Structural Geology: Problems
On these pages you will find problems related to chapters in the book. New prob-
lems will be added, and solutions will be presented separately.
Version date: 01 April 2011
Structural Geology/Fossen
Deformation (Chapter 2)
Norway
Problem 2-1
Calculate the extension along a) the stretched (boudinaged)
Swiss belemnite in Figure P2.1a (from tip to tip), and b) the
A’
two marker horizons (top Triassic and top basement) in the
North Sea section shown in Figure P2.1b (from A to A’). Is the
Horda Platform
extension evenly distributed in the two cases? For the North
Sea section, how do the two extension estimates compare?
How much extension is taken up by the largest 4-5 faults?
Is there any other way that we could estimate the extension
along the North Sea section?
Figure P2.1b Cross-section through the northern North Sea, where post-Triassic strata have been removed. Based on deep seismic line NSDP84-1.
Top Triassic
Top Basement
Graben
Viking
Figure P2.1a Stretched belemnite in Ordovician limestone, Gross Windgällen, Uri, Switzerland.
Gullfaks
Field Shetland Platform
20 km
2 cm
A
UK
km
40
0
2
Problems
Problem 2-2.
The two pictures shown in Figure P2.2 are from the quartzite in northern Scotland called Pipe Rock. The pipes are worm bur-
rows and originally perpendicular to bedding. Where these rocks are involved in shear deformation along the Moine Thrust,
they change orientation with respect to bedding. The upper photo shows undeformed Pipe Rock, the lower photo shows a
sheared version. Find the angular shear and shear strain from the lower picture (the shear plane and bedding are horizontal),
assuming that the deformation is simple shear.
Figure P2.2 Top: undeformed Pipe Rock, showing bedding-perpendicular burrows called skolitos. Bottom:
deformation has changed the primary angular relationship. Bedding is horizontal in both images.
3
Structural Geology/Fossen
Problem 2-3.
What happens to the four points in Figure P2.3 when affected by a) a simple shear with g=2, b) a pure shear where kx=2, and c)
a subsimple shear where g=2 and kx=2? There is no area or volume change involved. Use the appropriate deformation matrices
and graph your answers.
x
1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure P2.3 Points in the undeformed state.
Problem 2-4.
What deformation is described by this deformation matrix? Show that the deformation represented by this matrix does not
preserve volume and find the volume change involved.
3 0 0.25
0 0.5 0
0 0 0.5
Problem 2-5.
Write, using 2 x 2 deformation matrices, the following sequence of deformations: compaction (vertical contraction), followed
by simple shear, followed by pure shear (vertical contraction balanced by horizontal extension). Also write the total deforma-
tion matrix.
y y y
x + x + x
z z z
1) Compaction 2) Simple shear 3) Pure shear
Figure P2.5 The three deformations and their order.
4
Problems
Problem 2-6
Draw and describe the displacement fields based on the transformations shown in Figure P2.6. Do they involve strain, and if
so, is the strain homogeneous? Can you find a deformation matrix that describes each of the deformations?
y y
6 6
4 4
(a) (b)
x x
2 4 6 2 4 6
y y
6 6
4 4
(c) x (d) x
2 4 6 2 4 6
y y
6 6
4 4
(e) x (f) x
2 4 6 2 4 6
Figure P2.6 Undeformed and deformed grid, for 6 different deformations. Connect the nodes to get the displacement vector fields.
5
Structural Geology/Fossen
Problem 2-7
a) Imagine a rock with vertical foliation (strike/dip= 000/90) and vertical lineation (000/90). Sketch the rock in a coordinate
system with the x-axis oriented along the strike direction of the foliation.
b) The rock is exposed to simple shear along the x-axis. The shear plane is horizontal. Use the deformation matrix for simple
shear to calculate the orientation of the lineation after shear strains of 1 and 10.
c) Calculate the elongation of a line of unit length parallel to the lineation in the two cases.
d) What happens to the foliation during these deformations?
Use the Excel spreadsheet (enter sheet named Subsimple shear and set k=0.0000001) located on the website to check your
results.
Problem 2-8
a) Do Problem 2-7 a-c for subsimple shear with Wk=0.5 (use the same values for g, in addition there is a pure shear component
k that you need to find). Hint: use an equation that relates Wk, g and k. You can also use the Excel spreadsheet (sheet named
Wk-based 2D-Strain) located on the web-site to find the solutions or to check your results.
b) What is the angle a between the flow apophyses in this subsimple shear deformation? What is the orientation of the long
axis (X) of the strain ellipsoid? Use formulas in Chapter 2 and/or Figures 2.24 and 15.12. Sketch the results.
