Journal of Financial Crime

Fraud prevention initiatives in the Nigerian public sector: understanding the relationship of fraud
incidences and the elements of fraud triangle theory.
Rabiu Abdullahi, Noorhayati Mansor,
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Rabiu Abdullahi, Noorhayati Mansor, "Fraud prevention initiatives in the Nigerian public sector: understanding
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 Fraud prevention initiatives in the Nigerian public sector: understanding the
relationship of fraud incidences and the elements of fraud triangle theory.

1.0 Introduction

Fraud has become the most viable threat to the global economy that requires maximum attention of the forensic
accountants and traditional auditors, as well as anti-graft bodies worldwide. Despite the tremendous efforts to
eradicate fraudulent activities, it is indeed discovered that fraud in its various natures continues to grow in
frequency and severity (Wolfe and Hermanson, 2004). Fraud is been considered as a global phenomenon, since
it has universally penetrates both the private and public sectors to the extent that no country is protected from its
taint although developing countries suffer the most (Okoye and Gbegi, 2013). Nowadays, fraud and other
fraudulent activities have become the order of the day in the Nigerian sectors, especially in the public sector
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where it begins to become a normal way of life in the midst of civil servants (Okoye and Akamobi, 2009 and
Gbegi and Adebisi, 2014). However, despite the numerous undetected fraud scandals that were perpetrated in
the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) yet, the country is still suffering a massive fraudulent
action in the hands of the higher government officials. Example it was disclosed by Oboh (2012) that from 2007
to 2009 the sum of 28.5 billion naira were missed from the oil subsidy fund while BBC News Africa (2012)
reports that the Nigerian senates were debating about an unreported $6 billion for oil subsidy fund from 2010 to
2012. Recently, as revealed by News Punch (2015) an amount of money to the tune of $700 million was
allegedly found raw cash in the house of Nigeria’s Minister of Petroleum. The identified foreign currency was
suspected to be defrauded from the Nigerian oil subsidy. Fraud scam can be found in almost all the Nigerian
ministries where the government officials use the power of their offices to defraud their organizations. This
statement can be justified by the series of fraud perpetrated on the Nigerian pension board and the department of
Nigerian police force as well as the federal higher court of Nigeria. The Nigerian Police Force was ranked the
nation’s most corrupt public institution (Omotoye, 2011). In 2006, the Inspector General of the police was
convicted on eight charges of theft involving more than $100 million of public money while in office. When he
was found guilty, he spent only six months in prison. This example creates a lack of public trust in the
government and its enforcement agencies. Recently, on 17th day of July, 2014 another case of fraud was made
by the police commissioner of one of the southern state of Nigeria (Sahara report, 2014).

2.1 Statement of the Research Problem

Increasing rate of frauds (i.e. money laundering and fund embezzlement) in the Nigerian public sectors has
caused grave concern to the public. Hence, the public has been disappointed in relation to the responsibilities of
auditors as they failed to contend with the issues of fraud (Karwai, 2002 and Modugu and Anyaduba 2013).
Ojaide (2000) reveals that there is a distressing upsurge in the number of fraudulent activities in Nigeria,
stressing the reflectivity of forensic accounting services. Owojori Subsequently, there is a general expectation
that, forensic accounting will be able to combat the financial malfeasance witnessed in most of the sectors of the
Nigerian economy (Oyejide, 2003). In considering the above series of fraud scandals and scholars’ observations
it imperative to address this question: do elements of FTT have an influence toward preventing fraud fraud
incidence in the Nigerian public sector?

2.2 Research Objectives

The primary objective of this study is to examine the influence of the fraud triangle toward unearthing the
factors that cause the occurrences of fraud in the Nigerian public sectors.

The specific objectives are:

i. Examine the significant relationship between pressure/incentive to commit fraud and fraud
incidences in the Nigerian public sector;
ii. To determine the significant association between opportunity and rationalization to commit fraud
and fraud occurrences in the Nigerian public sector.

