ME6701 SCAD MSM by WWW - Learnengineering.in

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.
in
ENGINEERING COLLEGES
2017 – 18 Odd Semester
COMMON MINIMUM STUDY MATERIAL (MSM)
n
Department of EEE
g.i
rin
SUBJECT CODE: ME6701
SUBJECT NAME: POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
Regulation: 2013
ee Year and Semester: III & V
gin
Prepared by
Sl.No. Name of the Faculty Designation Affiliating College

En
1 Mr.S.Murugan ASSO. / EEE FXEC

2 Ms.J.Belcy Jenifier AP/EEE FXEC
arn
3 Mr.D.Justin Livingston AP/EEE SMTEC
4 Mr.A.Ann Rufus AP/EEE SCADCET

Le
5 Mr.P.Balaji AP/EEE SCADCET

w.
ww
Verified by DLI, CLI and Approved by the Centralised Monitoring Team

dated 21-06-2017.
Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in

SYLLABUS
ME6701 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING L T P C3 0 0 3
OBJECTIVES:
Providing an overview of Power Plants and detailing the role of Mechanical
Engineers in their operation and maintenance.
UNIT I COAL BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS 10
Rankine cycle - improvisations, Layout of modern coal power plant, Super Critical
n
Boilers, FBC Boilers, Turbines, Condensers, Steam & Heat rate, Subsystems of
g.i
thermal power plants – Fuel and ash handling, Draught system, Feed water
treatment. Binary Cycles and Cogeneration systems.
rin
UNIT II DIESEL, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER
PLANTS 10
ee
Otto, Diesel, Dual & Brayton Cycle - Analysis & Optimisation.Components of
Diesel and Gas Turbine power plants.Combined Cycle Power Plants. Integrated
gin
Gasifier based Combined Cycle systems.
UNIT III NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS 7
En
Basics of Nuclear Engineering, Layout and subsystems of Nuclear Power Plants,

Working of Nuclear Reactors: Boiling Water Reactor (BWR), Pressurized Water
arn
Reactor (PWR), CANada Deuterium- Uranium reactor (CANDU), Breeder, Gas

Cooled and Liquid Metal Cooled Reactors. Safety measures for Nuclear Power
Le
plants.
UNIT IV POWER FROM RENEWABLE ENERGY 10
w.
Hydro Electric Power Plants – Classification, Typical Layout and associated

components including Turbines. Principle, Construction and working of Wind,
ww
Tidal, Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV), Solar Thermal, Geo Thermal, Biogas and Fuel
Cell power systems.
UNIT V ENERGY, ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF
POWER PLANTS 8
Power tariff types, Load distribution parameters, load curve, Comparison of site
selection criteria, relative merits & demerits, Capital & Operating Cost of different

power plants. Pollution control technologies including Waste Disposal Options for
Coal and Nuclear Power Plants.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of this course, the Students can able to understand different types
of power plant, and its functions and their flow lines and issues related to them.
Analyse and solve energy and economic related issues in power sectors.
n
g.i
TEXT BOOK:
1. P.K. Nag, Power Plant Engineering, Tata McGraw – Hill Publishing Company
rin
Ltd., ThirdEdition, 2008.
REFERENCES:
ee
1. M.M. El-Wakil, Power Plant Technology, Tata McGraw – Hill Publishing
Company Ltd., 2010.
gin
2. Black & Veatch, Springer, Power Plant Engineering, 1996.
3. Thomas C. Elliott, Kao Chen and Robert C. Swanekamp, Standard Handbook of
En
Power PlantEngineering, Second Edition, McGraw – Hill, 1998.

4. Godfrey Boyle, Renewable energy, Open University, Oxford University Press in
arn
association with the Open University, 2004.

Le
w.
ww

1. Aim and objective of the objective

To impart basic knowledge on Power generation.
Providing an overview of various Power Plants
To make students understand the fundamentals of construction of Power Plants
To explain the component of power plant units and detailed explanation of their
working principles.
Detailing the role of Electrical Engineers in the operation and maintenance.
n
2. Need and Importance for the study of the subject
g.i
The students will become familiar with fundamentals of Power generation and
acquire the capability to acquire them.
rin
Students will be able to acquire knowledge, capability of analysing and solving
technical difficulties related to power plant operation, maintenance and designing
ee
Ability to design and demonstrate renewable power generation.
gin
Ability to identify the components use in power plant cycle.
Ability to demonstrate working principles of petrol and diesel engine.
Ability to explain the components of nuclear power plant.
En
3. Industry connectivity and latest development.

arn
Using latest technology and advanced materials in constructing complicated and

more reliable Power Plants.
Engineering support in various power plants in the maintenance and erection
Le
sections.
Technical support in all energy industries and supervising the assembling processes.
w.
Analyse and solve energy and economic related issues in power sectors.
ww
4. Industrial Visit
Planned to visit Pabanasam and Manimuthar dams, Tirunelveli.
Planned to visit thermal power plant, Tuticorin.
Planned to visit nuclear power plant, Kudankulam.

DETAILED LESSON PLAN

ME6701-POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
Department : Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Year/Sem : III/V
UNIT No of Book
Sl. No. Topics
NO. Hours No.
Rankine cycle - improvisation T1
1 1
n
g.i
2 Layout of modern coal power plant 1 T1
3 Super Critical Boilers, Boilers 1 T1
rin
4 Turbines, Condensers 1 T1
I
5 Steam & Heat rate ee 1 NET
6 Subsystems of thermal power plants 1 T1
7 Fuel and ash handling 1 T1
gin
8 Draught system, Feed water treatment 1 T1

9 Binary Cycles 1 T1
En
10 Cogeneration systems 1 T1
11 Otto Cycle 1 R1
arn
12 Diesel Power Plant 1 T1

Dual &Brayton Cycle Analysis &
Le
13,14 2 R1
Optimisation
II Components of Diesel and Gas Turbinepower
w.
15,16 2 T1
plants
17,18 Combined Cycle Power Plants 2 T1
ww
Integrated Gasifier based Combined Cycle

19,20 2 T1
systems
21 Basics of Nuclear Engineering 1 T1
III
Layout and subsystems of Nuclear Power
22 1 T1
Plants

UNIT No of Book
Sl. No. Topics
NO. Hours No.
Working of Nuclear Reactors : Boiling Water
Reactor (BWR), Pressurized Water Reactor
23,24 2 T1
(PWR), CANada Deuterium-Uranium reactor
(CANDU)
25 Breeder 1 R1
n
Gas Cooled and Liquid Metal Cooled T1
26 1
g.i
Reactors
27 Safety measures for Nuclear Power plants 1 NET
rin
28,29 Hydro Electric Power Plants – Classification 2 T1
Typical Layout and associated components
ee
30,31 2 T1
including Turbines
Principle, Construction and working of Wind,
gin
32,33 2 T1
IV Tidal Energy
Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV), Solar Thermal
En
34,35 2 T1
power plants
36 Geo Thermal, Biogas 1 T1
arn
37 Fuel Cell power systems 1 T1

38 Power tariff types 1 R2
Le
39 Load distribution parameters, 1 T1

40 Comparison of site selection criteria 1 NET
w.
41 load curve ,relative merits & demerits 1 T1

Capital & Operating Cost of different power
ww
42,43 V 2 T1
plants
Pollution control technologies including
Waste Disposal Options for Coal and Nuclear
44,45 2 NET
Power Plants.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sl.No Unit Topic/Title Page No.
No
1 Part A 1
2 Layout of Thermal Power Plant 4
3 Pulverized coal firing 7
4 Binary Cycle 9
I
n
5 Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC ) 10
g.i
6 Coal&Ash handling 14
7 Various types of condensors 20
rin
8 Draught and the types of Draught 23
9 Part A ee 28
10 Diesel Engine Power Plant 30
gin
11 II Gas turbine power plant 34
12 Iintegratedgasifier based combined cycle systems 39
13 Combined cycle power plant 41
En
14 Part A 44
15 Nuclear power plant 46
arn
16 Chain reaction & PWR 50

III
17 HWR or CANDU 53
Le
18 Sodium Graphite Reactor 54

19 BWR 57
w.
20 Part A 60
ww
21 Hydro power plant 63

22 Wind electric system 67
23 Solar power plant 70
IV
24 Tidal power plant 74
25 Geo thermal power plant 77
26 Fuel cell 79
27 Bio gas 81

28 Part A 83
29 Tariff 85
30 Load & Load duration curve 87
V
31 Economic aspects of power generation 89
32 Nuclear waste disposal 93
33 Site selection for nuclear, hydro & thermal plants 96
n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww

UNIT-I - COAL BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS

PART A
1. What is the function of deaerator in a thermal power plant? (May/June 2012)
Mechanical deaeration is the first step in eliminating oxygen and other
corrosive gases from the feed water. Free carbon dioxide is also removed by
deaeration , while combined carbon dioxide is released with steam in the boiler and
subsequently dissolves in the condensate.
2. Why thermal plants are not suitable for supplying fluctuating loads?
n
(May/June 2012)
g.i
Thermal plants are not suitable for supplying fluctuating loads because any
rin
change in load demand requires corresponding change in the output energy. In the
thermal plants input energy is produced by burning of coal and hence there is always
ee
a large time lapse between the change in energy output and input ,which is not
desirable and hence such power stations are used only as base load stations, supplying
gin
constant power.
3. What are advantages of pulverised fuel coal? (Nov/Dec 2012)
En
a.. The layout is simple and economical,

b. It gives direct control of combustion,
arn
c.Coal transportation system is simple

d. Maintenance cost is less
4. What are the principles of stokers? (Nov/Dec 2012) (APRIL / MAY 2017)
Le
A mechanical stoker is a device which feeds coal into the firebox of a boiler. It
w.
is standard equipment on large stationary boilers and was also fitted to large steam
locomotives to ease the burden of the fireman. The locomotive type has a screw
ww
conveyor (driven by an auxiliary steam engine) which feeds the coal into the firebox.
The coal is then distributed across the grate by steam jets, controlled by the fireman.
Power stations usually use pulverized coal-fired boilers.
5. State important advantages of high-pressure boilers? (Nov/Dec 2012)
The amount of scale formation is less, since the velocity of water through
pipes are more.

1
All parts of the system are heated uniformly, so there is no danger of

overheating.
6. What are the accessories used in a boiler? (May/June 2013)
Safety valve Low-water cut-off
Water Level indicators Feed water check valve or check
Surface blowdown line valve
Continuous blowdown valve Circulating pump
Desuperheater tubes or bundles
n
Bottom blowdown valves
g.i
7. What are the purpose of Draught? (May/June 2013, 2016) (NOV / DEC 2016 )
To supply required amount of air to the furnace for the combustion of fuel. The
rin
amount of fuel can be burnt per square foot of grate depends upon the quantity
of air circulated through fuel bed.
ee
To remove the gaseous products of combustion.
8. What is the function of a cooling tower in a power plant? (May/June 2013)
gin
It is a tower or building like device in which atmospheric air (the heat receiver)
circulates in direct or indirect contact with warmer water (the heat source) and the
En
water is thereby cooled and towers are called as heat removal device used to transfer
the water‘s heat to the air, both directly and through evaporation of some of the water.
arn
Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process heat and
cool the working fluid.
Le
9. What are the four main circuits of a thermal Power Plant? (Nov/Dec 2013)
Coal and ash circuits.
w.
Air and Gas

Feed water and steam
ww
Cooling and water circuits

10. Write the use of water level indicator in boiler?(Nov/Dec 2013)
This indicates the water level in the boiler. The water level in the boiler should
not fall below a particular level otherwise the boiler will be overheated and the tubes
may burn out.
11. Describe the steps to be followed in inplant coal handling of coal. (May/Jun
2014)

2
a. Coal delivery
b. Unloading
c.Preparation
d. Transfer
e. Outdoor storage
f. Covered storage
g.In plant handling
n
h. Weighing and measuring
g.i
i. Feeding the coal into furnace
12. Explain basic thermodynamics cycles. (Nov/Dec 2014)
rin
A thermodynamic cycle is a series of thermodynamic processes transferring
heat and work, while varying pressure, temperature and other state variables
ee
eventually returning a system to its initial state.
13. What is the function of super heaters in a thermal plant? (April/May 2015)
gin
A superheater is a device in a steam engine that heats the steam generated by
the boiler again, increasing its thermal energy and decreasing the likelihood that it
En
will condense inside the engine.

14. What is supercritical boiler? (Nov/Dec 2015)
arn
A supercritical steam generator is a type of boiler that operates at supercritical

pressure, frequently used in the production of electric power. In contrast to a
Le
subcritical boiler, a supercritical steam generator operates at pressures above the

critical pressure 22 MPa in which bubbles can form. Instead, liquid water immediately
w.
becomes steam. Water passes below the critical point as it does work in a high
pressure turbine and enters the generator's condenser, resulting in slightly less fuel use
ww
and therefore less greenhouse gas production.

15. What is a pulveriser and why it is used? (Nov/Dec 2015)
A pulveriser is a device for grinding coal for combustion in a furnace in a
power plant. The coal is put in the boiler after pulverisation.
16. What are once through boilers? (May/June 2016)
A boiler in which water flows without recirculation through the economizer,
furnace wall and evaporating and superheating tubes.

3
PART B
1. Draw the general layout of thermal power plant and explain the working of
different circuits. (May/June 13) (May/June 14) (Nov/Dec 15) (NOV / DEC 2016 )
Steam is an important medium for producing mechanical energy. Steam is used to
drivesteam engines and steam turbines. Steam has the following advantages.
Steam can be raised quickly from water which is available in plenty.
n
It does not react much with materials of the equipment used in power plants.
.i
It is stable at temperatures required in the plant.
ng
EQUIPMENT OF A THERMAL POWER PLANT:
A steam power plant must have the following equipment.
A furnace for burning the fuel.
eri
A steam generator or boiler for steam generation.
ine
A power unit like an engine or turbine to convert heat energy into mechanical
energy.
ng
A generator to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Piping system to carry steam and water
a rnE
Le
w.
ww

4
A. COAL AND ASH CIRCUIT:

This includes coal delivery, preparation, coal handling, boiler furnace, ash handling
and ash storage. The coal from coal mines is delivered by ships, rail or by trucks to the
power station. This coal is sized by crushers, breakers etc. The sized coal is then stored in
coal storage (stock yard). From the stock yard, the coal is transferred to the boiler furnace
by means of conveyors, elevators etc.
The coal is burnt in the boiler furnace and ash is formed by burning of coal, Ash
n
coming out of the furnace will be too hot, dusty and accompanied by some poisonous
.i
gases. The ash is transferred to ash storage. Usually, the ash is quenched to reduced
ng
temperature corrosion and dust content.
There are different methods employed for the disposal of ash. They are hydraulic
eri
system, water jetting, ash sluice ways, pneumatic system etc. In large power plants
hydraulic system is used. In this system, ash falls from furnace grate into high velocity
ine
water stream. It is then carried to the slumps.
B. WATER AND STEAM CIRCUIT
ng
It consists of feed pump, economizer, boiler drum, super heater, turbine condenser
etc.Feed water is pumped to the economizer from the hot well. This water is preheated by
rnE
the flue gases in the economizer. This preheated water is then supplied to the boiler drum.
Heat is transferred to the water by the burning of coal. Due to this, water is converted into
a
steam.
Le
The steam raised in boiler is passed through a super heater. It is superheated by the
flue gases. The superheated steam is then expanded in a turbine to do work. The turbine
w.
drives a generator to produce electric power. The expanded (exhaust) steam is then passed
through the condenser. In the condenser, the steam is condensed into water and
ww
recirculated.
C. AIR AND FLUE GAS CIRCUIT
It consists of forced draught fan, air pre heater, boiler furnace, super heater,
economizer,dust collector, induced draught fan, chimney etc. Air is taken from the
atmosphere by the action of a forced draught fan. It is passed through an air pre-heater.
The air is pre-heated by the flue gases in the pre-heater. This pre-heated air is supplied to

5
the furnace to aid the combustion of fuel.Due to combustion of fuel, hot gases (flue gases)
are formed.
The flue gases from the furnace pass over boiler tubes and super heater tubes. (In
boiler,wet steam is generated and in super heater the wet steam is superheated by the flue
gases.) Then the flue gases pass through economizer to heat the feed water. After that, it
passes through the air pre-heater to pre-heat the incoming air. It is then passed through a
dust catching device (dust collector). Finally, it is exhausted to the atmosphere through
n
chimney. A line diagram of air and flue gas circuit is shown separately in figure.
.i
D. COOLING WATER CIRCUIT:
ng
The circuit includes a pump, condenser, cooling tower etc. the exhaust steam from
the turbine is condensed in condenser. In the condenser, cold water is circulated to
eri
condense the steam into water. The steam is condensed by losing its latent heat to the
circulating cold water.
ine
ng
a rnE
Le
Thus the circulating water is heated. This hot water is then taken to a cooling tower,
In cooling tower, the water is sprayed in the form of droplets through nozzles. The
w.
atmospheric air enters the cooling tower from the openings provided at the bottom of the
tower. This air removes heat from water. Cooled water is collected in a pond (known as
ww
cooling pond). This cold water is again circulated through the pump, condenser and
cooling tower. Thus the cycle is repeated again and again. Some amount of water may be
lost during the circulation due to vaporization etc. Hence, make up water is added to the
pond by means of a pump. This water is obtained from a river or lake. A line diagram of
cooling water circuit is shown in figure separately.

6
MERITS (ADVANTAGES) OF A THERMAL POWER PLANT

The unit capacity of a thermal power plant is more. The cost of unit decreases
withthe increase in unit capacity.
Life of the plant is more (25-30 years) as compared to diesel plant (2-5 years).
Repair and maintenance cost is low when compared with diesel plant.
Initial cost of the plant is less than nuclear plants.
Suitable for varying load conditions.
n
DEMERITS OF THERMAL POWER PLANTS
.i
Thermal plant are less efficient than diesel plants
ng
Starting up the plant and bringing into service takes more time.
Cooling water required is more.
Space required is more
eri
ine
Ash handling is a big problem.
2. (i) Write about pulverized coal firing? (May/June 12 )

ng
To burn pulverized coal successfully in a furnace, two requirements must be met:

rnE
(1) the existence of large quantities of very fine particles of coal, usually those that would
pass a 200-mesh screen, to ensure ready ignition because of their large surface- to-volume
ratios and (2) the existence of a minimum quantity of coarser particles to ensure high
a
combustion efficiency. These larger coarse particles should contain a very small amount
Le
larger than a given size, usually that which would be retained on a 50 mesh screen,
because they cause slagging and loss of combustion efficiency. Line A in Fig represents a
w.
typical range for pulverized coal. It shows about 80 percent of the coal passing a 200 mesh
ww
screen that corresponds to a 0.074 mm opening and about 99.99 percent passing a 50 mesh
screen that corresponds to a 0.297 mm opening, i.e. only 0.1 percent larger than 0.297
mm. The size of bituminous coal that is shipped as it comes from the mine, called run of
mine coal, is about 8 in. Oversized lumps are broken up but the coal is not screened. Other
sizes are given names like lump, which is used in hand firing and domestic applications,
egg, nut, stoker, and slack.

