EI 7211-CIRCUIT SIMULATION LAB

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Generation of Continuous Time(CT) and Discrete Time (DT) signals
(i) Standard signals: – impulse, step, ramp, exponential
(ii) Periodic and a-periodic signals
(iii) Deterministic and random signals
2. CT and DT system characterization:
(i) Linearity
(ii) Time invariance
(iii) Causality
(iv) Stability
3. Time response & Frequency response of DT systems
4. Discretization and Reconstruction of signals
(i) Sampling and aliasing effects
(ii) A/D conversion
(iii) D/A conversion
5. Statistical analysis of random signals
6. Verification Kirchhoff’s laws, Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems.
7. Verification of Superposition, Maximum Power transfer and Reciprocity
theorems.
8. Response of RL, RC and RLC circuits for step input.
9. Frequency response of Series and Parallel resonance circuits.
10.Determination of self and mutual inductances and coupling coefficient of
coupled coils.
11. Power and power factor measurement in three phase circuits by two wattmeter
method.
12. Determination of Z, Y and H parameters of a two port network.
Exp No:1 Generation of Continuous Time(CT) and Discrete Time signals

Aim:
To generate i) standard signals (Impulse, step, ramp and exponential) ii) periodic and
aperiodic signals and iii) deterministic and random signals using Matlab software.

Software Required
Matlab software

Theory:

Continuous time signal:

If the amplitude of the signal is defined at every instant of time then it is called continuous
signal.

Discrete time signal:

If the amplitude of the signal is defined at only at some instants of time then it is called
discrete signal.

Periodic signal and aperiodic signal:

If the signal repeats itself at regular intervals then it is called periodic signal.
Otherwise they are called aperiodic signals.

Deterministic and random signals:-

A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no uncertainty with respect to its value at

any instant of time. Or, signals which can be defined exactly by a mathematical formula are
known as deterministic signals.

A signal is said to be non-deterministic if there is uncertainty with respect to its value at

some instant of time. Non-deterministic signals are random in nature hence they are called
random signals. Random signals cannot be described by a mathematical equation. They are
modelled in probabilistic terms.

Program:-

%Generation of impulse signal and impulse sequence

T=-5:1:5
y2=(t==0);
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(t,y2);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('impulse signal');
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(y2);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('impulse sequence');

%Generation of unit step signal and unit step sequence

n=-10:1:10;
y3=(n>=0);
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(n,y3);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('unit step signal');
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(n,y3);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('unit step sequence');

% Generation of Ramp signal and ramp sequence

fs=500;
t=0:1/fs:0.1;
y1=t;
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,y1);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('ramp signal');
%generation of ramp sequence
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(y1);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('ramp sequence');

% Generation of Exponential signal and exponential sequence

fs=500;
t=0:1/fs:0.1;
y=exp(t);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t,y,'r');
title('Continuous');
subplot(2,1,2);
stem(t,y,'b');
title('Discrete');
Periodic signals:

%generation of square wave signal and sequence

y4=square(2*pi*50*t);
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(t,y4);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('square wave signal');
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(y4);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('square wave sequence');

%generation of sawtooth signal and sawtooth sequence

y5=sawtooth(2*pi*50*t);
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,y5);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sawtooth wave signal');
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(y5);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sawtooth wave sequence');

%generation of triangular wave signal

y6=sawtooth(2*pi*50*t,.5);
subplot(2,2,3);

%generation of sinsoidal wave signal and sinwave sequence

y7=sin(2*pi*50*t);
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,y7);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title(' sinsoidal wave signal');
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(y7);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sin wave sequence');

% Random signal:
t=0:1/fs:0.1;
x=rand(1000,1)
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,x)
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(x);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sin wave sequence');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title(' sinsoidal wave signal');

Result:
Various signals & sequences generated using Matlab software.
Exp. No:2 DT system Characterization
Aim:
To test the following properties of CT and DT systems:-
i) Linearity ii) Time invariance iii) Causality and iv)Stability.

Software Required:
Mat lab software 7.0

Theory:

Linearity property: Any system is said to be linear if it satisfies the Superposition principal.
superposition principal state that Response to a weighted sum of input signal equal to the
corresponding weighted sum of the outputs of the system to each of the individual input signals.

1. Linearity and Non-linearity

We now investigate the linearity property of a causal system of described
by following equation
y[n]−0.4 y[n−1]+0.75 y[n−2] = 2.2403 x[n]+2.4908 x[n−1]+2.2403 x[n−2]

Following program simulates the above mentioned equation.

clear all, close all

n = 0:40;
a = 2; b = -3;
x1 = cos(2*pi*0.1*n); x2
= cos(2*pi*0.4*n);
x = a*x1 + b*x2;
num = [2.2403 2.4908 2.2403];
den = [1 -0.4 0.75];
ic = [0 0]; % Set zero initial conditions
y1 = filter(num,den,x1,ic); % Compute the output y1[n]
y2 = filter(num,den,x2,ic); % Compute the output y2[n]
y = filter(num,den,x,ic); % Compute the output y[n]
yt = a*y1 + b*y2;
d = y - yt; % Compute the difference output d[n]
% Plot the outputs and the difference signal subplot
(3,1,1)
stem(n ,y);
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Output Due to Weighted Input');
 subplot(3,1,2) stem(n,yt);
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Weighted Output');
subplot(3,1,3) stem(n,d);
xlabel('Time index n');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Difference Signal');
if(d==0)
fprintf('The system is linear\n');
else
fprintf('The system is not linear\n');

