview of
modernist medium specificity, according to which a medium’s
distinct identity is derived from its unique material properties, and
this identity exclusively delineates the medium’s formal and generic
boundaries as distinctive from other mediums. This is because the
material and technical components of television and video are
constitutively heterogeneous, allowing them to exist in putatively
diverse forms, spaces, and temporalities. Krauss writes, “Even if
video had a distinct technical support—its own apparatus, so to
speak—it occupied a kind of discursive chaos, a heterogeneity of
activities that could not be theorized as coherent or conceived as
having something like an essence or unifying core. . . . It proclaimed
the end of medium specificity. In the age of television, so it broadcast,
we inhabit a post-medium condition.”17 Similarly, the “new media
camp” has coined such terms as “post-media aesthetics” (Manovich)
and “post-media condition” (Weibel) in order to describe the ways
in which the idea of Greenbergian medium specificity became
fundamentally dismantled under the growing influence of electronic
and digital technologies. Manovich points out that the emergence
of television and video precipitated the “rapid development of new
artistic forms” (assemblage, happening, performance, installation,
time-based art, process art, etc.) that encouraged “the use of
different materials in arbitrary combinations (installation) . . .
[and] . . . aimed to dematerialize the art object (conceptual art).”18
For Manovich, the digital revolution of the 1980s and 1990s marks
the most consequential development of the dissolution of modernist
medium specificity, in that the shift to digital representation, along
with the introduction of new editing tools that could be applied
to most media and substitute traditional distinct artistic means,
has led to the dissolution of the “differences between photography
and painting (in the realm of still image) and between film and
animation (in the realm of a moving image)”19 on the material
levels of perception, storage, and distribution. In a similar vein,
Weibel outlines a historical trajectory of cinematic experiments
beyond filmic imaginary into three phases: the expanded cinema
movement in the 1960s extending the cinematographic code with
“analogous means”; the video revolution in the 1970s harnessing
“intensive manipulation and artificial construction of the image”;
and the digital apparatus in the 1980s and 1990s with “an
explosion of the algorithmic image and new features like observer
dependency, interactivity, virtuality, [and] programmed behavior.”20
Consequently, the loss of modernist medium specificity recognized
by both Krauss and the “new media camp” theorists (Manovich and
Weibel) asks them to revisit the traditional definition of a medium,
as well as paying attention to the array of artistic practices by which
that medium’s components interact with those of other media in
ways that challenge the previous distinctions between one art form
and another.
Krauss’s response is to redefine a medium as “a set of conventions
derived from (but not identical with) the material conditions of
a given technical support.”21 The medium in question here is not
reducible to its physical properties alone, but instead is reconceived
as a multiplicity of its material and technical components which
lend themselves to the development of artistic conventions, but
none of which have a directive power in determining the medium’s
expressive possibilities. Krauss draws upon the idea of the filmic
apparatus as exemplary of her definition of medium, considering
the medium as being characterized by its “aggregative” condition
in which medium specificity is still maintained and at the same
time internally differentiated according to the heterogeneity and
interdependence of its components. “Film consists of the celluloid
strip, the camera that registers light on the strip, the projector
which sets the recorded image into motion, and the screen,” she
writes, “as an artistic medium, it cannot be reduced to any of the
elements as objects, but all of them are united to constitute its
apparatus.”22 In so doing, Krauss avoids any direct association
between the medium and its physical substance as is the case of the
Greenbergian medium-specificity argument, and instead highlights
the significance of certain artistic expressions that call into question
the effect of a medium’s constraints and thereby reconfigure it as
INTRODUCTION 13
an open field for the interplay of “conventions” and “possibilities.”

Hence her notion of the medium reconciles the requirement for
the material and technical specificity of a distinct medium with the
formal and conceptual diversity of artistic creation.
Krauss’s redefinitions of the medium as a “set of conventions”
derived from a “technical support,” and of medium specificity
as being occupied by the intersection of the medium’s internally
heterogeneous components and a range of expressive possibilities
given by the medium’s conventions, imply that a traditional medium
is capable of going beyond its previous formal boundaries and has
new alliances with other mediums. Calling this artistic operation
“reinventing the medium,” Krauss has praised several artists who
reexamine the inner complexity of older material supports and
techniques that are now perceived as outdated under the pervasive
influences of new media. Along with Marcel Broodthaers’s films,
which aim to investigate the nature of film in relation to cinema’s
primitive technique derived from the flip book (for instance, his
A Voyage on the North Sea [1973–1974]),23 these artists’ practices
include James Coleman’s “projected images” that waver between
photographic stillness and cinematic motion due to his idiosyncratic
blending of slide projection and the filmstrip’s photograms;24 Jeff
Wall’s conceptual photo-panel teeming with cinematic allusions;
and William Kentridge’s “drawings for projection” built on the
transformative amalgamation of outmoded technical remnants,
such as pre-cinematic optical toys, cartoon animation, and
handmade film.25 For Krauss, those artists’ works concern the
idea of a medium as “conventions out of which to develop a form
of expressiveness that can be both projective and mnemonic,”26
insofar as they interrogate the range of expressive possibilities
given by the material and technical properties of the old mediums
(painting, photography, and film) and their interrelationships in a
redemptive manner. It is significant to underline that those artists’
practices, as well as Krauss’s concept of the medium as technical
support, seem to reconcile the legitimacy of medium specificity
with the hybridization of the art forms based upon that medium.
Those artists are commonly grounded in their own recognition of
a medium’s specific features, but the medium used by the artists
lends itself to a variety of conceptual practices that seek out the
medium’s nature beyond the essentialist assertion that the medium’s
physical domains immediately guarantee its proper art forms. This
practice, then, promotes the combination of a medium with the

materials, techniques, and conventions of other mediums that had
been considered outside that medium’s standardized forms: for
instance, Coleman’s imagery transcends the standardized projection
of cinema and alludes to the photographic stillness embedded in
the filmstrip, and Kentridge’s drawings for projection transgress the
boundaries of charcoal drawing and excavate its historical relation
to hand-drawn animation and cartoon animation.
Jacques Rancière has extensively problematized the Greenbergian
conception of the medium whose material specificity alone defines
the medium’s essence and therefore buttresses the separation
of different art forms. In a similar manner as Krauss’s medium
as technical support, Rancière offers his own redefinition of a
medium as “milieu” in two ways: both as “the milieu in which
the performances of a determined artistic arrangement come to be
inscribed, [and as] the milieu that these performances themselves
contribute to configuring.”27 In doing so, he has paid attention
to a wide range of artistic practices that promote hybridizations
of mediums, or, mixtures and clashes between the art forms’
heterogeneous elements: that is, practices ranging from film and
video installation pieces to multi-platform projects that invite the
blurring of the boundaries between art and nonart, or between
the artistic object and the life-world.28 In an interview, Rancière
clarifies that all these practices are defined by “the erasure of
medium specificity, indeed by the erasure of the visibility of art as
a distinct practice.”29 Rancière finds in Jean-Luc Godard’s magnum
opus video work Histoire(s) du cinéma (1988–1998) a telling
example of how his video-based montage emerges as the montage
of a “metamorphic operativeness, crossing the boundaries between
the arts and denying the specificity of materials.”30 Godard’s various
ways of fragmentation and juxtaposition by virtue of video’s
technical effects make possible a series of unexpected encounters
between particular cinematic images, paintings, and literary or
philosophical texts. Rancière’s emphasis upon the medium as
promoting hybridizations of previously separated arts echoes a
series of criticism by Nicolas Bourriaud, who coined a now well-
known term “relational aesthetics.” By this term, he singles out
the various open-ended works of art since the 1990s as a set of
artistic practices “which take as their theoretical and practical
point of departure the whole of human relations and their social
INTRODUCTION 15
context.”31 A closer inspection of Bourriaud’s line of arguments

illustrates that his relational aesthetics are not solely concerned
with the renewal of the bond between art and life, but also between
art and its audience. For Bourriaud, relational aesthetics as the
principle of reestablishing art in this manner is built upon “random
materialism,” a particular materialism that “takes its point of
departure the world contingency, which has no pre-existing origin
or sense.”32 This materialism suggests that an individual material
adopted by an artist neither imposes its essence on his/her conception
of the artwork nor predetermines the form of the artwork. Rather,
it is the form that takes precedence over the material in the artwork.
Bourriaud defines a form as a “structure” which comes into being
in the “dynamic relationship enjoyed by an artistic proposition with
other formations, artistic or otherwise.”33
Manovich and Weibel also consider the emblem “post-media”
as opening up a situation in which digital technologies serve as an
environment in which techniques and aesthetic features of a media
are dislocated from its medium-specific boundaries and become
increasingly hybridized with those of other media. It is in these
two senses that the two theorists’ arguments on the post-media
conditions are not unlike Krauss’s “technical support” or Rancière’s
“milieu.” Manovich claims that the “post-media” aesthetics are
indebted to the developments of various software applications in
the areas of moving image production since the mid-1990s, such
as Adobe After Effects, Maya, Inferno, and so forth, through
which “previously separated media—live action cinematography,
graphics, still photography, animation, 3D computer animation,
and typography—started to be combined in numerous ways.”34 In
Weibel’s words, Manovich’s argument on this situation is rendered
as the “total availability of specific media” under the computer,
which results in two phases of contemporary art practice: the
“equivalence of media” and the “mixing of the media.” While the
first phase refers to the computer’s recognition of each art form
and its respective medium, the second means that its hardware and
software lead to the innovation of each form and the mixture of
its media-specific features: “Video and computer installations can
be a piece of literature, architecture or a sculpture. Photography
and video art, originally confined to two dimensions, receive
spatial and sculptural dimensions in installations. Painting refers
to photography or digital graphics programs and uses both. The
graphics programs are called paint programs because they refer