7
CRUSHERS.
Although there are several types of commercially available coal crushers, a few
stand Duty for particular uses. To prepare coal for pulverization, the ring crusher, or
granulator Fig. and the hammer mill Fig are preferred. The coal is fed at the top and is
crushed by the action of rings that pivot off centre on a rotor or by swinging hammers
attached to it. Adjustable screen bars determine the maximum size of the discharged coal.
Wood and other foreign material is also crushed, but a trap is usually provided to collect
n
tramp iron (metal and other hard-to-crush matter.) Ring crushers and hammer mills are
.i
used off or on plant site.
ng
PULVERIZERS.
The pulverizing process is composed of several stages. The first is the feeding
eri
system, which must automatically control the fuel-feed rate according to the boiler
demand and the airrates required for drying (below) and transporting pulverized fuel to the
ine
burner (primary air). The nextstage is drying. One important property of coal being
prepared for pulverization! is that it be dry anddusty. Because coals have varying
ng
quantities of moisture and in order that lower-rank coals can be used, dryers are an integral
part of pulverizing equipment. Part of the air from the steam-generator air preheater,the
rnE
primary air, is forced into the pulverizer at 650°F or more by the primary air fan. There it
is mixedwith the coal as it is being circulated and ground.
a
BIN SYSTEM
Le
The bin system is essentially a batch system by which the pulverized coal is
prepared away from the furnace and the resulting pulverized-coal-primary-air mixture
w.
goes to a cyclone separator and fabric bag filter that separate and exhaust the moisture
laden air to the atmosphere and discharge the pulverized coal to storage bins .From there,
ww
the coal is pneumatically conveyed through pipelines to utilization bins near the furnace
for use as required. The bin system was widely used before pulverizing equipment became
reliable enough for continuous steady operation. Because of the many stages of drying,
storing, transporting, etc., the bin system is subject to fire hazards. Nevertheless, it is still
in usein many older plants. It has, however, given way to the direct-firing system, which is
used exclusively in modern plants.

8
DIRECT-FIRING SYSTEM
It has greater simplicity and hence greater safety, lower space requirements, lower
capital and operating costs, and greater plant cleanliness. As its name implies, it
continuously processes the coal from the storage receiving bunker through a feeder,
pulverizer, and primary-air fan, to the furnace burners. (Another version of this system,
less used, places the fan on the outlet side of the pulverizer. Fuel flow is suited to load
demand by a combination of controls on the feeder and on the primary-air fan in order to
n
give air-fuel ratios suitable for the various steam-generator loads. The control operating
.i
range on any one direct firing pulverizer system is only about 3 to 1. Large steam
ng
generators are provided with more than one pulverizer system, each
eri
ine
ng
a rnE
Le
feeding a number of burners, so that a wide control range is possible by varying the
number of pulverizersand the load on each Burners A pulverized-coal burner is not too
w.
dissimilar to an oil burner. The latter must atomize the liquid fuel to give a large surface-
to-volume ratio of fuel for proper interaction with the combustion air. A pulverized-coal
ww
burner already receives dried pulverized coal in suspension in the primary air and mixes it
with the main combustion air from the steam-generator air preheater.
2)(ii)Discuss in detail about Binary cycle. (May/June 16)

A binary cycle power plant is a type of geothermal power plant that allows
cooler geothermal reservoirs to be used than with dry steamand flash steam plants. As of

9
2010, flash steam plants are the most common type of geothermal power generation plants
in operation today, which use water at temperatures greater than 182 °C (455 K; 360 °F)
that is pumped under high pressure to the generation equipment at the surface. With binary
cycle geothermal power plants, pumps are used to pump hot water from a geothermal well,
through a heat exchanger, and the cooled water is returned to the underground reservoir.
A second "working" or "binary" fluid with a low boiling point, typically
a butane or pentane hydrocarbon,is pumped at fairly high pressure
n
(500 psi (3.4 MPa))through the heat exchanger, where it is vaporized and then directed
.i
through a turbine. The vapor exiting the turbine is then condensed by cold air radiators or
ng
cold water and cycled back through the heat exchanger.
A binary vapor cycle is defined in thermodynamics as a power cycle that is a
eri
combination of two cycles, one in a high temperature region and the other in a lower
temperature region.
ine
ng
a rnE
Le
w.
ww
3. Explain in detail about Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC ) and their types
(May/June 12)(May/June 14)(May/June 16)
A fluidized bed is composed of fuel (coal, coke, biomass, etc.,) and bed material
(ash, sand, and/or sorbent) contained within an atmospheric or pressurized vessel. The bed
becomes fluidized when air or other gas flows upward at a velocity sufficient to expand
the bed.

10
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION:

1. Atmospheric fluidized Bed Combustion (AFBC)
a. Bubbling fluidized bed combustors
b. Circulating fluidized
2. Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion (PFBC)
At low fluidizing velocities (0.9 to 3 m/s).relatively high solids densities are
maintained in the bed and only a small fraction of the solids are entrained from the bed. A
n
fluidized bed that is operated in this velocity range is refered to as a bubbling fluidized bed
.i
(BFB).
ng
As the fluidizing velocity is increased, smaller particles are entrained in the gas
stream and transported out of the bed. The bed surface becomes more diffuse and solids
eri
densities are reduced in the bed. A fluidized bed that is operated at velocities in the range
of 4 to 7 m/s is referred to as a circulated fluidized bed, or CFB.
ine
BUBBLING FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTOR
A typical BFB arrangement is illustrated schematically in figure. Fuel and sorbent
ng
are introduced either above or below the fluidized bed. (Overbed feed is illustrated.) The
bed consisting of about 97% limestone or inert material and 3% burning fuel, is suspended
rnE
by hot primary air entering the bottom of the combustion chamber. The bed temperature is
controlled by heat transfer tubes immersed in the bed and by varying the quantity of coal
a
in the bed. As the coal particle size decreases, as a result of eithercombustion or attrition,
Le
the particles are elutriated from the bed and carried out the combustor. A portion of the
particles elutriated from the bed are collected by a cyclone (or multiclone) collector down-
w.
stream of the convection pass and returned to the bed to improve combustion efficiency.
ww

11
Secondary air can be added above the bed to improve combustion efficiency and to
achieve staged combustion , thus lowering NOx emissions. Most of the early BFBs used
tubular air heaters to minimize air leakage that could occur as a result of relatively high
primary air pressures required to suspend the bed. Recent designs have included
regenerative type air heaters.
CIRCULATING FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTOR
.i n
ng
eri
ine
ng
a rnE
A typical CFB arrangement is illustrated schematically in figure. In a CFB, primary

Le
air is introduced into the lower portion of the combustor, where the heavy bed material is
fluidized and retained. The upper portion of the combustor contains the less dense material
w.
that is entrained from the bed. Secondary air typically is introduced at higher levels in the
combustor to ensure complete combustion and to reduce NOx emissions.
ww
The combustion gas generated in the combustor flows upward with a considerable
portion of the solids inventory entrained. These entrained solids are separated from the
combustion gas in hot cyclone-type dust collectors or in mechanical particle separators,
and are continuously returned to the combustion chamber by a recycle loop.
The combustion chamber of a CFB unit for utility applications generally consists of
membrane-type welded water walls to provide most of the evaporative boiler surface. The
lower third of the combustor is refractory lined to protect the water walls from erosion in

12
the high velocity dense bed region. Several CFB design offer external heat exchangers,
which are unfired dense BFB units that extract heat from the solids collected by the dust
collectors before it is returned to the combustor. The external heat exchangers are used to
provide additional evaporative heat transfer surface as well as superheat and reheat
surface, depending on themanufacturer‘s design.
The flue gas, after removal of more than 99% of the entrained solids in the cyclone
or particle separator, exists the cyclone or separator to a convection pass. The convection
n
pass designs are similar to those used with unconvectional coal-fueled units, and contain
.i
economizer ,superheaterand reheat surface as required by the application.
ng
PRESSURIZED FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION:
eri
ine
ng
a rnE
The PFBC unit is classified as either turbocharged or combined cycle units.

Le
Inturbocharged arrangements (figure) combustion gas from the PEBC boiler is cooled to
approximately 394 C and is used to drive a gas turbine. The gas turbine drives an air
w.
compressor, and there is little, if any, net gas turbine output. Electricity is produced by a
turbine generatordriven by steam generated in the PFBC boiler.
ww
In the combined cycle arrangement, 815C to 871C combustion gas from the
PFBC boiler is used to drive the gas turbine. About 20% of the net plant electrical output
is provided by the gas turbine. With this arrangement, thermal efficiency 2 to 3 percentage
points higher than with the turbocharged cycle are feasible
ADVANTAGES OF FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION
1. SO2 can be removed in the combustion process by adding limestone to the fluidized
bed, eliminating the need for an external desulfurization process.

13
2. Fluidized bed boilers are inherently fuel flexible and, with proper design provision,
can burn a variety of fuels.
3. Combustion FBC units take place at temperatures below the ash fusion temperature
of most fuels. Consequently, tendencies for slagging and fouling are reduced with
FBC.
4. Because of the reduced combustion temperature, NOx emissions are inherently low.
4.Explain the various processes involved in coal and ash handling with neat sketches.
n
(May/June 12)(Nov/Dec 12)(May/June 14)(Nov/Dec 14,15)(April/May 2017)
.i
(I)COAL DELIVERY.
ng
The coal from supply points is delivered by ships or boats to power stations situated
near to sea or river whereas coal is supplied by rail or trucks to the power stations which
eri
are situated away from sea or river. The transportation of coal by trucks is used if the
railway facilities are not available.
ine
ng
a rnE
Le
w.
.
(II) UNLOADING.
ww
The type of equipment to be used for unloading the coal received at the power
station depends on how coal is received at the power station. In case the coal is brought by
railway wagons, ships or boats, the unloading may be done by car shakes, rotary car
dumpers, cranes, grab buckets and coal accelerators. Rotary car dumpers although costly
are quite efficient for unloading closed wagons.

14
(III) PREPARATION.
When the coal delivered is in the form of big lumps and it is not of proper size, the
preparation (sizing) of coal can be achieved by crushers, breakers, sizers driers and
magnetic separators.
(IV) TRANSFER.
After preparation coal is transferred to the dead storage by means of the following
systems :
n
1. Belt conveyors. 2. Screw conveyors.
.i
3. Bucket elevators. 4. Grab bucket elevators.
ng
5. Skip hoists. 6. Flight conveyor.
1. BELT CONVEYOR.
eri
Figure shows a belt conveyor. It consists of an endless belt. moving over apair of
end drums (rollers). At some distance a supporting roller is provided at the center. The belt
ine
is made, up of rubber or canvas. Belt conveyor is suitable for the transfer of coal over long
distances. It is used in medium and large power plants. The initial cost of the system is not
ng
high and power consumption is also low. The inclination at which coal can be successfully
elevated by belt conveyor is about 20.Average speed of belt conveyors varies between
rnE
200-300 r.p.m. This conveyor is preferred than other types.

a
Le
w.
ww
Belt conveyor
ADVANTAGES OF BELT CONVEYOR

1. Its operation is smooth and clean.
2. It requires less power as compared to other types of systems.

15
3. Large quantities of coal can be discharged quickly and continuously.

4. Material can be transported on moderates inclines.
2. SCREW CONVEYOR.
It consists of an endless helicoid screw fitted to a shaft The screw while rotating in
a trough transfers the coal from feeding end to the discharge end.This system is suitable,
where coal is to be transferred over shorter distance and space limitations exist. The initial
cost of the system is low. It suffers from the drawbacks that the power consumption I high
n
and there is considerable wear of screw. Rotation of screw varies between 75-125 r.p.m.
.i
ng
eri
ine
ng
Screw conveyor Bucket elevator

rnE
(V) STORAGE OF COAL.

It is desirable that sufficient quantity of coal should be stored. Storage of coal
gives protection against the interruption of coal supplies when there is delay in
a
transportation of coal or due to strikes in coal mines.

Le
THE COAL IS STORED BY THE FOLLOWING METHODS :

w.
(I) STOCKING THE COAL IN HEATS.The coal is piled on the ground up to 10-12 m
height. The pile top should be given a slope in the direction in which the rain may be
ww
drained off.The sealing of stored pile is desirable in order to avoid the oxidation of coal
after packing an air tight layer of coal. Asphalt, fine coal dust and bituminous coating are
the materials commonly used for this purpose.
(II) UNDER WATER STORAGE.The possibility of slow oxidation and spontaneous
combustion can be completely eliminated by storing the coal under water. Coal should be
stored at a site located on solid ground, well drained, free of standing water preferably on
high ground not subjected to flooding.

16
(VI) IN PLANT HANDLING. From the dead storage the coal is brought to covered
storage (Live storage) (bins or bunkers). A cylindrical bunker shown in Fig. In plant
handling may include the equipment such as belt conveyors, screw conveyors, bucket
elevators etc. to transfer the coal. Weigh lorries hoppers and automatic scales are used to
record the quantity of coal delivered to the furnace.
(VII) COAL WEIGHING METHODS. Weigh Lorries, hoppers and automatic scales are
used to weigh thequantity coal. The commonly used methods to weigh the coal are as
n
follows:
.i
(i) Mechanical (ii) Pneumatic (iii) Electronic.
ng
The Mechanical method works on a suitable lever system mounted on knife edges and
bearings connected to a resistance in the form of a spring of pendulum. The pneumatic
eri
weighters use a pneumatic transmitter weight head and the corresponding air pressure
determined by the load applied. The electronic weighing machines make use of load cells
ine
that produce voltage signals proportional to the load applied.
ASH HANDLING EQUIPMENTS AND TYPES OF DUST COLLECTORS.
ng
Mechanical means are required for the disposal of ash. The handling equipment should
perform the following functions:
a rnE
Le
w.
ww
(1) Capital investment, operating and maintenance charges of the equipment should be
low.
(2) It should be able to handle large quantities of ash.

17
(3) Clinkers, soot, dust etc. create troubles, the equipment should be able to handle
them smoothly.
(4) The equipment used should remove the ash from the furnace, load it to the
conveying system to deliver the ash to a dumping site or storage and finally it should
have means to dispose of the stored ash.
(5) The equipment should be corrosion and wear resistant. Fig. shows a general layout
of ash handling and dust collection system. The commonly used ash handling systems
n
are as follows
.i
(I)HYDRAULIC SYSTEM.In this system, ash from the furnace grate falls into a system
ng
of water possessing high velocity and is carried to the sumps. In this method water at
sufficient pressure is used to take away the ash to sump. Where water and ash are
eri
separated. The ash is then transferred to the dump site in wagons, rail cars or trucks. The
loading of ash may be through a belt conveyor, grab buckets. If there is an ash basement
ine
with ash hopper the ash can fall, directly in ash car or conveying system.
ng
a rnE
Le
(ii)Water Jetting. In this method a low pressure jet of water coming out of the quenching
nozzle is used to cool the ash. The ash falls into a trough and is then removed.
w.
(iii)Ash Sump System. This system used high pressure (H.P.) pump to supply high
pressure (H.P.) water-jets which carry ash from the furnace bottom through ash sluices
ww
(channels) constructed in basement floor to ash sump fitted with screen. The screen
divides the ash sump into compartments for coarse and fine ash. The fine ash passes
through the screen and moves into the dust sump (D.S.). Dust slurry pump (D.S. pump)
carries the dust through dust pump (D.P), suction pipe and dust delivery (D.D.) pipe to the
disposal site. Overhead crane having grab bucket is used to remove coarse ash. A.F.N
represents ash feeding nozzle and S.B.N. represents sub way booster nozzle and D.A.
means draining apron.

18
(iv)Pneumatic system. In this system ash from the boiler furnace outlet falls into a
crusher where larger ash particles are crushed to small sizes. The ash is then carried by a
high velocity air or steam to the point of delivery. Air leaving the ash separator is passed
through filter to remove dust etc. so that the exhauster handles clean air which will protect
the blades of the exhauster.
.i n
ng
eri
ine
v)Mechanical ash handling system. In this system ash cooled by water seal falls on the
ng
belt conveyor and is carried out continuously to the bunker. The ash is then removed to the
dumping site from the ash bunker with the help of trucks.
a rnE
Le
w.
ww
MECHANICAL DUST COLLECTORS.Mechanical dust collectors are sub-divided into

wet and dry types. In wet type collectors also known as scrubbers water sprays are used to
wash dust from the air. It has two sets of electrodes, insulated from each other that
maintain an electrostatic field between them at high voltage. The flue gases are made to
pass between these two sets of electrodes. The electric field ionises the dust particle; that
pass through it attracting them to the electrode of opposite charge. The other electrode is

19
maintained at a negative potential of 30,000 to 60,000 volts. The dust particles are
removed from the collecting electrode by rapping the electrode periodically.
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
The electrostatic precipitator is costly but has low maintenance cost and is
frequently employed with pulverised coal fired power stations Due to increasing boiler
size and low sulphur high ash content coal the problem of collecting fly ash is becoming
increasingly complex.. Fly ash particle size distribution depends primarily on the type of
n
boiler such as pulverised coal fired boiler typically produces coarser particles then cyclone
.i
type boilers. Electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is quite commonly used for removal of fly
ng
ash from flue gases.
5. Explain in detail about various types of condenser used in thermal power plant.
eri
(May/June 13 )(May/June 15)(May/June 16) (April / May 2017)
A condenser is a device in which the steam is condensed by cooling it with water.
ine
The condensed steam is known as condensate. The following are the advantages of
installing a condenser in a steam power plant.
ng
1. More work is done by the given amount of steam than could be obtained without
acondenser. Thus, the efficiency of the power plant is increased.
rnE
2. Steam consumption is reduced for the given output.

3. The condensate is recovered for the boiler feed water.
a
SURFACE CONDENSERS
Le
In surface condensers there is no direct contact between the steam and cooling
water and the condensate can be re-used in the boiler: In such condenser even impure
w.
water can be used for cooling purpose whereas the cooling water must be pure in jet
condensers. Although the capital cost and the space needed is more in surface condensers
ww
but it is justified by the saving in running cost and increase in efficiency of plant achieved
by using this condenser. Depending upon the position of condensate extraction pump, flow
of condensate and arrangement of tubes the surface condensers may be classified as
follows:
DOWN FLOW TYPE.Fig shows a sectional view of dawn flow condenser. Steam enters
at the top and flows downward. The water flowing through the tubes in one direction
lower half comes out the opposite direction in the upper half

20
CENTRAL FLOW CONDENSER.Fig. shows a central flow condenser. In this
.i n
condenser thesteam passages are all around the periphery of the shell. Air is pumped away
ng
from the centre of thecondenser. The condensate moves radially towards the centre of tube
nest. Some of the exhaust steamswhile moving towards the centre meets the undercooled
eri
condensate and pre-heats it thus reducingundercooling.
ine
ng
rnE
(iii)EVAPORATION CONDENSER. In this condenser (Fig.) steam to be condensed is

passed through a series of tubes and the cooling waterfalls over these tubes in the form of
a
spray. A steam of air flows over the tubes to increase evaporation of cooling water, which
Le
further increases the condensation of steam.

w.
ww
ADVANTAGES OF A SURFACE CONDENSER ARE AS FOLLOWS:

1. The condensate can be used as boiler feed water.

21
2. Cooling water of even poor quality can be used because the cooling water does
not come in direct contact with steam.
3. High vacuum (about 73.5 cm of Hg) can be obtained in the surface condenser.
This increases the thermal efficiency of the plant.
DISADVANTAGES OF' THE SURFACE CONDENSER ARE AS FOLLOWS:
1. The capital cost is more.
2. The maintenance cost and running cost of this condenser is high.
n
3. It is bulky and requires more space.
.i
JET CONDENSER
ng
In a jet condenser, the steam to be condensed and the cooling water come in direct
contact and the temperature of the condensate is the same as that of thecooling water
eri
leaving the condenser. For jet condensers the recovery of the condensate for reuse as
boiler feedwater is not possible.
ine
LOW LEVEL JET CONDENSER
In this condenser, the cooling water enters at the top and sprayed through jets. The
ng
steam enters at the bottom and mixes with the fine spray of cooling water. The condensate
is removed by a separate pump. The air is removed by an air pump separately from the
rnE
top.
a
Le
w.
ww
Low level jet condenser

HIGH LEVEL JET CONDENSER
This is similar to a low level condenser, except that the condenser shell is placed at
a height of 10.36 m [barometric height] above the hot well. The column of water in the tail
pipe forces the condensate into the hot well by gravity. Hence condensate extraction pump
is not required.