2. Time-Invariant and Time-Varying Systems

We next investigate the time-invariance property. Following Program
simulates following difference equation

y[n]−0.4 y[n−1]+0.75 y[n−2] = 2.2403 x[n]+2.4908 x[n−1]+2.2403 x[n−2]

Two input sequences x[n] and x[n - D], are generated and corresponding
output sequences y1[n], y2[n] are plotted.

close all, clear all

n = 0:40; D = 10;a = 3.0;b = -2;
x = a*cos(2*pi*0.1*n) + b*cos(2*pi*0.4*n);
xd = [zeros(1,D) x];
num = [2.2403 2.4908 2.2403];
den = [1 -0.4 0.75];
ic = [0 0];% Set initial conditions

y = filter(num,den,x,ic); % Compute the output y[n]

yd = filter(num,den,xd,ic); % Compute the output yd[n]

% Compute the difference output d[n]

d = y - yd(1+D:41+D);
% Plot the outputs
subplot(3,1,1) stem(n,y);
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Output y[n]');grid;
subplot(3,1,2)
stem(n,yd(1:41));
ylabel('Amplitude');

title(['Output Due to Delayed Input x[n , num2str(D),]']);grid;

subplot(3,1,3)
stem(n,d);
xlabel('Time index n'); ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Difference Signal');grid;

if (d==0)
fprintf('The system is time invariant\n');
else
fprintf('The system is time variant\n');

% stability
%y(n)-y(n-1)+.9y(n-2)=x(n);
b=[1];
a=[1,-1,.9];
figure;
zplane(b,a);

% Causality

N=-10:1:10

b=[1];
a=[1,-1,.9];
x=[zeros(1,10) 1 zeros(1,10)];
y1=filter(a,b,x)
subplot(2,1,1)
stem (n1,y1)
xlabel (‘sampling’)
ylabel(‘Amplitude’)

Result:
The Linearity,time varying property, causality and stability of a given
Discrete System are verified.
Exp. No. 3 UNIT SAMPLE, UNIT STEP, SINUSOIDAL RESPONSE and FREQUENCY
RESPONSE OF THE GIVEN LTI SYSTEM

AIM:

To compute the Unit sample, unit step, sinusoidal response and frequency response of the
given LTI system.

Software Required:

Mat lab software 7.0

Theory:
A discrete time system performs an operation on an input signal based on predefined
criteria to produce a modified output sign al. The input signal x(n) is the system excitation, and
y(n) is the system response. The transform operation is shown as, If the input to the system is unit
impulse i.e. x(n) = δ(n) then the output of the system is known as impulse response denoted by
h(n) where, h(n) = T[δ(n)]we know that any arbitrary sequence x(n) can be represented as a
weighted sum of discrete impulses.

%given difference equation y(n)-y(n-1)+.9y(n-2)=x(n);

Program:
%given difference equation y(n)-y(n-1)+.9y(n-2)=x(n);
b=[1];
a=[1,-1,.9];
n =0:3:100;
%generating impulse signal
x1=(n==0);
%impulse response
h1=filter(b,a,x1);
subplot(3,1,1);
stem(n,h1);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('h(n)');
title('impulse response');
%generating step signal
x2=(n>0);
% step response
s=filter(b,a,x2);
subplot(3,1,2);
stem(n,s);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('s(n)')
title('step response');

%generating sinusoidal signal

t=0:0.1:2*pi;
x3=sin(t);
% sinusoidal response
h2=filter(b,a,x3);
subplot(3,1,3);
stem(h2);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('h(n)');
title('sin response');

%Frequency response:
num=[1 0]
den=[1 -0.5]
ww=-pi:0.01:pi
[H]=freqz(num,den,ww)
Figure;
Plot(ww,abs(H))
Result
The Unit sample, unit step and sinusoidal response of the given LTI system is computed verified.

Output:

Exp. No:4 SAMPLING THEOREM VERIFICATION

Aim:
To study the sampling effect, A/D conversion and/A conversion.

Software Required:

Matlab software 7.0 and above.

Theory:

Sampling Theorem:
A bandlimited signal can be reconstructed exactly if it is sampled at a rate atleast twice the
maximum frequency component in it.

Under sampling :-
If the sampling frequency fs < 2fm, then the sampling is called under sampling.
Effect of under sampling is called aliasing.

Over sampling:-
If the sampling frequency fs ˃ 2fm,,then the sampling is called over sampling. No aliasing
problem occurs.

Critical sampling:-
 If the sampling frequency fs = 2fm,,then the sampling is called critical sampling

Program:
Clc;
Clear all;
Close all;
t=-10:.01:10;
T=4;
fm=1/T;
x=cos(2*pi*fm*t);
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,x);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('x(t)');
title('continous time signal');
grid;
n1=-4:1:4;
fs1=1.6*fm;
fs2=2*fm;
fs3=8*fm;
x1=cos(2*pi*fm/fs1*n1);
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(n1,x1);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('x(n)');
title('discrete time si
gnal with fs<2fm');
hold on;
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(n1,x1);
grid;
n2=-5:1:5;
x2=cos(2*pi*fm/fs2*n2);
subplot(2,2,3);
stem(n2,x2);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('x(n)');
title('discrete time si
gnal with fs=2fm');
hold on;
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(n2,x2)
grid;
n3=-20:1:20;
x3=cos(2*pi*fm/fs3*n3);
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(n3,x3);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('x(n)');
title('discrete time signal with fs>2fm')
hold on;
subplot(2,2,4);
plot(n3,x3)
grid;

Analog to Digital Conversion:

%generate signal U
t=0:5e-9:1e-6;
U=1.2*sin(pi*t/100e-9)+0.5*sin(3*pi*t/100e-9)+1.5;
stairs(t,U);
Vm=3.3; %ref voltage
N=8; %number of bits
%Digitilize U to N-bits binary
S=dec2bin(min([(2^N-1)*ones(1,length(t));floor(2^N*U(:)'/Vm)]),N);
for i=1:N
D(:,i)=str2num(S(:,i));
end
s1=D(:,1);
s2=D(:,2);
s3=and(s1,s2);
%plot
clf;stairs(t/100e-9,s1+2);axis equal;hold on;
stairs(t/100e-9,s2);axis equal
stairs(t/100e-9,s3-2);axis equal

Digital to Analog Conversion:

U=10; % range signal from 0 to 10
n=3 % number of bits
q=U/(2^n-1) % quantization interval
t=0:0.1:10; % your time vector
y=abs(10*sin(t)); % your signal
% -------convert to a digital signal yd-----------
a=fix(y/q);
yd=dec2bin(a,n)
% ------you can calculate the signal yq ----------
yq=a*q
%-------------------------------------------------
plot(t,y,'r')
hold on
plot(t,yq,'g')
hold off

Result: Sampling theorem ADC and DAC are verified.

 Exp. No-5 Statistical analysis of random signals
Aim:
To write the program for generation of Gaussian noise and computation of its mean, mean
square value, skew , kurtosis and probability distribution function.

Software Required:
Matlab software 7.0 and above.

Theory:
Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%generates first set of 2000 sa
mples of Gaussian distributed
random numbers
x1=randn(1,2000);
%generates second set
of 2000 samples of Gaussian distributed
random numbers
x2=randn(1,2000);
%plot the joint distribution of
both the sets using dot.
plot(x1,x2,'.');
title('scatter plot of gaussian di
stributed random numbers');
%generates two sets of 2000 samples of uniform distributed
random numbers
x3=rand(1,2000);
x4=rand(1,2000);
figure;
plot(x3,x4,'.');
title('scatter plot of uniform
distributed random numbers');
figure;
subplot(2,1,1);
%plot the histogram graph of x2
Department of ECE, MRCET
BS
Lab Manual
75
hist(x2);
title(' gaussian distribution');
subplot(2,1,2);
%plot the histogram graph of x4
hist(x4);
title(' uniform distribution');
ymu=mean(x2)
ymsq=sum(x2.^2)/length(x2)
ysigma=std(x2)
yvar=var(x2)
yskew=skewness(x2)
ykurt=kurtosis(x2)
Output:
ymu =
0.0172
ymsq =
0.9528
ysigma =
0.9762
yvar =
0.9530
yskew =
-0.0041
ykurt =
2.9381

Output
 Exp.No:6a Verification of Kirchhoff’s law
AIM:

To verify the Kirchhoff’s current law and voltage law, both theoretically and experimentally in the
given circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO COMPONENTS RANGE QUANTITY

1 Ammeter 0-50mA 1
2 Voltmeter 0-30mA 1
3 Regulated power supply 0-30V 2
4 Resistor 220Ω 2
100Ω 3
5 Bread board
6 Connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

(i) KCL

+ - + -
A B A
A C
100 220
+
(0-50mA) + (0-50mA)
E1=10V A (0-50mA) E1=5V

-
I1
100 I2

F D
100 E 220
(ii)KVL

A 100 B 220 C

+ V - - V +

E1=10V +n + E1=5V
(0-10V) (0-10V)

(0-10V) V 100

-
100 220
F D

(i) KIRCHOFFS CURRENT LAW:

The algebraic sum of all the currents at junction is equal to zero (or) the sum of the current flowing
towards the junction is equal to the sum flowing away from junction.

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. After the connections are checked by the authorized person sit on the voltage source.
3. Measure the current in the branch AB(I1), BC(I2), BE(I3)
4. Using the multimeter or ammeter tabulate the result.
5. Check whether the sum of incoming current to the node is equal to the sum of the outgoing current
from the node.

Compare the measured values with the theoretical values obtained through calculations

THEORETICAL CALCULATION: KCL

LOOP1:
100I1 + 100(I1-I2) + 100I1 = 10
300I1 – 100I2 = 10

LOOP2:
220I2 + 200I2 + 100(I2-I1) = -5
-100I1 + 540I2 = -5
From the two equations
We have,
I1 = 32.34mA
I2 = -3.289mA
 I3 = I1 - I2
I3 = 35.529mA

TABULATION: KCL

S.NO CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT I1+I2=I3 REMARKS

THROUGH THROUGH THROUGH MA X=Y
AB(I1) MA BC(I2) MA BE (I3) MA
1 32.33 -3.28 35.54 32.33 Yes
2 31.5 -3.5 35 35 yes

(ii)KIRCHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW:

The algebraic sum of product of the sum of current and resistance and the algebraic sum of the voltage
sources in a closed loop or mesh is zero.

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. After the connections are checked by the authorized person sit on the voltage source.
3. Measure the voltage drop across each branch AB (I1), BE (I2), EF (I3) as well as the voltage across
the EMF source by using multi-meter and tabulate the result.
4. Check whether the sum of voltage drop is equal to voltage source.
5. Compare the measured values with the theoretical values obtained through calculations
6. In the loop2 measure the voltage drop across the branch BE (V4), BC (V5), DF (V6) as well as
voltage across voltage source E2 by using multi-meter.
7. Repeat the step 4 and 5 for next loop.

