IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Newsletter, April 1988

Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FD-TD) Modeling

of Electromagnetic Wave Scattering and Interaction Problems
bY
Allen Taflove Korada R. Umashankar
EECS Department EEC4 Department
Northwestern University University of Illinois at Chicago
Evanston, IL 60201 Chicago, IL 60680

Abstract- T h iasr t i c l e , based upon i n v i t epda p e r s

athe X X I I U R S I General Assembly (Tel Aviv, August
1987) and t h e URSI National Radio Science Meeting
(Boulder, January 19881, r e v i e w sr e c e nat p p l i c a t i o n s Introducing Feature Article Author
otfh ef i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e time-domain (FD-TO) method
numerical
for modeling electromagnetic
of wave
s c a t t e r i n g and i n t e r a c t i o n problems. One ofthegoals
of t h i s a r t i c l e i s t o demonstrate t h a t r e c e n t advances
i n FD-TD modeling concepts and software implementa-
t i o n , combined w i t h advances i n computertechnology,
haveexpanded t h e scope,accuracy,andspeed o f FD-TD
m o d e l i n gt ot h ep o i n t where it may be t h ep r e f e r r e d
c h o i c ef o rs t r u c t u r e st h a tc a n n o t be e a s i l y t r e a t e d b y
c o n v e n tiinotneaqglur aalt i o n and asymptotic
approaches. As a class, such s t r u c t u r e sa r ee l e c t r i c -
a l l y l a r g e andhavecomplexshapes, m a t e r i a l composi-
tions, apertures, and in t e r i o r c a v i t i e s .
1. INTRODUCTION
Allen Taflove
Contemporaryhigh-frequencyelectromagnetic
engineering problems can i n v o l v e wave i n t e r a c t i o n s
w i t h complex, e l e c t r i c a l l y - l a rtgher e e - d i m e n s i o n a l
structures. These structures have
can shapes,
material compositions, apertures, or
cavities which A l l e nT a f l o v e was born i n Chicago, I L onJune 14,
produce near f i e l dt sh ac ta n n o t be r e s o l v ei dn t o 1949. He r e c e i v etdh e B.S. ( w i thhi g h e sdti s t i n c -
f i n i t e s e t s o f modes orrays.Propernumericalmodel- t i o n ) , M.S., and Ph.D. degrees i n e l e c t r i c a l e n g i n e e r -
i n go f such near f i e l d rse q u i r e s a m p l i n ag t sub- ingfromNorthwestern University,Evanston,
IL, in
w a v e l e n g t hr e s o l u t i o nt oa v o i da l i a s i n go fm a g n i t u d e 1971, 1972, and 1975, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
a n i phase i n f o r m a t i o n . The goal i s t o p r o v i d e a s e l f -
c o n s i s t e n t model tohnfeu t ucaol u p l itnohgfe From 1975 t o 1984, he was a s t a f f member a t 111
e l e c t r i c a l l y smal 1 c e l l s corfipri s i n gt h es t r u c t u r e . 7esearch I n s t i t u t ei n C h i c a g oI,Lh, o l d i n gt h ep o s i -
tions of
Associate Engineer, Research Engineer, anc
A candidatenumericalmodelingapproachforthis Senior Engineer. There, i na d d i t i o nt or e s e a r c h ir
purpose i st h ef i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e time-domain (FD-TD) 2lectromagnetic wave s c a t t e r i n g and p e n e t r a t i o n , hc
s o l u t i o n o f Maxwell's curl equations. This approach x - o v i d e tde c h n i c al el a d e r s h i fpomr a j opr r o g r a m s ir
i s analogous t oe x i s t i n gf i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c es o l u t i o n s j o i n tr i g h t - o f - w a yd e s i g nf o r 60-Hz t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s
o f l u i df l o w problems encountered i n computational I n dp i p e l i n e so rr a i l r o a d s ; and e x t r a c t i o n o f o i l f r o n
aerodynamics, i tnh atth ne u m e r i c a l model i s based shale, t a r sand, and s l o w pl yr o d u c i nwge l ul ss i n s
upon a d i r e cs to l u t i ootnhfgeo v e r n i npga r t i a l novel i ns i t ue l e c t r o m a g n e t i ch e a t i n gt e c h n o l o g y . HE
d i f f e r e n t i aelq u a t i o nP. u r s u i ntgh iasn a l o g y , FD-TD i s one o ft h r e ep r i n c i p a lc o - i n v e n t o r so ft h el a t t e r ,
shares thecomputational requirements o tf h ef l u i d s and hasbeen granted 10 U.S. p a t e n t s i n t h i s area.
codes (and o t h e rs i m i l a rl a r g e - s c a l ep a r t i a dl i f f e r -
e n t i a le q u a t i o ns o l v e r s )i nt e r m so f computer f l o a t i n g I n 1984, Dr. T a f l o v er e t u r n e dt oN o r t h w e s t e r n a:
p o i nat r i t h m e t i cr a t ep, r i m a r y random access memory an AssociateProfessor i nt h e EECS Department. Sincc
size, and data bandwidth to
secondary memory. Yet, then, hehas developed several research programs ir
FD-TD i s a n o n - t r a d i t i o naapl p r o antcouhm e r i c a l a n a l y s i s andnumeri c a l methods f o re le c t r o m a g n e t i (
electromagnetic modeling, where
frequency-domain dave i n t e r a c t i o n sw i t hl a r g e , complexstructures. Hi2
approacheshavedominated. r e l a t e di n t e r e s t si n c l u d ei n v e r s es c a t t e r i n g/ t a r g e l
synthesi s; appl ic a t i ons orfe c e nvt e c t osr u p e r .
One o f t h e g o a l s o f t h i s a r t i c l e i s t o d e m o n s t r a t e computersandconcurrentprocessors i n computationa'
t h a tr e c e n t advances i n FD-TD modelingconcepts and electromagnetics; and t h e new o n - s u r f a crea d i a t i o r
software implementation, combined withadvances in c o n d i t i o n (OSRC) t h e o r yf o rh i g h - f r e q u e n c ys c a t t e r i n g
computertechnology,haveexpandedthe scope, accuracy which he o r i g i n a t e da l o n gw i t h G. A. Kriegsmann an(
andspeed o f FD-TD modeling t o t h e p o i n t where it may K. R. Umashankar.
be t h ep r e f e r r e dc h o i c ef o rc e r t a i nt y p e so fs c a t t e r -
i n g and c o u p l i n pg r o b l e m sW . i t thh i s i n mind, t h i s D r . T a f l o v e i s a member o f Tau Beta P i , E t a Kapp;
article w i
l s u c c i n c t l yr e v i e wt h ef o l l o w i n gr e c e n t Nu, and Sigma Xi He i s a Senior Member o f IEEE anc
.
FD-TD m o d e l i nvga l i d a t i o nasnrde s e a r cfhr o n t i e r s : a member o f U R S I Commission B.
Continued on poge 6
5
 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Newsletter, Aprll 1988

F e a t w e Article-Continued from page 5 9. I n v es rcsaet t errei ncgo n s t r u cot ifo n one-

d i m e n s i o n as p l , a t i a cl loy i n c i d epnrto f i l oe fs
1. S c a t t e r i n gm o d e l sf otrh r e e - d i m e n s i o n arle e n t r a n t e l e c t r i c a l p e r m i t t i v i t y and c o n d u c t i v i t y ;
structures spanning up t o 9 wavelengths;
10. I n v esrcsaet t e r iencgo n s t r u c t i o n two-
of
2. Conformalmodels ofcurvedsurfaces; dimensionalconducti ng, homogeneous, and inhomo-
3. S c a t t e r i n gm o d e l sf otrw o - d i m e n s i o n aal n i s o t r o p i c geneous d i e l e c t a r ircgferm tosm
inimal TM
structures; s c a t t e r e df i e l dp u l s er e s p o n s ed a t a ; and
4. P e n e t r a t i om
n o d e lf sonra r r oswl o t s and lapped 11. Large-scalecomputersoftware.
j o i n t s i n t h i c k screens;
5. Coupling models
for
wires and wire bundles in 2. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FD-TD
f r e e space and i n a r b i t r a r y m e t a l c a v i t i e s ;
6. P e n e t r a t i o nm o d e l sf o trh ee l e c t r o m a g n e t i cf i e l d s As s t a t e d , FD-TD i s a d i r e c t s o l u t i o n o f M a x w e l l ’ s
w i t h i nd e t a i l e d , inhomogeneous ti ssueapproxima- time-dependent ecquur al t i o n s . It employs no
t itcohoonefm
s plete human body ( a t UHF p o t e n t i a l sI.n s t e a d , it applies simple,
second-order
frequencies 1 ; a c c u r a t ec e n t r a l - d i f f e r e n c ea p p r o x i m a t i o n s El] f o r t h e
7. M i c r o s t r i p andmicrowave c i r c u i t models; space and t i mdee r i v a t i v etohsef el e c t r i c and
magnetic f i e l d sd i r e c t l yt ot h er e s p e c t i v ed i f f e r e n -
8. Scattering
m o d e l fsorre l a t i v i s t i c a l l vy i b r a t i n g t i a lo p e r a t o r so ft h ec d r le q u a t i o n s .T h i sa c h i e v e s a
mirrors; s a m p l e d - d art ea d u c t i otohcnfeo n t i n u o uesl e c t r o -
magnetic f i e l d i n a volume o f space, over a p e r i o d o f
time. Space and t i m ed i s c r e t i z a t i o n sa r es e l e c t e dt o
bound e r r o r si nt h e sampling process, and t oi n s u r e
Introducing Feature Article Author n u m e r i c aslt a b i l i toyt fh ae l g o r i t h m [2]. Electric
and magnetic f i e l d components a r e i n t e r l e a v e d i n space
t op e r m i t a n a t u r a sl a t i s f a c t i o no ft a n g e n t i a fl i e l d
c o n t i n u i t cy o n d i t i o n as t media interfaces. Overall,
FD-TD . i s a marching-in-timeprocedurewhichsimulates
t h ec o n t i n u o u sa c t u a l waves bysampled-datanumerical
analogs propagating i n a data space s t o r eidn a
computer. A t each timestep,thesystemofequations
t o u p d a t et h ef i e l d components i s f u l l y e x p l i c i t , so
t h a tt h e r ei s no need t os e t up o sr o l v e a s e to f
l i n e aer q u a t i o n s , and the required computer storage
and r u n n i n tgi m ieps r o p o r t i o n at ltoh e l e c t r i c a l
s i z e o f t h e volumemodeled.

LotticeTruncotionPlone
Korada R. Umashankar (InvisiblbTo All W a v e s )
/
Korada R. Umashankar r e c e i v e dt h e B.E. degreefrom
Mysore U n i v e r s i t yI ,n d i ai ,n 1962; t h e M.E. degree
f r otm
hI ned i aI nns t i t uSot ecf i e n cBe a, n g a l o r e ,
I n d i ian, 1964; and t h e Ph.D. degree from
the
U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s i s s i p p iU, n i v e r s i t y , MS, i n 1974;
a l li ne l e c t r i c a le n g i n e e r i n g .

