Towards The Understanding The Psychology of Filipino

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Towards Understanding the

Psychology of the Filipino
a
Elizabeth Protacio Marcelino PhD
a
Assistant Professor of Psychology, Department of
Psychology, CSSP, University of Philippines, Quezon City,
Philippines
Published online: 18 Oct 2008.
To cite this article: Elizabeth Protacio Marcelino PhD (1990) Towards Understanding the
Psychology of the Filipino, Women & Therapy, 9:1-2, 105-128, DOI: 10.1300/J015v09n01_07
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J015v09n01_07
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Towards Understanding the Psychology
of the Filipino
Elizabeth Protacio Marcelino, PhD
SUMMARY. This article describes the development of a new con-

sciousness in Philippine psychology called "Sikolohiyang Pilipino"

(Filipino Psychology). It attempts to give national form and sub-
stance to the scientific discipline of psychology by critically examin-
ing the strong influence of American psychological models in Phil-
ippine psychology and explains how the practical applications of
"Sikoloh~yang Pilipino" in therapy differ from the Western meth-
ods. It presents an alternative framework of looking at human be-
havior particularly in the context of non-Western cultures and identi-
fies key concepts in understanding the Filipino's mind, personality,
and behavior. It elaborates on indigenous research methods that are
more relevant and appropriate to Philippine realities.
I a m often confronted with the question, "Is there really such a

thing a s Filipino Psychology?" A t a very simple level, o n e could
say, "There is a Filipino Psychology a s long a s there are Filipi-
nos." But that is begging the question and further leads t o another
question, "Who is the Filipino?"
If one turns the pages of Western history books, it is written that
Elizabeth Protacio Marcelino is Assistant Professor of Psychology at the Uni-

versity of the Philippines where she teaches Psychology of Language and Filipino
Psychology. Together with other colleagues, she helped develop these courses
after many years of teaching in the native language. She also heads a rehabilitation
center which provides therapy for child victims of political violence. A Filipino in
heart and mind, she is actively engaged in promoting, both in her academic and
practical work, a psychology that is relevant to the needs and aspirations of the
Filipino people.
Correspondence may be addressed to the author at: Department of Psychology,
CSSP, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines.
D 1990 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. 105
106 DIVERSIN AND COMPLEXITY IN FEMINIST THERAPY
there were no Filipinos before the Spaniards came to our shores in

1521 (Constantino, 1975). The term "Filipino" did not exist until
the latter part of Spanish colonial rule. When first used, "Filipino"
did not refer to the people inhabiting the archipelago in general, but
to the "creoles" or the Spaniards born in the Philippines. It was,
then, an elitist term used to distinguish a group of persons who were
above the natives but not quite equal in status with the "peninsu-
lares" or the Spanish officialdom and the clergy.
One could answer the above question in a legal sense and define
the Filipino on the basis of geographical origin, birth, or blood.
Though very convenient and simplistic, this definition would be far

from adequate from a psychological perspective. One could simply
enumerate the many and varied traits and characteristics possessed
by the Filipinos, but these would not say much either. There may be
other groups of people who also possess these traits and characteris-
tics, differing only in the labels attached to them. In this case there
is little significance in calling them uniquely "Filipino." Perhaps
one can loosely state like Munoz (1971) that "A Filipino is one who
thinks, feels and says he is." This definition, although broad and all
encompassing, does not face the issue head-on.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

IN THE PHILIPPINES
To approach the problem of Filipino identity from the point of

view of psychology, it is necessary to seriously consider the history
of psychology in the Philippines. Psychology in the Philippines has
both a long and short history. One finds indigenous psychology
cataloged in a written history even before the Spaniards came
among the "babaylans" and the "catalonans" (high priest and
priestess) (Enriquez, 1977). However, one can only share the de-
spair and anger of many Filipino scholars in reading Chirino's ac-
count (1604) of how members of the Jesuit order destroyed hun-
dreds of Tagalog manuscripts-an act which after more than 300
years is still unforgivable.
Psychology as an academic discipline started in the Philippines
Elizabeth Protacio Marcelino 107
about the turn of the century when the United States as colonizer
came to the country and established a comprehensive educational
system using English language as the primary medium of instruc-
tion (Lagmay, 1984). It is important to note that all other Philippine
institutions developed concomitantly within the framework of the
English language.
The spread of American culture and the Westernization of Philip-
pine education led to the assumption that the Americans brought
psychology to the Philippines together with their policy of "benev-
olent assimilation." If we accept this claim, psychology, then, is a
direct importation from the West, from theory to method to prac-

tice. It is no surprise then that Americans (Sechrest & Guthrie,
1974) feel at home writing about "psychology of, by and for the
Filipino" without being immersed in the native culture and without
making an effort to learn the local language.
As a scientific discipline, psychology is generally viewed as a
continuation of the development of psychology in the West. Histo-
rians of psychology, wittingly or unwittingly, drop the word
"Western" when they write about the history of Western psychol-
ogy. On the other hand, "Asian psychology" is always properly
designated as such. This is understandable if the audience consists
exclusively of Western scholars and readers. These above assump-
tions could also spring from a well-meaning interest in the people of
a former colony. But the fact remains that the history of a relevant
psychology, like the history of all colonized peoples, has to be re-
written. Alternative perspectives from non-Western psychologies
should be seriously taken into consideration.
SIKOLOHIYANG PILIPINO:
A NEW CONSCIOUSNESS IN PSYCHOLOGY
"Sikolohiyang Pilipino" (Filipino Psychology) began in the