THEORETICAL CALCULATION: KCL

LOOP1:

Voltage across AB(V1) = IR = 31.5mA * 100

= 3.15V
Voltage across BE(V1) = IR = 35mA * 100
= 3.5V
Voltage across EF(V1) = IR = 31.5mA * 100
= 3.15V

LOOP2:

Voltage across BE(V1) = IR = 35mA * 100

= 3.5V
Voltage across BC(V1) = IR = 3.5mA * 220
= 0.77V
Voltage across DF(V1) = IR = 3.5mA * 220
= 0.77V
TABULATION: KVL

LOOP1:

S.NO VOLTAGE CURRENT CURRENT V1+V2+V3 REMARKS

ACROSS THROUGH THROUGH (V) X=Y
AB(I1) V BE(I2) (V) EF(I3) (V)
1 3.15 3.5 3.15 9.80 Yes
2 3.2 3.5 3.2 9.9 yes

LOOP2:

S.NO VOLTAGE CURRENT CURRENT V1+V2+V3 E.M.F REMAR

ACROSS THROUGH THROUGH (V) SOURCE KS
BE (V) BC (V) DE (V) (V) X=Y
1 3.5 0.77 0.77 5.04 5 Yes
2 3.2 3.5 3.2 4.9 5 yes

RESULT:

Thus the Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws are verified. The theoretical and experimental
values are approximately equal.

Exp. No:6b Verification of Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems

AIM:

To verify the Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem both experimentally and theoretically

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO COMPONENTS RANGE QUANTITY

1 Resistors 1kΩ 3
220Ω 2
2 Ammeter (0-50mA) 1
3 Regulated power supply (0-30V) 1
4 Digital Multimeter
5 Bread board and connecting wires

(i)THEVENINS THEOREM:

Any two terminals of a network composed of linear passive and active components may be
replaced by an equivalent voltage source in series with an equivalent resistance Rth the voltage source Voc
is equal to potential difference between two terminals caused by active network with no external
resistance. The Rth is an equivalent resistance looking back into network terminals with all sources in
network active.

PROCEDURE:

1. Make connections as per circuit diagram.

2. After connection are checked by authorized person switch on voltage source and find value of I L
the current flowing through both theoretically and experimentally.
3. Find the resistance Rth experimentally using multi-meter and theoretically by looking backs from
the open terminals with all voltage sources remove and replaced by their internal resistance R int,
replace the voltage source with a short circuit.
4. Remove resistor (RL) across BD, find voltage Voc across their options and open terminals both
theoretically and experimentally using circuit diagram.
5. Find the value of I2 both experimentally and theoretically from Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and
tabulate all these from step 2 to 3. Verify the Thevenin’s theorem in comparing the measured
values with theoretically values obtained through calculation.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: THEVENINS THEOREM

1. TO FIND IL:

1k
Ω 220Ω

220Ω
+ - 10V
A
B D
0-50mA

1KΩ
1k
Ω
C

2. To FIND Rth:
A

1k
Ω 220Ω

B D

1KΩ
1k
Ω
C

3. To find Voc.
A

1k
Ω 220Ω

10V
B D

1KΩ
1k
Ω
C

4. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:
 + -
A
Rth=680.3Ω
(0-50mA)

RL=220Ω
VOC=-3.2V

TABULATION-THEVENINS THEOREM:

VALUES RTH VTH (V) IL(MA) REMARKS

(Ω) ORIGINAL THEORETICAL
Experimental 667 -3.22 3.6 3.55 Yes
Theoretical 680.32 -3.2 3.55 3.55 Yes

1000∗220 1000∗1000
Rth = +
1000+220 1000+1000

Rth = 680.32Ω

In ABDA, 1000I1 + 220(I1 – I3) + 220(I1 – I2) = 0

In BCDB, 1000I2 + 1000(I2 – I3) + 220(I2 – I1) = 0

In ADCA, 1000(I1 – I2) + 220(I3 – I1) = 10

By solving we get,

I1 = 3.22mA

I2 = 6.775mA

I3 = 14.33mA
𝑉𝑜𝑐
IL = 𝑅𝑡ℎ+𝑅𝑙

3.2
= 226+680.3
 IL = 3.55mA

VOC = VB - VD
𝑅4 𝑅3
= 𝑅1+𝑅4
* 10 – 𝑅2+𝑅3 ∗ 10

VOC = -3.2 V

(ii)NORTONS THEOREM:

Any two terminals of a network composed of linear passive and active elements may be replaced
by an equivalent constant current source.

The current source is equal to short circuit current developed when terminals of original network
and short circuited the parallel back into original network terminal with all sources in network mode
inactive.

PROCEDURE:

1. Make connections as per circuit diagram.

2. After connection are checked by authorized person switch on voltage source and find value of I L
the current flowing through BD both theoretically and experimentally.
3. Find the resistance Rth experimentally using multi-meter and theoretically by looking back into
terminals with all voltage sources remove and replaced by their internal resistance Rint,
4. Remove resistor (RL) across BD and short circuit if through an ammeter. Find current ISC through
the short circuit terminals both theoretically and experimentally using circuit diagram.
5. Calculate value of IL both experimentally and theoretically from Norton equivalent circuit and
tabulate all values from step 2 to 5.
6. Verify the theorem in comparing the measured values with theoretically values obtained through
calculation.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: NORTONS CIRCUIT

1. TO FIND IL:
A

1k
Ω 220Ω

220Ω
+ - 10V
A
B D
0-50mA

1KΩ
1k
Ω
C
2. TO FIND Rth:
A

1k
Ω 220Ω

B D

1KΩ
1k
Ω
C

3. TO FIND ISC:
A

1k
Ω 220Ω

+ - 10V
A
B D
0-50mA

1KΩ
1k
Ω
C

4. NORTONS EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT TO FIND IL:

Rth=680.3Ω 220Ω
ISC=4.6A

+
A (0-50mA)