1
 1.0 Literature Review

2.1 Concept of Fraud

Fraud has to do with intentional deception. Fraud can be defined as the deliberate use of trick, deceit, or any
dishonest action to deprive another legal right, money of property (Ernst and Young, 2005). However, Albrecht,
(2004); Hopwood, (2008); Rezaee, (2010); Kranacha (2011) and KPMG (2011) express that fraud involves the
use of intentional deception and other logical actions to obtain an illegal advantage over an entity despite the
harm it may cause. Albrecht (2005) maintain that fraud is seldom in nature to be seen. Therefore, the signs or
symptoms of fraud are usually observed. Having observing the symptoms of fraud in an organization does not
mean the fraud is actually occurred, since; mistakes may cause it. Ramaswamy (2005) states that there are
several reasons why fraud cases emerged among which are the poor corporate governance and accounting
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failure. He continues to opine that poor corporate governance may enable an individual or group of people with
the same interest to have ability to take advantage of it to commit fraudulent activities within the organization.
Moukoro et, al. (2011) state that fraud is a tendency and propensity to do what is wrong despite the awareness
of the harm it may cause to one’s neighbor. He continues to express that it is a deliberate attempt of subverting
the rules of the game using some logical tricks or anything of such nature to defraud public fund for personal
interest. Fraud is the most attractive threat to the world economy, particularly when one considers the amount of
money lost annually.

2.2 Types and Classification of Public Sector Fraud

Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (2012) reported that fraud has been divided into three broad
categories as follows: corruption, assets misappropriation, and financial statement fraud. From the existing
cases, there are many ways that fraud can be perpetrated from the simple misuse of trust to the sophisticated
computer based offense. Anyanwu (1993), Ajie and Ezi (2000), Karwai (2002), Okafor (2004), Adeniji (2004)
and Onuarah et, al. (2011) summarize the types of fraud on the basis of methods of perpetration include the
following but not exhaustive as the methods are devised day in-day out. These include defalcation, suppression,
outright theft and embezzlement, tampering with reserves, insider abuses and forgeries, fraudulent substitutions,
unauthorized lending, lending to ghost borrowers, kite flying and cross firing, unofficial borrowing,
impersonation, teeming and lading, fake payment. They further mentioned fraudulent use of the firms
documents, fictitious accounts, false proceeds of collection, manipulation of vouchers, dry posting, over-
invoicing, inflation of statistical data, ledger accounts manipulation, fictitious contracts, duplication cheque
books, computer fraud, misuse of suspense accounts, false declaration of cash shortages among others.

The various forms of public sector fraud include bribery and extortion; fraud and embezzlement; unlawful use
of public assets for private advances; over- and under-invoicing; payment of salaries and other benefits to ghost
(non-existent) workers and pensioners; payment for air supply (goods or services not provided or rendered)
(Singleton, Bologna, and Lindquist 2006). Underpayment of taxes and duties on exports and imports through
false invoicing or other declarations; inflation of prices of goods purchase; embezzlement of assets; court
pronouncements awarding financial compensations well in excess of any damage suffered; deletion of
documents or the whole case files; favouritism and patronage. Fraud may be categorized into Corporate,
Management Fraud and fraud as a tort. Corporate fraud, on the other hand, is any fraud perpetrated by, for or
against a business corporation (Singleton, et al., 2006).

2.3 Development of the Research Hypothesis

2.3.1 Theory of Fraud Triangle

In the cause of determining the reason why people commit fraud, Cressey 1950, formulates a theory named by
FTT after studying 250 criminals within a period of 5 months. The theory was first published in 1953. Cressey

2
 (1953) states that there must three elements for a fraudster to violate the trust. These elements are
pressure/incentive, opportunity, and rationalization.