early '70s initially as a protest against Philippine psychology's co-
lonial character and the uncritical acceptance of American psycho-
logical models. With American textbooks in psychology, Filipinos
began learning not only American psychology but a new culture. A
108 DIVERSIWAND COMPLEXI7Y IN FEMINIST THERAPY
major basis for perpetuating the American orientation of psychol-

ogy in the Philippines is the use of English language in teaching and
research. Psychology graduates who generally uphold and are de-
pendent on American theories and methods are unable to perceive
the limitations of the English language. They have no chance at all
to think in the Filipino language and to formulate theories based on
the Filipino people's experiences. A vicious cycle is thus formed as
they pursue their careers in and out of the academe, further reinforc-
ing the American orientation. This has resulted in a psychology that
is elitist, i.e., limited to an elite group who can hardly communicate
with the larger non-English speaking mass of people.

While theories and methods all over the world may be somewhat
similar, real life settings of behavior vary radically from one cul-
tural group to another. There is nothing wrong in studying foreign
theories and methods and updating oneself on the developmcnts in
psychology in other countries. But these should only serve as
guides and should not be mechanically adopted and applied. These
psychologies are valuable as they inform the reader of the culture
within which they originate. Acceptance of American psychologi-
cal theories and methods as universal has obscured the necessity of
examining the applicability of these theories to the objective reali-
ties and nuances of Filipino life and culture. While it is true that
psychologists in academia are no longer contented with research on
sophomore students or white rats, this is not cnough data to develop
a truly indigenous psychology. Field research and cross-cultural re-
search, although important in generating a broader data-base, are
still far from adequate in establishing a universal psychology.
"Sikolohiyang Pilipino" is an attempt by some Filipino psychol-
ogists to examine the ways in which one can give national form and
substance to the scientific discipline of psychology. Giving a na-
tional character to psychology in the Philippines not only meets the
requirement of fully appreciating Philippine life and culture, but it
is also a contribution to the goal of evolving a universal psychol-
ogy. This is the only way that psychology can be relevant to the
needs and aspirations of the Filipino people, as all sciences should
be.
Ehabefh Protacio Murcelino 109
As a commitment to this goal, "Sikolohiyang Pilipino" urges

Filipino psychologists to confront social problems and national is-
sues as part of their responsibility as social scientists. Thus, "Siko-
lohiyang Pilipino" emerged among those who criticized the Arneri-
can orientation of education in the Philippines and the use of
English in teaching and research. As Enriquez and Marcelino
(1984) strongly articulated:
The colonial relationship between the USA and the Philip-

pines demonstrate that language is power. With the imposition
of the English language, the country became dependent on a

borrowed language that carries with it the dominant ideology
and political-economic interests of the USA. With the depen-
dence of the country on a borrowed language, it became de-
pendent, too, on foreign theories and methods underlying the
borrowed language, thus, resulting in a borrowed conscious-
ness. The people's values were then more easily modified so
that they equate foreign interest with national interest. Thus, it
became easier for the USA to further subjugate the Filipino
people and impose its will on them.
THE IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE

IN PHILIPPINE PSYCHOLOGY
Language is not merely a tool for communication nor a neutral

system of signs and symbols. Each language is partisan to the val-
ues, perspectives, and rules of cognition of a particular class of
society. One need not completely agree with the Sapir-Whorf hy-
pothesis (1940) to be convinced of the clear connection between
language and culture. -It is for this reason that one's faith in lan-
guage leads to the belief that meaningful concepts of understanding
society and human behavior are probably most identifiable in lan-
guage.
Take the case of sexism in language. In the last three decades, the
feminists, particularly in the West, have created considerable furor
over sexism in the English language. Anyone who tries to learn
110 DIVERSITY AND COMPLEXITY IN FEMINIST THERAPY
German, Spanish, or Japanese, to name a few other languages,

soon realizes the biases in these languages favor the male gender.
In an extensive and revealing study, Estrada (1981) showed that
the original Tagalog language (one of the eight major languages
spoken in the Philippines) does not contain sexist biases and reflects
the equal treatment given to both male and female. Unfortunately,
however, Spanish and American influences slowly introduced sex-
ism in the language as Tagalog and other Philippine languages as-
similated a sexist bias in favor of males.
To illustrate the former point, Estrada (1981) makes the observa-
tion that most Filipinos, even those presumably well-schooled in