-
TABULATION-NORTONS THEOREM

VALUES RTH VTH IL(MA) REMARKS

(Ω) (V) ORIGINAL THEORETICAL
Experimental 660 4.3 3.5 3.5 Yes
Theoretical 680.32 4.7 3.55 3.55 Yes

1000∗220 1000∗1000
Rth = +
1000+220 1000+1000

Rth = 680.32Ω
V = IR
Isc= V/R = 3.2 / 680.3 = 4.7mA
In ABDA, 1000I1 + 220(I1 – I3) + 220(I1 – I2) = 0

In BCDB, 1000I2 + 1000(I2 – I3) + 220(I2 – I1) = 0

In ADCA, 1000I1 + 1000I2= -100

By solving we get,

I1 = 3.22mA
I2 = 6.775mA
I3 = 4.33mA
I1 + IL = I2
IL = 3.5mA

RESULT:

Thus Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem are verified theoretically and experimentally.

Exp.7a Verification of Superposition Theorem

AIM

To verify the Superposition theorem, both theoretically and experimentally in the given circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.NO COMPONENTS RANGE QUANTITY

1 Resistors 120Ω 2
220 Ω 4
2 Digital Multimeter
3 Ammeter 0-50mA 1
4 Regulated power 0-30V 2
supply
5 Bread board and Connecting wires
 STATEMENT:

If any multisource complex networks consisting of bilateral linear elements, the voltage across or
current through any given circuit of element is equal to sum of individual voltage or current produced
independently through that current by each source acting independently when all remaining sources are
replaced by their internal resistance.

PROCEDURE:

1. Make connections as per circuit diagram.

2. After connections are checked by authorized person, switch on power supply.
3. Measure the current in branches AB-I1, BC-I2, DE-I3 using ammeter and tabulate the result.
4. Now keep only one independent source at a time and deactivate all remaining independent sources
or by an open circuit. In our case I1 as shown in diagram, switch on power supply.
5. Measure the current in branches A’B’ (I1’), B’C’ (I2’), D’E’ (I3’) using connectors and tabulate the
readings.
6. Repeat the step 4 and 5 by removing E2 and keeping E1.
7. Measure the current in branches A’’B’’ (I1’’), B’’C’’ (I2’’), D’’E’’ (I3’’) using connectors and
tabulate the readings.
8. Repeat the above steps for all the three circuits and tabulate the results.
9. Find the theoretical values for all 3 circuits and tabulate the results.
10. Compare the measured values with theoretical values obtained through calculation and verify
experimentally

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

1. WITH BOTH E1 and E2

A + - B + - C D
A A
120Ω +
220Ω 120Ω

(0-50mA)
A (0-50mA)
(0-50mA)

E1 -

10V 220Ω 220Ω 220Ω

I1 I2 I3

E2
10V
 H G F E

2. CIRCUIT WITH ONLY E2:

A’ + - B’ + - C’ D’
A A
120Ω 220Ω 120Ω
+

(0-50mA)
A (0-50mA)
(0-50mA)

220Ω 220Ω 220Ω

I1 I2 I3

E2
H’ G’ F’ 10V E’

3. CIRCUIT WITH E1:

A’’ + - B’’ + - C’’ D’’

A A
120Ω +
220Ω 120Ω

(0-50mA)
A (0-50mA)
(0-50mA)

E1 -

10V
220Ω 220Ω 220Ω

I1 I2 I3

H’’ G’’ F’‘ E’’

TABULATION:
 1. READINGS FOR CIRCUIT 1:

VALUES CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT

THROUGH THROUGH THROUGH
AB(I1) BC(I2) DE(I3)
Experimental 43.5 23 28.1
Theoretical 45 24.1 27.3

2. READINGS FOR CIRCUIT 2

VALUES CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT

THROUGH THROUGH THROUGH
A’B’(I1’) B’C’(I2’) D’E’(I3’)
Experimental 5.7 9 21.5
Theoretical 5.8 9.1 21.4

3. READINGS FOR CIRCUIT 3

VALUES CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT

THROUGH THROUGH THROUGH
A’’B’’(I1’’) B’’C’’(I2’’) D’’E’’(I3’’)
Experimental 39 15.4 5.7
Theoretical 39.2 15 5.8
CALCULATION

CIRCUIT 1:

340I1 – 220I2 = 10
-220I1 + 660I2 – 220I3 = 0
-220I1 + 560I3 = 10
By solving we get,

I1 = 45mA
I2 = 24.1mA
I3 = 27.3mA
CIRCUIT 2:

340I1’– 220I2’ = 0
-220I1’ + 660I2’ – 220I3’ = 0
-220I2’ + 560I3’ = 10
By solving we get,

I1 = 5.89mA
I2 = 9.1mA
I3 = 21.4mA
CIRCUIT 3:

340I1’’– 220I2’’ = 10
-220I1’’ + 660I2’’ – 220I3’’ = 0
 -220I2’’ + 560I3’’ = 0
By solving we get,

I1 = 39.2mA
I2 = 15mA
I3 = 5.87mA

RESULT:

Thus the Superposition theorem is verified both theoretically and experimentally.