to painting. Film is proving to be increasingly dominant in a
documentary realism which takes its critique of the mass media
from video.”35
For the theorists of post-media conditions, the equivalence
and availability of all media under computer-based imaging and
interfaces does not necessarily lead to the elimination of previous
art forms. For Weibel, “it does not render the idiosyncratic worlds
in the world of devices or the intrinsic properties of the media
world superfluous. On the contrary, the specificity and idiosyncratic
worlds of the media are becoming increasingly differentiated.”36
For Manovich, the developments of various software applications
to simulate the aesthetics and working methods of previous media
amount to what he calls a “hybrid revolution” in the culture of the
moving image since the 1990s: a revolution characterized by the
reigning of the moving image sequences that use “juxtapositions
of media and hybrids of different media techniques as their basic
aesthetic principle.”37 This may not support the idiosyncrasy of
previous media as it is defined by the traditional medium-specificity
argument, insofar as computerization extracts their techniques from
their physical support and turns them into algorithmic operations.
But in other senses, this hybridity draws our attention to the extent
to which various technical procedures available from the software
applications are traced back to the moving image forms grounded
in previous media (film, photography, painting, video), such as
stop-motion animation, 2D and 3D computer graphics, optical
printing, analogue “effects” video, etc. Again, this availability of the
techniques of the previous media opens up possibilities for their
various fusion, including a peculiar technique’s migration into other
media aesthetics and forms: “While particular media techniques
continue to be used in relation to their original media, they can
also be applied to other media . . . motion blur is applied to 3D
computer graphics, [and] computer generated fields of particles are
blended with live action footage to give it an enhanced look.”38
It should be noted that Krauss’s argument on the post-medium
and the post-media discourses of the “new media camp” have an
antagonistic relationship with each other in terms of their opposing
views on the impacts of electronic and digital technologies.
Following Walter Benjamin, Krauss limits her ideas of the medium
as technical support and of reinventing the medium to the outdated
INTRODUCTION 17
technological means (analogue photograph or film) that are

increasingly recognized as obsolete in the context of the proliferation
of electronic and digital technologies, assuming that they threaten
to eliminate the medium’s material and technical specificities and
assimilate artistic creativity and autonomy into their imperative
to mass communication.39 In so doing, her renewed theorization
of medium specificity turns out to be circumscribed within the
definitional polarity between the “medium” as the resource for
artistic expression (and the projector of artistic autonomy) and the
“media” as technological means of communication and culture. This
dichotomy validates the idea that Krauss’s idea of reinventing the
medium is possible only when the medium is regarded as obsolete,
therefore bracketing out any consideration of an array of artistic
practices that explore the expressive possibilities of the medium by
relating the medium’s material and technical components and its
conventions to those of new “media.” Thus, it becomes clear that her
thesis of the post-medium condition is still anchored in a belief in the
uniqueness and singularity of the means of artistic expression that
is part of the same Greenbergian modernist argument on medium
specificity that she originally intends to renew or overcome. This
problem becomes more conspicuous when we see that what Krauss
sees as the technical support for reinventing the medium, such as
analogue photography and film, is not totally dissociated from the
machine-based technologies implied by the term “media.” 40 The
fact that in Krauss’s theorization there is no space for considering
the technological components and their operations of old artistic
means enables me to choose the term “media” instead of “medium”
in my characterizations of the conditions connoted by the prefix
“post.”
On the other hand, it should also be worth noting that the
discourses on post-media are in some senses as reductive as Krauss’s
theorization of post-medium, in terms of their assumption that
electronic and digital technologies annihilate the idea of medium
specificity per se and assimilate any artistic practices into their new
technical principles. For Manovich, “transcoding,” translating all
existing media into numerical data and formats through simulation,
stands out as the most fundamental principle of new media, as it
suggests a process by which the computer negotiates with any of
media objects as well as their respective forms and techniques.
“Because new media is created on computers, distributed via
computers, and stored and archived on computers,” Manovich

contends, “the logic of a computer can be expected to significantly
influence the traditional cultural logic of media . . . [and] the computer
will affect the cultural layer.”41 His emphasis upon the processes of
simulation and transcoding, however, adds up to a celebration of the
possibilities for various combinations of any visual expressions and
techniques in moving image production within the same software
environment. This is linked to the following conclusion: “Whether
these media are openly juxtaposed or almost seamlessly blended
together is less important than the fact of this co-presence itself.”42
But there is no reason for postulating that the representations
and techniques of traditional media disappear, or, are “seamlessly
blended together,” just because some of their key definitional
prerequisites—for instance, a medium as it is defined by its stable
materiality that has a directive impact on the formation of an art—
become untenable under the influence of digital media. Considering
this, I argue that the formal, technical, and aesthetic components of
non-digital media are still at play in the operation of new media even
though the processes of simulation and transcoding replace their
materiality. Art critic Sven Lütticken supports my argument as he
astutely points out that the post-media theorists such as Manovich
do not consider the “role played by memory in guiding the use of
media.” For Lütticken, the reason that we still maintain the concept
of media even though digitization appears to absorb and introduce
notable changes in them is that the “media are not just tools or
machines,” but also “layerings of [their] conventions, and memories
[that] haunt us.”43 Consequently, electronic and digital technologies
might disallow the idea of medium specificity if it means an array
of boundaries that distinguish one art form from another, but this
does not necessarily mean the total annihilation of all the material,
technical, and aesthetic components in the traditional technologies
for artistic practices.
In sum, my comparative reading of the post-medium and the
post-media discourses demonstrates that despite the duality of
“medium” and “media,” both share with one another the demise
of the modernist medium-specificity argument that insists upon
the boundaries between one art form and another, and the
reconfiguration of media as internally divided and non-reductive
rather than the traditional idea of the medium as primarily defined
INTRODUCTION 19
by its unique material properties. Besides these two commonalities,

Krauss’s observations on the artists whom she considers as
reinventing the medium in response to the post-medium condition
touch on the larger domains of the growing interactions between the
art forms (for instance, film and photography) that were previously
separated under the traditional logic of medium specificity, as
well as between the material and techniques that constitute each
of them. The post-media discourses also see those interactions as
being activated by the computational processes of simulation and
transcoding, by which different objects and techniques that were
hitherto demarcated become available and opened to a variety of
combinations. All the three correspondences are in line with critic
J. Sage Elwell’s understanding of the post-medium condition as
closely related to the post-media condition, in that both are premised
upon the deep hybridization of historically existing media in the age
of the digital: “The ability to document performance-based concept
pieces, the capacity to transform video into a medium itself, the
birth of digital technology and the ongoing realization of digital
convergence have all combined to yield a media fluidity. . . . In this
post-medium condition everything is a potential medium for artistic
creation, including digitization itself.” 44
While concurring with Elwell’s view, I would stress two more
implications of the three correspondences between the two
lines of the discourses. First, both discourses’ perspectives on
the hybridizations of different art forms and their components
commonly suggest that the idea of media hybridity does not
necessarily contradict—and thus can be compatible—with that of
medium specificity, which demands identifying a media’s material,
technical, and aesthetic components and the components’ differences
from those of other media: as in Krauss, her identification of the
filmic apparatus as aggregative, and as in Manovich, his view of
simulation and transcoding as intrinsic to digital technologies.
Second, both discourses’ privileged examples of the hybridized
artistic expressions—for Krauss, Coleman’s “projected images” and
Kentridge’s “drawings for projection” and, for Manovich, a variety
of moving images based upon the combination of the techniques
and aesthetics that were separated in different mediums (film,
photography, hand-drawn animation)—implicitly point to the
hybrid moving images that this book defines and classifies.
Film’s post-media conditions

