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Real Estate
Finance and
Investments

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Real Estate
Finance and
Investments
Fifteenth Edition

William B. Brueggeman, PhD

Corrigan Chair in Real Estate
Edwin L. Cox School of Business
Southern Methodist University

Jeffrey D. Fisher, PhD

Professor Emeritus of Real Estate
Kelley School of Business
Indiana University
President, Homer Hoyt Institute

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REAL ESTATE FINANCE AND INVESTMENTS, FIFTEENTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2016 by McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2011, 2008, and
2005. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a
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limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.
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United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Brueggeman, William B.
   Real estate finance and investments / William B. Brueggeman, Ph.D., Jeffrey
D. Fisher, Ph.D.—Fifteenth edition.
     pages cm
   ISBN 978-0-07-337735-3 (alk. paper)
  1. Mortgage loans—United States. 2. Real property—United States—Finance.
I. Fisher, Jeffrey D. II. Title.
  HG2040.5.U5B78 2016
  332.7'2—dc23
2015015605

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does
not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not
guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

www.mhhe.com

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Preface
Introduction to Real Estate Finance and Investments
This book prepares readers to understand the risks and rewards associated with investing in
and financing both residential and commercial real estate. Concepts and techniques included
in the chapters and problem sets are used in many careers related to real estate. These include
investing, development financing, appraising, consulting, managing real estate portfolios,
leasing, managing property, analyzing site locations, managing corporate real estate, and
managing real estate funds. This material is also relevant to individuals who want to better
understand real estate when making their own personal investment and financing decisions.
The turmoil in world financial markets during the late 2000s, which was closely tied to
events in the real estate market, suggests that investors, lenders, and others who participate
in the real estate market need to better understand how to evaluate the risk and return asso-
ciated with the various ways of investing and lending. This requires an understanding of
the legal issues that can impact the rights of lenders and investors, the characteristics of the
various vehicles for lending and investing in real estate, the economic benefits of loans and
investments, and how local economies may affect the investment performance of properties
as well as the goals of lenders and investors.
This book is designed to help both students and other readers understand these many
factors so that they can perform the necessary analysis and make informed real estate finance
and investment decisions. As the book’s title suggests, we discuss both real estate finance
and real estate investments. These topics are interrelated. For example, an investor who pur-
chases a property is making an “investment.” This investment is typically financed with a
mortgage loan. Thus, the investor needs to understand both how to analyze the investment
and how to assess the impact that financing the investment will have on its risk and return.
Similarly, the lender, by providing capital for the investor to purchase the property, is
also making an “investment” in the sense that he or she expects to earn a rate of return on
funds that have been loaned. Therefore, the lender also needs to understand the risk and
return of making that loan. In fact, one of the risks associated with making loans secured
by real estate is that, if a borrower defaults, the lender may take ownership of the property.
This means that the lender also should evaluate the property using many of the same tech-
niques as the investor purchasing the property.

Organization of the Book

From the above discussion it should be clear that many factors have an impact on the risk
and return associated with property investments and the mortgages used to finance them.
This is true whether the investment is in a personal residence or in a large income-
producing investment such as an office building.
Part I begins with a discussion of the legal concepts that are important in the study of
real estate finance and investments. Although a real estate investor or lender may rely heav-
ily on an attorney in a real estate transaction, it is important to know enough to be able to
ask the right questions. We focus only on those legal issues that relate to real estate invest-
ment and financing decisions.
Part II begins with a discussion of the time value of money concepts important for
analyzing real estate investments and mortgages. These concepts are important because
real estate is a long-term investment and is financed with loans that are repaid over time.
This leads to a discussion of the primary ways that mortgage loans are structured: fixed
rate and adjustable rate mortgage loans. v