Exp.7b Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem and

Reciprocity Theorem
AIM:

To verify the two network theorem’s namely

(i) Maximum power transfer theorem

(ii) Reciprocity theorem

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO COMPONENTS RANGE QUANTITY

1 Resistors 1kΩ 5
1.5kΩ 2
2 Ammeter (0-50mA) 1
(0-10mA) 1
3 Digital multi-meter
4 Bread board and Connecting wires
5 Regulated power 0-30V 1
supply

(i)MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM:

A load resistance being connected to a DC network receives maximum power when the load
resistance is equal to the internal resistance of a source network as sum of load terminals.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

(i) MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM:

 CIRCUIT TO FIND IL:

A)
A B C

1KΩ 1KΩ

Load Resistance, RL
5V
1KΩ +

F -
D
B) E
 TO FIND RTH (CD):

A B C
1KΩ 1KΩ

1KΩ

F D
C) E
 TO FIND VOC:

A B C
1KΩ 1KΩ

5V
1KΩ

F
E D
D)
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:

RTh=1.5K
+

2.5V A (0-50mA)
 -

PROCEDURE:

1. Make connections as per circuit diagram.

2. After connections are checked by the authorized person, switch on the voltage source
3. Vary the RL and measure the value of IL current flowing through it and tabulate the values.

PL = I2L * RL

4. Draw the graph by taking PL on y-axis and RL on x-axis where maximum power transfer takes
place.

THEORETICAL:

Remove the resistor RL across CD and calculate the resistance Rth by looking back from the open
terminals with all voltage levels removed and replaced by internal resistance.

Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as shown in (D) and calculate the values of IL from
Thevenins equivalent circuit.

Find the value of maximum power transfer theoretically from Thevenins equivalent circuit using
formula IL2 * RL * Voc / Rth

THEORETICAL CALCULATION:
1∗1
Rth = 1 + 1+1

Rth = 1.5KΩ
1∗5
Vth = 2.5
= 2.5V

IL = Vth/ 3*103

IL = 0.833mA

TABULATION:

Maximum power:

P = I2L RL = (0.82)2 * 1.5 * 10-3 = 1.041MW

S.NO LOAD CURRENT POWER DELIVERED

RESISTANCE THROUGH IL TO LOAD PL = I2L * RL
KΩ (MA)
1 0.5 1.1 0.60
 2 1 0.9 0.87
3 1.5 0.8 0.96
4 2 0.6 0.72
5 2.5 0.5 0.62

REFERENCE:

The maximum power transfer is verified theoretically and experimentally

(ii)RECIPROCITY THEOREM:

The ratio of excitation voltage to response current with a single excitation applied at on one
terminal pair and the response observed at the other is the same when the pair of terminals is interchanged
for excitation and response

PROCEDURE

1. Make connections as per circuit diagram.

2. After connections are checked by the authorized person, switch on the voltage source
3. Remove the voltage source in first loop and connect it to the second loop as shown.
4. Find the current I1’ and I2’ experimentally and theoretically.
5. Verify the reciprocity theorem by checking whether I2 = I1’.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: RECIPROCITY THEOREM

B
A C
1KΩ 1KΩ

1KΩ
1KΩ

+
5V
A (0-10mA)

-
F D
E
 A + - B C

A
1KΩ 1KΩ
(0-10mA)

(0-30V)
1KΩ

F E D

THEORETICAL CALCULATION

LOOP1:

2I1 – I2 = 5

-I1 + 3I2 = 0

By solving these two equations we have

I1 = 3mA

I2 = 1mA

LOOP2:

2I1’– I2’ = 0

-I1’ + 3I2’ = 5

By solving these two equations we have

I1’= 1mA

I2’ = 2mA

TABULATION

VALUES V (V) I1 (MA) I2 (MA) I1’ (MA) I2’(MA)

Theoretical 5 3 1 1 2
Experimental 5 3 0.9 0.9 1.98

RESULT:

Thus the Maximum power transfer and Reciprocity theorem are verified both experimentally and
theoretically.
 10. Simulation of DC Circuit
Aim:-To study the DC transient response of RLC series circuit.
Apparatus Required:-
iii. P-SPICE software
iv. Computer kit

Theory:-
When a network is switched from one condition to another by change in applied voltage
or by change in anyone of the circuit elements during a period of time .Branch current and
voltage change from the initial value to new values. The time interval is called “Transient
Period”. The response or output of the network during transient period is called transient
response of the network.
Circuit Diagram:-
R=2Ω L=50uh C=10uf
1 2
3
=

vinDC

Program:-
RLC series circuit for step input
Vin 1 0 pwl (0 0 1ns 1v 1ms 1v)
R 1 2 2 ohm
L 2 3 50μH
C 3 0 10μF
 Tran 1μs 400μs

64
 Probe 

 end 

Model Graph:-

1ns 1ms Time

Result:-

Initial Transient solution

Node 1 Voltages Node 2 voltage Nodes Voltage

1 0.00 2 0.000 3 0.000

Voltage Source currents

Name Current

Vin 0.00(- +0.00

Total power dissipation 0.00(- +00 watts

Transient response of series RLC circuit for step input is studied and verified.
 1. Time response of RL & RC Circuits
AIM:-To draw the time response of first order R-L & R-C Networks for periodic non sinusoidal
functions and determination of time constant.
APPARATUS:-
S.No Name of the Equipment Type Range Quantity
1 Function generator Digital 0-1MHZ 1
2 Oscilloscope Analog/Digital 1
4 Patch chords for connections
5 DMM Digital

PROCEDURE:-
1. Make connections as per the circuit diagram.
PROCEDURE:-
1. Make connections as per the circuit diagram

2. Give 2V Peak to peak square wave supply through function generator with suitable
frequency.
3. Take out put across inductor in RL Circuit, across capacitor in RC Circuits.
4. Calculate the time constant from CRO.
5. For deferent values of T and V Calculate corresponding (L/R) Values.
6. Compare the time constant theoretically and practically.

