Cit 344 PDF

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
COURSE CODE: CIT344
COURSE TITLE:
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER DESIGN
CIT344 COURSE GUIDE
COURSE
GUIDE
CIT344
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER DESIGN
Course Team Adaora Obayi (Developer/Writer) - NOUN

Dr. Oyebanji (Programme Leader) - NOUN
Vivian Nwaocha (Coordinator) -NOUN

ii
CIT344 COURSE GUIDE
National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Office
5, Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published By:
First Printed 2012
ISBN: 978-058-047-6
All Rights Reserved
iii
CIT344 COURSE GUIDE
CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction…………………………………………………………. 1
What You Will Learn in This Course………………….………....... 1
Course Aim…………………………………………………………. 1
Course Objectives…………………………………………………... 2
Working through This Course……………………………...………. 2
Course Materials……………………………………….…………… 2
Study Units……………………………………………….…………. 3
Textbooks and References………………………….……………….. 4
Assignment File………………………………………….…………. 4
Presentation Schedule………………………………….…………… 4
Assessment…………………………………………………………. 4
Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs)……………....…………..……. 4
Final Examination and Grading……………………………….……. 4
Course Marking Scheme………………………………………….… 7
Course Overview………………………………………………….… 7
How to Get the Most from This Course………………...………….. 8
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials……………………………………10
iv
Introduction
CIT344: Introduction to Computer Design is a 3-credit unit course

for students studying towards acquiring the Bachelor of Science in
Information Technology and related disciplines.
The course is divided into 6 modules and 21 study units. It introduces

you to concepts in Computer Design and their implementations in our
everyday lives.
This course also provides information on numbers and codes in

computer design, different logic designs, memory devices,
microprocessors and finally, a type of programming called Assembly
Language Programming.
At the end of this course, it is expected that you should be able to

understand, explain and be adequately equipped with comprehensive
knowledge of logic designs and can try your hands in some designs of
your own.
This course guide therefore gives you an overview of what the course is
all about, the textbooks and other course materials to be used, what you
are expected to know in each unit, and how to work through the course
material.
Furthermore, it suggests the general strategy to be adopted and also

emphasises the need for self-assessment and tutor-marked assignment.
There are also tutorial classes that are linked to this course and you are
advised to attend them.
What You Will Learn in This Course
The overall aim of this course is to boost your knowledge of logic

designs, microprocessors and assembly language programming. In the
course of your studies, you will be equipped with definitions of common
terms, characteristics and applications of logic designs. You will also
learn number systems and codes, memory devices, microprocessors and
finally, loops and subroutines in assembly language.
Course Aim
This course aims to give you an in-depth understanding of computer

designs. It is hoped that the knowledge would enhance your expertise in
logic designs.
CIT344 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER DESIGN
Course Objectives
It is relevant to note that each unit has its precise objectives. You should
learn them carefully before proceeding to subsequent units. Therefore, it
is useful to refer to these objectives in the course of your study of the
unit to assess your progress. You should always look at the unit
objectives after completing a unit. In this way, you can be sure that you
have done what is required of you by the end of the unit. However,
below are overall objectives of this course. On successful completion of
this course, you should be able to:
 explain the term number system and its various types

 state the various conversion from one number system to the other
 explain the various types of codes
 analyse and design a combinational logic circuit
 describe what a sequential logic circuit is
 state the differences between combinational and sequential logic
circuit
 list the types of sequential logic circuit
 describe what a latch and flip-flop is
 describe what shift register is
 discuss about finite state machines
 describe memory and the basic operations performed on it
 state the types of memory we have
 describe microprocessors
 write a program using assembly language.
Working through This Course
To complete this course, you are required to study all the units, the
recommended text books, and other relevant materials. Each unit
contains tutor-marked assignments, and at some point in this course, you
are required to submit the tutor-marked assignments. There is also a
final examination at the end of this course. Stated below are the
components of this course and what you have to do.
Course Materials
The major components of the course are:
1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Text Books
4. Assignment File
5. Presentation Schedule
ii
Study Units
There are 6 modules and 21 study units in this course. They are:
Module 1 Introduction to Numbers and Codes
Unit 1 Types of Number Systems I

Unit 2 Types of Number Systems II
Unit 3 Codes
Module 2 Combinational Logic Design and Application
Unit 1 Analysis and Design of a Combinational Logic Circuit

Unit 2 Typical Combinational Logic Circuit I
Unit 3 Typical Combinational Logic Circuit II
Unit 4 Typical Combinational Logic Circuit III
Module 3 Sequential Logic Design and Applications
Unit 1 Sequential Logic Circuits

Unit 2 Latches and Flip-Flops
Unit 3 Registers
Unit 4 Finite State Machines
Module 4 Memory Devices
Unit 1 Memory Organisation

Unit 2 Memory Types
Unit 3 Memory Expansion
Unit 4 Memory Summary
Module 5 Introduction to Microprocessors
Unit 1 Microprocessors
Unit 2 Central Processing Unit and Arithmetic and Logical Unit
Unit 3 Addressing Mode
Module 6 Assembly Language Programming
Unit 1 Learning to Program with Assembly Language

Unit 2 Branching Loops and Subroutines
Unit 3 Sample Programs in Assembly Language
iii
Textbooks and References
These texts listed below will be of enormous benefit to you in learning

this course:
Baase, Sara (1983). VAX-11 Assembly Language Programming. San

Diego: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Brookshear, J. G. (1997). Computer Science: An Overview. Addison -

Wesley.
Comer, J. David (1994). Digital Logic & State Machine Design. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Dandamudi, S. (2003). Fundamentals of Computer Organization and

Design. Springer.
Emerson, W. Pugh et al (1991). IBM's 360 and Early 370 Systems. MIT
Press.
Ford, William & Topp, William (1996). Assembly Language and

Systems Programming for the M68000 Family. Jones & Bartlett
Pub.
Ford, William & Topp, William (1992). Macintosh Assembly System,

Version 2.0. Jones & Bartlett Pub.
Hayes, P. John (1993). Introduction to Digital Logic Design. Prentice

Hall.
Hennessy, L. John & Patterson, A. David (2008). Computer

Organization & Design. Morgan Kaufmann.
Holdsworth, Brian & Woods, Clive (2002). Digital Logic Design.

Newnes.
Hummel, Robert L. (1992). Programmer’s Technical Reference: The

Processor and Coprocessor. Ziff-Davis Press.
Mano, M. Morris & Kime, Charles R. (2007). Logic and Computer

Design Fundamentals. Prentice Hall.
Marcovitz, Alan (2009). Introduction to Logic Design. McGraw-Hill.
Neamen, Donald (2009). Microelectronics: Circuit Analysis & Design.

McGraw-Hill.
iv
Nelson, P. et al (1995). Digital Logic Circuit Analysis & Design.

Prentice Hall.
Palmer, James & Periman, David (1993). Schaum’s Outline of

Introduction to Digital Systems. McGraw-Hill.
Patterson, David & Hennessy, John (1993). Computer Organization &

Design: The Hardware/Software Interface. Morgan Kaufmann
Publishers.
Patterson, David & Hennessy, John (1990). Computer Architecture, A

Quantitative Approach. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.
Rafiquzzaman, M. (2005). Fundamentals of Digital Logic &

Microcomputer Design. Wiley – Interscience.
Roth, H. Charles Jr & Kinney, L. Larry (2009). Fundamentals of Logic

Design.
Sanchez, Julio & Maria, P. Canton (1990). IBM Microcomputers: A

Programmer’s Handbook. McGraw-Hill.
Struble, George W. (1975). Assembler Language Programming The

IBM System/360 and 370. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (1998). Structured Computer Organization.

Prentice Hall. Tocci, J. Ronald & Widmer, S. Neal (1994).
Digital Systems: Principles and Applications.
Tokheium, Roger (1994). Schaum’s Outline of Digital Principles.

McGraw-Hill.
Wakerly, F. John (2005). Digital Design: Principles & Practices

Package. Prentice Hall.
Wear, Larry et al. (1991). Computers: An Introduction to Hardware and

Software Design. McGraw-Hill.
www.cs.siu.edu
www.educypedia.be/electronics
www.books.google.com
v
Assignment File
The assignment file will be given to you in due course. In this file, you
will find all the details of the work you must submit to your tutor for
marking. The marks you obtain for these assignments will count towards
the final mark for the course. Altogether, there are 21 tutor-marked
assignments for this course.
Presentation Schedule
The presentation schedule included in this course guide provides you

with important dates for completion of each tutor-marked assignment.
You should therefore endeavour to meet the deadlines.
Assessment
There are two aspects to the assessment of this course. First, there are
tutor-marked assignments; and second, the written examination.
You are expected to take note of the facts, information and problem
solving gathered during the course. The tutor-marked assignments must
be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment, in accordance to the
deadline given. The work submitted will count for 40% of your total
course mark. At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final
written examination. This examination will account for 60% of your
total score.
Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs)
There are 21 TMAs in this course. You need to submit all the TMAs.
When you have completed each assignment, send them to your tutor as
soon as possible and make certain that it gets to your tutor on or before
the stipulated deadline. If for any reason you cannot complete your
assignment on time, contact your tutor before the assignment is due to
discuss the possibility of extension. Extension will not be granted after
the deadline, unless in extraordinary cases.
Final Examination and Grading
The final examination for CIT344 will be of last for a period of 3 hours
and have a value of 60% of the total course grade. The examination will
consist of questions which reflect the self-assessment exercise and tutor-
marked assignments that you have previously encountered. Furthermore,
all areas of the course will be examined. It would be better to use the
time between finishing the last unit and sitting for the examination, to
revise the entire course. You might find it useful to review your TMAs
vi
and comment on them before the examination. The final examination

covers information from all parts of the course.
Course Marking Scheme
The following table includes the course marking scheme
Table 1: Course Marking Scheme
Assessment Marks
Assignments 1-21 21 assignments, 40% for the best 4
Total = 10% X 4 = 40%
Final Examination 60% of overall course marks
Total 100% of Course Marks
Course Overview
This indicates the units, the number of weeks required to complete them
and the assignments.
Table 2: Course Organiser
Unit Title of Work Weeks Assessment

Activity (End of Unit)
Course Guide Week 1

Module 1 Introduction to Numbers and Codes
1 Types of Number Systems I Week 1 Assignment 1
2 Types of Number Systems II Week 2 Assignment 2
3 Codes Week 3 Assignment 3
Module 2 Combinational Logic Design and Applications
1 Analysis & Design of a Week 3 Assignment 4
Combinational Logic Circuit
2 Typical Combinational Week 4 Assignment 5
Logic Circuit I
3 Typical Combinational Logic Week 4 Assignment 6
Circuit II
4 Typical Combinational Week 5 Assignment 7
Logic Circuit III
Module 3 Sequential Logic Design and Applications
1 Sequential Logic Circuits Week 5 Assignment 8
2 Latches and Flip-Flops Week 6 Assignment 9
3 Registers Week 6 Assignment 10
4 Finite State Machines Week 7 Assignment 11
vii
Module 4 Memory Devices

1 Memory Organisation Week 7 Assignment 12
2 Memory Types Week 8 Assignment 13
3 Memory Expansion Week 9 Assignment 14
4 Memory Summary Week 10 Assignment 15
Module 5 Introduction To Microprocessors
1 Microprocessors Week 10 Assignment 16
2 Central Processing Unit & Week 11 Assignment 17
Arithmetic & Logical Unit
3 Addressing Mode Week 12 Assignment 18
Module 6 Assembly Language Programming
Unit Learning to Program with Week 13 Assignment 19
1 Assembly Language
Unit Branching Loops and Week 14 Assignment 20
2 Subroutine
Unit Sample Programs in Week 14 Assignment 21
3 Assembly Language
How to Get the Most Out of This Course
In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecturer. This
is one of the huge advantages of distance learning mode; you can read
and work through specially designed study materials at your own pace
and at a time and place that is most convenient. Think of it as reading
from the teacher, the study guide indicates what you ought to study, how
to study it and the relevant texts to consult. You are provided with
exercises at appropriate points, just as a lecturer might give you an in-
class exercise.
Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is
integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next to this is
a set of learning objectives. These learning objectives are meant to guide
your studies. The moment a unit is finished, you must go back and
check whether you have achieved the objectives. If this is made a habit,
then you will increase your chances of passing the course.
The main body of the units also guides you through the required
readings from other sources. This will usually be either from a set book
or from other sources. Self assessment exercises are provided
throughout the unit, to aid personal studies and answers are provided at
the end of the unit. Working through these self tests will help you to
achieve the objectives of the unit and also prepare you for tutor marked
assignments and examinations. You should attempt each self test as you
encounter them in the units.
viii
Read the course guide thoroughly and organise a study schedule. Refer
to the course overview for more details. Note the time you are expected
to spend on each unit and how the assignment relates to the units.
Important details, e.g. details of your tutorials and the date of the first
day of the semester are available. You need to gather together all these
information in one place such as a diary, a wall chart calendar or an
organiser. Whatever method you choose, you should decide on and write
in your own dates for working on each unit.
Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can
to stick to it. The major reason that students fail is that they get behind
with their course works. If you get into difficulties with your schedule,
please let your tutor know before it is too late for help.
Turn to unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit.
Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a
unit is given in the table of content at the beginning of each unit. You
will almost always need both the study unit you are working on and one
of the materials recommended for further readings, on your desk at the
same time.
Work through the unit, the content of the unit itself has been arranged to
provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work through the unit, you
will be encouraged to read from your set books.
Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing all your assignments
carefully. They have been designed to help you meet the objectives of
the course and will help you pass the examination.
Review the objectives of each study unit to confirm that you have
achieved them. If you are not certain about any of the objectives, review
the study material and consult your tutor.
When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s objectives, you
can start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try
to pace your study so that you can keep yourself on schedule.
When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do

not wait for its return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your
schedule. Pay particular attention to your tutor’s comments on the tutor-
marked assignment form and also written on the assignment when the
assignment is returned to you. Consult you tutor as soon as possible if
you have any questions or problems.
ix
After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself
for the final examination. Check that you have achieved the unit
objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the course objectives
(listed in this course guide).
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials
There are 8 hours of tutorial provided in support of this course. You will
be notified of the dates, time and location together with the name and
phone number of your tutor as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group.
Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close
watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and
provide assistance to you during the course. You must mail your tutor
marked assignment to your tutor well before the due date. At least two
working days are required for this purpose. They will be marked by your
tutor and returned to you as soon as possible. Do not hesitate to contact
your tutor by telephone, e-mail or discussion board if you need help.
The following might be circumstances in which you would find help
necessary:
 you do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned
readings
 you have difficulty with the self test or exercise
 you have questions or problems with an assignment, with your
tutor’s comments on an assignment or with the grading of an
assignment.
You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance
to have face-to-face contact with your tutor and ask questions which are
answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the
course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from the course
tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a
lot from participating actively in tutorial discussions.
x
Course Code CIT344

Course Title Introduction to Computer Design
Course Team Adaora Obayi (Developer/Writer) - NOUN

Dr. Oyebanji (Programme Leader) - NOUN
Vivian Nwaocha (Coordinator) -NOUN
xi

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Office
5, Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published By:
First Printed 2012
ISBN: 978-058-047-6
All Rights Reserved
xii
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1 Introduction to Numbers and Codes…………..… 1
Unit 1 Types of Number Systems I………………….…..… 1

Unit 2 Types of Number Systems II……………………….. 11
Unit 3 Codes……………………………………………….... 21
Module 2 Combinational Logic Design and Application .….. 28
Unit 1 Analysis and Design of a Combinational Logic Circuit….. 28

Unit 2 Typical Combinational Logic Circuit I……………….…… 31
Unit 3 Typical Combinational Logic Circuit II………………….... 39
Unit 4 Typical Combinational Logic Circuit III………………….. 51
Module 3 Sequential Logic Design and Applications…….… 60
Unit 1 Sequential Logic Circuits………………………..….. 60

Unit 2 Latches and Flip-Flops……………………….…….. 65
Unit 3 Registers…………………………………….……… 90
Unit 4 Finite State Machines……………………..………… 105
Module 4 Memory Devices……………………………..…… 126
Unit 1 Memory Organisation……………………………… 126

Unit 2 Memory Types……………………………………... 135
Unit 3 Memory Expansion………………………………… 150
Unit 4 Memory Summary………………………………….. 154
Module 5 Introduction to Microprocessors…………………. 157
Unit 1 Microprocessors…………………………………….. 157

Unit 2 Central Processing Unit and Arithmetic and Logical
Unit…………………………………………………. 165
Unit 3 Addressing Mode…………………………………… 175
Module 6 Assembly Language Programming………………... 188
Unit 1 Learning to Program with Assembly Language…………... 188

Unit 2 Branching Loops and Subroutines …………................. 205
Unit 3 Sample Programs in Assembly Language …………… 222
xiii
MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO NUMBERS AND

CODES
Unit 1 Types of Number Systems I

Unit 2 Types of Number Systems II
Unit 3 Codes
UNIT 1 TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEMS I
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Decimal Number System
3.2 Binary Number System
3.2.1 Fractions in Binary Number System
3.2.2 Binary Arithmetic
3.2.3 Binary to Decimal Conversion
3.2.4 Decimal to Binary Conversion
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The number system is the basis of computing. It is a very important

foundation for understanding the way the computer system works. In
this unit, we will talk about decimal and binary number system.
Endeavour to assimilate as much as possible from this unit – especially,
the conversion from one number system to another.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 explain the term decimal number system

 manipulate fractions of decimal numbers
 explain the term binary number system
 manipulate binary arithmetic
 convert binary to decimal
 convert decimal to binary.
1
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Decimal Number System
The decimal number system has ten unique digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,

9. Using these single digits, ten different values can be represented.
Values greater than ten can be represented by using the same digits in
different combinations. Thus, ten is represented by the number 10, two
hundred seventy five is represented by 275, etc. Thus, same set of
numbers 0, 1, 2, … 9 are repeated in a specific order to represent larger
numbers. The decimal number system is a positional number system as
the position of a digit represents its true magnitude. For example, 2 is
less than 7, however 2 in 275 represents 200, whereas 7 represents 70.
The left most digit has the highest weight and the right most digit has
the lowest weight. 275 can be written in the form of an expression in
terms of the base value of the number system and weights.
2 x 102 + 7 x 101 + 5 x 100 = 200 + 70 + 5 = 275
where, 10 represents the base or radix,102, 101, 100 represent the

weights 100, 10 and 1 of the numbers 2, 7 and 5.
Fractions in Decimal Number System
In a Decimal Number System the fraction part is separated from the

integer part by a decimal point. The integer part of a number is written
on the left hand side of the decimal point. The fraction part is written on
the right side of the decimal point. The digits of the integer part on the
left hand side of the decimal point have weights 100, 101, 102 etc.
respectively starting from the digit to the immediate left of the decimal
point and moving away from the decimal point towards the most
significant digit on the left hand side. Fractions in decimal number
system are also represented in terms of the base value of the number
system and weights. The weights of the fraction part are represented by
10-1, 10-2, 10-3, etc. The weights decrease by a factor of 10 moving
right of the decimal point. The number 382.91 in terms of the base
number and weights is represented as
3 x 102 + 8 x 101 + 2 x 100 + 9 x 10-1 + 1 x 10-2 = 300 + 80 + 2 + 0.9 +

0.01 = 382.91
2
3.2 Binary Number System
Binary as the name indicates is a base-2 number system having only two
numbers 0 and 1. The binary digit 0 or 1 is known as a ‘Bit’. Below is
the decimal equivalent of the binary number system.
Table 1: Decimal Equivalents of Binary Number System
Decimal Binary Decimal Binary

Number Number Number Number
0 0 10 1010
1 1 11 1011
2 10 12 1100
3 11 13 1101
4 100 14 1110
5 101 15 1111
6 110 16 10000
7 111 17 10001
8 1000 18 10010
9 1001 19 10011
20 10100
Counting in binary number system is similar to counting in decimal

number systems. In a decimal number system a value larger than 9 has
to be represented by 2, 3, 4, or more digits. Similarly, in the binary
number system a binary number larger than 1 has to be represented by 2,
3, 4, or more binary digits.
Any binary number comprising of binary 0 and 1 can be easily

represented in terms of its decimal equivalent by writing the binary
number in the form of an expression using the base value 2 and weights
20, 21, 22, etc.
The number 100112 (the subscript 2 indicates that the number is a binary
number and not a decimal number ten thousand and eleven) can be
rewritten in terms of the expression:
100112 = (1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (0 x 22) + (1 x 21) + (1 x 20)

= (1 x 16) + (0 x 8) + (0 x 4) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 1)
= 16 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 1
= 19
3
3.2.1 Fractions in Binary Number System
In a decimal number system the integer part and the fraction part of a
number are separated by a decimal point. In a binary number system the
integer part and the Fraction part of a binary number can be similarly
represented separated by a decimal point. The binary number 1011.1012
has an integer part represented by 1011 and a fraction part 101 separated
by a decimal point. The subscript 2 indicates that the number is a binary
number and not a decimal number. The binary number 1011.1012 can be
written in terms of an expression using the base value 2 and weights 23,
22, 21, 20, 2-1, 2-2 and 2-3.
1011.1012 = (1 x 23) + (0 x 22) + (1 x 21) + (1 x 20) + (1 x 2-1) + (0 x 2-

2
) + (1 x 2-3)
= (1 x 8) + (0 x 4) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 1) + (1 x 1/2) + (0 x 1/4) + (1 x 1/8)
= 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 + 0.5 + 0 + 0.125
= 11.625
Computers do handle numbers such as 11.625 that have an integer part

and a fraction part. However, it does not use the binary representation
1011.101. Such numbers are represented and used in floating-point
numbers notation.
3.2.2 Binary Arithmetic
Digital systems use the binary number system to represent numbers.

Therefore these systems should be capable of performing standard
arithmetic operations on binary numbers.
Binary Addition
Binary addition is identical to decimal addition. By adding two binary

bits, a sum bit and a carry bit are generated. The only difference between
the two additions is the range of numbers used. In binary addition, four
possibilities exist when two single bits are added together. The four
possible input combinations of two single bit binary numbers and their
corresponding sum and carry outputs are specified in Table 2.
Table 2: Addition of Two Single Bit Binary Numbers
First Number Second Number Sum Carry

0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
4
The first three additions give a result 0, 1 and 1 respectively which can
be represented by a single binary digit (bit). The fourth addition results
in the number 2, which can be represented in binary as 102. Thus, two
digits (bits) are required. This is similar to the addition of 9 + 3 in
decimal. The answer is 12 which cannot be represented by a single digit;
thus, two digits are required. The number 2 is the sum part and 1 is the
carry part.
Any number of binary numbers having any number of digits can be

added together.
Binary Subtraction
Binary subtraction is identical to decimal subtraction. The only

difference between the two is the range of numbers. Subtracting two
single bit binary numbers results in a difference bit and a borrow bit.
The four possible input combinations of two single bit binary numbers
and their corresponding difference and borrow outputs are specified in
Table 3. It is assumed that the second number is subtracted from the first
number.
Table 3: Subtraction of Two Single Bit Binary Numbers
First Number Second Number Difference Borrow

0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
The second subtraction subtracts 1 from 0 for which a borrow is

required to make the first digit equal to 2. The difference is 1. This is
similar to decimal subtraction when 17 is subtracted from 21. The first
digit 7 cannot be subtracted from 1, therefore 10 is borrowed from the
next significant digit. Borrowing a 10 allows subtraction of 7 from 11
resulting in a difference of 4.
Binary Multiplication
Binary multiplication is similar to the decimal multiplication except for

the range of numbers. Four possible combinations of two single bit
binary numbers and their products are listed in table 4.
5
Table 4: Multiplication of two Single Bit Binary Numbers
First Number Second Number Product

0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Binary Division
Division in binary follows the same procedure as in the division of

decimal numbers. Fig 1 illustrates the division of binary numbers.
10
101 | 1101
101
011
000
11
Fig. 1 : Binary Division
3.2.3 Binary to Decimal Conversion
Most real world quantities are represented in decimal number system.

Digital systems on the other hand are based on the binary number
system. Therefore, when converting from the digital domain to the real-
world, binary numbers have to be represented in terms of their decimal
equivalents. The method used to convert from binary to decimal is the
sum-of-weights method.
Sum-of-Weights Method
Sum-of-weights as the name indicates sums the weights of the binary

digits (bits) of a binary number which is to be represented in decimal.
The sum-of-weights method can be used to convert a binary number of
any magnitude to its equivalent decimal representation.
In the sum-of-weights method an extended expression is written in terms

of the binary base number 2 and the weights of the binary number to be
converted. The weights correspond to each of the binary bits which are
multiplied by the corresponding binary value.
Binary bits having the value 0 do not contribute any value towards the
final sum expression. The binary number 101102 is therefore written in
the form of an expression having weights 20, 21, 22, 23 and 24
6
corresponding to the bits 0, 1, 1, 0 and 1 respectively. Weights 20 and 23

do not contribute in the final sum as the binary bits corresponding to
these weights have the value 0.
101102 = 1 x 24 + 0 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20
= 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 0
= 22
Sum-of-Non-Zero Terms
In the sum-of-weights method, the binary bits 0 do not contribute

towards the final sum representing the decimal equivalent. Secondly, the
weight of each binary bit increases by a factor of 2 starting with a
weight of 1 for the least significant bit. For example, the binary number
101102 has weights 20=1, 21=2, 22=4, 23=8 and 24=16 corresponding to
the bits 0, 1, 1, 0 and 1 respectively.
The sum-of-non-zero terms method is a quicker method to determine

decimal equivalents of binary numbers without resorting to writing an
expression. In the sum-of-non-zero terms method, the weights of non-
zero binary bits are summed, as the weights of zero binary bits do not
contribute towards the final sum representing the decimal equivalent.
The weights of binary bits starting from the right most least significant
bit is 1, The next significant bit on the left has the weight 2, followed by
4, 8, 16, 32, etc. corresponding to higher significant bits. In binary
number system the weights of successive bits increase by an order of 2
towards the left side and decrease by an order of 2 towards the right
side. Thus, a binary number can be quickly converted into its decimal
equivalent by adding weights of non-zero terms which increase by a
factor of 2. Binary numbers having an integer and a fraction part can
similarly be converted into their decimal equivalents by applying the
same method.
A quicker method is to add the weights of non-zero terms. Thus, for the
numbers:
100112 = 16 + 2 + 1 = 19
1011.1012 = 8 + 2 + 1 + ½ + 1/8 = 11 + 5/8 = 11.625
3.2.4 Decimal to Binary Conversion
Conversion from decimal to binary number system is also essential to

represent real-world quantities in terms of binary values. The sum-of-
weights and repeated division by 2 methods are used to convert a
decimal number to equivalent binary.
7
Sum-of-Weights
The sum-of-weights method used to convert binary numbers into their

decimal equivalent is based on adding binary weights of the binary
number bits. Converting back from the decimal number to the original
binary number requires finding the highest weight included in the sum
representing the decimal equivalent. A binary 1 is marked to represent
the bit which contributed its weight in the sum representing the decimal
equivalent. The weight is subtracted from the sum decimal equivalent.
The next highest weight included in the sum term is found. A binary 1 is
marked to represent the bit which contributed its weight in the sum term
and the weight is subtracted from the sum term. This process is repeated
until the sum term becomes equal to zero. The binary 1s and 0s
represent the binary bits that contributed their weight and bits that did
not contribute any weight respectively.
The process of determining binary equivalent of a decimal number 392

and 411 is illustrated in a tabular form.
Table 5: Converting Decimal to Binary using Sum-of-Weights

Method
Sum Term Highest Binary Number Sum Term

Weight = Sum Term – Highest
Weight
392 256 100000000 136
136 128 110000000 8
8 8 110001000 0
The sum-of-weights method requires mental arithmetic and is a quick

way of converting small decimal numbers into binary. With practice
large decimal numbers can be converted into binary equivalents.
Repeated Division-by-2
Repeated division-by-2 method allows decimal numbers of any

magnitude to be converted into binary. In this method, the decimal
number to be converted into its binary equivalent is repeatedly divided
by 2. The divisor is selected as 2 because the decimal number is being
converted into binary a base-2 number system. Repeated division
method can be used to convert decimal number into any number system
by repeated division by the base-number.
In the repeated-division method the decimal number to be converted is

divided by the base number, in this particular case 2. A quotient value
and a remainder value is generated, both values are noted done. The
8
remainder value in all subsequent divisions would be either a 0 or a 1.

The quotient value obtained as a result of division by 2 is divided again
by 2. The new quotient and remainder values are again noted down. In
each step of the repeated division method the remainder values are noted
down and the quotient values are repeatedly divided by the base number.
The process of repeated division stops when the quotient value becomes
zero. The remainders that have been noted in consecutive steps are
written out to indicate the binary equivalent of the original decimal
number.
Table 6: Converting Decimal to Binary using Repeated

Division by 2 Method
Number Quotient after division Remainder after division

392 196 0
196 98 0
98 49 0
49 24 1
24 12 0
12 6 0
6 3 0
3 1 1
1 0 1
The process of determining the binary equivalent of a decimal number

392 is illustrated in a tabular form above. Reading the numbers in the
remainder column from bottom to top 110001000 gives the binary
equivalent of the decimal number 392.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Explain with the aid of good examples, the different methods of

converting binary numbers to decimal numbers.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The decimal number system has ten unique digits 0, 1, 2, 3… 9. Using

these single digits, ten different values can be represented. Values
greater than ten can be represented by using the same digits in different
combinations. Binary indicates a base-2 number system having only two
numbers 0 and 1. The binary digit 0 or 1 is known as a ‘Bit’.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we discussed decimal and binary number systems,

manipulation of their fractions, binary arithmetic and conversion of
9
decimal to binary and vice versa. Hoping that you understood the topics
discussed, you may now attempt the questions below.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Briefly explain these terms: decimal number system, binary

number system.
2. Convert these decimal numbers to binary
(a) 105 (b) 345 (c) 55
3. Convert these binary numbers to decimal
(a) 10110.101 (b) 1111.111 (c) 110100100
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Comer, J. David (1994). Digital Logic & State Machine Design. Oxford
University Press.

Design. Springer.
Hall.


Newnes.
Design Fundamentals. Prentice Hall. Pg 283.
Marcovitz Alan (2009). Introduction to Logic Design. McGraw-Hill.
Nelson, P Victor, et al (1995). Digital Logic Circuit Analysis & Design.