22
EJECTOR CONDENSER
In this condenser cooling water under a head of 5 to 6 m enters at the top of the
condenser. It is passed through a series of convergent nozzles. There is a pressure drop at
the throat of the nozzle. The reduction is pressure draws exhaust steam into the nozzle
through a non-return valve. Steam is mixed with water and condensed. In the converging
cones, pressure energy is partly converted into kinetic energy. In diverging cones, the
kinetic energy is partly converted into pressure energy. The pressure obtained is higher
n
than atmospheric pressure and this forces the condensate to the hot well.
.i
ng
eri
ine
ng
Ejector condenser
6.Briefly discuss about Draught and the types of Draught. (May/June 12)(Nov/Dec
rnE
12) (May/June 14) (Nov/Dec 14) (April / May 2017)

DRAUGHT :Draught is defined as the difference between absolute gas pressure at any
point in a gas flow passage and the ambient (same elevation) atmospheric pressure.
a
Draught is plus if Patm<Pgas and it is minus Patm>Pgas. Draught is achieved by small

Le
pressure difference which causes the flow of air or gas to take place. It is measured in
milimetre (mm) .
w.
The purpose of draught is as follows:

ww
To supply required amount of air to the furnace for the combustion of fuel
To remove the gaseous products of combustion.
CLASSIFICATION OF DRAUGHT:
NATURAL draught:
If only chimney is used to produce the draught, it is called natural draught.
ARTIFICIAL DRAUGHT
If the draught is produced by steam jet or fan it is known as artificial draught.

23
STEAM JET DRAUGHT:

It employs steam to produce the draught
MECHANICAL DRAUGHT
It employs fan or blowers to produce the draught.
INDUCED DRAUGHT
The flue is drawn (sucked) through the system by a fan or steam jet
FORCED DRAUGHT
n
The air is forced into system by a blower or steam jet.
.i
APPLICATIONS IN NATURAL DRAUGHT:
ng
Natural draught system employs a tall chimney as shown in figure. The chimney is a
vertical tubular masonry structure or reinforced concrete. It is constructed for enclosing a
eri
column of exhaust gases to produce the draught. It discharges the gases high enough to
prevent air pollution. The draught is produced by this tall chimney due to temperature
ine
difference of hot gases in the chimney and cold external air outside the chimney.
ng
a rnE
Le
Figure: Natural draught

w.
Where H- Height of the Chimney (m)

pa – Atmospheric pressure (N/m2)
ww
p1 – Pressure acting on the grate from chimney side (N/m2)

p2 – Pressure acting on the grate from atmospheric (N/m2)
Due to this pressure difference (p), the atmospheric air flows through the furnace
grate and the flue gases flow through the chimney. The pressure difference can be
increased by increasing the height of the chimney or reducing the density of hot gases.
MERITS OF NATURAL DRAUGHT
1. No external power is required for creating the draught.

24
2. Air pollution is prevented since the flue gases are discharged at a higher level
3. Maintenance cost is practically nil since there are no mechanical parts.
4. It has longer life.
5. Capital cost is less than that of an artificial draught
DEMERITS OF NATURAL DRAUGHT
1. Maximum pressure available for producing draught by the chimney is less.
2. Flue gases have to be discharged at high temperature since draught increases
n
with the increase in temperature of flue gases.
.i
3. Heat cannot be extracted from the flue gases for economizer, superheater, air
ng
pre-heater, etc. since the effective draught will be reduced if the temperature of the
flue gases is decreased.
4.
eri
Overall efficiency of the plant is decreased since the fluid gases are
discharged at higher temperatures.
ine
5. Poor combustion and specific fuel consumption is increased since the low
velocity of air affects thorough mixing of air and fuel.
ng
6. Not flexible under peak loads since the draught available for a particular
height of a chimney is constant.
rnE
7. A considerable amount of heat released by the fuel (about 20%) is lost due to
flue gases.
a
APPLICATIONS
Le
Natural draught system is used only in small capacity boilers and it is not used in high
capacity thermal plants.
w.
ARTIFICIAL DRAUGHT
It has been seen that the draught produced by chimney is affected by the atmospheric
ww
conditions. It has no flexibility, poor efficiency and tall chimney is required. In most of the
modern power plants, the draught used must be independence of atmospheric condition,
and itmust have greater flexibility (control) to take the fluctuating loads on the plant.
The draught required in actual power plant is sufficiently high (300 mm of water) and
to meet high draught requirements, some other system must be used, known as artificial
draught. The artificial draught is produced by a fan and it is known as fan (mechanical)
draught. Mechanical draught is preferred for central power stations.

25
FORCED DRAUGHT
In a forced draught system, a blower is installed near the base of the boiler and air is
forced to pass through the furnace, flues, and economizer, air-preheater and to the stack.
This draught system is known as positive draught system or forced draught system because
the pressure and air is forced to flow through the system. The arrangement of the system is
shown in figure. A stack or chimney is also in this system as shown in figure but its
function is to discharge gases high in the atmosphere to prevent the contamination. It is not
n
much significant for producing draught therefore height of the chimney may not be very
.i
much.
ng
eri
ine
ng
Figure: Forced draught

rnE
INDUCED DRAUGHT:
In this system, the blower is located near the base of the chimney instead of near the
grate. The air is sucked in the system by reducing the pressure through the system below
a
Le
atmosphere. The induced draught fan sucks the burned gases from the furnace and the
pressure inside the furnace is reduced below atmosphere and induces the atmospheric air to
w.
flow through the furnace. The action of the induced draught is similar to the action of the
chimney. The draught produced is independent of the temperature of the hot gases
ww
therefore the gases may be discharged as cold as possible after recovering as much heat as
possible in air-preheater and economizer.
This draught is used generally when economizer and air-preheater are incorporated in
the system. The fan should be located at such a place that the temperature of the gas
handled by the fan is lowest. The chimney is also used in this system and its function is
similar as mentioned in forced draught but total draught produced in induced draught
system is the sum of the draughts produced by the fan and chimney.

26
Figure: Induced draught

BALANCED DRAUGHT:
It is always preferable to use a combination of forced draught and induced draught
instead of forced or induced draught alone. If the forced draught is used alone, then the
n
furnace cannot be opened either for firing or inspection because the high pressure air inside
.i
the furnace will try to blow out suddenly and there is every chance of blowing out the fire
ng
completely and furnace stops. If the induced draught is used alone, then also furnace cannot
be opened either for firing or inspection because the cold air will try to rush into the
eri
furnace as the pressure inside the furnace is below atmospheric pressure. This reduces the
effective draught and dilutes the combustion.
ine
ng
a rnE
Figure: Balanced draught

Le
To overcome both the difficulties mentioned above either using forced draught or
induced draught alone, a balanced draught is always preferred. The balanced draught is a
w.
combination of forced and induced draught. The forced draught overcomes the resistance
of the fuel bed there fore sufficient air is supplied to the fuel bed for proper and complete
ww
combustion. The induced draught fan removes the gases from the furnace maintaining the
pressure in the furnace just below atmosphere. This helps to prevent the blow – off of
flames when the doors are opened as the leakage of air is inwards.

27
UNIT II – DIESEL, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS

PART A
1. What is regeneration in gas turbine power plant? (May/June 2012)(Nov/ Dec 2016)
The hot exhaust gases from the turbine are passed through a heat exchanger, or
regenerator, to increase the temperature of the air leaving the compressor prior to
combustion. This reduces the amount of fuel needed to reach the desired turbine-inlet
temperature.
2.What are the methods to improving the thermal efficiency in open cycle gas turbine
n
plant? (May/June 2012)
.i
Methods for improvement of thermal efficiency of open cycle gas turbine plant are:
ng
i) Inter cooling
ii) Reheating
iii) Regeneration
eri
3. Mention a few characteristics of diesel power plant? (Nov/Dec 2012)
ine
Diesel electric plant are used in the range of 2 to 50 MW capacity. It is
universally adapted to supplement other type of power plants during emergency and cold
ng
start conditions.
4. Name the types of diesel engine used for diesel power plants (May/June 2013)
rnE
Based on number of strokes the diesel engine can be classified as

i) Two stroke diesel engine ii) four stroke diesel engine
a
Based on orientation
Le
i) Horizontal diesel engine ii) vertical diesel engine

Depending on the number of cylinders
w.
i)Single cylinder ii)multi cylinder

5. Write the major field of application of gas turbines? (Nov/Dec2012,May/June 2013)
ww
The major fields of application of gas turbines are:

Aviation
Power generation
Oil and gas industry
Marine propulsion.
6. Write the classification of gas turbine. (Nov/Dec 2013)
i) Open cycle gas turbine plant

28
ii) Closed cycle gas turbine plant

7. Write the advantages of diesel power plants. (Nov/Dec 2013)
It is easy to design and install
It is easily available in standard capacities
They can respond to load changes
They have less stand by losses
8. What type of cycle is used in gas turbine? (NOV/DEC 2014)
In an ideal gas turbine, gases undergo three thermodynamic processes: an isentropic
n
compression, an isobaric (constant pressure) combustion and an isentropic expansion.
.i
Together, these make up the Brayton cycle.
ng
9. What is the purpose of super charging? (April/May 2015)
The purpose of supercharging is to raise the volumetric efficiency above that value
which can be obtained by normal aspiration.
eri
ine
10. Why is gas turbine best suited for peak load? (April/May 2015)
The quick starting and good response characteristics of the gas turbine plant make
the gas turbine as desirable peak load and essential stand by plant.
ng
11. Why power generation by gas turbine is more attractive than other turbines?
rnE
(Nov/Dec 2015)
Smaller in size and weight
Subjected to less vibration
a
No standby losses
Le
Exhaust is free from smoke

w.
12. What are the essential component of diesel power plants? (May/June 2016)
Essential components of a diesel power plant are:
ww
(i) Engine (v) Cooling system

(ii) Air intake system (vi) Lubrication system
(iii) Exhaust system (vii) Engine starting system
(iv) Fuel system (viii) Governing system
13. Give examples of combined cycle power plant. (May/June 2016)
Gas turbine-steam turbine plant
MHD – gas turbine power plant
Gas turbine and combined cycle cogeneration plant

29
14. Name the various Gas power cycle.(Nov / Dec 2016)

 Otto Cycle
 Diesel Cycle
 Dual Cycle &
 Brayton Cycle
15. List down the various process in Brayton cycle. (April / May 2017)
o Isentropic Compression Process
o Constant pressure heat addition process
n
o Isentropic Expansion process
.i
o Constant pressure Heat rejection process
ng
PART - B
1. Explain the working principle of diesel engine power plant. (May/June
eri
12)(Nov/Dec 12) (May/June 13, 14,15) (Nov/Dec 14) (May/June 15)(Nov / Dec 2016)
ine
ng
a rnE
Le
w.
ww
FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM

It consists of fuel tank for the storage of fuel, fuel filters and pumps to transfer and
inject the fuel. The fuel oil may be supplied at the plant site by trucks, rail, road, tank, cars,
etc.
The five essential functions of a fuel injection system are:
1. To deliver oil from the storage to the fuel injector.
2. To raise the fuel pressure to the level required for atomization.
3. To measure and control the amount of fuel admitted in each cycle.

30
4. To control time of injection.

5.To spray fuel into the cylinder in atomized form for thorough mixing and burning.
The above functions can be achieved in a variety of ways.
1.Common Rail.
2.Individual Pump Injection.
3. Distributor.
AIR INTAKE AND EXHAUST SYSTEM
It consists of pipe for the supply of air and exhaust of the gases. Filters are provided
n
to remove dust etc. from the incoming air. In the exhaust system silencer is provided to
.i
reduce the noise.
ng
Filters may be of dry type (made up of cloth, felt, glass, wool etc.) or oil bath type.
In oil bath type of filters the air is swept over or through a bath of oil in order that the
eri
particles of dust get coated. The duties of the air intake systems are as follows:
i) To clean the air intake supply.
ine
ii) To silence the intake air.iii) To supply air for super charging
The intake system must cause a minimum pressure loss to avoid reducing engine
ng
capacity and raising the specific fuel consumption. Filters must be cleaned periodically to
prevent pressure losses from clogging. Silencers must be used on some systems to reduce
rnE
high velocity air noises.

STRAINER
a
This oil then pump to dry tank, by means of transfer pump. During transferring
Le
from main tank to smaller dry tank, the oil passes through strainer to remove solid
impurities. From dry tank to main tank, there is another pipe connection. This is over flow
w.
pipe. This pipe connection is used to return the oil from dry tank to main tank in the event
of over flowing.From dry tank the oil is injected in the diesel engine by means of fuel
ww
injection pump.
STARTING SYSTEM
For the initial starting of engine the various devices used are compressed air,
battery, electric motor or self-starter. The auxiliary equipment of diesel engine power
plant.
COOLING SYSTEM

31
The heat produced due to internal combustion, drives the engine. But some parts of
this heat raise the temperature of different parts of the engine. High temperature may cause
permanent damage to the machine. Hence, it is essential to maintain the overall
temperature of the engine to a tolerable level.
During combustion process the peak gas temperature in the cylinder of an internal
combustion engine is of the order of 2500 K. Maximum metal temperature for the inside of
the combustion chamber space are limited to much lower values than the gas temperature
by a large number of considerations and thus cooling for the cylinder head, cylinder and
n
piston must therefore be provided. Necessity of engine cooling arises due to the following
.i
facts
ng
1. The valves may be kept cool to avoid knock and pre-ignition problems which
result from
eri
overheated exhaust valves (true for S.I. engines).
2. The volumetric and thermal efficiency and power output of the engines decrease
ine
with an increase in cylinder and head temperature.
Based on cooling medium two types of cooling systems are in general use. They are
ng
(a) Air as direct cooling system.

(b) Liquid or indirect cooling system
rnE
Air-cooling is used in small engines and portable engines by providing fins on the
cylinder. Big diesel engines are always liquid (water/special liquid) cooled. Liquid cooling
a
system is further classified as

Le
(1) Open cooling system

(2) Natural circulation (Thermo-system)
w.
(3) Forced circulation system

(4) Evaporation cooling system.
ww
1.OPEN COOLING SYSTEM

This system is applicable only where plenty of water is available. The water from
the storage tank is directly supplied through an inlet valve to the engine cooling water
jacket. The hot water coming out of the engine is not cooled for reuse but it is discharged.
2. NATURAL CIRCULATION SYSTEM
The system is closed one and designed so that the water may circulate naturally
because of the difference in density of water at different temperatures. It consists of water

32
jacket, radiator and a fan. When the water is heated, its density decreases and it tends to
rise, while the colder molecules tend to sink. Circulation of water then is obtained as the
water heated in the water jacket tends to rise and the water cooled in the radiator with the
help of air passing over the radiator either by ram effect or by fan or jointly tends to sink
3. FORCED CIRCULATION COOLING SYSTEM

The system consists of pump, water jacket in the cylinder, radiator, fan and a
n
thermostat. The coolant (water or synthetic coolant) is circulated through the cylinder
.i
jacket with the help of a pump, which is usually a centrifugal type, and driven by the
ng
engine. The function of thermostat, which is fitted in the upper hose connection initially,
prevents the circulation of water below a certain temperature (usually upto 85°C) through
eri
the radiation so that water gets heated up quickly.
LUBRICATING SYSTEM
ine
This system minimises the water of rubbing surface of the engine. Here lubricating
oil is stored in main lubricating oil tank. This lubricating oil is drawn from the tank by
ng
means of oil pump. Then the oil is passed through the oil filter for removing impurities.
From the filtering point, this clean lubricating oil is delivered to the different points of the
rnE
machine where lubrication is required the oil cooler is provided in the system to keep the
temperature of the lubricating oil as low as possible.
a
1.LIQUID LUBRICANTS OR WET SUMP LUBRICATION SYSTEM

Le
These systems employ a large capacity oil sump at the base of crank chamber, from
which the oil is drawn by a low-pressure oil pump and delivered to various parts. Oil then
w.
gradually returns back to the sump after serving the purpose.

2. SOLID LUBRICANTS OR DRY SUMP LUBRICATION SYSTEM
ww
In this system, the oil from the sump is carried to a separate storage tank outside the
engine cylinder block. The oil from sump is pumped by means of a sump pump through
filters to the storage tank. Oil from storage tank is pumped to the engine cylinder through
oil cooler. Oil pressure may vary from 3 to 8 kgf/cm2. Dry sump lubrication system is
generally adopted for high capacity engines.
3.MIST LUBRICATION SYSTEM

33
This system is used for two stroke cycle engines. Most of these engines are crank
charged, i.e., they employ crank case compression and thus, are not suitable for crank case
lubrication. These engines are lubricated by adding 2 to 3 per cent lubricating oil in the
fuel tank. The oil and fuel mixture is induced through the carburator. The gasoline is
vaporized; and the oil in the form of mist, goes via crankcase into the cylinder
STARTING SYSTEM
For starting a diesel engine, initial rotation of the engine shaft is required. Until the
firing start and the unit runs with its own power. For small DG set, the initial rotation of
n
the shaft is provided by handles but for large diesel power station. Compressed air is made
.i
for starting.
ng
ADVANTAGE OF DIESEL POWER PLANT
1. Very simple design also simple installation.
2. Limited cooling water requirement.
eri
ine
3. Standby losses are less as compared to other Power plants.
4. Low fuel cost.
ng
5. Quickly started and put on load.

6. Smaller storage is needed for the fuel.
rnE
7. Layout of power plant is quite simple.

8. There is no problem of ash handling.
a
DISADVANTAGE OF DIESEL POWER PLANT

Le
The disadvantages of diesel power plants are listed below.

1. High Maintenance and operating cost.
w.
2. Fuel cost is more, since in India diesel is costly.

3. The plant cost per kW is comparatively more.
ww
4. The life of diesel power plant is small due to high maintenance.

5. Noise is a serious problem in diesel power plant.
APPLICATION:
1. They are quite suitable for mobile power generation and are widely used in
transportationSystems consisting of railroads, ships, automobiles and aeroplanes.
2. They can be used for electrical power generation in capacities from 100 to 5000 H.P.
3. They can be used as standby power plants.