From 1964 t o 1969, he was A s s i s t a n tP r o f e s s o r and

Head ot hf e Department oEfl e c t r i c aEln g i n e e r i n g ,
College of
Engineering, Karnatak University, Hubli,
I n d i aD. u r i n g 1974 and 1975, he was a P o s t d o c t o r a l
ResearchAssociate, and from 1975 t o 1977, A s s i s t a n t
P r o f e s s o ro fE l e c t r i c a lE n g i n e e r i n ga tt h eU n i v e r s i t y
M
o fi s s i s s i p p i . From 1977 t o 1979, he was t h e
N a t i o n a lR e s e a r c hC o u n c i lV i s i t i n gF e l l o wa tt h e U. S.
Air Force Weapons L a b o r a t o rKyi ,r t l a n d AFB, NM.
D u r i n g 1979 t o 1984, he was Senior Engineer at II
T
Research I n s t i t u t e , Chicago,IL.
x = 1/28
C u r r e n t l y , Dr. Umashankar i s Associate Professor Figure 1. Time-Domain Wave-Tracking Concept of the FD-TD
o fE l e c t r i c a lE n g i n e e r i n g andComputer Science a t t h e Method
U n i v e r s Iiolt lfyi n oai ts Chicago. primary
His
F i g . 1 i l l u s t r a t e st h e time-domain wave t r a c k i n g
research i s i tnh e development oafn a l y t i c a l and
c o n c e p to ft h e FD-TD method. A r e g i o n o f space w i t h i n
numerical techniques i n electromagnetic theory,
t h e dashed l i n e si ss e l e c t e df o rf i e l d sampling i n
EMP/EMC i n t e r a c t i o n s , and EM s i m u l a t i os nt u d i e s .
spaceandtime. A t t i m e = 0 , it i s assumed t h a t a l l
R e s e a r c ht o p i c si n c l u d et h es t u d yo sf c a t t e r i n gf r o m
f i e lwd si t ht nh
i nue m e r i csaalm p l i rnegg i ao rne
bodies comprised coated
of,
or with, anisotrGpic i d e n t i c a l l y zero. An i n c i d e npt l a n e wave i s assumed
media; e x t e n st hiooef n method o f momenti t o t oe n t e rt h es a m p l i n gr e g i o n a t t h i sp o i n t . Propaga-
e l e c t r i c a l lvye rl ya r gtea r g e t s ; and t h e new on- tionoftheincident wave i s modeled by t h e commence-
s u r f a c er a d i a t i o nc o n d i t i o n (OSRC) t h e o r fyohr i g h -
ment o ft i m es t e p p i n g ,w h i c h i s simplytheimplementa-
f r e q u e n c ys c a t t e r i n g . t i ootnhf fei n i t e - d i f f e r e n caen a l ootghf ceu r l
equations. Time stepping continues as the numerical
D r . Umashankar i s a member o Ef ta Kappa Nu and
analogoftheincident wave s t r i k e s t h e modeled t a r g e t
Sigma X i He i s a Senior Member o f IEEE and a member
.
o f U R S I Commission B. embedded w i t h ti nhsea m p l i nr ge g i o n . A ll outgoing
Continued on page 7
5
 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Newsletter, April 1988

Feature Article-Continued from page 6

s c a t t e r e d wave a n a l o g si d e a l l yp r o p a g a t et h r o u g ht h e
1a t t i c e t r u n c a t i o n p l anes w i t h n e g l ig i bel r e f 1e c t i on
teoxtiht e sampling region. Phenomena such as
inductionofsurfacecurrents,scattering and m u l t i p l e
s c a t t e r i n g ,p e n e t r a t i o nt h r o u g ha p e r t u r e s , and c a v i t y
e x c i t a t i o na r e

otfh e s e
t h es ipra t i a l
modeledtime-stepbytime-step
a c t i o no ft h ec u r le q u a t i o n sa n a l o g .S e l f - c o n s i s t e n c y
modeled phenomena i sg e n e r a l l y
and
temporal variations
r e s o l v e d by t h e spaceand timesamplingprocess.
are
well
by t h e

assured i f FD
UNIT
- TD -
CELL -
Y
Time s t e p p i n g i s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e d e s i r e d l a t e -
time
pulse response steady-state
or behavior is
achieved. An i m p o r t a n t example o ft h el a t t e ri st h e
s i n u s o i d a ls t e a d ys t a t e ,w h e r e i nt h ei n c i d e n t wave i s
assumed t o have a s i n u s o i d a l dependence, and t i m e
stepping i s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l a l l f i e l d s i n t h e s a m p l i n g
r e g i oe nx h i bs i tn u s o i draelp e t i t i oTnh.i iss a
consequence o ft h el i m i t i n ga m p l i t u d ep r i n c i p l e C31.
Extensive numerical experimentation with FD-TD has
Figure 3. Arbitrary Three-Dimensional ScattererEmbeddedina
shown t h at ht e number o f c o m p l e tcey c l eot shf e
FD-TD Lattice
i n c i d e n t wave r e q u i r e dt o be time-stepped t oa c h i e v e
t h es i n u s o i d a ls t e a d ys t a t e i s approximatelyequalto r e s u l t si n a stepped-edge, or staircase, approxima-
t h e Q f a c t oortfh es t r u c t u r eo r phenomenon being t i oocnfu r v esdu r f a c e sC. o n t i n u i totyaf n g e n t i a l
model ed. f i e l d s i s assured a t t h e i n t e r f a c e o f d i s s i m i l a r media
EV w i tthh ipsr o c e d u r eT. h e ries no
need f osrp e c i a l
fielm d atchina gt media i n t e r f a c pe o i n t s . Stepped-
edge approximationofcurvedsurfaces has
been found
t o beadequate i n t h e FD-TD modelingproblemsstudied
i n t h e 1970's and e a r l y 1980's, i n c l u d i n g wave i n t e r -
a c t i o n sw i t hb i o l o g i c a lt i s s u e s C41, p e n e t r a t i o ni n t o
c a v i t i e s [ S I , [SI, and electromagnetic pulse (EMPI
interactiow n si t h complex structures [ 7 ] - C91.
However, r e c e n t i n t e r e s t i n widedynamicrangemodels
os fc a t t e r i n g by c u r v et ad r g e t s has
prompted the
development surface-conforming
of FD-TD approaches
w h i c he l i m i n a t es t a i r c a s i n g . These w i
l besummarized
later in this article.
1 1 Reqion I :
Toial
Fields
'Y
Region 2 :
X
Figure 2. Positions of the Field Components about a Unit Cell of Scattered
the YEE Lattice 111 Fields
F i g . 2 i l l u s t r a t e st h ep o s i t i o n so ft h ee l e c t r i c Source
and m a g n e t i c f i e l d componentsabout a u n i t c e l l o f t h e
FD-TD l a t t i c ei nC a r t e s i a nc o o r d i n a t e s C11. Note t h a t Lattice
eachmagnetic f i e l d v e c t o r component i s surroundedby Truncation
four circulating electric field vector components,and (a 1
vice
versa. This
arrangement permits not
only a
c e n t e r e d - d i f f e r e n c ea n a l o gt ot h e space d e r i v a t i v e s o f
t h ec u rel q u a t i o n s b, u at l s o a n a t u r agl e o m e t r yf o r Region I :
implementingtheintegralformofFaraday's
Ampere's Law atth es p a c e - c e llle v e lT. h i si n t e g r a l
Law and
FTi eo ltdasi E - - - -
"x

j o +... .. ~ ~ . . . t . . , ~ . . . t . . . ~ ..,,.
. . t ,.._._
.,.~
interpretation permits a simplebuteffectivemodeling
otfh ep h y s i c s of
smoothly curvedtarget surfaces, Region 2 :
-HY e & -
p e n e t r a t i o nt h r o u g hn a r r o ws l o t sh a v i n gs u b - c e l l gaps, :H
and c o u p l i n g t o t h i nw i r e sh a v i n gs u b - c e l ld i a m e t e r s , Scottered
as w l
i beseen l a t e r . Flelds
iI

Fig. 3 i l l u s t r a t e s how an a r b i t r at hr yr e e -
d i m e n s i o n asl c a t t e r e r i s embedded i n an FD-TD space (b)
l a t t i c e comprised ot hf uen ci te l loFsfi g . 2. Figure 4. Division of FD-TD Lattice into Total-Field and Scattered-
S i m p l y ,d e s i r e dv a l u e so fe l e c t r i c a lp e r m i t t i v i t y and Field Regions. (a) Lattice division; (b) Field component
c o n d u c t i v i at yraes s i g n eeto da cehl e c t rfi ice l d geometry at connecting plane y = joS [lo], 1111
component ot hf lea t t i c eC. o r r e s p o n d i n g l yd,e s i r e d
values of
magnetic perineabi 1it y c neaq u i v a l e n t F i g . 4 i l l u s t r a t etshdei v i s i oont fh e FD-TD
c o n d u c t i v iat yraes s i g n eet oda cmha g n e tfiice l d l a t t i c ei n t ot o t a l - f i e l d and s c a t t e r e d - f i e l dr e g i o n s .
component o tf h el a t t i c e . The media parameters are T h i sd i v i s i o n hasbeenfound t o beveryusefulsince
i n t e r p r e t e d by t h e FD-TD program as l o c a l c o e f f i c i e n t s it p e r m i t st h ee f f i c i e n st i m u l a t i o no f an i n c i d e n t
f tohtriem e - s t e p p i nagl g o r i t h mS .p e c i f i c a t i oonf p l a n e wave i nt h et o t a l - f i e l dr e g i o nw i t ha r b i t r a r y
m e d i a p r o p e r t i e s i n t h i s component-by-componentmanner Continued on poge 8
7
 - -

IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Newsletter. April 1988

Feature Article-Continued from page 7 going scattered-wave numerical analog striking the
l a t t i cter u n c a t i o n must e x ti ht l ea t t i cwe i t h o u t
incidence,
angle
of polarization,
time-domain appreciable n o n - p h y s i c arle f l e c t i o nj ,u s t as i f t h e
waveform, and d u r a t i o n [lo], C111. T h r eaed d i t i o n a l l a t t i c et r u n c a t i o n was i n v i s i b l e . It has been shown
i m p o r t a n tb e n e f i t sa r i s ef r o mt h i sl a t t i c ed i v i s i o n . t h at three q u i r elda t t i cter u n c a t i ocno n d i t i oins
a. A l a r g en e a r - f i e l dc o m p u t a t i o n a l dynamicrange r e a l l y a r a d i a t i o nc o n d i t i o ni nt h en e a rf i e l d [lo],
i s a c h i e v e d s, i n c et h es c a t t e r e ro if n t e r e s t C141 - C171. Further, it been has shown t h a t
i s embedded i nt h et o t a l - f i e l dr e g i o n . Thus, convenientlocalapproximationsoftheexactradiation
l o wf i e l dl e v e l si n shadow r e g i o n so rw i t h i n condition can
be
generated and a p p l i ewd i t h good
s h i e l d i negn c l o s u r easr e computed d i r e c t l y r e s u l t s [IO] [171. - Based upon t h i rse s e a r c ht,h e
w i t h o u ts u f f e r i n gs u b t r a c t i o nn o i s e( a sw o u l d p r o c e d u r ef o rc o n s t r u c t i n g more p r e c i s e l o c a l a p p r o x i -
the
be
case mationsoftheexactradiationcondition i s reasonably
i f s c a t t e r ef di e l di ns such
wellunderstood. These approximations arecurrently
r e g i o n s weretime-steppedvia FD-TD, and then
added t o a c a n c e l l i n g i n c i d e n t f i e l d t o o b t a i l , understudy fornumericalimplementation i n t h e FD-TD
thelowtotal-fieldlevels). computerprograms C181.