Prentice Hall.
Palmer James & Periman David (1993). Schaum’s Outline of

Rafiquzzaman M. (2005). Fundamentals of Digital Logic &

www.cs.siu.edu
10
UNIT 2 TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEMS II
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Hexadecimal Number System
3.1.1 Counting in Hexadecimal Number System
3.1.2 Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion
3.1.3 Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion
3.1.4 Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion
3.1.5 Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion
3.1.6 Hexadecimal Addition and Subtraction
3.2 Octal Number System
3.2.1 Counting in Octal Number System
3.2.2 Binary to Octal Conversion
3.2.3 Octal to Binary Conversion
3.2.4 Decimal to Octal Conversion
3.2.5 Octal to Decimal Conversion
3.2.6 Octal Addition and Subtraction
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall conclude with hexadecimal and octal number

systems.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the term hexadecimal number system

 count in hexadecimal
 convert binary to hexadecimal
 convert hexadecimal to binary
 convert decimal to hexadecimal
 convert hexadecimal to decimal
 explain hexadecimal addition and subtraction
 explain the term octal number system
 explain hexadecimal addition and subtraction.
11
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Hexadecimal Number System
Representing even small number such as 6918 requires a long binary

string (1101100000110) of 0s and 1s. Larger decimal numbers would
require lengthier binary strings. Writing such long string is tedious and
prone to errors.
The hexadecimal number system is a base 16 number system and

therefore has 16 digits and is used primarily to represent binary strings
in a compact manner. Hexadecimal number system is not used by a
digital system. The hexadecimal number system is for our convenience
to write binary strings in a short and concise form. Each hexadecimal
number digit can represent a 4-bit binary number. The binary numbers
and the hexadecimal equivalents are listed below:
Table 1: Hexadecimal Equivalents of Decimal and Binary Numbers
Decimal Binary Hexadecimal Decimal Binary Hexadecimal

0 0000 0 8 1000 8
1 0001 1 9 1001 9
2 0010 2 10 1010 A
3 0011 3 11 1011 B
4 0100 4 12 1100 C
5 0101 5 13 1101 D
6 0110 6 14 1110 E
7 0111 7 15 1111 F
3.1.1 Counting in Hexadecimal Number System
Counting in hexadecimal is similar to the other number systems already

discussed. The maximum value represented by a single hexadecimal
digit is F which is equivalent to decimal 15. The next higher value
decimal 16 is represented by a combination of two hexadecimal digits
1016 or 10 H. The subscript 16 indicates that the number is hexadecimal
10 and not decimal 10. Hexadecimal numbers are also identified by
appending the character H after the number. The hexadecimal numbers
for decimal numbers 16 to 39 are listed below in table 2:
12
Table 2: Counting using Hexadecimal Numbers
Decimal Hexadecimal Decimal Hexadecimal Decimal Hexadecimal

16 10 24 18 32 20
17 11 25 19 33 21
18 12 26 1A 34 22
19 13 27 1B 35 23
20 14 28 1C 36 24
21 15 29 1D 37 25
22 16 30 1E 38 26
23 17 31 1F 39 27
3.1.2 Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion
Converting binary to hexadecimal is a very simple operation. The binary

string is divided into small groups of 4-bits starting from the least
significant bit. Each 4-bit binary group is replaced by its hexadecimal
equivalent.
11010110101110010110 binary number 1101 0110 1011 1001 0110

Dividing into groups of 4-bits
D 6 B 9 6 Replacing each group by its hexadecimal

equivalent
Thus, 11010110101110010110 is represented in hexadecimal by D6B96
Binary strings which cannot be exactly divided into a whole number of

4-bit groups are assumed to have 0’s appended in the most significant
bits to complete a group.
1101100000110 Binary Number

1 1011 0000 0110 Dividing into groups of 4-bits
0001 1011 0000 0110 Appending three 0s to complete the group
1 B 0 6 Replacing each group by its hexadecimal
equivalent
3.1.3 Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion
Converting from Hexadecimal back to binary is also very simple. Each

digit of the hexadecimal number is replaced by an equivalent binary
string of 4-bits.
13
F D 1 3 hexadecimal number
1111 1101 0001 0011 Replacing each hexadecimal digit by its 4-bit
binary equivalent.
3.1.4 Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion
There are two methods to convert from decimal to hexadecimal. The

first method is the indirect method and the second method is the
repeated division method.
Indirect Method
A decimal number can be converted into its hexadecimal equivalent

indirectly by first converting the decimal number into its binary
equivalent and then converting the binary to Hexadecimal.
Repeated Division-by-16 Method
The repeated division method has been discussed earlier and used to
convert decimal numbers to binary by repeatedly dividing the decimal
number by 2. A decimal number can be directly converted into
hexadecimal by using repeated division. The decimal number is
continuously divided by 16 (base value of the hexadecimal number
system).
The conversion of decimal 2096 to hexadecimal using the repeated

division-by-16 method is illustrated in Table 3. The hexadecimal
equivalent of 209610 is 83016.
Table 3: Hexadecimal Equivalent of Decimal Numbers Using

Repeated Division
Number Quotient after division Remainder after division

2096 131 0
131 8 3
8 0 8
3.1.5 Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion
Converting hexadecimal numbers to decimal is done using two methods.

The first method is the indirect method and the second method is the
sum-of-weights method.
14
Indirect Method
The indirect method of converting hexadecimal number to decimal

number is to first convert hexadecimal number to binary and then binary
to decimal.
A hexadecimal number can be directly converted into decimal by using

the sum of weights method. The conversion steps using the sum-of-
weights method are shown.
CA02 hexadecimal number

C x 163 + A x 162 + 0 x 161 + 2 x 160 Writing the number in an
expression
(C x 4096) + (A x 256) + (0 x 16) + (2 x 1)
(12 x 4096) + (10 x 256) + (0 x 16) + (2 x 1) Replacing hexadecimal
values with
decimal equivalents
49152 + 2560 + 0 + 2 Summing the weights
51714 Decimal equivalent
3.1.6 Hexadecimal Addition and Subtraction
Numbers represented in hexadecimal can be added and subtracted

directly without having to convert them into decimal or binary
equivalents. The rules of addition and subtraction that are used to add
and subtract numbers in decimal or binary number systems apply to
hexadecimal addition and subtraction. Hexadecimal addition and
subtractions allows large binary numbers to be quickly added and
subtracted.
Hexadecimal Addition
Carry 1
Number 1 2 AC 6
Number 2 9 2 B 5
Sum BD7B
Hexadecimal Subtraction
Borrow 1 1 1
Number 1 9 2 B 5
Number 2 2 A C 6
Difference 6 7 E F
15
3.2 Octal Number System
Octal number system also provides a convenient way to represent long

string of binary numbers. The octal number is a base 8 number system
with digits ranging from 0 to 7. Octal number system was prevalent in
earlier digital systems and is not used in modern digital systems
especially when the hexadecimal number is available. Each octal
number digit can represent a 3-bit binary number. The binary numbers
and the octal equivalents are listed below
Table 4: Octal Equivalents of Decimal and Binary Numbers
Decimal Binary Octal

0 000 0
1 001 1
2 010 2
3 011 3
4 100 4
5 101 5
6 110 6
7 111 7
3.2.5 Counting in Octal Number System
Counting in octal is similar to counting in any other number system. The

maximum value represented by a single octal digit is 7. For representing
larger values a combination of two or more octal digits has to be used.
Thus, decimal 8 is represented by a combination of108. The subscript 8
indicates the number is octal 10 and not decimal ten. The octal numbers
for decimal numbers 8 to 30 are listed below:
Table 5: Counting using Octal Numbers
Decimal Octal Decimal Octal Decimal Octal

8 10 16 20 24 30
9 11 17 21 25 31
10 12 18 22 26 32
11 13 19 23 27 33
12 14 20 24 28 34
13 15 21 25 29 35
14 16 22 26 30 36
15 17 23 27 31 37
16
3.2.6 Binary to Octal Conversion
Converting binary to octal is a very simple. The binary string is divided

into small groups of 3-bits starting from the least significant bit. Each 3-
bit binary group is replaced by its octal equivalent.
111010110101110010110 Binary number

111 010 110 101 110 010 110 Dividing into groups of 3-bits
7 2 6 5 6 2 6 Replacing each group by its octal
equivalent
Thus, 111010110101110010110 is represented in octal by 7265626
Binary strings which cannot be exactly divided into a whole number of

3-bit groups are assumed to have 0’s appended in the most significant
bits to complete a group.
1101100000110 Binary number

1 101 100 000 110 Dividing into groups of 3-bits
001 101 100 000 110 Appending three 0s to complete the group
1 5 4 0 6 Replacing each group by its octal equivalent
3.2.7 Octal to Binary Conversion
Converting from octal back to binary is also very simple. Each digit of
the octal number is replaced by an equivalent binary string of 3-bits.
1 7 2 6 Octal number
001 111 010 110 Replacing each octal digit by its 3-bit binary
equivalent.
3.2.8 Decimal to Octal Conversion
There are two methods to convert from decimal to octal. The first
method is the
Indirect Method and the second method is the repeated division method.
Indirect Method
A decimal number can be converted into its octal equivalent indirectly

by first converting the decimal number into its binary equivalent and
then converting the binary to octal.
17
Repeated Division-by-8 Method
The repeated division method has been discussed earlier and used to
convert decimal numbers to binary and hexadecimal by repeatedly
dividing the decimal number by 2 and 16 respectively. A decimal
number can be directly converted into octal by using repeated division.
The decimal number is continuously divided by 8 (base value of the
Octal number system).
The conversion of decimal 2075 to octal using the repeated division-by-

8 method is illustrated in Table 6. The octal equivalent of 207510 is
40338.
Table 6: Octal Equivalent of Decimal Numbers Using Repeated

Division
Number Quotient after Division Remainder after Division

2075 259 3
259 32 3
32 4 0
4 0 4
3.2.5 Octal to Decimal Conversion
Converting octal numbers to decimal is done using two methods. The

first method is the indirect method and the second method is the sum-of-
weights method.
Indirect Method
The indirect method of converting octal number to decimal number is to

first convert octal number to binary and then binary to decimal.
An octal number can be directly converted into decimal by using the

sum of weights method. The conversion steps using the sum-of-weights
method are shown.
4033 octal number

4 x 83 + 0 x 82 + 3 x 81 + 3 x 80 Writing the number in an expression
(4 x 512) + (0 x 64) + (3 x 8) + (3 x 1)
2048 + 0 + 24 + 3 Summing the weights
2075 Decimal equivalent
18
3.2.6 Octal Addition and Subtraction
Numbers represented in octal can be added and subtracted directly

without having to convert them into decimal or binary equivalents. The
rules of addition and subtraction that are used to add and subtract
numbers in decimal or binary number systems apply to octal addition
and subtraction. Octal addition and subtractions allows large binary
numbers to be quickly added and subtracted.
1. Octal Addition
Carry 1
Number 1 7 6 0 2
Number 2 5 7 7 1
Sum 15573
2. Octal Subtraction
Borrow 1 1
Number 1 7 6 0 2
Number 2 5 7 7 1
Difference 1 6 1 1
Explain how you can convert hexadecimal and octal numbers to binary
and decimal numbers and vice versa.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit we talked about hexadecimal and octal number systems,

counting in hexadecimal and octal, hexadecimal & octal arithmetic,
conversion of hexadecimal to binary and vice versa, hexadecimal to
decimal and vice versa.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we talked about hexadecimal and octal number systems,

counting in hexadecimal and octal, hexadecimal and octal arithmetic,
conversion of hexadecimal to binary and vice versa, hexadecimal to
decimal and vice versa.
19
1. Briefly explain these terms: hexadecimal number system, octal

number system.
2. Convert these decimal numbers to hexadecimal and octal and
back to decimal 105 (b) 345 (c) 55.
3. Convert these binary numbers to hexadecimal and octal and back
to binary
(b) 10110.101 (b) 1111.111 (c) 110100100.
University Press.

Design. Springer.

Hall.


Newnes.
Mano, M. Morris; Kime, Charles R. (2007). Logic and Computer

Nelson, P. Victor et al (1995). Digital Logic Circuit Analysis & Design.

Prentice Hall.


www.cs.siu.edu
20
UNIT 3 CODES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Codes
3.1.1 The Excess Code
3.1.2 BCD Code
3.1.3 Gray Code
3.1.4 Alphanumeric Code
3.1.5 ASCII Code
3.1.6 Extended ASCII Code
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
We have different types of code a few are briefly discussed below they
include: Excess code, BCD code, Gray code, alphanumeric code, ASCII
code, Extended ASCII code.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define code
 explain the various types of codes.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Codes
A code in computer parlance is a generic term for program instructions,

used in two general senses. The first sense refers to human-readable
source code, which include the instructions written by the programmer
in a programming language. The second refers to executable machine
code, which include the instructions of a program that were converted
from source code to instructions that the computer can understand.
21
3.1.1 The Excess Code
Consider the decimal number range +7 to -8. These positive and

negative decimal numbers can be represented by the 2’s complement
representation. The magnitude of positive and negative numbers cannot
be easily compared as the positive and negative numbers represented in
2’s complement form are not represented on a uniformly increasing
scale.
The decimal number range +7 to -8 is represented using an excess-8

code that assigns 0000 to -8 the lowest number in the range and 1111 to
+7 the highest number in the range. Excess-8 code is obtained by adding
a number to the lowest number -8 in the range such that the result is
zero. The number is 8. The number 8 is added to all the remaining
decimal numbers from -7 up to the highest number +7. The excess-8
represented is presented below.
Table 1: Excess-8 Code Representation of Decimal Numbers in the

Range 7 to 8
Decimal 2’sComplement Excess- Decimal 2’sComplement Excess-

8 8
0 0000 1000 -8 1000 0000
1 0001 1001 -7 1001 0001
2 0010 1010 -6 1010 0010
3 0011 1011 -5 1011 0011
4 0100 1100 -4 1100 0100
5 0101 1101 -3 1101 0101
6 0110 1110 -2 1110 0110
7 0111 1111 -1 1111 0111
3.1.2 BCD Code
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) code is used to represent decimal digits in

binary. BCD code is a 4-bit binary code; the first 10 combinations
represent the decimal digits 0 to 9. The remaining six 4-bit combinations
1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110 and 1111 are considered to be invalid and
do not exist.
The BCD code representing the decimal digits 0 to 9 is shown in the

Table below:
22
Table 2: BCD Representation of Decimal Digits 0 to 9
Decimal BCD Decimal BCD

0 0000 5 0101
1 0001 6 0110
2 0010 7 0111
3 0011 8 1000
4 0100 9 1001
To write 17, two BCD code for 1 and 7 are used 0001 and 0111. The
two digits are considered to be separate. The conventional method of
representing decimal 17 using unsigned binary is 10001. A telephone
keypad having the digits 0 to 9 generates BCD codes for the keys
pressed.
Most digital systems display a count value or the time in decimal on 7-

segment LED display panels. Since the numbers displayed are in
decimal, therefore the BCD Code is used to display the decimal
numbers. Consider a 2-digit 7-segment display that can display a count
value from 0 to 99. To display the two decimal digits two separate BCD
codes are applied at the two 7-segment display circuit inputs.
BCD Addition
Multi-digit BCD numbers can be added together.
23 0010 0011
45 0100 0101
68 0110 1000
The two 2-digit BCD numbers are added and generate a result in BCD.
In the example, the least significant digits 3 and 5 add up to 8 which is a
valid BCD representation. Similarly, the most significant digits 2 and 4
add up to 6 which also is a valid BCD representation.
Consider the next example where the least significant numbers add up to
a number greater than 9 for which there is no valid BCD code
23 0010 0011
48 0100 1000
71 0110 1011
For BCD numbers that add up to an invalid BCD number or generate a

carry the number 6(0110) is added to the invalid number. If a carry
results, it is added to the next most significant digit. Thus:
23
0011
1000
1011 11 is generated which is an invalid BCD number
0110 6 is added
1 0001
A carry is generated which is added to the result of the next most

significant digits
1
0110
0111
The answer is 0111 0001
3.1.3 Gray Code
The Gray code does not have any weights assigned to its bit positions.
The Gray code is not a positional code. The Gray code is different from
the unsigned binary code as successive values of Gray code differ by
only one bit. Table 3 shows the Gray code representation of decimal
numbers 0 to 9.
Table 3: Gray Code Representation of Decimal Values
Decimal Gray Binary

0 0000 0000
1 0001 0001
2 0011 0010
3 0010 0011
4 0110 0100
5 0111 0101
6 0101 0110
7 0100 0111
8 1100 1000
9 1101 1001
The bits in bold change in successive values of Gray code

representation.
3.1.4 Alphanumeric Code
All the representation studied so far allow decimal numbers to be

represented in binary. Digital systems also process text information as in
editing of documents. Thus, each letter of the alphabet, upper case and
lower case, along with the punctuation marks should have a
representation. Numbers are also written in textual form such as 2nd
24
June 2003. The ASCII code is a universally accepted code that allows
128 characters and symbols to be represented.
3.1.5 ASCII Code
The ASCII code (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

is a 7-bit code representing 128 unique codes which represent the
alphabet characters A to Z in lower case and upper case, the decimal
numbers 0 to 9, punctuation marks and control characters.
ASCII codes 011 0000 (30h) to 011 1001 (39h) represents numbers 0 to
9
ASCII codes 1100001 (61h) to 1111010(7Ah) represent lower case

alphabets a to z
ASCII codes 100 0001 (41h) to 101 1010 (5Ah) represent upper case
alphabets A to Z
ASCII codes 000 0000 (0h) to 001 1111 (1Fh) represent the 32 Control
characters.
3.1.6 Extended ASCII Code
The 7-bit ASCII code only has 128 unique codes which are not enough
to represent some graphical characters displayed on computer screens.
An 8-bit code extended ASCII code gives 256 unique codes. The
extended 128 unique codes represent graphic symbols which have
become an unofficial standard as vendors use their own interpretation of
these graphic codes.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Excess-8 code is obtained by adding a number to the lowest number -8

in the range such that the result is zero. Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
code is used to represent decimal digits in binary. BCD code is a 4-bit
binary code; the first 10 combinations represent the decimal digits 0 to
9.
The Gray code does not have any weights assigned to its bit positions, is
not a positional code and is different from the unsigned binary code as
successive values of Gray code differ by only one bit.
The ASCII Code (American Standard Code for Information

Interchange) is a 7-bit code representing 128 unique codes which
25
represent the alphabet characters A to Z in lower case and upper case,

the decimal numbers 0 to 9, punctuation marks and control characters.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we talked about various codes, their characteristics and how
they can be used.
Write short notes on the following:
(a) Excess code

(b) BCD code
(c) Gray code
(d) Alphanumeric code
(e) ASCII code
(f) Extended ASCII code.
University Press.

Design. Springer.

Hall.
Hennessy, L. John & Patterson A. David (2008). Computer

Holdsworth, Brian & Woods Clive (2002). Digital Logic Design.

Newnes.

Nelson, P. Victor; et al. (1995). Digital Logic Circuit Analysis &

Design. Prentice Hall.

26

www.cs.siu.edu
27
MODULE 2 COMBINATIONAL LOGIC DESIGN &

APPLICATIONS
Unit 1 Analysis and Design of a Combinational Logic Circuit

Unit 2 Typical Combinational Logic Circuit I
Unit 3 Typical Combinational Logic Circuit II
Unit 4 Typical Combinational Logic Circuit III
UNIT 1 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF A

COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUIT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Analysis of a Combinational Logic Circuit
3.2 Design of a Combinational Logic Circuit
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Digital logic circuits can be classified into two types: Combinational and
Sequential logic circuits.
Combinational logic circuit is designed using logic gates in which

applications of inputs generate the outputs at any time. A combinational
circuit does not require memory so the output depends only on the
current inputs. Combinational circuits help in reducing design
complexity and reduce the chip count in a circuit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 analyse a combinational logic circuit

 design a combinational logic circuit.
28
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Analysis of a Combinational Logic Circuit
A combinational logic circuit can be analysed by:
 identifying the number of inputs and outputs

 expressing the output functions in terms of the inputs, and
 determining the truth table for the logic diagram.
3.2 Design of a Combinational Logic Circuit
A combinational circuit can be designed using three steps as follows:
 determine the inputs and the outputs from the problem definition
and then derive the truth table
 use k-maps to minimise the number of inputs in order to express
the outputs - this reduces the number of gates and thus the
implementation cost
 draw the logic diagrams.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Combinational logic circuit is designed using logic gates in which

applications of inputs generate the outputs at any time. It does not
require memory so the output depends only on the current inputs.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we discussed combinational logic circuit, its analysis and

how it can be designed.
Briefly explain the term combinational logic circuit, how it is analysed

and designed.
University Press.

Design. Springer.
29

Hall.


Newnes.
Mano, M. Morris & Kime, Charles, R. (2007). Logic and Computer


McGraw-Hill.



Publishers.


Design.

Prentice Hall.
Tocci, J. Ronald & Widmer S. Neal (1994). Digital Systems: Principles

and Applications.

McGraw-Hill.

30
UNIT 2 TYPICAL COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUIT I
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Typical Combinational Logic Circuit I
3.1.1 Adders
3.1.1.1 Half-adder
3.1.1.2 Half-adder Function Table
3.1.1.3 Half-adder Sum & Carry out Boolean Expression
3.1.1.4 Full-adder
3.1.1.5 Full-adder Function Table
3.1.1.6 Full-adder Sum & Carry out Boolean Expression
3.1.1.7 Forming a Full-adder Using Half-adders
3.1.1.8 Parallel Binary Adders
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall discuss Adders, types and their implementation.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 name the two types of adders we have

 discuss the half-adder, its function table, sum and carry out
Boolean expression
 discuss the full-adder, its function table, sum and carry out
Boolean expression
 form a full-adder using half-adders
 discuss about the parallel binary adder.
31
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Typical Combinational Logic Circuit I
3.1.1 Adders
We have two types of adder: Half-adder and Full-adder
3.1.1.1 Half-adder
A single bit binary adder circuit basically adds two bits. The output of
the single bit adder circuit generates a sum bit. An adder circuit that only
has two bit input representing the two single bit numbers A and B and
does not have the carry bit input from the least significant digit is
regarded as a half-adder. The block diagram below represents a half-
adder.
Fig. 1: Block Representation of Half-Adder
A half-adder can be fully described in terms of its function table and the
circuit implementation.
3.1.1.2 Half-Adder Function Table
The half-adder has a 2-bit input and a 2-bit output. The function table of
the half-adder has two input columns representing the two single bit
numbers A and B. The function table also has two output columns
representing the sum bit and carry out bit.
32
Fig. 2: Half-Adder Function Table and Circuit Implementation
3.1.1.3 Half-adder Sum & Carry Out Boolean Expression
The sum and carry out expressions of the half-adder can be determined
from the function table. The half-adder sum and carry out outputs are
defined by the expressions:
Sum = AB + AB = A B
Carry out = AB
3.1.1.4 Full-Adder
An adder circuit which has three inputs, one representing single bit
number A, the other representing the single bit number B and the third
bit represents the single bit carry is referred to as a full-adder. The single
bit binary adder has two bit output. One bit represents the Sum between
numbers A and B. The other bit represents the carry bit generated due to
addition. The diagram below represents the block diagram of a full-
adder.
Fig. 3: Block Representation of a Full-Adder
33
3.1.1.5 Full-adder Function Table
The full-adder has a 3-bit input and a 2-bit output. The function table of
the full-adder has three input columns representing the two single bit
numbers A, B and the carry in bit. The function table also has two
output columns representing the sum bit and carry out bit.
Fig. 4: Full-adder Function Table and Circuit Implementation
3.1.1.6 Full-adder Sum & Carry out Boolean Expression
The sum and carry out expressions of the full-adder can be determined
from the function table. The full-adder sum and carry out outputs are
defined by the expressions:
Sum = A B C + ABC + ABC + ABC

Sum = A(BC +BC) + A(BC +BC)
Sum = A(B C) + A(B C)
Sum = A B C
CarryOut = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
CarryOut = C(AB + AB) + AB(C + C)
CarryOut = C(A B) + AB
3.1.1.7 Forming a Full-Adder using Half-adders
A 1-bit full-adder can be implemented by combining together two half-

adders.
34
Fig. 5: Implementing a Full-Adder using Two Half-Adders
The sum output of the first half-adder is (A B)

The carry out of the first half-adder is AB
The sum output of the second half-adder is (A B) Cin = (A B Cin)
The carry out of the second half-adder is (A B)Cin
The output of the OR gate is in AB + (A B)Cin
3.1.1.8 Parallel Binary Adders
Single bit full or half-adders do not perform any useful function. To add
two 4-bit numbers a 4-bit adder is required. Four single bit full-adders
are connected together to form a 4-bit parallel adder capable of adding
two 4-bit binary numbers. A 4-bit binary adder can be formed with four
full-adders as follows:
Fig. 6: A 4-Bit Binary Adder
35
The connection diagram and logic symbols are shown below:
Connection Diagram Logic Symbol
Fig.7: Connection Diagram and Logic Symbol of a 4-Bit Binary Adder
Explain with the aid of diagrams how you can form a full-adder from
half-adders.
4.0 CONCLUSION
An adder circuit that only has two bit input representing the two single
bit numbers A and B and does not have the carry bit input from the least
significant digit is regarded as a half-adder. An adder circuit which has
three inputs, one representing single bit number A, the other
representing the single bit number B and the third bit represents the
single bit carry is referred to as a full-adder.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we talked about types of adder, half-adder, half-adder

function table, half-adder sum and carry out Boolean expression, full-
adder, full-adder function table, full-adder sum and carry out Boolean
expression.
36

Write short notes with diagrams where necessary on the following:
1. half-adder, its function table and sum & carry out Boolean
expression.
2. full-adder, its function table and sum & carry out Boolean
expression.
University Press.

Design. Springer.

Hall.


Newnes.


McGraw-Hill.
Nelson, P. Victor et al. (1995). Digital Logic Circuit Analysis & Design.
Prentice Hall.


Publishers.

37

Design.

Prentice Hall.
Tocci, J. Ronald & Widmer, S. Neal (1994). Digital Systems: Principles

and Applications.

McGraw-Hill.

38
UNIT 3 TYPICAL COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUIT

II
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Typical Combinational Logic Circuit II
3.1.1 Multiplexers
3.1.1.1 Using Pass Gate
3.1.1.2 Design with Multiplexers
3.1.1.3 Applications of Multiplexers
3.1.2 Demultiplexers
3.1.2.1 Applications of Demultiplexers
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall discuss multiplexers, demultiplexers and their

applications in our everyday live.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 state what a multiplexer is

 state how a multiplexer is designed
 discuss the applications of multiplexers
 state what a demultiplexer is
 discuss the applications of demultiplexers.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Typical Combinational Logic Circuit II
3.1.1 Multiplexers
Multiplexer is a digital switch that has several inputs and a single

output. The Multiplexer also has select inputs that allow any one of the
multiple inputs can be selected to be connected to the output.
Multiplexers are also known as Data Selectors. The main use of the
39
Multiplexer is to select data from multiple sources and to route it to a

single destination. In a computer, the ALU combinational circuit has
two inputs to allow arithmetic operations to be performed on two
quantities. The two quantities are usually stored in different set of
registers.
The inputs of the two multiplexers are connected to the output of each of
the multiple registers.
The outputs of the two multiplexers are connected to the two inputs of
the ALUs. The multiplexers are used to route the contents of any two
registers to the ALU inputs.
Fig. 1: A 4 X 1 Multiplexers and its Truth Table
4-data input multiplexer selects one of many inputs to be directed to an

output.
Fig. 2: 4-Data Input MUX Implementation
40
3.1.1.1 Using Pass Gate
The 4 x 1 MUX can be implemented with pass gates as follows:
Fig. 3: Implementation of the 4x1 MUX with Pass Gates
Multiplexers can be efficiently implemented using the majority function

and even- parity function.
Table 1: Majority Function
41
Table 2: Even-Parity Function
3.1.1.2 Design with Multiplexers
Any Boolean function can be implemented by setting the inputs

corresponding to the function and the selectors as the variables as shown
below:
Fig. 4: Design with Multiplexers
3.1.1.4 Applications of Multiplexers
Multiplexers are used in a wide variety of applications. Their primary

use is to route data from multiple sources to a single destination. Other
than its use as a data router, they are used as a parallel to serial
converter, logic function generator and also for operation sequencing.
42
Data Routing
A two - digit 7-Segment display uses two 7-Segments Display digits

connected to two BCD to 7-Segment display circuits. To display the
number 29 the BCD number 0010 representing the MSD is applied at
the inputs of the BCD to 7-Segment display circuit connected to the
MSD 7-Segment Display Digit. Similarly, the BCD input 1001
representing the numbers 9 is applied at the inputs of the LSD display
circuit. The circuit uses two BCD to 7-Segment decoder circuits to
decode each of the two BCD inputs to the respective 7-Segment display
outputs. The display circuit can be implemented using a single CD to 7-
Segment IC and a multiplexer.
Parallel to Series Conversion
In a digital system, binary data is used and represented in parallel.

Parallel data is a set of multiple bits. For example, a nibble is a parallel
set of 4-bits, a byte is a parallel set of 8 bits. When two binary numbers
are added, the two numbers are represented in parallel and the parallel
adder works and generates a sum term which is also in parallel.
Transmission of information to remote locations through a piece of wire

requires that the parallel information (data) be converted into serial
form. In a serial data representation, data is represented by a sequence of
single bits. An 8-bit parallel data can be transmitted through a single
piece of wire 1-bit at a time. Transmitting 8-bits simultaneously (in
parallel form) requires 8 separate wires for the 8-bits. Laying of 8 wires
across two remote locations for data transfer is expensive and is
therefore not practical. All communication systems set up across remote
locations use serial transmission.
An 8-bit parallel data can be converted into serial data by using an 8-to-
1 multiplexer such as 74X151 which has 8 inputs and a single output.
The 8-bit data which is to be transmitted serially is applied at the 8
inputs I0-7 of the multiplexer. A three bit counter which counts from 0
to 7 is connected to the three select inputs S0, S1 and S2. The counter is
connected to a clock which sends a clock pulse to the counter every 1
millisecond. Initially, the counter is reset to 000, the I0 input is selected
and the data at input I0 is routed to the output of the multiplexer. On
receiving the clock signal after 1 millisecond the counter increments its
count from 000 to 001 which selects I1 input of the multiplexer and
routes the data present at the input to the output. Similarly, at the next
clock pulse the counter increments to 010, selecting I2 input and routing
the data to the output. Thus, after 8 milliseconds the parallel data is
routed to the output 1-bit at a time. The output of the multiplexer is
connected to the wire through which the serial data is transmitted.
43
Fig. 5: Serial to Parallel Conversion
Logic Function Generator
Multiplexers can be used to implement a logic function directly from the

function table without the need for simplification. The select inputs of
the multiplexer are used as the function variables. The inputs of the
multiplexer are connected to logic 1 and 0 to represent the missing and
available terms. The three variable function table and its 8-to-1
multiplexer based function implementation is shown in the figure below:
Fig. 6: Logic Function Generator Based on 3-Variable Logic

Function Table
44
Operation Sequencing
Many industrial applications have processes that run in a sequence. A

paint manufacturing plant might have a four step process to manufacture
paint. Each of the four steps runs in a sequence one after the other. The
second step cannot start before the first step has completed. Similarly,
the third and fourth steps of the paint manufacturing process cannot
proceed unless steps two and three have completed. It is not necessary
that each of the manufacturing steps is of the same duration. Each
manufacturing step can have different time duration and can be variable
depending upon the quantity of paint manufactured or other parameters.
Normally, the end of each step in the manufacturing process is indicated
by a signal which is actuated by some machine which has completed its
part of the manufacturing process. On receiving the signal, the next step
of the manufacturing process is initiated. The entire sequence of
operations is controlled by a multiplexer and a decoder circuit.
The manufacturing processes are started by resetting the 2-bit counter to

00. The counter output is connected to the select input of the multiplexer
and the inputs of the decoder which selects the multiplexer input I0 is
and activates the Decoder output Y0. The decoder output is connected to
initiate the first process. When the process completes it indicates the
completion of the process by setting its output to logic 1. The output of
Process 1 is connected to I0 input of the Multiplexer. When Process 1
sets its output to 1 to indicate its completion, the logic 1 is routed by the
Multiplexer to the clock input of the 2-it counter. The counter on
receiving logic 1 increments its count to 01, which selects I1 input of the
Multiplexer and the Y1 output of the Decoder. The input to Process 1 is
deactivated and Process 2 is activated by Y1. On completion of Process
2 its output is set to logic 1, which is routed by the multiplexer to the
clock input of the 2-bit counter which increments to the next count. This
continues until Process 4 signals its completion after which the Decoder
and the Multiplexer is deselected completing the manufacturing process.
45
Fig. 7: Control of Manufacturing Process through Operation

Sequencing
3.1.2 Demultiplexer
A multiplexer has several inputs. It selects one of the inputs and routes
the data at the selected input to the single output. Demultiplexer has an
opposite function to that of the multiplexer. It has a single input and
several outputs. The demultiplexer selects one of the several outputs and
routes the data at the single input to the selected output. A demultiplexer
is also known as a data distributor.
46
Fig. 8: A 1 x 4 Demultiplexer
The circuit if compared to that of the 2-to-4 decoder. The decoder enable
input is used as the demultiplexer data input. A demultiplexer is not
available commercially. A demultiplexer is available as a
decoder/demultiplexer chip which can be configured to operate as a
demultiplexer or a decoder.
The circuit of the 1-to-4 demultiplexer is similar to the 2-to-4 binary

decoder. The only difference between the two is the addition of the data
input line, which is used as enable line in the 2-to-4 decoder circuit.
3.1.2.1 Applications of Demultiplexer
Demultiplexer is used to connect a single source to multiple destinations

as shown in the figure below:
Fig. 9: Demultiplexer Used to Connect a Single Source to

Multiple Destinations
47
It is used at the output of the ALU circuit. The output of the ALU has to
be stored in one of the multiple registers or storage units. The Data input
of the demultiplexer is connected to the output of the ALU. Each output
of the demultiplexer is connected to each of the multiple registers. By
selecting the appropriate output data from the ALU is routed to the
appropriate register for storage.
The second use of the demultiplexer is the reconstruction of parallel data

from the incoming serial data stream. Serial data arrives at the data input
of the demultiplexer at fixed time intervals. A counter attached to the
Select inputs of the demultiplexer routes the incoming serial bits to
successive outputs where each bit is stored. When all the bits have been
stored, data can be read out in parallel.
Fig. 10: DeMUX as a Serial to Parallel Converter
4.0 CONCLUSION
Multiplexer is a digital switch that has several inputs and a single

output. It also has select inputs that allow any one of the multiple inputs
can be selected to be connected to the output. They are also known as
data selectors. Multiplexers are used in a wide variety of applications.
Their primary use is to route data from multiple sources to a single
destination. Other than its use as a data router, they are used as a parallel
to serial converter, logic function generator and also for operation
sequencing.
Demultiplexer has an opposite function to that of the Multiplexer. It has

a single input and several outputs. It selects one of the several outputs
and routes the data at the single input to the selected output. A
demultiplexer is also known as a data distributor. It is used to connect a
48
single source to multiple destinations. It is also used for the

reconstruction of parallel data from the incoming serial data stream.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we explained about multiplexers and demultiplexers, how

they are designed and their applications.
Discuss briefly on the following:
i. MUX
ii. DeMUX
iii. 4 Differences b/w MUX and DeMUX
iv. Designing with multiplexers and demultiplexers
v. Applications of MUX and DeMUX.
University Press.
Dandamudi, S. (2003). Fundamentals of Computer Organization &

Design. Springer.