34
4. They can be used as peak load plants for some other types of power plants.
2.Explaindifferent components and operation of gas turbine power plant.(Nov/Dec
12) (May/June 13)(Nov/Dec 13) (April/ May 2017)(Nov/ Dec 2016).
The gas turbine power plants which are used in electric power industry are
classified into twogroups as per the cycle of operation. (a) Open cycle gas turbine.(b)
Closed cycle gas turbine.
OPEN CYCLE GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT
A simple open cycle gas turbine consists of a compressor, combustion chamber and
n
a turbine as shown in Fig. 1. The compressor takes in ambient air and raises its pressure.
.i
Heat is added to the air in combustion chamber by burning the fuel and raises its
ng
temperature.
eri
ine
ng
a rnE
Le
The heated gases coming out of combustion chamber are then passed to the turbine
where it expands doing mechanical work. Part of the power developed by the turbine is
w.
utilized in driving the compressor and other accessories and remaining is used for power
generation. Since ambient air enters into the compressor and gases coming out of turbine
ww
are exhausted into the atmosphere, the working medium must be replaced continuously.
This type of cycle is known as open cycle gas turbine plant and is mainly used in majority
of gas turbine power plants as it has many inherent advantages.
CLOSED CYCLE GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT

35
.i n
ng
It used air as working medium and had a useful output of 2 mW. Since then, a
number of closed cycle gas turbine plants have been built all over the world and largest of
eri
17 mW capacity is at Gelsenkirchen, Germany and has been successfully operating since
1967. In closed cycle gas turbine plant, the working fluid (air or any other suitable gas)
ine
coming out from compressor is heated in a heater by an external source at constant
pressure. The high temperature and high-pressure air coming out from the external heater
ng
is passed through the gas turbine. The fluid coming out from the turbine is cooled to its
original temperature in the cooler using external cooling source before passing to the
rnE
compressor.
The working fluid is continuously used in the system without its change of phase
and the required heat is given to the working fluid in the heat exchanger. The arrangement
a
Le
of the components of the closed cycle gas turbine plant is shown in Fig. 2.
DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF GAS TURBINE PLANT
w.
COMPRESSOR:
The high flow rates of turbines and relatively moderate pressure ratios necessitate
ww
the use ofrotary compressors. The types of compressors, which are commonly used, are of
two types, centrifugaland axial flow types.The centrifugal compressor consists of an
impeller (rotatingcomponent) and a diffuser (stationary component). The impeller imparts
the high kinetic energy to the air and diffuser converts the kinetic energy into the pressure
energy. The pressure ratio of 2 to 3 is possible with single stage compressor and it can be
increased upto 20 with three-stage compressor. The compressors may have single or

36
double inlet. The single inlet compressors are designed to handle the air in the range of 15
to 300 m3/min and double inlets are preferred above 300 m3/min capacity.
The efficiency of centrifugal compressor lies between 80 to90%. The efficiency of
multistage compressor is lower than a single stage due to the losses. The axial flow
compressor consists of a series of rotor and stator stages with decreasing diameters along
the flow of air. The blades are fixed on the rotor and rotors are fixed on the shaft. The
stator blades are fixed on the stator casing. The stator blades guide the air flow to the next
rotor stage coming from the previous rotor stage. The air flows along the axis of the rotor.
n
The kinetic energy is given to the air as it passes through the rotor and part of it is
.i
converted into pressure.
ng
The number of stages required for pressure ratio of 5 is as large as sixteen or more.
A satisfactory air filter is absolutely necessary for cleaning the air before it enters the
eri
compressor because it is essential to maintain the designed profile of the aerofoil blades.
The deposition of dust particles on the blade surfaces reduces the efficiency rapidly.
ine
The advantages of axial flow compressor over centrifugal compressor are high isentropic
efficiency (90-95%), high flow rate and small weight for the same flow quantity. The axial
ng
flow compressors are very sensitive to the changes in airflow and speed, which result in
rapid drop in efficiency. In both types of compressors, it has been found that lowering of
rnE
the inlet air temperature by 15 to 20°C gives almost 25% greater output with an increase of
5% efficiency.
a
INTERCOOLER
Le
The intercooler is generally used in gas turbine plant when the pressure ratio used is
sufficiently large and the compression is completed with two or more stages. The cooling
w.
of compressed air is generally done with the use of cooling water. A cross-flow type
intercooler is generally preferred foreffective heat transfer.The regenerators, which are
ww
commonly used in gas turbine plant, are of two types, recuperator and regenerator.In a
recuperative type of heat exchanger, the air and hot gases are made to flow in counter
direction as the effect of counterflowgives high average temperature differencecausing the
higher heat flow.
A number of baffles in the path of airfloware used to make the air to flow in
contactfor longer time with heat transfer surface.The regenerator type heat exchanger
consists of a heat-conducting member that isexposed alternately to the hot exhaust gases

37
and the cooler compressed air. It absorbs theheat from hot gases and gives it up when
exposed to the air. The heat, capacity member ismade of a metallic mesh or matrix, which
is rotated slowly (40-60 r.p.m.) and continuouslyexposed to hot and cold air.
COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
The gas turbine is a continuous flow system; therefore, the combustion in the gas
turbine differsfrom the combustion in diesel engines. High rate of mass flow results in high
velocities at various points throughout the cycle (300 m/sec
.i n
ng
eri
The gas turbine combustion system has to function under certain different operating
ine
conditions which are not usually met with the combustion systems of diesel engines. A few
of them are listed below:
ng
1. Combustion in the gas turbine takes place in a continuous flow system and, therefore,
rnE
theadvantageof high pressure and restricted volume available in diesel engine is lost. The
chemicalreaction takes place relatively slowly thus requiring large residence time in the
combustionchamber in order to achieve complete combustion.
a
2. The gas turbine requires about 100:1 air-fuel ratio by weight for the reasons
Le
mentioned earlier.But the air-fuel ratio required for the combustion in diesel engine is
approximately 15:1.Therefore, it is impossible to ignite and maintain a continuous
w.
combustion with such weakmixture. It is necessary to provide rich mixture fm ignition

ww
and continuous combustion, andtherefore, it is necessary to allow required air in the

combustion zone and the remaining airmust be added after complete combustion to
reduce the gas temperature before passing intothe turbine.
3. A pilot or recirculated zone should be created in the main flow to establish a stable
flame thehelps to ignite the combustible mixture continuously.
4. A stable continuous flame can be maintained inside the combustion chamber when
the streamvelocity and fuel burning velocity are equal. Unfortunately most of the fuels
have low burningvelocities of the order of a few meters per second, therefore, flame

38
stabilization is notpossible unless some technique is employed to anchor the flame in the
combustion chamber.
GAS TURBINES
The common types of turbines, which are in use, are axial flow type. The basic
requirements ofthe turbines are lightweight, high efficiency; reliability in operation and
long working life. Large work output can be obtained per stage with high blade speeds
when the blades are designed to sustain higher stresses. More stages of the turbine are
always preferred in gas turbine power plant because it helps to reduce the stresses in the
n
blades and increases the overall life of the turbine. More stages are further preferred with
.i
stationary power plants because weight is not the major consideration in the design which
ng
is essential in aircraft turbine-plant. The cooling of the gas turbine blades is essential for
long life as it is continuously subjected to high temperature gases. There are different
eri
methods of cooling the blades. The common method used is the air-cooling. The air is
passed through the holes provided through the blade.
ine
3. Explain in detail about integrated gasifier based combined cycle systems.
ng
(Nov/Dec 15) (April/ May 2017) (Nov/ Dec 2016)

An integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) is a technology that uses a
rnE
gasifier to turn coal and other carbon based fuels into gas synthesis gas (syngas). It then
removes impurities from the syngas before it is combusted. Some of these pollutants, such
a
as sulfur, can be turned into re-usable byproducts. This results in lower emissions of sulfur
Le
dioxide, particulates, and mercury. With additional process equipment, the carbon in the
syngas can be shifted to hydrogen via the water-gas shift reaction, resulting in nearly
w.
carbon free fuel. The resulting carbon dioxide from the shift reaction can be compressed
and stored. Excess heat from the primary combustion and syngas fired generation is then
ww
passed to a steam cycle, similar to a combined cycle gas turbine. This result in improved
efficiency compared to conventional pulverized coal.
The water-gas shift reaction (WGSR) describes the reaction of carbon
monoxide and water vapor to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen (the mixture of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen is known as water gas)
CO + H2O CO2 + H2

39
Gasification plant including preparation of the feedstock.Raw-gas cooling via water

quench or heat recovery systems.Gas purification system with sulfur removal/recovery and
optional CO2 removal ,Air separation unit.Combined cycle unit with gas turboset, heat
recovery steam generator and steam turboset.
.i n
ng
eri
ine
The gasifier feedstock is converted to synthesis gas (syngas) with the addition of
steam and oxygen. Entrained-flow gasifiers for coal are fundamentally well suited to
ng
integration in the combined cycle, as are entrained-flow systems for refinery residues. The
rnE
selection of a specific gasifier type to achieve the best cost, efficiency and emissions levels
depends on the type of fuel and the particular application, and must be investigated on a
case–by-case basis.
a
The present Siemens Fuel Gasification (SFG) technology applies the entrained-flow
Le
principle, followed by a direct water quench to cool the produced hot raw gas. This
technique often used in residue gasification is also suitable for a variety of fuels, in
w.
particular coal and petroleum coke. In a further development step, it is possible to capture
ww
the sensible heat of the hot raw gas in a syngas cooler to generate high-pressure steam for
the steam turbine. Both processes cool the gas sufficiently so that it can be sent directly to
the gas treatment system.
Syngas coolers are advantageous when targeting high efficiencies with IGCC plants
without CO2 capture (e.g. Buggenum and Puertollano IGCC plants) For IGCC applications
with CCS the direct water quench has advantages as the water/steam needed for the shift
reaction is already in the raw syngas.

40
First the particulates, soot and heavy metals are eliminated from the initial raw gas
purification downstream of the quench system or syngas cooler. Subsequently chemical
pollutants such as H2S, COS, HCl, HF, NH3 and HCN are separated and removed. The
separated H2S-rich gas stream is processed to recover saleable sulfur, for example in pure
elemental form. Downstream of the gas purification system, the clean gas is mixed with
nitrogen (for flow control, flame stabilization and NOx reduction) and/or diluted with water
before it is supplied to the gas turbine combustion chamber. In this way, low-level heat can
be used efficiently and gas turbine mass flow and output are increased.
n
In oxygen-blown gasification, the air separation unit (ASU) generates the enriched
.i
oxygen supply necessary for the gasification process. The inevitably co-produced nitrogen
ng
from the ASU is used primarily in the gas turbine cycle, and, in the case of coal or
petroleum coke, smaller amounts are used to transport the solid fuels to the gasifier and for
eri
inerting purposes. In addition to air for combustion, the compressor of the gas turbine-
generator may also supply all or part of the air for the ASU. Interdependencies between
ine
IGCC and ASU are described as air-integrated, nitrogen-integrated or non-integrated
respectively.
ng
The steam turbine is supplied with steam from the gas turbine heat recovery steam
generator (HRSG). The heat from the raw gas may also be used to generate steam for the
rnE
steam turbine when gasifiers with high gas outlet temperatures are implemented.
a
4. Explain in detail about combined cycle power plant. State the advantages and
Le
disadvantages of open cycle and closed cycle turbine powerplant. (May/June

12)(Nov/Dec 12) (May/June 13) (Nov/Dec 15)(Nov/ Dec2016)
w.
A combined cycle power plant is more efficient than a conventional power plant
because it uses a higher proportion of the energy that the fuel produces when it burns.
ww
In a combined cycle power plant (CCPP), or combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT)
plant, a gas turbine generates electricity and the waste heat is used to make steam to
generate additional electricity via a steam turbine; this last step enhances the efficiency of
electricity generation
The gas turbine drives an electrical generator. The gas turbine exhaust is then used
to produce steam in a heat exchanger (steam generator) to supply a steam turbine whose
output provides the means to generate more electricity. However the Steam Turbine is not

41
necessarily, in that case the plant produce electricity and industrial steam which can be
used for heating or industrial purpose.
It has been found that a considerable amount of heat energy goes as a waste with
the exhaust of the gas turbine. This energy must be utilized. The complete use of the
energy available to a system iscalled the total energy approach. The objective of this
approach is to use all of the heat energy in a powersystem at the different temperature
levels at which it becomes available to produce work, or steam, orthe heating of air or
water, thereby rejecting a minimum of energy waste. The best approach is the use
n
ofcombined cycles.
.i
There may be various combinations of the combined cycles depending upon the
ng
place or countryrequirements. Even nuclear power plant may be used in the combined
cycles.Fig. shows a combination of an opencycle gas turbine and steam turbine. The
eri
exhaustof gas turbine which has high oxygen content isused as the inlet gas to the steam
generator wherethe combustion of additional fuel takes place. Thiscombination allows
ine
nearer equality between thepower outputs of the two units than is obtained withthe simple
recuperative heat exchanger. For a giventotal power output the energy input is reduced
ng
(i.e.,saving in fuel) and the installed cost of gas turbineper unit of power output is about
one-fourth of thatof steam turbine.
a rnE
Le
w.
ww
In other words, the combination cycles exhibit higher efficiency. The greater
disadvantagesinclude the complexity of the plant, different fuel requirements and possible
loss of flexibility andreliability. The most recent technology in the field of co-generation
developed in USA utilizes the gaseousfuel in the combustion chambers produced by the

42
gasification of low quality of coal. The system isefficient and the cost of power production
per kW is less.
OPEN CYCLE GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT
ADVANTAGES
1. Warm-up time. Once the turbine is brought up to the rated speed by the starting
motor and the fuel is ignited, the gas turbine will be accelerated from cold start to full
load without warm-up time.
2. Low weight and size. The weight in kg per kW developed is less.
n
DISADVANTAGES
.i
1. The part load efficiency of the open cycle plant decreases rapidly as the considerable
ng
percentage of power developed by the turbine is used to drive the compressor.
2. The open cycle plant is sensitive to changes in the atmospheric air temperature,
pressure and humidity.
CLOSED CYCLE GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT
eri
ine
(A) ADVANTAGES
1. The inherent disadvantage of open cycle gas turbine is the atmospheric backpressure
ng
at the turbine exhaust. With closed cycle gas turbine plants, the backpressure can be
increased. Due to the control on backpressure, unit rating can be increased about in
rnE
proportion to the backpressure. Therefore the machine can be smaller and cheaper.
2. The closed cycle avoids erosion of the turbine blades due to the contaminated gases
a
and fouling of compressor blades due to dust. Therefore, it is practically free from
Le
deterioration of efficiency in service. The absence of corrosion and abrasion of the

interiors of the compressor and turbine extends the life of the plant.
w.
3. The need for filtration of the incoming air which is a severe problem in open cycle
plant is completely eliminated.
ww
4. The maintenance cost is low and reliability is high due to longer useful life.
5. The thermal efficiency increases as the pressure ratio (Rp) decreases. Therefore,
appreciable higher thermal efficiencies are obtainable with closed cycle for the same
maximum and minimum temperature limits as with the open cycle plant.
(B) DISADVANTAGES
1. The system is dependent on external means as considerable quantity of cooling
water is required in the pre-cooler.

43
2. Higher internal pressures involve complicated design of all components and high
quality material is required which increases the cost of the plant.
.i n
ng
eri
ine
UNIT III – NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
PART A
ng
1. Define Nuclear Fission & Critical mass ?(May/June 2012,Nov/Dec 2014,2016)

Fission is the process that occurs when a neutron collides with the nucleus of
rnE
certain of heavy atoms, causing the original nucleus to split into two or more unequal
fragments which carry-off most of the energy of fission as kinetic energy. This process is
a
accompanied by the emission of neutrons and gamma rays.

Le
A critical mass is the smallest amount of fissile material needed for a

sustained nuclear chain reaction. The critical mass of a fissionable material depends upon
w.
its nuclear properties, its density, its shape, its enrichment, its purity, its temperature, and
ww
its surroundings.
2. Name some moderators commonly used in nuclear power reactor (May/June 2012)
Heavy water
Water
Beryllium
Graphite
Helium

44
3. What is the difference between fission and fusion? (Nov/Dec 2012) (MAY/JUN
2014)
S. NO Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
In nuclear physics and nuclear
chemistry, nuclear fission is a nuclear In nuclear physics, nuclear chemistry
reaction in which the nucleus of an and astrophysics nuclear fusion is the
1 atom splits into smaller parts (lighter process by which two or more atomic
nuclei), often producing free neutrons nuclei join together, or "fuse", to form
n
and photons (in the form of gamma a single heavier nucleus.
.i
rays).
ng
The two nuclei produced are most often
This is usually accompanied by the
of comparable size, typically with a
2
mass ratio around 3:2 for common
eri release or absorption
quantities of energy.
of large
ine
fissile isotopes.
4. Why is shielding of a nuclear reactor necessary? (May/June 2013)(Nov Dec 2016)

ng
Shielding is necessary to protect the walls of the reactor vessel from radiation
rnE
damage and also protects the operating personnel from exposure to radiation. Thick layers
of lead concrete or steel are provided all around the reactor. These layers absorb the
gamma rays, neutrons etc.
a
5. Define Isotopes?(Nov/Dec 2013)

Le
Those pairs of atoms which have the same atomic number and hence similar
chemical properties but different atomic mass number are called isotopes.
w.
6. What are the desirable properties of a good moderator? (MAY/JUN 2014)

ww
It must be as light as possible It must slowdown the neutron as quick as possible, It

must have resistance to corrosion .It must have good machinability, It must have good
conductivity and high melting point
7. What do you understand by radioactive decay? (NOV/DEC 2014)
Radioactive decay is the spontaneous breakdown of an atomic nucleus resulting in
the release of energy and matter from the nucleus. Remember that a radioisotope has
unstable nuclei that does not have enough binding energy to hold the nucleus together.
8. What do you understand by moderation? Why it is essential? (April/May 2015)

45
The process of slow down the neutrons from high velocity without capturing them is
known as moderation. It is used to reduce the energy of neutrons evolved during fission in
order to maintain the chain reaction.
9. Distinguish between fertile and fissile materials. (April/May 2015)
Fissile Fuels: These fuels undergo fission process. When unstable heavy nuclear is
bombarded with neutrons it splits into two fragments of approximately equal mass. A large
amount of heat is released during this fission process. The fissile materials are used as
fuels in nuclear power plants. There are 3 fissionable materials they are U235, PU239 and
n
U233.
.i
Fertile Fuels: Some materials are not fissionable by themselves. Yet they can be
ng
converted into fissionable materials. They are called as fertile fuels. PU239and U233can
befissioned by neutrons.U238andTh232are known as fertile fuels.
eri
10. What is the purpose of control rods?(Nov/Dec 2015)(April / May 2017)
The control rods are used to start the chain reaction, maintain the chain reaction at
ine
required level and to shut down the reactor during emergency.
11. How do you cater for safety of nuclear power plant? (Nov/Dec 2015)
ng
The main safety concern is the emission of uncontrolled radiation into the
environment which could cause harm to humans both at the reactor site and off-site.
rnE
Radiation doses are controlled via the following procedures,

The handling of equipment via remote in the core of the reactor
a
Physical shielding
Le
Limit on the time a worker spends in areas with significant radiation levels.
Monitoring of individual doses and of the work environment.
w.
12. What are fast nuclear reactors? (May/June 2016)

ww
Fast breeder reactors are better than conventional reactors both from the point of
view of safety and thermal efficiency. In this reactor the core containing U235 in
surrounded by a blanket (a layer of fertile material placed outside the core) of fertile
material U238. In this reactor no moderator is used. The fast moving neutrons liberated due
to fission of U235 are absorbed by U238 which gets converted into fissionable material Pu239
which is capable of sustaining chain reaction.
13. What is a CANDU type reactor? (May/June 2016)

46
These reactors are more economically to those nations which do not produce
enricheduranium as the enrichment of uranium is very costly. In this type of reactors, the
natural uranium (0.7% U235) is used as fuel and heavy water as moderator.This type of
reactor was first designed and developed in Canada.
14. What is the function of Pressurizer in the PWR? (April / May 2017)
A Pressurizer is a component of a pressurized water reactor. Pressure in the
pressurizer is controlled by varying the temperature of the coolant in the pressurizer. Water
pressure in a closed system tracks water temperature directly; as the temperature goes up,
n
pressure goes up and vice versa.
.i
ng
PART B
1. Draw and explain block diagram of Nuclear power plant and write few advantages
eri
and disadvantages? (May/June 12)(Nov/Dec 12) (May/June 13) (Nov/Dec 14)
(May/June 15) (April/ May 2017, Nov /Dec 2016)
ine
NUCLEAR FUEL
Fuel of a nuclear reactor should be fissionable material which can be defined as an
ng
element or isotope whose nuclei can be caused to undergo nuclear fission by nuclear
bombardment and to produce a fission chain reaction. It can be one or all of the following
rnE
U233, U235 and Pu239.