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vi  Preface

Part III considers residential housing as an investment and covers mortgage loan
underwriting for residential properties. This is relevant for individuals making personal
financial decisions, such as whether to own or rent a home, as well as for lenders who are
evaluating both the loan and borrower.
Part IV covers many topics related to analyzing income property investments. We pro-
vide in-depth examples that include apartments, office buildings, shopping centers, and
warehouses. Many concepts also may be extended to other property types. These topics
include understanding leases, demonstrating how properties are appraised, how to analyze
the potential returns and risks of an investment, and how taxes impact investment returns.
We also consider how to evaluate whether a property should be sold or renovated. Finally,
we look at how corporations, although not in the real estate business per se, must make real
estate decisions as part of their business. This could include whether to own or lease the
property that must be used in their operations, as well as other issues.
While the first four parts of this book focus on investing or financing existing proper-
ties, Part V discusses how to analyze projects proposed for development. Such develop-
ment could include land acquisition and construction of income-producing property of all
types to acquisition of land to be subdivided and improved for corporate office parks or for
sale to builders of residential communities. This section also includes how projects are
financed during the development period. Construction and development financing is very
different from the way existing, occupied properties are financed.
Part VI discusses various alternative real estate financing and investment vehicles. We
begin with joint ventures and show how different parties with specific areas of expertise
may join together to make a real estate investment. We use, as an example, someone with
technical development expertise who needs equity capital for a project. A joint venture is
created with an investor who has capital to invest but doesn’t have the expertise to do the
development. We then provide a financial analysis for the investment including capital
contributions from, and distributions to, partners during property acquisition, operation,
and its eventual sale. In this section, we also discuss how both residential and commercial
mortgage loan pools are created. We then consider how mortgage-backed securities are
(1) structured, (2) issued against such pools, and (3) traded in the secondary market for
such securities. This also includes a discussion of the risks that these investments pose.
Part VI also includes a discussion of real estate investment trusts (REITs). These public
companies invest in real estate and allow investors to own a diversified portfolio of real
estate by purchasing shares of stock in the company.
Finally, in Part VII, we discuss how to evaluate real estate in a portfolio that also
includes other investments such as stocks and bonds. This includes understanding the
­diversification benefits of including real estate in a portfolio as well as ways to diversify
within the real estate portfolio (including international investment). This is followed by a
new chapter on real estate investment funds that are created for high net worth individuals
and institutional investors. We discuss different fund strategies and structures and how to
analyze the performance of the funds relative to various industry benchmarks.

Wide Audience
From the above discussion, one can see that this book covers many topics. Depending on
the purpose of a particular course, all or a selection of topics may be covered. If desired,
the course also may emphasize either an investor’s or a lender’s perspective. Alternatively,
some courses may emphasize various industry segments such as housing and residential
real estate, commercial real estate, construction and development, mortgage-backed
securities, corporate real estate, or investment funds. In other words, this book is designed
to allow flexibility for instructors and students to cover a comprehensive range of topics or
to focus only on those topics that are most important to them.

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Preface  vii

Changes to the Fifteenth Edition

In addition to updating material throughout the text, we are particularly proud to introduce
a new chapter in this edition. Chapter 23 provides extensive coverage of real estate invest-
ment funds. These funds now play a major role in the ownership of both residential and
commercial real estate. Typically, these funds are created by professional investment man-
agers and private equity firms that offer opportunities to high net worth investors, pension
plan sponsors, and other institutional investors to invest in professionally managed portfo-
lios of real estate. How these funds are structured, operated, and evaluated are among the
important topics covered in this new chapter.
Another important addition is a new concept box in Chapter 18 that summarizes the
new SEC regulations resulting from the “JOBS Act” which allow for “crowd funding” to
raise capital for real estate investments. The new regulations now allow the Internet to be
used to reach investors which is expected to result in a significant increase in investment
from individuals that was not previously available.
This edition also introduces a new cloud-based, lease by lease, discounted cash flow pro-
gram. It is designed to do investment analysis and valuation of real estate income property
investments, as discussed below.

Excel Spreadsheets and REIWise Software

This book is rigorous yet practical and blends theory with applications to real-world prob-
lems. These problems are illustrated and solved by using a blend of financial calculators,
Excel spreadsheets, and specialized software designed to analyze real estate income prop-
erty. Excel spreadsheets, provided on the book’s Web site at www.mhhe.com/bf15e, are an
aid for students to understand many of the exhibits displayed in chapters throughout the
text. By modifying these exhibits, students also may solve many end-of-chapter problems
without having to design new spreadsheets.
Students can also register online to get free access to a cloud-based real estate valuation
program called REIWise. We chose this program for this edition of the book because it is
very easy and convenient to use by anyone with an Internet connection (including iPads
and other mobile devices). REIWise is used in several chapters to supplement the use of
Excel spreadsheets when doing investment analysis and solving valuation problems. Once
students (or professors) register, they will also have access to data files that replicate exam-
ples in the book. Students can register at the following website: www.reiwise.com/edu.

Internet Tools and Assets

Making informed real estate investment and financing decisions depends on being able to
obtain useful information. Such information may include national and local market trends,
interest rates, and properties available for acquisition, financing alternatives, and the opin-
ions of experts concerning the outlook for various real estate sectors.
The Internet provides a rich source of information to real estate investors and lenders.
Knowing how to find information on the Web is an important part of the “due diligence”
that should be done before making any real estate investments. This edition includes a
number of Web App boxes that provide exercises that require finding relevant information
on the Internet. These Web App boxes provide practical examples of the types of data and
other resources that are available on the Internet. The fifteenth edition also contains
Web site references that students can use to research various real estate topics. In addition
to research, these resources provide readers with an opportunity to remain current on many
of the topics discussed in the book.

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viii  Preface

The book’s Web site, located at www.mhhe.com/bf15e, contains additional helpful

materials for students such as Web links, multiple-choice quizzes, Excel spreadsheets, and
appendixes to the text. Using a password-protected instructor log-in, instructors can find a
solutions manual, test bank, and PowerPoint presentations.