Hall.

Organization & Design. M,organ Kaufmann.
Holdsworth, Brian & Woods Clive (2002). Digital Logic Design.

Newnes.


McGraw-Hill.
Prentice Hall.
49


Publishers.


Design.

Prentice Hall.

and Applications.

McGraw-Hill.

50
UNIT 4 TYPICAL COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUIT

III
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Typical Combinational Logic Circuit III
3.1.1 Decoders
3.1.1.1 Decoders with Enable Line
3.1.1.2 Designing with Decoders
3.1.1.3 Decoder Networks
3.1.1.4 Applications of Decoders
3.1.2 Encoders
3.1.2.1 Designing with Encoders
3.1.2.2 Priority Encoders
3.1.2.3 Designing with P-Encoders
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall discuss decoders and encoders, designing with

them and their applications in our everyday lives.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define a decoder
 design with decoders
 discuss the decoder networks and applications of decoders
 define an encoder
 define a priority encoder.
51
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Typical Combinational Logic Circuit III
3.1.1 Decoders
A decoder has multiple inputs and multiple outputs. The decoder device
accepts as an input a multi-bit code and activates one or more of its
outputs to indicate the presence of the multi-bit code. A standard
decoder is an m-to-n line where m≤2n.
Fig. 1: Truth Table, Logic Symbol and Circuit Implementation of a 2-

to-4 Decoder
3.1.1.1 Decoders with Enable Line
Often, decoders have an enable line that turns on outputs or leaves them
off. The figure below shows a 3-to-8 decoder with enable and its truth
table.
52
Fig. 2: A 2-to-4 Decoder with Enable and its Truth Table
3.1.1.2 Designing with Decoders
Any Boolean function can be implemented using a decoder and OR

gates as shown in the figure below:
Fig. 3: Implementation of a Boolean Function
3.1.1.3 Decoder Networks
We can use multiple decoders to form a larger decoder. Below is a 3-to-

8 decoder implemented with two 2-to-4 decoders.
53
Fig. 4: A 3-to-8 Decoder Implemented with Two 2-to-4 Decoders
3.1.1.4 Applications of Decoders
Decoders have two major uses in Computer Systems.
Selection of Peripheral Devices
Computers have different internal and external devices like the Hard
Disk, CD Drive, Modem, Printer, etc. Each of these different devices is
selected by specifying different codes. A decoder is used to uniquely
select or deselect the appropriate devices.
Instruction Decoder
Computer programs are based on instructions which are decoded by the

computer hardware and implemented. The codes 1100010, 1100011,
1110000 and 1000101 represent - add two numbers, subtract two
numbers, clear the result and store the result instructions.
These instruction codes are decoded by an instruction decoder to

generate signals that control different logic circuits like the ALU and
memory to perform these operations.
3.1.2 Encoders
An encoder functional device performs an operation which is the

opposite of the decoder function. The encoder accepts an active level at
one of its inputs and at its output generates a BCD or binary output
representing the selected input. A standard binary encoder is an m-to-n-
line encoder, where m≤2n.
54
Fig. 5: An 8-to-3-Line Encoder with its Truth Table
Example: An input of 00010000 in an encoder will give
55
3.1.2.1 Designing with Encoders
Encoders are useful when the occurance of one of several disjoint events
needs to be represented by an integer identifying the event.
3.1.2.2 Priority Encoders
A priority encoder takes the input of 1 with the highest index and
translates that index to the output.
Fig. 6: Truth Table and Circuit Implementation of a Priority

Encoder
56

Priority encoders are useful when inputs have a predefined priority and
we wish to select the input with the highest priority. An example is in
resolving interrupt requests.
Fig. 7: Resolving Interrupt Requests
Write on the applications of decoders and encoders.
4.0 CONCLUSION
A decoder has multiple inputs and multiple outputs. The decoder device
accepts as an input a multi-bit code and activates one or more of its
outputs to indicate the presence of the multi-bit code. Decoders have
two major uses in computer systems: selection of peripheral devices and
instruction decoder.
An encoder functional device performs an operation which is the

opposite of the decoder function. The encoder accepts an active level at
one of its inputs and at its output generates a BCD or binary output
representing the selected input.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we examined decoders and encoders and also how to design
with them.
57
Discuss briefly on the following:
i. decoders
ii. encoders
iii. differences between decoders and encoders
iv designing with decoders and encoders
v. applications of decoders and encoders.
University Press.

Design. Springer.

Hall.


Newnes.


McGraw-Hill.



Publishers.
58


Design.
Tanenbaum Andrew S. (1998). Structured Computer Organization.

Prentice Hall.

and Applications.

McGraw-Hill.

59
MODULE 3 SEQUENTIAL LOGIC DESIGN &

APPLICATIONS
Unit 1 Sequential Logic Circuits

Unit 2 Latches and Flip-Flops
Unit 3 Registers
Unit 4 Finite State Machines
UNIT 1 SEQUENTIAL LOGIC CIRCUITS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Sequential Logic Circuits
3.1.1 Overview
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Digital logic circuits can be classified into two types: Combinational and
Sequential logic circuits. We shall in this module explain the sequential
logic circuit and its numerous applications.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 describe what a sequential logic circuit is

 state the differences between combinational and sequential logic
circuit
 list and explain the types of sequential logic circuit.
60
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Sequential Logic Circuits
3.1.1 Overview
The combinational digital circuits have no storage element; therefore

combinational circuits handle only instantaneous inputs. The outputs of
the combinational circuits also cannot be stored. The absence of a
memory element restricts the use of digital combinational circuits to
certain application areas. The use of a memory element which is capable
of storing digital inputs and outputs is an important part of all practical
digital circuits.
Consider an ALU which performs arithmetic and logical operations. An

ALU cannot perform its operations unless it is connected to memory
elements that store the inputs applied at the inputs of the ALU and
outputs from the ALU. Consider an ALU that performs addition
operation on a set of numbers, 2, 3, 4 and 5. The ALU can add two
numbers at a time; therefore the ALU has to add the four numbers two at
a time. The four numbers have to be stored temporarily; the partial
results after adding two numbers also need to be stored. To add the four
numbers, the first two numbers 2 and 3 are stored in two separate
memory elements are added together, the result (5) has to be added to
the next number 4. The result (5) is temporarily stored in one of the two
memory elements used to store the numbers 2 and 3. The result (5) is
added to the third number 4 to provide another partial sum result 9
which has to be stored and then added with the fourth number 5.
Digital circuits that use memory elements for their operation are known
as Sequential circuits. Thus, sequential circuits are implemented by
combining combinational circuits with memory elements as shown
below:
61
Fig. 1: Block Diagram of a Sequential Circuit
We have two types of sequential circuits namely:
Synchronous sequential circuits – Their behaviour is determined by

the values of the signals at only discrete instants of time.
Asynchronous sequential circuits – Their behaviour is immediately

affected by the input signal changes.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXCERCISE
Write in details the two types of sequential circuits we have.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Digital circuits that use memory elements for their operation are known
as sequential circuits. Thus, sequential circuits are implemented by
combining combinational circuits with memory elements.
We have two types of sequential circuits namely: Synchronous

sequential circuits and asynchronous sequential circuits.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we explained sequential logic circuit and its types.
Extensively discuss sequential logic circuit and its types using diagrams
and good examples.
62
University Press.

Design. Springer.

Hall.


Newnes.


McGraw-Hill.
Nelson, P. Victor, et al. (1995). Digital Logic Circuit Analysis &


Patterson, David & Hennessy, John, (1993). Computer Organization &

Publishers.


Design.

Prentice Hall.

and Applications.
63

McGraw-Hill.

64
UNIT 2 LATCHES AND FLIP-FLOPS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Latches and Flip-Flops
3.1.1 Latches
3.1.1.1The NAND Gate Based S-R Latch
3.1.1.2The NOR Gate Based S-R (Set-Reset) Latch
3.1.1.3Applications of S-R Latch
3.1.1.4 The Gated S-R Latch
3.1.1.5 The Gated D Latch
3.1.2 Flip-Flops
3.1.2.1 S-R Edge-Triggered Flip-Flops
3.1.2.2 Edge-Triggered D Flip-Flops
3.1.2.3 Edge-Triggered J-K Flip-Flops
3.1.2.4 Asynchronous Preset and Clear Inputs
3.1.2.5 Master-Slave Flip-Flops
3.1.2.6 Flip-Flops Operating Characteristics
3.1.2.7 Applications of Edge-Triggered D Flip-
Flops
3.1.2.8 Applications of Edge-Triggered J-K Flip-
Flops
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall extensively discuss latches and flip-flops.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 describe what a latch and flip-flop is

 describe how a latch and flip-flop are designed
 explain the various types of latch and flip-flop
 explain how the types of latch and flip-flop are designed
 state the various uses of latches and flip-flops
 explain the various applications of the latch and flip-flop.
65
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Latches and Flip-Flops
The basic logic element that provides memory in many sequential

circuits is the flip-flop.
3.1.1 Latches
A latch is a temporary storage device that has two stable states. A latch
output can change from one state to the other by applying appropriate
inputs. A latch normally has two inputs, the binary input combinations
at the latch input allows the latch to change its state. A latch has two
outputs Q and its complement Q. The latch is said to be in logic high
state when Q=1 and Q=0 and it is in the logic low state when Q=0 and
Q=1. When the latch is set to a certain state it retains its state unless the
inputs are changed to set the latch to a new state.
Thus, a latch is a memory element which is able to retain the

information stored in it.
3.1.1.1 The NAND Gate Based S-R (Set-Reset) Latch
An S-R Latch is implemented by connecting two NAND gates together.

The output of each NAND gate is connected to the input of the other
NAND gate. The unconnected inputs of the two NAND gates are the Set
S and Reset R inputs. The outputs of the two NAND gates are the Q and
its complement Q. The circuit diagram of the NAND based S-R latch is
shown in figure 1.
Fig. 1: NAND Based S-R Latch
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A truth-table shows the operation of the S-R NAND based latch. The
Output Qt+1 represents the Q output of NAND gate 1 at time interval
t+1.When inputs are S = 1 and R = 1 the next state output Qt+1 remains
the same as the previous state output Qt. When inputs are S = 0 and R =
1 the output Q is set to 1. When inputs are S = 1 and R = 0 the output Q
is set to 0. Inputs S = 0 and R = 0 are not applied as they place the latch
in an invalid state.
The NAND gate based S-R latch has active-low inputs.
Table 1: Truth-Table of NAND based S-R Latch
Input Output
S R Qt+1
0 0 invalid
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 Qt
3.1.1.2 The NOR Gate Based S-R (Set-Reset) Latch
A NOR based S-R latch is implemented using NOR gates instead of

NAND gates.
Connections are identical to that of the NAND based latch. The S and R
inputs have been switched.
Fig. 2: NOR Based S-R Latch
The truth table of the NOR gate based latch is shown. When inputs are S
=0 and R = 0 the next state output Qt+1 remains the same as the
previous state output Qt. When inputs are S = 0 and R = 1 the output Q
is set to 0. When inputs are S = 1 and R = 0 the output Q is set to 1.
Inputs S = 1 and R = 1 are not applied as they place the latch in an
invalid state. The NOR gate based S-R latch has active-high inputs.
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Table 2: Truth-Table of NOR based S-R Latch
Input Output
S R Qt+1
0 0 Qt
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 invalid
Comparing the operation of the NOR based and NAND based S-R
latches.
The NAND based latch has active-low inputs, whereas NOR based latch
has active-high inputs. Both the S-R latches are set to logic 1 when the
set input is activated and the reset input is inactive.
Both the latches are set to logic 0 when the reset input is activated and
the set input is inactive. The latches maintain the output state when both
the set and reset inputs are inactive.
For both the latches both the set and reset inputs cannot be activated
simultaneously as this leads to invalid output states. The logic symbols
of the two latches are shown below.
Fig. 3: NOR Based Active-High and NAND Based Active-Low

S-R Latches
3.1.1.3 Application of S-R Latch
Digital systems use switches to input values and to control the output.
For example, a keypad uses 10 switches to enter decimal numbers 0 to 9.
When a switch is closed the switch contacts physically vibrate or
‘bounce’ before making a solid contact. The switch bounce causes the
voltage at the output of the switch to vary between logic low and high
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for a very short duration before it settles to a steady state. The variation
in the voltage causes the digital circuit to operate in an erratic manner.
An S-R latch connected between the switch and the digital circuit
prevents the varying switch output from reaching the digital circuit.
In figure 3 above, when the switch is moved up to connect the resistor

to the ground, the output voltage fluctuates between logic 1 and 0 for a
very brief period of time when the switch vibrates before making a solid
contact. The output voltage settles to logic 0 when a solid contact is
made. The active-low input S-R latch shown in figure 4 prevents the
output signal from varying between logic 1 and 0. When the switch is
moved from down position to up position, the R input is set to 1 and S
input is set to 0, which sets the Q output of the S-R latch to 1. The S
input varies between 0 and 1 due to switch ‘bounce’, however the S-R
latch doesn’t change its output state Q when S = 1 and R = 1.
Fig. 4: The Output of a Switch Connected to Logic High
Fig. 5: The Switch Connected through an S-R Latch

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The S-R NAND gate based latch is available in the form of an Integrated
Circuit. The 74LS279 IC has four S-R latches which can be used
independently.
3.1.1.4 The Gated S-R Latch
The gated S-R latch has an enable input which has to be activated to
operate the latch. The circuit diagram of the gated S-R latch is shown in
figure 6. In the gated S-R circuit, the S and R inputs are applied at the
inputs of the NAND gates 1 and 2 when the enable input is set to active-
high. If the enable input is disabled by setting it to logic low the output
of NAND gates 3 and 4 remains logic 1, whatever the state of S and R
inputs. Thus, logic 1 applied at the inputs of NAND gates 1 and 2 keeps
the Q and Q outputs to the previous state. The logic symbol of a gated S-
R latch is shown in figure 6.
Fig. 6: Gated S-R Latch
Fig. 7: Logic Symbol of a Gated S-R Latch
70
Table 3: Truth-Table of a Gated S-R Latch
Input Output
EN S R Qt+1
0 x x Qt
1 0 0 Qt
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 invalid
3.1.1.5 The Gated D Latch
One way to eliminate the undesirable condition of the indeterminate

state in the SR latch is to ensure that inputs S and R are never equal to 1
at the same time. This is done by the D latch. Thus, the D latch has the
ability to hold data in its internal storage. The output follows changes in
the data input as long as the control input is gated. The circuit is often
called a transparent latch.
Fig. 8: Gated D Latch
Table 4: Truth Table of a Gated D Latch
71
Fig. 9: Logic Symbol of a Gated D Latch
3.1.2 Flip-Flops
When latches are used for the memory elements in sequential circuits, a
serious difficulty arises. Recall that latches have the property of
immediate output responses (i.e., transparency).Because of this the
output of a latch cannot be applied directly (or through logic) to the
input of the same or another latch when all the latches are triggered by a
common clock source. Flip-flops are used to overcome this difficulty.
Flip-flops are synchronous bi-stable devices, known as bi-stable

multivibrators. Flip-flops have a clock input instead of a simple enable
input. The output of the flip-flop can only change when appropriate
inputs are applied at the inputs and a clock signal is applied at the clock
input. Flip-flops with enable inputs can change their state at any instant
when the enable input is active. Digital circuits that change their outputs
when the enable input is active are difficult to design and debug as
different parts of the digital circuit operate at different times.
In synchronous systems, the output of all the digital circuits changes

when a clock signal is applied instead of the enable signal. The change
in the state of the digital circuit occurs either at the low-to-high or high-
to-low transition of the clock signal. Since the transition of the clock
signal is for a very short and precise time intervals; thus, all digital parts
of a digital system change their states simultaneously. The low to high
or high to low transition of the clock is considered to be an edge. Three
different types of edge-triggered flip-flops are generally used in digital
logic circuits.
• S-R edge-triggered flip-flop

• D edge-triggered flip-flop
• J-K edge-triggered flip-flop
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Each flip-flop has two variations, that is, it is either positive edge-
triggered or negative edge triggered. A positive edge-triggered flip-flop
changes its state on a low-to-high transition of the clock and a negative
edge-triggered flip-flop changes its state on a high-to-low transition of
the clock. The edge-detection circuit which allows a flip-flop to change
its state on either the positive or the negative transition of the clock is
implemented using a simple combinational circuit. The edge detection
circuit that detects the positive and the negative clock transition are
shown in figure 11.
Fig. 10: Positive Clock Edge Detection Circuit
Fig. 11: Negative Clock Edge Detection Circuit
3.1.2.1 S-R Edge-Triggered Flip-Flops
The logic symbols of a positive edge and a negative edge triggered S-R
flip-flops are shown in figure 12 below.
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Fig. 12: Logic Symbol of Positive and Negative Edge -Triggered

S-R Flip-Flops
The truth tables of the two S-R flip-flops are also shown below in table
5.
Table 5: Truth-Table of Positive and Negative Edge -Triggered

S-R Flip-Flops
3.1.2.2 Edge-Triggered D Flip-Flops
The logic symbols of a positive edge and a negative edge triggered D

flip-flops are shown in figure 13 below.
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Fig. 13: Logic Symbol of Positive and Negative Edge Triggered

D Flip-Flops
The truth tables of the two D flip-flops are also shown.
Table 6: Truth-Table of Positive and Negative Edge Triggered

D Flip-Flops
3.1.2.3 Edge-Triggered J-K Flip-Flops
The J-K flip-flop is widely used in digital circuits. Its operation is

similar to that of the SR flip-flop except that the J-K flip-flop doesn’t
have an invalid state; instead it toggles its state.
75
The circuit diagram of a J-K edge-triggered flip-flop is shown in figure

14.
Fig. 14: Edge-Triggered J-K Flip-Flop
Consider the Q and Q output of the J-K flip-flop set to 1 and 0

respectively and 0 and 1 respectively. Four set of inputs are applied at J
and K, the effect on the outputs is as follows.
J = 0 and K =0
With Q=1 and Q=0, on a clock transition the outputs of NAND gates 3
and 4 are set to logic 1. With logic 1 value at the inputs of NAND gates
1 and 2 the output Q and Q remains unchanged. With Q=0 and Q=1, on
a clock transition the outputs of the NAND gates 3 and 4 are set to logic
1. With logic 1 value at the inputs of NAND gates 1 and 2 the output Q
and Q remains unchanged.
Thus, when J=0 and K=0 the previous state is maintained and there is no
change in the output.
J = 0 and K =1
With Q=1 and Q=0, on a clock transition the output of NAND gate 3 is
set to logic 1.
The output of the NAND gate 4 is set to 0 as all three of its inputs are at
logic 1. The logic 1 and 0 at the inputs of the NAND gates 3 and 4
respectively resets the Q output to 0 and Q to 1. With Q=0 and Q=1, on
a clock transition the output of NAND gate 3 is set to logic 1. The
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output of the NAND gate 4 is also set to 1 as the input of the NAND
gate 4 is connected to Q=0. The logic 1 and 1 at the inputs of the NAND
gates 3 and 4 respectively retains the Q and Q to 0 and 1 respectively.
Thus, when J=0 and K=1 the J-K flip-flop irrespective of its earlier state
is rest to state Q=0 and Q=1.
J = 1 and K =0
With Q=1 and Q=0, on a clock transition the output of NAND gate 4 is
set to logic 1.
The output of the NAND gate 3 is also set to 1 as its input connected to
Q is at logic 0. Thus, inputs 1 and 1 at inputs of NAND gates 1 and 2
retain the Q and Q output to 1 and 0 respectively. With Q=0 and Q=1,
on a clock transition the output of NAND gate 4 is set to logic 1. The
output of the NAND gate 3 is set to 0 as all its input are at logic 1. Thus,
inputs 0 and 1 at inputs of NAND gates 1 and 2 sets the flip-flop to Q=1
and Q=0.
Thus, when J=1 and K=0 the J-K flip-flop irrespective of its output state
is set to state Q=1 and Q=0.
J = 1 and K =1
With Q=1 and Q=0, on a clock transition the output of the NAND gates
3 and 4 depend on the outputs Q and Q. The output of NAND gate 3 is
set to 1 as Q is connected to its input. The output of NAND gate 4 is set
to 0 as all its inputs including Q is at logic 1. A logic 1 and 0 at the input
of gates 1 and 2 toggles the outputs Q and Q from logic 1 and 0 to 0 and
1 respectively. With Q=0 and Q=1, on a clock transition the output of
NAND gate 3 is set to 0 as Q and the output of NAND gate 4 is set to 1.
A logic 0 and 1 at the input toggles the outputs Q and Q from logic 0
and 1 to 1 and 0 respectively.
In summary, when J-K inputs are both set to logic 0, the output remains
unchanged. At J=0 and K=1 the J-K flip-flop is reset to Q=0 and Q=1.
At J=1 and K=0 the flip-flop is set to Q=1 and Q=0. With J=1 and K=1
the output toggles from the previous state.
The truth tables of the positive and negative edge triggered J-K flip-
flops are shown in Table 7.
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Table 7: Truth-Table of Positive and Negative Edge Triggered J-K

Flip-Flops
The logic symbols of the J-K flip-flops are shown in figure 15.
Fig. 15: Logic Symbol of Positive and Negative Edge Triggered J-

K Flip-Flops
3.1.2.4 Asynchronous Preset and Clear Inputs
The S-R, J-K and D inputs are known as synchronous inputs because the
outputs change when appropriate input values are applied at the inputs
and a clock signal is applied at the clock input. If there is no clock
transition then the inputs have no effect on the output.
Digital circuits require that the flip-flops be set or reset to some initial
state before a new set of inputs is applied for changing the output. The
flip-flops are set-reset to some initial state by using asynchronous inputs
known as Preset and Clear inputs. Since these inputs change the output
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to a known logic level independently of the clock signal therefore these

inputs are known as asynchronous inputs. The circuit diagram of a J-K
flip-flop with Preset and Set is shown below.
Asynchronous inputs are shown. The asynchronous inputs override the

synchronous inputs. Thus, to operate the flip-flop in the synchronous
mode the asynchronous inputs have to be disabled. To preset the flip-
flop to Q=1 and Q=0 the PRE input is set to 0 which sets the Q output to
1 and the output of NAND gate 4 to 1. The CLR input is set to 1 which
sets the Q output to 0 as all three inputs of the NAND gate 2 are set to 1.
The flip-flop is cleared to Q=0 and Q=1 by setting the PRE input is set
to 1 and the CLR input is to 0. The CLR input set to 0 sets Q=1 it also
sets the output of NAND gate 3 to 1. The PRE input set to1 sets the
output Q to 0. When the PRE and the CLR inputs are used inputs J and
K have no effect on the operation of the flip-flop. To use the flip-flop
with synchronous inputs J-K, the PRE and the CLR inputs are set to
logic 1. Setting PRE and the CLR to logic 0 is not allowed.
Fig. 16: J-K Flip-Flop with Asynchronous Preset and Clear

Inputs
Figure 17 shows the logic symbol of a J-K edge-triggered flip-flop with

synchronous and asynchronous inputs.
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Fig. 17: Logic Symbol of a J-K Flip-Flop with Asynchronous

Inputs
The truth table of a J-K flip-flop with asynchronous inputs is shown in

Table 8.
Table 8: Truth Table of J-K Flip-Flop with Asynchronous

Inputs
The 74HC74 Dual Positive-Edge triggered D Flip-Flop
The edge-triggered D flip-flop with asynchronous inputs is available as

an Integrated Circuit. The 74HC74 has dual D-flip-flops with
independent clock inputs, synchronous and asynchronous inputs.
The 74HC112 Dual Positive-Edge triggered J-K flip-flop
The edge-triggered D flip-flop with asynchronous inputs is available as

an Integrated Circuit. The 74HC112 has dual J-K-flip-flops with
independent clock inputs, synchronous and asynchronous inputs.
80
3.1.2.5 Master-Slave Flip-Flops
Master-Slave flip-flops have become obsolete and are being replaced by

edge triggered flip-flops. Master-Slave flips have two stages each stage
works in one half of the clock signal. The inputs are applied in the first
half of the clock signal. The outputs do not change until the second half
of the clock signal. As mentioned earlier the use of edge-triggered flip-
flop is to synchronise the operation of a digital circuit with a common
clock signal. The master-slave setup also allows digital circuits to
operate in synchronisation with a common clock signal. The circuit
diagram of the master-slave J-K flip-flop is shown in figure 18 below.
The Master-Slave flip-flop is composed of two parts the Master and the
Slave. Both the Master and the Slave are Gated S-R flip-flops. The
Master-Slave flip-flop is not synchronised with the clock positive or
negative transition, rather it known as a pulse triggered flip-flop as it
operates at the positive and negative clock cycles.
Fig. 18: Master-Slave Flip-Flop
The truth-table of the master-slave flip-flop is shown in table 9 below.
Table 9: Truth Table of the Master-Slave J-K Flip-Flop
81
3.1.2.6 Flip-Flop Operating Characteristics
The performance of the flip-flop is specified by several operating

characteristics.
The important operating characteristics are
• Propagation Delay
• Set-up Time
• Hold Time
• Maximum Clock frequency
• Pulse width
• Power Dissipation
Propagation Delay
The propagation delay time is the interval of time when the input is
applied and the output changes. Four different types of Propagation
Delays are measured.
1. Propagation delay tPLH measured with respect to the triggering

edge of the clock to the low-to-high transition of the output. On a
positive or negative clock transition the flip-flop changes its
output state. The propagation delay is measured at 50% transition
mark on the triggering edge of the clock and the 50% mark on the
low-to-high transition of the output that occurs due to the clock
transition.
2. Propagation delay tPHL measured with respect to the triggering

edge of the clock to the high-to-low transition of the output. On a
positive or negative clock transition the flip-flop changes its
output state. The propagation delay is measured at 50% transition
mark on the triggering edge of the clock and the 50% mark on the
high-to-low transition of the output that occurs due to the clock
transition.
3. Propagation Delay tPLH measured with respect to the leading edge

of the preset input to the low-to-high transition of the output. On
a high-to-low transition of the preset signal the flip-flop changes
its output state to logic high. The propagation delay is measured
at 50% transition mark on the triggering edge of the preset signal
and the 50% mark on the low-to-high transition of the output that
occurs due to the preset signal.
4. Propagation delay tPHL measured with respect to the leading edge

of the clear input to the high-to-low transition of the output. On a
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high-to-low transition of the clear signal the flip-flop changes its

output state to logic low. The propagation delay is measured at
50% transition mark on the triggering edge of the clear signal and
the 50% mark on the high-to-low transition of the output that
occurs due to the preset signal.
Set-Up Time
When a clock transition occurs at the clock input of a flip-flop the output
of the flip-flop is set to a new state based on the inputs. For the flip-flop
to change its output to a new state at the clock transition, the input
should be stable. The minimum time required for the input logic levels
to remain stable before the clock transition occurs is known as the set-up
time
Hold Time
The input signal maintained at the flip-flop input has to be maintained

for a minimum time after the clock transition for the flip-flop to reliably
clock in the input signal. The minimum time for which the input signal
has to be maintained at the input is the hold time of the flip-flop.
Maximum Clock Frequency
A flip-flop can be operated at a certain clock frequency. If the clock

frequency is increased beyond a certain limit the flip-flop will be unable
to respond to the fast changing clock transitions, therefore the flip-flop
will be unable to function. The maximum clock frequency f max is the
highest rate at which the flip-flop operates reliably.
Pulse Width
A flip-flop uses the clock, preset and clear inputs for its operation. Each
signal has to be of a specified duration for correct operation of the flip-
flop. The manufacturer specifies the minimum pulse width tw for each of
the three signals. The clock signal is specified by minimum high time
and minimum low time.
Power Dissipation
A flip-flop consumes power during its operation. The power consumed

by a flip-flop is defined by P = Vcc x Icc. The flip-flop is connected to +5
volts and it draws 5 mA of current during its operation, therefore the
power dissipation of the flip-flop is 25 mW.
83
A digital circuit is made of a number of gates, functional units and flip-

flops. The total power requirement of each device should be known so
that an appropriate dc power source is used to supply power to the
digital circuit.
3.1.2.7 Applications of Edge-Triggered D Flip-Flops
1. Data Storage using D-Flip-Flop
A multiplexer based parallel-to-serial converter needs to have stable

parallel data at its inputs as it converts it to serial data. Latches are used
to maintain stable data at the input of the multiplexer. The time required
to convert parallel data to serial data depends upon the number of
parallel bits. A byte parallel data requires 8-bit storage and 8 clocks are
required to convert it into serial data. The demerit in a gated D-latch
based circuit is the extended enable time. During the time in which the
D-latches are enabled data applied at the input of the latches can change.
D-latch is said to work in transparent mode when the enable signal is
activated. D-latch operates in the latched mode when the enable signal is
inactive. The conversion should only start when the enable signal has
been deactivated and the 8-bit data has been stored in the latches. A
better and a precise parallel to serial converter circuit uses edge
triggered D-flip-flops. The 8-bit data to be converted into serial data is
stored precisely at the clock transition. Thus, if the data changes after
the clock transition it has no effect on the data stored in the D flip-flop.
Fig. 19: D-Flip-Flops used for Parallel Data Storage
84
2. Synchronising Asynchronous inputs using D Flip-Flop
In synchronised digital systems all the circuits change their state with
respect to a common clock and all the input and output signals are
synchronised. However, external inputs that are applied to digital
circuits through switches and keypads are not synchronised with the
clock. The asynchronous inputs can occur at any instant of time
3. Parallel Data Transfer using D flip-flop
Microprocessor use multi-bit flip-flops to store information. These

multi-bit flip-flops are known as registers. These registers for example,
can store data generated at the output of the ALU. The registers can also
be used to exchange or copy data, see figure 21. A register is a set of
flip-flops connected in parallel to store multi-bit binary information. The
clock inputs of all the flip-flops are connected together, to allow
simultaneous latching of the multi-bit input data.
3.1.2.8 Applications of Edge-Triggered J-K Flip-Flops
1. J-K Flip-Flop used as Sequence Detector
Some digital applications require that the inputs be applied in a certain

sequence to activate an output. This is possible with J-K flip-flops.
Fig. 20: J-K Flip-Flop Connected to Respond to a Particular Input

Sequence
2. J-K Flip-Flop used as Frequency Divider
In digital circuit different parts of the circuit can operate at different

frequencies obtained from the master clock frequency. For example,
three different parts of a digital system might operate at 4 MHZ, 2 MHZ
85
and 1 MHZ clock frequency respectively. Same clock source should be

used (instead of three separate clock sources) to maintain
synchronization between the three parts. A clock frequency can be
divided by 2 using a J-K flip flop. The J-K inputs of the flip-flop are
connected to logic high (1). At each clock transition the output of the
flip-flop toggles to the alternate state. A 4MHz clock signal can be
divided into 2
MHZ and 1 MHZ signal using two J-K flip-flops connected together.
Fig. 21: J-K Flip-Flop Connected as Frequency Divider
Fig. 22: J-K Flip-Flop Connected as Divide-by-4 Frequency

Divider
3. J-K Flip-Flop used as a Shift Register
Binary numbers can be multiplied or divided by a constant 2 by shifting

the binary numbers left or right by 1-bit respectively. Multiplication and
division by a factor of 2n, (where n= 1, 2, 3, 4 ….) can be achieved by
shifting the binary by n bits to the left or right respectively. Binary
86
numbers can be easily shifted in the left or right direction by using J-K
flip-flop based shift registers.
Fig. 23: 4-Bit Right Shift Register
4. J-K Flip-Flop used as a Counter
Counters which count up or countdown are commonly used in digital

circuits. An up counter counts up from 0 to 10 increments to the next
higher count value on the application of each clock signal. Similarly, a
down-counter counts down to the next lower count value on the
application of each clock pulse.
Fig. 24: 2-Bit Up-Counter
4.0 CONCLUSION
A latch is a temporary storage device that has two stable states. A latch
output can change from one state to the other by applying appropriate
inputs. A latch normally has two inputs, the binary input combinations
at the latch input allows the latch to change its state.
87
The basic logic element that provides memory in many sequential

circuits is the flip-flop. Flip-flops are synchronous bi-stable devices,
known as bi-stable multivibrators. Flip-flops have a clock input instead
of a simple enable input. The output of the flip-flop can only change
when appropriate inputs are applied at the inputs and a clock signal is
applied at the clock input.
Three different types of edge-triggered flip-flops generally used in

digital logic circuits are:
S-R edge-triggered flip-flop

D edge-triggered flip-flop
J-K edge-triggered flip-flop.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we explained about latches and flip-flops. Digital systems

use switches to input values and to control the output. For example, a
keypad uses 10 switches to enter decimal numbers 0 to 9. When a switch
is closed the switch contacts physically vibrate or ‘bounce’ before
making a solid contact. The switch bounce causes the voltage at the
output of the switch to vary between logic low and high for a very short
duration before it settles to a steady state. The variation in the voltage
causes the digital circuit to operate in an erratic manner. An S-R latch
connected between the switch and the digital circuit prevents the varying
switch output from reaching the digital circuit.
Extensively discuss latches and flip-flops and their types using diagrams
and good examples.
University Press.