Natural uranium found in earth crust contains three isotopes namely U234, U235 and
a
U238 and their average percentage is as follows :

Le
U238 — 99.3%,U235 — 0.7%,U234

w.
ww

47
n
g.i
rin
Fig. shows a schematic diagram of nuclear reactor
Out of these U235 is most unstable and is capable of sustaining chain reaction and
ee
has been given the name as primary fuel. U233 arid Pu239 are artificially produced from
gin
Th232 and U238 respectively and are called secondary fuel.
I) MODERATORS
In any chain reaction, the neutrons produced are fast moving neutrons. These are
En
less effective in causing fission of U235 and they try to escape from the reactor. It is thus
arn
implicit that speed of these neutrons must be reduced if their effectiveness is carrying out
fission is to be increased. This is done by making these neutrons collide with lighter
nuclei of other materials, which does not absorb these neutrons but simply scatter them.
Le
Each collision causes loss of energy and thus the speed of neutrons is reduced. Such a
material is called a ‗Moderator‘. The neutrons thus slowed down are easily captured by
w.
the fuel element at the chain reaction proceeds

ww
slowly.
A moderator should process the following properties :
1. It should have high thermal conductivity.
2. It should be available in large quantities in pure form.
3. It should have high melting point in case of solid moderators and low melting
point in case of liquid moderators.
4. It should provide good resistance to corrosion.
48

5. It should be stable under heat and radiation.

6. It should be able to slow down neutrons.
n
g.i
rin
ee
II) REFLECTORS
gin
Some of the neutrons produced during fission will be partly absorbed by the fuel
elements,moderator, coolant and other materials. The remaining neutrons will try to
En
escape from the reactor and will be lost. Such losses are minimized by surrounding
(lining) the reactor core with a material called a reflector which will reflect the neutrons
arn
back to the core. They improve the neutron economy. Economy: Graphite, Beryllium.
III) SHIELDING
Le
During Nuclear fission alpha, beta, comma particles and neutrons are also
produced. They are harmful to human life. Therefore it is necessary to shield the reactor
w.
with thick layers of lead, or concrete to protect both the operating personnel as well as
environment from radiation hazards.
ww
IV) CLADDING
In order to prevent the contamination of the coolant by fission products, the fuel
element is covered with a protective coating. This is known as cladding.
Control rods are used to control the reaction to prevent it from becoming violent.
They control the reaction by absorbing neutrons. These rods are made of boron or
49

cadmium.Whenever the reaction needs to be stopped, the rods are fully inserted and
placed against their seats and when the reaction is to be started the rods are pulled out.
V) COOLANT
The main purpose of the coolant in the reactor is to transfer the heat produced
inside the reactor. The same heat carried by the coolant is used in the heat exchanger for
further utilization in the power generation.
Some of the desirable properties of good coolant are listed below
1. It must not absorb the neutrons.
n
2. It must have high chemical and radiation stability
g.i
3. It must be non-corrosive.
4. It must have high boiling point (if liquid) and low melting point (if solid)
rin
5. It must be non-oxidising and non-toxic.
The above-mentioned properties are essential to keep the reactor core in safe
ee
condition as well as for the better functioning of the content.
gin
6. It must also have high density, low viscosity, high conductivity and high specific
heat.These properties are essential for better heat transfer and low pumping power.
The water, heavy water, gas (He, CO2), a metal in liquid form (Na) and an organic
En
liquid are used as coolants.The coolant not only carries large amounts of heat from
the core but also keeps the fuel assemblies at a safe temperature to avoid their
arn
melting and destruction.

VI) NUCLEAR REACTOR
Le
A nuclear reactor may be regarded as a substitute for the boiler fire box of a steam
power plant. Heat is produced in the reactor due to nuclear fission of the fuel U235. The
w.
heat liberated in the reactor is taken up by the coolant circulating through the core. Hot
coolant leaves the reactor at top and flows into the steam generator (boiler).
ww
RADIATION HAZARDS AND SHIELDINGS

The reactor is a source of intense radioactivity. These radiations are very harmful
to human life. It requires strong control to ensure that this radioactivity is not released
into the atmosphere to avoid atmospheric pollution. A thick concrete shielding and a
pressure vessel are provided to prevent the escape of these radiations to atmosphere
50

VII) STEAM GENERATOR

The steam generator is fed with feed water which is converted into steam by the
heat of the hot coolant. The purpose of the coolant is to transfer the heat generated in the
reactor core and use it for steam generation. Ordinary water or heavy water is a common
coolant.
VIII) TURBINE
The steam produced in the steam generator is passed to the turbine and work is
done bythe expansion of steam in the turbine.
n
IX) COOLANT PUMP AND FEED PUMP
g.i
The steam from the turbine flows to the condenser where cooling water is
circulated.Coolant pump and feed pump are provided to maintain the flow of coolant and
rin
feed water respectively.
ADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT ee
1. It can be easily adopted where water and coal resources are not available.
gin
2. The nuclear power plant requires very small quantity of fuel. Hence fuel
transportation cost is less.
3. Space requirement is less compared to other power plants of equal capacity.
En
4. It is not affected by adverse weather conditions.

5. Fuel storage facilities are not needed as in the case of the thermal power plant.
arn
DISADVANTAGES
1. Radioactive wastes, if not disposed of carefully, have adverse effect on the health
Le
of workmen and the population surrounding the plant.

2. It is not suitable for varying load condition.
w.
3. It requires well-trained personnel.

4. It requires high initial cost compared to hydro or thermal power plants.
ww
2. Write about principle of nuclear energy andchain reaction .Draw and explain the
construction and working principle of Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)?
(May/June 15)(Nov/Dec 15) (May/June 2017)
A nuclear power plant is similar to a conventional steam power plant except how
that energy is evolved. The heat is produced in the nuclear power plant by fission,
51

whereas in steam and gas turbine plants, the heat is produced by combustion in the
furnace. The nuclear reactor acts as a furnace where nuclear energy is evolved by
splitting or fissioning of the nucleus of fissionable material like Uranium U-235. It is
claimed that 1 kg U-235 can produce as much heat energy that can be produced by
burning 4500 tones of high grade coal or 1700 tons of oil.
Heat energy evolved by the fission reaction of one kg of U235 can produce as
much energy as can be produced by burning 4500 tons of high grade coal.
Uranium exists in the isotopic form of U235 which is unstable.
n
When a neutron enters the nucleus of U235, the nucleus splits into two equal
g.i
fragments and also releases 2.5 fast moving neutrons with a velocity of 1.5 × 107 metres /
sec producing a large amount of energy, nearly 200 millions electron-volts. This is called
rin
―nuclear fission‖.
CHAIN REACTION ee
The neutrons released during the fission can be made to fission other nuclei of
gin
U235 causing a ―chain reaction. A chain reaction produces enormous amount of heat,
which is used to produce steam‖.
The chain reaction under uncontrolled conditions can release extremely large
En
amounts of energy causing ―atomic explosion

arn
Le
w.
ww
Energy liberated in chain reaction, according to Einstein Law, is E = mc2,

where E = energy liberated,
m = mass in grams,
c = speed of light = 3  1010 cm/sec.
If thorium is used in the reactor core, it gets converted to fissionable material U-233.
Thorium 232 + Neutron  U-233
52

Pu-239 and U-233 so produced are fissionable materials are called secondary
fuels. Theycan be used as nuclear fuels. U-238 and Th-232 are called fertile materials
Out of 2.5 neutrons released in fission of each nuclei of U235, one neutron is used
to sustain the chain reaction, 0.9 neutron is converted into fissionable material Pu239 and
0.6 neutron is absorbed by control rod and coolant moderator.
n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
In the more common PWR, the water that cools the nuclear fuel is at a higher
pressure and does not turn into steam. However, because of the higher pressure, this
En
primary water can reach higher temperatures and is used to convert a secondary water
supply into steam and from there to the steam turbine.
arn
In a typical design concept of a commercial PWR, the following process occurs:

1. The core inside the reactor vessel creates heat.
Le
2. Pressurized water in the primary coolant loop carries the heat to the steam
generator.
w.
3. Inside the steam generator, heat from the primary coolant loop vaporizes the water
in a secondary loop, producing steam.
ww
4. The steamline directs the steam to the main turbine, causing it to turn the turbine
generator, which produces electricity.
The unused steam is exhausted to the condenser, where it is condensed into water.
The resulting water is pumped out of the condenser with a series of pumps, reheated,
and pumped back to the steam generator.
53

The reactor's core contains fuel assemblies that are cooled by water circulated using
electrically powered pumps. These pumps and other operating systems in the plant
receive their power from the electrical grid. If offsite power is lost, emergency
cooling water is supplied by other pumps, which can be powered by onsite diesel
generators. Other safety systems, such as the containment cooling system, also need
electric power. PWRs contain between 150-200 fuel assemblies
Function of the moderator is to reduce the energy of neutrons evolved during
fission in order to maintain the chain reaction. The moderators which are commonly used
n
are ordinary water and heavy water.
g.i
3. Draw and explain construction and working principle of Heavy Water Cooled
Reactor (HWR) (or) CANDU Type Reactor.? (May/June 13)(May/June 14)
rin
(Nov/Dec 15) (May/June 17) (Nov /Dec 2016)
These reactors are more economically to those nations which do not produce
ee
enriched uranium as the enrichment of uranium is very costly. In this type of reactors, the
gin
natural uranium (0.7% U235) is used as fuel and heavy water as moderator.
This type of reactor was first designed and developed in Canada. The first heavy water
reactor in Canada using heavy water as coolant and moderator of 200 MW capacity with
En
29.1% thermal efficiency was established at Douglas (Ontario known as Douglas power
station. The arrangement of the different components of CANDU type reactor is shown
arn
in figure.
Le
w.
ww
54

The coolant heavy water is passed through the fuel pressure tubes and heat-
exchanger. The heavy water is circulated in the primary circuit in the same way as with a
PWR and the steam is raised in the secondary circuit transferring the heat in the heat
exchanger to the ordinary water.
The control of the reactor is achieved by varying the moderator level in the reactor
and,therefore, control rods are not required. For rapid shutdown purpose, the moderator
can be dumped through a very large area into a tank provided below the reactor.
ADVANTAGES
n
1. The major advantage of this reactor is that the fuel need not be enriched.
g.i
2. The reactor vessel may be built to withstand low pressure, therefore, the cost of the
vessel is less.
rin
3. No control rods are required, therefore, control is much easier than other types.
4. The moderator can be kept at low temperature which increases its effectiveness in
ee
slowingdown neutrons.
gin
DISADVANTAGES
1. The cost of heavy water is extremely high (Rs. 300/kg).
2. The leakage is a major problem as there are two mechanically sealed closures per
En
fuel channel. Canadian designs generally are based or recovering high proportion of
heavy water leakages as absolute leak-tightness cannot be assured.
arn
3. Very high standard of design, manufacture inspection and maintenance are

required.
Le
4. The power density is considerably low (9.7 kW/litre) compared with PWR and
BWR,therefore, the reactor size is extremely large.
w.
4. Draw and explain the Sodium Graphite Reactor (SGA) or Gas cooled
reactor?What are the safety Measures carried out in Nuclear Power Plant? Nov
ww
/Dec 2016)
Sodium Graphite Reactor (SGR):

The reactor shown in figure uses two liquid metal coolants. Liquid sodium (Na)
serves as the primary coolant and an alloy of sodium potassium (NaK) as the secondary
coolant.
55

Sodium melts at 208C and boils at 885C. This enables to achieve high outlet
coolant temperature in the reactor at moderate pressure nearly atmospheric which can be
utilized in producing steam of high temperature, thereby increasing the efficiency of the
plant. Steam at temperature as high as 540C has been obtained by this system. This
shows that by using liquid sodium as coolant more electrical power can be generated for
a given quantity of the fuel burn up .
Secondly low pressure in the primary and secondary coolant circuits, permits the
use of less expensive pressure vessel and pipes etc. Further sodium can transfer its heat
n
very easily. The only disadvantage in this system is that sodium becomes radioactive
g.i
while passing through the core and reacts chemically with water. So it is not used directly
to transfer its heat to the feed water, but a secondary coolant is used. Primary coolant
rin
while passing through the tubes of intermediate heat exchanges (I.H.X) transfers its heat
to the secondary coolant. The secondary ee
coolant then flows through the tubes of steam generator and passes on its heat to the feed
gin
water.
En
arn
Le
Graphite is used as heat transfer media have certain advantages of using liquids
w.
used for heat transfer purposes. The various advantages of using liquid metals as heat
transfer media are that they have relatively low melting points and combine high
ww
densities with low vapour pressure at high temperatures as well as with large thermal
conductivities.
SAFETY MEASURES CARRIED OUT IN NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
Safety for nuclear power plants: Nuclear power plants should be located far away
from the populated area to avoid the quanta which particles, neutrons and
and radioactive hazard. A nuclear reactor produces can disturb the normal functioning
56

of living organisms. Nuclear power plants involve radiation leaks, health hazard to
workers and community, and negative effect on surrounding forests. At nuclear power
plants there are three main sources of radioactive contamination of air.
1. Fission of nuclei of nuclear fuels.
2. The second source is due to the effect of neutron fluxes on the heat carrier in the
primary cooling system and on the ambient air.
3. Third source of air contamination is damage of shells of fuel elements.
This calls for special safety measures for a nuclear power plant. Some of the safety
n
measures are as follows.
g.i
1. Nuclear power plant should be located away from human habitation.
2. Quality of construction should be of required standards.
rin
3. Waste water from nuclear power plant should be purified. The water purification
plants must have efficiency of water purification and satisfy rigid requirements as
ee
regards the volume of radioactive wastes disposed to burial.
gin
4. An atomic power plant should have an extensive ventilation system. The main
purpose of this ventilation system is to maintain the concentration of all radioactive
impurities in the air below the permissible concentrations.
En
5. An exclusion zone of 1.6 km radius around the plant should be provided where no
public habitation is permitted.
arn
6. The safety system of the plant should be such as to enable safe shut down of the
reactor whenever required. Nuclear Power plants generate large quantities of highly
Le
radioactive material. This is due to the left over isoptopes (atoms) from the splitting
of the atom and the creation of heavier atoms, like plutonium, which the Nuclear
w.
Power plant does not utilise. It is called nuclear waste. The actual quantity of waste
output is some 100,000 times less than a Fossil Fuel plant but it is much more
ww
radioactive
RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION OF WORKERS
Radiological protection of the workers is ensured by the following measures:
DESIGN ASPECTS
The design considerations that have a bearing on radiation protection in NPPs
include:
57

1. Proper design, plant layout and adequate shielding:Design values are prescribed
for the radiation level at a specified distance from the equipment/components as well
as for the general radiation fields in different areas of the plant. The plant layout is
such that the areas are segregated according to their radiation levels and
contamination potential. The design, layout of areas and equipment, maintenance
approach and shielding, etc. are made such that the collective dose to the station
personnel would be ―as low as reasonably achievable‖ (ALARA) and meet the
specified regulation on collective dose.
n
2. Limits of air contamination levels in different zones of the plant:
g.i
Provision of ventilation is made such that in full-time occupancy areas of the plant, the
airborne contamination are maintained below 1/10 Derived Air Concentration.
rin
3. Source control by proper selection of materials/components:
Materials used in plant systems are selected in such a way that the activation products
ee
arising from the base material or the impurity content do not significantly contribute
gin
to radiation exposures.
4. Design limit for collective dose:
A limit on the collective dose is specified at the design stage of each NPP so that
En
adequate provisions for radiation protection are made in the design of the plant to
keep radiation levels in different areas below design levels.
arn
5. Draw and explain construction and working principle of Boiling Water Reactor
(BWR) and Liquid metal cooled fast Breeder Reactor?(Nov/Dec 12) (May/June
Le
14) (Nov/Dec 14) (May/June 15) (April/ May 2017)

Figure shows a simplified BWR. Light water, which acts as the coolant and
w.
moderator,passes through the core where boiling takes place in the upper part of the core.
The wet steam then passes through a bank of moisture separators and steam dryers in the
ww
upper part of the pressure vessel. The water that is not vaporized to steam is recirculated
through the core with the entering feed water using two recirculation pumps coupled to
jet pumps (usually 10 to 12 per recirculation pump). The steam leaving the top of the
pressure vessel is at saturated conditions of 7.2 MPa and 278 deg C.
58

n
g.i
rin
The steam then expands through a turbine coupled to an electrical generator. After
ee
condensing to liquid in the condenser, the liquid is returned to the reactors as feedwater.
gin
Prior to entering the reactor, the feedwater is preheated in several stages of feedwater
heaters. The balance of plant systems (Example: Turbine generator, feedwater heaters)
are similar for both PWR and BWRs.
En
The BWR reactor core, like that in a PWR, consists of a large number of fuel rods
housed in fuel assemblies in a nearly cylindrical arrangement. Each fuel assembly
arn
contains an 8×8 or 9×9 square array of 64 or 81 fuel rods (typically two of the fuel rods
contain water rather than fuel) surrounded by a square Zircaloy channel box to ensure no
Le
coolant crossflow in the core. The fuel rods are similar to the PWR rods, although larger
in diameter. Each fuel rod is a zirconium alloy clad tube containing pellets of slightly
w.
enriched uranium dioxide (2% to 5% U-235) stacked end-toend.

ww
The reactor is controlled by control rods housed in a cross-shaped, or

cruciform,arrangement called a control element. The control elements enter from the
bottom of the reactor and move in spaces between the fuel assemblies.The BWR reactor
core is housed in a pressure vessel that is larger than that of a PWR. A typical BWR
pressure vessel, which also houses the reactor core, moisture separators, and steam
dryers, has a diameter of 6.4 m, with a height of 22 m. Since a BWR operators at a
nominal pressure of 6.9 MPa, its pressure vessel is thinner that that of a PWR.
59

LIQUID METAL COOLED FAST BREEDER REACTOR

1) Highly enriched uranium or plutonium
2) Control rods (same material as core)
3) Depleted uranium
4) Heat is transferred from primary to secondary sodium
Heat is transferred from secondary sodium to water
Typical metal used is sodium
Some reactors use lead, lead-bismuth alloy, or sodium fluoride salt
n
In this reactor the core containing U235 in surrounded by a blanket (a layer of
g.i
fertile material placed outside the core) of fertile material U238.In this reactor no
moderator is used. The fast moving neutrons liberated due to fission of U235 are
rin
absorbed by U238 which gets converted into fissionable material Pu239 which is capable
of sustaining chain reaction. ee
Thus this reactor is important because it breeds fissionable material from fertile
gin
material U238 available in large quantities. Like sodium graphite nuclear reactor this
reactor also uses two liquid metal coolant circuits. Liquid sodium is used as primary
coolantwhen circulated through the tubes of intermediate heat exchange transfers its heat
En
to secondarycoolant sodium potassium alloy

The secondary coolant while flowing through the tubes of steamgenerator
arn
transfers its heat to feed water.Fast breeder reactors are better than conventional reactors
both from the point of view ofsafety and thermal efficiency. For India which already is
Le
fast advancing towards self reliance inthe field of nuclear power technology, the fast
breeder reactor becomes inescapable in view of themassive reserves of thorium and the
w.
finite limits of its uranium resources.

