The Perfect English Grammar Workbook - Lisa McLendon

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© 2017 Lisa McLendon
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CONTENTS
Introduction
1.0
WHY WE NEED GRAMMAR
2.0
GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION
2.1 General Writing Tips
2.2 Before You Begin
2.3 Starting to Write
2.4 Structure
2.5 Transitions
2.6 Common Pitfalls
2.7 Editing
3.0
PARTS OF SPEECH
4.0
SPELLING AND STYLE
4.1 How to Improve Your Spelling
4.2 Common Spelling Errors
4.3 Affixes and Common Spelling Rules
4.4 Contractions
4.5 Possessive Pitfalls
4.6 Dates and Times
4.7 Numbers
5.0
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
5.1 Subjects and Predicates
5.2 Subject-Verb Agreement
5.3 Objects
5.4 Clauses
5.5 Subordinators
5.6 Phrases
5.7 Complements
5.8 Misplaced Modifiers
5.9 Parallel Construction
6.0
VERBS
6.1 Conjugation
6.2 Person
6.3 Number
6.4 Aspect and Tense
6.5 Mood
6.6 Voice
6.7 Action Verbs and Linking Verbs
6.8 Modal Verbs
6.9 Consistent Tense and Sequence of Tenses
6.10 Phrasal Verbs
6.11 Verbals
7.0
DETERMINERS
8.0
NOUNS
8.1 Compound Nouns
8.2 Possessives
8.3 Collective Nouns
8.4 Count Nouns and Noncount Nouns
8.5 Definite and Indefinite Articles with Nouns
8.6 Plurals
8.7 Proper Nouns
8.8 “Verbing” Nouns
9.0
ABBREVIATIONS
9.1 Initialisms
9.2 Acronyms
9.3 Shortened and Clipped Forms
9.4 Portmanteaus
9.5 Pluralizing Abbreviations
10.0
PRONOUNS
10.1 Personal Pronouns
10.2 Subject and Object Pronouns
10.3 Possessives
10.4 Pronoun Agreement
10.5 Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns
10.6 Relative Pronouns
10.7 Demonstratives
10.8 Interrogative Pronouns
10.9 Indefinite Pronouns
10.10 Dummy Subjects
11.0
ADJECTIVES
11.1 Order of Adjectives
11.2 Comparatives and Superlatives
11.3 Proper Adjectives
11.4 Compound Adjectives
11.5 Indefinite Adjectives
11.6 Intensifiers
12.0
ADVERBS
12.1 Conjunctive Adverbs
12.2 Sentence Adverbs
13.0
PREPOSITIONS
14.0
CONJUNCTIONS
14.1 Coordinating Conjunctions
14.2 Correlative Conjunctions
14.3 Subordinating Conjunctions
15.0
INTERJECTIONS
16.0
PUNCTUATION
16.1 End-of-Sentence Punctuation
16.2 Joining Punctuation
16.3 Dividing Punctuation
16.4 All About Commas
17.0
USAGE AND STYLE TIPS
17.1 Word Usage
17.2 When Spell-Check Won’t Help
17.3 Grammar Conventions
17.4 Clichés and Wordiness
17.5 Grammar Myths
Glossary
Further Reading
Quiz Answer Keys
Practice Exercises and Quizzes
About the Author
COLOR KEY: ■ PRINCIPLES ■ COMPOSITION ■ STRUCTURE ■
WORDS ■ PUNCTUATION ■ USAGE AND STYLE
HOW TO USE THIS WORKBOOK ON AN EBOOK DEVICE
This workbook is meant to be interactive. If you’re reading this on a touch-
screen device, you can add notes to this ebook and highlight text just like you
would in a physical workbook.
Some sections will prompt you to write in answers or personal responses. It’s
easy—give it a try right here: ___________.
With your finger, tap and hold for a few moments on the line above. Depending
on the device you’re using, an icon such as a magnifying glass will appear. Lift
your finger and you’ll see an options menu. Select “Note” to add and save your
own text. When you’re done, an icon or highlighted area will remain, which you
can always return to and tap if you want to reopen and read or edit your note.
The same tap-and-hold options menu offers “Highlight” or “Color,” which you
can select if you want to highlight a passage or “check” a box. Experiment with
it: By swiping your finger before releasing you can select entire sentences or
paragraphs. The options menu also offers “Bookmark” for when you want quick
access back to certain pages.
This method is the same on nearly all touch-screen ebook devices, but some
have slight variations. If you’d like more information specific to the device
you’re holding in your hands, a quick online search will yield best results.
INTRODUCTION
A
s a linguist, an editor, and now a teacher—and a person who has loved words her
whole life—I love taking language apart to see how it works, playing with it, and
seeing what I can do with it. I spent years in graduate school studying Slavic
languages and then more years in journalism; now I teach news editing at a
university. I’m a total geek about grammar, and I’m not ashamed to admit it. But
I’m definitely not a “grammar cop.” I like the label grammar cheerleader a lot
better, because grammar is a remarkable thing and a great tool for us, so we
should give it a hearty hoorah from time to time.
Having worked in both academia and journalism, I approach language from
several points of view: scholar, writer, and reader. I recognize that living
languages change, so grammar advice from a century or even a couple of
decades ago may not still be applicable today. But I also recognize that when
you’re trying to communicate clearly, with credibility and authority, there’s a set
of current standards you need to follow so that readers focus on what you’re
saying rather than how you’re saying it. (Anyone who’s ever made a typo on the
Internet understands this.)
Teaching has given me new insight on grammar, though: Many people are
apprehensive about writing and public speaking because they’re not confident in
their grammar skills. The fact that some guidebooks are complicated or snobby
doesn’t help. So I’ve made it a priority to “demystify” grammar:
It’s just a machine we all use already that occasionally has some tricky parts.
Once you learn the tricky parts, you can use that machine like a pro.
A poster in my office reads, “Grammar is not a secret code.” It is a code, sort
of, but it’s certainly not a secret. Grammar is for everyone, and everyone
deserves to feel confident using it. The bigger point is that I wrote this book not
to scold, but to support. It’s for writers who want to learn more about language
and how to use it according to current professional standards. Grammar doesn’t
have to be confusing and it doesn’t have to be technical. It does take some
practice—that’s what this book offers—and with practice, you’ll be perfect.
How to Use This Book

This book is designed to quickly explain grammar rules and guidelines and to
give you practice with them. The individual topics are sorted into seventeen
chapters, which you don’t have to do in order. In fact, you can skip around
however you’d like. Search for something specific or browse the table of
contents to see what you want to work on.
Each topic includes a brief explanation and a few examples, and most have a
practice exercise for you to try. At the end of each chapter, there’s a quiz that
covers material from the whole chapter. The practice exercises and chapter
quizzes are designed to make it fast and easy for you to check your work—all
the answers are provided at the end of the book (here).
Grammar is a big, broad subject, and a book of this type can’t cover it all.
The topics in this book were chosen because they’re the most common areas
where people get confused or make mistakes. For an easy-to-use reference
guide, the original Perfect English Grammar handbook is a great choice (this
book was written as a companion to it). For deeper or more comprehensive
questions, consult the “Further Reading” section here.
A note about “Muphry’s Law” (no, that’s not a typo): This “law” states that
any given piece of writing that attempts to offer language advice or correct
mistakes in language will itself contain an error. Everything has been done to
present you with a perfect book about perfect grammar, but any time human
beings are involved, there’s the possibility for error. I offer apologies in advance
if a mistake slipped through.
What Does This Book Mean by “Perfect
English Grammar”?
You might have heard the saying “The perfect is the enemy of the good,”
meaning that if you fiddle with something too long to make it “perfect,” you’ll
either never get it done or make a mess of it in the process. I like Vince
Lombardi’s take better: “We are going to relentlessly chase perfection, knowing
full well we will not catch it … because in the process we will catch excellence.”
Even if we hit only “excellent,” “perfect” grammar is a good standard to
aspire to—it opens doors for you academically and professionally, and it helps
you communicate your information and ideas clearly. For the purposes of this
book, I’m using a broader definition of “grammar”: not just morphology and
syntax, but all the rules and guidelines that govern language use, including
spelling, punctuation, and usage. We have to understand the rules before we
know when and why to break them (yes, we do break them sometimes). You
won’t want to blindly follow rules, but instead use them—or ignore them—to
make your language clear and interesting.
The guidelines in this book reflect “standard American English”—that is, the
English that’s considered typical for an educated professional, the English you’ll
see in books and magazines, the English you’ll hear on TV news and in the
classroom. This doesn’t mean that other ways of speaking and writing are bad or
less valid—they aren’t—it just means that if you’re writing and speaking
professionally, you’ll probably want to follow this standard to reach a broad
range of people and establish credibility with them.
One other twist: Because living languages change, “perfect grammar” is
going to be a moving target over the course of your life. Once you have a solid
grounding in the fundamental parts of the language, though, you’ll be able to
adjust easily and thoughtfully to changes as they come.

L
anguage is a wonderful thing: It lets us communicate and inform, entertain and
enlighten. Grammar is what holds it all together and helps it all make sense.
Grammar grows and changes with language. It bends to accommodate poets and
philosophers and physicists.
Grammar wasn’t invented by a few lofty scholars to trip everyone else up.
The original speakers of language created grammar, bit by bit, and the users of
language, through the ages, have shaped and altered it to meet our needs (and
sometimes our whims). Just as language is an integral part of our lives, grammar
is, too.
But when grammar is ignored or confused, sentences come crashing down,
paragraphs collapse, and meaning gets lost. Certainly sometimes people can
figure out what you meant, even if it’s not what you said, but other times your
communication fails. People are confused. They misunderstand. They get
distracted. You’re not deliberately wasting breath or ink or bytes, but if you’re
not being clear, you might as well be. And that’s why grammar is important: It
makes language work. Remember that we control language—it doesn’t control
us. Use grammar as your tool to control language and make it work exactly how
you want it to.
The good news is that you probably already know most of English grammar.
If you’re a native speaker of English, you’ve been using grammar ever since you
learned to talk. We all use it, every time we speak or write, usually without even
thinking about it. It’s when we think about some parts of it that we start having
doubts, which is why we have books like this one.
“Good enough” is fine for text messages and website comments and casual
conversation. But if you’re speaking or writing professionally, you want to give
your teachers, bosses, clients, colleagues, and potential audiences better than
“good enough.” Don’t all the people you communicate with deserve clear, clean,
meaningful language? Perfect grammar won’t give you something to say, but it
will help you say it in the best way possible.

A
lthough children pick up spoken language with ease, writing is a different skill,
one that must be learned. And we’re not just talking about handwriting or typing,
but composing sentences, paragraphs, and narratives. The rules are different for
writing. There are plenty of constructions you can use in speech that won’t have
the “grammar police” breaking down your door and carting you away, but when
you write—if you want your ideas and information to be taken seriously—you’ll
want to avoid them.
This is a grammar workbook instead of a writing workbook, so we’re not
really going to focus on the details of writing essays, reports, or research papers,
but here are a few tips and some practice exercises all about the elements of
good composition.
2.1 General Writing Tips
Clean, clear grammar is the foundation for solid writing. No matter how good
your ideas are or how relevant your facts might be, if they are presented in a
confusing way, readers won’t understand them. And if your content is presented
through sloppy, scattered writing, readers won’t take it seriously.
Writing is a craft. It takes work to get better, but with work you will get
better. A good way to improve your writing is to read good examples of the kind
of writing you’re working on, so you can get a feel for how it’s supposed to look.
Writing is a process. Most people don’t just sit down and write something
straight through. Instead, take it one step at a time: Think about your topic,
gather information, organize your facts and your thoughts, write, revise, think
some more, write some more, edit, and then format.
Different kinds of writing call for different styles. And “style” means both
word choice and sentence structure, as well as the formatting, spelling, and
punctuation choices in a document. For example, journalism is written in a more
conversational style, and it usually follows Associated Press style. Academic
writing is in a more formal style and often follows American Psychological
Association (APA) or Modern Language Association (MLA) style.
2.2 Before You Begin
First, figure out what your goal is. That is, why are you writing? Are you writing
to inform? Enlighten? Persuade? Entertain? Explore?
Then, figure out what your point is. Are you writing a news story about
something that happened in your city? An analysis of imagery in a novel? A
summary of research findings? An argument for or against a particular policy or
viewpoint? Once you determine that, stay focused.
Next, figure out who your audience is. Are you writing for the general
public? A scholarly audience? Children? Experts in a particular field? Your
peers? People whose first language is not English? Your audience will determine
how formal you want your writing to be, what sort of vocabulary you will use,
and how complex your sentences and paragraphs will be.
Then, figure out what information you need to include and how much detail
you need to go into. Gather your facts and analyze them. Always cite your
sources!
Last, plan your composition. You don’t have to do a traditional outline
(though you may want to—lots of people find them helpful). Some people write
each piece of information on an index card or a PowerPoint slide, to make it easy
to put them in order and move things around. Some people jot down a brief list
of topics in the order they want to write about them. There’s no one right way to
plan, but you should plan, so you know where you’re going and how you’re
getting there.
2.3 Starting to Write
You don’t have to start at the beginning, but you should at least start by writing a
summary sentence. Think of it as the “elevator pitch” or the “headline” for what
you’re writing: It sums up what the point is and why your readers should care. If
the rest of your plan doesn’t match this summary, that’s a red flag. It means
you’ll need to figure out whether to change your point or change your
information.
The first paragraph is the entry into your composition. It needs to be clear
and engaging, and it also needs to give the reader an idea of what’s to come. You
want to be specific about what your topic is, but don’t get bogged down in
details in that first paragraph.
Some people write down the details first, then go back and write the
transitions and summaries. Others write everything in order. Find what works for
you, but when you’re ready to write, write. Write it all down—you’ll revise it
later. It’s much easier to change something you’ve already written than to fill a
blank page, so the sooner you get rid of the blank page, the better.
If you get stuck, talk it through. Find someone you know who’s written for
the audience you’re writing for—or perhaps someone who is a member of that
audience—and tell them about what you’re writing. Explain why you’re writing.
Talk about the interesting things you’ve learned. Listen to any questions they
might have.
2.4 Structure
Probably the most straightforward and best-known composition structure is

introduction-body-conclusion. You can do this in five paragraphs (an intro, three
paragraphs of body, a conclusion) or five pages or five chapters—give the
readers an overview of your point, describe and detail the ideas that make your
point, then wrap it all up with a summary. There’s no rule that says the body
needs to contain three supporting ideas instead of two or four or six, or that you
can’t add more sections, so you can adapt this structure to your material.
There’s also no rule that says you have to stick with this structure at all.
Creative work may follow a much looser structure, journalism a much tighter
one. But no matter how you structure your composition, here are a few things to
remember:
■ Start with something good: You want to catch and hold the reader’s
attention. Be clear about what your point is and be as interesting as you can
be.
■ Stay focused on the point: Don’t wander off on a tangent that doesn’t
support or relate to your point. But, you might say, that tangent is really
interesting! If you find yourself saying that, think about this: If it’s that
interesting, why isn’t it your main point? Maybe you need to revisit your
plan (which is fine—writers do it all the time).
■ Support your point with examples and facts. Even if you are writing an
opinion, having data or specific examples to back it up makes your argument
stronger. And always credit your sources.
■ Flow from one idea into the next, both logically and through use of
transitions. You want the reader to stay with you and understand the
progression of ideas and information.
2.5 Transitions
When you’re linking ideas together, transitions are what help you lead the reader
from one idea to the next. They make your writing flow smoothly and allow the
reader to follow your train of thought.
Transition words or phrases can begin a sentence to tie that idea to the
previous idea. Sometimes you might need a whole sentence or even a whole
(brief) paragraph to transition between ideas. The important thing is not to
swerve from one idea to the next without a transition.
Transitions usually fall into one of these categories:
■ Addition or similarity: moreover, likewise, also, in addition, in the same

way, etc.
■ Contrast or opposition: conversely, although, but, despite, nevertheless, etc.
■ Examples or emphasis: in fact, especially, in particular, for instance, etc.
■ Results or effects: therefore, consequently, thus, as a result, etc.
■ Time or sequence: first, second, third, etc.; before, after, meanwhile, etc.
■ Conclusion or summary: finally, in conclusion, in summary, all in all, etc.
This is by no means an exhaustive list, but it gives you an idea of what sorts
of words and phrases work as transitions.
PRACTICE EXERCISE 2.5
TRANSITIONS
Think about the transition categories and then choose the correct answer.
1. Which of these transitions sets up a contrast?
a. however
b. likewise
c. second
2. Which of these transitions sets up an example?
a. additionally
b. specifically
c. despite
3. Which of these transitions sets up an addition?
a. furthermore
b. although
c. due to
4. Which of these transitions sets up a result?
a. also
b. indeed
c. in effect
5. Which of these transitions sets up a conclusion?
a. first
b. to sum up
c. on the other hand
KEY FOR PRACTICE EXERCISE 2.5

1. a
2. b
3. a
4. c
5. b
2.6 Common Pitfalls
No matter what you’re writing, or what structure you’re following, you want to
be aware of common writing pitfalls. We rarely say never in language, but here
are a few things it’s usually better to avoid:
■ Wordiness: Why use five words when one would do? Excess verbiage
doesn’t make you sound smart, it just makes your writing a slog to read. Too
many words and not enough substance will distract or bore readers, neither
of which you want.
■ Clichés: If something’s a cliché, it’s so well known that it’s lost its “oomph.”
You want your writing to be fresh and engaging, not tired and dull. This
doesn’t mean to never use clichés, but to stop when you write one to see
whether you could be more vivid, more specific, or more interesting. If
something is “like shooting fish in a barrel” or “as easy as pie,” how much
does that tell the reader? Could you convey the same information in a more
specific way, such as, “it takes only 10 minutes”?
■ Too much detail: Find the example, statistic, or fact that best illustrates your
point and leave it at that. No need to hit readers over the head with a load of
repetitive support.
■ Not enough detail: You do, however, need to support your point. Don’t
expect readers to simply take your word for it—back up your ideas with
concrete information.
■ No single, overarching theme: This shows up as two problems. One is
having no clear point at all, which leaves a reader confused or frustrated. The
other is having too many competing points, which means the reader can’t
figure out what to focus on.
COMMON PITFALLS
Match each wordy phrase with its more concise alternative.
1. due to the fact that yellow
2. on a regular basis because
3. has the ability to decided
4. yellow in color can
5. came to the decision that regularly

1. because
2. regularly
3. can
4. yellow
5. decided
2.7 Editing
Once you’re done writing, you’re not finished yet—you still need to edit. Editing
is far more than running spell-check (you do run spell-check, right?). It involves
details such as making sure you’ve used words correctly, spelled names right,
and punctuated everything properly, as well as bigger issues such as making sure
your writing flows, your ideas are supported, and your numbers add up.
It’s best to have another person edit your work, because they aren’t familiar
with your point and their fresh eyes will spot places where you’ve jumped too
far ahead without connection, you haven’t explained something clearly enough,
or you’ve made typos your own tired eyes can no longer notice.
If you need to edit your own work, you can do a few things to make it more
successful:
■ Take a break: During the writing process, we become so engrossed with

writing that we can’t see our own mistakes. After clearing your head, you
can take a fresh look.
■ Read it out loud: This makes sentences that are awkward, overwrought, or
poorly punctuated jump out at you.
■ Read it backward or change the type style when proofreading: This helps
you focus on the words from a perspective different from the one you used
for writing.
■ Make a list of things you know you always mess up: For example, if you
know you have a habit of typing “form” when you mean “from”—I’m really
bad about that—then do a search for every instance of “form,” so you can
find and fix the ones where you really meant “from.”
Why is it important to edit? It all comes down to presenting a polished piece

of writing to your readers. It helps your writing be taken seriously in a way that
error-riddled, disorganized writing won’t be. Editing your work says to readers
that you value the time and attention they’re giving you, and that you respect
them enough to give them writing that is as close to perfect as it can be.

T
he parts of speech are the categories to which all words belong. They let us
classify what a word does in a sentence. Unlike many other languages, English
lets some words shift from one part of speech to another without any changes to
them. If you’ve heard about people “verbing” nouns, that’s what this is—except
we’ve also “adverbed” prepositions, “nouned” verbs, and “adjectived” nouns.
Sometimes people do it on purpose; other times, a word broadens its scope
naturally, falling into several categories. As a result, thousands of English words
fall into more than one part of speech, and what category it is depends on what
role it has in a particular sentence.
We’ll briefly define the parts of speech here, then explain each one in more
detail in later chapters.
■ Verbs indicate an action or a state of being. Examples of verbs: walk, think,

seem, assemble, become. (See chapter 6.)
■ Nouns are people, places, things, ideas, or concepts. Examples of nouns:
Elvis, studio, guitar, talent, fame. (See chapter 8.)
■ Determiners go with a noun or noun phrase to shape its meaning. Examples
of determiners: the, a/an, my, many, some, that. (See chapter 7.)
■ Pronouns stand in for a noun or noun phrase, so you don’t have to keep
repeating it. Examples of pronouns: you, me, her, they, who, these. (See
chapter 10.)
■ Adjectives describe a noun, usually answering the question “what kind?” or
“which one?” Examples of adjectives: green, tall, friendly, difficult. (See
chapter 11.)
■ Adverbs describe a verb, adjective, or other adverb, usually answering the
question “where?” “when” “how?” or “why?” Examples of adverbs: quietly,
totally, very, too. (See chapter 12.)
■ Prepositions tie nouns to other information in the sentence. A prepositional
phrase can work as an adjective, describing a noun; or as an adverb,
describing a verb, adjective, or other adverb. Examples of prepositions: in,
on, by, over, after. (See chapter 13.)
■ Conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence. Examples of
conjunctions: and, but, either … or, whenever. (See chapter 14.)
■ Interjections are outbursts that indicate strong emotion. Examples of
interjections: Ouch! Awesome! Oh, no! and many other reactions replaceable
by emoji. (See chapter 15.)