English, frequently interchange the use of helshe, herlhis in ordi-
nary conversation. This curious phenomenon can be explained by
the fact that Tagalog does not have equivalents for the English he/
she, etc. Tagalog only has "siya" or "kanya" or the formal "sila"
or "kanila." She further elaborates that the other major languages .
spoken in the Philippines also do not have helshe or herbis equiva-
lents either.
Moreover, Estrada (1981) asserts that if sexism was an element at
all in the language, it would manifest itself in the realm of kinship.
Tagalog has no specific sex-linked terms for the most important
kin. For example, there is only one word "pamangkin" to mean
niece or nephew. The sex of the person referred to may be estab-
lished by attaching the proper qualifier "babae" (female) or "la-
lake" (male) to the kinship term. From the entire system of inter-
locking kin for which there is precise terminology only two are
gender-marked and are not borrowed and these are primary ones,
"ama/ina" (fatherlmother).
She goes on to prove her thesis that Tagalog is generally non-
sexist by showing examples in the various domains of Philippine
life and culture specifically focusing on the following: forms of
address, terms of endearment, sexual terminology, professions/oc-
cupations, learning in early childhood, swcanvordslcurses, mythol-
ogy and folk medicine. If Tagalog does show bias, it is more ageist
than sexist.
To illustrate the latter point, the terms "loloAola" and their de-
rivative "lelongllelang," "tiyo/tiya" and their derivatives tiyuhid
tiyahin are from the Spanish "abuelolabuela, tioltia" respectively.
The term "maybahay" now commonly used to mean housewife

formerly referred to either husband or wife (Santiago, 1977). The
marking of "maybahay" as feminine is an instance of what Estrada
sees as the increasing chauvinization of Tagalog.
VALUES AND THE CONTINUING MIS-EDUCATION

OF THE HLIPINO
Earlier work on Philippine values identified some important con-
cepts in understanding Filipino behavior. Lynch (1964) proposed
the construct of "smooth interpersonal relations" as acquired and

perceived through "pakikisama" (adjustment to the will of the ma-
jority). Kaut (1961) singled out "utang na loob7' (debt of gratitude)
as a key concept in Tagalog interpersonal relations. "Hiya" was
interpreted by Fox (1956) as "self-esteem," by Bulatao (1964) as a
kind of anxiety and fear of being left exposed, and by Silbley
(1965) as "shame7'-just to name a few of many other frequently
mentioned values.
However, Enriquez (1977) pointed out that in spite of the token
use of the language in previous studies, the methods used were still
patterned after American models. The conclusions derived were
still premised on English categories of analysis governed by the
structure of American culture. The studies themselves were still
written in English, reflecting only a limited description of the Fili-
pino psyche. In spite of the indigenous material used, the resulting
theory could not truly reflect Philippine social realities. In fact, it
perpetuated a further subtle distortion of reality and to borrow Con-
stantino's (1982) much quoted phrase, "the continuing mis-educa-
tion of the Filipino."
Take for example, "pakikisama" (adjusting to the will of the
majority), as a supposed Filipino value. One tends to overlook the
fact that this is only one among the many levels or modes of interac-
tion in Filipino indigenous psychology (see below). Although "pa-
kikisama" should be accepted as a value in one level of interper-
sonal relation, one should carefully consider the context in which
"pakikisama" is used. How does one label a person, for instance,
who will not take part in corruption? Helshe is identified as "wa-
lang pakikisama" (not adjusting to the will of the majority) simply
112 DILFRSITYAND COMPLEXITY IN FEMINIST THERAPY
because helshe insists on being honest. Is it a value then, in this

case, to reward docility and conformity? What image does this cre-
ate of the Filipino? The logical consequence is that they are consid-
ered negative and do not register a value in the sphere of "pakiki-
baka" (social protest) (Navarro, 1974).
The concept of "hiya" has been loosely translated by Sibley
(1965) to mean "shame" when the Filipino experience tells us that
it is simply "a sense of propriety." Referring to someone as "nahi-
hiya" (ashamed) does not mean that shelhe has lost face. However,
if one is "nakakahiya" (shameful), it means that one has no man-
ners. In this case, it is important to pay attention to the prefixes

"na-" and "nakaka-." The Filipino language has an elaborate sys-
tem of affixes which English lacks. The erroneous interpretation
shows a lack of consideration for the importance of the local lan-
guage and its subtleties and nuances. Sometimes, the token use of
the language is even more dangerous than not using it at all!
What is notable in Kaut's (1961) analysis of "utang na loob"
(debt of gratitude) is the insufficient attention given to the role of
language in the formation of a concept. "Utang na loob" is only
one of the many concepts that relate to the theoretically fertile con-
cept of "loob" (inner core). Why choose "utang na loob7' alone?
Could it be convenient in perpetuating the colonial status of the
Filipino in being grateful for American aid? Is it not more produc-
tive for the Filipino to highlight the concepts of "lakas na loob"
(risk-taking behavior) and "kusang-loob" (initiative)? Using the
native language could, in fact, reveal other psycho-social concepts
that relate to "loob." Samonte (1973) needed no less than three
pages to list the lexical domain of this particular concept.
KEY CONCEPTS IN SIKOLOHIYANG PILIPINO

"Sikolohiyang Pilipino" has embarked on the very difficult task
of identifying key concepts for understanding a people's mind, per-
sonality, and behavior. The basic assumption is that such a concept
already exists or can be discovered through a process of concept
formulation. It is strongly believed that discovery of concepts and
theories significant to Philippine society and culture is more impor-
tant than blind translations of Western ideas, no matter how faithful
one is to the original. It is interesting to note, therefore, that a whole

new body of literature has emerged through the use of the native
language as a tool in delineating and articulating Philippine reali-
ties.
This brings us back to the original question of the Filipino per-
sonality. Loosely translated, one could say "personalidad" to refer
to the characteristic and typical patterns of behavior of a person.
Filipino identity, however, is not simply the stereotype or projected
image of the self. More specifically, one should use "pagkatao"
which refers to being human, while "personalidad' is closer in
meaning to the Western concept of personality. One may change

his/her "personalidad" just like the change involved in wearing a
mask. However, his/her "pagkatao" is not only the face he/she
shows to people but rather the totality of being human.
An analysis of social interaction in the Philippine setting is a
good starting point for understanding of the Filipino character. The
Filipino language provides a conceptual distinction in several levels
and modes of interaction. Santiago and Enriquez (1976) identified
eight levels:
1. pakikitungo (transaction/civility with)