Supplements
Several ancillary materials are available for instructor use. These include:
∙ Solutions Manual—developed by Jeffrey Fisher and William Brueggeman
∙ Test Bank—developed by Scott Ehrhorn, Liberty University
∙ PowerPoint slides—developed by Joshua Kahr, Columbia University

Acknowledgments
We would like to thank several people who contributed to recent editions by either being a
reviewer or providing feedback to us in other ways that helped improve the current edition:

Edward Baryla Eric Fruits

East Tennessee State University Portland State University
Robert Berlinger, Jr. Deborah W. Gregory
University Institute of Technology University of Arizona
Roy T. Black Arie Halachmi
Georgia State University Tennessee State University (USA)
Thomas P. Boehm Sun Yat-Sen University (China)
University of Tennessee-Knoxville Barry Hersh
Thomas Bothem NYU-SCPS Real Estate Institute
University of Illinois at Chicago Samuel Kahn
Wally Boudry Touro College
University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill Joshua Kahr
Grace Wong Bucchianeri Columbia University
Wharton School, University of W. Keith Munsell
Pennsylvania Boston University
Brad Case Michael Schonberger
NAREIT Rutgers University-New Brunswick
Ping Cheng Tracey Seslen
Florida Atlantic University University of Southern California
Joe D’Alessandro Rui Shi
Real Estate Insights L&B Realty Advisors
Ron Donohue Carlos Slawson
Homer Hoyt Institute Louisiana State University
John Fay Jan Strockis
Santa Clara University Santa Clara University
Michael Fratantoni
Georgetown University

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Preface  ix

Several people played an important role in providing comments to help revise the
current edition. Brad Case with the National Association of Real Estate Investment Trusts
(NAREIT) and Ron Donohue with the Homer Hoyt Institute helped revise the chapter
on real estate investment trusts. Joe D’Alessandro and Rui Shi helped with the revision of
the new chapter on real estate funds. Rhea Thornton with FNMA provided comments
on the chapter that discusses underwriting residential loans. Susanne Cannon with Mega-
lytics helped with a new insert on Crowd Funding. Heather Hofmann helped in the prepa-
ration and submission of the manuscript.
Much of the material in the current edition benefited from many people who provided
input into previous editions. Youguo Liang at ADIA provided significant input on the
structure of joint ventures. Charles Johnson and Aaron Temple helped with Web refer-
ences. Jacey Leonard helped prepare the Excel templates for the previous edition that were
used in this edition. Anand Kumar helped with Web references and spreadsheets. Ji’ Reh
Kore helped with research on recent trends impacting the real estate finance industry,
as well as with the preparation of the Solutions Manual. Deverick Jordan and Diem
Chau also helped with the Solutions Manual and with chapter exhibits. Nathan Hastings
helped update the legal chapters and provided input on the ownership structures used for
real estate.
We will miss the late Theron Nelson, who contributed to prior editions of the book, in-
cluding creating the original version of several of the spreadsheet templates. We appreciate
his contributions to this book and to the real estate profession.
Our thanks to the book team at McGraw-Hill Education for their help in developing the
new edition: Chuck Synovec, Michele Janicek, Jennifer Upton, Melissa Caughlin, M Jane
Lampe, James Heine, Lynn Breithaupt, Douglas Ruby, and Kevin Shanahan.
We also continue to be ­indebted to people who have contributed as authors to previous
editions, especially the late Henry E. Hoagland, who wrote the first edition of this book,
and the late Leo D. Stone, who participated in several editions. Finally, we thank all of the
adopters of previous editions of the book, who, because of their feedback, have made us
feel that we have helped them prepare students for a career in real estate.
William B. Brueggeman
Jeffrey D. Fisher