Design. Springer.

Hall.

88

Newnes.


McGraw-Hill.
Nelson, P. Victor, et al (1995). Digital Logic Circuit Analysis & Design.

Prentice Hall.


Publishers.
Rafiquzzaman M. (2005). Fundamentals of Digital Logic &


Design.

Prentice Hall.

and Applications.

McGraw-Hill.

89
UNIT 3 REGISTERS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Registers
3.1.1 Shift Registers
3.1.2 Shift Register Counters
3.1.3 Applications of Shift Registers
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall discuss registers. We shall look at the shift register,
shift register counters and the applications of shift registers.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define shift register

 explain its various types
 explain its various applications.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Registers
Information is stored in a CPU memory location called a register.

Registers can be thought of as the CPU’s tiny scratchpad, temporarily
storing instructions or data. When a program is running, one special
register called the program counter keeps track of which program
instruction comes next by maintaining the memory location of the next
program instruction to be executed. The CPU’s control unit coordinates
and times the CPU’s functions, and it uses the program counter to locate
and retrieve the next instruction from memory.
90
3.1.1 Shift Registers
In digital circuits multi-bit data has to be stored temporarily until it is

processed. A flip-flop is able to store a single binary bit of information.
Multiple bits of data are stored by using multiple flip-flops which have
their clock inputs connected together. Thus, by activating the clock
signal multiple-bits of data are stored.
Technically, a register performs two basic functions. It stores data and it

moves or shifts data. The shifting of data involves shifting of bits from
one flip-flop to the other within the register or moving data in and out of
the register. The shift operation of the binary data is carried out by
applying clock signals. Several different kinds of shift operations can be
identified. The different shift operations are described using a 4-bit shift
register.
Serial In/Shift Right/Serial Out Operation
Data is shifted in the right-hand direction one bit at a time with each
transition of the clock signal. The data enters the shift register serially
from the left hand side and after four clock transitions the 4-bit register
has 4-bits of data. The data is shifted out serially one bit at a time from
the right hand side of the register if clock signals are continuously
applied. Thus, after 8 clock signals the 4-bit data is completely shifted
out of the shift register.
Fig. 1: Serial In/Serial Right/Serial Out Operation
Serial In/Shift Left/Serial Out Operation
Data is shifted in the left-hand direction one bit at a time with each
from the right hand side and after four clock transitions the 4-bit register
has 4-bits of data. The data is shifted out serially one bit at a time from
91
the left hand side of the register if clock signals are continuously
applied. Thus, after 8 clock signals the 4-bit data is completely shifted
out of the shift register.
Fig. 2: Serial In/Serial Left/Serial Out Operation
Serial shift registers can be implemented using any type of flip-flops. A

serial shift register implemented using D flip-flops with the serial data
applied at the D input of the first flip-flop and serial data out obtained at
the Q output of the last flip-flop is shown. At each clock transition 1–bit
of serial data is shifted in and at the same instant 1-bit of serial data is
shifted out. For a 4-bit shift register, 8 clock transitions are required to
shift in 4-bit data and completely shift out the 4-bit data. As the data is
shifted out 1-bit at a time, a logic 0 value is usually shifted in to fill up
the vacant bits in the shift register.
Fig. 3: Serial In/Shift Right/Serial Out Register
The shift left and shift right shift registers are identical in their working.
They are connected differently for shift left and shift right operations.
Bidirectional Shift Registers are available which allow data to be shifted
92
left or right. The 4-bit register is configured to shift left or right by

setting the RIGHT /LEFT signal to logic high or low respectively. When
the register is configured to shift right, the AND gates marked 1 are
enabled. The input of the first flip-flop is connected to the serial Input,
the inputs of the next three flip-flops are connected to the Q outputs of
the previous flip-flops. Thus, on a clock transition data is shifted 1-bit
towards the right. The serial data is shifted out of the register through
output Q3. When the register is configured to shift left the AND gates
marked 2 are enabled, connecting the Q outputs of the flip-flop on the
right hand side to the D input of the flip-flop on the left hand side. Thus,
on each clock transition data is shifted 1-bit towards left. Serial date out
is available through the Q0 output. Serial data is input through the Serial
Data in line which is connected to the fourth AND gate marked 2 on the
extreme right hand side.
Fig. 4: Bi-Directional, 4-Bit Shift Register
Serial In/Parallel Out Operation
Data is shifted in the left-hand direction one bit at a time with each
from the right hand side and after four clock transitions the 4-bit register
has 4-bits of data. The data is shifted out in parallel by the application of
a single clock signal. The shift register has 4 parallel outputs. The circuit
diagram of the Serial In/Parallel Out register is shown.
93
Fig. 5: Serial In/Parallel Out Operation
Parallel In/Serial Out Operation
The register has parallel inputs, data bits are loaded into the register in
parallel by activating a load signal. The data is shifted out serially by
application of clock signals. Thus, in a 4-bit shift register, after 4 clock
signals the 4-bit data is completely shifted out of the shift register.
Fig. 6: Parallel In/Serial Out Operation
The internal circuit of a 4-bit Parallel In/Serial Out Shift register is

shown. The 4-bit data is initially loaded in Parallel into the shift register
by setting the SHIFT /LOAD input to logic low. The AND gates marked
2 are enabled allowing data to be applied at the inputs of the respective
D flip-flops. On a positive clock transition the data is latched by the
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respective flip-flops. To shift the data, the SHIFT /LOAD is set to logic
high which enables AND gates marked 1 connecting the Q outputs of
the each flip-flop connected to the D input of the next flip-flop.
Fig. 7: 4-Bit Parallel In/Serial Out Shift Register
Parallel In/Parallel Out Operation
The register has parallel inputs and parallel outputs. Data is entered in
parallel by applying a single clock pulse. Data is latched by the flip-
flops on the clock transition and is available in parallel form at the flip-
flop outputs.
The internal circuit of 4-bit Parallel In/Parallel Out Register is shown.

The Parallel In/Parallel Out register stores Parallel data and usually does
not allows any shift operations.
Fig. 8: Parallel In/Parallel Out Operation
95
Fig. 9: A D-Flip-Flop based 4-Bit Parallel In/Parallel Out

Register
Rotate Right Operation
The serial output of the register is connected to the serial input of the
register. By applying clock pulses data is shifted right. The data shifted
out of the serial out pin at the right hand side is re-circulated back into
the shift register input at the left hand side. Thus, the data is rotated right
within the register.
Fig. 10: Rotate Right Operation
Rotate Left Operation
The serial output of the register is connected to the serial input of the
register. By applying clock pulses data is shifted left. The data shifted
out of the serial out pin at the left hand side is re-circulated back into the
shift register input at the right hand side. Thus, the data is rotated left
within the register.
96
Fig. 11: Rotate Left Operation
3.1.2 Shift Register Counters
Shift register counters are basically, shift registers connected to perform

rotate left and rotate right operations. When data is rotated through a
register counter a specific sequence of states is repeated. Two commonly
used register counters in digital logic are the Johnson Counter and the
Ring Counter.
Johnson Counter
In a Johnson counter, the Q output of the last flip-flop of the shift

register is connected to the data input of the first flip-flop. The circuit of
a 4-bit, D flip-flop based Johnson Counter is shown in the figure below.
The sequence of states that are implemented by a n-bit Johnson counter
are 2n. Thus, a 4-bit Johnson counter sequences through 8 states and a 5-
bit Johnson counter sequences through 10 states.
Fig. 12: 4-Bit Johnson Counter
97
Table 1: Sequence of States of a 4-Bit Johnson Counter
Ring Counter
The Ring Counter is similar to the Johnson Counter, except that the Q
output of the last flip-flop of the shift register is connected to the data
input of the first flip-flop of the shift register. All the flip-flops of the
counter are cleared to logic low except for the first flip-flop which is
preset to logic high.
Fig. 13: 4-Bit Ring Counter
After the initialisation of the counter, the logic high set at the output of
the first flip-flop is shifted right at each clock transition. With a Ring
Counter circuit no decoding gates are required. Each state of the ring
counter has a unique output.
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Table 2: Sequence of States of a 4-Bit Ring Counter
3.1.3 Applications of Shift Registers
The major application of a shift register is to convert between parallel

and serial data. Shift registers are also used as keyboard encoders. The
two applications of the shift registers are discussed.
Serial-to-Parallel Converter
Earlier, Multiplexer and Demultiplexer based Parallel to Serial and

Serial to Parallel converters were discussed. The Multiplexer and
Demultiplexer require registers to store the parallel data that is
converted into serial data and parallel data which is obtained after
converting the incoming serial data. A Parallel In/Serial Out shift
register offers a better solution instead of using a Multiplexer-Register
combination to convert parallel data into serial data. Similarly, a Serial
In/Parallel Out shift register replaces a Demultiplexer-Register
combination.
In Asynchronous Serial data transmission mode, a character which is

constituted of 8-bits (which can include a parity bit) is transmitted. To
separate one character from another and to indicate when data is being
transmitted and when the serial transmission line is idle (no data is being
transmitted) a set of start bit and stop bits are appended at both ends of
the 8-bit character. A character is preceded by a logic low start bit.
When the line is idle it is set to logic high, when a character is about to
be transmitted the start bit sets the line to logic low. The logic low start
bit is an indication that 8 character bits are to follow and the
transmission line is no longer in an idle state. After 8-character bits have
been transmitted, the end of the character is indicated by two stop bits
that are at logic high. The two logic bits indicate the end of the character
and also set the transmission line to the idle state.
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Therefore, a total of 11 bits are transmitted to send one character from

one end to the other. The logic low start bit is also a signal for the
receiver circuit to start receiving the 8 character bits that are following
the start bit. The 11-bit serial character format is shown.
Fig. 14: 11-Bit Serial Data Format
A Serial to Parallel converter circuit based on shift registers is shown

below. The serial data is preceded by a logic low start bit which triggers
the J-K flip-flop. The output of the flip-flop is set to logic high which
enables the clock generator. The clock pulses generated are connected to
the clock input of a Serial In/Parallel Out shift register and also to the
clock input of an 8-bit counter. On each clock transition, the Serial
In/Parallel Out shift register shifts in one bit data. When the 8-bit
counter reaches its terminal count 111, the terminal count output signal
along with the clock signal trigger the One-Shot and also allow the
Parallel In/Parallel Out register to latch in the Parallel data at the output
of the Serial In/Parallel Out shift register. The One-shot resets the J-K
flip-flop output Q to logic 0 disabling the clock generator and also clears
the 8-bit counter to count 000.
Fig. 15: Series-to-Parallel Converter
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Keyboard Encoder
We have a simple keypad encoder circuit where the 0 to 9 digit keypad

was connected through a decade to BCD encoder. Pressing any keypad
key enables the corresponding input of the encoder circuit which
encodes the input as a 4-bit BCD output.
Computer keyboards which have more keys employ a keyboard encoder

circuit that regularly scans the keyboard to check for any key press. The
scanning is done by organising the keys in the form of rows and
columns. With the help of a shift register based ring counter one row is
selected at a time. The two counters are connected as an 8-bit Ring
counter which sequences through a bit pattern having all 1’s and a single
0. The 8 state sequence selects one row at a time by setting it to logic 0.
If a key is pressed, the corresponding column also becomes logic 0 as it
connected to the selected row. The row and column which are selected
are encoded by the row and column encoders. When a key is pressed,
the selected column which is set to logic 0 sets the output of the NAND
gate to logic 1 which triggers two One Shots. The first One Shot inhibits
the clock signal to the ring counters for a short interval until the Key
Code is stored. The One Shot also triggers the second One-Shot that
sends a pulse to the clock input of the Key Code register. The Key Code
Register stores the key ID represented as 3-bit column and 3-bit row
code.
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Fig. 16: Keyboard Encoder Circuit
4.0 CONCLUSION
A register performs two basic functions. It stores data and it moves or

shifts data. The shifting of data involves shifting of bits from one flip-
flop to the other within the register or moving data in and out of the
register.
The different shift operations are:
1. Serial In/Shift Right/Serial Out Operation

2. Serial In/Shift Left/Serial Out Operation
3. Serial In/Parallel Out Operation
4. Parallel In/Serial Out Operation
5. Parallel In/Parallel Out Operation
6. Rotate Right Operation
7. Rotate Left Operation.
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Shift register counters are shift registers connected to perform rotate left
and rotate right operations. When data is rotated through a register
counter a specific sequence of states is repeated. Two commonly used
register counters in digital logic are the Johnson Counter and the Ring
Counter.
The applications of a shift register are used to convert between parallel

and serial data. They are also used as keyboard encoders.
Give a detailed explanation of the different shift operations you know.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we discussed registers. Information from an input device or

from the computer’s memory is communicated via the bus to the central
processing unit (CPU), which is the part of the computer that translates
commands and runs programs. The CPU is a microprocessor chip—that
is, a single piece of silicon containing millions of tiny, microscopically
wired electrical components. Information is stored in a CPU memory
location called a register. Registers can be thought of as the CPU’s tiny
scratchpad, temporarily storing instructions or data.
State in not less than four pages what you know about registers.
University Press.

Design. Springer.

Hall.


Newnes.
103


McGraw-Hill.
Prentice Hall.


Publishers.


Design.

Prentice Hall.

and Applications.

McGraw-Hill.

104
UNIT 4 FINITE STATE MACHINES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Finite State Machines
3.2 Finite State Machines as a Restrictive Turing Machines
3.3 Modeling the Behaviour of Finite State Machine
3.4 Functional Program View of Finite State Machines
3.5 Imperative Program View of Finite State Machines
3.6 Feedback System View of Finite State Machines
3.7 Tabular Description of Finite State Machines
3.8 Classifiers, Acceptors, Transducers & Sequencers
3.9 Description of Finite State Machines using Graphs
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces finite state machines, a primitive, but useful

computational model for both hardware and certain types of software.
We also discuss regular expressions, the correspondence between non-
deterministic and deterministic machines, and more on grammars.
Finally, we describe typical hardware components that are essentially
physical realisations of finite-state machines.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 discuss finite state machines

 define hardware
 distinguish between a Mealy or Moore machine.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Finite State Machines
Finite state machines provide a simple computational model with many

applications. Recall the definition of a Turing machine: a finite-state
controller with a movable read/write head on an unbounded storage tape.
If we restrict the head to move in only one direction, we have the
105
general case of a finite-state machine. The sequence of symbols being

read can be thought to constitute the input, while the sequence of
symbols being written could be thought to constitute the output. We can
also derive output by looking at the internal state of the controller after
the input has been read. Finite-state machines, also called finite-state
automata (singular: automaton) or just finite automata are much more
restrictive in their capabilities than Turing machines. The basic
operation of a Finite State Machine system is this: as the system is in
one of the defined states at any instant of time, it will react to specified
(external) inputs or (internal) conditions with specified actions, and
transition to another defined state, or remain in its current state,
depending on the design. For example, we can show that it is not
possible for a finite-state machine to determine whether the input
consists of a prime number of symbols. Much simpler languages, such
as the sequences of well-balanced parenthesis strings, also cannot be
recognised by finite-state machines. Still there are the following
applications:
• Simple forms of pattern matching (precisely the patterns

definable by "regular expressions”).
• Models for sequential logic circuits, of the kind on which every
present-day computer and many device controllers is based.
• An intimate relationship with directed graphs having arcs labeled
with symbols from the input alphabet.
Even though each of these models can be depicted in a different setting,

they have a common mathematical basis.
Fig. 1: The Interrelationship of Various Models with Respect to

Computational or Representational Power
106
(The arrows move in the direction of restricting power. The bi-

directional arrows show equivalences).
Finite State Machines are generally depicted as a state diagram,

represented graphically with two symbols: the state bubble and the
transition arrow. States are labeled or numbered and both inputs and
outputs are described textually. At any instant of time, a state machine is
in its current state. Depending on the specified input events and
conditions, a transition to the next state will occur. Finite State
Machines are considered deterministic if all transitions to next states are
unique to a given state and its inputs. Most useful FSMs are fully
deterministic, making them ideal for embedded systems software and
the process of validation and verification.
It is common to distinguish Finite State Machines as either a Mealy or

Moore machine. The difference between the two machines, as we shall
explore later, are noteworthy, but not necessarily paramount to
successful Finite State Machine design for software application
architecture, but likely important in sequential circuit design.
Finite State Machines are defined as sharing the following
characteristics:
 a finite set of defined states, one of which being defined as the

initial state of the machine
 a set of defined inputs
 a set of defined outputs
 a set of transitions between selected states, and
 the machine is said to be in a single state at any instant of time
3.2 Finite State Machines as Restrictive Turing Machines
One way to view the finite-state machine model as a more restrictive

Turing machine is to separate the input and output halves of the tapes, as
shown below.
107
Fig. 2: Finite State Machine as a One-Way Moving Turing

Machine
Fig. 3: Finite-State Machine as Viewed with Separate Input and

Output
Fig. 4: Finite-State Machine Viewed as a Stationary-Head,

Moving-Tape, Device
108
Since the motion of the head over the tape is strictly one-way, we can
abstract away the idea of a tape and just refer to the input sequence read
and the output sequence produced, as suggested in the next diagram. A
machine of this form is called a transducer, since it maps input
sequences to output sequences. The term Mealy machine, after George
H. Mealy (1965), is also often used for transducer.
Fig. 5: A Transducer Finite-State Machine Viewed as a Tapeless

"Black Box" Processing an Input Sequence to Produce an
Output Sequence
On the other hand, occasionally, we are not interested in the sequence of

outputs produced but just an output associated with the current state of
the machine. This simpler model is called a classifier, or Moore
machine, after E.F. Moore (1965).
Fig. 6: Classifier Finite State Machine. Output is a function of

current state, rather than being a Sequence
109
For a Mealy machine, the transition will be associated with an output. For a
Moore machine, the output occurs within the next state. For this reason,
Finite State Machines are often called 'reactive' systems. Inputs are also
called events. Typical events may be: a message received from another
state machine, a simple event flag set by another state machine, or the
expiration of a time interval. Likewise, outputs may be: sending a message
to another state machine, setting an event flag for another state machine to
respond to, or starting a timed interval. Also, multiple unique transitions
are allowed from one state to other defined states. For software FSMs, each
state will have its unique source code logic to process events, perform
actions and output, and to effect state transitions. A complete system may
be comprised of one or more Finite State Machines, as determined by the
partitioning process performed during the initial design or analysis.
Although the Mealy Machine model may be more flexible than Moore
Machine, it is the need of the system being analysed or designed that
determines which of the two is most suitable. Note that a given state
machine may be comprised of both Mealy and Moore models, if such a
design meets functional requirements of the system. Also, be aware that
both Mealy and Moore Machines can be logically converted to the other.
The point here is that the correct state logic required for efficient operation
is what’s important; the resulting machine archetype (Mealy or Moore)
should be only a secondary observation.
3.3 Modeling the Behaviour of Finite State Machines
Concentrating initially on transducers, there are several different

notations we can use to capture the behaviour of finite-state machines:
• as a functional program mapping one list into another

• as a restricted imperative program, reading input a single
character at a time and producing output a single character at a
time
• as a feedback system
• representation of functions as a table
• representation of functions by a directed labeled graph.
For concreteness, we shall use the sequence-to-sequence model of the

machine, although the other models can be represented similarly. Let us
give an example that we can use to show the different notations:
Example: An Edge-Detector
The function of an edge detector is to detect transitions between two

symbols in the input sequence, say 0 and 1. It does this by outputting 0
as long as the most recent input symbol is the same as the previous one.
However, when the most recent one differs from the previous one, it
110
outputs a 1. By convention, the edge detector always outputs 0 after

reading the very first symbol. Thus, we have the following input output
sequence pairs for the edge-detector, among an infinite number of
possible pairs:
3.4 Functional Program View of Finite State Machines
In this view, the behaviour of a machine is as a function from lists to

lists.
Each state of the machine is identified with such a function.
The initial state is identified with the overall function of the machine.
The functions are interrelated by mutual recursion: when a function
processes an input symbol, it calls another function to process the
remaining input.
Each function: looks at its input by one application of first, produces an

output by one application of cons, the first argument of which is
determined purely by the input obtained from first, and calls another
function (or itself) on rest of the input.
We make the assumptions that:

The result of cons, in particular the first argument, becomes partially
available even before its second argument is computed.
Each function will return NIL if the input list is NIL, and we do not
show this explicitly.
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Functional code example for the edge-detector
We will use three functions, f, g, and h. The function f is the overall

representation of the edge detector.
f([0 | Rest]) => [0 | g(Rest)];

f([1 | Rest]) => [0 | h(Rest)];
f([]) => [];
g([0 | Rest]) => [0 | g(Rest)];
g([1 | Rest]) => [1 | h(Rest)];
g([]) => [];
h([0 | Rest]) => [1 | g(Rest)];
h([1 | Rest]) => [0 | h(Rest)];
h([]) => [];
Notice that f is never called after its initial use. Its only purpose is to
provide the proper output (namely 0) for the first symbol in the input.
Example of f applied to a specific input:
f([0, 1, 1, 1, 0]) ==> [0, 1, 0, 0, 1]
An alternative representation is to use a single function, say k, with an

extra argument, treated as just a symbol. This argument represents the
name of the function that would have been called in the original
representation. The top-level call to k will give the initial state as this
argument:
k("f", [0 | Rest]) => [0 | k("g", Rest)];

k("f", [1 | Rest]) => [0 | k("h", Rest)];
k("f", []) => [];
k("g", [0 | Rest]) => [0 | k("g", Rest)];
k("g", [1 | Rest]) => [1 | k("h", Rest)];
k("g", []) => [];
k("h", [0 | Rest]) => [1 | k("g", Rest)];
k("h", [1 | Rest]) => [0 | k("h", Rest)];
k("h", []) => [];
The top level call with input sequence x is k ("f", x) since "f" is the
initial state.
3.5 Imperative Program View of Finite State Machines
In this view, the input and output are viewed as streams of characters.
The program repeats the processing cycle:
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read character,
select next state,
write character,
go to next state
ad infinitum. The states can be represented as separate "functions", as in

the functional view, or just as the value of one or more variables.
However the allowable values must be restricted to a finite set. No
stacks or other extendible structures can be used, and any arithmetic
must be restricted to a finite range.
The following is a transliteration of the previous program to this view.

The program is started by calling f(). Here we assume that read() is a
method that returns the next character in the input stream and write(c)
writes character c to the output stream.
void f() // initial function

{
switch( read() )
{
case '0': write('0'); g(); break;
case '1': write('0'); h(); break;
}
Finite-State Machines 477
}
void g() // previous input was 0
{
switch( read() )
{
case '0': write('0'); g(); break;
case '1': write('1'); h(); break; // 0 -> 1 transition
}
}
void h() // previous input was 1
{
switch( read() )
{
case '0': write('1'); g(); break; // 1 -> 0 transition
case '1': write('0'); h(); break;
}
}
[Note that this is a case where all calls can be "tail recursive", i.e. could
be implemented as gotos by a smart compiler.]
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The same task could be accomplished by eliminating the functions and

using a single variable to record the current state, as shown in the
following program. As before, we assume read() returns the next
character in the input stream and write(c) writes character c to the output
stream.
static final char f = 'f'; // set of states

static final char g = 'g';
static final char h = 'h';
static final char initial_state = f;
main()
{
char current_state, next_state;
char c;
current_state = initial_state;
while( (c = read()) != EOF )
{
switch( current_state )
{
case f: // initial state
switch( c )
{
case '0': write('0'); next_state = g; break;
case '1': write('0'); next_state = h; break;
}
break;
case g: // last input was 0
switch( c )
{
case '0': write('0'); next_state = g; break;
case '1': write('1'); next_state = h; break; // 0 -> 1
}
break;
case h: // last input was 1
switch( c )
{
case '0': write('1'); next_state = g; break; // 1 -> 0
case '1': write('0'); next_state = h; break;
}
break;
}
current_state = next_state;
}
}
114
3.6 Feedback System View of Finite State Machines
The feedback system view abstracts the functionality of a machine into

two functions, the next-state or state-transition function F, and the
output function G.
F: States x Symbols States state-transition function
G: States x Symbols Symbols output function
The meaning of these functions is as follows:
F(q, σ) is the state to which the machine goes when currently in state q
and σ is read
G(q, σ) is the output produced when the machine is currently in state q

and σ is read
The relationship of these functions is expressible by the following

diagram.
Fig. 7: Feedback Diagram of Finite State Machine Structure
From F and G, we can form two useful functions
F*: States x Symbols* States extended state-transition function

G*: States x Symbols* Symbols extended output function where
Symbols* denotes the set of all sequences of symbols. This is done by
induction:
115
F*(q, λ) = q
F*(q, xσ) = F(F*(q, x), σ )
G*(q, λ) = λ
G*(q, xσ) = G*(q, x) G(F*(q, x), σ )
In the last equation, juxtaposition is like cons’ing on the right. In other

words, F*(q, x) is the state of the machine after all symbols in the
sequence x have been processed, whereas G*(q, x) is the sequence of
outputs produced along the way. In essence, G* can be regarded as the
function computed by a transducer. These definitions could be
transcribed into rex rules by representing the sequence xσ as a list [σ | x]
with λ corresponding to [ ].
3.7 Tabular Description of Finite State Machines
This description is similar to the one used for Turing machines, except
that the motion is left unspecified, since it is implicitly one direction. In
lieu of the two functions F and G, a finite-state machine could be
specified by a single function combining F and G of the form:
States x Symbols States x Symbols analogous to the case of a

Turing machine, where we included the motion:
States x Symbols Symbols x Motions x States
These functions can also be represented succinctly by a table of 4-tuples,

similar to what we used for a Turing machine, and again called a state
transition table:
State1, Symbol1, State2, Symbol2

Such a 4-tuple means the following:
If the machine's control is in State1 and reads Symbol1, then machine

will write Symbol2 and the next state of the controller will be State2.
The state-transition table for the edge-detector machine is:
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Table 1: State Transition Table for the Edge-Detector Machine
Unlike the case of Turing machines, there is no particular halting

convention. Instead, the machine is always read to proceed from
whatever current state it is in. This does not stop us from assigning our
own particular meaning of a symbol to designate, for example, end-of-
input.
3.8 Classifiers, Acceptors, Transducers, and Sequencers
In some problems we don't care about generating an entire sequence of

output symbols as do the transducers discussed previously. Instead, we
are only interested in categorizing each input sequence into one of a
finite set of possibilities. Often these possibilities can be made to derive
from the current state.
So we attach the result of the computation to the state, rather than

generate a sequence. In this model, we have an output functionc:
Q C which gives a category or class for each state. We call this
type of machine a classifier or controller. In the simplest non-trivial
case of classifier, there are two categories. The states are divided up into
the "accepting" states (class 1, say) and the "rejecting" states (class 0).
The machine in this case is called an acceptor or recogniser.
The sequences it accepts are those given by c(F*(q0, x)) = 1 that is, the
sequences x such that, when started in state q0, after reading x, the
machine is in a state q such that c(q) = 1. The set of all such x, since it is
a set of strings, is a language. If A designates a finite-state acceptor,
then L(A) = { x in Σ* | c(F*(q0, x)) = 1} is the language accepted by A.
The structure of a classifier is simpler than that of a transducer, since the

output is only a function of the state and not of both the state and input.
The structure is shown as follows:
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Fig. 8: Feedback Diagram of Classifier Finite State Machine