PRESSURE
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OPPURTUNITY RATIONALYZATION

Figure 1: Fraud Triangle

Source: Cressy (1953)

1. Pressure: Albrecht et al. (2006) pointed out that it is imperative to use the word perceived when describing
pressure or opportunity to commit fraud, this is because pressure or opportunity to commit fraud may not be
real, and its only depends on the perpetrator’s perceptions. Lister (2007) states that, pressure or incentive is the
key factor to commit fraud. He mentioned three types of pressure, comprising personal, employment stress, and
external pressures. Vona (2008) examine some individual and corporate pressure as the significant motivation’s
proxies for fraud commitment. Examples of pressure include:

i. Greed;

ii. Living beyond one’s means;

iii. Large expenses or personal debt, and

iv. Family financial problem and drug addiction

When pressure becomes an infatuated fortitude to achieve organizational objectives regardless of the
consequences there on, therefore, it becomes unstable and eventually leads to the destructions. In this situation,
individuals are more likely to engage in doubtful activities that may consequently lead to fraud (Hooper and
Pornelli 2010).

H1: there is a significant relationship between pressure to commit fraud and fraud incidences in the
Nigerian public sector.

2. Opportunity: According to Rae and Subramanian (2008) and Rasha and Andrew (2012), opportunity is a
weakness in the system where the employee has the chance, power and ability to exploit and possibly commit
fraud. The more organizational internal control system is weak the likely the opportunity to conceal fraud.
Hooper and Pornelli (2010) states that, even when an employee has excessive pressure, financial fraud may not
possibly occur unless an opportunity exists. Organizational internal control weaknesses, poor auditing system,
lack of accounting record and poor segregation of duty are significantly influencing individual to commit fraud.
Turner, Mock and Sripastava (2003) argue that despite the presence of pressure or motive on a person yet, he
cannot be able to commit fraud until the possibilities are created. Moyes et al., (2005) state that, relate party
transaction would be considered as the second factor among the numerous opportunity risk factors. Wilks and
Zimbelman (2004) argued that related party transaction can only be considered as third position among the
various elements that indicates the presence of opportunity to commit fraud.

H2: there is a significant relationship between opportunity to commit fraud and fraud incidences in the
Nigerian public sector.

3
 3. Rationalization: Rationalization is the third element of fraud triangle theory and fraud diamond theory as
well. This concept indicates that, in the process of committing fraud a fraudster must convey different types of
morally acceptable behaviours that will be used to rationalize his idea before violating the trust. Rationalization
refers to the believing by the perpetrator that the dishonest and unethical behavior committed is something else
rather than criminal activity. It is unlikely for the offender to commit fraud if he cannot be able to rationalize his
unethical behavior. Some examples of the moral behavior used by the fraudsters to rationalize their fraudulent
actions include; “I was only borrowing the money”, “I was entitled to the money”, “I had to steal to provide for
my family”, “I was underpaid/my employer had cheated me” (Cressey 1953). It is equally important to note that
it is relatively difficult to observe rationalization; hence, it is impossible to read the mind of fraudsters (Cressey,
1953 in Wells, 2005). Fraud perpetrators usually possess some certain attitudes that enable them to rationalize
their fraudulent actions (Hooper and Pornelli 2010). The elements of incentive/pressure, opportunity,
rationalization, and capability are all inter-related, and the inter-relations between the elements have significant
influence on one another up to the extent that fraud cannot occur unless they are all presents. Interestingly,
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Howe and Malgwi (2006) argued that the created gap between incentive/pressure and opportunity is bridged
when the fraudster is capable of justify his unethical behavior.

H3: there is a significant relationship between rationalization to commit fraud and fraud incidences in the
Nigerian public sector.

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 Gradual Steps to Commit Dishonest Acts

E.g. Lack of promotion,

delay or lack of pension, Pressure E.g. Greed, family financial
Pressure to achieve certain problem, drug addiction,
task etc. spending beyond earning etc.
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Non-Financial Financial

E.g. Effective internal

E.g. poor internal control and
control and audit, efficient
audit, poor corporate
corporate governance and governance, lack of job
regular job rotation etc. Opportunity rotation etc.