QUIZ FOR CHAPTER 3: PARTS OF SPEECH

For questions 1–10, match the word with its part of speech.
1. blue noun
2. the adjective
3. Yikes! adverb
conjunction
4. bus
5. perform interjection
preposition
6. quickly
pronoun
7. but
8. in noun
determiner
9. we
10. freedom verb
For questions 11–15, refer to the following sentence:
Once the scientists returned from Alaska, they calculated their climatic
data.
11. Write down the noun(s), but not the pronouns, in the sentence:
----------------------------------------------------
12. Write down the verb(s) in the sentence:
----------------------------------------------------
13. Write down the adjective(s) in the sentence:
----------------------------------------------------
14. Write down the conjunction(s) in the sentence:
----------------------------------------------------
15. Write down the preposition(s) in the sentence:
----------------------------------------------------
Hey, you can’t go into the reactor—the radiation is too dangerous.

16. Write down the pronoun(s), but not the nouns, in the sentence:
17. Write down the verb(s) in the sentence:
18. Write down the adverb(s) in the sentence:
19. Write down the interjections(s) in the sentence:
20. Write down the determiner(s) in the sentence:
Answers can be found here.

A
s you know by this point in your life, English spelling is, to put it bluntly, a hot
mess. Few words are spelled as they sound, and we have a jumble of silent
letters, varying vowels, and words that sound the same but aren’t spelled the
same—not to mention the words that are spelled the same but don’t sound the
same! Then there are things like numbers that can be rendered using either
letters or digits.
Some of these choices aren’t between a “right” way and a “wrong” way but
are arbitrary preferences that vary depending on what you’re writing and, thus,
what style guide you’re following. Some commonly used style guides are the
MLA Handbook, The Chicago Manual of Style, and The Associated Press
Stylebook.
This chapter will cover some of the basic principles of spelling and style and
give you tips and practice with common trouble spots.
4.1 How to Improve Your Spelling

One-word answer: Read. Read a variety of good writing: fiction, nonfiction,
poetry, essays, criticism, journalism. Push yourself to read deeper and more
complex texts. The more you read, the more words you encounter and the more
familiar you become with them. When a word becomes familiar, it will look
right to you, and you won’t even have to think about spelling it.
When you come across a word you don’t know, write it down. Research has
shown that the physical act of writing helps people remember better. Then look
up the word to see what it means in context, plus what else it can mean.
(Merriam-Webster, Oxford, and Dictionary.com all offer free apps for iOS and
Android, so you can look up words on your phone wherever you are.) You may
need to look up a word a few times, especially if a lot of time passes between
when you first see it and when you reencounter it. Look at any related words as
well, such as the verb form of a noun or the noun form of an adjective. See how
those words are put together—for instance, how endings are attached or how
certain consonants change.
HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR SPELLING

Look up the underlined word in the sentence below, even if you already
know it, in your favorite dictionary. Then answer the questions below.
Because lizards are not homeothermic, they have a narrower range of

habitats than birds.
1. What is the definition of the word?
2. What is the part of speech of the word?
3. How is the word pronounced?
4. Are there any alternative spellings of the word?
5. What other forms of the word are given in the dictionary, and what parts
of speech are they? (You may need to look at the entries above and
below the word itself.)

1. warm-blooded, or maintaining a constant body temperature that is not
dependent on the environmental temperature
2. adjective
3. HO-mee-oh-THUR-mik
4. homoiothermic
5. homeotherm (noun), homeothermy (noun), homeothermism (noun),
homeothermal (adjective)
4.2 Common Spelling Errors

With autocorrect and spell-check, it’s easier than ever to not worry about
spelling. However, you still need to pay attention, because computers can’t read
our minds (yet), so they may suggest a word that looks like what you’ve typed
but isn’t what you meant.
There are three major trouble spots:
■ Words that aren’t the words you want but are still words, such as solider
when you meant soldier or loose when you meant lose.
■ British spellings when you’re writing for a US audience, such as endeavour
for endeavor or centre for center. These aren’t wrong, but because they aren’t
the typical American spellings, they may distract your readers. (Many spell-
checkers flag British variants.)
■ Homophones, which are words that sound the same but have different
spellings and meanings, such as affect and effect or principle and principal.
When in doubt, look it up.
COMMON SPELLING ERRORS

Choose the best answer. Look up the words if you need to—or just for fun!
1. When you get to the stadium, park in the A section, than / then meet us
at the south entrance.
2. Melinda was born in a hardware store a half hour after her mother went
into labor / labour.
3. How many times did you get sent to the principle’s / principal’s office
in grade school?
4. We are definitely / defiantly coming to the cookout, so save us some
potato salad!
5. Their youngest daughter has been accepted / excepted into a
zookeeper-training program.

1. then
2. labor
3. principal’s
4. definitely
5. accepted
4.3 Affixes and Common Spelling Rules

Affixes are things that get added to words. Prefixes—such as pre- and post- and
trans-, among many others—get tacked on to the beginning. Suffixes—such as -
tion and -ing and -ment—latch on to the end. Infixes, which we don’t use much
in English except in slang or swearing, get dropped into the middle, as in fan-
freaking-tastic. Inflected endings are suffixes on nouns and verbs that indicate
number or tense (for more on this, see chapter 6: Verbs and chapter 8: Nouns).
With suffixes in particular, English has a few spelling rules that work pretty
consistently:
■ For words that end in -e, drop the -e when you add a suffix starting in a
vowel, but leave the -e when the suffix starts with a consonant: dance,
dancing, dancer. Exceptions are words that end -ee, -oe and -ye: hoe, hoeing;
eye, eyeing.
■ For words that end in -y, change the -y to an -i before a suffix, unless the
suffix starts with i: rally, rallied, rallying; early, earlier.
■ For one-syllable, one-vowel words that end in one consonant, we usually
double the last consonant when adding a suffix: set, setting, setter; whir,
whirring, whirred.
(And forget “i before e except after c”—that “rule” has so many exceptions
that it’s practically useless.)
COMMON SPELLING RULES

Using the underlined word in the first sentence, fill in the correct form in the
blank in the second sentence.
1. Chop, don’t mince, the onion. But take care when _______________
the garlic so the pieces are uniform.
2. Their dog is really hairy. I don’t think I’ve ever seen a
_______________ dog than theirs.
3. Perez is next up to bat. He is _______________ over .300 this month.
4. Did that writer just dangle a participle? _______________ participles
are a grammar no-no. (See here for more about participles.)
5. We have an ally in the marketing department, but we need even more
_______________ in R&D.

1. mincing
2. hairier
3. batting
4. dangling
5. allies
4.4 Contractions
Contractions are formed when two words combine into one and lose a letter (or
several) in the process. Where the letters drop out, we put in an apostrophe.
Contractions most commonly occur with noun + is, will, with pronoun + is,
are, are, will, has, have, had, and with verb + not. For example, “Rob is eating
becomes Rob’s eating, we are becomes we’re, did not becomes didn’t, could
have becomes could’ve, and so on. Let’s is used for let us and is fine for
suggestions and requests. Y’all is the contraction of you all, which is common in
speech but best avoided in formal writing. Notice that the apostrophes go where
the missing letters were.
There’s nothing wrong with using contractions in writing: They are
grammatical and a perfectly legitimate part of English. In fact, deliberately
avoiding contractions in writing makes it sound stuffy and stilted. That said,
don’t overuse contractions, and be mindful of what your audience expects.
CONTRACTIONS
Match each contraction with the phrase it’s short for.
1. you’re they are
2. you’ve you are
3. they’re you have
4. they’d should have
5. should’ve they had

1. you are
2. you have
3. they are
4. they had
5. should have
4.5 Possessive Pitfalls

Speaking of apostrophes, we use them for things other than contractions. An
apostrophe plus an s (’s) is what we use to mark possessive nouns: Mom’s
rosebushes, my sister’s new baby. For plural possessives, the s comes first, then
the apostrophe (s’): the candidates’ debate, the Millers’ house. When it comes to
possessives for singular nouns ending in s, style guides vary (that is, there’s
more than one right way to do it), but the more common way is to go ahead and
add apostrophe + s: Ross’s friends, the bus’s windshield. Ditto for abbreviations:
the TV’s features, the FBI’s Most Wanted.
With nouns, apostrophes are not used to make simple plurals, no matter how
many grocery store signs you’ve seen to the contrary. So: We bought bananas.
Bananas were on sale. No apostrophe. But once you make a noun possessive,
here comes the apostrophe: That banana’s stem is broken. These bananas’ color
is a little too green. One exception in many style guides is single letters: She has
all A’s this term.
You might think that, logically, we’d use apostrophes to mark possessive
pronouns as well as possessive nouns, but we don’t: you-your-yours, it-its, we-
our-ours, etc. Not an apostrophe in sight. Here’s the trick for pronouns: When
you see an apostrophe, say the contraction as two words. If it makes sense, keep
the apostrophe; if it doesn’t, ditch the apostrophe. For example: Can we take
you’re car to the concert? Say you’re as two words: Can we take you are car to
the concert? That doesn’t make sense, so use your instead of you’re.
POSSESSIVE PITFALLS
Use the word above each sentence to fill in a plural and/or a possessive that
fits the sentence’s meaning.
1. Ford
That dealer sells new and used ______________. The F-150 is
______________ best-selling pickup.
2. employee
The store has 12 full-time ______________. The ______________
uniforms are green and yellow.
3. they
______________ house is being painted this week.
4. you
Just because all ______________ friends are doing it doesn’t mean you
should, too.
5. band
Our marching ______________ performance was good enough to win
first place. Nearly a hundred other ______________ were in the
competition.

1. Fords, Ford’s
2. employees; employees’
3. Their
4. your
5. band’s; bands
4.6 Dates and Times

The reason dates and times can be confusing is that we can render them multiple
ways. Use only numbers or spell out months? The whole year or the last two
digits? Abbreviate months and days of the week? How? Is it a.m. or A.M. and
does it even need the periods? This is where a style guide comes in handy
because it answers all these questions for you. That doesn’t mean other ways are
wrong, but it’s good to stick to a consistent way of styling dates and times within
a document.
That said, here are a few things the style guides generally agree on:
■ US dates are written as “month, day, year”: January 31, 1997. Much of the
rest of the world writes “day, month, year”: 31 January 1997. Remember this
when you see a date such as 11/5/16: In the United States, that’s November
5, 2016; elsewhere, it’s probably May 11, 2016.
■ The day is always written with numerals, not spelled out: Graduation is June
2 (not “June second”). If you’re talking only about the day, use the ordinal
but still write it with numerals: I’m busy on the 12th, but I can meet on the
13th.
■ If you have a full date within a sentence, the year is set off by commas: The
D-Day assault on June 6, 1944, was led by General Dwight Eisenhower.
Don’t forget the comma after the year.
■ How and when to abbreviate months and days of the week varies, but if the
month or day is the only time element given, spell it out: We’re meeting
Tuesday. His birthday is in February.
■ When talking about a decade, the apostrophe is placed where the missing
numbers are: I love the ’80s (not “the 80’s”; also, make sure the apostrophe
faces the proper direction—some word processors automatically think it’s a
single quote and turn it the wrong way).
■ When talking about a time of day, if you specify a.m. or p.m., you don’t need
“in the morning” or “in the evening,” and vice versa—it’s redundant to
double up.
■ Use o’clock only on the hour: the 6 o’clock news. Specify morning or
evening if it’s unclear from the context.
■ Midnight and noon are usually clearer than 12 a.m. and 12 p.m., but
midnight can sometimes be ambiguous, so clarify if needed: Friday night just
before midnight, Saturday morning just after midnight. If you use noon or
midnight, you don’t also need to say 12.
■ If you use approximations such as around, use a rounded-off time, not a
specific time: The 911 call came in shortly after 10 p.m. (not “shortly after
10:08 p.m.”—if you can be that specific, then don’t fudge it).
■ Biweekly, bimonthly, and biannual are, at this point, hopelessly muddled.
Specify twice a week/month/year or every two weeks/months/years to be
clear.
DATES AND TIMES

Choose the best answer. Assume US English.
1. The committee chairs meet every __________ to plan the agenda.
a. Wed.
b. Wednesday
2. __________ is a date that will live in infamy.
a. December 7, 1941,
b. December 7, 1941
c. 7 December 1941
3. He works nights, so don’t call before __________.
a. 9 a.m. in the morning
b. 9 a.m.
c. 9 o’clock
4. Growing up in the __________, she had fewer career options than
women today do.
a. 50s
b. 50’s
c. ’50s
5. When they heard a knock at the door __________, they wondered who
it could be.
a. around 4 a.m.
b. around 3:56 a.m.

1. b
2. a
3. b
4. c
5. a
4.7 Numbers
As with dates and times, a style guide is a great resource for how to render
numbers, and, as with dates and times, the important thing is to be consistent
throughout a document. Here are a few things the style guides generally agree
on:
■ Spell out numbers zero to nine, and spell out any number at the beginning of
a sentence (this may require rewording a sentence that starts with a big
number).
■ For numbers of four or more digits, put a comma every third number
counting from the right: 5,280; 22,000; 3,495,122.
■ Fractions are more commonly used in casual language, such as recipes or
approximations, otherwise, spell it out (about half the people there).
■ Decimals are used for more precise figures. For a number less than zero, add
a zero before the decimal point: 0.67, 0.005.
■ For dollar amounts, use either the dollar sign or the word dollars, but not
both. If you use the dollar sign, use numerals for the amount: $5, five dollars.
Ditto for cents, if anyone still uses the cents sign. And remember that 25
cents is $0.25, not 0.25 cents—it’s one-quarter, or 0.25, of a dollar, not a
penny.
■ The letters K (for thousands), M (for millions), and B (for billions) are
generally used only in headlines and specialized publications.
■ For percentages, use either the percent sign or the word percent, but not both.
Use numerals for the percentage in either case: a 7 percent solution, the
interest rate is 3.25%.
You may run across the terms cardinal and ordinal for numbers. Cardinal
numbers are the counting numbers: one, two, three, etc. Ordinal numbers are the
sequence numbers (that is, they put things in order): first, second, third, etc. The
same rules for spelling them out or using numerals apply to both types.
Expressions such as a couple of, a few, several, some, a number of, a bunch
of, many, and a lot of are common in casual language and are used when a
precise quantity is either unknown or irrelevant. Use a plural verb with them.
It’s okay to pronounce a zero as oh when it’s clear that you’re talking about
numbers, such as in phone numbers (867-5309 as eight-six-seven-five-three-oh-
nine) and years (1908 as nineteen-oh-eight).
NUMBERS
Choose the best answer.
1. Leadville, Colorado, is the highest city in the United States, with an
elevation of __________ feet.
a. 10,152
b. 101,52
c. 10152
2. The average cost of a new car in the United States in 2015 was
__________.
a. $33,560 dollars
b. $33,560
c. 33K dollars
3. The Krakowskis have __________ people in their family and
__________ dogs.
a. 5, 6
b. 5, six
c. five, six
4. Storms and 95-degree temperatures didn’t keep __________ fans from
the outdoor music festival.
a. fifty thousand
b. 50,000
c. 50K
5. In the mid-1980s, mortgage rates were around __________.
a. twelve %
b. twelve percent
c. 12 percent

1. a
2. b
3. c
4. b
5. c

QUIZ FOR CHAPTER 4: SPELLING AND STYLE

For questions 1–4, turn the underlined phrase into a contraction.
1. I prefer to visit Paris when it is not hot and crowded. ________________
2. While you are at the store, can you get some milk?________________
3. Paul should have known better with a girl like her. ________________
4. We did not see a thing. ________________
For questions 5–8, mark the best answer. Look up the words if necessary.
5. One of the medication’s side affects / effects was hallucinations.
6. The police found shell casings that matched the caliber / calibre of the fatal
bullet.
7. Because Rachel’s a book blogger, she gets a sneak peak / peek / pique at
new releases.
8. The development team has free rein / reign on the new project—and a huge
budget.
For questions 9–12, fill in the correct form of the given word.
9. scary
The sequel was much _______________ than the first movie.
10. puddle
Water was _______________ on the floor underneath the leak in the roof.
11. rat
The gangster couldn’t believe his buddies _______________ him out to the
Feds.
12. army
The video game involves warring _______________ of monsters.
For questions 13–16, use the given word to fill in a plural and/or a possessive
that fits the sentence’s meaning.
13. it
The spectators cheered when the monster truck was knocked clean off
__________ chassis.
14. kitten
At the Humane Society, there are dozens of __________ waiting to be adopted.
15. PBS
Sherlock is one of __________ most popular shows.
16. you
Why haven’t you finished __________ homework yet?
For questions 17–24, mark the best answer.
17. They stood in line for the midnight / 12 a.m. / 12 midnight movie.
18. Marcy’s Aunt Agnes was born on November 19, 1911, / November 19,
1911 in Chicago.
19. Because of Wiley’s success on the Acme account, he got a $3K / $3,000 /
$3,000 dollar bonus.
20. Millie was so excited the day she reached 10K / 100,00 / 10,000 followers
on Twitter.
21. All four of the Wongs’ children have December / Dec. birthdays.
22. When you go to the boss’s house for dinner, mind you’re p’s and q’s / your
p’s and q’s / your ps and qs.
23. First / 1st / 1th, you need to turn on the machine.
24. The music scene in the late 60’s / 60s / ’60s was groovy, man.

W
e covered parts of speech in chapter 3 and word-level issues of spelling and style
in chapter 4. In this chapter, we’ll move on to how to put sentences together.
5.1 Subjects and Predicates

The subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun that does the action or is
something. The subject almost always comes before the verb, but it may not be
at the very beginning of a sentence, and there may be other words between the
subject and the verb. The predicate is simply what finishes the sentence. It’s the
verb, usually with a direct object (see section 5.3) or a subject complement (see
section 5.7).
It’s easy to see the division in a simple sentence:
Harold built a surveillance machine.
Harold is the subject: He’s doing something. Built a surveillance machine is

the predicate: It’s what happened.
subject | predicate
Harold | built a surveillance machine.
But when we add more words, you may need to hunt a little for the subject
and predicate:
After the exam, Alyssa, who hadn’t studied, knew she had done well.
After the exam starts the sentence but isn’t doing or being anything, so it is
not the subject. Alyssa is a noun, and she’s doing something, so there’s your
subject. Who hadn’t studied is something that happened (see section 5.4:
Clauses), but it’s not the main thing that happened. Knew she had done well is
the main thing that happened, so there’s your predicate.
subject | predicate
After the exam, Alyssa, who hadn’t studied, | knew she had done well.
With questions, the word order is a little different because we put the subject
between an auxiliary verb (see section 6.1) and the main verb:
Did you find anything?
The pronoun you is the subject. Did find anything is the predicate.
SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES

In each sentence, draw a line right before the predicate.
1. Sir Fluffypants caught three mice this morning.
2. He was very proud of himself.
3. But because of the carnage, an awful mess on the carpet needed to be
cleaned up.
4. We really shouldn’t let him out before breakfast.
5. Now, after all his activity, he’s asleep on the couch.

1. Sir Fluffypants | caught three mice this morning.
2. He | was very proud of himself.
3. But because of the carnage, an awful mess on the carpet | needed to be
cleaned up.
4. We | really shouldn’t let him out before breakfast.
5. Now, after all his activity, he |’s asleep on the couch. (The ’s in the
contraction is the main verb, is.)
5.2 Subject-Verb Agreement

Agreement in a grammatical sense means that elements of a sentence have to
match up with each other. Subjects and verbs are two elements that have to agree
in number (see section 6.3)—that is, a singular subject goes with a singular verb
and a plural subject goes with a plural verb.
This is usually pretty straightforward, but—at this point you should not be
surprised—there are some trouble spots:
Compound subjects (joined with and) are plural.
Cameron and Sloane were laughing as they watched Ferris jump onto a float
and sing.
Intervening phrases or clauses can throw you off, but remember: Even if
there’s a plural noun at the end of a phrase or clause, it’s not the subject, so it
doesn’t affect the verb. Use only the subject to decide which verb you need.
The CEO, accompanied by three board members, was seated at the head
table.
Indefinite pronouns—everyone, anyone, someone, each—take a singular

verb:
Everybody knows that Angelo’s has the best pizza.
With compound subjects joined by either … or or neither … nor (see section

14.2), the verb agrees with the closest subject:
Neither the workers nor the supervisor wants to compromise.
Neither the supervisor nor the workers want to compromise.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
In each sentence, mark the correct verb.
1. The dog, along with her owners, is / are playing in the park.
2. Each team has / have been practicing all week for Sunday’s game.
3. Either the coach or the assistants has/ have to decide the starting lineup.
4. Brendan’s radio show and Laura’s podcast feature / features a lot of
local music.
5. Our mayor, just like most other politicians, never know / knows when
to keep quiet.

1. is (dog is singular)
2. has
3. have (assistants is the closest subject)
4. feature
5. knows (mayor is singular)
5.3 Objects
A direct object follows an action verb and answers the question “Whom?” or
“What?” A direct object is a noun or a pronoun, or it can be a whole clause. Not
all action verbs require direct objects, but most can take them.
The children at the party ate cake.

Cake is what they ate, the direct object.
Then they played a game.

Game is what they played, the direct object.
An indirect object comes between the action verb and the direct object and
answers the question “To whom or what?” or “For whom or what?” Indirect
objects are recipients and occur with verbs that have the sense of giving,
showing, or telling. An indirect object is always a noun or pronoun and almost
never appears by itself without a direct object.
The guests brought the birthday girl presents.