Structure
A final class of machine, called a sequencer or generator, is a special

case of a transducer or classifier that has a single-letter input alphabet.
Since the input symbols are unchanging, this machine generates a fixed
sequence, interpreted as either the output sequence of a transducer or the
sequence of classifier outputs. An example of a sequencer is a MIDI
(Musical Instrument Digital Interface) sequencer, used to drive
electronic musical instruments. The output alphabet of a MIDI
sequencer is a set of 16-bit words, each having a special interpretation as
pitch, note start and stop, amplitude, etc. Although most MIDI
sequencers are programmable, the program typically is of the nature of
an initial setup rather than a sequential input.
3.9 Description of Finite State Machines using Graphs
Any finite state machine can be shown as a graph with a finite set of
nodes. The nodes correspond to the states. There is no other memory
implied other than the state shown. The start state is designated with an
arrow directed into the corresponding node, but otherwise unconnected.
Fig. 9: An Unconnected In-Going Arc Indicates that the Node is

the Start State
118
The arcs and nodes are labeled differently, depending on whether we are
representing a transducer, a classifier, or an acceptor. In the case of a
transducer, the arcs are labeled σ/δ as shown below, where σ is the
input symbol and δ is the output symbol. The state transition is
designated by virtue of the arrow going from one node to another.
Fig. 10: Transducer Transition from q1 to q2, based on Input σ,

Giving Output δ
In the case of a classifier, the arrow is labeled only with the input
symbol. The categories are attached to the names of the states after /.
Fig. 11: Classifier Transition from q1 to q2, based on Input σ
In the case of an acceptor, instead of labeling the states with categories

0 and 1, we sometimes use a double-lined node for an accepting state
and a single-lined node for a rejecting state.
Fig. 12: Acceptor, an Accepting State
119
Transducer Example
The edge detector is an example of a transducer. Here is its graph:
Fig. 13: Directed Labeled Graph for the Edge Detector
Let us also give examples of classifiers and acceptors, building on this

example.
Classifier Example
Suppose we wish to categorise the input as to whether the input so far

contains 0, 1, or more than 1 "edges" (transitions from 0 to 1, or 1 to 0).
The appropriate machine type is classifier, with the outputs being in the
set {0, 1, more}. The name "more" is chosen arbitrarily. We can sketch
how this classifier works with the aid of a graph. The construction
begins with the start state. We don't know how many states there will be
initially. Let us use a, b, c, ... as the names of the states, with a as the
start state. Each state is labeled with the corresponding class as we go.
The idea is to achieve a finite closure after some number of states have
been added. The result is shown below:
Fig. 14: Classifier for Counting 0, 1, or more than 1 Edges
120
Acceptor Example
Let us give an acceptor that accepts those strings with exactly one edge.
We can use the state transitions from the previous classifier. We need
only designate those states that categorise there being one edge as
accepting states and the others as rejecting states.
Fig. 15: Acceptor for Strings with Exactly One Edge. Accepting
States are d and e
Sequencer Example
The following sequencer, where the sequence is that of the outputs

associated with each state, is that for a naive traffic light:
Fig. 16: A Traffic Light Sequencer
Inter-Convertibility of Transducers and Classifiers
We can describe a relationship between classifiers and transducers, so

thatmost of the theory developed for one will be applicable to the other.
One possible connection is, given an input sequence x, record the
outputs corresponding to the states through which a classifier goes in
processing x. Those outputs could be the outputs of an appropriately-
defined transducer. However, classifiers are a little more general in this
sense, since they give output even for the empty sequence λ, whereas the
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output for a transducer with input λ is always just λ. Let us work in

terms of the following equivalence:
A transducer T started in state q0 is equivalent to a classifier C started in

state q0 if, for any non-empty sequence x, the sequence of outputs
emitted by T is the same as the sequence of outputs of the states through
which C passes.
With this definition in mind, the following would be a classifier

equivalent to the edge detector transducer.
Fig. 17: A Classifier Formally Equivalent to the Edge-Detector

Transducer
To see how we constructed this classifier, observe that the output

emitted by a transducer in going from a state q to a state q', given an
input symbol σ, should be the same as the output attached to state q' in
the classifier. However, we can't be sure that all transitions into a state q'
of a transducer produce the same output. For example, there are two
transitions to state g in the edge-detector that produce 0 and one that
produces 1, and similarly for state h. This makes it impossible to attach a
fixed input to either g or h. Therefore we need to "split" the states g and
h into two, a version with 0 output and a version with 1 output. Call
these resulting states g0, g1, h0, h1. Now we can construct an output-
consistent classifier from the transducer. We don't need to split f, since it
has a very transient character. Its output can be assigned arbitrarily
without spoiling the equivalence of the two machines. The procedure for
converting a classifier to a transducer is simpler. When the classifier
goes from state q to q', we assign to the output transition the state output
value c(q'). The following diagram shows a transducer equivalent to the
classifier that reports 0, 1, or more edges.
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Fig. 18: A Transducer Formally Equivalent to the Edge-Counting

Classifier
Write short notes with the aid of diagrams on the following terms: (a)
classifiers (b) acceptors (c) transducers (d) sequencers.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Finite State Machines provide a simple computational model with many

applications. The basic operation of a Finite State Machine system is
this: as the system is in one of the defined states at any instant of time, it
will react to specified (external) inputs or (internal) conditions with
specified actions, and transition to another defined state, or remain in its
current state, depending on the design. State Machines are generally
depicted as a State Diagram, represented graphically with two symbols:
the state bubble and the transition arrow.
It is common to distinguish Finite State Machines as either a Mealy or

Moore machine. Finite State Machines are defined as sharing the
following characteristics:
1. a finite set of defined states, one of which being defined as the

initial state of the machine
2. a set of defined inputs
3. a set of defined outputs
4. a set of transitions between selected states, and
5. the machine is said to be in a single state at any instant of time
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5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we discussed extensively about finite state machines.
State in not less than 800 words, all you know about finite state
machines.
University Press.

Design. Springer.

Hall.


Newnes.
Mano, M. Morris, Kime, Charles R. (2007). Logic and Computer Design

Fundamentals. Prentice Hall. Pg 283.

McGraw-Hill.



Publishers.

124

Design.

Prentice Hall.

and Applications.

McGraw-Hill.

125
MODULE 4 MEMORY
Unit 1 Memory Organisation

Unit 2 Memory Types
Unit 3 Memory Expansion
Unit 4 Memory Summary
UNIT 1 MEMORY ORGANISATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Memory Organisation
3.1.1 Memory Capacity & Density
3.1.2 Memory Signals & Basic Operations on Memory
3.1.2.1 Read & Write Signals
3.1.2.2 Address Signals
3.1.2.3 Data Signals
3.1.2.4 Memory Select or Enable Signal
3.1.2.5 Memory Read Operation
3.1.2.6 Memory Write Operation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Memory is only one of the required hardware components of a PC. It is

not more important, nor less important than the other components of
your PC. But much of our modern day software will not operate
efficiently, if at all, without "gobs" of memory. Sequential circuits
cannot operate without a memory element. Memory elements used in
Sequential circuits are relatively small and store few binary bits of
information. Large memories capable of storing very large amounts of
information are used in computer systems.
A computer which executes an application program has the application

stored in the form of program instructions in large memories.
126
Memories store data in units that have one, four, eight or higher number
of bits.
Smallest unit of binary data is a bit. Data is also handled in a 4-bit unit
called a Nibble. In many applications the data is handled as an 8-bit unit
called a byte, which is a combination of two 4-bit units that are called
Nibbles. A complete unit of information is sometimes called a Word and
consists of one or more bytes.
Each storage element of a memory can either store a logic 0 or a logic 1

and is called a cell. Memories are arranged in an array and each cell can
be identified by specifying a row and a column number. Each square in
the diagram represents a memory cell capable of storing a binary 1 or 0.
The first eight bits of binary information 11001010 in the first row are
stored in eight cells. The addresses of the eight consecutive cells staring
from the left most cell are (1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (1,7) and
(1,8) representing the first row and columns 1 to 8 respectively.
Individual cells at row 5 and column 3 have a binary 1 and a cell at row
6 and column 7 have a binary 0 stored.
Fig. 1: 64-Cell Memory Array
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define memory and the basic operations performed on it

 state the functions of Read/Write signals.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Memory Organisation
The memory array can be organised in several ways depending on the

unit of data. The 64-cell array organised as 8 x 8 cell array is considered
as an 8 byte memory, that is, it has eight locations and each location
stores a single byte. The 64-cell array organised as 4 x 16 cell array
stores 16 nibbles and if organised as 1 x 64 stores 64 single bit values.
The 4 x 16 memory array allows data to be accessed in the form of 4-bit
nibbles. The 1 x 64 array allows data to be accessed in units of 1 bit.
Fig. 2: Memory Organised as 4 x 16 and 1 x 64 Arrays
A memory is identified by the number of units it can store times the unit
size. Thus, the 8 x 8 memory is identified as an 8 Byte memory, the 16 x
4 memory is used as a 16 Nibble memory and the 64 x 1 is known as a
64 bit memory. Practical memory chips are organised as 16 K x 8
memory, storing 16K bytes or 16 x 1024 = 16384 bytes. A 32 K x 4
memory stores 32K nibbles or 32 x 1024 = 32768 nibbles.
3.1.1 Memory Capacity and Density
Each memory array has a maximum capacity to store information in the

form of bits. Thus, a 16 K x 8 memory, stores 16K bytes or 16 x 1024 =
16384 bytes or 131072 bits. A 32 K x 4 memory stores 32K nibbles or
32 x 1024 = 32768 nibbles or 131072 bits. The total number of cells in
each case is 131072. Memory density on the other hand specifies the
number of bits stored per unit area. More the number of bits stored in a
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unit area more dense the memory, that is, more bits are stored in less
space. The capacity and the density of a memory are determined by the
total number of cells implemented in a unit area.
3.1.2 Memory Signals and Basic Operations on Memory
Two basic operations are performed on memories, that is, reading of

information from the memory and writing of data to the memory. To
support the two read and write operations memories provide several
signals.
Fig. 3: Block Diagram of a Read-Write Memory
3.1.2.1 Read and Write Signals
Read/Write signals are required to configure the memory for read and
write operation. Memory chips have a single Read/Write signal. When
the signal is set to high it allows data to be read from the memory. When
the signal is set to low data is written into the memory. Some memory
chips have two separate Read and Write signals. The read and write
signals are separately asserted to control the Read and Write operation.
3.1.2.2 Address Signals
Address signals are required to specify the location in the memory from
which information is accessed (read or written). A set of parallel address
lines known as the address bus carry the address information. The
number of bits (lines) comprising the address bus depends upon the size
of the memory. For example, a memory having four locations to store
data has four unique addresses (00, 01, 10, 11) specified by a 2-bit
address bus. The size of the address bus depends upon the total
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addressable locations specified by the formula 2n, where n is the number

of bits. Thus, 24=16 (n=4) specifies 4 bits to uniquely identify 16
different locations.
3.1.2.3 Data Signals
Data lines are required to retrieve the information from the memory
array during a read operation and to provide the data that is to be stored
in the memory during a write operation. As the memory reads or writes
one data unit at a time therefore the data lines should be equal to the
number of data bits stored at each addressable location in the memory. A
memory organised as a byte memory reads or writes byte data values,
therefore the number of data lines or the size of the data bus should be 8-
bits or 1 byte. A memory organised to store nibble data values requires a
4-bit wide data bus. Generally, the wider the data bus more data can be
accessed at each read or write operation.
3.1.2.4 Memory Select or Enable Signal
In a computer system there are more than one memory chips to store
program information. At any particular instant a read or write operation
is carried out on a single addressable location. The unique location can
only be accessed in one of the several memory chips; thus, a single
memory chip has to be selected before a read or write operation can be
carried out. All memory chips have a chip enable or chip select signal
which has to be activated before the memory can be accessed.
3.1.2.5 Memory Read Operation
Memory Read operation is carried out by first selecting the memory chip
by activating the Memory Select signal. The Read signal is asserted to
configure the memory circuitry for reading data from the memory. An
address (100) is applied on the Address Lines. The internal address
decoder of the memory decodes the address and selects one unique row
from which data is read.
130
Fig. 4: Memory Read Operation
The address of the location in the memory from which data is to be read
is supplied by the microprocessor. The microprocessor stores the
address in its address buffer. The data read from the memory is stored in
a data buffer inside the microprocessor. In the diagram shown, a
microprocessor places an address 100 on its external address bus
connected to the address lines of the memory. The internal address
decoder of the memory decodes the address 100 and activates a row
select line which selects the row location 4. The dat (00110001) at the
location is read from the memory and placed on the data bus where it is
latched by the microprocessor and stored in its data buffer.
3.1.2.6 Memory Write Operation
Memory Write operation is carried out by first selecting the memory

chip by activating the Memory Select signal. The Write signal is
asserted to configure the memory circuitry for writing data to the
memory. An address (011) is placed on the Address Lines by the
microprocessor. The internal address decoder of the memory decodes
the address and selects one unique row select line which selects the row
location 3. The data (10110010) to be written to the selected memory
location is placed on the external data bus by the microprocessor which
is stored in the selected location.
131
Fig. 5: Memory Write Operation
4.0 CONCLUSION
Memory is only one of the required hardware components of a PC. It is

not more important, nor less important than the other components of
your PC.
A computer which executes an application program has the application

stored in the form of program instructions in large memories.
The memory array can be organised in several ways depending on the

unit of data.
A memory is identified by the number of units it can store times the unit
size.
Each memory array has a maximum capacity to store information in the

form of bits. The capacity and the density of a memory are determined
by the total number of cells implemented in a unit area.
Two basic operations are performed on memories, that is, reading of

information from the memory and writing of data to the memory.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we discussed about memory organisation. The memory array

can be organised in several ways depending on the unit of data. The 64-
cell array organised as 8 x 8 cell array is considered as an 8 byte
memory, that is, it has eight locations and each location stores a single
byte. The 64-cell array organised as 4 x 16 cell array stores 16 nibbles
and if organised as 1 x 64 stores 64 single bit values. The 4 x 16
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memory array allows data to be accessed in the form of 4-bit nibbles.

The 1 x 64 array allows data to be accessed in units of 1 bit.
Write short notes on the following
(a) memory organisation

(b) memory signals
(c) read & write signals
(d) memory read operation
(e) memory write operation.
University Press.

Design. Springer.

Hall.


Newnes.


McGraw-Hill.


133

Publishers.


Design.

Prentice Hall.

and Applications.

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134
UNIT 2 MEMORY TYPES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Memory Types
3.1.1 Random Access Memory
3.1.1.1 Static Ram
3.1.1.2 Dynamic Ram
3.1.1.3 Types of Drams
3.1.2 Read Only Memory
3.1.2.1 Rom Application
3.1.3 Flash Memory
3.1.3.1 Flash Memory Operations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces us to the types of memory we have. It goes further

to explain them and their applications.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 state the types of memory we have

 state the sub-types of memory
 explain their operations and application.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Memory Types
Two major categories of memory chips are the Random Access Memory
(RAM) and Read-Only Memory (ROM).
RAM allows a read or write operation to be carried out at any address.

All locations are accessible in equal time. RAM memories do not store
permanent data. As soon as the power supply to the memory chip is
turned off, the entire data stored in the memory is lost permanently.
135
RAM memories are also known as volatile memories as they lose data
when the power is turned off.
ROM chips retain data permanently even if the power to a ROM chip is
turned off. ROM chips are also known as non-volatile memory chips
due to their ability to retain data permanently. Since ROM chips are read
only, therefore user cannot write any information to ROM chips. ROM
chips are programmed by the manufacturer and contain important
information which is required to start (Boot Up) the computer.
3.1.1 Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM is divided into two types, Static RAM which uses flip-flops as
storage elements and Dynamic RAM which uses capacitors to store
binary information. In a Static RAM each cell which is capable of
storing a binary 0 or 1 is made up of a flip-flop which retains
information as long as power continues to be supplied to the flip-flop.
Dynamic RAM on the other hand uses a capacitor to store a single bit of
data. To store binary 1, the capacitor is charged and to store binary 0, the
capacitor is in the uncharged state. Capacitors over a period of time lose
their charge and unless the capacitors are refreshed the information
stored by the capacitor is lost. Dynamic memories periodically charge
their capacitors by implementing a refresh cycle. Static memories are
faster than Dynamic memories therefore data access in Static memories
is faster as compared to dynamic memories. Dynamic memories on the
other hand have a high density and can store much more data per unit
area and at a lesser cost. Dynamic memories have a high storage density,
as capacitors are simpler to implement and occupy a very small
semiconductor area as compared to flip-flops.
3.1.1.1 Static RAM
Each cell of a Static RAM is implemented using a flip-flop which is

implemented using several MOSFET transistors. External power is
required to operate the transistors. As long as the external power is
applied the static memory cell retains the data. The circuit of a single
flipflop based cell which can store a binary 0 or 1 is shown.
136
Fig. 1: Circuit Diagram of a Static Memory Cell based on a Flip-

Flop
The flip-flop used to store a binary bit works like a latch. When the SEL
signal is activated, the output buffer is enabled allowing data to be read
out from the memory cell. When both the SEL and W(rite) signals are
activated the latch is configured in the transparent mode and the data
applied at the Data In line flows through the latch to the output. The
Data In and Data Out lines can be connected together to form a bi-
directional line which does not cause any problems with the reading or
writing of data. This is possible as the read and write operations takes
place at different time intervals. The flip-flop based cells are combined
to form an array. Additional logic is added to select cells at appropriate
locations and to read and write data. A 3 x 8 decoder decodes a 3-bit
address to select any one of the eight locations comprising of a group of
4-cells. For example, when the address is 000, the first output line of the
3 x 8 decoder is activated which is connected to the SEL input of the
four latches in the first row.
Similarly, address 111 activates the eighth output line of the 3 x 8

decoder which selects the four latches in the last row (location). The
memory array has four Data In lines to store the 4-bit data values at the
eight locations. Data In 3 and Data In 0 represents the most and least
significant bits of the 4- bit data respectively. The four Data In lines
connect the Data In inputs of all the latches in each column respectively.
The memory array also has four Data Out lines, each data line connects
the output of each latch in a column. The read and write operations are
controlled through the three signals W, CS and OE. The Chip Select
(CS) signal along with the Output Enable (OE) signal enable each of the
four tri-state buffers connected to end of each Data Out line. When data
is to be read from a memory array, the memory chip is selected and the
output enabled. The Write (W) signal along with the CS signal are used
to write data into any 4-bit location.
To write data 1001 at the 6th memory location, the address A2, A1 and
A0 bits are set to 110 which select the 6th row of the memory array. The
data 1001 is placed at the four Data In lines respectively. The CS and W
137
signals are activated which set the four latches in the sixth row to
transparent mode allowing data 1001 applied at the four Data In lines to
be available at the Q outputs of the four latches respectively. As soon as
the CS and W signals are deactivated, the latches store the data value. A
16K x 8 memory is shown. The memory is capable of storing byte
values in 16 x 1024 locations. To address these unique locations,
fourteen address lines are required. The memory has eight bi-directional
data lines through which data is read/written at selected memory
locations. The three CS, WE and OE are shown to be active low.
Fig. 2: Internal Structure of an 8 x 4 Static RAM
138
Fig. 3: 16K x 8 Static RAM
RAM chips are subdivided into Asynchronous RAM (ASRAM) and

Synchronous Burst RAM (SB SRAM). The Static memory described is
an Asynchronous SRAM, the operation of which does not depend upon
the clock signal. The read and write operations are carried out
asynchronously. Synchronous SRAM uses a clock signal which is used
by the microprocessor to synchronise its activities to synchronise the
read and write operations for faster operation. The block diagram of a
Synchronous Burst SRAM is shown.
Fig. 4: Block Diagram of a Synchronous Burst RAM
139
Synchronous RAM is very similar to the Asynchronous RAM, in terms

of the memory array, the address decoders, read/write and enable inputs.
In the Asynchronous memory the various input signals are asynchronous
and are not tied to the clock, whereas in the Synchronous memory all the
inputs are synchronised with respect to the clock and are latched into
their various registers on an active clock pulse edge. In the diagram, the
external address, the WE and the CS external signals are latched in on a
positive clock transition simultaneously. The data that is to be written
into the memory is also latched into the Data Input Register at the same
positive clock transition. For a read operation the data is latched in the
Data Output register on the positive clock transition. There are two
variations of the Synchronous SRAM, the Flow-through and the
Pipelined SRAM. In the Flow-through SRAM there is no Data Output
Register so the data is asynchronously available on the data lines during
a read operation. In the Pipelined version there is a Data Output Register
which latches in the data read from the memory array.
3.1.1.2 Dynamic RAM
A static RAM uses a latch to store a single bit of information. Four gates
are used to implement a latch. In terms of transistors, 4 to 6 transistors
are required to implement a single storage cell. In order to build
memories with higher densities, a single transistor is used to store a
binary value. A single transistor cannot store a binary value however it
is used to charge and discharge a capacitor. A single memory cell is thus
implemented using a single transistor and a capacitor which occupy
lesser space as compared to the six transistors which are used to
implement a single Static RAM cell. Thus, the density of the capacitor
based memory is significantly increased. The capacitor based memory is
known as a Dynamic RAM (DRAM). The drawback of DRAM is the
discharging of the capacitor over a period of time. Unless the capacitor
is periodically recharged all the information stored in terms of binary
bits in a capacitor based memory array is lost. The extra circuitry
required to refresh the capacitor complicates the operation of the
DRAM. The circuit diagram of a single DRAM capacitor based memory
cell is shown. The capacitor is connected through a MOSFET which
connects or disconnects the column line at B to the capacitor at D. If the
row is set at logic high the MOSFET connects the column line to the
capacitor. If the row line is set to logic low the MOSFET disconnects
the column line form the capacitor.
140
Fig. 5: Writing a 1 or 0 into the DRAM Cell
A write operation allows a logic 1 or 0 to be stored in a DRAM cell

(capacitor). The appropriate cell is selected by specifying the address of
the memory location which is decoded and the row connecting the
desired cell is activated. The R/W signal is set to logic low indicating a
write operation which enables the tri-state Input Buffer. The logic 1
which is to be stored in the memory cell is applied at the DIN data line
which is available at A on the column line. The row line is selected (set
to logic high) which allows the MOSFET to connect column B to
capacitor D. The capacitor is charged to logic 1 voltage level via ABD.
A Write operation to store logic 0 in a DRAM cell is similar. The
appropriate row is selected by specifying the storage location address.
The R/W signal is set to logic low which enables the Input Buffer.
The logic 0 to be stored in the DRAM cell is applied at the D IN which is

stored on the capacitor via ABD. The thick line in the diagram indicates
the data path from DIN to the storage capacitor. The read operation is
accomplished by specifying the address of the location from which data
is to be read. The DRAM address decoder activates the appropriate row.
The R/W signal is set to logic high which enables the output buffer. The
logic 1 or 0 stored on the capacitor is available at D OUT through path
DBA.
The capacitor cannot retain the charge; therefore it has to be periodically

charged through a refresh cycle. The Refresh Buffer is enabled by
setting the Refresh signal to high. The input of the Refresh Buffer is
connected to the output buffer/sense amplifier. The R/W signal is set to
logic high during the Refresh cycle allowing the information stored on
the capacitor to be available at the output of the Output Buffer/Sense
141
amplifier. The information is feed back to the capacitor through the

Refresh Buffer via path CBD.
Fig. 6: Reading a 0 or 1 from a DRAM Cell
3.1.1.3 Types of DRAMS
There are several different types of DRAMS available.
• Fast Page Mode DRAM: Compared to random access read/write,

FAST Page Mode is faster where successive columns on the
same row are read/written in successively by asserting the CAS
strobe signal. The CAS signal when de-asserted, disables the
DOUT data line, therefore the next column address cannot occur
unless the data at the current address is latched by the external
system reading data from the DRAM. The access speed of the
DRAM during read operation is therefore limited by the external
system latching the data available on the DOUT line.
• Extended Data Output (EDO) DRAM: The memory in its

operation is similar to the FPMDRAM; however the CAS signal
doesn’t disable the DOUT when it goes to its non-asserted state.
Thus, the valid data on the DOUT line can be remain until the CAS
signal is asserted again to access the next column. Thus, the next
column address can be accessed before the external system
accepts the current data.
• Synchronous DRAM: The DRAM operations are tied to a clock
signal that also times the microprocessor operations. This allows
the DRAM to closely synchronise with the microprocessor.
142
3.1.2 Read-Only Memory (ROM)
A ROM contains permanent data that cannot be changed. Thus, ROM

memory does not allow write operation. A ROM stores data that are
used repeatedly in system applications, such as tables, conversions,
programmed instructions for system initialisation and operation. ROMs
retain data when the power is turned off.
Fig. 7: General Architecture of a ROM
A 16 x 8 ROM is shown. A 4-bit address is decoded by a 4 x 16 decoder

which selects the appropriate row line. The MOSFETs connected to the
selected row output logic 1 on the respective column lines. The
MOSFETs that are not connected output logic 0.The terminating resistor
connected to the end of each column line ensures that the output line
stays low when a MOSFET outputs logic 0.
Fig. 8: ROM Cell Storing a Logic 1 and Logic 0
143
Fig. 9: Internal Structure of a 264 x 4 ROM
ROMs are of different types:
• Mask ROM: Data is permanently stored during the

manufacturing process.
• PROM: Programmable ROM allows storage of data by the user
using a PROM programmer. The PROM once programmed stores
the data permanently.
• EPROM: Erasable PROM allows erasing of stored data and
reprogramming.
• UV EPROM: Is a programmable ROM. Data is erased by
exposing the PROM to Ultraviolet light.
• EEPROM: Electrically Erasable PROM is erased electrically.
EEPROM allows in-circuit programming and doesn’t need to be
removed from the circuit for erasure or programming.
3.1.2.1 ROM Application
The 264 x 4 ROM can be used as conversion table to convert 4-bit

binary values to 4-bit equivalent Gray Code values. The 4-bit code
which is to be converted is applied as an address at the 4-bit address
input of the ROM. At each of the 256 locations corresponding to the 256
addresses 256 Gray Code values are stored. The 4-bit Gray Code
contents stored at the first 16 locations of the ROM are shown. ROM
can also be used as a simple table. Each location in the ROM stores a
value which can be accessed by specifying the location address. Look-
Up tables used in computers can be implemented using ROMs.
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Table 1: ROM Programmed to Convert 4-Bit Binary to 4-Bit Gray

Code
3.1.3 Flash Memory
An ideal memory should have high density, have read/write capability,

should be nonvolatile, have fast access time and should be cost effective.
The ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, SRAM and DRAM all exhibit
some of these characteristics; however, none of these memories have all
the mentioned characteristics except for the FLASH memory.
FLASH memories have high density, that is, they store more
information per unit area as more storage cells are implemented per unit
area. These memories have read/write capability and are non-volatile
and can store data for indefinite time period. The high density FLASH
memory cell is implemented using a single floating-gate MOS transistor.
A data bit is stored as a charge (logic 0) or the absence of a charge (logic
1) on the floating gate. The amount of charge present o the floating gate
determines if the transistor will turn and conduct current from the drain
to the source when a control voltage is applied at the Control rate during
the read operation.
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Fig. 10: MOS Transistor with Charge (logic 0) and no Charge

(logic 1)
3.1.3.1 Flash Memory Operations
FLASH memory operations are classified into
• Programming Operation
• Read Operation
• Erase Operation
Programming Operation
Initially, all cells are at the logic 1 state - that is with no charge. The
programming operation adds charge to the floating gate of those cells
that are to store a logic 0. No charge is added to those gates that are to
store logic 1. The charges are stored by applying a positive voltage at
the Control Gate with respect to the Source which attracts electrons to
the floating gate. Once the gate is charged it retains the charge for years.
Read Operation
During the read operation a positive voltage is applied to the MOS

transistor control gate. If a negative charge is stored on the gate then the
positive read voltage is not sufficient to overcome the negative charge
therefore the transistor is not turned on. On the other hand if there is no
or small amount of negative charge stored, the positive read voltage is
sufficient to overcome the negative charge turning on the transistor.
When the transistor is turned on there is a current from the drain to the
source of the cell transistor. The presence of this current is sensed to
indicate a 1. The absence of this current indicates a 0.
146
Erase Operation
During the erase operation charge is removed from the memory cell. A
sufficiently large positive voltage is applied at the source with respect to
the control gate. The voltage applied across the control gate and source
is opposite to the voltage applied during programming. If charges are
present on the gate, the positive voltage supply at the source attracts the
electrons depleting the gate. A flash memory is erased prior to
programming.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Two major categories of memory chips are the Random Access Memory
(RAM) and Read-Only Memory (ROM). RAM allows a read or write
operation to be carried out at any address. All locations are accessible in
equal time. RAM memories do not store permanent data. As soon as the
power supply to the memory chip is turned off, the entire data stored in
the memory is lost permanently.
ROM chips retain data permanently even if the power to a ROM chip is
turned off.
RAM is divided into two types, Static RAM which uses flip-flops as
storage elements and Dynamic RAM which uses capacitors to store
binary information.
Static Memories are faster than Dynamic memories therefore data access
in Static Memories is faster as compared to Dynamic Memories.
Dynamic memories on the other hand have a high density and can store
much more data per unit area and at a lesser cost. ROMs are of different
types: Mask ROM, PROM, EPROM, UV EPROM & EEPROM.
FLASH memories have high density, that is, they store more
information per unit area as more storage cells are implemented per unit
area.
FLASH Memory operations are classified into: Programming Operation,

Read Operation and Erase Operation.
Extensively discuss the different types of ROM we have.
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5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we discussed about the types of memory, their applications

and operations.
Discuss extensively with diagrams and examples, the two types of

memory we have.
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UNIT 3 MEMORY EXPANSION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Memory Expansion
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit exposes us to the various ways and reasons memory is

expanded.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 state why memory is expanded

 explain the roles of microprocessors in a computer system.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Memory Expansion
Digital systems require different amounts of memory in the form of

RAM and ROM memory depending upon specific applications. A
computer requires large amounts of RAM memory to store multiple
application programs, data and the operating system.
In a computer, part of the RAM is reserved to support the Video

