Lecture 2 - Maxwell's Equations
Lecture 2 - Maxwell's Equations
Lecture 2 - Maxwell's Equations
Instructor
Dr. Raymond Rumpf
(915) 747‐6958
rcrumpf@utep.edu
EE 5337
Computational Electromagnetics
Lecture #2
Maxwell’s Equations
These notes may contain copyrighted material obtained under fair use rules. Distribution of these materials is strictly prohibited
Lecture 2 Slide 1
Outline
• Maxwell’s equations
• Physical Boundary
conditions
• Parameter relations
• Preparing Maxwell’s
equations for CEM
• The wave equation
and its solutions
• Scaling properties of
Maxwell’s equations
Lecture 2 Slide 2
1
9/15/2017
Maxwell’s Equations
Born June 13,1831
Edinburgh, Scotland
Died November 5, 1879
Cambridge, England
James Clerk Maxwell
Lecture 2 Slide 3
Sign Conventions for Waves
To describe a wave propagating the positive z direction, we have two
choices:
Both are correct, but we must choose a convention and be consistent
with it. For time‐harmonic signals, this becomes
Lecture 2 Slide 4
2
9/15/2017
Summary of Sign Conventions
Lecture 2 Slide 5
Summary of Sign Conventions
Lecture 2 Slide 6
3
9/15/2017
Lorentz Force Law
One additional equation is needed to completely describe classical
electromagnetism...
F qE qv B
Electric Force Magnetic Force
Lecture 2 Slide 7
Alternate Forms of Maxwell’s Equations
Maxwell’s Equations with Gaussian Units Relativistic Maxwell’s Equations
1 B
D 4 v E
c0 t F 0 J
B 4 v
1 D
H 4 J
1
2 e F 0 J free D
c0 t
Maxwell’s Equations in Moving Media
1 B
D 4 v E B v
c0 t
1 D
B 4 v H 4 J D v
c0 t
1
Lecture 2 Slide 8
4
9/15/2017
Time‐Harmonic Maxwell’s Equations
Time‐Domain
B
D v E
t
D
B 0 H J
t
Frequency‐Domain Frequency‐Domain
(e+jkz convention) (e-jkz convention)
D v E j B D v E j B
B 0 H J j D B 0 H J j D
Lecture 2 Slide 9
Gauss’s Law
D Dy Dz
D v D x
x y
z
Electric fields diverge from positive charges and
converge on negative charges.
If there are no charges,
electric fields must form loops.
Lecture 2 Slide 10
5
9/15/2017
Gauss’s Law for Magnetism
B By Bz
B 0 B x
x y
z
Magnetic fields always form loops.
Lecture 2 Slide 11
Consequence of Zero Divergence
The divergence theorems force the D and B fields to be perpendicular to the propagation
direction of a plane wave.
D 0
de jk r 0
d
jk d 0 k D
k
no charges
k d 0
k
B 0
be jk r 0
b jk b 0 k B
k
no charges
k b 0 k
Lecture 2 Slide 12
6
9/15/2017
Ampere’s Law with Maxwell’s Correction
D H z H y H x H z H y H x
H J H
y
z
aˆ x
z
x aˆ y x y aˆ z
t
Circulating magnetic fields induce currents and/or time varying
electric fields.
Currents and/or time varying electric
D
fields induce circulating magnetic fields. J
t
H
Lecture 2 Slide 13
Faraday’s Law of Induction
B E E y Ex Ez E y Ex
E E z
y z
aˆ x
z
x aˆ y x y aˆ z
t
Circulating electric fields induce time varying magnetic fields.
Time varying magnetic fields induce circulating electric fields.
E
B t
Lecture 2 Slide 14
7
9/15/2017
Consequence of Curl Equations
The curl equations predict electromagnetic waves!!
Magnetic Field
Electric Field
Lecture 2 Slide 15
The Constitutive Relations
Electric Response Magnetic Response
D E B H
• Electric field intensity (V/m) • Magnetic field intensity (A/m)
• Initial electric “push.” • Initial magnetic “push.”
• Induced electric field. • Induced magnetic field.
• Electric energy in vacuum. • Magnetic energy in vacuum.
• Permittivity (F/m) • Permeability (H/m)
• Measure of how well a • Measure of how well a material
material stores electric energy. stores magnetic energy.
• Electric flux density (C/m2) • Magnetic flux density (Wb/m2)
• Pretends as if all electric • Pretends as if all magnetic
energy is displaced charge. energy is tilted magnetic
• Includes electric energy in dipoles.
vacuum and matter. • Includes magnetic energy in
vacuum and matter.