Since the 1990s, it has not simply been film as a celluloid-based
medium for the art of the moving image that the post-media conditions
outlined thus far have profoundly impacted, but also cinema as an
apparatus comprising film’s systems of production and reception,
its previously designated social site (movie theater), its experience
(collective viewing), its cultural status, and its history.45 Considering
these changes, this book characterizes these two consequences as
“post-filmic” and “post-cinematic” conditions, under which the
previous medium-specific boundaries of film or cinema become
fundamentally dissolved. The decline of the celluloid-based image
by the dominance of electronic and digital media arouses several
changes heralded by the “death of cinema” discourses on multiple
levels: dispensing with reality, the computer-generated imagery does
not entice us with any object of contemplation anchored in film’s
engagement with physical space and time;46 the changing value
of a cinematic system from the authenticity of going to the movie
theater to the interchangeability of viewing practices throughout
various platforms (DVD, digital projection, and the internet) in the
name of multimedia impoverishes cinema as a prominent form of
cultural experience;47 from the standpoint of avant-garde cinema,
the reigning of digital tools is regarded as thwarting the value of
artisanal cinema based on a filmmaker’s physical relation to the
materiality of film;48 and finally, the photochemical image as
indicative of a past to the viewer of a present is overshadowed by
the electronic and digital images that seem to collapse temporal
differences into real-time instantaneity.49 All these different yet
overlapping responses commonly point to the shrinking of film as
an art grounded in the primacy of the photographic moving image
whose celluloid-based materiality was believed to maintain the
image’s connection to the profilmic event, or of cinema as a cultural
institution that had long maintained its own setting, equipment, and
experience. Viewed together, these discourses of the death of cinema
are consolidated into what Anne Friedberg sees as a consequence
of media convergence, an end of filmic medium specificity in its
traditional sense. “The differences between the media of movies,
television, and computers are rapidly diminishing,” she writes, “the
movie screen, the home television screen, and the computer screen
INTRODUCTION 21
retain their separate locations, but the types of images you see on
each of them are losing their medium-based specificity.”50 While all
these discourses on the death of cinema suggest the fluctuation of
cinema studies as a distinct discipline grounded in its previously
stable object of inquiry and concepts, it is also worthwhile to single
out two key post-media conditions of film that have been more
frequently raised in the discipline and thus deserve more focused
attention.
The first and foremost post-filmic condition is undoubtedly the
loss of film’s celluloid-based materiality and its subsequent erosion of
the value of the filmic image as causally linked to the passage of time
in reality. Theorists who highlight this condition tend to emphasize
an array of material, technical, and aesthetic discontinuities
between celluloid and digital production. For Mary Ann Doane, the
indexicality of cinema associated with the analogical relationship
of its image to the referent does more than differentiate it from
other art forms; the indexical in cinema bears the inextricability
of the medium—film’s chemical and photographic base—as well
as the possibility for “a transgression of what are given as material
limitations.”51 In this respect, digital technologies are viewed as
an increasing threat to the restraints and possibilities that were
previously guaranteed by the properties of celluloid medium insofar
as they “exude a fantasy of immateriality.”52 Doane’s point dovetails
an argument from the film preservationist Paolo Cherchi Usai, for
whom the immateriality of the digital image marks a fundamental
diversion from the historicity of filmic image, an image whose
history is derived from celluloid’s material and chemical features
subject to entropy and decay.53 Experimental filmmaker Barbette
Mangolte links this material difference to the difference of temporal
aesthetics between celluloid-based and digital cinema, asking why
it is difficult for digital cinema to express duration. For Mangolte,
the technical base of the image in digital cinema is fundamentally
distinct from the materiality of celluloid and the physicality of its
filmstrips, both of which enable the analogue filmic image to have a
unique relationship to the duration of the past. “In film, two seconds
is three feet and twenty seconds is thirty feet,” she writes. “There is
no way to ignore duration when you physically manipulate the piece
of film. Nothing like this exists in digital editing.”54 Rodowick takes
up and furthers Mangolte’s position, claiming that digital capture,
transcoding, and synthesis serve to express a different temporality
in digital cinema than the presentation of past duration because

they introduce a temporal discontinuity into the processes of
recording, editing, and display, unlike the continuities of analogical
transcription in the celluloid-based cinema. For Rodowick, digital
technologies transform the expression of duration in film, allowing
digital cinema to construct what he calls the “digital event,” one
that corresponds less to the duration of the world and lived time
than to the control and variation of numerical elements internal
in the computer’s algorithmic operations.55 Rodowick’s view on
the fundamental replacement of the inscription of lived duration
in the filmstrip with the algorithmic temporality of digital imaging
echoes Vivian Sobchack’s contrast between the cinematic cut and
the digital morph. Unlike the cut or dissolve in the celluloid-based
cinema that is used to effect a temporal change inscribed in the
series of filmstrips, in the digital morph “difference is accumulated
not as a whole constituted from discrete elements but rather as a
subsumption to the sameness of self-identity.”56
The theorists’ voices that herald the dissolution of filmic
materiality and the indexical value that it was supposed to
guarantee are associated with the second overarching post-media
condition of film, namely, the loss of the identity of film as a stable
object. This identity crisis has been suggested in two ways. First,
as for digital cinema, its images are defined not by the primacy of
lens-based imagery as in the case of celluloid-based cinema but by
their constitutive heterogeneity thanks to the computer’s capacity
to transcode any media object and its accompanying techniques.
In a similar way as Carroll’s use of the term “moving image” as a
broad category, Manovich argues that digital cinema consists of the
sum of live-action material (and extensively, analogue photograph),
painting, image processing, compositing, 2D and 3D computer
animation, and is defined as “a particular case of animation that
uses live-action footage as one of its many elements,” because “live
action footage is now only raw material to be manipulated by
hand—animated, combined with 3D-computer generated scenes,
and painted over.”57 Second, in accordance with the hybridity of
the images in digital cinema, the components of traditional cinema
have become assimilated into the language and operations of
the computer. For Manovich, cinema as a major art form of the
twentieth century has found new life, as its key elements—its ways
of viewing (framing, camera movements), of structuring time and
INTRODUCTION 23
space (montage between different shots), of making narrative

space (a transparent, single-perspective space viewed through
the rectangular screen), etc.—are simulated and extended to the
basic principles of the user’s accessing, organizing, and interacting
with data and objects in the computer software.58 The avant-
garde film and modernist art in the 1920s, notably Bauhaus and
Russian constructivism, each represented by László Moholy-Nagy
and Dziga Vertov, lie at the heart of the translation of cinematic
elements into digital software and user interaction—that is, cinema’s
afterlife as a “cultural interface.”59 Here cinema is considered not
so much a definable object or stable medium, but instead a set of
representational, perceptual, and expressive conventions which
have been developed since its inception and have been borrowed
by new media.
At first sight, Manovich’s view on the cinema’s transition into the
cultural interfaces of the computer might cause discomfort for the
theorists (Rodowick, Doane, etc.) who have stressed the post-filmic
conditions of digital cinema, including the crisis of celluloid-based
cinema. The theorists rightly point out the technical differences
between celluloid-based cinema and digital imaging, as well as the
ways in which the latter unsettles both the image of the former and
its relation to reality. As we have seen in my reading of the discourses
of the “new media camp,” it is true that the post-media conditions
proposed by those discourses might run the risk of declaring both
the abolition of medium specificity per se (and of the concept of
the medium in general) and the computer’s triumphant absorption
of all the technical and aesthetic possibilities of previous media in
its transcoding and algorithmic operations. However, if we assume
that the technical, aesthetic components of previous media are not
entirely annihilated but that they persist in the representations and
operations of new media to varying degrees, Manovich’s overall
arguments in The Language of New Media (2001) and its related
writings can be read as entailing a range of hybridities inherent
in the images that digital technologies configure in their varying
relationships to cinema. That is, just as Manovich’s emphasis
upon numerical representation, by which any media element is
represented as a discrete sample dissociated from its material origin,
is read as highlighting the digital image’s discontinuity with the
image of celluloid-based cinema, his explanations of transcoding
and cultural interfaces appear to suggest an ineluctable reliance of
the digital image upon the aesthetic and technical components of

celluloid-based cinema. Seen in this light, Manovich’s two ways of
redefining cinema can be read as less teleological than they seem
to be, even though some of his arguments are not totally free of
techno-deterministic utopianism.
If we consider the ontology of the digital image or digital cinema as
grounded in the negotiations between digital technologies’ technical
differences from celluloid-based cinema and their dependence upon
its technical and representational conventions, we can arrive at
another instance of the reconciliation between medium specificity
and media hybridity, or between the newness of digital technologies
and the continuities between celluloid-based cinema and digital
imaging. I would call these continuities between the old and the
new systems “diachronic hybridization.” This type of hybridization
echoes a media-archaeological perspective that has demonstrated
how digital technologies are situated in the forms and techniques of
past media, including Thomas Elsaesser’s framework on observing
how digital technologies could serve as a “time machine” through
which cinema’s variability and heterogeneity from its outset can be
exposed and reevaluated,60 as well as André Gaudreault and Philippe
Marion’s argument that digital cinema’s alliances with other media
platforms (such as theme parks, television, and the DVD) testify
to cinema’s recurring intermediality, namely, cinema’s adoption of
existing cultural forms (such as magic trick shows, park attractions,
stage performances, etc.) in its early stage.61 Philip Rosen’s brilliant
idea of “digital mimicry” turns this media-archaeological point of
diachronic hybridizations into a media-ontological concept. Rosen
coins this term to indicate the extent to which the manipulability
of the image afforded by digital equipments and graphic algorithms
possesses “the capacity to mime any kind of non-digital image,”
particularly, in his context, the indexical image produced by
photochemical media.62 This signals that digital manipulation,
unlike the rhetoric on the novelties of digital imaging in contrast
to the historically preceding media, is compelled to rely on and
incorporate their forms of imagery. In this way, regardless of the
increased flexibility and rapidity with which any alteration and
configuration of the image can be implemented, which Rosen
calls “practically infinite manipulability,” digital manipulation
must be seen as the mixture of the purely digital and its impure—
originally non-digital—elements. Thus, while the manipulative
INTRODUCTION 25
capability of the digital might be regarded as idiosyncratic due to its