The research anddevelopment efforts in the fast breeder reactor technology will
ww
have to be stepped up considerablyif nuclear power generation is to make any impact on

the country‘s total energy needs in the nottoo distant future.
60

UNIT IV– POWER FROM RENEWABLE ENERGY

PART A
1. On what Factors does the selection of a water turbine for hydel plants depend
upon? (May/June 2012)
Rotational speed of the turbine Type of water
Specific speed Runaway speed
Maximum efficiency Cavitation
Part load efficiency Number of turbine units
n
Head Overall cost
g.i
2. What for surge tank is provided in the hydel plant? (May/June 2012)
The surge tank is introduced between the dam and turbine to keep in reducing the
rin
sudden rise in pressure in the penstock. When water flow into the turbine reduced
suddenly due to decreased load demand, water rises in the surge tank. This decreases the
ee
velocity of water in the penstock and thus avoiding water hammer in the penstock.
gin
3. What is a solar cell? (May/June 2012)
A solar cell is a device that directly converts the energy in light into electrical
En
energy through the process of photovoltaic effect.

4. What is hydrograph? (May/June 2013)
arn
A hydrograph is a graph showing the rate of flow (discharge) vs. time passed at a
specific point in a river, or other channel carrying flow. The rate of flow is typically
expressed in cubic metres or cubic feet per second (cms or cfs)
Le
5. Define Run-off. (Nov/Dec 2013)

It is a type of hydro electric generation plant where little or no water storage is
w.
provided.
ww
6. What is fuel cell? (April / May 2017)

A fuel cell is an electro mechanical device in which the chemical energy of a
conventional fuel is directly converted in to low voltage DC energy.
7. Define Spill way and surge tank?(MAY/JUN2014, Nov/Dec 2014, April/May 2017)
Spill way is a passage , when the water reaching certain level in the reservoir
overflows through spillway without allowing increase in water level in the reservoir
during rainy conditions.
61

Water hammer (fluid hammer) is a pressure surge or wave caused when a fluid in
motion is forced to stop or change direction suddenly (momentum change). A water
hammer commonly occurs when a valve closes suddenly at an end of a pipeline system,
and a pressure wave propagates in the pipe. It is also called hydraulic shock.
8. Write about types of turbines. (NOV/DEC 2014)
Major classifications are,
(i)Impulse turbine (ii) Reaction turbine
Subdivided into,
n
(a)Kaplan Turbine (b) Propeller Turbine (c)Francis Turbine (d)Pelton Turbine
g.i
9. List the various types of solar energy collectors. (NOV/DEC 2014)
i. Stationary collectors (or) Non- concentrating
rin
(a) Flate plate collectors
(b) Compound parabolic collectors ee
(c) Evaculated tube collectors
gin
ii.Sun tracking concentrating collector
(a) Single axis tracking
(b) two-axis tracking
En
10. Give example of geothermal resources? (Nov/Dec 2014)

The following five general categories of geothermal sources have been identified
arn
a. Hydrothermal convective systems

i)Vapour – dominated or dry steam fields.
Le
ii)Liquid – dominated system or wet steam fields.

iii) Hot – water fields.
w.
b. Geopressure resources.
c. Petro-thermal or hot dry rocks (HDR)
ww
d. Magma resources
e. Valcanoes
11. What are mini and micro hydel plants? Why it is essential? (April/May 2015)
High head power plants with large reservoir has adverse effects on ecology like
deforestation etc. These effects are negligible in mini and micro hydro plants. Here power
is generated using low-head standardised turbo-generator units. The mini power plants
62

operate with 5m-20m head and produce about 1MW to 5MW of power. The micro power
plants require a head less than 5M and produce 0.1MW to 1MW.
12. What are the factors to be considered while selecting the site for hydroelectric
power plants? (April/May 2015)
Availability of water and water head.
Accessibility of site
Water storage capacity
Distance from the load centre
n
Type of land
g.i
13. Mention the various advantage of wind power (Nov/Dec 2015)
Clean
rin
Free
Place-ability
ee
Decentralised
gin
14. What are the limitations of tidal power plant? (Nov/Dec 2015)
a) The tidal ranges is highly variable and thus the turbines have to work on a wide range
En
of head variation.
b) Construction in sea is found difficult.
arn
c) Cost is not favourable when compared to the other sources of energy.

15. Define the function of surge tank in hydro plants. (May/June 2016)
The surge tank is introduced between the dam and power house to keep in reducing the
Le
sudden rise in the penstock.

w.
16. What is Biogas? Give its advantages. (Nov / Dec 2016)

The energy obtained from organic matter derived from biological organisms (plants and
ww
animals) is known as Biogas.

Advantages:
1. It is renewable source .
2. Pollutant emissions from biomass is less.
3. Easy to dispose the waste.
4. Economic in rural areas.
17. Differentiate Francis and Kaplan Turbine. (Nov / Dec 2016)
63

Francis Turbine:
1. Correct disposition of guide and moving vanes is obtained at full load only
2. System may have one or two servomotors depending on the size of the unit.
3. Servomotors are kept outside the turbine shaft.
Kaplan Turbine:
1. Correct disposition of guide and moving vanes is obtained at any load.
2. Two servomotors governing the system.
3. Servomotors are kept inside the turbine shaft.
n
g.i
rin
PART B
1. Draw the Layout diagram of Hydro Power Plant and also explain the components
ee
and working of Hydro power plant?(MAY/JUN 2012) (NOV/DEC 2012)
gin
(MAY/JUN 2013) (NOV/DEC 2013) (MAY/JUN 2014) (NOV/DEC 2014)
(MAY/JUN 2015) (NOV/DEC 2015) (Nov/Dec 16) (April / May 2017)
Hydro-electric power plant utilizes the potential energy of water stored in a dam
En
builtacross the river. The potential energy of water is used to run water turbine to which
the electric generator is coupled. The mechanical energy available at the shaft of the
arn
turbine is converted into electrical energy means of the generator.

i) WATER RESERVOIR
Le
Continuous availability of water is the basic necessity for a hydro-electric plant.

Water collected from catchment area during rainy season is stored in the reservoir. Water
w.
surface in the storage reservoir us known as head race.

ww
64

n
g.i
II) DAM
The function of a dam is to increase the height of water level behind it which
rin
ultimately increases the reservoir capacity. The dam also helps to increase the working
heat of the power plant. ee
gin
II) SPILLWAY
Water after a certain level in the reservoir overflows through spillway without
En
allowing the increase in water level in the reservoir during rainy season
IV) PRESSURE TUNNEL
arn
It carries water from the reservoir to surge tank.

V) PENSTOCK
Le
Water from surge tank is taken to the turbine by means of penstocks, made up of
reinforced concrete pipes or steel.
w.
VI) SURGE TANK

ww
There is sudden increase of pressure in the penstock due to sudden backflow of

water, as load on the turbine is reduced. The sudden rise of pressure in the penstock is
known as water hammer. The surge tank is introduced between the dam and the power
house to keep in reducing the sudden rise of pressure in the penstock. Otherwise penstock
will be damaged by the water hammer.
VII) WATER TURBINE
65

Water through the penstock enters into the turbine through and inlet valve. Prime
movers which are in common use are Pelton turbine, Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine.
The potential energy of water entering the turbine is converted into mechanical energy.
The mechanical energy available at the turbine shaft is used to run the electric generator.
The water is then discharged through the draft tube.
VIII) DRAFT TUBE
It is connected to the outlet of the turbine. It allows the turbine to be placed over
tail race level.
n
IX) TAIL RACE
g.i
Tail race is a water way to lead the water discharged from the turbine to the river.
The water held in the tail race is called tail race water level.
rin
X) STEP-UP TRANSFORMER
Its function is to raise the voltage generated at the generator terminating before
ee
transmitting the power to consumers.
gin
XI) POWER HOUSE
The power house accommodates the turbine, generator, transformer and control
room.
En
ADVANTAGES:
1. Water is renewable source of energy. Water which is the operating fluid, is neither
arn
consumed nor converted into something else.

2. Water is the cheapest source of energy because it exists as a free gift of nature.
Le
The fuels
needed for the thermal, diesel and nuclear plants are exhaustible and expensive.
w.
3. There is no ash disposal problem as in the case of thermal power plant.

4. Hydro-plant does not pose the problem of air pollution as in the case of thermal
ww
plant orradiation hazards as in the case of nuclear plant.

5. Variable loads do not affect the efficiency in the case of a hydro-plant.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Hydro-plants are generally situated away from the load centres. Hence long
transmission lines are required for delivery of power. This increases the cost of
transmission lines and also transmission losses. But a thermal plant can be located
66

near the load centre, thereby the transmission cost and transmission losses are
considerably reduced.
2. The power produced by hydro-plant depends upon the quantity of water which in
turn is dependent upon the rainfall. The dry year affects the hydro-power generation
considerably.
3. Initial cost of the plant is high.
4. Erection of hydro-plant (construction of dam etc.) usually takes long period of
time.
n
CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRO-POWER PLANTS
g.i
Hydro-plants are classified according to the head of water under which they work.
When the operating head of water exceeds 70 metres, the plant is known as ―high
rin
headpower plant‖. Pelton turbine is used as prime mover in such power plants.
When the head of water ranges from 15 to 70 metres then the power plant is
ee
known as ―medium head plant‖. It uses Francis turbine.When the head is less than 15
gin
metres the plant is named as ―low head plant‖. It uses Francis or Kaplan turbine as prime
mover.
PELTON WHEEL
En
This is a commonly used impulse type of turbine. The Pelton wheel is suitable for
very high heads and it requires a lesser quantity of water. A pelton wheel is shown in
arn
figure. It consists of a runner, buckets, a nozzle, a guide mechanism, a hydraulic brake

and casing
Le
w.
ww
Pelton Wheel Kaplan turbine
67

The runner is a circular disc. It consists of a number of semi-ellipsoidal buckets

evenly spaced around its periphery. The buckets are divided into two hemi-spherical cups
by a sharpedged ridge known as a splitter.
NOZZLE AND GUIDE MECHANISM:
A nozzle is fitted to the end of the penstock near the turbine. The nozzle is
provided with a conical needle or spear to regulate the quantity of water coming out of
the nozzle, thereby control the speed of the runner.
HYDRAULIC BRAKE:
n
When the turbine has to be brought to rest by closing the inlet valve of the turbine,
g.i
the runner generally takes a very long time to come to rest due to its inertia. To bring it to
rest quickly, a small brake nozzle is provided.
rin
CASING
The casing is made up of cast-Iron or fabricated steel plates. It is provided for the
ee
following purposes:
gin
1. To prevent splashing of water,
2. To lead the water to the tail race and
3. To act as a safeguard (cover) against any accidents.
En
KAPLAN TURBINE
The Kaplan turbine is an axial flow reaction turbine. It is suitable for relatively
arn
low heads. Hence, it requires a large quantity of water to develop high power. It operates
in an entirely closed conduct from the head race to the rail race.
Le
The water from the scroll casing flows over the guide vanes. It is deflected
through 90 between guide vanes and runner. Then, it flows axially into the runner. The
w.
blades are shaped such that water flows axially in the runner. The force exerted on the
blades causes the runner shaft to rotate. This rotation is transmitted to the generator
ww
which is couple to the runner shaft. After passing through the runner, the water enters the
tailrace through a draft tube.
2. Explain the principle of wind electric system. State the basic Components and
their working in wind electric system.(May/June 14) (May/June 15) (Nov/Dec 16)
Converts kinetic energy in moving air (wind) into electrical energy. If mechanical
energy is directly used it is called a wind mill. Winds are essentially caused by the solar
68

heating of the atmosphere. They carry enormous quantity of energy. Wind as a source of
power is very attractive because it is plentiful,inexhaustible, renewable and non-
polluting. There is no depletion of scarce resources Further, it does not impose extra
burden on the environment.
n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
The Figure illustrates the two types of turbines and typical subsystems for an
electricity generation application. The subsystems include a blade or rotor, which
En
converts the energy in the wind to rotational shaft energy; a drive train, usually including
a gearbox and a generator, a tower that supports the rotor and drive train, and other
arn
equipment, including controls, electrical cables, ground support equipment, and

interconnection equipment.
Figure shows the various parts of a wind-electric generating power plant. These are:
Le
1. Wind turbine or rotor.

2. Wind mill head – it houses speed increaser, drive shaft, clutch, coupling etc
w.
3. Electric generator.
ww
4. Supporting structure.
The most important component is the rotor. For an effective utilization, all
components should be properly designed and matched with the rest of the components.
The wind mill head performs the following functions:
(i) It supports the rotor housing and the rotor bearings.
69

(ii) It also houses any control mechanism incorporated like changing the pitch of
the blades for safety devices and tail vane to orient the rotor to face the wind, the latter is
facilitated by mounting it on the top of the supporting structure on suitable bearings.
The wind turbine may be located either unwind or downwind of the power. In the
unwind location the wind encounters the turbine before reaching the tower. Downwind
rotors are generally preferred especially for the large aerogenerators.
The supporting structure is designed to withstand the wind load during gusts. Its
type and height is related to cost and transmission system incorporated. Horizontal axis
n
wind turbines are mounted on towers so as to be above the level of turbulence and other
g.i
ground related effects.
TYPES OF WIND MACHINES
rin
Wind machines (aerogenerators) are generally classified as follows:
1. Horizontal axis wind machines. ee
2. Vertical axis wind machines.
gin
En
arn
HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND MACHINES.

Le
w.
ww
70

Figure shows a schematic arrangement of horizontal axis machine. Although the

common wind turbine with horizontal axis is simple in principle yet the design of a
complete system, especially a large one that would produce electric power economically,
is complex. It is of paramount importance‘s that the components like rotor,transmission,
generator and tower should not only be as efficient as possible but they must also
function effectively in combination.
WIND ELECTRIC GENERATORS (WEG)
Wind electric generator converts kinetic energy available in wind to electrical
n
energy by using rotor, gear box and generator.The wind speed is the most important
g.i
factor influencing the amount of energy a wind turbine can produce. Increasing wind
velocity increases the amount of air passing the rotor, which increases the output of the
rin
wind system.
In order for a wind system to be effective, a relatively consistent wind flow is
ee
required. Obstructions such as trees or hills can interfere with the wind supply to the
gin
rotors. To avoid this, rotors are placed on top of towers to take advantage of the strong
winds available high above the ground. The towers are generally placed 100 metres away
from the nearest obstacle. The middle of the rotor is placed 10 metres above any obstacle
En
that is within 100 metres.

arn
Le
VERTICAL AXIS WIND MACHINES.

w.
ww
71

Figure shows vertical axis type wind machine. One of the main advantages of
vertical axis rotors is that they do not have to be turned into the wind stream as the wind
direction changes. Because their operation is independent of wind direction, vertical axis
machine are called panemones.
3. Explain the construction and working principle of Solar cell and solar power
plant .(Nov/Dec 12) (May/June 13) (May/June 14) (May/June 15) (Nov/Dec 15)(April
/ May 2017)
Figure shows a solar power plant with a low temperature solar engine using heated
n
water from flat plate solar collector.
g.i
SOLAR CELL
The solar cells operate on the principle of photo voltaic effect,which is a process
rin
of generating an emf as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation.
It is possible to convert solar energy directly into electrical energy by means of
ee
silicon wafer photo-voltaic cells, also called the solar cells, without any intermediate
gin
thermodynamic cycle.
Thus a solar cell is a transducer, which converts the sun‘s radiant energy directly
into electrical energy and is basically a semi-conductor diode capable of developing a
En
voltage of 0.5-1 volts and a current density of 20-40 mA/sq.cm depending on the
materials used and the conditions of sunlight.
arn
SOLAR CELL WORKS IN FOLLOWING STEPS.

Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and absorbed by semiconducting material
Le
(such as silicon) Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atom
causing an electric potential difference. Thus converts solar energy into electrical energy
w.
without any waste products.

WORKING:-
ww
Photovoltaic cell is small semi conductor device which has light sensitive P-N
junction. It made up semi-conducting material and this cells are light sensitive. The p-
Type layer is thick while the N-type layer is thin. When trivalent impurity is added, P-
type semiconductor is obtained.
When sunlight strikes the N-type layer, some of the waves of light energy
penetrate up to the P-type layer. When photons from the sunlight energy are absorbed in
72

semi conductor, and sunlight energy is greater than energy gap, electron-hole pairs are
formed. Electrons are released from N-type material and holes are created in P-type
material electrical circuit is completed and flow of current takes place. Photo voltaic cell
system converts solar energy directly into electrical energy without any waste products.
n
g.i
rin
Flat plate collector Cylindrical parabolic concentrator collector
A) FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR
ee
In a flat plate collector (figure), the radiation energy of the sun falls on a flat
gin
surface coated with black paint having high absorbing capacity. It is placed facing the
general direction of the sun. The materials used for the plate may be copper, steel
En
aluminium. The thickness of the plate is 1 to 2 mm. Tubing of copper is provided in

thermal contact with the plate.
arn
Heat is transferred from the absorbed plate to water which is circulated in the
copper tubes through the flat plate collection. Thermal insulation is provided behind the
absorber plate to prevent heat losses from the rear surface. Insulating material is
Le
generally fibre glass or mineral wool. The front cover is made up of glass and it is
w.
transparent to the incoming solar radiations.

b) CYLINDRICAL PARABOLIC CONCENTRATOR COLLECTOR
ww
Concentrator collectors (figure) are of reflecting type utilizing mirrors. The

reflectingsurface may be parabolic mirror. The solar energy falling on the collector
surface is reflected and focused along a line where the absorber tube is located. As large
quantity of energy falling on the collector surface is collected over a small surface, the
temperature of the absorber fluid is very much higher than in flat plate collector.While
flat place collectors may be used to heat water upto 80C (low temperature), the
concentrating type of collectors are designed to heat water to medium and high
73

temperature ranges.Figure shows a solar power plant with a low temperature solar engine
using heated water from flat plate solar collector and Butane as the working fluid. This
was developed to lift water for irrigation purposes.
n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
C) BUTANE BOILER
En
The water heated in flat plate solar collector to 80 degC is used for boiling butane
at high pressure in the butane boiler. Boiling point of butane is about 50 degC.
arn
D) TURBINE
The butane vapour generated at high pressure in the boiler is used to run the
Le
vapour turbine which drives the electrical generator.The vapour coming out of the turbine
at low pressure is condensed in a condenser using water. The condensed liquid butane is
w.
fed back to the butane boiler using feed pump.