Lecture 2 16
8
9/15/2017
Material Classifications
Linear, isotropic and non‐dispersive materials:
D t E t
We will use this almost exclusively
Dispersive materials:
D t t E t A key point is that you can wrap all of the
complexities associated with modeling strange
materials into this single equation. This will make
Anisotropic materials:
your code more modular and easier to modify. It
D t E t
may not be as efficient as it could be though.
Nonlinear materials:
D t 0 e1 E t 0 e 2 E 2 t 0 e 3 E 3 t
Lecture 2 17
Types of Anisotropy
Isotropic Anisotropic
aa ab ac aa ab ac
D t E t D t E t
ba bb bc ba bb bc
B t H t B t H t
ca cb cc ca cb cc
electrically anisotropic magnetically anisotropic
Gryrotropic
isotropic
D t E t iso 0 0
B t H t 0 iso 0 iso
1 j 2 0 1 j 2 0 0 0 iso
j 2
1 0 j 2
1 0 uniaxial
0 0 3 0 0 3 o 0 0
gyroelectric gyromagnetic 0 o 0
0 0 e
Bi‐Isotropic Bi‐Anisotropic
biaxial
D t E t H D t E t H a 0 0
B t H t E B t H t E 0 b 0
0 0 c
Lecture 2 18
9
9/15/2017
All Together Now…
Divergence Equations
Curl Equations
D
H J
B 0 t
What produces fields
D v B
E
t
Constitutive Relations
D t t E t means convolution How fields interact
means tensor with materials
B t t H t
Lecture 2 Slide 19
Maxwell’s Equations in Cartesian Coordinates
(1 of 4)
Vector Terms
E Ex aˆ x E y aˆ y Ez aˆ z H H x aˆ x H y aˆ y H z aˆ z J J x aˆ x J y aˆ y J z aˆ z
D Dx aˆ x Dy aˆ y Dz aˆ z B Bx aˆ x By aˆ y Bz aˆ z
Divergence Equations
D 0 B 0
Dx Dy Dz Bx By Bz
0 0
x y z x y z
Lecture 4 Slide 20
10
9/15/2017
Maxwell’s Equations in Cartesian Coordinates
(2 of 4)
Constitutive Relations
D E
Dx aˆ x Dy aˆ y Dz aˆ z xx Ex xy E y xz Ez aˆ x yx Ex yy E y yz Ez aˆ y zx Ex zy E y zz Ez aˆ z
Dx xx Ex xy E y xz Ez
Dy yx Ex yy E y yz Ez
Dz zx Ex zy E y zz Ez
Bx xx H x xy H y xz H z
B H By yx H x yy H y yz H z
Bz zx H x zy H y zz H z
Lecture 4 Slide 21
Maxwell’s Equations in Cartesian Coordinates
(3 of 4)
Curl Equations
B
E
t
Ez E y Ex Ez E y Ex
aˆ x aˆ y aˆ z Bx aˆ x By aˆ y Bz aˆ z
y z z x x y t
Ez E y B
x
y z t
Ex Ez By
z x t
E y Ex B
z
Lecture 4 x y t Slide 22
11
9/15/2017
Maxwell’s Equations in Cartesian Coordinates
(4 of 4)
Curl Equations
D
H J
t
H z H y H x H z H y H x
aˆ x aˆ y aˆ z J x aˆ x J y aˆ y J z aˆ z Dx aˆ x Dy aˆ y Dz aˆ z
y z z x x y t
H z H y D
Jx x
y z t
H x H z Dy
Jy
z x t
H y H x Dz
Jz
x y t
Lecture 4 Slide 23
Alternative Form of Maxwell’s Equations in
Cartesian Coordinates (1 of 2)
Alternate Curl Equations
E
H
t
H z H y H x H z H y H x Ex E y E
aˆ x aˆ y aˆ z xx xy xz z aˆ x
y z z x x y t t t
E E y E
yx x yy yz z aˆ y
t t t
E E y E
zx x zy zz z aˆ z
t t t
H z H y E E y E
xx x xy xz z
y z t t t
H x H z E E E
yx x yy yz z
y
z x t t t
H y H x Ex E y Ez
zx zy zz
x y t t t
Lecture 4 Slide 24
12
9/15/2017
Alternative Form of Maxwell’s Equations in
Cartesian Coordinates (2 of 2)
Alternate Curl Equations
H
E
t
Ez E y Ex Ez E y Ex H x H y H z
aˆ x aˆ y aˆ z xx xy xz aˆ x
y z z x x y t t t
H x H y H z
yx yy yz aˆ y
t t t
H x H y H z
zx zy zz aˆ z
t t t
Ez E y H x H y H z
xx xy xz
y z t t t
Ex Ez H x H y H z
yx yy yz
z x t t t
E y Ex H x H y H z
zx zy zz
x y t t t
Lecture 4 Slide 25
Physical Boundary
Conditions
Lecture 2 Slide 26
13
9/15/2017
Physical Boundary Conditions
1 and 1 2 and 2
E1,T E2,T
Tangential components of E and H
are continuous across an interface.