specificities such as numerical representation and transcoding, its
transformation of old media forms does not necessarily obliterate
their specificities on a formal and conventional level but instead
demands “a hybridity of old and new.”63
In fact, this scholarship’s sensitivity toward the hybridity of digital
cinema and imaging in relation to their historical precedents drives
my interpretation of film’s post-media conditions as well. However,
there is a key point of caution to be taken in adapting this diachronic
perspective, namely that the arguments of Doane, Rodowick, and
others on the digital’s differences from photochemical media are
still useful in keeping an eye on the technical structures of the
digital that inscribe their specific qualities and on the features of
the photochemical media that are eroded or displaced by the digital.
Thus, I would argue that in developing the perspective on diachronic
hybridization, we need to see both continuities and discontinuities,
or, to put it in another way, to see the digital’s media-specific
features that coexist with its hybrid aspects. For experimental
filmmaker and theorist Malcolm Le Grice, an awareness of digital
technologies’ fundamental media-specific differences from other
mechanical media systems, such as nonlinearity, programmability,
and interactivity, can be supplemented by the technologies’ reliance
upon those mechanical media: “Some of the more prominent current
technological developments in digital media are driven by a desire
to produce a time-based auditory and visual capacity which is more
or less continuous with the forms and language developed from
the history of cinema.”64 In this way, it is possible to understand the
post-filmic and post-cinematic conditions as being marked by the
dialectical correlation of medium specificity and hybridity, and to
conceptualize the images produced by digital technologies’ adoption
and processing of the photographic and filmic representations as
expressing different hybrid configurations of the old and the new. In
the words of Markos Hadjioannou, examining the ontology of the
images in terms of their hybridity is a “matter of dealing with the
new as not new or old but new and old, as simultaneously distinct
and interactively interrelated, so that each medium acquires a space
of its own but where boundaries are in fact always shifting.”65
As a supplement to the diachronic hybridization that has been
raised in the existing scholarship that positions digital techniques
and aesthetics within their incorporation of (or reliance upon)
the techniques and aesthetics of film as old media, I propose

“synchronic hybridization,” a kind of hybridization derived from
the encounters between historically existing media technologies
in a given time. What I am calling synchronic hybridization in the
context of the post-media conditions points to the transformation
of cinematic components (cinematography, mise-en-scène, and the
experience of time and space) and their migration into other art
forms and platforms that were largely regarded as distinct from
the normative formation of the cinematic apparatus. Or, to put
it in another way, the conditions refer to the situations in which
those components have been thrown into the double movement of
deterritorialization and reterritorialization created by the growing
influence of post-filmic technologies and of the arts and media
that have been excluded from the traditional medium-specific
ideas of cinema. I develop this type of hybridization from another
discursive thread of cinema’s post-media conditions. In fact, it
was an array of “paracinematic” experiments in the 1970s that
prefigured a key moment of synchronic hybridization. Jonathan
Walley’s excellent study of the projects, emblematized by the works
of Anthony McCall, Paul Sharits, and Tony Conrad, demonstrates
that they are cross-disciplinary cinematic practices that aimed to
seek the properties and effects of cinema in relation to the domains
of performance, post-minimalism, conceptual art, and site-specific
art—that is to say, outside the material parameters of film.66 The
synchronic hybridization prefigured in the work of paracinema
has become quite popular since the 1990s, with the dramatic
rise of media installations based on the interplay of previously
distinct artistic expressions—film and video art, for instance—and
straddling between the gallery space and the film theater. Addressing
those diverse practices of installation which exploit and transform
cinematic elements through other art forms and technical means
(video and digital media), Raymond Bellour succinctly touches
on the idea of synchronic hybridization as follows: “All we have
is incertitudes—slip-sliding, straddling, flickering, hybridization,
metamorphosing, transition and passages between what is still
called cinema and the thousand and one ways to show moving
images in the vague and misnomered domain known as Art.”67 In
accordance with Bellour’s notion of the “passages” between cinema
and contemporary art, Francesco Casetti proposes the concept of
the “relocation of cinema” to indicate the post-cinematic situations
INTRODUCTION 27
enabled by the influences of electronic and digital technologies,

under which cinema maintains some elements of the traditional
filmic experience while simultaneously involving a variety of
forms, platforms (DVDs, mobile phones, the internet, etc.), and
activities that it did not previously embrace.68 Pushing this idea
further, Casetti goes on to assert that the idea of the cinematic
apparatus under post-media conditions “no longer appears to be
a predetermined, closed, and binding structure, but rather an open
and flexible set of elements . . . an assemblage.”69 Bearing in mind
and developing the ideas of Walley, Bellour, and Casetti, I argue that
synchronic hybridization serves as a useful conceptual framework
for identifying an array of hybrid moving images produced when
the technical and aesthetic components of film go beyond the
standardized formation of the cinematic apparatus and are fused
with other art forms or media technologies, as well as for examining
the images’ complex and border-crossing ontological features.70
Consequently, this book argues that film’s post-media conditions
can be fully illuminated when we consider both types—diachronic and
synchronic—of hybridizations in regard to film’s growing impurity
and its persistence in other art forms and media technologies. As
for diachronic hybridization, digital technologies appropriate a set
of components that have previously defined the identity of film
(the photographic image, camera movements, styles of montage,
etc.), producing a variety of moving images by maintaining some of
its components’ properties (for instance, an image’s photorealistic
expression and the image’s reference to profilmic reality) and
transforming others with their specific features, such as simulation
and algorithmic manipulations. At the same time, synchronic
hybridization is useful in identifying and examining the diversified
connections between cinema and other existing or emergent
technologies, which are emblematized by, for instance, cinema’s
multiform distribution via DVDs, mobile media, digital projection,
Web-based platforms, etc. In either case, the moving images manifest
themselves in the varying coexistence and interrelation of the
features derived from the specificity of digital technologies, and those
derived from their hybridized reliance upon the material, technical,
and aesthetic elements of film. This is the case not only with digital
video (DV) cinema and spectacular narrative cinema (two major
categories of mainstream cinema), but also with avant-garde cinema,
with moving image installations marked by video’s deliberate
merger with cinema (contemporary art), and with various types of

digital media art that transform and relocate the components of
cinema through computer algorithms (new media art). Thus, it is a
key aim of this book to investigate the dynamic negotiations between
medium specificity and media hybridity in the moving images
produced in those practical territories of nonmainstream cinema.
Video’s post-media conditions

In the modernist age, analogue video was considered to be sharply
distinct from film because of two aesthetic features that were
expressive of its material and technical specificities. The first feature
is that, unlike the filmic image, the forms of video image hinge upon
an array of technical processes that directly deal with the continuous
flow of electronic signals as a constitutive factor of its material. That
is, any manipulation of the signal on all levels of the apparatus—
from the camera to the synthesizer or processor to the monitor—
leads to a shift in the end result of the image, ranging from a change
in its surface quality to a change in the relationship between two
image units (such as the frame and the shot). This ontological aspect
of the video image is what Yvonne Spielmann calls “transformation
imagery,” an array of “flexible, unstable, nonfixed forms of the
image” characterized by their “fluid pictoriality.”71 Spielmann’s
two features of the video image—“transformative imagery” and
“fluid pictoriality”—seem to establish a direct association between
the medium’s material and technical properties and the aesthetic
forms that they produce. This association alludes to a canonical
tendency of early video art which created a variety of video
imagery as part of an investigation into the new machine’s inherent
nature. Categorizing this tendency as “image-processing video,”
as exemplified by Nam June Paik, Steina and Woody Vasulka,
Stephen Beck, Peter Donebauer, and Eric Siegel, to name just a few,
curator Lucinda Furlong describes it as evocative of Spielmann’s
two features. “The image-processing encompasses the synthesis and
manipulation of the video signal in a way that often changes the
image quite drastically,” Furlong writes. “it conjures up a number
of very specific stereotypes: densely layered ‘psychedelic’ images
composed of soft, undulating forms in which highly saturated colors
give a painterly effect, or geometric abstractions that undergo a
INTRODUCTION 29
series of visual permutations.”72 Numerous accounts of video art

have largely defined the stereotypes of the “image-processing” as a
direct manifestation of video’s underlying substance, of its states of
change, and even of the processes or devices as such, most of which
were devised and modified by the artists themselves.
The second feature of video concerns the temporality of the
image. The medium-specific discourses on the time of video
consider simultaneity and instantaneity as the two most prevalent
and intertwining features, both of which are presupposed to be
unavailable to film. Early commentators such as David Antin,
Stanley Cavell, Bruce Kurtz, Krauss, Fredric Jameson, and others
glean both features from the technological formation of early
video—live feedback and the existence of the monitor, both
inherited from television.73 In contrast to film as a medium, defined
by the delay between the inscription of the past event and the time
of viewing, video is inherently marked by its engagement with the
“present tense.” The continuous flow of the electronic signal in
video is described as shaping the simultaneity of event recording
and transmission. Under this technological implementation,
instantaneity refers to the fact that video’s temporal dimension
is hardly stable, inasmuch as the continuum of the flow can be
interrupted in the processes of editing and transmission for the sake
of making its record of time ephemeral, multiplied, or dubious.
This is also deemed to be differentiated from film, a medium which,
during projection, structures time built upon the immutability of
the recorded past. Regardless of the differences between those
discourses, the emphasis on “simultaneity” and “instantaneity” is
predicated upon the direct association between the construction of
the video apparatus and the aesthetic determination of an artistic
medium.
The material, technical, and aesthetic boundaries of analogue
video have been weakened when it yielded to digitization, which
resulted in two changes that contributed to repositioning video as
“post-media.” The first conspicuous change is that digital video
is incorporated into an element of the computer that consists of
numerous software algorithms to simulate existing media, with its
hardware becoming invisible. The second—and more significant—
change is the shift from “transformation imagery” to “digital
manipulation” in terms of the material and technical dimensions of
video imagery. For examining this shift, it is meaningful to consider
Timothy Binkley’s argument on digitization as the passage from