TOWER CONCEPT FOR POWER GENERATION
ww
The tower concept consists of an array of plane mirrors or heliostats which are
individually controlled to reflect radiations from the sun into a boiler mounted on a 500
metres high tower.Steam in generated in the boiler, which may attain a temperature upto
2000oK. Electricity is generated by passing steam through the turbine coupled to a
generator.
ADVANTAGES
74

1. Sun is essentially an infinite source of energy. Therefore solar energy is a very

large inexhaustible and renewable source of energy
2. It is environmentally very clean and is hence pollution-free.
3. It is a dependable energy source without new requirements of a highly technical.
4. It is the best alternative for the rapid depletion of fossil fuels
DISADVANTAGES
1. Very large collecting areas are required.
2. capital cost is more for the solar plant.
n
3. Solar energy is not available at night or during cloudy or rainy days.
g.i
APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY:
1. Solar engines for pumping.
rin
2. Solar water heaters.
3. Solar cookers. ee
4. Solar driers.
gin
4. Explain how electrical energy can be generated in single basin two way cycle of
tidal power generation.(May/June13)(Nov/Dec 14)
En
The tidal power plants are generally classified on the basis of the number of basins
used for the power generation. They are further subdivided as one-way or two-way
arn
system as per the cycle of operation for power generation

A dam is constructed to create basin to store the water.Hence power is generated
Le
during both flood & ebb tide.By using reversible water turbine the turbine can run
continuously both during high tide and low tide.The principle of operation is illustrated in
w.
above figure.This arrangement is costlier but provides greater flexibility and continuous
power output.
ww
A Tidal power plant mainly consists of the following:

1. A barrage with gates and sluices
2. One or more basins
3. A power house
A barrage is a barrier constructed across the sea to create a basin for storing water.
The barrage has to withstand the pressure exerted by the water head and also should resist
75

the shock of the waves.A basin is the area where water is retained by the barrage. Low
head reversible water turbine are installed in the barrage separating the sea from the
basin.
PRINCIPLE
Tide or wave is periodic rise and fall of water level of the sea. Tides occur due to
the attraction of sea water by the moon. Tides contain large amount of potential energy
which is used for power generation. When the water is above the mean sea level, it is
called flood tide. When the water level is below the mean level it is called ebb tide.
n
WORKING
g.i
The arrangement of this system is shown in figure. The ocean tides rise and fall
and water can be stored during the rise period and it can be discharged during fall. A dam
rin
is constructed separating the tidal basin from the sea and a difference in water level is
obtained between the basin and sea. ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
During high tide period, water flows from the sea into the tidal basin through the
water turbine. The height of tide is above that of tidal basin. Hence the turbine unit
operates and generates power, as it is directly coupled to a generator.
76

During low tide period, water flows from tidal basin to sea, as the water level in
the basin is more than that of the tide in the sea. During this period also, the flowing
water rotates the turbine and generator power.
The generation of power stops only when the sea level and the tidal basin level are
equal.For the generation of power economically using this source of energy requires
some minimum tide height and suitable site
WORKING OF DIFFERENT TIDAL POWER PLANTS
SINGLE BASIN-ONE-WAY CYCLE
n
This is the simplest form of tidal power plant. In this system a basin is allowed to
g.i
get filled during flood tide and during the ebb tide, the water flows from the basin to the
sea passing through the turbine and generates power. The power is available for a short
rin
duration ebb tide
ee
gin
SINGLE-BASIN TWO-WAY CYCLE
In this arrangement, power is generated both during flood tide as well as ebb tide
also. The power generation is also intermittent but generation period is increased
En
compared with one-way cycle. However, the peak obtained is less than the one-way
cycle.
arn
SINGLE – BASIN TWO-WAY CYCLE WITH PUMP STORAGE

In this system, power is generated both during flood and ebb tides. Complex
Le
machines capable of generating power and pumping the water in either direction are
used. A part of the energy produced is used for introducing the difference in the water
w.
levels between the basin and sea at any time of the tide and this is done by pumping
water into the basin up or down.
ww
DOUBLE BASIN TYPE

In this arrangement, the turbine is set up between the basins as shown in figure.
One basin is intermittently filled tide and other is intermittently drained by the ebb tide.
Therefore, a small capacity but continuous power is made available with this system as
shown in figure. The main disadvantages of this system are that 50% of the potential
energy is sacrificed in introducing the variation in the water levels of the two basins
77

DOUBLE BASIN WITH PUMPING

In this case, off peak power from the base load plant in a interconnected
transmission system is used either to pump the water up the high basin. Net energy gain
is possible with such a system if the pumping head is lower than the basin-to-basin
turbine generating head.
ADVANTAGES OF TIDAL POWER PLANTS.
1. It is free from pollution as it does not use any fuel.
2. It is superior to hydro-power plant as it is totally independent of rain.
n
DISADVANTAGES
g.i
1. Tidal power plants can be developed only if natural sites are available on the bay.
2. As the sites are available on the bays which are always far away from load centres,
rin
the power generated has to be transmitted to long distances. This increases the
transmission cost and transmission losses.
ee
5. Explain with a neat sketch the working principle of Geothermal Power plant.
gin
What are the advantages and disadvantages of Geothermal
energy.(May/June12)(May/June14)
Geothermal wells are drilled at suitable locations. Water vaporized into steam
En
comes out of the earth‘s surface in a dry condition at around 200 C and 8 bar. The
moisture is removed by a centrifugal separator and this steam will run the turbine coupled
arn
with a generator. Steam is condensed in a condenser and re injected back into the ground
by a rejection well.
Le
TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL SOURCES

w.
HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS
ww
Hydrothermal systems are those in which water is heated by contact with the hot
rock. Hydrothermal systems are in turn subdivided into
1) Vapour-dominated and
2) Liquid-dominated systems.
VAPOR-DOMINATED SYSTEMS
78

In these systems the water is vaporized into steam that reaches the surface in
relatively dry Condition at about 205C and rarely above 8 bar. This steam is the most
suitable for use in turboelectric power plants with the least cost
n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
LIQUID-DOMINATED SYSTEMS
In these systems the hot water circulating and trapped underground is at a
En
temperature range of 174 to 315C. When tapped by wells drilled in the right places and
to the right depths the water flows either naturally to the surface or is pumped up to it.
arn
GEOPRESSURED SYSTEMS
Geopressured systems are sources of water, or brine, that has been heated in a
Le
manner similar to hydrothermal water, except that geopressured water is trapped in much
deeper underground acquifers, at depths between 2400 to 9100 m.
w.
PETROTHERMAL SYSTEMS
Magma lying relatively close to the earth‘s surface heats overlying rock as
ww
previously explained. When no underground water exists, there is simply hot, dry rock
(HDR). The known temperatures of HDR vary between 150 to 290C. This energy,
called petrothermal energy, represents by far the largest resource base of the United
States
STEAM WELL
79

Pipes are embedded at places of fresh volcanic action called steam wells, where
the molten internal mass of earth vents to the atmospheric with very high temperatures.
By sending water through embedded pipes, steam is raised from the underground steam
storage wells to the ground level.
SEPARATOR
The steam is then passed through the separator where most of the dirt and sand
carried by the steam are removed.
TURBINE
n
The steam from the separator is passed through steam drum and is used to run the
g.i
turbine which in turn drives the generator. The exhaust steam from the turbine is
condensed. The condensate is pumped into the earth to absorb the ground heat again and
rin
to get converted into steam.
Location of the plant, installation of equipment like control unit etc., within the
ee
source of heat and the cost of drilling deep wells as deep as 15,000 metres are some of
gin
the difficulties commonly encountered.
WORKING
En
Bore (hole) are drilled into the earth until it reaches wet steam geothermal
resevior.This wet steam is brought up with very high pressure with the help of pump, So
arn
steam remains in liquid state.

When the water comes to the surface of the earth then it is filtered to remove
Le
abrasive (solid crushed stone particles.Then it is passed through flash chamber where
pressure of high temperature water decreases suddenly.
w.
As pressure drops water is converted into steam in flash tank.This steam is used to
run the steam turbine which gives mechanical power.Alternator is coupled with steam
ww
turbine which mechanical energy into electrical energy.

ADVANTAGES
1. Geothermal energy is cheaper
2. Used as space heating for buildings
3. Used as industrial process heat
4. Geothermal energy is inexhaustible
80

DISADVANTAGES
1) Low overall power production efficiency (about 15%)
2) Large areas are needed foe exploitation of geothermal energy
6(i) What is fuel cell? Explain the principle and working of fuel cell power system?
(May/June12)(Nov/Dec 13)(Nov/Dec 14)(Nov/Dec 15) (Nov/Dec 15)
It is a electrochemical device in which the chemical energy is converted into
electrical energy. This conversion takes place at constant pressure and
temperature.
n
The basic feature is that the fuel and its oxidanta recombined in the form of ions
g.i
rather than neutral molecules.
Main components of fuel cell are
rin
 A fuel electrode,
 An oxidant or electrode and ee
 An electrolyte
gin
FUEL CELL
En
arn
Le
w.
WORKING OF FUEL CELL

ww
The principle of operation is similar to electrolysis of water but in the reverse

manner. Due to chemical action at anode hydrogen atom split into an electron and proton,
which take different route to reach the cathode. The proton from hydrogen migrates
through electrolyte to cathode. The electron creates a separate current that reaches the
cathode faster. This chemical transformation result in the generation of electric power.
81

The fuel gas diffuses through the anode and is oxidized, thus releasing electrons to
the external circuit; the oxidizer diffuses through the cathode and is reduced by the
electrons that have come from the anode by way of the external circuit.The fuel cell is a
device that keeps the fuel molecules from mixing with the oxidizer molecules,
permitting, however, the transfer of electrons by a metallic path that may contain a load.
Of the available fuels, hydrogen has so far given the most promising results, although
cells consuming coal, oil or natural gas would be economically much more useful for
large scale applications.
n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
ADVANTAGES
i) It is a static piece, So no mechanical losses.
ii) It is noiseless in operation.
Le
iii) There is no air pollution. No heat losses, so no cooling water is required.

6 (ii)Write the principle, construction and working of Biogas power system.
w.
(Nov/Dec 15) (April / May 2017)

ww
Energy derived from the living organism (humans and animals wastage),
sometimes from plants called as bio-mass. It is an alternative source of energy.
It is classified into three types
 Biomass in its traditional solid mass (wood and agriculture residue),
 Biomass in non-tradition form (converted into liquid fuel), fossil fuel like petrol,
diesel, etc.
82

 Ferment the bio-mass anaerobically to obtain a gaseous fuel called bio-gas. (55-
65% of methane and 30-40% ofCO2and rest impurities)
RESOURCES OF BIO-GAS
 Sewage
 Crop residue
 Vegetable waste
 Water hyacinth
n
 Algae
g.i
 Ocean kelp
GOBER GAS GENERATION (KVIC DIGESTER)
rin
It consists of two main components namely
(1) Digester or pit ee
(2) Gas collector
gin
Digester is a short well or masonry work, dug and built below the ground level from 3.5
to 6metre and diameter is from 1.2 to 6 metre.
There is a partition is provided within the well which separates the cylinder into two half
En
portion which is provided for circulation of slurry.

Gas collector is located at the top side of digester.
arn
Two pipes is connected with digester for filling the slurry and removing the wastage
(made up of concrete with 10cm diameter).
Le
Dung and water is mixed with 4:5 ratio forms slurry and dumped in to the pit.
Gas holder is made up of mild steel sheets, cylindrical in shape with a conical top. It fits
w.
in to the digester like stopper.

ww
83

n
g.i
 Large amount of organic matter, utilizing bacteria and other micro-organisms under
anaerobic reaction. It consists of three phases:
rin
ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS: where the fats, starches and proteins contain in the bio
mass are broke down into simple component.
ee
ACID FORMATION: where micro organism act as a acid formers. Hydrolyse and
gin
ferment are broken the simple components into acetic acid and volatile solid. As a result
simple organics are formed.
METHANE FORMATION: the organic acids are converted into methane (CH4) and
En
CO2 by bacteria.
 As the gas is formed, then the gas holder lifts automatically and gas is collected in the
arn
gas holder.
 Pressure difference is in between 7-9 cm of the water column.
Le
 PH value between 6.5-8. temperature between 35-38°C.

w.
ww
UNIT V-ENERGY ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF

POWERPLANTS
PART A
1. What is fixed & operational cost of power plants?(Nov/Dec 2012) (Nov / Dec 2016)
Fixed cost includes the following cost.
84

a. Cost of land e. Interest

b. Cost of building f. Depreciation cost
c. Cost of equipment g. Insurance,
d. Cost of installation h. Management cost
Operating cost includes the following cost.
a. Cost of fuel
b. Cost of operating labour
c. Cost of maintenance labours and materials.
n
d. Cost of supplier like water for feeding boilers, for condenser and for general use,
g.i
Lubrication oil and, grease. Water treatment chemicals.
2. List the types of tariffs to calculate energy rate. (Nov/Dec 2012)
rin
There are two tariff systems, one for the consumer which they pay to the
DISCOMS and the other one is for the DISCOMS which they pay to the generating
ee
stations.
gin
3. Define load curve?(May/June 2013)
Load curve is a graphical representation between load in kW and time in hours. It.
shows variation of load at the power station. The area under the load curve -represents
En
the energy generated in a particular period.

4. Define demand factor and load factor (May/June 2013)
arn
Demand factor: The ratio of maximum demand on the system to the rated connected
load to the system is called demand factor. The actual maximum demand is always less
Le
than the rated load connected to the system; therefore, demand factor is always less than
unity.
w.
Load factor: The ratio of average load to the maximum load is called load factor. Since
the average load is always less than the maximum load, therefore, load factor is always
ww
less than one. Load factor is generally used for determining the average load or energy
delivered by the generating station in a given period.
5. Define the law of conservation of energy. (Nov/Dec 2013)
Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed
6. What are the equipment used to control the particulates? (Nov/Dec 2015)
a. Electro Static Precipitators (ESP)
85

b. Fabric filters, Mechanical collectors and venturi scrubbers.

7. Define capacity factor. (May/June 2016)
It is defined as the ratio of actual energy produced in kilowatt-hours (kWh) to the
maximum possible energy that could have been produced during the same period.
Expressing the definition mathematically,
Plant capacity factor =
Where E is the energy produced (kWh plant economy) in a given period

C is the capacity of the plant in kW
n
t is the total number of hours in the given period
g.i
8. List the advanced emissions control technologies for Coal-Fired Power Plants.
rin
These technologies include
Selective Catalytic Reduction
(SCR)
ee
Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP)
gin
Flue Gas Desulphurization (FGD)
Fabric filters,wetESP,dry sorbent
En
injection,and
Mercury Control methods
arn
9. What are the two basic approaches to control SO2 emissions in the power plants ?
These approaches reduce the sulphur in the fuel either through
Le
Fuel blending or fuel switching to

a lower sulphur coal, or
w.
Utilizing a technology to remove

SO2from the flue gas
ww
A variety of SO2removal technologies are available. These include wet FGD, dry
FGD utilizing a spray dryer absorber (SDA) , circulating dry scrubber (CDS) , and dry
sorbent injection (DSI).
10. List any two bulk utilization of ash from thermal power plant.
1. Ash dyke construction and
2. Filling of low – lying areas.
86

11. Write the different nuclear waste disposal methods. (Nov / Dec 2016)
(a)Utilizing underground facility (c)Deep bore holes
(b)Injecting into deep aquifers (d) Rock melting
12. What are the Radioactive Waste Generation and disposal methods?
Enrichment of uranium ore into fuel and the operation of nuclear power plants
generate wastes that contain low-levels of radioactivity. These wastes are shipped to a few
specially designed and licensed disposal sites.
13. What are the objectives of Tariff? (Nov / Dec 2016)
n
1. Recovery of Capital cost
g.i
2. Recovery of Running Cost
3. Minimum profit on the invested capital
rin
14. Define Plant use Factor. (Nov / Dec 2016)
It is the ratio of energy produced in a given time to the maximum possible energy
ee
which could been produced during the same period of operation.
gin
PART B
1. What are the objectives of tariff? Discuss the different types of tariff.(May/June
En
2013)(Nov/Dec 2015) (April /May 2017)

TARIFF:
arn
Tariff means the schedule of rates framed for supply of electrical energy to the
various categories of consumers. All types of tariffs must cover the recovery of costs of
Le
(i) Capital investment in generating, transmitting and distributing equipment

(ii) Operation, supplies and maintenance of equipment and
w.
(ii) Metering equipment, billing, collection and miscall aneous services

(iv) A satisfactory return on the total capital investment.
ww
(I) FLAT DEMAND TARIFF

This is one of the earliest forms of tariffs used for charging the consumers for
electrical energy consumption. This tariff is expressed as energy charges, y = Rs. ax
where a is the rate per lamp or kw of connected load and x is the number of lamps or load
connected in kw. In these types of tariff the metering equipment, meter reading, billing,
87

and accounting costs are eliminated. Now-a-days such a tariff is restricted to use such as
in street lighting, signal systems, sign lightings etc.
(II) SIMPLE TARIFF:
This is the simplest type of tariff according to which the cost o energy is charged
on the basis of units consumed and can be expressed in the form y = Rsax where a is
charges in rupees per unit and x is the total electrical energy consumed in units or kwh.
(II ) FLAT RATE TARIFF:
n
This types of tariff differs from the former one in the sense that the different types
g.i
of consumers are charged at different rates i.e. the flat rate for light and fan loads is
slightly higher than that for power load. The rate for each category of consumers is arrived
rin
at by taking into account its load factor and diversity factor.
(IV)STEP RATE TARIFF: ee
The step rate tariff is a group of flat rate tariffs of decreasing unit charges for
gin
higher range of consumption.
(VI) HOPKINSON DEMAND RATE OR TWO PART TARIFF:
The total energy charge to be made to the consumer is split into two components
En
namely fixed charge and runign charge. This type of tariff is expressed as
Y = Rs a kw + b kwh
arn
Where Rs a is the charge per kw of maximum demand assessed and Rs b is the charge per
kwh of energy consumed. This tariff is mostly applicable to medium industrial consumers.
Le
(VI ) MAXIMUM DEMAND TARIFF:

This tariff is similar to that of two part tariff except that in this case maximum
w.
demand is actual y measured by a maximum demand indicator instead of merely assessing

it on the basis of rate able value.
ww
(VII) KVA MAXIMUM DEMAND TARIFF:

It is a modified form of two part tariff. In tis case maximum demand is measured in
Kva instead of in kw. This type of tariff encourages the consumers to operate their
machines/equipment at improved power factor because low power factor wil cause more
demand charges.
(IX) DOHERTY RATE OR THREE PART TARIFF:
88

In this tariff total energy charge is split into three elements namely fixed charge,
semi-fixed charge and variable charge. Such a tariff is expressed as
y = Rs a + bkw + c kwh.
Where a is a constant charge,
b is unit charge in Rs per kw of maximum demand in kw during biling period (in
some case it is also charged in Rs per kva instead of Rs per kw) and
c is the unit charge for energy in Rs per kwh of energy consumed.
This type of tariff is usual y applicable to bulk supplies.
n
(x) OFF PEAK TARIFF:
g.i
The load on the power station usual y has pronounced peak loads in the morning
and early evening and a very low load during the night (from 10 P.M. to 6 A.M.). During
rin
the night, therefore, and other off-peak period which may occur, a large proportion of the
generating and distribution equipment wil be lying idle.
ee
In case the consumers are encouraged to use electricity during off peak hours by
gin
giving a special discount, the energy can be supplied without incurring an additional
capital cost and should therefore prove very profitable. This type of tariff is very
advantageous for certain processes such as water heating by thermal storage, pumping,
En
refrigeration
arn
2.Explain the importance of load curve and Load duration curve in detail.
LOAD CURVE:
Le
Load curve is plot of load in kilowatts versus time usually for a day or a year.
DEFINITION:
w.
The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to time.
ww
The variation of load on the power station during different hours of the day.
89

The area under the curve gives the number of units generated in the day.
The maximum and minimum values of the daily load.The highest point on the load curve
represents the maximum demand on the station on that day.
The load curve helps in selecting the size and number of generating units.
Information whether the installation is working efficiently or not.
It helps in preparing the operation schedule of the station.
The area under the load curve divided by the total numbers of hours (24 hours)
gives the average load on the station.
n
Average Load = Area under daily load current/.24 hours
g.i
TYPES OF LOAD CURVE:
Daily load curve–Load variations during the whole day
rin
Monthly load curve–Load curve obtained from the daily load curve yearly load curve-
Load curve obtained from the monthly load curve
ee
DAILY LOAD CURVE
gin
The curve drawn between the variations of load with reference to various time
period of day is known as daily load curve.
En
arn
Le
w.
MONTHLY LOAD CURVE

ww
It is obtained from daily load curve.