Absence of Presence of
opportunity opportunity

Quit
e
Rationalization

FRAUD
OCURRANCE

Figure 2: Fraud Flow Chart

Source: Designed by the Author, from the Element of Fraud Triangle Theory by Cressey (1953)

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 2.3.2 Fraud Scale Theory (Albrecht et, al., 1984)

The FST was originally developed as an alternative to what is known as the FTT. FST places an emphasis on
personal integrity rather than on rationalization. This model was developed by W. Steve Albrecht and is
especially applicable to fraudulent actions in organizational settings. FST illustrated the concept of situational
pressures, perceived opportunities and personal integrity (Widianingsih, 2013). Albrecht et, al. (1984) in
Widianingsih (2013) states that when situational pressures and perceived opportunities are high and personal
integrity are low, occupational fraud and other fraudulent activities are much more likely to occur and vice
versa. See figure 3 below:
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Figure 3: Fraud Scale Theory

Source: Widianingsih (2013)

3.1 Research Methodology

The study is designed to be an empirical survey that employed the use of quantitative approach, in analysing the
relationship that exists between the elements of fraud triangle theory as an exogenous latent variables and fraud
incidences as an endogenous variable. A well-structured questionnaire with ten Likert scale was used as an
efficient instrument for data collection in the quantitative survey. However, the population of the study covered
the total number of 1,239 accounting, internal audit, and administrative staff of 10 selected ministries of Kano
State, Nigeria. The selection of the ministries, as well as the departments within the ministries, was made using
simple random sampling technique that gives the entire element the same opportunity to be selected without
bias. The accounting, internal audit and administrative staffs of Nigerian public sectors share a common nature
in carrying out their activities as such the population is feasible to represent the entire Nigerian public sectors.

3.2 Sample size

The sample size of this survey was selected using Yamane (1967) formula in Adefila (2008).

Sample Size = __ N _
1+N (e)2
N= Number of population

1= Constant Value

e= Allowable error margin (5%)

1,239___
1+ 1,239(0.05)2

6
 1,239___
1+ 1,239(0.0025)
1,239___
1+ 3.0975
1,239___
4.0975

302 Approximately
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3.3 Reliability and Validity of the Measurement Model - Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

Figure 3.3.1 indicates the measurement model with four latent constructs fully loaded with measurement
variables. The pressure and rationalization constructs were measured with six variables each, where it is shown
that all the variables have factor loading >0.60 and they are discriminately valid (different from each other).
However, the other two latent variables (i.e., opportunity and Fraud incidence) were also measured with six
variables each but it was revealed that the variable ‘O2’, ‘O4’ and ‘FI1’ FI6’ were deleted due to the fact that
they have factor loading bellow 0.60 so as to achieve the required fitness indexes as suggested by Awang
(2014). Additionally, the correlation between the four latent constructs was proved to be less than 0.85 which
indicate that there is no issue of multicollinearity and redundancy between the constructs.

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Figure: 3.3.1 CFA

The data used prove to be fitted to the proposed model since all the required fitness indexes have been achieved
the minimum value close to 1. NFI, IFI, RFI, TLI, CFI, GFI < 0.090 indicates a good fit of the model to the
sampled data (Awang, 2014). However, the chi-square value is less than 5 and Root Measurement Squire of
Error Approximation (RMSEA) is less than 0.080 as suggested by Browne and Cudeck (1993). It indicates a
close fit of the model in relation to the degrees of freedom. Additionally, the p-value is 0.000 which indicate that
for testing the hypothesis, the model fits perfectly in the population.