2. pakikisalamuha (interaction with)
3. pakikilahok (joining/participating with)
. 4. pakikibagay (in conformity with/in accord with)
5. pakikisama (getting along with)
6. pakikipag-palagayang-Ioob (having rapport with)
7. pakikisangkot (getting involved with)
8. pakikiisa (being one with)
According to the authors, the distinctions among the eight levels

go beyond the conceptual and the theoretical. They are more than
just interrelated modes of interpersonal relations. More impor-
tantly, they are levels of interaction which range from the relatively
uninvolved civility of "pakikitungo" to the total sense of identifi-
cation in "pakikiisa." They further elaborated that the different
levels are not just conceptually but also behaviorally different. Five
behaviorally recognizable levels were discussed under two general
categories:
114 DIVERSIIT AND COMPLEXIIT IN FEMINIST THERAPY
"Ibang-Taa" or Outsider Category

Level:
pakikitungo (level of amenities)
pakikibagay (level of conformity)
pakikisama (level of adjusting)
"Hindi Ibang-Tao" or Insider Category
Level:
pakikipag-palagayang-Ioob (level of mutual trust)
pakikiisa (level of fusion, oneness, full trust)
The foregoing is ample evidence for the claim that the domain of
interpersonal relations is theoretically fertile and lexically elaborate
in Filipino.
Kapwa: A Core Concept in Filipino Social Psychology
In a conscious search for a core concept that would explain Fili-

pino interpersonal relations, Enriquez (1977) was struck with the
superordinate conceptof "kapwa." According to him, it is the only
concept which embraces both categories of "outsider" (ibang tao)
and "insider" (hindi ibang tao). Similarly, "pakikipagkapwa" cuts
across all levels of both categories. Enriquez (1977) explains the
meaning of "kapwa":
When asked for the closest English equivalent of "kapwa," one
word comes to mind, the English word "others." However, the
Filipino word "kapwa" is very different from the English word
"others" because "kapwa" is the unity of the "self" and the "oth-
ers." The English word "others" is actually used in opposition to
the "self" and implies the recognition of the "self" as a separate
identity. In contrast, "kapwa" is a recognition of shared identity.
A person starts having "kapwa" not so much because of a recog-
nition of status given him by others but more so because of his
awareness of shared identity. The "aka" (ego) and the "iba sa
akin" (others) are one and the same in "kapwa" psychology which
says "hindi ako iba sa aking kapwa" (I am no different from oth-
ers). Once "aka" starts thinking of himself as different from
"kapwa," the self, in effect, denies the status of "kapwa" to the
other.
Presumably, because of the importance of "kapwa," the Filipino

language has two pronouns for the English "we"; an inclusive
"we" (tayo) and an exclusive "we" (kami). "Tayo" includes the
listener while "kami" excludes him.
Brislin (1977) noted that all cultures distinguish between the "in-
group" and the "out-group," the "members" and the "non-mem-
bers," or the "insiders" and the "outsiders." He surmised that this
might be an example or a "universal" or "etic" distinction as op-
posed to "emic" or "culture-specific." Yet there seems to be at
least one culture that does not fit into this mold perfectly. For the
Filipino, the "ibang tao" (outsider) is "kapwa" in the same man-

ner that the "hindi ibang tao" (insider) is also "kapwa" (unity of
the self and the other).
The concept of "pakikipagkapwa," therefore, is very important
psychologically as well as philosophically. It is much deeper and
more profound in its implications becauseit has a moral as well as a
normative aspect as a value and a "paninindigan" (conviction)
which is another equallyimportant concept in Philippine social psy-
chology. "Pakikipagkapwa" means accepting and dealingwith the
other person as an equal and with respect and dignity. It is definitely
inconsistent with exploitative human relations. As Santiago (1976)
would put it, "pakikipagkapwa" refers to "humaneness" at its
highest level.
The great importance of "kapwa" in Filipino thought and behav-
ior is expressed in the negative reaction to one who is "walang kapa
tao." If one is "walang pakisama" (not adjusting to the will of the
majority), one could still be forgiven because that is the individual's
prerogative. If one is "walang hiya" (lacks a sense of propriety),
one can still be tolerated because one will eventually learn.How-
ever, if one is labelled "walang kapwa-tao," then one is the worst
human being. As a Tagalog proverb says: "Madaling maging tao,
mahirap ang magpakatao" (It is easy to be born a human being, but
it is not easy to act like one).
Before one gets the impression that the Filipino is all smiles and
all giving, it is equally important to discuss how the Filipino re-
sponds when treated unfairly or when his/her "pakikipagkapawa-
tao" is abused. For example, how does the Filipino react to frustra-
tion and exploitative relations? It is wrong to assume that the
Filipino accepts his/her fate with resignation and fatalism ("bahala
116 DIVERSIIT AND COMPLEXIIT IN FEMINISTTHERAPY
na") (Guthrie 1968). If one really tries to understand the conceptof