b. Embedding t h es c a t t e r e ir nt h et o t a -l f i e l d
r e g ipoenr m i t s a n a t u rsaal t i s f a c t i o fn 3. THREE-DIMENSIONAL FD-TD SCATERINC MODELS
t a n g e n tf i ace lodn t i n uai ct yr o s s media
i n t e r f a c e s , dai s c u s seeadr l i w e ri t, h o u t
h a v i nt og compute t hi ne c i d e fni te al dt A n a l y t i c a l and experimental Val id a t i onshavebeen
p o s s i b l y numerous p o i n t s a l o n g a complex l o c u s o b t a i ne6 r e l a t i v et o FD-TD modeling ocfa n o n i c a l
t h a t i s u n i q u et o each s c a t t e r e r . The zoning three-dimensionalconductingtargetsspanning 1/3 t o 9
arrangement o fF i g . 4 r e q u i r e sc o m p u t a t j o no f wavelengths C121, C131,C191, C201. F o rb r e v i t y ,o n l y
t h ei n c i d e n tf i e l do n l ya l o n gt h er e c t a n g b l a r one suchvalidationwi1,lbereviewedhere.
Fin
connectingsurface between t h e t o t a l - f i e l d and
s c a t t e r e d - f i reel dg i o T n sh u
.i sr f ai sc e
.fixed,i.e.,
independent the
of shape or
c o m p o s i t i o ont fh e n c l o s e sdc a t t e r ebr e i n g
modeled.
C. The p r o v i s i oonf a w e l l - d e f i n esdc a t t e r e d -
f i e l dr e g i o ni nt h e FD-TD l a t t i c ep e r m i t st h e
n e a r - t o - f afri e l tdr a n s f o r m a t i o inl l u s t r a t e d
i nF i g . 5. The dashed v i r t u asl u r f a c e shown
i nF i g . 5 can belocated along convenient
E2
l a t t i c ep l a n e si nt h es c a t t e r e d - f i e l dr e g i o n
o f F i g . 4. T a n g e n t isacla t t e r e d
f i e l d s computed v i a FD-TD at th i vs i r t u a l
E and H If ky
HX
surfacecanthenbeweightedbythefree-space
G r e e n ' sf u n c t i o n and t h e ni n t e g r a t e d (summed)
0.37cm
t op r o v i d et h ef a r - f i e l dr e s p o n s e and r a d a r Corner Reflector Looks
c r o s ss e c t i o n( f u l lb i s t a t i cr e s p o n s ef o rt h e / go'< 0 ' . 1800
assumed i l l u m i n a t i o na n g l e ) [lll - C131. The Fin Center
n e a r - f i e lidn t e g r a t i osnu r f a c e has a f i x e d I
I
r e c t a n g u l a r shape,and thus i s independent o f I
t h e shape comDosition or the
of
enclosed I
I
s c a t t e r e d b e i n g modeled. I I L
- 0' = 90'
( P,?is) r__-________________'
1 -" --I /
LATTICE EDGE
I I
I I
I 9'. 00
I
I I Fig. 6 . Geometry of Crossed-Plate Scatterer and Illumination
[13],
I d ! I I
NO SOURCES I 1191, 1201
I 8 I
I I F i g . 6 d e p i c t tsh e geometry o f a crossed-plate
I ZERO FIELDS I scatterercomprisedoftwo f l a t plate:, Z l e c t r i c a l l y
! I bonded t o g e t h e rt of o r mt h e shape o f a T . The main
p l a t e has thedimensions 30 cm x 10 cm x 0.33 cm, and
t h eb i s e c t i n gf i n has thedimensions 10 cm x 10 cm x
0.33 cm. The i l l u m i n a t i o ins a plane wave a t 0"
e l e v a t i o na n g l e and TE p o l a r i z a t i o nr e l a t i v et ot h e
(a) (bJ
m a i np l a t e , and a t h ef r e q u e n c y 9.0 GHz. Thus, t h e
Figure 5 . Near-to-Far Field Transformation Geometry main p l a t e spans 9.0 wavoelengths. Note t h al ot o k
to
(a) Original problem; (b) Equivalent problem external angle azimuths between 90 and 180" providesubstan-
the virtual surface, Sa [ll] t i a l cornerreflectorphysics,inadditiontothe edge
d i f f r a c t i o nc ,o r n edri f f r a c t i o n , and o t h eerf f e c t s
F i g . 4 uses t htee r "ml a t t i cter u n c a t i o nt o" f o u n d f o r an i s o l a t e d f l a t p l a t e .
designatetheoutermost 1a t t i c ep l a n e si nt h es c a t -
t e r e d - f i e l dr e g i o n . The f i e l d sa tt h e s ep l a n e sc a n n o t F o rt h e 9-GHz
FD-TD model, t h el a t t i c ec e l ls i z e
becomputedusingthecentered-differencingapproach i s 0.3125 cm, approximately 1/11 wavelength. The main
d i s c u s s e de a r l i e br e c a u s eo tf h e assumed absence o f p l a t e i s formedby 32 x 96 x 1 c e l l s ;t h eb i s e c t i n g
known f i e l d a t a pt o i n t so u t s i d eotfh el a t t i c e f i n i s formed by 32 x 32 x 1 c e l l s ; and t h eo v e r a l l
t r u n c a t i o n . These d a t aa r e needed t of o r mt h ec e n t r a l l a t t i c e i s comprised o f 48 x 112 x 48 c e l l s ( 1 , 5 4 8 , 2 8 8
d i f f e r e n c e sT. h e r e f o r ea, na u x i l i a r yl a t t i c et r u n c a - unknown f i e l d components) containing 212.6 cubic
t i o nc o n d i t i o ni s necessary. This condition must be
Continued on page 9
c o n s i s t e nw t i t hM a x w e l l ' se a u a t i o n si nt h a at no u t -
 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Newsletter, April 1988

12

e
1
4
5
-n
m

C
o
.o
c
-4
U
W
* -e
v)
v)
0
5 -I 2
L

40 -16
CK

0
c

0
0 -20
.-c
-24
I' @ FD-TO Modeling
Results
( 3 min single-processor Cray-2 time/ point)
C
0
I S R I Meosurements(Range of doto
r -28 ot eoch look ongle)

-32

- 36 r I I 1 I I 1 I I 1
0" 20" 4Oo 60" 80" loo" 1204 140" 160" 180"
#J' ( Look Angle , Degrees From Broadside 1

Fig. 7. Comparison of FD-TD Modeling with SRI Measurementsof Monostatic Radar Cross Section for the Crossed-Plate
Scattererat 9 GHZ (maximum scatterer size = 9 wavelengths) [13], [19],[20]

w a v e l e n g t h sN. o tteh at ht lea t t i cter u n c a t i o nasr e resonantresponses by 1%t o 2% f o r Q f a c t o r so f 30 t o

o n l y 8 c e l l s (0.75 wavelength)fromthetarget'smain 80, and c a np o s s i b l yi n t r o d u c es p u r i o u sn u l l s .I nt h e
p l a t e and f i n edges. The s l i g h t l ye c c e n t r i cp o s i t i o n - a r esoacf a t t e r i n g and RCS, the
use
stepped
of
ing of the bisecting fin is accountedfor i n t h e FD-TD surfaces has p r e v e n t e d a p p l i c a t i o n o f FD-TD f o r model-
model . S t a r t i n gw i t hz e r o - f ie l d i n i t i a lc o n d i t i o n s , i ntghi em p o r t a nc tl a sotsaf r g e t s where s u r f a c e
661 t i m es t e p sa r e used, e q u i v a l e n t o3 1c y c l e so f roughness, exact
curvature, and dieleco t rri c
t h e i n c i d e n t wave a t 9 GHz. permeableloading i s c r u c i a l i n d e t e r m i n i n g RCS.

Measurements o f t h e m o n o s t a t i c r a d a r c r o s s s e c t i o n R e c e n t l yt,w od i f f e r e nt y p e s o f FD-TD conformal

(RCS) v s . look angle azimuth were performed i nt h e surface
models have been proposed andexamined for
anechoic chamber f a c i l i t y o p e r a t e d by S R I I n t e r n a t i o n - two-dimensionalproblems:
a l , MenloPark, CA. F i g . 7 compares t h e FD,-TD p r e d i c -
a. Faraday's Law contour path
models c211.
t i o n sw i t ht h e S R I measurements a t 32 key lookangles
These p r e s e rtbvhaeeC s iac r t e s igarni d
w h i c hd e f i n et h em a j o rf e a t u r e so ft h e RCS response.
arrangement o ff i e l d components a t a l l space
It i s seen t h a t h e agreement i sw i t h i na b o u t 1 dB
c e l lesx c e pt ht o saed j a c e nttothtea r g e t
over a t o t a l RCS-pattern dynamic range o f 40 dB.
surface. Space c e l l sa d j a c e n t ot h es u r f a c e
L o c a t i o n s o f peaks and n u l lotshf pea t t e ranr e
are
deformed ct oo n f o rwmit hseu r f a c e
a c c u r a t e l py r e d i c t e d to
within 1" o f azimuth. Note
e s p e c i a l ltyheex c e l l e n t agreement f ol or oakn g l e 1ocus . S l i g hm t l yo d i f itei m
d e-stepping
azimuthsgreaterthan 90",where t h e r e i s a pronounced e x p r e s s i o n sf o rt h em a g n e t i cf i e l d components
corner-reflece t of fr e c t . As s t a t iend [13], it a d j a c e n t ot h es u r f a c ea r ed e r i v e df r o mt h e
appears t h a t t h i s case(andsimilarthree-dimensional i n t e g r a l f o r m oFfa r a d a y ' s Law implemented
9-wavelengthtargetsstudied i n [ 2 0 ] r) e p r e s e n t st h e aroundtheperimetersofthedeformedcells.
l a r g e s dt e t a i l e dt h r e e - d i m e n s i o n anl u m e r i c asl c a t t e r - b. Stretched, conforminq mesh models [221,[231.
i n g model s o f any t y peev evre r i f i ewd h e r e i n a These emDlov a v a i l a b l en u m e r i c a l mesh senera-
u n i f o r m l yf i n es p a t i a lr e s o l u t i o n and t h ea b i l i t yt o t i o n schemes t oc o n s t r u c tn o n - C a r t e s i a ng r i d s
t r e a tn o n m e t a l l i cc o m p o s i t i o ni si n c o r p o r a t e di nt h e w h i cahrceo n t i n u o u s lsyt r e t c h etdcoo n f o r m
model. withsmoothly shaped targets. Time-stepping
e x p r e s s i oaenriset haedra p tf er todhme
C a r t e s i a n FD-TD c a s[ e2 2o1rb t a i n evdi a
4. TWO-DIMENSIONAL CONFORMAL MODELS a n a l o gtytohceo m p u t a t i o n af l u id y n a m i c s
OF CURVED SURFACES (CFD) case C231.