Presents is what they brought, the direct object, and the birthday girl is who
received them, the indirect object.
Her mother showed us photos of the party later.

Photos are what she showed, the direct object, and us is who saw them, the
indirect object.
The object of a preposition is a noun or pronoun, or sometimes a whole

clause, that follows a preposition to complete a prepositional phrase (see section
5.6).
The party was held in Watson Park.

Watson Park is the object of the preposition in.
The partygoers’ parents sat under a big oak tree.
Tree is the object of the preposition under.
OBJECTS
In each sentence, identify the function of the underlined word.
1. Peter sent his mother flowers for her birthday.
direct object
indirect object
object of a preposition
2. Joel will be going home after dinner.
direct object
indirect object
3. Will you return the gift to the address on the envelope?
direct object
indirect object
4. Kelly sent her classmates an email about the group project.
direct object
indirect object
5. I found your car keys in the bathroom—they must have fallen out of
your pocket.
direct object
indirect object

1. indirect object
2. object of a preposition
3. direct object
4. indirect object
5. object of a preposition
5.4 Clauses
A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate (see section 5.1).
Sounds like a sentence, right? But clauses can be independent or dependent.
Independent clauses are complete sentences—they can stand on their own. But
dependent clauses, also called subordinate clauses, are not complete sentences
—they have to be part of a larger sentence.
We were late.
Independent clause, complete sentence
Because we were late,

Dependent clause, not a complete sentence—you’re expecting some
additional information to follow when you encounter a clause like this.
The easiest way to tell whether you have a dependent clause is to say it out
loud. If you find yourself wondering “Aaaaaand?” as if there should be more to
the sentence, then you probably have a dependent clause. Or you can look for
subordinators, which we’ll get to in the next section.
Two independent clauses can be joined with a coordinating conjunction such
as “and” or “but” (see section 14.1) to create a compound sentence, in which
neither clause is subordinate. When there’s a subordinate clause attached to the
main clause, you get a complex sentence.
Compound sentence: He cooks and we clean up. (Two independent clauses.)
Complex sentence: After he cooks, we clean up. (Dependent clause plus

independent clause.)
CLAUSES
Identify the type of clause.
1. Because she’s your friend
independent dependent
2. When I find myself overwhelmed with work
3. Yesterday, Sam and Shana finished their project
4. She came in covered with mud
5. Though the news was late because of the football game
1. dependent
2. dependent
3. independent
4. independent
5. dependent
5.5 Subordinators
Subordinators are words that link a clause to another clause, making it a
dependent, or subordinate, clause (see previous section). Subordinators fall into
two main categories: relative pronouns (see section 10.6) and subordinating
conjunctions (see section 14.3).
The relative pronouns are who, whom, which, that and their indefinite forms
whoever, whomever, whichever. Relative clauses introduce more information
about a noun. The relative pronoun can serve as the subject or an object in the
clause.
Luke, who grew up on Tatooine, never thought he’d be back.

Who grew up on Tatooine is the subordinate clause, with who as the subject
and grew up as the verb.
The Death Star plans, which the Bothan spies stole, were used to plot the
attack. Which the Bothan spies stole is the subordinate clause, with which as
the direct object of the verb stole.
Subordinating conjunctions are conjunctions such as until, unless, if, how,

wherever, because, after, and although, among others. They often indicate a time
frame or a consequence.
Once we finished our essays, we could enjoy the beautiful day. “Once” is the
subordinating conjunction, and we finished our essays becomes a
subordinate clause once once introduces it.
SUBORDINATORS
Identify the subordinator in each sentence.
1. If there’s something wrong with your refrigerator, Billy Sue can fix it.
____________
2. We were worried because she looked as if she’d seen a ghost.
____________
3. These crazy people who say they “bust ghosts” are a menace!
____________
4. But the ghost that haunted the library is gone. ____________
5. Egon knows what to do whenever there’s a paranormal problem.
____________

1. If
2. because
3. who
4. that
5. whenever
5.6 Phrases
A phrase is a group of words that work as a single unit of meaning but not as a
complete sentence. It might have a subject or predicate, but it doesn’t have both.
■ Prepositional phrases modify something in the sentence. They usually work

like adjectives (answering “What kind?” or “Which one?”) or adverbs
(answering “Where?” “When?” “How?” or “Why?”). They can occur with
other objects or with complements, or simply with a subject and verb. In
their house, off the charts, and despite the rain are examples of prepositional
phrases.
■ Noun phrases consist of a noun plus any determiners (see chapter 7),
adjectives (see chapter 11), and other things that modify the noun, such as
prepositional and participial phrases. The whole thing works like one big
stuck-together noun unit—remember this for agreement purposes. This old
house, her brother in Amsterdam, and that doggie in the window are
examples of noun phrases.
■ Verb phrases consist of a verb (see chapter 6) and any adverbs and objects
that go with it. Roger has always been interested in clothes. Has been is the
main verb, always is an adverb, and interested in clothes is the subject
complement (see next section).
■ Infinitive phrases use the infinitive form of the verb (see section 6.11) and
usually function like a noun in a sentence. Roger prefers to wear suits and
hats. To wear is the infinitive; the phrase functions as the direct object of
prefer.
■ Participial phrases use the participle form of the verb (see section 6.11) and
usually function like an adjective in a sentence: Wearing a seersucker suit
and straw hat, Roger stuck out among his fellow students. Wearing is the
participle that heads up the phrase, which modifies Roger.

PHRASES
In each sentence, identify the type of phrase that is underlined.
1. Trudging wearily, the exhausted zombies couldn’t have caught the
humans in the sports car.
a. noun phrase
b. verb phrase
c. prepositional phrase
d. participial phrase
e. infinitive phrase
a. noun phrase
b. verb phrase
a. noun phrase
b. verb phrase
4. At midnight, dozens of sleepy people were awakened by the noise and
wondered what had happened.
a. noun phrase
b. verb phrase
5. If you want to get good grades, make sure you do the readings and the
homework.
a. noun phrase
b. verb phrase

1. d
2. a
3. b
4. c
5. e
5.7 Complements
A linking verb (see section 6.7) takes a subject complement instead of a direct
object. Complements can be single words, phrases, or entire clauses, but the
important thing is that they are telling you more about the subject.
This bracket is what you need to fix the shelf.

The verb is links the complement, what you need, with the subject, bracket.
After the coach made them run wind sprints, the players were exhausted.
The verb were links the complement, exhausted, with the subject, players.
Notice that the first clause, After the coach made them run wind sprints, has
a direct object, wind sprints—it’s okay to have both in a complex sentence.
COMPLEMENTS
Underline the complement in each sentence.
1. I look incredible in my granddad’s old uniform.
2. Her goulash tastes terrible because she doesn’t use enough paprika.
3. She overcame an abusive childhood, got an education, and became the
head surgeon.
4. When I grow old, I shall wear the bottoms of my trousers rolled.
5. Bruce Springsteen is truly the boss.

1. incredible
2. terrible
3. the head surgeon
4. old
5. the boss
5.8 Misplaced Modifiers

Misplaced modifiers are phrases too far away from whatever they are supposed
to modify. These can be hard to spot because you often know what people
meant, even if that’s not what they wrote. Regardless, it’s good practice to make
sure modifiers are in the right place. Be especially careful of adverbs and phrases
referring to time.
The Senate Judiciary Committee will confront the administration over the
practice of targeted killings at a hearing Tuesday.
This makes it sound as if the targeted killings happened at a hearing Tuesday
because that phrase comes after the targeted killings rather than after
confront the administration. At a hearing Tuesday could also go at the very
beginning of the sentence.
Having finished dessert, the waitstaff cleared the plates away.

Did the waitstaff finish the dessert? No, the diners did, but they aren’t even
mentioned in the sentence. This is a specific kind of misplaced modifier
called a dangler—it “dangles” because it can’t hook on to anything in the
sentence. The sentence needs to be rewritten; two possibilities are After the
diners finished dessert, the waitstaff cleared the plates away or Having
finished dessert, the diners asked the waitstaff to clear the plates away.
To spot and fix misplaced modifiers, carefully check lead-ins and time
phrases to make sure they’re next to whatever they’re modifying.
MISPLACED MODIFIERS
Underline the misplaced modifier in each sentence.
1. The senators are downplaying the assault weapons ban in the gun
violence package put together after December’s mass shooting by the
president’s handpicked task force.
2. The prosecutor announced that the suspect had been charged with
murder during a news conference downtown.
3. After 95 years of working the land, it’s clear that the best foods come
from the best ingredients.
4. We will honor three veteran journalists for their dedication to accurate
and honest reporting at the Capitol Hill Club.
5. When reorganizing your business, employees must trust that you have a
clear destination in mind and that you are committed to progress.

1. by the president’s handpicked task force (This makes it sound as if the
task force did the mass shooting when, in fact, they put together the gun
violence package.)
2. during a news conference downtown (This makes it sound as if the
murder happened at the news conference when, in fact, the
announcement was made at the news conference.)
3. After 95 years of working the land (Who is working the land?)
4. at the Capitol Hill Club (We can assume that the journalists reported
from more places than the club, which is where they will be honored.)
5. When reorganizing your business (This makes it sound as if the
employees are reorganizing your business, when in fact, you are.)
5.9 Parallel Construction

With lists or with constructions such as either … or, both … and, and not only …
but also, you need to make sure that the elements in each part are parallel, or
structured the same. For example, each element should be a noun phrase, or each
should be a clause. To make this easy to see, break out the elements as bullet
points and make sure they’ve got the same structure.
The city is dealing with locally produced ozone, pollution from the Gulf
Coast, and prairie burns cause high levels of smoke.
Make the elements into bullets:
The city is dealing with
• locally produced ozone,

• pollution from the Gulf Coast, and
• prairie burns cause high levels of smoke.
The base of the first element is the noun ozone, the second element is the
noun pollution, but the third element is a clause: burns cause. This means that
the construction is not parallel. You can fix this by making the last element into a
noun modified by either a relative clause or a participial phrase:
… and prairie burns that cause high levels of smoke.
… and prairie burns causing high levels of smoke.
With correlative conjunctions (see section 14.2), make sure that whatever
comes after each part is parallel. So, for instance, if you put a verb after either,
make sure you also have one after or: Instead of We will have to find the book
either at the library or go buy a copy, try We will have to either get the book at
the library or go buy a copy.

PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION
Identify whether each sentence is parallel or not. If not, fix the sentence so
it’s parallel.
1. Natural gas prices have fallen, which not only affects the price
homeowners pay for gas but also the price of electricity produced by
gas power plants.
___ Parallel
___ Not parallel.
Fix: _____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. Many victims of the bombings died, were seriously injured, or lost
limbs.
___ Parallel
___ Not parallel.
Fix: _____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
3. We need to either get those books from the library or see if they’re
online.
___ Parallel
___ Not parallel.
Fix: _____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
4. The coach said the players needed to work on fundamentals, offense,
and try to handle the ball better.
___ Parallel
___ Not parallel.
Fix: _____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
5. The professor objected to both the structure of the article and it was
poorly written.
___ Parallel
___ Not parallel.
Fix: _____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

1. Not parallel (Fix by moving “affects” so it goes with both elements of
the “not only … but also” phrase: Natural gas prices have fallen, which
affects not only the price homeowners pay for gas but also the price of
electricity produced by gas power plants.)
2. Parallel
3. Parallel
4. Not parallel (Fix by turning the last element into a noun: The coach said
the players needed to work on fundamentals, offense, and ball
handling.)
5. Not parallel (Fix by turning the last element into a noun: The professor
objected to both the structure of the article and its poor writing. Or
restructure so each element has a verb: The professor both objected to
the structure of the article and said it was poorly written.)

QUIZ FOR CHAPTER 5: SENTENCE STRUCTURE

For questions 1–5, refer to the following sentence and match the element with its
role:
The village was deserted, except for journalists in a dusty tent and Syrian
army soldiers who were dismantling explosives.
1. village direct object
2. who were dismantling prepositional

explosives phrase
3. deserted subject
4. in a dusty tent relative clause
5. explosives complement
The company’s long struggle—not to mention the millions of dollars that it

spent—highlight the need for drastic reforms to the system.
6. What is the subject of the sentence?

a. company
b. struggle
c. millions
d. reforms
7. Does the subject of the sentence agree with the verb?

a. yes
b. no
8. What is the direct object of the sentence?
a. company
b. dollars
c. need
d. reforms
9. Which of the following is not an object of a preposition?
a. struggle
b. dollars
c. reforms
d. system
10. What is the relative clause in the sentence?

a. company’s long struggle
b. millions of dollars
c. that it spent
d. reforms to the system
For questions 11–15, identify whether the clause is independent or dependent.

11. Why do the stars shine?
12. Since you moved to Detroit

13. We can figure it out

14. Because a bird was squawking all night
15. Wild horses are facing drought and losing their habitat
For questions 16–20, indicate the role of the underlined phrase.
16. The tall, dark stranger turned out to be the hero.

a. participial phrase
b. prepositional phrase
c. verb phrase
d. noun phrase
17. She would have offered him a second chance if he’d asked.
c. verb phrase
d. noun phrase
18. To grasp quantum mechanics takes years of study.

c. verb phrase
d. noun phrase
19. Angered by the rude fans, the athlete walked off the field.
c. verb phrase
d. noun phrase
20. She had a craving for a big, juicy steak.

c. verb phrase
d. noun phrase
For questions 21–25, mark whether the sentence has a misplaced modifier,
nonparallel construction, or no error.
21. The nurse who was treated for Ebola spoke at a news conference as
members of her nursing staff looked on after being discharged from the
hospital.
misplaced modifier
nonparallel construction
no error
22. The salon’s services include haircuts, coloring, and it offers manicures and
pedicures.
misplaced modifier
no error
23. Facing a severe budget shortfall, it’s easy to see how online services might
fill the gap.
misplaced modifier
no error
24. If the mayor supports the parking exemption, no one will be able to find a
spot on the north side of campus.
misplaced modifier
no error
25. We need to tidy up the backyard, the shed, and trim the front hedges.
misplaced modifier
no error

Y
ou probably learned in school that verbs are “action words,” and that’s true. But
verbs can also indicate conditions, connections, or other things that happen that
aren’t quite “actions.”
This chapter will take you through all the information verbs can convey and
show you how to choose the right verb form for what you want to say.
6.1 Conjugation
Verbs change according to a process called conjugation. Conjugation involves
changes in the base verb as well as the addition of auxiliary verbs, also called
“helping verbs,” to convey information other than simply what’s happening,
such as who’s doing it or to whom it’s being done, when it happened, whether
it’s finished, whether it’s possible or obligatory or hypothetical, and so on.
English verbs have three main forms, also called principal parts: the base or
infinitive (to ___) form, the past tense form, and the past participle form. Verbs
also have a present participle, or -ing, form, which shows up with some auxiliary
verbs as well as in participles and gerunds.
For regular verbs, the principal parts are base/-ed/-ed, such as
talk/talked/talked. The -ed and -ing endings join directly to the verb. When a
verb ends in e, the final e usually drops out in the present participle form:
invade/invading. If a one-syllable verb ends in a single consonant, that
consonant usually doubles before the ending: bat/batted/batting. For
multisyllable verbs ending in a single consonant, that consonant usually does not
double in American English: travel/traveled/traveling.
For irregular verbs—and English has a lot of these—the principal parts
depend on what language the verb came from, when it entered English, and so
on, but they don’t follow a pattern. So we get ring/rang/rung but bring/
brought/brought and go/went/gone but do/did/done. Most dictionaries list verb
forms and their preferred spellings, so if you’re not sure, look it up.
Auxiliary verbs are forms of be, have, and do and combine with other verb
forms. Be and have forms mark tense, aspect, and voice (see sections 6.4 and
6.6), whereas do forms indicate emphasis or questions with verbs that don’t
normally have an auxiliary: Did you read the paper? Don’t you know her? Other
auxiliary forms are modals (see section 6.8), which add an extra layer of
meaning.
CONJUGATION
Fill in the missing verb forms. Use a dictionary if you need to.
Base form Past tense Past participle Present participle
1. to teach ____________ ____________ ____________
2. ____________ liked ____________ ____________
3. ____________ ____________ sung ____________
4. ____________ ____________ ____________ going
5. to cover ____________ ____________ ____________

1. to teach/taught/taught/teaching
2. to like/liked/liked/liking
3. to sing/sang/sung/singing
4. to go/went/gone/going
5. to cover/covered/covered/covering
6.2 Person
A verb’s “person” is simply the subject of the verb from the point of view of the
speaker or writer.
■ First person is the speaker or writer: I or we

■ Second person is the listener or reader: you
■ Third person is everyone and everything else
Most professional writing, journalism, research papers, reports, and

nonfiction books are written in third person. The author doesn’t use I and doesn’t
address the reader directly because the focus is on the information.
Online news sources are trying to discourage the use of ad blockers.
Steven Pinker writes books on psychology and language.
For more casual writing, such as blog or social media posts, or in

instructional books such as this one, it’s common to see writing from the second
person perspective because the writer’s intention is to engage with “you,” the
reader.
You can bet the trash talk is only going to get worse.
If you really wanted to go, you wouldn’t have waited so long to buy a ticket.
Fiction, memoirs, and personal essays are often written in first person, using
I, when someone wants to tell a story from a personal point of view.
Last night I dreamt I went to Manderley again.

Everywhere we turn, we see people staring at their phones.
PERSON
Identify whether the verb is first, second, or third person in each sentence.
1. If you like that shirt, then you should buy two.
first second third
2. I wrote that paper a year ago.
first second third
3. Jealousy, according to Shakespeare, is a “green-eyed monster.”
first second third
4. She is the youngest of seven sisters.
first second third
5. When you think of the meaning of life, what do you think of?
first second third

1. second person (you like; you should)
2. first person (I wrote)
3. third person (jealousy is)
4. third person (She is)
5. second person (you think)
6.3 Number
A verb’s “number” is how many subjects are involved.
■ Singular means one person or thing is the subject of the verb.

■ Plural means more than one person or thing is the subject.
Number is important because verbs can have different forms for singular and
plural, and, as we mentioned in the last chapter, the verb and the subject need to
match, or “agree,” in number.
You find the singular/plural distinction most often in third person present
tense verbs. In regular verbs, only the third person singular form adds an -s:
I scream, you scream, we all scream for ice cream. She screams for ice
cream.
With irregular verbs, the forms may change a bit differently:
Amanda has a nice car. Her parents have two other cars.
Matt does yoga with me. We do yoga three times a week.
With to be, the forms change a lot differently and go beyond the third person:
Miguel is supposed to do the dishes. I am supposed to help, and you are, too.
NUMBER
In each sentence, identify whether the verb is singular or plural.
1. My sister wears pink on Wednesdays.
singular plural
2. On Wednesdays, we wear pink.
singular plural
3. Your friend here is only mostly dead.
singular plural
4. They were looking for two droids.
singular plural
5. I am waiting for it to stop raining.
singular plural

1. singular (my sister wears)
2. plural (we wear)
3. singular (your friend is)
4. plural (they were looking)
5. singular (I am waiting)
6.4 Aspect and Tense

These two characteristics of a verb are intertwined in English, so it’s best to look
at them together. A verb’s “aspect” indicates whether an action is finished or
ongoing. A verb’s “tense” shows when the action took place.
Auxiliary verbs and suffixes combine to indicate a verb’s aspect and tense.
With four aspects and three tenses, forms multiply pretty quickly, but they do
each have a particular role and meaning: a general state, a continuing action,
something that started in one time frame and is ongoing into another, or
something done in one time frame that’s relevant to another. Not all verbs have
all tense-aspect combinations. Contractions are common with forms that include
auxiliary verbs.
6.4.1 PRESENT TENSE: THIS IS SOMETHING HAPPENING

NOW.
■ Simple present is for a general statement, and it’s just the base form of the
verb, with no auxiliary:
I like tacos. I make them a lot. I buy them from a food truck, too.
■ Present progressive is for an ongoing action and is formed with the present
tense of be plus the -ing form of the verb:
She is reading the works of Dostoevsky this summer.
■ Present perfect is something that was completed in the past but is relevant in
the present. It’s formed with the present tense of have plus the past participle
form of the verb:
Now that you have finished your essay, let’s go out!
■ Present perfect progressive is for ongoing actions that started in the past and
are still going on now. It’s formed with the present tense of have plus been
plus the -ing form of the verb:
They have been living in Kansas for more than a decade.
6.4.2. PAST TENSE: THIS IS SOMETHING THAT ALREADY

HAPPENED.
■ Simple past makes a general statement that something happened and is just
the past tense form of the verb, with no auxiliaries:
I loved that book. Alyssa built the shelves. We did it!
■ Past progressive is for an ongoing action, usually something that was

interrupted when something else happened. It’s formed with the past tense of
be plus the -ing form of the verb:
My family was watching a movie when the tornado sirens went off.
■ Past perfect (sometimes referred to as pluperfect if you’re reading old-timey

grammar books or taking Latin) is for actions that were completed in the past
before something else in the past that you’re talking about. It’s formed with
had plus the -ed/past participle form of the verb:
Luckily, we had cleaned the office before the CEO’s surprise visit.
■ Past perfect progressive is for an action that was ongoing in the past before it
stopped when something else in the past happened. This is formed with had
been plus the -ing form of the verb:
The team had been working on this project for over a month when it got
canceled.
6.4.3 FUTURE TENSE: THIS IS SOMETHING THAT’S

GOING TO HAPPEN AT A LATER TIME.
■ Simple future makes a general statement that something will happen. It’s
formed one of two ways: will plus the base form of the verb, or the present
tense of be plus going to plus the base form of the verb.
I will be back. I am not going to give up.
Note #1: The present progressive is often used with a simple future meaning,
usually when the action is happening soon or at a specified time: We are meeting
them after work. My colleagues are flying to Chicago for the conference. Carly
is graduating in May.
Note #2: The auxiliary shall was traditionally used instead of will with first
person verbs, but now it’s largely confined to legal/obligatory uses and formal
suggestions/requests like “Shall we dance?”
■ Future progressive is for something ongoing in the future. It’s formed with
will plus be plus the -ing form of the verb:
I’d love to go but I will be working all weekend.
■ Future perfect indicates that at a time in the future, something will be done.
This is formed with will have plus the -ed/past participle form of the verb:
Hopefully, Jared will have finished his homework before you get here.
■ Future perfect progressive is for an ongoing action in the future that ties into
another future action. It’s formed with will have been plus the -ing form of
the verb.
By the time they catch up, we will have been looking for several hours
already.
ASPECT AND TENSE

Put a check mark in the boxes that indicate the correct aspect and tense of
the verb in each sentence.
Aspect Tense
Verb Simple Perfect Progressive Present Past Future
1. We’re
going to
rock this ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
party.
2. Security
cameras
are
watching ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
everyone in
the
building.
3. I’ve
never been
to Los
Angeles,
☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
but I’ve
been to
San
Francisco.
4. I ran
away from
☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
the scary
clowns.
5. The dog
was
barking at
two men
☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
who were
walking
past the
house.
1. ✓ simple ✓ future
2. ✓ present ✓ progressive
3. ✓ present ✓ perfect
4. ✓ simple ✓ past
5. ✓ past ✓ progressive
6.5 Mood
A verb’s “mood” reflects the speaker’s perspective on the contents of the
sentence. There are three moods: indicative, subjunctive, and imperative.
Indicative mood is the most common. It states a fact, asks a question, or
expresses an opinion: You bought the blue dress. What made you choose the blue
one? I think you look great!
Subjunctive mood is used for hypothetical and contrary-to-fact situations, as
well as for wishes and requests.
If it hadn’t rained (but it did), we would have gone to the park (but we
didn’t).
I wish I knew how to speak Japanese (but I don’t).
The somewhat complicated rules for verb tense with subjunctives have been
undergoing a simplification as the language changes. The best advice for now is
to trust your ear and don’t overthink it. Remember that verbs are usually in the
past tense (but not with let subjunctives), and could, would, and should show up
a lot. Think of If I were you and let that be your model.
Also, be careful to distinguish a subjunctive from a conditional, which is
indicative: A conditional could happen; a subjunctive didn’t or won’t.
If you build it, they will come.
Imperative mood expresses a command: Get out of this house! Entertain us.
Stop at red lights. Don’t talk to strangers. The subject (you) is understood but
usually omitted.
MOOD
Identify the mood of the verb in each sentence.
1. If I were an editor, I wouldn’t need this book.
indicative subjunctive imperative
2. Call me when you want to talk.
3. When I get to the end of a book, I start another one.
4. I don’t care if it rains tonight.
5. She wished she knew how to play a musical instrument.