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Brief Contents
Preface  v 13 Risk Analysis  429
14 Disposition and Renovation of Income
PART ONE Properties  458
Overview of Real Estate Finance 15 Financing Corporate Real Estate   494
and Investments
1 Real Estate Investment: Basic Legal PART FIVE
Concepts  1 Financing Real Estate Development
2 Real Estate Financing: Notes and 16 Financing Project Development   517
Mortgages  16
17 Financing Land Development
Projects  554
PART TWO
Mortgage Loans
PART SIX
3 Mortgage Loan Foundations: The Time Alternative Real Estate Financing and
Value of Money   42 Investment Vehicles
4 Fixed Interest Rate Mortgage Loans   77 18 Structuring Real Estate Investments:
5 Adjustable and Floating Rate Mortgage Organizational Forms and Joint
Loans  120 Ventures  583
6 Mortgages: Additional Concepts, Analysis, 19 The Secondary Mortgage Market:
and Applications  148 Pass-Through Securities  622
20 The Secondary Mortgage Market: CMOs
PART THREE and Derivative Securities   649
Residential Housing 21 Real Estate Investment Trusts
7 Single-Family Housing: Pricing, (REITs)  690
Investment, and Tax Considerations   183
8 Underwriting and Financing Residential PART SEVEN
Properties  220 Portfolio Analysis and Real Estate Funds
22 Real Estate Investment Performance and
PART FOUR Portfolio Considerations  723
Income-Producing Properties 23 Real Estate Investment Funds: Structure,
9 Income-Producing Properties: Leases, Performance, Benchmarking,
Rents, and the Market for Space   252 and Attribution Analysis   752
10 Valuation of Income Properties: Appraisal
and the Market for Capital   295 INDEX 788
11 Investment Analysis and Taxation of
Income Properties  343
12 Financial Leverage and Financing
Alternatives  393
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Table of Contents
Preface  v Alternatives to Foreclosure: Workouts   26
Restructuring the Mortgage Loan   27
Transfer of Mortgage to a New Owner   28
PART ONE Voluntary Conveyance  29
OVERVIEW OF REAL ESTATE FINANCE Friendly Foreclosure  30
AND INVESTMENTS Prepackaged Bankruptcy  30
Short Sale  30
Chapter 1 Foreclosure  31
Real Estate Investment: Basic Legal Judicial Foreclosure  31
Concepts  1 Redemption  32
Sales of Property   32
Property Rights and Estates   2 Effect of Foreclosure on Junior Lienors   35
Definition of Estate   4 Deficiency Judgment  35
Two General Classifications of Estates   4 Taxes in Default   36
Examples of Freehold Estates   4 Bankruptcy  37
Estates Not Yet in Possession (Future Estates)   5 Chapter 7 Liquidation   37
Examples of Leasehold Estates   5 Chapter 11  38
Interests, Encumbrances, and Easements   6 Chapter 13  39
Assurance of Title   7
The Meaning of Title   7 PART TWO
Deeds  9 MORTGAGE LOANS
Methods of Title Assurance   9
Abstract and Opinion Method   11 Chapter 3
The Title Insurance Method   11
Mortgage Loan Foundations: The
Recording Acts  12
Time Value of Money   42
Limitations on Property Rights   13
Compound Interest  42
Chapter 2 Compound or Future Value   43
Calculating Compound Interest Factors   47
Real Estate Financing: Notes
Using Financial Functions: Calculators
and Mortgages  16
and Spreadsheets  49
Notes  16 Present Value  52
The Mortgage Instrument   18 A Graphic Illustration of Present Value   52
Definition of a Mortgage   18 Expanding the Use of Calculators for Finding Present
Relationship of Note to Mortgage   18 Values  54
Interests That Can Be Mortgaged   19 Compound or Future Value of an Annuity   56
Minimum Mortgage Requirements   19 Use of Compound Interest Factors for Annuities   58
Important Mortgage Clauses   20 Present Value of an Annuity   60
Assumption of Mortgage   22 Use of the Present Value of an Annuity Factors   61
Acquiring Title “Subject to” a Mortgage   23 Accumulation of a Future Sum   64
Property Covered by a Mortgage   23 Determining Yields, or Internal Rates
Junior Mortgages  24 of Return, on Investments   65
Recording of Mortgages   24 Investments with Single Receipts   65
Other Financing Sources   24 Yields on Investment Annuities   68
Seller Financing  24 Equivalent Nominal Annual Rate (ENAR):
Land Contracts  25 Extensions  70
Default  26 Solving for Annual Yields with Partial Periods:
What Constitutes Default?   26 An Extension  72
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xii  Table of Contents