Research i s ongoing for

eachthese
of types of
A key f l a w i n p r e v i o u s FD-TD models o fc o n d u c t i n g conformal surface
models. Key q u e s t i oin sc l u d e :
s t r u c t u r e sw i t h smooth curved surfaces has
beenthe ease o f mesh generation; suppression on fu m e r i c a l
need t o use stepped-edge(staircase)approximations of a r t i f a c t s such
as i n s t a b i l i t yd, i s p e r s i o n , andnon-
t h ea c t u a sl t r u c t u r es u r f a c e A
. l t h o u g hn o t a serious p h y s i c a l wave r e f l e c t i o ncso; d i nc og m p l e x i t y ; and
problemforcomputing wave p e n e t r a t i o n and c o u p l i n g modeling execution time.
i n t o l o w - Qm e t acl a v i t i e s r, e c e n t FD-TD studieshave
shown t h a ts t e p p e da p p r o x i m a t i o n so fc u r v e dw a l l sa n d
a p e r t u rseu r f a c ecsasnh icf te n t ef rre q u e n c i eosf Continued on page 10
9
 lEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Newrletier, April 1988

Feature Article-Continued from page 9 using FD-TD t o model materialtargets having diagonal-
t e n s o er l e c t r i c and magnetic properties. No a l t e r a -
tion of thebasic FD-TD algorithm i s required. The
more complicated behavior
associated
with
off-
diagonal tensor components can also be modeled, in
principal, with some algorithm complications [ZO].

E,, =2 pxx= 2 hw = 4 ___ CFIE solutlon

koS=S +i=900 o o 0 FD-TD (12cycles)
"." -.,-I--_L-.-L
(Frequency = 150 MHz)
0' 30- 60' 90' 120' 150' 180' R

Fig. 8. Comparison of FD-TD and Exact Solution for Azimuthal

Surface Electric Current on a ka = 5 Circular Conducting
Cylinder, TM Case (0.05 wavelength grid cell size) [21]

S
ID DI.20 0'.40 0'.60 D'.BO ll.00
NORMALIZED CONTOUR LENGTH
0.0 /--.L--L-L~l-L

0' 30-
1-- A_._

bo'
L I....-

90'
_I- >-
.'=B

120' 150- 180' B

Fig. 10.Comparison of FD-TD and CFIE Solutions for Longi-
tudinal Surface Electric Current on A Kos = 5 Square
Fig. 9. Comparison of FD-TD.and Exact Solution for Longitudinal Anisotropic Cylinder, TM Case [24]
Surface Electric Current on a Ka = 5 Circular Conducting
Cylinder, TM Case (0.05 wavelength grid cell size) [21] Recent development of combined-field, coupled
surfaceintegralequationsfor modeling scattering by
The accuracy of the Faraday's Law contour p a t h a r b i t r a r y shaped two-dimensional anisotropic targets
[24] has permitteddetailedtests of theaccuracy of
models f o r smoothly curved targetssubjected t o TE ar;d
TM illumination iisl l u s t r a t e d i n Figs. 8 and 9 , FD-TD anisotropic models. Fig. 10 i l l u s t r a t e s one
respectively. Here, a moderate-resolution Cartesian such t e s t . Here, the magnitude of the equivalent
FD-TD grid(having 1/20 wavelength c e l ls i z e ]i s used s u r f a c e e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t induced by TM illumination o f
t o compute the azimuthal longitudinal
or current a squareanisotropiccylinder i s graphed as a function
distribution on the surface of a ka = 5 c i r c u l a r of positionalongthecylindersurfacefor b o t h the
FD-TD and combined-field integral
equation (CFIE)
metal cylinder. For b o t h polarizations, the
contour
path FD-TD model achieves an accuracy o f 1.5% or models. The incident wave propagates i n the +y
b e t t e ra t most surfacepointsrelative t o theexact direction and has a + z - d i r e c t e de l e c t r i cf i e l d . The
s e r i esso l u t i o n . The worst-case error, o n l y 3.5%, cylinder has an e l e c t r i c a l s i z e k s = 5 , permittivity
occursforthe TE case a t a point i n t h ec e n t e r - l i t E = 2 , and diagonal permeabilqty tensor !-I = 2
region where contourdeformation i s maximum. Running a66 uyy = 4 . From F i g . 10, we seethatthe FD-% and
timeforthe conformal FD-TD model i s essentiallythe CFIE results agree very well overalmost everywhere on
same asfortheoldstaircase FD-TD model, since o n l y the
cylinder
surface. Disagreement i s noted a t h e
a few H components immediately adjacenttothetarget cylindercorners where CFIE predictssharplocal peaks
surface require a s l i g h t l y modifiedtime-stepping whereas FD-TD predicts local nul 1 s. Studies
are
re1 ation. continuingtoresolvethecornerphysicsissue.

5. SCATTERING MODELS FOR TWO-DIMENSIONAL 6. PENETRATION MODELS FOR NARROW SLOTS

ANISOTROPIC STRUCTURES AND LAPPED JOINTSI N MICK SCREENS
The a b i l i t yt o independently specify
electrical The physics of electromagnetic wave transmission
permittivity and conductivity for each E vector t h r o u g h narrow s l o t s and lapped joints inshielded
component inthe FD-TD l a t t i c e , and magnetic permea- enclosures must be accurately understood
to
permit
b i l i t y and equivalentconductivityfor each H vector
component, leads immediately t o t hpeo s s i b i l i t y of Continued on page I I

10
 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Newsletter, April 1988

Feature Article-Continued from page 10 c. Faraday's Law contour path model C271. Here,
space c e l l s a d j a c e n t t o and w i t h i n t h e s l o t o r
good engineeringdesignofequipmenttomeetspecifi- j o i n t a r e deformed t o c o n f o r m w i t h t h e s u r f a c e
cations for
performance concerning electromagnetic l o c u s( i n a manner s i m i l a trot h ec o n f o r m a l
p u l s e (EMP), l i g h t n i n g , high-power microwaves (HPM), curved surface model 1. S l i g h tml yo d i f i e d
e l e c t r o m a g n e t i nc t e r f e r e n c e and c o m p a t i b i l i t y (EM1 time-stepping expressions for
the
magnetic
and EMC), u n d e s i r erda d i a t esdi g n a l s , and RCS. In f i e l d components i n t h e s ec e l l sa r ed e r i v e d
many cases, s l o t s and j o i n t s may haveverynarrowgaps f r o mt h ei n t e g r a lf o r mo fF a r a d a y ' s Law imple-
f i l l e d by a i r ,o x i d a t i o nf i l m s ,o rl a y e r so fa n o d i z a - mented around t h ep e r i m e t e r so tf h ed e f o r m e d
t i o no rp a i n t .J o i n t s canbesimple(say,twometal cells.
s h e e tbsu t t etdo g e t h e r ) ; more complex (laa p p eodr
" f u r n i t u r e "j o i n t ) ;o r even more complex (athreaded
screw-typeconnectionwith random p o i n t so fm e t a l - t o -
metal contact, depending upon t h et i g h t e n i n g ) E
. xtra
c o m p l i c a t i o n sa r i s ef r o mt h ep o s s i b i l i t y o f electro- *I-- .025A

i c :
m a g n e t i cr e s o n a n c e sw i t h i nt h ej o i n te, i t h e irnt h e E
t r a n s v e r s eo rl o n g i t u d i n a l( d e p t h )d i r e c t i o n .

C l e a r l y , t o make any headway w i t h t h i s c o m p l i c a t e d

group o f problems using the FD-TD approach, it i s
I 3A

D C' A' B
necessary t od e v e l o p andVal i d a t e FD-TD modelswhich
c a ns i m u l a t et h eg e o m e t r i cf e a t u r e so fg e n e r i cs l o t s
and j o i n t s S . ince a keygeometricfeature i sl i k e l y
t o be thenarrow gap o f t h e s l o t o r j o i n t r e l a t i v e t o
one FD-TD space c e l l , it i s i m p o r t a nttou n d e r s t a n d
how s u b - c e l l gapscanbe e f f i c i e n t l y modeled. Fig. 12(a)

Three d i f f e r e ntty p e os f FD-TD sub-cell models Fig. 12a. Geometry of U-Shaped Lapped JointFor TE Illumination,
have been proposed and examined formodelingnarrow Shown to Scale [27]
s l o t s and j o i n t s :
a. E a u i v a l esnlltoota d i n q C251. Here, r u l e s
a r es e t od e f i n e an e q u i v a l e n tp e r m i t t i v i t y The accuracy of
the Faraday's Law contour path
and p e r m e a b i l i t y i n a s l o t formedby a s i n g l e - model f o rn a r r o ws l o t sa n dj o i n t si si l l u s t r a t e di n
c e l l gap t o e f f e c t i v e l y narrowthe gap t ot h e F i g s . 11 and12by d i r e c t comparison o ft h e computed
desi red degree. gape1 e c t r i c f i e l d a g a i n s t h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n n u m e r i c a l
benchmarks. F i g . 11 models a 0.1 wavelength thick
b. Subqridding C261. Here, t h er e g i o nw i t h i nt h e conductingscreenwhichextends 0.5 w a v e l e n g t ht o each
s l o to rj o i n ti sp r o v i d e dw i t h a sufficiently s i d e o f a s t r a i g h t s l o t which has a gap o f 0.025 wave-
f i n eg r i d .T h i sg r i di sp r o p e r l y connected t o length. Broadside TE i l l u m i n a t i o ni s assumed. Three
thecoarsergridoutsideoftheslot. t y p e sopf r e d i c t i v ed a t aa r e compared: ( 1 ) The low-
r e s o l u t i o n ( 0 . 1 wavelength) FD-TD model u s i nt g he
contourpathapproach t o treattheslot as a 1 / 4 - c e l l
2.5 1 gap; ( 2 1 A high-resolution
model t ot r e a t h es l o t
(0.025 wavelength)
as a 1 - c e l l gap;
h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n method o f moments (MOM) model ( h a v i n g
FD-TD
and (3) A

0.0025 wavelengthsampling i nt h es l o t )w h i c ht r e a t s
t hsel o t t esdc r e e n as a p u rsec a t t e r i ngge o m e t r y .
From F i g . 11, we see t h a t t h e r e i s e x c e l l e n t agreement
between a lt lh r e se e t ospf r e d i c t i v d e a t iab
noth
magnitude and phase. O f p a r t i c u l a irn t e r e s itst h e
a b i 1it y o f t h e l o w - r e s o l u t i o n FD-TD model, u s i n g t h e
Observation c o n t o u rp a t ha p p r o a c h ,t oa c c u r a t e l y compute t h e peak
4, locus e l e c t r i c f i e l d i n t h es l o t .

A A Continued on page 12
FRONT OF SCREEN k S L O T dBBACK OF SCREEN

( 0 )

100'

50.