“transcription” to “conversion.” The term “transcription” indicates
that analogue media, including film and analogue video, transfer
an image from one physical medium to another for storage and
display it as materially homogeneous. As with analogue video, a
light wave captured by an electronic signal is first transcribed to
the processing instruments, then to the magnetic tape combined
with display and playback devices. Those two transcriptions ensure
the identity of the electronic current as the material source of the
image. This material homogeneity of the image is not maintained in
the digital “conversion,” by which an image is turned into abstract
numerical data. As with digital video, the electronic signal of
varying voltages is not transcribed, but converted into a pattern
of abstract relationships made by software-driven mathematical
algorithms. “Digital media do not make analogue ones obsolete,
since interfaces are needed to make numerical abstractions tangible,
and these converters usually connect digital numbers with analogue
events,” writes Binkley.74 A key difference between analogue
video’s transcription and digital video’s conversion, then, is that
in the latter’s case the shift on the surface of visual information
can occur through means other than transforming the electronic
waveform as a material component, the means to which the former
was restricted. This entails an array of procedures in digital video
post-production, which can be called digital manipulations. They
enable one to exert a wider range of control over the source image
than allowed by the processes of analogue video. In this way,
while deepening the instability and fluidity of the video image,
digital manipulation makes discontinuous the circuit of recording,
transmission, processing, and display—a continuity presupposed in
the transformation of analogue video.
This discontinuity of digital video has two remarkable
consequences for the ontology of digital video image in comparison
to its analogue counterpart. First, the visual information coming
from the electronic transcription of an event in front of the lens
does not become a prerequisite for the specificity of the video
image in the digital era. To put it differently, in digital video,
any sort of image taken from different material sources can be
converted into a series of information that is easily translated into
a flow of electronic signals. The now-popularized video software
applications are able to deal not merely with images captured by
INTRODUCTION 31
the digital camera, but with image objects encoded from originally
different material formats (transferred film, scanned photography
and painting, 2D or 3D graphics). In this sense, it is tempting to
say that digital video echoes the way in which Manovich defines
digital cinema as the sum of previously disparate images, including
live-action imagery. Second, in tandem with the extendedness of the
source image of digital video, the manipulation paradigm includes
a resulting image which does not need to be directly concerned with
the intrinsic qualities of video as a distinctive medium. Since the
mid-1990s, video art has witnessed the increasing erosion of the
“pure” electronic moving image. A number of renowned video art
critics attribute this change to the digital revolution, an innovation
that causes changes in video technologies and, at the same time,
the merger of different media in generating imagery. For instance,
Chris Meigh-Andrews states: “The convergence of computer
manipulated imagery from a diverse range of sources, together with
the development of image display technologies . . . has rendered the
distinction between previously distinct media increasingly obsolete
and largely irrelevant.”75 Michael Rush also agrees with Meigh-
Andrews’s declaration of the weakened medium specificity of video.
“Video technology is now in a hybrid stage, combining all manner
of digital technologies in the creation of what is likely to be a new
medium,” Rush claims. “It is time for video to assume its place as
simply a ‘filmic’ medium, now that the word ‘filming’ refers to the
many ways in which the moving or animated image is created.”76
Since the 1990s, the transition from analogue transformation to
digital manipulation has also enabled the ontological distinction
between film and video in the light of temporality to be diminished.
As the projection of the prerecorded image increasingly replaced
the feedback system combined with the monitor, it promoted film’s
incursion into the exhibition space. Accordingly, the simultaneity
between recording and viewing did not become a prerequisite for
the temporality of video. Yet the dominance of projection is not a
single factor in this change. As to the possibility of converting film
into digitized files for projection, numerous artists came to cross
the boundaries between video and cinema in various ways, each
pursuing their own inquiry into the time of the moving image. Not
simply did the artists adopt a cinematic language and production
system for shooting with a video camera, but they often used
digital-based video technologies to deal with any format of footage
in editing and installation, whether shot on film or video. In this

way, the disintegration of the easily identifiable video apparatus has
triggered the interchangeability of cinema and video. Fueled by this
technological reformation, a number of exhibitions have brought
together a variety of works coming from different materials (16 mm
and 35 mm film, digital video, HD video) and installation formats
(film projection, video projection, or plasma-screen display) in the
name of examining notions of time which do not precisely conform
with the concepts of simultaneity and instantaneity. This suggests
that the ways of using video to explore the time of the moving image
became diversified. Organizing an exhibition devoted to works
derived from video projection, Marc Mayer already anticipated this
tendency in the mid-1990s, which he characterized as a “reflection
on time.” “Through real time or extreme slow motion, through
repetition, or rapid pictorial variation and recombination, through
editing,” he notes, “video projection resembles nontemporal art
without actually compromising the temporal dimension.”77
In sum, the paradigm shift to digital manipulation entails that the
video image has become uncoupled from the particular technologies
of video’s early years, and that it has merged with the material,
technical, formal, and aesthetic constituents of other media images
in terms of its aesthetic dimensions of surface and temporality. It is
from these two consequences that we can identify video’s post-media
conditions in its digital phase. Despite these conditions, however,
the affinity between early video’s transformative capacities and the
manipulation of digital video has not drawn specific attention in the
still-modernist criticism on contemporary video art. What should be
underlined in this context is that the property of video that makes
their source image temporally fluid and figuratively flexible is still
maintained in its digital version. For illustrating this point, it is of
great help to refer to Manovich’s remark on the relationship between
the electronic and the digital in terms of the instability of the image:
To a significant extent, an electronic signal is already characterized

by similar variability because it can exist in numerous states. For
example, in the case of a sine wave, we can modify its amplitude
or frequency; each modification produces a new version of the
original signal without affecting its structure. . . . All that happens
when we move from analogue electronics to digital computers is
that the range of variations is greatly expanded.78
INTRODUCTION 33
To expand on Manovich’s view on the transition of video from

electronic media to the digital, it could be argued that the analogue
video image is relatively “hard” in comparison to the “softness” of
digital video imagery, the latter of which is able to encompass images
derived from both electronic and non-electronic signals (pixel), or
from both signal-based images and the encoded versions of object-
based images (picture, photography, film). While this ontological
heterogeneity of the image based on the computer’s processes of
abstraction and transcoding can be seen as specific to digital video,
the capability of video to alter the figurative and temporal qualities
of the source image remains continuous from analogue video. It
is here that the digital video image involving elements of visual
media previously distinct from purely electronic imagery—namely,
photography, painting, and film—is also conceptualized as both
medium-specific and hybrid. Spielmann indeed suggests this point
in her discussion on the importance of the intersection of analogue
video with the digital. “Due to its open apparatus—the processing
and transformative characteristics of the electronic image—video,
despite its status as an analogue medium, shares significant features
of the digital,” she notes, “both the electronic and the digital
media forms of video have the potential to produce imagery in any
direction and dimension in an open structure.”79
With this dialectical juncture of medium specificity and hybridity
in mind, I would claim that what matters in the video’s post-media
conditions is the persistence of the transformative techniques of
analogue video in the manipulation paradigm of digital video.
Those who engage in the debate on the status of video in the digital
era nonetheless tend to emphasize the weakened link between those
techniques and the formal and aesthetic imperatives that video is
directed to pursue; as Spielmann further argues: “The point I want
to stress is that such contemporary ‘video installations’ are less
concerned with video than with other media forms.”80 Her argument
suggests that the importance of video may be neglected when the
manipulative features of video do not deal with the processes of
video as such, but instead with the forms or conventions of film
and photography. However, Spielmann’s downplaying of the hybrid
forms of moving image in digital video contradicts her observation
on the correspondence between electronic transformation and
digital manipulation for two reasons: first, in terms of materiality,
the image encoded from the celluloid-based media exists under the
condition of the interchangeability between electronic signal and