Chapter 4 Variations: ARM and Floating Rate Loans   127

Fixed Interest Rate Mortgage Loans   77 Risk Premiums, Interest Rate Risk, and Default Risk   131
Expected Yield Relationships and Interest Rate Risk   133
Determinants of Mortgage Interest Rates: A Brief More Complex Features   134
Overview  77 ARM Payment Mechanics   136
The Real Rate of Interest: Underlying Considerations   78 Expected Yields on ARMs: A Comparison   141
Interest Rates and Inflation Expectations   78
Interest Rates and Risk   79 Chapter 6
A Summary of Factors Important in Mortgage Loan Mortgages: Additional Concepts, Analysis,
Pricing  81
and Applications  148
Understanding Fixed Interest Rate Mortgage (FRM)
Loan Terms  81 Incremental Borrowing Cost   148
Calculating Payments and Loan Balances—Fixed Early Repayment  150
Interest Rate Loans   83 Origination Fees  151
The Importance of Accrued Interest and Loan Incremental Borrowing Cost versus a Second
Payments  83 Mortgage  152
Loan Amortization Patterns   83 Relationship between the Incremental Cost and the
Fully Amortizing, Constant Payment Mortgage (CPM) Loan-to-Value Ratio  152
Loans  84 Differences in Maturities   155
Partially Amortizing, Constant Payment Mortgage (CPM) Loan Refinancing  156
Loans  88 Early Repayment: Loan Refinancing   157
Zero Amortizing, or Interest-Only—Constant Payment Effective Cost of Refinancing   159
Mortgage (CPM) Loans   89 Borrowing the Refinancing Costs   159
Negative Amortizing, Constant Payment Mortgage (CPM) Other Considerations  160
Loans  90 Early Loan Repayment: Lender Inducements   162
Summary and Comparisons: Fixed Interest Rate, Market Value of a Loan   163
Constant Payment Mortgage (CPM) Loans with Effective Cost of Two or More Loans   164
Various Amortization Patterns   91 Second Mortgages and Shorter Maturities   166
Determining Loan Balances   93 Effect of Below-Market Financing
Finding Loan Balances—Other Amortization on Property Prices   167
Patterns  94 Assuming a Lower Loan Balance   170
Loan Closing Costs and Effective Borrowing Costs   95 Cash Equivalency  170
Loan Fees and Early Repayment: Fully Amortizing Cash Equivalency: Smaller Loan Balance   171
Loans  98 Cash Equivalency: Concluding Comments   172
Charging Fees to Achieve Yield, or “Pricing” Wraparound Loans  172
FRMs  102 Buydown Loans  175
Other FRM Loan Patterns—Declining Payments Appendix
and Constant Amortization Rates   103 After-Tax Effective Interest Rate   179
Amortization Schedules and Callable Loans   104
“Reverse Mortgages”  105
Appendix PART THREE
Inflation, Mortgage Pricing, and Payment RESIDENTIAL HOUSING
Structuring  111
Chapter 7
Chapter 5 Single-Family Housing: Pricing, Investment,
Adjustable and Floating Rate and Tax Considerations   183
Mortgage Loans  120
Overview  183
The Price Level Adjusted Mortgage (PLAM)   122 House Prices  183
PLAM: Payment Mechanics   122 Income and Employment   184
ARMs and Floating Rate Loans: An Overview   124 Renting versus Owning   185

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Table of Contents  xiii

Analyzing Expected House Prices   191 PART FOUR

Economic Base Analysis—Location Quotients   195
INCOME-PRODUCING PROPERTIES
Housing Supply: An Overview   196
Submarkets: Neighborhoods/Municipalities  197
Chapter 9
Capitalization Effects: Price Premiums   197
Pricing Property in Specific Submarkets/Locations   199 Income-Producing Properties: Leases, Rents,
Investing in “Distressed Properties”   207 and the Market for Space   252
Financial Framework for Analyzing Distressed Property Types  252
Properties  208 Supply and Demand Analysis   254
Acquisition Phase  208 Local Market Studies of Supply and Demand   257
Holding Period Phase   212 Location and User-Tenants   258
Disposition Phase—Exit Strategies   216 The Business of Real Estate   260
The “Market” for Income-Producing Real Estate   261
Income Potential—Real Estate Assets   262
Chapter 8
Vacancy  263
Underwriting and Financing Residential Underwriting Tenants  264
Properties  220 General Contents of Leases   264
Underwriting Default Risk   220 Leases and Rental Income   268
Classification of Mortgage Loans   221 Leases and Responsibility for Expenses
Conventional Mortgage Loans   221 (Recoveries)  268
Insured Conventional Mortgage Loans   222 Comparing Leases: Effective Rent   271
FHA-Insured Mortgage Loans   224 Other Financial Considerations   273
VA-Guaranteed Mortgage Loans   224 Developing Statements of Operating Cash Flow   276
The Underwriting Process   225 Case Example: Office Properties   277
Borrower Income  225 Rent Premiums and Discounts for Office Space   277
Verification of Borrower Assets   227 Pro Forma Statement of Cash Flow—Office
Assessment of Credit History   227 Properties  280
Estimated Housing Expense   228 Case Example: Industrial and Warehouse
Other Obligations  228 Properties  281
Compensating Factors  228 Pro Forma Statement of Cash Flow—Industrial/
The Underwriting Process Illustrated   230 Warehouse Properties  282
Underwriting Standards—Conventional and Insured Case Example: Retail Properties   283
Conventional Mortgages  231 The Retail Leasing Environment   283
Underwriting Standards—FHA-Insured Mortgages   232 CAM Charges—Recoveries  285
Underwriting Standards—VA-Guaranteed Pro Forma Statement of Cash Flow—Retail
Mortgages  233 Properties  286
Underwriting and Loan Amounts—A Summary   236 Case Example: Apartment Properties   287
The Closing Process   237
Fees and Expenses   237 Chapter 10
Prorations, Escrow Costs, and Payments to Third
Valuation of Income Properties: Appraisal
Parties  238
Statutory Costs  240
and the Market for Capital   295
Requirements under the Real Estate Settlement Introduction  295
and Procedures Act (RESPA)   240 Valuation Fundamentals  295
Settlement Costs Illustrated   242 Appraisal Process and Approaches to Valuation   296
Federal Truth-in-Lending (FTL) Requirements   244 Sales Comparison Approach   297
Truth-in-Lending Sample Disclosure   245 Income Approach  299
Establishing the APR under Federal Truth-in-Lending Capitalization Rate  301
Requirements  245 Capitalization Rates—A Note of Caution   304
ARMs and Truth-in-Lending Disclosure   246 Discounted Present Value Techniques   305