1. subjunctive (hypothetical if)
2. imperative
3. indicative
4. indicative (conditional if—it could happen)
5. subjunctive
6.6 Voice
A verb’s “voice” indicates the focus of the action: who’s doing it or who is
having it done to them. The two voices are active and passive.
Active voice is simple subject-verb or subject-verb-object structure (see
section 5.3), where the subject is doing the verb:
We’re studying for the exam.
We study engineering.
We ordered pizza.
We’ll eat in a half hour.
Passive voice takes the direct object and makes it the subject, with the verb
being done to the subject. The original subject is sometimes put into a by phrase:
Active: The cat ate the tuna. Passive: The tuna was eaten by the cat.
Active: Her bridesmaids wore green dresses. Passive: Green dresses were
worn by her bridesmaids.
Passives can sometimes be wordy or too indirect for what you want to say.
They can also be deliberately vague when no by phrase is included:
Mistakes were made. (No one gets the blame with this sentence.)
But passive voice is perfectly grammatical and is sometimes the right choice,
especially when who does the action isn’t as important or is unknown:
The First National Bank was robbed yesterday. (We don’t know yet who did
it, and the important thing is that the bank was robbed.)
A suspect in the robbery was arrested this morning. (Obviously, police arrest
people. But the important thing here is that a suspect is in custody.)
One piece of writing advice you may have heard is “Avoid the passive
voice.” That’s not bad advice, but as the examples above show, sometime
passive is the best choice. Also, make sure you’ve correctly identified a passive
voice verb. Passive voice is not the same as a linking verb (see next section) or a
verb phrase that includes auxiliary verbs. Passives occur only with verbs that can
take a direct object, called transitive verbs (see next section).
VOICE
In each sentence, identify whether the verb is active or passive.
1. The weather seems unstable today.
active passive
2. Hail is falling from the sky.
active passive
3. The dogs are frightened by thunder.
active passive
4. We’ll have to clean up the yard.
active passive
5. A bunch of tree limbs were knocked down in the storm.
active passive
1. active
2. active
3. passive
4. active
5. passive
6.7 Action Verbs and Linking Verbs

Verbs can be either action verbs or linking verbs. Action verbs are “doing”
verbs; linking verbs are “being” verbs. The difference is in the predicate (see
section 5.1): Linking verbs connect the subject to the predicate. Action verbs can
stand alone or have something else in the predicate, such as a direct object or
prepositional phrase.
Action verbs can be transitive or intransitive. All these two fancy terms do
is distinguish verbs that take a direct object (see section 5.3) from verbs that
don’t. Transitive verbs have a direct object: something in the sentence that the
action is done to. Here, it’s cake:
Cade likes cake. He eats cake every chance he gets. He bakes cakes, too.
Action verbs can also be intransitive—they don’t have a direct object but are
still talking about an action.
Molly runs every morning. She has been running since grade school.
Many action verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, depending on the

sentence:
Olga just read War and Peace. (Transitive: direct object is War and Peace.)
She reads daily. (Intransitive: predicate is just verb + adverb.)
Linking verbs, on the other hand, are always intransitive. They have subject
complements (see section 5.7) instead of direct objects.
Cade will be a master chef someday. Molly looks very fit. Olga seems
intelligent.
ACTION VERBS AND LINKING VERBS

In each sentence, identify whether the verb is an action verb or a linking
verb.
1. She seems really happy right now.
action linking
2. The club bicycled to the next town and back.
action linking
3. The dog ate an entire pizza.
action linking
4. My aunt became a biochemical researcher.
action linking
5. We want progress and we want it now!
action linking

1. linking
2. action
3. action
4. linking
5. action
6.8 Modal Verbs

Modals are a group of auxiliary verbs that let you know something is possible,
allowed, suggested, or necessary. These are “coulda, woulda, shoulda” verbs.
They include the following:
Ability/possibility/permission: can, could, may, might

Obligation/suggestion: should, shall, ought to, would, will
Necessity: must, need to, have to
With a modal, verb forms that normally change to indicate person (see
section 6.2) don’t change:
He could go with us to the movie.
We should ask him.
Whatever we decide, we need to leave by 6:30 p.m.
For past tense modals, use the past participle form of the main verb:
He might have wanted to come with us.
We should have asked him sooner.

We must have done something to upset him!
Some dialects double up modals, as in “We might could go get a burger” or

“She shouldn’t ought to say things like that.” Although these are fine in
conversation, it’s best not to use them in academic or professional writing.
MODAL VERBS
In each sentence, fill in the correct form of the main verb given in
parentheses.
1. I don’t know where Helen is, but I think she might have ___________
on vacation. (go)
2. Everyone said they should have ____________ a cleaner campaign.
(run)
3. Could you _____________ whether the scouts need any help? (see)
4. We need to have _______________ all the chairs over before the party.
(bring)
5. Be careful—burnt popcorn can _______________ up the whole office!
(stink)

1. gone
2. run
3. see
4. brought
5. stink
6.9 Consistent Tense and Sequence of Tenses

One of the pitfalls in writing, especially for beginners and in creative writing, is
not keeping the verb tense consistent. All this means is that if you start writing
with present tense, keep it in present, and if you start in past tense, keep it in
past. It’s distracting to readers if you jump back and forth between present and
past, or present and future.
One instance where the tense can change is in reported speech. This is called
sequence of tenses and comes into play when you’re not directly quoting
someone but instead relaying to someone else what they told you. Something
said in the past about the present is reported in the past tense, something said in
the past about the past is reported in the past perfect, and something said in the
past about the future is reported with a modal. Here are some examples:
“I see a hundred birds in the yard,” John said.

John said he saw a hundred birds in the yard.
“I saw them yesterday, too,” John said.

John said he had seen them yesterday, too.
“I will come tonight to see the birds,” Mary Kay said.

Mary Kay said she would come tonight to see the birds.
So-called universal truths are an exception to this—these are things that

don’t change, that are ongoing, that are intrinsic to a person or place, and so on.
Compare these sentences:
Frank said his father was an electrical engineer.

Frank said his father was a kind, funny man.
With the first sentence, readers will assume the father is simply retired. With
the second, because it’s in the past and dealing with something essential to a
person, readers will assume the father is deceased.
Also, if there is a contrast between past and present, leave the present in the
present tense:
Jeff said he loved mushroom pizza in college but hates mushrooms now.
Don’t overthink sequence of tenses: Trust your ear; it’ll be right most of the
time.
CONSISTENT TENSE
In each sentence, fill in the correct form of the verb in parentheses.
1. He said he ____________ (think) what he did ___________ (is) the
right thing to do.
2. The teacher said a circle ____________ (have) 360 degrees.
3. Mom promised she _______________ (go) to the store after work
tomorrow.
4. The Jeffersons said they ________________ (enjoy) their trip to
Australia last year.
5. She said The Catcher in the Rye ____________ (is) her favorite book.

1. thought; was
2. has
3. would go
4. enjoyed
5. is
6.10 Phrasal Verbs

English loves adding prepositions to verbs to change the meaning. When that
happens, they’re called phrasal verbs because the verb itself is a phrase. The
prepositions that stick to the verbs function more like adverbs, meaning that they
don’t necessarily have to have an object.
I don’t know how to set up my new Wi-Fi router.
My old Wi-Fi router broke down.
Phrasal verbs can also be split—that is, other words can come between the
verb and the preposition:
I just can’t figure her out.
Please throw your trash away before leaving the picnic area.
PHRASAL VERBS
Match the phrasal verb with the sentence in which it fits best.
1. The kids need to _________ all their toys before bed. put back
2. Did you __________ the cat this morning? put up with

Annie, __________ that candy! We’re not buying treats put away
3. today!
4. She asked the shop to ____________ some flounder for her. put out
5. How do you __________ all that noise? put aside

1. put away
2. put out
3. put back
4. put aside
5. put up with
6.11 Verbals
Verbs have some forms that act like other parts of speech. These are called
verbals and include participles, gerunds, and infinitives.
Participles are verbs that act like adjectives. A lot of participles are so
common as adjectives that we don’t even think of them as verbs: the chosen one,
an interesting book, a compelling story, an undiscovered manuscript. English has
active participles and passive participles. Active participles are the -ing form of
the verb; passive participles are the third principle part (see section 6.1), ending
in -ed or an irregular form.
Gerunds are verbs that act like nouns. They can be subjects, direct objects,
or objects of prepositions. They are always the -ing form of the verb: Michael
Phelps is really good at swimming. The park offers hiking and biking. Cooking is
their hobby.
Infinitives are the to form of the verb. They also function as nouns and often
head up a whole phrase: To write like a professional, learn the rules. Perfect
infinitives are formed with to have plus the past participle form and indicate
action prior to the rest of the sentence: To have lived in Beirut then, must have
been harrowing. Passive infinitives are the passive forms of transitive verbs,
formed with to be (present) or to have been (past) plus the past participle form:
To have been taken from her family at such a young age must have been
traumatic for Lucy.
VERBALS
In each sentence, indicate whether the underlined verbal is a gerund,
participle, or infinitive.
1. To be or not to be, that is the question.
gerund participle infinitive
2. Spurs jangling, the cowboy walked up to the bar.
3. Horseback riding is her one passion.
4. The group’s main goal is hacking into the CIA’s computers.
5. The bound volumes of newspapers are in the basement.

1. infinitive
2. participle
3. gerund
4. gerund
5. participle

QUIZ FOR CHAPTER 6: VERBS

For questions 1–20, choose the description that identifies the underlined verb.
1. I’ll tell you what I want: a new car.

a. first person
b. second person
c. third person
2. You don’t know my cousin, but she’s great.
a. first person
b. second person
c. third person
3. The sun is in my eyes.

a. singular
b. plural
4. Where were my friends when I needed them?

a. singular
b. plural
5. Who’ll be able to lead this group?

a. simple present
b. present progressive
c. simple future
d. future perfect
6. The Allies had just won the war.

a. simple past
b. past perfect
c. past progressive
d. past perfect progressive
7. I’ve been walking to work instead of driving.

a. simple present
b. present perfect
c. present progressive
d. present perfect progressive
8. I wish you were here to see this!

a. indicative
b. subjunctive
c. imperative
9. I’ve got some money.

a. indicative
b. subjunctive
c. imperative
10. Go on, take another piece.

a. indicative
b. subjunctive
c. imperative
11. He wrote a poem, and it is called “Yellow Sunrise.”
a. active
b. passive
12. He wrote a poem, and it is called “Yellow Sunrise.”
a. active
b. passive
13. Her joy in life seems faded.
a. action verb
b. linking verb
14. I ate dinner in a fancy restaurant.

a. action verb
b. linking verb
15. You can check out up to 12 books at a time, but you can have them for only
two weeks.
a. modal
b. subjunctive
c. gerund
d. participle
16. If they say we can’t meet there, then where will we go?
a. indicative
b. modal
c. gerund
d. participle
17. Choose a kitten that likes to purr.
a. participle
b. modal
c. subjunctive
d. imperative
18. Sailing is a sport that requires a lot of money.
a. participle
b. modal
c. gerund
d. imperative
19. After the burglary, shattered glass was strewn all over the kitchen floor.
a. modal
b. participle
c. gerund
d. infinitive
20. If you can’t write well, it will be hard to find a job.
a. modal
b. participle
c. gerund
d. infinitive
For questions 21–25, fill in the correct form of the verb in parentheses. You may
need to add an auxiliary verb.
21. “I ______________ that’s a good idea,” she said. (think)
22. Yesterday she said she ______________ it was a good idea. (think)
23. When we rang the doorbell, they _______ just ____________ the dishes.
(finish)
24. If I ______________ rich, I’d travel the world. (is)
25. While the plane was sitting on the tarmac with the gate in sight, the
passengers ________ increasingly annoyed. (grow)

D
eterminers are a special kind of modifier. They come at the front of a noun
phrase and tell us what the noun is referring to or in relation to, and whether it’s
specific or general. Determiners fall into several categories: articles,
demonstratives, possessives, quantifiers, and interrogatives.
The only articles are the and a/an. The is the definite article, which means
that you are talking about a noun that has already been mentioned or is known:
Did you bring the camera? A/an is the indefinite article, which means that the
noun is generic, unknown, or unspecified: Do you have a camera? Nouns don’t
have to have an article; more plurals than singulars (see section 8.6) will appear
without one because the indefinite article can appear only with a singular noun:
They sell cameras and tripods. Some languages—Mandarin and Russian, to
name two—don’t have articles, which is why many nonnative speakers of
English have particular trouble deciding which articles to use in English, or
whether to use one at all.
The demonstratives—this, these, that, those—point out something specific
about the noun, and can contrast it with another noun, often something closer
(this) or farther away (that). The distance can be figurative distance as well as
physical: Do you like this dress? I like that one better.
Possessives mark who or what something belongs to or is associated with.
The company’s headquarters. Her new job. Our mutual friend. The
neighborhood’s summer cookout.
Quantifiers tell us “how much” or “how many.” It might be a specific
number or an amount, such as all, most, some, few, none: There were no peaches
left, but I ate two plums and some grapes. A quantifier can also specify a
segment of a group—such as each, every, both, neither (see section 8.4 for count
versus noncount nouns).
The interrogatives—what, which, whose—ask for a specific detail: Which
car did you decide to get? What species of bird is that? Whose phone is on the
table?
Determiners can occur with regular adjectives and also with other
determiners, though a noun can’t have both an article and a demonstrative: Their
dog’s six puppies are here (possessive + possessive + quantifier). All of the six
puppies are female (quantifier + article + quantifier).

QUIZ FOR CHAPTER 7: DETERMINERS

Identify the type of determiner in each sentence.
1. Some people just don’t “get” musical theater.

article demonstrative possessive quantifier interrogative
2. The porch needs sweeping.

3. That boy is trouble on wheels.
4. Which sandwich do you want: egg salad or ham and cheese?

5. Her policy is not to “friend” students until after graduation.


A
s mentioned briefly in chapter 3, nouns are people, places, things, ideas, or
concepts. There’s a bit more to it than that (although not as much as with verbs),
so this chapter will discuss the characteristics that nouns have, how to make
them possessive or plural, and even how to turn them into verbs.
We’ve already seen how nouns can get another layer of meaning with
determiners (see chapter 7), but determiners aren’t the only words that can
modify nouns. Adjectives traditionally modify nouns—big dog, blue house—and
nouns themselves can work like adjectives, stacking up before a noun to add on
another dimension of meaning: bank teller, park bench, school supplies.
8.1 Compound Nouns

When a noun phrase—that is, a noun with another noun, an adjective, perhaps an
adverb, or a prepositional phrase—becomes so ingrained as a unit that we treat it
as a single noun, we call it a compound noun. These occur in three ways:
■ Closed compounds: These have fused into a single word, such as

basketball, cheeseburger, and website.
■ Open compounds: These are still individual words, although they are
treated as a unit, such as garage sale, first baseman, and parking lot.
■ Hyphenated compounds: These compounds are “stuck together” with
hyphens, which show that the words function as a single unit, such self-
esteem, bird-watcher, and bride-to-be.
How can we tell which compounds close, which stay open, and which get
hyphenated? There’s no hard-and-fast rule for this, and there’s a lot of variation
among style guides and dictionaries, but there are some trends. US English in
particular trends toward closed compounds but not in all instances.
Compounds made up of two nouns, such as healthcare and childcare, are
most likely to be closed.
Compounds made up of noun + adjective and especially noun + participle or
gerund (see section 6.11), such as upper crust and training exercise, are more
likely to be open.
Compounds made up of noun + “doer” noun and noun + another phrase,
such as mouth-breather and jack-in-the-box, are more likely to be hyphenated.
COMPOUND NOUNS
Go to your usual dictionary, and after the entry for middle, see how it
renders middle + the following words (look at the nouns, not adjectives):
1. age
2. school
3. ground
4. man
5. weight

These may vary by dictionary, but probably you’ll see middle age, middle
school and middle ground as open compound nouns, and middleman, and
middleweight as closed.
8.2 Possessives
When we want to indicate that someone or something belongs to or is associated
with someone or something else, we use a possessive form.
Making nouns possessive is pretty straightforward: add apostrophe-s. For
singular nouns, this is all you need to do: Miranda’s award, my brother’s bike,
the restaurant’s specials, the class’s assignment. If the noun is plural and
already ends in -s, just add an apostrophe: the businesses’ lobbyist, the
candidates’ debate. If the noun is plural and doesn’t already end in -s, add
apostrophe -s: children’s books, people’s interests.
Only the last word of a noun phrase gets made possessive: Peggy and Mike’s
boat, the University of Illinois and Northwestern’s joint program.
Sometimes possession is indicated by an of phrase, and generally this is used
for emphasis or when it makes a string of possessives clearer, like my best
friend’s sister’s boyfriend’s brother’s girlfriend becomes the girlfriend of the
brother of my best friend’s sister’s boyfriend.
Please do not use apostrophe-s to make a noun plural. Never. I will remind
you about this again in section 8.6 because it’s that important.
POSSESSIVES
Make each of the following nouns possessive.
1. author ________________________
2. Missy ________________________
3. The Liebermans ________________________
4. Chris and Pat ________________________
5. the sister of the friend of my co-worker ______________________

1. author’s
2. Missy’s
3. The Liebermans’
4. Chris and Pat’s
5. my co-worker’s friend’s sister
8.3 Collective Nouns

When a singular noun is used to indicate a group or quantity of something, it’s
called a collective noun. These are words such as association, band, class,
company, family, group, organization, staff, team, and so on. What you need to
remember is that in US English, grammar trumps meaning, and these nouns are
considered singular, so use a singular verb (see section 5.2) and a singular
pronoun (see section 10.4): The team is ready for its midseason tournament.
However, British English treats these as plural, so don’t be thrown off if you
see or hear something such as Manchester have won four of their last five
matches.
If you need to emphasize the actions of individuals rather than the group, it’s
clearer and smoother to drop in a word such as members: The agency members
are preparing sections of the report. The faculty members are going to vote on
the measure. Then it’s all plural and you won’t run into any agreement problems.
COLLECTIVE NOUNS
In each sentence, circle the correct verbs and pronouns.
1. The corporation is / are expanding its / their product line to include
mobile devices.
2. All my far-flung family members is / are planning to come to the
reunion.
3. The navy is / are ready for new protocols.
4. The army installed new communications at most of its / their domestic
bases.
5. Tell all the team members to get its / their stuff to the bus no later than
7 a.m.