OBSERVATIONS:-

Type Voltage Time Time constant Time

of period Practical constant
circuit theoretical
Model graph:-
RLC transient
.
 Exp.8: Frequency response of Series and Parallel resonance
circuits
AIM:

To experimentally find the resonant frequency of series and parallel RLC circuit and to compare
with the value predicted using the inductance and capacitance in the circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO COMPONENT/EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1 Inductor 100mH 1
2 Capacitor 0.1µf 1
1Kω 1
3 Resistor
27Ω 1
4 Function Generator
5 Bread board and Connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT:

CRO
1KΩ
+

-
100mH
Signal Generator

+
0.1µF
PARALLEL RESONANCE CIRCUIT:

0.1µF
1KΩ 100mH

+ +

CRO

- 27Ω

THEORY:

An RLC circuit is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor (R) and an inductor (L) and a capacitor
(C) connected in series or parallel.

A resonant circuit also called tuning circuit consists of an inductor and capacitor together with a
voltage or current source. It is one of the best and most important circuits used in electronics. For
example a resonant circuit in one of its many forms allows us to select a desired radii or television
signals flow from the vast member of signals that are member of signal around us any time. The
resonant frequency can be formed from the condition

XL = X C

2πf0L = 1/2πf0C

f0 = 1/2π LC

FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

It is the plot of the magnitude of the output voltage of a resonant circuit as function of frequency. The
response of the curve starts at zero, reaches a maximum value in the vicinity of a natural frequency and
that drops again to zero as frequency becomes infinite.

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. After the connections are checked by the authorized person switch on the function generator and
cathode ray oscilloscope.
3. Measure the input signal voltage and frequency.
4. Vary the frequency of the signal and measure the corresponding voltage and frequency of cathode
ray oscilloscope and then tabulate the readings.
5. Compare the theoretical resonant frequency and practical resonant frequency and plot the graph.

THEORITICAL:
 At resonance f0 = 1/2π LC

f0 = 1/2π 100*10-3 * 0.1*10-6

=1592.3 Hz

TABULATION:

SERIES RESONANCE: VIN = 2.8V

S.NO FREQUENCY VOLTAGE

(KHZ) (V)
1 0.6 0.8
2 0.7 0.83
3 1.0 0.9
4 1.5 1.0
5 2.0 0.85
6 2.5 0.65
7 3.0 0.6
8 4.5 0.4
9 5.0 0.3

PARALLEL RESONANCE: Vin = 2.8V

S.NO FREQUENCY VOLTAGE

(KHZ) (V)
1 0.8 0.26
2 0.9 0.23
3 1.0 0.22
4 1.5 0.17
5 2.0 0.18
6 3.0 0.27
7 3.5 0.32
8 4.0 0.35
MODEL GRAPH:

SERIES RESONANCE CIRCUIT:

V0

0.707 V0
Current

PARALLEL RESONANCE CIRCUIT:

V0

Vmin

RESULT:

Thus the characteristics of series and parallel resonance circuit are studied.
Exp.No:10 Determination of self and mutual inductances and
coupling coefficient of coupled coils.

Aim:-
To determine self, mutual inductance of coils a, b, c and coupling co-efficient between
„a‟ and „b‟ and „a‟ and „c‟.

S.No Meter Type Range Quantity

1 Voltmeter MI 0-300V 1

2 Voltmeter MI 0-150V 1

3 Voltmeter MI 0-75V 1

Ammeter MI 0-1A 1
Apparatus Required:-
Circuit Diagram:-

1)When coil A is excited

2) When coil B is excited

3) When coil C is excited

48
Procedure:-
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
2. Ensure that the Auto Transformer at 0V position before giving supply to the circuit.
3. Switch ON the supply and apply Va =90V and note down Vb, Vcand the ammeter
readings.
4. Similarly apply Va=195 and Va=200V and note down Vb, Vc and ammeter readings at
„V‟ excitation of coil „A‟.
5. Above steps are repeated by exciting coil B (95,100,105) and C (45, 50, 55).

Precautions:-
1. Before switching a coil which should be kept at „0‟ position.
2. While exciting a coil should be ensure that the applied voltage does not exceed its
reading.
Observation and Calculation:-

1) When coil A is excited

S.No Ex of CA Va Ia Vb Vc Laa=(Va/wIa) Mba=(Vb/wIa) Mca=(Vb/wIa)

Average of Laa=
Average of Mba=
Average of Mca=

2) When coil B is excited

S.No Ex of CB Vb Ib Va Vc Lbb=(Vb/wIb) Mab=(Va/wIb) Mcb=(Vc/wIb)

Average of Lbb=
Average of Mab=
Average of Mcb=
 3) When coil C excited

S.No Ex of CC Vc Ic Va Vb Lcc=(Vc/wIc) Mac=(Va/wIc) Mbc=(Vb/wIc)

Average of Lcc=
Average of Mac=

Average of Mbc=
Coupling Coefficient:-
Kab= (Mab+Mba)/2 .

Kca= (Mca+Mac)/2 .

Kbc= (Mbc+Mcb)/2 .

Result:-
The self inductance, mutual inductance of a, b, c and coefficient of coupling between „a‟ and „b‟
and „a‟ and „c‟ is determined.
Coupling Coefficient between „a‟ and „b‟ is Kab=
Coupling Coefficient between „b‟ and „c‟ is Kbc=
Coupling Coefficient between „c‟ and „a‟ is Kca=
Exp. 11. Power and power factor measurement in three phase circuits by
two wattmeter
method.