Table: 3.3.2 Convergent Validity Matrix

Pressure Rationalization Fraud Incidence Opportunity

Pressure 0.791
Rationalization 0.059 0.792
Fraud Incidence 0.625 0.128 0.829
Opportunity 0.560 0.030 0.803 0.817

The above table 3.3.2 reveals that the diagonal value in bold is the square roots of the AVEs, and the other
values are the correlation between the relevant constructs. The table depicts that the discriminant validity is

8
 achieved since the diagonal values are higher than the value of the correlation between the constructs within the
columns and rows. This denotes that all the 20 reflective variables in the proposed model are different from each
other.

4.1 Structural Equation Adjustment

Figure 4.1.1 Standardize Regression Estimates

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As indicated in Figure 4.1.2 that the value of the coefficient of determination R2 is 0.70. In other word the
contribution of the exogenous constructs in estimating the endogenous construct is 70%. However, the
standardized beta estimates for the effect of pressure, opportunity and rationalization on fraud incidences are
0.25, 0.66 and 0.09 respectively. Additionally, the latent constructs are entirely different from one another
because the correlation value between the constructs is less than 0.85.

Figure 4.1.2 Unstandardized Regression Estimates

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The above figure 4.1.2 depict that the actual beta estimate for the effect of pressure, opportunity and
rationalization on fraud incidence in the Nigerian public sector are 0.36, 0.92 and 0.14 accordingly. Whereas the
residual value of the Exogenous construct is 0.83. The values of variances in pressure, opportunity and
rationalization are 1.29, 1.43 and 1.25 each.

4.2 Testing of the Research Hypotheses

Table: 4.1 Unstandardized Regression paths

Constructs Path Constructs Estimate S.E. C.R. P-Value Comment

Fraud Incidence Pressure 0.364 .081 4.487 **** Supported
Fraud Incidence Opportunity 0.916 .090 10.181 **** Supported
Fraud Incidence Rationalization 0.138 .061 2.250 0.024 Supported
(Note: See Appendix B)

From the table 4.1 above it is depicted that when Pressure to commit fraud in the Nigerian public sector goes up
by 1, likely the Fraud Incidence will go up by 0.364. Therefore, the regression weight estimate, 0.364, has a
standard error of about 0.081. Dividing the regression weight estimate by the estimate of its standard error gives
z = .364/.081 = 4.487. In other words, the estimate of the regression weight is 4.487 standard errors above zero.
Additionally, the probability of getting a critical ratio as large as 4.487 in absolute value is less than 0.001.
Henceforth, the regression weight for Pressure in the prediction of Fraud Incidence is significantly different
from zero at the 0.001 level (two-tailed). In other word hypothesis, H1 is accepted as it is proved that there is a
relationship between pressure to commit fraud and fraud incidences in the Nigerian public sector.
Furthermore, it is expressed that (Table 4.1) when the Opportunity to commit fraudulent behavior in the
Nigerian public sector increases by 1; Fraud Incidence increases by 0.916. Equally, the standard error of
obtaining the regression weight estimate as 0.916 is about 0.090. The regression weight estimate is 10.181
standard errors above zero which is obtained by dividing the estimated regression weight by the estimate of its
standard error as z = .916/.090 = 10.181. However, the probability of achieving a critical ratio as large as 10.181
in absolute value is less than 0.001. In other words, the regression weight for Opportunity in the prediction of

10
 Fraud Incidence is significantly varied from zero at the 0.001 level (two-tailed). Accordingly, the proposition
H2 that states there is the relationship between opportunity to commit fraud and fraud incidences in the Nigerian
public sector is accepted.
The regression analysis indicates that when Rationalization goes up by 1, Fraud Incidence goes up by 0.138.
The regression weight estimate, 0.138, has a standard error of about 0.061. Henceforth, dividing the regression
weight estimate by the estimate of its standard error gives z = 0.138/0.061 = 2.250. In other words, the estimated
regression weight is 2.25 standard errors above zero. The probability of getting a critical ratio as large as 2.25 in
absolute value is 0.024. In other words, the regression weight for Rationalization in the prediction of Fraud
Incidence is varied significantly from zero at 0.05 level (two-tailed). Therefore, the hypothesis H3, which state
that there is a relationship between the rationalization to commit fraud and fraud incidences in the Nigerian
public sector is supported. In other word the hypothesis accepted since it has p-value less than 0.05.