Memory, Stack and I/O buffers. The ROM used by a computer is
relatively very small as it stores few bytes of code used to Boot the
Computer system on power up.
Micro-controller based digital system designed for specific applications

do not have large memory requirement, in fact the total memory
requirement of such micro-controller systems is met by on-board RAM
and ROM having a total storage capacity of few hundred kilobytes.
Computer and digital systems have the capability to allow RAM

memory to be expanded as the needed arises by inserting extra memory
150
in dedicated memory sockets on the computer motherboard. The total

amount of memory that is supported by any digital system depends upon
the size of the address bus of the microprocessor or a micro-controller.
A microprocessor having an address bus of 16 bits can generate 216 or
65536 unique addresses to access 65536 locations which allows either a
single 65536 location RAM or a combination of RAM and ROM
totaling 65536 memory locations to be connected to the microprocessor.
It is also possible to initially have a 32768 location RAM connected to
the microprocessor with the remaining 32768 address locations
unoccupied allowing the microprocessor to execute a program that can
be stored in 32768 locations.
The remaining memory space can be utilised latter by connecting

another 32768 location RAM.
Microprocessors used in computer systems have memory spaces of the

order of 232 and larger. The data unit size accessed by a microprocessor
when it issues an address to either read or write from or to a memory
also depends upon the microprocessor architecture more specifically the
number of the data lines. A microprocessor having an 8-bit data bus can
access a byte of information from any unique memory location. A
microprocessor having a 16- bit data bus allows two bytes to be
accessed from a memory location. Practically, microprocessors used in
computer systems have up to 64 bit wide data buses allowing up to 8
bytes of data to be accessed simultaneously. A microprocessor that
accesses 64-bits of data simultaneously requires RAM to be organised in
such a way that allows 8 bytes of data to be accessed when ever any
unique address is selected. On the other hand a microprocessor having a
data bus of only 8-bits requires RAM that allows only a single byte of
data to be accessed when ever any single address location is selected.
The total memory requirement of a computer or digital system is
determined by the size of the address and data bus of a microprocessor.
Microprocessors which have small address bus and a data bus have a
small memory space. Microprocessors which have wide address and
data buses have very large memory spaces which are rarely fully
occupied by RAM and ROM devices.
Memory, both RAM and ROM are implemented in fixed data unit sizes
of 1, 4 or 8 bits. Similarly, these memory devices are implemented
having sizes in terms of total addressable locations which are restricted
to address ranges between few hundred kilobytes to megabytes.
The memories that are available in fixed sizes have to be connected

together to form larger memories having appropriate data unit sizes and
total number of addressable locations to fulfill the memory space
requirements of a digital or computer system.
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Another important aspect of the RAM and ROM memories that are
manufactured are the addresses of each memory location. For example,
two 32Kbyte RAM chips have 215 locations each. The first addressable
locations in both the RAM chips have an address 0. Similarly, the
second and third locations in both the memory chips have addresses 1
and 2 respectively. If the two RAM chips are connected together to form
a 64 Kbyte RAM then one of 32Kbyte memory chips should respond to
the address between 0 and 32767 and the other 32Kbyte memory chip
should respond to the address 32768 and 65535. The two memory chips
have bases address 0 and 32768 respectively.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Digital systems require different amounts of memory in the form of

RAM and ROM Memory depending upon specific applications. A
computer requires large amounts of RAM memory to store multiple
application programs, data and the operating system. The ROM used by
a computer is relatively very small as it stores few bytes of code used to
Boot the computer system on power up. The total memory requirement
of a computer or digital system is determined by the size of the address
and data bus of a microprocessor.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we talked about ways and reasons why we should expand
our memory.
State and explain 5 reasons we need to expand memory.
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UNIT 4 MEMORY SUMMARY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Memory Summary
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit summarises all that we have talked about memory. It does it in
a clear and concise manner for easy understanding.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define memory
 list the different memory types.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Memory Summary
A summary of memory types and their characteristics are shown. The

Static Ram (SRAM) is non-volatile and is not a high density memory as
a latch is required to store a single bit of information. Implementation of
a latch requires almost six transistors. The Dynamic Ram is also non-
volatile however it offers high density memories as each storage cell
requires a single transistor and a capacitor. ROMs and PROMs retain
information permanently even if the supply voltage is removed. Since a
single transistor is used to store a logic 0 or 1 therefore ROMS and
PROMs are high density memories. EEPROMs allow data to be read or
written however the ability to change the data without having to remove
the EEPROM chip from a circuit board requires extra logic. Thus,
EEPROM memories are not high density memories.
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Table 1: A Summary of Memory Types
Mention five memory types you know and give five differences among
them.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Memory is of various types which have various characteristics and they

are summarised in this unit.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit summarises the various memory types. The Static Ram
(SRAM) is non-volatile and is not a high density memory as a latch is
required to store a single bit of information.
Write a detailed essay on what you have learned in this module.
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MODULE 5 INTRODUCTION TO
MICROPROCESSORS
Unit 1 Microprocessors
Unit 2 Central Processing Unit & Arithmetic and Logical Unit
Unit 3 Addressing Mode
UNIT 1 MICROPROCESSORS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Microprocessors
3.1.1 Microprocessor History
3.1.2 Microprocessor Design
3.1.3 Microprocessor Speed
3.1.4 Microprocessor Architecture
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be discussing about microprocessors, their history,

design, speed and finally architecture.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define microprocessors
 state the history of microprocessors
 explain their architecture, speed and design.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Microprocessors
3.1.1 Microprocessor History
A microprocessor (also known as a CPU or central processing unit) is a

complete computation engine that is fabricated on a single chip. The
first microprocessor was the Intel 4004, introduced in 1971. The 4004
was not very powerful all it could do was add and subtract, and it could
only do that 4 bits at a time. But it was amazing that everything was on
one chip. Prior to the 4004, engineers built computers either from
collections of chips or from discrete components (transistors wired one
at a time). The 4004 powered one of the first portable electronic
calculators.
The first microprocessor to make it into a home computer was the Intel
8080, a complete 8-bit computer on one chip, introduced in 1974. The
first microprocessor to make a real splash in the market was the Intel
8088, introduced in 1979 and incorporated into the IBM PC (which first
appeared around 1982). If you are familiar with the PC market and its
history, you know that the PC market moved from the 8088 to the 80286
to the 80386 to the 80486 to the Pentium to the Pentium II to the
Pentium III to the Pentium 4. All of these microprocessors are made by
Intel and all of them are improvements on the basic design of the 8088.
The Pentium 4 can execute any piece of code that ran on the original
8088, but it does it about 5,000 times faster!
The following table helps you to understand the differences between the
different processors that Intel has introduced over the years.
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Table 1: Different Processors Produced over Time by Intel
Name Date Transistors Microns Clock speed Data

width
8080 1974 6,000 6 2 MHz 8 bits
8088 1979 29,000 3 5 MHz 16 bits,
8-bit bus
80286 1982 134,000 1.5 6 MHz 16 bits
80386 1985 275,000 1.5 16 MHz 32 bits
80486 1989 1,200,000 1 25 MHz 32 bits
Pentium 1993 3,100,000 0.8 60 MHz 32 bits,
64-bit bus
Pentium II 1997 7,500,000 0.35 233 MHz 32 bits,
64-bit bus
Pentium III 1999 9,500,000 0.25 450 MHz 32 bits,
64-bit bus
Pentium 4 2000 42,000,000 0.18 1.5 GHz 32 bits,
64-bit bus
3.1.2 Microprocessor Design
A microprocessor executes programs including the operating system

itself and user applications all of which perform useful work. From the
microprocessor’s point of view, a program is simply a group of low-
level instructions that the microprocessor executes more or less in
sequence as it receives them. How efficiently and effectively the
microprocessor executes instructions is determined by its internal
design, also called its architecture. The CPU architecture, in conjunction
with CPU speed, determines how fast the CPU executes instructions of
various types. The external design of the microprocessor, specifically its
external interfaces, determines how fast it communicates information
back and forth with external cache, main memory, the chipset, and other
system components.
Microprocessor Components
Modern microprocessors have the following internal components:
1. Execution unit
The core of the CPU, the execution unit processes instructions.
2. Branch predictor
The branch predictor attempts to guess where the program will jump (or
branch) next, allowing the prefetch and decode unit to retrieve
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instructions and data in advance so that they will already be available

when the CPU requests them.
3. Floating-point unit
The floating-point unit (FPU) is a specialised logic unit optimised to

perform non-integer calculations much faster than the general-purpose
logic unit can perform them.
4. Primary cache
Also called Level 1 or L1 cache, primary cache is a small amount of

very fast memory that allows the CPU to retrieve data immediately,
rather than waiting for slower main memory to respond.
5. Bus interfaces
Bus interfaces are the pathways that connect the microprocessor to

memory and other components. For example, modern microprocessors
connect to the chipset Northbridge via a dedicated bus called the
frontside bus (FSB) or host bus.
3.1.3 Microprocessor Speed
The microprocessor clock coordinates all CPU and memory operations

by periodically generating a time reference signal called a clock cycle or
tick. Clock frequency is specified in megahertz (MHz), which specifies
millions of ticks per second, or gigahertz (GHz), which specifies billions
of ticks per second. Clock speed determines how fast instructions
execute. Some instructions require one tick, others multiple ticks, and
some processors execute multiple instructions during one tick. The
number of ticks per instruction varies according to micro processor
architecture, its instruction set, and the specific instruction.
Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)
Microprocessors use complex instructions. Each requires many clock

cycles to execute, but accomplishes a lot of work.
Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
Microprocessors use fewer, simpler instructions. Each takes few ticks

but accomplishes relatively little work.
These differences in efficiency mean that one CPU cannot be directly

compared to another purely on the basis of clock speed. For example, an
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AMD Athlon XP 3000+, which actually runs at 2.167 GHz, may be

faster than an Intel Pentium 4 running at 3.06 GHz, depending on the
application. The comparison is complicated because different CPUs
have different strengths and weaknesses. For example, the Athlon is
generally faster than the Pentium 4 clock for clock on both integer and
floating-point operations (that is, it does more work per CPU tick), but
the Pentium 4 has an extended instruction set that may allow it to run
optimised software literally twice as fast as the Athlon. The only safe
use of direct clock speed comparisons is within a single family. Also,
even within a family, processors with similar names may differ
substantially internally.
3.1.4 Microprocessor Architecture
Clock speeds increase every year, but the laws of physics limit how fast
CPUs can run. If designers depended only on faster clock speeds for
better performance, CPU performance would have hit the wall years
ago. Instead, designers have improved internal architectures while also
increasing clock speeds. Recent CPUs run at more than 650 times the
clock speed of the PC/XT’s 8088 processor, but provide 6,500 or more
times the performance. Here are some major architectural improvements
that have allowed CPUs to continue to get faster every year:
 Wider data busses and registers
For a given clock speed, the amount of work done depends on the
amount of data processed in one operation. Early CPUs processed data
in 4-bit (nibble) or 8-bit (byte) chunks, whereas current CPUs process 32
or 64 bits per operation.
 FPUs
All CPUs work well with integers, but processing floating-point

numbers to high precision on a general-purpose CPU requires a huge
number of operations.
All modern CPUs include a dedicated FPU that handles floating-point

operations efficiently.
 Pipelining
Early CPUs took five ticks to process an instruction—one each to load

the instruction, decode it, retrieve the data, execute the instruction, and
write the result. Modern CPUs use pipelining, which dedicates a
separate stage to each process and allows one full instruction to be
executed per clock cycle.
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 Superscalar architecture
If one pipeline is good, more are better. Using multiple pipelines allows
multiple instructions to be processed in parallel, an architecture called
superscalar. A superscalar processor processes multiple instructions per
tick.
Explain in details with the aid of diagrams, the components of a modern

microprocessor.
4.0 CONCLUSION
A microprocessor also known as a CPU or central processing unit is a

complete computation engine that is fabricated on a single chip.
A Microprocessor executes programs including the operating system

itself and user applications all of which perform useful work.
How efficiently and effectively the microprocessor executes instructions

is determined by its internal design, also called its architecture.
Modern microprocessors have the following internal components:

execution unit, branch predictor, floating-point unit, primary cache &
bus interfaces.
The microprocessor clock coordinates all CPU and memory operations

by periodically generating a time reference signal called a clock cycle or
tick.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit discusses microprocessors and the basic information about

them.
Write short notes with diagrams on the following terms as it relates to

microprocessors:
(a) Pipelining (b) Execution Unit (c) Primary cache (d)Complex

Instruction Set Computer (CISC).
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Comer, J David (1994). Digital Logic & State Machine Design. Oxford
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UNIT 2 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT &

ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Central Processing Unit &Arithmetic and Logical Unit
3.1.1 Central Processing Unit
3.1.2 CPU Registers
3.1.3 Polling Loops and Interrupts
3.1.4 Arithmetic & Logical Unit
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit exposes us to the Central Processing Unit and the Arithmetic
& Logical Unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain what the CPU is

 state the various terms associated with the CPU
 explain what the ALU is.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Central Processing Unit & Arithmetic & Logical Unit
3.1.1 Central Processing Unit
A computer is a complex system consisting of many different

components. But at the heart or the brain of the computer is a single
component that does the actual computing. This is the Central
Processing Unit (CPU). In a modern desktop computer, the CPU is a
single "chip" on the order of one square inch in size. The job of the CPU
is to execute programs.
165
A program is simply a list of unambiguous instructions meant to be

followed mechanically by a computer. A computer is built to carry out
instructions that are written in a very simple type of language called
machine language. Each type of computer has its own machine
language, and it can directly execute a program only if it is expressed in
that language. (It can execute programs written in other languages if
they are first translated into machine language.)
When the CPU executes a program, that program is stored in the

computer's main memory (also called the RAM or random access
memory). In addition to the program, memory can also hold data that is
being used or processed by the program. Main memory consists of a
sequence of locations. These locations are numbered, and the sequence
number of a location is called its address. An address provides a way of
picking out one particular piece of information from among the millions
stored in memory. When the CPU needs to access the program
instruction or data in a particular location, it sends the address of that
information as a signal to the memory; the memory responds by sending
back the data contained in the specified location. The CPU can also store
information in memory by specifying the information to be stored and
the address of the location where it is to be stored.
Fig. 1: CPU “Fetch-Execute” Cycle
The CPU “fetch-execute” cycle include:
 fetch instruction from memory

 decode instruction
 perform operations required by the instruction.
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A simple program for the above cycle is shown below:
function fetch- execute {

pc=init_pc();
while (not_done) {
opcode = fetch_instr(memory[pc]);
execute(opcode);
pc=pc+1;
}
}
function execute(opcode) {
decop = decode(opcode);
if need_data(decop) {
data = get_data(decop);
}
result = compute(decop, data);
if save_result(decop) {
save_result(decop, result);
}
}
3.1.2 CPU Registers
CPU registers are very special memory locations constructed from flip-
flops. They are not part of main memory; the CPU implements them on-
chip. Various members of the 80 x 86 family have different register
sizes. The 886, 8286, 8486, and 8686 (x86 from now on) CPUs have
exactly four registers, all 16 bits wide. All arithmetic and location
operations occur in the CPU registers.
Because the x86 processor has so few registers, we'll give each register
its own name and refer to it by that name rather than its address. The
names for the x86 registers are:
AX - The accumulator register

BX - The base address register
CX - The count register
DX - The data register.
Besides the above registers, which are visible to the programmer, the
x86 processors also have an instruction pointer register which contains
the address of the next instruction to execute. There is also a flags
register that holds the result of a comparison. The flags register
remembers if one value was less than, equal to, or greater than another
value.
167
Because registers are on-chip and handled specially by the CPU, they
are much faster than memory. Accessing a memory location requires
one or more clock cycles. Accessing data in a register usually takes zero
clock cycles. Therefore, you should try to keep variables in the registers.
Register sets are very small and most registers have special purposes
which limit their use as variables, but they are still an excellent place to
store temporary data.
Write short notes on the following registers:
(a) the accumulator register

(b) the base address register
(c) the count register
(d) the data register.
3.1.3 Polling Loops and Interrupts
The CPU spends almost all its time fetching instructions from memory
and executing them. However, the CPU and main memory are only two
out of many components in a real computer system. A complete system
contains other devices such as:
 A hard disk for storing programs and data files. (Note that main
memory holds only a comparatively small amount of information,
and holds it only as long as the power is turned on. A hard disk is
necessary for permanent storage of larger amounts of
information, but programs have to be loaded from disk into main
memory before they can actually be executed.)
 A keyboard and mouse for user input.
 A monitor and printer which can be used to display the
computer's output.
 A network interface that allows the computer to communicate
with other computers that are connected to it on a network.
 A scanner that converts images into coded binary numbers that
can be stored and manipulated on the computer.
The list of devices is entirely open ended, and computer systems are
built so that they can easily be expanded by adding new devices.
Somehow the CPU has to communicate with and control all these
devices. The CPU can only do this by executing machine language
instructions (which is all it can do, period). So, for each device in a
system, there is a device driver, which consists of software that the CPU
executes when it has to deal with the device. Installing a new device on
a system generally has two steps: plugging the device physically into the
168
computer, and installing the device driver software. Without the device
driver, the actual physical device would be useless, since the CPU would
not be able to communicate with it.
A computer system consisting of many devices is typically organised by

connecting those devices to one or more busses. A bus is a set of wires
that carry various sorts of information between the devices connected to
those wires. The wires carry data, addresses, and control signals. An
address directs the data to a particular device and perhaps to a particular
register or location within that device. Control signals can be used, for
example, by one device to alert another that data is available for it on the
data bus.
Now, devices such as keyboard, mouse, and network interface can

produce input that needs to be processed by the CPU. How does the
CPU know that the data is there? One simple idea, which turns out to be
not very satisfactory, is for the CPU to keep checking for incoming data
over and over. Whenever it finds data, it processes it. This method is
called polling, since the CPU polls the input devices continually to see
whether they have any input data to report. Unfortunately, although
polling is very simple, it is also very inefficient. The CPU can waste an
awful lot of time just waiting for input.
To avoid this inefficiency, interrupts are often used instead of polling.

An interrupt is a signal sent by another device to the CPU. The CPU
responds to an interrupt signal by putting aside whatever it is doing in
order to respond to the interrupt. Once it has handled the interrupt, it
returns to what it was doing before the interrupt occurred. For example,
when you press a key on your computer keyboard, a keyboard interrupt
is sent to the CPU. The CPU responds to this signal by interrupting what
is doing, reading the key that you pressed, processing it, and then
returning to the task it was performing before you pressed the key.
Again, you should understand that this is purely mechanical process: A

device signals an interrupt simply by turning on a wire. The CPU is built
so that when that wire is turned on, it saves enough information about
what it is currently doing so that it can return to the same state later.
This information consists of the contents of important internal registers
such as the program counter. Then the CPU jumps to some
predetermined memory location and begins executing the instructions
stored there. Those instructions make up an interrupt handler that does
the processing necessary to respond to the interrupt. (This interrupt
handler is part of the device driver software for the device that signalled
the interrupt.) At the end of the interrupt handler is an instruction that
tells the CPU to jump back to what it was doing; it does that by restoring
its previously saved state.
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Interrupts allow the CPU to deal with asynchronous events. In the

regular fetch-and-execute cycle, things happen in a predetermined order;
everything that happens is "synchronised" with everything else.
Interrupts make it possible for the CPU to deal efficiently with events
that happen "asynchronously", that is, at unpredictable times.
As another example of how interrupts are used, consider what happens

when the CPU needs to access data that is stored on the hard disk. The
CPU can only access data directly if it is in main memory. Data on the
disk has to be copied into memory before it can be accessed.
Unfortunately, on the scale of speed at which the CPU operates, the disk
drive is extremely slow. When the CPU needs data from the disk, it
sends a signal to the disk drive telling it to locate the data and get it
ready. (This signal is sent synchronously, under the control of a regular
program.) Then, instead of just waiting the long and unpredictable
amount of time the disk drive will take to do this, the CPU goes on with
some other task. When the disk drive has the data ready, it sends an
interrupt signal to the CPU. The interrupt handler can then read the
requested data.
All modern computers use multitasking to perform several tasks at once.

Some computers can be used by several people at once. Since the CPU
is so fast, it can quickly switch its attention from one user to another,
devoting a fraction of a second to each user in turn. This application of
multitasking is called timesharing. But even modern personal computers
with a single user use multitasking. For example, the user might be
typing a paper while a clock is continuously displaying the time and a
file is being downloaded over the network.
Each of the individual tasks that the CPU is working on is called a

thread. (Or a process; there are technical differences between threads
and processes, but they are not important here.) At any given time, only
one thread can actually be executed by a CPU. The CPU will continue
running the same thread until one of several things happens:
 the thread might voluntarily yield control, to give other threads a

chance to run
 the thread might have to wait for some asynchronous event to
occur. For example, the thread might request some data from the
disk drive, or it might wait for the user to press a key. While it is
waiting, the thread is said to be blocked, and other threads have a
chance to run. When the event occurs, an interrupt will "wake up"
the thread so that it can continue running
 the thread might use up its allotted slice of time and be suspended
to allow other threads to run.
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Not all computers can "forcibly" suspend a thread in this way; those that
can are said to use preemptive multitasking. To do preemptive
multitasking, a computer needs a special timer device that generates an
interrupt at regular intervals, such as 100 times per second. When a
timer interrupt occurs, the CPU has a chance to switch from one thread
to another, whether the thread that is currently running likes it or not.
Ordinary users, and indeed ordinary programmers, have no need to deal

with interrupts and interrupt handlers. They can concentrate on the
different tasks or threads that they want the computer to perform; the
details of how the computer manages to get all those tasks done are not
relevant to them. In fact, most users, and many programmers, can ignore
threads and multitasking altogether. However, threads have become
increasingly important as computers have become more powerful and as
they have begun to make more use of multitasking. Indeed, threads are
built into the Java programming language as a fundamental
programming concept.
Just as important in Java and in modern programming in general is the

basic concept of asynchronous events. While programmers don't
actually deal with interrupts directly, they do often find themselves
writing event handlers, which, like interrupt handlers, are called
asynchronously when specified events occur. Such "event-driven
programming" has a very different feel from the more traditional
straight-though, synchronous programming.
By the way, the software that does all the interrupt handling and the
communication with the user and with hardware devices is called the
operating system. The operating system is the basic, essential software
without which a computer would not be able to function. Other
programs, such as word processors and World Wide Web browsers, are
dependent upon the operating system. Common operating systems
include UNIX, DOS, Windows, and the Macintosh OS.
3.1.4 Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU)
The Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU) is where most of the action
takes place inside the CPU. Microprocessors have Arithmetic and Logic
Units, a combinational circuit that can perform any of the arithmetic
operations and logic operations on two input values. The operation to be
performed is selected by set of inputs known as function select inputs.
There are different MSI ALUs available that have two 4-bit inputs a 4-
bit output and three to five function select inputs that allows up to 32
different functions to be performed.
171
Three commercially available 4-bit ALUS are:
• 74XX181: The 4-bit ALU has five function select inputs allowing
it to perform 32 different Arithmetic and Logic operations.
• 74XX381: The 4-bit ALU only has three function select inputs
allowing only 8 different arithmetic and logic functions.
• 74XX382: The 4-bit ALU is similar to the 74XX381, the only
difference is that 74XX 381 provides group-carry look-ahead
outputs and 74XX382 provides ripple carry and overflow outputs
Table 1: Function Table of 74XX381 4-Bit ALU
4.0 CONCLUSION
The CPU “fetch-execute” cycle include:
fetch instruction from memory,

decode instruction and
perform operations required by the instruction.
The Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU) is where most of the action
takes place inside the CPU. Microprocessors have Arithmetic and Logic
Units, a combinational circuit that can perform any of the arithmetic
operations and logic operations on two input values.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit talks extensively on Central Processing Unit and Arithmetic &
Logical Unit of a computer system.
Define and explain these terms: ALU, CPU.
172
Comer, J David (1994). Digital Logic & State Machine Design. Oxford
University Press.

Design. Springer.

Hall.


Newnes.


McGraw-Hill.



Publishers.


Design.

Prentice Hall.

and Applications.
173

McGraw-Hill.

174
UNIT 3 ADDRESSING MODES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Addressing Modes
3.1.1 Register Addressing Mode
3.1.2 Memory Addressing Mode
3.1.3 The Displacement Only Addressing Mode
3.1.4 Register Indirect Addressing Mode
3.1.5 Indexed Addressing Mode
3.1.6 Based Index Addressing Mode
3.1.7 80386 Scaled Indexed Addressing Mode
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Processors let you access memory in many different ways. Memory

addressing modes provide flexible access to memory, allowing you to
easily access variables, arrays, records, pointers, and other complex data
types. Mastery of the addressing modes is the first step towards
mastering assembly language.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain what addressing modes are

 state the types of addressing modes we have
 outline the operations and applications of modes.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Addressing Modes
3.1.1 Register Addressing Mode
Most 80386 instructions can operate on the general purpose register set.
By specifying the name of the register as an operand to the instruction,
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you may access the contents of that register. Consider the mov (move)
instruction:
mov destination, source

This instruction copies the data from the source operand to the
destination operand. The 32- bit registers are certainly valid operands for
this instruction. The only restriction is that both operands must be the
same size. Now let's look at some actual mov instructions:
mov eax, ebx; Copies the value from EBX into EAX
mov edl, eal ; Copies the value from EAL into EDL
mov esi,edx ; Copies the value from EDX into ESI
mov esp, ebp; Copies the value from EBP into ESP
mov edh, ecx; Copies the value from ECX into EDH
mov eax, eax ;Yes, this is legal!
Remember, the registers are the best place to keep often used variables.
Instructions using the registers are shorter and faster than those that
access memory.
In addition to the general purpose registers, many instructions (including

the mov instruction) allow you to specify one of the segment registers as
an operand. There are two restrictions on the use of the segment
registers with the mov instruction. First of all, you may not specify ecs
as the destination operand; second, only one of the operands can be a
segment register. You cannot move data from one segment register to
another with a single mov instruction. To copy the value of ecx to edx,
you'd have to use some sequence like:
mov eax, ecx

mov edx, eax
You should never use the segment registers as data registers to hold
arbitrary values. They should only contain segment addresses.
3.1.2 Memory Addressing Mode
The key to good assembly language programming is the proper use of

memory addressing modes. The 80386 processor generalised the
memory addressing modes. Whereas the 8086 only allowed you to use
bx or bp as base registers and si or di as index registers, the 80386 lets
you use almost any general purpose 32 bit register as a base or index
register. Furthermore, the 80386 introduced new scaled indexed
addressing modes that simplify accessing elements of arrays. Beyond
the increase to 32 bits, the new addressing modes on the 80386 are
probably the biggest improvement to the chip over earlier processors.
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3.1.3 The Displacement Only Addressing Mode
The most common addressing mode, and the one that's easiest to
understand, is the displacement-only (or direct) addressing mode. The
displacement-only addressing mode consists of a 16 bit constant that
specifies the address of the target location. The instruction mov
al,ds:[8088h] loads the al register with a copy of the byte at memory
location 8088h. Likewise, the instruction mov ds:[1234h],dl stores the
value in the dl register to memory location 1234h:
The displacement-only addressing mode is perfect for accessing simple

variables. Of course, you'd probably prefer using names like "I" or "J"
rather than "DS:[1234h]" or "DS:[8088h]". Well, fear not, you'll soon
see it's possible to do just that.
Intel named this the displacement-only addressing mode because a 16

bit constant (displacement) follows the mov opcode in memory. In that
respect it is quite similar to the direct addressing mode on the x86
processors. There are some minor differences, however. First of all, a
displacement is exactly that - some distance from some other point. On
the x86, a direct address can be thought of as a displacement from
address zero. On the 80x86 processors, this displacement is an offset
from the beginning of a segment (the data segment in this example). For
now, you can think of the displacement-only addressing mode as a direct
addressing mode. The examples in this unit will typically access bytes in
memory. Don't forget, however, that you can also access words on the
8086 processors:
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By default, all displacement-only values provide offsets into the data

segment. If you want to provide an offset into a different segment, you
must use a segment override prefix before your address. For example, to
access location 1234h in the extra segment (es) you would use an
instruction of the form mov ax,es:[1234h]. Likewise, to access this
location in the code segment you would use the instruction mov ax,
cs:[1234h]. The ds: prefix in the previous examples is not a segment
override. The CPU uses the data segment register by default. These
specific examples require ds: because of MASM's syntactical
limitations.
3.1.4 Register Indirect Addressing Modes
The 80x86 CPUs let you access memory indirectly through a register
using the register indirect addressing modes. There are four forms of this
addressing mode on the 8086, best demonstrated by the following
instructions:
mov al, [bx]

mov al, [bp]
mov al, [si]
mov al, [di]
As with the x86 [bx] addressing mode, these four addressing modes
reference the byte at the offset found in the bx, bp, si, or di register,
respectively. The [bx], [si], and [di] modes use the ds segment by
default. The [bp] addressing mode uses the stack segment (ss) by
default.
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You can use the segment override prefix symbols if you wish to access
data in different segments. The following instructions demonstrate the
use of these overrides:
mov al, cs:[bx]

mov al, ds:[bp]
mov al, ss:[si]
mov al, es:[di]
Intel refers to [bx] and [bp] as base addressing modes and bx and bp as
base registers (in fact, bp stands for base pointer). Intel refers to the [si]
and [di] addressing modes as indexed addressing modes (si stands for
source index, di stands for destination index). However, these
addressing modes are functionally equivalent. This text will call these
forms register indirect modes to be consistent.
Note: the [si] and [di] addressing modes work exactly the same way, just
substitute si and di for bx above.
On the 80386 you may specify any general purpose 32 bit register when
using the register indirect addressing mode. [eax], [ebx], [ecx], [edx],
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[esi], and [edi] all provide offsets, by default, into the data segment. The
[ebp] and [esp] addressing modes use the stack segment by default.
Note that while running in 16 bit real mode on the 80386, offsets in
these 32 bit registers must still be in the range 0...0FFFFh. You cannot
use values larger than this to access more than 64K in a segment. Also
note that you must use the 32 bit names of the registers. You cannot use
the 16 bit names. The following instructions demonstrate all the legal
forms:
mov al, [eax]

mov al, [ebx]
mov al, [ecx]
mov al, [edx]
mov al, [esi]
mov al, [edi]
mov al, [ebp] ;Uses SS by default.
mov al, [esp] ;Uses SS by default.
3.1.5 Indexed Addressing Mode
The indexed addressing modes use the following syntax:
mov al, disp[bx]

mov al, disp[bp]
mov al, disp[si]
mov al, disp[di]
If bx contains 1000h, then the instruction mov cl,20h[bx] will load cl

from memory location ds:1020h. Likewise, if bp contains 2020h, mov
dh,1000h[bp] will load dh from location ss:3020.
The offsets generated by these addressing modes are the sum of the
constant and the specified register. The addressing modes involving bx,
si, and di all use the data segment, the disp[bp] addressing mode uses the
stack segment by default. As with the register indirect addressing
modes, you can use the segment override prefixes to specify a different
segment:
mov al, ss:disp[bx]

mov al, es:disp[bp]
mov al, cs:disp[si]
mov al, ss:disp[di]
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You may substitute si or di in the figure above to obtain the [si+disp]

and [di+disp] addressing modes.
Note that Intel still refers to these addressing modes as based addressing
and indexed addressing. Intel's literature does not differentiate between
these modes with or without the constant. If you look at how the
hardware works, this is a reasonable definition. From the programmer's
point of view, however, these addressing modes are useful for entirely
different things.
3.1.6 Based Indexed Addressing Modes
The based indexed addressing modes are simply combinations of the

register indirect addressing modes. These addressing modes form the
offset by adding together a base register (bx or bp) and an index register
(si or di). The allowable forms for these addressing modes are:
mov al, [bx][si]

mov al, [bx][di]
mov al, [bp][si]
mov al, [bp][di]
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Suppose that bx contains 1000h and si contains 880h. Then the

instruction moval, [bx][si] would load al from location DS:1880h.
Likewise, if bp contains 1598h and di contains 1004, mov ax,[bp+di]
will load the 16 bits in ax from locations SS:259C and SS:259D.
The addressing modes that do not involve bp use the data segment by
default. Those that have bp as an operand use the stack segment by
default.
You substitute di in the figure above to obtain the [bx+di] addressing

mode.
You substitute di in the figure above for the [bp+di] addressing mode.
Based Indexed Plus Displacement Addressing Mode
These addressing modes are a slight modification of the base/indexed

addressing modes with the addition of an eight bit or sixteen bit
constant. The following are some examples of these addressing modes:
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mov al, disp[bx][si]

mov al, disp[bx+di]
mov al, [bp+si+disp]
mov al, [bp][di][disp]
You may substitute di in the figure above to produce the [bx+di+disp]

addressing mode.
You may substitute di in the figure above to produce the [bp+di+disp]

addressing mode.
Suppose bp contains 1000h, bx contains 2000h, si contains 120h, and di

contains 5. Then mov al,10h[bx+si] loads al from address DS:2130; mov
ch,125h[bp+di] loads ch from location SS:112A; and mov
bx,cs:2[bx][di] loads bx from location CS:2007.
80386 Indexed, Base/Indexed, and Base/Indexed/Disp Addressing

Modes
The indexed addressing modes (register indirect plus a displacement)

allow you to mix a 32 bit register with a constant. The base/indexed
addressing modes let you pair up two 32 bit registers. Finally, the
base/indexed/displacement addressing modes let you combine a constant
and two registers to form the effective address. Keep in mind that the
offset produced by the effective address computation must still be 16
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bits long when operating in real mode. On the 80386 the terms base
register and index register actually take on some meaning. When
combining two 32 bit registers in an addressing mode, the first register
is the base register and the second register is the index register. This is
true regardless of the register names. Note that the 80386 allows you to
use the same register as both a base and index register, which is actually
useful on occasion. The following instructions provide representative
samples of the various base and indexed address modes along with
syntactical variations:
mov al, disp[eax] ;Indexed addressing

mov al, [ebx+disp] ;modes.
mov al, [ecx][disp]
mov al, disp[edx]
mov al, disp[esi]
mov al, disp[edi]
mov al, disp[ebp] ;Uses SS by default.
mov al, disp[esp] ;Uses SS by default.
The following instructions all use the base+indexed addressing mode.