Problem 2-9
Assume that the porosity of unlithified sand is 40%. After lithification the sand is turned into a sandstone with a porosity of
20%. Assume that the reduction in porosity is caused solely by physical compaction.
a) What is the deformation matrix of this deformation?
b) How is the strain ellipsoid oriented, and what are its R-values in the three principal sections?
c) What shape does the strain ellipsoid have and where does it plot in the Flinn diagram?
6
Problems
σs
Stress (Chapter 4-5)
MPa
1
Problem 4-1
1
a) Interpret the representation of planes 1 and 2 in the Mohr
diagram shown in Figure P4.1 by drawing a three-dimension- 120°
σ3 σ1
al sketch of the planes and s1, s2 and s3. What are the values σn
of sn and ss? 1 2 3 4 5 6 MPa
b) A force of 100 N (Newtons) acts normal to a 0.1 m2 plane.
What are the normal and shear stresses (traction) across the
plane? 2
c) The plane is rotated so that it makes 45° to the force or sN Figure P4.1 Two planes (1 and 2) represented on a Mohr circle. See
in b). What are the normal stress and maximum shear stress problem 4.1a).
across the plane? Use the Mohr circle and then check your
answer using Equation 4.2.
Problem 4-2
a) Present the following plane states of stress in the Mohr diagram and find the mean stress and the deviatoric stress:
(i) sv = 25 MPa, sh = 0 MPa
(ii) sv = 100 MPa, sh = 0 MPa
(iii) sv = 100 MPa, sh = 50 MPa
b) Consider two weak planes dipping 45 and 60°. Which of these two planes would have the largest chance of being activated
in these three states of stress, and what would the resulting sense of slip be?
Problem 4-3
a) What information does the stress ellipse contain, and what information does the Mohr circle contain?
b) Draw a stress ellipsoid for a state of stress where s1, s2 and s3 are 150, 100 and 50 MPa, respectively. Illustrate the same
state of stress in the Mohr diagram. What type of stress field is this (what is it called)?
c) Do the same for principal stress values of 0, 25 and 50 MPa. What type of stress field is this?
Problem 4-4
a) Draw the states of stress in the Mohr diagram in the crust at 1 km, 5 km and 10 km depth by assuming a crustal density of
2.7 g/cm3 and a lithostatic state of stress.
b) Do the same for the uniaxial-strain model and compare with the lithostatic model with a Poisson’s ratio of 0.3.
7
Structural Geology/Fossen
Fracture (Chapter 7)
Problem 7-1
Cylinders of a 19 x 50 mm sandstone with a saw cut at 45° to the axis was deformed in the laboratory by one of several influ-
ential rock fracture geoscientists of the 20th century, John Handin. Jacketed in lead, the cylinders were deformed in a so-called
triaxial rig, which is an apparatus where a confining pressure complements axial loading. The axial load was increased until
sliding occurred on the saw-cut surface.
Plot the critical stress data (Figure 7.1) in a Mohr diagram to find a frictional failure envelope and draw the Mohr circles. Is
the envelope linear? If so, write the formula for the Coulomb fracture criterion and use it to predict the stress conditions under
which the sandstone will slide at a confining pressure of 250 MPa.
Confining σs σn
pressure (MPa) (MPa)
(MPa)
25 76 100
50 130 180
75 181 255
100 231 330
125 287 410
150 331 480
175 386 560
200 420 620
Figure P7.1 Listing of frictional properties (confining pressure, shear stress and normal stress) at the onset of frictional
sliding on a 45° saw cut through Tennessee Sandstone.
8
Problems
Faults (Chapter 8)
Problem 8-1
A list of fault surface orientations (strikes and dips, right hand rule) from a fault in the North Sea Gullfaks Field is given below.
The fault orientations have been calculated along a surface that was interpreted on seismic data and thereafter depth converted.
They are listed the way they were measured, from south to north. Plot the data as poles in a stereonet. What does it tell us about
the geometry of the fault? Describe and make a sketch. What can be inferred about the extension direction?