"bahala na" in Philippine culture, it implies an elementof faith in a
god (bathala) that goes with a sense of optimism and responsibility
for one's action. While it is observed that Filipinos when provoked
do not very easily display their emotions verbally, it is a distortion
of the Filipinoresponse to say that their reaction is essentially that
of silence or "pagtitiis" (quiet desperation). One should not forget
the adeptness of the Filipino to nonverbal cues known as "pashi-
watig" or the elaborate art of "pakikiramdam" (feeling or sensing
through) in everyday life.
For example, from the imperceptible expression of "tampo"

(very mild hurt feelings) to "hinanakit" (resentment) and "sarna ng
loob" (deep grudge), one sees the transformation of the emotion of
"galit" (anger). Initially expressed indirectly, covertly and non-
verbally, the frustration progresses until it leads to direct, overt and
verbal aggression or retaliation. As the Filipino saying goes: "Ang
tapayan kapag napuno ay umaapam" (A jar when full overflows).
The Filipino knows the meaning of "pagbibigay" (giving defer-
ence to the other), but he/she also knows that "pakikibaka" (to
struggle or fight) is a valid aspect of "pakikipagkapwa" in the face
of injustice and exploitation.' While it is "pakikipag-kapwa" that
moves him to respect the dignity and rights of others, he/she also
knows how to protest (makibaka) when his own rights are violated.
It is with great pride that we remember that Magellan (who Western
historians say discovered the Philippines) did not make it in Mactan
(an island in the southern part of the Philippines) because Lapu-
Lapu (a native hero) was there to resist Spanish colonization.
PROBLEMS IN WESTERN RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In criticizing American psychological theories and models as
well as presenting alternative views as embodied in "Sikolohiyang
Pilipino," it is inevitable that one is confronted with the problems
inherent in and created by Western research methodologies. One
cannot ignore the growing dissatisfaction among a number of Fili-
pino social scientists who have experienced great difficulties in us-
ing Western research methods because of their inappropriateness
and inapplicability to the Philippine setting.
Because of the relatively few locally developed tests, American
and other English language tests have been used and widely bor-
rowed. It was initially assumed that the inadequate relevance of
these tests or psychometric devices were merely due to problems of
translating test instruments and developing local norms for the tar-
get population. However, personality inventories and other similar
tests were found to have high culture-specific loadings (Lagmay,
1984), and therefore, simplistic adjustments failed to recognize the
importance of the socio-cultural context. Furthermore, most practi-
tioners soon realized that people from the rural areas and lower
socio-economic groups did not have a good grasp of the English
language in which most tests were being administered. These in-

struments, therefore, were not interpretable for the purposes of di-
agnosis or counseling.
One aspect of the relevance and usefulness of traditional psycho-
metric devices that is often ignored is the issue of response styles.
Felipe (1968) noted that the same inventorystatementsmight not be
perceived as equally socially desirable in the United States and the
Philippines. Emphasis on "pakikisama" or smooth interpersonal
relations makes the Filipino prone to give answers experimenters
expect or desire and refrain from using the lower end of evaluation
scales (Lynch, 1973). Similarly questionnaire surveys can be con-
founded by the Filipino tendency to say "yes" rather than "no"
(Arkoff, Thaver, & Elkind, 1966). In addition, Hare (1969) found
that Filipinos gave higher ratings of satisfaction with experimental
participation than several other cultural groups.
Several studies further indicate that some traits and behavior con-
stitute different constructs and may predict or interrelate differently
in the Philippines as opposed to other cultures. For example, in a
study of ethnic prejudice among university students, Weightman
(1964) found that various social distance items (e.g., willingness to
eat with, dance with, or have a relative marry members of different
ethnic groups) did not interrelate in the way they do in American
studies of prejudice.
With regards to the methods of data-gathering, Hendershot
(1968) feels that certain assumptions about the interviewer-respon-
dent relationship and the interview setting are more consistent with
prevalent value themes and environmental realities in the United
States than in the Philippines, e.g., universalistic and egalitarian
relationships, efficient performance orientation, affective neutral-
118 DIVERSIIT AND COMPLEXIITIN FEMINIST THERAPY
ity, privacy, and the absence of distraction from others. In contrast,

some illustrative data from a Population Institute survey on migra-
tion and fertility is presented as evidence that the goal of privacy is
rarely achieved in a Manila survey due to such conditions as the
large number of people per household, small number of rooms, and
other cultural factors related to privacy.
Feliciano (1965) drawingon considerable experience with survey
research in the Philippines calls attention to similar problems in the
implementation of Western research methods especially in the rural
areas. She stressed the necessity of a less rigid structure in planning
social research because of the limited amount and poor quality of

locally available resources, difficulties in recruiting and training in-
terviewers, and problems related to questions about time, distance,
and precise quantities typical of Western or more urban settings.
Guthrie (1968) similarly noted such problems with questionnaires
as difficulties in translations, dubious cross-cultural validity, cul-
tural differences in response styles, and the easy influencibility of
responses by such factors as sex and ethnicity of examiner.
PROBLEMS IN THE APPLICATION