The first register in the second operand is the base register, the second is
the index register. If the base register is esp or ebp the effective address
is relative to the stack segment. Otherwise the effective address is
relative to the data segment. Note that the choice of index register does
not affect the choice of the default segment.
mov al, [eax][ebx] ;Base+indexed addressing

mov al, [ebx+ebx] ;modes.
mov al, [ecx][edx]
mov al, [edx][ebp] ;Uses DS by default.
mov al, [esi][edi]
mov al, [edi][esi]
mov al, [ebp+ebx] ;Uses SS by default.
mov al, [esp][ecx] ;Uses SS by default.
Naturally, you can add a displacement to the above addressing modes to

produce the base+indexed+displacement addressing mode. The
following instructions provide a representative sample of the possible
addressing modes:
mov al, disp[eax][ebx] ;Base+indexed addressing

mov al, disp[ebx+ebx] ;modes.
mov al, [ecx+edx+disp]
mov al, disp[edx+ebp] ;Uses DS by default.
mov al, [esi][edi][disp]
mov al, [edi][disp][esi]
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mov al, disp[ebp+ebx] ;Uses SS by default.

mov al, [esp+ecx][disp] ;Uses SS by default.
There is one restriction the 80386 places on the index register. You
cannot use the esp register as an index register. It's okay to use esp as the
base register, but not as the index register.
3.1.7 80386 Scaled Indexed Addressing Modes
The indexed, base/indexed, and base/indexed/disp addressing modes

described above are really special instances of the 80386 scaled indexed
addressing modes. These addressing modes are particularly useful for
accessing elements of arrays, though they are not limited to such
purposes. These modes let you multiply the index register in the
addressing mode by one, two, four, or eight. The general syntax for
these addressing modes is
disp[index*n]
[base][index*n]
or
disp[base][index*n]
where "base" and "index" represent any 80386 32 bit general purpose
registers and "n" is the value one, two, four, or eight.
The 80386 computes the effective address by adding disp, base, and
index*n together. For example, if ebx contains 1000h and esi contains 4,
then
mov al,8[ebx][esi*4] ;Loads AL from location 1018h

mov al,1000h[ebx][ebx*2] ;Loads AL from location 4000h
mov al,1000h[esi*8] ;Loads AL from location 1020h
Note that the 80386 extended indexed, base/indexed, and

base/indexed/displacement addressing modes really are special cases of
this scaled indexed addressing mode with "n" equal to one. That is, the
following pairs of instructions are absolutely identical to the 80386:
mov al, 2[ebx][esi*1] mov al, 2[ebx][esi]

mov al, [ebx][esi*1] mov al, [ebx][esi]
mov al, 2[esi*1] mov al, 2[esi]
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4.0 CONCLUSION
The effective address is the final offset produced by an addressing mode

computation. There is even a special instruction load effective address
(lea) that computes effective addresses.
Not all addressing modes are created equal! Different addressing modes
may take differing amounts of time to compute the effective address.
The exact difference varies from processor to processor. Generally,
though, the more complex an addressing mode is, the longer it takes to
compute the effective address. Complexity of an addressing mode is
directly related to the number of terms in the addressing mode.
The displacement field in all addressing modes except displacement-

only can be a signed eight bit constant or a signed 16 bit constant. If
your offset is in the range -128...+127 the instruction will be shorter
(and therefore faster) than an instruction with a displacement outside
that range. The size of the value in the register does not affect the
execution time or size. So if you can arrange to put a large number in the
register(s) and use a small displacement that is preferable over large
constant and small values in the register(s). If the effective address
calculation produces a value greater than 0FFFFh, the CPU ignores the
overflow and the result wraps around back to zero.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we discussed addressing modes, their various types and how
they are used.
Mention and explain the different types of addressing modes we have.
University Press.

Design. Springer.

Hall.

186

Newnes.
Mano, M. Morris; Kime, Charles, R. (2007). Logic and Computer


McGraw-Hill.



Publishers.


Design.

Prentice Hall.

and Applications.

McGraw-Hill.

187
MODULE 6 ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

PROGRAMMING
Unit 1 Learning to Program with Assembly Language

Unit 2 Branching Loops and Subroutines
Unit 3 Sample Programs in Assembly Language
UNIT 1 LEARNING TO PROGRAM WITH ASSEMBLY

LANGUAGE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Learning to Program with Assembly Language
3.1.1 Availability
3.1.2 Why Learn Assembly Language
3.1.3 Assembly Language Statements
3.1.4 Assembly Language Structure
3.1.5 Using Debug Program
3.1.6 Creating Basic Assembly Programs
3.1.7 Building Assembly Language Programs
3.1.8 Assembly Language Programming
3.1.9 Assembly Process
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Unlike the other programming languages, assembly language is not a

single language, but rather a group of languages. Each processor family
(and sometimes individual processors within a processor family) has its
own assembly language.
In contrast to high level languages, data structures and program

structures in assembly language are created by directly implementing
them on the underlying hardware. So, instead of cataloguing the data
structures and program structures that can be built (in assembly
language you can build any structures you so desire, including new
structures nobody else has ever created), we will compare and contrast
the hardware capabilities of various processor families.
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Assembly languages have the same structure and set of commands as

machine languages, but they enable a programmer to use names instead
of numbers.
Each type of CPU has its own machine language and assembly
language, so an assembly language program written for one type of CPU
won’t run on another. In the early days of programming, all programs
were written in assembly language. Now, most programs are written in
high-level language. Programmers still use assembly language when
speed is essential or when they need to perform an operation that isn't
possible in a high-level language.
Assembly language teaches how a computer works at the machine level

(i.e. registers).The foundation of many abstract issues in software lies in
assembly language. Assembly language is not used just to illustrate
algorithms, but to demonstrate what is actually happening inside the
computer.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define assembly language

 write programs using assembly language.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Learning to Program with Assembly Language
3.1.1 Availability
Assemblers are available for just about every processor ever made.
Native assemblers produce object code on the same hardware that the
object code will run on. Cross assemblers produce object code on
different hardware that the object code will run on.
3.1.2 Why Learn Assembly Language
The first reason to work with assembler is that it provides the

opportunity of knowing more the operation of your PC, which allows
the development of software in a more consistent manner.
The second reason is the total control of the PC which you can have
with the use of the assembler.
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Another reason is that the assembly programs are quicker, smaller, and
have larger capacities than ones created with other languages.
Lastly, the assembler allows an ideal optimization in programs, be it on

their size or on their execution.
3.1.3 Assembly Language Statements
Assembly language statements in a source file use the following format:
{Label} {Mnemonic} {Operand}} {;Comment}
Each entity above is a field. The four fields above are the label field, the
mnemonic field, the operand field, and the comment field.
The label field is (usually) an optional field containing a symbolic label

for the current statement. Labels are used in assembly language, just as
in HLLs, to mark lines as the targets of GOTOs (jumps). You can also
specify variable names, procedure names, and other entities using
symbolic labels. Most of the time the label field is optional, meaning a
label need be present only if you want a label on that particular line.
Some mnemonics, however, require a label, others do not allow one. In
general, you should always begin your labels in column one as it makes
your programs easier to read.
A mnemonic is an instruction name (e.g., mov, add, etc.). The word

mnemonic means memory aid. mov is much easier to remember than the
binary equivalent of the mov instruction! The braces denote that this
item is optional. Note, however, that you cannot have an operand
without a mnemonic.
The mnemonic field contains an assembler instruction. Instructions are

divided into three classes: 80x86 machine instructions, assembler
directives, and pseudo opcodes. 80x86 instructions, of course, are
assembler mnemonics that correspond to the actual 80x86 instructions.
Assembler directives are special instructions that provide information to
the assembler but do not generate any code. Examples include the
segment directive, equ, assume, and end. These mnemonics are not valid
80x86 instructions. They are messages to the assembler, nothing else.
A pseudo-opcode is a message to the assembler, just like an assembler

directive, however a pseudo-opcode will emit object code bytes.
Examples of pseudo-opcodes include byte, word, dword, qword, and
tbyte. These instructions emit the bytes of data specified by their
operands but they are not true 80X86 machine instructions.
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The operand field contains the operands, or parameters, for the

instruction specified in the mnemonic field. Operands never appear on
lines by themselves. The type and number of operands (zero, one, two,
or more) depend entirely on the specific instruction.
The comment field allows you to annotate each line of source code in
your program. Note that the comment field always begins with a
semicolon. When the assembler is processing a line of text, it completely
ignores everything on the source line following a semicolon.
Each assembly language statement appears on its own line in the source
file. You cannot have multiple assembly language statements on a single
line. On the other hand, since all the fields in an assembly language
statement are optional, blank lines are fine. You can use blank lines
anywhere in your source file. Blank lines are useful for spacing out
certain sections of code, making them easier to read.
The Microsoft Macro Assembler is a free form assembler. The various

fields of an assembly language statement may appear in any column (as
long as they appear in the proper order). Any number of spaces or tabs
can separate the various fields in the statement. To the assembler, the
following two code sequences are identical:
mov ax, 0
mov bx, ax
add ax, dx
mov cx, ax
mov ax, 0
mov bx, ax
add ax, dx
mov cx, ax
The first code sequence is much easier to read than the second. With
respect to readability, the judicial use of spacing within your program
can make all the difference in the world.
Assembly language programs are hard enough to read as it is.

Formatting your listings to help make them easier to read will make
them much easier to maintain.
You may have a comment on the line by itself. In such a case, place the
semicolon in column one and use the entire line for the comment,
examples:
; The following section of code positions the cursor to the upper

; left hand position on the screen:
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mov X, 0
mov Y, 0
; Now clear from the current cursor position to the end of the
; screen to clear the video display:
; etc.
3.1.4 Assembly Language Structure
In assembly language code lines have two parts, the first one is the name
of the instruction which is to be executed, and the second one are the
parameters of the command. For example: add ah bh
Here "add" is the command to be executed; in this case an addition, and

"ah" as well as "bh" are the parameters.
For example: mov al, 25
In the above example, we are using the instruction mov, it means move
the value 25 to al register.
The name of the instructions in this language is made of two, three or

four letters. These instructions are also called mnemonic names or
operation codes, since they represent a function the processor will
perform.
Sometimes instructions are used as follows:

add al,[170]
The brackets in the second parameter indicate to us that we are going to

work with the content of the memory cell number 170 and not with the
170 value; this is known as direct addressing.
3.1.5 Using Debug Program
Program Creation Process
For the creation of a program it is necessary to follow five steps:
Design of the algorithm, stage the problem to be solved is established

and the best solution is proposed, creating squematic diagrams used for
the better solution proposal. Coding the algorithm, consists in writing
the program in some programming language; assembly language in this
specific case, taking as a base the proposed solution on the prior step.
Translation to machine language is the creation of the object program, in
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other words, the written program as a sequence of zeros and ones that
can be interpreted by the processor. Test the program, after the
translation the program into machine language, execute the program in
the computer machine. The last stage is the elimination of detected
faults on the program on the test stage. The correction of a fault
normally requires the repetition of all the steps from the first or second.
Debug Program
To create a program in assembler two options exist, the first one is to

use the TASM or Turbo Assembler, of Borland, and the second one is to
use the debugger - on this first section we will use this last one since it is
found in any PC with the MS-DOS, which makes it available to any user
who has access to a machine with these characteristics.
Debug can only create files with a .COM extension, and because of the
characteristics of these kinds of programs they cannot be larger than 64
kb, and they also must start with displacement, offset, or 0100H memory
direction inside the specific segment.
Debug provides a set of commands that lets you perform a number of

useful operations:
A Assemble symbolic instructions into machine code

D Display the contents of an area of memory
E Enter data into memory, beginning at a specific location
G Run the executable program in memory
N Name a program
P Proceed, or execute a set of related instructions
Q Quit the debug program
R Display the contents of one or more registers
T Trace the contents of one instruction
U Unassembled machine code into symbolic code
W Write a program onto disk
It is possible to visualise the values of the internal registers of the CPU

using the Debug program. To begin working with Debug, type the
following prompt in your computer:
C:/>Debug [Enter]
On the next line a dash will appear, this is the indicator of Debug, at this
moment the instructions of Debug can be introduced using the following
command:
-r[Enter]
193
AX=0000 BX=0000 CX=0000 DX=0000 SP=FFEE BP=0000 SI=0000

DI=0000
DS=0D62 ES=0D62 SS=0D62 CS=0D62 IP=0100 NV EI PL NZ NA
PO NC
0D62:0100 2E CS:
0D62:0101 803ED3DF00 CMP BYTE PTR [DFD3],00 CS:DFD3=03
All the contents of the internal registers of the CPU are displayed; an
alternative of viewing them is to use the "r" command using as a
parameter the name of the register whose value wants to be seen. For
example:
-rbx
BX 0000
:
This instruction will only display the content of the BX register and the
Debug indicator changes from "-" to ":"
When the prompt is like this, it is possible to change the value of the
register which was seen by typing the new value and [Enter], or the old
value can be left by pressing [Enter] without typing any other value.
3.1.6 Creating Basic Assembly Language Program
The first step is to initiate the Debug, this step only consists of typing
debug [Enter] on the operative system prompt.
To assemble a program on the Debug, the "a" (assemble) command is

used; when this command is used, the address where you want the
assembling to begin can be given as a parameter, if the parameter is
omitted the assembling will be initiated at the locality specified by
CS:IP, usually 0100h, which is the locality where programs with .COM
extension must be initiated. And it will be the place we will use since
only Debug can create this specific type of programs.
Even though at this moment it is not necessary to give the "a" command
a parameter, it is recommendable to do so to avoid problems once the
CS:IP registers are used, therefore we type:
a 100[enter]
mov ax,0002[enter]
mov bx,0004[enter]
add ax,bx[enter]
nop[enter][enter]
194
What does the program do?, move the value 0002 to the ax register,
move the value 0004 to the bx register, add the contents of the ax and bx
registers, the instruction, no operation, to finish the program.
In the debug program.
After to do this, appear on the screen some like the follow lines:
C:\>debug
-a 100
0D62:0100 mov ax,0002
0D62:0103 mov bx,0004
0D62:0106 add ax,bx
0D62:0108 nop
0D62:0109
Type the command "t" (trace), to execute each instruction of this

program, example:
-t
DI=0000

PO NC
0D62:0103 BB0400 MOV BX,0004
You see that the value 2 move to AX register. Type the command "t"
(trace), again, and you see the second instruction is executed.
-t
DI=0000

PO
NC
0D62:0106 01D8 ADD AX,BX
Type the command "t" (trace) to see if the instruction add is executed,
you will see the follow lines:
-t
DI=0000
195

PE NC
0D62:0108 90 NOP
The possibility that the registers contain different values exists, but AX
and BX must be the same, since they are the ones we just modified.
To exit Debug use the "q" (quit) command.
Storing and Loading the Programs
It would not seem practical to type an entire program each time it is

needed, and to avoid this it is possible to store a program on the disk,
with the enormous advantage that by being already assembled it will not
be necessary to run Debug again to execute it.
The steps to save a program that it is already stored on memory are:
Obtain the length of the program subtracting the final address from the
initial address, naturally in hexadecimal system. Give the program a
name and extension. Put the length of the program on the CX register.
Order Debug to write the program on the disk.
By using as an example the following program, we will have a clearer

idea of how to take these steps:
When the program is finally assembled it would look like this:
0C1B:0100 mov ax,0002

0C1B:0103 mov bx,0004
0C1B:0106 add ax,bx
0C1B:0108 int 20
0C1B:010A
To obtain the length of a program the "h" command is used, since it will
show us the addition and subtraction of two numbers in hexadecimal. To
obtain the length of ours, we give it as parameters the value of our
program's final address (10A), and the program's initial address (100).
The first result the command shows us is the addition of the parameters
and the second is the subtraction.
-h 10a 100
020a 000a
196
The "n" command allows us to name the program.
-n test.com
The "rcx" command allows us to change the content of the CX register

to the value we obtained from the size of the file with "h", in this case
000a, since the result of the subtraction of the final address from the
initial address.
-rcx
CX 0000
:000a
Lastly, the "w" command writes our program on the disk, indicating
how many bytes it wrote.
-w
Writing 000A bytes
To save an already loaded file two steps are necessary:
Give the name of the file to be loaded.
Load it using the "l" (load) command.
To obtain the correct result of the following steps, it is necessary that the
above program be already created.
Inside Debug we write the following:

-n test.com
-l
-u 100 109
0C3D:0100 B80200 MOV AX,0002

0C3D:0103 BB0400 MOV BX,0004
0C3D:0106 01D8 ADD AX,BX
0C3D:0108 CD20 INT 20
The last "u" command is used to verify that the program was loaded on
memory. What it does is that it disassembles the code and shows it
disassembled. The parameters indicate to Debug from where and to
where to disassemble.
Debug always loads the programs on memory on the address 100H,

otherwise indicated.
197
3.1.7 Building Assembly Language Programs
In order to be able to create a program, several tools are needed:
First, an editor to create the source program; second, a compiler, which

is nothing more than a program that "translates" the source program into
an object program. And third, a linker that generates the executable
program from the object program.
The editor can be any text editor at hand, and as a compiler we will use
the TASM macro assembler from Borland, and as a linker we will use
the Tlink program.
The extension used so that TASM recognises the source programs in

assembler is .ASM; once translated the source program, the TASM
creates a file with the .OBJ extension, this file contains an "intermediate
format" of the program, called like this because it is not executable yet
but it is not a program in source language either anymore. The linker
generates, from a.OBJ or a combination of several of these files, an
executable program, whose extension usually is .EXE though it can also
be .COM, depending of the form it was assembled.
3.1.8 Assembly Language Programming
To build assembler programs using TASM programs is a different

program structure than from using debug program.
It's important to include the following assembler directives:
.MODEL SMALL
Assembler directive that defines the memory model to use in the
program
.CODE
Assembler directive that defines the program instructions
.STACK
Assembler directive that reserves a memory space for program
instructions
in the stack
END
Assembler directive that finishes the assembler program
Let's program
198
First Step
use any editor program to create the source file. Type the following
lines:
first example
; use ; to put comments in the assembler program
.MODEL SMALL; memory model
.STACK; memory space for program instructions in the stack
.CODE; the following lines are program instructions
mov ah,1h; moves the value 1h to register ah
mov cx,07h;moves the value 07h to register cx
int 10h;10h interruption
mov ah,4ch;moves the value 4 ch to register ah
int 21h;21h interruption
END; finishes the program code
This assembler program changes the size of the computer cursor.
Second Step
Save the file with the following name: examp1.asm Don't forget to save
this in ASCII format.
Third Step
Use the TASM program to build the object program.

Example:
C:\>tasm exam1.asm
Turbo Assembler Version 2.0 Copyright (c) 1988, 1990 Borland
International
Assembling file: exam1.asm

Error messages: None
Warning messages: None
Passes: 1
Remaining memory: 471k
The TASM can only create programs in .OBJ format, which are not
executable by themselves, but rather it is necessary to have a linker
which generates the executable code.
199
Fourth Step
Use the TLINK program to build the executable program example:

C:\>tlink exam1.obj
Turbo Link Version 3.0 Copyright (c) 1987, 1990 Borland International
C:\>
Where exam1.obj is the name of the intermediate program, .OBJ. This

generates a file directly with the name of the intermediate program and
the .EXE extension.
Fifth Step
Execute the executable program

C:\>exam1[enter]
Remember, this assembler program changes the size of the cursor.
Another example
First Step
use any editor program to create the source file. Type the following
lines:
;example11
.model small
.stack
.code
mov ah,2h ;moves the value 2h to register ah
mov dl,2ah ;moves de value 2ah to register dl
;(Its the asterisk value in ASCII format)
int 21h ;21h interruption
mov ah,4ch ;4ch function, goes to operating system
int 21h ;21h interruption
end ;finishes the program code
Second Step
Save the file with the following name: exam2.asm

Don't forget to save this in ASCII format.
200
Third Step
Use the TASM program to build the object program.

C:\>tasm exam2.asm
Turbo Assembler Version 2.0 Copyright (c) 1988, 1990 Borland
International
Assembling file: exam2.asm
Error messages: None
Warning messages: None
Passes: 1
Remaining memory: 471k
Fourth Step
Use the TLINK program to build the executable program

C:\>tlink exam2.obj
Turbo Link Version 3.0 Copyright (c) 1987, 1990 Borland International
C:\>
Fifth Step
Execute the executable program

C:\>ejem11[enter]
*
C:\>
This assembler program shows the asterisk character on the computer

screen
3.1.9 Assembly Process
Segments
The architecture of the x86 processors forces to the use of memory

segments to manage the information, the size of these segments is of
64kb.
The reason of being of these segments is that, considering that the

maximum size of a number that the processor can manage is given by a
word of 16 bits or register, it would not be possible to access more than
65536 localities of memory using only one of these registers, but now, if
the PC's memory is divided into groups or segments, each one of 65536
localities, and we use an address on an exclusive register to find each
segment, and then we make each address of a specific slot with two
registers, it is possible for us to access a quantity of 4294967296 bytes
201
of memory, which is, in the present day, more memory than what we
will see installed in a PC.
In order for the assembler to be able to manage the data, it is necessary

that each piece of information or instruction be found in the area that
corresponds to its respective segments. The assembler accesses this
information taking into account the localisation of the segment, given by
the DS, ES, SS and CS registers and inside the register the address of the
specified piece of information. It is because of this that when we create a
program using the Debug on each line that we assemble, something like
this appears:
1CB0:0102 MOV AX, BX
Where the first number, 1CB0, corresponds to the memory segment

being used, the second one refers to the address inside this segment, and
the instructions which will be stored from that address follow. The way
to indicate to the assembler with which of the segments we will work
with is with the .CODE, .DATA and .STACK directives.
The assembler adjusts the size of the segments taking as a base the
number of bytes each assembled instruction needs, since it would be a
waste of memory to use the whole segments. For example, if a program
only needs 10kb to store data, the data segment will only be of 10kb and
not the 64kb it can handle.
Symbols Chart
Each one of the parts on code line in assembler is known as token, for
example on the code line:
MOV AX,Var
We have three tokens, the MOV instruction, the AX operator, and the
VAR operator. What the assembler does to generate the OBJ code is to
read each one of the tokens and look for it on an internal "equivalence"
chart known as the reserved words chart, which is where all the
mnemonic meanings we use as instructions are found. Following this
process, the assembler reads MOV, looks for it on its chart and identifies
it as a processor instruction. Likewise it reads AX and recognises it as a
register of the processor, but when it looks for the Var token on the
reserved words chart, it does not find it, so then it looks for it on the
symbols chart which is a table where the names of the variables,
constants and labels used in the program where their addresses on
memory are included and the sort of data it contains, are found.
Sometimes the assembler comes on a token which is not defined on the
202
program, therefore what it does in these cased is to pass a second time

by the source program to verify all references to that symbol and place it
on the symbols chart. There are symbols which the assembler will not
find since they do not belong to that segment and the program does not
know in what part of the memory it will find that segment, and at this
time the linker comes into action, which will create the structure
necessary for the loader so that the segment and the token be defined
when the program is loaded and before it is executed.
Explain extensively in your own words the processes/steps to take in

writing a program in assembly language.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Assemblers are available for just about every processor ever made.
Native assemblers produce object code on the same hardware that the
object code will run on. Cross assemblers produce object code on
different hardware that the object code will run on.
The first reason to work with assembler is that it provides the

opportunity of knowing more the operation of your PC, which allows
the development of software in a more consistent manner.
The second reason is the total control of the PC which you can have
with the use of the assembler. Another reason is that the assembly
programs are quicker, smaller, and have larger capacities than ones
created with other languages. Lastly, the assembler allows an ideal
optimisation in programs, be it on their size or on their execution.
Assembly language statements in a source file use the following format:
{Label} {Mnemonic} {Operand}} {; Comment}
Each assembly language statement appears on its own line in the source
file. You cannot have multiple assembly language statements on a single
line.
In assembly language, code lines have two parts, the first one is the
name of the instruction which is to be executed, and the second one are
the parameters of the command.
In order to be able to create a program, several tools are needed: First an

editor to create the source program. Second a compiler, which is nothing
more than a program that "translates" the source program into an object
203
program. And third, a linker that generates the executable program from
the object program.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we introduced assembly languages, what they are and how to
write programs using assembly language.
1. Explain in your own words what the program below does:

a 100[enter]
mov ax,0002[enter]
mov bx,0004[enter]
add ax,bx[enter]
nop[enter][enter].
Then write a similar program and explain what the program does.
2. What provides a set of commands that lets you perform a number
of useful operations? Name the operations and explain what they
do.

Diego State University. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Emerson, W. Pugh, Lyle, R. Johnson & John, H. Palmer (1991). IBM's
360 and Early 370 systems. MIT Press. p. 10.
Pub.
Ford, William & Topp, William, (1992). Macintosh Assembly System,
Programmer’s Handbook. McGraw Hill.
Struble, George W. (1975). Assembler Language Programming The
IBM System/360 and 370. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
www.cs.siu.edu
204
UNIT 2 BRANCHING LOOPS & SUBROUTINES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Branching Loops & Subroutines
3.1.1 Types of Instruction
3.1.2 Jumps, Loops and Procedure
3.1.3 Program Flow Control Instructions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit discusses program flow control instructions in assembly

language.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 describe the program flow control instructions of assembly

language
 state the program flow control instructions.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Branching Loops & Subroutines
3.1.1 Types of Instruction
Data Movement
In any program it is necessary to move the data in the memory and in the
CPU registers; there are several ways to do this: it can copy data in the
memory to some register, from register to register, from a register to a
stack, from a stack to a register, to transmit data to external devices as
well as vice versa.
This movement of data is subject to rules and restrictions. The following

are some of them:
205
It is not possible to move data from a memory locality to another

directly; it is necessary to first move the data of the origin locality to a
register and then from the register to the destiny locality.
It is not possible to move a constant directly to a segment register; it first

must be moved to a register in the CPU.
It is possible to move data blocks by means of the movs instructions,

which copies a chain of bytes or words; movsb which copies n bytes
from a locality to another; and movsw copies n words from a locality to
another. The last two instructions take the values from the defined
addresses by DS:SI as a group of data to move and ES:DI as the new
localisation of the data.
To move data there are also structures called batteries, where the data is
introduced with the push instruction and are extracted with the pop
instruction.
In a stack the first data to be introduced is the last one we can take, this
is, if in our program we use these instructions:
PUSH AX
PUSH BX
PUSH CX
To return the correct values to each register at the moment of taking

them from the stack it is necessary to do it in the following order:
POP CX
POP BX
POP AX
For the communication with external devices the out command is used
to send information to a port and the in command to read the
information received from a port.
The syntax of the out command is:
OUT DX,AX
Where DX contains the value of the port which will be used for the
communication and AX contains the information which will be sent.
The syntax of the in command is:
IN AX,DX
206
Where AX is the register where the incoming information will be kept

and DX contains the address of the port by which the information will
arrive.
3.1.2 Jumps, Loops and Procedure
The unconditional jumps in a written program in assembler language are

given by the jmp instruction; a jump is to moves the flow of the
execution of a program by sending the control to the indicated address.
A loop, known also as iteration, is the repetition of a process a certain

number of times until a condition is fulfilled.
A procedure is a collection of instructions to which we can direct the

flow of our program, and once the execution of these instructions is over
control is given back to the next line to process of the code which called
on the procedure.
3.1.3 Program Flow Control Instructions
The instructions discussed thus far execute sequentially; that is, the CPU
executes each instruction in the sequence it appears in your program. To
write real programs requires several control structures, not just the
sequence. Examples include the if statement, loops, and subroutine
invocation (a call). Since compilers reduce all other languages to
assembly language, it should come as no surprise that assembly
language supports the instructions necessary to implement these control
structures. 80x86 program control instructions belong to three groups:
unconditional transfers, conditional transfers, and subroutine call and
return instructions. The following sections describe these instructions:
1. Unconditional Jumps
The jmp (jump) instruction unconditionally transfers control to another

point in the program. There are six forms of this instruction: an
intersegment/direct jump, two intrasegment/direct jumps, an
intersegment/indirect jump, and two intrasegment/indirect jumps.
Intrasegment jumps are always between statements in the same code
segment. Intersegment jumps can transfer control to a statement in a
different code segment.
These instructions generally use the same syntax, it is jmp target.
For example, the following short little loop continuously reads the
parallel printer data port and inverts the L.O. bit. This produces a square
wave electrical signal on one of the printer port output lines:
207
mov dx,378h ;Parallel printer port address.

LoopForever: in al, dx ;Read character from input port.
xor al,1 ;Invert the L.O. bit.
out dx, al ;Output data back to port.
jmp LoopForever ;Repeat forever.
2. The CALL and RET Instructions
The call and ret instructions handle subroutine calls and returns. There
are five different call instructions and six different forms of the return
instruction:
call disp16 ;direct intrasegment, 16 bit relative.

call adrs32 ;direct intersegment, 32 bit segmented address.
call mem16 ;indirect intrasegment, 16 bit memory pointer.
call reg16 ;indirect intrasegment, 16 bit register pointer.
call mem32 ;indirect intersegment, 32 bit memory pointer.
ret ;near or far return

retn ;near return
retf ;far return
ret disp ;near or far return and pop
retn disp ;near return and pop
retf disp ;far return and pop
The call instructions take the same forms as the jmp instructions except
there is no short (two byte) intrasegment call.
The far call instruction does the following:
 It pushes the cs register onto the stack.