0 31.6 39 38.7
354 36.3 353 34.8
341 33.7 18 37.3
341.5 30.2 19 29.6
345 29.4 351 28.1
353.5 28.3 340 36.0
19 26.6 331 32.1
14 25.9 311 37.3
16 26.4 326 33.7
351 28.1 344 27.7
19.5 43.3 354 27.3
31.5 37.3 300 43.3
22.5 34.6 340 33.2
18 38.2 348 27.3
16.5 37.7 316 30.7
21 37.3 301.5 34.8
34 36.0 301 38.7
18.3 31.6 19 36.0
40 41.6 355 37.3
53 48.8 3 34.8
28 36.0 19.5 34.8
29 40.1 23.5 36.7
58 53.1
57 50.3
9
Structural Geology/Fossen
Folds and folding (Chapter 11)
Problem 11-1
Figure P11.1 shows two cm-thick granitic veins (ptygmatic veins) in a magmatic rock that have been exposed to deformation.
Note the cross-cutting (relative age) relationship between the two.
a) Draw the approximate orientation and magnitude of the strain ellipse. Discuss the assumptions that need to be made.
b) Consider the folded granitic layer. What fold class are we dealing with (Class 1A-C, 2 or 3)?
c) What is its dominant wavelength Ld? What can we say about its viscosity at the time of deformation, using Equation 11.2
in the textbook?
1 cm
20 cm
Figure P11.1 Picture and drawing of two granitic veins, one that is folded and one that is not. The folded vein displays a style that is commonly
described as ptygmatic. Proterozoic basement rocks, South Norway.
10
Problems
Problem 11-2
Figure P11.2 shows five ptygmatic veins with a variation in thickness. The vein material is the same, as is the matrix. This
means that we can consider the viscosity contrast to be constant as we compare the folded granitic layers.
a) Measure the dominant wavelength (Ld) and plot it against layer thickness (h).
b) Estimate the amount of shortening expressed by the folding. Do the layers all indicate the same amount of shortening?
1.5 mm
1 cm
Figure P11.2 Picture and drawing of folded granitic veins. The folded veins have different thicknesses and appear to have different wave lengths too.
Proterozoic deformation within the Caledonian Jotun Nappe, South Norway.
11
Structural Geology/Fossen
Problem 11-3
What class(es) of folds are portrayed in Figure P11.3? These folds are found in mylonitic quartzite in a major shear zone. Add
dip isogons to the drawing. Plot some of the folded layers in the diagram shown in Figure 11.1 in the textbook. The fact that
the axial traces are not linear and parallel introduces an error. Do the results give us information about the mechanical proper-
ties of the layers during folding?
Figure P11.3 Folds in strongly deformed quartzite, South Norwegian Caledonides. The height of the picture is about one meter.
12
Problems
Problem 11-4
This example is of multilayered rocks that shortened by folding. It appears that the layers have different properties and differ-
ent fold geometries. Analyze the folds geometrically like we did in the previous question. What classes of folds do we have?
Which layers are more competent?
F H
E I
B C D
G
Figure P11.4 Multilayer-folding of late Proterozoic sedimentary rocks in Finnmark, northernmost Norway.
13
Structural Geology/Fossen
Shear zones and mylonites (Chapter 15)
Problem 15-1
a) Make two shear strain profiles across the shear zone shown in Figure P15.1, which formed in a magmatic rock. b) Calculate
the offset across the zone. Also estimate offset by finding y (=tang) at various locations across the profiles. Assume simple
shear. c) What is the maximum strain value R in the shear zone?
A
B
1 cm
Figure P15.1 Small-scale shear zone in Proterozoic magmatic rock, Sognefjellet, South Norway.
Problem 15-2
Assume that the shear zone shown in Figure P15.2 is deformed by simple shear. This shear zone is affecting a pre-existing
foliation, marked as “layering” (orange dashed line). The approximate orientation of the shear zone is indicated.
a) Make a shear strain profile (graph) across the zone (perpendicular to the margins of the zone), for instance along the black
& white “ruler” from A to B.
b) Estimate the offset along the zone from the strain profile. How does this compare with the offset of markers seen in the
picture?
c) Is there anything about this zone that suggests a deviation from the ideal simple shear zone model?
14
layering
15
A
Sh
ea
rz
on
e
orie ntat
n io
10 cm
Figure P15.2 Caledonian shear zone in Proterozoic granulite rock, Holsnøy, South Norway, affecting a Proterozoic granulite-facies foliation.