AIM: To measure the

1. Power drawn by a 3-phase inductive load using 2-wattmeter method and 2. To calculate the
power factor of the load from the readings of two wattmeters.

APPRATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Equipment Type Specification Quantity

1. Wattmeter Dynamometer 2

5/10A,
150/300/600 V

2. Ammeter Moving iron 0-5-10 A, AC 1

3. Voltmeter Moving iron 0-300-600 V, 1

AC

4. Balanced Load, Resistive 2Kw, 415 V in 1

3-Phase Steps of 200
Watts

5. Balanced load, Inductive 2K VAR, 415 1

3-phase V, 2.75 A, 3-
phase Variable

THEORY:

Power consumed by a 3-phase balanced or unbalanced load (star connected) can be measured by
using 2-wattmeters properly connected in the circuit.The current coil of the wattmeter are
connected in series with the load in any two line. Where as the pressure coils are connected
between these two lines and the third line. The phasor diagram of this circuit assuming balanced
lagging load has been shown in the figure. Under running conditions the power consumed by the
three phase system is the sum o the two individual wattmeters.

Mathematically, the total power consumed,

𝑊1 + 𝑊2 = √3 × 𝑉𝐼{cos⁡(30 − Ø) + cos⁡(30 + Ø)⁡}

Where,

Power consumed by wattmeter1=√3 × 𝑉𝐼{cos(30 − Ø)}

Power consumed by wattmeter 2=√3 × 𝑉𝐼{cos⁡(30 + Ø)⁡}

When the load power factor is less then 0.5 then wattmeter 2 will show the correct deflection and
first wattmeter will show the reverse deflection. In the first wattmeter the current coil or voltage
coil connection is reversed. Thus the wattmeter pointer direction is corrected. The net power is
obtained by adding the two wattmeter readings.

Power angle is given by

(𝑊1 − 𝑊2)
Ø = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 √3 ×
(𝑊1 + 𝑊2)

Then the power factor of the load can be calculated as:

(𝑾𝟏 − 𝑾𝟐)
𝒄𝒐𝒔Ø = 𝐜𝐨𝐬⁡[𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 √𝟑 × ]
(𝑾𝟏 + 𝑾𝟐)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.

2. Vary the inductive load.
3. Note down the reading carefully.
4. If one wattmeter reads negative or gives reverse reading, the reading of wattmeter is
taken by reversing the current coil terminal.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl. No. Voltage Current Power Power Total Power

W2 Power Factor=cosØ
VL IL W1
(Watts) P=W1+W2
(volts) (amp) (Watts)

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All connections should be tight.

 2. All apparatus should be of suitable range and ratings.
3. Readings should be taken carefully.
4. Never touch the live wires during the experiments.

Result:
1. Net power consumed, P =___________Watts.
2. Power Factor = _____________________

Exp. 12. Determination of Z, Y and h parameters of a two port

network.

AIM: To obtain experimentally Z parameters and Y parameters of a given two port network.
APPARATUS:
S.No Name of the Equipment Type Range Quantity
1 Bread board 1
2 DMM MC/Digital
Regulated power supply
unit(RPS)
3 DC 30v/2A 2

PROCEDURE:
1. Open Circuiting Output Terminals (I2 = 0):

Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in fig (2). Output terminals are kept
Open via a voltmeter. Supply is given to input port. Note the readings of ammeter as I1 and
Voltmeter as V2.
2. Short circuiting output terminals (V2 = 0):
Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in fig (4). Output terminals are short
circuited via an ammeter. Supply is given to input port. Note the readings of ammeters as I1 and
I2.

3. Open circuiting input terminals (I1 = 0):

Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in fig (3). Input terminals are kept
open via an voltmeter. Supply is given to output terminals. Note the readings of ammeter as I2
and voltmeter as V1.
4. Short circuiting input terminals (V1=0):
Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in fig (5). Input terminals are short
circuited via an ammeter. Supply is given to output port. Note the readings of ammeters as I1 and
I2.
5. Calculate Z, Y Parameters values.

Circuit Diagram Z and Y PARAMETERS

CALCULATION OF Z11AND Z21:-

CALCULATION OF Z22AND Z12 :-

CALCULATION OF Y11AND Y21 :-

CALCULATION OF Y22AND Y12 :-

OBSERVATIONS:

When I1=0

V1 I2 V2
S.No.

When I2=0

V1 I2 V2
S.No.

When V1=0

I2 I1 V2
S.No.

When V2=0

I2 I1 V2
S.No.

RESULT TABLE:

Z Parameters Y Parameters

Z11 Z12 Z21 Z22 Y11 Y12 Y21 Y22

Theoretical
 Practical

H-Parameters:-
Theoretical Procedure: - In this V2 and I1 are taken as independent variables, while V1 and I2
are taken as dependent variables.
V1=h11I1+h12V2
I2=h21I1+h22V2
Analytical Procedure:-
For determining h11 and h21
Thus port 2 is shorted. Therefore

V2=0 I1=V1/Req

Req= {R2R3/ (R2+R3)} +R1 h11=V1/I1

h21=I2/I1
I2=I1 {R2/ (R2+R3)}
For determining h12 and h22
Port 1 should be open circuited

h12=V1/V2 h22=I2/V2

Req= (R1R2+R2R3+R3R1)/ (R2+R3) I2=V2/ (R2+R3)

V1=I2R2
Result:-
Therefore h-parameters are determined for the given circuit.
Parameters Theoretical value Practical value

h11
h12
h21
h22

RESULT: Experimentally determined Z, Y and H parameters of Two Port Networks.