0'

- 50.
- FD-TD(XJ40 resolution1

-100' 0 FD-TOOko/10 resolution

Contour model

FRONT OF SCREEN
A
( b)
Fig. 11. Comparison of FD-TD and MOM Solutions for the Gap
Electric Field Distribution, Straight Slot Case: (a)
Magnitude; (b) Phase 1271
11
 IEEE Antennas ond Propagation Society Newsletter, April 1988

Feature Article-Continued from page I 1 s i m i l a r t o conformal the curved surface

model 1. l / r s i n g u l a r i t i e ostfh ae z i m u t h a l
I -
magnetic f i e l d and r a d i a le l e c t r i cf i e l da r e
- 120" assumed t oe x i s tw i t h i nt h e deformed c e l l s .
- \9 -0- FD-TD(0.025A. resolulioni S l i g h tm
l yo d i f i et idm e - s t e p p i negx p r e s s i o n s
f o rt h ea z i m u t h a lm a g n e t i cf i e l d components i n
0 FD-TD (0.09X. resolution I
contour model
these cell s are derived from the integral form
o f Faraday's Law implemented aroundthe
aJ perimeterofthedeformedcells.
u)

a
-240°

(b)
I.o
0
SERIES SOLUTION (EXACT)
FD-TD (X. /IO resolulion. contour
integral model of w i r e l

/
P /
/"

Fig. 12b. FD-TD Computed Gap Electric Field Within the

0.45-Wavelength Path Length, U-Shaped Lapped Joint
0.8 -
' (First Transmission Resonance): 0.6
(a) I Egap/Einc I ; (b) LEgap/Hz(A) [27l
F i g . 12a shows thegeometry o f a U-shaped lapped 0.4
j o i n t which was s e l e c t e d f o r d e t a i l e ds t u d yo fp a t h -
l e n g t (hd e p t h ) power transmission resonances. The U 0.2
shape o ft h ej o i n tp e r m i t sa d j u s t m e n to ft h eo v e r a l l
j o i n tp a t hl e n g t hw i t h o u td i s t u r b i n gt h ep o s i t i o n so f
t h ei n p u t and o u t p u tp o r t sa t A andF. A u n i f o r m gap
P
01 - - - I I
of 0.025 wavelength i s assumed, as i s a s c r e e nt h i c k - 30,000 3,000 300 30
ness o f 0.3 wavelength and w i d t ho f 3 wavelengths.
Wire radius, in wavelengths
F i g . 12b compares t h e gap e l e c t r i cf i e l dw i t h i nt h e
j o i n t as computed by: ( 1 ) A low-resolution, contour Fig. 13. Comparison of FD-TD and Exact Solution for the Scattered
p a t h FD-TD model having 0.09 wavelength c e l l s i z e and Azimuthal Magnetic Field at a Point 1/20 Wavelength
t r e a t i ntgh e gap as 0.28 c e l l ; and ( 2 ) A h i g h - From the Center of an Infinite Wire [29]
r e s o l u t i o n FD-TO model having 0.025 wavelength c e l l - MOM (A./60 resolution1
2.0 r
s i z e and t r e a t i n gt h e gap as 1 c e l l . The t o t a pl a t h
0 FD-TO (?,/IO resolulion,
l e n g t hw i t h i nt h el a p p e dj o i n it sa d j u s t e dt oe q u a l contour integral
0.45 wavelength,whichprovides a sharp power t r a n s - model of wire)
mission peak t ot h e shadow s i d eo tf h es c r e e n . From
F i g . 12b, we see a very goodagreementbetween thelow 1.5 -
and h i g hr e s o l u t i o n FD-TD models,eventhough thisis
a n u m e r i c a l lsyt r e s s f u rl ,e s o n a npte n e t r a t i ocna s e .
An i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s er e s u l t si st h a ct o a r s e (0.1
wavelength) FD-TD g r i d d i n gc a n be e f f e c t i v e l y used t o 1.0 -
model t hfei n e - g r a i n epdh y s i cosf wave p e n e t r a t i o n
t h r o u g hs l o t s and j o i n t s , i f s i m p l ea l g o r i t h mm o d i f i -
c a t i o n sa r e made i n accordancewiththecontourpath
approach. This
can
substantially reduce computer
resourcerequirements and c o d i n gc o m p l e x i t yf o r FD-TD 0.5 -
models o f complex s t r u c t u r ew s ,i t h o suat c r i f i c i n g
appreciable accuracy i n t h e m o d e l i n g r e s u l t s .

7. COUPLING MODELS FOR WIRES AND WIRE BUNDLES

End Center
Position along half dipole
I n equipmentdesignfor EMP, HPM, and EM1 / EMC,
understandingelectromagnetic wave c o u p l i n gt ow i r e s Fig.14. Comparison of FD-TD and MOM Solutions for the
and c a b l eb u n d l e sl o c a t e dw i t h i ns h i e l d i n ge n c l o s u r e s Scattered Azimuthal Magnetic Field Distribution Along a
i s a p r o b l e mt h a t i s complementary t ot h a to f wave 2.0-Wavelength Wire ofRadius 1/300 Wavelength (Broad-
p e n e t r a t i o nt h r o u g ha p e r t u r e so tf h es h i e l d( s u c h as side TM illumination) [29]
n a r r o ws l o t s and j o i n t s ) .S i m i l a rt ot h en a r r o ws l o t
problem, a keydimension o f t h e i n t e r a c t i n g s t r u c t u r e ,
i n t h i s casethewireorbundlediameter, may besmall The accuracy of
the
Faraday's Law contour path
r e l a t i vteo one FD-TD space c e l l . Thus, it i s model f o rt h i nw i r e si nf r e e space i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n
i m p o r t a n tt ou n d e r s t a n d how t h i n ,s u b - c e l l ,w i r e s and F i g s . and14.
13 F i g . graphs
13 thescattered
b u n d l e sc a nb ee f f i c i e n t l y modeled i f FD-TO i s t o have azimuthalmagnetic f i e l d a t a f i x e dd i s t a n c eo f1 / 2 0
much a p p l i c a t i o n t o c o u p l i n g p r o b l e m s . wavelengthfromthecenterof an i n f i n i t e l y l o n g w i r e
having a radius ranging between 1/30,000 and 1/30
Two d i f f e r e n tt y p e so f FO-TD sub-cell modelshave wavelength. TM i l l u m i n a t i o ni s assumed. We see t h a t
been proposed andexamined f om
r o d e l i n gt h i nw i r e s : t h e r ei se x c e l l e n t agreementbetween t h ee x a c ts e r i e s
s o l u t i o n and t h e l o w - r e s o l u t i o n (0.1 wavelength) FD-TD
a.
Equivalent
inductance C281. Here, an equiva- contourpath model o v e rt h ee n t i r e 3-decade r a n g eo f
lent inductance is defined for a wire within a w i r er a d i u sF. i g . 14 graphs the
scattered azimuthal
space c e l l p e r m i t t i n g a l u m p e d - c i r c u i t model
I
m a g n e t ifci e lddi s t r i b u t i oanl o n g a 2.0-wavelength
of the wire to be s e t up andcomputed. ( a n t i r e s o n aw n ti )r e o f radius1/300
wavelength.
b. Faraday's Law contour path model L291. Here, Broadside TM i . l l u m i n a t i o n i s assumed, and t h e f i e l d i s
space c e l l s a d j a c e n t t o t h e w i r e a r e deformed observed a t a f i x e dd i s t a n c e o f 1/20wavelengthfrom
t oc o n f o r mw i t ht h es u r f a c el o c u s ( i n a manner Continued on poge 13
12
 tEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Newsletter. April 1988

I
Cylindrical
shielding
enclosure
- I I 1
Single FD-TD c e l l
virtualsuriace
::

YBRID FD-TD/MOM LANE

Normalized posftion aperture

- SYSTEM
Fig. 15. Comparison of Hybrid FD-TD / MOM Modeling Predic-
tions withDirect EFIE for Induced on a WireBundle
Illuminated Broadside bya Plane Wave in Free Space [29]
Feature Article-Continued from page 12

t hw
e i rcee n t e r . We see t h atth e r iees x c el le n t
agreement between a MOM s o l u t i o sna m p l i n tgh w
e ire Fig. 16. Geometry of the Cylindrical Shielding Enclosure and
currentat1/60wavelengthincrements, and thelow- Internal Wire or Wire-Pair [29]
r e s o l u t i o n (0.1 wavelength) FD-TD contourpathmodel.
The FD-TD contourpath model can be extended t o Wave p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e e n c l o s u r e i s
t r e atth i w
n irb eundles, as w e l l as s i n g l w e ires. through a c i r c u m f e r e n t i a ls l o ta p e r t u r e (0.125 m a r c
F i g : 15 shows t h ea n a l y t i c avl a l i d a t i o nr e s u l t sf o r l e n g t h , 0.0125 m gap) a t h e ground plane. Forthe
t h ei n d u c e dc u r r e n t s on a bundlecomprised o f 4 wires, cases studied, an i n t e r n asl h o r t i n gp l u gi sl o c a t e d
where 3 a r eo ef q u alle n g t h . Here, a w i r eo fl e n g t h 0.40 m above t h e ground p l a n eF. otrh e
single-wire
0.6 m (2.0wavelengths) i s assumed a t h ec e n t e r of t e s t , a w i r e o f l e n g t h 0.30 m and r a d i u s 0.000495 m i s
thebundle, and t h r e ep a r a l l e lw i r e so fl e n g t h :0.3 m c e n t e r ew d i t h itnhien t e r i o r and connected t toh e
(1.0 wavelength) are assumed t o be l o c a t e da t 120" groundplanewith a lumped 50-ohm l o a d .F o rt h ew i r e -
separations on a c o n c e n t r i cc i r c l eo fr a d i u s 0.005 m p atier spt ,a r a l l ewli r eotshf e sdei m e n s i o nasr e
( 1 / 6 0 wavelength). The r a d o i ai f w
l l i r e istnh e l o c a t e d 0.01 m a p a r tw , ith one w i r es h o r t e dt ot h e
bundle areequal and s etto 0.001 m (1/300 wave- ground plane and t h e o t h ecr o n n e c t e d
to
theground
length). The assumed e x c i t a t i o n i isn
free space, p l a nwei t h a lumped 50-ohm load. A ll r e s u l tasr e
p r o v i d e d by a 1-GHz broadside TM plane wave. Follow- n o r m a l i z e dt o a 1 v/m i n c i d e n t wave e l e c t r i c f i e l d .
i n gt h et e c h n i q u eo f C291, thebundle i s r e p l a c e d by a
s i n g l ew i r eh a v i n gv a r y i n ge q u i v a l e nrt a d i u sc o r r e -
sponding t ot h et h r e es e c t i o n sa l o n gt h eb u n d l ea x i s .
Hybrid FD-TD /MOM w i t h
The p h y s i c so ft h es i n g l ew i r eo fv a r y i n ge q u i v a l e n t
r a d i u si si n c o r p o r a t e di n
l e n g t h ) FD-TD contourpath
a l o w - r e s o l u t i o n (0.1 wave-
model, as discussed above.
-VI
DX = 1.2144 cm:
15 cyclesbelow
d a t aa t
1.1 GHz,
s
. .