Problems
Structural Geology/Fossen
Strike-slip, transpression and transtension (Chapter 18)
Problem 18-1
A N-S striking vertical shear zone dominated by brittle structures is illustrated in Figure P18.1, and a set of orientation data
are listed below.
a) Plot the data using a stereo net.
b) What is the kinematics (sense of shear) and type of deformation (simple shear, pure shear or something else) based on the
structures and their orientations?
c) Draw the ISA (Instantaneous Stretching Axes) onto Figure P18.1, assuming that the deformation is simple shear.
d) Make an illustration similar to Figure P18.1 that shows the type and orientation of small-scale structures that can be ex-
pected on the cm and dm scale.
Orientation data (right-hand rule): Small thrust faults:
Axial planes, gentle to open folds: 035/30
034/88 033/34
215/89 034/50
214/28
Axial planes, tight folds: 213/35
025/87
027/90 Large thrust faults:
022/15
Small normal faults: 028/33
124/60 200/26
125/58
305/60 Strike-slip slip surfaces (not shown on illustration):
002/88
Large normal faults: 240/89
118/61 355/87
114/58 000/90
292/62 358/89
Shear zone
Normal Reverse Fold
N
fault fault axial
trace
Figure P18.1 Structures in a fictive strike-slip shear zone (map scale).
16
Problems
Balancing and restoration (Chapter 20)
Problem 20-1
The effect of choice of shear angle, exemplified by a hanging-wall block extended above a listric fault. Construct the hang-
ing wall roll-over if the hanging wall deforms by (ductile) vertical shear and antithetic (45°) shear. Describe the differences
between the two cases.
h h
Vertical shear
h h
Antithetic shear (45°)
Figure P20.1 Deformation above a listric fault. Extension of the hanging wall is indicated by a vector h (the heave). The collapse of the hanging wall
onto the fault is to be constructed.
17
Structural Geology/Fossen
Problem 20-2
Restore the section across the North Sea Gullfaks Field for
2000
4000
3000
1000
5000
mbsl
the Jurassic top Statfjord Formation level and for the Triassic
reflector called Upper Teist Formation. Exclude the rightmost
(eastern) downfaulted block. Do this by performing a rigid
block reconstruction (make a copy of the line, cut the fault
1360
blocks using a pair of scissors and glue the blocks up on a
sheet of paper).
a) What is the extension at each level?
1280
Line 736
b) Is there evidence of early fault activity and stratigraphic
thickness variations?
1200
c) Is the section balanced (is the restored version sound)?
d) What was the initial dip of the faults according to the re-
1120
construction? Is this a likely initial dip?
e) Any indication of ductile or “soft” deformation?
1040
960
m
ist F e
CDP 400
er T
e Fm
Upp
Lund
j. Fm
Statf
r.
Brent G
1 km
18
Problems
Problem 20-3
Reconstruct this map of the top Statfjord Formation of the Gullfaks Field. Do this by cutting out each important fault block
using a pair of scissors and placing them together so that overlaps/open gaps are minimized. What is the extension direction
and how much extension is there? Do we have plane strain or non-plane strain? What orientation would you chose for section
balancing based on this exercise? How could we map the displacement field? Is the map restoration acceptable, or must the
interpretation be refined?
Gullfaks Field,
Deformed State
0 1km
Figure P20.3 Map of faults at the top Statfjord Formation stratigraphic level, some 3 km below the North Sea. Contour lines have been omitted.
19
Structural Geology/Fossen
Problem 20-4.
Figure P20.4 Cross-section from a foreland fold-and-thrust belt. Based on section shown in Marshak & Woodward (1988, in Marshak & Mitra, Basic methods of structural geology. Prentice Hall,
a) Construct an interpretation of the cross-section (Figure
P20.4) based in the three wells and surface dip data. Note
stratigraphic repetition in two of the wells. Assume that strati-
graphic thicknesses are constant across the section and that
the folds have kink-like geometries. The stratigraphic units
are Precambrian, Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian and Carbon-
iferous. Name the structures.
b) Does your interpretation balance? To find out, try to restore
the section, assuming constant bed length. Pin your cross-
Pc
O
D
section in the right-hand end.
C
S
S
c) How much shortening has taken place?
Pc
O
O
D
C
C
S
2 km
p. 303-332).
Pc
O
D
C
C
S
20