OF WESTERN MODELS IN THERAPY
In the field of practical work in psychology, psychiatrists, guid-
ance counselors, and corporate psychologists have been the main
. practitioners of Freudian psychoanalysis, client-centered therapy,
and behavior modification techniques despite recognition by many
that these techniques may not be equally applicable for Filipinos. In
principle, there is really nothingwrong in subscribing to a particular
school of thought in psychology. What is being questioned here is
its wholesale adoption and uncritical application in the Philippine
setting.Navarro (1974) points this out emphatically:
To the extent that the Filipino psychologist after the end of
his academic training, tries to explain away the problems of
the Filipinos according to the white man's conceptof the etiol-
ogy of mental illness, he continues the miseducation process.
Take Western psychology, for instance, it generally takes the
position that the individual is mostly to blame for his psycho-
logical problems. The sooner he accepts his problems, the

faster the psychological intervention is provided, thus facilitat-
ing adjustment to his environment. A Filipino psychologist
who subscribes to such a tenet by itself is ignorant of his coun-
try's history and lacks a total grasp of the psychosocial and
political problems of Philippine society.
Western techniques largely assign the locus of control for behav-

ior change and decision-making to the individual. This assumption
may be less appropriate for more situation and group-centered cul-
tures where the individual is defined not separately from the family
and where a more dependent or external orientation is valued and
accepted (Sue, 1978). In fact, it is strongly suggested that signifi-
cant members of the family or group be involved in therapyand that
use of the native language is critical (Salazar, 1976; Varias, 1963).
Reservations about using psychiatric or psychological services
among Filipinos also reflect in part greater reliance on extended
family, peer, and other social networks for emotional support and
problem-solving (Bulatao (1980). It was also found that there was a
greater preference for traditional "folk healers" especiallyfor treat-
ment of neuro-psychiatric or mental symptoms (Galvez-Tan, 1977;
Valencia & Palo, 1979).
Conceptualizations of culture-relevant therapies draw on some
findings to say, at least initially, that: (1) since Filipinos are more
passiveand modestwith authorityfigures, the therapist may need to
be more active and directive in the initial stages of therapy (Bula-
tao, 1978; Cuizon & Zingle, 1968), and (2) since Filipinos are more
sensitive, have strong needs for acceptance, belonging and security
ina relationship, the therapist may need to be closer and more pa-
ternalistic rather than non-directive (Varias, 1963).
INDIGENOUS RESEARCH METHODS
Attempts at "indigenization" of Philippine psychology have

taken a variety of forms. Enriquez (1977) has coined the terms "in-
digenization from without" (culture-as-target) .approach versus
"indigenization from within" (culture-as-source approach). Theo-

retically, the culture-as-target approach aims to demonstrate the
universality or cross-cultural generality of existing constructs. In
contrast, the culture-as-source approach identifies constructs that
are truly indigenous. As Enriquez (1976), Salazar (1976), and Enri-
quez and Marcelino (1984) have repeatedly stressed, the native lan-
guage provides a very rich source for the discovery of indigenous
concepts. Many such concepts have .not been studied because of
dependence on the English language.
Enriquez and Marcelino (1984) went on to describe several indig-
enous concepts not found in any book on American psychology but

which are meaningful concepts in Filipino psychology. An example
is the conceptof "saling-pusa" which refers to an individual who is
included in an activity only in an informal or unofficial sense be-
cause he or she cannot be outrightlyexcluded without hurting his or
her feelings. Another example is the concept of "pikon" which
refers to someone who cannot take a joke or being teased- some-
thing that is particularly significant in Philippine culture where jok-
ing and teasing are frequent. As stated in the preface to their book
Neo-colonial Politics and Language Struggle in the Philippines,
Enriquez and Marcelino (1984) show that:
An assessment of a decade of active use of Filipino in Philip-

pine psychology has shown the adequacy and appropriateness
of the native language as a tool of expression in contemporary
psychology. In particular, it has shown alternative ways. of
developing terminology in Filipino which can be utilized in
varying degrees of effectiveness. It has also shown the rich
resource available for the categorization of words and con-
cepts which give rise to significant psychological theories that
comprehend better the realities of Philippine society and cul-
ture. Finally it has identified bases for the choice and planning
of terminology in a Southeast Asian context towards the fur-
ther growth and development of both the Filipino language and
"Sikolohiyang Pilipino."
Calls for an indigenous psychology, therefore, have not been

limited to rhetoric. Substantial efforts are underway especially in
the formulation and utilization of various indigenous methods.
Much of this is based on the work of Santiago and Enriquez (1976).