-.-
'
0.6
above
30 cycles 1.1 GHz
The FD-TD model i s t h e nr u nt oo b t a i nt h et a n g e n t i a l
E and H f i e l d a st a v i r t u as lu r f a cceo n v e n i e n t l y I

locatedatthecell b o u n d a r yc o n t a i n i n gt h ee q u i v a l e n t
w i r e (shown as a dashed l i nieFn i g1.5 ) . These
f i e l d sa r et h e nu t i l i z e d as e x c i t a t i o nt oo b t a i nt h e
c u r r e n t si n d u c e d on t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i r e s o f t h e o r i g i -
n a lb u n d l e .T h i sl a s ts t e pi sp e r f o r m e db ys e t t i n g up
an e l e c t r i c f i e l d i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n ( E F I E ) and s o l v i n g
v i a MOM. F i g . 15 shows an excellent correspondence
between t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e h y b r i d FD-TD/MOM procedure
described aboveand t h e u s u a l d i r e c t EFIE s o l u t i o n f o r
t h ei n d u c e dc u r r e n td i s t r i b u t i o n oneach w i r eo ft h e
bund1 e. Frequency IGHz)

The h y b r i d FD-TD / MOM p r o c e d u r e f o r m o d e l i n g t h i n Fig. 17(a)

wirebundles i s mostuseful when thebundle i s l o c a t e d
w i t h i n a s h i e l d i ne gn c l o s u rFei.g . 17 shows t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a vl a l i d a t i o nr e s u l t sf o rt h ev a r i a t i o no f From F i g . 17, we see t h a t t h e r e i s a good c o r r e -
i n d u c e dl o a dc u r r e n tw i t hf r e q u e n c yf o r a s i n g l ew i r e spondencebetween t h e measuredand numerically modeled
and a w i r e - p a i r l o c a t e d a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e c y l i n d r i - w i r el o a dc u r r e n ft o rb o t ht e s t cases. The two-wire
calenclosuredepicted i n F i g . 16 [291. The enclosure t e spt r o v e dt o b e s p e c i a l l cy h a l l e n g i n gs i n c et h e ,
i s 1.0 m high, 0.2 m i n diameter,andreferencedto a observed Q f a c t oortfh e coupling response (center
large
metal ground plane.Approximate plane wave
e x c i t a t i oinpsr o v i d e d an
by e l e c t r i c al yl -a1r g e
c o n i c a l monopole r e f e r e n c e dt ot h e same groundplane. Continued on page 14

13
 ,
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Newsletter, April 1988
0.8
h r 1 mW/cm* plane wavepower density
Hybrid FD-TD / MOM with
OX = 1.23 cm; d a t aa t
@ 30 cycles except a t
140,
1.141 GHr and 1.15 GHz.

180

J" Y " &,Jh B @

1 i..

0.8 0.3 1.0 1.1 1.2

Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 17. Comparison of Hybrid FD-TD / MOM Modeling Predic-

tions With Experimental Data For Induced Load Current:
(a) Single Wire in Shielding Enclosure; (b) Wire-Pair in
Shielding Enclosure [29]

Feature Article-Continued from page 13 . Fig. 19a. FD-TD Computed Contour Map of the Specific Absorp-
tion Rate (SAR) Distribution Along a Horizontal Cut
f r e q u e n cdyi v i d e d by the half-power bandwidth) is Through the Head of the 3-D Inhomogeneous Man Model
quith e i g ha, b o u t 75. Indeed, it i s f o u n dt h atth e (350 MHz) [32]
FD-TD code has t o be stepped through as many as 80
c y c l etsao p p r o x i m a t e lrye a c thh sei n u s o i d aslt e a d y I nf a c t , one o tf h ee a r l i e s at p p l i c a t i o n so f FD-TD
s t a tfeoerx c i t a t i ofnr e q u e n c i ense at rhree s o n a n t i n v o l v e dt h ec o n s t r u c t i o nodf e t a i l e d inhomogeneous
peak. However, s u b s t a n t i a lfl ey w ec ry c l eo t isfm e t i s s u em o d e l so tf h e human eye t oo b t a i np r e d i c t i v e
s t e p p i na gr e needed away from the
resonance, as d a t af o r UHF / m i c r o w a v ep e n e t r a t i o n and h e a t i n g E41.
indicatedinthefigure.
The emergence o f supercomputers has
recently
p e r m i t t e d FD-TD t o be s e r i o u s l y a p p l i e d t o a number o f
8. PENETRATION MODELS FOR BIOLOGICAL TISSUES i m p o r t a n tb i o - e l e c t r o m a g n e t i cp r o b l e m s .F i r s t , it was
shown t h a t FD-TD p r o v i d e es x c e l l e n t agreement w i t h
s e r i e ss o l u t i o n sf o rt h ep e n e t r a t i n gf i e l dd i s t r i b u -
Two c h a r a c t e r i s t i c so f FD-TD cause it t o be v e r y t i o n s w i t h i n homogeneous and l a y e r e dt i s s u ec y 1i n d e r s
p r o m is i n gf o r model ing electromagnetic wave i n t e r - and spheres C301, E311. F i g . 18, taken from C301,
a c t i o n sw i t hb i o l o g i c a tl i s s u e s : ( 1 ) E l e c t r i c a l media shows t h ae n a l y t i cvaal l i d a t i o
r ens u lfttohsre
can be s p e c i f i e di n d e p e n d e n t l y f o r each v e c t o rf i e l d p e n e t r a t i n ge l e c t r i cf i e l dv e c t o r components w i t h i n a
component, so t i s s u e so f enormous complexity can be 0.15 m r a d i u sm u s c l e - f a tl a y e r e dc y l i n d e r . The i n n e r
s p e c i f i e di np r i n c i p l e ; and ( 2 ) The requiredcomputer l a y e r( r a d i u s = 0.079 m) i s assumed t o be comprised
resources f o r t h i s t y p e o f d e t a i l e d v o l u m e t r i c model - o f muscle having a r e l a t i v ep e r m i t t i v i t yo f 72 and
i n ga r ed i m e n s i o n a l l yl o w o, n l yo of r d e r N, where N c o n d u c t i v i t yo f 0 . 9 Slm. The o u t e lra y e r i s assumed
i st h e number o f space c e l l s i n t h e FD-TD l a t t i c e . t o becompr-ised of fat having a re1 ative permittivity
o f 7.5and c o n d u c t i v i t yo f 0.048 Slm. TE i l l u m i n a t i o n
a t a f r e q u e n c yo f 100 MHz i s modeled. From F i g . 18,
we see t h a t t h e FD-TD s o l u t i o n f o r t h e i n t e r n a l f i e l d s
I 0 30
' h ' I agreesvery we1 1 w i t ht h ee x a c ts o l u t i o n ,d e s p i t et h e
f a c tt h a t a stepped-edge(staircase)approximationof
t h ec i r c u l a rl a y e rb o u n d a r i e si s used.

A f t e rv a l i d a t i o no f FD-TD models o f p e n e t r a t i n g
f i e l d sf o rc a n o n i c a lb i o l o g i c a lt i s s u e shapes, a t t e n -
t i o nt u r n e dt o w a r dm o d e l i n gh i g h l yr e a l i s t i c inhomo-
geneous t i s s uaep p r o x i m a t i o n s o f t h e human body.
S p e c i f i ce l e c t r i c apl a r a m e t e r sw e r ea s s i g n e dt o each
o ft h ee l e c t r i cf i e l dv e c t o r components a t t h e 16,000
t o 40,000 space c e l l s comprising the body model.
+ Y Assignmentswerebaseduponcross-sectiontissue maps
I o f t h e body ( a t s p a c i n g s o f a b o u t one inch, as o b t a i n -
018m
0.12
ed v i a c a d a v es tr u d i e a s )v a i l a b l e
1it e r a t u r e , and cataloged measurements
d i e l e c t r i cp r o p e r t i e s .
itnhmeedical
of
Space r e s o l u t i o n s as f i n e as
tissue

0.013 m t h r o u g h o tuhe t en t i r e human body proved

0.00
O.
O' E
0.00 0.
p o s s i b l eu s i n g
E321, show
FD-TD. F i g s . 19a and
t h e computed contour maps o ft h es p e c i f i c
l 9 b , takenfrom

a b s o r p t i orna t e (SARI d i s t r i b u t i o an l o n hg o r i z o n t a l
c u t st h r o u g ht h e headand 1iv e r , r e s p e c t i v e l y , o f t h e
three-dimensional inhomogeneous man model . In Fig .
Fig. 18. Comparison of FD-TD and Exact Solution for Penetrating 19a, t h ei n c i d e n tp l a n e wave has a power d e n s i t y of
Electric Field Vector Components Within
a Circular Muscle 1 mW/cm2 a t 350 MHz, and each contour i s 20 rnW1Kg.
- Fat Layered Cylinder, TE Polarization, 100 MHZ I301 Continued on page 1.

14
 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Newsletter, April 1988

1 mW/cm2 plane wave power d e n s i t y

Fig. 19b. FD-TD Computed Contour Map of the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) Distribution Along a Horizontal Cut
Through the Liver of the 3-D Inhomogeneous Man Model (100 MHz) [32]

Feature Article-Confinued from page 14

I nF i g . 19b, t h ei n c i d e n t wave has t h e same power I n C353, FO-TD i s f i r s t used t oo b t a i nr e s o n a n t

d e n s i t yb u ti sa t 100 MHz; contours i nt h e arms a r e f r e q u e n cs o ieefvsetrharle e - d i m e n s i o nc a vl i t i e s
a t 20 mW/kg i n t e r v a l s ,w h i l ec o n t o u r si nt h e body a r e loaded by d i e l e c t br ilco c kNse. txrhte,es o n a n t
a t 10 mW/kg i n t e r v a l s . These contour maps i l l u s t r a t e f r e q u e n c yo f a f i n l i n ec a v i t yi s computed. L a s t t, h e
t h eh i g h 1eve1 o f d e t a i l o f l o c a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e SAR resonantfrequenciesof a m i c r o s t r i pc a v i t y on aniso-
d i s t r i b u t i o n t h a t i s p o s s i b l e v i a FD-TD modeling. t r o p si cu b s t r a taeroeb t a i n e d , and t hdei s p e r s i o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c so ft h em i c r o s t r i p used i nt h ec a v i t y
More r e c e n t workhas d e p a r t e df r o ms i m u l a t i o n so f a r ec a l c u l a t e d . FD-TD m o d e l i n gr e s u l t a s re compared
plane wave i l l u m i n a t i o n o f t h e human body. C u r r e n t l y , p r i m a r i ltytoh o soeb t a i n euds i ntghter a n s m i s s i o n
FD-TD i s b e i n gu s e dt o model annular phased a r r a y so f l i n em a t r i x (TLM) approach, and thetwo methods a r e
a p e r t u r e and dipole antennas used f ohry p e r t h e r m i a foundtogivepracticallythe same r e s u l t s .
C331. A 17,363 c e l l , 0.013 m r e s o l u t i o n ,a n a t o m i c a l l y
basedmodel o ft h e human torsosurrounded by p b o l u s Continued on poge 16
o fd e i o n i z e dw a t e r i s used f o rc a l c u l a t i o n so f SARs.
Testruns on t h ec a l c u l a t i o no ff i e l d si nt h ew a t e r -
f i l l e d i n t e r a c t i o n spaceand w i t h homogeneous c i r c u l a r
and e l l i p t i c a lc y l i n d e r phantoms c o r r e l a t ew e l w l ith
the
experimental data ti hnl iet e r a t u r lee, n d i n g
s u p p o r tt ot h ea c c u r a c yo ft h e FD-TD method f o rn e a r -
f i e l d exposureconditions C331.