H1,T H 2,T
1 E1,N 2 E2,N
E and H fields normal to the
interface are discontinuous across
an interface. 1 H1,N 2 H 2,N These are more complicated
boundary conditions,
Note: Normal components of D
D1,N D2,N physically and analytically.
and B are continuous across the
interface.
B1,N B2,N
Tangential components of the
wave vector are continuous across k1,T k2,T
an interface.
Lecture 2 Slide 27
Parameter Relations
Lecture 2 Slide 28
14
9/15/2017
Map of Parameter Relations
M
E f
0
c0
r
0
D
B
r
0
P
v
n
0 H
Lecture 2 Slide 29
The Relative Permittivity
The permittivity is a measure of how well a material stores
electric energy. A circulating magnetic field induces an
electric field at the center of the circulation in proportion to
the permittivity.
E
H j
t
The dielectric constant of a material is its permittivity
relative to the permittivity of free space.
0 r 0 8.854187817 1012 F m
1 r r is the relative permittivity or dielectric constant
Lecture 2 Slide 30
15
9/15/2017
The Relative Permeability
The permeability is a measure of how well a material stores
magnetic energy. A circulating electric field induces a
magnetic field at the center of the circulation in proportion
to the permeability.
H
E j
t
The relative permeability of a material is its permeability
relative to the permeability of free space.
0 r 0 1.256637061106 H m
1 r r is the relative permeability
Lecture 2 Slide 31
Conductivity
Conductivity is the measure of a material’s ability to support electric
current. This term is responsible for ohmic loss in materials.
It appears in Ampere’s Circuit Law.
H J j D
J
The current density is related to conductivity and the electric field
intensity through Ohm’s Law.
J E
Lecture 2 Slide 32
16
9/15/2017
Lecture 2 Slide 33
Material Impedance
The material impedance is the parameter
which describes the balance between the
electric and magnetic field amplitudes. E H
E
E
H k
H
It is calculated from the permeability and permittivity of the material.
0
r Phase between E and H
r Amplitude between E and H
17
9/15/2017
The Complex Refractive Index
The permittivity and permeability appear in Maxwell’s equations so
they are the most fundamental material properties. However, it is
difficult to determine physical meaning from them in terms of how
waves propagate (i.e. speed, loss, etc.). In this case, the refractive
index is a more meaningful quantity.
n r r
In the frequency‐domain, the refractive index is a complex quantity.
n no j no is the ordinary refractive index. It quantifies how
quickly a wave propagates.
The Complex Propagation Constant,
The propagation constant is very close to the complex refractive
index. It describes the speed and decay of a wave.
E z E0 e z
The propagation constant has a real and imaginary part.
is the attenuation coefficient. It quantifies how
j quickly the amplitude of a wave decays.
is the propagation constant. It quantifies how
E z E0 e z e j z quickly a wave accumulates phase.
It is related to the complex refractive index through
jk0 n
Lecture 2 Slide 36
18
9/15/2017
The Absorption Coefficient,
The absorption coefficient describes how quickly the power in a
wave decays.
P z P0 e z
WARNING: Notice the unfortunate reuse of the symbol for two
different things. This is easily confused!!
The attenuation coefficient The absorption coefficient
and absorption coefficient and extinction coefficient
are related through are related through
Loss Tangent
Sometimes material loss is given in terms of a “loss tangent.”
tan P z P0 e k0 nz
Recall that interpreting wave properties (velocity and loss) is not
intuitive using just the complex dielectric function. To do this, we
preferred the complex refractive index.
It turns out that the loss tangent and the extinction coefficient are
essentially the same.
2 abs It is called a loss tangent because it is the
angle in the complex plane formed
between the resistive component or
n k0 n and the reactive component of
the electromagnetic field.
or
Lecture 2 Slide 38
19
9/15/2017
versus f
is the angular frequency measured in radians per second.