1. is; its
2. are
3. is
4. its
5. their
8.4 Count Nouns and Noncount Nouns

Nouns are also classified as count nouns or noncount nouns. As the names
imply, this means that you can count count nouns, and you can’t count noncount
nouns. Count nouns are words such as cars, gears, wheels, windows, and license
plates. You can say many cars, six gears, four wheels, each window, few license
plates. Noncount nouns are words such as gas, air, paint, and grime. You can’t
say many gas or five air; you have to say much gas or less air, or add a phrase
such as a lot of: a lot of grime.
COUNT NOUNS AND NONCOUNT NOUNS

Identify whether each noun is a count noun or a noncount noun.
1. ocean
count noncount
2. water
count noncount
3. fish
count noncount
4. oxygen
count noncount
5. pollution
count noncount

1. count
2. noncount
3. count
4. noncount
5. noncount
8.5 Definite and Indefinite Articles with

Nouns
Articles, as we mentioned in chapter 7, are a kind of determiner, and they fall
into two categories: definite and indefinite.
The definite article, the, refers to a noun that has been specified or already
mentioned or is known or important: the president, the mayor, the books I told
you about. Definite articles can be used with singular or plural nouns.
The indefinite article, a/an, is used only in the singular and is for something
unknown or unspecified: a person came by, I see you’re reading a book.
Whether you use a or an depends on the sound—not the letter—immediately
following the article. If there’s a consonant sound, use a: a cat, a cow, a yellow
flower. If there’s a vowel sound, use an: an ostrich, an elephant, an MRI. This is
not complicated, but people tend to overthink words beginning in h. For these
words, use an only when you do not pronounce the h: a hotel, an herb sauce, a
historical landmark, a hospital, a humanities class, an honorable mention. This
means that if you pronounce the h in historic and historical—which most of us
do—it is correct to use a, not an.
Sometimes, you don’t need an article at all. Noncount nouns (see the
previous section) often don’t take an article: Revenge is a dish best served cold.
Nonspecific count nouns reflecting a general idea also can go article-less:
Language is complicated and often illogical. English has a multitude of picky
distinctions about articles and when to use them, which is why article use is so
intuitive for native speakers but so tough for English learners.
DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES WITH NOUNS

In each sentence, write the appropriate article (if there should be one) in the
blank.
1. These students are learning how to play ______ violin.
2. I picked up ______ ready-to-bake pizza on the way home.
3. Does your cabin have ______ electricity?
4. Would you like ______ glass of lemonade?
5. Are those ______ shoes that Kim Kardashian wore on her show?

1. the
2. a
3. (none needed)
4. a
5. the
8.6 Plurals
Most nouns go from singular to plural with the addition of -s or -es on the end:
cats and dogs, places and faces, Martians and Russians. No apostrophe, just
extra letters. Add -es when the word ends in -s, -sh, -ch, -z, -x, and sometimes -o:
dresses, ashes, searches, buzzes, foxes, tornadoes (but burritos). For nouns
ending in -y, usually change the -y to -i and then add -es: candies, pennies (but
monkeys).
That’s easy enough, but there’s a whole bushel of words in English that have
irregular plural forms that don’t seem to follow any rules: mouse → mice but
house → houses, man → men but can → cans, goose → geese but moose →
moose (more on that one in a moment), foot → feet but boot → boots. Many
words ending in -f change the -f to a -v and then add -es, but not always: thief →
thieves but chief → chiefs, hoof → hooves but roof → roofs. When in doubt,
look it up: Any good dictionary lists plural forms with nouns.
There are also many, many nouns that we borrowed from Latin and Greek
that have their own set of plurals, such as vertebra → vertebrae, crisis → crises,
phenomenon → phenomena, vortex → vortices, and candelabrum →
candelabra. Some of these we’ve anglicized enough that we just add -s, like
stadium → stadiums (don’t use stadia unless you want to be thought of as
insufferably stuffy). Others—especially scientific or academic terms—have
retained their ancient plural forms. Again, when in doubt, look it up.
Some words have the same form for both singular and plural. It may be a
singular form, such as deer or fish or the above mentioned moose, or a plural
form, such as pants or glasses (as in spectacles).
Data and media are two words that began as Latin plurals but are used in the
singular with increasing frequency: The data shows, the news media is. In formal
or academic contexts, stick to using these as plurals, but in speech and in more
conversational writing, it’s fine to use these words as singulars.
PLURALS
Write the plural of each noun. Look up the word in the dictionary if you
need to, but use the first plural given if you do.
1. rhinoceros
2. asteroid
3. first baseman
4. series
5. criterion

1. rhinoceroses
2. asteroids
3. first basemen
4. series
5. criteria
8.7 Proper Nouns

For names of specific people, locations, entities, and products, we use proper
nouns. These are always capitalized. Proper nouns are also used for holidays,
events, and titles of creative works (books, movies, TV shows, paintings, etc.).
Proper nouns form possessives and plurals just like common (non-proper)
nouns do: Peyton Manning won two Super Bowls. The one you probably need to
watch most carefully is last names. If something belongs to one member of the
family, use a singular possessive: LeBron James’s contract. If you are talking
about the whole family, make it plural, with no apostrophe: The Jameses are all
so proud of LeBron. If you are talking about something that belongs to the whole
family, use a plural possessive: The Jameses’ championship party was amazing.
Make sure you don’t over-capitalize. Lots of people, especially in advertising
and marketing, like to Make Everything Capitalized to show you How Important
it is. Unless you’re writing ad copy, don’t capitalize common nouns. Here’s a tip
that should be familiar by now: When in doubt, look it up.
PROPER NOUNS
Capitalize all the proper nouns in each sentence.
1. Where do you think you’re going, timbuktu?
2. Two professors from the university of montana take students on an
archaeological dig every summer.
3. The golden state warriors fell short in their quest for a title in 2016.
4. We won tickets to hamilton in a contest sponsored by the new york
times.
5. For her summer abroad, she’s going to hungary and romania to study
alternative energy.

1. Timbuktu
2. University of Montana
3. Golden State Warriors
4. Hamilton; New York Times
5. Hungary; Romania
8.8 “Verbing” Nouns

Nouns have a long history of being turned into verbs (and vice versa). But
usually in the past, they got a verb-making suffix added, such as energy →
energize and stigma → stigmatize. But we don’t have to do that—we can instead
shift a noun into a verb role just as we shift it into an adjective role (see section
8.1), as with friend, message, and microwave.
Not everyone is a fan of this: Words such as contact and host started as
nouns. When they shifted into verbs, they were frowned upon in many usage
guides for decades before becoming accepted as mainstream. Some people still
don’t like impact as a verb meaning affect (impacted teeth are apparently fine).
The point is, “verbed” nouns often sound like jargon or buzzwords and may
put people off, so be aware of your audience when deciding whether to use them.

QUIZ FOR CHAPTER 8: NOUNS
For each noun, fill in the plural, the possessive, and the possessive plural (not all
words will have all three), and indicate whether it’s common or proper, and
count or noncount. Feel free to use your dictionary.
Possessive Common Count or

Noun Plural Possessive plural or proper? noncount?
1. star ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
2.
☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
McLain
3.
☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
audience
4. pity ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
5.
☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
octopus
6. runner ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
7. Super
☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
Bowl
8.
☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
Joanna
9. hot
☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
dog
10.
obesity ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

A
bbreviations are shorter—abbreviated—forms of words and phrases. We use a
lot of abbreviations every day to make our language more streamlined and to
avoid having to repeat a long or cumbersome string of words. Sometimes we
even borrow them from other languages: Many abbreviations, from times and
dates to research citations, come from Latin. We also borrow from other
languages to get abbreviations such as KGB and FIFA.
Experts in many fields have their own shorthand—abbreviations they all
understand and don’t need to spell out. But be aware when you are
communicating, especially if you’re conveying specialized information to a
nonspecialist audience, that not everyone will understand certain abbreviations
or interpret them in the same way, so sometimes you’ll need to spell out an
abbreviation at its first mention and note how you’re shortening it.
9.1 Initialisms
Initialisms are abbreviations that use the first letter of each word in the phrase,
with each letter pronounced individually, such as FBI or USA. Articles (see
chapter 7: Determiners), prepositions, and conjunctions usually aren’t included
in the initialism. Initialisms can be in all capital letters, such as NFL and MRI, or
lowercase, like e.g. Sometimes they include periods and sometimes they don’t.
And sometimes they can be rendered several ways, such as 8 AM, 8 A.M., 8 a.m.,
and 8 am. Check your designated style guide for whether you should use
periods.
Initialisms are sometimes called acronyms (see next section), but technically
they’re not because acronyms are pronounced as a word rather than as individual
letters.

INITIALISMS
Match each initialism with the full word or phrase.
1. talk to you later MLB
2. Major League Baseball ROI
3. id est (that is) ttyl
4. mixed martial arts i.e.
5. return on investment MMA

1. ttyl
2. MLB
3. i.e.
4. MMA
5. ROI
9.2 Acronyms
Acronyms, like initialisms, are abbreviations that use the first letter of each word
in the phrase. Unlike initialisms, they’re pronounced as a word rather than a
series of letters, such as CAT scan. Acronyms are usually written in all capital
letters, such as UNICEF and NASCAR, but sometimes, when they become a part
of the mainstream language, they turn lowercase, like radar and snafu (look it
up). Also, some style guides require that longer acronyms have only the first
letter capitalized, such as Unicef and Nascar.
ACRONYMS
Give the acronym for each full word or phrase.
1. President of the United States
2. Museum of Modern Art
3. Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program
4. science, technology, engineering, and math
5. sound navigation and ranging

1. POTUS
2. MOMA
3. SNAP
4. STEM
5. sonar
9.3 Shortened and Clipped Forms

Sometimes a word is so long that we need to shorten it. Or sometimes it’s not
that long at all but we shorten it anyway, so it will take only a sec. Isn’t that fab?
Maybe I’ll write about that on my blog. I’ll need a pic to go with it.
Shortened or clipped forms aren’t always ultra-casual, though—some short
forms are so common that we don’t always realize they’re short for something,
like memo for memorandum or flu for influenza. But sometimes multiple words
shorten the same way, so when you’re writing, make sure it’s clear from context
what you’re talking about.
SHORTENED AND CLIPPED FORMS

Match the clipped form with the full word or phrase.
1. quadriceps veggie
2. vegetable quads
3. veteran vet
4. quadruplets
5. veterinarian
6. vegetarian

1. quads
2. veggie
3. vet
4. quads
5. vet
6. veggie
9.4 Portmanteaus
Portmanteaus are mash-up words, formed by combining two words into one.
Sometimes they’re funny and slangy, such as adorkable (dorky + adorable) and
bootylicious (booty + delicious), and sometimes they go mainstream, such as
motel (motor + hotel) and webinar (web + seminar). Many are tech-based, such
as malware (malicious + software) and modem (modulator + demodulator).
Fun fact: A portmanteau is also a big suitcase, and we can credit author
Lewis Carroll with the meaning expansion. One of his characters describes
nonsense words as “like a portmanteau—there are two meanings packed up into
one word.”
PORTMANTEAUS
Combine the two words into a familiar portmanteau.
1. shopping + alcoholic = ______________________________
2. math + athlete = _____________________
3. mock + documentary = _________________________________
4. Labrador retriever + poodle = ____________________________
5. spoon + fork = __________________________________

1. shopaholic
2. mathlete
3. mockumentary
4. labradoodle
5. spork
9.5 Pluralizing Abbreviations
As with pluralizing nouns (see section 8.6), add -s to make an abbreviation
plural: That store sells used video games, CDs, and DVDs. Some style guides
still say to add apostrophe-s to make a plural, but most mass communication
style guides and some academic ones don’t. Check to make sure.
Even if the final letter in the abbreviation is not for the word that would be
made plural, add the -s to the end anyway: The state AGs (attorneys general) are
meeting in Nashville. Cabrera already has 50 RBIs (runs batted in) this season.
PLURALIZING ABBREVIATIONS
Make each abbreviation plural.
1. RFP
2. doc
3. PB&J
4. cockapoo
5. MVP

1. RFPs
2. docs
3. PB&Js
4. cockapoos
5. MVPs

QUIZ FOR CHAPTER 9: ABBREVIATIONS
Identify the type of abbreviation in each sentence.
1. Three NGO workers were killed in the bombing.

initialism
acronym
clipped form
portmanteau
2. We went scuba diving on our trip to the Bahamas.

initialism
acronym
clipped form
portmanteau
3. The company had its first female CEO two decades before anyone else in
the industry.
initialism
acronym
clipped form
portmanteau
4. We’re all meeting for brunch at 10 a.m. Sunday.

initialism
acronym
clipped form
portmanteau
5. The menu has lots of pasta dishes: spaghetti, penne, lasagna, etc.
initialism
acronym
clipped form
portmanteau
6. She got an MBA after graduating with a sociology degree.
initialism
acronym
clipped form
portmanteau
7. They’re saving money, so this summer they just did a staycation.
initialism
acronym
clipped form
portmanteau
8. The kids play basketball every Tuesday at the rec center.

initialism
acronym
clipped form
portmanteau
9. Did you know that Moscow was founded in 1147 CE?

initialism
acronym
clipped form
portmanteau
10. The USA PATRIOT Act was passed shortly after the 9/11 attacks.
initialism
acronym
clipped form
portmanteau
11. Each candidate is getting support from numerous PACs.
initialism
acronym
clipped form
portmanteau
12. Superhero movies have become much more popular than rom-coms.
initialism
acronym
clipped form
portmanteau
13. Her senior film project was a docudrama about cactus hunters.
initialism
acronym
clipped form
portmanteau
14. Their French lit final involves reading passages and identifying the authors.
initialism
acronym
clipped form
portmanteau
15. They’ve petitioned to make that a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

initialism
acronym
clipped form
portmanteau

P
ronouns, as mentioned in chapter 3, stand in for a noun or noun phrase. They
have a few more specific uses as well, such as asking questions, showing when a
noun is unknown or undetermined, pointing things out, and introducing relative
clauses. The noun a pronoun stands in for is called the antecedent.
10.1 Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns don’t just refer to people: They stand in for people or things
and carry with them information about first, second, or third person (see section
6.2); singular or plural number (see section 6.3); and case (see section 10.2).
They have subject, object, possessive (see section 10.3), and reflexive (see
section 10.5) forms.
10.1.1 SINGULAR “THEY”
Although they is traditionally plural, it’s been used as a singular for centuries
when the antecedent is an unknown or generic person, as in If anyone calls, tell
them I’ll be back in 15 minutes. Shakespeare used it, Jane Austen used it, even
the King James Bible used it.
As singular they has become more accepted in the mainstream—newspapers
and popular magazines use it, and even some usage guides are giving it the
stamp of approval—some people still insist that a singular antecedent must
always have a singular pronoun. (It’s interesting that no one argues we should
use only thou and thee instead of singular you.) But singular they is here because
we need it, and it’s staying because we use it and understand it. Singular they is a
more inclusive choice than using he to refer to a generic person, and a less
clunky choice than using he or she throughout a piece of writing.
If it happens that you are writing in a highly formal context, or for a boss or
teacher who’s a real stickler, the easiest way around using they as a singular is to
use it as a plural: Instead of writing Each new hire must pick up his or her ID on
the first day, just make the subject plural: All new hires must pick up their IDs on
the first day. This doesn’t always work, but it does the trick most of the time and
keeps the sentence smooth and inclusive.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Mark the personal pronoun in each sentence.
1. Oh, say can you see by the dawn’s early light?
2. One day she just up and left.
3. I don’t want to live in Alabama.
4. If Marco doesn’t get here soon, we are going to be late.
5. Can Grandpa see them from here?

1. you
2. she
3. I
4. we
5. them
10.2 Subject and Object Pronouns

Some personal pronouns plus the pronoun who have different forms depending
on their “case”—that is, whether they’re subjects or objects. Some languages,
such as German, Latin, and Russian, have multiple cases—and multiple forms—
for each noun, pronoun, and adjective that show their role in the sentence.
English has lost those case differences except for a handful of pronouns. Also,
we’re down to just subject and object forms—regardless of whether a pronoun is
a direct object, an indirect object, or the object of a preposition, the object form
is the same.
Trouble usually occurs in two spots: (1) when people use an object pronoun
in a subject spot, such as Me and Jake went out for coffee, which should be Jake
and I (word order is a convention of English but not a grammatical rule; using I
for a subject is a grammatical rule), and (2) when people use a subject pronoun
in an object spot, such as The teacher asked Hayley and I to do the problem on
the board, which should be Hayley and me. The way to determine which
pronoun you need is to look at the pronoun alone: Me went out for coffee? No, I
went. The teacher asked I to do the problem? No, the teacher asked me. It’s
immediately clear when you take pronouns one at a time. Remember that
between is a preposition and should always have object pronouns.
10.2.1 WHO AND WHOM

Whom is the object form of who, and it’s slowly making an exit from English. In
most informal writing, it’s fine to use who everywhere except directly following
a preposition (the “to whom it may concern” category).
However, in more formal writing you may still need to use whom, so use this
test to determine which one you need: Swap in the pronoun he or him and see
which one makes sense. If it’s he, use who, and if it’s him, use whom (easy to
remember because both end in m). For example: The new director, _____ we all
think is a good leader, will arrive next month. We all think he is a good leader?
Yes, so who is the right choice.
Be careful when a who heads up a relative clause (see sections 5.5 and 10.6)
following a preposition: It looks as if it should be an object, but it might not be.
Mistakes frequently pop up in sentences such as this: Give the envelope to
whomever is working the front desk. The he/him test still works: Him is working
the front desk? No, he is working, so whoever is correct here.
When in doubt, use who—you may be wrong, but almost no one will notice,
and it’s better than being wrong and pretentious with a misplaced whom.
10.2.2 EXCEPTIONS TO SUBJECT/OBJECT DISTINCTION

With linking verbs (see section 6.7), the predicate is not an object but a
complement, and so a pronoun technically should be a subject pronoun. But
most US speakers, in constructions such as It’s me or That’s her, use the object
form. The subject form is so unusual that it sounds stuffy or even incorrect, and
the object form is so common that it’s accepted as standard, so know that it’s fine
to say It’s only us.
SUBJECT AND OBJECT PRONOUNS

Mark the correct pronoun in each sentence.
1. The manager gave Barry and she / her extra work to do because I was
out sick.
2. They were planning a party for his cousin and he / him.
3. I was startled when the doorbell rang at midnight, but relieved when it
was just they / them on the porch.
4. The ship’s captain, who / whom the crew said was capricious and cruel,
was eager to reach the island.
5. Just between you and I / me, the potato salad smells a bit funny.

1. her
2. him
3. them
4. who
5. me
10.3 Possessives
Personal pronouns have two possessive forms: possessive pronouns and
possessive adjectives. Pronouns stand alone: That seat is mine. Adjectives
precede a noun: That is my seat. Refer to the table in section 10.1 for all the
personal pronoun forms.
The most common mistake with possessive pronouns and adjectives is to add
apostrophes. Although possessive nouns (see section 8.2) are formed with
apostrophes, possessive pronouns aren’t. If you see an apostrophe with a
pronoun, it should be a contraction, so say it as two words. If the sentence
doesn’t make sense, then you have the wrong form. For example: It’s name is
Tigger. It is name is Tigger? No, so you want its, with no apostrophe.
POSSESSIVES
Mark the correct pronoun form in each sentence.
1. You’re / Your hair looks terrific!
2. You can’t take that dog—he’s ours / our’s.
3. Her uncles sold their / they’re / there farm in Missouri.
4. Have you met that new friend of her’s / hers?
5. I hear its / it’s supposed to snow tonight.
1. Your
2. ours
3. their
4. hers
5. it’s (= it is)
10.4 Pronoun Agreement

A pronoun needs to “agree” with its antecedent in number just as a verb agrees
with its subject (see section 5.2). This means that a singular noun gets a singular
pronoun, and a plural noun gets a plural pronoun.
The most common trouble spot with this is when we have a singular noun
that includes multiple people, such as band, audience, and organization. In
British English, these nouns take plural verbs and pronouns, even though they’re
singular. But in US English, they take singular verbs and singular pronouns.
People don’t usually use a plural verb with a word such as business (The
business is growing) but they often stick in a plural pronoun (The business is
expanding their product line). This is no big deal in conversation, but when
you’re writing formally or professionally, stick to singular pronouns.
PRONOUN AGREEMENT
1. The new restaurant is having their / its grand opening on Saturday.
2. Under the new curriculum, students will fulfill six requirements through
his or her / their coursework, regardless of major.
3. The team ended their / its five-game losing streak on Sunday.
4. The players are rested and ready for their / its game tomorrow.
5. The international conglomerate is building their / its new executive
center in the Kansas City area.

1. its
2. their
3. its
4. their
5. its
10.5 Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

Reflexives and intensives—the -self/-selves forms of personal pronouns—look
exactly the same but have different functions.
Reflexive pronouns “reflect” back on the subject, which means that the
subject of the sentence is the antecedent of the pronoun. For example: Serena
bought herself a new car. Here, the indirect object, herself, and the subject,
Serena, are the same person. By definition, reflexive pronouns cannot be used as
subjects, so avoid sentences such as Minerva and myself will present the report
at the meeting (use Minerva and I instead). Reflexives also should not be used as
objects when the object and the subject are different, so avoid sentences such as
The teacher reprimanded Caleb and myself (use Caleb and me instead).
Intensive pronouns emphasize the subject as the doer of the action: I wrote
the poems myself. Against stupidity, the gods themselves contend in vain.
Intensives can occur before or after the verb in the sentence.
REFLEXIVE AND INTENSIVE PRONOUNS

1. The CEO set the deadline for the report her / herself.
2. When Bill and I / me / myself were chosen for the panel, we started
working right away.
3. The children are old enough to read their bedtime stories them /
themselves.
4. Cheri invited Aliyah and I / me / myself to her potluck and asked us to
bring a vegetarian dish.
5. She’s organizing the potluck instead of a throwing a birthday party for
her / herself.