9. MICROSTRIP AND MICROWAVE CIRCUIT MODELS

Recently, FD-TD modeling has been extended to

p r o v i ddee t a i l ecdh a r a c t e r i z a t i o nm
osfi c r o s t r i p s ,
r e s o n a t o r fsi,n l i n e s , and
two-dimensional microwave
c i r c u i t sI.n C341,FD-TD i s used t co a l c u l a t teh e
d i s p e r s i v ec h a r a c t e r i s t i c so f a t y p i c a lm i c r o s t r i p on
a g a l l i ua m r s e n isdueb s t r a t e . A Gaussian pulse
e x c i t a t i oi ns used, and t heef f e c t i vdei e l e c t r i c
c o n s t a n t and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c impedancevs.frequency is
e f f i c i e n t l yo b t a i n e do v e r a broadfrequencyrangevia
F o u r i e rt r a n s f o r mo ft h et i m e - d o m a i nf i e l dr e s p o n s e . Fig. 2O(a)
1s
 I E I E Antennas and Propagation Society Newsletter, April 1988

g i v edni r e c ttilh
nyl ae b o r a t o r y frame.
This is
accomplishedbyimplementingtheproper relativistic
b o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n sf o rt h ef i e l d sa t h es u r f a c e of
themovingconductor.

-
Scattered fie1

Total fields

Vibrating mirror

E 2 4 6 8 le 12
Lattice truncation
f (GHzl
(b)

Fig. 20. Comparison of FD-TD Modeling Predictions With

Measurements of 1 S21 I for a Two-Port Microstrip Ring
Circuit: (a) Geometry and Griddingof Microstrip Circuit;
(b) Comparative Results Over 2 - 12 GHZ [36]

Feature Article-Continued from poge 15

2.0 z/d=-50 - Analytical results
/9=0.2, kd= 1
I n [36], a m o d i f i e dv e r s i o no f FD-TD i s presented
wphr oi cvchiednetsr a l - d i f f e rtei m
n cee- s t e p p i n g
e x p r e s s i o n sf o rd i s t r i b u t i o n so vf o l t a g e and s u r f a c e
current density along arbitrary-shaped two-dimensional
IE,I
microwave c i r c u i t s .T h i s approach i sq u i t ed i f f e r e n t 1 .o
f r o mt h a to f[ 3 4 1 and C351, which u t i l i z e t h e o r i g i n a l
v o l u m e t r ifci e lsda m p l i ncgo n c e pf o tr FD-TD. As a
r e s u l t ,t h e method o f[ 3 6 ]r e q u i r e sf e w e r unknowns t o

H
be solved, and avoidsthe need f o r a r a d i a t i o n bound- FD-TO
a cr yo n d i t i o n . However, an a u x i l i a rcyo n d i t i oi ns
r e q u i r edt ode s c r i bt hel oe a d i negf f e c t s o f the
f r i n g i nf ige l dtahst e edges tohm f ei c r o s t r i p 0.0
conductingpaths.Fig. 20, takenfrom C361, shows t h e 0 71 2n
FD-TD computed S parameter, I S 2 1 1 , as a f u n c t i o no f
f r e q u e n c yf o r a t w o - p o r tm i c r o s t r i pr i n gc i r c u i t . The Rt
r i n gc i r c u i t ,g r i d d e d as shown i nt h ef i g u r e , hasan (b)'
i n n e rr a d i u so f 4 mm, o u t e rr a d i u so f 7 mm, s u b s t r a t e
r e l a t i v ep e r m i t t i v i t yo f 10 and r e l a t i v ep e r m e a b i l i t y Fig. 21. Comparison of FD-TD and Analytical ResultsForthe
o f 0.93 ( s i m u l a t i n gd u r o i d ) , and i s connected t o two Envelope of the Scattered E Field VS. Time For a
50-ohm 1ines making a 90" angle. The broadband Monochromatic Plane WaveIlluminating a Vibrating
response o tf h ec i r c u i it so b t a i n e du s i n g a single Mirror at 30" [37]
FD-TD r uf onr an a p p r o p r i aptuelesxec i t a t i o n ,
f o l l o w e d by F o u r i et rra n s f o r m a t i ootnhfdee s i r e d F i g . 21 shows r e s u l t s f o r one of t h e more i n t e r -
response time-domain waveform. From Fig. 20, we see e s t i n g problems o ft h i st y p e modeled so f a r ,t h a to f
goodagreement o ft h ep r e d i c t e d and measured c i r c u i t o b l i q u ep l a n e wave i n c i d e n c e onan infinitevibrating
responseoverthefrequencyrange 2 - 12 GHz and a m i r r o rT. h i sc a s e i s much more complicatedthanthe
dynamicrange o f about 30 dB. E361 c o n c l u d e st h a tt h e normalincidence case, i n t h a t it hasnoclosed-form
a p p l i c a t i o oni tf s FD-TD approach t ao r b i t r a r i l y - solution. An analysis presented i n t h e 1it e r a t u r e
shaped m i c r o s t r i pc i r c u i t si s encouraging, but more C381 w r i t e st h es o l u t i o ni n an i n f i n i t es e r i e sf o r m
work i s needed t o d e t e r m i n et h em o d e l i n gl i m i t a t i o n s , usingplane-waveexpansions,wherethe unknown coef-
e s p e c i a l l ya th i g h e rf r e q u e n c i e s wheremedia d i sper- f i c i e n t si nt h es e r i e sa r es o l v e dn u m e r i c a l l y T. h i s
sioncan become i m p o r t a n t . a n a l y s is e r v e s as t h eb a s i o scf o m p a r i s o nf otrh e
FD-TD model r e s u l t fsotrh et i m ev a r i a t i o notfh e
s c a t t e r e df i e l de n v e l o p ea pt o i n t sn e a tr h em i r r o r .
10. SCATTERING MODELS FOR RELATIVISTICALLY
MOVING SURFACES I N ONE ANDTU0 DIMENSIONS Since it idsi f f i c u tl to model e x a c t l y an
i n f i n i t pe l a n m
e i r r oi rn a f i n i t e two-dimensional
A n a l y t i c a l v a l i d a t i o n s havebeen r e c e n t l y o b t a i n - g r i d , a l o n gt,h i nr,e c t a n g u l apr e r f e c t l y - c o n d u c t i n g
ed f o r FD-TD model s o f r e f l e c t i o n o f a monochromatic s l a bi s usedas t h em i r r o r model, as shown i nF i g .
p l a n e wave by a p e r f e c t l yc o n d u c t i n gs u r f a c ee i t h e r 21a. R e l a t i v i s t i c b o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n sf o rt h ef i e l d s
moving a t a u n i f o r m r e l a t i v i s t i c v e l o c i t y o r v i b r a t i n g are implemented on t h ef r o n t andback s i d e so tf h e
a t a frequency and a m p l i t u d el a r g e enough so t h a t t h e slab. The o t h e tr w os i d e s p, a r a 1l e 1t ot h ev e l o c i t y
s u r f a c ea t t a i n sr e l a t i v i s t i c speeds C371. The
FD-TD v e c t o r ,a r ei n s e n s i t i v et ot h em o t i o no ft h es l a b , and
t h e r e f o r e no r e l a t i v i s t i c boundary conditions are
approach o f C371 i s novel i n t h a t i t does not r e q u i r e
r e q u i r e dt h e r e . To m i n i m i z et h ei m p a c ot f edge d i f -
a s y s t e mt r a n s f o r m a t i o n where theconductingsurface
i sa tr e s t .I n s t e a d ,t h e FD-TD g r i d i s a t r e s t i n t h e f r a c t i o nt,h eslab length i cs a r e f u l l sy e l e c t e d so
l a b o r a t o r y frame, and t h e computed f i e l ds o l u t i o ni s Continued on poge 17

16
 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Newsletter, April 1988

Feature Article-Continued from page 16 Reconstructed Original

values profile
t h atth es l a ba p p e a r st o be i n f i n i t ei ne x t e n ta t \
o b s e r v a t i o pn o i n t , P , d u r i n g a w e l l - d e f i n e ed a r l y -
timeresponse when t h e edge e f f e c t has n o t y e t propa-
g a t etdo .
P Sincethe TM case does n optr o v i d e
substantially different results than the TE case C381,
o n l yt h e TE case i s considered.FromFig. 21b, we see
good agreement between the FD-TD and a n a l y t i c a l
r e s u l t so b t a i n e df r o m C381 f o rt h e envelope o ft h e
sc:ttered E f i e l d vs.time,for an i n c i d e n ta n g l e o f
30 , peak m i r r o r speed 20% t h a t o f l i g h t , andobserva-
t i o np o i n t sz / d = -5 andz/d = -50 , where kd = 1 .
S i m i l a r agreement i s f o u n df o r aneven more oblique
angle, 60" C371. T h i s agreement i ss a t i s f y i n gs i n c e
the action of the relativistically vibrating mirror is
socomplicated,generating a r e f l e c t e d wave having a
spreadboth i n f r e q u e n c ya n ds p a t i a lr e f l e c t i o na n g l e ,
as w e l l asevanescent modes.

11. INVERSE SCATTERING RECONSTRUCTIONS

IN ONE AND MO DIMENSIONS

I n i t i a l workhasdemonstratxedthe possibility of
a c c u r a t e l yr e c o n s t r u c t i n go n e - d i m e n s i o n a p l r o f i l e so f
p e r m i t t i v i t y and c o n d u c t i v i t y C391, and t h e shapeand
d i e l e c t cr iocm p o s i t i o n o f two-dimensional targets
C401,C411 f r o mm i n i m a ls c a t t e r e df i e l dp u l s er e s p o n s e Fig. 22. Application of theFD-TD / FeedbackStrategy to
data. The general approach involves setting up a Reconstruct A I-D Sawtooth Variation of Electrical Per-
numerical feedback loop whichuses a one- o r two- mittivity and Conductivity in the Absence of Noise [39]
dimensional FD-TD code
as a forward-scattering
element,and a s p e c i aclol yn s t r u c nt eodn l i n e a r
o p t i m i z a t i o n code as the
feedback element. FD-TD
generates a t e s tp u l s er e s p o n s ef o r a t r i a ll a y e r i n g
ot ra r g e t shape / composition. The t e spt u l s ies
compared t o t h e measuredpulse,andan errorsignalis 4.0
developed. Working on t h iesr r osri g n a tl ,h e non- 0.01 S f m
l i n e a ro p t i m i z a t i o ne l e m e n tp e r t u r b st h et r i a ll a y e r -
i n go rt a r g e ts h a p e / c o m p o s i t i o ni n a manner t o d r i v e
down t h e r r o r , Upon r e p e a t e idt e r a t i o n st ,h pe r o -
posed l a y e r i n g or t a r g ei dt e a l lcyo n v e r g e s t o the
a c t u a l one, a s t r a t e g y s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f C421.
2.0 0.01