It relates more directly to phase and k. Think cos(t).
f is the ordinary frequency measured in cycles per second.
It relates more directly to time. Think cos(2ft) and =1/f.
2 f
Lecture 2 Slide 39
Wavelength and Frequency
c0 f 0 c0 299792458 m
s speed of light in vacuum
Inside a material, the wave slows down according to the refractive
index as follows.
c0
v
n
Lecture 2 Slide 40
20
9/15/2017
Summary of Parameter Relations
Permittivity Permeability
0 r 0 r
0 8.854187817 1012 F m 0 1.256637061 106 H m
Refractive Index Impedance
n r r 0 r r
0 0 0 376.73031346177
Wave Velocity Frequency and Wavelength
c0 2 f Wave Number
v
n c0 f 0 2
c0 299792458 m s k0
0
Exact
Lecture 2 Slide 41
Table of Dielectric Constants
and Loss Tangents
Constantine A. Balanis, Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics, Wiley, 1989.
Lecture 2 Slide 42
21
9/15/2017
Table of Permeabilities
Constantine A. Balanis, Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics, Wiley, 1989.
Lecture 2 Slide 43
Duality Between E‐D and H‐B
Electric Field Magnetic Field
E H
D B
P M
ε μ
Lecture 2 44
22
9/15/2017
Preparing
Maxwell’s Equations
for CEM
Lecture 2 Slide 45
Simplifying Maxwell’s Equations
1. Assume no charges or current sources: v 0, J 0
B 0 H D t D t t E t
D 0 E B t B t t H t
Convolution becomes
2. Transform Maxwell’s equations to frequency‐domain: simple multiplication
B 0 H j D D E Note: We have chose to
D 0 E j B B H proceed with the negative
sign convention.
3. Substitute constitutive relations into Maxwell’s equations:
H 0 H j E Note: It is useful to retain μ and ε and not replace
them with refractive index n.
E 0 E j H
Lecture 2 Slide 46
23
9/15/2017
Isotropic Materials
For anisotropic materials, the permittivity and permeability terms are
tensor quantities.
xx xy xz xx xy xz
yx yy yz yx yy yz
zx zy zz zx zy zz
For isotropic materials, the tensors reduce to a single scalar quantity.
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
Maxwell’s equations can then be written as
0 and 0 dropped from these
r H 0
H j 0 r E equations because they are
constants and do not vary
r E 0 E j0 r H spatially.
Lecture 2 Slide 47
Expand Maxwell’s Equations
Divergence Equations Curl Equations
r H 0 H j 0 r E
r H y H z H y
r H x r H z j 0 r Ex
0 y z
x y z
H x H z
j 0 r E y
z x
r E 0
H y H x
j 0 r Ez
x y
r Ex r Ey r Ez
0
x y z E j0 r H
Ez E y
j0 r H x
y z
Ex Ez
j0 r H y
z x
E y Ex
j0 r H z
x y
Lecture 2 Slide 48
24
9/15/2017
Normalize the Magnetic Field
Standard form of “Maxwell’s Curl Equations”
E j0 r H H j 0 r E
Normalized Magnetic Field
E 377 Note:
H j 0 H k 0 0 0
H n 0
• Eliminates j
• No sign inconsistency Equalizes E and H amplitudes
• Just have k0
Normalized Maxwell’s Equations
E k0 r H H k0 r E
Lecture 2 Slide 49
Starting Point for Most CEM
We arrive at the following set of equations that are the same
regardless of the sign convention used.
25
9/15/2017
The Wave Equation
and Its Solutions
Lecture 2 Slide 51
Derivation of the Wave Equation
We start with Maxwell’s curl equations.
E j0 r H Eq. (1) H j 0 r E Eq. (2)
Equation (1) is solved for the magnetic field.
H
j
0 r
E Eq. (3)
Equation (3) is substituted into Eq. (2).
j
E j 0 r E
0 r
1
E k02 r E
r
Lecture 2 Slide 52
26
9/15/2017
Two Different Wave Equations
We can derive a wave equation for both E and H.
r1 E k02 r E r1 H k02 r H
It is not actually possible to simplify these equations further without
making an approximation. Assuming a linear homogeneous
isotropic (LHI) material, the wave equations reduce to
E k02 r r E H k02 r r H
E 2 E k02 r r E H 2 H k02 r r H
2 E k02 r r E 0 2 H k02 r r H 0
We see that these equations will have the same solution since it is the same
differential equation! So, we only have to solve one of them.