4.3 Discussion of Result and Summary of Findings

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The findings reveal that pressure/incentive to commit fraud has a significance relationship with fraud incidences
in the Nigerian public sectors. The proposition made by the researcher was highly supported at significant p-
value > 0.001. This result is compatible with the observation of Cressey (1953), Wolfe and Hermanson (2004)
Lou and Wang (2009) and Kelly and Hartley (2010). The authors mentioned above have all revealed in their
separate work that there must be a presence of pressure to an employee before he/she could think to commit
fraud. Mohammed, Jomatin, Omar and Haron (2014) argued in their study titled application of fraud triangle in
determining fraud risk: A case study of Malaysian local authorities, that mostly employees has financial stresses,
which stand to be a pressure for them to commit financial crime. However, the findings indicate that there is a
significant relationship between opportunity to commit fraud and fraud incidences since the p-value of the
regression weight is > 0.001. The result is attuned with the findings of Cressey (1953), Wolfe and Hermanson
(2004) and Mohammad et, al. (2014). They state that the presence of opportunity to commit fraud in
organizations enhance an individual’s desire to perpetrate fraudulent activities. The findings also indicate that
there is a relationship between the rationalization to commit fraud and fraud incidences in the Nigerian public
sectors. The observation was correlated with the findings of Cressey (1953), Wolfe and Hermanson (2004),
ACFE (2008), Lou and Wang (2009), Kelly and Hartley (2010) and Mohammad et, al. (2014). Their separate
findings have revealed that the presence of pressure and opportunity may not necessary lead a person to commit
fraud unless the person can be able to justify the evil action. They emphasize that the above three element as
pressure, opportunity and rationalization must all be present at the same time before a fraudster could commit a
crime.
4.4 Conclusion and Recommendation
Fraud has been in existence since time immemorial. Recently, the corporate financial fraud scandal perpetrated
in Enron, WorldCom, Tyco and Global Crossing has attracted the attention of the world academic researchers as
well as accounting and auditing professional bodies. Literatures reveal that Nigeria is not exempted from the list
of various countries that are susceptible to a massive economic backwardness due to the increase in the level
fraud and other fraudulent activities, especially in the public sector. Detecting and preventing fraud is not an
easy task, especially in the Nigerian public sector because it requires comprehensive knowledge about the nature
of fraud, how it can be perpetrated and obscured by the fraudsters. The study examines the relationship tat exist
between the elements of FTT and fraud incidences in the Nigerian public sector. It was found that three
components of FTT (pressure, opportunity, and rationalization) has a positive relationship with fraud
occurrences in the Nigerian public sectors. Consequently, it was proved that these findings were attuned the
observations of Cressey (1953), Wolfe and Hermanson (2004) and ACFE (2008).
Conversely, it is suggested that the Nigerian government should establish Salary Scale Reform (SSR) to
increase the salary earning of the civil servants and provides fringe benefits to improve employees’ standard of
living. Additionally, the Nigerian government should initiate a training scheme such as workshop, seminar and
conference to enhance the employees’ moral behavior and understand the negative impact of fraud on their
behavior and Nigerian economy. It is also recommended that the Nigerian government should formulate a
policy to re-empower the anti-graft agency such as EFCC and ICPC to conduct fraud investigation, detection
and prosecution of fraudsters independently. A policy has to be formulated which will state a severe punishment
on the fraudsters and way to ensure a complete recovery of the money defrauded.

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Appendix A

RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

(To be filled in by the staff of the selected ministries)

The questionnaire is designed to provide information on the Fraud Prevention Initiatives in the Nigerian
Public Sector: Understanding the Relationship of Fraud Incidences and the Elements of Fraud Triangle
Theory. The information you will provide will be used strictly for academic purposes and will be treated with
utmost confidentiality. You are requested not to write your name anywhere in the questionnaire.