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xiv  Table of Contents

Land Values: Highest and Best Use Analysis   312 Introduction to Debt Financing   363
Volatility in Land Prices   313 Measures of Investment Performance Using
“Highest and Best Use” Analysis—Vacant Site   313 Ratios  364
“Highest and Best Use” Analysis—Improved Before-Tax Cash Flow from Sale   364
Property  314 Summary of Investment Analysis Calculations   365
Mortgage-Equity Capitalization  314 Taxation of Income-Producing Real Estate   366
Reconciliation: Sales Comparison and Income Taxable Income from Operation of Real
Capitalization Approaches  317 Estate  367
Exploring the Relationships between Changing Depreciation Allowances  367
Market Conditions, Cap Rates, and Property Loan Points  369
Values  317 Tax Liability and After-Tax Cash Flow   369
A Closing Note on Cap Rates and Market Taxable Income from Disposal of Depreciable Real
Conditions  320 Property  369
A Word of Caution—Simultaneous Effects of Real After-Tax Investment Analysis   370
Market Forces and Interest Rates on Property After-Tax Cash Flow from Operations   370
Values  321 After-Tax Cash Flow from Sale   372
Leases: Valuation of a Leased Fee Estate   322 After-Tax IRR  372
Cost Approach  323 Effective Tax Rate   373
Valuation Case Study—Oakwood A Note about Passive Losses   373
Apartments  327 Special Exceptions to PAL Rules   375
REIWise Solution  330 Appendix
Appendix Approaches to Metro Area Market
REIWise Inputs and Output for Apartment Forecasting  379
Analysis  339

Chapter 11 Chapter 12
Investment Analysis and Taxation of Income Financial Leverage and Financing
Properties  343 Alternatives  393
Motivations for Investing   343 Introduction to Financial Leverage   393
Real Estate Market Characteristics and Investment Conditions for Positive Leverage—Before Tax   394
Strategies  344 Conditions for Positive Leverage—After Tax   398
The “Real Estate Cycle”   344 Break-Even Interest Rate   400
Investment Strategies  346 Risk and Leverage   402
Market Analysis  349 Underwriting Loans on Income Properties   404
Supply of Space   351 Market Study and Appraisal   404
Market Rents  352 Borrower Financials  404
Forecasting Supply, Demand, Market Rents, The Loan-to-Value Ratio   405
and Occupancy  354 The Debt Coverage Ratio   405
Making Investments: Projecting Cash Flows   356 Other Loan Terms and Mortgage Covenants   406
Office Building Example   356 Alternatives to Fixed Rate Loan Structures   408
Base Rent  357 Participation Loans  409
Market Rent  357 Lender Motivations  409
Expense Stops  358 Investor Motivations  410
Net Operating Income   359 Participation Example  410
Expected Outlays for Replacements and Capital Sale-Leaseback of the Land   414
Improvements  360 Effective Cost of the Sale-Leaseback   416
Estimated Sale Price   360 Interest-Only Loans  416
Introduction to Investment Analysis   362 Accrual Loans  418
Internal Rate of Return (IRR)  362 Structuring the Payment for a Target Debt Coverage
Present Value  363 Ratio  418