Lecture 2 Slide 53
Plane Wave Solution in Homogeneous Media
Given the wave equation in an LHI material,
2 E k02 r r E 0
The solution is a plane wave.
E r E0 exp jk r
H r H 0 exp jk r
Lecture 2 Slide 54
27
9/15/2017
Amplitude Relation
Given plane wave functions of the form
E r E0 exp jk r
H r H 0 exp jk r
The amplitudes are related through Maxwell’s equations.
E j0 r H
E0 e jk r j0 r H 0 e jk r k E0 k E0
H0
j k E0 e jk r j0 r H 0 e jk r 0 r k00 r
k E0 0 r H 0
Lecture 2 Slide 55
IMPORTANT: Plane Waves are of Infinite Extent
Many times we just draw rays or sometime rays with perpendicular
lines to represent the wave fronts.
ray ray + perpendicular lines
Unfortunately, this suggests the wave is confined spatially. In reality,
plane waves are of infinite extent. Think more this way…
Lecture 2 Slide 56
28
9/15/2017
Solving the Wave Equation as a Scattering Problem
Scattering problems cast the wave equation into the following
matrix form.
Ax b
r1 E k02 r E g
A r1 k02 r
xE bg
• A source b is needed
• Only one solution exists
Lecture 2 Slide 57
Solving the Wave Equation as
an Eigen‐Value Problem
The wave equation can also be solved as an eigen‐value problem.
This approach is used when “modes” are being calculated.
r1 E k02 r E Ax Bx
A r1 B r
xE k02
• No source is needed
• Multiple solutions exist
Lecture 2 Slide 58
29
9/15/2017
Wave Equation Vs. Maxwell’s Equations
Wave Equation Maxwell’s Equations
The most generalized wave equations are Maxwell’s equations expanded into
Cartesian coordinates are
E k02 r E
1
r
Ez E y H z H y
r1 H k02 r H k0 xx H x k0 xx Ex
y z y z
Ex Ez H x H z
In LHI materials, these reduce to k0 yy H y k0 yy E y
z x z x
2 E k02 r r E 0 E y Ex
k0 zz H z
H y H x
k0 zz Ez
x y x y
2 H k02 r r H 0
These are often written in matrix form as
Today, it is rare to see the wave 0 z y Ex
xx 0 0 H x 0 z
y H x
xx 0 0 Ex
x E y k0 0 0 H y x H y k0 0 0 E y
equations solved in this form because it z
0
0 E z 0
yy
0 zz H z
z
0
0 H z 0
yy
0 zz Ez
y x y x
leads to spurious solutions.
Typically, “fixes” are incorporated here and
The “fixes” to the spurious solutions then a wave equation is derived.
problem are incorporated into Maxwell’s 0 z 1
z
y xx 0 0 y E x
0 xx 0 0 Ex
equations before a wave equation is z 0 x 0 yy 0 z 0 x E y k02 0 yy 0 E y
0 0 zz y 0 Ez zz Ez
0
0 0
derived. y x x
Lecture 2 Slide 59
Scaling Properties in
Maxwell’s Equations
Lecture 2 Slide 60
30
9/15/2017
Scaling Properties of Maxwell’s Equations
There is no fundamental length scale in Maxwell’s
equations.
Devices may be scaled to operate at different frequencies
just by scaling the mechanical dimensions or material
properties in proportion to the change in frequency.
This assumes it is physically possible to scale systems in
this manner. In practice, building larger or smaller
features may not be practical. Further, the properties of
the materials may be different at the new operating
frequency.
Lecture 2 Slide 61
Scaling Dimensions
We start with the wave equation and write the parameters
dependence on position explicitly.
1
E r 0 0 r r E r
2
r r
Next, we scale the dimensions by a factor a.
1 a 1 stretch dimensions
a a E r a 0 0 r r a E r a
2
r r a a 1 compress dimensions
The scale factors multiplying the operators are moved to multiply
the frequency term.
2
1 r The effect of scaling
E r 0 0 r r E r r the dimensions is just
r r a a a shift in frequency.
Lecture 2 Slide 62
31
9/15/2017
Visualization of Size Scaling
a = 1.0
a = 0.5
fc = 1000 MHz
fc = 500 MHz
Lecture 2 Slide 63
Scaling and
We apply separate scaling factors to and .
1
E 2 0 0 a r E
a
r
The scale factors are moved to multiply the frequency term.
1
2
E a a 0 0 r E The effect of scaling the material properties
r is just a shift in frequency.
Lecture 2 Slide 64
32