As a preliminary research model, it is organized around two scales:
(1) "Iskala ng Mananaliksik" (Scale of the Researcher), and (2)
"Iskala ng Pagtutunguhan ng Mananaliksik at Kalahok (Scale of
the Relationship of the Researcher and Participant). The "Scale of
the Researcher" represents a continuum varying from the relatively
unobtrusive observational methods at the one end to the more obtru-
sive, researcher-participative methods at the other. This is illus-
trated in the following:
pagmamasid (general scanning or looking around)

pakikiramdam (sensing or feeling through)
pagtatanong-tanong (unstructured, informal interactive)
pagsubok (testing the situation)
padalam-dalam (occasional visits madeto respondents' homes)
pakikilahok (participating with)
pakikisangkot (deeper participation and involvement)
The "Scale of the Relationship of Researcher and Participant" is
based on the Filipino view of the equality of this relationship and
the fact that it passes through different levels. The top of the scale
describes a relatively superficial level of researcher-participant rela-
tionship, while the bottom of the scale touches on the deepest levels
of relationships. Again, this is shown in the following:
Outsider Category
pakikitungo (level of superficial good manners)
pakikisalamuha (level of casual socializing with)
pakikilahok (level of actual participation)
pakikibagay (level of adjusting one's feelings and speech for
others)
pakikisama (level of joining in for the sake of civility)
Insider Category
pakikipagpalagayang-Ioob (level of trust)
pakikisangkot (level of deeper participation and involvement)
pakikiisa (level of deep respect where behavior feelings and
speech show full love, understanding and acceptance of the
other's aim as one's own)
122 DIVERSIITAND COMPLEXIIT IN FEMINIST THERAPY
The important point for the researcher is that the type, reliability,
and genuineness of the information obtained by the researcher is a
function of the level of researcher-participant relationship.
Torres (1980) defines an indigenous method called "pakapa-
kapa" (literally, groping or searching) as "a suppositionless ap-
proach to social and scientific investigations characterized by grop-
ing, searching, and probing into an unsystematized mass of social
and cultural data to be able to obtain order, meaning, and directions
for research." Data is explored without the chains of overriding
theoretical frameworks borrowed from observations outside the fo-
cus of investigation. The rationale for the method is based on the

need for "Sikilohiyang Pilipino" to generate a broad data-base of
concepts and behavior, free from the biases and frameworks of
Western concepts and methodology. However, it may be best to
view "pakapa-kapa" as a research approach or philosophy rather
than a specific method in the usual sense.
The indigenous method of "pagtatanong-tanong" has also been
widely discussed by many authors (e.g., Gonzales, 1982; Nicdao-
Henson, 1982; Santiago, 1982; Pe-Pua, 1985). "Pagtatanong-
tanong" is an unstructured, informal, and interactive form of
questioning. It describes characteristics of the researcher and the
respondent, suggestions for timing and location, and certain proce-
dural steps.
Margallo (1981) concludes that while indigenous methods appear
simpler and more appropriate than traditional Western approaches,
they need much more skillful handling in order to uphold the scien-
tific and ethical nature of research. She cautions the user on subjec-
tivity that could lead to a higher probability of data contamination.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS IN THERAPY
The development of culture-relevant therapeutic techniques rely
heavilyon studiesrelated to the Filipino's worldview and cognition,
motivation, and emotion, and contrast and changes in values and
behavior. Severalwriters have discussed various aspects of the Fili-
pino world view as personalistic rather than mechanistic (Lynch,
1973), with authoritarian rather than libertarian norms (Andres,
1981), more in a receptive rather than active cognitive mode (Bula-

tao, 1979), and more external than internal in their perceived locus-
of-control (Bonifacio, 1977; Guthrie, 1968).
Other authors have sought to clarify the Filipino's world view
through metalinguistic analyses, under the assumption that particu-
lar features of a language will provide clues to world view (Con-
stantino, 1980; Enriquez & Alfonso, 1980). Similarly, Mercado
(1974) drawing on some features of Philippine dialects concludes
that the Filipino's thinking is intuitive, inductive, subjective, and
non-dualistic.
A negative description of motivational aspects of the Filipino be-

havior repeatedly found in early writings on Filipino personality
was the purported laziness or "indolence" of the Filipino. Rizal
(1890/1957) argued that 'indolence was not inherent in the Filipino
but the result of climactic conditions and Spanish misgovernment.
He showed evidence that prior to the arrival of the Spaniards, the
Filipinowas not indolent. Lawless (1967), on the other hand, points
out that labeling the Filipinos as lazy was an incredible value judg-
ment and to expect Filipinos to work in pursuit of Western values is
simply ethnocentric.
The Filipino's philosophy of work, according to Mercado (1974)
is consistent with the non-dualistic world view. He cites examples
of rural workers' and urban office workers' habit of combining
work and leisure and explains this in terms of the high emphasis
placed on personalism and interpersonal relations.
Many contrasts or conflicts between Filipino values or ideals and
actual behavior has been noted by various authors (Nydegger &
Nydegger, 1963; Bulatao, 1965) who suggest that this dichotomy
may be due to inter-related urban-rural, traditional-modern distinc-
tions and influences of social class. However, additional research is
necessary to obtain firmer conclusions.
Unlike the significant efforts to develop indigenous research
methods, attempts to formulate appropriate techniques in therapy
suited to the Filipino personality are minimal. One of the few at-
tempts was done by Bulatao (1978) in what he describes as "trans-
personal counseling" where he made the following assumptions re-
garding counseling in the Philippines: (1) Filipinos are freer to be
themselves when in a sympatheticgroup of friends than in a one-on-
one situation; (2) when supported by the group, Filipino clients pre-
fer paternalistic counselors to non-directive ones who are perceived
as detached, and non-caring; (3) the Filipino character is contem-
plative, patient, and accepting of things as they are; and (4) Filipino
subjects readily enter into altered states of consciousness.
Another area of application is found in efforts at treatment and
rehabilitation of traumatized childrenof political violence (e.g., de-
tention, torture, massacre, bombing, etc.) which is being done by a
group of psychologists (including this author), social workers, and
medical doctors. The rehabilitation program focuses mainly on cri-
sis intervention and psychological help while at the same time pro-
viding for basic support services (e.g., medical, nutritional, and
educational).
Most of the treatment given to the children and their families ap-
plies the orientation of "Sikolohiyang Pilipino" in terms of looking
at the problems of the children at two levels. The first level focuses
on the specific needs and problems of the individual child to ensure
proper physical, emotional and intellectual and social development.
The second level is societal which focuses on the socio-economic
and political roots of the problems and its consequences on the
child's rights and welfare (Marcelino, 1986).
Treatment has focused mainly on group therapy rather than indi-
vidual counseling because the former has been more effective. In
terms of assessment and therapeutic techniques, indirect, informal,
and unobtrusive measures rather than standardized testing instru-
ments have been utilized.
There are few if any specific studies focusing on feministtreat-
ment, but it does not mean that there is no practical work going on
in this area. Using the same principles of indigenous psychology,
clinical psychologists who have treatedwomen clients espoused the
acceptance of and respectfor the different social and culturalfactors
affecting women in Philippine society. Conceptualization of cul-
ture-relevant therapies in the Philippines can draw on the initial
findings of the reticence of Filipinos to go for therapy, their ten-
dency to be family and small-group oriented, their paternalistic and
authoritarian norms, and their strong need for acceptance and emo-
tional security. Consequently, such an approach will broaden one's
view of the world and could possibly lead to the identification of
universal components necessary for all effective treatments whether