1. herself (intensive)
2. I (subject)
3. themselves (reflexive)
4. me (direct object)
5. herself (reflexive)
10.6 Relative Pronouns

A relative clause (see section 5.4) provides more information about a noun in the
main clause. It is linked to the main clause by a relative pronoun—who/whom,
which, and that. Who and whom (see section 10.2) are preferred for people, and
which and that for things, but it’s not ungrammatical to use that with people. For
example: The Khatibs, who live next door to us, have a pool. The boy that you
saw earlier is their son. The relative pronoun can be a subject or an object in the
relative clause. Here’s an example where it’s an object: Adele Khan, whom you’ll
meet later today, is a potential client.
Relative clauses can be essential or nonessential. Essential clauses are
necessary for the sentence to make sense: Throw away the pencils that have no
erasers. We don’t want all the pencils thrown away, just the ones without erasers
—so that piece of information is essential for the sentence. Nonessential clauses
give “extra bonus information” about the noun. In US English, that is used with
essential clauses and which is used with nonessential clauses. Who is used with
both, and punctuation is what distinguishes them. (For punctuation guidelines,
see section 16.2.) When a relative clause is essential, it’s often, but not always,
okay to drop the relative pronoun and sometimes even a linking verb: The
supplies (that) I need for this project are back-ordered. The officials (who are)
visiting tomorrow will be inspecting the labs.
Relative pronouns can also be possessive; whose is the only possessive form,
used with both people and things. For example: The Schumms, whose house is
on the corner, have lived here since the neighborhood was built. They also have
indefinite (see section 10.9) forms—whoever, whomever, whosever, and
whichever—which are used when you are uncertain or don’t need to be specific.
For example: Whoever spilled coffee all over the break room should clean it up.
That car alarm, whosever it is, is really annoying. (Yes, whosever is a real
word.)

RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Mark the relative pronoun in each sentence.
1. The students who did their homework all did well on the quiz.
2. The parcel, which was left on the front steps, got soaked during the
rainstorm.
3. Carol, whose paintings are on display at the coffee shop, is a talented
watercolorist.
4. The team that has the most points across categories wins the
competition.
5. This cupboard has whichever folder you need.

1. who
2. which
3. whose
4. that
5. whichever
10.7 Demonstratives
Demonstratives point things out and can contrast things or note whether they are
close by or farther away. Like possessives (see section 10.3), demonstratives can
work as pronouns (standing alone) or as adjectives (preceding a noun). The
demonstratives are this, that, these, and those.
This and these usually refer to whatever is closer, in physical distance,
figurative distance, or time. This is the book I was talking about. These plates
are going in the garage sale; those are staying. That and those are usually used
with something more distant (again, literally, figuratively, or temporally): That
house down the street has been on the market for ages. Sometimes the
distinction is extremely fine: I can’t read type of this size would likely imply
you’re looking right at the document; I can’t read type of that size may be trying
to convey the reason you haven’t read it.
DEMONSTRATIVES
In each sentence, identify whether the demonstrative is a pronoun or an
adjective.
1. That’s how we roll.
pronoun adjective
2. This code opens the main door.
pronoun adjective
3. This is my roommate, Sheldon.
pronoun adjective
4. Those people are acting strangely.
pronoun adjective
5. Don’t worry about that.
pronoun adjective

1. pronoun
2. adjective
3. pronoun
4. adjective
5. pronoun
10.8 Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions whose answer is a noun: Who?
What? Which? Whom? Whose? Even when a pronoun is an object in the
sentence, it comes first in a question: What did you see out the window? Who
was in the parking lot? Which car got stolen? Whose car was it? Whom did the
police interview about it?
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
1. Who / Whom / What threw away those papers?
2. Which / Whose / What do you want for dinner tonight?
3. What / Which / Whose time do we need to leave for the seminar?
4. Who / Whom / Whose backpack is that?
5. Which / Who / Whom calendar should I put the meeting on?

1. Who
2. What
3. What
4. Whose
5. Which
10.9 Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns, as the name suggests, do not refer to anything definite—that
is, they don’t have a specific antecedent. They can indicate a nonspecific
quantity (few, some, many, much, etc.) or a general or unspecified thing or person
(someone, anything, anybody, etc.), or include or exclude members of a set (all,
none, either, each, neither, both, etc.).
The main area of trouble with indefinite pronouns is number: Are they
singular or plural? In fact, some are singular (anyone, everybody, something,
each, either, one, etc.), some are plural (both, few, several, many), and some can
be both. The “can be both” ones are all, any, more, most, none, and some.
Whether they’re singular or plural depends on what sort of thing they refer to: If
it’s singular, use a singular verb; if it’s plural, use a plural verb. For example: All
the paint is gone. Here, paint is singular, so use is. But: All the cookies are gone.
Cookies is plural, so use are. Same with none—grammar books once stated that
none must always be singular, but it depends. For example: None of the gluten-
free, vegan pizza was eaten. One pizza, singular. But: None of the gluten-free,
vegan pizzas were eaten. Multiple pizzas, plural.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Mark the correct verb in each sentence. (Don’t overthink it—what “sounds
right” probably is.)
1. Before we go out, let’s make sure our homework is / are done.
2. The square root of nine? Everybody knows / know that!
3. Some of our friends is / are part of that club.
4. Does / Do anyone know the way to Hudson Bay?
5. Both of the hallways leads / lead to the main auditorium.

1. is
2. knows
3. are
4. Does
5. lead
10.10 Dummy Subjects

Another use of pronouns is as “dummy subjects,” which is when you have a
pronoun working grammatically as the subject of a sentence—such as It is, It
appears, There is/are, and This is—but it’s a placeholder instead of the main
information of the sentence.
Dummy subjects are grammatical, and sometimes even required, as in
weather expressions like It’s raining or It’s supposed to snow tomorrow, but
often they’re overly wordy and add an unnecessary complexity to a sentence.
Sometimes they’re a sign of a vague passive-voice sentence (see section 6.6).
Dummy subjects delay the real subject, shifting information away from the front
of a sentence. This shift isn’t always bad, but in most cases, starting with the true
subject makes a clearer, more concise sentence. For example, There were
thousands of screaming fans packing the arena would be stronger as Thousands
of screaming fans packed the arena. Notice that the verb may need an
adjustment when you take out a dummy subject, usually turning a participle into
a true verb (here, packing into packed).
Use there is when the complement is singular and there are when it’s plural:
There is no reason for you to be afraid. There are several typos on this menu.
But sometimes a dummy subject is the best choice: Perhaps a transition is
smoother with one, or a demonstrative shows emphasis, or rhetorically a dummy
subject is more effective. Who among us would rewrite Austen’s “It is a truth
universally acknowledged” or Dickens’s “It was the best of times, it was the
worst of times”?
DUMMY SUBJECTS
Rewrite each sentence without using a dummy subject.
1. It is Venice where they want to go on their honeymoon.
2. There was one factor that was ignored by proponents of the plan, and
that was unintended water contamination.
3. After the storm, there were a number of houses and businesses that
reported damage.
4. It is suggested on the writing website that writers should avoid using
dummy subjects.
5. It is the consensus of experts that direct, concise sentences are easier to
understand.

1. They want to go to Venice on their honeymoon.
2. One factor was ignored by proponents of the plan: unintended water
contamination.
3. After the storm, a number of houses and businesses reported damage.
4. The writing website suggests that writers should avoid using dummy
subjects.
5. Experts agree that direct, concise sentences are easier to understand.

QUIZ FOR CHAPTER 10: PRONOUNS
For questions 1–18, mark the correct answer.
1. Whose / Who’s / Whom’s new phone is that?
2. I like to think I judge a book by its / it’s content instead of its / it’s cover.
3. Susan and I / me made dessert.

4. We know they / them won first place, but we think we did better.
5. Please hand your ticket to John or I / me when you are ready to go in.
6. We plan to vote for the politician who / whom best represents our interests.
7. The director is the person to who / whom Laura was referring.
8. Give it to the person who / whom needs it the most.
9. Be sure to tell Nicola or I / me where we’re meeting Saturday.
10. The jazz band and the dance ensemble had its / their annual joint concert
last weekend.
11. Does / Do anyone need to use the restroom?

12. After the merger, the company moved its / their headquarters out of state.
13. Both of her sisters lives / live in Chicago.

14. Who / Whom is going to the poetry reading tonight?
15. Did you remember your / you’re passport?

16. The tour group told Rachel and I / me / myself all about the flight delay.
17. Everyone in the group was / were exhausted and just wanted to sleep.
18. Sam and I / me / myself have solos in the upcoming performance.
For questions 19–25, match the pronoun with its category. (Some might match
with more than one category!)
possessive
19. he
20. themselves interrogative
21. who personal
indefinite
22. that
relative
23. anyone
24. what demonstrative
reflexive
25. your

A
djectives describe, or modify, a noun, and usually answer the question “what
kind?” or “which one?” Adjectives usually come before a noun, as in a pretty
sunset. But they can be part of a predicate with a linking verb, as in The sunset is
pretty, or even come after a noun: We saw a sunset pretty as can be. Adjectives
themselves can be modified by adverbs (see chapter 12), as in surprisingly
pretty.
11.1 Order of Adjectives

Nouns can have more than one adjective modifying them, and there’s a certain
order the adjectives will usually occur in the sentence. Native English speakers
will have no problem with this: A sentence just “sounds weird” if the adjectives
are out of place. But if you aren’t a native speaker, or are just curious, here is the
order for English (it varies by language):
1. Number (either a specific number or an indefinite quantifier like “some”)

2. Quality, value, or opinion (good, bad, ugly, delicious, cheap, etc.)
3. Size (literally or figuratively—big, small, etc.)
4. Temperature (literally or figuratively—hot, cold, etc.)
5. Age (old, new, etc.)
6. Shape (round, square, pear-shaped, etc.)
7. Color (blue, green, etc.)
8. Origin (can be a country/region or time period)
9. Material (wooden, cloth, stone, etc.)
So we would have four Amish wooden chairs, or sturdy big white chairs, or
four sturdy big white Amish wooden chairs. If the noun happens to be a
compound, like “dining chairs,” the compounding adjective is closest to the
noun: four sturdy big white Amish wooden dining chairs.
Not surprisingly, you will occasionally come across exceptions to this order,
such as big bad wolf. See section 16.4.5 for guidelines on when to use commas
to separate lists of adjectives, as in a friendly, welcoming place and a frustrating,
exhausting day.
ORDER OF ADJECTIVES
Rewrite each phrase with the list of adjectives in the correct order.
1. new / black / expensive dress
2. green / little / several aliens
3. stinking / hot / big mess
4. Russian / colorful / wooden toy
5. fluffy / three / white kittens

1. expensive new black dress
2. several little green aliens
3. big hot stinking mess
4. colorful Russian wooden toy
5. three fluffy white kittens
11.2 Comparatives and Superlatives
Comparative adjectives are used to compare two nouns: He is bigger, faster,
and stronger than his brother, but his brother is more handsome and more
sophisticated. Use comparatives only when you have two people or two things to
compare. Comparatives are formed in one of two ways: By adding -er or by
putting more in front of the adjective. Generally, short words become
comparative with -er and longer ones with more, but, because this is English,
there are lots of exceptions, and some words use both formations: For example,
you’ve probably run into both stupider and more stupid.
Superlative adjectives are used to show the “most adjective” item in a
group. These are the best, worst, biggest, smallest, “most” whatever noun you
have. The group can be small: Of their three daughters, Betty is the oldest. Or it
can be large: They built the most expensive hotel in the world. Superlatives are
formed in a similar way to comparatives: by adding -est or by putting most in
front of the adjective.
Some adjectives, including the common ones good, bad, far, little, and much,
have irregular comparatives and superlatives (good / better / best and so on).
Most dictionaries give the comparative and superlative forms, so when in doubt,
look it up.
COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES
Fill in the comparative and superlative forms of each adjective. Use a

dictionary if you need to.
Adjective Comparative Superlative
1. fuzzy ________________ ________________

2. blue ________________ ________________
3. ancient ________________ ________________
4. bad ________________ ________________
5. eminent ________________ ________________

1. fuzzy, fuzzier, fuzziest
2. blue, bluer, bluest
3. ancient, more ancient, most ancient
4. bad, worse, worst
5. eminent, more eminent, most eminent
11.3 Proper Adjectives

When proper nouns (see section 8.7) get an adjective form or are themselves
used as adjectives, the result is proper adjectives: French literature, Texas toast,
a Herculean task, a Kafkaesque experience. Just like proper nouns, these are
capitalized.
11.4 Compound Adjectives

We saw above how adjectives can stack up in a particular order, but sometimes
two or more words combine to form a compound adjective that expresses a
single descriptive concept, such as life-threatening injuries or stand-up comedy.
Compound adjectives are often hyphenated (for more on hyphens, see section
16.2.1), except for adjective-adverb combinations where the adverb ends in -ly: a
poorly timed announcement; barely audible instructions. Pairings with most
adverbs that don’t end in -ly do take a hyphen: a well-known author; a much-
anticipated renovation.
Longer phrases or common expressions used as adjectives sometimes appear
in quotation marks instead of being hyphenated: a “light bulb” moment, a
“punch in the gut” piece of news.
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES
Change each phrase into a compound adjective.
1. an opportunity that comes once in a lifetime →
a __________________ opportunity
2. negotiations at a high level →
____________________ negotiations
3. the owner of a small business →
the ________________owner
4. skills in speech writing →
_______________________ skills
5. a signal from ship to shore →
a ____________________signal

1. a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity
2. high-level negotiations
3. the small-business owner
4. speech-writing skills
5. a ship-to-shore signal
11.5 Indefinite Adjectives

Indefinite adjectives, similar to indefinite pronouns (see section 10.9), modify a
noun to indicate a nonspecific quantity (few, some, several, many, etc.) or to
include or exclude members of a set (all, any, each, every, no, both, etc.). The
difference between indefinite pronouns and indefinite adjectives—the same
word is often used for both—is that the pronouns stand alone and the adjectives
come before a noun: some say (pronoun) versus some people say (adjective).
11.6 Intensifiers
Some adverbs (see chapter 12), called intensifiers—words such as really, very,
pretty, fairly, quite, and so on—indicate how much of an adjective’s quality the
noun has. Intensifiers are common in speech but should be used sparingly in
writing because without verbal and visual cues from a speaker, they’re often so
vague they are meaningless. The famous newspaper editor William Allen White
had a directive in the style guide for his paper, the Emporia Gazette: “Very: If
you must use this word, the Boss says to make it read ‘damn.’ Then the copy
editor will be sure to spot it and kill it.”
If you find yourself writing with intensifiers, stop and think about whether
you could use a stronger adjective instead: Really big? How about huge? Very
tasty? How about delicious? You won’t always be able to do it, but even doing it
some of the time will make your writing clearer and more interesting.

INTENSIFIERS
Match each intensifier + adjective with the single adjective that shares its
meaning.
1. a rather pretty bracelet soaked
2. an extremely small chance lovely
3. a pretty ordinary film thunderous
4. really wet shoes mediocre
5. a very loud crowd minuscule

1. rather pretty / lovely
2. extremely small / minuscule
3. pretty ordinary / mediocre
4. really wet / soaked
5. very loud / thunderous

QUIZ FOR CHAPTER 11: ADJECTIVES
For questions 1–8, number the adjectives according to their order.
At the bazaar, she bought … scarves.
1. ___ French
2. ___ little
3. ___ triangular
4. ___ two
5. ___ silk
6. ___ old
7. ___ green
8. ___ gorgeous
For questions 9–15, form an appropriate comparative or superlative from the

underlined adjective.
9. Darren is fast, but he’s not the __________________ runner on the squad.
10. Natasha looks young for her age, but her sister looks __________________.
11. They told us it wasn’t that far off the road, but it’s __________________
than we thought.
12. Nick is smart; in fact, he’s one of the __________________ people I know.
13. This meeting is important, but the call I have to take is
_________________.
14. She loves Key West because it’s so peaceful. She says it’s the
_________________ place she’s visited.
15. The hummus here is good, but the baba ghanoush is even
__________________.
For questions 16–20, identify what kind of adjective the underlined word is.
16. The team got involved in a no-holds-barred barroom brawl.

comparative
superlative
proper
compound
indefinite
17. Their younger daughter, Jessica, is starting a graduate program.

comparative
superlative
proper
compound
indefinite
18. The German chocolate cake was the first one gone.
comparative
superlative
proper
compound
indefinite
19. Any coat left in the library will be turned in to the main office.
comparative
superlative
proper
compound
indefinite
20. This year’s race raised the most money ever.

comparative
superlative
proper
compound
indefinite

A
dverbs, as introduced in chapter 3, modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs,
usually answering questions of time (“when?”), location (“where?”), manner
(“how?”), or degree or quality (“how much?”)
I put the groceries there. (location)
Let’s leave soon. (time)
We drove carefully down the icy road. (manner)
Her designs are stunningly beautiful. (degree)
Adverbs are often formed by adding -ly to an adjective, such as quickly and
beautifully, but not all adverbs end in -ly (such as well) and not all words ending
in -ly are adverbs (for example, costly, deadly, and neighborly are all adjectives).
Some words have the same forms for adjectives and adverbs, such as fast, hard,
and early. Occasionally an adjective generates two adverb forms with different
meanings—for instance, right gives us both right (as in correctly: Make sure you
spell her name right) and rightly (as in properly or appropriately: He rightly
brought up that we couldn’t vote without a quorum).
Like adjectives (see section 11.2), adverbs can have comparative and
superlative forms: Harry speaks Chinese more fluently than we expected.
Claudia plays the piano better than her brother does. The colors in Jo’s painting
shone the most brightly. The vast majority of comparative and superlative
adverbs are formed with “more” and “most,” though some common ones (such
as better/best and worse/worst) have specific forms.
A piece of advice often given in writing guides is to avoid adverbs or strictly
limit them. Adverbs are perfectly grammatical and necessary in writing, but be
careful about overusing adverbs or using an adverb plus a verb or an adjective
when a stronger verb or adjective would be better (see section 11.6).
12.1 Conjunctive Adverbs
This type of adverb helps provide a transition between two ideas. It can start a
sentence or join a phrase or a clause to a sentence: The summer has been
extremely dry. Consequently, we’ve had very few mosquitoes. Common
conjunctive adverbs are therefore, however, moreover, nevertheless, likewise,
thus, and also.
If a conjunctive adverb comes in the middle of a sentence joining two
clauses, it’s usually preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma: She said
she wanted to study in Prague; indeed, she’s going in the spring. We wanted to
change the timeline of the project; however, we were overruled.
12.2 Sentence Adverbs

Some adverbs come at the beginning of a sentence and modify the whole
sentence: Generally, we place completed requisition forms in this box. Frankly,
my dear, I don’t give a damn. Seriously, did no one reorder printer toner? They
are usually followed by a comma.
Modifying a sentence is a legitimate use of adverbs. You should know,
though, that there’s a long-standing peeve about the adverb “hopefully” being
used as a sentence adverb meaning I hope or we hope (instead of in a hopeful
manner, despite the fact that the I hope sense is several centuries old). For
decades, usage manuals and style guides advised against hopefully as a sentence
adverb (the Associated Press Stylebook lifted its prohibition on this use of
hopefully only in 2012). Be aware that many people—some of whom will be
reading and evaluating your writing—still have it in their heads that a sentence
with hopefully is wrong, even though it’s not, so think about your audience
before you use it.

QUIZ FOR CHAPTER 12: ADVERBS
Mark the adverb in the sentence and then indicate what type of adverb it is.
1. Bob passionately collects Harley-Davidson memorabilia.

time
location
manner
degree
conjunctive
sentence
2. The zombies furiously attacked the abandoned airport.

time
location
manner
degree
conjunctive
sentence
3. Though written well, the essay was riddled with factual errors.
time
location
manner
degree
conjunctive
sentence
4. Alex gave an excellent answer in class yesterday.
time
location
manner
degree
conjunctive
sentence
5. You should be extremely careful when handling fireworks.
time
location
manner
degree
conjunctive
sentence
6. Apparently, they left because their son was sick.

time
location
manner
degree
conjunctive
sentence
7. Matthew rejected the revisions. Nevertheless, the journal will publish his
report.
time
location
manner
degree
conjunctive
sentence
8. If we want to make it to the game on time, we need to leave now.

time
location
manner
degree
conjunctive
sentence
9. We have three deadlines this week; moreover, top management is visiting.

time
location
manner
degree
conjunctive
sentence
10. Fiona is not in her office—she went out.

time
location
manner
degree
conjunctive
sentence

A
s introduced in chapter 3, prepositions connect nouns to other information in the
sentence. Prepositions always have an object (see section 5.3), which is the noun
or pronoun the preposition connects to something else in the sentence.
Prepositional phrases can function like adjectives (see chapter 11), describing
a noun and answering the question “which one?” or “what kind?” They can also
function like adverbs (see chapter 12), modifying a verb, adjective, or other
adverb and giving more information about time, place, manner, or degree.
Common prepositions include in, out, on, off, with, about, between, beside,
along, before, after, at, among, for, to, from, up, down, above, below, under, and
over. Many words that are prepositions are also adverbs, so look for an object to
see whether a word is a true preposition.