 It pushes the 16 bit offset of the next instruction following the
call onto the stack.
 It copies the 32 bit effective address into the cs:ip registers. Since
the call instruction allows the same addressing modes as jmp, call
can obtain the target address using a relative, memory, or register
addressing mode.
 Execution continues at the first instruction of the subroutine. This
first instruction is the opcode at the target address computed in
the previous step.
208
The near call instruction does the following:
 It pushes the 16 bit offset of the next instruction following the

call onto the stack.
 It copies the 16 bit effective address into the ip register. Since the
call instruction allows the same addressing modes as jmp, call
can obtain the target address using a relative, memory, or register
addressing mode.
 Execution continues at the first instruction of the subroutine. This
first instruction is the opcode at the target address computed in
the previous step.
The ret (return) instruction returns control to the caller of a subroutine. It

does so by popping the return address off the stack and transferring
control to the instruction at this return address. Intrasegment (near)
returns pop a 16 bit return address off the stack into the ip register. An
intersegment (far) return pops a 16 bit offset into the ip register and then
a 16 bit segment value into the cs register. These instructions are
effectively equal to the following:
retn: pop ip
retf: popd cs:ip
Clearly, you must match a near subroutine call with a near return and a
far subroutine call with a corresponding far return. If you mix near calls
with far returns or vice versa, you will leave the stack in an inconsistent
state and you probably will not return to the proper instruction after the
call. Of course, another important issue when using the call and ret
instructions is that you must make sure your subroutine doesn't push
something onto the stack and then fail to pop it off before trying to
return to the caller. Stack problems are a major cause of errors in
assembly language subroutines. Consider the following code:
Subroutine: push ax
push bx
.
.
.
pop bx
ret
.
.
.
call Subroutine
209
The call instruction pushes the return address onto the stack and then
transfers control to the first instruction of subroutine. The first two push
instructions push the ax and bx registers onto the stack, presumably in
order to preserve their value because subroutine modifies them.
Unfortunately, a programming error exists in the code above, subroutine
only pops bx from the stack, it fails to pop ax as well. This means that
when subroutine tries to return to the caller, the value of ax rather than
the return address is sitting on the top of the stack. Therefore, this
subroutine returns control to the address specified by the initial value of
the ax register rather than to the true return address. Like the call
instruction, it is very easy to simulate the ret instruction using two
80x86 instructions. All you need to do is pop the return address off the
stack and then copy it into the ip register. For near returns, this is a very
simple operation, just pop the near return address off the stack and then
jump indirectly through that register:
pop ax
jmp ax
Simulating a far return is a little more difficult because you must load
cs:ip in a single operation. The only instruction that does this (other than
a far return) is the jmp mem32 instruction.
3. The Conditional Jump Instructions
Although the jmp, call, and ret instructions provide transfer of control,
they do not allow you to make any serious decisions. The 80x86's
conditional jump instructions handle this task. The conditional jump
instructions are the basic tool for creating loops and other conditionally
executable statements like the “if … then” statement.
The conditional jumps test one or more flags in the flags register to see
if they match some particular pattern (just like the setcc instructions). If
the pattern matches, control transfers to the target location. If the match
fails, the CPU ignores the conditional jump and execution continues
with the next instruction. Some instructions, for example, test the
conditions of the sign, carry, overflow, and zero flags.
One thing nice about conditional jumps is that you do not flush the
pipeline or the prefetch queue if you do not take the branch. If one
condition is true far more often than the other, you might want to use the
conditional jump to transfer control to a jmp nearby, so you can continue
to fall through as before. For example, if you have a je target instruction
and target is out of range, you could convert it to the following code:
je GotoTarget
210
.
.
.
GotoTarget: jmp Target
Although a branch to target now requires executing two jumps, this is

much more efficient than the standard conversion if the zero flag is
normally clear when executing the je instruction.
The 80386 and later processor provide an extended form of the

conditional jump that is four bytes long, with the last two bytes
containing a 16 bit displacement. These conditional jumps can transfer
control anywhere within the current code segment. Therefore, there is no
need to worry about manually extending the range of the jump. If you've
told MASM you're using an 80386 or later processor, it will
automatically choose the two byte or four byte form, as necessary. The
80x86 conditional jump instruction give you the ability to split program
flow into one of two paths depending upon some logical condition.
Suppose you want to increment the ax register if bx is or equal to cx.
You can accomplish this with the following code:
cmp bx, cx
jne SkipStmts
inc ax
SkipStmts:
The trick is to use the opposite branch to skip over the instructions you
want to execute if the condition is true. Always use the "opposite branch
(N/no N)" rule given earlier to select the opposite branch. You can make
the same mistake choosing an opposite branch here as you could when
extending out of range jumps.
You can also use the conditional jump instructions to synthesise loops.
For example, the following code sequence reads a sequence of
characters from the user and stores each character in successive
elements of an array until the user presses the Enter key (carriage
return):
mov di, 0
ReadLnLoop: mov ah, 0 ;INT 16h read key opcode.
int 16h
mov Input[di], al
inc di
cmp al, 0dh ;Carriage return ASCII code.
jne ReadLnLoop
mov Input[di-1],0 ;Replace carriage return with zero.
211
1. The LOOP Instruction
This instruction decrements the cx register and then branches to the

target location if the cx register does not contain zero. Since this
instruction decrements cx then checks for zero, if cx originally contained
zero, any loop you create using the loop instruction will repeat 65,536
times. If you do not want to execute the loop when cx contains zero, use
jcxz to skip over the loop.
There is no "opposite" form of the loop instruction, and like the

jcxz/jecxz instructions the range is limited to ±128 bytes on all
processors. If you want to extend the range of this instruction, you will
need to break it down into discrete components:
; "loop lbl" becomes:
dec cx
jne lbl
You can easily extend this jne to any distance.
There is no eloop instruction that decrements ecx and branches if not

zero (there is a loope instruction, but it does something else entirely).
The reason is quite simple. As of the 80386, Intel's designers stopped
wholeheartedly supporting the loop instruction. Oh, it's there to ensure
compatibility with older code, but it turns out that the dec/jne
instructions are actually faster on the 32 bit processors. Problems in the
decoding of the instruction and the operation of the pipeline are
responsible for this strange turn of events.
Although the loop instruction's name suggests that you would normally
create loops with it, keep in mind that all it is really doing is
decrementing cx and branching to the target address if cx does not
contain zero after the decrement. You can use this instruction anywhere
you want to decrement cx and then check for a zero result, not just when
creating loops. Nonetheless, it is a very convenient instruction to use if
you simply want to repeat a sequence of instructions some number of
times. For example, the following loop initialises a 256 element array of
bytes to the values 1, 2, 3, ...
mov ecx, 255

ArrayLp: mov Array[ecx], cl
loop ArrayLp
mov Array[0], 0
212
The last instruction is necessary because the loop does not repeat when
cx is zero. Therefore, the last element of the array that this loop
processes is Array[1], hence the last instruction.
The loop instruction does not affect any flags.
2. The LOOPE/LOOPZ Instruction
Loope/loopz (loop while equal/zero, they are synonyms for one another)
will branch to the target address if cx is not zero and the zero flag is set.
This instruction is quite useful after cmp or cmps instruction, and is
marginally faster than the comparable 80386/486 instructions if you use
all the features of this instruction. However, this instruction plays havoc
with the pipeline and superscalar operation of the Pentium so you're
probably better off sticking with discrete instructions rather than using
this instruction. This instruction does the following:
cx := cx - 1
if ZeroFlag = 1 and cx 0, goto target
The loope instruction falls through on one of two conditions. Either the
zero flag is clear or the instruction decremented cx to zero. By testing
the zero flag after the loop instruction (with a je or jne instruction, for
example), you can determine the cause of termination.
This instruction is useful if you need to repeat a loop while some value
is equal to another, but there is a maximum number of iterations you
want to allow. For example, the following loop scans through an array
looking for the first non-zero byte, but it does not scan beyond the end
of the array:
mov cx, 16 ;Max 16 array elements.

mov bx, -1 ;Index into the array (note next inc).
SearchLp: inc bx ; Move on to next array element.
cmp Array[bx], 0 ;See if this element is zero.
loope SearchLp ;Repeat if it is.
je AllZero ;Jump if all elements were zero.
Note that this instruction is not the opposite of loopnz/loopne. If you

need to extend this jump beyond ±128 bytes, you will need to synthesise
this instruction using discrete instructions. For example, if loope target
is out of range, you would need to use an instruction sequence like the
following:
jne quit
dec cx
213
je Quit2
jmp Target
quit: dec cx ;loope decrements cx, even if ZF=0.
quit2:
The loope/loopz instruction does not affect any flags.
3. The LOOPNE/LOOPNZ Instruction
This instruction is just like the loope/loopz instruction except

loopne/loopnz (loop while not equal/not zero) repeats while cx is not
zero and the zero flag is clear. The algorithm is
cx := cx - 1
if ZeroFlag = 0 and cx 0, goto target
You can determine if the loopne instruction terminated because cx was

zero or if the zero flag was set by testing the zero flag immediately after
the loopne instruction. If the zero flag is clear at that point, the loopne
instruction fell through because it decremented cx to zero. Otherwise it
fell through because the zero flag was set.
This instruction is not the opposite of loope/loopz. If the target address

is out of range, you will need to use an instruction sequence like the
following:
je quit
dec cx
je Quit2
jmp Target
quit: dec cx ;loopne decrements cx, even if ZF=1.
quit2:
You can use the loopne instruction to repeat some maximum number of
times while waiting for some other condition to be true. For example,
you could scan through an array until you exhaust the number of array
elements or until you find a certain byte using a loop like the following:
mov cx, 16 ;Maximum # of array elements.

mov bx, -1 ;Index into array.
LoopWhlNot0: inc bx ;Move on to next array element.
cmp Array[bx],0 ;Does this element contain zero?
loopne LoopWhlNot0 ;Quit if it does, or more than 16 bytes.
Although the loope/loopz and loopne/loopnz instructions are slower than

the individual instruction from which they could be synthesised, there is
214
one main use for these instruction forms where speed is rarely
important; indeed, being faster would make them less useful - timeout
loops during I/O operations. Suppose bit #7 of input port 379h contains
a one if the device is busy and contains a zero if the device is not busy.
If you want to output data to the port, you could use code like the
following:
mov dx, 379h

WaitNotBusy: in al, dx ;Get port
test al, 80h ;See if bit #7 is one
jne WaitNotBusy ;Wait for "not busy"
The only problem with this loop is that it is conceivable that it would
loop forever. In a real system, a cable could come unplugged, someone
could shut off the peripheral device, and any number of other things
could go wrong that would hang up the system. Robust programs
usually apply a timeout to a loop like this. If the device fails to become
busy within some specified amount of time, then the loop exits and
raises an error condition. The following code will accomplish this:
mov dx, 379h ;Input port address

mov cx, 0 ;Loop 65,536 times and then quit.
WaitNotBusy: in al, dx ;Get data at port.
test al, 80h ;See if busy
loopne WaitNotBusy ;Repeat if busy and no time out.
jne TimedOut ;Branch if CX=0 becos we timed out.
You could use the loope/loopz instruction if the bit were zero rather than
one.
The loopne/loopnz instruction does not affect any flags.
Program loops consist of three components: an optional initialisation

component, a loop termination test, and the body of the loop. The order
with which these components are assembled can dramatically change the
way the loop operates. Three permutations of these components appear
over and over again. Because of their frequency, these loop structures
are given special names in HLLs: while loops, repeat..until
loops (do..while in C/C++), and loop..endloop loops.
4. While Loops
The most general loop is the while loop. It takes the following form:
WHILE boolean expression DO statement;
215
There are two important points to note about the while loop. First, the
test for termination appears at the beginning of the loop. Second as a
direct consequence of the position of the termination test, the body of
the loop may never execute. If the termination condition always exists,
the loop body will always be skipped over.
Consider the following Pascal while loop:
I := 0;
WHILE (I<100) do I := I + 1;
I := 0; is the initialisation code for this loop. I is a loop control

variable, because it controls the execution of the body of the loop.
(I<100) is the loop termination condition. That is, the loop will not
terminate as long as I is less than 100. I:=I+1; is the loop body. This
is the code that executes on each pass of the loop. You can convert this
to 80x86 assembly language as follows:
mov I, 0
WhileLp: cmp I, 100
jge WhileDone
inc I
jmp WhileLp
WhileDone:
Note that a Pascal while loop can be easily synthesised using an if and a
goto statement. For example, the Pascal while loop presented above can
be replaced by:
I := 0;
1: IF (I<100) THEN BEGIN
I := I + 1;
GOTO 1;
END;
More generally, any while loop can be built up from the following:
optional initialisation code
1: IF not termination condition THEN BEGIN
loop body
GOTO 1;
END;
216
5. Repeat..Until Loops
The repeat..until (do..while) loop tests for the termination condition at

the end of the loop rather than at the beginning. In Pascal, the
repeat..until loop takes the following form:
optional initialisation code

REPEAT
loop body
UNTIL termination condition
This sequence executes the initialisation code, the loop body, then tests
some condition to see if the loop should be repeated. If the boolean
expression evaluates to false, the loop repeats; otherwise the loop
terminates. The two things to note about the repeat..until loop is
that the termination test appears at the end of the loop and, as a direct
consequence of this, the loop body executes at least once.
Like the while loop, the repeat..until loop can be synthesised

with an if statement and a goto . You would use the following:
initialisation code
1: loop body
IF NOT termination condition THEN GOTO 1
Based on the example above, you can easily synthesise
repeat..until loops in assembly language.
6. LOOP..ENDLOOP Loops
If while loops test for termination at the beginning of the loop and
repeat..until loops check for termination at the end of the loop,
the only place left to test for termination is in the middle of the loop.
Although Pascal and C/C++ don't directly support such a loop, the
loop..endloop structure can be found in HLL languages like Ada.
The loop..endloop loop takes the following form:
LOOP
loop body
ENDLOOP;
Note that there is no explicit termination condition. Unless otherwise

provided for, the loop..endloop construct simply forms an infinite
loop. Loop termination is handled by an if and goto statement.
Consider the following (pseudo) Pascal code which employs a
loop..endloop construct:
217
LOOP
READ(ch)
IF ch = '.' THEN BREAK;
WRITE(ch);
ENDLOOP;
In real Pascal, you'd use the following code to accomplish this:
1:
READ(ch);
IF ch = '.' THEN GOTO 2; (* Turbo Pascal supports BREAK! *)
WRITE(ch);
GOTO 1
2:
In assembly language you'd end up with something like:
LOOP1: getc
cmp al, '.'
je EndLoop
putc
jmp LOOP1
EndLoop:
7. FOR Loops
The for loop is a special form of the while loop which repeats the
loop body a specific number of times. In Pascal, the for loop looks
something like the following:
FOR var := initial TO final DO stmt

or
FOR var := initial DOWNTO final DO stmt
Traditionally, the for loop in Pascal has been used to process arrays
and other objects accessed in sequential numeric order. These loops can
be converted directly into assembly language as follows:
In Pascal:
FOR var := start TO stop DO stmt;
In Assembly:
mov var, start

FL: mov ax, var
cmp ax, stop
jg EndFor
218
; code corresponding to stmt goes here.
inc var
jmp FL
EndFor:
Fortunately, most for loops repeat some statement(s) a fixed number of

times. For example,
FOR I := 0 to 7 do write(ch);
In situations like this, it's better to use the 80x86 loop instruction (or
corresponding dec cx/jne sequence) rather than simulate a for loop:
mov cx, 7
LP: mov al, ch
call putc
loop LP
Keep in mind that the loop instruction normally appears at the end of a
loop whereas the for loop tests for termination at the beginning of the
loop. Therefore, you should take precautions to prevent a runaway loop
in the event cx is zero (which would cause the loop instruction to repeat
the loop 65,536 times) or the stop value is less than the start value. In
the case of
FOR var := start TO stop DO stmt;
assuming you don't use the value of var within the loop, you'd probably
want to use the assembly code:
mov cx, stop

sub cx, start
jl SkipFor
inc cx
LP: stmt
loop LP
SkipFor:
Remember, the sub and cmp instructions set the flags in an identical
fashion. Therefore, this loop will be skipped if stop is less than start. It
will be repeated (stop-start)+1 times otherwise. If you need to reference
the value of var within the loop, you could use the following code:
219
mov ax, start

mov var, ax
mov cx, stop
sub cx, ax
jl SkipFor
inc cx
LP: stmt
inc var
loop LP
SkipFor:
Mention all the program flow instructions you know and write short
notes on each.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In any program, it is necessary to move the data in the memory and in

the CPU registers; there are several ways to do this: it can copy data in
the memory to some register, from register to register, from a register to
a stack, from a stack to a register, to transmit data to external devices as
well as vice versa.
The unconditional jumps in a written program in assembler language are

given by the jmp instruction; a jump is to moves the flow of the
execution of a program by sending the control to the indicated address.
A loop, known also as iteration, is the repetition of a process a certain

number of times until a condition is fulfilled.
A procedure is a collection of instructions to which we can direct the

flow of our program, and once the execution of these instructions is over
control is given back to the next line to process of the code which called
on the procedure.
Program control instructions belong to three groups: unconditional

transfers, conditional transfers, and subroutine call and return
instructions.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we learnt about program flow control instructions in

assembly language. The movement of data is subject to rules and
restrictions. It is not possible to move data from a memory locality to
another directly; it is necessary to first move the data of the origin
220
locality to a register and then from the register to the destiny locality. It
is not possible to move a constant directly to a segment register; it first
must be moved to a register in the CPU. It is possible to move data
blocks by means of the movs instructions, which copies a chain of bytes
or words; movsb which copies n bytes from a locality to another; and
movsw copies n words from a locality to another.
Mention and explain the different types of program flow control we

have.


360 and Early 370 systems. MIT Press. p. 10.

Pub.
Ford, William & Topp, William, (1992).Macintosh Assembly System,


Struble, George W. (1975). Assembler Language Programming the IBM

System/360 and 370.Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
www.cs.siu.edu
221
UNIT 3 SAMPLE PROGRAMS IN ASSEMBLY

LANGUAGE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Sample Programs in Assembly Language
3.1.1 Simple Arithmetic I
3.1.2 Simple Arithmetic II
3.1.3 Logical Operations
3.2 Comparison of Assembly & High Level Languages
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit gives some simple programs used to demonstrate the use of
various instructions in assembly language. It also compares assembly
language with high level languages.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 write some simple programs in assembly language

 compare assembly language and high level languages.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Sample Programs in Assembly Language
The following simple programs demonstrate the use of the various

instructions and logical operations in assembly language.
3.1.1 Simple Arithmetic I
This program demonstrates some simple arithmetic instructions in

assembly language. The comments after the semi-colon explain each
line of program.
222
; Simple Arithmetic
; This program demonstrates some simple arithmetic instructions.
.386 ;So we can use extended registers

option segment:use16 ; and addressing modes.
dseg segment para public 'data'
; Some type definitions for the variables we will declare:
uint typedef word ;Unsigned integers.

integer typedef sword ;Signed integers.
; Some variables we can use:
j integer ?
k integer ?
l integer ?
u1 uint ?
u2 uint ?
u3 uint ?
dseg ends
cseg segment para public 'code'

assume cs:cseg, ds:dseg
Main proc
mov ax, dseg
mov ds, ax
mov es, ax
; Initialise our variables:
mov j, 3
mov k, -2
mov u1, 254

mov u2, 22
; Compute L := j+k and u3 := u1+u2
mov ax, J
add ax, K
mov L, ax
mov ax, u1 ;Note that we use the "ADD"

add ax, u2 ; instruction for both signed
223
mov u3, ax ; and unsigned arithmetic.
; Compute L := j-k and u3 := u1-u2
mov ax, J
sub ax, K
mov L, ax
mov ax, u1 ;Note that we use the "SUB"

sub ax, u2 ; instruction for both signed
mov u3, ax ; and unsigned arithmetic.
; Compute L := -L
neg L
; Compute L := -J
mov ax, J ;Of course, you would only use the

neg ax ; NEG instruction on signed values.
mov L, ax
; Compute K := K + 1 using the INC instruction.
inc K
; Compute u2 := u2 + 1 using the INC instruction.

; Note that you can use INC for signed and unsigned values.
inc u2
; Compute J := J - 1 using the DEC instruction.
dec J
; Compute u2 := u2 - 1 using the DEC instruction.

; Note that you can use DEC for signed and unsigned values.
dec u2
Quit: mov ah, 4ch ;DOS opcode to quit program.

int 21h ;Call DOS.
Main endp
cseg ends
224
sseg segment para stack 'stack'

stk byte 1024 dup ("stack ")
sseg ends
zzzzzzseg segment para public 'zzzzzz'

LastBytes byte 16 dup (?)
zzzzzzseg ends
end Main
3.1.2 Simple Arithmetic II
This program demonstrates some simple arithmetic instructions in

assembly language. The comments after the semi-colon explain each
line of program.
; Simple Arithmetic
; This program demonstrates some simple arithmetic instructions.
.386 ; So we can use extended registers

dseg segment para public 'data'
; Some type definitions for the variables we will declare:
uint typedef word ;Unsigned integers.

integer typedef sword ;Signed integers.
j integer ?
k integer ?
l integer ?
u1 uint ?
u2 uint ?
u3 uint ?
dseg ends

Main proc
mov ax, dseg
mov ds, ax
mov es, ax
225
; Initialise our variables:
mov j, 3
mov k, -2
mov u1, 254
mov u2, 22
; Extended multiplication using 8086 instructions.

;
; Note that there are separate multiply instructions for signed and
; unsigned operands.
;
; L := J * K (ignoring overflow)
mov ax, J
imul K ;Computes DX:AX := AX * K
mov L, ax ;Ignore overflow into DX.
; u3 := u1 * u2
mov ax, u1
mul u2 ;Computes DX:AX := AX * U2
mov u3, ax ;Ignore overflow in DX.
; Extended division using 8086 instructions.

;
; Like multiplication, there are separate instructions for signed
; and unsigned operands.
;
; It is absolutely imperative that these instruction sequences sign
; extend or zero extend their operands to 32 bits before dividing.
; Failure to do so will may produce a divide error and crash the
; program.
;
; L := J div K
mov ax, J
cwd ;*MUST* sign extend AX to DX:AX!
idiv K ;AX := DX:AX/K, DX := DX:AX mod K
mov L, ax
; u3 := u1/u2
mov ax, u1
mov dx, 0 ;Must zero extend AX to DX:AX!
div u2 ;AX := DX:AX/u2, DX := DX:AX
226
mod u2
mov u3, ax
; Special forms of the IMUL instruction available on 80286, 80386, and

; later processors. Technically, these instructions operate on signed
; operands only, however, they do work fine for unsigned operands as
well.
; Note that these instructions produce a 16-bit result and set the overflow
; flag if overflow occurs.
;
; L := J * 10 (80286 and later only)
imul ax, J, 10 ;AX := J*10

mov L, ax
; L := J * K (80386 and later only)
mov ax, J
imul ax, K
mov L, ax

int 21h ;Call DOS.
Main endp
cseg ends

sseg ends

zzzzzzseg ends
end Main
3.1.3 Logical Operations
This program demonstrates some logical instructions in assembly

language. The comments after the semi-colon explain each line of
program.
; Logical Operations
; This program demonstrates the AND, OR, XOR, and NOT instructions
.386 ;So we can use extended registers
227
Dseg segment para public 'data'
j word 0FF00h
k word 0FFF0h
l word ?
c1 byte 'A'
c2 byte 'a'
LowerMask byte 20h
dseg ends
Main proc
mov ax, dseg
mov ds, ax
mov es, ax
; Compute L := J and K (bitwise AND operation):
mov ax, J
and ax, K
mov L, ax
; Compute L := J or K (bitwise OR operation):
mov ax, J
or ax, K
mov L, ax
; Compute L := J xor K (bitwise XOR operation):
mov ax, J
xor ax, K
mov L, ax
; Compute L := not L (bitwise NOT operation):
not L
228
; Compute L := not J (bitwise NOT operation):
mov ax, J
not ax
mov L, ax
; Clear bits 0..3 in J:
and J, 0FFF0h
; Set bits 0..3 in K:
or K, 0Fh
; Invert bits 4..11 in L:
xor L, 0FF0h
; Convert the character in C1 to lower case:

mov al, c1
or al, LowerMask
mov c1, al
; Convert the character in C2 to upper case:
mov al, c2
and al, 5Fh ;Clears bit 5.
mov c2, al

int 21h ;Call DOS.
Main endp
cseg ends

sseg ends

zzzzzzseg ends
end Main
229
1. Write in detail what you understood these three programs do.

2. Try to write a simple program in assembly language that can do
anything you choose explaining each line of the program.
3.2 Comparison of Assembly and High Level Languages
Perhaps the most glaring difference among the three types of languages
[high level, assembly, and machine] is that as we move from high-level
languages to lower levels, the code gets harder to read (with
understanding). The major advantages of high-level languages are that
they are easy to read and are machine independent. The instructions are
written in a combination of English and ordinary mathematical notation,
and programs can be run with minor, if any, changes on different
computers.
Assembly languages are close to a one to one correspondence between

symbolic instructions and executable machine codes. Assembly
languages also include directives to the assembler, directives to the
linker, directives for organising data space, and macros. Macros can be
used to combine several assembly language instructions into a high level
language-like construct (as well as other purposes). There are cases
where a symbolic instruction is translated into more than one machine
instruction. But in general, symbolic assembly language instructions
correspond to individual executable machine instructions.
High level languages are abstract. Typically a single high level

instruction is translated into several (sometimes dozens or in rare cases
even hundreds) executable machine language instructions. Some early
high level languages had a close correspondence between high level
instructions and machine language instructions. For example, most of
the early COBOL instructions translated into a very obvious and small
set of machine instructions. The trend over time has been for high level
languages to increase in abstraction. Modern object oriented
programming languages are highly abstract (although, interestingly,
some key object oriented programming constructs do translate into a
very compact set of machine instructions).
Assembly language is much harder to program than high level

languages. The programmer must pay attention to far more detail and
must have an intimate knowledge of the processor in use. But high
quality hand crafted assembly language programs can run much faster
and use much less memory and other resources than a similar program
written in a high level language. Speed increases of two to 20 times
faster are fairly common, and increases of hundreds of times faster are
230
occasionally possible. Assembly language programming also gives

direct access to key machine features essential for implementing certain
kinds of low level routines, such as an operating system kernel or
microkernel, device drivers, and machine control.
High level programming languages are much easier for less skilled
programmers to work in and for semi-technical managers to supervise.
And high level languages allow faster development times than work in
assembly language, even with highly skilled programmers. Development
time increases of 10 to 100 times faster are fairly common. Programs
written in high level languages (especially object oriented programming
languages) are much easier and less expensive to maintain than similar
programs written in assembly language (and for a successful software
project, the vast majority of the work and expense is in maintenance, not
initial development).
Assembly languages occupy a unique place in the computing world.

Since most assembler-language statements are symbolic of individual
machine-language instructions, the assembler-language programmer has
the full power of the computer at his disposal in a way that users of other
languages do not. Because of the direct relationship between assembler
language and machine language, assembler language is used when high
efficiency of programs is needed, and especially in areas of application
that are so new and amorphous that existing program-oriented languages
are ill-suited for describing the procedures to be followed.”
If one has a choice between assembly language and a high-level

language, why choose assembly language? The fact that the amount of
programming done in assembly language is quite small compared to the
amount done in high-level languages indicates that one generally doesn’t
choose assembly language. However, there are situations where it may
not be convenient, efficient, or possible to write programs in high-level
languages. Programs to control and communicate with peripheral
devices (input and output devices) are usually written in assembly
language because they use special instructions that are not available in
high-level languages, and they must be very efficient. Some systems
programs are written in assembly language for similar reasons. In
general, since high-level languages are designed without the features of
a particular machine in mind and a compiler must do its job in a
standardised way to accommodate all valid programs, there are
situations where to take advantage of special features of a machine, to
program some details that are inaccessible from a high-level language,
or perhaps to increase the efficiency of a program, one may reasonably
choose to write in assembly language.
231
In situations where programming in a high-level language is not

appropriate, it is clear that assembly language is to be preferred to
machine language. Assembly language has a number of advantages over
machine code aside from the obvious increase in readability. One is that
the use of symbolic names for data and instruction labels frees the
programmer from computing and recomputing the memory locations
whenever a change is made in a program. Another is that assembly
languages generally have a feature, called macros, that frees the
[programmer] from having to repeat similar sections of code used in
several places in a program. Often compilers translate into assembly
language rather than machine code.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The most glaring difference among the three types of languages [high
level, assembly, and machine] is that as we move from high-level
languages to lower levels, the code gets harder to read (with
understanding). The major advantages of high-level languages are that
they are easy to read and are machine independent.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we saw some simple programs in assembly language and

also made some comparison between assembly and high level
languages.
Write 6 differences between assembly and high level languages.


360 and Early 370 Systems. MIT Press. p. 10.

Pub.
Ford, William & Topp, William, (1992). Macintosh Assembly System,

232

Struble, George W. (1975). Assembler Language Programming the IBM

System/360 and 370. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
www.cs.siu.edu
233

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: CIT344

Course Team Adaora Obayi (Developer/Writer) - NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

First Printed 2012

All Rights Reserved

CIT344: Introduction to Computer Design is a 3-credit unit course

The course is divided into 6 modules and 21 study units. It introduces

This course also provides information on numbers and codes in

At the end of this course, it is expected that you should be able to

Furthermore, it suggests the general strategy to be adopted and also

What You Will Learn in This Course

The overall aim of this course is to boost your knowledge of logic

This course aims to give you an in-depth understanding of computer

 explain the term number system and its various types

Working through This Course

The major components of the course are:

Module 1 Introduction to Numbers and Codes

Unit 1 Types of Number Systems I

Module 2 Combinational Logic Design and Application

Unit 1 Analysis and Design of a Combinational Logic Circuit

Module 3 Sequential Logic Design and Applications

Unit 1 Sequential Logic Circuits

Module 4 Memory Devices

Unit 1 Memory Organisation

Module 5 Introduction to Microprocessors

Module 6 Assembly Language Programming

Unit 1 Learning to Program with Assembly Language

Textbooks and References

These texts listed below will be of enormous benefit to you in learning

Baase, Sara (1983). VAX-11 Assembly Language Programming. San

Brookshear, J. G. (1997). Computer Science: An Overview. Addison -

Dandamudi, S. (2003). Fundamentals of Computer Organization and

Ford, William & Topp, William (1996). Assembly Language and

Ford, William & Topp, William (1992). Macintosh Assembly System,

Hayes, P. John (1993). Introduction to Digital Logic Design. Prentice

Hennessy, L. John & Patterson, A. David (2008). Computer

Holdsworth, Brian & Woods, Clive (2002). Digital Logic Design.

Hummel, Robert L. (1992). Programmer’s Technical Reference: The

Mano, M. Morris & Kime, Charles R. (2007). Logic and Computer

Marcovitz, Alan (2009). Introduction to Logic Design. McGraw-Hill.

Neamen, Donald (2009). Microelectronics: Circuit Analysis & Design.

Nelson, P. et al (1995). Digital Logic Circuit Analysis & Design.

Palmer, James & Periman, David (1993). Schaum’s Outline of

Patterson, David & Hennessy, John (1993). Computer Organization &

Patterson, David & Hennessy, John (1990). Computer Architecture, A

Rafiquzzaman, M. (2005). Fundamentals of Digital Logic &

Roth, H. Charles Jr & Kinney, L. Larry (2009). Fundamentals of Logic

Sanchez, Julio & Maria, P. Canton (1990). IBM Microcomputers: A

Struble, George W. (1975). Assembler Language Programming The

Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (1998). Structured Computer Organization.

Tokheium, Roger (1994). Schaum’s Outline of Digital Principles.

Wakerly, F. John (2005). Digital Design: Principles & Practices

Wear, Larry et al. (1991). Computers: An Introduction to Hardware and

The presentation schedule included in this course guide provides you

Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs)

Final Examination and Grading