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Table of Contents  xv

Convertible Mortgages  420 Installment Sales  472

Lender’s Yield on Convertible Mortgages   420 Tax-Deferred Exchanges  477
Comparison of Financing Alternatives   422 Renovation as an Alternative to Disposition   484
Other Financing Alternatives   424 Renovation and Refinancing   487
Rehabilitation Investment Tax Credits   487
Low-Income Housing  489
Chapter 13
Risk Analysis  429
Chapter 15
Introduction  429 Financing Corporate Real Estate   494
Comparing Investment Returns   429
Types of Risk   430 Lease-versus-Own Analysis  495
Due Diligence in Real Estate Investment Risk Leasing versus Owning—An Example   495
Analysis  432 Cash Flow from Leasing   496
Sensitivity Analysis  432 Cash Flow from Owning   496
Partitioning the IRR   436 Cash Flow from Owning versus Leasing   498
Variation in Returns and Risk   437 Return from Owning versus Leasing   498
Retail Case Study—Westgate Shopping Center   441 Importance of the Residual Value of Real Estate   499
Westgate Shopping Center Scenario Analysis   444 The Investor’s Perspective   501
Lease Rollover Risk   444 A Note on Project Financing   502
Market Leasing Assumptions with Renewal Factors Affecting Own-versus-Lease Decisions   503
Probabilities  446 The Role of Real Estate in Corporate
Market Rent  446 Restructuring  509
Months Vacant  446 Sale-Leaseback  509
Leasing Commissions  447 Refinancing  512
Tenant Improvements  447 Investing in Real Estate for Diversification   512
Industrial Case Study—Worthington Appendix
Distribution Center  447 Real Estate Asset Pricing and Capital Budgeting
Risk and Leverage   449 Analysis: A Synthesis  515
A “Real Options” Approach to Investment
Decisions  452
Traditional Approach to Land Valuation   453
PART FIVE
Real Option Approach to Land Valuation   453 FINANCING REAL ESTATE
Real Options Extensions and Strategy   454 DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 14 Chapter 16
Disposition and Renovation of Income Financing Project Development   517
Properties  458 Introduction  517
Disposition Decisions  458 Overview: The Planning and Permitting Process   517
A Decision Rule for Property Disposition   459 The Development of Income-Producing Property   521
IRR for Holding versus Sale of the Property   460 Market Risks and Project Feasibility   522
Return to a New Investor   463 Project Risks  524
Marginal Rate of Return   463 Project Development Financing—An Overview   525
Refinancing as an Alternative to Disposition   467 Lender Requirements in Financing Project
Incremental Cost of Refinancing   467 Development  526
Leveraged Return from Refinancing and Holding Loan Submission Information for Loan Requests—
an Additional Five Years   468 An Overview  528
Refinancing at a Lower Interest Rate   470 Contingencies in Lending Commitments   530
Other Disposition Considerations—Portfolio The Construction or Interim Loan   531
Balancing  471 Methods of Disbursement—Construction Lending   532
Tax-Deferral Strategies upon Disposition   471 Interest Rates and Fees   533

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xvi  Table of Contents

Additional Information for Interim Loan Joint Ventures  588

Submission  533 Organizational Forms  589
Requirements to Close the Interim Loan   533 Profit Sharing  589
The Permanent Loan Closing   534 Initial Capital Contributions   590
Project Development Illustrated   535 Sharing Cash Flow from Operations   590
Project Description and Project Costs   535 Sharing of Cash Flow from Sale   591
Market Data and Tenant Mix   540 Summary of Cash Flows Distributed in Each
Pro Forma Construction Costs and Cash Flow Operating Year  592
Projections  541 Cash Flow from Sale   594
Feasibility, Profitability, and Risk— IRR to Each Joint Venture Party   594
Additional Issues  544 Variation on the Preferred IRR—“The Lookback
Profitability before and after Taxes   544 IRR”  595
Sensitivity Analysis, Risk, and Feasibility Analysis   548 Syndications  596
Use of the Limited Partnership in Private and Public
Chapter 17 Syndicates  597
Financing Land Development Projects   554 Private Syndication Problem Illustrated   598
Characterization of the Land Development Financial Considerations—Partnership Agreement   599
Business  554 Operating Projections  600
The Land Development Process—An Overview   556 Statement of Before-Tax Cash Flow (BTCF)  601
Acquisition of Land—Use of the Option Contract   556 Calculation of Net Income or Loss   601
Financing and Development   558 Calculation of Capital Gain from Sale   601
Lender Requirements in Financing Land Capital Accounts  602
Development  561 Distribution of Cash from Sale of Asset   603
Detailed Cost Breakdowns   563 Calculation of After-Tax Cash Flow and ATIRR on
General Contracts and Subcontracts   563 Equity  604
Residential Land Development Illustrated   564 Partnership Allocations and Substantial Economic
Market Conditions and Site Plan   565 Effect  606
Estimating Development Cost and Interest Carry   567 Capital Accounts and Gain Charge-Backs   607
Estimating Release Prices per Parcel Sold   575 Use of the Limited Partnership in Private and Public
Loan Request and Repayment Schedule   575 Syndicates  609
Project Feasibility and Profitability   576 Use of Corporate General Partners   610
Project IRR and Net Present Value    578 Private versus Public Syndicates   610
Entrepreneurial Profits  579 Accredited Investors—Regulation D   611
Sensitivity Analysis  580 Regulation of Syndicates   615
Investment Objectives and Policies   616
Promoters’ and Managers’ Compensation   616
PART SIX Investor Suitability Standards   617
ALTERNATIVE REAL ESTATE Federal and State Securities Authorities   617
FINANCING AND INVESTMENT
VEHICLES Chapter 19
The Secondary Mortgage Market:
Chapter 18 Pass-Through Securities  622
Structuring Real Estate Investments:
Introduction  622
Organizational Forms and Joint
Evolution of the Secondary Mortgage Market   622
Ventures  583 Early Buyers of Mortgage Loans   623
Introduction  583 The Secondary Market after 1954   623
Sole Proprietorships  583 FNMA’s Changing Role   624
Partnerships  584 The Government National Mortgage Association   624
Limited Liability Companies   586 Mortgage-Backed Securities and the GNMA
Corporations  587 Payment Guarantee  625