Section A:

Personal Information (please tick in the appropriate box)

Q1. Gender: Male Female

Q2. Age: less than 30 31-40yrs 41-50yrs above 51yrs

Q3. Your highest academic qualification

WAEC/Grade II ND/NCE B.Sc/HND Msc/MBA

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 Q4. Length of service in the public sector

Less than 10yrs 1 1-20yrs 21-30yrs above 30yrs

Q5. Department: Accounting Internal Audit Administrative

Section B

Questions to Test the Study’s Hypotheses

Please, indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the statements in each of the following questions.

Note: 1 = Strongly Disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Moderately Disagree; 4 = Partially Disagree 5= Mildly Disagree
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6 = Mildly Agree; 7 = Partially Agree; 8= Moderately Agree; 9 =Agree; 10= Strongly Agree

Perceived pressure

Most of the Nigerian fraudsters are committing fraud in the Strongly Strongly
public sector due to their perceive pressure of.... Disagree Agreed

Q1 Too much greediness. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Q2 Living beyond their means (earnings). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Q3 Huge personal debt. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Q4 Drug addiction and gambling habit. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Q5 Family financial difficulties (health, rent, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

education etc).
Q6 Fear of delay of their retirement benefits. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Perceived opportunity

Public servants (fraudsters) perceived the opportunity to Strongly Strongly

commit fraud in the public sector exist due to the.... Disagree Agreed

Q7 Weakness in the internal control system. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Q8 Irregular internal audit. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Q9 Lack of effective corporate governance. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Q10 Lack of proper division of labour (segregation of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

duty).

Q11 Lack of proper accounting records. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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 Q12 Lack of defined organizational structure. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Rationalization

Fraudsters in the Nigerian public sector mostly justified their Strongly Strongly
evil course of actions by saying.... Disagree Agreed

Q13 I’m just borrowing therefore, I will refund later. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Q14 I’m stealing to take care of my family financial 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

problems.

Q15 It is government’s money I have to take my share, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

because I’m citizen too.
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Q16 I will pay less than what I defraud the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

organisation if I’m docked before the court.

Q17 My salary is less than what I’m supposed to be 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

paid.

Q18 Some people did it before me, nothing will 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

happen even if I’m caught.

Fraud Incidence Strongly Strongly

Disagree Agreed

Q19 There are fraud incidences in the Nigerian public 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

sector.

Q20 The level of fraud incidences in Nigerian public 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

service is very high.

Q21 Most of the Nigerian public sectors are 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

susceptible to fraud incidences.

Q22 Embezzlement and money laundering are the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

most common types of fraud in Nigerian public
sectors.

Q23 Forensic accounting fraud control mechanisms 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

can identify the fraud risk factors.

Q24 The use of forensic accounting fraud control 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

mechanisms will reduce the level of fraud in the
Nigerian public sector.

Thank you

Appendix B Model Fit Summary (CFA)

CMIN
Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF
Default model 46 367.159 164 .000 2.239

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 Saturated model 210 .000 0
Independence model 20 4291.524 190 .000 22.587

RMR, GFI
Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI
Default model .129 .896 .867 .700
Saturated model .000 1.000
Independence model 1.106 .250 .171 .226

Baseline Comparisons
Model NFI RFI IFI TLI CFI
Delta1 rho1 Delta2 rho2
Default model .914 .901 .951 .943 .950
Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000
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Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

RMSEA
Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE
Default model .064 .055 .073 .005
Independence model .268 .261 .275 .000

Appendix C

CR AVE MSV ASV

Pressure 0.909 0.625 0.391 0.236
Rationalization 0.909 0.626 0.016 0.007
Fraud Incidence 0.898 0.688 0.645 0.351
Opportunity 0.889 0.668 0.645 0.320

Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label
Fraud Incidence <--- Pressure .364 .081 4.487 *** par_17
Fraud Incidence <--- Opportunity .916 .090 10.181 *** par_18
Fraud Incidence <--- Rationalization .138 .061 2.250 .024 par_19
P6 <--- Pressure 1.000
P5 <--- Pressure 1.139 .090 12.668 *** par_1
P4 <--- Pressure 1.371 .097 14.160 *** par_2
P3 <--- Pressure 1.241 .090 13.840 *** par_3
P2 <--- Pressure 1.046 .080 13.121 *** par_4
P1 <--- Pressure 1.033 .084 12.276 *** par_5
O6 <--- Opportunity 1.000
O5 <--- Opportunity 1.129 .070 16.131 *** par_6
O3 <--- Opportunity 1.081 .066 16.327 *** par_7
O1 <--- Opportunity 1.177 .083 14.207 *** par_8
R6 <--- Rationalization 1.000
R5 <--- Rationalization 1.137 .089 12.711 *** par_9
R4 <--- Rationalization 1.375 .097 14.179 *** par_10
R3 <--- Rationalization 1.222 .088 13.846 *** par_11
R2 <--- Rationalization 1.070 .081 13.225 *** par_12
R1 <--- Rationalization 1.025 .083 12.312 *** par_13
FI2 <--- Fraud Incidence 1.000
FI3 <--- Fraud Incidence 1.087 .060 18.185 *** par_14
FI4 <--- Fraud Incidence .994 .055 18.112 *** par_15

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 FI5 <--- Fraud Incidence .785 .057 13.861 *** par_16

Standardized Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate
Fraud Incidence <--- Pressure .249
Fraud Incidence <--- Opportunity .661
Fraud Incidence <--- Rationalization .093
P6 <--- Pressure .707
P5 <--- Pressure .774
P4 <--- Pressure .864
P3 <--- Pressure .847
P2 <--- Pressure .802
P1 <--- Pressure .739
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O6 <--- Opportunity .791

O5 <--- Opportunity .848
O3 <--- Opportunity .855
O1 <--- Opportunity .772
R6 <--- Rationalization .710
R5 <--- Rationalization .776
R4 <--- Rationalization .864
R3 <--- Rationalization .842
R2 <--- Rationalization .806
R1 <--- Rationalization .740
FI2 <--- Fraud Incidence .819
FI3 <--- Fraud Incidence .878
FI4 <--- Fraud Incidence .883
FI5 <--- Fraud Incidence .728

Biography

Mr. Rabiu Abdullahi I was born on 9th September, 1985 in Wudil Local Government and
raised in Nassarawa Local Government Kano State, Nigeria. I attended Government
Secondary Commercial School Wudil from1998 to 2001 and proceeded to College of Arts
Science and Remedial Studies for Interim Joint Matriculation Board program (I.J.M.B) From
2001 to 2003. I was admitted into Bayero University Kano (BUK) in the year 2006 and
successfully graduated with UPPER SECOND CLASS in Bsc. Accounting, in the year 2009.
I attended University Sultan Zainal Abidin (UniSZA) Malaysia, from 2013 to 2015 Where
I've read Master of Science in Management, Specialized in Forensic Accounting. Since 2011
to date, I am working with Kano State Ministry of Finance as Senior Accountant and a part
time lecturer at Kano State School of Management studies.

Noorhayati Mansor is accounting professor at Faculty of Economics and Management

Sciences, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin. She also serves as associate research fellow at
Institute Darul Iman (IDAMAN) University Sultan Zainal Abidin. Prior to that, she was
attached to Faculty of Law, Accounting and International Relations at the same university. At
the national level, Professor Noorhayati is very active in various academic and research
activities especially in promoting the accounting profession. Currently, she sits on the Board
of Trustees of the Malaysian Accountancy Research and Education Foundation. Other than
fraud and forensic accounting her current research areas include strategic management
accounting, integrated reporting and sustainability accounting. She can be contacted at:
nhayatimansor@unisza.edu.my

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