digital pixels; and second, for this reason, the image lends itself to
certain changes made by the manipulative techniques of video such
that it acquires different qualities in its final state. For these two
reasons, the exploration of other media forms via the manipulation
of digital video does not necessarily mean the elimination of
video’s material and technical specificities (the amalgamation of
electronic signals and digital pixels) in the light of its transformative
characteristics. Hence, what is at the heart of evaluating digital
manipulation is tracking how these specificities of digital video
are linked to the set of corresponding representational practices
that testify to video’s post-media conditions in the two types of
hybridization, as is the case with the ontology of the digital image
in relation to film. As to diachronic hybridization, digital video
maintains a range of continuities with its analogue predecessor
while inscribing its own material and technical specificities in the
resulting image; and as to synchronic hybridization, its expressive
possibilities have expanded beyond video’s previously established
medium-specific boundaries that demarcated video art from other
visual arts, therein giving it an unprecedented relationship with the
components of painting, photography, and film.
Intermedial approaches to hybrid

moving images
The post-media conditions of film and video examined thus
far eventually aim at identifying the two key conditions for the
emergence of hybrid moving images across different media of art:
first, diachronic hybridization as a type of hybridization caused by
the transition from old media (photography, film, and analogue
video) to digital media technologies, which activates the awareness
of the old media’s internal aggregative characteristics and entails a
broad system of interactions between the old and the new media;
and second, synchronic hybridization as the sum of conceptual and
technical operations that reposition the components of all these
existing media and call into question, traverse, and redraw their
formal and generic boundaries. Against the backdrop of these two
hybridizations, this book defines the ontology of hybrid moving
INTRODUCTION 35
images as that of “coexistence and interrelation.” This suggests

that the images include an array of new production processes by
which the material, technical, aesthetic properties of more than
two media engage in creating the images thanks to digitization.
As a result, the hybrid moving images are marked either by the
simultaneous existence of different media elements (for instance,
the coexistence of stillness and movement) or by the transformation
of one media’s elements through those of the other (for instance,
the layering of different temporal traces in a single picture frame).
Although previous studies on the digital image have occasionally
addressed these two features, they have tended either to exaggerate
its difference from the images of old media or to generalize its
constitutive hybridity as the seamless absorption of the traces of
non-digital media. It is my ambition in this book to overcome these
two shortcomings and establish the hybrid moving image as a
conceptual field for thinking how the previous ontological accounts
of the similarities and differences between old and new media are
contested and reconfigured in a variety of ways.
In the following I shall tease out these two definitions of
hybridization under post-media conditions by discussing how they
appear in the domain of the moving image. This is to propose the idea
of intermediality not simply as a methodological tool for approaching
and analyzing the hybridity of the moving image, but also as a type
of configuration based on the mixture of the components from more
than two media and thus on their co-presence and interrelation (For
this reason, I prefer using the term “configuration” to “figuration”).
In this sense, the two ontological hybridizations demand a formalist
view on media technologies and their role in shaping visual
expressions, because it is on the level of their forms that the aspects
of these hybridizations, including the simultaneous occurrences of
their media components, become discernible.
As a methodological concept, intermediality is an umbrella-term
that refers to the border crossings between different media and
the mixture of them in art forms and practices. Irina O. Rajewsky
and Werner Wolf provide broader definitions of this term, such
as “a generic term for all those phenomena that . . . in some way
take place between media,”81 and one that is “applied to any
transgression of boundaries between conventionally distinct media
of communication.”82 Despite the extreme variety of the subjects and
the approaches to intermediality, it is commonly acknowledged that
intermediality suggests a methodological tool for paying attention

to the interactions between different art forms or disciplines and
analyzing their types such as dialogue, cohabitation, exchange,
transformation, collision, appropriation, and repurposing. What
is at issue, then, is how to distinguish which particular kind of
intermediality fits into the types of moving image based upon the
interactions between different art forms or media components.
Rajewsky’s concept of “media combination” is particularly useful
for defining and analyzing hybrid moving images in question. This
refers to an array of media artifacts whose intermedial quality
is determined by “the media constellation constituting a given
media product, which is to say the result or the very process of
combining at least two conventionally distinct media or medial
forms of articulation.”83 Unlike other kinds of intermediality,
including the transformation of a given media product into another
medium (as in the case of the adaptation of a novel by film), or a
self-reflexive inquiry into the extent to which an art form (such as
film) is comprised of conventions and styles from other media,84
the category of media combination is able to deal with a more
particular case in which previously distinct technological media
intimately merge with each other in a newly constituted form on the
material, technical, and aesthetic levels, while also maintaining the
focus on the other aspects of intermediality. Rajewsky’s category
of media combination inspires me to consider the concept of
intermediality as indicating an array of particular moving images
based on the varying combinations of components from film, video,
and the digital. The notion of combination can be interchangeable
with the term “configuration,” a concept coined by Joachim Paech
to characterize intermediality as particular image forms in which
relations between different media technologies are made visible:
“The trace of the medium would become describable as a figured
process or a configuration in the film and in the dispositive situation
of observing the film (at the cinema, on television or video, etc.).”85
Here, Paech’s concept of configuration does not simply emphasize
the combinatory nature of an image form that results from the
encounter between the material, technical, and aesthetic elements
of more than two media. More significantly, intermediality in
this sense is understood as a constitutive process by which those
elements negotiate with each other in their engagement with the
formulation of a new image.
INTRODUCTION 37
The concept of intermediality as a range of media combinations

or configurations helps to distinguish hybrid moving images from
the objects of investigation that previous cinema studies have
adopted regarding the comparative analyses of the relationships
between cinema and other arts, such as literature and painting.
As Ágnes Pethő succinctly summarizes, these studies cover a wide
area of researches, encompassing (1) the mutual influences of
cinema and the arts, (2) the embedded representation of painting
or literature in cinema, and (3) common phenomena that can be
viewed comparatively in cinema and the arts.86 Given Rajewsky’s
definition of media combination, it becomes obvious that all the
comparative studies on the three subjects of intermediality have
ultimately resulted in confirming either film’s reliance upon other
art forms (literature, painting, and theater) as constitutive of its
established specificity or cinema’s integration of their languages and
conventions in its particular organization of images and narratives,
such as first-person narration and the composition of tableau vivant.
These two lines of the cinema studies on intermediality, which are
still confined to the purviews of self-reflexivity and intertextuality,
suggest that less attention has been paid to the moving image
artworks that are marked by their combinatory implementations
of more than two media, as well as to the changes in the material
and technical dimensions of the media as that which make possible
such implementations.
Despite this paucity, Jay David Bolter and Richard Grusin’s
now-famous concept named “remediation,” which is defined
as “the representation of one medium in another,”87 is perhaps
one of the most pivotal theories for conceiving intermediality
as a configuration of hybrid moving images from a diachronic
perspective. In this view, a new medium is always differentiated
into multiple material, technical, and formal elements derived from
its repurposing of older media, (e.g., the user interfaces of video
game space are based on their algorithms’ repurposing of filmic
techniques). At the same time, this view supposes that a new medium
cannot be isolated as a transcendental entity inasmuch as it can be
repurposed as a constitutive element of other emerging media. “A
medium is that which remediates,” Bolter and Grusin thus write,
“It is that which appropriates the techniques, forms, and social
significance of other media and attempts to rival or refashion them
in the name of the real.”88 Bolter and Grusin’s two additional terms,
“immediacy” and “hypermediacy,” emerge as two representational

strategies of remediation that are applicable to historically existing
media. While immediacy refers to a range of processes by which
the presence of the medium is denied and effaced, so hypermediacy
is typified by a fascination with the medium itself as it brings its
styles and conventions into relief. Digital technologies, for Bolter
and Grusin, are also governed by immediacy and hypermediacy
as the double logic of remediation: for instance, just as the World
Wide Web encapsulates the logic of hypermediacy as expressive of
the desire for multiplicity, so do digital photography and computer
graphics for animated films and computer games imitate and adopt
the criteria of Cartesian geometry and linear perspective in order to
achieve the illusion of transparency. Bolter and Grusin view cinema
as a telling example of an art form characterized by the processes
of “mutual appropriation” of film and digital media in the double
logic of immediacy and hypermediacy. Just as numerous video
games borrow the representational strategies of film, from camera
positions to the language of editing, so do contemporary films adopt
digital viewing interfaces (small-screen viewing devices, interactive
interfaces, etc.) and computer graphics, thereby multiplying their
media references. To be sure, there are two shortcomings in Bolter
and Grusin’s theory of remediation as it is applied to a variety
of hybrid moving images in question. First, their examples of
remediation tend to privilege the digital artifacts of mainstream
cinema and its related entertainment, therefore bypassing various
hybridizations that occur in the domains of experimental film and
video and media installations.89 Second, and more significantly, it
is not difficult to see that their conceptual pair of immediacy and
hypermediacy reminds us of the aesthetic dichotomy of realism
and modernism, which leads to obscure the ways in which digital
technologies transform the material, technical, and aesthetic
components of an old media to construct a new, hybridized
configuration of the image. My classification and analysis of hybrid
moving images accordingly aim at overcoming these two limitations
of the concept of remediation while acknowledging its effectiveness.
Raymond Bellour’s concept of the “entre-images [between-
the-images]” can be seen as a prominent concept for considering
intermediality as a type of image configuration based on synchronic
hybridization, namely, a hybridization by which properties of more
than two media representations are set in motion and made visible
INTRODUCTION 39
under post-media conditions. By this process, the resulting image