Western or non-Western, traditional or non-traditional.
CONCLUSIONS
The arguments for, and efforts towards, an indigenous Filipino

psychology continue to be vigorous. The bases for an indigenous
national psychology are to be found in one's own history and cul-
ture. One can look into legends, proverbs, folklore, prayers, and
other such rites and rituals; local conceptions and definitions of the
human psyche; the everyday manifestation of behavior, attitudes,
skills and values; concern for social issues and problems; and the
role of native languages and the development of a national con-
sciousness among the Filipino people.
Filipino psychology as a scientific discipline is a necessary and
indispensable tool in the process of forging a nationalist, mass, and
scientific culture borne out of a heightened sense of national iden-
tity and consciousness. For in the final analysis, the growth of "Si-
kolohiyang Pilipino" contributes to the just and legitimate aspira-
tions of the Filipino people to place their cultural, linguistic, and
scientific future in their own hands.
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Women & Therapy

Towards Understanding the

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SUMMARY. This article describes the development of a new con-

sciousness in Philippine psychology called "Sikolohiyang Pilipino"

I a m often confronted with the question, "Is there really such a

Elizabeth Protacio Marcelino is Assistant Professor of Psychology at the Uni-

there were no Filipinos before the Spaniards came to our shores in

Though very convenient and simplistic, this definition would be far

A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

To approach the problem of Filipino identity from the point of

direct importation from the West, from theory to method to prac-

"Sikolohiyang Pilipino" (Filipino Psychology) began in the

major basis for perpetuating the American orientation of psychol-

with the larger non-English speaking mass of people.

As a commitment to this goal, "Sikolohiyang Pilipino" urges

The colonial relationship between the USA and the Philip-

of the English language, the country became dependent on a

THE IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE

Language is not merely a tool for communication nor a neutral

German, Spanish, or Japanese, to name a few other languages,

tion that most Filipinos, even those presumably well-schooled in

The term "maybahay" now commonly used to mean housewife

VALUES AND THE CONTINUING MIS-EDUCATION

the construct of "smooth interpersonal relations" as acquired and

because helshe insists on being honest. Is it a value then, in this

ners. In this case, it is important to pay attention to the prefixes

KEY CONCEPTS IN SIKOLOHIYANG PILIPINO

one is to the original. It is interesting to note, therefore, that a whole

meaning to the Western concept of personality. One may change

1. pakikitungo (transaction/civility with)

According to the authors, the distinctions among the eight levels

"Ibang-Taa" or Outsider Category

In a conscious search for a core concept that would explain Fili-

Presumably, because of the importance of "kapwa," the Filipino

Filipino, the "ibang tao" (outsider) is "kapwa" in the same man-

na") (Guthrie 1968). If one really tries to understand the conceptof

For example, from the imperceptible expression of "tampo"

PROBLEMS IN WESTERN RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

language in which most tests were being administered. These in-

ity, privacy, and the absence of distraction from others. In contrast,

social research because of the limited amount and poor quality of

PROBLEMS IN THE APPLICATION

logical problems. The sooner he accepts his problems, the

Western techniques largely assign the locus of control for behav-

Attempts at "indigenization" of Philippine psychology have

"indigenization from within" (culture-as-source approach). Theo-

enous concepts not found in any book on American psychology but

An assessment of a decade of active use of Filipino in Philip-

Calls for an indigenous psychology, therefore, have not been

Much of this is based on the work of Santiago and Enriquez (1976).

pagmamasid (general scanning or looking around)

cus of investigation. The rationale for the method is based on the

1981), more in a receptive rather than active cognitive mode (Bula-

A negative description of motivational aspects of the Filipino be-