QUIZ FOR CHAPTER 13: PREPOSITIONS

Circle the preposition in each sentence and then indicate whether the
prepositional phrase functions like an adjective or adverb.
1. Greta went out the door and met the mail carrier.
adjective adverb
2. The building on the corner burned down.

adjective adverb
3. The message from the kidnappers was untraceable.

adjective adverb
4. The defensive linemen were all sore from yesterday’s practice.
adjective adverb
5. Summoning his courage, Homer ate a ghost chili pepper at the county fair.
adjective adverb
6. Stacey is reading a book about the London sewers.
adjective adverb
7. Employees are supposed to wash their hands after clearing tables.
adjective adverb
8. That hotel is more expensive because it is on the beach.
adjective adverb
9. Even if we drive all day, we won’t make it there before nightfall.

adjective adverb
10. She liked the house with the finished basement better than the others.
adjective adverb

I
f you’ve ever seen the Schoolhouse Rock! cartoon about conjunctions, you’ll
know that they’re for “hooking up words and phrases and clauses.” (If you
haven’t seen it, it’s on the Internet—earworm warning.) Conjunctions link
elements of a sentence, and they can do this in several ways.
14.1 Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are the most common kind of conjunction. They
simply join two or more similar elements of a sentence: words, phrases, or
clauses.
We bought tomatoes, squash, and zucchini at the market. (words are joined)
The twins ran out the door and down the street. (phrases are joined)
Lift the cover but don’t press the red button. (clauses are joined)
Remember the coordinating conjunctions with the acronym FANBOYS: for,

and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
14.2 Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions come in pairs: both … and, either … or, neither … nor,
not … but, not only … but also, and whether … or. The important thing to
remember with correlative conjunctions is that the structure of the linked
elements must be parallel (see section 5.9). For example, if one of the pair
introduces a prepositional phrase, the other should too: Max and Muffin left
muddy paw prints not only on the kitchen floor but also in the dining room.
14.3 Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions go at the beginning of a clause—in the process
creating a subordinate clause—and link that subordinate clause to another clause
(see section 5.5). Often, subordinating conjunctions help explain time sequence,
actions, results, and if/then conditional situations.
Now that you’re here, can you help with dinner? (time)
Because we burnt the lasagna, we ordered pizza. (result)
I can bring a dessert if someone else brings a salad. (conditional)
Common subordinating conjunctions include before, after, as, if, even if, now
that, once, although, though, as long as, unless, until, when, where, and while.
Some subordinating conjunctions, often ones having to do with time and
place, can have adverbs modify them: Just before your email came, I was
thinking of calling you. She used to live right where the tornado hit.

QUIZ FOR CHAPTER 14: CONJUNCTIONS

Mark the conjunction in each sentence, then indicate what type of conjunction it
is.
1. Bill gets annoyed whenever Sheila plays Nickelback songs.

coordinating correlative subordinating
2. The Hardy Boys and Nancy Drew books are children’s classics.
3. Both the students and the faculty agreed that the policy had to change.
4. Do you want to study for your chemistry test or history quiz first?
5. He was astounded that Phish could not only improvise for 20 minutes but
also make it interesting. coordinating correlative subordinating
6. She decided to continue the relationship even though he watched Real
Housewives a bit too much for her taste.
7. Wherever I go in the summer, I always get bug bites.

8. Neither rain nor snow interrupts mail delivery by the US Postal Service.
9. “The cat can stay,” he said, “but I’m going.”
10. She gave me instructions to complete the assignment, so I followed them.


A
s mentioned in chapter 3, interjections are outbursts that indicate strong emotion
—joy, anger, surprise, disappointment, and so on—or give a warning, such as
Stop! They’re also used to get someone’s attention, as in Hey!
Interjections can stand alone or be part of a sentence. If it requires an
exclamation point or can be replaced by text abbreviations (such as lol or OMG)
or emoji, you may have an interjection.

QUIZ FOR CHAPTER 15: INTERJECTIONS

Mark the interjection in each sentence.
1. Wow! This food is really spicy.
2. Yikes, that was too close for comfort.

3. They tried to enter the studio but she said, “Whoa, you can’t go in there!”
4. She saw the damage to her car and thought, “Oh, no, I can’t afford this.”
5. I was walking down the street and then blam! The tree fell onto a delivery
truck.
6. You’re going to Paris? Awesome!
7. Holy cow, that storm last night was bad.
8. Wait! You have to turn it on first.
9. The quiz is postponed—yay!
10. We’ve had so much rain that my yard is full of mushrooms, yuck.

P
unctuation marks are like road signs: They show readers where to go as they’re
reading. If punctuation is missing or wrong, readers can get lost.
16.1 End-of-Sentence Punctuation
Periods (.), question marks (?), and exclamation points (!) are how we end
sentences. Most people don’t have much trouble with these, but two stylistic
points should be noted.
After a period, put one space before the next sentence. The standard used to
be two spaces, back when everyone used manual typewriters and computer
typesetting didn’t exist. Now, computers automatically adjust the spacing so we
don’t need to type two spaces anymore.
Avoid exclamation points in formal writing: essays, reports, research papers,
proposals, executive summaries, and so on. You may need to use exclamation
points in electronic communication—even professional electronic
communication—so as not to look mad or curt, but when you do, use only one
and make sure it’s appropriate.
END-OF-SENTENCE PUNCTUATION
Add the appropriate punctuation mark at the end of each sentence.
1. What are you doing tonight
2. The sale starts at midnight
3. That foul ball is going to hit us—duck
4. Maybe Rodriguez will autograph it for you after the game
5. Do you think I should ask him

1. ? (question mark)
2. . (period)
3. ! (exclamation point)
4. . (period)
5. ? (question mark)
16.2 Joining Punctuation

Hyphens and apostrophes are two punctuation marks that join words.
16.2.1 HYPHENS
Hyphens join compound adjectives (see section 11.4) and are sometimes used
with prefixes and suffixes. Some people love hyphens for their clarity; others
think they clutter up a piece of writing. Reasonable people can disagree on this
point, so it’s always good to check your dictionary and stylebook to see what
they say.
Hyphens can distinguish constructions such as heavy equipment operator (an
equipment operator who is heavy) and heavy-equipment operator (an operator of
heavy equipment), and 30-odd professors (around 30 professors) and 30 odd
professors (a convocation of eccentric educators).
A good guideline for whether to hyphenate a compound adjective is to
hyphenate if the modifying words are different parts of speech: mixed-up world,
frost-free refrigerator, sit-in protest, grass-fed cattle. If each word modifies the
next, or if two words are so commonly used together that they act as one, no
hyphen is necessary: oddly shaped room, hot dog bun, high school musical. Let
clarity be your ultimate guide. And be consistent.
Use suspensive hyphenation when you want to get rid of a word to tighten
up a sentence with two repetitive hyphenated constructions. You can drop the
first instance of the repeated word but leave the hyphen: InterCall is a global
voice- and video-conferencing operation.
16.2.2 APOSTROPHES
Probably the most commonly misused piece of punctuation, the apostrophe has
clear rules governing its use:
■ Apostrophes are used for possessive nouns (see section 8.2): the cat’s meow,
the book’s title, Margaret’s laptop.
■ Apostrophes are used for contractions (see section 4.4): it’s raining, you’re
wet, don’t go.
■ Apostrophes are not used for possessive pronouns (see sections 4.5 and
10.3): your book, their house, its place.
■ Apostrophes are not used for plural nouns: tacos, professors, moms.
Expressions such as two weeks’ notice and three years’ experience are
typically plural possessives and take an apostrophe. Think about them as notice
of two weeks and experience of three years. The of lets you know it’s possessive
and needs an apostrophe.
JOINING PUNCTUATION
Choose the sentence that is properly punctuated.
1.
a. That building’s foundation is concrete.
b. That buildings foundation is concrete.
c. That buildings’ foundation is concrete.
2.
a. It’s about time you got here.
b. Its about time you got here.
3.
a. The two restaurants parking spaces should be divided evenly
between them.
b. The two restaurant’s parking spaces should be divided evenly
between them.
c. The two restaurants’ parking spaces should be divided evenly
between them.
4.
a. We were ready to leave on a seven-day road trip, then the tornado
siren blared.
b. We were ready to leave on a seven day road trip, then the tornado
siren blared.
5.
a. The coalition knew a hearts and minds campaign was key to
success.
b. The coalition knew a hearts- and minds-campaign was key to
success.
c. The coalition knew a hearts-and-minds campaign was key to
success.

1. a
2. a
3. c
4. a
5. c
16.3 Dividing Punctuation
Colons, semicolons, dashes, parentheses, and quotation marks all serve to set off
some part of a sentence.
16.3.1 COLONS
A colon (:) signals a major break in a sentence and is used to introduce a list, an
explanation or elaboration, or examples, as in She sang about her favorite
things: raindrops, roses, kitten whiskers, and death metal. Material after a colon
may be either a complete sentence or a fragment. Formal letter salutations end
with a colon (To the Editors:).
16.3.2 SEMICOLONS
A semicolon (;) separates two independent but related clauses and elegantly
avoids a comma splice (see section 16.4.8): Curt works at Macy’s; Katy works at
Nordstrom. If you have a conjunction, you don’t need a semicolon: Curt works
at Macy’s, and Katy works at Nordstrom. The test to see whether you can use a
semicolon is to put a period in the same location. If both sentences can stand
alone, you can use a semicolon.
Semicolons come before a conjunctive adverb (see section 12.1) that falls in
the middle of a sentence: She wanted to plant a garden; in fact, she’s already
dug up a spot in the yard. The governor vetoed the bill; moreover, she warned
lawmakers such a law would have been unconstitutional.
Semicolons are also used for separating elements of a list that themselves
contain commas, so readers clearly see where a new element begins: All she
brought on the plane was a granola bar; a tablet loaded with her favorite games,
music, and apps; and her earbuds.
16.3.3 DASHES
Use a dash (—) to set off descriptive material or a comment or aside within a
sentence. Dashes are particularly useful if that extra material contains commas of
its own or needs more separation: My entire family—Mom, Dad, Jonah, and Liz
—came to watch my spelling bee. Dashes can also signify a sudden turn in the
sentence, or a special emphasis on something at the end: He’d never seen
footprints like this—seven distinct toes. Be mindful not to overuse dashes. Many
times commas will do to set off a short phrase or a single word.
Whether to use spaces on either side of a dash is a matter for your style
guide, but dashes are wider than hyphens, so don’t use a hyphen when you need
a dash.
16.3.4 PARENTHESES
Use parentheses (( )) to set off a tangential piece of information or opinion
within a sentence. Parentheses are best used with a less important fact or a side
comment. Parentheses are also used for citations in some style guides.
16.3.5 QUOTATION MARKS

Quotation marks set off word-for-word quoted material, and they should not be
used simply to indicate emphasis. If you’re using quoted material, use more than
one word, or paraphrase, to avoid looking snarky or doubtful with “scare”
quotes.
Style guides vary, but generally in US English, commas and periods go
inside quotation marks, and colons and semicolons go outside. Question marks
and exclamation points go inside quotation marks if they’re part of the quoted
material and outside if they’re not.
DIVIDING PUNCTUATION
In each sentence, write in the appropriate dividing punctuation mark.
1. Whoever takes over the department ___ whether it’s Mariel, Joe, or
Aisha ___ has a big job.
2. Only one thing is required ___ a sense of humor.
3. She referred to Mencken’s observation, ___ Love is like war: easy to
begin but very hard to stop. ___
4. He said he liked the exhibit ___ Matisse and Van Gogh are his favorite
painters.
5. The restaurant that just opened ___ my neighbor was the owner ___ is
closed already.

1. dashes
2. colon
3. quotation marks
4. semicolon
5. parentheses
16.4 All about Commas
Commas signal a pause or a dividing line in writing. Problems arise because
there are places you must have a comma, places you shouldn’t have a comma,
and places where it’s your choice. Follow these guidelines, but let clarity be your
ultimate guide.
16.4.1 DIRECT ADDRESS

The comma of direct address makes the difference between Let’s eat, people!
and Let’s eat people! Use a comma to set off a person or group being directly
spoken to: one after if the address leads off the sentence, one before if the
addressee is at the end, and one on either side in the middle: Peter, did you get
the memo? I’ve done all my chores, Mom. No, Dan, we were bowling partners.
16.4.2 APPOSITIVES
Appositives are phrases that provide a little extra information about a noun.
They are set off with commas before and after: Freddy, my college roommate, is
having a party next month. Don’t forget the “after” comma—that’s a common
mistake. Dates and places fall into this category: On January 10, 2013, they all
went to Moscow, Idaho, for a family reunion.
16.4.3 NONESSENTIAL CLAUSES

These are “who” or “which” clauses (see sections 5.4 and 10.6) that, like
appositives, give extra information but are not essential to the sentence. They are
set off with commas before and after: The team, which made it to the tournament
in 2012, last won a championship in 2008.
16.4.4 LISTS
Commas are used to separate items in a list: The diner’s specialty is a breakfast
of green eggs, ham, and hash browns. The comma after the second-to-last item
(before the conjunction) is called the serial comma or the Oxford comma. Most
styles in US English call for the serial comma, although Associated Press (AP)
style, which is widely used by news media, says to omit it when it’s not needed
for clarity.
16.4.5 MULTIPLE ADJECTIVES

Some adjectives need to be separated by a comma and some don’t. Here’s how
to tell: If you can reverse the order of two adjectives and the sentence still makes
sense, put a comma between them: His incompetent, cruel boss made him work
Saturdays. His cruel, incompetent boss made him work Saturdays. Both
sentences make sense, so put a comma between the adjectives. If you can’t
switch them, no comma: They work in a big gray building downtown. Gray big
doesn’t work, so no comma should be used (for more on order of adjectives, see
section 11.1).
16.4.6 LEAD-INS
Sentences sometimes start with a phrase or clause that leads into the main clause.
Usually these lead-ins need a comma to separate them from the main clause:
Being a top pick for the team, he tried not to let the attention go to his head.
Read it out loud, and if you pause, put a comma in.
16.4.7 CONJUNCTIONS
Use a comma after a coordinating conjunction (see section 14.1) if both verbs
have a subject: We love hyphens but hate commas (one subject, so no comma)
We love hyphens, but we hate commas (two subjects, so use a comma).
16.4.8 COMMA SPLICE
A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are joined by a comma. If
you can put a period where the comma is and both sentences are complete, you
have a comma splice: The dog eats cat food, the cat won’t touch dog food. To fix
a comma splice, use a period or semicolon instead of a comma, or add a
conjunction after the comma: The dog eats cat food, but the cat won’t touch dog
food.
16.4.9 MORE COMMA TIPS

■ Don’t put a comma after titled or called and before a title: She wrote an
essay called “Peace and War.”
■ Using a comma to set off too is up to you. If you want emphasis, use a
comma.
ALL ABOUT COMMAS

Choose the sentence that is properly punctuated.
1.
a. I have to say, Mary, that you’ve chosen well.
b. I have to say, Mary that you’ve chosen well.
2.
a. The oldest man in the group Mr. Sims, is 103.
b. The oldest man in the group, Mr. Sims, is 103.
3.
a. The building, which was in the earthquake zone, collapsed.
b. The building which was in the earthquake zone, collapsed.
c. The building, which was in the earthquake zone collapsed.
4.
a. Since they left for New York it’s been so quiet.
b. Since they left for New York, it’s been so quiet.
5.
a. They were going to get a new car, but they decided to book a world
cruise instead.
b. They were going to get a new car but they decided to book a world
cruise instead.

1. a
2. b
3. a
4. b
5. a

QUIZ FOR CHAPTER 16: PUNCTUATION
For questions 1–20, choose the properly punctuated sentence.
1.
a. They saw six, old airplanes.
b. They saw six old airplanes.
2.
a. The dog had it’s front leg caught securely in the trap.
b. The dog had its front leg caught securely in the trap.
3.
a. Make sure you’re ready when we get there.
b. Make sure your ready when we get there.
4.
a. He wants pizza, she wants tacos.
b. He wants pizza; she wants tacos.
5.
a. Leave the premises immediately—or else.
b. Leave the premises, immediately or else.
6.
a. I can’t believe, I ate the whole thing.
b. I can’t believe I ate the whole thing.
7.
a. We were ready on time, however the plane was delayed.
b. We were ready on time; however, the plane was delayed.
8.
a. John purchased three items on the grocery list: peas, carrots, and
licorice.
b. John purchased three items on the grocery list: peas; carots; and licorice.
9.
a. I liked Kanye West before he got famous.
b. I liked Kanye West before, he got famous.
10.
a. Do we really need to go there; or can we stay here?
b. Do we really need to go there, or can we stay here?
11.
a. He likes to use the saying, “The darkest hour is right before the dawn.”
b. He likes to use the saying; “The darkest hour is right before the dawn.”
12.
a. Helen Keller once wrote, “Humanity, I am sure, will never be made lazy
or indifferent by an excess of happiness.”
b. Helen Keller once wrote, “Humanity, I am sure will never be made lazy
or indifferent by an excess of happiness.”
13.
a. He found a flashlight and carefully entered the dark attic.
b. He found a flashlight, and carefully entered the dark attic.
14.
a. He writes novels, but she writes poetry.
b. He writes novels but she writes poetry.
15.
a. Carol Ann likes her naive sweet roommate best.
b. Carol Ann likes her naive, sweet roommate best.
16.
a. About 1,500 people turned out for an anti-gang-violence walk on
Saturday.
b. About 1,500 people turned out for an anti-gang violence walk on
Saturday.
17.
a. The calendar app, which you can use on your phone was designed for
busy parents.
b. The calendar app, which you can use on your phone, was designed for
busy parents.
18.
a. The neighborhood kids all think the big brick house is haunted.
b. The neighborhood kids all think the big, brick house is haunted.
19.
a. Our neighbors have an old Ford, and it’s just about to fall apart.
b. Our neighbors have an old Ford, and its just about to fall apart.
20.
a. It’s time to eat kids.
b. It’s time to eat, kids.
For questions 21–25, add the proper punctuation to each sentence.
1. When Brad and Janets car broke down they went to a crumbling ornate
mansion for help met some strange people and were never the same again.
2. Westley joined Fezzik and Inigo to disrupt the princes plans rescue
Buttercup kill the count and live happily ever after.
3. Certification requires a course of study then a practicum working with four
and five year olds.
4. Gerald Halford an infectious disease expert said the outbreak could be easily
contained but the vaccine had to be distributed quickly.
5. The Sanchezes live on the west side their house is next to the Changs.

S
o much writing advice is out there. The Internet is a wonderful thing, but it’s
often hard to tell what advice is legitimate and what is someone’s personal
preference written into a blog post. In this chapter, we’ll start by highlighting
some of the more common tips and end by busting a few grammar myths.
17.1 Word Usage

■ Can versus may: We’ve probably all at some point asked, “Can I go to the
bathroom?” and gotten a snotty “I don’t know, can you?” response. Yes,
traditionally may was used for permission and can for ability, but for
centuries now, can has been encroaching into the permission territory
formerly occupied solely by may. Unless the situation is highly formal
(think: court or church), can is fine for asking permission.
■ Lay versus lie: This is a tough one, because not only are some of the verb
forms the same (lie/lay/lain and lay/laid/laid), the usage is well on its way to
being hopelessly muddled. Who among us hasn’t said, “I’m going to go lay
down”? Don’t sweat this in speech—the grammar police aren’t going to
knock down your door and carry you off—but realize that in writing you still
need to maintain the difference. For now.
So, how to tell which one you need? If you can swap the verb for a form
of sit and the sentence still makes sense, you want lie: The dog is lying on the
rug / The dog is sitting on the rug. If you can swap in put, use lay: I laid the
papers on the table / I put the papers on the table. It’s still tricky, and you
may need to look it up every time.
■ Well versus good: James Brown famously sang “I feel good,” and, despite
what you might have been told, good is fine here. When you have a linking
verb (see section 6.7), the predicate can be a noun or an adjective. Good is an
adjective, so it’s fine. The next time someone asks “How are you?” you’re
being perfectly grammatical if you say, “I’m good, thanks.” Of course,
“well” can also be an adjective, meaning “not ill,” so if you’re in good
health, you can also use “I am well.” Overall, feel as a linking verb takes
adjectives as complements: bad and not badly, happy and not happily, and so
on: I felt bad for them when their dog died. We felt happy at the end of the
movie.
■ Bored of versus bored with versus bored by: All three are in use, but bored of
is the newest and still sounds odd to many people, so it’s probably best to
avoid bored of in professional or formal writing.
■ Go missing: This synonym for disappear came from British English, perhaps
through those delightful BBC detective shows. Some people may object, but
linguistically it’s fine. Use it if you want to.
■ On accident versus by accident: Yes, we do things “on purpose” but they
happen “by accident.” Unless you’re five years old, stick to “by accident.”
■ Brung and ain’t: These are common in some dialects of English but should
be avoided in formal and professional writing, unless you’re writing dialogue
or using figures of speech such as “If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it.”
■ Y’all, you guys, and guys: A funny thing happened when plural you migrated
into the singular spot, displacing thou and thee—we realized we did indeed
need a way to distinguish addressing a group of people from addressing a
single person. So we began using new forms to make the plural clear: y’all
and you guys being the most common in US English. Both are common, but
because most formal and professional writing won’t use the second person
anyway, they probably won’t come up in writing.
Y’all is common enough that it’s almost standard. If you do have
occasion to write it, remember that the apostrophe goes between the y and
the all, since that’s where the missing letters are.
You guys as a form of direct address has largely lost the gendered sense
of guy—it’s common in many parts of the United States to hear women use
you guys to address a group of female friends—but a third person guy as a
man is typical outside of direct address: the “cable guy” is a man, never a
woman.
17.2 When Spell-Check Won’t Help