The advantage o fw o r k i n gi nt h et i m e domain i s

t h a t a l a y e r e d medium o rt a r g e t shape can be recon-
s t r u c t e ds e q u e n t i a l l y i n t i m e as t h ew a v e f r o n to ft h e Exact Profiles
i n c i d e npt u l s e sweeps through, taking advantage of
causality. Thisreduces the
complexityrecon-
of
s t r u c t i o ns i n c eo n l y a p o r t i o notfh el a y e r i n g or
t a r g e t shape i s being generated a t each i t e r a t i o n .
Advanced s t r a t e g i e s f o r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e p r e s e n c e
o f a d d i t i v e n o i s e may i n v o l v e t h e u s e o f p r e d i c t i o n /
c o r r e c t i o n , where t h ter i al a l y eortra r g e t shape
i s c o n s i d e r e dt ob e a p r e d i c t o r o f t h ea c t i a l case,
which i s subsequentlycorrected by o p t i m i z a t i o n o f t h e
e n t i r el a y e r e d medium otra r g eut s i n gt h ec o m p l e t e
scattered pulse.
Reconstructed Profiies - 40 dB SIN
F i g . 22 shows t h ea p p l i c a t i o no ft h eb a s i c FD-TC
feedbackstrategy t o a one-dimensionallayered medium
i n t h e absence o fn o i s e .B o t ht h ee l e c t r i c a p l ermit-
t i v it y and c o n d u c t i v i t oyt fh e medium vary i n a
"sawtooth" manner wdiet hp t h . The curves show
simulated measured d afttoahrre f l e c t epdu l s e
f otrh r e e cases defined bythe peak values of t h e
c o n d u c t i v i t y (0.001 S/m, 0.01 S/m, and 0.1 S/m) and
t h ec o r r e s p o n d i n gs p a t i a l l yc o i n c i d e n t peak v a l u e so f
r e l a t i v ep e r m i t t i v i t y (3, 2, and 4 ) o tf h e medium.
I n eachcase, t h ei n c i d e n tp u l s e i s assumed t ob e a
half-sinusoidspanning 50 cm betweenzerocrossings. ReCOnStrMCted Profiles - 20 dB SIN
N o t itnhtdghaae
dt rosktusp e r i m p o s e d on t h e
" s a w t o o trhe"p r e s etrh neet c o n s t r u c tveadl uoefs
p e r m i t t i v i t y and c o n d u c t i v i t y , we see t h a tt h eb a s i c
FD-TD feedback strategy i s quite s u c c e s s f ui ln
the Fig. 23. Applications of the FD-TD / FeedbackStrategy to
absence o f n o i s e C391. Reconstruct a 2-D Lossy Dielectric Target in the Presence
Continued on page I8 of Noise [41]
 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Newsletter, April 1988

Feature Article-Continued from page 17 Table 1. Computation Times

F i g . 23 shows t h ea p p l i c a t i o no ft h e FD-TD feed-
back s t r a t e g yt or e c o n s t r u c t a two-dimensionallossy 10-WavelengthModel
d i e l e c t r i ct a r g e t . The t a r g e ti s a 30 cm x 30 cm Machi ne Present FD-TDCode
squarecylinderhaving a u n i f o r mc o n d u c t i v i t yo f 0.01
S/m, and a t e n t - l i k er e l a t i v ep e r m i t t i v i t yp r o f i l e VAX 111780 ( n o f l o a t i n g p o i n t
'which s t a r t s a t 2.0 a t t h e f r o n t and l e f ts i d e s and accelerator1 40.0 h
i n c r e a s e sl i n e a r l yt o a peak v a l u e o f 4.0 a t t h e back
Cray-2 ( single processor, us? ng
;corner on t h er i g h ts i d e . These p r o f i l e sa r ei l l u s - t h e VAX F1 o2 r. t0r a n ) rnin
t r a t e d i n a p e r s p e c t i v e manner a t t h e t o p o f F i g . 23.
The t a r g e t i s assumed t o b e i l l u m i n a t e d by a TM p o l a r - Cray-2 ( s i n g l ep r o c e s s o r , some
i z e dp l a n e wave t h a t i s d i r e c t e dt o w a r dt h ef r o n to f code o p t i m i z a t i o n ) 3.0 min
t h et a r g e t( a sv i s u a l i z e da tt h et o po fF i g .2 3 ) . The Cray-2 ( f o u rp r o c e s s o r s , some
i n c i d e n t waveform i s a 3 - c y c l es i n u s o i d a tl o n eb u r s t code o p t i m i z a t i o n ) ( e s1t . m
) in
having a 60-MHz carrier frequency. For
the
recon-
s t r u c t i o n ,t h eo n l yd a t au t i l i z e di st h e time-domain machine
Gflop10 True 2 sec ( e s t . )
waveform o ft h es c a t t e r e de l e c t r i cf i e l d asobserved
-*
a t twopoints.
f r o nottfh et a r g e t ,
These p o i n t sa r el o c a t e d
and a rpeo s i t i o n e1d5
1 m f r o mt h e
cm t o
-
1.55 106 unknown f i e l d components,661 timesteps
e i t h e sr i d eotfh et a r g ect e n t e lri n e . To s i m u l a t e
measureddata,thecomputedscatteredfield waveforms a s s o c i a t e d memories arranged i n a h i g h l ye f f i c i e n t
a r ec o n t a m i n a t e dw i t ha d d i t i v eG a u s s i a nn o i s e .I n a1 1 manner for processor-to-procesor communication. With
o ft h er e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ,t h et a r g e t shapeand l o c a t i o n t h e CM, a s i n g l ep r o c e s s o rc a nb ea s s i g n e dt os t o r e
i s assumed t o be known. and time-step a s i n g l e r o w o f v e c t o r f i e l d components
i n a three-dimensional FD-TD space l a t t i cFeo. r
From F i g . 23, we see t h afto r a signal/noise example, 1.5 * l o 6 p r o c e s s o r sw o u l db es u f f i c i e n t o
r a t i o o f 40 dB, t h e a v e r a g e e r r o r i n t h e p e r m i t t i v i t y s t o r et h e 6 C a r t e s i a n components o f E end tI f o r each
and c o n d u c t i v i t yp r o f i l e si s 1.5% and 2.3%, respect- o tf h e 500 x 500 rows o f a c u b i cl a t t i c es p a n n i n g
i v e l y . I f t h es i g n a l / n o i s er a t i oi sr e d u c e dt o 20 dB, 50 wave1 engths(assuming 10 c e l l d w a v e l e n g t h r e s o l u-
ta h ve e r a e
g rer oi rnsc r e a tsoe 6.9%
and 10.4%, t i o n ) . FD-TD timesteppingwouldbeperformedviarow
r e s p e c t i v e l y C411. Research i s ongoing t do e t e r m i n e o p e r a t i o n s mapped o n t ot h ei n d i v i d u a l CM processors..
means oifm p r o v i n gt h en o i s ep e r f o r m a n c ee, s p e c i a l l y These rowoperationswouldbeperformedconcurrently.
u s i n gp r e d i c t o r / c o r r e c t o rt e c h n i q u e sb r i e f l yd i s c u s s e d Thus, f o r a f i x e d number otfi m se t e p st,h teo t a l
e a r l i e rG . i v e nt h er e l a t i v e l ys m a l l amount of scat- r u n n i n gt i m ew o u l db ep r o p o r t i o n a lt ot h et i m e needed
teredfielddatautilized,the FD-TD feedbackstrategy tpoe r f o r m a s i n g l e row operation, which i nt u r n
appearspromisingforfuturedevelopment. w o u l db ep r o p o r t i o n atlot h e number o fv e c t o rf i e l d
components i nt h e row, o r O ( N ' / ' 1 . Forthe 50-
w a v e l e n g t hc u b i cl a t t i c en o t e d above, t h i s wouldimply
12. LARGE-SCALE COMPUTER SOFTMARE a dimensional reduction of
the computational burden
from O(500' t o O(5001, a tremendous b e n e f i t . As a
r e s u l t , it i s c o n c e i v a b l et h a t a s u i t a b l ys c a l e d CM
The FD-TD method i s n a t u r a l l ys u i t e df o rl a r g e - c o u l d modelone l o o ka n g l eo f a 50-wavelengththree-
scale processing by
state-of-the-art vectorsuper- d i m e n s i o n a ls c a t t e r e ri no n l y a fewseconds,achieving
computersandconcurrentprocessors.This i s because e f f e c t i vf leo a t i npgo i rnat t tei hnoser d oe fr
e s s e n t i a l l ya l lo ft h ea r i t h m e t i co p e r a t i o n si n v o l v e d 100 Gflops.Forthisreason, FD-TD a l g o r i t h md e v e l o p -
i n a t y p i c a l FD-TD r u nc a nb ev e c t o r i z e do rc a s ti n t o ment f o r t h e CM i s a p r o m i s i n g a r e a o f r e s e a r c h .
a h i gchol yn c u r r feonrtmFaut .r t htehre, O(N)
demand forcomputer memory and clcckcycles(where N
i s t h e number o f l a t t i c e space c e l i s ) i s d i m e n s i o n a l l y 13. CONCLUSION
low,and permitsthree-dimensional FD-TD mode7s span-
n i n g 50 - 100wavelengths t o b e a n t i c i p a t e d by1990.
Recent advances i n FD-TD modeling concepts and
L e t us now considercomputationtimes o f present software implementation, combined w i t h advances i n
FD-TD codes. Table 1 l i s t s computationtimes(derived computertechnology, have expanded the scope,
e i t h e r frombenchmark r u n s o r based on a n a l y s t s ' e s t i - accuracy, and speed o f FD-TD m o d e l i n gt ot h ep o i n t
mates) f o rm o d e l i n g one l o o ka n g l eo f a 10-wavelength where i t may be t h r e preferred choice f ocr e r t a i n
three-dimensional scatterer usingthepresent FD-TD t y p e so fe l e c t r o m a g n e t i c wave s c a t t e r i n g and c o u p l f n g
'code.Fourcomputingsystemsare l i s t e di nt h et a b l e . p r o b l e m sT.h iasr t i c l e hasattempted tpor o v i d e a
!The f i r s t i s t h e D i g i t a l Equipment VAX 11/780,without s u c c i n c ts t a t e - o f - t h e - a r tr e v i e wo f FD-TD model ing
; f l o a t i n gp o i n ta c c e l e r a t o r . The secondand t h i r d a r e , a p p l i c a t i o n s . The reader is r e f et hrte
roe d
r e s p e c t i vseilnyg, l e - p r o c e s s o r and four-processor journalpapers and r e p o r t s l i s t e d below f o rd e t a i 1s
v e r s i o n so ft h e Cray-2. The f o u r t hi s a h y p o t h e t i c a l o f t h e FD-TD a l g o r i t h m s and a p p l i c a t i o n s .
n e x t - g e n e r a t i o nm a c h i n eo p e r a t i n ga ta na v e r a q er a t e
o f 10 G f l o p s ( 1 0 - b i i l i o n f l o a t i n g p o i n t o p e r a t i o n s p e r
second).Thislastcomputer i sg e n e r a l l ye x p e c t e dt o 14. REFERENCES
b ea v a i l a b l ea b o u t 1990 - 1992.
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theappearance of
theConnection Machine (CM),
Continued on page 7 9
whichhastens o f thousands o fs i m p l ep r o c e s s o r s and
 ILEE Antennas and PropagatiaIn Society Newsletter, Aprll 1988

Feature Article-Continued from poge I8 J. Comp. Physics, i n press.

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19
 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Newdetter. April 1988

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v i b r a t ionbgj e c pt sl a: m
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Editor's Comments-Continued from page 4

managed, i t h a sn or e s e r v ec a p a c i t y .I fe v e no n e
r a t h e rl a r g e number ofemployees
r e s u l t is a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l ayr g e
is i l l o r q u i t s ,t h e
effect.
of a

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