Average value of the power at a month for a different time periods are calculated
and plotted in the graph which is known as monthly load curve.
YEARLY LOAD CURVE
It is obtained from monthly load curve which is used to find annual load factor.
BASE LOAD:
90

The unvarying load which occurs almost the whole day on the station
PEAK LOAD:
The various peak demands so load of the station.
LOAD DURATION CURVE:

Load duration curve is the plot of load in kilowatts versus time duration for which
n
it occurs. When the elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending
g.i
magnitude
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
The load duration curve gives the data in a more presentable form
The area under the load duration curve is equal to that of the corresponding load
Le
curve
The load duration curve can be extended to include any period of time
w.
ww
3. Discuss in detail about economic aspects of power generation. (April /May 2017)
The function of a power station is to deliver power at the lowest possible cost per
kilo watt hour. This total cost is made up of fixed charges consisting of interest on the
capital, taxes, insurance, depreciation and salary of managerial staff, the operating
expenses such as cost of fuels, water, oil, labour, repairs and maintenance etc.
1. The cost of power generation can be minimized by:
91

2. Choosing equipment that is available for operation during the largest possible % of
time in a year.
3. Reducing the amount of investment in the plant.
4. Operation through fewer men.
5. Having uniform design
6. Selecting the station as to reduce cost of fuel, labor, etc.
All the electrical energy generated in a power station must be consumed
n
immediately as it cannot be stored. So the electrical energy generated in a power station
g.i
must be regulated according to the demand. The demand of electrical energy or load will
also vary with the time and a power station must be capable of meeting the maximum load
rin
at any time.
MAXIMUM DEMAND: ee
Maximum demand is the greatest of all demands which have occurred during a
gin
given period of time.
AVERAGE LOAD:
Average load is is the average load on the power station in a given period
En
(day/month or year)
Daily average demand = (no of units generated per day) / (24 hours)
arn
Monthly average demand = (no of units generated in month) / (no of hours in a month)
Yearly average demand = (no of units generated in a year) / (no of hours in a year)
Le
BASE LOAD:
Base load is the minimum load over a given period of time.
w.
CONNECTED LOAD:
Connected load of a system is the sum of the continuous ratings of the load
ww
consuming apparatus connected to the system.

PEAK LOAD:
Peak load is the maximum load consumed or produced by a unit or group of units
in a stated period of time. It may be the maximum instantaneous load or the maximum
average load over a designated interval of time.
DEMAND FACTOR: (April /May 2017)
92

Demand factor is the ratio of maximum demand to the connected load of a

consumer.
DIVERSITY FACTOR: (April /May 2017)
Diversity factor is the ratio of sum of individual maximum demands to the
combined maximum demand on power stations
Diversity factor = (sum of individual maximum demand ) / (maximum demand).
LOAD FACTOR: (April /May 2017)
n
Load factor is the ratio of average load during a specified period to the maximum
g.i
load occurring during the period.
Load factor = Average Load / Maximum demand
rin
STATION LOAD FACTOR:
Station load factor is the ratio of net power generated to the net maximum demand
ee
on a power station.
gin
PLANT FACTOR:
Plant factor is the ratio of the average load on the plant for the period of time
considered, to the aggregate rating of the generating equipment installed in the plant.
En
CAPACITY FACTOR:
Capacity factor is the ratio of the average load on the machine for a period of time
arn
considered, to the rating of the machine.

Capacity factor = (actual energy produced) / (maximum energy that have been produced)
Le
DEMAND FACTOR:
Demand factor is the ratio of maximum demand of system or part of system, to the
w.
total connected load of the system, or part of system, under consideration.

Demand factor= (max demand)/ (connected load)
ww
PLANT USE FACTOR

It is the ratio of units generated to the product of plant capacity and the number of
hours for which the plant was in operation
Units generated per annum= average load * hours in a year
COST OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY:
93

Electric Energy is the source of energy for electrical appliances. Electric Energy is
measured in kWh (kilowatt-hour) or MWh (megawatt-hour). Power is equal to work done
in respect to time, so work equals power multiplied by time. Since work equals energy,
electric energy would be measured by a kilowatt-hour.
P = W/t
W = E = Pt
(1000W)(1h) = 1kWh
n
ECONOMICS OF POWER GENERATION.
g.i
1) Fixed Charges 2) Semi fixed Charges 3) Running Charges
These are all important parameters pertaining to the Economics of power generation.and
rin
are considered in details below.
FIXED CHARGES OF POWER GENERATION ee
Fixed charges, as the name suggest does not vary either with the capacity of the
gin
plant or with plant operation. These costs remain fixed under all circumstances. These
mainly include the salaries of higher officials of the central organization and the rent of
the land reserved for future expansion.
En
SEMI FIXED CHARGES OF POWER GENERATION

These charges mainly depend on the installed capacity of the plant and are
arn
independent of the electrical energy output of the plant. These charges include the
following :
Le
1) Interest and depreciation on the capital cost of the generating plant, transmission and
distribution network, buildings and other civil engineering works etc. Capital cost of the
w.
plant also includes the interest paid during the construction of the plant, salaries of
engineers and other employees, development and construction of the power station. It also
ww
includes cost incurred on account of transportation, labor etc. to bring the equipment on
site and installing the same, all of which are involved for the overall economics of power
generation.
It is particularly note worthy, that in nuclear stations the capital cost of the station also
includes the cost of initial charges of the nuclear fuel minus the salvage value paid at the
end of its useful life.
94

2) It also includes all types of taxes, insurance premiums pain on policies to cover the risk
of accidental breakdown.
3) Rent paid for the land being actually used for the construction purpose.
The cost due to starting and shutting down of plants are also included in this category ,
when the power plant operates on one or two shift basis.
RUNNING CHARGES OF POWER GENERATION
The running charges or running cost of a power plant, is probably one of the most
important parameters while considering the economics of power generation as it depends
n
upon the number of hours the plant is operated or upon the number of units of electrical
g.i
energy generated. It essentially comprises of the following costs incurred mentioned
below.
rin
1) Cost of the fuel delivered coupled with the fuel handling cost in the plant. Coal is the
fuel used in a thermal power plant, and diesel oil in case of a diesel station. In case of a
ee
hydro-electric plant there is no fuel cost as water is the free gift of nature. But a hydro-
gin
plant requires higher installation cost and their mega Watt output of power generation is
also lower compared to the thermal power plants.
2) Wastage of the operational and maintenance stuff and salaries of supervisor staffs
En
engaged in running the plant.

3) In case of a thermal power plant, power generation economics includes the cost of feed
arn
water for the boiler, like the cost of water treatment and conditioning.
4) As the amount of wear and tear of the equipment depends on the extent to which the
Le
plant is being used, so the lubricating oil cost and repair and maintenance charges of the
equipment are also included in the running charges.
w.
So, we can conclude saying, that the total annual charges incurred in the power
generation, and the overall power generation economics can be represented by the
ww
equation,
E = a + b KW + c kWH
1. Where ‗a‘ represents the total fixed cost of the plant, and has no relation with the
total output of the plant or the number of hours for which the plant is running.
95

2. ‗b‘ represents the semi-fixed cost, which mainly depends on the total output of the
plant and not on the number of hours for which the plant is being operated. The unit for
‗b‘ is thus ideally chosen to be in k-Watt.
3. ‗c‘ essentially represents the running cost of the plant, and depends on the number
of hours for which the plant is running to generate a certain mega watt of power. Its unit is
given in K-Watt-Hr.
n
g.i
4. Explain different methods of nuclear waste disposal. (Nov/Dec 2015)(Nov / Dec
rin
2016)
WASTE DISPOSAL: ee
Waste disposal problem is common in every industry. Wastes from atomic energy
gin
installations are radioactive, create radioactive hazard and require strong control to ensure
that radioactivity is not released into the atmosphere to avoid atmospheric pollution.The
wastes produced in a nuclear power plant may be in the form of liquid, gas or solid and
En
each is treated in a different manner:

1. LIQUID WASTE
arn
The disposal of liquid wastes is done in two ways:

i) Dilution: The liquid wastes are diluted with large quantities of water and then released
Le
into theground. This method suffers from the drawback that there is a chance of
contamination of underground water if the dilution factor is not adequate
w.
ii) Concentration To Small Volumes And Storage:When the dilution of radioactive

liquid wastes is not desirable due to amount or nature of isotopes, the liquid wastes are
ww
concentrated to small volumes and stored in underground tanks.The tanks should be of

assured long term strength and leakage of liquid from the tanks should not take place
otherwise leakage or contents, from the tanks may lead to significant underground water
contamination.
2. GASEOUS WASTE
96

Gaseous wastes can most easily result in atmospheric pollution. Gaseous wastes are
generally diluted with air, passed through filters and then released to atmosphere through
large stacks (chimneys).
3. SOLID WASTE
Solid wastes consist of scrap material or discorded objects contaminated with
radioactive matter. These wastes if combustible are burnt and the radio active matter.
These wastes if concrete are drummed and shipped for burial. Non-combustible solid
wastes are always buried deep in the ground.
n
Most used fuel from nuclear power plants is stored in steel-lined concrete pools
g.i
filled with water, or in airtight steel or concrete-and-steel containers.
By law, the U.S. Department of Energy is responsible for developing a disposal
rin
facility for the long-term management of used uranium fuel from America's nuclear power
plants. The federal government, however, does not have a viable program for the
ee
management of used nuclear fuel from commercial nuclear energy facilities and high-
gin
level radioactive waste from the government‘s defense and research activities.
INTEGRATED USED FUEL MANAGEMENT
Until the federal government puts in place a program to dispose of these materials,
En
nearly all commercial used fuel is stored safely and securely at the reactor sites in steel-
lined concrete pools filled with water, or in airtight steel or concrete-and-steel containers.
arn
This temporary storage is but one component of an integrated used fuel

management system. Other facets include recycling, transportation and final geologic
Le
disposal.The federal government has defaulted on its legal obligation to take used nuclear
fuel from commercial reactors beginning in 1998. The nuclear energy industry is
w.
committed to working with Congress, the administration and state leaders on proposed
legislation to create a sustainable, integrated program.
ww
USED NUCLEAR FUEL STORAGE

Used nuclear fuel consists of small uranium pellets stacked inside alloy fuel rods.
All the used nuclear fuel produced by the nuclear energy industry in nearly 50 years—if
stacked end to end—would cover an area the size of a football field to a depth of less than
10 yards.
97

NEI supports the development of a consolidated facility for temporary storage of

used nuclear fuel in a willing host community and state, while substantial progress is
made toward developing the Yucca Mountain site or another geologic repository.
DISPOSAL
Whether nuclear fuel is used only once or recycled for subsequent use, disposal of
high-level radioactive byproducts in a permanent geologic repository is necessary.
Underground disposal in a specially designed facility is an essential element of a
sustainable, integrated used nuclear fuel management program. The industry supports the
n
completion of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's review of the DOE license
g.i
application to build a repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada.
rin
RECYCLING USED NUCLEAR FUEL
The industry supports research, development and demonstration of improved or
ee
advanced fuel cycle technologies such as recycling, thereby potentially reducing the
gin
volume, heat and toxicity of byproducts placed in the repository. A geologic repository
will be required for all fuel cycles.
LOW-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTE
En
Low-level waste is a byproduct of the beneficial uses of a wide range of radioactive

materials. These include electricity generation, medical diagnosis and treatment, and
arn
various other medical processes

5.Explain site selection for Nuclear ,hydro and thermal Power Station. (Nov / Dec
Le
2016)
SITE SELECTION OF NUCLEAR POWER STATION
w.
1. AVAILABILITY OF WATER : Although very large quantity of water is not

regulated as hydro-electric power plant, but still sufficient supply of neutral water is
ww
obvious for cooling purposes in nuclear power station. That is why it is always
preferable to locate this plant near a river or sea side.
2. DISPOSAL OF WATER : The by products or wastes of nuclear power station are
radioactive and may cause severe health hazards. Because of this, special care to be
taken during disposal of wastes of nuclear power plant. The wastes must be buried in
sufficient deep from earth level or these must be disposed off in sea quite away from
98

the sea share. Hence, during selecting the location of nuclear plant, these factor must
be taken into consideration.
3. DISTANCE FROM POPULATED AREA : As there is always a probability of
radioactivity, it is always preferable to locate a nuclear station sufficiently away from
populated area.
4. TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES : During commissioning period, heavy
equipments to be erected, which to be transported from manufacturer site. So good
railways and road ways availabilities are required. For availability of skilled
n
manpower good public transport should also be present at the site.
g.i
SELECTION OF SITE FOR THERMAL POWER PLANT
TRANSPORTATION NETWORK:
rin
Easy and enough access to transportation network is required in both power
plant construction and operation periods.
ee
GAS PIPE NETWORK: Vicinity to the gas pipes reduces the required expenses.
gin
POWER TRANSMISSION NETWORK: To transfer the generated electricity to the
consumers, the plant should be connected to electrical transmission system. Therefore the
nearness to the electric network can play a roll.
En
GEOLOGY AND SOIL TYPE: The power plant should be built in an area with soil and
rock layers that could stand the weight and vibrations of the power plant.
arn
Earthquake and geological faults: Even weak and small earthquakes can damage many
parts of a power plant intensively. Therefore the site should be away enough from the
Le
faults and previous earthquake areas.

TOPOGRAPHY:It is proved that high elevation has a negative effect on production
w.
efficiency of gas turbines. In addition, changing of a sloping area into a flat site for the
ww
construction of the power plant needs extra budget. Therefore, the parameters of elevation
and slope should be considered. Rivers and floodway’s: obviously, the power plant
should have a reasonable distance from permanent and seasonal rivers and floodway‘s.
WATER RESOURCES
For the construction and operating of power plant different volumes of water are
required. This could be supplied from either rivers or underground water resources.
99

Therefore having enough water supplies in defined vicinity can be a factor in the selection
of the site.
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES:
Operation of a power plant has important impacts on environment. Therefore,
priority will be given to the locations that are far enough from national parks, wildlife,
protected areas, etc.
POPULATION CENTERS:
For the same reasons as above, the site should have an enough distance from
n
population centers.
g.i
NEED FOR POWER:
In general, the site should be near the areas that there is more need for generation
rin
capacity, to decrease the amount of power loss and transmission expenses.
ee
gin
LAND COVER:
Some land cover types such as forests, orchard, agricultural land, pasture are
En
sensitive to the pollutions caused by a power plant. The effect of the power plant on such
land cover types surrounding it should be counted for.
arn
AREA SIZE:
Before any other consideration, the minimum area size required for the
construction of power plant should be defined.
Le
DISTANCE FROM AIRPORTS:

w.
Usually, a power plant has high towers and chimneys and large volumes of gas.
Consequently for security reasons, they should be away from airports.
ww
ARCHEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL SITES:

Usually historical building …are fragile and at same time very valuable.
Therefore the vibration caused by power plant can damage them, and a defined distance
should be considered.
SITE SELECTION FOR HYDROPOWER PLANTS
• Availability of Water: Run-off data for many years available
100

• Water Storage: for water availability throughout the year

• Head of Water: most economic head, possibility of constructing a dam to get
required head
• Geological Investigations: strong foundation, earthquake frequency is less
• Water Pollution: excessive corrosion and damage to metallic structures
• Sedimentation: capacity reduces due to gradual deposition of silt
• Social and Environmental Effects: submergence of areas, effect on biodiversity (e.g.
western ghat), cultural and historic aspects
n
• Access to Site: for transportation of construction material and heavy machinery new
g.i
railway lines or roads may be needed
• Multipurpose: power generation, irrigation, flood control, navigation, recreation;
rin
because initial cost of power plant is high because of civil engineering construction
work ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
101

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
102

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
103

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
104

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
105

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
106

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
107

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
108

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
109

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
110

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
111

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
112

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
113

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
114

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
115

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
116

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
117

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
118

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
119

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
120

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
121

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
122

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
123

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
124

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
125

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
126

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
127

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
128

ME6701 SCAD MSM by WWW - Learnengineering.in

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ME6701 SCAD MSM by WWW - Learnengineering.in

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ME6701 SCAD MSM by WWW - Learnengineering.in

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.

Sl.No. Name of the Faculty Designation Affiliating College

1 Mr.S.Murugan ASSO. / EEE FXEC

3 Mr.D.Justin Livingston AP/EEE SMTEC

4 Mr.A.Ann Rufus AP/EEE SCADCET

5 Mr.P.Balaji AP/EEE SCADCET

Verified by DLI, CLI and Approved by the Centralised Monitoring Team

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in

Basics of Nuclear Engineering, Layout and subsystems of Nuclear Power Plants,

Reactor (PWR), CANada Deuterium- Uranium reactor (CANDU), Breeder, Gas

Hydro Electric Power Plants – Classification, Typical Layout and associated

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in

Power PlantEngineering, Second Edition, McGraw – Hill, 1998.

association with the Open University, 2004.

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in

1. Aim and objective of the objective

3. Industry connectivity and latest development.

Using latest technology and advanced materials in constructing complicated and

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in

DETAILED LESSON PLAN

8 Draught system, Feed water treatment 1 T1

12 Diesel Power Plant 1 T1

Integrated Gasifier based Combined Cycle

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in

37 Fuel Cell power systems 1 T1

39 Load distribution parameters, 1 T1

41 load curve ,relative merits & demerits 1 T1

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in

16 Chain reaction & PWR 50

18 Sodium Graphite Reactor 54

21 Hydro power plant 63

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in

UNIT-I - COAL BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS

a.. The layout is simple and economical,

c.Coal transportation system is simple

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in

All parts of the system are heated uniformly, so there is no danger of

Air and Gas

Cooling and water circuits

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in

will condense inside the engine.

A supercritical steam generator is a type of boiler that operates at supercritical

subcritical boiler, a supercritical steam generator operates at pressures above the

and therefore less greenhouse gas production.

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in

A generator to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in

A. COAL AND ASH CIRCUIT:

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in

MERITS (ADVANTAGES) OF A THERMAL POWER PLANT

2. (i) Write about pulverized coal firing? (May/June 12 )

To burn pulverized coal successfully in a furnace, two requirements must be met:

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in

2)(ii)Discuss in detail about Binary cycle. (May/June 16)

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in