One benefit of technology is that spell-check and autocorrect keep us from
making typos or misspelling commonly misspelled words like separate and
definitely. This is a good thing, but where you need to be vigilant in writing is
for words spell-check won’t catch: the word that isn’t the word you want but is
still a word.
Homophones—words that sound the same but are spelled differently—are
the main culprit here. If you use affect when you really mean effect, spell-check
won’t catch it. Here are a few of the most commonly confused homophones:
■ Affect versus effect: I use RAVEN to Remember: Affect Verb, Effect Noun.
This isn’t 100 percent effective (each can be a noun or a verb in specific
situations), but it works most of the time in everyday writing.
■ Peak versus peek versus pique: You pEEk with your EyEs. A peak is a
mountain and a capital A looks like a mountain. Pique is much less common,
but it can be a noun (a fit of pique) or a verb (pique your curiosity).
■ Peddle versus pedal: Peddle means to sell, and pedal is what you do on your
bike. There isn’t a nifty trick to remember this one, so if you’re not sure,
look it up.
■ Palette versus palate versus pallet: A palette is what a painter uses or is a
color scheme. Palate is the roof of your mouth or your sense of taste. A
pallet is a thin mat or one of those wooden platforms cargo is shipped on.
There’s also no easy trick with this one, so look it up if you need to.
■ Apart versus a part: Apart is an adverb or a preposition meaning
“separated.” They can never tear us apart. A part is a noun, which means
that if you can drop an adjective between a and part, you want the two-word
version. A (key) part of the plan is civic responsibility. I would love to be a
(new) part of the company.
Rein versus reign: “ReiGn” is what kinGs do; both have a G in them. Reins
■
are for guiding horses, but also have a more figurative sense, like a new
leader “taking the reins” or someone having “free rein.”
■ Compliment versus complement: Compliments are nice things to say—both
have an I—or nice things to get when they are complimentary (free). The
two E’s in complEmEnt complEtE each other, just as colors or angles are
complementary.
■ Compose versus comprise: A whole “comprises” parts: The committee
comprises one person from each department. A whole “is composed of”
parts: The committee is composed of one person from each department.
Nothing “is comprised of” anything. The easiest way to get this one right is
to avoid “comprise” altogether.
17.3 Grammar Conventions

Double negatives—the most famous probably being the Rolling Stones’ “I can’t
get no satisfaction”—are considered nonstandard, so you should avoid them in
writing. The one exception to this is when you have not plus a negative
adjective, such as It’s not uncommon for people to do this.
Double genitives—using of plus a possessive, as in You’re a friend of mine
—despite sounding redundant, are standard.
17.4 Clichés and Wordiness

Clichés are phrases that are so common that they’ve become trite and overused.
They are sometimes appropriate, but if you’re trying to be fresh and original in
your language, it’s better to avoid clichés when you can. Common clichés
include at the end of the day, in the wake of, thinking outside the box, beating a
dead horse, Monday morning quarterback, fight like cats and dogs, not in
Kansas anymore, and so on.
Wordiness often occurs when people try to “sound smart” or express
themselves overly formally. Most of the time wordiness results in your audience
being bored or put off. Clarity never goes out of style, and good speakers and
writers help people understand a subject, whatever it may be. Several practices
can contribute to wordiness.
■ Smothered verbs occur when noun + verb is used instead of a verb that
means the same thing, as in made the decision that instead of decided or
conducted an investigation instead of investigated. Smothered verbs aren’t
wrong grammatically, and sometimes they carry a specific meaning that you
need, but be careful not to overuse them.
■ Redundancy occurs when an idea is repeated unnecessarily, such as join
together instead of just join (which means to bring things together) or a
bright spotlight instead of just a spotlight (spotlights by definition are
bright).
■ Sesquipedalianism means, appropriately enough, “use of long words.”
Although you shouldn’t shy away from a word that is exactly the word you
want, even if it’s long or uncommon, don’t use a big, obscure word when a
shorter, clearer one would mean the same thing, unless you are trying to look
like a show-off.
17.5 Grammar Myths

Over the years, many “rules” have crept into classrooms and usage guides that
have no basis in grammar. These grammar myths persist because some people
like to cling to what Sister Rosemary told them in eighth grade. You can follow
them if you like, but know that they are not real rules of grammar and you can’t
judge others for not following them. Also, it’s probably a better use of your
energy to focus on the content and clarity of your writing.
Myth: You can’t start a sentence with a conjunction.

Fact: You can. Sometimes the best transition is a simple “but.” Don’t overdo it,
though, because it can get tedious.
Myth: You can’t end a sentence with a preposition.

Fact: The sentence “That is the kind of nonsense up with which I will not put” is
a classic example of this rule taken too far. Prepositions in English often work as
adverbs or pair with verbs, which means they may end a sentence naturally. But
even true prepositions don’t always have to be followed by their objects. Write
however it sounds most natural and is clearest to the reader.
Myth: Don’t split infinitives or compound verbs. This means not to put an
adverb between the to and the base verb of an infinitive (see chapter 6: Verbs),
or between auxiliary verbs and the main verb.
Fact: Split away—there’s no basis in English grammar not to put adverbs in the
middle; in fact, a sentence often sounds stilted or unnatural when this “rule” is
applied.
Myth: You shouldn’t use the passive voice.

Fact: Just because a sentence is in the passive voice doesn’t mean it’s wordy or
vague. Sometimes who or what the action is being done to is more important and
should start the sentence.
Myth: Since can’t mean because.

Fact: Since has been documented with the meaning of because since the year
1450.
Myth: Cakes are “done,” but people are “finished.”

Fact: Done has been used to mean finished for centuries, including with people.
Asking someone “Are you done with that?” is fine.

QUIZ FOR CHAPTER 17: USAGE AND STYLE

TIPS
For questions 1–10, choose the best answer. Use a dictionary if you need to.
1. All sorts of artists and crafters peddle / pedal their wares at the festival.
2. They were testing to find out the medicine’s side affects / effects.
3. It’s hard to peddle / pedal a bicycle up that hill.
4. She has a real flair / flare for languages.
5. He wanted to know how the medicine would affect / effect him before he
drove anywhere.
6. The school’s principal / principle is retiring at the end of the year.
7. The green in that wallpaper really compliments / complements the room’s

rug.
8. The color palate / palette / pallet of the designer’s new fall line is warm
and bright.
9. The dogs love to go outside and lay / lie in the grass.
10. Lay / Lie those files in my inbox, please.
For questions 11–15, mark the cliché.
11. Larissa is counting the days until she leaves for Rome.
12. The speech was full of pie-in-the-sky platitudes.
13. Even though it was raining cats and dogs, the parade marched as scheduled.
14. He wasn’t sick, but he spent all weekend lying on the floor like a beached
whale.
15. She studies astrophysics? Well, that’s a horse of a different color.
For questions 16–20, match the wordy expression with a similar, more concise
one.
16. was chosen as the winner of regularly
17. in order to won
18. made the statement that enough
19. a sufficient number of said
20. on a regular basis to
For questions 21–25, match the big word with the shorter, clearer one.
21. effectuate light
22. substantiate require
23. facilitate confirm
24. necessitate achieve
25. illuminate ease, help

GLOSSARY
abbreviation: a shorter form of a word or phrase
acronym: an abbreviation that uses the first letter of each word in a phrase to
spell a pronounceable word
adjective: a part of speech that describes a noun, usually answering the question
“what kind?” or “which one?”
adverb: a part of speech that describes a verb, adjective, or other adverb, usually
answering the question “where?” “when,” “how?” or “why?”
agreement: the grammatical concept that nouns and pronouns and subjects and
verbs have to match each other in number
aspect: a verb quality indicating whether an action is complete or ongoing
auxiliary verb: a form of be, have, or do that combines with other verb forms to
indicate tense, aspect, and mood
clause: a group of words that has both a subject and a predicate
conjugation: the process by which verbs change to indicate tense, person,

number, and aspect
conjunction: a part of speech that joins words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence
determiner: a word that goes with a noun or noun phrase to shape its meaning
direct object: a noun or pronoun that follows an action verb and indicates what
was done
gerund: a verbal form that works like a noun
homophone: a word that is pronounced the same as another word but spelled
differently
imperative: a verb mood that expresses a command
indicative: a verb mood that states a fact, asks a question, or expresses an

opinion
indirect object: a noun or pronoun that indicates the recipient of a direct object
infinitive: the unconjugated to form of a verb
initialism: an abbreviation that uses the first letter of each word in a phrase
interjection: a part of speech that indicates a strong emotional outburst
intransitive verb: a verb that does not have a direct object
linking verb: a “being” verb rather than a “doing” verb
modal: a kind of auxiliary verb that indicates something’s possible, allowed,

suggested, or necessary
noun: a part of speech that indicates people, places, things, ideas, or concepts
number: whether a noun, pronoun, or verb is singular or plural
participle: a verbal form that works like an adjective
phrase: a group of words that work as a unit of meaning and may have a subject
or predicate but not both
portmanteau: a word formed by combining two words into one
possessive: a noun, pronoun, or adjective that indicates belonging to or

association with
predicate: what comes after the subject to finish the sentence: the verb, usually
plus a direct object or subject complement
preposition: a part of speech used to tie nouns to other information in the

sentence
pronoun: a part of speech that stands in for a noun or noun phrase
subject: a noun or pronoun that does, or is, the verb
subject complement: a noun or adjective that comes after a linking verb and
tells more about the subject
subjunctive: a verb mood used for hypothetical and contrary-to-fact situations
tense: a verb quality indicating whether an action happened in the past, present,
or future
transitive verb: a verb that has a direct object
verb: a part of speech that indicates an action or a state of being

FURTHER READING
Grammar advice is everywhere, but sometimes it’s hard to know what’s reliable
or at the level you’re looking for. Here are some resources for further
exploration:
Detailed style and usage manuals:
Garner’s Modern English Usage (fourth edition, 2016) by Bryan A. Garner:

Every serious writer needs this.
The Chicago Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation (2016) by Bryan A.

Garner
Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary of English Usage (1994)
Classic style and usage manuals (that is, some advice may be dated but
interesting from a historical perspective, and much of the information is still
valid):
The Careful Writer (1965) and Dos, Don’ts, and Maybes of English Usage
(1977) by Theodore M. Bernstein
Words on Words (1980) by John B. Bremner: Bremner’s ornery sense of humor

makes even the outdated entries a pleasure to read.
The Elements of Style (fourth edition, 1999) by William Strunk and E. B. White:
This little guide has taken a lot of criticism recently, not because it’s full of bad
advice, but because people take it as gospel instead of guidelines. Start with it;
don’t end with it.
Writers’ guides:
On Writing Well (sixth edition, 1998) by William Zinsser: A classic.
Help! for Writers (2011) by Roy Peter Clark: Steps for getting ideas and putting
drafts together.
The Sense of Style (2014) by Steven Pinker: A guide for making academic and
professional writing more engaging.
Books about language and grammar that aren’t strictly manuals:
Miss Thistlebottom’s Hobgoblins: The Careful Writer’s Guide to the Taboos,

Bugbears, and Outmoded Rules of English Usage (1971) by Theodore M.
Bernstein: A classic; but largely good advice even today.
Lapsing into a Comma (2000), The Elephants of Style (2004), and Yes, I Could
Care Less: How to Be an English Snob Without Being a Jerk (2013) by Bill
Walsh: Walsh’s engaging writing, interesting facts, and practical advice make
these books a delight for anyone interested in usage, grammar, and writing.
The Transitive Vampire (1984) and other grammar books by Karen Elizabeth
Gordon: Fun examples and clear explanations make these books a good way to
romp through some of the finer points of grammar.
Online advice:
Purdue OWL (Online Writing Lab): owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/:

Comprehensive, clear, and reliable.
Common Errors in English Usage: public.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/errors.html: A

huge list of words and phrases that are commonly confused and misused, and
explanations of how to use them correctly.
QUIZ ANSWER KEYS
KEY FOR CHAPTER 3 QUIZ
1. blue / adjective
2. the / determiner
3. Yikes! / interjection
4. bus / noun
5. perform / verb
6. quickly / adverb
7. but / conjunction
8. in / preposition
9. we / pronoun
10. freedom / noun
11. scientists, Alaska, data
12. returned, calculated
13. climatic
14. once
15. from
16. you
17. can’t go, is
18. too
19. hey
20. the, the
1. it’s
2. you’re
3. should’ve
4. didn’t
5. effects (RAVEN: Remember: Affect Verb, Effect Noun)
6. caliber (preferred US spelling)
7. peek (you pEEK with your EyEs—two E’s each)
8. rein (reiGn is what a kinG does—both have a G)
9. scarier
10. puddling
11. ratted
12. armies
13. its (no apostrophe—it doesn’t mean it is)
14. kittens
15. PBS’s
16. your
17. midnight
18. November 19, 1911, (don’t forget the second comma!)
19. $3,000
20. 10,000
21. December
22. your p’s and q’s
23. First
24. ’60s

1. subject
2. relative clause
3. complement
4. prepositional phrase
5. direct object
6. b
7. b
8. c
9. a
10. c
11. independent
12. dependent
13. independent
14. dependent
15. independent
16. d
17. c
18. e
19. a
20. b
21. misplaced modifier (Did the whole staff just get discharged from the
hospital?)
22. nonparallel construction (The last element is not a noun phrase.)
23. misplaced modifier (Who or what is facing a severe budget shortfall?)
24. no error
25. nonparallel construction (The middle element is missing a verb.)
1. a
2. b
3. a
4. b
5. c
6. b
7. d
8. b
9. a
10. c
11. b
12. a
13. b
14. a
15. a
16. a
17. d
18. c
19. b
20. d
21. think
22. thought
23. had; finished
24. were
25. were growing

1. Some / quantifier
2. The / article
3. That / demonstrative
4. Which / interrogative
5. Her / possessive

1. initialism (NGO, short for nongovernmental organization)

2. acronym (scuba, short for self-contained underwater breathing apparatus)
3. initialism (CEO, short for chief executive officer)
4. portmanteau (brunch, short for breakfast + lunch)
5. clipped form (etc., short for et cetera)
6. initialism (MBA, short for master of business administration)
7. portmanteau (staycation, short for stay [home] + vacation)
8. clipped form (rec, short for recreation)
9. initialism (AD, short for anno Domini)
10. acronym (USA PATRIOT, short for Uniting and Strengthening America by
Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism)
11. acronym (PAC, short for political action committee)
12. clipped form (romcom, short for romantic comedies)
13. portmanteau (docudrama, short for documentary + drama)
14. clipped form (lit, short for literature)
15. acronym (UNESCO, short for United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization)

1. Whose
2. its; its
3. I
4. they
5. me
6. who
7. whom
8. who
9. me
10. their
11. Does
12. its
13. live
14. Who
15. your
16. me
17. was
18. I
19. personal
20. reflexive
21. interrogative and relative
22. demonstrative and relative
23. indefinite
24. interrogative
25. possessive

1. 7 French
2. 3 little
3. 5 triangular
4. 1 two
5. 8 silk
6. 4 old
7. 6 green
8. 2 gorgeous
9. fastest
10. younger
11. farther (or further)
12. smartest
13. more important
14. most peaceful
15. better
16. compound
17. comparative
18. proper
19. indefinite
20. superlative

1. passionately / manner
2. furiously / manner
3. well / degree
4. yesterday / time
5. extremely / degree
6. Apparently / sentence
7. Nevertheless / conjunctive
8. now / time
9. moreover / conjunctive
10. out / location

1. out / adverb (where)
2. on / adjective (which one)
3. from / adjective (which one)
4. from / adverb (why)
5. at / adverb (where)
6. about / adjective (what kind)
7. after / adverb (when)
8. on / adverb (where)
9. before / adverb (when)
10. with / adjective (which one)
1. whenever / subordinating
2. and / coordinating
3. both … and / correlative
4. or / coordinating
5. not only … but also / correlative
6. even though / subordinating
7. wherever / subordinating
8. neither … nor / correlative
9. but / coordinating
10. so / coordinating
1. Wow
2. Yikes
3. Whoa
4. Oh, no
5. blam
6. Awesome
7. Holy cow
8. Wait
9. yay
10. yuck
1. b
2. b
3. a
4. b
5. a
6. b
7. b
8. a
9. a
10. b
11. a
12. a
13. a
14. a
15. b
16. a
17. b
18. a
19. a
20. b
21. When Brad and Janet’s car broke down, they went to a crumbling, ornate
mansion for help, met some strange people, and were never the same again.
22. Westley joined Fezzik and Inigo to disrupt the prince’s plans, rescue
Buttercup, kill the count, and live happily ever after.
23. Certification requires a course of study, then a practicum working with four-
and five-year-olds.
24. Gerald Halford, an infectious-disease expert, said the outbreak could be
easily contained, but the vaccine had to be distributed quickly.
25. The Sanchezes live on the west side; their house is next to the Changs’.

1. peddle
2. effects
3. pedal
4. flair
5. affect
6. principal
7. complements
8. palette
9. lie
10. lay
11. counting the days
12. pie-in-the-sky
13. raining cats and dogs
14. like a beached whale
15. a horse of a different color
16. won
17. to
18. said
19. enough
20. regularly
21. achieve
22. confirm
23. ease, help
24. require
25. light
PRACTICE EXERCISES AND
QUIZZES
A
Abbreviations Quiz, here
Acronyms, here
Action Verbs and Linking Verbs, here
Adjectives Quiz, here
Adverbs Quiz, here
All about Commas, here
Aspect and Tense, here
C
Clauses, here
Collective Nouns, here
Common Pitfalls, here
Common Spelling Errors, here
Common Spelling Rules, here
Comparatives and Superlatives, here
Complements, here
Compound Adjectives, here
Compound Nouns, here
Conjugation, here
Conjunctions Quiz, here
Consistent Tense, here
Contractions, here
Count Nouns and Noncount Nouns, here
D
Dates and Times, here
Definite and Indefinite Articles with Nouns, here
Demonstratives, here
Determiners Quiz, here
Dividing Punctuation, here
Dummy Subjects, here
E
End-of-Sentence Punctuation, here
H
How to Improve Your Spelling, here
I
Indefinite Pronouns, here
Initialisms, here
Intensifiers, here
Interjections Quiz, here
Interrogative Pronouns, here
J
Joining Punctuation, here
M
Misplaced Modifiers, here
Modal Verbs, here
Mood, here
N
Nouns Quiz, here
Number (Verbs), here
Numbers, here
O
Objects, here
Order of Adjectives, here
P
Parallel Construction, here
Parts of Speech Quiz, here
Person, here
Personal Pronouns, here
Phrasal Verbs, here
Phrases, here
Pluralizing Abbreviations, here
Plurals, here
Portmanteaus, here
Possessive Pitfalls, here
Possessives (Nouns), here
Possessives (Pronouns), here
Prepositions Quiz, here
Pronoun Agreement, here
Pronouns Quiz, here
Proper Nouns, here
Punctuation Quiz, here
R
Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns, here
Relative Pronouns, here
S
Sentence Structure Quiz, here
Shortened and Clipped Forms, here
Spelling and Style Quiz, here
Subject and Object Pronouns, here
Subjects and Predicates, here
Subject-Verb Agreement, here
Subordinators, here
T
Transitions, here
U
Usage and Style Tips Quiz, here
V
Verbals, here
Verbs Quiz, here
Voice, here
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Lisa McLendon runs the Bremner Editing Center at the University of Kansas
journalism school, where she also teaches editing, writing, and grammar. She
was formerly a copy editor at the Wichita Eagle and launched her journalism
career on the copy desk at the Denton Record-Chronicle after earning a Ph.D. in
Slavic linguistics from the University of Texas. She lives in Lawrence, Kansas.
Follow her on Twitter @MadamGrammar.

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The Perfect English Grammar Workbook - Lisa McLendon

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© 2017 Lisa McLendon

ISBN: Print 978-1-62315-796-8 | eBook 978-1-62315-797-5

How to Use This Book

2.1 General Writing Tips

2.2 Before You Begin

2.3 Starting to Write

Probably the most straightforward and best-known composition structure is

■ Addition or similarity: moreover, likewise, also, in addition, in the same

PRACTICE EXERCISE 2.5

KEY FOR PRACTICE EXERCISE 2.5

2.6 Common Pitfalls

PRACTICE EXERCISE 2.6

1. due to the fact that yellow

2. on a regular basis because

3. has the ability to decided

4. yellow in color can

5. came to the decision that regularly

KEY FOR PRACTICE EXERCISE 2.6

■ Take a break: During the writing process, we become so engrossed with

Why is it important to edit? It all comes down to presenting a polished piece

■ Verbs indicate an action or a state of being. Examples of verbs: walk, think,

QUIZ FOR CHAPTER 3: PARTS OF SPEECH

10. freedom verb

For questions 11–15, refer to the following sentence:

For questions 16–20, refer to the following sentence:

Hey, you can’t go into the reactor—the radiation is too dangerous.

Answers can be found here.

4.1 How to Improve Your Spelling

PRACTICE EXERCISE 4.1

HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR SPELLING

Because lizards are not homeothermic, they have a narrower range of

KEY FOR PRACTICE EXERCISE 4.1

4.2 Common Spelling Errors

When in doubt, look it up.

PRACTICE EXERCISE 4.2

COMMON SPELLING ERRORS

PRACTICE EXERCISE 4.2

4.3 Affixes and Common Spelling Rules

PRACTICE EXERCISE 4.3

COMMON SPELLING RULES

KEY FOR PRACTICE EXERCISE 4.3

PRACTICE EXERCISE 4.4

3. they’re you have

4. they’d should have

5. should’ve they had

KEY FOR PRACTICE EXERCISE 4.4

4.5 Possessive Pitfalls

PRACTICE EXERCISE 4.5

KEY FOR PRACTICE EXERCISE 4.5

4.6 Dates and Times

PRACTICE EXERCISE 4.6

DATES AND TIMES

KEY FOR PRACTICE EXERCISE 4.6

PRACTICE EXERCISE 4.7

KEY FOR PRACTICE EXERCISE 4.7