adds up to the complex exchange between more than two media
technologies, as it reveals the differences and similarities between
them yet does not strictly pertain to any of them. This is the reason
that Bellour sees the entre-images as occupying the “space of all
these passages” [l’espace de tous ces passages]. For Bellour, video
is a medium that particularly opens up and configures this liminal
space, since
video is above all a go-between. Passages . . . between mobile and

immobile, between the photographic analogy and that which
transforms it. Passages, corollaries, that traverse without exactly
encompassing these "universals" of the image: thus, between
photography, film, and video, a multiplicity of superimpositions,
of highly unpredictable configurations, is produced.90
For Bellour, video plays a particular role in the intersections of

different media such as painting, photography, film, and the computer
image, as its multidimensional or heterogeneous characteristics
generate certain image forms in which a medium undergoes
reflexive processes in relation to the other media. Initially, video
goes hand in hand with film as a medium that produces the moving
image based on the bond between the camera and profilmic reality
because it emulates film’s lens-based mechanism. At the same time,
however, video’s particular electronic specificities allow us to create
an image that takes on both pictorial qualities and spatiotemporal
qualities different than those of film—the latter aspect refers to the
effects of multidimensionality and omnidirectionality within the
video image’s picture frame, which becomes distinct from the linear
ordering of visual elements and the clear demarcation between the
on-screen and the off-screen spaces in the cinematographic image.
Also, these two aspects, which derive from the technical processes of
the electronic apparatus, can also be applied to the computer-based
imaging system, through which one can access and manipulate
any type of visual data, but without necessary reliance upon the
recording process of the cinematographic and the videographic
images.91 Considered this way, video is a medium whose specific
features are identified, yet at the same time open to the intermedial
relations of its historical predecessors and descendants. The entre-
images, then, opens up the space for a hybrid image form in
which these relations are inscribed and through which the viewer
encounters both the convergence of elements of those media and
their divergent transformations.92
Bellour rightly places the entre-images within the two axes
of hybridization. On the horizontal axis (which corresponds to
synchronic hybridization) lie new images produced by the exchange
and collision between different media images—film, photography,
video, and the digital—that were hitherto presupposed to be
distinct mediums (what he calls “passages of the image”). On the
vertical axis (which corresponds to diachronic hybridization) lies
a twofold historical change in the cinematic apparatus, mobilized
by electronic and digital technologies (what he calls the “double
helix”): the technologies make the cinematic apparatus go beyond
its traditional formations while assimilating those formations into
their capacities for converting, storing, and transmitting data.93 For
Bellour, electronic and digital artifacts cause cinema to be dissolved,
while simultaneously emerging as the resources for the evolution
of new cinematic forms by which the relationship between old and
new media is variably reexamined.
Like Bellour’s entre-images, Yvonne Spielmann’s conception of
“intermedia” most extensively encapsulates the framework for
considering intermediality as a particular type of configuration
based on the hybrid relations between different media components
from a synchronic perspective: “The characteristic of intermedia
may be identified in certain forms of the image, when elements of
the static and the moving image are interrelated to create a third
form of the image.”94 Spielmann draws upon Peter Greenaway’s
Prospero’s Books (1991) in order to identify the two characteristics
of the intermedial image. In this high-definition video film, Greenway
uses electronic and digital processing to rework and transform both
photographic and filmic images. This processing enables a series of
static images, reminiscent of the serial photography of Eadweard
Muybridge and Étienne-Jules Marey, to be animated in a manner
similar to the generation of cinematic illusion. The resulting visual
expressions include the dynamic insertion of the digitally animated
animals or human figures (i.e., still images, whether painterly
rendered or photographed) into the live-action film frame, or point
to the “cluster,” a particular type of image that is made through
the “multiple layerings of different images or image elements”
and results in a “spatial density.”95 The cluster serves as a media
INTRODUCTION 41
object that requires an intermedial approach as a methodological

tool for analyzing the array of processes by which different media
elements are merged into a hybrid type of image. Spielmann singles
out these processes of interrelation as “collision” and “exchange.”
First, collision points to the simultaneous existence of elements from
different media, for instance, elements of filmic images and static
(painterly or photographic) images, in the form of another media
technology, for instance, the computer-generated or videographic
image. Second, exchange means that the media-specific types of
images are “reworked in other media at the level of form.”96 For
instance, the interval between successive frames in film is processed
by electronic and digital imaging system. Thus, the intermedia image
calls upon us to see that its hybrid modality hinges upon how these
components are maintained or transformed in the structure of
synchronic hybridization. Seen in this light, Spielmann’s concept of
intermedia allows us to see both the forms and conventions of the
traditional media image and the new ontological features introduced
by electronic and digital technologies. That is, the intermedia paradigm
affirms the material and technical differences of digital media from
their analogue predecessors while also turning the viewer’s attention
to the ways in which these two are interrelated in a new image form.
Spielmann’s concept of intermediality leads us to recognize
the two ways in which the post-media conditions of film and
video, marked by a media’s differentiation into its set of material,
technical, and formal elements, add up to different types of hybrid
moving image. First, it functions as a methodological framework
for identifying the image as the configuration of elements coming
from different media, which is marked by different patterns of co-
presence and interrelation. Second, it suggests that intermediality in
the hybrid moving image is grounded in the interrelated ontological
conditions of media technologies, namely, the diachronic and
synchronic hybridizations of historically existing media. Despite
these two advantages, however, Spielmann’s privileging of the
cluster as a prominent form of intermedia image overlooks other
possible forms of intermediality that are not contained within
the aesthetics of sheer juxtaposition as the hallmark of modernist
visual art. The types of media artifacts I classify and examine in this
book’s chapters suggest that there is a wide range of possibilities for
various correlations of film, video, and the digital on their material,
technical, and aesthetic levels, which results in different coexistences
of, and exchanges between, the components of those media in the

artworks of the moving image.
Addressing the question of how new media technologies
simultaneously depend upon and differ from conventional media for
creative expression, Between Film, Video, and the Digital theorizes
the reconfiguration of an artistic medium and its specificity in the
context of post-media conditions that enable hybridizations of film,
video, and the digital. This wide range of scope is intended to suggest
that post-media conditions are not limited to a particular genre or
mode of practice. That is, post-media conditions are marked by the
attempts of the artists and filmmakers who have aspired to redraw
the boundaries between different media and their corresponding art
forms or genres, and thereby render them constantly shifting, and
by the hybrid images through which their conceptual and technical
devices are inscribed and made visible. In this sense, this book is a
critical intervention in the topology of the contemporary art and
culture of the moving image, correlating an extensive overview
of their tendencies with a series of in-depth analyses in the light
of a theorization of media hybridization in accordance with the
reconfiguration of medium specificity.
In tracing the complex breeds of hybrid moving images and
examining their formal and technical aspects, the book offers five
categories as conceptual tools: “videographic moving picture,”
“hybrid abstraction,” “transitional found footage practice,”
“intermedial essay film,” and “cinematic video installation.” I
propose these categories to highlight that which happens to the
media that would remain as distinct if they had remained under
the doctrine of modernist medium specificity, and the changes that
post-media conditions bring to the media’s material, technical,
and aesthetic layers. These conceptual constructs are not mutually
exclusive in terms of the logic of differentiation applicable to the
traditional concept of classification: rather, I intend to leave intact
the overlaps between the categories in order to underline the extent
to which the images’ ontology of coexistence and interrelation is
dispersed across different platforms and genres, constructing a
range of aesthetic constellations that a seemingly disparate group
of artworks commonly realize. That is, these overlaps are a key
aspect of the post-media age.
The aesthetic constellations, then, are concerned with a host
of concepts that the rich traditions of cinema and media studies
INTRODUCTION 43
have pursued in theorizing: indexicality, movement, duration,

materiality, archive, historicity, memory, and apparatus. I introduce
and elaborate on the five categories of hybrid moving images as
artifacts that offer a renewed understanding of those concepts:
videographic moving pictures in relation to indexicality, movement,
and instantaneity; hybrid abstraction in relation to abstraction and
materiality; transitional found footage practices in relation to the
historicity of cinema and the concept of archive; intermedial essay
films in relation to the memory of cinema; and finally, cinematic
video installations in relation to the compound idea of the cinematic
or video apparatus. In this way, Between Film, Video, and the
Digital does not simply establish itself as a monograph dedicated to
post-media and the hybrid moving image as new theoretical arenas
for media transition and the ontology of the moving image, but
also offers updated accounts of how traditional cinema and media
studies can be revivified in its encounter with its neighboring media
technologies and art forms.
The first and second chapters position and track down
two aesthetic tendencies of hybrid moving images, namely,
photorealistic and abstract aesthetics, in the light of video’s post-
media conditions. Chapter 1 discusses an array of artworks by Sam
Taylor-Johnson, Mark Lewis, Bill Viola, Fiona Tan, Adad Hannah,
and David Claerbout, all of which make porous the categorical
distinctions between film, photography, and painting by creating
an ambiguous correlation between stillness and movement enabled
by digital video. It classifies their images as “videographic moving
pictures”—a combination of “moving” as pertaining to film and
video with “picture” as implying the mode of stillness common to
painting and photography. The importance of examining this type
of the hybrid moving images lies in its challenge of a few traditional
conceptions of traditional art forms: photography as privileged
by the material stability of its chemical basis and defined by its
capacity to freeze the moment in time; photography demarcated
from painting and cinema; and video art whose images are clearly
distinct from the filmic image. This chapter stresses a crucial role
of digital video in engendering the interaction of three properties
derived from film, video, and the digital: film’s inscription of
photographic reality, analogue video’s ability to alter the surface
and temporality of the source image, and digital manipulation’s
blending and mediation of the two. Considering digital video this
way, it is possible to conceptualize videographic moving pictures