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Table of Contents  xvii

The Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation   626 Chapter 21

Operation of the Secondary Mortgage Market   626 Real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs)   690
Direct Sale Programs   627
The Development of Mortgage-Related Security Pools   627 Introduction  690
Mortgage-Backed Bonds  628 Legal Requirements  690
Pricing Mortgage-Backed Bonds   629 Tax Treatment  693
Subsequent Prices  631 Violation Penalties and Status Termination   693
Mortgage Pass-Through Securities   632 Taxable REIT Subsidiaries   693
Important Characteristics of Mortgage Pools   634 Types of REITs   694
Mortgage Pass-Through Securities: A General Approach Equity REITs  694
to Pricing  637 The Investment Appeal of Equity REITs   695
Mortgage Pass-Through Payment Mechanics Public nonlisted REITs   697
Illustrated  639 Importance of FFO (Funds from Operations)   700
Prepayment Patterns and Security Prices   641 REIT Expansion and Growth   702
Prepayment Assumptions  642 Important Issues in Accounting and Financial
The Effects of Prepayment Illustrated   644 Disclosure: Equity REITs  706
Security Prices and Expected Yields   645 Tenant Improvements and Free Rents: Effects on
Market Interest Rates and Price Behavior on Mortgage FFO  707
Pass-Throughs  646 Leasing Commissions and Related Costs   707
A Note on MBBs and MPTs   647 Use of Straight-Line Rents   708
FFO and Income from Managing Other
Chapter 20 Properties  708
Types of Mortgage Debt and Other Obligations   709
The Secondary Mortgage Market: CMOs
Existence of Ground Leases   709
and Derivative Securities   649 Lease Renewal Options and REIT Rent Growth   709
Introduction  649 Occupancy Numbers: Leased Space or Occupied
Mortgage Pay-Through Bonds (MPTBs)   649 Space?  710
Collateralized Mortgage Obligations   650 Retail REITs and Sales per Square Foot   710
CMOs Illustrated  651 Additional Costs of Being a Public Company   711
CMO Mechanics  653 The Investment Appeal of Mortgage REITs   711
CMOs: Pricing and Expected Maturities   659 Financial Analysis of an Equity REIT Illustrated   713
CMO Price Behavior and Prepayment Rates   661 Valuing REITs as Investments   716
CMO Tranche Variations   663 Valuation of Midwestern America Property Trust   716
Subprime Mortgage-Backed Securities   664
Derivatives Illustrated  665
Yield Enhancement  668 PART SEVEN
IO and PO Strips   668 Portfolio Analysis and Real Estate Funds
Convexity  671
Residential Mortgage-Related Securities: Chapter 22
A Summary  671
Real Estate Investment Performance
Residential Mortgage-Related Securities:
and Portfolio Considerations  723
Some Closing Observations  673
Commercial Mortgage-Backed Securities Introduction  723
(CMBSs)  674 The Nature of Real Estate Investment Data   723
Rating Commercial Mortgage-Backed Securities   677 Sources of Data Used for Real Estate
Collateralized Debt Obligations (CDOs)   679 Performance Measurement  724
Mortgage-Related Securities and REMICs   682 REIT Data: Security Prices   724
REMICs: Other Considerations   683 Hybrid and Mortgage REITs   725
Appendix NCREIF Property Index: Property Values   726
Duration—An Additional Consideration in Yield Data Sources for Other Investments   726
Measurement  687 Cumulative Investment Return Patterns   726

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Computing Holding Period Returns   727 Calculating Returns  764

Comparing Investment Returns   729 Calculating Returns at the “Property Level”   767
Risk, Return, and Performance Measurement   729 Comparing Returns: Fund Level versus Property
Risk-Adjusted Returns: Basic Elements   730 Level  768
Elements of Portfolio Theory   731 Returns: Before and After Fees   768
Calculating Portfolio Returns    733 Calculating Historical Returns   768
Portfolio Risk  733 Time-Weighted Returns  769
Portfolio Weighting: Trading Off Risk and Return   736 Choosing IRR versus TWR for Performance
Real Estate Returns, Other Investments, Measurement  772
and the Potential for Portfolio Diversification   738 Target Returns and Benchmarks   773
Portfolio Diversification: EREITs and Other Investment Multiple  774
Investments  738 Attribution Analysis  775
Public versus Private Real Estate Investments   740 Attribution Analysis Mathematics   777
Real Estate Performance and Inflation   741 Evaluating Risk Differences   778
Diversification by Property Type and Location   741 Jensen’s Alpha  782
Global Diversification  744
Risks of Global Investment   746
Index  788
Use of Derivatives to Hedge Portfolio Risk   747
Example—Swap Office for Retail   748

Chapter 23
Real Estate Investment Funds: Structure,
Performance, Benchmarking, and
Attribution Analysis  752
Investor Goals and Objectives   754
General Explanation of Possible Provisions in
Fund Offerings  754
Reporting Fund Performance   762
Measuring and Reporting Investment Returns   762
Summary of Major Activity during Quarter  763

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