as remediating and refashioning two historically existing image
forms that experimental cinema has long developed in the light of
cinema’s ineluctable link to photographic stillness, which I call the
“film stilled” and the “still film.” This chapter closely examines the
works of the artists who have elaborated upon these two image
forms with the aid of digital video. In doing so, I argue that the
layering of photographic and cinematic properties common to
the practitioners’ videographic moving pictures enables a set of
concepts grounded in the analogue photographic media to have
unprecedented relations to their previously assumed opposites:
indexicality connected to manipulability, and photographic pastness
to cinematic presentness.
Chapter 2 provides a classification of hybrid moving images that
opposes videographic moving pictures due to their abstractionist
aesthetics and materialist energy, while also setting up the historical
genealogy of the images. By creating this type of hybrid moving
images, artists and filmmakers such as Evan Meaney, Rosa Menk
man, Rebecca Baron and Douglas Goodwin, Takeshi Murata, Lynn
Marie Kirby, Siegfried A. Fruhauf, Johanna Vaude, Jürgen Reble,
and Jennifer West have led to a notable tendency of contemporary
digital experimental film and video that has brought into relief
and explored the materiality of media. This chapter singles out a
dynamic correlation of representational and abstract components
in the practitioners’ images as a key character of the practitioners’
hybrid images. In so doing, it claims that this correlation testifies
either to the transition of the aesthetic of abstraction in structural
film and analogue video to the material substrates and algorithms
of digital imaging, or to the continual interaction between the
material traces of film and video. In either case, digital video can be
seen as both inheriting its aesthetic of abstraction from its analogue
predecessors and inscribing its code-based material and technical
specificities in the resulting abstract imagery. Encompassing the
two, I offer “hybrid abstraction” as a second category of the hybrid
moving image driven by materialist energies, with “digital glitch
video” and “mixed-media abstraction” as its subcategories.
Chapters 3 and 4 focus upon how the transformative or
manipulative elements of analogue and digital video are used to deal
with an array of problems raised by film’s post-media conditions,
including how the post-filmic technologies shift the ontological state
INTRODUCTION 45
of the historically existing images, how the post-filmic technologies

can serve to continue and update filmmakers’ celluloid-based
techniques in reworking those images, and how those technologies
construct both the memory of those images and that of the
filmmakers who reflect upon or investigate those images. Chapter
3 tracks several experimental filmmakers (Vicki Bennett, Gregg
Biermann, Christoph Girardet-Matthias Müller, R. Bruce Elder, and
Ken Jacobs) who elaborate their found footage practices with the
help of digital video. I define their different uses of digital video
as “transitional found footage practices,” given that their resulting
images reflect two ideas of transition regarding the ontology of
cinema in the digital age: a transition of film-based techniques for
traditional found footage filmmaking such as montage and special
effects, and a transition of found footage itself from celluloid to the
stream of digital video on the levels of spectatorship and of the film
image itself. My interest in the implication of transitional found
footage practices, particularly what the hybridity of their images and
techniques suggests for found footage filmmaking’s major objective
of attempting to reconstruct the archive of the past, is extended
into Chapter 4. Here, I focus upon a particular group of essay films
marked by their uses of video technologies (analogue video, digital
video, and internet-based video platforms) to process and retrieve
film-based imagery (images made with 8 mm, Super-8mm, 16 mm)
that shapes the landscapes of their filmmakers’ personal memory
and reflection. Such filmmakers as Hito Steyerl, Lynne Sachs, Clive
Holden, and Jonathan Caouette employ these multiple formats in
their essayistic projects in order to investigate how the memory
trace inscribed in film is transformed and reconfigured as it passes
through the filters and textures of post-filmic media. Accordingly,
these filmmakers’ works are replete with images in which the traces
of celluloid dynamically interact with the properties of video,
images that result in the complex configuration of the two media
as testifying to the construction of their memory and subjectivity
as open and dialogical. In this sense, I call this type of essay film
“intermedial essay films.” In these two chapters, the dialectic of
convergence and divergence, or medium specificity and hybridity,
extend into another dialectical dimension of these practices: that
is, the filmmakers’ embrace of new technologies stands between
past and present in that they aspire to renew their technical and
historical exploration of film’s past with the present media systems
while also acknowledging the extent to which these systems mutate

the celluloid-based image.
The last chapter extends the dialectic of medium specificity and
media hybridity from the level of the image to that of the apparatus
as it addresses a particular group of media installations that have
been popular due to the mutual fascination between cinema and
contemporary art since the 1990s. Numerous artists, as well as
established filmmakers including Chris Marker, Harun Farocki,
Abbas Kiarostami, to name just a few, have extensively used video
technologies to draw on and manipulate cinematic image and
narrative, such that their works explore the sensorial and mnemonic
power of cinema as an art of spectacle and how influential and global
cinema was in shaping their memories and artistic ideas. As a result,
the works’ resulting constitution appears to be the amalgamation of
cinema and video on the levels of their image and apparatus. In this
chapter, I characterize these works as “cinematic video installations,”
analyzing the ways in which the medial components of cinema and
video are correlated. Providing a critical remapping of how cinematic
video installations have been discussed in both the discourses of
post-cinema and those of contemporary art, I argue that cinematic
video installations must be viewed as a complex hybridization of
cinematic and video-based technologies. This argument entails
viewing video not as anchored in a limited set of material and
technical devices, but as an electronic and digital dispositif that
offers the artist a wider range of conceptual and technical methods
for the aesthetics of hybridity, impurity, and confusion. Bearing this
in mind, I identify in this chapter spatialization (materializing the
spectatorial experience of the film image, montage, and narrative in
the theatrical or architectural forms of screen-related apparatuses)
and temporalization (manipulating the time of the image by means
of digital video’s capacities) as two key operations that video
technologies execute in adopting and altering the components and
historical traces of cinema. By performing formal analysis of the
installation pieces by several artists or filmmakers such as Farocki,
Kutluğ Ataman, Doug Aitken, Eija-Liisa Ahtila, Douglas Gordon,
Candice Breitz, and Stan Douglas, I demonstrate that the ambiguous
cohabitation of cinematic and video-based specificities occurs not
only in the domain of the image space but also in the formation of
the apparatus that frames the image and determines the viewer’s
relation to the image.

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Between Film,

Volumes in the series:

1385 Broadway 50 Bedford Square

First published 2016

© Jihoon Kim, 2016

No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on or

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN: HB: 978-1-6289-2293-6

Series: International Texts in Critical Media Aesthetics

Typeset by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India

This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of

Introduction: Hybrid moving images and the

1 Videographic moving pictures: Remediating

2 Digital glitch video and mixed-media

3 Transitional found footage practices:

4 Intermedial essay films: “Memories-in-between” 197

5 Cinematic video installations:

Hybrid moving images and

Hybrid moving images

caused by the digital processing of the analogue image leads to other

While grounded in the combination of custom LEDs and

form transgresses the boundaries of each system. Various literary

entity. For him, a medium is “generally composite in terms of its

cannot be understood if the individual properties being combined

what material is adopted and how the material realizes an artwork

insufficient merely to acknowledge that a medium contains several

the emergence of artistic practices by which the media’s components

an open field for the interplay of “conventions” and “possibilities.”

practice, then, promotes the combination of a medium with the

context.”31 A closer inspection of Bourriaud’s line of arguments

graphics programs are called paint programs because they refer

technological means (analogue photograph or film) that are

computers, and stored and archived on computers,” Manovich

by its unique material properties. Besides these two commonalities,

Film’s post-media conditions

in digital cinema than the presentation of past duration because

space (montage between different shots), of making narrative

the digital image upon the aesthetic and technical components of

capability of the digital might be regarded as idiosyncratic due to its

the techniques and aesthetics of film as old media, I propose

enabled by the influences of electronic and digital technologies,

merger with cinema (contemporary art), and with various types of

Video’s post-media conditions

series of visual permutations.”72 Numerous accounts of video art

Timothy Binkley’s argument on digitization as the passage from

in editing and installation, whether shot on film or video. In this

To a significant extent, an electronic signal is already characterized

To expand on Manovich’s view on the transition of video from

condition of the interchangeability between electronic signal and

Intermedial approaches to hybrid

images as that of “coexistence and interrelation.” This suggests

intermediality suggests a methodological tool for paying attention

The concept of intermediality as a range of media combinations

“immediacy” and “hypermediacy,” emerge as two representational

under post-media conditions. By this process, the resulting image

video is above all a go-between. Passages . . . between mobile and

For Bellour, video plays a particular role in the intersections of

object that requires an intermedial approach as a methodological

of, and exchanges between, the components of those media in the

1 Videographic moving pictures: Remediating

2 Digital glitch video and mixed-media

3 Transitional found footage practices:

5 Cinematic video installations: