Advancing The Aquaculture Agenda-5310031e

Advancing the Aquaculture Agenda
workshop proceedings
Aquaculture now provides more than 50% of the global supply of fisheries products for direct human
Advancing
consumption. Given stagnating capture fisheries and a growing demand for seafood, driven by
demographics and changing consumption patterns, the importance of aquaculture for food security the Aquaculture Agenda
is likely to increase.
Aquaculture production at the current level of intensity is a relatively new phenomenon. It poses workshop proceedings
economic, environmental and social challenges, which may be poorly understood or inadequately
addressed within current policy frameworks, and hence the sustainability of operations may be
compromised. Issues that may constrain the sector’s development and performance include the
management of externalities and the lack of an enabling business environment.
The OECD Committee for Fisheries acknowledges the important role of aquaculture, both in
terms of economic activity and in terms of food security. In April 2010, it organised a workshop
with support from the French Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Fisheries to address key policy
challenges of the aquaculture sector. Policy makers, academics, industry representatives, NGOs
and international organisations gathered to discuss the critical economic, environmental and social
aspects of aquaculture. This publication presents a selection of key issues covered by the workshop
and includes a large number of country case studies, which provide specific examples of national
approaches to aquaculture management.

Related reading
Review of Fisheries in OECD Countries: Policies and Summary Statistics (2010)
Globalisation in Fisheries and Aquaculture: Opportunities and Challenges (2010)
Globalisation and Fisheries: Proceedings of an OECD-FAO Workshop (2007)
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53 2010 03 1 P -:HSTCQE=U]]\V^:
Advancing
the Aquaculture Agenda
WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
AND DEVELOPMENT
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provides a setting where governments can compare policy experiences, seek answers to common
problems, identify good practice and work to co-ordinate domestic and international policies.
The OECD member countries are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, the Czech Republic,
Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea,
Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic,
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FOREWORD – 3
Foreword
The aquaculture sector is uniquely placed to complement production from the

stagnating capture fisheries sector and it has advantages in terms of controllable
production characteristics. However, aquaculture poses undeniable economic,
environmental and social challenges which may be poorly evaluated or inadequately
addressed within current policy frameworks. In such cases, the sustainability of future
operations may be compromised. Issues that may constrain the sector development and
performance are among others the business environment (e.g. competing uses of land and
water; introduction of new technologies to improve the overall economic efficiency of
aquaculture to better exploit natural conditions) and administrative and regulatory
structures that create constraints rather than underpin further aquaculture developments
(e.g. regulation of access to resources; environmental prescriptions).
With a view to collect further evidence and analysis on aquaculture development the
OECD Committee for Fisheries in collaboration with the French Ministry for Food,
Agriculture and Fisheries hosted a Workshop on Advancing the Aquaculture Agenda:
Policies to Ensure a Sustainable Aquaculture Sector on 15-16 April 2010 in Paris. The
main objective of the workshop was to provide a platform for policy makers, technical
experts, international organisations, the private sector and NGOs to examine policy
challenges that OECD governments face in aquaculture development. The event
informed policy makers, in particular in OECD countries, about critical economic,
environmental and social aspects of the aquaculture sector as well as interactions with
other sectors.
The two day Workshop was chaired by Professor Torger Børresen, Research Director
of DTU Food at the Technical University of Denmark and brought together over 80
participants from 25 countries. Case studies and presentations on Day 1 concentrated on
country case studies on governance, on managing aquaculture generated externalities and
on managing externalities affecting aquaculture. A panel session on best practices in
aquaculture management and development was chaired by Alistair Lane of the European
Aquaculture Society at the end of Day 1. The sessions on Day 2 focused on enhancing
economic conditions for aquaculture – from a private and a public perspective - followed
by presentations on cross-cutting issues, including feed issues, trade and policy
coherence. Courtney Hough from the European Aquaculture Technology and Innovation
Platform chaired a panel that further discussed policy issues related to enhancing
economic conditions for aquaculture. The Workshop concluded with a panel chaired by
Philippe Ferlin from the French Ministry for Food, Agriculture and Fisheries that
distilled lessons for policy makers from the event.
ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS – 5
Acknowledgements
The Workshop Advancing the Aquaculture Agenda: Policies to Ensure a Sustainable

Aquaculture Sector organised by the OECD Fisheries Polices Division was made
possible through the generous support from the French Ministry for Food, Agriculture
and Fisheries. The OECD expresses its appreciation to the Workshop Chair and the Panel
Chairs for leading the discussions as well as to the presenters and authors of the papers,
the panellists and all participants attending the event. The OECD would in particular
thank the Member Economies and Observers of the Committee for Fisheries that
submitted country case studies, presented and participated in workshop panels.
The Workshop was organised by Nicole Franz (OECD) and Carl-Christian Schmidt
with constant support from Cécile Bigot, Phillipe Ferlin and Sébastien Goupil from the
French Ministry for Food, Agriculture and Fisheries. Emily Andrews-Chouicha, Nathalie
Elisseou and Janet Schofield provided substantial administrative support. The publication
has been prepared and edited by Emily Andrews-Chouicha (OECD), Nicole Franz
(OECD), Karine Ravet (OECD), Carl-Christian Schmidt (OECD) and Tracey Strange
(Consultant).

TABLE OF CONTENTS – 7
Table of contents
Acronyms ......................................................................................................................................... 11
Chair’s summary ............................................................................................................................ 15
Résumé du président ........................................................................................................................ 25
Opening remarks ............................................................................................................................ 35
Key messages by the French Minister for Food, Agriculture and Fisheries ............................. 37
Chapter 1 Growing the wealth of aquaculture............................................................................ 39

Executive summary ....................................................................................................................... 40
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 44
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 45
Drivers for growth and development............................................................................................. 50
Production efficiency drivers ........................................................................................................ 57
Resource and development interactions ........................................................................................ 61
Risks and their management.......................................................................................................... 69
Sector structures, trade and competition ....................................................................................... 75
Governance, management systems and strategies ......................................................................... 88
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 96
Chapter 2 Climate change, food security and aquaculture ...................................................... 109
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 110
Climate change: food security, fisheries and aquaculture impacts.............................................. 110
Food security: malnutrition and the role of fish in global food supply ....................................... 113
Aquaculture: Role in global food supply and sustainability implications ................................... 115
Chapter 3 Norway: Aquaculture zoning policy and competition for marine space
in aquaculture management ........................................................................................................ 121
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 122
Establishment of aquaculture sites .............................................................................................. 122
Spatial planning and area management ....................................................................................... 124
Disease management ................................................................................................................... 126
Genetic interaction and escapes .................................................................................................. 127
Pollution and discharges.............................................................................................................. 128
Chapter 4 France: A case study on aquaculture governance .................................................. 131
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 132
French aquaculture ...................................................................................................................... 136
Public initiatives to develop French aquaculture......................................................................... 138

8 – TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 5 Greece: Best practices in aquaculture management and development ................ 145
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 146
National policies and strategies ................................................................................................... 149
Basic aquaculture legislation ....................................................................................................... 150
Aquaculture and the environment ............................................................................................... 152
State funding and subsidies ......................................................................................................... 156
Positive impacts of aquaculture development ............................................................................. 157
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 158
Chapter 6 Korea: The current status of and future plans for aquaculture............................ 161
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 162
Current status and trends ............................................................................................................. 162
Problems and difficulties ............................................................................................................. 163
Future plans and strategies .......................................................................................................... 165
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 167
Chapter 7 Spain: National plans for the promotion and development
of marine aquaculture .................................................................................................................. 169
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 170
Description .................................................................................................................................. 170
National Plans under development .............................................................................................. 175
Lessons learned ........................................................................................................................... 179
Chapter 8 Turkey: Best practices in aquaculture management and
sustainable development............................................................................................................... 183
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 184
Aquaculture in Turkey ................................................................................................................ 186
Aquaculture management ............................................................................................................ 187
Problems encountered by the sector ............................................................................................ 189
Lessons learned ........................................................................................................................... 189
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 190
Chapter 9 Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture ................................................................... 195
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 196
The need for diversification and combining fed and extractive aquaculture into IMTA systems197
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 211
Additional information ................................................................................................................ 214
Chapter 10 Norway: Escapes of fish from aquaculture ........................................................... 219
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 220
Causes and extent of escapes....................................................................................................... 221
Economic consequences of escapees .......................................................................................... 224
Environmental consequences of escapees ................................................................................... 225
Mitigating and preventing escapes: The Norwegian experience ................................................. 229
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 232
Chapter 11 Chile: Experiences in controlling sea lice .............................................................. 241
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 242
Description .................................................................................................................................. 243
Lessons learned ........................................................................................................................... 248

TABLE OF CONTENTS – 9
Chapter 12 Chinese Taipei: A control strategy for viral diseases

in grouper seed production .......................................................................................................... 251
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 252
Reasons for the success of Chinese Taipei’s grouper larviculture industry ................................ 252
Problems and solutions................................................................................................................ 253
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 257
Chapter 13 The Netherlands: Best practices in managing ecosystem impacts
in aquaculture through RAS technologies .................................................................................. 259
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 260
Description .................................................................................................................................. 261
Lessons learned ........................................................................................................................... 267
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 268
Chapter 14 Agriculture’s impact on aquaculture: Hypoxia and eutrophication
in marine waters............................................................................................................................ 275
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 276
Background, scope objectives ..................................................................................................... 276
Key environmental issues............................................................................................................ 277
Importance of integrating impacts from multiple drivers............................................................ 284
Trends in aquaculture to mitigate effects of agricultural pollution ............................................. 285
Principle externalities .................................................................................................................. 286
Economic consequences for fisheries and ecosystem services ................................................... 294
Future issues and projected trends for agriculture and aquaculture ............................................ 302
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 304
Chapter 15 Canada: The National Aquaculture Strategic Action Plan Initiative ................. 319
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 320
Regulation and management of aquaculture in Canada .............................................................. 320
The National Aquaculture Strategic Action Plan Initiative (NASAPI) ....................................... 324
Implementation............................................................................................................................ 327
Chapter 16 Connections between farmed and wild fish: Fishmeal and fish oil
as feed ingredients in sustainable aquaculture ........................................................................... 331
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 332
The use of fishmeal and fish oil as feed ingredients ................................................................... 332
Global overview of fishmeal and fish oil production and consumption...................................... 334
The impact of innovation on feed formulation for aquaculture .................................................. 337
Compliance with the FAO code of Responsible Fishing ............................................................ 340
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 342
Chapter 17 Barriers to aquaculture development as a pathway to poverty alleviation
and food security ........................................................................................................................... 345
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 346
Aquaculture in the developing world .......................................................................................... 346
Aquaculture, ecosystem services and poverty ............................................................................. 348
Aquaculture and development ..................................................................................................... 349
Aquaculture and policy coherence for development ................................................................... 352
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 354

10 – TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 18 Conditions for establishing aquaculture production sites in OECD countries:

Survey result discussion and summary ....................................................................................... 361
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 362
Method ........................................................................................................................................ 366
Discussion of lessons learned from the survey and potential areas for improvement ................. 367
Key messages for policy makers ................................................................................................. 378
Annex 18.AI - Survey result summary ........................................................................................ 382
Annex I8.A2 - Questionnaire on conditions for establishing aquaculture production
sites in OECD countries .............................................................................................................. 398
Biographies .................................................................................................................................... 407
Participants.................................................................................................................................... 419

ACRONYMS – 11
Acronyms
ACFA Advisory Council on Fisheries and Aquaculture

AD Anti-Dumping
ANEP Spanish National Agency for Evaluation and Foresight
ASC Aquaculture Stewardship Council
BMP Best (Better) Management Practice
CCRF (FAO) Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
CEE Central and Eastern Europe (as aquaculture production region)
CFP Common Fisheries Policy
CGRFA Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
CMO Common Market Organisation
CMSP Coastal and Marine Spatial Planning
COFI Committee on Fisheries (FAO governing body)
CTC Carbon Trading Credits
DIP Dissolved Inorganic Phosphate
EAA Ecosystem Approach to Aquaculture
EAS European Aquaculture Society
EATIP European Aquaculture Technology and Innovation Platform
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
EFF European Fisheries Fund
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations
FDA Fisheries Dependent Areas
FEAP Federation of European Aquaculture Producers

12 – ACRONYMS
FIFG Financial Instrument for Fisheries Guidance (now the EFF)

FTE Full-Time Equivalent (employees)
FW Fresh Weight
GCI Global Competitiveness Index
GHG Greenhouse Gas
GMO Genetically Modified Organism
HABs Harmful Algal Blooms
HACCP Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points
ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management
IMTA Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture
JACUMAR Spanish National Advisory Board for Marine Farming
LDC Least (or Less) Developed Countries
LIFDC Low Income Food Deficit Country
MA Millenium Ecosystem Assessment
MARA Turkish Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs
MIP Minimum Import Price
MSC Marine Stewardship Council
MDG Millennium Development Goal
MOU Memorandum of Understanding
MSMEs Micro, Small and Medium Sized Enterprises
NACA Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific
NGO Non Governmental Organisation
NTC Nutrient Trading Credits
OIE World Organisation for Animal Health
OMZ Oxygen Minimum Zone
PD Pancreas Disease
RAS Recirculated Aquaculture System
RPD Redox Potential Discontinuity
R&D Research and Development
SAV Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
SME Small and Medium Sized Enterprise

ACRONYMS – 13
SPS (WTO) Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures

SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats
TBT Technical Barriers to Trade
TL Total Length
UNCED UN Conference on Environment and Development
UNCTAD UN Conference on Trade and Development
USPs Unique Selling Points
WEF World Economic Forum
WFE Whole Fish Equivalent (weight)
WTO World Trade Organisation
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature

CHAIR’S SUMMARY – 15
Chair’s summary1
The UN Millennium Development Goals include cutting the share of the global
population suffering from hunger by half by 20152. Progress was steady at first - before
the rise in food prices in 2008 and the global recession wiped out many of the gains. This
may turn out to be merely a temporary setback. However, there are fears for longer term
food security, with some experts even warning of a ‘perfect storm’ as population is
forecast to grow by 50% from now to mid-century, while agricultural land is lost to
urbanisation and climate change introduces a number of uncertainties. This pessimistic
outlook assumes it will not be possible to increase food supplies fast enough to keep up
with demand.
Against this background, aquaculture can play a role in contributing to food security.
With many stocks fully exploited, there is little scope for expansion of capture fisheries.
Annual average per capita consumption of capture fish actually fell by 10.6% over 1995-
2007, from 10.6 to 9.5 kg per person. Aquaculture on the other hand has shown great
potential. Globally, aquaculture has been the fastest growing animal food producing
sector for over half a century, with production (excluding aquatic plants) expanding at
8.1% per year since 1961, compared with 3% for terrestrial farmed meat production,
3.4% for egg production, and 1.5% for milk production. Per capita consumption of fish
from aquaculture grew from 4.3 to 7.5 kg over 1995-2007, an increase of 74%. However,
wide differences are seen geographically as to the potential of aquaculture development.
In 2007, aquaculture overtook capture fisheries and supplied more than 50% of
aquatic products for direct food consumption. Although climate change and other factors
might constrain developments, there are powerful drivers for expansion, including
population and income growth fuelling demand for aquatic foods, coupled with supply
limitations from capture fisheries. Global output from aquaculture may need to increase
from 52 million tonnes in 2007 to 80 million tonnes or more by 2030 to meet demand.
Success is not guaranteed though and the sector will have to manage biological risks
such as disease; system risks such as equipment failures and water problems; economic
and market risks such as price volatility of inputs and products, changing consumer
preferences due to dietary considerations and perceptions about aquaculture products;
and political risks affecting for example the legal context for production or trade.
The workshop
With a huge market plus a dynamic, innovative supply chain in OECD countries
backed up by solid research capacities, aquaculture’s future is promising. It does
however have to address a number of challenges from both inside and outside the sector
if it is to realise its full potential.
As a contribution to this process, the OECD’s Committee for Fisheries organised a
workshop entitled Advancing the Aquaculture Agenda: Policies to ensure a sustainable
aquaculture sector, hosted by the French Ministry for Food, Agriculture and Fisheries at

16 – CHAIR’S SUMMARY
OECD Headquarters in Paris on 15-16 April, 2010. Policy makers, technical experts,
international organisations, the private sector and NGOs took part in the workshop and
contributed to examining policy challenges that governments face in aquaculture
development. Over 80 participants used this platform to discuss the critical economic,
environmental and social aspects of the aquaculture sector and analysed interactions with
other sectors.
The objectives of the workshop were to:
• Provide participants with information about the “state of the art” and trends in
aquaculture;
• Encourage mutual learning by sharing best practices and experiences in

aquaculture management and development, including intersectoral aspects;
• Identify key areas for improving the business environment for aquaculture –
including perspectives from the private sector and from international
organisations and NGOs;
• Understand the opportunities and challenges of aquaculture for OECD
countries with regard to policy coherence for development and
• Outline innovative pathways for sustainable aquaculture for OECD countries.
In 2009 the OECD Meeting of the Council at Ministerial Level adopted the
Declaration on Green Growth3. As outlined in this Declaration, the OECD can, through
policy analysis and identification of best practices, assist countries in their efforts to
respond to the growing policy demands to foster green growth and work with countries
to develop further measures to build sustainable economies. The aquaculture sector is
well placed to pioneer the Green Growth approach and the workshop built extensively on
case studies from OECD member economies and on insights from well established
experts to share important experiences and identify best practices.
This report is the Chair’s summary of the key messages coming out of the two-day
event. It is based on the discussions that took place among participants and the important
messages that are contained in the various presentations given at the workshop. Some of
these presentations built on papers and case studies compiled in the following chapters of
the proceedings. Some papers that could not be presented at the workshop and the
outcome of an OECD Survey on Conditions for Establishing Aquaculture Production
Sites are also included in the proceedings. The publication concludes with the
biographies of the speakers and authors, followed by the list of participants.
Summary of discussions
Best practices in aquaculture management and development

The workshop put aquaculture in the broader context of food security and Green
Growth. Global aquaculture production in 2007 was valued at USD 94.5 billion, for a
total of 65.2 million tonnes, produced for the vast majority in developing countries.
Although most aquaculture production derives from fewer than a dozen species (fish
grown in ponds or cages, shrimp or prawn in ponds, molluscs and seaweeds in beds or

on suspended lines) biodiversity in aquaculture is high, with over 340 different species
of farmed aquatic plants and animals produced in 2007.
Unlike capture fisheries, where the bulk of harvested species are carnivores high on
the aquatic food chain, the mainstay of farmed fish production are omnivorous and
herbivorous species positioned lower on the chain (e.g. carps, tilapia, catfish). However,
in OECD and other more advanced economies, high value, high trophic level
carnivorous fish species are favoured, both in terms of production and in terms of
consumption (e.g. salmon, sea bass and bream), reflecting market demand for these
species.
The paper entitled Growing the wealth of aquaculture: perspective and potential
comprehensively explores the features of the sector’s recent growth, its emerging
opportunities and constraints, across major producing regions, species groups and
production systems. It defines and examines the conditions of development for the
sector, and considers potential features of growth and expansion, commercial structure,
trade, supply and value chain development, and the implications of these at strategic
investment and policy levels. Many of these topics are further illustrated and expanded
in these proceedings.
Aquaculture can contribute substantially to food security. The nutritional quality of
seafood from aquaculture may help reduce the number of people suffering from
malnutrition, the number one killer today. The protein and lipid quality of aquaculture
products also plays an important role in developed countries. Recent research results
show that lifestyle diseases such as overweight and obesity may be reduced on a
seafood-rich diet.
The workshop discussions benefited extensively from OECD country case studies on
best practices in aquaculture management and development, in particular with regard to
governance, to managing aquaculture-generated externalities and to managing
externalities affecting aquaculture. The country case studies were complemented by
presentations on the EU-financed CONSENSUS4 project which developed a multi-
stakeholder platform for sustainable aquaculture in Europe; a presentation on integrated
multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) as a responsible practice providing diversified seafood
products while rendering services to the ecosystem and a presentation on hypoxia and
eutrophication in marine waters.
Many of the challenges in aquaculture production, such as environmental
externalities, are common to the food industry as a whole, and indeed are just as
important for capture fisheries as for aquaculture. There are parallels to the patterns of
intensification in agriculture, for instance in terms of conflicts over access to space and
increases in negative environmental externalities. Agricultural productivity has expanded
remarkably in a very short time due to massive improvements in production technologies
and the “industrialisation” of animal rearing – now also observable in aquaculture
production. Seafood availability has increased and consumers have benefited
considerably, but the environmental price is high (e.g. in terms of pollution; threats to
biodiversity; diseases). Better information is vital to understand the interactions between
aquaculture and the environment and to tackle negative externalities. While the
knowledge base on the challenges in aquaculture has advanced significantly over recent
years, communication of that knowledge has been somewhat lacking. However, policy
makers and the aquaculture sector in general are increasingly conscious of the challenges
and are taking steps to address these issues, through mitigation activities as well as
through more comprehensive sector strategies.

Despite its long history, aquaculture at the current commercial scale is still a rather
young industry and the coming years are likely to see it undergo a number of
transformations common to other sectors. These changes will be driven by economic
factors, such as consolidation with more competitive enterprises taking over rivals, but
also by technical factors to optimise production. For example, there is currently
surprisingly little standardisation of equipment except for modern cages and some
aerators and feeding systems, and system technologies are often borrowed from other
branches such as marine engineering. Public policy shows a similarly wide variety of
approaches, ranging from almost total neglect to highly focused support and control of
the aquaculture sector.
Yet one recurring theme is the need for policy coherence to allow the sector to
achieve its potential and to minimize conflicts with other competing resource users.
Spain for example is currently implementing 17 national plans for the promotion and
development of marine aquaculture. The original aims of the plans were to introduce
new species into aquaculture production and to improve technical production conditions,
but in recent years more focus has been given to environmental and health aspects,
analytical methodologies, product quality, technologies and management and planning.
The national plans are important contributions to improve competitiveness through the
optimisation of production systems and the incorporation of new technologies; to
stimulate research; to improve administrative processes and to generate knowledge on
environmental aspects. The French administration on the other hand has concentrated
interventions around three priorities: access to space (in particular in coastal areas),
increased investment in research and development and communication campaigns to
improve the sector’s image.
In Ireland, the unique Co-ordinated Local Aquaculture Management Systems
(CLAMS) process is a nationwide initiative to manage the development of aquaculture
in bays and inshore waters throughout Ireland at a local level. In each case, the plan fully
integrates aquaculture interests with relevant national policies, as well as: Single Bay
Management practices, which were initially introduced by salmon farmers to co-
operatively tackle a range of issues, and have been extended to all aquaculture species;
the interests of other groups using the bays and inshore waters; Integrated Coastal Zone
Management plans, and County Development plans.
Recommendations from a Chilean programme on combating sea lice include among
other to establish a national surveillance and control system applicable to the whole
industry and to coordinate treatments in connected geographic production areas.
Norwegian experience underlines the important role of the regulatory authorities, not just
in setting technical standards, but in making reporting of escapes mandatory and in
defining a mechanism to analyze and learn from the collected information. In addition,
compulsory, technical assessments to determine the causes of large-scale, escape
incidents have proved their worth.
Dutch finfish farms have adopted a radically different approach to controlling
environmental impacts. The sector is based solely on recirculation aquaculture systems
(RAS), i.e. land-based fish production systems in which water from the rearing tanks is
re-used after mechanical and biological purification to reduce water and energy
consumption as well as nutrient emissions to the environment. The water consumption in
RAS is entirely based on water exchange to compensate for evaporation, incidental
losses and to control water quality. However, RAS imply high capital and operational
costs, specific disease treatments and intensive management and skill requirements.

Sustainable aquaculture should be ecologically efficient, environmentally acceptable,

product-diversified, profitable and beneficial to society. Integrated multi-trophic
aquaculture (IMTA) pursues these objectives by cultivating fed species (e.g. finfish fed
sustainable commercial diets) with extractive species, which utilise the inorganic (e.g.
seaweeds) and organic (e.g. suspension- and deposit-feeders) excess nutrients from
aquaculture for their growth. Thus, extractive species produce valuable biomass, while
simultaneously rendering biomitigating services. In this way, some of the externalities of
fed monoculture are internalised, increasing the overall sustainability, profitability and
resilience of aquaculture farms. It was argued that the economic values of the
environmental and societal services of extractive species should be recognized and
accounted for in the evaluation of IMTA to create economic incentives to further
develop and implement IMTA. Seaweeds and invertebrates produced in IMTA systems
could be considered as candidates for nutrient/carbon trading credits within the broader
context of ecosystem goods and services and IMTA could become an integral part of
coastal regulatory and management frameworks. While the technical feasibilities of
introducing IMTA on a larger scale has been proved in Asia, in many other parts of the
world the rapid expansion of such systems is challenged by reasons of social acceptance.
In terms of policy challenges, discussions identified the crucial role of appropriate
spatial management (marine, coastal, inland) and of stakeholder participation in
aquaculture planning processes. To enable progress, producer compliance with
regulations, the sectors’ acceptance by third parties and policy coherence are also crucial
elements. Aquaculture is in competition with other uses for (access to) water and land
resources. It is influenced by the activities of other user and, in turn, can have an impact
on them. In this regards, many OECD countries have already implemented zoning
policies and established forms of stakeholder consultation platforms but that these
instruments need to be adaptive so as to deal with emerging issues (e.g. new production
techniques like off-shore farming; disease management; social implications of
aquaculture). Effective communication lines between the stakeholders and policy makers
are needed for this purpose.
Workshop participants also called for the development of the sectors’ capacity to
attract investment. This capacity depends among others on the efficiency of the
licence/permit allocation system (in terms of timeliness, complexity, duration and
renewal) which represents a form of ‘political’ risk for investors that needs to be added
to the natural, systemic and the economic risks. The development of improved farming
technologies (e.g. IMTA, RAS) and the adoption of best practices for disease, escape and
environmental impact management are additional instruments to increase the economic
performance – and hence investment attractiveness - of the aquaculture industry.
Enhancing economic conditions for aquaculture

There are common challenges for the public and the private sector in terms of science
and research: for example ‘green’ technologies serve public sustainability objectives but
also accommodate private needs to cut energy costs in production and to comply with
increasingly stringent environmental regulations. Reducing production costs through
improved efficiency is for example achieved through better fishmeal/oil-based feed
formulation, alleviating simultaneously pressure on capture fish stocks.
All farmed species are susceptible to stress factors (e.g. stocking density, grading,
mixing of species, predators, handling, transport, removal of fish from water,
temperature changes, inadequate light). Fishes’ responses to stress include hormone

imbalance, osmoregulation disruption and immuno-suppression, amongst others. As a

result, the fish is more susceptible to disease, and possibly prone to bacterial carriage,
with possible consequences for product safety. Animal welfare is increasingly
incorporated in best aquaculture practices or guidelines developed by both, public and
private entities, and needs to find its way into the production cost equation. The
European Food Safety Authority has already produced a number of recommendations,
based on a risk assessment methodology to derive a qualitative ranking and identify
significant hazards. The scores indicate why the hazard achieved a high score and
support recommendations to improve the welfare of fish.
Markets for aquaculture products are changing. There is a trend towards contract
buying based on fixed prices as demand is increasingly concentrated, in particular with
major retail chains. Faced with relatively stagnating prices and competition from third
countries, European aquaculture producers react with improving production efficiency
and increasing concentration as the traditional small medium enterprise (SME) model
become risky. To progress and potentially preserve the SME structure, the industry calls
for harmonization in regulation, privileged lending rates, accessible venture capital and
fiscal reductions for efforts in environmental investments. Sustainability was however
acknowledged as the most important attribute for ensuring a positive future for the
aquaculture industry.
A more sustainable sector would also reinforce positive consumer perceptions. As to
the sector’s image, overall, seafood products have a neutral to positive image, while
consumer awareness about aquaculture remains rather low. When asked people tend to
express a preference for wild fish, while in practice shoppers pay little attention to origin
when buying fish products. Partly, this is because consumers’ knowledge of aquaculture
and fisheries is limited and the surveys reveal no consistent opinions regarding the taste
of farmed products. Aquaculture products however have the intrinsic advantage of a
relatively stable supply and lower prices compared to captured species. Those positive
features are counterbalanced by negative perceptions about the use of fish meal/oil,
hormones and drugs, and the environmental implications of aquaculture production.
Risk and uncertainty issues in aquaculture production are important. The main causes
for loss in aquaculture are diseases, algae blooms and adverse weather conditions.
Models developed to capture uncertainties and risks are based on collected and
elaborated data and are supposed to reduce some of the uncertainty by forecasting risk
and its impact. Being insured can facilitate access to capital and the adoption of best
practices can hugely reduce risk and hence the insurance premium.
One of aquacultures main environmental impacts is on marine capture fisheries
through demand for wild fish for feed. Feed is the biggest cost factor in carnivorous
aquaculture and also one of the most criticised areas in terms of sustainability. It is
therefore important that aquaculture pays particular attention to the efficient use of feeds
and the inclusion of responsibly sourced ingredients. However, the protein conversion
ratio is much better in finfish than in other animal productions. As an example 100 kg of
feed pellets may produce 110 kg of trout, while it only produces 20 kg of poultry - the
land animal with the most efficient feed conversion ratio. Increased uses of plant
proteins as substitutes for fishmeal and fish oil in feed are under development.
With respect to aquaculture in developing countries, the future industry structure is
likely to see increasing differentiation between globally competing producers that will
integrate into modern supply chains in major markets; nationally and regionally
specialised commercial sectors - mainly for prosperous urban markets - and local

development of small-scale production for rural markets or specialised niche supplies.

The small scale sector could however play an important role in rural development, food
security and poverty eradication, Experience from Malawi where fish ponds were added
to smallholdings shows that total farm productivity improved and that total farm income
increased by 61%. As Africa and Asia become increasingly urbanised, there are likely to
be new markets for fish products from peri-urban aquaculture as there are already for
agriculture.
Fish products generally are amongst the most traded foods internationally, and OECD
countries import around 60% of their supplies. However, despite a flourishing
international trade, WTO agriculture agreements exclude fish, and there are no separate
tariff lines for aquaculture products in most WTO member countries, except for Iceland
and Norway. This means that there are no global trade statistics tracing aquaculture
products. With the increasing importance of aquaculture production in international
seafood trade this may however have to change in the future.
One particular market development triggered by the increase in aquaculture
production concerns the role of standards and certification for aquaculture products. The
increasing commercial success of some farmed species translates, in some cases, into the
establishment of trade barriers: domestic industries in the US for example filed cases
against imports of farmed shrimp, salmon and more recently Vietnamese pangasius. The
industry has developed its own quality standards for the production of the major species.
In many OECD countries, full traceability on inputs and rearing practices is imposed for
assuring food safety. The Global Aquaculture Alliance, WWF’s Aquaculture Dialogues
and the Aquaculture Stewardship Council are examples of standard-owning entities that
have recognised the need to boost the overall reputation of the industry.
Key messages
The main policy messages can be summarised as follows:

How can the contribution of aquaculture to food security, climate change adaptation
and Green Growth be optimized?
The aquaculture sector is an important contributor to the Green Growth Agenda –
but political will needs to be harnessed to further support Green Growth in
aquaculture. This calls among other for:
• Risk reduction to encourage sustainable long-term investment in the capital
intensive aquaculture sector in OECD countries:
− Encourage and recognise the use of better/best practices by producers;
− Support adaptive innovation (e.g. improved water use, selective breeding,
feed formulation).
• Ensure acceptance of sustainable aquaculture by limiting negative externalities
on the (marine) environment:
− Develop innovative solutions (e.g. IMTA);
− Optimize management of escapes, disease, pollution and other
externalities;
− Implement monitoring and early-warning systems.

• Improve the image of the industry:

− Develop pro-active information exchange with society and policy-
makers.
How to translate lessons learned from best practices into specific policy action?
• Galvanize political will:
− Develop clear and realistic national or regional plans for aquaculture
development;
− Include aquaculture in marine, coastal and inland spatial planning to
minimize conflict among user groups;
− Develop flexible regulatory frameworks with coordination across
government agencies and levels of government (e.g. agriculture, fish,
urbanization);
− Support targeted research and development to promote:
− Use of green technologies and promotion of sustainable aquaculture
species (e.g. in terms of feed, nutritional value, GMO);
− Market-oriented production; benefitting from changing consumption
patterns (e.g. healthy diet, preference for Omega3-rich food).
Timely and effective dialogue between all stakeholders: how can it be achieved?
• Ensure that stakeholders are involved in developing aquaculture plans and in
their implementation;
• Consider commercial perspectives to serve public and private interests;
• Conduct information campaigns to make sure sustainable products and
production methods are valued by the market and accepted by consumers.
Dealing with emerging issues: how to keep regulatory frameworks flexible?
If the aquaculture sector is to be sustainable, a holistic approach is needed in which
profitability, environmental risk and social acceptability are defined and targeted, and
where aquaculture is seen as part of a wider picture incorporating not only food supply,
but also broader ecosystem services that either contribute to it and/or depend on it.
All workshop presentations are available on the OECD website –
www.oecd.org/document/3/0,3343,en_2649_33901_44041283_1_1_1_37401,00.html#P
resentations.

Notes
1
By Professor Torger Børresen, DTU Denmark.
2
Compared to 1990 values.
3
www.oecd.org/dataoecd/58/34/44077822.pdf.
4
www.euraquaculture.info.

RÉSUMÉ DU PRÉSIDENT – 25
Résumé du président1
Les objectifs du Millénaire pour le développement prévoient de réduire de moitié la

proportion de la population qui souffre de la faim d’ici 20152. Des progrès réguliers ont
été accomplis dans un premier temps – avant que l’envolée des prix des produits
alimentaires, en 2008, et la récession mondiale annulent une grande partie des bénéfices
produits. Cette régression pourrait n’être qu’un simple incident de parcours. La sécurité
alimentaire à long terme suscite toutefois des inquiétudes, certains experts craignant
même une « véritable tempête » puisque les prévisions annoncent un doublement de la
population d’ici le milieu du siècle alors que le territoire agricole diminue sous l’effet de
l’urbanisation et que le changement climatique introduit de nombreuses incertitudes.
Dans ce scénario pessimiste, l’offre alimentaire ne pourra pas progresser suffisamment
vite pour répondre à la demande.
Dans ce contexte, l’aquaculture peut jouer un rôle important en faveur de la sécurité
alimentaire. De nombreux stocks sont aujourd’hui pleinement exploités, c’est pourquoi
la pêche n’offre guère de possibilités d’expansion. La consommation annuelle moyenne
de poissons de pêche par habitant a reculé de 10.6 % entre 1995 et 2007, tombant de
10.6 à 9.5 kg par personne. L’aquaculture en revanche s’est révélée très prometteuse. A
l’échelle mondiale, l’aquaculture est le secteur de production animale qui affiche les
meilleurs chiffres de croissance depuis plus de cinquante ans, sa production (hors plantes
aquatiques) progressant au rythme de 8.1 % par an depuis 1961, contre 3 % pour la
production de viande d’animaux d’élevage terrestre, 3.4 % pour la production d’œufs, et
1.5 % pour celle de lait. La consommation par habitant de poissons d’élevage est passée
de 4.3, à 7.5 kg entre 1995 et 2007, ce qui correspond à une hausse de 74 %. Toutefois,
le potentiel de développement de l’aquaculture est très variable selon les régions.
En 2007, l’aquaculture a dépassé la pêche de capture en produisant plus de 50 % des
produits aquatiques destinés à la consommation alimentaire directe. En dépit du
changement climatique et des autres facteurs qui pourraient freiner son développement,
certaines évolutions appuient fortement sa croissance, notamment l’augmentation de la
population et des revenus qui stimule la demande de produits aquatiques, et la limitation
de l’offre de la pêche de capture. Pour répondre à la demande, la production aquacole
mondiale devra passer de 52 millions de tonnes en 2007, à 80 millions de tonnes voire
plus en 2030. Cependant, la partie n’est pas gagnée et le secteur devra gérer un certain
nombre de risques : biologiques (maladies, par exemple) ; systémiques (défaillances des
équipements et problèmes d’eau) ; économiques et commerciaux (volatilité des prix des
intrants et produits, évolution des préférences des consommateurs pour des raisons
diététiques et de perception des produits d’élevage ; et politiques (modification du
contexte juridique de la production ou des échanges, par exemple).

26 – RÉSUMÉ DU PRÉSIDENT
L’atelier
L’aquaculture, qui représente aujourd’hui dans les pays de l’OCDE un énorme
marché et une filière dynamique et innovante, basée sur de solides capacités de
recherche, est un secteur d’avenir. Toutefois, pour tenir ses promesses, il lui faudra
relever un certain nombre de défis internes et externes,
Dans ce contexte, le Comité des pêcheries de l’OCDE a organisé un atelier intitulé
Faire progresser le dossier de l'aquaculture : Actions publiques pour un avenir durable
de l’aquaculture, qui a été accueilli par le ministère français de l’Alimentation,
l’Agriculture et la Pêche au Siège de l’OCDE à Paris, les 15 et 16 avril 2010. Ont
participé à cet atelier des dirigeants, des experts techniques ainsi que des représentants
d’organisations internationales, du secteur privé et d’ONG, qui ont examiné ensemble les
défis que pose aux gouvernements le développement de l’aquaculture. Plus de
80 participants ont utilisé cette plateforme pour passer en revue les aspects économiques,
environnementaux et sociaux qui conditionnent l’aquaculture, et analyser les interactions
avec les autres secteurs.
L’atelier avait pour objectifs :
• fournir aux participants des informations sur l’état actuel de l’aquaculture

et ses évolutions ;
• encourager les acteurs à tirer des enseignements mutuels de leurs
pratiques exemplaires et de leurs expériences dans le domaine de la
gestion et du développement de l’aquaculture (sans omettre les aspects
intersectoriels) ;
• identifier des domaines clés pour améliorer l’environnement économique
de l’aquaculture – notamment du point de vue du secteur privé et des
organisations internationales/ONG ;
• comprendre les opportunités et les enjeux de l’aquaculture pour les pays
de l’OCDE s’agissant de la cohérence des politiques au service du
développement ; et
• définir des pistes innovantes pour une aquaculture durable dans les pays
de l’OCDE.
En 2009, le Conseil de l’OCDE réuni au niveau des ministres a adopté la Déclaration

sur la croissance verte.3 Comme l’indique cette Déclaration, l’OCDE, au travers de
l’analyse des politiques et du recensement des pratiques exemplaires, peut soutenir les
efforts déployés par les pays pour satisfaire aux exigences croissantes de politiques
favorisant une croissance verte, et œuvrer avec les pays à l’élaboration de mesures
complémentaires destinées à bâtir des économies durables. Le secteur de l’aquaculture
est bien placé pour ouvrir la voie au projet de croissance verte, et l’atelier s’est largement
appuyé sur les études de cas des économies membres de l’OCDE et sur les avis d’experts
reconnus pour mettre en commun les expériences utiles et recenser les pratiques
exemplaires.
Le présent rapport est le résumé du Président, qui récapitule les messages clés de ces
deux journées de réflexion. Il rend compte des échanges de vues entre les participants et
des principaux messages contenus dans les différents exposés présentés à l’atelier.
Certains exposés se sont appuyés sur des rapports et études de cas qui ont été réunis dans

les chapitres suivants des actes de l’atelier. Certains documents qui n’ont pu être
présentés à l’atelier, de même que les résultats de l’Enquête de l’OCDE sur les
conditions de création de sites de production aquacole, ont également été inclus dans ces
actes. La publication comprend enfin les biographies des intervenants et des auteurs,
suivies d’une liste des participants.
Résumé des débats
Pratiques exemplaires en matière de gestion et de développement de

l’aquaculture
L’atelier a envisagé l’aquaculture dans le contexte plus large de la sécurité
alimentaire et de la croissance verte. En 2007, la production aquacole mondiale était
évaluée à 94.5 milliards USD, pour un total de 65.2 millions de tonnes produites
principalement dans les pays en développement. Bien que le gros de la production
aquacole repose sur moins d’une douzaine d’espèces (poissons élevés en bassins ou en
cages, crevettes cultivées en bassins ou en étangs, mollusques et algues élevés en culture
à plat ou suspendue), la biodiversité de l’aquaculture est élevée puisque qu’elle comptait
en 2007 plus de 340 espèces de plantes et animaux aquatiques.
Contrairement à la pêche, où les captures sont essentiellement des espèces carnivores
marines situées à un échelon élevé de la chaîne alimentaire aquatique, la production
aquacole est essentiellement constituée de poissons omnivores et herbivores situés aux
niveaux inférieurs de la chaîne alimentaire (carpe, tilapia et poisson-chat, par exemple).
Toutefois, dans les pays de l’OCDE et d’autres économies plus avancées, les espèces
carnivores de grande valeur situées en haut de la chaîne trophique (saumon, bar et
dorade, par exemple) sont privilégiées par les producteurs mais aussi par les
consommateurs, comme le montre la demande de ces produits.
Le document intitulé Growing the wealth of aquaculture: perspective and potential
propose une étude très complète des caractéristiques de la croissance enregistrée
récemment dans le secteur, ainsi que des nouvelles opportunités et contraintes auxquelles
il doit faire face, en s’intéressant aux principales régions productrices, groupes d’espèces
et systèmes de production. Il définit et passe en revue les conditions nécessaires au
développement du secteur, et examine quelles pourraient être les caractéristiques de la
croissance et de l’expansion, de la structure commerciale, des échanges, de l’offre et de
l’évolution de la chaîne de valeur, et ce qu’elles impliquent du point de vue de
l’investissement stratégique et de l’action publique. Bon nombre de ces questions sont
illustrées et développées dans les actes de l’atelier.
L’aquaculture peut jouer un rôle important en faveur de la sécurité alimentaire. Les
qualités nutritionnelles de la production aquacole pourraient permettre de réduire le
nombre de personnes victimes de la malnutrition, première cause de décès aujourd’hui.
La qualité des protéines et des lipides contenus dans les produits aquacoles joue aussi un
rôle important dans les pays développés. Selon des recherches récentes, les régimes
riches en aliments d’origine marine pourraient contribuer à faire reculer les maladies
liées au mode de vie, telles que le surpoids et l’obésité.
Les débats de l’atelier ont largement mis à profit les études de cas des pays de
l’OCDE sur les pratiques exemplaires de gestion et de développement aquacoles,
notamment en matière de gouvernance et de gestion des externalités produites par
l’aquaculture et des externalités affectant ce secteur. Les études de cas nationales ont été

complétées par des exposés sur le projet CONSENSUS4 financé par l’UE qui a mis en
place une plateforme multipartite pour l’aquaculture durable en Europe ; une
présentation sur l’aquaculture multitrophique intégrée (IMTA) en tant que pratique
responsable alliant fourniture de produits de la mer diversifiés et services
écosystémiques, et une présentation sur l’hypoxie et l’eutrophisation des eaux marines.
Beaucoup des enjeux auxquels se trouve aujourd’hui confrontée l’aquaculture,
notamment les externalités environnementales, rejoignent ceux que l’on rencontre dans
l’industrie agro-alimentaire, et concernent tout autant la pêche que l’aquaculture. Un
parallèle peut être fait avec l’intensification de l’agriculture, si l’on considère par
exemple les conflits d’accès à l’espace et l’accroissement des externalités
environnementales négatives. La productivité agricole a fait en très peu de temps des
progrès remarquables grâce à l’amélioration massive des technologies de production et à
« l’industrialisation » de l’élevage – phénomène que l’on observe également aujourd’hui
en aquaculture. L’offre de produits de la mer a augmenté, au grand bénéfice des
consommateurs, mais le prix environnemental à payer est élevé (pollution, menaces sur
la biodiversité, maladies, par exemple). Il est indispensable d’améliorer l’information
pour comprendre les interactions entre l’aquaculture et l’environnement et s’attaquer aux
externalités négatives. Si les connaissances accumulées ces dernières années permettent
de mieux comprendre les enjeux de l’aquaculture, la communication de ces
connaissances n’a pas été suffisante. Les responsables des politiques et le secteur de
l’aquaculture en général sont néanmoins de plus en plus conscients des enjeux et
prennent des mesures pour s’y attaquer en cherchant à atténuer les effets de leurs
activités ou en adoptant des stratégies sectorielles plus globales.
Bien que pratiquée depuis des siècles, l’aquaculture à son stade de développement
commercial actuel reste une industrie relativement jeune et devrait, à l’instar des autres
secteurs, subir de nombreuses transformations dans les prochaines années. Ces
changements résulteront de facteurs économiques (fusions-acquisitions au profit des
entreprises les plus compétitives) mais aussi techniques (optimisation de la production).
Ainsi à l’heure actuelle, les équipements, à l’exception des cages modernes et de certains
systèmes d’aération et d’alimentation, sont étonnamment peu standardisés et les
technologies sont souvent empruntées à d’autres branches d’activité, notamment la
mécanique navale. De même l’action publique revêt des formes très diverses, qui vont du
laisser-faire presque total à des mesures d’aides et de contrôle très ciblées visant
spécifiquement le secteur aquacole.
Cependant, la nécessité d’assurer la cohérence des politiques pour permettre au
secteur d’exploiter pleinement son potentiel et de limiter au minimum les conflits avec
les autres candidats à l’utilisation des ressources fait partie des thèmes récurrents.
L’Espagne, par exemple, applique actuellement 17 plans nationaux de promotion et
développement de l’aquaculture marine. Ces plans visaient initialement à introduire de
nouvelles espèces en aquaculture et à améliorer les conditions techniques de production,
mais depuis quelques années, ils mettent davantage l’accent sur les aspects
environnementaux et sanitaires, les méthodes d’analyse, la qualité des produits, les
technologies et la gestion/planification. Ces plans nationaux jouent un rôle important
pour améliorer la compétitivité en optimisant les systèmes de production et en
introduisant de nouvelles technologies ; stimuler la recherche ; améliorer les procédures
administratives et produire des connaissances sur les aspects environnementaux.
L’administration française a, quant à elle, concentré son action autour de trois axes
prioritaires : accès à l’espace (dans les zones littorales notamment), investissement accru

en faveur de la recherche et développement et campagnes de communication pour

améliorer l’image du secteur.
Les recommandations d’un programme chilien de lutte contre le pou de mer prévoient
entre autres la mise en place d’un système national de surveillance et de contrôle
applicable à tout le secteur et une coordination des traitements dans les zones de
production géographiquement liées. L’expérience de la Norvège met en évidence le rôle
important des autorités de réglementation, non seulement pour établir les normes
techniques, mais aussi pour imposer l’obligation de notifier les fuites de poissons
d’élevage et établir un mécanisme permettant de les analyser et de tirer les
enseignements des informations collectées. Les évaluations techniques obligatoires pour
déterminer les causes d’échappements massifs se sont également révélées très
précieuses.
Les éleveurs de poisson néerlandais ont choisi une voie radicalement différente pour
réduire leur impact sur l’environnement. Tout le secteur utilise des systèmes piscicoles
en circuit recirculé c'est-à-dire des systèmes de production installés à terre dans lesquels
l’eau des bassins d’élevage est réutilisée après épuration mécanique et biologique afin de
réduire la consommation d’eau et d’énergie ainsi que les rejets d’éléments nutritifs dans
l’environnement. La consommation d’eau de ces systèmes est entièrement basée sur le
renouvellement de l’eau pour compenser l’évaporation et les fuites accidentelles et pour
maîtriser la qualité de l’eau. Ces systèmes impliquent toutefois des dépenses
d’investissement et des coûts d’exploitation élevés, des traitements vétérinaires
spécifiques, une gestion intensive et des compétences.
L’aquaculture durable devrait être écologiquement efficace, acceptable pour
l’environnement, source de produits diversifiés, rentable et bénéfique pour la société.
L’aquaculture multitrophique intégrée (IMTA) vise justement ces objectifs en associant
la culture d’espèces d’élevage (poissons nourris avec des aliments commerciaux
durables) et celle d’espèces extractives qui utilisent pour se nourrir les matières
inorganiques (algues, par exemple) et organiques (sous-produits en suspension et dépôts)
issues de l’aquaculture. Les espèces extractives produisent ainsi une précieuse biomasse
tout en assurant simultanément des services de biomitigation. De cette façon, les
externalités de la monoculture aquacole sont en partie internalisées, ce qui améliore la
viabilité, la rentabilité et la résilience générales des fermes aquacoles. D’aucuns ont fait
valoir que la valeur économique des services environnementaux et sociétaux des espèces
extractives devait être reconnue et prise en compte dans l’évaluation de l’IMTA afin de
créer des incitations économiques propices à son développement et sa mise en œuvre.
Les algues et les invertébrés produits dans les systèmes d’IMTA pourraient être
comptabilisés dans les systèmes d’échange de crédits éléments nutritifs/carbone dans le
contexte plus large des biens et services fournis par les écosystèmes et l’IMTA pourrait
devenir partie intégrante des cadres de réglementation et de gestion côtières. Si la
faisabilité technique à grande échelle de ces systèmes a été prouvée en Asie, dans de
nombreuses autres régions du monde, leur expansion est freinée par le fait qu’ils ne sont
pas toujours acceptés par la société.
S’agissant des défis à relever par les pouvoirs publics, les participants ont appelé
l’attention sur le rôle déterminant d’une bonne gestion de l’espace (marin, côtier,
continental) et de la participation des acteurs concernés à la planification des activités
aquacoles. Il est également indispensable, pour pouvoir progresser, de veiller au respect
de la réglementation par les producteurs, à l’acceptation du secteur par les tierces parties
et à la cohérence des politiques. L’aquaculture est en concurrence avec d’autres activités

pour utiliser l’eau et les ressources terrestres (y avoir accès). Elle est influencée par les
activités des autres utilisateurs et peut avoir elle-même des effets sur ces activités. A cet
égard, de nombreux pays de l’OCDE appliquent déjà des politiques de zonage et ont mis
en place divers types de plateformes de consultation des parties prenantes mais ces
instruments doivent pouvoir être adaptés en fonction des problèmes qui se font jour
(nouvelles techniques de production comme l’élevage en mer ; gestion des maladies ;
implications sociales de l’aquaculture, par exemple). Les acteurs concernés et les
pouvoirs publics doivent disposer de circuits de communication efficaces à cet effet.
Les participants à l’atelier ont aussi constaté qu’il était nécessaire de renforcer
l’attrait du secteur pour l’investisseur. L’attrait exercé dépend notamment de l’efficience
des systèmes de délivrance de licences/permis (rapidité, complexité, durée et
renouvellement) qui représentent pour les investisseurs une forme de risque « politique »
qui s’ajoute aux risques naturels, systémiques et économiques. Le développement de
techniques d’élevage améliorées (IMTA, élevage en circuit recirculé, par exemple) et
l’adoption de pratiques exemplaires de gestion des maladies, des fuites de poissons et
des impacts sur l’environnement peuvent permettre aussi d’améliorer la performance
économique – et partant l’attrait pour l’investisseur – du secteur aquacole.
Améliorer les conditions économiques de l’aquaculture

Le secteur public et le secteur privé se trouvent confrontés à des enjeux communs
dans le domaine de la science et la recherche : pour citer un exemple, les technologies
« vertes » répondent aux objectifs publics de durabilité mais également aux besoins des
acteurs privés qui cherchent à réduire le coût énergétique de la production et respecter
des normes environnementales de plus en plus contraignantes. Il est ainsi possible de
réduire les coûts de production par des gains d’efficacité obtenus grâce à l’amélioration
de la composition des aliments à base de farine/d’huile de poisson, amélioration qui
permet aussi d’alléger les pressions sur les stocks de poissons sauvages
Toutes les espèces d’élevage sont sensibles aux facteurs de stress (densité de la
population, tri, mélange des espèces, prédateurs, manipulations, transport, retrait des
poissons de l’eau, variations de température, éclairage inadéquat, par exemple). Les
situations de stress provoquent chez le poisson diverses réponses : déséquilibre
hormonal, troubles de l’osmorégulation et immuno-suppression, pour n’en citer que
quelques unes. Le poisson est alors plus exposé aux maladies et, dans certains cas, au
portage bactérien, ce qui peut avoir des conséquences pour la sécurité des produits. Les
considérations de bien-être animal sont de plus en plus souvent intégrées dans les
pratiques exemplaires ou lignes directrices pour l’aquaculture établies par les instances
tant publiques que privées, et doivent trouver leur place dans les calculs de coûts de
production. L’Autorité européenne de sécurité des aliments a déjà publié plusieurs
recommandations, et établi, à l’aide d’une méthodologie d’évaluation des risques, une
échelle qualitative des dangers permettant de mettre en évidence les dangers importants.
La notation indique pourquoi le danger atteint un niveau élevé et renvoie à des
recommandations visant à améliorer le bien-être des poissons.
Les marchés des produits aquacoles évoluent. Les achats contractuels basés sur des
prix convenus semblent avoir actuellement le vent en poupe, en présence d’une demande
de plus en plus concentrée, émanant en particulier des grandes chaînes de distribution.
Face à la relative stagnation des prix et à la concurrence des pays tiers, les aquaculteurs
européens tentent d’accroître l’efficience de la production et s’orientent vers une plus
grande concentration, le modèle traditionnel des PME devenant risqué. Pour progresser

et préserver si possible la structure des PME, le secteur souhaite voir la réglementation

harmonisée, bénéficier de taux de prêt avantageux, avoir accès au capital-risque et
obtenir des réductions d’impôt en échange des investissements consentis en faveur de
l’environnement. La durabilité apparaît cependant comme le principal atout sur lequel
l’aquaculture doit miser pour assurer son avenir.
Miser sur la durabilité permettrait en outre d’améliorer la perception du secteur par
les consommateurs. Les produits de la mer, tout comme l’ensemble de la filière, ont une
image neutre à positive, mais les consommateurs connaissent assez mal l’aquaculture.
Lorsqu’on les interroge, ils disent plutôt préférer le poisson sauvage, mais dans la
pratique, les acheteurs accordent assez peu d’attention à l’origine du poisson qu’ils
choisissent. Cette situation s’explique en partie par le fait que les consommateurs ne
savent pas grand-chose de l’aquaculture et de la pêche et les enquêtes ne révèlent pas
d’opinion marquée en ce qui concerne le goût des produits d’élevage. Les produits
aquacoles ont toutefois pour atout le maintien d’une offre relativement stable et des prix
plus bas que ceux des espèces pêchées. Ces avantages sont toutefois contrebalancés par
la façon négative dont sont perçus l’utilisation de farines/huiles de poisson, d’hormones
et de médicaments et les incidences de l’aquaculture sur l’environnement.
Les questions de risques et d’incertitudes occupent une place importante en
aquaculture. Les causes de pertes dans ce secteur sont principalement les maladies, la
prolifération d’algues et les mauvaises conditions météorologiques. Les modèles mis au
point pour tenir compte des incertitudes et des risques, qui s’appuient sur l’ensemble des
données collectées et traitées, sont supposés réduire une partie des incertitudes en
anticipant les risques et leurs impacts. Le fait d’être assuré peut faciliter l’accès au
capital et l’adoption de pratiques exemplaires peut considérablement réduire les risques,
et partant les primes d’assurance.
L’un des principaux impacts environnementaux de l’aquaculture s’exerce sur la pêche
marine qui doit fournir le poisson sauvage nécessaire pour produire les aliments de
pisciculture. L’alimentation est le premier facteur de coûts des élevages de poisson
carnivores et également l’un des éléments les plus critiqués en termes de durabilité.
L’aquaculture doit donc s’efforcer d’utiliser les aliments de façon efficiente et d’y
inclure des ingrédients issus de pratiques responsables. Cependant, le rendement
protéique du poisson est bien plus élevé que celui des autres productions animales. Par
exemple 100 kg de granulés peuvent produire 110 kg de truite, mais seulement 20 kg de
volaille (espèce terrestre présentant le meilleur rendement protéique). L’utilisation
accrue de protéines végétales pour remplacer les farines et huiles de poisson dans
l’alimentation des poissons d’élevage est actuellement étudiée.
Dans les pays en développement, la structure de l’aquaculture devrait évoluer vers
une plus grande différentiation entre les producteurs rivalisant sur le marché mondial qui
intégreront les filières d’approvisionnement modernes sur les grands marchés ; les
secteurs commerciaux spécialisés au plan national et régional –principalement sur les
marchés urbains prospères – et le développement d’entreprises à petite échelle
fournissant les marchés ruraux ou des niches spécialisées. Le secteur des petites
entreprises pourrait toutefois jouer un rôle important dans le développement rural, la
sécurité alimentaire et l’éradication de la pauvreté, L’expérience du Malawi où des
étangs d’élevage ont été installés dans les petites exploitations indique une amélioration
de la productivité totale des exploitations et une hausse de 61 % de leurs revenus totaux.
A mesure de la progression de l’urbanisation en Afrique et en Asie, de nouveaux

marchés devraient voir le jour pour les produits de l’aquaculture périurbaine comme
c’est déjà le cas pour les produits agricoles.
Les produits halieutiques figurent généralement en bonne place dans les échanges
internationaux de produits alimentaires et les pays de l’OCDE importent près de 60 % de
leurs approvisionnements. Cependant, bien que le commerce international soit florissant,
les accords agricoles de l’OMC excluent le poisson, et il n’existe pas de ligne tarifaire
séparée pour les produits de l’aquaculture dans la plupart des pays membres de l’OMC à
l’exception de l’Islande et de la Norvège. Cela signifie qu’il n’existe pas non plus de
statistiques du commerce mondial pour les produits aquacoles. Compte tenu de
l’importance de ces produits dans les échanges internationaux de produits de la mer cette
situation devra changer.
L’une des évolutions commerciales résultant de l’essor de la production aquacole
concerne le rôle des normes et de la certification des produits aquacoles. Le succès
commercial croissant de certaines espèces d’élevage se traduit, dans certains cas, par la
mise en place d’obstacles aux échanges : aux États-Unis, par exemple, des entreprises
ont dénoncé l’importation de crevettes et de saumons d’élevage et plus récemment de
pangasius vietnamien. Le secteur a établi ses propres normes de qualité pour les
principales espèces produites. De nombreux pays de l’OCDE exige l’entière traçabilité
des intrants et des pratiques d’élevage afin d’assurer la sécurité des aliments. L’Alliance
mondiale pour l’aquaculture, les Dialogues aquaculture du WWF et le Conseil pour une
bonne gestion de l’aquaculture (Aquaculture Stewardship Council) sont des exemples
d’entités émettrices de normes qui ont reconnu la nécessité d’améliorer la réputation
générale du secteur.
Principaux messages
Les principaux messages pour l’action peuvent se résumer comme suit :
Comment optimiser la contribution de l’aquaculture à la sécurité alimentaire, à
l’adaptation au changement climatique et à la croissance verte ?
Le secteur de l’aquaculture occupe une place importante dans le dossier de la
croissance verte – mais une réelle volonté politique est nécessaire pour l’engager sur
cette voie. Il conviendra pour cela de :
• Réduire les risques pour encourager les investissements durables à long terme
dans l’industrie aquacole des pays de l’OCDE, qui est un secteur à forte
intensité de capital :
− Encourager et reconnaître l’utilisation de pratiques plus
satisfaisantes/exemplaires par les producteurs ;
− Favoriser l’innovation adaptative (meilleure utilisation de l’eau, élevage
sélectif, composition de l’alimentation, par exemple).
• Faire accepter l’aquaculture durable en limitant les effets externes négatifs sur
l’environnement (marin) :
− Mettre au point des solutions innovantes (IMTA, par exemple) ;
− Optimiser la gestion des fuites de poissons, des maladies, de la pollution et
des autres externalités ;
− Mettre en œuvre des systèmes de suivi et d’alerte précoce.

• Améliorer l’image du secteur :

− Mettre an place un système dynamique d’échange d’informations avec la
société et les responsables des politiques.
Comment transposer les enseignements tirés des pratiques exemplaires dans l’action
publique ?
• Galvaniser la volonté politique :
− Élaborer des plans nationaux ou régionaux clairs et réalistes en faveur du
développement de l’aquaculture ;
− Inclure l’aquaculture dans la planification des espaces marins, côtiers et
terrestres afin de limiter au maximum les conflits entre groupes
d’utilisateurs ;
− Établir des cadres réglementaires souples en veillant à la coordination entre
les différents organismes gouvernementaux et niveaux d’administration
(agriculture, pêche/aquaculture, urbanisation) ;
− Soutenir la R-D ciblée afin d’encourager :
− L’utilisation de technologies vertes et la promotion d’espèces
aquacoles durables (en termes d’alimentation, de valeur nutritionnelle,
d’OGM, par exemple ;
− Une production répondant aux besoins du marché ; mettant à profit
l’évolution des modes de consommation (alimentation saine,
préférence pour les aliments riches en omégas-3, par exemple).
Assurer un dialogue efficace adapté aux besoins du moment entre les parties
prenantes : comment procéder ?
• Veiller à ce que les acteurs intéressés soient associés à l’élaboration et la mise
en œuvre des plans concernant l’aquaculture ;
• Étudier les perspectives commerciales dans le souci des intérêts publics et
privés ;
• Mener des campagnes d’information pour assurer la valorisation des produits
et méthodes de production durables sur le marché et leur acceptation par les
consommateurs.
Faire face aux nouveaux problèmes qui se font jour : comment maintenir la souplesse
des cadres réglementaires ?
Il importe, pour engager le secteur de l’aquaculture sur la voie de la durabilité,
d’adopter une approche intégrée dans laquelle la rentabilité, le risque environnemental et
l’acceptabilité sociale sont définis et ciblés, et l’aquaculture envisagée dans une optique
plus large comprenant non seulement l’offre alimentaire, mais aussi toute la gamme des
services écosystémiques qui contribuent à assurer cette offre ou qui en dépendent.
Toutes les présentations faites à l’atelier peuvent être consultées sur le site Web de
l’OCDE à l’adresse :
www.OCDE.org/document/3/0,3343,en_2649_33901_44041283_1_1_1_37401,00.html
#Presentations.

Notes
1
Par le Professeur Torger Børresen, Université technique du Danemark (DTU).
2
Par rapport aux valeurs de 1990.
3
www.oecd.org/dataoecd/58/34/44077822.pdf
4
www.euraquaculture.info.

OPENING REMARKS – 35
Opening remarks
Mario Amano
OECD Deputy Secretary General
Dear Delegates, Dear Chair,

It is an honour for me to come here and open the Workshop on Advancing the
Aquaculture Agenda: Policies to Ensure a Sustainable Aquaculture Sector. The OECD’s
Fisheries Committee has for a long time recognised that the aquaculture sector is
uniquely placed to complement production from the stagnating capture fisheries sector.
Aquaculture has certain advantages in particular in terms of controllable production
characteristics. Put simply, it is easier for man to produce fish in controlled conditions
than in a hunter/gathering activity such as is the case in wild capture fisheries.
When adopting its last program of work the Fisheries Committee decided, with
financial support from France which I would like to acknowledge, to host this Workshop
on Advancing the Aquaculture Agenda: Policies to Ensure a Sustainable Aquaculture
Sector.
An ever increasing world population, changing consumption patterns and a growing
middle class with more disposable income and with a strong preference for healthy diets
motivates consumers to demand more fish and seafood. With capture fish production
stagnating, aquaculture is a part of the answer to this challenge.
Aquaculture is rapidly growing and is widely recognised as critical to increasing
seafood supplies. In 1970, aquaculture provided 3.9% of the total global supply of fish
and seafood. By 2006 this had increased to 36%. Considering the global fish supply for
direct human consumption, the contribution from aquaculture is even larger at around
50%. However, among the world top ten producers only three OECD countries feature -
namely Chile, Norway and Japan.
The OECD has a strong emphasis on Green Growth: in 2009, a Declaration on Green
Growth tasked the OECD with developing a Green Growth Strategy bringing together
economic, environmental, technological, financial and development aspects into a
comprehensive framework. At the same occasion, the Ministers declared that they will
strengthen their efforts to pursue green growth strategies acknowledging that “green” and
“growth” can go hand-in-hand. Within this context, it is imperative that the OECD
examines how to mitigate the environmental problems associated with aquaculture, while
concurrently enabling the sector to prosper and ensure economic growth, jobs and food in
a world where global food security is a concern.

36 – OPENING REMARKS
This workshop is therefore a timely and important contribution to better understand

the policy challenges for a competitive and sustainable sector which can contribute to the
supply of important aquatic protein in OECD countries and beyond. In particular, it is
important to introduce new clean technologies to improve the overall economic
efficiency of aquaculture to better exploit natural conditions and to develop
administrative and regulatory structures that enable further sustainable aquaculture
developments. This workshop will contribute to the objectives of both Green Growth and
food security which are high on the OECD agenda.
I wish you all the best in your endeavour.

KEY MESSAGES BY THE FRENCH MINISTER – 37
Key messages by the French Minister for Food, Agriculture and

Fisheries
Mr. Bruno Le Maire, French Minister for Food, Agriculture and Fisheries, opened the
OECD Workshop on the development of aquaculture Advancing the Aquaculture Agenda
– Policies to Ensure a Sustainable Aquaculture Sector.
The Minister stressed the major role that aquaculture could play in feeding the world
population, as fish consumption had doubled in the space of 30 years. He called for the
development of this sector to be a priority in the challenge to ensure food security, at a
time when most of the world’s fisheries have reached or exceeded their sustainable
harvesting limits.
The Minister called for aquaculture development, both sea- and land-based, along the
following lines:
• At the European level, aquaculture should become a pillar of the Common
Fisheries Policy (CFP), along with fishery resource management and the
organisation of the markets. The European Union’s aquaculture development
strategy, launched during France’s Presidency of the EU and adopted under the
Czech Presidency in 2009, was a first step. The forthcoming reform of the CFP,
to be completed by 2012, should be an opportunity to build a genuine
aquaculture policy for the EU.
• At the national level, the Agriculture and Fisheries Modernisation Bill, debated
in the French Senate from May 2010, provides for new regional marine-
aquaculture plans to foster dialogue and set aside areas for expansion of the
sector.
• Funding for research on effluent treatment and fish feed improvement is
needed. As environmental concern grows, it is crucial to implement good
farming practice and there is still room for improvement in effluent
management and feed (less fish meal/fish oil and more plant proteins).
• Funding for public relation campaigns to enhance the industry’s image and
highlight the nutritional value and quality of aquaculture products should be
made available.

1. GROWING THE WEALTH OF AQUACULTURE – 39
Chapter 1
Growing the wealth of aquaculture
James F. Muir, David C. Little, James A. Young and John C. Bostock

University of Stirling, United Kingdom
Abstract
Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic organisms, has grown markedly in recent decades,
with an ever-widening production base. In 2007, for the first time, it supplied more than
50% of aquatic products used for direct food consumption. With growing demand, it is
expected to expand further and in many markets, it will increasingly dominate the supply
of aquatic foods.
However, prospects and opportunities for growth have been by no means certain, and the
industry has at times suffered reverses. Major losses from disease have caused
catastrophic failures and loss of investment confidence, and there are continuing
concerns about environmental impacts. Expectations of profitability linked with technical
opportunities have caused some sectors to expand very rapidly without corresponding
market capacity, and falling prices have resulted in business failures and major
restructuring. To understand more realistically the nature and potential characteristics of
the sector’s development a range of issues needs to be considered.
This review explores the features of the sector’s recent growth, its emerging opportunities
and constraints, across major producing regions, species groups and production systems.
It considers key issues including: drivers of growth: demand, technology (production,
breeding, feed, disease etc.); resources: land, water, feed; risks and their management;
trade and its development, and governance. It addresses their implications, and offers
recommendations at strategic investment and policy levels.

40 – 1. GROWING THE WEALTH OF AQUACULTURE
Executive summary
Growth and resources

Globally, aquaculture continues to have strong drivers for growth and although key
transforming processes such as climate change might constrain or realign development,
population and income growth, growing demands for aquatic foods and supply
limitations from capture fisheries all contribute to positive prospects for expansion.
Depending on demand assumptions, global production of 52 million tonnes in 2007 may
need to reach 80 million tonnes or more by 2030. Many countries and regional economic
entities expect to contribute to this growth, with corresponding aims of facilitating
technology development, resource access, investment, market development and trade.
The sector is remarkable for its diversity, with a wide range of environments, species
and production systems, though most production derives from less than a dozen species,
fish grown in ponds or cages, shrimp or prawn in ponds, molluscs and seaweeds in beds
or on suspended lines. A very small amount is grown in intensive tanks, sometimes with
water treatment and reuse and except for limited trials, nothing in open seas. Some 58%
of current output, 47% of value, is produced in inland waters and 42% by volume and
53% by value in coastal (brackish and marine) waters. An increasing share of production
derives from hatcheries, with life-cycle control opening prospects for genetic
improvement, with notable performance impact already in a small number of species.
However, a sizeable part of production is still based on wild seed, which is usually a
more critical constraint for fish and crustaceans than for molluscs and seaweeds.
Although considerable research interest is devoted to species diversification and full life-
cycle control of a wider range of species, future expansion of aquaculture production is
likely to build primarily around better commercially performing stocks of a small number
of more domesticated species.
Resources for aquaculture development are a critical issue and concerns arise for
impacts on land and water resources, demand for wild seed stock and raw materials for
fertilisers and feeds. A considerable part of recent growth in output has been based on
intensification and yield gain, but factor productivity constraints and rising input costs
are likely to limit the extent to which intensification is feasible and future increases in
production may need sizeable area expansion as well as yield gains. However, in many
systems there appear to be substantial ‘yield gaps’ and technology development and
management improvements will be key factors in improving resource use efficiency and
overall performance. The integration of aquaculture with other activities, sharing
resources and recycling wastes, will also have a stronger potential at strategic and local
levels, subject to system viability and acceptability amongst resource sharers.
As with many other food production sectors, externalities have not been widely
factored into costs and benefits, though nutrient dispersion, genetic interactions,
biodiversity impacts and unaccounted embodied energy are encountered in many
systems. These elements and related concepts of carbon footprints and sustainability
indicators are likely to come into far wider currency, and driven by policy evolution and
consumer demand will influence choices made in aquaculture systems, locations and
operating principles. The valuation of ecosystem services and potential payment for their

provision or protection are also likely to influence aquaculture options, and the use of
concepts such as the ecosystem approach to aquaculture is likely to grow further.
Risks and their management

Aquaculture is intimately connected with the aquatic medium and its environmental
drivers, whose characteristics and variability impose a range of potential hazards on both,
aquaculture stocks and the containment/management system. Increasing variability and
changing trends may bring about new or more extreme risks with unpredictable
occurrence or consequence and these will need to be understood and managed
effectively. Risk areas can be classified as: biological - aquatic diseases, predation,
ecosystem instability, food safety and environmental/biodiversity impacts; system – water
supply, holding unit or other component failure; market/economic – changes in factors
affecting costs and returns, or business viability; and political – affecting security, policy
environment, legal context, trade options. To date, apart from a small number of
politically derived cases, biological risks have been the most significant in impact and
continue to be problematic. Market risks associated with rapid supply expansion have
also been notable, but are potentially less significant now that more realistic expectations
are common, at least in mainstream commercial sectors. Technologies have in many
cases matured, and risks reduced, but new rounds of species diversification and more
complex systems may increase these.
A range of practical responses to risk can be identified. For aquatic diseases,
improved diagnostics, vaccine and other protective technologies and better understanding
of the genetic and immunological basis for resistance are significant in reducing risks.
However, poor preparedness or response to new diseases remains a significant problem
and many countries are still ill-equipped to address this. Even if diagnostic capacity is
developed, it needs to be connected with effective responses as both strategic and specific
levels. For system and technology risks, better materials, design and testing procedures,
greater use of information and communication technologies and cumulative build-up of
experience, more proven designs and best practices have usefully reduced risks in
mainstream sectors. However other sectors, with new species and systems, or
intensifying production on an ad hoc basis, continue to be vulnerable. The issue of food
quality and contamination has been containable in most cases, but increasing
eutrophication, particularly in coastal areas, inadequate controls on industrial
development and on input raw materials will put much more pressure on the sector to
ensure food safety. Apart from the issues of over-expansion, market and financial risks
are increasingly manageable through more professional management at larger
commercial scales and through capacity building amongst smaller producers. The role of
insurance in commercial production has also been very important in managing
production risks and in driving the selection of better and less vulnerable systems.
However, major systemic risks associated with vectors such as climate change are likely
to require much more strategic approaches for the sector.
Consumers and markets

A key feature of aquaculture output is that apart from some low food chain species
such as molluscs and phytoplankton eating fish, such as silver carp or milkfish, most
species occupy mid to high levels within the price range for aquatic protein. This is
broadly related to the food chain position; with carnivorous species both costing more to
produce and attaining higher market prices. By comparison, many traditional fisheries

products, more independently of food chain position, have had much lower first sale
values. Viability of fisheries operations depend primarily on stock available and the
potential to catch them, though very high landings may result in unprofitably low prices.
By contrast, aquaculture, and the investment for its expansion, depends on its margins
over production cost. For this reason, though potential demand may be very positive, the
opportunity to supply desired species at prices which are acceptable to many markets
may limit production potential. Reduced capture fisheries supplies will tend to increase
real prices, but the extent to which this will offer sufficient margins remains to be tested.
An increasing division may also be seen between major aquaculture sectors with
globally competing producers, feeding into modern supply chains in major markets,
nationally and regionally specialised commercial sectors, mainly for prosperous urban
markets and local development of smaller-scale production for rural markets or
specialised niche supplies. Most attention for aquaculture market development has been
given to the first of these, in both domestic consumption and food service sectors, though
a substantial part of current supply and a sizeable element of future production are likely
to be retained in the other sectors.
A particularly important element of development in the modern market sector is that
of traceability, variously defining origin, production inputs and conditions and other key
attributes. Labelling and certification and an increasing focus on ethical aspects – fish
welfare and the social and environmental conditions of production, are becoming more
common. However, the costs and complexity of more specialised compliance and the
uncertainty of widespread consumer demands for higher criteria may act to settle
specifications for most production to simpler levels. For larger producers or co-operatives
that have been able to establish brand identities, the maintenance and extension of these
may be the primary focus.
Location, structure, competition and trade

Systems, environments, economic and market conditions vary widely within and
across regions, and will be further subject to changes due to comparative wealth and
market power and to climate change impacts. However a number of comparative
production characteristics can be defined and thematic areas of regional potential
identified. Major delta areas, large lakes and sheltered coastal margins in subtropical
latitudes have significant capability and potential for producing lower-cost, lower food
chain species with potential for serving both regional and global markets. In temperate
latitudes, near major high value markets, coastal production from more intensive higher
cost fish systems and mollusc culture based on high seasonal productivity will have
preferential opportunities. Where transport, processing and distribution infrastructure is
available, together with an existing sectoral presence, specific regions are likely to have
strong advantages, subject to environmental capacity. If demand increases, new areas
with low cost access to natural resources and labour and potential for reaching regional
and global markets will become more significant. At this stage, expectations are
strengthening for Africa to serve regional, European and Western Asian markets and for
Latin America, particularly Brazil, to serve regional and North American markets.
However, developments in existing supply centres are likely to maintain competitive
pressures in the short to medium term.
In terms of industry structure, much of the expansion in the commercial sector has
been accompanied in the last decade by sector consolidation and varying degrees of

integration. More notably in modern food supply chains, companies adding value to raw
material have increased market power and their influence over sourcing and potential
investment. However, particularly in developing countries and also in more widely rural
communities, smaller scale producers continue to hold important market shares and are
considered to have valuable social roles. A mix of private capital and smaller scale credit
is important for the support and growth of this sector. Arguments for consolidation and
for small scale community enterprise are likely to continue and the strategic value of
having a diverse industry structure will need to be further evaluated. This is specially the
case in developing countries where aquaculture is promoted for employment and local
food supply, typically as a subsistence or rural farm enterprise.
The trade in aquatic products is already recognised for its scale and diversity and
geographical imbalances between supply and markets will ensure that aquaculture trade
will remain at significant levels. Regional trade in aquaculture products, particularly for
growing urban economies in Africa and Asia will be increasingly important. However,
concern for ‘food miles’ carbon footprints and LCA (life cycle assessment) evaluations
will increase focus on transport distances and resource uses. Practices such as the
shipping of whole fish from Northern Europe to China for processing and resupply in
added value format to European markets are likely to be less common. Rising fuel costs
may also shift balances from air freighted fresh product to middle-distance refrigerated
supply or wider use of freezer containers using surface transport. With respect to terms of
trade, continuing attention will be required to ensure equality of market access and
reduction of non-tariff barriers such as over complex aquatic health and food safety
requirements. Capacity building at various levels will continue to be important.
Research, innovation and knowledge

The sector has benefited from a range of research and development activities, both
endogenous and deriving from other sectors. The primary focus has been on
biotechnologies, including identifying and managing life–cycle requirements, genetic
improvements, use of genomics, proteomics for disease diagnosis and control and
potentially for stock selection. Feed metabolism, digestive efficiencies, feedstock
development and formulation and delivery also have high priorities. Issues such as
behavioural interactions and welfare requirements are also being more widely
considered. System technologies are often borrowed from other sectors, such as fisheries,
marine engineering, water treatment, materials sciences and electronics and
communications. With the exception of modern cages and some aerators and feeding
systems there are few standardised products or common performance criteria, though the
diversity of technical approaches has tended to reduce. Future directions for technologies
include more focused component design, remote sensing of stocks and environments, and
multiple component integrated data at strategic/large scale or more localised levels.
With some exceptions, there has been little appreciation of the role of innovative
approaches, nor of strategic and cost-focused research and development strategies.
Research station-based biological research is often pursued along classical lines, though
industrial research, particularly in feeds and disease treatments is more focused. There
are concerns, as in other sectors, that knowledge differentials will increase and will
disadvantage poorer countries and smaller businesses. In response to this, the role of
public-private partnerships in creating strong processes of knowledge sharing is likely to
become more important.

Policy and governance

The policy and governance context for aquaculture is an essential feature of its
development and potential. Currently, its significance in national policy ranges from
relative disregard to highly developed and focused support and control. A better balanced
perspective may be required. A primary requirement is that the aquaculture sector and its
features are understood, its value is recognised and its connections with other sectors
realised. The development of various valuation approaches and their application will
become increasingly important, allowing integrated tradeoffs across sectors to be better
defined.
Key areas of policy and governance include: resource allocation and the protection of
its quality, control and management of environmental and disease risks, determination
and control of food safety, qualified areas of trade support, selective promotion of
regional co-operation’s management, development of shared water bodies and catchment
area protection of specific interests, including social objectives. The implications of these
are discussed further in the review.
Conclusions
National and regional development strategies for aquaculture need to be based on

sound market and economic understanding linked with knowledge of the impacts of
innovation, technological change and human and institutional capacity building. This is
an essential requirement for sound and effective sectoral growth. To date, many national
plans and strategies are based primarily on simple biotechnical issues – ability to rear
aquatic organisms, land areas, theoretical availability of water or feedstuffs, without
adequate consideration of practical enterprise issues or of impacts of aquaculture supplies
on national or other markets. Practical issues such as resource rights, availability of
capital and the time needed to develop supply chain components such as seed, feed and
services also need to be considered.
Climate change will be a major driver in most regions, with increasingly important
adaptation and risk management requirements. Current work to develop iterative
concepts of the type, scale and location of risks, potential impacts, policy and
management strategies and investment responses will be critical in defining the viability
of future growth for the sector. As with equivalent approaches for agriculture, climate
change adaptation will need to be integrated into planning processes rather than
considered as a simple modifying factor. There is also the potential for aquaculture to
play a mitigation/ecosystem quality enhancement role and these functions are likely to
become more important. The potential for creating a market for protecting or enhancing
aquatic ecosystem services is yet to be specified, but may have a role in rural economies.
Inland area production will continue to be significant, in particular in greater areas
and with more intensive use of pond systems and a wider development of lake or
reservoir based cage culture. There will be a greater need for integration with other
functions as water demand from agriculture, power generation, water and sanitation and
industrial uses increases. Coastal areas are likely to become more important for a range
of aquaculture production systems and in cases where land-based enrichment occurs, as
is increasingly the case in major delta zones, integrated systems are likely to become
more common, with plants, molluscs and lower food chain fish species taking up a
nutrient removal role as well as generating additional production.

Changes in feed design and formulation are likely to play a major role in future
change, shifting dependence on marine-based oils in particular, and widening access to
terrestrial raw materials to reduce production costs, expand production opportunities and
ensure sustainability. Genetic modification of feedstuffs could become a key factor in
widening feed availability, together with a greater focus on lower food chain species.
However, food value of some of these species may be lower than those assumed for
typical capture fisheries products and nutritional impacts less significant. This could
particularly be the case for lower-income groups with fewer protein alternatives.
The importance of good sectoral data cannot be underestimated, as is the need to link
this effectively with other data sources to develop higher order measures and indicators.
Links between production, resources, social and economic attributes need to be improved
and made more consistent. Approaches which integrate data acquisition with analysis and
feedback will be much preferred over systems which offer little development purpose.
Knowledge exchange, through private sector interests and in wider public sector arenas
will become more significant and more necessary. Features of this will include a wider
range of partnerships; greater use of objective-defined approaches; the use of ICT for a
wider range of interactive purposes, linking aquaculture production within wider supply
and value chains.
Introduction
Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic organisms1, has over recent decades been one of
the fastest growing and most nutritionally significant global food sectors. Unlike capture
fisheries, its production is not defined by primary natural resources, but through
management and technical skills linked with investment choices in system capacity, seed
and feeds. These primary inputs can be produced from an increasing range of sources.
While feed raw materials, water, energy and other system inputs have limitations, as does
the environmental capacity for receiving production wastes, the scope for increased
aquaculture output is considerably greater than that available for capture fisheries.
Aquaculture also has important features of controllable production volumes and timing of
supply to meet market and supply chain demands. Against a backdrop of overfishing and
increasing demand from a growing population, many governments consider aquaculture
as high opportunity sector, both in terms of food supply and in terms of economic impact.
However, while aquaculture has grown throughout many parts of the world, this has
not been a uniform development, in spite of apparent opportunity. Evidence suggests that
aquaculture poses economic, environmental and social challenges which may be poorly
understood or addressed within current policy frameworks. In such cases, the
sustainability of future operations may be compromised. Issues that may constrain the
sector development and performance are among others the business environment (e.g.
competing uses of land and water; insufficient adoption of new technologies to improve
the overall economic efficiency of aquaculture to better exploit natural conditions;) and
administrative and regulatory structures that create constraints rather than underpin
further aquaculture developments (e.g. regulation of access to resources; environmental
prescriptions).
Over the last decade, global aquatic animal production rose from 28.6 million tonnes
in 1997 to more than 51.6 million tonnes in 2006 (Table 1.1), an annual growth rate of

around 5%. Production is dominated by Asia, accounting for more than 88% of total
production and 76.3% of total value in 2006.
Table 1.1: Global and regional aquaculture production and value, 1974-2006
Million tonnes Average USD billion Average

Area annual annual
1997 2006 % change 1997 2006 % change
Total 28.61 51.65 4.96 44.10 78.76 4.89
Asia 25.21 45.96 5.02 35.51 60.08 4.54
China 19.32 34.43 4.88 20.36 38.42 5.22
Latin America 0.40 1.23 7.51 1.18 5.43 8.70
Europe 1.36 1.93 3.29 3.37 6.44 5.30
North America 0.52 0.64 2.03 1.01 1.69 4.49
Africa
Egypt 0.09 0.60 9.51 0.18 0.95 8.96
Oceania
New Zealand 0.08 0.11 3.17 0.05 0.23 8.82
Other countries 0.95 1.19 2.24 2.80 3.94 3.21
Source: FAO, 2009a
In 2006, China was the largest aquaculture producer with 49.9% of global output and
66.5% of Asian production, with a value of USD 38.4 billion, 49% of the global total.
According to FAO (2009a), it produces 77% of all carps (cyprinids) and 82% of all
oysters (ostreids). It is also noted however that China is revising its aquaculture statistics,
with a downward revision in 2008 of more than 10%, more than 3 million tonnes of
production. The Asia–Pacific region as a whole accounts for 98% of carp, 95% of oyster,
and 88% of shrimp and prawn (penaeids) acquaculture production. Over the decade to
2006, global average annual growth rates of aquaculture volume and value were 5% and
4.9% respectively. The highest output growth was in Latin America, at 69.6%, followed
by Asia at 48.8% and Europe and North America, both at 29%. Latin America also had
the highest growth rate of value, 75.7%, followed by North America and Europe, both
42%, and Asia at 35.8%. Average reported first sale value was highest in Latin America,
followed by Europe, North America, and lowest in Asia. With respect to ecosystem,
production in inland water and coastal/marine waters2 grew by 44.7% and 44.4% over the
decade, by 2006 reaching 31.5 million and 20 million tonnes with values of USD 41.4
and 37.3 billion, and average prices of USD 1.31 and USD 1.86 per kg, respectively.
The particular dominance of China has a strong influence on regional and global
sectoral indicators and it is considered separately in some analyses, to give clearer focus
to the characteristics and trends of other producers. Table 1.2 shows equivalent trends in
key producing countries, and higher growth rates associated with particular species in
countries such as Vietnam (Pangasius catfish), Chile (salmon) and Egypt (tilapia). It is
also notable how unit values have changed; Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines
record substantial falls, Bangladesh and Myanmar moderate falls, India, Vietnam and
Egypt having slight falls, while China, Chile, Norway and the Republic of Korea all
show gains. Only Japan showed a decline in output and in value.

Table 1.2: Trends in major producing countries (>500 000 t), 1997-2006
Production, million
Producer % annual Value, USD billion % annual
tonnes
change change
1997 2006 1997 2006
China 19.32 34.43 4.9 20.36 38.42 5.2
India 1.86 3.12 4.5 2.13 3.43 4.2
Viet Nam 0.32 1.66 9.0 0.68 3.32 8.8
Thailand 0.54 1.39 6.8 1.91 2.22 1.6
Indonesia 0.66 1.29 5.4 2.05 2.25 1.0
Bangladesh 0.49 0.89 5.1 0.97 1.36 3.2
Chile 0.27 0.80 7.3 0.92 4.43 8.8
Japan 0.81 0.73 -1.1 3.52 3.10 -1.5
Norway 0.37 0.71 5.3 1.05 2.72 6.8
Philippines 0.33 0.62 5.3 0.89 0.98 1.0
Egypt 0.09 0.60 9.5 0.18 0.95 9.0
Myanmar 0.08 0.57 9.5 0.83 1.79 6.0
Korea Rep 0.39 0.51 2.6 0.92 1.42 3.9
Source: FAO, 2009a
Table 1.3 shows recent national aquaculture growth rates. Among countries with the
highest recent growth rates (2004-06) only Mexico, Pakistan and Nigeria are significant
producers, though Cambodia and particularly Uganda appear to be gaining ground.
During 2006-07, five significant producers (>100 000 tonnes annually) - Vietnam,
Norway, Philippines, Republic of Korea and the Islamic Republic of Iran, recorded
double digit growth rates. Growth in Vietnam, mainly based on Pangasius catfish of
almost 500 000 tonnes over one year is particularly remarkable. By contrast, some larger
producers showed small declines in output, while others such as Greece and the Russian
Federation had zero growth. At regional levels (FAO, 2009a) growth over 1997-2006 has
not been uniform, with Latin America and the Caribbean region showing highest average
annual growth (22%), followed by the Near East (20%) and Africa region (12.7%).
China’s production increased at an average rate of 11.2%, despite a decline to 5.8% from
14.3% in the 1990s. Since 2000, output growth in Europe and North America has slowed
to about 1% per year.

Table 1.3: Key aspects of national growth rates
Highest growth rate, 2004-06 Large producers with high growth rates 2006-07
2006, ‘000 % per 2007, ‘000 % per
tonnes year tonnes year
Uganda 32.4 141.8 Vietnam 2156.5 30.1
Guatemala 16.3 82.2 Iran, Islamic Republic of 158.8 22.4
Mozambique 1.2 62.2 Korea, Rep of 606.1 18.0
Malawi 1.5 43.1 Norway 830.2 16.6
Togo 3.0 40.7 Philippines 709.7 13.9
Nigeria 84.6 38.7 Large producers with falling production 2006-07
Cambodia 34.2 28.6 Spain 281.2 -4.0
Pakistan 121.8 26.1 Canada 168.8 -1.3
Singapore 8.6 25.9 Thailand 1390.3 -1.2
Mexico 158.6 23.3 France 337.6 -0.2
Source: Developed from FAO, 2008a, 2009b
These simple production trends overlie a sector which is remarkable for its diversity,
with a wide range of environments, species, production systems and producer entities.
However, the major part of total production derives from only a few dozen species of fish
grown in ponds or cages, shrimp or prawn in ponds, molluscs and seaweeds in beds or on
suspended lines. A very small part of production is grown in intensive tanks, sometimes
with water treatment and reuse, and except for limited trials, nothing in open seas. Tables
1.4 and 1.5 summarise the 25 key species (excluding aquatic plants) at the global level.

Table 1.4: Most significant species (>1 million tonne annually), volume and value
Output, Value, ‘000 USD

tonnes % change USD per kg % change
2007 1 year 10 years 2007 2007 1 year 10 years
Pacific
cupped
oyster 4 233 829 3.2 4.1 3 054 108 0.72 5.9 -3.9
Silver carp 3 662 810 -4.3 1.9 3 572 719 0.98 12.6 1.1
Grass
carp(=White
amur) 3 610 318 4.1 3.6 3 522 354 0.98 16.7 0.7
Japanese
carpet shell 3 044 057 12.0 9.4 3 044 091 1 7.5 -2.9
Common
carp 2 872 874 1.8 3.4 3 094 050 1.08 12.5 -0.4
Whiteleg
shrimp 2 296 630 9.8 29.5 8 815 854 3.84 4.1 -3.3
Catla 2 274 411 68.3 14.4 2 961 539 1.3 5.7 3
Bighead
carp 2 160 627 4.4 4.1 2 134 203 0.99 11.2 0.8
Nile tilapia 2 121 009 12.3 11.6 2 632 978 1.24 10.7 0.2
Freshwater
fishes nei 1 994 687 -1.0 4.5 3 095 026 1.55 -1.3 3.3
Crucian
carp 1 939 280 7.2 9.2 1 612 717 0.83 13.7 -0.9
Atlantic
salmon 1 433 708 7.9 8.3 7 578 273 5.29 5.0 5.2
Yesso
scallop 1 412 896 16.1 1.7 2 016 103 1.43 2.9 0.5
Source: Developed from FAO, 2009b
Table 1.5: Mid-range species groups (0.4 - 1 million tonnes annually)
Output % change Value Unit value % change

2007 1 yr 10yr 2007 2007 1 yr 10yr
Pangas catfishes nei 901 655 59.4 36.6 1 351 763 1.5 0.7 -0.6
Marine molluscs nei 849 514 -24.4 -2.3 559 665.4 0.66 11.9 3.2
Roho labeo 690 731 -48.6 -0.2 1 030 711 1.49 28.4 -3.2
Milkfish 667 508 14.0 6.2 787 737.5 1.18 7.3 -4.1
Constricted tagelus 667 058 12.3 7.2 593 681.6 0.89 4.7 -0.1
Sea mussels nei 658 741 -25.3 1.6 190 460.1 0.29 11.5 1.9
Rainbow trout 604 695 11.4 3.5 2 588 782 4.28 8.1 3.3
Giant tiger prawn 589 888 -7.5 2.1 2 890 482 4.9 2.7 -4.1
White amur bream 576 341 12.4 3.6 726 189.7 1.26 5.9 0.5
Chinese mitten crab 489 479 19.4 18 2 599 458 5.31 2.3 -1.2
Channel catfish 466 017 13.2 6.9 638 837.3 1.37 -4.2 -1.3
Blood cockle 423 502 7.7 8.3 488 976.7 1.15 10.6 1.3
Source: Developed from FAO, 2009b
Here it can be noted that three out of the 13 top output species are molluscs, one a
crustacean, and of the remaining fish species, six are either Chinese or Indian carp

species. Only Nile tilapia, Atlantic salmon and White shrimp are ‘modern’ aquaculture
species whose culture has been developed specifically in recent decades. All the molluscs
and crustacean are produced in coastal water while all the fish except Atlantic salmon are
grown in fresh water. In the next group, four are molluscs and two are crustaceans. Four
species, Pangasius catfish, Rainbow trout, Tiger prawn and Channel catfish are of more
recent development, though of the molluscs, Tagelus and mussels are playing a growing
role in integrated systems. Except for milkfish, often grown in intermediate salinities, the
fish species are mostly produced in fresh water; all other species are grown in coastal
areas.
At the global level, approximately 58% of current production and 47% of value is
produced in inland waters and 42% by weight and 53% by value in coastal (brackish and
marine) waters. There has been a gradual trend of increase in coastal aquaculture
production, particularly for higher value species, but expansion of output in inland waters
has also continued. An increasing part of global output derives from hatchery produced
seed stock, with better life-cycle control opening out the potential for genetic
improvement. This has already had notable performance impact in a small number of
species, though the extent to which it will extend to others remains to be determined. A
sizeable part of global production is still based partially or completely on wild seed,
which in terms of impacts on wild stocks is usually more critical for fish and crustaceans
than for molluscs and seaweeds. Concerns have been focused on eels, marine fish as
groupers and more recently on bluefin tuna. Hatchery technologies for many marine
species are relatively expensive and unreliable, and though positive developments have
recently occurred in spawning and early rearing of tuna, bringing this to routine
commercial realisation is likely to take many years more. Although considerable research
interest is devoted to species diversification and full life-cycle control of a wider range of
species, future expansion of aquaculture production is likely to build primarily around a
small number of commercially better performing domesticated species.
If capture fisheries is sustained at current levels, aquaculture production will need to
rise to approximately 70 million tonnes by 2025 to maintain current consumption levels
with assumed population increases, and to 91 million tonnes if per capita consumption
continues to climb. However, the required growth rate for most expansion scenarios is
less than the historic growth rate of aquaculture of 8.8% between 1970 and 2004. This
was the fastest growth rate in the animal food protein sector as terrestrial meat production
only increased by 2.8% per year.
Drivers for growth and development
Introduction
The complex processes of change in the sector are indicative of changing balances of
opportunity and constraint across different producer regions and species/production
systems. Notable areas of development include the strong expansion of aquaculture of
Atlantic salmon, penaeid shrimp – particularly White shrimp, which is increasingly
overtaking other species due its superior disease resistance - Nile tilapia of various
improved strains, and most markedly, Pangasius catfish. However each of these species
has seen setbacks in various locations, primarily due to disease and also due to short-term
environmental variability. Most of these subsectors have exhibited falling real prices as
output expanded, but more organised production, control over input costs and more

efficient production processes have retained sufficient profitability for further investment.
Major carp production sectors have also continued to expand in output, though in some
cases being substituted with tilapia or catfish. Smaller production sectors have also seen
variable performance with a mix of technical improvements, market price uncertainties
and gradually changing risk conditions.
Table 1.6 summarises the commonly recognized factors underlying the growth of
aquaculture in recent decades. The relative importance of these varies with location and
context, though each has a definable influence and positive features for all are required.
A notable issue in regions such as sub-Saharan Africa has been that although
technologies and natural resources potentially exist for aquaculture, repeated failed
development approaches have confirmed the need for a sound commercial context. The
developments of urban markets and improvements in export infrastructure, together with
technology access have now started to bring about growth.
Table 1.6: Factors in the development of the aquaculture sector
Factor Implications
Market demand Good demand and high prices for selected species in traditional markets
offering initial targets for producers; steadily growing developed markets for
major species
Environments Initial availability of inland waters, lagoons, sheltered bays, with suitable
water quality, production temperatures, nutrient supply for shellfish and other
systems
Infrastructure Available or improving transport, power, communications, access to major

markets, good information system; scientific support structure
Technical Emerging and rapidly establishing techniques for hatchery production,

capability husbandry, feeds, ponds, cage and other culture systems; improvements to
traditional systems
Investment Local, national and regional private, commercial and institutional investment;
incentives and support schemes for development, and technical research
Human resources Initial nucleus of primary technical skills, developed through pioneer
companies and development centres; increasing level of management skills
in core groups
Institutional Generally positive and proactive environment, providing strategic research

system inputs, adapting to changing needs of industry, development of legal and
regulatory systems
At subsector level, simple SWOT (strength, weakness, opportunity and threat)

analyses can also be used to explore the potential growth conditions and their constraints.
Table 1.7 outlines a recent example for salmon culture, in this case within the EU, but
applicable more widely (STAQ, 2009). SWOT analyses of other major sub-sectors show
a number of recurring themes. Production technologies and markets are generally well
established, although weaknesses in industry structure, uneven investment and lack of
marketing frequently contribute to financial instability. Disease is an inherent threat to all
sectors, as to any animal production systems but mature sectors with high stock levels are
especially vulnerable. Environmental risk associated with extreme short-term weather
conditions is also more notable.

Table 1.7: Example of SWOT analysis for the EU salmon aquaculture sector
Strengths Weaknesses
Technical know-how; positive image
Diversity of salmon based products Smaller scale than some international
Large local and regional markets competitors
Successful certification schemes Heavy regulatory burden for obtaining site
Range of research outputs available to licenses
producers Marginal sector relative to national economy
Restructuring and efficiency gains compared to main competitors
accomplished Relatively high production costs (labour, feed,
Vertical integration – hatchery to processing economies of scale) by international standards
Relative stability in relations between Constraints in access to credit
producers and distributors etc.
Opportunities Threats
Growing consumption, and development of Diseases and parasites
new consumption opportunities Competition with external countries: Norway,
Development of niche markets (branding) Chile
New export markets e.g. Russia, Ukraine Competition from other species/products
Advantage for local markets for fresh product Adverse NGO campaigns v farming practice
Technical developments; novel vaccines, Confusing proliferation of labels
improved production systems Growing relative transport costs (esp. islands)
Source: Developed from STAQ, 2009
While positive driving forces remain to varying degrees, potentially constraining

factors, cross-sectoral and intra-sectoral, have emerged as aquaculture has grown, as
outlined in Table 1.8.

Table 1.8: Current issues for global aquaculture
Issue Features/implications
Cross-sectoral
Policy and planning Opportunities for aquaculture to access resources, operate effectively and
securely in conjunction with other sectors; plan and develop strategically
Internationalisation Increased competition from imports/substitutes, reduced local identity for

production, possibly reduced/altered quality standards
Disease Identification, control and transmission management; substantial loss potential in

management most species, costly control measures
Environmental Maintenance of suitable environments as production increases and/or in

quality conjunction with other resource users; cost of environmental management
Wildlife/conservation Increasing value placed on natural habitats/key species and their preservation;
reduced access to sites and/or restriction on operations
Intra-sectoral
Market prices Profitability, security, investment potential
Seed supply Potential for expansion, production scheduling, diversification, quality

improvement, cost reduction
Feed supply Production costs; problems of ingredient quality/costs, availability
Technical capacity Reliability and cost of production systems; efficient operation, access to new
resources
Local environments Critical interactions with other uses; impacts of overloading
Land availability Increased pressure on traditional inland and coastal areas
Public health issues Accumulation of toxic materials, algal/bacterial toxins, pathogenic bacteria
Traditional Difficulty of maintaining simple, low profitability practices

livelihoods
Source: Developed from Muir and Young, 1998
A number of these issues will be highlighted in subsequent sections of this review.
Consumption and markets

Reported world per capita consumption of aquatic foods has risen steadily over past
decades from an average 11.5 kg during the 1970s, 14.4 kg in the 1990s to 16.7 kg in
2006, when according to FAO (2008a), 51.7 million of the global consumption of
110.4 million tonnes derived from aquaculture. Forecasting population to reach
8.32 billion in 2030 and with capture fisheries (92 million tonnes) and non-food uses of
fish (33.3 million tonnes) remaining constant, aquaculture would need to produce
80.5 million tonnes by 2030 to maintain current per capita consumption. In more direct
terms, ceteris paribus each extra billion of population would require an extra 16.7 million
tonnes of annual aquaculture output at these levels. A number of scenarios have been
developed for future demand and supply for aquaculture, much depending on
expectations of population growth, income levels and drivers of preference. Table 1.9
shows recent trends in regional consumption, and projections for 2020 (Delgado et al.,

2003). In scenarios of declining capture fisheries supply, dependent in turn on the

resilience of major stocks, fishing pressures and management, aquaculture demand may
be further increased.
Table 1.9: Projections of per capita consumption
Country/region Per capita/year % growth/year

2020 1985-1997 1997-2020
China 35.9 10.4 1.3
South East Asia 25.8 1.3 0.5
India 5.8 2.3 0.9
Other South East Asia 6.1 0.9 0.1
Latin America 8.6 -1.2 0.4
West Asia and North Africa 6.4 0 0.2
Sub Saharan Africa 6.6 -2.6 0
US 19.7 0.5 0
Japan 60.2 0.2 -0.2
EU 15 23.7 1.3 0
Eastern Europe/CIS 11.6 -6.1 0.4
Other developed 14 0.8 -0.2
Developing world 16.2 3.8 0.6
Developed world excluding China 9.9 -0.1 0.3
Developed world 21.5 -1 0
World 15.7 1.7 0.4
Source: Delgado et al., 2003
More specific analyses are carried out at national level and with respect to particular
aquaculture species and products. A key issue for aquaculture is the likely price at which
its products will clear in various markets. In reviewing the demand elasticity for fish,
Asche et al. (2005) found considerable variations due to local markets, cross substitution,
income, temporal, and value chain effects, but concluded that overall, the market for
seafood is probably elastic. Bjorndal (pers. comm. 2007) noted such studies had mainly
concerned salmon and that values observed may also change over time. Some seafood
products such as canned tuna appear inelastic. In general, elasticity is lower at the
consumer end of the value chain and highest at the primary producer point of first hand
sale in capture fisheries.
Delgado et al. (2003) suggested values of own-price elasticities for modelling
purposes of between -0.8 to -1.5 and cross-price elasticity values between poultry and
fish of 0.3. The degree of separation between aquaculture and fisheries is less well
studied. A review by Asche et al. (2005) found frozen wild Pacific salmon to be in the
same market as fresh and frozen farmed Atlantic salmon, whereas a more subjective
assessment by the UK Competition Commission found the market for farmed salmon to
be separate from that of wild (Atlantic or Pacific) salmon (STAQ, 2009). As aquaculture
supplies increase, the distinction between captured and farmed product is likely to be
increasingly influenced by the product positioning strategies adopted within the chain.
It is usually assumed that aquaculture can substitute for capture fisheries if it can
supply broadly similar products at similar prices. However, a recent review (STAQ,
2009) noted that the average first sale value (whole fish equivalent) of farmed fish
produced in the EU25 in 2005 was EUR 3.25/kg, while UK capture fisheries landings

had an average value of EUR 0.96/kg. The issue of production cost and market sector
sizes is likely to be critical in the practical realization of the potential for future
aquaculture development, whether at regional and national level, or in serving specific
markets.
Social objectives
While food supply and economic output are primary drivers for development, the
role of aquaculture in employment and income generation is an important theme, with
significant policy implications. This is particularly the case for developing countries with
growing challenges of rural employment and livelihood options (see Box 1.1). In 2006
some 43.5 million people were estimated (FAO, 2009a) to be directly engaged, part or
full time, in fishing or aquaculture, with a further 4 million involved occasionally. The
rate of growth of employment in the sector over the last three decades had been higher
than growth in global population or in employment in traditional agriculture. Regionally,
China accounts for 86% of global employment, including some 4.5 million fish farmers;
other countries with significant sectoral employment included India, Indonesia, the
Philippines and Viet Nam. In fishing, most people are at small-scale, artisanal level and in
many countries, aquaculture is at similar scale. Aquaculture can also be an important
source of employment for women. While global employment in capture fisheries declined
by 12% over 2001-06, aquaculture has provided important gains, with some 9 million
people employed in 2006, 94% of which in Asia. However, while aquaculture is often
proposed as an alternative livelihood for those facing declining incomes in fishing, or
denied access through regulatory change, it is not always a viable option, and
employment transfers often occur from the wider rural population, e.g. agriculturalists
adopting aquaculture or recruitment from rural labour pools.
Box 1.1: Bangladesh’s aquaculture – a hidden triumph
In two decades Bangladesh has gone from an almost total dependence on wild fisheries
to generating almost half its inland fish production through aquaculture. This development
has taken numerous forms, rapidly embracing new species and production systems, but
often remains poorly known outside the country. Although aquaculture ranks as the
second largest source of export earnings for Bangladesh, its greatest impacts may actually
be less obvious. Two introduced species, silver carp and Pangasius, have become the
most important fish among consumers in lower income brackets by virtue of their relatively
low market value and high productivity. Small sized silver carp produced in low input, yet
often commercial smallholder systems have to a large extent substituted for wild fish
species in rural diets, whilst Pangasius produced in an intensive manner on an almost
industrial scale sells in huge volumes and at low cost in urban and peri-urban markets.
Culture based fisheries now also produce higher value major carps in large volumes,
stimulating output from the seed supply sector. Backward and forward linkages,
particularly those associated with more commercially oriented systems of production, have
also generated entrepreneurial niches and labour opportunities in input supply, marketing,
and other ancillary services, driving up agricultural wages rates and providing alternative
livelihood options for fishers in areas with high concentrations of aquaculture. It is these
often forgotten multiple linkages that account for the bulk of economic value associated
with aquaculture in Bangladesh.

Table 1.10 provides an outline of a small range of recorded employment levels, their
change over recent years and the equivalent production and value levels per person. The
two extremes can be seen for Indonesia, with substantial numbers of people and low
output/value levels compared to Norway, where highly mechanized production of
relatively high value product gives more than 300 times the output and 600 times the
value person employed. The values for China are more similar to global averages, though
the recorded annual growth in employment is higher.
Table 1.10: Examples of aquaculture employment, output and value

Employment,
Growth Aquaculture, 2006
‘000 Output, Value,
Location % per
Million Billion n tonnes/person USD/person
year
2000 2006 tonnes USD
World 7 671.6 8 662.6 2 51.65 78.76 5.96 9 092
China 3 722.3 4 502.8 3.2 34.43 38.42 7.65 8 532
Indonesia 2 142.8 2 275.0 1 1.29 2.25 0.57 989
Norway 4.6 4.4 -0.8 0.71 2.72 161.22 617 620

Source: Developed from FAO, 2009a
With 2% global increase per year and production growth of around 5% annually,
average labour productivity would appear to be increasing by around 3% annually.
Indonesia’s production growth rate for 2006-07 was 6.4%, suggesting annual
productivity gains in the order of 5%, which might be expected from a low productivity
base, commonly also associated with small producers, possibly rationalising towards
larger unit sizes. Norway’s production growth over the period was a 16.6%, and
productivity gains correspondingly higher, reflecting also the ability to invest in
productivity enhancing technologies.
Table 1.11: Employment and value outputs by species group
Turnover Labour Value, ‘000

Species group
Euro/kg tonnes/person USD/person
Salmon, trout and other salmonids 2.78 89.5 360.8
Sea bass, bream & similar 4.65 20 134.9
Halibut, turbot, sole etc 6.26 40 363.1
Cod, haddock, hake etc 4.82 50 349.5
Carp, tilapia, catfish 1.92 12 33.4
Eels, sturgeon, perch, zander etc. 4.44 40 257.5
Tuna 11.94 120 2 077.6
Mussels 0.83 15 18.1
Oysters and scallops 2.29 11 36.5
Clams, cockles etc. 3.34 5 24.2
New non-fish aquaculture sp. 11.68 10 169.4
Aquatic plants 0.29 3 1.3
Source: Developed from STAQ, 2008 - unit values calculated from
FAO FishStat data, 2007

Table 1.11 provides a similar breakdown for a range of species groups, showing the
marked difference in labour and output value associated with more more labour intensive
high value species – tuna being a particular example, and the lower food-chain, less
labour intense species such as molluscs and warmer water freshwater fish. Connections
may also be made with value addition and wage rates; in many simpler systems with low
levels of inputs, much of turnover can be represented as returns to labour, and in many
cases, income from aquaculture can represent an important part of individual or
household level income. Analyses in Bangladesh (FSRFD, 2004), using closer estimates
of full time equivalent (FTE) labour levels demonstrated an important range of earning
potential for a range of aquaculture enterprises.
Employment multipliers are also significant. FAO (2009a) suggests that for each
person employed in the primary fishery sector, four might be employed in related
activities, including processing, marketing and service industries, indicating further
employment associated with aquaculture of some 35 million people. However, some of
this will overlap with capture fisheries and other sectors, and also needs to be assessed on
an FTE basis. As will be noted later, the organisation of production, the scale of entities
involved, and the social context in which they are placed, has a strong influence on the
potential for aquaculture for wider social development objectives. Thus community based
enterprises – e.g producing molluscs or seaweeds in extensive systems will tend to have
relatively high levels of social impact, contributing modest levels of income into wider
livelihoods networks, while large commercial enterprises will provide wages into local
economies but possibly little other secondary benefits.
Production efficiency drivers
At various levels and across a range of systems and locations, the viability,
performance and reliability of aquaculture has been improved by technical and
operational gains. These have been based on a mix of improved scientific understanding,
innovation and improvement at practical levels and the spread of improves approaches
across various sectors. In broad terms these drivers can be grouped as biotechnology –
based around the farmed organism and its environmental interactions, system technology
– with improved production system performance, and more generic sectoral level
efficiency changes. In modern aquaculture sectors, biotechnology has been a particular
focus and might be expected to have increasing impact in the future.
Breeding and genetics

Selective breeding programmes, originally developed for Asian carp, are in place for
major species such as salmon, trout, catfish, sea bass and bream, tilapia and shrimp,
though with varied impact as strains and production environments are not always
perfectly compatible. Desired characteristics include growth rate, feed conversion
efficiency, disease resistance, environmental tolerance and flesh fat content and colour
(Utter and Epifanio, 2002). Average performance for specific traits can be improved by
up to 20% per generation (Table 1.12), though simple approaches to improve single
characteristics may have negative impacts on others. A multi-trait breeding programme is
possible but more complex to manage. Traits also vary with respect to heritability; if this
is low, discerning the genetic effect from environmental influences is more difficult. The
current range of quantitative trait loci (QTL) and genome mapping should ultimately
provide much greater levels of information and hence control.

Table 1.12: Genetic gain from selective breeding
Species % gain per generation

Channel catfish 12-20
Pacific salmon 10
Atlantic salmon 11-14
Rainbow trout 13
Tilapia 14-23
Source: Sturrock et al., 2008
For major commercial species such as Atlantic salmon there have been substantial
performance gains over recent decades, associated with strain and family selection
processes. In the UK, the average harvest weight of a two sea-winter salmon rose from
3 kg in 1980, to 4.3 kg by 1995 and to 4.4 kg by 2005, while early maturing fish (grilse)
dropped from around 30% in 1980, to 18% in 2005. In this case, photoperiod
management also played a role. Total yield per smolt rose from 1.67 kg for 1990 smolts
to 3.43 kg for 2003 year class smolts, though this also reflects other management gains.
In Norway, gains were shown of 4.6% per generation in feed efficiency ratios and 8-10%
per generation for growth rate, age at maturity and flesh pigmentation. In Canada,
economic benefits of improvements of an Atlantic salmon stock were quantified as
USD 1.43 per fish marketed, or USD 1.23 per smolt used if sold early at the same weight
as unimproved stock, or USD 3.66 per fish marketed and USD 3.07 per smolt if grown
for the same period to a greater weight (Sturrock et al., 2008).
On an annual basis, species with shorter breeding cycles can be advanced at a faster
rate. Salmon generation time is approximately four years, while that of tilapia can be as
little as nine months. The Norwegian company GenoMar claims a 15% annual genetic
gain for growth rate (GIFT-strain). At a more basic level, the breeding and hatchery
phase is the most technically complex one of most aquaculture production processes and
is key in developing any new aquaculture species. Improvements in efficiency and
performance achieved through breeding and in production of healthy seedstock can have
substantial economic benefits throughout the production process and hence on viability
and competitiveness. Particular impacts are expected from the increasing use of genomics
and proteomics in selective breeding, diagnostics, vaccine development and nutrition
research. For many species there are significant productivity gains still to be exploited if
survival and growth rates can be improved.
The use of genetically modified aquaculture species has also received attention.
Whilst the technology is yet to be stabilized, genetic modification (GM) offers the
possibility of reducing chemical usage, growth efficiencies, fishmeal substitution and
better quality of product with the chance to lower production costs. However public and
consumer acceptability is highly questionable, although more precise and closely targeted
technologies and approaches such as autotransgenesis (using genetic materials only from
the species produced) may in the future accelerate gains without the same focus of
concern. GM developments of feed materials are also likely to be more widely
encountered and have the potential for important technical and cost improvements.

Feeding
As a primary cost input, the performance of feed is highly significant in defining
production efficiency, cost and sustainability. Feed may also have a significant effect on
the amount and type of wastes deriving from an aquaculture system. Advances in early
rearing feeds include nutrient enrichment of live feeds, development of microalgae and
copepod production techniques, reducing labour requirements by using commercially
available algal paste, manufactured artemia systems, automated feed delivery systems
and artemia replacement diets. Compound diets for grow out have been steadily
improved, with significant advances including improvements in fishmeal quality through
lower-temperature processing, finer milling and the use of extrusion technology and the
better tuning of diet formulation to meet species and life stage requirements or reduce
environmental impacts. Current issues include the widening of raw material options,
reducing dependence on fishmeal and fish oil and reducing net costs of feeding. At the
technology level, linking better feeds with improved feed manufacturing and delivery
systems, particularly using stock behavioural monitoring to optimize feed offer and
conversion efficiency, has brought about steady improvements in performance. However,
gaps between potential methods and practical farm-level systems are still quite
substantial and across many aquaculture sectors feeding performance varies widely.
Likewise, except in well-developed and highly competitive conditions, standards of feed
manufacture can often be much improved.
Disease diagnosis and management

Disease is a continuing and highly serious threat to the output and viability of
aquaculture across all systems and species. Losses of more than 20-30% can occur in
serious outbreaks and almost complete mortality can occur in sensitive stocks or life-
cycle stages. Surviving stocks may be physically damaged or reduced in market quality,
generating further loss. Diagnosis methods and effectiveness vary widely, depending on
pathogens, technical resources and skills and the ability to define and communicate
effective responses. This is a particular problem in developing countries. Treatment
varies considerably with species, disease status and husbandry conditions, from simple
measures to improve water quality and reduce stress, eliminating contaminants or disease
agents, to the application of drugs and other chemicals, orally, by immersion or injection,
with specific or general control of pathogens and increasingly, vaccination. Complete
eradication and sterilisation may be required for particularly dangerous pathogens and
processes of slaughter, with or without compensation, may be initiated.
Amongst many advances, immunology has delivered significant impact, in the key
areas of diagnosis and vaccine development. Antibody probes to pathogens are now
widely used for rapid diagnosis for a range of conditions. Vaccination has proved highly
effective in preventing infection, an optimal strategy for disease control. The
development of vaccines against vibriosis and furunculosis in the late 1980s was crucial
in facilitating the growth of the Norwegian salmon farming industry. This moved from
using some 50 tonnes of antibiotics in 1987, with huge mortalities, both dropping close to
zero in ten years with the introduction of multivalent vaccines, while more than tripling
in output. However, as the development costs for vaccines are high, use has focused only
on the most common disease problems in high value species like salmon and trout. The
effectiveness of vaccination also varies with the type of disease, being particularly
effective against bacterial diseases such as vibriosis, furunculosis, ERM, while much
more variable in effectiveness against viral diseases (IPN, Pancreas disease, ISA, VHS).

A range of technical approaches, including sub-unit recombinant vaccines and direct

DNA vaccination is now being developed (see e.g. Renault, 2009). The latter appears to
be cheap and effective and is being developed commercially for ISA virus in salmon.
In the less intensive and lower-value aquaculture sectors, disease management has
been much more difficult. Apart from routine disinfection and preventative treatments for
hatchery stock, limited attempts to control and quarantine introduced stocks and
separation or harvesting of affected stocks management has had much less impact. This
has been a significant challenge, as a great part of production risk and productivity loss
could be associated with non-existent or poor health management and a number of
epidemic conditions such as White Spot virus in marine shrimps and Epizootic Ulcerative
Syndrome (EUS) in freshwater fish have caused substantial losses and driven out
significant numbers of producers. Recent epidemiological work has shown some
potential and there is some prospect of moving from traditional focus on pathogen
diagnosis with very limited effective feedback to more solution and outcome driven
approaches.
Technology developments
A range of technology introductions or improvements can be identified in aquaculture.
Many of these have been ‘borrowed’ from other sectors, such as fisheries, marine
engineering, water treatment, materials sciences and electronics and communications. A
primary constraint in many cases has been that the sector or specific subsectors have not
been large enough to justify specifically targeted technology research and development
approaches. With the exception of modern cages and some aerators and feeding systems
there are few standardised products or common performance criteria, though over time,
the diversity of technical approaches has tended to reduce, with more focus on better
established systems of proven reliability. Current technical areas include the further
development of closed recirculated water systems and their components, more robust and
mostly mechanised cage and related systems for more exposed marine locations and
progress on specific technical aspects of rearing new species. Future directions for
technologies include more focused component design, remote sensing of stocks and
environments, and multiple component integrated data at synoptic or local level.
The use of computers, microprocessors, various sensors and information technology
has also enabled increased control in many aquaculture sectors, from fish production to
monitoring market trends and consumption. The use of sensors linked to computer
control allows for more efficient use of resources and a higher level of monitoring,
avoiding losses. There are also potential welfare gains in controlling feeding and rearing
environments to optimise husbandry conditions, picking up early disease signs and
protecting stocks more effectively from predators. As farms become bigger and more
cost-focused such control is likely to become more commonplace. Improved
communication links (including ready data transfer, video conferencing and streaming)
also enables large enterprises to manage many functions at remote sites from a single
centre, potentially saving personnel and travel costs.
Market information and access is also improved through information and
communications technology (ICT) and opportunities for widening product sourcing and
comparing market prices should improve the function of markets and the efficiency of
supply chains. ICT is also employed increasingly as a marketing and consumer assurance
tool associated with higher levels of traceability of products (Bostock, 2009). Products
can be tracked through the distribution chain using small sensors (e.g. monitoring

temperature, physical shock and other relevant parameters) held in the packaging to help
assure traceability, assure quality and improve logistics management. GPS receivers can
be used to update geographic positions and mobile phone modules, to relay data to a
central internet-based tracking application. This allows for distribution efficiency
increases and better safety along the supply chain.
Other drivers
In more developed aquaculture markets, drivers associated with energy, carbon
footprint, resource use and protection are likely to take a greater place in future global
supply options and market sourcing decisions. This is closely matched with growing
concerns for food safety and for ethical or welfare standards, linked with increasing
pressures for sound environmental practices. Resource costs and risks – addressed in the
next sections, will interact with these and though ethical consumption drivers may have
less impact in traditional subsistence and local markets, access and costs of resources
may act to have similar effects. Current and emerging technologies are critical in
addressing such demands and where applied could confer competitive advantages to
producers, market intermediaries and retailers alike. Energy, carbon and other resource-
related drivers in supply choice will also become more clearly defined, moving away
from cruder food miles debates to incorporate accurate assessments of consumption,
including how food is purchased and prepared locally. Amongst other impacts, this has
potentially positive implications for local small scale aquaculture production. However
there will be notable challenges for smaller enterprises to access these advantages.
Resource and development interactions
Introduction
As with many other primary food industries, aquaculture is heavily dependent on
natural resources. Their availability and cost are an important determinant for its size and
expansion potential and their quality is critical for supporting sustained output. The
impact of aquaculture on resources is also critical in determining access and in defining
requirements for management and protection. It is clear that demand for expanding
aquaculture will have significant resource implications, and that even if productivity and
efficiency is improved, quantitative changes in resource use are likely to be involved.
There is limited data on the extent to which resource use efficiency has changed across
the sector, but an average global growth rate of some 5% annually is likely to exceed
total factor productivity gains. In other respects, tradeoffs will be required; thus
intensifying production to gain output from given land and water resources will
commonly require greater feed and energy inputs and may also add to downstream
environmental loading. Optimising the efficiency envelope across a range of input factors
depends closely on species, system and local site conditions, as well as on resource and
system variability during the production cycle. Until more detailed typologies can be
developed it is therefore more common to use simpler conceptual descriptions, based on
nominal intensity of production per culture area or volume. A number of reviews (Muir
2005; FAO 2009a) have noted the significance of land, water, feeds and energy as
constraining resources for sectoral development and these are the focus of the next
sections. Table 1.13 outlines typical relationships with these resources for a range of
common aquaculture species.

Table 1.13: Typical aquaculture resource demands by species
Land or
water Water ‘000 Input:output
3 System features
m /tonnes energy ratio
tonnes/ha
Salmon, trout and 1 750 2 260 50 Intensively fed
other salmonids cage/ponds
Sea bass, bream and 1 125 2 500 40 Intensively fed cages
similar
Halibut, turbot, sole etc 2 676 2 000 45 Intensive onshore tanks
Cod, haddock, hake 1 200 2 500 45 Experimental cage
etc systems
Carp, tilapia, catfish 2 5 30 Fertilised ponds
Eels, sturgeon, perch, 190 0.1 35 Extensive stocked water
zander etc. bodies
Tuna 300 3 000 50 Intensively fed cages
Mussels 76 3 000 10 Raft or longline systems
Oysters and scallops 25 2 000 5 Rafts or longlines -
lanterns
Clams, cockles etc. 0.5 2 000 5 Extensive coastal beds
New non-fish 150 0.2 20 Range of systems
aquaculture sp.
Aquatic plants 1 2 000 1 Coastal beds/stakes and
lines
Note: Protein energy per tonne for all fish/shellfish species = 4.73 GJ;for aquatic plants = 3.55GJ
Source: Sturrock et al. (2008),
Land and water demands

The combination of land and water availability is the primary determinant of
aquaculture development potential in both inland and coastal areas. Apart from
availability and cost of land, its configuration and agro-ecological characteristics are key
features of suitability. Although GIS-based reviews have been carried out to define
strategic/regional potential (e.g. Nath et al., 2000; Ross et al., 2009), more localised
suitability depends on specific features including access, development cost and potential
security (Corner et al., 2006). However, more strategically, inland aquaculture, primarily
based on ponds, is most easily developed in low-lying deltaic zones in lower latitudes,
with substantial inputs of photosynthetically driven productivity. Secondary options are
for cages in lakes and reservoirs, normally using supplementary of complete feeds, while
a small amount of production originates from pumped or gravity flow intensive tanks in a
range of locations and topographies. For coastal areas, low-lying deltaic/lagoonal zones
in low latitudes are common for ponds and shellfish beds, while deeper embayments in
low and higher latitudes are used more intensively for cages and shellfish rafts or lines.
These categorizations determine strategic suitability and allow resource capacity and its
utilization to be considered at regional, national and local levels.
Aquaculture water demands are rarely consumptive, as most of it is returned to the
environment, commonly slightly enriched with nutrients, organic wastes and sometimes
lower in oxygen content. Capacity limitations in assimilating wastes are common
constraints. In inland areas, particularly with more heavily competing water demands this
tends to limit the size and clustering of individual units and discourages intensification.
Coastal developments have had less immediate constraints, allowing higher levels of

production from individual sites and greater opportunities for consolidating central
services and facilities. However, though expansion of sites or operations could generate
further efficiency gains, local or area level regulatory resource limits are increasingly a
constraint.
The broad scope for aquaculture development can also be defined by the comparative
loadings (production per unit of resource) at regional, national or local levels, as outlined
in the following figures. These relate reported output with national land areas (Figure
1.1), coastline length (Figure 1.2), and available water (Figure 1.3), (Handisyde and
Ross, 2009 in prep.).
Figure 1.1: Production intensity, total aquaculture in inland areas, kg/km2 per year
Mean freshwater aquaculture production, 2005-07 as a function of land area (kg/km2 per year)
Figure 1.2: Production intensity. total aquaculture in coastal areas, kg/km annually
Mean coastal aquaculture production, 2005-07 as function of coastline length (kg/km per year)

Figure 1.3: Aquaculture output levels in higher stressed fresh water zones, tonnes per year
Mean inland aquaculture production, 2005-07 in countries where freshwater withdrawal as a percentage
of total renewable water resources is greater than 25%.
As expected, higher loading levels are commonly to be found in South and East Asia,
while regions such as Africa and Latin America are much less heavily loaded and
theoretically have much greater capacity. To illustrate other implications, Fig. 1.4 shows
the theoretical nitrogen output from aquaculture into coastal waters, based on simplified
assumptions for nitrogen output according to system intensity (Muir, 2005). However,
more detailed analysis for all these is required at local level, to determine interactions
with other resource users, specific quality issues, management contexts and the extent to
which highly loaded systems are approaching critical thresholds.
Figure 1.4: Aquaculture waste production - nitrogen output into coastal waters, kg/km
per year
Estimated total output of nitrogen from coastal aquaculture systems as a function of coastline lengths (kg
per km per year) based on production figures for the years 20-0705
While highly loaded systems are potentially nearer to safety margins (where
definable), the availability of existing production and infrastructure may mean that
marginal costs of expanding capacity and output up to those margins may often be lower
than for developing new areas. Nonetheless, these give useful indications of where

aquaculture is likely to become more constrained or where further growth is likely to be

relatively cost-effective.
Box 1.2: Vietnam: Is pangasius production sustainable?
In the last decade a small area of Vietnam’s Mekong delta has undergone the most
remarkable growth in export oriented aquaculture output for a single species recorded
anywhere in the world, generating well over USD 1 billion in foreign exchange and rivalling
farmed salmon in terms of quantity produced. Locations are concentrated along the banks
of main river channels which supply the large volumes of water required by this
exceptionally intensive production system. Although concerns have been raised about the
environmental outcomes of such rapid development and local declines in water quality
have been reported, recent studies suggest that overall impacts on the ecology of delta
may not be severe. Of potentially greater concern with respect to the industry’s long term
sustainability is the open nature of the production system and the highly clustered pattern
of production units which may leave it highly vulnerable to disease should a virulent new
pathogen of Pangasius emerge. Very slim margins, exceptionally high production costs,
and the unpredictable nature of export markets also combine to make production a high
risk business. Recent drives to certify Vietnamese Pangasius farms may intensify these
pressures, particularly for producers at the smaller-scale end of the spectrum, but may
also represent opportunities for larger operators to consolidate their market position and
improve management. A national institution, the Vietnamese Association of Seafood
Exporters and Processors (VASEP), which has a strong record for proactively and
effectively promoting Pangasius in international markets has been particularly effective in
supporting the industry’s development, may also have an important role to play in helping
to direct its course in future.
Feed materials
After land and water, feed is the next most critical productive input. For mollusc and
seaweed culture and some extensive fish and crustacean farming this is closely associated
with the water supply and with fertility of associated soils and sediments. For more
intensive aquaculture, feed is supplied externally, with a significant component (fishmeal
and oil) derived from industrial capture fisheries of which aquaculture is using an
increasing share. Although sometimes described as the ‘fishmeal trap’, where further
expansion might be constrained by the limited availability of fishmeal, particularly if
capture fisheries are placed under further pressure, the use of fish oils is in fact a greater
constraint; these are also important in providing good fatty acid profiles in the
aquaculture product, an important consumer and market issue. The production of
fishmeal and oils is a global industry with major dependence on anchovy and other
pelagic fisheries in South America (Table 1.14). Supplies have been reducing slightly,
but are in any event linked with South American El Niño and La Niña events. More
strategically, if other high value uses become available for the resource – particularly for
direct human consumption, competition and prices will increase.

Table 1.14: Global sources of fishmeal and species used
Country/region Fishmeal production Species

tonnes* %
Peru 1 714 000 30.0 Anchovy
Chile 798 000 14.0 Jack mackerel, anchovy, other, sardine
Capelin, blue whiting, herring (including
Iceland 224 000 3.9
trimmings)
Blue whiting, capelin, sandeel, trimmings,
Norway 198 000 3.5
others
Denmark 246 000 4.3 Sandeel, sprat, blue whiting, herring, other
Trimmings, sandeel, sprat, blue whiting,
Other EU* 210 000 3.7
herring, other
China 348 000 6.1 Various
Thailand 402 000 7.0 Various
USA 300 000 5.2 Menhaden, Alaska pollack
South Africa 103 000 1.8 Anchovies, pilchard
Others 1 176 000 20.6 Mainly anchovy
TOTAL 5 719 000 100
Source: International Fishmeal and Fish Oil Organisation (IFFO) mean of 2002/2006 production
Common early estimates for fish input-output (FIFO) for aquaculture, typically 10:1,
are still used to emphasise the potential unsustainability of aquaculture and its
undesirable ecosystem impact (Naylor et al., 2000). These ratios roughly resemble the
ecological conversions from one trophic level to another. However, on the basis of a
worldwide review involving some 800 industry respondents, Tacon and Metian (2008)
estimated that in 2006 the sector used 3.72 million tonnes of fish meal (68.2% of global
production) and 0.84 million tonnes of fish oil (88.5% total production). Assuming a wet
fish to fish meal yield of 22.5% and a yield to oil of 5%, this was equivalent to
16.6 million tonnes of forage fish. At species-group level there was a steadily decreasing
input fish to output aquaculture ratio from 1995 to 2006, most dramatically for
carnivorous fish species such as salmon (from 7.5 to 4.9), trout (6.0 to 3.4), marine fish
(3.0 to 2.2) and shrimp (1.9 to 1.4). Herbivorous and omnivorous finfish and some
crustacean species showed net gains in output, with ratios in 2006 of 0.2 for non-filter
feeding Chinese carp and milkfish, 0.4 for tilapia, 0.5 for catfish, and 0.6 for freshwater
crustaceans. While these probably understate the less formalized feed sources, they
provide very useful baselines for further development, with the prospects for national or
species subsector performance indicators. In a further update, Jackson (2009), using a
more refined methodology and allowing also for the use of process wastes from
aquaculture itself, suggested that the overall FIFO level for global aquaculture was
around 0.52, with salmon the highest at 1.68.
In production cost terms, real prices for qualities suitable for inclusion in aquaculture
diets (with concerns for persistent organic contamination) have in most cases been rising.
However, much of the current and immediate prospective requirement could be
substituted with terrestrially derived proteins and oils, and with a different mix of species
and systems, shifting from higher food-chain species to others such as tilapia, carp and
catfish produced in partially or fully fed conditions, substantial sector, growth could be
sustained. For species such as salmonids, a solution may also be to use diets high in
vegetable oils during most of the production cycle, switching to a high fish oil diet in the
period prior to harvest. Data is yet to be developed on the most effective timing for this,
as well as ensuring appropriate baseline fish oil levels to ensure stock health and welfare.

For other species and systems there is still substantial scope for improvement,
particularly those dependent on ‘trash fish’ based diets, usually bycatch or locally caught
small pelagics, often mixed with local agricultural materials to provide a moist diet,
which though inexpensive by weight produced, commonly gives unreliable nutritional
content, poor food conversion, contamination risks and significant waste levels and
polluting potential in receiving waters.
However, while a growing terrestrial dependence is likely for aquaculture, the broader
context of supply is now under increasing scrutiny, e.g. with potential impacts from the
growing demand for bioenergy, and with concerns about major soil systems and the
sustainability of agricultural water supplies (Molden et al., 2007; FAO, 2009c). Although
earlier price comparisons with alternative protein sources such as soymeal (Figure 1.5)
suggest good opportunities, vegetable proteins such as soya can lack sufficient essential
amino acids, sometimes contain anti-nutritional factors, and have poorer digestibility
resulting in the production of more solid wastes. Research is under way on amino-acid
supplementation and processing technologies to improve digestibility (Hassan et al.,
2007). Other alternative protein sources are also under investigation for aquaculture,
most notably and controversially, krill, for which fishing levels are projected to nearly
5 million tonnes. While the technical potential to incorporate krill into diets is reasonably
established, its practical use will depend much on the costs of supply (energy costs of
capture are high) and the market acceptability of tapping into what many consider to be
the world’s last major unexploited aquatic biomass. The challenges of combining flexible
substitution with containable prices are greatly increasing for all aquaculture systems,
and further research effort is required.
Figure 1.5: Fish meal and soymeal prices (USD/tonnes)
Source: Fish Information Network Market Report: March 2006 and www.eurofish.dk
Energy
Energy use in aquaculture is highly variable, depending on the type of farming
system and its operating conditions. Concerns arise both from the direct costs of using
fuels and other energy sources, and for the strategic issue of energy subsidies and future
sustainability under impending supply shortages. Distinctions need to be made between

direct energy use, where the total of fuel, electricity and other sources of energy input are
defined, usually in energy units relative to the specific activity or output, and other more
comprehensive measures. Industrial energy use includes the energy required to produce
or manufacture all the capital and operating inputs in the process, e.g. steel, timber,
synthetic fibres, plastics in vessels, gear, aquaculture facilities and processing equipment,
and including inputs such as fish feeds, chemicals and treated water. Embodied energy
(emergy) is more holistic, adding to industrial energy the photosynthetic energy input
into the biological processes of ecosystem support, food chain supply and uptake of
process and consumption waste. Further distinctions can be made between renewable and
non-renewable energy use – in any of the above categories.
Table 1.13 summarises typical total ratios of energy input to protein energy output.
Table 1.15 shows typical embodied energy levels and ratios for different production
systems, with seaweed and mussel culture requiring much more modest input levels.
However in this example, seaweed culture has a high percentage input of non-renewable
energy, associated with the physical facilities involved.
Table 1.15: Total embodied energy relationships, for equivalent area
Cage salmonid
Quantity Seaweed culture Mussel culture
culture
5
Energy inputs (kcal x 10 )
Solar/renewable (%) 0.30 (4.5%) 0.75-2.05 (71.4-85.4%) 470-830 (81.0-87.4%)
Fossil/non-renewable (%) 6.35 (95.5%) 0.30-0.35 (28.6-14.6%) 110-120 (19.0-12.6%)
Total energy 6.65 1.05-2.40 580-950
Protein output, kcal 6 605 255-440 22420
Input/output ratio 100 410-545 2 585-4 235
Source: developed from Muir, 2005
When subject to life cycle analysis (LCA), the most significant energy input is in the
production and delivery of feed. According to Tyedmers et al. (2007) energy dependence
varies with intensity, typically a consequence of the high energy cost of providing feed
inputs to intensive culture systems. However, direct on-farm consumption of energy also
varies widely, from virtually zero up to about 3 kWh per kg in farms with comprehensive
water exchange and treatment. For land based farms, most of the power is likely to be
provided by electricity, usually generated centrally from fossil, nuclear or renewable
energy sources. Cage-based farms will normally require boats and vehicles using diesel
or other fossil fuel. While generic figures can be developed for most systems, it is
important to establish reliable comparative bases and for this reason, LCA approaches are
increasingly being used (Ayer and Tyedmers, 2009). At a strategic level, total
aquaculture energy use measures and that for significant subsectors are currently being
developed (FAO, 2009 in prep.). In conjunction also with various forms of footprint
analyses and assessments of carbon budgets these will become increasingly important in
defining comparative performance (Kautsky et al., 1997; Bunting and Pretty, 2007).

Risks and their management
Introduction
The issue of risk is a significant factor in the development of the aquaculture sector,
affecting both the specific performance and outcomes of individual operating activities
and the confidence for further investment and development. By definition, aquaculture is
intimately connected with the aquatic medium and its environmental drivers, whose
characteristics and variability impose a range of potential hazards on both stocks and the
containment/management system (Bondad-Reantaso et al., 2008). Increasing variability
and changing trends due to climate change and other factors may bring about new or
more extreme risks with unpredictable occurrence or consequence, and these will need to
be understood and managed effectively. A range of other risks may also impact on the
sector – some more generic and common to other activities; others more specialised and
focused. The common approach in addressing risk is to define the nature and sources, the
potential likelihood (or in some cases the graded probability related to the severity), the
consequences, and the means (and potential costs) of reducing risks to definable levels.
Based on this, various judgements can be made as to the continued viability of an activity
or proposal, or the extent of action or investment necessary to bring the consequences of
risk within workable levels. As appropriate, tools such as risk-adjusted financial returns
and net present values (NPVs) can be used for investment decisions. The main ‘business
as usual’ areas of risk and their management are considered here, together with the
specific issues associated with climate change and the potential adaptation approaches.
Key areas of risk

Though more complex categories can be used, risk areas for aquaculture can be
simply classified according to system/process groupings as:
• biological - aquatic diseases, predation, ecosystem instability, food safety and
environmental impacts including biodiversity;
• system – water supply, holding unit or other component failures;
• market/economic – unexpected changes in factors affecting costs and returns,
or business viability; and
• political – affecting security, policy environment, legal context, trade options.
To date, apart from a small number of politically derived cases (e.g. security
problems, interference with business activities) environmental and biological risks have
been the most significant in impact and continue to be problematic across almost all
aquaculture sectors. Extreme climatic events such as typhoons, hurricanes and flooding
are particular problems in some areas. Thus typhoon Chebi in June 2001 was estimated to
cause direct losses to aquaculture in the Fujian Province of China of around
USD 270 million, with 203 800 marine cages and more than 2 000 ha of shrimp ponds
destroyed or heavily damaged with total compensation, including many thousands of
fishing boats, of only USD 0.6 million.
It was estimated that in China in 2004 annual direct loss to the fishery sector
(including aquaculture) by natural disasters was around USD 600 million. As noted
earlier (see also Box 1.3), diseases constitute a major risk in many systems.

Box 1.3: A Chile wind – lessons from ecosystem risk
Salmonid farming has been one of the major economic success stories in Chile over the past
ten years. Production climbed steadily since the mid 1990s reaching 485 000 tonnes from
800 farms in 2006, with export earnings around USD 2.2 billion (Globefish, 2009). However,
since 2007 the industry has suffered a major outbreak of the viral disease Infectious Salmon
Anaemia (ISA) resulting in the collapse of some companies and major disruption of the
industry. Official statistics indicate a modest reduction in production in 2007 to 475 000
tonnes and an increase in 2008 to 488 000 tonnes. However, this is reportedly due to many
companies harvesting early to clear sites and production in 2009 is expected to fall to around
320 000 tonnes (almost a 35% reduction). Statistics for the first half of 2009 show a decrease
of only 17% over the same period in 2008, but greater falls are expected in the second half
(Intrafish, 2009). The impact on jobs has been substantial, with an estimated 15 000 to
20 000 job losses and damage to the industry’s public image and reputation will also affect
value.
ISA is not the only disease problem affecting the salmon industry. Sea lice (parasites), a
variety of bacterial diseases and other viruses are also a chronic problem. Buschman et al.
(2009) and others argue that problems are not confined to the salmon farms, but that adverse
impacts can also be found in the wider environment with significant changes to local
ecosystems due to the release of organic solids, inorganic nutrients, chemicals, antibiotics
and fish themselves from the sea cages. Lack of proper regard for ecosystem function and
the consequences of stress are considered to have precipitated the current industry crisis.
Addressing individual problems only when they arise has for instance led to high use of
antibiotics in Chile – approximately 350 to 800 times as much as in Norway (TheFishSite,
2009). There were warnings of poor practices and their likely consequences well in advance
of the current crisis but little incentive to heed these as long as operations were profitable.
Over the past year, the industry has admitted that self-regulation has not provided the
stability required and stricter regulation added to the existing General Fisheries and
Aquaculture Law is now being implemented. The key element is the creation of areas of
sanitary management or “neighborhoods” which can be more easily monitored and
controlled. This falls short of the wider eco-system based Integrated Multi-Trophic
Aquaculture (IMTA) approach advocated by Buschman et al. (2009). However, the feasibility
of IMTA within the current economic system remains to be proven, and this area-based
approach is a potentially useful initial step.
Market risks associated with rapid supply expansion have also been notable for a
number of cases – e.g. salmon, seabass/bream, but are potentially less significant now
that more realistic expectations are common, at least in mainstream commercial sectors.
Technologies have in many cases matured, and risks have reduced as a consequence, but
new rounds of species diversification and more complex systems may increase these.
This is particularly the case when more than one major parameter is being changed at any
one time, for example if a new species is being developed in an untried system.
Responses to current areas of risk

A range of practical responses to risk can be identified. For aquatic diseases,
improved diagnostics, vaccine and other protective technologies and better understanding
of the genetic and immunological basis for resistance are significant in reducing risks.
However, poor preparedness or response to newly developing diseases remains a
significant problem and many countries are still ill-equipped to manage aquatic diseases.
In some cases diagnostic capacity is developed but needs to be connected with effective
responses as both strategic and specific levels.
For system and technology risks, a range of better materials, design and testing
procedures, with a greater use of ICT (information and communication technologies)

together with cumulative build-up of experience, more proven designs and best practices
have done much to reduce risks in mainstream sectors. However other sectors, with new
species and systems or intensifying production on an ad hoc basis continue to be
vulnerable.
The issue of food quality and contamination has been broadly containable in most
cases, but increasing eutrophication, particularly in coastal areas, inadequate controls on
industrial development and on input raw materials are likely to put much more pressure
on the sector to ensure food safety (Bell and Waagbo, 2008). Apart from the issues of
over-expansion, market and financial risks are increasingly manageable through more
professional management at larger commercial scales and through capacity building
amongst smaller producers. More widely, the role of the insurance industry in
commercial production has been very important in managing production risks and in
driving the selection of better and less vulnerable systems. However, major systemic
risks associated with vectors such as climate change are likely to require much more
strategic approaches for the sector.
An important area of risk management and a common prerequisite for investment is
that of insurance (see Table 1.16). This is based not on protecting average and internally
manageable risks within the system, but for covering impacts of more unexpected
exposure. The coverage available, its costs, and the cumulative experience of insurance
agents and brokers in addressing aquaculture risk can be a critical element in the
investment viability of aquaculture ventures, particularly those moving outside the
conventional species or system boundaries. While the EU zone has a relatively well
developed insurance sector, with considerable international experience, access to
insurance and the terms available can be important competitive elements. Risks of
various kinds are equally if not more important in developing country contexts, but
insurance markets are commonly underdeveloped and transaction costs for engaging with
smaller enterprises can be too high for access. While proposals have been made for
insurance instruments to cover small crop and livestock farmers against critical areas of
risk, this has not so far extended to aquaculture. An exception to this may be for financial
and trade transactions, particularly for larger and internationalised companies, for which
credit insurance and other instruments may be available.

Table 1.16: Aquaculture in selected European countries
Country Insurance companies Coverage

France Groupama (mainly provides insurance services Limited insurance available from
to Asia) local companies
Italy n/a Only a small number of farms
insured, mostly directly through
London market, or via UK insurers
Norway Gjensidige Insurance Co.; IF Forsikring AS; Well developed specialist market for
Industrie Forsikring AS; NEMI Norway Energy & insurance – also covers Norwegian
Marine Insurance ASA; Uni Storebrand companies overseas
Insurance Co.; Vesta Forsikring AS
Spain Spanish Insurance Group for Multi-Peril Crop Insurance for aquaculture stock is
Insurance (pool of >40 insurance companes) + highly regulated in Spain, but
Consortium for Compensation of Insurance premiums are also subsidised by
(governmental agency the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Nutrition.
UK Sunderland Marine Mutual Insurance Company Well developed insurance market,
Ltd; Aquarius Insurance Services/Royal & Sun with major companies also insuring
Alliance; and SBJ Nelson Steavenson Ltd. aquaculture operations overseas
Source: Adapted from Anrooy et al., 2006.
Climate change and its implications

The specific and potentially transcending issues of climate change and its impacts are
as fully relevant to the aquaculture sector as they are to other natural resource based
processes. Moreover wider social, economic and political impacts will bear on
governance, market, investment and organisational decisions (IPCC, 2007). Impacts will
be spatially and temporally diverse and could be positive or negative. At a natural
resource level these will arise from direct and indirect impacts, primarily on water, land,
seed, feed and energy. Effects on capture fisheries will also influence significant feed and
seed inputs. The vulnerability of aquaculture-linked communities will derive from
resource dependency and exposure to extreme weather events. Changing physiological
stress on cultured stocks could affect productivity and raise vulnerability to diseases and
environmental stressors, in turn imposing higher risks and reducing net returns. Risks of
damage to structures and other facilities will increase. Other fisheries and aquaculture
interactions could include stock escapes following extreme weather events,
compromising genetic diversity of wild stock, affecting biodiversity more widely.
These impacts will be combined with other aspects affecting adaptive capabilities,
such as the increased pressure that growing or displaced populations place on resources,
any rigidity of political, institutional and management response, deficiencies in
monitoring and early-warning systems or in risk and emergency planning together with
any non-climate factors such as poverty, inequality, food insecurity, conflict and disease.
However, new opportunities and positive impacts (e.g. changes in species, better
production conditions, new markets) could also arise. Such opportunities are not
specifically defined at this stage but ability to benefit will depend on adaptive capacity.
At present, higher risk/impact regions have been outlined (Handisyde et al., 2006; FAO
2009d) on the basis of theoretical features. Asia is by far the major aquaculture producer,
with large populations and production zones in low-lying areas, and is the most
vulnerable region. However given the potential of Africa, Latin America and other

regions, implications for future developments may also need to be considered. Deltaic
areas in Asia and elsewhere are also critical for agricultural livelihoods and food security,
and the loss of agriculture productivity due to salination from sea level rise and seawater
intrusion could have an important impact. This could reduce availability of agricultural
by-products, but could lead to aquaculture taking a major compensatory role, providing
income and some aspects of food supply.
Longer term approaches

In most cases and for most climate change-related impacts, improved management and
better aquaculture practices would be the best and most immediate form of adaptation,
providing a sound basis for production which could accommodate possible impacts.
Tools such as ecosystem approaches to aquaculture (EAA) management could be
valuable in defining contexts, functional links and potential sensitivity and resilience
features. Reactive or anticipatory responses would range across public, NGO and private
sector. Over longer periods and based on earlier stage lessons, considerable structural and
operational responses may be required, as outlined in Table 1.17.

Table 1.17: Climate change related impacts and potential adaptation measures
Climate change element/

impacts on aquaculture Potential adaptive measures
or related function
Warming
Raise above optimal range Better feeds; more care in handling; selective breeding and genetic
of tolerance of farmed improvements for higher temperature tolerance (and other related
species conditions)
Increase in growth; higher
Increase feed input, adjust harvest and market schedules
production
Eutrophication & upwelling; Better planning; sitting, conform to CC predictions, regular
mortality of farmed stock monitoring, emergency procedures
Increase virulence of Better management to reduce stress; biosecurity measures;
dormant pathogens and monitoring to reduce health risks; improved treatments and
expansion of new diseases management strategies; genetic improvements for higher resistance.
Limitations on fish meal & Fish meal & fish oil replacement; new forms of feed management;
fish oil supplies/ price genetic improvement for alternative feeds; shift to non-carnivorous
species; culture of bivalves and seaweeds wherever possible
Sea level rise and other circulation changes
Shift stenohaline species upstream; introduce marine or euryhaline
Salt water intrusion
species in old facilities
Provide alternative livelihoods through aquaculture: capacity building
Loss of agricultural land
and infrastructure
Reduced catches from
coastal fisheries, seedstock
Greater use of hatchery seed, protection of nursery habitats,
disruptions, reduced
develop/use formulated pellet feeds- (higher cost but environmentally
options for aquaculture
less degrading), alternative livelihoods for suppliers
feeds; income loss to
fishers
Increase of harmful algal Improve monitoring and early warning systems, change water
blooms- HABs abstraction points where feasible
Acidification
Impact on calcareous shell
Adapt production and handling techniques, move production zones,
formation/ deposition
Water stress and drought conditions
Limitations for freshwater Improve efficacy of water usage; encourage non-consumptive water
abstraction use in aquaculture, e.g. culture based fisheries; encourage
development of mariculture where possible
Water retention period
Use different/faster growing fish species; increase efficacy of water
changed (reduced in inland
sharing with primary users e.g. irrigation of rice paddy, change
systems, increased in
species in lagoons
coastal lagoons)
Availability of wild seed
Shift to artificially propagated seed (extra cost), improve seed quality
stocks reduced/ period
and production efficiency, close the life cycle of more farmed species
changed
Extreme weather events
Destruction of facilities;
Encourage uptake of individual/cluster insurance; improve siting and
loss of stock; loss of
design to minimize damage, loss and mass escapes; encourage use
business; mass scale
of indigenous species to minimize impacts on biodiversity, use non
escape with the potential to
reproducing stock in farming systems
impacts on biodiversity
Source: FAO (2009d)

Biological and system technologies will need to be improved and made more secure,
and new technologies developed. Genetic knowledge and management is likely to be
more critical, including genetic improvement for more efficient feeding and diet
specificity, and improved species resistance to wider temperature ranges, salinity
changes, lower oxygen and to a wider range of pathogens. New aquatic pathogen risks
may require biosecurity and prevention measures to be more closely applied (Gatesoupe,
2009). Early identification and detection mechanisms may need to be improved, and
treatment strategies and products developed.
There may also be drivers for changing system and species priorities, including shifts
around salinity and temperature tolerance, locations in salinising coastal zones and
possibly high-security enclosed systems. The aquaculture of extractive species (using
nutrients and carbon directly from the environment) such as bivalves and macroalgae
may merit further focus for their positive ecosystem characteristics and potential food
security benefits (Ferreira et al., 2008). Most importantly for feed-based aquaculture is its
dependence on capture fisheries for fish meal and oil and growing competition for
terrestrial raw material. Feeding materials and formulation strategies will be particularly
important in maintaining and expanding output while containing costs and energy inputs
and improving resilience to climate change. Adaptations include changing to less
carnivorous species, genetic improvements, feed source diversification, better
formulation, quality control and management.
Integrating aquaculture with other practices, including agro-aquaculture, multitrophic
aquaculture and culture-based fisheries could also potentially recycle nutrients and use
energy and water more efficiently (Little and Edwards, 2003; Bunting, 2007; Neori,
2008). These could also include capture fisheries and could assist riparian and coastal
communities in general (Lorenzen, 2007). Short cycle aquaculture may also be valuable,
using new species or strains and new technologies or management practices to fit into
differently defined seasonal opportunities. Aquaculture could be a useful adaptation
option for other sectors, e.g. coastal agriculture under salinization threats and could also
have a role in biofuel production, e.g. algal biomass, using of processing fish discards
and by-products.
Sector structures, trade and competition
Big fish in big ponds? Setting the scene

The context of structures and competitiveness can be recognised not just in the
primary aspect of competition within and across the aquaculture sector and between
regions, but also in terms of access to primary resources and in terms of the relationships
and commercial impacts within the broader supply and value chain for aquatic foods.
Linkages can be seen in the way that sector structures – the nature, size and relationships
between aquaculture enterprises provide the basis for defining viability, efficiency and
comparative performance. Trade conditions define the means by which comparative
advantages and market opportunities can be realised and consumers can improve access
to aquaculture products. More broadly, global and more localised competition for factors
of production, particularly site area, water and feeds can be critical, as is competition in
food markets and price-supply conditions. Here, the role of aquaculture in providing raw
material for value-added products is different from that for whole fresh or live product as
is the potential size and value of markets involved. Further complexities arise in less

tangible product attributes such as environmental and ethical provenance. Though value-
based ‘quality’ definers provide opportunities for niche products, cost leadership remains
the basis of competition for much of the sector. In this context technical innovation
commonly becomes subordinate to productivity gains via basic efficiency factors/ scale
economies etc. as the primary driver of competition.
Evolution of commercial structures

Globally, the aquaculture sector remains highly fragmented, ranging from smallholder
ponds or cages providing a few kilos of fish per year, to international companies with
annual turnover in excess of USD 1 billion. However, commercial production is clearly
consolidating, especially for products that are internationally marketed. This is the case
for the fisheries and food sector more general and in many cases aquaculture production
is being incorporated within wider structural change. To date, the greatest consolidation
has occurred in the salmon sector where for instance 4 companies now account for 70%
of UK (Scottish) production, with two accounting for over 50% of industry value. In
Europe, the top 25 seafood companies accounted for EUR 14.6 billion in sales in 2008,
up 22.4% on 2006, with five having turnovers greater than USD 1 billion. The sector has
not previously been a target for institutional equity investors, but this is changing with
consolidation and growing appreciation of growth potential. Companies such as
FoodVest and Birds Eye Igloo have come under the ownership of private equity
companies which has significantly strengthened their performance. Stock exchange
financing has also been important, especially for larger Norwegian and Greek
aquaculture companies (Table 1.18).
Table 1.18: Stock exchange listed aquaculture companies in Europe

Capitalisation Capitalisation
Company Company
(EUR million) (EUR million)
Oslo stock exchange Athens stock exchange
Marine Harvest 1 626.0 Pescanova S.A. 78.0
Leroy Seafood Group 611.2 Nireus S.A. 56.0
Austevoll Seafood 598.6 Dias Aquaculture S.A. 38.7
SalMar 489.3 Selonda Aquaculture S.A. 24.6
Cermaq 479.3 Galaxidi Fish Farming S.A. 8.9
Marine Farms 52.6 Hellenic Fishfarming S.A. 6.1
AKVA Group 49.5 Interfish Aquaculture S.A. 4.9
Domstein 17.3
Codfarmers 16.1
Source: STAQ, 2009 - Norwegian data converted to Euro at rate of EUR 1=NOK 8.68386
Consolidation trends are also apparent in Asia, for example in the Thai shrimp sector,
where agro-industrial companies such as CP are increasingly also developing a major
regional presence. This is also occurring in the rapidly growing Vietnamese catfish
industry, mainly driven by the implementation of western quality standards initially in
processing, but increasingly stretching into production.
The number of small and medium enterprises (SMEs), sole traders and artisanal
producers nevertheless remains very high, especially in some shellfish and freshwater
fish sectors, and particularly in developing countries. In the EU, Framian (2009)
identified over 13 139 aquaculture companies with an average of 2.6 FTE staff and
turnover of around EUR 270 \ 000 (Table 1.19). For many participants, aquaculture is
one of a more limited range of economic activities available in the specific coastal or

rural location. In some cases, the location is self-selected and aquaculture may be more a
livelihood choice than driven by purely business objectives. For those with deep social
roots to specific areas, aquaculture can be one of the few economically viable livelihood
options. Similarly, at global levels, as earlier noted, numbers of people are substantial, a
large part of which linked with small-scale, household level activities (see e.g. FSRFD,
2004).
There are critical linkages between market chain structure and viable company size. In
Europe, the smallest entities tend to market directly to consumers and to local food
service outlets, gaining a premium on wholesale market or larger scale contract prices.
This is not an option for slightly larger producers who would saturate local markets.
Scale economies become more important when producers are competing in larger
markets and when larger buyers impose minimum purchase quantities. More widely,
producer cooperatives have sometimes enabled smaller enterprises to work with more
consolidated market chains, most frequently when consolidation of sites is not physically
possible.
Table 1.19: Profile of EU aquaculture (55 segments representing 95% of production)
Number of Total Gross Number of Full time Number of Volume

segments turnover value employed equivalents firms (‘000
(EUR added persons (FTE) tonnes)
million) (EUR
million)
Czech Republik 1 37 18 1 961 1 301 570 21
Denmark 5 131 40 679 498 187 42
Finland 4 70 24 na 423 434 12
France 2 477 241 na 6 389 2 285 177
Germany 2 133 87 1 872 1 599 3 343 39
Greece 3 619 na 11 982 6 628 418 na
Hungary 1 33 24 1 891 1 203 321 21
Ireland 5 114 35 1 950 1 052 na na
Italy 6 512 263 7 307 4 859 636 218
Lithuania 1 7 3 349 315 18 4
Netherlands 4 127 63 na 405 180 68
Poland 2 94 41 2 610 2 587 870 35
Portugal 4 64 30 1 322 415 1 006 11
Spain 6 433 248 14 445 4 461 2 365 368
Sweden 4 26 7 277 277 132 8
United Kingdom 4 667 173 2 569 2 096 465 176
TOTAL 55 3 544 1 297 49 214 34 508 13 139 1 200
Source: Framian 2009 (segment = combination of species and on-growing technique)
Table 1.20 outlines some of the common drivers for expansion or aggregation in
aquaculture. Their application in specific circumstances depends much on the local site
and management contexts, as well as the extent to which markets are consolidating.
Generally, within traditional markets defined and characterised for example by capture
fisheries based supply chains, the potential for smaller enterprises to remain competitive
is likely to remain for longer. Equally where margins are high enough to allow a diversity
of investment and profitability conditions, there may be less pressure for consolidation.
Finally, where commercial or resource capacity regulations restrict individual site size or
scope of ownership, consolidation is less likely to occur. However, issues of external
competition may need to be considered.

Table 1.20: Scale economy/aggregation factors in aquaculture
Factor Implications/effects
Site locations Impose a natural constraint on unit scale, but technical change may act to
increase outputs - e.g. better growth, survival, environmental control,
productivity
Direct/indirect Demonstrate significant efficiency gains towards the upper scale limits of
cost structures individual sites and management structures
Fiscal/financial Taxation and reinvestment incentives tend to stimulate increased capacity

Integration and productivity; regional development support promotes expansion
Markets Efficiency gains through, e.g. linking hatcheries, ongrowing, joint marketing
initiatives
Acquisition Demands for uniform supply and product quality in larger-scale markets
drive suppliers to increase management control, scale and/or co-ordination
Different management, finance and site conditions leading to varied
commercial performance, and hence opportunities for takeover and capital
write-down
Management Development of effective management systems and staff teams increasing

systems investor confidence in good performers, increasing opportunities for
growth/acquisition
Source: Developed from Muir (1995)
Whilst there is a global trend for increasing consolidation along the market chain, this
has not yet deeply affected many areas in Asia where highly complex chains involving
many small companies still exist. Efficiency comes through specialisation and
competition on flexibility and quality of service. A key example of this is the production
of live marine fish for restaurants and specialist markets in Korea, Hong Kong, China and
many other parts of Southeast Asia. However, Dasilva and Davy (2009) note that co-
operative approaches have also been developed in Asia, linking smaller scale marine fish,
shrimp, seaweed and other producers together to meet their respective markets, and gain
wider access and better revenue.
Trade and its development

Fishery products are the most traded of foods. In 2006, 194 countries reported
exports to the value of USD 85.9 billion (up 9.6% compared to 2005 and 62.7%
compared to 1996) and imports reached USD 89.6 billion (10% over 2005 and up 57%
since 1996). A total of 97, mainly developing countries are net exporters of fishery
products. Some 38% of all production by volume enters international trade, of which
over half originates in developing countries (Valdimarsson, 2009). Given its high
perishability, more than 90% of international trade volume is in processed form, though
10% by quantity, live, fresh or chilled fish accounted for more than 18% by value.
According to STAQ (2009) high-income countries (83% of current GNI, 59% of real
income - GDP at PPP) and 17% of population currently account for 88% of fish imports.
In 2005, the EU accounted for 36.4%, Japan 22.3% and USA 16.4% of internationally
traded seafood volume. However, in the longer term income growth in the developing
world will generate new trade. For example, although China’s share of world seafood
imports remains modest, since 1990 it has grown from 0.5% to nearly 4%, with an

increasing rate of growth. Much of the resultant trade is likely to be regional (FAO,
2009c) but this also impacts on availability and price of materials for wider trade flows.
Aquaculture products are tightly bound with this global market and with a plateau in
capture fisheries production a substantial proportion of increased trade has been in
aquaculture. Anderson and Valderrma (2009) estimate it now to account for around 50%
of internationally traded seafood for human consumption. Key trends include a decrease
in species diversity, but increase in product diversity through value-added processing and
labelling. Although major capture fisheries groups such as tuna, pollack, cod, small
pelagics and squid are likely to remain the primary trade for the sector, aquaculture
products are likely to increasingly dominate the commodity market. For species such as
salmon (Table 1.21), trout and penaeid shrimp, increasingly for tilapia and catfish and for
more regionally traded species such as Japanese sea bass and yellowtail, aquaculture
output is already predominant. However there will be increasing opportunities for wild
fisheries products in upper-end segments and niche markets. Retail markets, which are
becoming increasingly important in driving trade, are also demanding improvements in
standards and standardization. However, intra-regional trade, common for many capture
fisheries products, is also developing strongly for aquaculture product.
Table 1.21: Simplified trade matrix for farmed Atlantic salmon
Producer Output 2007 Market source percentage

‘000 tonnes EU25 Russia USA
Norway 736.2 70 92 5
Chile 379.5 9 3 51
UK 130.1 19 3 6
Canada 117.3 34
Other/re-export 2 2 4
Other producers (‘000 tonnes): Australia 25; Faroes 22.3; USA 11; Ireland 9.9; Iceland 1.2;
France 1.1
Other markets for Norwegian salmon (2006-07 increase): Thailand 181%; Ukraine 110%;
Hong Kong 27%; China 103%; ROK 75%; Chinese Taipei 217%; Vietnam 100%
Whilst there is trade in all directions, the major import markets are the EU, North
America and Japan. The trade deficit is particularly acute in North America and also
substantial in Europe. At this stage, China is a net exporter, but the rest of Asia also has a
trade deficit in fish products. Regions with higher exports than imports include Latin
America, Africa and Oceania.
Developing countries play a particular important role in aquaculture. FAO figures
(FAO, 2009) show that of the total world production of 65 million tonnes in 2007, some
60.6 million tonnes (93%) originate in developing countries. In consequence, developed
country markets are heavily dependent on aquaculture product from developing
countries, including tilapia, pangasius, (Table 1.22) and shrimps. For these and a number
of species, developing countries may have competitive advantages, including production
environments and labour costs, and this has also stimulated regional and inter-regional
investment.

Table 1.22: Trade destinations for Vietnamese pangasius
Country Export, tonnes

EU 224 300
Russia 118 200
Ukraine 74 400
ASEAN 34 000
China/Hong Kong 18 500
USA 24 200
Mexico 23 200
Egypt 26 600
Others 97 600
Source: STAQ (2009)
The processing of aquaculture product close to the place of production, especially in

low-labour cost countries, also has substantial benefits for overall cost of production and
can be an important factor in benefit for exporting countries. Anderson and Valderrama
(2009) report that this trend is accelerating, with the prime example of pangasius
production and processing in Vietnam. Links may also be made for product from
developed countries, such as the recent rise of processing of Norwegian Atlantic salmon
in China. Here, low labour costs made it feasible to hand-fillet farmed salmon, the
improved yields from this more than compensating for the additional handling and
transport costs.
Closely linked with trade development is an element in the FAO Guidelines for
Responsible Fish Trade (FAO, 2009c) stating that “international trade in fish and fishery
products should not compromise the sustainable development of fisheries and the
responsible utilization of living aquatic resources”. Artisanal fisheries can be rapidly
over-exploited with increasing trade opportunities driven by higher prices (Kurien, 2005).
There are potentially similar concerns for aquaculture, as earlier illustrated by the rapid
development of commercial shrimp farming in tropical coastal regions, with subsequent
environmental and social problems. However, a number of reviews (e.g. FAO, 2008b,
2009c; Dasilva and Davy, 2009) have noted the significance of trade in opening up
income and employment opportunities, particularly if production standards or
certification requirements provide effective safeguards.
More strategically, the development of trade in fishery and aquaculture products is
very closely dependent on terms and conditions of trade and whether access to key
markets is sufficiently free of tariff or non-tariff barriers. Many developing countries
including China, Vietnam and Turkey already benefit from full tariff elimination under
various bilateral free-trade agreements. However compliance costs for adhering to Rules
of Origin ensuring traceability still typically range from 2-5% of import value. While
terms of trade for fisheries products, including those for aquaculture, have generally been
improving under successive WTO processes, a number of contestable anomalies remain
and under the current more defensive economic conditions there are concerns that
protectionism may become more common. Anti-dumping (AD) measures imposed on
goods sold at less than ‘fair price’ (below cost price in the exporting country) are
particularly featured, such as the Minimum Import Price (MIP) imposed in 2006 on
Norwegian salmon entering EU markets, revoked in 2008 by the WTO. The USA has
notably used these to protect its farmers, with duties imposed on Norwegian salmon

(1990), Chilean salmon (1997), Chinese crayfish (2003) and shrimp for six countries
(2003). Earlier in 2009 the AD duty of 64% imposed on Vietnamese frozen catfish fillets
in 2003 was renewed. Vietnamese seafood businesses also find it difficult to penetrate the
(second largest) Russian market due to its higher tariffs. WTO based health and sanitary
(SPS) measures and those of the OIE concerning aquatic pathogens are also invoked to
create practical constraints for export from various sources, and while concern for food
safety and the protection of aquatic environments are very legitimate, the measures to
address them may in practice add to the risks and costs for those attempting to reach key
markets. The additional requirements for private sector certification, increasingly
entering market requirements in more prosperous regions may add to these constraints
(FAO, 2009c; STAQ 2009). However, where significant downstream commercial
interests exist in the importing countries, competition for good quality raw materials may
strengthen demands for tariffs to be reduced.
Competition issues
A range of competition factors will bear on the development and characteristics of the
aquaculture sector whether they are global or local levels. At the level of the individual
enterprise, of whatever type and scale, trends towards growth in output and an
adjustments resulting from the shift away from capture fisheries tend to create pressures
on margins and drivers for specialisation or more efficient production. Changes in supply
and value chains and the steadily increasing strength of value addition and retail sectors
create strong competitive pressures within the chain, addressed by cost competition or
more efficient (and often more dependent) market relationships. A recent review of EU
aquaculture production (STAQ, 2009) provided the baseline breakdown shown in
Figure 1.6. For internationally traded products, particularly from small scale producers,
downstream value addition may be more pronounced; thus the distribution of benefits
from small-scale pangasius producers in Vietnam to European retailers shows that for a
final sales price of EUR7/kg, 10% goes to the farmer, 10% to the fish collector, 20% to
the processor, 20% to the trader and 40% to the retailer.

Figure 1.6: Production, retail, food service and export values - EU aquaculture (2005)
Production Retail Food service Export
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At the national and regional level, competition can also be seen for sector
performance and profitability and for the food sector, the ability to contribute to national
or regional demands. Thus for the EU, the European Commission issued a strategy for
the sustainable development of aquaculture (EC, 2002), recognising its role in meeting
expanding regional demand for seafood, but also the need to meet rising standards and
aspirations for food safety and environmental sustainability. This envisaged an increase
in EU production of 4% per year to meet expected demand, though in fact production has
since been relatively static, contributing some 1.3 million tonnes to an estimated
12 million tonnes of annual demand. The EC Lisbon agenda (2000) provides the context
for sector competitiveness, aiming for Europe to be the most competitive and dynamic
knowledge-based economy in the world. This was relaunched in 2005 with a stronger
focus on growth and jobs following a review recommending action based around three
main areas:
• Better analysis of competitiveness as a foundation for action;
• Getting the regulatory framework right and
• Increasing efforts to foster research, innovation and entrepreneurship.
Competition was further embedded into the wider Lisbon strategy framework in 2007
with the launch of the new cycle (2008-2010) (European Commission, 2009). Recent
reviews (STAQ, 2009) have analysed the sector’s competitiveness across these and
related criteria, identifying areas for further growth, while recognising that other regions
were likely to continue supplying aquaculture raw materials, but that significant value,
and important competitive position was to be derived from developing products to meet
EU and other markets. More broadly, the World Economic Forum Global

Competitiveness Report (WEF, 2008) describes twelve pillars of competitiveness within

three economic competitiveness classes. Table 1.23 outlines these and notes the
respective issues for aquaculture.
Table 1.23: Applying WEF competitiveness criteria to aquaculture
Competitiveness
Issues for aquaculture
elements
Basic factors
Institutions Governance framework, policy development and implementation
Infrastructure Efficient access for inputs and markets, efficient communication
Macroeconomic
Sound conditions for investment, reduced risk and transaction costs
stability
Health and primary Availability and quality of human and social capital, basic skills and
education motivations
Efficiency enhancers
Higher education Availability of specialised skills, generation and commercialisation of new
and training knowledge
Means by which raw materials/products are made available to aquaculture
Goods market
particularly seed and feeds, also technologies – in accessible, timely and
efficiency
cost-effective manner.
Labour market Flexibility of access to labour, potential to build key skills; transparency of
efficiency wage/contract/other conditions
Financial market Range of financial instruments, risk management, access to capital, R&D
sophistication and other incentives, cost of financial services
Technology Preparedness to take up and gain competitive advantage through new
readiness technologies; positive environment for interface
Market presence and power; scale advantages; investment potential for
Market size
new products, market development
Innovation and sophistication factors
Business Extent of development of specialised products and services, access to

sophistication wider value addition potential
Understanding of process and value; context for support of innovation;
Innovation
public-private partnership options
According to this definition, most commercial aquaculture sectors can be defined as

efficiency-driven, while in some developing country contexts, factor-driven elements are
more important. ‘Market size’ is a particularly important in this designation, i.e. growth
in global value chains for seafood along with consumer demand. This is linked with the
potential to exploit resources more efficiently through economies of scale, and the use of
vertical and horizontal integration for efficiency gains. This is most clearly seen in
consolidation trends in growing segments of the industry.
Notable issues in competition are the increasing vertical integration of larger
companies in the fishery product sector, the increasing power of major multiple retailers
and the growing importance of developing effective and innovative product forms.
Aquaculture products hold distinct advantages in their potential regularity of supply and
ability to deliver on order. With the wider adoption of HACCP and other quality/traceability
systems, farmed product is also more favourably placed. Eco-labelling and other market
discriminants have also become much more important as a competitive element in key

markets (see Box 1.4), though as noted earlier, there are concerns about the extent to which
smaller producers, particularly those in developing countries, can access such systems.
Within these markets, representing a growing share of global supply, and with a
particular role in developed country market blocs, an increasing targeting of reliable,
uniform quality and adaptable aquaculture product is likely to result. Here, species origin
and primary characteristics may become far less significant. Competition at both
enterprise and regional level is increasingly likely to be defined by the ability to build
efficient supply chains and to meet emerging requirements. To do so shifts the emphasis
from competence in raw material production towards a more holistic performance and
competitive advantage. However, while considerable attention has been given in the last
decade to value addition and supply chain development, investment needs will continue
for effective and sustainable primary production.
Box 1.4: Ecolabels – Communicating sustainability information in

aquaculture products
The communication of sustainability information has become increasingly prominent in

markets for products from both capture fisheries and aquaculture. A variety of instruments
both nationally and supra-nationally share a common goal of seeking to promote a
market-based response to concerns over fish stocks, production techniques and their
impacts. Concerns surrounding the ineffectiveness of formal controls to meet key aims
have encouraged a variety of schemes from a diverse range of organisations including the
private sector, NGOs and governments. These may be categorised as certification
schemes (some of which appear as an ecolabel) or recommendation lists. These co-exist,
sometimes overlapping, with a raft of measures including guidelines, codes of conduct,
and best practice guides which suggest working practices for improving environmental,
welfare, social, ethical and other issues.
Certification schemes are voluntary assessments of the status of a specific aquaculture
operation and its related production practices and impacts. Assessment of compliance is
undertaken by a third party and may result in permission to use a designated ecolabel. A
charge is commonly made for this endorsement of the product. The ecolabel is intended to
communicate to the retail consumer, or less commonly the seafood diner that the product
meets the requirements of the scheme. However because of the diversity of such
schemes and varied criteria, consumers may become confused and ultimately
uninfluenced. .
Recommendation lists offer another communication approach and commonly attempt to
provide advice about the sustainability of a particular species and hence it desirability to
purchase. Traffic lights or similarly abbreviated messages can simplify potentially complex
communications. Lists are favoured by NGOs such as Greenpeace, Marine Conservation
Society and WWF, but also by some governmental agents (e.g. NOAA) and other bodies.
Listing agents tend to choose their own focus and do not necessarily consult with the
sector involved. They are commonly part of wider campaigns and may also introduce
confusion to the buyer through the more generalised, and potentially less accurate, nature
of the information conveyed.
The market-based approach of such schemes has received criticism for its potential to
exclude some producers from certain markets for reasons of cost. Concerns have been
expressed for their possible effect as a trade barrier and for potential manipulation by
large buyers such as supermarkets to exert yet more control over their suppliers.
Confusions may however lessen over time as schemes become more convergent and as
some gain market dominance. FAO (2009) are also promoting integration of aquaculture
within established codes for fisheries and the EU is also moving towards incorporating
fish within wider eco-labelling schemes. However market-based measures alone, though

they will impact producers, are unlikely to be either an effective or efficient means of
ensuring aquaculture sustainability.
Diversification strategies
One of the significant issues in competition in the aquaculture sector is that of
diversification with the aim of creating new frontiers of market opportunity and the
potential for improving margins over sectors which become increasingly cost-driven. A
range of strategies for production or value chain development can be identified at global
or more localized levels, including:
• Increasing variety of output from the same species; including different sizes,
product form or quality, and different production times; this could also include
genetic diversification - colour morphs, changed body configuration, single sex
species, etc. These approaches could have implications for production and
capacity planning, operational management, market targets, costs of production
and there might also be increasing competitive overlap across species,
e.g. large rainbow trout versus Atlantic salmon; Pangasius versus tilapia.
• Diversifying species within similar groups; relying on similarities in system
and operational requirements. So far these have most commonly involved
salmonids - Atlantic salmon, rainbow trout, brown (sea) trout and Arctic charr,
though Mediterranean marine fish could follow a similar pattern. There are
implications for production efficiency - adapting to less than optimal conditions
for new species, operational management, as well as disease and ecosystem
risks (which may sometimes limit the opportunity to introduce other stocks).
• Diversifying production systems; using cheaper or less site-constrained
methods for the same species, widening flexibility of operation, product timing
etc. The simplest step is usually through intensifying existing systems; other
options include offshore cages and highly intensive recycle units, which both
remove site constraints, but have higher capital and operating costs. A further
prospect is to integrate production (e.g. intensive tank systems with extensive
ponds in coastal areas, combining mollusc culture with cage culture, etc.).
• Diversifying species and production system; i.e. completely new production
concepts, with if necessary radical departures from current approaches; costs
and risks of technical development may be substantial, though some may be
developed through reassessing earlier approaches which had not been followed
up.
Muir and Young (1998) noted that while diversification is a rational objective,
species diversification is not necessarily the best goal; that risks and returns of making
new species available on aquaculture markets need to be compared with the creation of
new products from existing species. They also described a range of aquaculture species
identifying key attributes, determining their potential to become ‘universal products’
(Table 1.24).

86 – 1. GROWING THE WEALTH OF AQUACULTURE: PERSPECTIVES AND POTENTIAL
Table 1.24: Comparative development features of aquaculture and other fish sources
Features Salmon Seabream Block white Channel catfish Tilapia Mussels
fish
External Medium-large, Small, short, N/a – sourced Small, slender, Short, stubby, Black/green shells
appearance powerful, long, deep, stubby, flat, from range of blue/grey, un- silvery, grey or red, clean to crusted -
silvery, clean silvery bright, species prepossessing bright marine'
clean - 'marine''
Internal Pale-deep pink/ Pale/creamy, White or white- White(ish), quite White(ish), close- Light-deep orange,
appearance orange, distinct flakes close-textured, ish, close- close-textured, textured, quite lean single nugget
varying fat levels lean textured, flakes, neutral
lean
Flavour/ Distinct, firm, soft to Mild, succulent, Neutral, well- Mild, soft-well Mild, well text- Distinct, soft to
Texture well-textured, can be fine textured low- textured textured, can be ured, can be well-textured, can
coarse, fatty medium fat muddy muddy be gritty
Connota-tions Good quality, Very good Widely accepted Poor- neutral, but Neutral but Popular; occas-
associations with quality, linked though not improving widely improving strongly ional public health
clean, cold waters with coastal/city always due to marketing concerns
restaurants recognised
Availability Increasingly available Seasonal Generally Seasonal, but Wide sourcing for Seasonal avail-
year-round, in range availability ubiquitous in widening access; year-round supply; ability
of sizes and product gradually wide range of mainly whole and whole and fillets supplemented by
forms extending, limited quality and form. fillets imports v. limited
sizes and product size/ product form
forms
Production costs Moderate costs, High costs, red- Baseline product Low-moderate Low-moderate Low cost,
reducing but above using; may have costs; target for costs, margins costs, potential to increasing due to
'bulk fish prices constraints other supplies being reduced reduce environmental
limits
Distinctiveness Medium-high in most High if fresh/ Low-medium, Medium, but can Medium, can be High in most forms;
forms, but can be whole; otherwise depending on be varied e.g. varied either way also ingredient
varied limited source with husbandry
Adaptability Very adaptable - Currently limited - Adaptable; Moderate, imp- Moderate but Moderate – whole,
whole, steaked, whole, split, portions, roving; fillets, potentially imp- shelled, fresh,
portioned, fresh, cured filleted nuggets, fillets, nuggets, value roving; fillets, pickled, smoked, in
smoked, in value- fresh/frozen in value-added added products value-added value added foods
added foods foods products.

This concluded that large fish, easily and rapidly grown, with good consumer
attributes and potential product versatility, could offer good opportunities for
expanding markets through diversifying product form. Based on a review of typical
aquaculture product characteristics, they concluded that product modifications based
around existing aquaculture stocks could have considerable potential, while the
commercial opportunities of diversification to specialised high unit value species might
be more limited, particularly as multiple retailers are able to source widely on a global
basis for other species. Amongst current species, while seabream and similar species
may be developed more widely, there will be basic constraints, while catfish and tilapia
and possibly salmon may have considerably greater potential. Though Asian and Indian
carps have the potential to be produced relatively cheaply, their disadvantages of texture
and bone structures make their widespread incorporation in major traded commodity
flows unlikely.
Positioning for the future

In all but the most extreme risk conditions, the prognosis for growth of the
aquaculture sector, globally, regionally and across species and systems, appears very
positive. Demand projections suggest greater output and value in most subsectors. The
value of the sector is such that many enterprises are likely to wish to strengthen their
positions and in changing economic, trade and environmental conditions, national
interests in competing in wider markets are also likely to increase. As outlined in Box
1.5, there is considerable question as to whether new centres of production and market
power are likely to arise.
In this context also the role of various support functions may also be significant. As
discussed in the next section, broad issues of governance are critical in ensuring that a
positive environment exists for the sector, that resources are accessible, investments
can be made and that markets can be accessed in an effective and profitable manner.
The specific competitive policy of governments deserves scrutiny and while a range of
support measures can be noted, ranging from infrastructure development, human and
organisational capacity building, scientific and technical facilitation, marketing and
trade information and brokerage, credit insurance and other measures, there is strategic
concern that uncompetitive measures are avoided. Arguments against these include
unfair trading practice and the economic costs and market distortions created by
subsidising specific sectors or activities within them. However, such are the current
pressures for food self-sufficiency, strategic positioning in key markets, protecting or
developing poorer regions or communities, that the avoidance of explicit support
incentives becomes difficult. For poorer countries in particular, where foreign exchange
holds a particular importance and external investment a major target, incentives for
development can be substantial. Where for example, land and coastal margins are held
in national ownership, low cost site concessions, combined with generous taxation
allowances can create very favourable conditions for commercial development. In the
past, incentives for aquaculture had also been provided in some Middle Eastern
countries to subsidise costs of key inputs such as international staff, broodstock and
feeds, as well as substantial grants on capital investment, but this is now largely past.
However, low energy costs and the provision of major infrastructure can still make a
substantial difference to capital and operating costs for aquaculture enterprises.

Box 1.5: Who are the new aquaculture powerhouses and why?
Norway has led the development of cage-based aquaculture, especially salmonids, over
the last 30 years. Its companies also play a major role in the industries of Chile, Scotland
and Canada. Key elements have been the traditional importance of marine resources to
Norway, priority at policy level and strong strategic investment flowing from the successful
Norwegian oil industry. So far, diversification of Norwegian interests into other species and
geographic regions have been relatively limited, but some companies are active, and
through NORAD the country is involved in aquaculture development globally. Ultimately,
Norwegian interests may not be large enough to power massive global expansion, but it
remains a technology leader and if it maintains current levels of commitment, could retain
its position for the foreseeable future.
Norwegian aquaculture production is dwarfed by China, with around 50 times the output
from a far more diverse industry. Although growth is slowing, its annual increase in
production is still 2-3 times the entire production of Norway. Key strengths have been
access to natural resources, a very large and industrious population and a willingness to
innovate (although often with imported technology). Natural resources and population are
limited, so the industry might be expected to weaken, except that China is increasing
investments in overseas aquaculture projects and has a major role in global fish trade,
both as a producer and as a processing country; which could power it to even greater
prominence in the future.
In recent years, Vietnam has emerged as growth leader in South East Asia, following
earlier expansions in Thailand, Indonesia and The Philippines. These may be followed by
Cambodia if inward technology transfer combines with strengthening economies and civil
society. Global competitiveness however, has depended on high utilisation of natural
resources and low labour costs, which may not last. Similar patterns are apparent in some
African countries such as Nigeria, Ghana and Uganda, which with proper governance and
greater inward investment and technology transfer could become key producers. Arguably
closer however is much of Latin America. Strong growth has occurred across the continent
from Chile to Mexico and the sheer size, natural resource base and growing economic
strength (e.g. of Brazil) suggest it could become a major powerhouse for future
aquaculture.
If however the future of aquaculture depends on technology development more than
natural resource exploitation, opportunities for leadership remain with the traditional
technology leaders of the USA, Europe and Japan.
The most significant development in competition and trade is however that of

corporate power, whether in the form of private or publicly owned enterprises
operating in modern capital markets, or in public-private entities typical of the
liberalising command economies, where local and provincial managers have significant
strategic power and access to investment. The linkage of these enterprises with major
markets and with increasing levels of vertical integration is likely to take up an
increasing share of the growing aquaculture sector.
Governance, management systems and strategies
Initial concepts
The policy and governance context for aquaculture is an essential feature of its
development and potential. Its significance in national policy ranges from relative
disregard – particularly if it is an undeveloped or minor economic sector, to a level of
highly developed and focused support and control. In some cases, optimistic
expectations, often linked with the enthusiasm of external development agencies, may

generate elaborate sectoral policy and planning exercises without the benefit of tangible
production, or the means of bringing it in to reality. A primary requirement for effective
governance and management is that the sector and its features are understood, its value is
recognised, both in terms of costs and benefits, and its connections with other sectors
realised. In this last respect, the development and application of various valuation
approaches will become increasingly important, allowing integrated tradeoffs across
sectors to be better defined.
Key areas of policy and governance include; resource allocation and the protection of
its quality; identification, control and management of environmental and disease risks,
determination and control of food safety; qualified areas of trade support and possibly
selective protection; promotion of regional co-operation; management and development
of shared water bodies and catchment areas; protection of specific interests – such as
social objectives; sectoral diversity; and wider representation and policy exchange with
other parties. A recent summary of current aquaculture governance issues has been
provided by FAO (2008b). This section therefore highlights specific issues and offers
further commentary on their likely directions.
Significance of the aquaculture sector

An essential consideration for aquaculture, as for the fishery sector more widely, is
the role it plays in national and local economies. As with most food primary production
sectors its contribution to GDP is usually small. Table 1.25 shows examples of the range
involved for a selection of countries, based on first sale values. Though this will be
increased in many cases, typically 2-4 times, by downstream added value and economic
impact, the sector’s role is usually relatively modest, though examples can be seen where
with strong export markets in particular, limited alternative GDP sources or with
particular livelihood support for key groups, it has a more valuable position.

Table 1.25: Estimates of aquaculture sector contribution to GDP in 2007 (*OECD countries)
Value GDP Value as

Country Notes
USD million USD billion % GDP
Asia
China 39 684.8 2 278.8 1.74 Major producer and economy
Japan* 3 172.9 5 333.9 0.06 Domestic markets, modern economy
India 4 383.5 730.3 0.60 Shrimp, other exports
Viet Nam 4 525.8 51.8 8.74 Major exporter
Indonesia 2 461.9 231.7 1.06 Shrimp, other exports
Thailand 2 432.8 173.2 1.40 Active exporter, modern economy
Domestic markets and shrimp, other
Bangladesh 1 522.6 66.5 2.29
exports
Chinese Taipei,
991.5 391.4 0.25 Domestic markets, modern economy
ROC
Korea 1 576.9 708.1 0.22 Domestic markets, modern economy
Shrimp, other exports in poor
Myanmar 1 862.4 14.7 12.70
economy
Philippines 1 234.2 101.8 1.21 Exports and domestic markets
Malaysia 369.7 125.1 0.30 Wealthy resource based economy
Europe
Diverse and wealthy economy;
Norway* 2 977.7 191.5 1.56
salmon
Large diverse economy, domestic
France* 757.2 1 488.2 0.05
demand
Italy* 757.4 1 142.6 0.07
demand
Large diverse economy, aquatic
United Kingdom* 927.9 1 695.3 0.05
exports
Smaller economy, seabass/bream
Greece 533.3 146.5 0.36
exports
Spain 384.1 719.4 0.05
demand
North, Central and South America
Chile 5 277.3 103.6 5.09 Salmon aquaculture and exports
United States of V large, diverse economy, aquatic
944.6 11 925 0.01
America* imports
Diverse growing economy, minor
Brazil 598 721.8 0.08
aquatic role
Ecuador 763 21.7 3.51 Shrimp exports
Canada* 788.2 875.1 0.09 Salmon exports but diverse economy
Other
Russian
325.8 389.9 0.08 Growing economy, minor aquatic role
Federation
Iran (Islamic Rep. Domestic markets, expanded
451.1 145.8 0.31
of) aquaculture
Diverse economy, bass/bream
Turkey 604.6 269.5 0.22
exports
Substantial aquaculture; domestic
Egypt 1 192.6 135.9 0.88
supplies
Particularly for countries developing PRSPs (poverty reduction strategy programmes)

a recent development initiative has been to increase awareness of the GDP, employment
and food supply significance of the fisheries sector and where appropriate, that of

aquaculture. As a result, an increasing number of countries are recognising the sector

within policy frameworks.
Commercial environments
According to FAO (2008b), good governance for the aquaculture sector can be
defined by offering predictable, transparent, equitable and easily enforceable legislative
frameworks and simple regulations covering all aspects of aquaculture and its value
chain. Where appropriate these would be complemented by economic incentives to
encourage best practices, supporting producers to develop and apply self-regulating
management codes and sustainable production systems. In a broader sense of the policy
and institutional environments comprising the governance context, Muir (1995)
summarised the following elements (Table 1.26).
Table 1.26: Institutional/policy factors in aquaculture development
Institutional/
Effects Notes and issues
policy factor
Provides the basic context in which
Legislative structure, definition,
aquaculture can operate; legislative
Overall certainty, basis for contracts, leases,
factors commonly need to be
framework property rights, protections,
developed; rights often difficult to
obligations; infrastructures
establish
National economic strength, income Aquaculture sector usually the
Economic distribution, market conditions, recipient of policy, as relatively
policy investment opportunity and small scale; may affect international
structures, trading conditions competitive environment
Positive and negative aspects for
Business entities, investment
aquaculture; financing delayed-
Fiscal opportunity and structures;
payoff projects may require special
structures development and re-investment,
instruments; small-scale credit may
internationalisation
be a constraint
Aquaculture commonly seen as a
Development targets, objectives;
possible socially effective activity,
poverty focus, investment priorities,
Social policy but targeting may be difficult
availability of support structures/
because of need for resources,
development services
security
Environmental objectives, resource
Increasing impact on aquaculture,
assessments, protection and
Environmental possible over-reaction; aquaculture
conservation, development
policy can contribute to environmental
constraint, resource pricing,
gain - needs good management
rehabilitation
Consumer protection, public health,
resource development and Various issues affect aquaculture
Other management, employment development, cost of production,
regulation, liability, personal security, market issues, etc.
property, wealth
Many countries have developed legislation to govern the licensing, monitoring and
control of aquaculture. These aim to ensure that development is appropriately located,
ventures are sustainable and adequately protected and meet standards of environmental
protection. Most frameworks cover a number of production-related aspects including,

location and resource planning, resource access provision, water sourcing and wastewater
management, supply, sourcing or standards for seed and feed, and biosecurity issues such
as stock movement and disease control. Financial and market provisions and as
appropriate, investment instruments and other incentives may also be established (FAO,
2008b), with governments promoting and supporting investment by small-scale
producers through economic incentives including subsidized credit and collateral-free
loans. Fiscal incentives reducing or eliminating income tax, land taxes, sales taxes or
import duties may also be available to domestic and foreign investors. Targets for foreign
direct investment (FDI) have at times been contentious, even if ownership levels are
sometimes capped, with instruments such as capital and profit repatriation encouraging
rapid developments with insufficient social or environmental safeguards.
Amongst existing or emerging producers, self-policing is becoming more common
and is being promoted by a number of representative bodies, notably the Global
Aquaculture Alliance and other sectoral interests, increasingly linked with certification
schemes of various kinds. International assistance has sometimes been given to support
and promote private sector quality assurance, for example with USAID and the
Bangladesh shrimp industry (FSRFD, 2004). The FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible
Fisheries (CCRF) (FAO, 1995) is being used in some cases as a framework for self-
regulating management codes. By empowering small-scale producers in complying with
voluntary codes, it has been possible to improve environmental practice and improve
access to international markets (FAO, 2009c). However, self-regulation through
voluntary codes of practice may be ineffective in the absence of binding legal obligations
to enforce rules, though with processes such as the WWF Aquaculture Dialogues,
building industry support for definable good practices, linking with formal regulation and
definable international standards, efficient and trustworthy self-regulation may become
more viable.
Here, as in the fisheries sector, the international dimension of governance can also be
noted. Thus EU legislation on aquaculture and its value chain governs food additives,
animal diseases, environment, labelling and packaging, marketing, research, sanitary and
hygiene measures, structures and third countries. These regulations are binding in all EU
Member States without the need for any national parallel legislation. Import standards
extend the impact of these regulations tom exporting countries. An extensive array of
international agreements, standards and procedures is similarly in place elsewhere. To
participate in international trade, compliance with some of these agreements, standards
and procedures is mandatory, and competent authorities are defined and empowered to
verify compliance. However, for internal markets and some regional markets, this level
of interlinking standards and compliance is not so well developed, absent or more
arbitrary.
Overall though, there have been important changes. As the sector has grown, its
governance at various levels is still beset with practical and conceptual problems. Some
are the inevitable consequence of highly technology and market driven activities quickly
moving outside of societal boundaries, others relate to regulatory over-reactions or
imbalanced responses with insufficient protection in some themes co-existing with strong
focus on relatively insignificant issues. In some circumstances, particularly in developing
countries, there is specific concern that some forms of aquaculture can cause
environmental damage at the expense of society and that local communities are not
sufficiently aware or empowered to call producers to account, or to realise local resource
potential to produce more equitable results in their own hands. FAO (2008b) notes the

possible risk of “environmental or societal dumping” as the sector grows and countries
compete for foreign investment.
FAO (2008b) propose the key reasons for deficient governance to be the failure to i)
distinguish between private and public sector roles and responsibilities, ii) establish a
predictable framework of laws and iii) provide transparent and consistent decision-
making in application of laws and rules. A significant number of problems is still
connected with the need for public sector agencies to disengage from direct involvement
with production and having the confidence and capacity to move to a sector enabling
role, while reserving sufficient regulatory control to be able to bring excesses into line.
At the same time is noted the lack of financial and skilled human capacity to establish,
monitor and enforce regulations and the particular challenges of doing so where there are
large numbers of small producers. Issues of over-regulation and administrative delays are
also noted. A strategic problem is also that traditional governance agencies – commonly
fisheries departments, lack the capacity to address aquaculture across the broader range
of relevant policy issues. Although attempts continue to be made to widen linkages with
other public sector agencies, the practical consequences are in most cases very limited.
Resources and ecosystems

A range of laws and regulations commonly address access to key resources, their use
and the obligations to address the consequences of use (e.g. resource quality degradation,
deprivation of other users, wastes). In most countries, permits are required to put up
structures in open water areas, such as fish traps and cages, or to dam or divert flowing
water for private use. Access to groundwater is also increasingly under control as
resources become more heavily loaded. Similarly, conditions are set for the discharge of
water and wastes, continuously or periodically into receiving areas. However, laws can
be difficult to enforce because of the limited capacity to monitor, particularly for resource
quality parameters. These are in any case often related to generalised targets rather than
useful and relevant levels for local contexts. In some cases, communities or producer
associations manage water resources and resolve conflicts. Multiple uses of water have
also been encouraged to resources more efficiently and reduce potential conflicts, but the
criteria for these, the administrative context, and the rights and responsibilities of shared
users can be problematic to define and manage.
For planning and resource access, some countries apply zoning regulations, in which
aquaculture of various forms is spatially delimited. This commonly also provides some
level of protection for aquaculture operators from other activities and is sometimes linked
with provision of specific infrastructure, such as power, water supplies or waste channels.
A management and monitoring regime is also often established. Normally this is
accompanied by a licensing system with associated fees and penalties. While this can be
very effective in newly developing allocations of resources, retrospective application,
particularly for small producers, can be problematic, though where associations can be
developed to participate in the zoning process, there may be better outcomes. In some
cases also, the definition and application of rights to resources can be problematic,
particularly where customary use rights and allocation mechanisms clash with more
modern and formalised legislative structures. A further issue for land and water
allocations is that of restitution; potentially, zoning and related approaches can enforce
obligations to restore sites which have been used for aquaculture but no longer applied.
However, this requires well designed regulation to ensure the financial and other
responsibilities can be addressed. To date, and usually in the absence of zoning/licensing

provisions, restitution, e.g. for salinised soils around abandoned shrimp farms, has been
impossible to enforce.
Other biological resources and ecosystem features related to aquaculture are also
commonly subject to regulation, though its focus and enforcement can also be
problematic. Key issues are biodiversity and biosecurity – associated with impacts of
aquaculture via change of habitat, species introductions, escapes, disease interactions,
and predator control. Seed production and seed quality are also becoming a focus for
governance, at one level regulating stocks and their source and quality and at another,
creating incentives for producers to target good quality seed of desired species. As this
develops certification of seed producers, quality standards and other elements can be
established and monitored via national and local seed agents. For biosecurity and disease
risk reduction many countries have provisions to control movement of stock, including
quarantine, export controls and other measures. However in practice, particularly for
developing countries with long terrestrial or coastal borders, monitoring and enforcing
these can be extremely difficult and in many locations stocks move freely, without
inspection or certification.
Other areas of regulation include feeds and ingredient quality, with associated licenses
for feed, additives and/or premixes produced domestically or imported. However,
monitoring is commonly constrained by capacity and resources and in many cases small
farmers make feeds on site or obtain supplies from artisanal producers, without any
reference to quality standards. However, as evidenced by the recent issues of adulteration
of raw materials, with Chinese feed producers incorporating melamine to artificially
enhance measured protein levels, concern is increasing, and more organised approaches
are being introduced. This is particularly the case for exporting countries targeting
international markets.
At a wider level, a range of governance issues concerns the management of shared
and transboundary resources, including watersheds, lakes, coastal margins and regional
seas. Much of the context is commonly established with respect to water allocation and
management or capture fisheries management, but even in these areas the development
and application of workable approaches can be problematic. Interactions with respect to
aquaculture are as yet relatively poorly developed and implemented, but can be expected
to take a greater role. In the EU, the development and application of the Water
Framework Directive in the last decade has provided a context for aquaculture, amongst
other uses, and could be a useful precursor for similar approaches elsewhere, but this has
required significant investment within a wealthy region with well developed governance
systems. A related area, also open to further development is the interaction between
aquaculture and other sectors in conditions of steadily increasing resource pressure and
wide diversities of resource value, e.g. between biodiversity and conservation, residential
development, tourism and primary production. In these areas, as with others, further
dialogue, negotiation of market and societal value and related tradeoffs will be required.
Externalities associated with aquaculture or potentially impacting on it, also need to be
further addressed, valued more explicitly, and brought into management frameworks.
While resource pricing or market mechanisms may help to drive efficient allocation and
maximise societal and ecosystem benefits, they might not be sufficient for a complete
accounting for more subtle or complex issues. Approaches such as the Ecosystem
Approach for Aquaculture (EAA), developed conceptually from the equivalent for
fisheries (EAF), may be useful in developing more holistic valuation, decision-making
and management arrangements. However, these need to be developed in practical
contexts, recognising the capacities of governance agents.

Social and community issues

A range of social and community issues may be involved in governance approaches,
including labour conditions – access and discrimination, minimum wages, health and
safety, worker welfare systems, training and skill development and wider social
objectives, including credit access for target groups, rights, consultative and co-
management approaches, and links with political empowerment and local democratic
processes. More generally responsibilities for food safety and consumer protection can
also be included. Certification systems for aquaculture practices and products are
beginning to include standards for monitoring social responsibility and equity and are
increasingly engaging a range of stakeholders including communities, NGOs, public
authorities and academia/research institution to define aims and indicators and develop
approaches to meet social aims.
However, except for localities and countries where aquaculture has specific economic
or resource use importance or where there are social compensation issues surrounding
larger scale commercial ventures, it is important to set social development and protection
issues into context. Aquaculture can be important in meeting objectives for rural
employment, livelihood support, access for vulnerable groups and national food security,
but the conditions and limitations for these need to be better understood, together with
the wider framework in which these contributions can be made.
Knowledge and capacity building

A further area of sectoral governance which is commonly encountered is that of
developing and applying knowledge and building capacity, in public sector agencies and
in the civil society and private sector roles. The record on these has been rather variable
and while there has been substantial public sector investment in aquaculture, the returns,
particularly in developing countries, have been uncertain at best. As a consequence it has
been easy to lose confidence in the value of inputs or a sense of where and how future
investment could be placed. Apart from the larger private sector entities, analyses suggest
that there are notable constraints in innovation and knowledge building, with key issues
being:
• The limited capacity of individual producers, particularly in artisanal/small-
scale sector and the difficulty of overcoming resistance to collective
approaches;
• Public sector research and extension functions and motivations being

independent of aquaculture sector concerns and being unrelated to applicable
value-building outcomes;
• Limitations in NGO capacity, particularly in linking social development with

technical and market knowledge and with local and external innovation and
learning processes;
• Difficulties in building effective and goal-oriented strategies, employing

partnerships between public, private and third sector agencies and building
capacities appropriately.
Table 1.27 outlines some of the issues and possible strategies.

Table 1.27: Constraints to development and uptake of aquaculture
Area of
Issues Possible strategies
concern
Past research Scope too narrow; primarily zoology Post-hoc analysis, lessons learned; focus
and knowledge and basic technology, intensification; forwards towards integrated approaches
strategies neglect of social and environmental
context, short-term in response to
funding
Present state of Wide variation in capacity between Improved procedures for research strategy,
research and regions. Specific needs of different selecting priority areas, multidisciplinary
knowledge types of development poorly approaches, appropriate protocols,
building appreciated, inappropriate resource co-operation mechanisms and means to
allocation, lack of understanding of integrate plans, skills and outputs; more
farming systems; need for integrated focus on operating expenditures, improved
strategies, multi-disciplinary staff selection, training, motivation, evaluation,
resource; lack of long-term funding staff conditions, external communication;
support, operating funds; low programme funding continuity
motivation, lack of competition,
dynamism, quality of training
Disparities in Wide regional variation in basic Better communication, meeting, exchanges
distribution of knowledge and techniques available, of ideas, network access, external
knowledge impeded flow of knowledge, lack of evaluations of work programmes, better
competition, interchange, regional mechanisms, develop high
communication; need for evaluation, standard regional scientific journals.
need wider participation with
developed country activities
The use of Communication gap between public Better fora for exchange of ideas,
research sector institutes, universities, participation; validation under real field and
production sector, inappropriate economic conditions, etc; mechanisms for
dissemination mechanisms, joint financing of research, strengthened
top-down approaches, unrealistic user/producer groups, systematic
demonstrations procedures to evaluate development
Institutions Resources spread across too many Develop national entities, with clear
institutes, emphasis on capital priorities co-ordinated linked centres,
structures, low priority to innovative access to international co-operation; formal
research; limited term funding for structures for regional co-operation and
regional institutions, problems of specific action programmes for innovative
funding in general for operation and research
for wider networking.
Source: Muir (2005)
Conclusions
The onward rise of aquaculture?

The future of aquaculture has to be seen within the overall context of future directions
in macro economic conditions and regulatory frameworks. These in turn will be driven
by events, social trends and political responses. However, key features can be defined
(e.g. OECD/FAO, 2009; Ambler-Edwards et al., 2009) as:
• Potential impact of climate change and the need to move to a lower-carbon

economy with potentially higher energy costs;

• Food security in the context of rising populations, increased pressures on land

and freshwater resources and impact of climate change on agriculture and
fisheries productivity;
• The ability of national and international bodies to manage capture fisheries at
sustainable levels during a likely period of ecological change;
• Increasing demands by consumers for food that is good value, high quality, safe
and with ethically sound provenance (i.e. social and environmental
sustainability) and
• The need to maintain positive economic activity and growth for social stability.
Globally, aquaculture is expected to meet a growing deficit for aquatic foods
associated with stagnating capture fisheries supply and rising demand. However demand
will be greatest for lower priced products substituting for similarly priced fishery
products. Much of this will be exported in frozen form from Asian countries exploiting
their low cost-base. A review of European markets (STAQ, 2002) noted that around 63%
of supply had a first sale price below EUR 1/kg and 85% below EUR 2/kg. For capture
fisheries supply 73% was priced at below EUR 1/kg and 97% below EUR 2/kg, while for
aquaculture 96% was priced at over EUR 2/kg and 85% in the EUR 2-4 category. While
such disparities are not so strong in other markets, for example in South and East Asia,
where price differentials between aquaculture and fisheries products, particularly in
freshwater species, are not so marked (FSRFD, 2004), the supply-price-future investment
interaction needs to be explored further. Issues such as future income distribution will be
critical in determining the affordability of aquaculture product, and hence the investment
and resource competitive potential for growth. While major global markets will retain an
important role, particularly with respect to product attributes and the potential for adding
value, the greatest growth in demand is also likely to come from emerging economies
undergoing demographic transition.
Strategically, analyses of future potential need to be more market based and a greater
level of information about markets and industry performance will be needed to facilitate
quality analysis. The importance of consolidation for the production of commodity
species or raw material needs to be recognized and focus on large scale environmental
capacity, production conditions and equity from supply countries needs to be further
addressed. However, the importance of small and micro-scale enterprises in vulnerable
communities and ecosystems in providing employment and stewardship of resources is
also critical. This can be addressed through production of differentiated niche products
with a variety of value additions. With respect to overall strategies for aquaculture
species and products, the question of species or product diversity aims and the potential
for genetic gain in target species is also important. Table 1.28 outlines the implications of
these two decision axes. At this stage the global perspective is likely to be that for the
lower-right quadrant, with high genetic gains associated with a small number of key
species and a strong focus towards product development from these. This does not
preclude a wider diversity within total global production, but this will be less advanced
with respect to biotechnical efficiency.

Table 1.28: Scenarios for future development
Species diversity; low genetic-linked gain: Species diversity; high genetic-linked gain:
Wide range of species primarily occupying Wide range of species, but limited degree of
HUV markets, some being forced to operate at product development; flexible opportunity to occupy
very low margins; increasing competition from HUV markets or compete with lower cost, e.g.
imports, but moderate opportunity for replacing capture fisheries and other food product markets.
appreciated capture fishery stocks with 'natural' Moderate to high growth, but constrained by
products. Possible opportunities for small acceptance of product form. Biotechnology
scale producers; low to moderate growth skills/costs may favour larger producers, but
potential, potentially good conservationist licensing may allow small-scale producers to
image associated with unmodified stocks, participate. Neutral-poor conservationist image may
though careless strain management could be be improved with biodiversity support programmes.
negative.
Product diversity; low genetic-linked gain: Product diversity; high genetic-linked gain:
Limited degree of further development of other Some degree of development of other species, but
species - only to the point of niche markets, substantial development of product forms based on
and developing high quality specialised profiles steadily reduced base prices of key species.
for producers; otherwise widening product base Potentially very high growth, with major food supply
for 2-3 main species, with steadily levelling consequences, and primary role of large scale
prices. Moderate growth, with dominance by producers and specialist biotechnology suppliers.
primary species, and steadily increasing Very limited opportunity for specialist and small
penetration of traditional markets, possibly scale producers, reduced pressure on wild fisheries
disadvantaging traditional suppliers. due to low prices may improve conservation impact,
reducing fishery employment.
Source: Developed from Muir and Young (1998)
Strategic directions
Resource contexts will become increasingly important for the sector. Output from
inland areas will continue to be significant, from greater areas and more intensive use of
pond systems and wider development of lake or reservoir based cage culture. There will
be a greater need for integration with other functions as water demands increase for
agriculture, power generation, water and sanitation and industrial use (see e.g. EC, 2008).
Coastal areas are likely to become more important for a range of aquaculture production,
(Olsen et al., 2008; Whitmarsh and Palmieri, 2008) and where land-based enrichment
occurs, increasingly the case in major delta zones, integrated systems are likely to
become more common, with plants, molluscs and lower food chain fish species taking up
a nutrient removal role as well as contributing to market output. Changes in feed design
and formulation will also be important in permitting efficient intensification across a
range of species and systems, using a more diversified raw material base.
In terms of competitive conditions, the aquaculture sector is increasingly part of a
highly internationally competitive food industry, in which context several major trends
are observable:
• Large food supply companies are emerging, developing major
relationships with retail and food service outlets, integrating backwards to
link with producers and to supply international markets. So far, investment
in supply is less attractive, as profitability is higher in the downstream
subsector, but is being considered strategically, particularly if resources
become more constrained. Long-term supply contracts can also be

relevant, effectively also providing investment backing for specialist

aquaculture producers.
• Large aquaculture sector producers are also emerging – producing stock or

feeds, and integrating forwards to added-value production to link in with
food supply sectors. This is primarily based on their main production
species for which they have specialised capability.
• Large fishing industry entities are seeking to diversify and expand output,
acquiring aquaculture capacity to link in supplies for national and global
markets; building on product and market chain knowledge, reducing
supply risk and widening market presence.
• Non-sector interests in pioneer fields, e.g. energy supply companies, agro-

industrial and/or biofuel companies are also expressing interest in
aquaculture investment, either as CSR (corporate social responsibility)
approaches or with an aim for macro-scale integration. Partnerships with
specialist aquaculture enterprises may also be possible. Sovereign wealth
funds investing in future food production capacity have so far confined
targets to terrestrial production, but might also be extended to aquaculture.
The broader issues of investment and capital policy, fiscal conditions, risk
environment and trade policy will all be critical in defining the shape and context of the
macro scale sector. Smaller scale producers will be less influenced by policy themes at
this level, though this may depend on the extent to which marketing links are established
between specialist products and more generic aquaculture output. They will however be
much more connected with policies associated with social development, natural resource
allocation and management and market access.
The influence of climate change

Climate change will be major driver for aquaculture in most regions, with
increasingly important adaptation and risk management requirements. The viability,
location and form of future growth will be critically defined by current work being
developed to determine the type, scale and location of risks, potential impacts, policy and
management strategies and investment responses (FAO, 2009c). These elements will
require to be fully integrated into planning processes rather than be considered as
optional modifying factors. Aquaculture is also likely to play a valuable
mitigation/ecosystem quality enhancement role in salinising coastal zones and in inland
water conservation/value development strategies and these functions are likely to become
much more important. The potential for creating a market for protecting or enhancing
aquatic ecosystem services is yet to be specified, but may come to have a useful role in
rural economies.
As with capture fisheries, GHG (greenhouse gas) contributions from aquaculture are
small, but there will be similar obligations to reduce impacts. As noted by FAO (2008b),
sectoral policies would need to address resource access and use, production options and
market related measures such as certification, transparent mitigation standards,
comparators with other food sectors and where required, suitable social inclusion and
protection. Key areas could include fishery based and other feed inputs, water and energy

efficiency. Though genetic modification technologies may have valuable impacts (e.g.
widening scope for low-impact aquaculture species or making agricultural crop materials
or waste products usable for growing carnivorous aquatic species) these would require to
be evaluated within wider social and political criteria. Technologies and management
approaches should be accessible to small and rural farmers.
There may also be potential for some activities, especially seaweed and mollusk
aquaculture and other potentially sequestering systems (Thorn et al., 2008), to be part-
funded through carbon emissions trading or offset schemes or to be used to reduce the
‘carbon liability’ of related production. Though trading schemes have had only limited
relevance to the sector so far, food supply systems with lower carbon emission levels or
capable of sequestering carbon may have future competitive advantage.
Nutrient/emissions trading within global public goods may also open up similar markets
in materials such as nitrogen and phosphorous, allowing aquaculture producers to earn
valuable credits through their ability to take these up, or find incentives to reduce their
outputs.
Data, standards, knowledge and capacity development

National and regional development strategies for aquaculture need to be based on
sound market and economic understanding linked with knowledge of the impacts of
innovation, technology change, and human/institutional capacity building. To date, many
plans and strategies are based primarily on biotechnical issues – ability to rear organisms,
land areas, theoretical availability of water or feedstuffs, without considering practical
enterprise issues or impacts of output on national or other markets. Practical issues such
as resource rights, availability of capital and the time needed to develop supply chain
components such as seed, feed and services also need to be considered. The importance
of good sectoral data cannot be underestimated, as is the need to link this effectively with
other data sources to develop higher order measures and indicators and integrate data
acquisition with analysis and feedback. Knowledge exchange, through private sector
interests and in wider public sector arenas will become more significant and more
necessary. Features will include a wider range of partnerships; greater use of objective-
defined approaches; use of ICT for a wider range of interactive purposes.
At a global level, higher income aquatic food consumers and the trade they support
have tended to drive product standards and quality attributes, in turn creating technology
drivers in supplying countries. There is a strong argument for developing partnerships,
commercial ownerships or joint initiatives across the global supply networks. Related to
this, commercial information and a clear sense of the competitive advantages achievable
through different policy environments, agroecological conditions, technology application,
enterprise behaviour and technical skill needs to be developed further so that states can
be well positioned for domestic supply, export of products and services, productive
investment and sustainably high returns on natural resources.
There is an increasing need for holistic evaluation perspectives for the sector, in which
the overall efficiency of performance – judged by key criteria linked to profitability,
environmental risk and social acceptability - can be defined and targeted (see e.g.
Barbier, 2007; Turner et al., 2008). This array of criteria corresponds to the reality of
sustainable development for the sector. Simple stand-alone measures such as energy
efficiency, food conversion or volumetric productivity will not in themselves be
sufficient and policy makers, industry and technology developers will require to share
and develop perspectives to ensure better overall technology performance targets. From

this in turn could be derived more effective sectoral goals and better criteria for R&D
investment. At the same time, these issues will link with other emerging policy areas – in
food, environment, industry and social welfare.

Notes
1. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), aquaculture implies some form
of intervention in the rearing process of aquatic organisms to enhance production, such as regular
stocking, feeding, protection from predators etc. It also implies individual or cooperate ownership
of the stock being cultivated.
2. FAO statistics continue to distinguish between brackish-water and marine environments for
aquaculture. However there are significant practical problems in defining brackish water and in
allocating production between the two environments. Very few countries have the means and
resources to do this effectively. As all aquaculture in saline waters is carried out within coastal
margins/Economic Exclusion Zones (EEZs) it is more useful to group both categories as ‘coastal
aquaculture’. If genuine open sea/open ocean aquaculture develops in the future, possibly even in
high seas zones, it will be more useful to differentiate this.

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2. CLIMATE CHANGE, FOOD SECURITY AND AQUACULTURE – 109
Chapter 2
Climate change, food security and aquaculture
Albert G.J.Tacon, Instituto de Investigationes Oceanologicas, Universidad Autonoma de Baja

California; Mexico∗
Abstract
Hunger and malnutrition remain among the most devastating problems facing the world’s
poor and needy. With the world population expected to grow by 2.6 billion between 2005 and
2050 (roughly equal to the total global population in 1950 of 2.5 billion), there are growing
concerns about the long term sustainability of many existing food production systems to meet
future demands for food. Aquaculture is widely viewed as an important weapon in the global
fight against malnutrition and poverty, particularly within developing countries where over
93% of global production is currently realised; the aquaculture sector providing in most
instances an affordable and much needed source of high quality animal protein, lipids, and
other essential nutrients.
Aquaculture has been the fastest growing animal food producing sector globally for over half
a century, (average compound growth rate of 8.1% per year since 1961), with total global
production in 2007 reported as 65.2 million tonnes valued at USD 94.5 billion. Over 91.1% of
total global production was produced in Asia with China alone producing 63.2% of total
global aquaculture production.
However, the aquaculture sector is not without its problems and critics. Major issues related
to the unregulated development of more intensive industrial scale production systems and
include potential environmental concerns, potential resource use concerns, potential social
concerns, and potential food safety concerns.
∗
Co-authors are: Marc Metian, University of Hawaii, United States and Sena S. De Silva, Network of
Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific, Thailand.

110 – 2. CLIMATE CHANGE, FOOD SECUIRTY AND AQUACULTURE
Introduction
The overriding influence of climate changes on global food security, including

fisheries and aquaculture production, is beyond doubt. Figure 2.1 shows a diagrammatic
representation of the linkages between these sectors, and the main discussion points
covered in this paper.
Figure 2.1: Climate change, food security, and aquaculture continuum and major
discussion points
• Food security % food supply impacts

Climate • Aquatic ecosystem impacts
change
• Fisheries & aquaculture impacts
• Hunger & malnutrition

Food
• Poverty, food insecurity & food supply
Security
• Role of fish in global food supply
• Fishing for feed or fishing for food
Fisheries & • High trophic level aquaculture
aquaculture • Low trophic level aquaculture
Climate change: food security, fisheries and aquaculture impacts
According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

(UNFCCC; www.unfccc.int) the average temperature of the earth's surface has risen by
0.74 degrees °C since the late 1800s and is expected to increase by another 1.8 °C to 4 °C
by the year 2100. The reason for this global warming is believed to be due to the increase
of heat-trapping `greenhouse gases’ in the atmosphere and in particular carbon dioxide,
methane and nitrous oxide. Whilst greenhouse occur naturally and are critical for life on
earth, in augmented and increasing quantities they are believed pushing the global
temperature to artificially high levels and altering the climate. The main causes of global
warming are believed to be due to industrialization and the burning of fossil fuels (coal,
oil and gas) to meet increasing energy demands and the spread of intensive agriculture to
meet increasing food demand, which is often accompanied by deforestation. Moreover,
the process of global warming shows no signs of abating and is expected to bring about
long term changes in weather conditions (FAO, 2008).

For the purposes of the present paper, it is sufficient to summarize here those
potential impacts of climate change on food security and global food supply, as follows:
Agriculture and food security (FAO, 2008)

• Agriculture is important for food security in two ways, 1) by producing
the food people eat, and 2) by providing the primary source of livelihood
for 36% of the world’s total workforce. In the heavily populated countries
of Asia and the Pacific, this share ranges from 40 to 50% and in sub-
Saharan Africa, two-thirds of the working population still make their
living from agriculture. It follows therefore, that if agricultural production
in the low-income developing countries of Asia and Africa is adversely
affected by climate change, the livelihoods of large numbers of the rural
poor will be put at risk and consequently their vulnerability to food
insecurity increased.
Food, fibre and forest products (http://unfccc.int)

• Crop yield is projected to increase in temperate regions for a local mean
temperature rise of 1-3 °C and then decrease beyond that in some regions;
• In tropical areas, crop yield is projected to decrease, even with relatively
modest rises of 1-2 °C in local temperature, increasing the risk of hunger;
• Increases in the frequency of droughts and floods are projected to affect
local crop production negatively, especially in subsistence sectors at low
latitudes.
Aquatic foods and food security (FAO, 2009a, 2009b)

• Availability of aquatic foods will vary, positively and negatively, through
changes in habitats, stocks and species distribution. These changes will
occur at regional and local levels in inland, coastal and marine systems,
due to aquatic ecosystem shifts and impacts on aquaculture;
• Stability of supply will be impacted by changes in seasonality, increased
variance of ecosystem productivity, increased supply risks and reduced
supply predictability – issues that may also have large impacts on supply
chain costs and retail prices;
• Access to aquatic foods will be affected by changes in livelihoods and
catching or culture opportunities combined with transferred impacts from
other sectors (i.e. increased prices of substitute foods), competition for
supply and information asymmetries. Impacts may also arise from rigid
management measures that control temporal and spatial access to
resources;
• Utilization of the aquatic products and the nutritional benefits produced
will be impacted: changes in range and quality of supply; market chain
disruptions; greater food safety issues; and reduced opportunities to
consume products. This is particularly critical for countries with high per
capita fish consumption;

• Food security will also be positively affected by increasing the percentage

of fish used for direct human consumption (versus fish used for feed) and
reducing post-harvest losses through spoilage and waste. Climate change
will add to the complexity of addressing these issues and climate events
may have a direct negative impact on the control of spoilage and waste.
Fisheries and aquaculture ecosystem and livelihood impacts (Cochrane

et al., 2009; FAO, 2009a, 2009b; Handisyde et al,. 2006)
• Ecosystem impacts, including modification in distribution of marine and
freshwater aquatic species; altered ecosystem productivity; alteration of
marine and freshwater food webs; increased risk of species invasions and
spread of vector-borne diseases; alteration of intensity, frequency and
seasonality of climate patterns (e.g. . El Niño) and extreme events (e.g.
floods, droughts storms) affecting the stability of marine and freshwater
resources adapted to or affected by these and sea level rise, glacier
melting, ocean acidification and changes in precipitation, groundwater and
river flows will significantly affect coral reefs, wetlands, rivers, lakes and
estuaries, requiring adapting measures to exploit opportunities and
minimize impacts on fisheries and aquaculture systems (FAO, 2009a);
• Livelihood impacts, including changes in distribution, species composition
and habitats will require changes in fishing practices and aquaculture
operations, as well as in the location of landing, farming and processing
facilities; extreme events will also impact on infrastructure, ranging from
landing and farming sites to post-harvest facilities and transport routes
(they will also affect safety at sea and settlements, with communities
living in low-lying areas at particular risk); water stress and competition
for water resources will affect aquaculture operations and inland fisheries
production and are likely to increase conflicts among water dependent
activities; livelihood strategies will have to be modified for instance with
changes in fishers migration patterns due to changes in timing of fishing
activities. Reduced livelihood options inside and outside the fishery sector
will force occupational changes and may increase social pressures and
may have particular gender dimensions, including competition for resource
access (FAO, 2009a).
Figure 2.2 summarizes the potential climate change impacts on fisheries and
aquaculture (Allison, 2009).

Figure 2.2: Diagrammatic representation of climate change effects on fisheries and

aquaculture
Effect on : Impact on :
Species composition
Production & yield
CLIMATE Distribution
Production
CHANGE Diseases
Ecology
Coral Bleaching
Ocean Currents Calcification
ENSO
Sea level rise Fishing &
Rainfall Safety & efficiency
Aquaculture
Rivers flows Infrastructure
operations
Lake levels
Thermal Loss/damage to assets
structure Communities
Risk to health & life
Storm severity livehoods
Displacement & conflict
Storm frequency
Acidification
Adaptation &
Wider society Mitigation costs
& Economy Market impacts
Water allocation
Source: adapted from Allison, 2009
Food security: malnutrition and the role of fish in global food supply
Nutrition and food supply is the keystone that determines the health and well-being
of all people, both rich and poor. It allows people to grow, develop, work, play, resist
infection and aspire to realization of their fullest potential as individuals and societies.
Conversely, malnutrition makes people all more vulnerable to disease and premature
death. Without adequate food, people cannot lead healthy, active lives, they are not
employable, they cannot care for their children and their children cannot learn to read and
write. The right to food cuts across the entire spectrum of human rights – its fulfilment is
essential to the fight against poverty and to ensure a world free from hunger. Sadly,
hunger and malnutrition remain among the most devastating problems facing the world’s
poor and needy and continue to dominate the health and well-being of the world’s
poorest nations; malnutrition still being the number one killer and cause of suffering on
earth, causing more deaths than HIV/AIDS, warfare, genocide, terrorism, or any other
ailment, particularly within developing countries. Poverty, hunger and malnutrition stalk
one another in a vicious circle, compromising health and wreaking havoc on the
socioeconomic development of whole countries and entire continents. Nearly 30% of
humanity, especially those in developing countries, including infants, children,
adolescents, adults, and older persons, bear this triple burden. This remains a continuing
travesty of the recognized fundamental human right to adequate food and nutrition, and
freedom from hunger and malnutrition, particularly in a world that has both the resources
and knowledge to end this catastrophe (WHO, 2000).
According to the United Nations Development Program, the World Health
Organization (WHO), and FAO it is estimated that about one-fifth of the world’s
population is currently living in extreme poverty (defines as living on less than USD 1
per day), with more than 4 billion people earning less than USD 4 per day and the
majority living within developing countries. Moreover, with the world population
expected to grow by 2.6 million between 2005 and 2050 (a number roughly equal to the
total global population in 1950 of 2.5 billion; Campbell et al., 2007), there are growing

doubts as to the long term sustainability of many existing agricultural and aquacultural
food production systems to meet the increasing global demand for food (Serageldin,
2002).
Food fish, whether captured or cultured, plays an important role in human nutrition
and global food supply, particularly within the diet and food security of the poor and
needy as a source of much needed essential dietary nutrients (Tacon and Metian, 2009).
Figure 2.3 shows the contribution of fish (includes both fish and shellfish) and pelagic
fish to total daily per capita calorie and protein intake by major geographical region and
country grouping (FAO, 2009c). Moreover, whereas the per capita supply of food fish for
direct human consumption from capture fisheries has not been able to keep pace with
population growth (per capita food fish supply from capture fisheries decreasing by
10.4% from 10.6 to 9.5 kg/capita from 1995 to 2007), food fish supply from aquaculture
continues to grow (increasing by 74.4% from 4.3 to 7.5 kg/capita from 1995 to 2007),
and is expected (at its current growth rate) to match food supply from capture fisheries in
2012. Food fish represents a major source of animal protein (contributing more than 25%
of the total animal protein supply) for about 1.25 billion people within 39 countries
worldwide, including 19 Sub-Saharan countries (FAO, 2009c). Despite the importance of
food fish in the diet of peoples within the African continent, the Sub-Saharan region is
the only region of the world where per capita consumption of fish has fallen (aquaculture
representing only 3.1% [158 000 tonnes] of total capture fisheries landings in the region
[5.1 million tonnes] in 2006) (FAO, 2009c).

Figure 2.3: Contribution of fish (includes both fish and shellfish) and pelagic fish to total daily per capita
calorie and animal protein intake by major geographical region and country grouping in 2003
Source: Tacon and Metian, 2009
Aquaculture: Role in global food supply and sustainability implications
Of the different agricultural food production systems, aquaculture (the farming of

aquatic animals and plants) is widely viewed as an important weapon in the global fight
against malnutrition and poverty, particularly within developing countries where over
93% of global production is currently realised; the aquaculture sector providing in most
instances an affordable and much needed source of high quality animal protein, lipids,
and other essential nutrients. Aquaculture has been the fastest growing animal food
producing sector globally for over half a century, with production (excluding aquatic
plants) growing at an average compound rate of 8.1% per year since 1961, as compared
with 3% for terrestrial farmed meat production, 3.4% for egg production and 1.5% for
milk production over the same period. According to FAO over 340 different species of
farmed aquatic plants and animals were produced in 2007 (the latest year for which
complete statistical information exists), with total global production in 2007 reported as
65.2 million tonnes (major species groups: finfish 48.9%, aquatic plants 22.7%, molluscs
20.1%, crustaceans 7.5%) and valued at USD 94.5 billion. By region over 91.1% of total
global production was produced in Asia in 2007, followed by the Americas (3.8%),

Europe (3.6%), Africa (1.3%) and Oceania (0.2%); China alone producing over
41.2 million tonnes of farmed aquatic produce in 2007 or 63.2% of total global
aquaculture production (FAO, 2009c).
In marked contrast with capture fisheries where the bulk of the fish species harvested
are marine carnivorous fish species positioned high in the aquatic food chain, the
mainstay of farmed fish production are omnivorous and herbivorous fish species
positioned low in the aquatic food, including carps, tilapia and catfishes. Whereas marine
capture fisheries have been feeding the world on high trophic level carnivorous fish
species since mankind has been fishing the oceans, aquaculture production within
developing countries has focused, by and large, on the production of lower trophic level
species (Figure 2.4). However, like capture fisheries, aquaculture focus within OECD or
economically developed countries has been essentially on the culture of high value-, high
trophic level-carnivorous fish species. The long term sustainability of these production
systems is questionable unless the industry can reduce its dependence upon capture
fisheries for sourcing raw materials for feed formulation and seed inputs (Tacon et al.
2010).
However, as with all agricultural terrestrial food production systems, the aquaculture
sector has not been without its problems and critics. Major problems and issues raised
have been mainly related with the unregulated development of more intensive industrial
scale production systems, and in particular with farming systems for the production of
high value crustacean and carnivorous finfish species.
Figure 2.4: Global trends in aquaculture production expressed in weighted mean trophic
level by economic country grouping, including China
Developing countries
70
Developing countries
China
60
Developing countries without China
China
OECD countries
50
40
Million tonnes
Developing countries without China

30
20
OECD countries
10 4 ч Trophic level < 5
2 ч Trophic level < 3
3 ч Trophic level < 4
Molluscs
0
Aquatic plants
1950
1954
1958
1962
1966
1970
1974
1978
1982
1986
1990
1994
1998
2002
2006
0 5 10 Millions Tonnes
Source: weighted trophic levels calculated from Froese and Pauly, 2007 and FAO, 2009c

Specific issues relate to perceived unsustainable aquaculture practices and/or the

potential negative impacts of the sector and have included a variety of potential
environmental concerns (regarding habitat loss, pollution, escapes, genetic and disease
interactions with wild populations, and possible marine mammals, turtles and bird
interactions), potential resource use concerns (regarding feed selection and use, water
use, land use, energy use, wild seed collection etc), potential social concerns (regarding
displacement of coastal fishing and farming communities, disruption of seafood prices,
local food supplies, and food security, possible livelihood impacts, reduced access to
community resources, salinization of potable water and ground water, social exclusion,
potential conflicts with tourism, recreational fishing, and commercial fishing etc), and
potential food safety concerns (regarding the possible contamination with of farmed
produce with unwanted heavy metals, pollutants, chemicals, medicants, and pathogens).
However, it must also be stated that the majority of the above listed issues and concerns
are usually species, farm and country specificand can be mitigated or their impacts
greatly minimized by strict adherence to the principles and guidelines within the FAO
Code for Responsible Fisheries, and in particular article 9 of the Code dealing with
aquaculture development (FAO, 1995, 1997, 2001). The solution is better governance,
not just by policymakers to ensure this adherence, but by operators, too.

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FAO (2009c), Fishstat Plus: Universal Software for Fishery Statistical Time Series.
Aquaculture Production: Quantities 1950–2007, Aquaculture Production: Values
1984–2007; Capture Production: 1950–2007; Commodities Production and Trade:
1950–2007; Total Production: 1970–2007, Vers. 2.30.
FAO Fisheries Department, Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Unit, Rome.
Froese, R., and D. Pauly (eds.) (2007), FishBase.WorldWideWeb electronic publication,
www.fishbase.org, version (12/2007).
Handisyde, N.T., L.G. Ross, M-C. Badjeck and E.H. Allison (2006), “The effects of
climate change on world aquaculture: a global perspective”, Final Technical Report
produced by the Institute of Aquaculture, Stirling, U.K. and sponsored by the
Department for International Development, DFID, 151p.

Serageldin, I. (2002), “World poverty and hunger—the challenge for science”, Science
296, 54–58.
Tacon, A.G.J., M. Metian, G.M. Turchini and S.S. De Silva (2010), “Responsible
aquaculture and trophic level implications to global fish supply”, Reviews in Fisheries
Science, 18:94-105.
Tacon, A.G.J. and M. Metian (2009), “Fishing for feed or fishing for food: increasing
global competition for small pelagic forage fish”, Ambio, 38(6):294-302.
WHO (2000), “Nutrition for Health and Development: A global agenda for combating
malnutrition”, Geneva, World Health Organization, 2000 (Document
WHO/NHD/00.6).

3. NORWAY: AQUACULTURE ZONING POLICY AND COMPETITION FOR MARINE SPACE IN AQUACULTURE MANAGEMENT – 121
Chapter 3
Norway: Aquaculture zoning policy and competition for marine

space in aquaculture management
Yngve Torgersen, Martin Bryde and Ruth Torill Kongtorp

Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs; Department of Aquaculture, Seafood
and Markets, Norway
Abstract
Environmental sustainability is a prerequisite for the long-term development and growth
of aquaculture production. Well-organized zoning policies contribute to the efficient use
of space whilst minimizing the industry’s environmental impact. Thus, effective
management of marine space is necessary to ensure environmental sustainability.
Moreover, it also ensures balanced co-existence between different user-interests in
coastal zones.
Norwegian zoning policy with respect to sustainability in aquaculture is presented in the
Government’s ‘Strategy for an environmentally sustainable Norwegian aquaculture’ of
2009. The strategy establishes the criteria that define environmental sustainability,
identifies, problems, sets key goals and describes measures to be taken. It focuses on five
main areas where aquaculture has an impact on the environment:
- Genetic interaction and escapes
- Pollution and discharges
- Disease, including parasites
- Zoning
- Feed and feed resources.
Zoning in this respect is a horizontal issue which affects all of these issues except feed.
Thus, finding well-functioning solutions to these challenges depends in part upon finding
and apt zoning strategy. The strategy identifies the following goal for zoning policy: ‘The
aquaculture industry will have a location structure and zoning which reduces impact on
the environment and risk for infection’. The case study presents the Norwegian zoning
strategy and the related key challenges faced by authorities in ensuring an
environmentally sustainable aquaculture industry.

122 – 3. NORWAY: AQUACULTURE ZONING POLICY AND COMPETITION FOR MARINE SPACE IN AQUACULTURE MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Over the past 40 years, aquaculture has developed into a major industry in Norway,
with over 900 000 tonnes of farmed fish produced in 2009, equivalent to nearly
USD 3 billion in first-hand turnover. Norway has become one of the world's biggest
exporters of seafood, of which farmed fish now represent more than half of total
Norwegian seafood exports. More than 4 500 people are directly employed in the
industry. There are also a high number of employees in the supply industry and in
processing and transport companies. This makes the aquaculture industry important for
employment and value creation, especially in rural areas along the Norwegian coast.
The Norwegian aquaculture industry faces a range of environmental challenges.
Among the most important is efficient utilisation of coastal space, while ensuring low
impact on ecosystems. The Aquaculture Act has an environmental provision which states
that aquaculture must be established, run and closed down in an environmentally
responsible manner. When evaluating the concept of environmental responsibility, the
precautionary principle comes into play, which entails that ignorance may not be used as
an excuse for delaying or avoiding the initiation of proportionate and cost-effective
measures to counteract serious or irreversible damage to the environment. Any potential
impact from aquaculture must therefore be assessed in relation to the total environmental
load from other activities.
In April 2009, the Minister of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs launched a Strategy for an
environmentally sustainable Norwegian aquaculture industry. The strategy focuses on
the environmental aspects of sustainable fish farming, based on five main areas in which
the industry impacts the environment (the impact model). These are:
• Spatial planning and area management;
• Disease, including parasites;
• Genetic interaction and escapes;
• Pollution and discharges and
• Feed and feed resources.
The strategy document discusses details of challenges, status, measures initiated,

future goals and the Government's proposals for new measures for each of these five
areas. The first four have important implications for coastal area planning and will be
addressed in this paper.
Establishment of aquaculture sites
The current Aquaculture Act came into force 1 January 2006. Due to a need for the
authorities to safeguard the needs of the society, i.e. rural area development,
environmental integrity and market access issues, a licence is required for the
establishment and operation of each aquaculture site. Environmental considerations and
optimised use of the coastal zone are aspects that are taken into account when

establishing, operating and closing down sites. Prior approval of the site environmental
and area management issues are therefore of paramount importance.
Application for a new site or for expansion of an existing site is a demanding and
lengthy process governed to a large extent by the Aquaculture Act. From 1 January 2010,
the responsibility for coordinating the review process for such applications was
transferred from the Directorate of Fisheries to the County Council authorities. Several
other sector authorities are involved in reviewing applications for compliance with the
various guidelines and regulations such as pollution, animal health and welfare, harbour
and fairways, biodiversity and spatial planning. For a licence to be granted, all authorities
involved must issue their approval or statement as briefly described below. The local
municipality announces the application to the general public, clarifies land and sea area
use according to the Planning and Building Act. The County Governor decides the
application pursuant to the Pollution Control Act and subsequently issues a statement
with respect to nature conservation, recreational fishing and expected implications for
wild salmonids in the area.
The Norwegian Food Safety Authority and the Directorate of Fisheries govern the
different decisions laid forth in a regulation for production expansion of existing
aquaculture sites and establishment of new sites. For each application, compliance with
required distances to other aquaculture facilities and rivers is evaluated. The evaluation
also includes the maximum standing biomass being sought relative to disease risk and
control and the applicant’s ability to perform responsible delousing treatments. An
adequate contingency plan for handling of high mortality and serious diseases must
accompany the application. Further considerations include the general disease situation in
the area and whether there are any risk factors that can compromise the welfare of farmed
fish. Within a defined endemic zone for pancreas disease, a prioritisation criterion will
apply in addition to other criteria. This entails that new licenses for salmon are allocated
in accordance with a regional strategy for mitigating the disease risk. Risk for spread of
disease to wild fish stocks is also considered. Also, a special regulation forbids new
commercial salmonid aquaculture sites within designated national salmon fjords.
A new Planning and Building Act came into force on 1 July 2009, providing wide
powers for municipal authorities to enable planning of areas for farming specific fish
species or groups of species. The aim is to stimulate the municipal authorities to draft and
update local development plans. In addition, municipal authorities were given powers to
levy a property tax on farming facilities in seawater from 2009. This may further
motivate them to plan for aquaculture. Municipal authority development plans are
important tools for planning the use of coastal space. A good plan will avoid conflicts
among aquaculture, fishing and other activities and balance private and community
interests. The Act also facilitates planning across local authority boundaries through new
provisions on regional planning and inter-authority joint planning.
When establishing a large site, normally above 3 200 metric tonnes of fish, or
hatchery with more than 5 million fry, it is decided whether an environmental impact
assessment (EIA) should be undertaken. An EIA must include documentation on the
facility's impact on the environment, natural resources or the local community.
The Norwegian Costal Administration decides on the application pursuant to the
Harbour Act. In addition, the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate will be
involved if extraction of fresh water is planned.

After receiving the written decision from all of the above sector authorities, the
County Council authority either issues the license, or declines the application. If any of
the above sector authorities decline the application, the applicant has the right to appeal
the decision to the relevant sector authority via the country council authority.
Figure 3.1: The application process for establishment of sites for aquaculture
purposes
Spatial planning and area management
Overall aim: The aquaculture industry has a siting structure that reduces the
impact on the environment and the risk of infection.
Effective utilisation of coastal space facilitates maximum production within a limited
geographical area without unacceptable impact on the environment. This is important for
minimising the occurrence of infectious diseases, pollution and discharges and for
maximising growth, health and welfare of farmed fish. An optimal allocation of
aquaculture sites is also important for the preservation of biological diversity and habitats
in general, and of particular importance for Norway’s wild Atlantic salmon.
The current structure of sites is a result of the rapid growth of the aquaculture industry
over the past 30 years. This is particularly true for traditional salmon farming, but also
for new species, such as cod and mussels. Due to a lack of regional and national plans,

establishments of new sites are not sufficiently coordinated. This development has
probably contributed to major fish health problems experienced by the industry in recent
years, particularly concerning the impact of pancreas disease and sea lice in Western
Norway, where the density of farming facilities is the highest.
2
Figure 3.2: Picture representing a 2500 km area south of Bergen on the West coast
On the map shown here above, there are approximately 70 sites approved for farming
of salmon and trout. This area is in Norwegian terms considered a high density area.
A shortage of new, suitable sites also makes it difficult to relocate a farm to improve
the production conditions. Also, salmon and trout farmers are not allowed to relocate
licenses between the Directorate of Fisheries' regions1 and the possibility of derogation is
low. The spatial occupation of coastal areas by aquaculture installations has also resulted
in conflicts between the aquaculture industry and other users of the marine environment.
Fisheries, tourism and recreational activities require access to coastal space. Additionally,
industrial facilities, harbours and shipping routes may occupy large areas.
At present, the authorities lack essential tools to oppose the inefficient use of coastal
space, as decisions involving changes in production licenses are usually made for single
sites. Following an amendment of the Aquaculture Act in 2009, relocation of sites may
be enforced by the central authorities, i.e. the Directorate of Fisheries, when necessary
due to environmental or socio-economic concerns. Furthermore, a licence may be
withdrawn in accordance with the Aquaculture Act if production at a particular site is no
longer considered to be environmentally appropriate, e.g. when investigations show that
ecosystems have been adversely affected by farming activities. Withdrawal may also be
performed if the disease situation or awareness of disease or fish welfare conditions have
changed significantly since the licence was granted. However, these statutes are not
suitable as a tool for changing the structure of sites for large areas. This must be
performed as part of a national plan for management of coastal space.

In September 2009, the Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs therefore

established an expert committee for the efficient and sustainable utilisation of coastal
space for aquaculture purposes. In their final report which will be presented in February
2011, the committee will outline principles for a new general structure of the aquaculture
industry, ensuring sufficient space for aquaculture activities, efficient utilisation of
allocated space and environmentally sustainable production. The recommendations will
be an important contribution to future national plans for the development of the
Disease management
Overall aim: Disease in aquaculture has no regulating effect on wild stocks and as
many farmed fish as possible grow to slaughter size with minimal use of veterinary
medicines.
Optimal area management is essential for the control of infectious diseases. The
health situation in Norwegian salmonid aquaculture has improved greatly over the last 20
years, due to vaccines and the implementation of other measures against the most
common bacterial diseases. However, viral diseases, such as pancreas disease (PD), are
currently associated with major economic losses. In 2008, the economic losses due to PD
were estimated to approximately USD 200 million. Dispersal of pathogens between sites
appears to be the most important causal factor for disease outbreaks. This implies that the
current minimum distance between sites may not be optimal.
Figure 3.3: Overview of the incidence of some notifiable viral diseases during the past 20 years
On its own initiative, the aquaculture industry has formed a steering group to combat
pancreas disease within the established endemic zone (which for all practical purposes is
the Norwegian West Coast from Stavanger to Molde). The group has proposed extensive
structural changes for the aquaculture industry. The proposal entails organising
aquaculture into geographically distinct areas to limit infection, separated by “fire-gates”

to prevent or reduce the risk of infection between neighbouring zones, closure of less
optimal sites and structural operation of transport of fish in well boats. This will require
"viable, synchronised production plans" for all sites situated within the zones. For the
plan to be successful, all farmers within the area must support and implement the
proposed actions on a voluntary basis. This may be difficult for small operators.
The initiative from the aquaculture industry has been welcomed by the authorities.
The industry should further develop a code of best practice, incorporating safe
transportation of fish, avoidance of moving growing fish between sites, synchronised
production and fallowing and other elements that may improve the disease situation.
Along with regulatory changes and an improved overall structure of sites, the aquaculture
industry and authorities may in the future be more capable of combating emerging
infectious diseases.
Diseases and parasite infestations in farmed fish may also represent a serious threat to
wild stocks. This is particularly true for sea lice. While infestation with sea lice occurs
naturally in wild stocks, the problem has been intensified by the multitude of hosts
present on aquaculture sites. In addition to being passed from fish to fish, it can also be
widely dispersed by currents. Due to their inherent biology, sea lice have the largest
range of dispersal of all known fish pathogens. The current structure of sites in the
aquaculture industry is consequently not well suited to minimize sea lice dispersal
between sites and to wild salmonid stocks.
The tolerance limits for sea lice infestation have not yet been determined. The
Institute of Marine Research, the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research and others
have found high levels of sea lice on wild fish in some areas. For example, catches from
the Hardangerfjord area show that wild salmon and sea trout may have 3-5 times more
lice than what is considered to be a fatal dose. In a worst case scenario, this may have
regulating effects on stocks of migrating salmon and hence be considered not
environmental sustainable.
Synchronised winter and spring delousing are now mandatory along most of the
Norwegian coastline. The campaigns aim at reducing the number of sea lice in the fjords
during the spring migration of wild stocks. The Norwegian Food Safety Authority is also
in the process of establishing zones for synchronised fallowing of sites, in order to reduce
the impact of sea lice on wild fish. Successful synchronisation of treatment and fallowing
for larger areas require an optimal allocation of sites. The size of a zone must be
appropriate with regard to the synchronised operation, as well as practical management
of the production cycle. The density of sites within a zone must not exceed a level that
will compromise fish health, welfare or environmental sustainability of the area. Also,
zones must be placed sufficiently far apart to prevent spread of pathogens between them.
Genetic interaction and escapes
Overall aim: Aquaculture do not contribute to permanent changes in the genetic

characteristics of wild fish stocks
World stocks of wild Atlantic salmon have been significantly reduced over the past
30 years. Around one third of Atlantic salmon has their spawning grounds in Norway and
Norway has committed to take special managerial responsibility for wild Atlantic salmon
through international agreements. Salmon have disappeared from 45 watercourses in

Norway. About 100 of the remaining 400 Norwegian populations are vulnerable.
However, historic data from Norway show fluctuations and trends vary in different
regions over time. There may be several reasons for the decline in wild salmon stocks
over the last 30 years, for instance natural fluctuations in food availability and water
temperature in the Norwegian Sea, pollution, acid rain, watercourse diversion, infestation
with Gyrodactylus salaris, overfishing, aquaculture etc.
There is general agreement that substantial and persistent interbreeding with escaped,
migrant, farmed salmon is detrimental to wild salmon. Escapes in recent years have
mainly been caused by damage to installations, technical inadequacies, human error,
predators and lack of control systems or incompetence among salmon farmers. Both the
authorities and the aquaculture industry have worked hard to reduce the number of
escapes.
Wild stocks inhabiting the various watercourses and fjords along the Norwegian
coastline may differ in tolerance levels and robustness, due to both genetic and
environmental factors. It is therefore necessary to develop suitable indicators to measure
the effects of escapes from aquaculture.
In some areas it is clear that the ecosystems are particularly vulnerable. This was
discussed in a Government report to the Parliament On the conservation of wild salmon
and the designation of salmon watercourses and salmon fjords.2 As one of the measures
to protect wild salmon stocks, 52 national salmon watercourses and 29 national salmon
fjords were established in 2007. Within these watercourses and fjords, aquaculture
activities are restricted and as a main rule no new sites will be established within the
protected areas. A similar protection regime for vulnerable stocks of wild cod will also be
considered.
A major concern in cod farming is genetic interaction with wild stocks due to release
of ova and fry from sea cages. The consequences of this type of escape from aquaculture
sites are unknown. Various approaches to reduce the release of fry and sexual products
from farmed cod are being attempted, including changes in cage constructions and
breeding. The Government’s ambition is to introduce a zero tolerance to unintentional
release of egg and fry within 2015. As a precautionary measure, the Directorate of
Fisheries has in recent years prohibited the establishment of cod farms on known
spawning grounds for wild cod. This was given statutory authority in 2009. Mapping of
spawning grounds for wild marine stocks is a lengthy process and the picture is therefore
not yet complete.
Pollution and discharges
Overall aim: All aquaculture sites maintain an acceptable environmental state and have
not higher emissions of nutrient salts and organic materials than the receiving waters
can tolerate.
In general, discharges of nutrient salts and organic materials from aquaculture
constitute a minor environmental problem in Norway. The long coastline and extensive
use of sites with high levels of water circulation and good water quality are contributory
factors. As a result, the carrying capacity and self-purification properties are relatively
good for most sites. However, discharge of nutrient salts and organic materials from
farming may have negative local effects in some areas. Additionally, regional effects

cannot be excluded. The decomposition of organic materials may result in oxygen

reduction and changes in benthic biodiversity. Discharges of nutrient salts may also cause
increased algal growth and eutrophication.
The establishment of a new site is often performed without full awareness of the
environmental consequences, as knowledge of marine ecosystems is incomplete. A
programme for a national survey of marine biological diversity including spawning and
nursery areas in coastal zones has been initiated.
Methods for monitoring the benthic effects of aquaculture (MOM) are defined in the
national standard NS9410, and made mandatory by regulation. The so-called B-
investigation monitors effects of aquaculture activities on site-level. The frequency of
investigation depends on the level of discharge attributed to the site. It is also compulsory
to perform a B-investigation before establishment of a new site. The more comprehensive
C-investigation provides an assessment of the environmental impact for a larger
geographical area than the B-investigation. C-investigations from several sites are useful
for an evaluation of the total discharge levels from the aquaculture industry in a given
area. Results from these investigations may be useful for local and regional plans for
aquaculture.
The MOM system will be integrated into a cohesive management system for
environmental monitoring and spatial planning of sites for aquaculture (MOLO). In
addition to implementation of the C-investigation, this will include evaluations of the
allocation of sites within an area, the maximum size of each site and how many sites an
area may carry. Once implemented, the MOLO system will improve the current practice
for establishment of new sites and contribute to an increased environmental sustainability
for aquaculture on local and regional levels. It will also be necessary to coordinate
regional plans with a future national plan for utilisation of coastal space for the

Notes
1. The Norwegian coast is divided into a total of seven relatively large regions.
2 Report to Stortinget no. 32 (2006-2007).

4. FRANCE: A CASE STUDY ON AQUACULTURE GOVERNANCE – 131
Chapter 4
France: A case study on aquaculture governance
Fisheries Department
French Ministry for Food, Agriculture and Fisheries
Abstract
French aquaculture is dominated by small to medium enterprises producing shellfish; in
particular oysters and mussels. In fact, 85% of the total European oysters come from
France and the remaining production is absorbed by the domestic market. In addition to
shellfish, France also farms marine and freshwater species, including salmon, trout, sea
bass and sea bream and increasingly sturgeon for caviar production.
Despite high internal demand, the aquaculture sector in France is stagnating. Main
constraints for further development are identified: competition for marine space in
coastal areas, market competition and the image of the sector. The French government
has taken specific action to support the sector’s development, and commissioned a report
on its status in 2007. In response to the report, a number of governmental initiatives have
been implemented: marketing and product developments; partnerships with the NGOs to
improve interaction between the environment and aquaculture; R&D projects to provide
technical support for the sector; regional marine-aquaculture development plans and the
development of the industry overseas.
Importantly, a Bill for the Modernisation of Agriculture and Fisheries was presented to
the French Parliament on 13 January 2010, making it mandatory to draw up regional
plans for the development of marine aquaculture. At EU level, France issued a
memorandum on the sustainable development of aquaculture in Europe in 2008 which
was signed by 17 other Member States.

132 – 4. FRANCE: A CASE STUDY ON AQUACULTURE GOVERNANCE
Introduction
In response to growing demand for aquatic products, for both human and animal
consumption, the global aquaculture sector is expanding rapidly, growth being
particularly noticeable in specific parts of the world. In Europe, the general trend does
not reflect this, as aquaculture is by and large in decline, except in a small number of
countries. France is not one of the countries where aquaculture is expanding: French
aquaculture production (shellfish and finfish) is not on the rise but stagnating or even in
decline in some branches.
The global aquaculture sector1

Aquaculture’s input to the world supply of fish, crustaceans, molluscs and other
aquatic animals has been steadily increasing, from 3.9% of the total weight of output in
1970 to 36% in 2006 (47% of the fish supply). There has accordingly been a considerable
rise in the volume of output, from under 1 million tonnes in the early 1950s to a reported
51.7 million tonnes in 2006, worth a total of USD 79.1 billion. Including aquatic plants,
global aquaculture production in 2006 stood at 66.7 million tonnes or, in value terms,
USD 85.9 billion (see breakdown in Table 4.1).
For a relevant analysis of aquaculture products as a share of the global consumption of
aquatic products (see Table 4.1), it is important to bear in mind the predominant role
played by China in the aquaculture sector. In 2006, China accounted for 67% of the
global supply of farmed aquatic animals and 72% of that of aquatic plants.
Table 4.1: Global aquaculture production
Share of
Global aquaculture
Volume
aquaculture Value % of total % of total products
(million
production (USD billion) volume value compared to
tonnes)
in 2006 total aquatic
production
Freshwater
27.8 29.5 54% 37% 76%
fish
Saltwater fish 1.7 6.3 3% 8% 4% 47%
Amphihaline 3.1 11.8 6% 15% 65%
fish
Molluscs 14.1 11.9 27% 15% 65%
Crustaceans 4.5 18 9% 23% 42%
Other aquatic 0.5 1.6 1% 2% 51%
animals
Total aquatic 51.7 79.1 100% 100% 36%
animals
Total aquatic 15 6.8 100% 100% 93%
plants
Total 66.7 85.9 100% 100%
Source: FAO, 2008

The geographical breakdown of global aquaculture output (excluding aquatic plants)

is shown in the two figures below:
Figure 4.1: Aquaculture output by region in 2006, in volume terms (excluding aquatic plants)
Africa
North America
1.5%
1.2%
Latin America and
Caribbean Near East
3.0% 0.6%
Europe
4.2%
Asia and Pacific

(excl. China)
22.8%
China
66.7%
Figure 4.2: Aquaculture output by region in 2006, in value terms (excluding aquatic plants)
North America
1.8% Near East
Africa 1.5%
2.2%
Latin America and Caribbean
8.5%
Europe
9.1%
China
48.7%
Asia and Pacific (excluding

China)
28.2%

While growth in capture fisheries came to a halt towards the mid-1980s, the average
annual growth rate for aquaculture has remained at 8.7% worldwide since 1970. This
sector is continuing to grow at a faster pace than any other animal-based food production
sector. The average annual growth rates from 2000 to 2006 in brackish, fresh and salt
water were 11.6% (due largely to prawn), 6.5% and 5.4%, respectively in terms of
volume.
A region-by-region analysis of output over the period 1970-2006 shows that growth
was not uniform. Latin America and the Caribbean reported the highest average annual
growth rate (22%), followed by the Near East (20%) and Africa (12.7%). Over the same
period, China’s aquaculture production rose by an annual average of 11.2%. Since 2000,
however, Chinese growth has dropped to 5.8%, compared with 17.3% in the 1980s and
14.3% in the 1990s. At the same time, growth in European and North American
production slowed down sharply and stabilised at 1% per annum since 2000.
The aquaculture sector in the European Union2

Leading aquaculture species in the European Union:
• Oysters: production is largely dominated by France; other Member States,
including Ireland, are also producers.
• Mussels: the leading producers are Spain, Italy, the Netherlands and
France.
• Clams: production is dominated by Italy, Spain and Portugal.
• Trout: virtually all Member States have trout farms. The leading producers
are Italy and France, followed by Denmark, Germany and Spain.
• Atlantic salmon: the main producers are the United Kingdom (Scotland)
and Ireland. It is worth noting that the output of Norway alone (not in the
EU) is ten times that of the EU.
• Sea bass and sea bream: the main producer is Greece. Spain, France and
Italy are also producers.
After a period of growth in the 1990s, fish-farming in the European Union began to
stagnate. EU fish output in 2002 stood at 615 000 tonnes and in 2008 at 642 000 tonnes,
an annual growth rate of 0.5%.
The figures for 2001-2008 show a downward trend for carp (-2.9% per annum), eel (-
5%), salmon (-2.7%) and trout (-2.1%). These species accounted for over 80% of the
European aquaculture production in 2001. There was growth in some still minor species
such as catfish (+8.7%) and turbot (+19%) over the same period. Among the major
species, the largest increases were for sea bass (+8.7%) and sea bream (+9.7%).
Consequently most EU Member States, with the exception of Greece [+9.4% per annum
(sea bass/sea bream)] and Spain [+4.1% per annum (sea bass/sea bream/turbot)], saw a
decline in fish-farming between 2001 and 2008.
EU shellfish production, however, has generally remained stable.

Figure 4.3: Farmed fish output in the EU, by species
300 000
Carp
Catfish
250 000
Eel
Flatfish
200 000
Other freshwater fish
tonnes Other saltwater fish

150 000
Salmon
Sea bass
100 000
Sea bream
Sturgeon
50 000
Tilapia
Trout
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Source: Data from the Federation of European Aquaculture Producers
Figure 4.4: Farmed fish output in the EU, by country
200 000
Austria
180 000 Belg.-Luxbg.
Cyprus
160 000 Czech Rep.
Denmark
140 000 Finland
France
120 000 Germany
Greece
100 000 Hungary
Ireland
80 000 Italy
Malta
60 000 Netherlands
Poland
40 000 Portugal
Spain
20 000 Sweden
United Kingdom
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Source: Data from the Federation of European Aquaculture Producers

French aquaculture3
French aquaculture comprises shellfish- and finfish-farming, both at sea and on land.
Seaweed production is expanding but remains on a very small scale. Shellfish output is
stable. Fish-farming, however, is in decline: marine fish-farming is fairly stable but has
never reached the output levels hoped for in the 1980s-1990s, while land-based fish-
farming, in particular salmon farming, is in noticeable decline. Caviar production,
however, is booming.
French shellfish production
Features of the industry

French shellfish production focuses mainly on cupped oysters, flat oysters, mussels
and, to a lesser extent, clams and cockles. The majority are produced on maritime public
property. In 2007 the sector numbered some 3 120 firms, most of them traditional small
businesses as almost 2 180 producers (70%) are self-employed. It employs a total of
18 400 people, 7 200 of them on a full-time basis, representing 9 300 full-time
equivalents. The number of firms has been declining since 2001 but shellfish production
has remained stable. 2 500 firms focus mainly on oysters and 500 on mussels, packaged
for consumer sales. Some 50 firms, including hatcheries, specialise in the production of
spat or juveniles, a branch known as demi-élevage (pre-growth breeding).
French production marketed in 2007 was an estimated 193 600 tonnes for a turnover
of some EUR 400 million. The breakdown was as follows: 113 200 tonnes of oysters
(111 600 tonnes cupped and 1 600 tonnes flat), 76 600 tonnes of mussels and 3 800
tonnes of other shellfish, mainly clams and cockles.
The production of cupped oysters, the leading product, has by and large been stable
since the early 1990s and meets demand. Flat-oyster output was hit very hard by diseases
in the 1970s-80s but there is still some residual production. Research is under way to
select oysters that display resistance to one of the diseases (bonamiosis).
Mussel output has risen steadily over the decade, thanks in part to suspension
techniques, but does not meet domestic demand. The aim is therefore to increase output
in years to come: higher productivity in traditional growing sites and the use of new,
preferably offshore sites could significantly push up mussel output over the next few
years. Owing to French eating habits, virtually all mussels are marketed live and
processed mussels account for a very marginal share of the market.
Trade balance
France is the first oyster producer in Europe (85% of European oyster production).
For mussels it ranks second, with 15% of European production, well behind Spain
(around 50% of European production).
In 2007, France exported around 9 000 tonnes of oysters and imported 3 700 tonnes,
generating a surplus of EUR 28 million. Trade in oysters is marginal compared with
production which is absorbed mainly by domestic demand. Conversely mussel imports
(58 900 tonnes in 2007), mainly from Ireland, the Netherlands, Spain and Denmark,
largely exceed exports (4 400 tonnes), leaving a trade deficit of EUR 78 million. The

problems involved in increasing the production of oysters, together with the trade deficit
for mussels, mean that there is little prospect of developing exports.
French fish-farming4
Features of the sector

Fish-farming in France falls into four quite separate categories: salmon-farming,
caviar (sturgeon) production, marine fish-farming and freshwater (pond) fish-farming.
Their combined production amounted to 53 000 tonnes in 2007, for a turnover of some
EUR 250 million. The sector employs some 2 000 full-time equivalents in 511
businesses.
With regard to salmon-farming (37 000 tonnes in 2007), there are 365 private fish-
farms, mostly run by the self-employed. These businesses employ 1 235 full-time
equivalents. They are found throughout the country, but are mostly concentrated in
Brittany and Aquitaine. There are also 91 non-commercial fish-farms (run by government
or associations promoting angling and aquatic environment conservation) which focus on
restocking rivers or on leisure fisheries. These employ 185 full-time equivalents. The
number of salmon farms, like salmon production, has fallen sharply since 2001, under the
combined impact of growing environmental constraints and keener market competition
Freshwater (pond) fish-farming (around 9 000 tonnes) is a traditional activity in lake
areas, often carried out as a part-time activity. However, there are around 100
professional freshwater (pond) fish-farmers.
The sturgeon industry is small (16 businesses employing 108 full-time equivalents)
but quite buoyant. In 2007, it produced 21 tonnes of caviar, or 15% of the global output
from aquaculture, estimated at 140 tonnes. Caviar accounts for 81% of total turnover in
this industry (or EUR 11.4 million of the EUR 14.4 million generated in 2007). In 2007
fish-farmers in this industry marketed 231 000 alevins (under 50 grams) for a turnover of
EUR 0.5 million, 136 000 alevins (under 300 grams) for a turnover of EUR 0.2 million
and 320 tonnes of adult fish (alive or dead), for a turnover of EUR 2 million.
As for marine fish-farming (6 600 tonnes in 2007), France has 39 businesses
employing some 500 full-time equivalents for an overall turnover of EUR 64 million in
2007. The sector is small in size, geographically dispersed and produces a diverse range
of species (sea bass, sea bream, turbot, meager and salmon). According to the findings of
IFREMER, the French sea-fisheries research institute, France has developed some high-
tech production industries. However, competition with other coastal activities is
hampering the expansion of marine fish-farming in France. In fact, no new growing
facilities have been set up since the year 2000. Consequently, the sector has specialized
in saltwater fish hatcheries (almost a dozen) producing over 70 million alevins, 72% for
the export market. The turnover generated by hatcheries in 2007 came to EUR
17 million.
Trade balance
There is a trade surplus in trout in terms of volume and value. In 2007, exports
amounted to 5 230 tonnes (45% to Germany and 33% to Belgium), for a total of EUR
16.84 million, while imports amounted to 2 595 tonnes (46% from Spain) for a total of
EUR 8.97 million. The trout market is largely a domestic market. However, it is in

difficulty (with consumer sales down 29% in volume terms from 1997 to 2007) owing to
competition from imported Norwegian salmon. In 2007 France imported 134 300 tonnes
of salmon, or EUR 575 million in value terms. These imports came mainly from Norway
(50% of imports) and the United Kingdom (15%). Consequently France has a large trade
deficit in salmon.
France imported 10 680 tonnes of sea bass and sea bream in 2007, over half of it from
Greece. The sharp rise in output and in marketed fish in several countries, compounded
by the impact of the global economic and financial crisis, has dramatically pushed down
prices and pushed up imports over the past two years.
In 2007, France’s caviar output in volume terms, on the rise since 1993, drew level
with imports, thereby reducing France’s trade deficit in this product.
Public initiatives to develop French aquaculture
France has a good education system and high-quality research institutions.

Aquaculture professionals are well trained and skilled. France also has an environment
conducive to aquaculture, both at sea and on land, owing to its many watercourses,
thousands of hectares of ponds and 5 500 km of coastline. Yet in spite of these assets and
growing consumer demand for aquatic products (average consumption has risen from 25
to 35 kg per person per annum in 15 years), the sector is not expanding.
Apart from keener market competition, there are several factors behind this situation.
In terms of marine aquaculture, the main factor hampering development is clearly the
problem of access to space in coastal zones. Competing land use along the coastline (a
variety of economic activities, including growing urbanisation and tourism, as well as
environmental conservation) and the conflict this causes make it hard to obtain permits to
develop new production sites.
Difficult access to the coast and a lack of new facilities since 2000 in the marine fish-
farming sector also reflect the poor image of the fish-farming sector. Against a backdrop
of growing concern for the environment, fish-farming is attracting criticism in particular
with regard to:
• Waste (suspended matter, nitrogen and phosphorus emissions), veterinary
drug residues, escapes and
• Fish meal/oils from industrial fisheries used to feed farmed fish,
whereas the advantages of fish-farming (e.g. quality, regularity, freshness of products,

indicator of water quality) are not sufficiently perceived. Several initiatives have
accordingly been launched to try to halt this trend and promote the sustainable
development of French aquaculture.
As some fishery resources become scarcer and the need is felt for sustainable,
responsible fisheries, aquaculture is playing an increasingly important part in feeding the
population. France and the European Union cannot reasonably limit their strategy of
providing the population with seawater and freshwater supplies to imports. Furthermore,
the aquaculture industry generates wealth, creates jobs and provides a certain social
structure, in both coastal and rural zones, and more particularly in wetlands. The increase
in French, European and global demand for aquatic products is an opportunity to develop
the sector.

On this basis, Michel Barnier, then Minister for Agriculture and Fisheries, and Jean-
Louis Borloo, Minister for Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development and Regional
Development, decided at the end of 2007 to commission an expert report on the status of
aquaculture in metropolitan France and its overseas departments and territories to Mrs.
Tanguy, Mayor of Guilvinec, in conjunction with Mr. Ferlin, Engineer-General of the
Water and Forestry Engineering Division and Mr. Suche, Administrator-General for
Maritime Affairs.
The report was presented to the Ministers in November 2008. It identifies and
analyses the strengths and weaknesses of the French aquaculture sector, along with the
obstacles to its expansion. It sets out numerous recommendations for developing the
sector, at regional, national and European level. The report’s recommendations include:
• Raising awareness, with the help of promotional campaigns, about
aquaculture and the quality of its products;
• Enhanced initiatives promoting more widespread, sustainable and high-

quality aquaculture, to raise the industry’s profile and appeal;
• Large-scale investment in research and development and greater technical

support for the industry;
• A new vision statement for the development of sustainable aquaculture,

one goal being to obtain the support of all the stakeholders and remove the
main obstacle to the development of marine aquaculture, namely the
competition for coastal space;
• A special focus on the development potential of this industry in France’s

overseas departments and territories.
Government initiatives already under way or in the pipeline in response to the

report’s recommendations:
The aquaculture industry has for many years been closely monitored by government
departments and French research institutions. However, to meet the trend in demand for
aquatic products and enable French aquaculture to benefit from these developments and
foster its expansion, government initiatives have been stepped up over the past few years.
Examples include the following policies and projects:
Communications and product development

An ambitious communications programme to raise the profile of fish-farming and
awareness of the quality of its products was launched in 2009-2010 by the joint trade
association Le Comité Interprofessionnel des Produits d'Aquaculture (CIPA) and co-
financed by the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Fisheries and the European Fisheries
Fund. To enhance product development and consumer perceptions, the trade association
will be launching several initiatives aimed at product differentiation (including organic
farming and official labelling schemes).

Partnerships with the environmental world, developments in production

practices, and research programmes to learn more about and improve the
interaction between the environment and aquaculture
To promote sustainable aquaculture and raise awareness, several initiatives have been
launched:
• A tripartite charter, signed in 2007, by the central government, Le
Conservatoire du littoral et des rivages lacustres (a government agency
that reports to the Ministry of the Environment and addresses the
conservation of coastal zones and lakeshores) and the shellfish industry,
and the development of a guide for sustainable salmon farming, now being
drawn up in conjunction with the World Conservation Union (IUCN) with
funding from the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Fisheries;
• New aqua-environmental measures, within the framework of the European
Fisheries Fund, to support fish-farms which develop particularly
environment-friendly farming methods (organic aquaculture, extensive
freshwater farms);
• An increase in research and development programmes;
• A reduction in nitrogen waste from fish-farming, for instance through the
PROPRE (“clean”) scheme, which stands for responsible and sustainable
fish-farming in a clean environment. Launched in spring 2009, the scheme
is co-financed by the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Fisheries and the
European Fisheries Fund;
• A reduction in the use of industrial fishery resources to feed farmed fish.
Examples include the VEGEAQUA research programme by the
AQUIMER cluster, run by IFREMER, INRA (national institute for
agricultural research) and SYSAAF (trade association for French poultry
and aquaculture breeders) in partnership with four fish-farming
enterprises. The purpose of this three-year project, due to start in 2010, is
to select genetic strains of sea bass, sea bream and trout adapted to rich
feed based on raw plant materials as a partial replacement for fish meal
and fish oils;
• With regard to shellfish production, new ecosystem management tools to
promote the sustainable development of the shellfish industry in Lower
Normandy and the conservation of high-quality ecosystems (the OGIVE
project, developed by IFREMER).
R&D projects to provide technical support for the sector, above and beyond
environmental issues
In addition to the research programmes above, other research projects have been
undertaken as part of the drive to provide the aquaculture industry with more technical
support:
• A research programme conducted by IFREMER to gain insight into, and
better manage, interannual variability in cupped oyster recruitment in
France (VELYGER); other programmes will focus on the comparatively

high death rate in cupped oyster spat and juveniles observed over the past
two years.
• The AQUA-OFFSHORE-II research programme being drawn up with

IFREMER, which calls on the logistical support of four French enterprises
to test a new model of submersible offshore cage in the Mediterranean and
in France’s overseas departments/territories. If successful, this programme
could provide more scope for fish-farming businesses in coastal zones,
where conflicting land-use is holding back the industry’s expansion.
Furthermore, proposals to improve conditions for research, expertise and technical

support for the oyster industry have been put forward by a team comprising members of
the General Council for Agriculture, Food and Rural Areas, the General Council for the
Environment and Sustainable Development, and France’s Food Safety Agency (AFSSA).
Regional marine-aquaculture development plans

Owing to the specific problems of coastal zone access, the government decided to
present a Bill for the Modernisation of Agriculture and Fisheries to the French Parliament
on 13 January 2010, making it mandatory to draw up regional plans for the development
of marine aquaculture.
These plans will be drawn up by Regional Prefects, in collaboration with coastal
stakeholders, i.e. government departments, local authorities, statutory bodies (including
marine reserve agencies, the Conservatoire du littoral and research institutions), trade
associations and other coastal-zone users. One of the objectives is to draw up an
inventory of existing aquaculture sites and identify, through dialogue with all the
stakeholders, other potential sites that could be set aside to develop aquaculture. The
Agriculture and Fisheries Modernisation Act is expected to become law by the end of
2010.
Developing the industry overseas

The Convention on Overseas Departments/Territories, held in 2009, resulted in a
number of measures to develop the local economy, one of which was specific to the
aquaculture sector. Central government is co-financing the construction of an IFREMER
centre for applied research on the island of Mayotte; the findings will be circulated to all
overseas departments and communities, in particular via the newly established overseas
producers association Union des Aquaculteurs d'Outre-mer (UAOM). Furthermore,
croaker is the species with the greatest development potential for marine fish-farmers
overseas. To ensure the rational management of genetic breeding stock by both overseas
departments and communities, two applied-research programmes will begin in 2010, one
focusing on drawing up an assisted fertilisation protocol for croaker, the other on the
selection of brood stock.
French initiatives at the Community level

As the future of French aquaculture is closely tied to that of European aquaculture and
the relevant Community framework, national initiatives have received support from the
EU. In spring 2008 France issued a memorandum on the sustainable development of
aquaculture in Europe. Signed by 17 other Member States (Bulgaria, Czech Republic,

Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland,
Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain), the memorandum was submitted to
the Council, the European Parliament and the European Commission in June 2008 and
sets out the following broad ideas:
• Introduction of an integrated community policy, in particular to streamline
and simplify all legislation relating to aquaculture, with a view to
promoting development and competitiveness in the sector;
• Development of a European communication policy to raise the profile of
aquaculture and awareness of its products;
• Need for a framework ensuring that aquaculture products are healthy, of
high quality and environment-friendly (compatibility between aquaculture
and the environment) ;
• Implementation of economic-support tools to ensure a future for the
sector. This includes start-up support for young aquaculture producers but
also new schemes enabling aquaculture producers to take out insurance
cover for the risks they face (climate-related damage, human/animal health
crises).
The European Commission, for its part, presented a Communication in April 2009 to
the European Parliament and the Council entitled “A new impetus for the Strategy for the
Sustainable Development of European Aquaculture” [COM(2009)162]. The
Communication seeks to identify the causes of aquaculture’s stagnation in Europe. Its
aim is to lend new impetus to the Strategy for the Sustainable Development of European
Aquaculture. The Strategy involves promoting competitive European aquaculture based
on R & D for new technologies (European Aquaculture Technology and Innovation
Platform), maritime spatial planning to promote the development of aquaculture in
coastal zones, compatibility between aquaculture and the environment, and the
integration of animal health and welfare, including fish-feed considerations.
Following this Communication, the Council of Fisheries Ministers of the European
Union unanimously adopted, in June 2009, a series of conclusions on a sustainable
development strategy for this sector.
The next step is to translate those conclusions into concrete initiatives, in particular
through changes to the Community regulatory framework. The reform of the Common
Fisheries Policy in 2012 should accordingly be an opportunity to make aquaculture a
major pillar of that policy. In its memorandum on reform of the Common Fisheries
Policy, issued in December 2009, France, drawing on the Council’s conclusions,
reiterated the importance of:
• Simplifying and streamlining the entire legislative framework relating to
aquaculture;
• Maritime spatial planning to enable development in this industry,
hindered as it is by growing competition for maritime and coastal space;
• More economic support for the industry (start-up support for young
aquaculture producers, risk cover/management);
• Support for innovation and research;

• Raising the profile of aquaculture and awareness of the quality of its

products.
Notes
1. FAO, 2008.
2. A new impetus for the Strategy for the Sustainable Development of European Aquaculture –
Impact Assessment, Directorate-General for Internal Policies, European Parliament, 2009.
3. Source: French Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Fisheries– FranceAgriMer.
4. Source: Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Fisheries.

5. GREECE: BEST PRACTICES IN AQUACULTURE MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT – 145
Chapter 5
Greece: Best practices in aquaculture management

and development
Dr. Spyros D. Klaoudatos

University of Thessaly School of Agriculture, Department of Ichthyology and Aquatic
Environment, Greece
Abstract
Greek aquaculture boomed over the last two decades, mainly due to massive production
increases in sea bass and sea bream. Technological developments, favourable natural
conditions and available national and EU funds for production infrastructure investments
drove this intensification in production. The paper provides an extensive overview of the
regulatory framework of the aquaculture sector, including legislation for licences,
environmental protection, coastal zone development and the regulation of competition
over land and water resources. It also specifies the role that public funding played in
terms of increasing production volumes and product promotion.
Increases in production however stressed the need to improve the management of
environmental impacts of intensive aquaculture production. Among the mechanisms to
control these impacts are integrated coastal zone management and the promotion of best
practices in controlling diseases. These measures contribute to improve the image of the
industry – which is an important precondition to strengthen product acceptance which
faces fierce competition from other producing countries. Other important challenges for
the sector that need to be tackled are access to production sites and complex licensing
procedures.

146 – 5. GREECE: BEST PRACTICES IN AQUACULTURE MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
The low productivity of the Eastern Mediterranean, the overfishing of many stocks
and the increase in demand for high quality fishery products are the main reasons for the
rapid increase of the aquaculture sector in Greece and all over the world. Although
Greece has faced a stabilization of capture fisheries at about 120 000 tonnes for decades,
fisheries production declined over the past years, mainly due to the implementation of
decommissioning schemes. At the same time the increase of the demand for fishery
products forced the country to increase the imports to meet domestic demand. One
solution to this situation was the development of the aquaculture sector.
Until the 1980s only extensive culture in lagoons and intensive aquaculture of trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) in frewh waters was carried out in Greece. During the last 25
years intensive marine aquaculture developed considerably and the country is now
leading producer of the euryaline species of sea bass and seabream among the
Mediterranean countries. Reasons for this development are the natural advantages of the
geography (long coast line with many sheltered bays for anchor-ageing floating cages),
the favorable climatic conditions, the locally available knowledge and access to national
and European Union subsidies for investment in production infrastructure. As a result,
after overcoming technical difficulties in reproduction and larval rearing, feeds and cage
technology, the total annual aquaculture production volume increased rapidly from 3 000
tonnes to 113 000 tonnes during the years 1987-2007, consisting of 30 000 tonnes of
mussels, 3 000 tonnes of trout and the balance of euryaline finfish (FAO Fishery
Statistics, 2009). ǿn 2008, Greek marine aquaculture production of gilthead sea bream
Sparus aurata (L.) and European seabass, Dicentrarchus labrax (L.) accounted for 41%
of the total Mediterranean production [60 000 tonnes gilthead sea bream, 35 000 tonnes
of European seabass (FEAP, 2008)]. Tables 5.1 and 5.2 represent the annual aquaculture
production from 1986 to 2007 (General Directorate of Fisheries).

Table 5.1: Annual production of marine fish farms from 1986 – 2007
Fish farms with floating cages Hatcheries

Year Number Annual production Value in GRD x Number of Fingerlings Value in GRD x
9 6 6 9 6
of farms (tonnes) 10 or EUR x 10 hatcheries x 10 10 or EUR x 10
1986 5 90
1987 12 105 2 3
1988 25 238 GRD 0.48 2 3
1989 30 500 GRD 1.15 5 3.1
1990 107 2 185 GRD 5.68 10 11 GRD 1.63
1991 139 3 450 GRD 9.14 13 23.2 GRD 3.25
1992 133 7 850 GRD 18.84 15 41.1 GRD 5.75
1993 171 11 500 GRD 21.85 19 60.0 GRD 7.02
1994 189 13 500 GRD 24.66 22 70.5 GRD 7.04
1995 193 17 670 GRD 30.80 23 91.1 GRD 8.50
1996 205 21 210 GRD 39.50 23 99.7 GRD 9.6
1997 229 26 720 GRD 52.65 25 99.5 GRD 9.05
1998 247 31 129 GRD 59.60 29 147.7 GRD 13.38
1999 266 42 627 GRD 65.50 33 160.7 GRD 13.73
2000 282 50 295 GRD 76.14 36 193.7 GRD 15.01
2001 290 58 108 GRD 76.34 41 250.95 GRD 18.45
2002 308 62 457 EUR 230.7 39 269.51 EUR 68.95
2003 307 66 376 EUR 293.0 38 238.35 EUR 57.25
2004 309 64 784 EUR 281.8 38 289.67 EUR 63.33
2005 311 76 424 EUR 323.3 39 300.90 EUR 65.99
2006 329 80 753 EUR 354.6 39 349.11 EUR 72.57
2007 332 87 341 EUR 370.4 39 350.32 EUR 72.47

Table 5.2: Annual production of mussels and shrimps farms
Year Mussels farms Shrimps farms

9
Number Annual production Value in GRD x 10 Number Annual production Value in GRD or
6 6
of farms (tonnes) or EUR x 10 of farms (tonnes) EUR x 10
1986 230
1987 72 400
1988 41 1 100 GRD 0.22
1989 52 1 840 GRD 0.35
1990 87 3 800 GRD 0.57
1991 94 5 898 GRD 1.062
1992 123 8 391 GRD 1.762
1993 253 16 700 GRD 1.837
1994 319 19 075 GRD 1.602 1 5 GRD 15.0
1995 330 21 200 GRD 2.078 1 3 GRD 10.0
1996 350 22 000 GRD 2.090 1 0 0
1997 346 25 000 GRD 2.463 1 6 GRD 21.6
1998 395 26 013 GRD 2.783 1 2 GRD 7.2
1999 458 25 365 GRD 3.123 1 0 0
2000 564 32 550 GRD 3.174 1 0 0
2001 566 31 981 GRD 3.198 1 0 0
2002 574 31 823 EUR 11.902 1 4 EUR 0.052
2003 575 31 540 EIR 12.459 1 0 0
2004 577 28 803 EUR 11.889 1 0 0
2005 553 26 066 EUR 11.326 1 7.1 EUR 0.120
2006 602 28 318 EUR 11.975 1 10.3 EUR 0.110
2007 590 22 197 EUR 9.406 1 4 EUR 0.066

National policies and strategies
The Ministry for Rural Development and Food is responsible for aquaculture
development. The main aquaculture policy issues are:
• Planning and implementing national and European projects for
aquaculture development;
• Controlling the production to respect the needs of the local and

Mediterranean markets;
• Supplying markets with high nutritional value and quality products at

satisfactory prices;
• Increasing employment and non-removal of population from their

homeland;
• Funding studies for research and technology to improve aquaculture

production and the adoption of adequate marketing policies at national and
European level and
• Protecting the environment as a pre-requisit for sustainable aquaculture

development.
Aquaculture projects are strictly regulated by a permit system based on clearances

issued by various agencies responsible for spatial planning and environmental protection,
navigation, shipping, health protection, protection of antiquities, commercial fisheries,
tourism, recreation, nature conservation and wildlife. The licensing authorities that
coordinate these agancies are the Ministry for Rural Development and Food and the
Ministry for the Environment, Energy and Climate Change.
The licenses both for the installation and the operation of an aquaculture farm are
issued by the regional administration of the country through the local Agriculture
Development Service of the Ministry for Rural Development and Food, with the
collaboration of the relevant services to achieve the development of the sector and the
protection of the environment. These services belong to the:
• Ministry of Defense;
• Ministry of Finance, Competitiveness and Navigation;
• Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change ;
• Ministry of Civilization and Tourism;
• Ministry for Rural Development and Food (Fishery-Veterinary Science

Sector);
• Ministry of Health and Social Solidarity.

Decision makers must also take into account the political realities, the perception of
the local population of the project and the relationship of the proposed project to other
projects operating in the area. In general there are regional differences in policy and
licenses which are mainly granted on the basis of site-specific (spatial planning and
environmental) criteria. The aquaculture sector operates at a central-regional
administrative and prefectural authority level, in a direct connection with the local
Fishery Services, as the country's administrative system is divided into: (i) the central
administration (Ministries); (ii) the regional administration (13 regions); (iii) the
prefectural authorities (52 prefectural authorities); and (iv) the local authorities (923
municipalities-communities).
Finally, the licenses for installation and operation indicate the proper operation of the
unit (maximum water quantity, method of treatment of outflow, limits of leased area,
non-obstruction of fishing, shipping, etc.).
Possible problems arising through the non-application of operational rules and
procedures provided by the relevant regulations concerning all activities using common
resources set up by the Ministry for Rural Development and Food are solved by informal
(ad hoc) committees consisting of aquaculture experts from the public (ministries,
institutes, universities) and the private sector.
Basic aquaculture legislation
Present legislation concerning site selection and the requirements which must
be met for the establishment and operation of intensive and semi-intensive
aquaculture sites (on-growing cage farm units, shellfish farms, land based farms,
hatcheries with associated land-based facilities for marine and freshwater species etc.)
consists of:
• Law No. 420/1970 “Fisheries Code”. This Law refers to the lease of
marine sites via public sale, for trial cultivation;
• Presidential Decree 142/1971 “Licensing of establishment of aquatic

organisms’ farming, by the Minister of Agriculture” which has been
modified by the Presidential decree No. 332/1983 for the devolution of
previously referred duties to the correspondent Prefects;
• Law No. 1845/1989 “Development and utilization of the agriculture

research and technology – protection of forests and other terms”, chapter
C, article No. 32 which refers to leasing sites without public sale and
• Law No. 3208/2003 “Protection of forest ecosystems, regulation of rights

over forest areas and other terms” suggests that all duties concerning
leasing marine sites, renewing lease, issuing licenses for project
establishment and operation of aquaculture farms is devolved to the
General Secretariat of the respective Region (which is the competent
regional authority of the Ministry for Rural Development and Food).
The legal framework mentioned above has been supplemented over the years, by
various ministerial and other services’ interventions, for example Ministerial Decisions,

guidelines, circulars etc., aiming especially at resolving management problems within the
sector, but also meeting the needs of the market.
Leasing of shellfish farming sites

The procedures of leasing marine sites for shellfish farming are the same as those
described for fish farms, besides that no site can be leased outside designated Shellfish
Farming Zones as determined by the Presidential Decree No. 79/2007. According to that
Decree (article No. 25 – “Areas-zones of production or relocation of live bivalves”),
special zones are determined through the respective Prefect’s decision as suitable for
production or relocation of bivalves on-growing farms, after having obtained approval of
the Prefectural Veterinary Authority and the local Port Authorities.
Coastal zone development policy

The basic legal framework governing the establishment and operation of aquaculture
production sites on the seashore and the coastal zone contains the following:
• Law No. 2971/2001 “Seashore, coastal zone and other terms” provides
information about seashore and coastal zone ownership and defines the
procedure of determining the borders and protecting the seashore and the
coastal zone and
• Ministerial Decision 109313/5914/130/2004 “Evaluation of facilities and

installations which exist on the seashore and the coastal zone”.
There is also specific legislation for land-based facilities for the maintenance and
support of aquaculture activities. The legal framework governing the installation of land-
based facilities built to maintain and support marine aquaculture farms consists (among
others) of:
• Law No. 3325/2005 “Licensing of project establishment and operation
concerning industrial installations in the context of sustainable
development and other terms”. This law applies to both hatcheries and
processing facilities and refers to the license issued by the Directorate of
Development of the respective Prefecture and
• Presidential Decree No. 79/3-5-2007 embodies the Regulations No.

853/2004 (EC) “on the hygiene of foodstuffs” and 852/2004 “laying down
specific hygiene rules for food of animal origin” into the national
legislation. According to this Decree, a license for project establishment
and operation is needed from the Veterinary Service of the Prefecture
specifically for processing facilities. The provision of licensing needed for
the establishment and operation of land-based projects requires full
commitment to the terms specified in the Decree.
Competition for land and marine and freshwater resources

Special legislation exists concerning water use permits for aquaculture activities. The
Presidential Decree No. 51/2-3-2007: “Determination of measures and procedures for the
integrated management and protection of water sources, in conformity with Directive No.

2000/60 of 23-10-2003 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of

water policy” incorporated all the terms referred to in the pre-mentioned Directive into
the national legal framework related to water policy. It also contains a thorough appendix
for the classification of water sources and the parameters of water quality control. For the
definition of the structure of the Directorate of Aquaculture and Inland Brackish and
Fresh Waters, Ministerial Decision No. 47630/16-11-2005 has been issued, while the
Ministerial Decision No. 43504/5-12-2005 “Categories of water use permits and the
delivery of projects to exploit water, issuing procedure, content and duration” defines all
the necessary documentation needed to obtain a water use permit for all aquaculture
projects, including land-based projects. The competent authority for the issuing of the
water use permit is the regional Directorate of Waters.
Aquaculture and the environment
The exploitation of the biological resources, whether through aquaculture or capture

fisheries, is concentrated in the narrow coastal zone, which is subject to natural
environment fluctuations brought about by mixing of water from the land with that in the
sea. This coastal zone has a delicate environmental balance and is limited in size. It is
also affected by human activities (sea traffic, industries, urban development, tourism,
swimming, etc.), which impact on water quality (Barnabe, 1990).
Water quality also depends on the capacity to assimilate waste from urban, industrial
and agricultural sources in biological and geochemical cycles. When the volume of waste
becomes too big to be assimilated in these cycles, the fundamental balance of the
ecosystem is disturbed, marine life is threatened and pollution arrives. However, long-
term pollution caused by fish farms is less dangerous for the ecosystems than the
pollution caused by other human activities, such as agriculture, urban, or industry
effluents. These pollution sources are not only a danger for farmed fish, but also affect
the quality of the aquaculture product by deleterious factors, such as various toxic
substances, which are dissolved in the sea environment.
Investors have to submit a preliminary environmental impact study (EIS) and an
environmental impact assessment (EIA) for the approval of the activity and the issuing of
the license to protect aquaculture production sites and the marine environment in which
floating net cages will be installed and operated. Physical parameters (temperature,
density, ionic, colour, turbidity, suspended solids) and chemical parameters (salinity,
ionic composition, dissolved gases salts and molecules, dissolved and particulate organic
matter) of the seawater are measured before and during the operation of a fish farm.
These studies have to be presented to the local competent services of the
Environmental Planning Directorate of the Ministry for the Environment, Energy and
Climate Change and to the Aquaculture and Inland Waters Directorate of the Ministry of
Rural Development and Food. Subsequently, these studies are forwarded to the local
administrations in which the fish farm will be installed and operated. In a public meeting
the studies are presented and evaluated by the local authorities.
The environmental regulations governing the aquaculture sector and its supporting
facilities consist mainly of:
• Law No. 1650/1986 “for the protection of the environment”;
• Ministerial Decision No. 69269/5387/25-10-1990 “Classification of

projects into categories, contents of Environmental Impact Assessment

document, determination of the content of Specific Environmental

Assessments and other related terms”;
• Law No. 3010/2002 “Conformation of Law No. 1650/1986 with the

Directives 97/11/EC and 96/61/EC, procedure of delimitation and
regulation of subjects for water streams and other terms”;
• The articles No. 18 and 19 of the Law No. 1650/1986 determine the types,
characteristics and the procedure for the declaration of protected sites;
Ministerial Decisions No. 414985/1985 and No. 33318/3028/1998 which
were issued to adapt national legislation with the Directives 79/409/EC on
the “Conservation of wild birds” and 92/43/EC on the “Conservation of
natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora”, together with the above law,
constitute the basic legal framework for the determination of protected
natural sites in Greece. Areas included in the Directive 92/43/EC are
suggested as “Sites of Community Importance (SCI)” while areas included
in the Directive 79/409/EC are considered “Special Protection Areas
(SPA)”. By 2005, Greece had identified more than 350 sites that have
been declared as “protected sites” and are candidates for the NATURA
2000 network.
• Ministerial Decision No. 15393/2332/5-8-2002 “Classification of public

and private works into categories according to article No. 3 of the Law No.
1650/1986 as it was replaced with article No. 1 of Law No. 3010/2002”
constitutes the legal procedure of classifying projects according to their
environmental impacts and issuing environmental terms for their
operation.
• Ministerial Decision No. 11014/700/ĭ104/14-3-2003 “Procedure prior to

issuing Preliminary Environmental Assessment and Evaluation and
Approval of Environmental Terms decisions, according to article No. 4 of
the Law No. 1650/1986 as it was replaced by the article No. 2 of the Law
No. 3010/2002”.
Mechanisms for controlling environmental impacts

It is an unquestionable fact that non-compliance with environmental regulations
causes a disorder in the ecosystem. Aiming at maintaining a balance between the
productive activities of aquaculture units and the marine environment in which fish farms
are installed and operated, the national and community legislation applies. Responsible
services of the Ministries for Rural Development and Food, of the Ministry of the
Environment, Energy and Climate Change, of the prefectural authorities and research
centres constantly monitor and record environmental impacts. Systems which the State
has installed for certain cultures (shellfish, cyprinids, salmonids), permanently record the
abiotic water parameters, so that the aquaculture farmers can be informed about and
absolutely compliant with the limits imposed by the environmental legislation. At the
same time, the Ministry of Environment monitors through specialized laboratories the
waters of all coastal areas of the country (based on the Directives of the European
Union).

In the case of threats to public health, the competent Veterinary Service of the
Ministry for Rural Development and Food takes measures, in co-operation with the
Ministry of Health and Social Solidarity, which are mandatory for the producers.When
the services identify threats for the marine environment, prior to providing penalties, the
aquaculture farmer is requested to finance an EIA study, carried out by research centres
to evaluate of the degree of pollution. Based on the results of the study, the fish farmer is
obliged to either change the initial location of his unit permanently or to carry out regular
fallowing to reduce the environmental impact of the aquaculture farm (Klaoudatos,
2001).
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). Towards a sustainable

protection of the environment
The shared use of public domains and the conservation policies for the Mediterranean
Sea reduce the availability of suitable aquaculture production sites. But at the same time,
demand for aquaculture products is increasing, in particular due to their capability to
offer a constant supply of quality products at relatively stable prices. The competent
authority for the environmental licensing of sites protected by special legislation
(NATURA 2000, Ramsar, etc.) is the Ministry of the Environment, Energy and Climate
Change, or otherwise the regional services of the competent Ministry (Directorate of
Physical Planning).
Due to the rapid growth of the aquaculture sector in Greece over the past 20 years,
another challenge aroused: the competition for space between the developing industry
and traditional uses of the coastal zone. Further sector development therefore needs
spatial and environmental integration, as well as for the formulation of a spatial planning
framework in the context of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM).
The legislative framework for spatial planning in Greece is Law 2742/1999 ‘Spatial
Planning, sustainable development and other provisions’. With regard to aquaculture, this
law requires the establishment of ‘Areas of Organized Development of Aquaculture
Activities’, known as ‘POAY’ (acronym of the respective Greek terminology). Taking
into account the provisions of the law, the Ministry of the Environment, Energy and
Climate Change developed the ‘Strategic Plan for aquaculture’ in 2000, which proposed
broader areas for development at a nationwide scale. According to the specifications and
requirements of the Ministerial Decree No 17239/2002, studies for the definition of
‘POAY’ were conducted in various regions to identify areas for the development of
aquaculture. These studies currently are at the stage of public consultation for their final
implementation.
The development of ‘POAY’ has important benefits, both at the socio-economic and
the environmental-management level. The spatial integration of aquaculture activities
within ‘POAY’, guarantees their integration in the coastal zone and minimizes land-use
conflicts. It also enables the vertical integration of productive activities, the reduction and
mitigation of environmental impacts by taking appropriate measures (e.g. monitoring of
the marine environment, R&D, fallowing etc.), the support of innovative
entrepreneurship and the promotion of local production. (NAYS ltd record data; Argyrou
and Papaioannou, 2008).

Best practices in controlling diseases. Hygiene of aquaculture products

To control the spread of diseases Greek farmers initially used antibiotics. Nowadays
they use vaccines to protect farmed fish from diseases. With regard to food hygiene of
animal by-products, all facilities must adapt their operation process regarding disposal
and processing of animal waste and its placing on the market to the Regulation (EC) No
1774/2002 “for the determination of sanitary rules regarding animal by-products not
intended for human consumption”. In Greece compliance is verified during the procedure
of issuing Environmental Terms of Operation as far as aquaculture farms are concerned.
The Presidential Decree No. 79/30-5-2007 contains the “necessary supplementary
measures for the application of Regulations (EC) No. 178/2002, 852/2004, 853/2004 and
882/2004 concerning specific hygiene rules for food of animal origin, official controls
performed to ensure the verification of compliance with feed and food law, animal health
and animal welfare rules and the adaptation of the national veterinary legislation to the
Directive (EC) 2004/41” (the pre-mentioned Directive refers to food hygiene and health
conditions for the production and placing on the market of certain products of animal
origin intended for human consumption).
Circular No. 289663/23-12- 2003 was issued by the Veterinary and Public Health
Service of the Hellenic Ministry for Rural Development and Food for the “Classification
and disposal of animal by-products not intended for human consumption, according to
the Regulation (EC) No. 1774/2002”. Circular No. 251996/9-2-2005 “Remote areas and
incineration or landfill of animal by-products” was issued by the same service to
determine specific sites in Greece which can be characterized as “remote” and the
categories of animal by-products to which the pre-mentioned methods can be applied (in
line with article No. 24 of the Regulation (EC) No. 1774/2002). Circular No. 280741/26-
8-2004 was issued by the Veterinary and Public Health Service of the Hellenic Ministry
of Rural Development and Food to define the difference between the incineration and the
combustion of animal waste, as well as the difference between “landfill” and “sanitary
landfill”, in the context of Regulation No. 1774/2002 - appendix I, the Directive (EC) No.
2000/76 “on the incineration of waste” and the SANCO/445/2004 “Guidance Note on the
application of Community legislation regarding animal and public health and waste, to
animal by-products” (Ministry of Rural Development and Food, personal
communication, 2008; EUROPA site: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/index.htm). Presidential
Decree No. 28/5-3-2009 harmonized Directives 2006/88/EC of the Council and
2008/53/EC of the European Commission on animal health requirements for aquaculture
animals and products thereof, and on the prevention and control of certain diseases in
aquatic animals.
In addition to compliance with EU food safety regulation, Greece’s commitment to
food safety and quality has led to the certification of Greek aquaculture products
according to national standards:
• ISO 14000 (environmental management);
• ISO 9001:2000 (quality management systems) and
• ISO 22000/HACCP (Food Safety).
The use of a national quality assurance scheme is very important to ensure the quality
standards for aquaculture products and to safeguard the products in a competitive market.
The Agricultural Products Certification and Supervision Organization (AGROCERT)
is a private legal entity operating for the public benefit under the supervision of the

Ministry for Rural Development and Food. It is responsible for the implementation of the
national policy on quality in agriculture.
The main competences of AGROCERT are the following:
• Certification of agricultural production systems;
• Certification of agricultural products;
• Evaluation, approval and supervision of private control and certification
bodies accredited by the National Accreditation System and
• Preparation and publication of voluntary sector standards and development
of specifications for quality assurance of agricultural products.
State funding and subsidies
Over time the aquaculture sector of Greece as an EU member state has benefited from
funding and subsidies from the EU to promote its development and to ensure a
sustainable and viable sector, in competition with other aquaculture products of the
world. Several programming periods have marked the EU history of the aquaculture
sector, which have provided several funding opportunities to the sector. Under Council
Regulation (EEC) No 3760/92, and in particular through the relevant National
Operational Programme ‘Fisheries 1994-1999’, the aquaculture sector benefited from
EUR 116.5 million allocated to aquaculture related projects.
At the end of the programming period, under measure 3.1 dedicated to aquaculture
production capacity increase, 162 investment projects had been financed in Greece for a
total value of EUR 84 million (all species included). The latter funding increased sea bass
and sea bream farming capacity by 8 754 tonnes (4 341 tonnes for sea bass and 4 413
tonnes for sea bream) and fry production capacity by 16.3 million fingerlings. Moreover,
measure 3.2, which was dedicated to improvements without capacity increase, financed
the improvement (hygiene, safety, environmental) of 49 production units in Greece for a
total value of EUR 16.9 million.
Under Council Regulation (EC) No 2792/1999 for the programming period 2000-
2006, about EUR 120 million were allocated for aquaculture related projects, accounting
for almost 40% of the total funding available through the National Operational
Programme ‘Fisheries 2000-2006’. The programme was closed on 31-12-2009 and has
exceeded the absorbance expectations of 100% (absorbance 117.36%) for aquaculture
(measure 3.2). For instance, under measure 3.2 dedicated to aquaculture, 229 projects,
covering the total of the available budget, have been selected and approved for financing
in Greece so far (December 2009 data). 86 of these projects, with a total budget of EUR
41.5 million - of which EUR 18.7 million were public expenditure - are related to
production capacity increases. In particular, these projects have increased the annual
production by 10 689 tonnes for marine fish (initial increase forecast 8 000 tonnes), by
936 tonnes for freshwater fish (initial increase forecast 800 tonnes), by 3 819.8 tonnes for
shellfish (initial increase forecast 3 456 tonnes) and by a total of 60 million fingerlings
(initial increase forecast 50 millions). Moreover, 143 farms (marine, fresh water fish and
shellfish) have been selected for financing under the action ‘modernization of existing
units without increasing production capacity’ with a total funding of EUR 28.9 million
(public expenditure), out of a total cost of EUR 64.2 million.
The Commission had requested that no more funding should be directed for any
increases of the production capacity for sea bass and sea bream after the end of 2002 via

the Financial Instrument for Fisheries Guidance (FIFG) and through the Operational
Programme Fisheries 2000-2006. This was largely due to the fact that Greece was
producing sea bass and sea bream at volumes higher than permitted by the farm capacity-
licenses and consequently higher than the officially declared volumes. Most of all
however, because of the evident market impacts, namely a price collapse for the two
species in question. However, a 2004 European Commission study, contracted to the
University of Stirling, revealed that actual production was indeed much higher than
officially reported but that there was no overproduction of sea bass and sea bream, but
merely under-marketing of it. The Commission then revoked its previous decision and
allowed the financing of projects concerning production capacity increases. This
suggested however that emphasis should be given to the financing of projects that
concern the marketing and promotion of the industry and its products.
In addition to measure 3.2 which concerns the direct financing of aquaculture projects,
there was an additional measure of the Operational Program Fisheries 2000-2006
(measure 4.3) referring to the promotion of sea bass and sea bream marketing and
fisheries certification, labelling etc. The latter measure had a budget of EUR 5.5 million
and the final absorption amounted to EUR 3.8 million. Only in 2007 a project for the
promotion of sea bass and sea bream was approved and funded in Greece, at a cost of
EUR 3 million for a duration of 15 months.
Positive impacts of aquaculture development
Aquaculture, like any other food producing industry, needs: a good image with
consumers, mutual understanding to obtain planning permissions and licenses, to be able
to attract good quality employees and to market its product. Aquaculture also operates in
a world where the media influence the public opinion.
Just as other food production industries, aquaculture has been hit by “food scares”
about additives in farmed finfish, trace levels of antibiotics and parasite treatments which
contribute to a neutral or negative image of the sector in the public opinion. Consumers
are also well informed and increasingly interested in the general sustainability of food
production and issues such as pollution from on-growing units, the unsustainable use of
fish meal in farmed fish diets, effects on wild fish stocks and in particular, animal
welfare.
In Greece public efforts to improve the sectors image include public education, new
legislation, better location of farms based on integrated coastal zone management and
technology development. All these activities have resulted in a significant improvement
in public opinion towards aquaculture. Today, the sector’s overall image is mostly
positive. Consumers tend to consume farmed products without any apprehension.
Positive aspects associated with the image of the industry are stable supply, affordable
price and safety. Perceived aquaculture product attributes are quality, freshness and
controlled food safety and hygiene. In countries where it benefits from the positive
aspects of seafood in general, it is also perceived as a nutritious and healthy source of
protein (Barazi, 2009).

Conclusions
New socioeconomic conditions affecting agriculture in Europe and worldwide include

the globalisation of agricultural markets, the expansion of the European Union, the
development of a new Common Agricultural Policy within the European Union (Agenda,
2000) and the increasing demand for quality control of agricultural products. In addition,
environmental protection measures dictate sustainable management of natural resources
and the preservation of biodiversity. The need to include all these factors has resulted in a
major change from quantitative to qualitative production. Greek aquaculture today is
mainly focused on the production of high quality, certified products produced by
innovative procedures compatible with sustainable development principles. Improved
quality and the resulting increase in value of Greek aquaculture products will be achieved
through technological innovations resulting from focused, well-coordinated aquaculture
research. Greece as a member of the EU faced also some challenges which are specific to
EU countries as:
• Competition with imports;
• High costs associated with compliance to stringent environmental, health
and animal welfare regulations; and
• Lack of a level playing field among member states and mainly with
respect to third country imports.
The future of aquaculture growth in the Mediterranean is greatly dependent upon the
solution of some common problems for countries within and external to the EU, as the
competition for space and the simplification of the licensing procedure and legislation.
The future development of the industry is also dependent on measures and
responsibilities taken by the State authorities which can substantially improve the
business environment.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank the Directorate of Aquaculture and Inland Waters
(General Directorate for Fisheries) of the Ministry of Rural Development and Food and
especially the following senior officers:
- Mr. Vyron Kessopoulos

- Mr. George Broulidakis

References
FAO-Fisheries and Aquaculture Information and Statistics Service (2009),

www.fao.org/figis/servlet/SQServlet?ds=Aquaculture&k1=COUNTRY&k1v=1&
k1s=84&outtype=html.
FEAP (2008), Production and price reports of member associations of the F.E.A.P, p.
17, www.aquamedia.org/FileLibrary/11/Productionreport2008.pdf.
Barazi-Yeroulanos, L. (2009), “Regional Synthesis of the Mediterranean Aquaculture
Sector & Development of a Strategy for Marketing and Promotion of
Mediterranean Aquaculture”, CAQ/GFCM.
Klaoudatos, S. D. (2001), “Environmental impact assessment of Mediterranean
aquaculture farms. Practical experiences in Greece. Cahier Options Méditerranée”,
Vol 55, pp. 109-127.
OECD Workshop “Advancing the Aquaculture Agenda” 15-16 April 2010, OECD
Conference Centre, Paris, France.

6. KOREA: THE CURRENT STATUS OF AND FUTURE PLANS FOR AQUACULTURE – 161
Chapter 6
Korea: The current status of and future plans for aquaculture
Jung-Uie Lee and Mi-Seon Park

National Fisheries Research and Development Institute, Korea
Abstract
It is acknowledged that the aquaculture industry has developed rapidly over the last half
century in Korea. While aquaculture technologies have considerably improved since
then, Korea’s aquaculture industry still has to face a number of important challenges.
The paper analyzes the role and the current state of aquaculture in Korea and suggests
measures to efficiently overcome domestic and foreign challenges. Aquaculture
production needs to be supported through appropriate production site allocation and
access to relevant technologies. Aquaculture production also needs to take environmental
aspects into consideration to respect natural carrying capacities. The productivity of
marine resources can be also enhanced if enabling business environments are created
and supported by research and development.
Precondition for consolidating Korea’s position as one of the world’s leading
aquaculture producers are that varieties are improved, new technologies developed and
that information on international market trends is collected, analyzed and distributed.

162 – 6. KOREA: THE CURRENT STATUS OF AND FUTURE PLANS FOR AQUACULTURE
Introduction
It is acknowledged that the aquaculture industry has developed rapidly over the last
half century in Korea. During those years, aquaculture technologies have advanced,
aquaculture facilities expanded, types of farmed fish species increased and unit
productivity improved. Aquaculture activities have been primarily located along the
southern coast which is considered to have the best natural conditions for aquaculture
production in Korea due to a relatively favourable oceanic environment for warm-water
fish farming, such as warm water temperature and protection from strong storms and
seasonal typhoons. However, excessive aquaculture activities in a rather limited area also
caused difficulties.
In the 1960s and 1970s, when aquaculture technology was developed with a focus on
seaweed seedlings, aquaculture was considered a good source for seafood for Korean
consumers. Since the mid-1980s, when marine net cage and land-based technologies for
finfish were developed, marine aquaculture rapidly advanced. Serious international
competition and additional challenges had to be faced by the industry from July 1997 on
when fishery products were imported from neighbouring countries in large quantities. In
the 2000s, the production volume of some marine products, especially flounder and
rockfish, increased in parallel with fishery imports (Table 6.1). Under the WTO regime,
Korean aquaculture faces great competition as low-priced live fish flows in from
overseas in great amounts. In addition, the industry has to deal with natural disasters like
typhoons and red tides in addition to marine pollution.
Table 6.1: Development stages of major achievements in Korean aquaculture
Stages Year Production trends Major species and achievements
Before
First
1945
Initial development Laver, oyster, clam, Manila clam
1946 -
Second
1960
1961 - Expansion of seaweed production and Artificial seedling production of laver,
Third
1975 technical advances sea mustard and sea tangle
Shellfishes production enlarged
1976 - Expansion of shellfish production and owing to technical advances of
1985 technical advances seedlings production and on-growing
Fourth for oyster, abalone, ark shell, etc.
Intensive aquaculture for finfish
1986 - Expansion of finfish production and
increased, especially flounder and
1999 technical advances
rockfish
Production adjustment and Ecosystem-based and consumer-
Fifth After 2000
regulation oriented aquaculture
Current status and trends
Capture production from coastal and deep-sea fisheries rapidly decreased or stagnated
from 1986 as stock decreased and coastal countries adopted policies to exploit their
resources themselves. An increase in capture fisheries is unlikely to occur due to
structural adjustment including the reduction of the fishing fleet, as accessible domestic

fishing grounds are reduced as a result of fishery agreements with China and Japan. To
compensate, aquaculture is fostered through seedling production in order to guarantee a
stable supply of the favourite domestic species.
In 2008, aquaculture production amounted to 1.38 million tonnes (41.1% of the total
fisheries production) and played an important role as an animal protein source (Table
6.2). The total licensed area for aquaculture in 2008 was about 136 083 ha, with 58.4% of
the area was allocated to seaweeds, followed by shellfish and fish aquaculture (Table
6.3). Cooperative aquaculture accounted for more than 5 000 ha or 4.3% of the total
licensed aquaculture areas.
Table 6.2: Annual aquaculture production as percentage of total fisheries production
1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Total
3 347 2 514 2 665 2 476 2 487 2 519 2 714 3 032 3 275 3 363
fisheries
Aquaculture 996 653 656 782 826 918 1 041 1 259 1 386 1 382
% 30.0 26.0 24.6 31.6 33.2 36.4 38.4 41.5 42.3 41.1
Source: Korean Statistical Information Service - www.kosis.kr
Table 6.3: Annual increase of licensed area by aquaculture group (ha, % in parenthesis)
Group 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Total 121 973 122 218 122 243 121 853 123 169 124 668 130 889 132 416 136 083
2 216 2 256 2 302 2 136 2 002 1 822 1 986 1 962 1 988
Fish
(1.8) (1.8) (1.9) (1.8) (1.6) (1.5) (1.5) (1.5) (1.5)
44 819 46 171 47 138 47 381 47 087 48 193 49 550 49 261 49 169
Shellfish
(36.7) (37.8) (38.6) (38.9) (38.2) (38.2) (37.9) (37.2) (36.1)
71 543 70 201 69 209 68 062 69 348 69 503 74 757 76 183 79 504
Seaweed
(58.7) (57.5) (56.6) (55.8) (56.3) (56.3) (57.1) (57.5) (58.4)
3 395 3 590 3 594 4 274 4 732 5 150 4 596 5 010 5 422
Others
(2.8) (2.9) (2.9) (3.5) (3.8) (3.8) (3.5) (3.8) (4.0)
Source: Korean Statistical Information Service – www.kosis.kr. Numbers in round brackets indicate component
proportion ratios
Problems and difficulties
Korean marine finfish aquaculture was traditionally carried out in relatively small-
scaled pens in naturally protected locations along the south coast. Advancements in
aquaculture technology over the last decades allowed expanding aquaculture production
along the entire coast. However, recently, negative impacts of aquaculture production
have been recognized. Failures to maintain production volumes within the natural
carrying capacity have hindered further progress. Resentment against the aquaculture
industry also emerged, blaming it to be a main culprit of increased pollution and
decreased aesthetic value of the coast. To worsen the situation, seasonal typhoons hitting
the southern coast of the peninsula caused considerable damages to the industry. The
Korean government as well as fish farmers suffered economic losses of over 500 million
US dollars when typhoon Memi attacked the southern coasts in 2003.
Many efforts have been made to construct aquaculture clusters and to develop
technologies to support the aquaculture industry, but these efforts are not sufficient to

secure the international competitiveness of Korean aquaculture products. Korean

aquaculture is penalized by high production costs and high mortality rates due to
excessive concession of aquaculture licenses and to high stocking densities.
Pollution of aquaculture sites caused by intensive fish farming

In Korea, of the suitable sites of 176 000 ha, 127 000 ha were assigned as production
sites for aquaculture. These are mostly situated on the west and south coast (Table 6.4).
Production sites for aquaculture have potentially negative impacts on the environment
and therefore careful consideration should be given to the development of these sites.
This has not always been done in the past when production sites were assigned without
appropriate environmental assessments. As a result, some farmed fish species were in
oversupply, which led to a sharp decline in commodity prices.
Table 6.4: Estimated area development in aquaculture
Type of Excess rate

Developed area Appropriate area Excessive area
aquaculture (%)
Total 127 518 112 646 14 872 11.6
Fish 2 966 2 795 171 5.7
Shellfish 50 194 48 199 1 995 3.9
Seaweed 69 229 56 523 12 706 18.3
Others 5 129 5 058 - -
Source: Korean Maritime Institute (December 2003) - A study on the potential of growing fish
Marine waste and different pollutants destroy the spawning grounds and habitats of
aquatic organisms and the overall ecosystem. Severe pollution caused by the
accumulation of organic matter like nitrogen and phosphorus also threatens the safety of
marine products. Korea has a foreshore of 2 393 km2 on its south and west coasts, which
accounts for 2.4% of the national territory and in which major fish and shellfish like
laver, hard clam and Manila clam reproduce. The foreshore is particularly important as it
contributes to the purification and improvement of the water quality. Since 1987, a
foreshore of 810.5 km2 has been officially reclaimed along the southern and western
coasts widely to develop agriculture, housing and other industries which can benefit from
the tidal belts. However, indiscriminative reclamation has reduced the purifying power of
natural water and destroyed the habitats of various aquatic organisms.
Illegal expansion of production sites beyond allocated areas

Intensive aquaculture beyond mandatory regulation was intended to increase harvest
but caused environmental deterioration of production grounds, conflict with ship
navigation and lower productivity of production sites due to the presence of diseases, the
aging of the sites and poor management. Illegal behaviour such as excessive production,
oligopoly, unlicensed fish farms and changes of species without permission makes it
difficult to maintain a sustainable production system. It also deteriorates the quality of
products and contributes to imbalances between supply and demand, causing a fall in
product prices. Furthermore, there are difficulties in appropriately managing already
developed production sites and research or supervisory institutes consider it difficult to
provide technological and long-term guidance to aquaculture farmers. Intensive
aquaculture will exacerbate damages from typhoon, red tide and/or abnormal

temperature. Recovery from those damages is costly, both for the national budget and the
aquaculture farmers as well.
Natural disaster and disease outbreaks

Recently, harmful red tides and typhoons tend to increase, placing a great burden on
public finances and on the aquaculture farm management. For example, the red tides in
2003 caused damages of KRW 21.5 billion, which is less than the damage of
KRW 76.5 billion incurred in 1995, but the affected region and scale were the greatest
ever. In addition, in 2003 typhoon Memi caused damages for a value of
KRW 453.9 billion in the aquaculture sector. In 2006, due to disease outbreakes the
mortality rate reached 8.5% of the total production volume. Poor systematic measures
were taken to look into the causes of the diseases and to develop efficient treatments.
Vaccines for treating various viral diseases have not yet been developed.
Future plans and strategies
Strengthen regulation against illegal expansion of production sites

By the end of the 1990s the government of the Republic of Korea actively supported
aquaculture under the slogan of changing “from catching fish to growing fish”. As a
result, some regions were saturated with aquaculture farms and face serious
environmental problems. Moreover, aquaculture oversupply has caused in some cases
sharp declines in prices, leading to bankruptcy of some farms. This situation calls for
severe limitations for the development of new production sites and for the restructuration
of existing aquaculture sites to ensure competitiveness. New licenses shall not be given
for products in oversupply, like laver, brown seaweed, and some fish species, while other
species with high commercial value like tuna and mackerel shall be better developed. It is
also necessary to restrict the irresponsible development of land-based seawater fish
farms, which is currently only to be reported but doesn’t require a license. To do so, the
government needs to regulate the establishment of farms by changing the current post-
reporting system to a prior-permit system. The regulation of illegal aquaculture farms
such as unlicensed and excess facilities needs to be intensified.
Aquaculture production sites for each variety shall be relocated according to natural
carrying capacities and existing licensed farms need to be prioritized. Enclosing nets,
which frequently suffer damages from red tides, typhoons, etc., shall be first moved to
open sea production sites so that environmental conditions of coastal areas can recover.
Production sites for certain species (e.g. ark shell and others) with expiring licences or
low productivity should take a temporary rest or be redeveloped for other species. In
order to deal with the instability of management caused by poor product quality,
oversupply and declining prices, the requirements for aquaculture facilities need to be
improved according to the carrying capacity to ensure sustainable production.
Innovate aquaculture species and technologies

In Korea, a total of 85 species have been cultivated, out of which 61 species in marine
waters (including 21 kinds of fish such as flounder, rock fish, and red sea bream). As the
demand for high value fish products increases, research on new fish species is now
focussing on commercial valuable species like tuna.

Presently, aquaculture species are loosing their resistance to diseases and frequently
perish in large quantities due poor water quality, intensive stocking densities and
recessive varieties. Exotic incurable diseases from other countries are widely spread as
farmed species frequently move between regions and countries. This situation calls for
the development of an aquaculture disease monitoring and control system. The
government has introduced a marine disease management system to quickly treat
diseases and minimize damages for farmed species. The first qualification test of this
system was conducted in October 2004 when 40 marine disease managers were trained.
Since then, 18 - 43 marine disease managers were trained each year, totalling 136
managers now active on site. In order to reduce damages from diseases, the early
development of vaccines and treatments is needed in the future as pollution is likely to
increase and intensive farming puts high pressure on aquatic organisms. The government
already established the marine animal diseases management law to prevent the
occurrence and diffusion of major marine diseases.
Apply ecosystem-based environment friendly aquaculture systems

In Korea, most coastal aquaculture farms in gulfs have been developed for specific
fish species only and the environmental load of pollutants progresses in one direction
only. In other words, in fish farms using artificial feeds, fish feed left overs, faeces and
inorganic matter cause the deterioration of the production site environment. Inland farms
with intensive production are in fact more severely deteriorated.
This calls for the establishment of poly-culture, where emissions from one species
may be used by other cultured species at a different trophic level. That is to say, the
environment of a production site can be improved and the productivity enhanced when
feed leftovers or solid waste are removed by shellfish and filter feeders, sinking feed
dregs used by benthos, and inorganic matters absorbed by seaweed. Research is being
conducted to implement ICZM (Integrated Coastal Zone Management) for aquaculture.
Once the research is completed, relevant systems and laws for coastal aquaculture will be
developed.
Regulate mandatory use of extruded pellets

In fish aquaculture, the cost of feed accounts for 40 - 50% of aquaculture management
costs. Feed is also a major factor directly related to the growth of fish. It is necessary to
develop environment-friendly extruded pellets to increase the current diffusion rate for
extrude pellet of 20% to at least 80% and to diminish the pollution of production sites
caused by raw feeds. To do so, good quality extruded pellet, which can be trusted by
aquaculture farmers, shall be developed and the government shall introduce an incentive
system to encourage aquaculture farms to use extruded pellets. This should contribute to
preventing indiscriminate hunting of resources, reducing pollution and establishing
environment-friendly aquaculture practices. Since 2004, the government provides fish
farmers with subsidized extruded pellets However, the subsidy provision rate shall be
increased and mid- and long-term systems be set up to discourage the use of raw feeds.
Restore trust in aquaculture products

In Korea, most fishery products are consumed as sliced raw fish in restaurants.
However, it is reported that fermented fresh fish is better than live sliced raw fish in
shape and taste. It is also reported that, when live fish is kept in a water tank of a

restaurant, captured fish will loose vitality much faster than farmed fish and that,
accordingly, the taste of the flesh will quickly deteriorate. Therefore, it is necessary to
properly inform consumers who favour captured fish and to adjust their perception of
aquaculture products. Besides, if distribution systems are improved to deliver fresh fish
to households through a cold chain, new demand will be created. Furthermore, in order to
secure consumers' trust in the safety of aquaculture products, a traceability system
informing about the supply of feed and drugs from the farm to the fork needs to be
introduced and implemented.
In Korea, one of the most vulnerable aspects of aquaculture is distribution. The
National Federation of Fisheries Cooperatives is in charge of selling seaweeds and some
fish. But the sale of most seafood is in the hands of small- and middle-sized distributors.
This implies that the base for the consumption of aquaculture products could be
expanded if producer associations directly operate sales centres to ensure an equal
distribution of the margins along the value chain. A key requisite for high-grade marine
products is freshness and safety. To ensure these, live fish distribution facilities need to
be modernized and amplified and value added products should be developed to satisfy
the tastes of various consumers.
In the framework of international free trade, Korean marine products cannot and shall
not cater only to the domestic market but expand to other markets. This implies the
collection of information about aquaculture technologies in neighbouring countries which
have similar cultural, geographical and environmental conditions. For the future, Korean
aquaculture shall be internationally competitive. Trends in foreign markets need to be
understood, the competition structure of related industries analyzed and international
comparison be made. Comprehensive analysis shall include all aspects of aquaculture,
from the seedling production industry, feeds industry, test research and development,
consumption patterns to food cultures.
Aquaculture farms could also be converted to locations where fishery, ecology and
leisure can be experienced so that aquaculture farmers may also earn income from other
than the farming. Enclosing net farms shall integrate recreational fishing sites. Private
insurances for aquaculture product hazards shall be urgently introduced so that
compensations for damages from typhoon, red tide, disease and other natural disasters
can be covered.
Conclusions
This paper aims to analyze the role and the current state of aquaculture in Korea and
suggests comprehensive countermeasures to efficiently overcome domestic and foreign
challenges. Three sides of the Korean peninsula are surrounded by 380 000 km2 of sea
and capture fishery and aquaculture is considered an important food industry, along with
agriculture. It is not sure if the Korean aquaculture industry will develop into a
sustainable environment-friendly industry due to the eutrophicated coasts, high levels of
pollution caused by aquaculture farm effluents and international pressure to open the
domestic market.
In order for aquaculture to overcome current challenges and to develop into a
prosperous and sustainable industry, aquaculture management needs to be stabilized
through appropriate production methods and technologies. To achieve this, aquaculture
production site development shall take environment issues into consideration. Aquatic
organisms, if appropriately managed within the carrying capacity of the environment,

will be a sustainable renewable food resource. The productivity of marine resources can
be also enhanced if appropriate surroundings are created and maintained through
research. Korea will have a comparative advantage over neighbouring countries and other
producers around the world when varieties are improved and diffused, new aquaculture
technologies developed, information on international trends is collected and analyzed,
and the potential is nurtured to meet the world's rapidly changing conditions.
Lastly, aquaculture shall be continuously developed and fostered from a future-
oriented and strategic perspective, not simply from a short-sighted economic one, as
farmed aquatic products are a dispensable resource in the future.

7. SPAIN: NATIONAL PLANS FOR THE PROMOTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF MARINE AQUACULTURE – 169
Chapter 7
Spain: National plans for the promotion and development of marine

aquaculture
Paloma Carballo Tejero

General Secretariat of the Sea, Ministry of the Environment and Rural
and Marine Affairs, Spain
Abstract
The aim of a Marine Farming National Plan is to promote and develop marine
aquaculture to achieve specific objectives of interest for a significant part of the country.
These objectives can be related to research, development, innovation or any other activity
and their achievement is considered to be important for Spanish aquaculture.
Since 1988, a total of 107 National Plans have been developed, 17 of which are currently
being implemented. These initiatives aimed mainly at the inclusion of new species and at
the technical improvement of production conditions. In recent years a greater effort has
been made on matters related to environmental and health impacts, analytical
methodologies, product quality, technologies, and production management and planning.
The results of these National Plans have contributed to (i) the improvement of
competitiveness through the optimisation of production systems and the incorporation of
new technologies; (ii) to the stimulus of research activity; (iii) to the integration of results
into administrative proceedings and (iv) to the generation of knowledge on environmental
impacts of aquaculture.

170 – 7. SPAIN: NATIONAL PLANS FOR THE PROMOTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF MARINE AQUACULTURE
Introduction
A National Plan is an operation aimed at harmoniously promoting and developing

marine aquaculture within the national territory. It is oriented to achieve specific
objectives of interest for all aquaculture stakeholders. The focus of a National Plan can
be within the scope of research, development, innovation or in any other aquaculture
activity whose implementation is considered to be important for the harmonious
development of that activity in Spain.
The National Plans were created by the Law 23/1984 on Marine Farming, in which
Article 25 states that the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (currently the
Ministry of the Environment and Rural and Marine Affairs) draws up the National Plans
of Marine Farming by common consent with the Autonomous Communities involved and
gives due consideration to the necessary financial resources required for their
implementation. The Autonomous Communities implement the said plans within the
scope and powers of their statutes. To assess the fulfilment of the National Plans, the
Government, via the National Advisory Board for Marine Farming (JACUMAR), gathers
all information deemed to be required from the Autonomous Communities.
Description
Operation
The National Plans are identified and approved by JACUMAR. The go-ahead for any
Plan is dependent upon the existence of a common interest between several Autonomous
Communities. A priority selection criterion is the participation of a minimum of three
Autonomous Communities. In assessing projects, advice is taken from the National
Agency for Evaluation and Foresight (ANEP).
Once a Plan has been approved, a Working Group is created for its development and
teams are assigned to tackle the various tasks. The groups can be involved in research or
other activities and are from universities, research bodies or private companies. Each
Autonomous Community is responsible for the financial management of the
budget al. located to it.
There is a Follow-up Group which assesses a Plan’s results by analysing the Annual
Implementation Reports and the Final Reports. This group consists of a representative for
each Autonomous Community and of staff from the Secretariat of the National Advisory
Board for Marine Farming.
Participants
Since their implementation, ten of the twelve coastal Autonomous Communities have
participated in the National Plans. Andalusia, Catalonia and Galicia, through their
Research Centres, have participated in the most.
Fifty six Research Centres have participated in the National Plans (see Figure 7.1).

Figure 7.1: Distribution of research centres participating in the National Plans
Source: JACUMAR
More than 40 companies have participated in the development of the National Plans.
The projects developed by the Autonomous Communities of Andalusia, Valencia and
Galicia have had the largest participation by companies.
Budget distribution
Since its creation in 1988, JACUMAR has allocated EUR 32.37 million for the
financing of National Plans - an annual average of nearly EUR 1.5 million. The
Autonomous Communities of Andalusia, Galicia and Catalonia have received the
greatest financial support since 1988, as shown in Figure 7.2.

Figure 7.2: Proportion transferred to each Autonomous Community
Canary Islands
12% Catalonia
17%
Murcia
12%
Galicia
Balearic Islands
19%
6%
Principality of Asturias
5%
Community of
Valencia
4% Cantabria
3% Ceuta
1% Aragon Andalusia
1% 20%
Source: JACUMAR
The period 2005-2009 had the largest budget (EUR 19.06 million) allocated for the
development of National Plans, as indicated in Figure 7.3. This is an increase of 53.75%
over the previous period.
Figure 7.3: Economic analysis of 1988-2009 National Plans (total budget per period)
Source: JACUMAR

One of the operations carried out to improve the development of National Plans has
been the establishment of some Strategic Lines of Action. Their objective is to enhance
the implementation and transfer of the knowledge derived from the Plans to the various
players in the sector. These Strategic Lines are:
• The incorporation of new species;
• The optimisation of production conditions;
• The environmental management of aquaculture;
• Quality and security of aquaculture products and
• Health aspects of producing aquaculture.
Budget location in relation to the Strategic Line of the National Plans has varied in
each period. In 1988-2000 the budget was largely allocated to incorporate new species.
However, in 2001-2004 and 2005-2010 the Strategic Line with greatest financial support
was for the optimization of production conditions, through the progressive increase of
resources allocated to the study of environmental aspects and food quality and security.
Principal subjects and species studied

The principal subject of the National Plans has been: Farming Systems, with a special
interest in system optimisation and improvement, the viability of new farming techniques
and the introduction of new species. Other subjects have also been covered, such as:
aspects of health and environment, analytical methodologies, product quality, the search
for suitable areas in which to develop the activity and the use of information technology
tools. Figure 7.4 shows the percentage of National Plans developed per subject.
Figure 7.4: Percentage of National Plans developed per subject
Health, 14%
Environment,
11%
Analytical
Methodologies ,
6%
Farming Systems Quality, 3%

, 63%
Analysis, 2%
Information and
communication
technology, 1%
Source: JACUMAR

Fish is the most studied group of species, followed by molluscs. Within fish the most
studied family is that of Sparidae, in particular sea bream (Sparus aurata), followed by
dentex (Dentex dentex). Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis) is another highly studied
specie. The most studied molluscs are oyster (Ostrea edulis) and clams. Figure 7.5 shows
the number of National Plans addressing the study of each species in each period. The
number of Plans which include the most studied species is shown in Figure 7.6.
Figure 7.5: Number of plans per species group per period
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
1988-2000 2001-2004 2005-2009
Fish Molluscs Echinoderms Algae Crustaceans
Source: JACUMAR
Figure 7.6: Number of National Plans which include the most studied species
Source: JACUMAR

During the early years National Plans focused on the study of one species only,
however, in recent years it has become common to study several species in one National
Plan. During the period 1988-2000 the National Plans served to promote the farming of
species which are now considered to be well established in Spanish aquaculture: sea
bream (Sparus aurata), sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and turbot (Psetta maxima)
(Figure 7.7).
The results achieved in the National Plans have contributed to boosting the farming
of species which are currently in a consolidation process, such as meagre (Argyrosomus
regius), Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis), red sea bream (Pagellus bogaraveo) or
common octopus (Octopus Vulgaris).
Figure 7.7: Production evolution of sea bream, sea bass and turbot, 1998-2008
Source: JACUMAR
National Plans under development
Since 1988 a total of 107 Plans have been developed, over four periods and with
different implementation systems. To date, there are 17 National Plans under
development which, according to the Strategic Line of Action, are the following:

Incorporation of new species

• Breeding of spider crab (Maja sp.) - [Start: 2006 – End: 2010]
This project develops an integrated farming process for captive spider crab and
evaluates its possible restocking in the Mediterranean.
Optimisation of production conditions

• Farming and management of stony sea urchin (Paraentrotus lividus) -
[Start: 2005 – End: 2010]
This Plan develops the farming of stony sea urchins to harvest juveniles and
analyses the situation of the resource, its management and degree of exploitation
in order to develop appropriate management protocols and methods for
sustainable production.
• Optimisation of farming and dandling of the stony sea urchin
(Paracentrotus lividus) - [Start: 2010 – End: 2013]
This project includes bio-energetic studies, the preparation of animal foods

extruded for the pre-fattening of juveniles and adults, sensorial analysis,
financial studies on the viability of farming, and studies to determine the
relevance of marine toxins for food safety and the exploitation of the stony sea
urchin.
• Hatchery farming of new species of bivalve molluscs - [Start: 2006 – End:
2010]
This Plan includes the following objectives: the production of bivalve seeds for
commercial interests,; a study on the adaptation of adults and larval farming;
post-larval farming and on feeding at the various stages of hatchery farming; a
study on seed farming systems in both controlled facilities and the natural
environment; the treatment of pathological problems for breeding bivalves and
of the various farming stages; the development of an appropriate protocol for
each species for seed reproduction in hatcheries and its adaptation to the natural
environment.
• Farming of mytilids: spreading and sustainability - [Start: 2006 – End:
2010]
This project analyses the possibilities of open-sea mussel platform farming,

assesses the economic impact of toxin control methods and determines the
technical and economic viability of farming.
• Optimising the fattening of the common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) -
[Start: 2007 – End: 2010]
The objectives of this Plan are: to obtain animal foods with the required texture
for handling and consumption and with an optimum nutrient composition for
fattening; to evaluate the efficacy of artificial diets by carrying out fattening
tests in different systems; and to carry out restocking experiments.

• Nutrition and feeding of the common octopus (Octopus vulgaris)

paralarvae and sub-adults - [Start: 2010 – End: 2013]
This Plan seeks to determine the best farming system for the common octopus
paralarvae and analyses the nutrition, feeding, histology and enzymology
procedures of farmed preys and paralarvae. It also aims to develop animal foods
that can be commercially produced with satisfactory productivity yields.
• Integrated aquaculture: pilot experiment for the development of
multitrophic farming systems - [Start: 2007 – End: 2011]
This Plan evaluates the implementation of integrated multitrophic farming

systems in Spain by means of a technical-scientific follow-up on farmed stocks
to evaluate their growth and quality; and an environmental follow-up of the
natural environment using indicating parameters will analyse the possible
impact.
• Optimisation of intensive farming of clams and identification of genetic
markers for the follow-up of restocks (Ruditapes decussatus, Venerupis
pullastra, Ruditapes philippinarum) - [Start: 2008 – End: 2010]
This Plan optimises the intensive farming of these species by determining the
quality criteria of egg-lays, carrying out feeding tests on larvae and identifying
the micro-biotic flora associated with mortalities. Restock follow-up is carried
out by identifying genetic markers, the genetic characterisation of natural stocks,
and comparing the genetic viability of natural stocks and of the seeds from
natural progenitors.
• Development of a pilot programme for the genetic improvement of sea
bream (Sparus aurata) - [Start: 2009 – End: 2011]
The global objective of this project is to devise a protocol for a methodology

making the development of selection outlines for this species feasible and
enabling the study of genetic character parameters for commercial use, and the
evaluation and management of breeding sea bream under the industry’s
conditions.
• A basis for reproduction control and knowledge of the natural Defense
system of the Senegalese sole (Solea Senegalensis) - [Start: 2009 – End:
2011]
The aim of this Plan is to achieve controlled captive reproduction of farmed

Senegalese sole specimens and to determine the farming conditions for optimum
immune response and resistance to pathogens in juveniles.

Environmental management of aquaculture

• Treatment of wastewaters in marine farming and land based auxiliary
facilities - [Start: 2006 – End: 2010]
This National Plan develops different wastewater treatment and use techniques,
it promotes the treatment of sewage water by using biological plant and animal
filters and the coarsest effluent solids are converted into usable biological
material for commercial use. Integrated farming systems and their handling
protocols, which provide profitability to the aquaculture activity, are also
implemented.
• Selection of indicators, setting of reference values, design of programmes

and of method and measurement protocols for environmental studies on
marine aquaculture - [Start: 2008 – End: 2010]
The aim of this project is to establish the basis for the design of aquaculture
protocols and environmental follow-up plans and to create a protocol for
formulating programmes of environmental observance to make it easier for
companies to carry out appropriate environmental studies, and to simplify the
environmental management of marine aquaculture by the administrations.
• Proposals and improvements for the design and control of plans for
restocking and evaluating the impact of escapes - [Start: 2008 – End: 2010]
This Plan defines the quality of specimens to be released; determines the ideal
conditions for their release; develops adaptation techniques; evaluates the
existing labels and the feasibility and efficacy of genetic markers; follows-up
released specimens; determines the possible effects that the farmed species
could have on wild species; and establishes action protocols, preventive and
correction measures for escapes. Information campaigns are carried out to gain
the collaboration of the fisheries sector.
Food quality and safety of aquaculture products

• Quality characterisation of bred fish - [Start: 2008 – End: 2011]
This project enables the establishment of criteria to define the quality of bred
fish, to estimate their nutrient value and sensorial attributes against extractive
fished species, to describe the evolution of deterioration following its slaughter
and during ice storage until its consumption; and to determine the level of
pollutants in bred and extractive fish. Possible changes in commercial
presentation are studied, including an evaluation of their acceptance and
preservation.

Health aspects related to aquaculture

• Health management of aquaculture - [Start: 2007 – End: 2010]
This Plan includes two projects: “Adaptation to new regulations” and

“Characterisation and standardisation of animal health conditions in marine
aquaculture”. The aim of the first one is to facilitate the collaboration between
players and administrations, to gather information on diseases, to propose
criteria to elaborate epidemiological data bases, and to promote consensus on
follow-up programmes under the new legal framework. The “Characterisation
and Standardisation of animal health conditions in marine aquaculture” project
elaborates action strategies for the design of an Epidemiological Observance
Network for diseases holding special interest for the appropriate authorities,
where the farmed and wild specimen (farmed and other sentinel species) are
observed.
• Methodology comparison to determine paralysing toxins in bivalves related
to PSP and its application in Spanish aquaculture - [Start: 2007 – End:
2010]
This project compares methods to determine paralysing toxins (PSP) and studies
their applicability in follow-up programmes taking into account several factors,
such as: speed of analysis, costs, sample preparation, and staff training. It
proposes appropriate methodologies and management systems for the control
programmes and defines the most appropriate methods for the establishment of
observance plans.
Lessons learned
The results of these National Plans are essential for the sustainable development of the
activity, since several important conclusions have been drawn from them relating to
environmental, economic and social aspects. As a result of these studies direct
improvements have been made in the development of the activity, in its interaction with
the administrations and with other production sectors. Some of the most remarkable
results and conclusions follow.
• Optimisation of production systems:
− Consolidating open-sea farming systems by promoting operations

related to the formulation of recommendations to prevent accidents and
the problems associated with them.
− Reproduction of specific captive species, such as Senegalese sole (S.
Senegalensis)
− Control of the whole biological cycle of some specific captive species,
such as sea bream (S. aurata), sea bass (D. labrax) and turbot (P.
maxima).

• Improvement of research activity:
− Improvement of communication channels and coordination between

multidisciplinary research groups of the various Autonomous
Communities to optimise operations, resources and create greater
objective coherence.
− Creation and development of standardised databases, which can be
updated and consulted within the network, very useful both to draw
conclusions at national level as well as to determine dispersions and
synergies between Autonomous Communities.
− Theoretical design of an Epidemiological Observance Network.
• Contributing to the improvement of environmental aspects related to
aquaculture:
− Development of effective techniques for quantifying the spatial extent

of waste.
− Identification and development of measures and operations to
minimise waste and to estimate by-products, enabling the sector to
reduce production losses, waste and by-products at origin, thereby
directly reducing the purchasing costs of raw and auxiliary materials,
production costs and waste/by-product management costs.
− Preparation and publication of a Guide for Minimising Waste in
Aquaculture as a means to raise awareness in the sector and as a direct
means to contribute to cost-saving measures and environmental
improvements.
− Gathering of appropriate indicators to monitor the environmental
impacts of marine farms and to determine areas suitable for the
activity.
− Development of comparative studies on the ecosystems present in the
areas where the activity is developed in order to know their
preservation state, to decide the minimum critical distance to locate an
aquaculture facility, to provide a more realistic view of the classical
methods for evaluating its environmental impact, which are specially
important for the conservation of ecosystems sensitive to anthropic
disturbances, such as the sea-grass meadows (Posidonia oceanica and
Cymodocea nodosa).
− Improve the quality of the environment through the use of bio-filters
and recovering bio-deposits used in soil reclamation or fertilization.
− Implementation of corrective measures to minimise or mitigate the
environmental impact produced by marine farms in floating cages and
platforms.
− Definition of specific tools and criteria to enable administrations with
authority over marine farming to uniformly define the environmental

studies required from the sector (that is, uniformity both in the
environmental studies prior to the development of the activity, as well
as in the surveillance programmes that must be carried out during the
development of the activity).
• Improvement of the sector’s competitiveness:
− Better knowledge of optimum farming structures, depending on the

needs and oceanographic conditions of each area.
− Optimisation of new farming technologies (cages, hatcheries, etc.).
− Creating bio-economic models from theoretical and experimental
parameters that indicate the economic viability for the industrial
production of species, such as sole.
− Final consumer tests to determine product acceptance and to determine
the sensorial profile of some species.
− Boost to new business activities (new species, new farming systems,
new products and presentations).
− The involvement of companies in the projects has had an awareness-
raising effect in relation to the environmental, economic and social
problems created.
− Improved knowledge on the part of fish farmers on their production
yield and level of losses, enabling them to act accordingly.
• Information transfer to the sector:
− Presentation of papers at conferences, forums, and in reports, etc.

− Periodical meetings with collaborating companies to share results and
experiences.
− Participation on expert panels by the various administrations with
authority over aquaculture and the environment and by the different
players or sectors involved in the activity.
− Open sessions at research centres with the administrations involved,
business representatives of the sector, private consultancy firms and
other research centres participation.
− Preparation of protocols and manuals to ensure the uniformity of
environmental studies and of environmental observance programmes.
− Development of standardised protocols for sampling and pathogen
diagnosis.
− Preparation of Good Practice Guidelines on health control
Additional information
• Website: www.mapa.es/app/jacumar/jacumar.aspx?id=es
• E-mail: secjacumar@mapya.es

8. TURKEY: BEST PRACTICES IN AQUACULTURE MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT.– 183
Chapter 8
Turkey: Best practices in aquaculture management and

sustainable development
Hayri Deniz
Aquaculture Department; DG of Agricultural Production and Development, Ministry
of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Turkey
Abstract
Turkey is a peninsula with a coastal line of 8 333 km and 177 714 km of rivers. Marine
and inland waters suitable for fisheries and aquaculture cover approximately 26 million
hectares. Official figures indicate that total fishery production in 2008 was
646 310 tonnes, with 152 186 tonnes coming from aquaculture. Aquaculture, although
being a very young sector, has been increasing very rapidly, accounting now for 24% of
the total Turkish fishery production. Turkey has the third fastest growing aquaculture
sector in the world and aquaculture is playing an increasingly important role in the
Turkish economy, as fishery products are the only products of animal origin that can be
exported to the EU.
However the current distribution of sea farms, most of them located in the Aegean region
in enclosed bays or coastal waters where they compete with other activities is considered
a constraint and the main problem for the future expansion of the sector. Both the
government and the private sector learned lessons after facing serious problems in the
last years. After a new Environmental Law entered into force the Ministry of Agriculture
and Rural Affairs implemented several actions with other related stakeholder. New
marine farming zones were determined and inshore sea farms moved to offshore
locations. Turkey is also involved in national and international projects for developing
the sector in a sustainable way.

184 – 8. TURKEY: BEST PRACTICES IN AQUACULTURE MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
Turkey is a peninsula and given the large availability of lakes, dammed lakes, ponds,
reservoirs, rivers and springs it has a major potential for aquaculture. With a coastline of
8 333 km and 177 714 km of rivers, the marine and inland water sources suitable for
aquaculture are approximately 26 million ha (Table 8.1, Table 8.2). It is known that there
are 247 species in the Black Sea, 200 in the Sea of Marmara, 300 in the Aegean Sea and
500 in the Mediterranean. However, only a few species of commercial interest represent
almost the 60% of the total Turkish production (Deniz, 2001).
Table 8.1: Marine resources in Turkey
Coastlines Surface
Marine resources
(km) area (ha)
Mediterranean, Aegean Sea, Marmara Sea, and
7 144 23 475 000
Black Sea
Istanbul and Dardanelles 1 189 1 133 200
Total 8 333 24 607 200
Source: MARA
Table 8.2: Freshwater resources in Turkey
Freshwater Number of Surface area

Length (km)
resources resources (ha)
Natural Lakes 200 900 118 -
Dam Lakes 159 342 377 -
Ponds 750 15 500 -
Rivers 33 - 177 714
Total 1 142 1 261 995 177 714
Source: MARA
Official figures indicate that total fishery production in 2008 was 646 310 tonnes
(Table 8.3), with 436 671 tonnes originating from fisheries and 152 186 tonnes from
aquaculture (Deniz and Karasubenli, 2008). The contribution of aquaculture was 24% in
terms of volume and 43.7% in terms of value of the total fisheries production in 2008
(Figure 8.1).

Table 8.3: Fishery and aquaculture production in Turkey in the past decade (tonnes)
Total % of total
Total
Year Inland Marine fisheries fisheries
aquaculture
production production
1999 37 770 25 230 63 000 636 824 9.89
2000 43 385 35 646 79 031 582 376 13.57
2001 37 514 29 730 67 244 594 977 11.30
2002 34 297 26 868 61 165 627 847 9.74
2003 40 217 39 726 79 943 587 715 13.60
2004 44 115 49 895 94 010 644 492 14.59
2005 48 604 69 673 118 277 544 773 21.71
2006 56 694 72.249 128.943 661.991 19.47
2007 59 033 80 840 139 873 772 323 18.11
2008 66 527 85 629 152 186 646 310 24. 00
Source: MARA, 2008
Figure 8.1: Contribution of Turkish fisheries production in 2008 (volume, tonnes)
Fishery
152 000
24%
Aquaculture
494 000
76%
Source: TURKSTAT
The main developments took place during the 1990s with the rapid increase in sea
bass and sea bream production, the development of rainbow trout and sea bass farming in
the Black Sea, kuruma shrimp on the Mediterranean coast, mussel in the northern Aegean
and Sea of Marmara, and more recently the development of turbot culture in the Black
Sea. The sector has developed to such an extent that Turkey is currently the third largest
finfish aquaculture producer in the World and the second largest producer of both sea
bass and sea bream and of rainbow trout (Figure 8.2).

Figure 8.2: Distribution of aquaculture production by species in 2008 (tonnes)
Others Sea bream

4 413 28 463
3% 22%
Trout
57 659
45%
Sea bass
38 408
30%
Aquaculture is an important economic activity in the coastal and rural areas of many
countries. It offers opportunities to alleviate poverty, creates employment, helps
community development, reduces overexploitation of natural aquatic resources and
contributes enhancing food security. For example it is estimated that the aquaculture
sector in Turkey provides employment for approximately 25 000 people.
Current average annual per capita fish consumption is very low compared to many
European countries, but it is expected that the fast aquaculture development will lead to
increases in domestic fish consumption. Annual average per capita fish consumption in
the world is about 16 kg while it is only about 8 kg in Turkey. As the average annual per
capita fish consumption in the EU is 25 kg, the consumption in Turkey needs to be
doubled to reach world average and tripled to reach EU consumption levels (Deniz,
2008).
Aquaculture in Turkey
Aquaculture in Turkey started with carp and trout farming in the 1970s and
developed with gilthead sea bream/sea bass farming in the Aegean and Mediterranean
seas in the mid 1980s, followed by cage culture of trout in the Black Sea during the
1990s and more recently tuna rearing in the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea in the
early 2000s. The sector has rapidly developed to 1 855 farms with a total capacity of
238 756 tonnes in 2009, thanks to governmental support and technical developments.
There are 1 499 inland fish farms with a capacity of 104 629 tonnes and 356 marine
farms with a capacity of 134 121 tonnes.
The Euphrates and the Tigris river systems which are within the GAP Region1 consist
of 2 235 km of rivers, 6 481 ha of natural lakes, small lakes and approximately
129 987 ha of dam lake, the construction of which has been completed by the General
Directorate of State Hydraulic Works and opened for operation, are suitable for inland
aquaculture. There is and increasing need for the development of aquaculture as capture
fishery resources become scarcer. Several natural water resources make Turkey an ideal
country for aquaculture development (Gozgozoglu, 2002).

The first aquaculture practices in Turkey initiated in inland waters during the 1970s
(trout production) and in 1985 for marine fish production. Due to the late start of
aquaculture practices compared to other countries and to uninformed practices in the
initial stages as well as inadequate follow up of relevant technological development,
aquaculture in Turkey has been relatively underdeveloped (Okumus and Deniz, 2007).
The sector has by now developed to such an extent that Turkey is currently the third
largest farmed finfish producer in Europe, the largest producer of rainbow trout and the
second largest producer of both sea bass and sea bream. The sectors’ rapid development
has been driven by various factors including relatively high demand for fish, availability
of sheltered sites and good water quality, government supports, until recently lose or
flexible regulations, high private sector interest in aquaculture investment, rapid
development of marine hatchery technology and low labour cost.
Aquaculture is one of the fastest growing industries in Turkey, having grown by over
20% in volume overr the past ten years. During the 1990s production of three major
species (rainbow trout, sea bass and bream) increased rapidly until 2000 and then
declined during the following two years due to the serious general economic crisis faced
by the country in general and has continued to increase again since then.
Table 8.4: Aquaculture of commercially important species: 2004-2008 (tonnes)
Species 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Trout 48 082 49 282 57 659 61 173 68 649
Carp 683 571 668 600 629
Sea
20 435 27 634 28 463 33 500 31 670
bream
Sea bass 26 297 37 290 38 408 41 900 49 270
Mussel 1513 1 500 1 545 1 100 196
Others - 2 000 2 200 1 600 1 772
TOTAL 94 010 118 277 128 943 139 873 152 186
Source: MARA
Aquaculture management
Aquaculture Legislation
Article 13 of the Fisheries Law states that those who wish to farm aquatic species for
commercial purposes are obliged to apply for a permit at the Ministry of Agriculture and
Rural Affairs (MARA), informing the Ministry about the location, characteristics and
management of the facilities and the enterprise’s project and plans. Permission is issued
by MARA if there are no adverse effects in terms of public health, the national economy,
navigation or science and technology (Gozgozoglu, 2007).
The provisions of the last paragraph of Article 4 of the Fisheries Law 1380 are also
applicable for production units to be established in the sea and inland waters. According
to Article 13 of the Fisheries Law, the procedures and principles applying to aquaculture
are determined by the Aquaculture Regulation, which was issued in 2004. This regulation
was amended in 2007 and 2009 and now includes fish welfare issue.
This regulation covers and sets out rules for the following issues:

• Site selection for inland and marine farms;

• Application and evaluation procedures for fish farming licenses;
• Project approval and license issuing;
• Production capacity improvement, species etc, cancellation, site changes
and sales;
• Other aquaculture activities (tuna fattening, organic farming, etc.);
• Import of brood fish, egg and fry;
• Compulsory technical staff employment;
• Fish health management;
• Environmental impacts and protection;
• Monitoring and control of farming activities;
• Fish welfare.
Licensing procedure
The Directorate General of Agricultural Production and Development (DGAPD) of
MARA is responsible for aquaculture activities. All aquaculture producers must have an
aquaculture license and register with the Aquaculture Department of DGAPD. The
details of the application, issuing and cancellation of the aquaculture license are
described in the Aquaculture Regulation.
Entrepreneurs or applicants need to submit their applications either to the central
office (Aquaculture Department of DGAPD in Ankara) or to Provincial Directorates of
MARA with all the relevant supporting documentation - for example a written
application with species, capacity and production system clearly mentioned and a map of
the area.
Applications for trout, carp, sea bass and sea bream on-growing farms and hatcheries
for these species up to two million fry per year capacity can be submitted to the
Provincial Directorates, whilst applicants for other on-growing species (namely turbot,
sturgeon, eel, algae, molluscs and crustaceans) and trout, carp and sea bass/sea bream
hatcheries with an annual capacity of more than two million have to apply directly to the
Aquaculture Department in Ankara. A team of experts from the central or provincial
office then visits the site and prepares a preliminary survey report. If the report is
positive, a preliminary license is issued for eight months and can be extended up to four
months. Supporting documentation submitted for the preliminary license must include an
application letter, site map, the preliminary survey report and a water quality report.
According to current environmental impact assessment (EIA) legislation those fish
farms with annual capacity of less than 30 tonnes do not require an EIA. Fish farms with
an annual capacity between 30-1 000 tonnes may require EIA and this is decided upon by
EIA commissions in each province. Farms must submit an EIA report if they produce
over 1 000 tonnes per year.
The entrepreneur prepares the full project documentation, which includes a farm or
hatchery design and feasibility report and an EIA report. Approval is also needed from
other related institutions dependent on the nature of the project. If the project is approved

the license is issued and issued with a ‘producer certificate’. The licensing process takes
about one year. The rental contract period for marine cages sites is for a maximum of 15
years and the contract can be terminated earlier by the government.
Problems encountered by the sector
Compared to agriculture and livestock production, aquaculture is a rather young

sector. Its legislations and technical guidelines are changed and updated to adapt to
progress and to overcome implementation difficulties.
Problems have been mainly occurred in marine aquaculture on the Aegean and
Mediterranean coasts, were sea bass and sea bream farm activities conflict with other
sectors, namely tourism, environmental protection, maritime, recreation, etc. Commercial
marine aquaculture was started with sea bream and sea bass in closed and sheltered bays
by using traditional, small size wooden cages in Mugla City in Turkey in 1985. Marine
aquaculture zones were determined by MARA along the coastlines in 1988 and fish
farms were relocated to these zones. However, the currently allocated zones are
insufficient for the large number of new applications driven by rapid developments of
farming techniques; cage technology and fish feed technology. After the new
Environmental Law came into force, new aquaculture zones were determined with the
consensus of all related institutions according to the Environmental Law and the
Notification on Defining Sensitive Enclosed Bays and Gulfs Areas in Coastal Waters
where fish farms shall not be set up. After the Environmental Law was put into practice
for implementing articles related to fish farms, inshore marine farms were moved to new
offshore areas.
With its expansion, the marine aquaculture sector has increasingly to deal with
conflicts over space. Insufficient consultation between stakeholder groups hampers the
reaching of agreements.
Lessons learned
Up to now, all developments and difficulties encountered by the sector have provided
an opportunity to reassess and restructure public policies as well as private action. New
regulations entered into force and existing ones were amended to meet EU requirements.
For instance, the aquaculture legislation was amended and aligned with EU regulations
including fish welfare in 2009. In addition, notifications related to site selection and
monitoring for fish farms came into effect in 2007 and 2009 respectively.
The problems encountered by the sector contributed to raise awareness about
inadequate sector planning and management aspects. Studies including all stakeholder
perspectives have since been commissioned to develop integrated coastal management
plans. In this respect, after the introduction of the Environmental Law, new off-shore
farming sites were determined by MARA, MEF and other stakeholders and inshore farms
were relocated to these sites.
In addition to regulation and planning activities, national and international scientific
projects on sustainable aquaculture have been implemented. These projects are:
• FAO Technical Cooperation Project (TCP/TUR 3101) - Developing a
Roadmap for Turkish marine aquaculture site selection and zoning using

an ecosystem approach to management. This project was implemented in

2009 and has contributed to the preparation of:
− An agreed strategy (Ecosystem Approach to Aquaculture - EAA) for
the development of mariculture;
− A pilot aquaculture zoning plan;
− A road map for the implementation of the EAA;
− Trained farmers;
− Dissemination of brochures about marine aquaculture and EAA in
Turkey.
• National Project on Determination of environmental impacts of fish farms

on the marine ecosystem: This project has been implemented with MARA,
MEF and SUFED since 2007. The aims of the project are:
− To determine the environmental effects of fish farms on marine

ecosystems;
− To develop continuous real time and central control systems;
− To serve as a pilot study for other similar projects along the coastal
regions of Turkey;
− To demonstrate interactions between sectors.
Conclusions
In 2007 world total fisheries production was 143 billion tonnes, with 36% originating
from aquaculture. The proportion of aquaculture in total production has been increasing
rapidly. Aquaculture is the fastest growing food production sector in the world in the past
decade.
Turkey has great potential for inland and marine aquaculture development. Total
fisheries production in 2008 was 646 310 tonnes, with a contribution of 24% from
aquaculture in terms of volume and 43.7% in terms of value. In 2009, 1 885 fish farms
were producing 238 756 tonnes per year including 1 499 inland fish farms and 356
marine fish farms in Turkey (Figure 8.3):

Figure 8.3: Growing trend of the Turkish aquaculture sector
• Over the last decade, Turkish aquaculture production increased by 237%;

• Turkey now holds a 25% share of the European sea bream and sea bass
market;
• Aquaculture accounts for the majority of the Turkish fish production with
fish being the only animal product exported into EU countries;
• Turkey is the third fastest growing country in the world in aquaculture;
• Turkey has occupied the first place in trout production among European
countries;
• Turkey has occupied the second place in sea bass and sea bream
production in the world;
• Approximately 25 000 people are employed in the sector;
• Latest developments in the aquaculture sector place Turkey in an
important position, both in the Mediterranean basin and among the EU
countries.
Despite these improvements the Turkish aquaculture sector had and has to face
serious conflicts over resources with other sectors. Over time, all parties have recognised
the importance of integrated coastal plans based on participatory approaches and
collective intelligence.
New offshore farming zones have since been established through those plans and
critical reallocation of existing farms away from inshore areas took place. Through this,
conflict was transformed into opportunities for sustainable aquaculture.

Notes
1 GAP (South Eastern Anatolian Project) is a multi-sectoral and integrated regional development
project based on the concept of sustainable development.

References
Deniz, H. (2001), “Environmental impact of aquaculture in Turkey and its relationship to

tourism, recreation and sites of special protection”, Proceedings of the seminar of the
CIHEAM Network on Technology of Aquaculture in the Mediterranean (TECAM)
jointly organized by CIHEAM and FAO, Zaragoza (Spain) 17-21 January 2000,
Cahier Options Méditerranéennes, Volume 55, pp. 159-173.
Deniz, H. and A.Ç. Karasubenli (2008), Environmental policies in force and its effect on
aquaculture in Turkey, MED Black Sea ICM 08 (unpublished).
Deniz, H. (2008), “The First Workshop on Developing a Roadmap for Turkish Marine
Aquaculture Site Selection and Zoning Using an Ecosystem Approach to
Management”, 16-17 July 2008, Izmir, Turkey, 2008.
Gozgozoglu, E. (2003), “The fishery industry in Turkey”, EASTFISH.
Gozgozoglu, E. (2007) Aquaculture Legislation, Marine Aquaculture in Candan, A., S.
Karatas, H. Kucuktas and I. Okumus, Turkish Marine Research Foundation, Istanbul,
Turkey.
Okumus, I. and H. Deniz (2007), “Past, present and future of the marine aquaculture”,
Marine aquaculture in Turkey, TUDAV.

9. INTEGRATED MULTI-TROPHIC AQUACULTURE – 195
Chapter 9
Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture

Thierry Chopin, University of New Brunswick, Canada and Canadian Integrated
Multi-Trophic Aquaculture∗
Abstract
Fulfilling aquaculture’s growth potential requires responsible technologies and
practices. Sustainable aquaculture should be ecologically efficient, environmentally
benign, product-diversified, profitable and societally beneficial. Integrated multi-
trophic aquaculture (IMTA) has the potential to achieve these objectives by
cultivating fed species (e.g. finfish fed sustainable commercial diets) with extractive
species, which utilize the inorganic (e.g. seaweeds) and organic (e.g. suspension-
and deposit-feeders) excess nutrients from aquaculture for their growth. Thus,
extractive aquaculture produces valuable biomass, while simultaneously rendering
biomitigating services. Through IMTA, some of the food, nutrients and by-products
considered “lost” from the fed component are recaptured and converted into
harvestable and healthy seafood of commercial value, while biomitigation takes
place (partial removal of nutrients and CO2, and supplying of oxygen). In this way,
some of the externalities of fed monoculture are internalized, hence increasing the
overall sustainability, profitability and resilience of aquaculture farms. A major
rethinking is needed regarding the definition of an “aquaculture farm”
(reinterpreting the notion of site-lease areas) and regarding how it works within an
ecosystem, in the context of a broader framework of Integrated Coastal Zone
Management (ICZM). The economic values of the environmental/societal services
of extractive species should be recognized and accounted for in the evaluation of
the true value of these IMTA components. This would create economic incentives to
encourage aquaculturists to further develop and implement IMTA. Seaweeds and
invertebrates produced in IMTA systems should be considered as candidates for
nutrient/carbon trading credits within the broader context of ecosystem goods and
services. Long-term planning/zoning promoting biomitigative solutions, such as
IMTA, should become an integral part of coastal regulatory and management
frameworks.
∗
Co-authors are: Max Troell, The Royal Academy of Sciences and Stockholm Resilience
Centre, Sweden; Gregor K. Reid, Univeristy of New Brunswick, Canadian Integrated Multi-
Trophic Aquaculture Network and Department of Fisheries and Oceans; Duncan Knowler,
Simon Fraser University, Canada and Canadian Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture
Network; Shawn M.C. Robinson, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Canada and Canadian
Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture Network; Amir Neori, Israel Oceanographic and
Limnological Research Ltd.; Alejandro H. Buschmann, i-mar, Universidad de Los Lagos,
Chile; Shao J. Pang, Institute of Oceanology, People’s Republic of China; Jianguang Fang,
Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, People’s Republic of China.

196 – 9. INTEGRATED MULTI-TROPHIC AQUACULTURE
Introduction
The global seafood industry is at a crossroads: as capture fisheries stagnate in

volume, they are falling increasingly short of a growing world demand for seafood.
It is anticipated that by 2030, there will be a 50-80 million tonne seafood deficit
(FAO, 2009). This gap will likely not be filled by capture fisheries but by
aquaculture operations, which already supply almost 50% of the seafood consumed
worldwide (FAO, 2009). Consequently, it is imperative to design the ecosystem
responsible aquaculture practices of tomorrow that maintain the integrity of
ecosystems and yet ensure the viability of this sector and its key role in food
provision, safety and security.
Without a clear recognition of the industry’s large-scale dependency and impact
on natural ecosystems and traditional societies, the aquaculture industry is unlikely
to either develop to its full potential, continue to supplement ocean fisheries, or
obtain societal acceptance. The majority of aquaculture production still originates
from relatively sustainable extensive and semi-intensive systems (Tacon et al.,
2010); however, the rapid development, throughout the world, of intensive marine
fed aquaculture (e.g. carnivorous finfish and shrimp), and to a lesser extent some
shellfish aquaculture, is associated with concerns about the environmental,
economic and social impacts that these, often monospecific, practices can have,
especially where activities are highly geographically concentrated or located in
suboptimal sites whose assimilative capacity is poorly understood and,
consequently, prone to being exceeded.
For many marine aquaculture operations, monoculture is, spatially and
managerially, often the norm. Species are cultivated independently in different
bays or regions. Consequently, the two different types of aquaculture (fed versus
extractive) are often geographically separate, rarely balancing each other out at the
local or regional scale, and, thus, any potential synergy between the two is lost. In
an aquaculture environment with fixed spatial limits (e.g. lease boundaries),
increased production generally comes at the expense of the natural environment, as
the farmer tends to squeeze more and more production into a fixed area. Once the
natural system is destabilized, the risk that the entire operation will collapse
increases. To avoid pronounced shifts in coastal processes, the solution to
nutrification by fed aquaculture is not dilution, but extraction and conversion of the
excess nutrients and energy into other commercial crops produced by extractive
aquaculture (e.g. seaweeds and suspension- and deposit-feeding invertebrates).
To continue to grow, while developing better management practices, the
aquaculture sector needs to develop more innovative, responsible, sustainable and
profitable technologies and practices, which should be ecologically efficient,
environmentally benign, product-diversified and societally beneficial. Maintaining
sustainability, not only from an environmental, but also from economic, social and
technical perspectives, has become a key issue, increased by the enhanced
awareness of more and more demanding consumers regarding quality, traceability
and production conditions. Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) has the
potential to play a role in reaching these objectives by cultivating fed species
(e.g. finfish fed sustainable commercial diets) with extractive species, which utilize

the inorganic (e.g. seaweeds) and organic (e.g. suspension- and deposit-feeders)
excess nutrients from aquaculture for their growth.
The need for diversification and combining fed and extractive aquaculture into
IMTA systems
The common old saying “Do not put all your eggs in one basket”, which
applies to agriculture and many other businesses, should also apply to aquaculture.
Having too much production of a single species leaves a business vulnerable to
issues of sustainability because of fluctuating prices in what has become
commodity markets and potential oversupply, and the possibility of catastrophic
destruction of one’s only crop (diseases, damaging weather conditions).
Consequently, diversification of the aquaculture industry is advisable for reducing
the economic risk and maintaining its sustainability and competitiveness.
From an ecological point of view, diversification also means cultivating more
than one trophic level, i.e. not just cultivating several species of finfish (that would
be “polyculture”), but adding into the mix organisms of different and lower trophic
levels (e.g. seaweeds, shellfish, crustaceans, echinoderms, worms, bacteria, etc.),
chosen according to their roles in the ecosystem and their established or potential
commercial value, to mimic the functioning of natural ecosystems. Staying at the
same ecological trophic level will not address some of the environmental issues
because the system will remain unbalanced due to non-diversified resource needs.
It is also important to consider that while some ecosystem goods (e.g. fish)
generally have a higher market price than other ecosystem goods (potentially
making them a more attractive investment), ecosystems are not based on the same
principles, but on a balance of biomass between organisms having different
complementary functions and a balance of energy flows. Evolving aquaculture
practices will require a conceptual shift towards understanding the working of food
production systems rather than focusing on technological solutions. In other words,
we have to think about how to make the “Blue Revolution” greener and should
more appropriately talk of the “Turquoise Revolution”!
One of the innovative solutions promoted for environmental sustainability
(biomitigation), economic stability (product diversification and risk reduction) and
societal acceptability (improved support for the industry and its differentiated safe
products), is IMTA. This practice combines, in appropriate proportions, the
cultivation of fed aquaculture species (e.g. finfish) with inorganic extractive
aquaculture species (e.g. seaweeds) and organic extractive aquaculture species
(e.g. suspension- and deposit-feeding invertebrates) for a balanced ecosystem
management approach that takes into consideration site specificity, operational
limits, and food safety guidelines and regulations (Figutr 9.1). The aim is to
increase long-term sustainability and profitability per cultivation unit (not per
species in isolation as is done in monoculture), as the wastes of one crop (fed
animals) are converted into fertilizer, food and energy for the other crops
(extractive plants and animals), which can, in turn, be marketed. Feed is one of the
core operational costs of finfish aquaculture operations, but with IMTA this cost is
reduced because some of the food, nutrients and energy considered lost in finfish
monoculture are recaptured and converted into crops of commercial value, while
biomitigation takes place. In this way all the cultivation components have a

commercial value, as well as a key role in recycling processes and rendering

services. The harvesting of the different types of crops participates in the capture
and export of nutrients outside of the coastal ecosystem. The biomass and functions
of the fed and extractive species naturally present in the ecosystem in which
aquaculture farms are operating must also be accounted for or this will lead to the
development of erroneous carrying capacity models. For example, the
158 811 tonnes (fresh weight) of the intertidal seaweed, Ascophyllum nodosum
(rockweed), in proximity to salmon aquaculture operations in southwest New
Brunswick, Canada, are not neutral in the ecosystem and represent a significant
coastal nutrient scrubber which should be taken into consideration to understand
the functioning of that part of the Bay of Fundy.
Figure 9.1: Conceptual diagram of an integrated multi-trophic aquaculture

(IMTA) operation*
Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA)
Fed Aquaculture Suspension Extractive Aquaculture

(Finfish) + Organic Inorganic
(Shellfish) (Seaweeds)
Nutrient Zone
. . . . .
.
. . . . . .
. . . . .
.. . . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. ... . . . .
. .
. . .
.
.
. . . . . . . . ..
. . .
Small DIN . . . . .
POM . . . .
Large POM ,
,
, ,, , . . .
, , , , , F&PF . . .
. . . .
,, , , .
, , . . .
Deposit Extractive , ,, ,, , . . . . . . . . .
, ,
, ,, , , .
Aquaculture (Invertebrates)
*Including the combination of fed aquaculture (e.g. finfish) with suspension organic extractive
aquaculture (e.g. shellfish), taking advantage of the enrichment in small particulate organic
matter (POM), inorganic extractive aquaculture (e.g. seaweeds), taking advantage of the
enrichment in dissolved inorganic nutrients (DIN), and deposit organic extractive aquaculture
(e.g. echinoids, holothuroids and polychaetees), taking advantage of the enrichment in large
particulate organic matter (POM) and faeces and pseudo-faeces 9F&PF) from suspension-
feeding organisms. The biotrubation on the bottom also regenerates som DIN, which
becomes available to the seaweeds.
The IMTA concept is extremely flexible (Chopin, 2006). To use a musicology

analogy, IMTA is the central/overarching theme on which many variations can be
developed according to the environmental, biological, physical, chemical, societal
and economic conditions prevailing in parts of the world where the IMTA systems
are operating. It can be applied to open-water or land-based systems, and marine or
freshwater systems (sometimes called “aquaponics” or “partitioned aquaculture”).

What is important is that the appropriate organisms are chosen at multiple trophic
levels based on the complementary functions they have in the ecosystem, as well as
for their economic value or potential. In fact, IMTA is doing nothing other than
recreating a simplified, cultivated ecosystem in balance with its surroundings
instead of introducing a biomass of a single type one thinks can be cultivated in
isolation from everything else. Integration should be understood as cultivation in
proximity, not considering absolute distances but connectivity in terms of
ecosystemic functionalities. It should be made clear that in the minds of those who
created the acronym “IMTA”, it was never conceived to be viewed with the
minimalist perspective of only the cultivation of salmon (Salmo salar), kelps
(Saccharina latissima and Alaria esculenta) and blue mussels (Mytilus edulis)
within a few hundred meters: this is only one of the variations and the IMTA
concept can be extended within very large systems like the Yellow Sea (see
below).
The paradox is that IMTA is not a new concept. Asian countries, which provide
more than two thirds of the world’s aquaculture production, have been practicing
IMTA (often described as a type of “polyculture”) for centuries, through trial and
error and experimentation. Why, then, is this common-sense solution not more
widely implemented, especially in the western world? The reasons for this
generally center around social customs and practices, and market driven economic
models not considering externalities, that we are already familiar with, even if
common sense tells us that we should modify them. Human society does not
change quickly unless there are compelling reasons to do so. The fact that we are
currently at a crossroad should motivate us to improve current aquaculture
practices, without further delay. Moreover, if Asian cultures are accustomed to the
concept of considering wastes from farming practices as resources for other crops
rather than pollutants, this attitude still has a long way to progress in the western
world where aquaculture is a more recent development.
Western countries are regularly reinventing the wheel. Research on integrated
methods for treating wastes from modern mariculture systems was initiated in the
1970s (Ryther et al., 1975, 1978). After that period, the scientific interest in
integrated aquaculture/ecological aquaculture stagnated, and it was not until the
1980s and 1990s that a renewed interest emerged, based on the common-sense
approach that the solution to nutrification is not dilution but extraction and
conversion through diversification within an ecosystem-based management
perspective (Indergaard and Jensen, 1983; Costa-Pierce et al., 1988; Neori et al.,
1991; Edwards, 1993; Chopin, 1995; Buschmann et al., 1996; Troell et al., 1997;
Costa-Pierce, 2002). The term “IMTA” was first coined at a workshop in Saint
John, New Brunswick, Canada, in March 2004, when Jack Taylor and Thierry
Chopin combined “multi-trophic aquaculture” and “integrated aquaculture” into
“integrated multi-trophic aquaculture”.
This interest has likely been an indirect result of the increased demand for
aquaculture products. This increase has in turn, resulted in intensified cultures, a
decrease in available habitat (space available for cage sites/aquaculture leases), and
increased environmental impacts on the immediate ecosystem. IMTA is potentially
a method whereby production can be intensified, diversified and yet be
environmentally responsible, thereby ensuring a sustainable aquaculture industry.
Multi-trophic integration appears to be one logical next step in the evolution of
aquaculture.

The trend in the global recognition of the need for more advanced ecosystem-
based aquaculture systems began to show up in the scientific world through the
aquaculture conference circuit. For example, in recognition of this growing
interest, the Aquaculture Europe 2003 Conference in Trondheim, Norway, whose
theme was “Beyond Monoculture. New Multitrophic Systems – Potential and
Constraints”, was the first large international meeting (389 participants from 41
countries) with what would become known as IMTA as the main topic. In 2006, at
the joint European Aquaculture Society and World Aquaculture Society
Conference in Florence, Italy, IMTA was recognized as a serious research priority
and option to consider for the future development of aquaculture practices. In 2010,
IMTA was the topic of a full day session (17 presenters from 12 countries) during
the first day of the World Aquaculture Society meeting in San Diego, California
USA. To date, the term “IMTA” has been used in more than 100 scientific
publications. The determination to develop IMTA systems will, however, only
come about if there are some visionary changes in political, social, and economic
reasoning. This will be accomplished by seeking sustainability, long-term
profitability and responsible management of coastal waters. It will also necessitate
a change in consumers’ attitudes towards eating products cultured in the marine
environment in the same way that they accept eating products from recycling and
organic production systems on land, for which they are willing to pay a higher
price for the perceived quality or ethical premiums. The differentiation of IMTA
products through eco-labelling will be key for their recognition and command of
premium market prices.
IMTA, while not being the panacea to and for everything, is, however, one
of the improvement options
IMTA has never been portrayed as the solution to and for everything! For
example, IMTA does not address the issues of escapees from open-water fish
farms. It is, of course, in the interest of everybody, especially the industry (to not
lose money) to reduce the number of escapees. This is, however, a question of
engineering of the rearing systems (cages, netting material, etc.) and the suitability
of the environment to survival should escapes occur. To solve the escapee issue, it
has been suggested that fish farms should be pulled from the open water and placed
on land or in closed containment. Moving on land is, however, not a guarantee for
zero escapees. There are well-known escapee cases from land-based operations,
with serious consequences. For example, the bighead carp (Hypophthalmichthys
nobilis) and the silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) were brought from Asia
to the southern USA in the 1970s to help control algal proliferation in channel
catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) farms. There are reports of escapees into the lower
Mississippi River system, especially associated with flood episodes in the early
1990s. Self-sustaining populations have been able to move northward to enter the
Upper Mississippi River system and the Illinois River system. Presently, there are
fears that these fish could enter the Great Lakes system through the Chicago
Sanitary and Ship Canal and the Des Plaines River to finally reach Lake Michigan,
after an escape of around 2000 km in approximately 20-30 years. Electric fish
barriers have been put in place, but their efficiency has been questioned. The use of
rotenone, a biodegradable piscicide, was authorized but seemed to have killed more
common carps (Cyprinus carpio; itself an introduced species from Europe in the
1830s) than bighead and silver carps. On April 26, 2010, the US Supreme Court

decided not to get involved in a dispute over how to prevent these carps from
making their way into the Great Lakes; it turned down a new request by the State
of Michigan to consider ordering permanent closing of the Chicago-area shipping
locks. What the impacts on the ecosystems could be, should these fish get into the
Great Lakes systems, is unknown, but they are well-known for their ability to
consume large amounts of algae and zooplankton, eating as much as 40% of their
body weight per day, and they are fierce competitors when it comes to securing
their food needs. The silver carp is also a danger to recreational fishers, water-
skiers and boaters because of its habit to jump out of the water when startled by
boat motors or other noises, creating life-threatening aerial hazards with high speed
impacts.
The number of escapees from land-based facilities is not as well documented as
with cage-based aquaculture. Perhaps because land-based fish escapes are more
likely to occur as a continuous “trickle” instead of a single major event such as a
net tear that would lead to “large scale” escapes. However, reports do surface from
time to time in the media, particularly if there is some novelty in the story. A recent
example is the report of the cultured salmonid brown trout, Salmo trutta, escaping
from a pond farm in the United Kingdom. A wildlife photographer caught them in
action, making large leaps out of the water straight into a metal feed pipe a meter
above and connected to a tributary of a river1. Ideally, land-based recirculation
systems would reduce the potential for escapes. However, most recirculation
systems have at least partial water exchange (Timmons et al., 2002) and where
there is water exchange and discharge, there is a potential for escapees. These
systems are still not widely used and to the authors knowledge there has not been
any initiative taken to document escapees, or lack thereof, within these systems. It
may, therefore, be premature to classify such systems as “escape proof”. It is
unlikely that any land-based aquaculture operations could ever be 100% “escapee-
proof” and, consequently, they will also need to develop anti-escapee strategies
(avoiding flood plains, electric fences, grids of the appropriate mesh, catchment
basins, etc.).
Moving to land-based or closed containment operations is one approach that

may help address some sustainability issues but is not without its problems. Large
amounts of energy, often diesel or electric power, are required to pump and aerate
water. Nutrients are either pumped back into the water or settled somewhere and
“trucked” off site. All of these processes leave a ‘carbon footprint’, and only partly
solve the issue of excess nutrients. IMTA, or its variations called “aquaponics” or
“hydroponics”, will have to be added to closed-containment or land-based systems
to treat the effluents. One ‘impact’ may simply be traded for another. Ayer and
Tyedmers (2009), in their life cycle assessment of alternative aquaculture
technologies, warned that we could be in a case of environmental problem shifting,
not solving, where, while reducing local ecological impacts, the increase in
material and energy demands may result in significant increased contributions to
several environmental impacts of global concern, including global warming, non-
renewable resource depletion, and acidification.
Land-based or closed containment operations have also been advocated as a

way of controlling diseases and their transmission. However, the proponents very
often equate diseases to the sole problem of sea lice, leaving the issues related to
viral or bacterial pathogens unaddressed. Some concerns have been expressed that

multiple species on the site might increase the risk for disease transmission. It
must, however, be realized that sites in the ocean and on land will always have
additional unintended species associated with the operation, ranging from micro-
organisms to marine mammals, depending on the situation. The question is not
whether to have only one species on the site, but at what density do negative
interactions occur with the unintended ones and are there any positive interactions
associated with more diversified systems? In fact, two studies (Skår and
Mortensen, 2007; Robinson, personal communication) have demonstrated in
laboratory experiments that the blue mussel, Mytilus edulis, is capable of
inactivating the infectious salmon anaemia virus (ISAV), as well as the infectious
pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV). Mussels are, consequently, not a likely reservoir
host or vector for ISAV and IPNV. Put in an IMTA perspective, this could mean
that mussel rafts could be strategically placed to serve as a kind of
sanitary/biosecurity cordon around salmon cages to combat certain diseases. Pang
et al. (2006) also reported reduced total bacteria and Vibrio counts in a seaweed-
abalone IMTA system.
In regard to parasites, anecdotal information indicates that mussels can consume
some of the early larval stages (nauplius) in the life cycle of sea lice and several
studies, in both Europe and New Zealand, have highlighted the fact that mussels
can consume small zooplankton. Since the nauplius stage is probably the most
dispersive stage due to its size, having a biofilter such as mussels at IMTA sites
may decrease the frequency of exposure from outside sources. One of the 14
projects of the recently created Canadian Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture
Network (CIMTAN) will investigate the role of bivalves in potentially reducing
sea lice populations. Another CIMTAN project is looking into the possibility that
mussels could reduce the horizontal transmission of Loma salmonae, responsible
for microsporidial gill disease of salmon (MGDS), a serious endemic gill disorder
in marine netpen reared, and wild, Chinook (and other Pacific) salmon. Trials will
examine the proof of principle that blue mussels remove microsporidial spores
from water and to what extent these spores retain short-term infectious potential as
determined by branchial xenoma expression in test fish.
IMTA is not entering directly the debate regarding the inclusion of fish meal
and fish oil in commercial feeds (nor are land-based or closed containment
operations). IMTA could, however, provide a partial solution. Modern commercial
salmon diets in Canada contain much less fish meal (about 15-25%) and fish oil
(about 15-20%) than they did less than ten years ago (40 to 60%). In Atlantic
Canada, by-products (trimmings) of wild catch fisheries are used to supply a major
portion of the fishmeal ingredients. The feed company Skretting has now produced
a salmon feed which includes no marine ingredients. Some eNGOs arguing for fish
meal/fish oil replacement have also voiced concerns that, after all, marine fish
should eat marine ingredients… Obviously, one cannot have it both ways! Finding
replacements for marine ingredients is a priority and there are several large
research projects worldwide addressing this issue. Using land plant proteins is not
without its impacts. Extra farmland area (more deforestation) would be needed,
which, moreover, would need to be irrigated on a planet already suffering from
water availability problems. The price of some staple food crops used in traditional
agriculture (corn, soya, etc.) would rise considerably due to announced competition
for their uses, as recently seen when they were potentially sought out as energy
crops for the production of biofuels. Partial substitution with organisms already

living in water, such as seaweeds, could, in fact, be a very interesting option. If

cultivated in the water column in IMTA systems, there would, moreover, be no
issue of raking seaweeds attached to the bottom of the ocean.
It has taken decades to reach current salmon production levels and learn new
species husbandry. We are now realizing that we have to rethink the definition of
what an “aquaculture site” is, within the broader framework of Integrated Coastal
Zone Management (ICZM). Amending regulations to allow such culture will not
occur overnight. This should, however, not discourage the finfish industry from
practicing IMTA, as even small amounts of co-cultured species production are
useful. When the project started on the east coast of Canada, in 2001, there were
obviously no IMTA sites in the Bay of Fundy. Nine years later, five out of 96 sites
in SW New Brunswick have the combination salmon (or cod)/mussels/kelps and 11
other sites have been amended to develop IMTA. This is a respectable conversion
of almost 16% in nine years. Moreover, it would not be reasonable to anticipate an
instant conversion, as the industry needs to develop markets to absorb the co-
cultured biomass: this also takes time and can only be progressive.
IMTA is slowly gaining recognition and developing in more regions of the

globe
Presently, the most advanced IMTA systems in open marine waters and in
land-based operations have three components (fish, suspension feeders or grazers
such as shellfish, and seaweeds in cages, rafts or floating lines), but they are
admittedly simplified systems. More advanced systems will have several other
components (e.g. crustaceans in mid-water reefs; deposit feeders such as sea
cucumbers, sea urchins and polychaetes in bottom cages or suspended trays; and
bottom-dwelling fish in bottom cages) to perform either different or similar
functions, but for various size ranges of particles, or selected for their presence at
different times of the year (different species of seaweeds, for example).
The most advanced IMTA systems, near commercial scale or at commercial
scale, can be found in Canada, Chile, South Africa, Israel and China (Chopin et al.,
2008; Barrington et al., 2009). On-going research projects related to the
development of IMTA are taking place in the United Kingdom (mostly Scotland),
Ireland, Spain, Portugal, France, Turkey, Norway, Japan, Korea, Thailand, the
USA and Mexico.
What will it take to increase the acceptance and adoption of IMTA as a

responsible aquaculture practice of the future?
In order to ensure further development of IMTA systems worldwide, from the
experimental concept to the full commercial scale, defining and implementing the
appropriate regulatory and policy frameworks and creating the proper financial
incentive tools will be required.
Proving the concept at the economic level: establishing the economic

value of IMTA systems and their co-products
It is important to ensure that additional co-cultured species increase profit
potential. Several IMTA projects throughout the world have now accumulated

enough data to support the proof of concept at the biological level. The next step is
the scaling up of these experimental systems to reproduce the biological outcomes
at a commercial scale, in conjunction with appropriate measures of economic and
social potential otherwise required to promote the benefits of IMTA over mono-
specific aquaculture.
Initially, open-water IMTA farms require planning and design as a complete
system, considering the “integrated” in IMTA rather than clusters of different
crops. Optimal design will not only facilitate nutrient recovery, but should also
promote augmented growth beyond what would be expected were these species
cultured in isolation. In addition to the obvious economic return from increased
growth rates from additional species, some less tangible benefits should also be
factored in, such as the biomitigating services rendered by the extractive species.
Economic analyses need to be inserted in the overall modelling of IMTA systems,
especially as they move to commercial scale in coastal communities. It will, then,
be possible to compare profitability and economics between IMTA and
monocultures. Such models could also explore the savings due to multi-trophic
conversion of feed and energy which would otherwise be lost, the pricing and
marketing potential of organic and other eco-labels, the reduction of risks through
crop diversification and the increase in social acceptability of aquaculture
(including food safety, food security and consumer attitudes towards buying
sustainable seafood products).
Economic diversification should also mean looking at seafood from a different
angle. Research and development on alternative species should no longer be
considered R&D on alternative finfish species for food consumption, but rather on
alternative marine products. Aquaculture products on the market today are very
similar to those from traditional fishery resources, and are thus, often in direct
competition. The opportunity exists to diversify from traditional seafood products
to a potentially large untapped array of bioactive compounds of marine origin
(e.g. pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, functional foods, cosmeceuticals, botanicals,
pigments, agrichemicals and biostimulants, and industry-relevant molecules). The
culture of species that might otherwise be inappropriate for food markets fits well
within the sustainability and management concept of IMTA. Applications with
seaweeds, or seaweed-derived products, remain a field to explore, especially in the
western world. It may also be interesting to observe how new seaweed cultivation
initiatives in different parts of the world for biofuel production could be an
additional driver to adopt IMTA practices.
Putting in place enabling legislation for the commercialization of IMTA

products
For IMTA to develop to a commercial scale, appropriate regulatory and policy
frameworks need to be put in place. Present aquaculture regulations and policies
are often inherited from previous fishery frameworks and reasoning, which have
shown their limitations. To develop the aquaculture of tomorrow, the present
aquaculture regulations and policies need to be revisited. Adaptive regulations need
to be developed by regulators with flexible and innovative minds, who are not
afraid to put in place mechanisms that allow the testing of innovative practices at
the R&D level, and, if deemed promising, mechanisms that will take these
practices all the way to C (commercialization). As the IMTA concept continues to

evolve, it is important that all sectors of the industry are aware of the implications
of the changes involved, so that they can adapt in a timely and organized manner.
To move research from the “pilot” scale to the “scale up” stage, some current
regulations and policies may need to be changed or they will be seen as
impediments by industrial partners who will see no incentive in developing IMTA.
For example, an earlier version of the Canadian Shellfish Sanitation Program
(CSSP) prevented the development of IMTA because of a clause that specified that
shellfish could not be grown closer than 125 m of finfish netpens. This paragraph
was clearly not written with IMTA in mind, but it seriously impinged its
development. After four years (2004-2008), it was amended so that IMTA
practices could develop to commercial scale legally, based on recent, reliable and
relevant data and information provided by three government departments and the
IMTA project on the East coast of Canada. While four years may seem long, it is a
relatively short delay considering that regulations and legislations require thorough
review with due governmental process involving several federal and provincial
departments. This suggests that new aquaculture practices should be accompanied
by timely regulatory review to avoid market delays for new products. As
governments move to revise current regulatory regimes, it will be necessary to
press the importance of accommodating and indeed encouraging new sustainable
solutions such as IMTA. IMTA also requires approaching aquaculture development
and management with a holistic approach and not one species, or group of species,
at a time. We know that this approach has led to many failures in the management
of the fisheries; we should be particularly vigilant that the same flaw is not
repeated in the management of aquaculture.
Developing commercial and economic models for IMTA systems

It is important to ensure that newly emerging sustainable aquaculture
approaches generate net economic benefits for society if they are to be advocated.
Assuming that this is true (and preliminary evidence suggests that this is true for
IMTA, but research is continuing), the development and promotion of IMTA will
be multi-faceted from an economic perspective. Does the IMTA system generate
enough additional commercial profits under existing tax and related incentives to
be adopted voluntarily by commercial aquaculture operators? What if not?
Presumably some adjustments would be needed to bring these tax and related
incentives in line with the social desirability of promoting IMTA over conventional
aquaculture practices. What sorts of new incentives would be needed and what are
the dynamics governing the adoption of new technologies in a concentrated
industry such as finfish aquaculture (versus terrestrial small farming agriculture)?
These are the sorts of questions that need to be addressed in assessing the
economics aspects of IMTA. Research into these questions is just in its infancy. In
this section we examine the commercial case for promoting IMTA as distinct from
any need for regulatory measures to support its adoption.
A commercial model of integrated salmon-mussel farms was developed by
Whitmarsh et al. (2006) using baseline data from farms on the west coast of
Scotland. The net present value (NPV) of a salmon-mussel IMTA system was
greater than the combined NPV of salmon and mussel monocultures, assuming a
20% greater production rate of mussels due to their proximity to fish cages and a
discount rate of 8%. Enhanced mussel productivity translated into a measurable

financial benefit, recognized as a genuine “economy of integration”. Integration

was economically profitable if the price of salmon remained constant or dropped
by 1% per year; however, a drop of 2% per year would result in a negative NPV for
this IMTA system, making it a financially unattractive investment. It should be
noted, however, that the aquaculture operation would be non-viable due to the
salmon prices rather than the value of the associated species, in this case mussels.
The IMTA project in the Bay of Fundy, Canada, is presently developing an
economic model (Ridler et al., 2007). Economic estimates (with risk scenarios)
have been undertaken to compare the profitability of a kelp/mussel/salmon IMTA
system with salmon monoculture. Profitability (NPV) was estimated by projections
over 10 years (5 salmon harvests) using discount rates of 5% and 10%. To take risk
into consideration, three scenarios were run, and each scenario was given a
probability of occurrence. The optimistic scenario, Scenario 1, has 5 successful
salmon harvests with the usual mortality rate of 11% and a probability of
occurrence of 20%. Scenario 2 (intermediate, 40% probability of occurrence) has 4
successful salmon harvests and one harvest with a mortality rate of 70%.
Pessimistic Scenario 3 (40% probability of occurrence) has 4 successful harvests
and there is no fifth harvest as all fish are assumed destroyed. Scenarios 2 and 3 are
plausible because of infectious salmon anaemia, other diseases, or winter chill. The
NPVs for these scenarios are shown in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1: Scenarios of salmon monoculture versus kelp/mussel/salmon IMTA in

the Bay of Fundy, Canada.
Discount Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3

Operation
rate (optimistic) (intermediate) (pessimistic)
Salmon NPV at 5% 8 146 477 2 664 112 50 848
monoculture
IMTA NPV at 5% 8 906 435 3 296 037 674 850
Salmon NPV at 10% 6 885 181 2 391 135 -228 345
monoculture
IMTA NPV at 10% 7 508 913 3 014 866 403 579
Note: Ten year run net present value (NPV) discounted at 5% and 10% (in USD).
Source: Ridler et al., 2007.
Additional revenues from mussels and seaweeds more than compensate for
additional costs, providing higher NPVs for IMTA than for salmon monoculture in
all scenarios. Mussels and seaweeds provide alternative uncorrelated sources of
income, thereby softening the damaging effect of salmon losses. Even under the
pessimistic scenario (3), IMTA provided a positive NPV at both discount rates. Just
one bad harvest can have a negative impact on the entire ten year run of a
monoculture salmon farm, whereas IMTA effectively reduces the risk. The natural
factors that affect salmon mortality may not necessarily affect mussels and kelps.
For instance, salmon experience winter chill at -0.8 ˚C, while mussels and kelps
can survive much colder temperatures (e.g. mussels live in the intertidal zone that
can experience drops to -40 ˚C); similarly, kelps are temperate cold water
organisms and, in fact, grow mostly between winter and late spring). Therefore, the
addition of these co-products can reduce risk (it is unlikely that all three species
will be affected simultaneously) and increase the overall sustainability, profitability
and resilience of aquaculture farms.

Nobre and collaborators are presently comparing abalone (Haliotis midae)

monoculture to abalone/seaweed IMTA at a South African farm with an abalone
annual production of about 240 tonnes. In the IMTA setting, seawater is recycled
and up to 30% of the wild kelp, Ecklonia maxima, consumed by abalone is
replaced by Ulva lactuca grown on site in the recirculation system. The overall
commercial gain from using an IMTA approach was estimated at between USD 1.1
and 3.0 million per year, including a significant increase in farm profits
(USD 200 000 to 700 000). The environmental benefits included the reduction of
nitrogen discharges into adjacent coastal waters by 3.7 to 5.0 tonnes per year, the
reduction in harvesting of wild kelp beds by 2.2 to 6.6 hectares per year, and the
reduction of CO2 emissions (reduced pumping needs) by 290 to 350 tonnes per
year. The values of the environmental and societal (jobs) benefits by adopting an
IMTA design were larger than the gains in farm profitability.
Further development of these economic models and others is proceeding and
will help to shed light on the current economic (society) and commercial (industry)
attractiveness of IMTA.
Recognising and valuing the biomitigating services rendered by the

extractive components of IMTA
The above economic analyses indicate that the outlook for IMTA is promising.
It is, however, important to note that these analyses were based solely on the
commercial values from the sale of biomass - being of fish, shellfish or seaweeds -
and using conservative price estimates for the co-cultivated organisms based on
known applications.
One aspect not considered and not factored into the commercial/economic
analyses described above, is the fact that the extractive component of an IMTA
system not only produces a valuable multi-purpose biomass, but also
simultaneously renders waste reduction services to society. Through IMTA, some
of the food, nutrients and by-products considered “lost” from the fed component
are recaptured and converted into harvestable and healthy seafood of commercial
value, while biomitigation takes place (partial removal of nutrients and CO2, and
supplying of oxygen). In this way, some of the externalities of fed monoculture are
internalized by extractive co-cultures, thus increasing the overall sustainability,
profitability and resilience of aquaculture farms. The economic values of the
environmental/societal services of extractive species should, therefore, be
recognized and accounted for in the evaluation of the true value of the IMTA
components. It is particularly important to recognize that once nutrients have
entered coastal ecosystems, there are not many removal options available: the use
of extractive species being one of the few realistic and cost-effective options.
Ecosystem services have been ignored until recently (Costanza et al., 1997). To
improve the sustainability of anthropogenic nutrient loading practices such as
aquaculture, incentives such as Nutrient Trading Credits (NTC) should be
established as a means to promote nutrient load reduction or nutrient recovery.
During the last few years, there has been much talk and excitement about carbon
credits. However, within coastal settings the concerns have largely been with
nitrogen, due to the fact that its typical role as the limiting nutrient is not any
longer the case in some regions. Potential effects of carbon loading in the marine
environment should also be considered. Organic carbon loading below fish farms

may promote localized benthic anoxia and, consequently, hydrogen sulfide release.
Hydrogen sulfide concentrations (or its proxy, the redox potential) form the basis
of environmental regulations of cage-based aquaculture in several jurisdictions.
Ocean acidification due to increased dissolved CO2 levels has also prompted
serious new concerns (Feeley et al., 2004). With an appropriate composition of co-
cultured species, IMTA has the potential to remove dissolved (inorganic) and solid
(organic) forms of nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus (more an issue in freshwater
environments), etc., making extractive aquaculture a good candidate for a NTC or
other suitable approaches.
Currently, there are few countries with laws or regulations that require
aquaculture operations to responsibly internalize their environmental costs, such as
nutrient discharges. There are some precedents, such as where land-based trout
farmers in Denmark are allowed to increase their feed quota with documented
evidence of reduced effluent discharge (Thomsen, 2006), but such incentives are
not widely spread. In most jurisdictions, adjacent ecosystems are left to
accommodate the nutrient load, and performance based standards are used to
determine if farms have exceeded their assimilative capacity.
The implementation of regulations resulting in internalization of environment
costs by fish farms, without a direct economic compensatory response such as the
Danish feed quota increase, could result in a significant reduction in profitability.
In land-based systems, it is relatively easy to quantify nutrient load and
concentration via comparison between farm inflows and outflows, thereby creating
a benchmark for “economic compensation”. Such values are practically impossible
to empirically measure in an open-water system, “leaky” by definition, and,
consequently, so is the practical implementation of such incentives. However,
Troell et al. (1997) and Chopin et al. (2001) demonstrated that by integrating the
seaweed, Gracilaria, in the dual role of nutrient scrubber and commercial crop (for
agar production), with salmon farms in Chile, the environmental costs of waste
discharges would be significantly reduced and profitability significantly increased.
Interestingly, the removal of nitrogen could be much more lucrative, by
approximately a factor 100, than that of carbon (see example below). The cost of
removing nitrogen is not clearly defined, but there are six interesting studies that
may help define a range of possible prices for economic evaluation of the NTC
concept. Chopin et al. (2001) indicated that at some sewage treatment facilities the
cost of removing 1 kg of nitrogen varies between USD 3 and USD 38, depending
on the technology used and the varying labour costs in different countries. An
interesting case to consider is the municipality of Lysekil, in Sweden, which is
paying approximately USD 10 per kg removed by the filter-feeding mussel,
Mytilus edulis, to the farm Nordic Shell Produktion AB (Lindhal et al., 2005,
2009). Ferreira et al. (2007, 2009), with the development of the Farm Aquaculture
Resource Management (FARM) model, determined a net value of EUR 18-
26 billion per year of nutrient eutrophication reduction services provided by
shellfish aquaculture in the coastal waters of the European Union. Gren et al.
(2009) calculated that the cleaning costs of nutrients by mussel farming can be
considerably lower than other abatement measures and estimated that mussel
farming should be credited between EUR 0.1 and 1.1 billion per year in the Baltic
Sea.

Using the information above, and only for illustration purposes, without
presuming what the final design of IMTA sites will be in the future, we can make
some preliminary calculations for the IMTA project on the East coast of Canada to
get an idea of the monetary magnitude of these services. There are presently 96
finfish sites in South West New Brunswick. Because of the Bay Management Area
Plan, put in place to create a fallowing period and contain diseases, only 2/3 of the
sites (i.e. 64 sites) are active in any given year. If each site was designed to have
eight seaweed rafts (38 ropes of kelps, 35 m long and supporting a biomass of
15 kg/m), there would be 512 rafts producing 10 214.40 tonnes fresh weight (FW)
of seaweeds. With an average of 0.35% nitrogen content in FW kelp tissues, the
harvesting of kelps would equate to the removal of 35.75 tonnes of nitrogen from
the ecosystem per year. If the nitrogen removal was fixed at USD 10 per kg, this
would represent a NTC of USD 357 504; if it was fixed at USD 30 per kg, this
would represent a NTC of USD 1 072 512. The same could be applied to another
key nutrient, phosphorus. With an average of 0.04% phosphorus content in FW
kelp tissues, 4.09 tonnes of phopshorus would be removed per year. With a value
of USD 4 per kg removed (Chopin et al., 2001), this would represent another
contribution to the NTC of USD 16 343.04, a much smaller amount but it could
also be an important way of extracting phosphorus, at a time when some are
predicting it to be the next element human society will be short of (in its natural or
mined forms).
Carbon Trading Credits (CTC) could also be calculated. There may be some
arguments about what is meant by trapping and sequestering carbon. Some may
argue that it should be reserved to long/geological term storage (sink) and not to
transient storage (Lackner, 2003). This is, in fact, a question of how long one
allows the recycling clock to run. There is no permanent storage of carbon; it
happened to have been sequestered over geological time to suddenly be reused at
an accelerated rate over the last few centuries. But the first law of thermodynamics,
as enunciated by Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier more than two centuries ago, still
applies: “Rien ne se perd, rien ne se crée, tout se transforme”, i.e. “Nothing is lost,
nothing is created, everything is transformed”. If even temporary removal of
carbon from the ocean until further transformation can be credited for potentially
increasing seawater pH and absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere and/or the
cultivated animals, then we can do the following calculations. With an average of
3% carbon content in FW kelp tissues, 306.43 tonnes of carbon would be removed
per year. With the value for carbon removal often cited to be around USD 30 per
tonne (Lackner, 2003), this would represent a CTC of USD 9 192.96: a large
amount of carbon, but for a much smaller financial amount, underlining the
difficulty in removing dissolved nutrients from aquatic systems and the acute issue
of their presence in coastal systems.
Similar calculations could be applied to the organic extractive component of
IMTA. In the case of shellfish, accumulation of nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon
should be considered both in meat and shells, especially rich in calcium carbonates.
Moving to a much larger scale, the occurrence of large and recurrent “green
tides” should also be brought into focus. Large proliferations of opportunistic green
algae, especially of the genus Ulva, as a response to large anthropogenic nutrient
loading, have been in the news over the last few years in places around the world
such as Northern Brittany in France, the southern regions of the United Kingdom,
and Venice in Italy. The green tide event that got a lot of attention was the one in

Qingdao, China: as it occurred just before the sailing competitions of the 2008
Olympic Games held there, it was reported on by a lot of foreign journalists. We
need to ask ourselves: are these green tides a negative media photo opportunity, or
are they reminders of the significant role seaweeds play in coastal processes and
the services they render? Within three weeks, 1 million tonnes of Ulva prolifera
were removed from the vicinity of Qingdao to allow the sailing boats and
windsurfs to compete (but it is estimated that approximately 2 million tonnes of U.
prolifera sank to the bottom of the Bay, another environmental problem shifting,
but not a solution). With an average nitrogen content between 0.3% and 0.5% in
the tissues and a nitrogen removal cost between USD 10 and USD 30, the
harvesting of 1 million tonnes equated to between 3 000 and 5 000 tonnes of
nitrogen removal for a NTC value between USD 30 and 150 million! Additional
NTCs of USD 1.6 million for the removal of 400 tonnes of phosphorus, and CTC
of USD 900 000 for the removal of 30 000 tonnes of carbon should also be factored
in. In 2009, there was another green tide event covering at least 17 400 km2 of the
Yellow Sea. We are now beginning to understand this phenomenon (Liu et al.,
2009; Pang et al., 2010). As a massive cultivation of the juvenile river crab,
Eriocheir sinensis, is taking place in Animal Aquaculture Ponds (AAPs) in the
province of Jiangsu, south of the province of Shandong where Qingdao is located,
large organic fertilizer applications are made periodically in ponds of the green
alga Chlorella, which is used to feed rotifers, which are then used to feed the river
crabs. The AAPs, with very high levels of ammonium and phosphates, are the
reservoirs of germlings of U. prolifera, which are then discharged along the coast,
where they find favorable conditions to bloom and be transported north by the
prevailing currents and winds. A smaller green tide occurred in 2007, in 2008 it hit
the coast around Qingdao and in 2009 it stayed offshore, but out of sight should not
mean out of mind. If urgent measures are not taken, this will be a recurrent event
for years to come.
Is there a solution? Green tides are not the cause, but the unintentional
consequence of coastal eutrophication. With the presence of sufficient nutrients
and solar energy, these opportunistic species, with a well-adapted anatomy,
morphology and physiology, will proliferate. Obviously, it would be beneficial to
reduce nutrient loading at the source; but this may not be possible in the present
context of economic development along the coastal zone of China. The problem is
that U. prolifera is presently an unwanted and uncontrolled growing nuisance
species of limited commercial value. The solution may be to create a competition
for nutrients by intentionally cultivating species, which not only carry on the
biomitigation, but also have a commercial value, where U. prolifera starts to enter
the coastal environment in order to control its proliferation. This time, the IMTA
concept has to be interpreted as an integrated land pond/coastal aquaculture system
in a supra Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) effort, beyond provincial
borders, to address issues at the Yellow Sea scale. We understand that this “out of
the box” approach to ICZM will, initially, raise eyebrows as the idea of growing
more seaweeds (but of commercial value) to contain the proliferation of other
seaweeds, presently considered nuisances, is not the most intuitive approach for a
lot of people or decision makers! The question is simple: what are the best nutrient
scrubbers once nutrients are in a dissolved state and have reached coastal waters?
The answer is seaweeds, but can we, preferably, grow the ones we have
applications for?

The development and adoption of technology often depends in part on the level
of legislative pressure from a nation’s government, itself reacting to pressures from
consumers, ENGOs and the public at large. If environmental legislation remains a
low priority with government, then little progress toward the use of biofilters (as a
means of effluent mitigation) will occur. The only motivator will be profits
obtained from additional product growth and regulatory incentives. Therefore, if
governments put legislative pressure on the proper management of wastewater
effluent, openly support the use of biomitigation for effluent management, and put
in place the appropriate corresponding financial tools (funding for IMTA R&D,
outreach and technology transfer, and NTC and CTC incentives), then the
development of IMTA will be encouraged.
It is also important to note that present aquaculture business models do not
consider or recognize the economic value of the biomitigating services provided by
biofilters, as there is no cost associated with aquaculture discharges/effluents in
land-based or open-water systems. Regulatory and financial incentives may
therefore be required to clearly recognize the benefits of the extractive components
of IMTA systems (seaweeds and invertebrates). A better estimate of the overall
cost/benefits to nature and society of aquaculture waste and its mitigation would
create powerful financial and regulatory incentives to governments and the industry
to jointly invest in the IMTA approach, as the economic demonstration of its
validity would be even more obvious. Moreover, by implementing better
management practices, the aquaculture industry should increase its societal
acceptability, a variable to which it is very difficult to give a monetary value, but
an imperative condition for the development of its full potential. Reducing
environmental and economic risk in the long term should also make financing
easier to obtain from banking institutions (Brezeski and Newkirk, 1997).
Conclusions
Several IMTA projects, in different parts of the world, have now accumulated
enough data to support the proof of concept at the biological level. The next step is
the scaling up of more experimental systems to make the demonstration at a
commercial scale, and to document the economic and social advantages of the
concept, which will be key to offering IMTA to practitioners of monospecific
aquaculture as a viable option to their current practices. Underlying this
demonstration will be the development of a better understanding of the major
ecological interactions involved with IMTA systems. Working on appropriate food
safety regulatory and policy frameworks in the respective countries will be
essential for enabling the development of commercial scale IMTA operations in a
more universal fashion.
We need to rethink how an aquaculture farm works within the broader
framework of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), where integration can
range from the small scale (a leased site with its spatial limits) to the larger scale of
a region connected by the functionalities of the ecosystem. Selecting the right
combination of species with complementary ecological functions will be critical.
They will have to be appropriate for the habitat, the available culture technologies,
and the environmental and oceanographic conditions. They will have to be
complementary in their ecosystem functions, growing to a significant biomass for
efficient biomitigation, commanding an interesting price as raw material or

presenting an interesting added-value for their derived products, and their

commercialization should not generate insurmountable regulatory hurdles.
Economic analyses need to be undertaken as part of the overall modelling of
IMTA systems as they get closer to commercial scale and their economic benefits
and costs, as well as impacts on coastal communities, are better understood. It will
then be possible to add profitability, resilience, social/economic desirability and
economic impacts to the comparison between IMTA and monoculture settings.
These models will need to be sufficiently flexible with respect to the most volatile
parameters and explicit assumptions so as to allow modelling of IMTA systems
that is tailored to the environmental, economic and social conditions of the
different regions where they will be installed. They could be modified to estimate
the impact of organic and other eco-labellings, the value of biomitigating services
for enhanced ecosystem resilience, the savings due to multi-trophic conversion of
feed and energy which would otherwise be lost, and the reduction of risks through
crop diversification and increased societal acceptability.
Nutrient extractive aquaculture is a viable ecological engineering option for
managing the externalities generated by aquaculture operations. Effective
government legislation/regulations and incentives to facilitate the development of
IMTA practices and the commercialization of IMTA products will be necessary.
True recognition of the environmental/economic/societal services of extractive
crops would create strong incentives to develop sustainable marine agronomy
practices, such as IMTA, in which seaweeds and invertebrates should also be
considered as candidates for a variety of regulatory measures that internalize these
benefits. For example, nutrient and carbon trading credits could be used to promote
nutrient removal, CO2 sequestration, oxygen provision and coastal eutrophication
reduction. Including NTC and CTC in the financial spreadsheets of aquaculture
operations would create economic incentives to encourage aquaculturists to further
develop and implement IMTA systems and increase the societal acceptability of
aquaculture by the general public. Only when these services are properly
recognised and valued, will we be able to establish the true value of the extractive
components of IMTA so that biomitigative solutions become an integral part of
coastal regulatory and management frameworks.
At the present time, we seem to be at the stage of recognition, awareness and
communication of the concepts of ecosystem services and biomitigating services
rendered by extractive aquaculture (the differences between the two not always
being clearly identified and explained in some publications). Next will come the
time to transform the concepts into biomitigative solutions and then their inclusion
in regulatory and management frameworks. Establishing and implementing a
structure for the payment schemes (credits or incentives) of these services will be a
delicate matter. Will it be one agency, but with funds coming from where? Should
it be a regional, national or international agency(ies), trading at which scale(s)?
Will an extractive aquaculture operation in existence for many years receive
credits, or will only the new ones? Would a fed aquaculture operation also
practicing extractive aquaculture be eligible for credits, or will it be the case for the
extractive only aquaculture operations? What about the situation in which people
run both types of farms. Moreover, due to complex hydrographic and current
patterns, it is obvious that extractive species at a site are not limited to
absorbing/sequestering the nutrients generated exclusively at that site.
Consequently, is it possible to establish a clear spatial nutrient removal budget

which would be associated with the corresponding credits/incentives? Will the

sequestration have to be “permanent”, or will a temporary removal/storage be
acceptable and more realistic? A lot of regulatory details will have to be worked
out before this complex scheme becomes reality.
There is still a large amount of education required to bring society into the
mindset of incorporating IMTA into their suite of social values. Some of the
attitudinal surveys conducted in Canada (Ridler et al.., 2007; Barrington et al..,
2010) and the USA (Shuve et al., 2009) indicate that the general public is in favour
of practices based on the "recycling concept". Perceptions will have to change.
Why is recycling and the concept of “what is waste for some is gold for others”
well accepted in agricultural practices, but is not yet acquired when transposed to
aquaculture practices? Will a greater appreciation of the sustainable ecological
value of the concept, a willingness to support it tangibly with shopping money, and
an increased pressure on elected representatives emerge? This will be the ultimate
test. The degree to which researchers and extension people become creatively
involved with this educational component will be vital to the success of IMTA
practices.
For some, the ecological, engineering, economic and social challenges
remaining to be solved may be daunting. However, the goal is to develop modern
IMTA systems, which are bound to play a major role worldwide in sustainable
expansions of the aquaculture operations of tomorrow, within their balanced
ecosystem, to respond to a worldwide increasing seafood demand with a new
paradigm in the design of the most efficient food production systems. As was the
case on land where the acquisition of food by hunter/gatherer societies had to
evolve towards agricultural practices, we will have to accept an evolution in our
seafood procurement. The agricultural revolution has been associated with
significant changes in landscape and land use; we can expect that the “turquoise” (a
greener blue!) revolution will also trigger significant “seascape” and “sea use”
modifications, all the way to our deepest human social structures and governance.
Let us also not forget that we are still in the infancy of modern, intensive
aquaculture and that some agricultural practices have taken centuries to develop
into better, not necessarily yet best, management practices.
Beyond the biological, environmental, economic, technological, engineering
and regulatory issues of aquaculture developments, it will all come down to the
basic question of societal acceptance. Are we ready to evolve in our use of the “last
frontier” of this planet and consider not only the challenges of the physical forces
at sea (wave exposure, winds, currents, depth, etc.) but also those of shipping
routes, fishing zones, offshore gas and mineral extraction areas, migration routes
for marine mammals, recreational uses, and then finally deal with the concept of
zoning some portions of the oceans for large aquaculture parks, as sustainable food
production systems for an ever seafood hungrier human population? The same
question of readiness for marine spatial planning could also be applied to emerging
projects of wind farms and biofuel farms at sea. In fact, combining IMTA open-
ocean farms with wind, underwater turbine and/or biofuel farms could be a means
for reducing their cumulative footprint. However, if the “Not In My Back Yard”
(NIMBY) and the “Build Absolutely Nothing Anywhere Near Anything”
(BANANA) attitudes continue to prevail, especially in the western world, then we
will not be able to secure our seafood or our energy in an ecosystem responsible

manner despite all the rhetoric we can hear today regarding alternative
technologies and solutions.
Basically, are we ready to “walk the talk”? Thankfully, as Jules Verne wrote
more than 130 years ago, “tout ce qui est impossible reste à accomplir” (i.e. “all
that is impossible remains to be accomplished”)...!
• Web site of Thierry Chopin: www.unbsj.ca/sase/biology/chopinlab/

• Web site on IMTA on Wikipedia:
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Multi-trophic_Aquaculture
Notes
1
www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/3318094/Photographer-captures-trouts-great-
escape.html

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10. NORWAY: ESCAPES OF FISH FROM AQUACULTURE – 219
Chapter 10
Norway: Escapes of fish from aquaculture
Arne Fredheim, Østen Jensen and Tim Dempster
Centre for Research-based Innovation in Aquaculture Technology (CREATE), SINTEF

Fisheries and Aquaculture, Norway
Abstract
The environmental effects of escapes are acknowledged as a key environmental problem
related to on-growing of fish in sea cages. Several recent literature reviews on the effect
of salmon escapees have concluded that strong evidence of genetic and phenotypic
differences between farmed and wild salmon exists and that genetic change has occurred
in some wild populations that escapees have mixed with. Salmon that escaped from
Norwegian fish farms between 2006 – 2009 represent 0.1 – 0.3% of the total amount of
fish in the fish farms. Compared to the number of wild salmon migrating to the
Norwegian coastline however, escaped farmed salmon represent 20-100% annually.
Escapes are caused by a variety of incidents related to farming equipment and their
operation. Escapes of salmon can be categorized broadly into structural failure (40%),
operational related-failure (16%), biological (10%) and external and other causes
(34%). 18% of the escape events were large (more than 5 000 individuals) and led to
94% of the number of escapees. On the contrary, 44% of the events were small (less than
200 individuals), contributing with only 0.3% of the number of escapees. This
information is important and valuable in deciding the best strategy to reduce escapes
from marine fish farms and to develop appropriate technical standards for equipment and
management.

220 – 10. NORWAY: ESCAPES OF FISH FROM AQUACULTURE
Introduction
Definition of escapes from aquaculture

Escapes of juvenile and larger fish from sea-cages have been reported for almost all
species presently cultured around the world, including Atlantic salmon, Atlantic cod,
rainbow trout, Arctic charr, halibut, sea bream, sea bass and meagre. Recently, a second
form of escape has come into focus, involving the escapement of viable eggs spawned by
farmed individuals from sea-cage facilities, or so called ‘escape through spawning’
(Jørstad et al., 2008). This phenomenon has forced a redefinition of the term ‘escapes
from aquaculture’ to include the escapement of fertilized eggs into the environment.
Report scope
Here, we document the current status of knowledge on the causes and extent of
escapes, their environmental and economic consequences, and measures to mitigate and
prevent escapes. We address both escapes of juvenile/larger fish and escape through
spawning. As most of the research and development on the escapes issue over the past
two decades has been related to the Norwegian fish farming industry, we use Norway as
a case study to describe the development of measures to deal with escapes. Finally, we
provide a series of recommendations for policy-makers to implement measures to prevent
escapes as marine aquaculture develops in other countries.
Background to the issue: the Norwegian fish farming industry

The Norwegian marine aquaculture industry, which commenced in 1969-70, is widely
considered a commercial success story. Today, Norway is a world-leader in the culture of
salmon in sea-cages; 582 farms operated in coastal waters in 2008 and produced 797 000
tonnes of Atlantic salmon and 92 000 tonnes of rainbow trout (Kjønhaug, 2009).
Approximately 325 million individual Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout were held in
sea-cages in Norway at any given time (Norwegian Fisheries Directorate, 2009). The
Atlantic cod aquaculture industry is comparatively small, and produced approx. 10 000
tonnes across 40 farms in 2008, corresponding to 25 million fish held in the sea.
Significant advances in containment technologies have been made since the industry
commenced, with modern production and fish transportation systems now typically large
and highly mechanized.
Farm sites
In the early phase of sea-cage salmonid aquaculture, farm sites were located next to
the shore and in very sheltered areas with little water exchange or flushing. Expansion of
the industry in terms of both farm number and size demanded sites which experienced
greater water exchange. Modern sites are located further from the shore, but are still sited
in bays, sounds, fjords or scattered amongst islands within archipelagos. Currents at any
site are driven by complex combinations of several driving forces, such as large-scale
current systems (e.g. the Norwegian coastal current), tide, wind, pressure field, internal
waves, estuarine circulation and freshwater runoff.

Sea-cage technology
Sea-cages in the 1970s were mainly small and square (e.g. 12 m x 12 m wide, 5-7 m
deep, volume ~ 800 m3), hexagonal or circular (e.g. circumference of 50 m, 5 m deep,
volume ~ 1 000 m3). As production subsequently increased, wider and deeper cages were
developed. Presently, salmon are typically held in either square or rectangular sea-cages
of 20-40 m sides, 20 to 35 m deep or circles of 90-157 m in circumference and up to 48
m deep. Cage volumes range from 20 000-80 000 m3. Square cages are typically
clustered together in a steel platform with between 4-28 cages per site with little distance
(2-4 m) between adjacent cages. Circular cages are arranged in mooring grids in single or
double rows but with typically greater space between them (>20 m) than square cages.
Initially, cage arrangements within sites were chosen based on logistical considerations
such as moorings, shelter, and accessibility and to minimise the surface area of coastal
space the cages occupied. Present day cage arrangements have moved towards
positioning grid systems perpendicular to the dominant current direction to maximise
water flow, oxygen supply and the removal of wastes from individual cages.
Biomasses and stocking densities

Based on the maximum allowable stocking density of 25 kg/m3 in Norway
(Norwegian Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs, 2008) and normal harvest weights
of 4-5 kg, individual cages in the 1970s held ~ 10 000 fish. Modern day cages may now
contain 200 000-400 000 individuals. In practice, the largest Norwegian sites produce
more than 10 000 tonnes of salmon biomass, involving more than 2 million individual
salmon.
Causes and extent of escapes
Knowledge of the extent and causes of escape incidents from sea-cage fish farms
varies greatly from country to country. Several European countries, such as Norway and
Scotland, have legislated reporting requirements whereby farmers are obligated to report
escape incidents, their size and cause when they occur. In contrast, Mediterranean
countries have no such requirements, thus no statistics are available on the number of
escapes or the underlying causes of escapes (Dempster et al., 2007). Norway has the
most comprehensive record of escapes, with available official numbers back to 2001 for
salmonids and to 2004 for Atlantic cod (Figure 10.1). The real number of escapes has
been speculated to be considerably higher (Torrissen, 2007), because not all escape
incidents are detected or some go unreported. Significant escape events of salmon have
also occurred in other major salmonid producing countries. Over one million salmon
were reported to have escaped from Scottish farms during the period from 2002-2006
(Thorstad et al., 2008). The proportion relative to production volume of Atlantic cod that
escapes is high in comparison to salmon (Moe et al., 2007a). In each of the following
years, 2005, 2006, and 2008, over 200 000 cod escaped from Norway’s farms.

Figure 10.1: Number of escapes for salmon, rainbow trout and cod
1000
900
800
700
No. of escapees
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Salmon Rainbow trout Cod
Source: Norwegian Fisheries Directorate, 2009.
No official statistics on the extent of escapees exist for Mediterranean countries;

however, data available from companies that insure fish farm businesses indicate that
escapes are a significant component of economic losses claimed by farmers (EU FP-6
ECASA project, 2007). From 2001-2005, 76 claims accounting for 36% of the total value
of all insurance claims made by fish farmers in Greece were due to stock losses from
storms, while damage to farm equipment due to storms accounted for 19%. Further, 39
registered ‘predator attacks’ resulted in claims of 10.4% of the total value of all insurance
claims, although the proportion of this which relates to stock loss or cage damage is
unknown. What evidence exists suggests that escapes are a relatively frequent occurrence
from sea-cage aquaculture on a pan-European scale.
Escapes are caused by a variety of incidents related to farming equipment and their
operation. Reports by fish farming companies to the Norwegian Fisheries Directorate
following escape events during the period from 2006 – 2009 indicate that escapes of
salmon (by total number of fish escaped) can be categorized broadly into structural
failure (38%), operational related-failure (15%), biological (17%) and external and other
causes (30%) (Jensen et al., forthcoming; (Figure 10.2). Structural failures may be
generated by severe environmental forcing in strong winds, waves and currents, which
may occur in combination with component fatigue or human error in the way farm
installations have been installed or operated (Jensen et al., 2006). Operational related-
failures leading to escapes include collisions with boats, incorrect handling of nets or
damage to nets by boat propellers. 18% of the escape events were large (more than 5 000
individuals) and led to 94% of the number of escapees. On the contrary, 44% of the

events were small (less than 200 individuals), contributing with only 0.3% of the number
of escapees (Jensen et al., forthcoming). For cod, there is gathering evidence that
additional reasons for escape are present. This stems from behavioral differences in the
way cod interact with cages, through biting of the netting, which may increase wear and
tear and contribute to the creation of holes (Moe et al., 2007a), and a far greater level of
exploratory behavior near the net wall which may increase the chances of cod swimming
through a hole (Bjørn et al., 2007).
Figure 10.2: Causes of escape based on reports by fish farming companies to the Norwegian Fisheries
Directorate 2006 – 2009
Biological
17%
External and other

30%
Operational
15%
Structural
38%
Source: Jensen et al, forthcoming.
Structural failures, while relatively infrequent, lead to the greatest number of fish
escaping (tens to hundreds of thousands of fish per incident), therefore, they have, and
will continue to be, the area of greatest focus in preventing escapes. Operational errors
that cause escapes are more frequent, but typically lead to spills as small as a few
individuals to thousands of fish, so they are of secondary importance in mitigating the
escapes problem. Below, we document in detail the status of knowledge on three of the
main causes of structural failures leading to escapes and provide examples.
Progressive mooring failure

Flexible circular tubes made of poly-ethylene (PE) are the most commonly used
floating collars in Norwegian aquaculture. The major part of the flexible floating collars
is moored using either a grid or a ladder mooring system. The floaters are connected to
the mooring using bridles (Fredheim and Langan, 2009). Traditionally the grid mooring
system was oriented to minimize the total drag force on the fish farm, i.e. with the
direction of the main current running through the length of the fish farm. Orienting the
farm in this manner reduces the total drag as only the front nets are fully exposed to the
current (the subsequent ones are in the shadow of those in front and will experience a
reduced current velocity). However, when the farm is oriented in this manner the number
of mooring lines in the same direction as the main current is limited. During a storm, the
current velocity increases, especially in the upper water layers, introducing large forces
on the nets. These forces are transferred to the mooring lines through the bridles. If one
mooring line breaks or one anchor drags, the loads on the remaining mooring lines might
be exceeded and they will rupture one by one, resulting in a complete failure of the fish
farm. This was the cause of the complete breakdown of a fish farm in which close to
500 000 salmon escaped from a fish farm in central Norway in August 2005.
Breakdown and sinking of (steel) fish farm

Hinged steel fish farms are popular work stations as, due to their buoyancy, they allow
the use of heavy auxiliary equipment and fork lifts on the farm. Due to their construction
the farm in general has no or limited flexibility in the horizontal plane (Fredheim and
Langan, 2009). This gives rise to structural problems when exposed to short-crested
irregular waves, as the waves induce forced vertical displacement of the bridges and
introduce large stresses and strains in the structure. Fatigue and crack propagation in or
close to the hinges is often the result and this can rapidly lead to separation of the bridges
and tearing of the net. In January 2006, close to 150 000 cod escaped from a fish farm in
northern Norway during a storm. The fish escaped after the farm collapsed under the
combined loading from wind, waves and ice (Jensen, 2006). Due to forced displacement
induced by the waves and ice, the farm was torn apart and the fish escaped.
Abrasion and tearing of net

Net failure, and the subsequent formation of a hole, is by far the dominant means of
escape for fish from Norwegian aquaculture. Approximately two thirds of escape
incidents and number of fish escape due to a hole in the net. Multiple reasons exist for the
formation of holes. Biting by predators or caged fish, abrasion, “collisions” with boats,
flotsam and cage handling procedures (e.g. lifting) are among the most common causes
of holes in the net. The trend in Norway is that fish farms are moving into areas with
stronger and steadier currents in order to improve the water quality. As a result, forces on
the net increase and with increased forces, net deformation increases accordingly (Lader
et al., 2008). Several large scale escapes have occurred over the past two-three years due
to contact (and thus abrasion) between the net and the sinker tube chain (Moe, 2008,
2009).
Economic consequences of escapees
Relatively little information exists on the direct costs of escapes, although the
European Union’s 7th Research Framework project Prevent Escape
(www.sintef.no/preventescape) is currently assessing the cost of escape to the fish
farming industry across Europe and the true cost of escapes is thus likely to be known by
2011. In Norway, as escapes on average cause losses of less than 0.2% of the fish held in
sea-cages each year, the direct economic cost to the industry is relatively small, even
when the cost of re-placing damaged equipment or paying for recapture efforts is
accounted for. This may mean that little direct economic incentive exists for the industry
to invest further time and resources to prevent escape events. However, the greatest cost
of escape to the industry is indirect as escapes damage the industry’s reputation. The
popular press invariably paint the aquaculture industry’s environmental credentials in a
negative light when escape events occur and escapes fuel criticism from environmental
groups (e.g. WWF, 2005). The extent to which this restricts the industry from expanding
the number of sites it uses and the amount of fish it produces is immeasurable, but is
likely to be significant, as the threat of escapes to wild populations are commonly
discussed in relation to industry expansion (Naylor et al., 2005; Hindar et al., 2006).
Therefore, it is a stated goal of both the Norwegian authorities and the Norwegian Fish
Farmers Association to reduce escapes of fish to a level where they do not threaten wild
populations (Norwegian Fisheries Directorate, 2009; Norwegian Seafood federation
(FHL)).
Environmental consequences of escapees
The present level of escapes is regarded by many as a problem for the future
sustainability of sea-cage aquaculture (Naylor et al., 2005; WWF, 2005) as escapees
(Figure 10.) can have detrimental genetic and ecological effects on populations of wild
conspecifics. A single fish farm may hold hundreds of thousands to millions of cultured
fish. In the Mediterranean Sea, approximately 500 million sea bass and 450 million sea
bream are held in sea cages, with wild stock numbers believed to be considerably lower
(ICES, 2006). Similarly, over 325 million Atlantic salmon are held in sea-cages in
Norway at any given time (Norwegian Fisheries Directorate, 2009), which far outnumber
the approximately 1 million salmon that return to Norwegian rivers from the ocean each
year to spawn. Due to the large numerical imbalances of caged compared to wild
populations, escapement raises important concerns about ecological and genetic impacts.
Evidence of ecological effects on wild populations is largely limited to Atlantic salmon,
as these interactions have been intensively studied, with more limited information for
Atlantic cod and virtually no information for other species, including the major species
farmed throughout the Mediterranean Sea (sea bream and sea bass).
In a comprehensive review of the effects of escaped Atlantic salmon on wild
populations, Thorstad et al. (2008) concluded that while outcomes of escapee-wild fish
interactions vary with environmental and genetic factors, they are frequently negative for
wild salmon. As fish farms areas are typically located close to wild fish habitats, escaped
fish may mix with their wild con-specifics. Consequently, the potential exists for
escapees to interact negatively with wild populations, through competition, transfer of
diseases and pathogens, and interbreeding. In some instances, positive short-term effects
on local fisheries may be possible (Soto et al., 2001).

Figure 10.3: Escaped sea bream (Sparus aurata) beneath a sea-cage (left) and an escape attempt by a
cod (Gadus morhua) from a sea-cage in Norway (right)
Sources: Photograph on left © Arturo Boyra, www.oceanafrica.com and

photograph on right © Heidi Moe, SINTEF Fisheries and Aquaculture.
Transfer of diseases and pathogens

Escape incidents may heighten the potential for the transfer of diseases and parasites,
which are considered to be amplified in aquaculture settings (e.g. Heuch and Moe, 2001;
Bjørn and Finstad, 2002; Skilbrei and Wennevik, 2006; Krkošek et al., 2007). Concerns
that escapees may act as vectors of pathogens to wild fish heightened with the escape of
60 000 salmon infected with infectious salmon anaemia (ISA) from a fish farm in
northern Norway and 115 000 salmon from a farm infected with pancreas disease (PD) in
southern Norway in 2007. In addition, escapees from salmon aquaculture in Norway have
been identified as reservoirs of sea lice in coastal waters (Heuch and Mo, 2001).The
ability for escaped fish to transfer disease to wild fish depends on the extent of mixing
between the two groups, which in turns varies with the timing and location of the escape.
Several studies have mapped the dispersal of adult farmed salmon after escape and
shown that they disperse over large geographical areas, migrating in significant numbers
up rivers during autumn where they spawn together with wild salmon (e.g. Furevik et al.,
1990; Whoriskey et al., 2006; Hansen, 2006). However, while escaped and wild fish mix,
little direct evidence for disease transfer has been found to date.
Competition for food

Escaped salmon could also potentially compete for food with wild stocks, although
this appears unlikely to be the case for oceanic waters. Escaped salmon from the Faeroe
Islands survived after escape and migrated to offshore feeding grounds where they
consumed much the same diet as wild salmon (Jacobsen and Hansen, 2001). Similarly,
salmon escaped from Scottish farms also feed on natural prey in the ocean (Hislop and
Webb, 1992). However, food in the ocean does not appear to be limiting for wild salmon
populations (Jonsson and Jonsson, 2004), thus competitive interactions are unlikely to be
substantial, although limited information exists to assess if this is also the case for coastal
waters (Jonsson and Jonsson, 2006).

Interbreeding
Interbreeding may be particularly problematic for wild salmonid populations, when
farmed fish are genetically divergent from wild stocks (Triantafyllidis, 2007). Successful
spawning of escaped farmed salmon in rivers both within and outside their native range
has been widely documented (see review by Weir and Grant 2006). The ability of
escaped salmon to interbreed with wild salmon depends on their ability to ascend rivers,
access spawning grounds and spawn successfully with wild partners. While the spawning
success of farmed female salmon may be just 20-40% that of wild salmon and even lower
for males (1-24%; Fleming et al., 1996, 2000), large escape events in regions where
spawning rivers and streams host small wild populations can lead to swamping of
spawning areas with escapees. Once at spawning grounds, escaped females have greater
success in spawning with wild males than escaped males have in spawning with wild
females, thus successful breeding most often results from escaped females with wild
males. Escaped farmed females are often larger than their wild counterparts; this may
lead to escaped salmon outcompeting wild salmon of smaller size for optimal spawning
positions. In addition, escaped female salmon may also interfere with wild salmon
breeding through destroying the spawning redds of wild fish if they spawn later than wild
salmon (Lura and Sægrov, 1991, 1993). Combined, these effects of spawning can lead to
a high proportion of farm x wild hybrids in particular streams.
As smolts, farm salmon escapees and farmed-wild hybrids may directly interact and
compete with wild smolts for food, habitat and territories. Farm juveniles and hybrids are
generally more aggressive and consume similar resources in freshwater habitats as wild
fish. In addition, they grow faster than wild fish, which may give them a competitive
advantage during certain life stages. Ultimately, invasions of escaped farmed salmon
have the potential to impact the productivity of wild salmon populations negatively
through juvenile resource competition and competitive displacement. Fleming et al.
(2000) determined that invasion of a small river in Norway by escapees resulted in an
overall reduction in smolt production by 28% due to resource competition and
competitive displacement. Local fisheries could therefore suffer reduced catches as wild
fish stocks decline (Svåsand et al., 2007).
Environmental consequences of escapees other than salmon

At present, little direct evidence exists for negative interactions of escaped and wild
fish exists other than for salmon. Radio-telemetry studies of simulated cod escapes have
indicated that escapees mix with wild populations in fjord environments and move to
spawning grounds in the spawning season (Uglem et al., 2008). Behavioral studies have
further indicated that escaped farmed cod are likely to hybridise with wild cod (Meager
et al., 2009). However, farmed male cod have limited reproductive success in sperm
competition with wild male cod, which lowers the risk of genetic introgression from
escapees (Skjæraasen et al., 2009).
Escapees may also establish populations in habitats beyond their natural range. In the
Canary Islands, sea bass are non-indigenous, yet populations have established and are
increasing in coastal areas, although abundances depend strongly on distance from fish
farms (Toledo Guedes et al., 2009). This distribution could mean that escaped individuals
show site fidelity or mortality rates are high because of sport and professional fisheries
and, therefore, the population size might be highly dependent on a continual supply of
escapees.

Contribution of escapees to local fisheries

Escaped salmon due not appear to greatly benefit local fisheries in Europe other than
through short-term captures after escape incidents, however escapees of other species
may support local fisheries to an extent (Soto et al., 2001; Sánchez-Lamadrid, 2004).
Deliberately released sea bream in the Mediterranean Sea were able to adjust to a natural
diet and subsequently grew well, indicating they adapted to life in the wild and likely
added to local population numbers (Sánchez-Lamadrid, 2004). In addition, while small-
scale escape events are relatively frequent, very few escaped sea bream or sea bass occur
near the sea-cages they escaped from (Dempster et al., 2002; Fernandez-Jover et al.,
2008), which suggests that escapees move away from farms to other more favorable
habitats or they are fished by sport and professional fisheries. Similarly, recaptures of
Atlantic cod escapees in local commercial and recreational fisheries in Norway are high
(approximately 40%; Uglem et al., 2008), indicating that local fisheries receive
temporary increases after escape events.
Impacts of ‘escape through spawning’

Fish farming in sea-cages is increasing worldwide; both the volumes produced and the
numbers of fish species cultured are increasing. During the last decade, the culture of
species that may reproduce within sea-cages has become more common. Examples of
such species within European aquaculture are Atlantic cod (Jørstad et al., 2008), sea
bream (Dimitriou et al., 2007) and possibly sea bass and meagre. Knowledge of the
extent and ecological effects of reproduction of farmed fish within sea-cages is, however,
sparse.
Spawning of Atlantic cod in sea-cages and egg escape

In the culture of Atlantic cod, some fish mature during the first year of culture, while a
majority of farmed cod are believed to mature during the second culture year. This means
that almost the entire culture stock in any particular farm has the potential to spawn in the
sea-cages before they are slaughtered. Efforts to preventing maturation, mainly through
manipulation of the light regime in sea-cages, have so far been unsuccessful. Although
maturation can be delayed, it is difficult to inhibit maturation completely (e.g. Taranger
et al., 2006; Karlsen et al., 2006). The use of hybridization, sterilization and polyploidy
to counter this problem are possibilities, but problems such as initially higher mortality,
greater fingerling costs, poorer growth and consumer acceptance need to be solved before
they are taken up by industry (Triantafyllidis et al., 2007).
Spawning of Atlantic cod within a small experimental sea-cage and dispersal of the
spawned eggs in a fjord system has been demonstrated (Jørstad et al., 2008). Larvae from
genetically marked farmed cod that spawned in a single sea-cage were found in plankton
net samples up to 8 km away from an experimental farm during the natural spawning
season of cod (Jørstad et al., 2008). Furthermore, in the proximity of this farm, 25% of
the cod larvae in plankton samples were determined by genetic analyses to have
originated from the 1000 farmed cod. This indicates that if spawning occurs within
commercial cod farms where numbers of animals are far greater, the contribution of
‘escaped’ larvae to cod recruitment within fjords may be substantial. Moreover, the
escape of eggs will likely be a persistent phenomenon in cod culture. The escape of large
quantities of eggs from caged cod may be problematic as; 1) coastal cod populations in
Norway are presently ‘red-listed’ as vulnerable (IUCN), principally due to overfishing; 2)

coastal cod have a high fidelity to specific spawning grounds (e.g. Wright et al., 2006);
and 3) sea-cage cod farms are often located within short distances of known wild cod
spawning grounds (Uglem et al., 2008). Recent research also suggests that cod eggs may
be entrained in the vicinity of the spawning grounds long after spawning (Knutsen et al.,
2007). Therefore, there is considerable potential for larvae from escaped cod eggs to
experience favourable conditions for survival and recruitment to coastal cod stocks. This
may cause significant ecological and genetic effects in wild populations in the future.
Spawning of sea bream in sea-cages and egg escape

In the Mediterranean region, information about spawning by fish kept in sea-cages is
sparse. In Greece, the largest EU producer of sea bream, a spectacular increase in both
the number of fish farms and their production capacity took place over the past decade,
accompanied by a substantial decrease in the price of sea bream. This industrial
development led to structural and functional changes in the rearing process. To increase
product diversify and reach different markets, some farms started to produce larger fish.
At these farms, farming durations increased from just 12 to 18 months before 1995
(Petridis and Rogdakis, 1996) to durations of up to 40 months after 1999 (Dimitriou
et al., 2007). Gilthead sea bream is a protandrous hermaphrodite species and the
increased farming duration has resulted in the production of fish of a size compatible
with that necessary for fish to reach the stage of sex inversion and female sexual
maturation, normally observed at the age of two years in the wild (Zahra et al., 1978).
The aforementioned changes in rearing processes have resulted in the presence of large
gilthead sea bream individuals (larger than 500 g) in cages during the normal
reproductive period of their wild counterparts (November-March: Bauchot and Hureau,
1986). There is evidence that sex inversion and the production of both male and female
gametes occur within cages under the present industrial rearing pattern (Dimitriou et al.,
2007). A doubling of the population of wild sea bream within the Messolonghi lagoon in
Greece, based on standardised commercial fishing trap catch returns, correlates with the
advent of farming sea-bream to large sizes in the region. Spawning within sea-cages is
suspected to have led to greater recruitment to wild sea bream stocks (Dimitriou et al.,
2007). Ecological and economic consequences of this population shift have ensued as
while more wild sea-bream are now available to the fishery, they are of much smaller
mean size, resulting in an overall lower economic return to local fishers. The wider
ecological consequences of greater recruitment of fish spawned in sea-cages into natural
populations, if any, remain undocumented.
Mitigating and preventing escapes: The Norwegian experience
Over the past decade, Norway has established a range of processes and tools to deal
with the problem of escapes. These include:
1. Mandatory reporting of all escape incidents;
2. Establishment of the Norwegian Escapes Commission to learn from past

escape events and disseminate knowledge to both fish farmers and
aquaculture equipment suppliers;
3. Introducing enforceable technical regulations for the design,

dimensioning, installation and operation of sea-cage farms;

4. Ongoing investment in research and development projects to improve the

design and material properties of sea-cage equipment; and
5. Training of fish farm operators in the different aspects of why and how to
prevent escapes. Here, we detail these efforts, describe their effect on
dealing with the escapement issue, and discuss improvements that can be
made.
Mandatory reporting of escapes

Mandatory reporting of escape incidents was introduced by Norway in the 1980s,
while a national statistic was established in 2001. This has enabled:
1. Assessment of the overall status of the escapes problem at an industry-
wide scale from year to year (Figure 10.1);
2. Assessment of the causes of escapes;
3. And efforts to recapture escapees to be made. Without this basic process in

place, coordinated action to deal with escapes is unlikely. While
mandatory reporting does provide basic and general information,
understanding the detailed causes of escapes requires different processes.
The Norwegian Aquaculture Escapes Commission (AEC)

Official statistics collated from mandatory reporting and other sources of information
which apportion causality to escape events typically provide little explicit detail to
support technological development to improve farming equipment and modify operations
to avoid mistakes that cause escapes. Categorization of causes may also be inaccurate, as
causes are rarely investigated in detail (Valland, 2005). Such detail only comes through
thorough investigation of the causes of escape incidents on a case-by-case basis (e.g. Rist
et al., 2004). Jensen (2006) visited eight fish farms in northern Norway after two severe
storms in January 2006 caused damage to numerous farms in the region. While ‘storm’
was listed as the official cause of these escapes, the specific circumstances behind each
event varied widely. Storms may damage surface floaters, tear nets through net
deformation or rubbing of the nets on net weights in the strong currents they generate,
and overload the mooring structures that hold the farm in place. At a smaller scale, an
understanding of how individual components perform in the mooring system (such as
anchors, shackles, ropes, bolts and mooring coupling plates), the cage system (net
material, cage ropes and cage weights), and the steel platform or polyethylene floaters is
crucial to ensure each element is engineered to match the particular characteristics of
each farm type and location.
To meet the challenge of more accurately determining causes of escapes, the
Norwegian government established The Aquaculture Escapes Commission (AEC) in
September 2006. Since its establishment, the AEC has compiled data on all reported
escape occurrences in Norway and has a mandate to conduct more thorough
investigations of individual escape events when required. The AEC disseminates
information to manufacturers of fish farming equipment when improvements have been

identified, and may issue warnings to fish farmers regarding the use of specific sea-cage
technologies (More here on role of AEC, successes, and how it can be improved).
Norwegian technical standard (NS9415) for sea-cage farms

The Norwegian technical standard NS9415 (Marine fish farms: Requirements for
design, dimensioning, production, installation and operation regulations) was
implemented through Norwegian legislation on 1 April, 2004 and introduced
requirements for the technical standard of marine fish farms in Norwegian waters. From
this date the main components (floater, net cage, feed barge and mooring system) of new
farms must be independently certified against the standard. In addition, farming sites
needed to be classified (wind, waves and current conditions) with 10- and 50-year return
periods. For existing farms and equipment in use before April 1 2004, there is a transition
system lasting until 2012. This system is such that specially accredited companies asses
the fish farms, carry out mooring and other technical analysis and based on this evaluate
the capability of the fish farm to meet the requirements in NS9415 and to withstand the
environmental forces on the specific fish farm site. If the fish farm equipment is proven
capable for the site, the fish farm will receive a certificate stating proof of capability.
This proof of capability has a time period of two years and can be reissued up to 2012.
From 2010, all the main components of a fish farm have to be certified. A significant
revision resulting in strengthening of the standard occurred in 2009. NS9415 specifies
requirements for design of feed barges, floaters, net cages and mooring systems
necessary to cope with environmental forces (e.g. wind, waves and currents) at fish farm
sites and the handling and use of equipment.
As an immediate result of introduction of NS9415 in 2004, several farms replaced
their existing equipment and all new equipment post 2004 had to be independently
certified as per the standard. This appears to have precipitated a dramatic reduction in the
number of major escape incidents in Norway, although with a time lag of several years
after the standard was introduced, as old equipment was gradually replaced with new.
Since the last major escape event in 2005 of 500 000 salmon from a single farm, the
number of escaped salmon has been significantly reduced both in the total number of
escapees and the proportion of stocked number of salmon in sea-cages. This reduction is
principally due to a sharp decline in large-scale escapes resulting from the full
breakdown of fish farms when mooring system and/or floaters fail. Such failures are
becoming increasingly uncommon as the NS9415 standard is modified and strengthened
over time.
Research and development to make sea-cage equipment more robust

Development of the NS9415 standard has been informed by a significant amount of
industrial research to improve the materials, structures and designs of sea-cage farms
(e.g. Fredheim, 2005; Fredheim and Langan, 2009; Jensen, 2005, 2006; Jensen and Lien
2005a, 2005b; Lader et al., 2007a, 2007b, 2008; Lien and Jensen, 2005; Moe et al.. 2005,
2007a, 2007b, 2009a, 2009b). This research has come through significant investments by
the Norwegian Research Council and The Fishery and Aquaculture Industry Research
Fund (e.g. SIKTEK, IntelliStruct, SECURE, CodNet, CodNet2 and WaveNet projects)
and recently the European Union’s 7th Research Framework (e.g. Prevent Escape
project; www.sintef.no/preventescape).

Training
As a relatively large portion of the escape incidents are either due to operational
errors or to operations damaging equipment and thus leading to escapes, an increased
focus on how operations are performed is appropriate. Some farming companies have
good and well documented systems for training and education of employees, but in
general more focus is required. Fish farming is a complicated multi-disciplinary activity
in which expertise on several different topics are required. So far, education has focused
mainly on the biological aspects of farming, with comparatively less attention on the
more technical aspects.
To address this gap, several times a year the Norwegian Seafood Federation (FHL)
arranges voluntary anti-escape workshops. The workshops are often led by industrial
engineers from SINTEF Fisheries and Aquaculture and are attended by fish farmers,
technology producers, the Norwegian Fisheries Directorate and accredited aquaculture
equipment certification companies. Typical topics for the workshops lectures are
information about regulations, escape causes, and practical measures to prevent escapes.
Mitigating the escape of Atlantic cod eggs from sea-cages

At present, the culture of Atlantic cod in sea-cages in Norway is a relatively new
activity of limited size compared to the large Atlantic salmon industry. Further, the
possibility that escaped fertilized eggs may have genetic and ecological effects on wild
populations has only recently been recognized (Jørstad et al., 2008) and much remains to
be documented before the likely importance of this effect is known.
Measures to prevent the escape of fertilized eggs from sea-cages are in the research
and development phase. Halting sexual maturation through manipulation of the light
regime in sea-cages has been trialled with some success, but it is difficult to inhibit
maturation completely (e.g. Taranger et al., 2006; Karlsen et al., 2006). Hybridization,
sterilization and polyploidy are possible alternate strategies, but higher initial mortality,
greater fingerling costs, poorer growth and consumer acceptance mean that these
techniques are not preferred by the industry (Triantafyllidis et al., 2007). Investigating
techniques to stop cod from spawning in sea-cages remains a research and development
priority for Norwegian aquaculture.
Conclusions
Based on the Norwegian experience of dealing with the escapes problem, we

recommend a range of measures for other countries to introduce effective anti-escape
measures. Essentially, many of the components of the strategy to tackle escapes already
in place in Norway can be directly transferred to industries in other countries. We outline
these principles below in five steps, and discuss how some of these measures may be
improved in Norway:
1. Mandatory reporting of all escape events, including: i) the number of fish that
escaped and their size; ii) a description of the sea-cages technology involved;
iii) categorisation of the operational circumstances or environmental conditions
at the time of escape; and iv) an estimated cause of escape.
2. A defined mechanism to collect, analyze and learn from the mandatory

reporting. This information must then be effectively disseminated to equipment
suppliers and fish farmers so improvements can be made. Within Norway the
Aquaculture Escapes Commission (AEC) has this role, although the formation
of a full commission to achieve this may not be necessary in other countries.
3. As causes of escapes estimated by farmers are often inaccurate, we recommend

mandatory, technical assessments to determine the causes of ‘large-scale,
escape incidents. Based on escape statistics in Norway, ‘large-scale’ escape
events due to technical or structural failures can be considered to be those that
cause the loss of more than 10 000 fish. The technical assessment must occur
rapidly (within 48 hours) after the escape event. At present, no mechanism for
this is in place in Norway. When technical assessments are made, they are
often done weeks to months after the incident. This can lead to a loss of
evidence, often making the root cause difficult to ascertain. Learning from each
large-scale escape event would assist recommendations for the design and
properties of sea-cage systems and help improve technical standards.
4. Introduction of a technical standard for sea-cage aquaculture equipment

coupled with an independent mechanism to enforce the standard. Within
Norway, the highly detailed NS9415 technical standard has perhaps been the
most useful tool at an industry-wide scale to prevent escapes. Voluntary
standards are unlikely to be effective; therefore we recommend enforcement
through legislations. Within the next few years, NS9415 is likely to be
developed into an international standard (ISO), which will facilitate
implementation in sea-cage industries through the world.
5. Certain operations within fish farming (e.g. correct anchoring and mooring,
connecting net-cages to floaters and correct weighting of net-cages in currents)
are likely to pose a higher risk of an escape event occurring if they are done
incorrectly. Therefore, these key processes should be identified, and mandatory
training of staff who undertake these processes would likely reduce human
errors that lead to escapes. Many other industries have similar mandatory
training requirements for operators to perform particular tasks, thus legislative
precedents would likely exist in most countries that could be drawn upon.

The SINTEF Centre for Research-based Innovation in Aquaculture Technology

(CREATE) (www.sintef.no/create) is focussing research on operations and design of fish
farms with the aim of reducing the probability and extent of any escape incidents.
The European Union’s 7th Research Framework project Prevent Escape
(www.sintef.no/prevent) will assess technical and operational causes of escape incidents,
assess the extent of escapes of reproductive gametes and fish, determine the inherent
behaviours that pre-dispose certain species of fish towards a higher probability of
escaping, and document the dispersal of escapees to develop and test recapture strategies.
Information from the project will feed into research aimed at improving operations and
equipment production, and advancing national and international standards for the design,
construction and use of aquaculture equipment. The project’s main goal is to determine
practical, implementable measures to prevent escapes and mitigate the effects of
escapees.

10. ESCAPES OF FISH FROM AQUACULTURE – 235
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11. CHILE: EXPERIENCES IN CONTROLLING SEA LICE – 241
Chapter 11
Chile: Experiences in controlling sea lice
José Miguel Burgos González

Servicio Nacional de Pesca (SERNAPESCA), Ministry of the Economy,
Chile
Abstract
Caligus rogercresseyi, a marine copepod found in Chilean waters, is a native parasite
which has been transmitted to farmed species such as salmonids. In Chile, this parasite
remained under control until the end of 2006, when the threshold of infestation was about
the five adult Caligus/fish. This ration grew exponentially in the following year, reaching
34 adult Caligus/fish per site. Following this, for general diagnosis and monitoring
purposes, SERNAPESCA implemented the sea lice surveillance program that includes an
Annual General Diagnosis by Cage of Caligidosis (DGJA) and biweekly monitoring.
The results of the initial diagnosis were unsatisfactory, obtaining a general level of high
prevalence (0.76) and average abundance levels of over 11 Caligus/fish, with areas
where the abundance even exceeded 30 Caligus/fish. In response to this, SERNAPESCA
developed a specific monitoring program, which includes new products (Deltamentrina
1% and Diflubenzuron 80%) a coordinated application of the treatments. Following this,
fortnightly monitoring detected a progressive decline in the abundance and prevalence of
this parasite.

242 – 11. CHILE: EXPERIENCES IN CONTROLLING SEA LICE
Introduction
In Chile, sea lice are a disease caused by copepod Caligus rogercresseyi. This is an
endemic ectoparasite present in various native species such as Patagonian blennie,
Eleginops maclovinus, and Chilean silverside, Odonthestes regia, from which it has
adapted to survive in farmed salmonids (mainly Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout). The
parasite is considered a disease among salmonids since the early 1980s (Reyes, 1983).
Caligus rogercresseyi is one of the eight species of the Caligus genus existing in
Chile. There are other ten species of the Lepeophterius genus, which are related to
massive parasite problems in salmonids of the northern hemisphere. Caligus is better
known as sea lice. It appears on the skin, eyes, fins and gills of the fish, causing wounds,
blindness, stress, loss of appetite and higher susceptibility to bacterial or viral infection.
The problem was initially treated with different organ phosphorus products and
Ivermectin. However, when the use of emamectine benzoate in fish was approved and
registered in 1999, it became the only authorized product to control Caligus. The
parasitism remained at acceptable levels in Chile until 2005. Since then, the common 5
adult-lice/fish infestation level started to increase significantly. By the end of 2006 and
early 2007, the sanitary situation of some farms was highly affected by the presence of
the parasite, which in many cases led to a need to empty the farms and to implement the
first prolonged coordinated fallowings in various farming areas. It is important to note
that at that time the private industry –through its Technical Institute Intesal– carried out a
periodic monitoring of the parasitic load in farms. However, this monitoring only
obtained information a certain amount of farms and was not constant which impeded a
coordinated health management or disease control measures.
In 2007, as a result of various interdisciplinary workshops and round tables,
SERNAPESCA of the Ministry of the Economy, which led those events, proposed to
include Caligidosis in List 2 of High-Risk Disease in Chile, that is, a relevant disease
present in the country that can be subject to public sanitary surveillance and control
programs. This was established in Resolution 1669/07 issued by the Undersecretariat for
Fisheries (Subpesca).
To obtain a general diagnosis of the situation, by farm, zone and species,
SERNAPESCA issued the Specific Sanitary Program for Surveillance of Caligidosis
(PSEVC) established in Resolution 1789/07, which included the first Annual General
Diagnosis per Cage (DGJA). This implies the monitoring of a major number of cages per
farm, followed-up throughout the year by bimonthly monitoring. The results from that
first diagnosis showed a high prevalence (0.76) and average abundance levels over 11
caligus/fish, including areas with average abundance higher than 30 lice/fish. Based on
this information, SERNAPESCA created the first Specific Sanitary Program for
Controlling Caligidosis (PSECC) through Resolution 1883/07.
In September 2007, the use of Alphamax® (Deltametrine) baths under a controlled
application regime was authorized.
Based on the results obtained from the implementation of the aforementioned
programs, critical points and other aspects were identified, which allowed strengthening
surveillance and control by merging them in the Specific Sanitary Program for

Surveillance and Control of Caligidosis (PSEVCC) established through Resolution

2117/09.
Description
Evolution of the regulation

The regulation implemented to deal with this sanitary problem evolved from an
assessment strategy of the national situation regarding parasitism of Caligus
rogercresseyi to a more integrated strategy for permanent monitoring and therapeutic and
sanitary management procedures that integrate spatial and temporal aspects.
The following table 11.1 summarizes the evolution of the different instruments
included in the regulatory strategy implemented in the Program for Surveillance and
Control of Caligidosis.

Table 11.1: Summary of the evolution of the different instruments in the Program for Surveillance and Control of Caligidosis
Document and objectives Surveillance instruments Control instruments

Resolution 1789/07: PSEVC DGJA: process in which all cages of all marine and None
estuarine salmon farms are sampled in July, to count
Determining the prevalence and abundance levels of the number of lice.
Caligus before and after PSECC. Monitoring: bimonthly sampling carried out in all
Obtaining information that enables the design and marine centers to estimate the Caligus rogercresseyi
revision of a system for monitoring Caligus. infestation level.
Establishing a standardized system for collecting data, Report (DGJA and bimonthly): Report issued by the
and effectively analyzing the information. farming company to the Aquaculture Unit of
SERNAPECS. Trained Staff: companies should train
the staff that counts Caligus.
Resolution 1883/07: PSECC Stage I None Coordinated treatment: establishing the obligation to
administer a simultaneous treatment –orally or via
Lowering winter abundance of C. rogercresseyi through bath with pyrethroids– within an area, when the
coordinated treatment per zone. results from DGJA exceed 20-adult-lice/fish. For
Preventing outbreaks of Caligidosis during the following lower values, voluntary (not necessarily
summer season. coordinated) treatments were established.
Contributing to containing the outbreak of ISA by Monitoring of results from treatments: obligation to
controlling this vector. report the results from treatments administered and
Upgrading the general sanitary status and welfare of the repeating treatment according to resulting loads.
affected salmonids.
Resolution 448/08: PSECC None Coordinated treatments: obligation to apply a
(maintains objectives of Res. 1883/08) simultaneous treatment –orally or via bath with
pyrethroids– within a zone, when the results of
Lowering abundance of C. rogercresseyi through a monitoring exceed ten-adult-lice/lunch. For lower
coordinated treatment per zone. values, voluntary (not necessarily coordinated)
Contributing to containing outbreak of ISA by controlling treatments were established
this vector. Monitoring of treatments results: obligation to report
Upgrading the general sanitary status and welfare of the the results from treatments applied and repeating
affected salmonids. treatment according to results obtained.

Table 11.1 (cont.):

Resolution 2117/09: PSEVCC DGJA: parasitic account of 10 fish per cage, in all Bay Management Areas (AMS in Spanish): the
cages of the farming centers, in sea or brackish water. concept of zoning was incorporated, defining
Monitoring the prevalence and abundance of C. It should be carried out, at least, once a year, by the geographic and hydrographic zones, according to
rogercresseyi in all and sea and brackish water salmon second half of July. Stocking in different dates shall the presence or absence of the High-Risk Disease
farming centers. require DGJA. A summer season account shall be y/o its causing agent in each BMA; established in
Establishing a standardized data monitoring and required. Resolution 450/09 issued by SERNAPESCA.
recording system in order to effectively analyze them,
for the implementation or modification of the control Bimonthly Monitoring: account of parasitic loads Treatment Request: a particular application form is
strategy. required to the sea or brackish water farming centers, established to request the use of drugs (those with
to estimate the infestation level by caligida. special use authorization).
Lowering the abundance of C. rogercresseyi through
coordinated treatment per zone, thus improving the NEI (High Infestation level): parasitic abundance Coordinated Treatment: establishes the obligation to
general sanitary status and welfare of the affected considered to be a sanitary risk for the center. administer simultaneous treatment –orally or via
salmonids. Currently established in 6 lice/fish for all Bay bath with pyrethroids–within a zone, when results of
Management Areas (AMS), except those considered the monitoring exceed 6 lice/fish, differentiating the
of a higher risk, in which a three lice/fish level is type of treatment to be administered, according to
established. abundance per stage (juvenile and/or adult). It
Qualified sampler: a person able to recognize and establishes minimum values of three adults and one
account the different stages of Caligus, through a juvenile to authorize treatments. For abundances
compulsory standardized training program. between three and six, a voluntary and always
coordinated treatment is established per BMA.
Supervision of treatment administration: treatment
by bath requires supervision by qualified personnel.
Monitoring treatment results: given the accumulation

of information, the obligation to repeat treatments is
eliminated.
Coordinated Treatment Intervals: intervals set by the
Service, based on the duration of the parasite cycle,
in which the centers within a BMA can coordinately
administer treatments. Such intervals can be moved
according to the loads, environmental harshness
and other demonstrable relevant situations.
Environmental Monitoring: farming centers should

monitor possible environmental impacts, according
to established protocols.

Therapeutic strategy
Until 2007, emamectine benzoate was the only authorized drug to fight this
parasitism. Its continuous and uncoordinated use by the industry seemed to be affecting
its efficiency, as shown by the continuous increase of the parasitic load and the frequency
of the treatments administered with this drug.
The key causes for the increase in parasites were:
• The lack of complementary active principles to alternate disease control
therapies;
• The sustained increase of production volumes of susceptible species in

geographic zones that favor the parasite development;
• High stocking densities of farmed species; and
• The lack of a joint coordinated control strategy for the operational

management of geographic farming zones.
Since 2007, within the framework of the integrated management of the disease, the
industry, along with SERNAPESCA sought to accelerate the authorization of alternative
therapeutic products to enable drug-alternation strategies. Currently, there are two other
products for controlling caligidosis: Deltametrine 1% and Diflubenzuron 80% and
approval for Teflubenzuron is expected soon. A summary of effectiveness per stage, as
well as the use regime are shown in the following table.
Table 11.2 Summary of use of therapeutic and drug products
Effectiveness Effectiveness
Drug Use regime
juveniles adults
Emamectine Registered since
Yes Yes
B. 1999.
Deltametrine With special use
1% No Yes authorization
®
(Alphamax ) since 2007.
With special use
authorization
Diflubenzuron
Yes No since 2008.
80%
Registered since
2010.
Under evaluation
Teflubenzuron Yes No
since 2009.
Additionally, a coordinated therapeutic management strategy has been gradually

incorporated per Bay Management Area (BMA) and in specific time periods or treatment
intervals, according to the development stage of the parasite.

Figure 11.1: Coordinated treatment intervals per BMA for February and March 2010
X Treatment for adult stages

: Tratamiento contra estadíos ADULTOS
O : Tratamiento contra estadíos JUVENILES
Treatment for juvenile stages
FEBRERO 2010 MARZO 2010
ZONA / DÍA 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Zona 1 O O X X X X X X X X X X O O O O O O O O O O O O O O X X X X X X X X X X O O O O O O O O O O O O O O X X X
Zona 7 O O O O O O O X X X X X X X X X X O O O O O O O O O O O O O O X X X X X X X X X X O O
Zona 21 O O O O O O O O O O O O X X X X X X X X X X O O O O O O O O O O O O O O X X X X X X X
Previous to the implementation of the Caligidosis Control Program in early 2007,

some farms registered more than 50 caligus per fish. This started to change with the
growing awareness about the parasite being a stress factor and immunosuppressant which
enables the development of other diseases and hence significantly affects productive
results. Previous to 2007, emamectine b. was the only product used. This drug gradually
lost effectiveness due to different causes, including its uncoordinated administration.
Later, Deltametrine 1%, a very effective drug used for adult stages, was added to the
control strategy. Since then, and since coordinated treatment per BMA started to be
implemented, the parasitic load showed an important decrease. Figure 11.2 shows the
evolution of parasitic abundance since 2007 to 2009.
Figure 11.2: Evolution of monthly abundance (2007-2009) per stage
Number of fish Parasite/fish
Number of fish Abundance in adults Abundance in juveniles

Lessons learned
The following summarizes key lessons learned from the disease outbreak in Chile:
• It is important not to underestimate parasitic agents as immune-
suppressants and, therefore, as agents that facilitate the development of
bacterial or viral pathologies.
• There is need for a surveillance and control system applicable to the whole
industry.
• Surveillance through periodic monitoring of abundance allows a real-time

idea of the situation and behavior of the parasite and the conditions that
affect its abundance, thus helping to adopt and/or maintain appropriate
control sanitary measures.
• The control strategy for this parasitoids should not be addressed from the
perspective of one farm, but assessed in the context of the epidemiologic
situation of a whole area.
• In the aforementioned context, areas are defined as a set of farms that

share geographic, hydrographic and environmental characteristics that can
determine the sanitary status of this set of farms; its management should
include prevalent pathologies.
• Government policies should reach consensus among the different players

of the system and be flexible enough to cover eventualities.
• Reported information should be consistent, timely and reliable. The State

should have the power and possibility to verify such qualities as well as
recording tools that allow effective and efficient analysis.
• It is necessary to maintain permanent standardized programs for technical

training for the public and private sector in surveillance (monitoring of
abundance), as well as control matters (administration of treatments). The
creation or maintenance of parallel information monitoring and recording
systems in the public and the private sector undermines the base of these
programs.
• The private sector should assimilate the importance of public programs for
the sustainability of the sector and allocate the necessary human and
logistic resources for their correct and timely fulfillment.
• In order to ensure the commitment of the private sector, the State has to
feed back the system with information about the programs’ achievements
as well as their sanitary and economic impacts.
• The development of these programs should involve the participation of

aquaculture producers, the academia, governmental and non-governmental

organisations, as well as stakeholders with direct or indirect implications

for the success of such programs.
• It is important to combine and, if possible, alternate therapeutic products

to reduce the risk of losing effectiveness.
• The periodic evaluation of surveillance and control strategies should be

complemented with applied local research to allow timely adjustment,
especially regarding the loss of sensitivity towards the different
therapeutic agents.
• Studies and monitoring of environmental impacts should be considered an

essential element for authorizing the use of therapeutic product.
Caligus Program website

www.sernapesca.cl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=531&Itemid=632
Contact:
José Miguel Burgos González
jburgos@sernapesca.cl

12. CHINESE TAIPEI: A CONTROL STRATEGY FOR VIRAL DISEASES IN GROUPER SEED PRODUCTION – 251
Chapter 12
Chinese Taipei: A control strategy for viral diseases

in grouper seed production
Prof. Chen-Chih Kao

Institute of Marine Biology, National Sun Yat-sen University, Chinese Taipei
Abstract
Groupers fish in Chinese Taipei which are consumed in particular during festival seasons
or special occasions as a status symbol and are expensive. Grouper stocks suffer from
overfishing and aquaculture production which has developed considerably since the
1970s to overcome the supply constraints posed by wild stocks. Due to their rapid growth
and commercial profitability, groupers soon became the most important marine fish
culture in Chinese Taipei. The government actively supported this development, e.g. by
removing trade barriers for fry. Production reached 17 000 tonnes in 2008. The success
in larviculture is attributed to a series of factors: mass production of fertilised eggs;
aggregated hatchery businesses, experienced operators and specialized subsystems; and
high efficiency in the production of live food.
Problems persist in the grouper seed culture industry; in particular, through a large
mortality that is disease-related. These problems at the nursery stage include swim
bladder inflation syndrome, white spot, whirling disease (viral nervous necrosis or VNN)
and iridovirus-like infestation. To increase the success rate of larviculture, a sanitization
tool and indoor green water recirculation culture system is suggested. To increase the
survival rate of fingerling culture, an indoor clear water recirculation culture system has
been designed.

252 – 12. CHINESE TAIPEI: A CONTROL STRATEGY FOR VIRAL DISEASES IN GROUPER SEED PRODUCTION
Introduction
Human consumption demand for live groupers has grown markedly in the last few
decades in Southeast Asia. Most of this demand was met by capture fisheries, however
there are some issues related to grouper fisheries that need to be addressed if trade is to
remain viable in the future. Groupers are very vulnerable to overfishing and their
population size is relatively small. In many areas groupers have been overexploited. The
use of destructive fishing methods have destroyed the habitats on which reef-associated
species depend for shelter and food. An urgent need to develop an alternative source of
supply for grouper was needed to reduce the fishing pressure on wild stocks. The solution
was to establish a full-cycle aquaculture system (the use of hatchery-reared fingerlings)
and expand the mariculture of groupers.
Fish has played an important role in the culture and cuisine of China for centuries.
The consumption of high standard fish has been important in their cultural and social
habits particularly in business dinners and banquets. Groupers, one of the most highly
priced fish in Chinese Taipei, are consumed during festival seasons or special occasions
as a status symbol. They are kept alive until cooking to ensure freshness -a practice that
has developed over the centuries and continues today.
In Chinese Taipei, the grouper culture began in 1972 by practicing grow-out of wild-
caught fry. Seed supply from the wild soon became insufficient and therefore research
was carried out to produce seeds in hatcheries which succeeded in the mid 1980s. Since
then, Chinese Taipei has developed a technologically advanced grouper mariculture
industry. Due to their rapid growth and commercial profitability, groupers soon became
the most important marine fish culture in Chinese Taipei. There are more than 600
hatcheries and grow-out farms with a production area of more than 700 ha. Strong
government support allowed grouper hatcheries and the industry to develop and flourish.
Barriers to grouper fry exports and imports were removed to promote the industry.
Chinese Taipei is currently able to produce grouper seeds on a commercially viable basis
and to supply fertilied grouper eggs and seeds for the export markets. The main hatchery-
reared species are E. coioides, E. malabaricus, E. lanceolatus and E. fuscoguttatus.
Currently, fifteen species of groupers are being cultured in Chinese Taipei. The
production of market-sized groupers in Chinese Taipei increased from about 1 000 tonnes
in the early 1990s to about 17 000 tonnes by 2008. About 38 million grouper fries are
produced annually.
The major constraint to the development of grouper culture appears to be the
consistent production of fingerlings. Larviculture of grouper has always been unreliable,
with highly variable but generally low survival rates. Chinese Taipei grouper farmers
have however overcome the problem of high mortality.
Reasons for the success of Chinese Taipei’s grouper larviculture industry
Mass production of fertilised eggs

Generally, the fish breed naturally in ponds. At the peak of the breeding season up to
20 kg of eggs (30 million eggs) are produced per day by 300 breeders in a single 0.2 ha
pond. Brood stock farmers can produce 20 billion fertilized grouper eggs to provide more
than 1 000 grouper hatcheries for their annual demand. Hormonal injection is usually
carried out to induce the fish to breed earlier in the season. Fingerlings produced early in
the season attract higher prices than those produced later in the season, so there is an
economic rationale for inducing brood stock to spawn early.
Aggregated hatchery business, experienced operators and specialized

subsystems
The grouper culture system involves a series of farms specialized in one of the
particular area of the production system. Brood stock farms produce fertilised eggs.
Brood stock is kept in outdoor ponds and induced to spawn artificially or allowed to
spawn naturally. Fertilized eggs then go to a hatchery farms where the eggs are raised to
3 cm total length (TL). Larviculture uses both indoor and outdoor methods and is
undertaken using either green water or clear water techniques. Fingerling farms raise
fingerlings until they reach 7-9 cm TL, at which stage they are transferred to outdoor
ponds. At the grow-out farms, fish are grown to market size (600-700 g). In southern
Chinese Taipei, culture is carried out in ponds over extensive areas of the coast. It takes
10–14 months to reach market size for E coioides.
High efficiency in the production of live food

Provision of live food for the early larvae of grouper is one of the difficulties which
restrict the development of grouper culture. High attrition occurs as fish larvae fail to
encounter suitable food. Copepods and rotifers are recognized as food by many fish
larvae. They elicit a feeding response and may provide excellent nutritional benefits.
Unfortunately, it is difficult to keep copepods and rotifers supply in a sustainable way at
a hatchery farm. In Chinese Taipei, live food farmers exist who have specialised in
developing an intensive cultivation system for the production of copepods and rotifers.
The availability of a steady supply of live food makes commercial-scale culture of
difficult marine fish species possible.
In order to promote Chinese Taipei as the fish seed supply center in the Asia-Pacific
region and to export high quality seeds to the region, the Fish Breeding Association of the
Republic of China was founded in May 1996. An integrated system of fishery
organizations, information network and marketing chain components will enable the
establishment of a quality verification system and a regular supply of aquatic seeds.
Supported by government funding, researchers from the Chinese Taipei Fisheries
Research Institute and several universities are actively involved in the development of
grouper culture techniques. Through research and application of bio-technology and
advanced breeding technology, grouper culturists may be able to upgrade their operations
and remain competitive.
Problems and solutions
Problems persist in the grouper seed culture industry, in particular, disease-related

mortality. The disease problems in the nursery stage include swim bladder inflation
syndrome, white spot, whirling disease (viral nervous necrosis or VNN) and iridovirus-
like infestation. The integration of the above mentioned seed production subsystems
contribute to the success of grouper seed production. Unfortunately, it also provides a
great chance for disease cross infection, especially, viral diseases. The reasons are:

• Fertilised eggs supplied by brood stock farmers may be vertically infected

by virus;
• Live food supplied by live food farmers may be contaminated by virus;
• Viral contamination of water, fertilised eggs and live food may cause low
success rate in hatchery farms; and
• Larvae carrying virus may also cause high mortality in fingerling culture
farms.
Research by governmental institutions and experiments by private industry to solve
disease problems is ongoing. Viral diseases can be best managed by a combination of
quarantine and vaccination programs. However, the grouper seed culture involves four
different subsystems which are operated in different locations and Chinese Taipei may
face great difficulty to perform a complete quarantine program. On the other hand,
research on vaccine also encountered a technical gap between laboratory operation
methods and real industrial operation protocols. Therefore, the strategy to perform the
quarantine and vaccination program needs to be carefully considered.
Quarantine in brood stock farms is almost an impossible operation. Considering the
temporal requirement to obtain mature grouper, it takes at least three years for mature
female and another one to three years for the process of sex reversal to reach a sufficient
sex ratio. Contamination of water by virus may happen easily during such a long period
of time and water treatment to achieve a virus-free condition is almost economically
unfeasible for a normally operated brood stock farm. Further, raw food is usually
supplied to compensate the nutritional requirement which may not be completely
supplied by artificial feed for the brood stock. There is no doubt that a virus may be
carried by the raw food into the brood stock culture system. Therefore, vaccination seems
to be a reasonable choice for the brood stock to prevent virus infection. However,
vaccination needs to be conducted regularly due to the primitive nature of the immune
system in fish. Immune memory may not last a long period of time and brood stock may
still not immunize to the virus one year after the vaccination. The vaccination needs to be
operated nationwide. Based on the consideration of availability and quality of fertilised
eggs, single hatchery farms may obtain fertilised eggs from several different brood stock
farms. If vaccination is not performed nationwide, a viral disease may still spread
throughout hatchery farms.
Live food for grouper larviculcure includes copepods and rotifers and they are usually
delivered by different suppliers. Copepods are collected from outdoor ponds which
contain a certain amount of cultured fish. Feed supplied for the fish may indirectly create
an environment which provide the living condition for copepod. This copepod culture
technique may cause copepod contaminated by virus as long as the fish species in the
pond is also a viral carrier. Rotifer contamination may happen in a somewhat different
manner. In order to achieve a steady and productive yield of rotifer, rotifer farmer need to
fertilise the rotifer pond with organic fertilizer such as fermented fish meal or fermented
raw fish. Organic fertiliser is the major source of viral contamination for rotifer and
hence grouper larvae. There is no room to improve this situation from an economic point
of view. Rotifer farmer cannnot survive in the market if the rotifer culture system is
upgraded to a virus-free system. Besides this, hatchery farmer may obtain rotifer from
several different rotifer farms depending on the availability of rotifer. A similar linkage
between hatchery farms and copepod farms also exists. Therefore, the web-like linkage
of live food supply creates a similar linkage of viral contamination. This situation may

wipe out any effort to avoid virus contamination in the brood stock farms. Even if
fertilised eggs are virus-free, grouper larvae can still be infected by virus from food
supply. Hatchery farms tried to raise their own virus-free rotifer but were not successful.
They were unable to sustain a steady rotifer supply mainly due to the lack of a web-like
linkage.
The two different techniques in the hatchery farms include both indoor and outdoor
methods and are undertaken using either with green water or clear water techniques.
Green water technique needs solar energy and is carried out in outdoor ponds. The area
of outdoor ponds needs to be large enough to sustain a stable micro algae flora during the
process of larviculture. This technique is superior to maintain water quality; however, it
is almost impossible to maintain quarantine. Contamination of virus from water or air
may happen all the time. Moreover, weather conditions may affect the larvae survival
rate dramatically. Clear water technique is an indoor culture technique. It applies organic
fertiliser to cultivate bacteria and hence water treatment can be achieved by bio-
processing of microorganisms. Although the effects of weather changes are limited, it is
still difficult to achieve a satisfactory water quality for larviculture. Even if quarantine is
feasible for the clear water technique, water quality is still a limitation to ensure the
success rate. An epidemic of viral disease usually happens in the late stage of
larviculture. To avoid this situation, some researchers try to vaccinate the larvae with
viral protein through rotifer carrier. However, the application of this technique may be
limited by the stability of rotifer supply. The production of carrier rotifer still needs to be
web-linked to ensure the sustainable supply. Besides, a virus may attack grouper larvae
well before larvae have developed a functional immune system and at this stage, a
vaccination is not feasible.
Fingerling farms may face a major risk if larvae from hatchery farms are a virus
carrier. Virus-carrying larvae may be completely wiped out several days after transfer
into the fingerling farm. If they can survive thereafter, they still face the risk of virus
infection from untreated sea water and feed for fingerling culture. Fingerling farmer may
obtain larvae from several different hatchery farms depending on the availability of
larvae. This linkage makes quarantine more difficult unless larviculture subsystem and
fingerling subsystem merge into a single one.
Since feed switching from live food to artificial feed is relatively difficult for grouper
larvae, fingerling farmers usually apply use fish or shrimp for fingerling culture. To
ensure water quality, fresh sea water flow through with a high exchange rate. At this
stage larvae have completed metamorphosis and well developed immune systems. It is a
preferred stage for vaccination. However, fingerlings with 3 cm TL are difficult to handle
for invasive treatment of vaccine, especially for large quantity of fingerlings. Oral
administration of vaccine is a much more feasible operation technique if fingerlings
culture can be switched to artificial feed.
It can be concluded that possible sources of viral contaminations in seed production
are from fertilised egg, live food, raw feed and sea water. The most feasible way for
quarantine operation is a merged system which combines both larviculture and fingerling
culture subsystems. It is necessary to consider this basic information to design a control
strategy for viral disease in grouper seed production.

Solution for larviculture

To increase the success rate of larviculture, a sanitization tool and indoor green water
recirculation culture system (Figure 12.1) is suggested. Ozone treatment is recommended
for fertilised eggs and live food sanitization. Due to the high oxidative potential and short
half-life of ozone in sea water, it can effectively reduce the titer of virus and yield limited
damage to fertilised eggs and live food. Basically, all the material going into this system
must be sanitized by ozone, including sea water, fertilized eggs, rotifer and copepod. In
addition, indoor culture system can effectively prevent possible viral contaminations
from open water and air. The whole culture system is set up inside a greenhouse which
provides sufficient sunlight for microalgae growth. Water temperature can be maintained
at a rather constant level. Water quality is maintained by bio-processing of microalgae
and bacteria. Bacteria and algae flora can be sustained at relative stability for a long
period of time due to the high species diversity and thus the concentration of N-NH3 can
be effectively controlled.
Figure 12.1: Green water recirculation system for larviculture
(160mt concrete pond)

Algae pond Sand filter Biofilter
Ozone generator
Protein skimmer

Water improvement pond Sand filter Biofilter
Protein skimmer

Larvae pond
(40mt concrete pond) Ozone generator

Sanitization pond
Solution for fingerling culture

To prevent the possibility of cross contamination of virus, this culture system can only
accept larvae supplied by quarantined culture system. To increase the survival rate of
fingerling culture, an indoor clear water recirculation culture system was designed
(Figure 12.2). The entire culture system is set up inside a concrete building. Fingerlings
are cultured in 300-liter tanks with high water exchange rates.

The benefits of small tank culture are:

• High density fingerling culture is feasible due to high water exchange rates.
It is possible to reach a density of 10 000 fingerlings/tank;
• Feed switching from live food to artificial feed is much easier due to high
density of fingerlings creating a “feeding frenzy” phenomenon; and
• Fingerlings sieving is easier to handle to avoid cannibalism.
Figure 12.2: Clear water recirculation system for fingerling culture

Algae pond Sand filter Biofilter
Ozone generator
Protein skimmer

Water improvement pond Sand filter Biofilter
Protein skimmer

Larvae pond
(40mt concrete pond) Ozone generator

Sanitization pond
Conclusions
The shortage of land is a major constraint for aquaculture development in Chinese

Taipei. The grouper culture industry possesses bright prospect in the future. However,
faced with limited land resource, the grouper culture industry needs to adjust to reduce
the dependence on land. The design of recirculation culture systems allows high density
culture as it reduces the dependence on land significantly. Further, the design of green
houses reduces the dependency of fossil energy and water treatment techniques reduce
the amount of waste water effluents.
In Chinese Taipei, grouper farmers are specialized in different aspects of the culture
from hatching to grow-out. Farmers always experiment with different species for culture
and hatchery to enhance their ability to compete in the market. Recirculation systems
provide a reliable experimental tool which may help them to achieve the goal. Currently,
several new species are being maricultured and captive-bred on experimental basis,
including E. tukula, E. bruneus, E. multinotatus, E. flavocaeruleus, E. cyanopodus,
Plectropomus leopardus, Plectropomus laevis, Cromileptes altivelis and Cephalopholis

sonnerati. Several of these species are in demand for the live reef food-fish markets.
Captive-breeding or intensive mariculture will in fact provide a consistent alternative
supply of grouper without harvesting from sensitive reef environments. Sustainable
mariculture can be achieved with the responsible application of well-defined mariculture
protocols and the use of indigenous species.
The World Resources Institute reported that nearly 70% of the world’s marine fish
stocks are overfished or fished to their biological limit. Decline in fish population in coral
reefs have reached an alarming stage due to habitat loss, which is mainly due to
destructive fishing practices. Traditionally, aquaculture has helped to keep the supply of
fish steady through selective breeding Producing more farmed fish is a logical approach
to reduce the fishing pressure on coral reefs. Under these circumstances, a full-cycle
culture of grouper in Chinese Taipei will be one of the alternative solutions to coral reef
conservation and reduce the dependency on wild-caught grouper for market supply.

13. THE NETHERLANDS: BEST PRACTICES IN MANAGING ECOSYSTEM IMPACTS IN AQUACULTURE THROUGH RAS TECHNOLOGIES – 259
Chapter 13
The Netherlands: Best practices in managing ecosystem impacts

in aquaculture through RAS technologies
Oliver Schneider
IMARES Wageningen, The Netherlands∗
Abstract
The Dutch finfish aquaculture sector is unique in Europe and worldwide. This innovative
sector is based solely on recirculation aquaculture systems (RAS). RAS are land based
fish production systems in which water from the rearing tanks is re-used after mechanical
and biological purification to reduce water and energy consumption and to reduce
nutrient emission to the environment. The water consumption in RAS is entirely based on
water exchange to compensate for evaporation, incidental losses and to control water
quality. Because of its controllability, water temperatures in a RAS are kept constant at
the optimal rearing temperature for the target species.
Typically a RAS consists of a fish rearing unit and a water purification unit. The latter is
composed of the following components: solids removal (sedimentation or mechanical
screening), ammonia conversion to nitrate (biological oxidation beds), carbon dioxide
removal and/or degassing, re-oxygenation of the water. The case study looks at the
sustainability implications of RAS and draws lessons learned from the Dutch experience.
∗
Co-authors are: Edward Schram, IMARES Wageningen, The Netherlands; Marnix Poelman,
IMARES Wageningen, The Netherlands; Arjo Rothuis, Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food
Quality, The Netherlands; Arie van Duijn, LEI Wageningen UR, The Netherlands; Hans van der
Mheen, IMARES Wageningen, The Netherlands.

260 – 13. THE NETHERLANDS: BEST PRACTICES IN MANAGING ECOSYSTEM IMPACTS IN AQUACULTURE THROUGH RAS TECHNOLOGIES
Introduction
The Dutch finfish aquaculture sector is unique in Europe and worldwide. This
innovative sector is based solely on recirculation aquaculture systems (RAS, (Verreth and
Eding 1993; Martins, Eding et al., 2005; Schneider, Blancheton et al., 2006)). RAS are
land based fish production systems in which water from the rearing tanks is re-used after
mechanical and biological purification to reduce water and energy consumption and to
reduce nutrient emission to the environment. The water consumption in RAS is entirely
based on water exchange to compensate for evaporation, incidental losses and to control
water quality. Because of its controllability, water temperatures in a RAS are kept
constant at the optimal rearing temperature for the species under concern. Typically a
RAS consists of a fish rearing unit and a water purification unit. The latter is composed
of the following components: solids removal (sedimentation or mechanical screening),
ammonia conversion to nitrate (biological oxidation beds), carbon dioxide removal
and/or degassing, re-oxygenation of the water.
Extra components that might be integrated in some RAS are the removal of fine
suspended solids, COD removal through degradation, disinfection units, denitrification
and/or dephosphatation/flocculation units, protein skimmer and so on (Losordo and
Timmons 1997; Eding and van Weerd 1999; Kamstra, Rand et al., 2000; Martins, Eding
et al., 2005; Schneider and Verreth 2008). The Dutch aquaculture sector developed with
the application of RASs in the seventies and eighties (Verreth and Eding 1993; Kamstra,
Heul van der et al., 1998; Kamstra, Eding et al., 2001; LNV 2004). The sector is the only
one consequently and nearly exclusively applying RAS technology in indoor farming
systems for several species, such as African catfish, eel, tilapia, sturgeon, pikeperch,
barramundi, turbot, sole, yellowtail kingfish and other species (Schneider and Verreth,
2008). The sector has experienced several ups and downs during the last thirty years and
is currently facing one of its biggest challenges (Table 13.1), which is evident from a
decreasing production and a reduction in farm numbers.
Table 13.1: Production of the most important species of the Dutch aquaculture RAS industry
Expected for the end of
2007-2008 September 2009
2009
No. of Production No. of Production No. of Production
farms farms farms
Eel 43 4 250 20 3 000 19 <3 000
African
18 3 100 ~10 1 500 5-6 1 000
Catfish
1
Nile tilapia 4 840 0 0 0 0
2
Turbot 4 210 2 100 2 210
Barramundi 2 135 0 0 0 0
Pikeperch 2 130 3 130 3 130
Dover Sole 1 10 1 20 1 20
3
Claresse® 1 100 3 2 500 2 3 000
Notes: Production in metric tons per year. 1 small production scale, 2 2010, 3 capacity,
Source: Bron: 2007-2008 IMARES, 2009 and sector interviews.
Compared to cages, flow-through systems or ponds RASs present several advantages.

These are: water and energy savings, water quality control, low environmental impacts,

high biosecurity and an easier control of waste production (Losordo, 1998; Losordo,
1998; Martins, Eding et al., 2005; Schneider and Verreth, 2008; Schneider and Verreth,
2008). The main disadvantages are high capital costs, high operational costs, intensive
management and skill requirements, and the difficulty to treat a disease within an
operational system (Schneider, Blancheton et al., 2006). The European Commission
(European Commssion, 2009) and other experts label RASs as an underexploited but
high potential production method meeting several ecological, economical and social
sustainability criteria (Muir 1982; Eding and van Weerd, 1999; Martins, Eding et al.,
2005; Schneider and Verreth, 2008; Schneider, Fuentes et al., 2009). The Dutch sector
has applied RAS based on its advantages and implemented it into an operational
framework of several regulations and codes of conduct. This national case study
discusses RAS management practices with particular focus on its ecological
sustainability and related governance aspects. This discussion is structured along the lines
of input and output using the RAS itself as system boundary.
Description
Environment and ecological sustainability

From an environmental point of view the input into RAS is mainly fish, nutrients
(i.e. feed), water and energy (Timmons, Ebeling et al., 2001). The nutrient retention by
fish inside a RAS is more efficient compared to other husbandry organisms in other
animal production systems. This is caused not only by the high retentions of fish per se
due to its biology, but as well as FCR in RAS as system are lower than in other
(aquaculture) systems (Losordo 1998; Losordo 1998). In absolute numbers fish emit
more nitrogen and phosphorus than other organisms per kg feed, but more important,
their nutrient retention is higher per kg product (Figure 13.1) due to the better FCR. This
data varies by fish species, age, genetic background, temperature and of course applied
diets.

Figure 13.1: Absolute nutrient retention of cattle, pig, chicken in African catfish in absolute
numbers per kg feed
Source: Schneider, 2006.
RAS systems are similarly more efficient in terms of water use (Verdegem, Bosma
et al., 2006). Here the water used for the primary production (such as drinking water for
land animals, water needed for production and processing of feed, or water in the tanks)
is integrated into the calculation (Table 13.2).
The most important outputs of the operation are fish as end product and the emitted
nutrients as a waste product. The latter needs to be managed to avoid negative
environmental impacts. This is illustrated by the productivity of Dutch RASs in general
and of several species in particular ((Kamstra, Rand et al., 2000; Verdegem and Eding,
2001; Schneider and Verreth, 2008), Table 13.2 and Table 13.4.

Table 13.2: Total water use in several animal protein production sectors
3
m /kg fresh weight %feed related
Animal Production
Pigs: (farrow-finish) 4.7 99
Eggs: 2.7 96
Milk (per liter) 0.8 99
Aquaculture
Pellet-fed pond 11.5 20
Recirc – Clarias 0.5 80
Recirc – Eel 0.7 86
Recirc – Turbot 1.4 37
Source : Verdegem, Bosma et al., 2006
Table 13.2: Water use, waste discharge and productivity in several aquaculture systems
System Type Water use Waste Discharge Productivity
(l/kg fish) (g/COD / kg fish) (MT/ha/Year)
Pond 2 000 286 10-15
Flow-Through System 14 500-210 000 780 Variable
RAS 100-900 150 300-2 500
Source: Verdegem and Eding, 2001.
Table 13.3: Density and productivity of several species cultured in Dutch RAS
Catfish Eel Tilapia Turbot

2
Density (kg/m /jr) 250-500 125 80 55
3
Productivity (kg/m /jr) >1 000 300 270 55
Source: Kamstra, Rand et al., 2000.
Fish emit lower levels of nutrients due to the higher retention and more efficient
resource use compared to other animal productions. For example: African Catfish
produces per kg product 28g of nitrogen and 4g of phosphorus waste and retains most fed
nutrients. Other animals, cattle, chicken, pig, are much less efficient and release between
28 to 77gN and 5-8gP per kg product (Schneider, Verreth et al., 2002; Schneider, 2006).
It is important to note that this waste emitted by the primary production process still
needs to be managed. Compared to ponds or flow-through systems RAS emit this waste
from the system in higher concentrations and at clearly defined emission points
(Verdegem and Eding, 2001). This allows for an easier waste management, meaning
either the destruction or recuperation of the nutrients and thereby limiting negative
environmental impacts (Losordo, 1998; Losordo, 1998; Timmons, Ebeling et al., 2001;
Bergheim and Brinker, 2003). However compared to other agricultural protein
production the waste originating from RASs is rather thin and diluted (De Boer, Van Der
Togt et al., 2000; Burton and Turner, 2003; Tamminga, 2003; Tchobanoglous, Burton
et al., 2003). Generation of bio-gas or incineration of fish slurry alone seems therefore
not feasible based on energy content and amount generated by average sized farm (Lanari

and Franci, 1998; Burton and Turner, 2003; Gebauer, 2004). The combination with
manure from cattle or pigs might be possible. It is however not practiced on a scale that
allows for a clear evaluation of the added value of fish sludge to the process (Figure
13.2).
Figure 13.2: Concentrations of nutrients in different forms of manure, based on different

sources
The environmental impact of RAS is rather limited as normally end-of-pipe

treatments should be included in the system set-up. Therefore pure waste treatment by
mechanical and biological filtration inside the system can be differentiated from “end-of-
pipe” waste management (Chen, Ning et al., 1996; Chen, Stechey et al., 1997; Bergheim
and Cripps, 1998; Bergheim, Cripps et al., 1998; Schneider, Sereti et al., 2007). Such
end-of-pipe treatment is most often destructive (Chen, Ning et al., 1996; Chen, Stechey
et al., 1997). Possible measures practiced in Dutch RASs are denitrification, the
conversion of nitrate into gaseous nitrogen, mineralization of the sludge in septic tanks or
geotubes and the subsequent re-use as fertilizer (Schneider, Sereti et al., 2004; Schram,
Sereti et al., 2006; van Rijn, Tal et al., 2006). A process in which more nutrient are
recuperated is the use of wetlands, or polish ponds where the nutrients are converted into
biomass (Summerfelt, Adler et al., 1999; Rosati 2000; RAMSAR 2002; d'Orbcastel,
Blancheton et al., 2009). This is practiced by some farms in The Netherlands. The
residual water is often discharged into the sewage system and post-treated in municipal
wastewater treatment plant (Schram, Sereti et al., 2006).
New technologies are focussing on either the integration of low trophic species
converting the fish sludge into valuable secondary products, e.g. other fish species, sea
cucumber, worms, algae or alternative intermediate products, such as activated sludge
processes (Shpigel and Neori, 1996; Blancheton, 2000; Neori, Shpigel et al., 2000;
Schneider, Verreth et al.., 2001; Neori, Chopin et al., 2004; Schneider, Sereti et al.,
2004). The generated sludge, bioflocs, are re-used then as fish feed (McIntosh, 2001;
Hari, Kurup, et al., 2004; Schneider, Cong et al., 2006). Some Dutch farmers work on the
integration of fish with saline vegetables and algae, while other farmers are recuperating
CO2 and nutrients in integrated systems culturing tomatoes or peppers in greenhouses
(e.g. projects like: Zeeuwse Tong, Ecofutura, and Vigour Fishion).
One farm emission that should be avoided at all costs is drug residue, such as
antibiotics. In general compared to other systems, drug use is minimal in RASs. This is
the result of culture in a confined environment without outside pathogen pressure, such as
a closed and insulated building, good quarantine measures and other health management
procedures (Bebak 1998; Timmons, Ebeling et al., 2001). Dutch farmers are furthermore
obligated to document all drug use and to be able to refer to valid prescriptions for
curative applications (www.aquacultuur.nl then look for: gedragcodesvoorviskweek.pdf).
If the system input and outputs are integrated into one framework then the ecological
sustainability of RAS can be evaluated and compared to other systems. This can be done
either using operational sustainability indicators or through more general tools such as
life cycle analysis (LCA) or CO2 foot prints (Aubin, Papatryphon et al., 2009; Aubin and
Van der Werf 2009; d'Orbcastel, Blancheton et al., 2009; Pelletier, Tyedmers et al.,
2009). A recent study compared African catfish culture in RAS in The Netherlands with
Pangasius pond culture in Vietnam using the same retail outlet in Cologne, Germany
(Figure 13.3). CO2 emissions from Dutch production were lower during the production
and processing process, including feed production (data in submission). Such approaches,
comparing productions for sustainability indicators, can then be used in governance
frameworks leading to overall better management practices.
Figure 13.3: CO2 emission from catfish RAS and pangasius culture in Vietnam (data in
submission)
Governance
In governance frameworks there are also measures interacting as RAS input or output
comparable to the input and output structure chosen to describe environmental
management. Important in terms of aquaculture governance on the input side is which
species is acceptable for culture. Besides the market potential, production sustainability
and animal health and welfare during the culture process are important aspects. In Dutch
regulations, the admission of new species for aquaculture is regulated by a two step
process (www.aquacultuur.nl, LNV). First the fish farmer (RAS operator) has to file a
request to culture the new species, demonstrating that the species is suited for culture in
RAS based on literature and experience. Besides the welfare needs of the species there is
also a requirement for the operator to be sufficiently experienced to culture fish and the
facilities to be appropriate. Based on the request an exemption is granted to culture the
species for a maximum period of 2 years on an experimental basis. Within these two
years the farmer has to generate a report covering wide aspects of the species
performance during the experimental period. Finally, based on an independent
evaluation, the species may be placed on the list of species for farming purposes in the
Netherlands (www.aquacultuur.nl). This is a rather rigid policy. However it leads to an
assessment of the culture conditions for the benefit of the animal and consequently
improves quantity and quality of sustainable production. Furthermore, it ensures an easier
societal acceptance of the species, because its health and welfare was assessed during the
culture process and judged to be appropriate.
At present this national policy is being integrated with the European regulation
concerning the use of alien species in aquaculture (EC. Nr. 708/2007). Within this act,
alien species that are not yet cultured in the European Union, are only allowed to be
cultured provided a risk assessment procedure has been completed and a licence has been
granted by the authority. These procedures must prevent any escapees not only of the fish
species but also of associated organisms, such as bacteria, viruses or parasites. This is
comparatively easy to manage in a RAS. RASs normally have a quarantine unit where
newly arrived fish are scanned for diseases (common sector practice). Furthermore,
RASs should only have a direct connection with the outside environment through an end-
of-pipe treatment. This is normally a septic tank or something comparable. The
environmental conditions inside those septic tanks make it most unlikely that any
organism survives let alone escapes (Tchobanoglous, Burton et al., 2003; Schram, Sereti
et al., 2006). Other governance measures try to stimulate sustainable aquaculture, as for
example the use of feeds containing less fish meal, methods that decrease energy needs
and welfare friendly slaughtering methods (maatlat duurzame aquacultuur (measuring
rod), SMK).
Another important aspect is the management of soft inputs (i.e. knowledge). In The
Netherlands “knowledge exchange meetings” have recently been established to facilitate
the knowledge exchange within the aquaculture sector
(www.visserijinnovatieplatform.nl). Other dissemination measures next to direct
dissemination trough workshops and specified publications are the work of the Dutch
aquaculture society (more than 400 members) and of the Dutch aquaculture producer
organisation (NeVeVi).
Besides to knowledge the government uses European Fisheries Funds to facilitate the
sustainable growth. For example there are subsidies allowing farmers to update their
installations, to diversify their production with new species, and to bring new species to
the market. Other subsidies are supporting innovations in private-public partnerships.
Another instrument with focuses on the system output are regulations impacting
nutrient emissions. In the Netherlands the Polluter Pays Principle (PPPrinciple) has been
put successfully into practice. This regulation can as well been found back in the EC
regulation (Water Directive 2000/60/EC). On European level this principle suggests

fining nutrient emitting users. In the Dutch environment these fees are paid on base of
inhabitant equivalents. These fees affect cost price shares in Dutch RAS farms and are
about EUR 15 000 per 100MT fish depending on feed, fish, waste management practices
and nutrient emissions and depending on the location of the farm, as fees vary among the
Dutch provinces (Eding, Sereti et al., 2004).
Instruments as the PPPrinpicle stimulate more sustainable aquaculture practices as
waste is not emitted but concentrated by means of recirculation and waste treatment to
about 150 times higher concentration than in flow through systems. In addition,
techniques such as denitrification and other methods reducing water consumption are
further stimulated.
Other instruments with a focus on environmental sustainability integrate system
inputs and outputs. The hallmark from the Dutch foundation for environmental
certification (SMK) is a good example (www.smk.nl). Here good sustainability practices,
covering ecological aspects are awarded with a certificate. Other certification schemes
under development are the GlobalGAP standards for fish cultured in RAS. At a European
level this is supported by a significant Dutch commitment. GlobalGAP is a business to
business label, ensuring basic sustainability criteria for all kinds of food products
(www.globalgap.org). Another example already under development is the Aquaculture
Stewardship Council (ASC) funded by the WWF and the Dutch institute for sustainable
trade (IDH), an NGO label. This certificate will act between business and customer
directly. It promotes product and process sustainability comparable to the MSc. These
overall governance aspects can also be found in the policy of the Ministry of Agriculture,
Nature and Food Quality (LNV) which is committed to sustainable aquaculture
development, and is in line with the recent European policy on sustainable development
of the aquaculture industry.
In conclusion the Dutch aquaculture sector is characterised by innovation, application
of sustainable techniques for fish production, ensuring fish welfare in a governance
framework. Within the framework all stakeholders work together towards a sustainable
and viable sector.
Lessons learned
Based on the argumentation mentioned above, one might conclude that Dutch
aquaculture is prosperous and a problem free production environment. Especially
recently the Dutch sector had to fight on several fronts and as a consequence it has lost
significant ground. The result is a decline of the number of farms and their production
volume (Table 13.1).
At the moment there are two major developments in the primary production segment.
The first development is that the number of catfish farms has decreased but the farming
capacity increased. This is a typical sign of consolidation in a mature market. Here
especially less efficient farmers are facing bankruptcies. The reasons for this
development are multi-factorial, ranging from failures in marketing, lack of cooperation,
competition and others.
The second development is that in the eel culture segment both the number of farms
and the production decreased. This is occurring as a direct result of the discussions
regarding the environmental sustainability of eel production through capture based
aquaculture. Until today young eel are caught in European estuaries and subsequently

transferred to farms for grow out. However, eel is an endangered species (CITES) and the
continuing pressure on a population which is already characterised by depressed
recruitment has lead to a discussion involving social sustainability aspects, such as
culture and heritage of eel fishing as well as consumption. As result, several Dutch and
German supermarkets have removed eel from their shelves, restricting the retail market.
The culture of other fish species, such as turbot, sole and tilapia have to deal with
production costs that are too high for mass market competition. As a result they have to
focus on niche markets, which limit their potential. Several initiatives such as the Happy
Shrimp farm (indoor RAS for white leg shrimps) were not even able to establish
themselves in such niche markets and subsequently vanished.
Another lesson that has been learned the hard way is the need for an absolutely
pristine product quality. Even though it cannot be measured in an objective way,
aquaculture products and especially those from RAS are often suspected to be of inferior
quality, in terms of texture, fat content and taste compared to fishery products. A real
negative aspect is off-flavour, the muddy taste of fish that has stored geosmin or 2-
methyl-iso-borneol in its fat tissue. These two substances are released by blue algae or
fungus inside the RAS (Gautier, Boyd et al., 2002; Turchini, Moretti et al., 2007;
Percival, Drabsch et al., 2008; Hurlburt, Brashear et al., 2009). The only counter measure
for the moment is fish depuration. For depuration fish is housed in clean water (flow
through) without feeding them for several days and in case of sturgeon even weeks
(Schneider and Eding 2001). If depuration is not successful and fish with off-flavour are
brought to the market then a whole farming operation or even the whole market for a
species can suffer severely. This happened a couple of years ago with the sale of off-
flavour Barramundi on a Dutch fish auction. As a result of this and other failures, several
bankruptcies led to significant amounts of money and trust being lost by investors.
Based on these experiences several projects and initiatives have combined efforts in
the Netherlands trying so solve the issues either directly or indirectly. At the moment
studies are conducted along the aquaculture value chain, assessing markets and market
potentials, new species are constantly screened for their chances when introduced to
those markets, techniques inside and outside RAS are improved constantly to lower cost
prices and to increase sustainability. Tools to assess sustainability are developed and
implemented in certification schemes.
Conclusions
Overall the Dutch aquaculture sector is innovative and nested in a well structured
governance framework. Stakeholders dialogues are facilitated and several umbrella
organisations and instruments are in place allowing the sector to develop within the
boundaries set by environmental sustainability. Such boundaries are animal welfare,
nutrient emissions, introduction of new species, drug use and others. However, due to
several reasons the sector is at this time in heavy weather. Several famers have been
forced to temporarily stop their operation while waiting for the storm to blow over, while
some less fortunate ones have gone bankrupt. This calls for a re-focussing of aquaculture
governance to bring the sector back on its fins.

• Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality: www.minlnv.nl

• IMARES: www.imares.nl, LEI: www.lei.wur.nl, NGvA: www.ngva.nl
• Aquacultuur: www.aquacultuur.nl, Nevevi: www.pvis.nl.

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14. AGRICULTURE’S IMPACT ON AQUACULTURE: HYPOXIA AND EUTROPHICATION IN MARINE WATER – 275
Chapter 14
Agriculture’s impact on aquaculture:

Hypoxia and eutrophication in marine waters
Robert J. Díaz
Virginia Institute of Marine Science, United States∗
Abstract
Over the last 20-30 years aquaculture has become a major source of food and
livelihood. As aquaculture production expands there are emerging threats from land-
based activities, primarily from agriculture but also from an expanding human
population. Environmental externalities of nutrient enrichment and resulting
eutrophication and hypoxia have recently become key stressors at global scales.
Globally, it was not obvious that dissolved oxygen would become critical in brackish
and shallow coastal systems until the 1970s and 1980s when large areas of low
dissolved oxygen started to appear with associated mass mortalities of invertebrate
and fishes. Bottom fisheries are displaced from these areas and it is the reason they
are called dead zones. From the middle of the 20th century to today, there have been
drastic changes in dissolved oxygen concentrations and dynamics in many marine
areas.
No other environmental variable of such ecological importance to balanced ecosystem
function as dissolved oxygen has changed so drastically, in such a short period of
time. Currently there are over 500 hypoxic systems covering over 240 000 km2 around
the globe related to human activities. The great future challenge will be to integrate
agriculture and other land based activates with aquaculture in a manner that
addresses the multiple needs of humans but also protects ecosystem services and
function that humans depend on. If nutrient and organic loading can be controlled and
reduced, systems will recover from hypoxia.
∗
Co-authors are: Nancy N. Rabalais, Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium, United States;
Denise L. Breitburg, Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, United States.

276 – 14. AGRICULTURE’S IMPACT ON AQUACULTURE: HYPOXIA AND EUTROPHICATION IN MARINE WATERS
Introduction
Over the last 20-30 years aquaculture has become a major source of food and
livelihood. Globally, as production from capture fisheries remains constant or
declines, aquaculture production continues to show strong growth. As aquaculture
production expands there are emerging threats from land-based activities, primarily
agriculture but also from expanding populations in the coastal zone. This report
summarizes and assesses the environmental externalities of nutrient enrichment,
eutrophication, and hypoxia associated with the expanding agriculture on the
aquaculture sector.
Globally, it was not obvious that dissolved oxygen would become critical in
brackish and shallow coastal systems until the 1970s and 1980s when large areas of
low dissolved oxygen started to appear with associated mass mortalities of
invertebrate and fishes. From the middle of the 20th century to today, there have been
drastic changes in dissolved oxygen concentrations and dynamics in many marine
coastal areas. No other environmental variable of such ecological importance to
balanced ecosystem function as dissolved oxygen has changed so drastically, in such a
short period of time. Currently there are over 500 hypoxic systems covering over
240 000 km2 around the globe related to human activities.
The great challenge for the future will be to integrate agriculture and other land
based activates, and aquaculture management in a manner that addresses the multiple
needs of humans but also protects ecosystem services and function that humans
depend on. Institutions capable of integrating these different sectors with shared goals
to feed people will have to be developed. If nutrient and organic loading can be
controlled and reduced, systems will recover from hypoxia.
A central premise for management of externalities from agriculture into the future
must include an ecosystem approach that centers on the sustainability to address the
multiple needs of humans with adequate protection of ecosystem services and function
that humans also depend on. Intensification and technological improvements may
sustain the profitability of agriculture, but it does so at a cost to water quality, which
directly impacts on aquaculture and other ecosystem services. Strides have been made
recently in mitigating nutrient and organic loadings, but as agricultural production
expands even lower nutrient loading levels will become a problem. Recent studies
have shown that after years of eutrophication, it may not be as simple as reducing
nutrients to reverse water quality problems, especially associated with hypoxia.
Background, scope objectives
While aquaculture has ancient roots in Asia, it was in the 1970s that aquaculture
started to increase the ecosystem service1 of food provisioning worldwide. This
growth has led aquaculture to become a significant source of food and income to much
of the world population. By 2050, the world will need 70 to 100% more food (Godfray
et al., 2010) and aquaculture in coastal waters will be an important component of this
expansion. Total global capture production averaged about 90.5 million tonnes per
year from 1997 to 2007 and many stocks are currently over exploited. In contrast,
aquaculture production has continued to show strong growth, increasing from about
37 million tonnes in 2002 to 50 million tonnes in 2007. Aquaculture systems now
account for roughly 35% of total fish production (FAO, 2009). Finfishes account for
about half of aquaculture production followed by mollusks and plants each 20% to
23%.
As aquaculture production expands there are emerging threats from land-based
activities, primarily agriculture but also from industrial activities and expanding
populations in the coastal zone. Human population expansion has lead to an
exponential modification of landscapes and seascapes at the expense of ecosystem
function and services including pervasive effects from fueling coastal primary
production with excess nutrients to fishing down the food web (Foley et al., 2005,
Lotze et al., 2006, MA 2005, Vitousek et al., 1997, Pauly et al., 1998, Jackson et al.,
2001). Crop and rangelands now cover over 25% of the Earth's land area, and are
currently expanding (Swinton et al., 2007). Long-term records of nutrient discharges
provide compelling evidence of a rapid increase in the fertility of many temperate
coastal ecosystems starting about 50 years ago (Galloway et al., 2004). On a global
basis, by 2050, coastal marine systems are expected to experience, from today's levels,
a 2.4-fold increase in nitrogen and 2.7-fold increase in phosphorus loading from this
population expansion (Tilman et al., 2001), with serious consequences to ecosystem
structure and function.
To ignore environmental degradation of water quality will jeopardize future
production of both aquaculture and capture fisheries. Land-based activities are
recognized as a major problem to the sustainability of coastal ecosystems. Also, as
aquaculture expands, care must be taken to keep aquaculture from degrading the water
quality it depends on (Dasgupta, 2010). This report summarizes and assesses the
environmental externalities associated with the expanding agriculture pollution on
aquaculture and marine ecosystems.
Key environmental issues
Along with the large increase in food provisioning service that agriculture provides
come a series of negative environmental issues. The primary externalities and issues
discussed in this report will be those that affect regulating services of water quality
and trophic structure, and the supporting services of nutrient cycling, biodiversity, and
habitat. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA, 2005) provides a framework for
describing the key environmental issues in terms of ecosystem services (Table 14.1).
One of the most difficult areas in the ecosystem service chain relates to trade-offs
among services. Often, optimizing delivery of a given service may reduce or impair
another (Mooney, 2010). Agriculture provides a primary example. The enhanced
provisioning of food can result in loss of clean water and stress to biodiversity that
supports other services (MA, 2005).

Table 14.1: Global status of provisioning, regulating, and cultural ecosystem services
Service Sub-category Status Notes
Provisioning Services
Crops + Substantial production increase
Livestock + Substantial production increase
Food Capture fisheries - Declining production due to overharvest
Aquaculture + Substantial production increase
Wild foods - Declining production
Timber +/- Forest loss in some regions, growth in others
Fiber Cotton, hemp, silk +/- Declining production of some fibers, growth in others
Wood fuel - Declining production
Genetic resources - Lost through extinction and crop genetic resource
loss
Biochemicals, natural - lost through extinction, overharvest
medicines
Freshwater - Unsustainable use fro drinking, industry and
irrigation
Regulating services
Air quality regulation - Decline in ability of atmosphere to cleanse itself
Climate regulation Global - Net source of carbon sequestration since mid-
century
Regional and local - Preponderance of negative impacts
Water regulation +/- Varies depending on ecosystem change and
location
Erosion regulation - Incresed soil degradation
Water purification and - Declining water quality
waste treatment
Disease regulation +/- Varies depending on ecosystem change
Pest regulation - Natural control degraded through pesticide use
Biological control, +/- Trophic dynamic regulations of populations
trophic strucutre
Pollination - Apparent global decline in abundance of pollinators
Natural hazard - Loss of natural buffers (wetlands, mangroves)
regulation
Supporting services
Soil formation + Weathering of rock and erosion
Photosynthesis +
Primary production + Net primary production has increased
Biodiversity - Loss of species
Nutrient cycling Nitrogen - Large-scale changes from general eutrophicaiton
Phosphorus -
Water cycling - Major changes from structural change in rivers,
water
Habitat, refugia - Withdrawal and climate change
Cultural services
Spiritual and religious - Rapid decline in sacred groves and species
values
Aesthetic values +/- Decline in quantity and quality of natural land
Recreation and More areas accessible but many degraded
ecotourism
Status indicates whether the condition of the service globally has been enhanced (+) or degraded (-) in the recent
past. Ecosystem services directly linked to aquaculture are in bold.
Source : Costanza et al, 1997; MA 2005.

Globally, human activities have lead to large-scale modification of landscapes and

seascapes at the expense of ecosystem function and services (Foley et al., 2005, Lotze
et al., 2006; Halpern et al., 2008). Alterations to nutrient cycles, primarily nitrogen
and phosphorus used in agricultural industries, have fueled primary production and
caused widespread eutrophication of inland and coastal waters. This eutrophication
has driven changes in trophic structure and formation of low dissolved oxygen or
hypoxia in bottom waters at global scales (Díaz and Rosenberg, 2008). But these are
only part of a complex of multiple stressors that interact to shape and direct ecosystem
level processes (Cloern, 2001; Breitburg and Riedel, 2005).
What is eutrophication?
Eutrophication is the leading cause of water quality impairment around the world.
It is the over-enrichment of water with nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus as a
result of human activity. Eutrophication can be defined simply as the increase in the
rate of production and accumulation of organic carbon in excess of what an ecosystem
is normally adapted to processing (Nixon 1995; Rabalais 2004). Eutrophication can be
harmful to both freshwater and marine ecosystems, and leads to a progression of
symptoms that include (Selman et al., 2008):
• Excessive phytoplankton and macroalgal growth that is the source of
organic carbon for accumulation. This can also reduce light penetration
and lead to a loss of submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV).
• An imbalance of nutrient ratios that can lead to a shift in phytoplankton

species composition and creating conditions that are favorable to
nuisance and toxic algal blooms. Harmful algal blooms (HABS) can
cause fish kills and shellfish poisoning in humans.
• Changes in species composition and biomass of the benthic (bottom-

dwelling) community; eventually leading to reduced species diversity
and increased dominance of gelatinous organisms such as jellyfish.
• Low dissolved oxygen and formation of hypoxic or dead zones

(oxygen-depleted waters). These oxygen-starved areas stress aquatic
ecosystems, often leading to fish kills, altered ecosystem energy flows,
and in severe cases ecosystem collapse.
Sources of nutrients to coastal waters are diverse and vary from system to system.
Nutrients enter coastal ecosystems through atmospheric deposition, surface water
runoff, and groundwater (Table 14.2). Within the United States, municipal wastewater
is the primary driver of eutrophication in Narragansett Bay, in the northern Gulf of
Mexico it is agriculture, and in Chesapeake Bay atmospheric, urban/suburban, and
agricultural sources are all co-equal (Figure 14.1). Broad scale regional differences
also exist in the relative importance of nutrient sources. For example, in the US and
the EU, agricultural sources are generally the primary contributors to eutrophication,
while in Asia and Africa nutrient pollution is primarily attributed to municipal
wastewater.

Table 14.2: Sources and pathways of nutrients entering coastal systems
Pathways
Sources Air Surface Water Groundwater
Fossil Fuel Combustion X
Septic Systems X
Urban Stormwater Runoff X
Industry X
Urban Wastewater/Sewage X
Agricultural Fertilizers X X X
Livestock Operations X X X
Aquaculture X
Source: Seman et al., 2008
Figure 14.1: Comparison on the relative distribution of majour souces of nitrogen

pollution in three coastal eco-systems experiencesing hypoxia
Urban/suburban includes both point (industrial and sewage effluent) and nonpoint sources
Source: Jewett et al., 2009
What is hypoxia?
Oxygen is necessary to sustain the life of fishes and virtually all higher
invertebrates. When the supply of oxygen is cut off or consumption exceeds resupply,
oxygen concentrations can decline below levels that will sustain animal life. This
condition of low oxygen is known as hypoxia. Water devoid of oxygen is referred to
as anoxic. Ecologists have borrowed the term hypoxia from the medical community
but the meaning and processes for the environment are the same. The medical
condition is a deficiency in the amount of oxygen reaching tissues. Similarly, a water
body can be deprived of adequate oxygen for proper ecosystem functioning. Hypoxic
and anoxic waters differ qualitatively as well as in the quantity of oxygen they
contain; anoxic waters typically contain concentrations of hydrogen sulfides (H2S) that
are lethal to most macrofauna.
Hypoxia in bottom waters of estuaries, coastal seas and other similar systems is
typically caused when algae die, sink to the bottom, and are decomposed by bacteria,
which use up the available dissolved oxygen. When this process is coupled with
stratification of the water column, which limits mixing of more oxygen rich waters

from the surface to the bottom, oxygen depletion can occur (Rabalais and Turner,
2001; Rabalais and Gilbert, 2008). Hypoxia is typically seasonal, forming in the
spring and summer months in North America and in summer and autumn months in
Europe. Some systems, such as the Baltic and Caspian Seas, experience year-round
hypoxia due to the severity of eutrophication (Dumont, 1998; Karlson et al., 2004).
Hypoxic areas are sometimes referred to as dead zones. The term was first applied
to the northern Gulf of Mexico hypoxic area (Rabalais et al., 2002, 2010) refers to the
fact that fish and shrimp avoid and migrate out of hypoxic areas. When fishermen
trawl in bottom waters of these zones little to nothing is caught. The link between
hypoxia and dead zones is best applied to inshore and coastal waters where oxygen
depletion occurs in otherwise normoxic (well oxygenated) waters, with evident
migration or mortality of fishes and large invertebrates. In the absence of larger fauna,
smaller organisms (i.e. foraminiferans, nematodes) and microbes persist, such that the
regions are not truly dead. And the fully oxygenated upper water column supports
diverse communities, including productive fisheries.
Two other forms of hypoxia are important to consider and can affect aquaculture.
The first is diel-cycling hypoxia, which, like the hypoxic bottom waters described
above, is often caused or exacerbated by anthropogenic nutrient enrichment. In
shallow waters with diel (or day-night) cycling hypoxia mid-day oxygen
concentrations can be very high due to oxygen generated by photosynthesizing algae
and macrophytes. When light levels drop too low for photosynthesis, however, algae
and macrophytes (along with other organisms present) continue to respire and
consume oxygen, but do not generate oxygen. As a result, oxygen concentrations can
drop substantially during night and early morning hours (Tyler et al., 2009). Like the
bottom layer hypoxia described above, diel cycling hypoxia is most prevalent during
warm months when both biomass and respiration rates are high. The second
intermittent form of hypoxia is upwelling of deep oxygen minimum zone waters into
nearshore areas. Although increasing oceanic temperatures and land-based nutrients
can have some affect on the depth and characteristics of oxygen minimum zones,
upwelling into nearshore habitats is largely a natural process cause by winds that
advect surface waters offshore (Levin et al., 2009).
Because of its low solubility in water small changes in the absolute amount of
oxygen dissolved in water lead to large differences in percent air saturation.
Depending on temperature and salinity, water contains 20–40 times less oxygen by
volume and diffuses about ten thousand times more slowly through water than air
(Graham, 1990). Thus what appear to be small changes in oxygen can have major
consequences to animals living in an oxygen-limited milieu.
While many authors and water quality regulations focus on concentrations of
dissolved oxygen below 2–3 mg O2/L as a threshold value for hypoxia in marine and
brackish water environments, such arbitrary limits may be unsuitable when examining
potential impacts of hypoxia on any one given species (Vaquer-Sonyer and Duarte,
2008). Hypoxia becomes detrimental when behavioral and physiological responses
result in altered behavior or negative impacts, such as reduced growth, loss of
reproductive capacity, mortality, reduced biodiversity, and loss of secondary
production, including fisheries (Figure 14.2). For example, Atlantic cod (Gadus
morhua) growth in the St. Laurence is reduced below about 7 mg O2/L or 70% air
saturation (Chabot and Dutil, 1999). Shrimp and fish avoid dissolved oxygen below 2
mg O2/L (approximately 30% air saturation) in the northern Gulf of Mexico hypoxic

zone, while sharks and rays emigrate from the area at a oxygen concentrations below
3 mg O2/L (Rabalais et al., 2001a).
Figure 14.2: Cone of faunal response to declining oxygen concentration
Source: based on data from Diaz and Rosenberg, 1995 and Rabalais et al., 2001a
Increase in eutrophication and hypoxia

Hypoxia is the most severe symptom of eutrophication and is becoming more
prevalent (Figure 14.3). The number of hypoxic zones in coastal waters has increased
dramatically over the past 50 years, rising from about ten documented cases in 1960 to
nearly 500 in 2010 (Rabalais et al., 2010). Eutrophication and associated hypoxia in
freshwater systems was also widespread in the 20th century and related to industrial
and municipal discharges high in both nutrients and organic matter. In tidal portions of
rivers and other water bodies near dense population centers, these types of discharge
have caused severe hypoxia and anoxia. Effective nutrient management has reversed
this trend where it has been rigorously implemented (Jeppesen et al., 2005; Smith
et al., 1987). In some systems, for example, the Mersey (Jones, 2006) and Delaware
(Weisberg et al., 1996) River estuaries, areas devoid of fishes were reported as early
as the 1800s. These conditions persisted until improvements in sewage treatment were
implemented and water quality improved. But by the 1980s it became clear that
nutrients in runoff from agricultural lands had increased, replacing nutrients removed

by sewage treatment and that water quality declined in many coastal areas (Smith
et al., 1987; OSPAR 2000; Díaz and Rosenberg, 2008).
Figure 14.3: Global distribution of documented cases of hypoxia related to
human activies, each represented by a dot
The number of hypoxic areas is cumulative for the successive time periods
Source: Rabalais et al., 2010
Many coastal systems that are currently hypoxic were not so when first studied. For
systems with historical data from the first half of the 20th century, declines in oxygen

concentrations started in the 1950s and 1960s for the northern Adriatic Sea (Justiü
et al., 1987), between the 1940s and 1960s for the northwest continental shelf of the
Black Sea (see case studies), and in the 1970s for the Kattegat (Baden et al., 1990).
Declining dissolved oxygen levels were noted in the Baltic Sea as early as the 1930s
(Fonselius, 1969), but it was in the 1950s that hypoxia became widespread (Karlson
et al., 2002). Other systems have experienced hypoxia since the beginning of oxygen
data collection, for example, in the 1900s for Kamak Bay, Korea (Lim et al., 2006),
1910s for Oslofjord, Norway (Mirza and Gray, 1981), 1920s for Thames Estuary,
England (Andrews and Rickard, 1980), 1930s for Chesapeake Bay (Newcombe and
Horne, 1938), and 1970s for the northern Gulf of Mexico (Turner and Rabalais, 2008).
Annual hypoxia does not appear to be a natural condition for most coastal waters,
except some fjords and some upwelling areas. Even in Chesapeake Bay, which had
hypoxia when DO measurements were first made in the 1910s in the Potomac River
(Sale and Skinner, 1917) and 1930s in the mainstream channel (Officer et al., 1984),
the geological record suggests that hypoxia was not an annual, seasonally persistent
feature of the system prior to European colonization (Zimmerman and Canuel, 2000).
Similarly, geochronologies from the hypoxic area on the continental shelf of the
northern Gulf of Mexico also indicate that the current seasonal hypoxia, which can
cover over 20 000 km2, did not form annually prior to the 1950s (Sen Gupta et al.,
1996). Hypoxia was recorded with the first oxygen measurement made in the area in
the summer of 1973 on the central Louisiana continental shelf (Rabalais et al., 2002)
and has been an annual event ever since.
Importance of integrating impacts from multiple drivers
The effects of nitrogen enrichment and hypoxia on food webs and fisheries are
strongly influenced by the extent to which these two factors co-occur. The perceived
effects of nutrient enrichment and hypoxia also depend on the spatial scales of interest,
which range from local, sometimes severely affected water masses to entire fisheries
ecosystems (Breitburg et al., 2009). To a degree, increased nutrients will increase
biological production, whereas hypoxia reduces biomass and habitat quality and
quantity (Caddy, 1993; Rabalais and Turner, 2001; Nixon and Buckley, 2002).
Aquaculture in coastal waters illustrates the problems of considering one stressor
at a time. Culture of fish and shellfish requires good water quality, which is a function
of many physical, chemical, and biological processes. In general, nutrient enrichment
should lead to improved culture situations, particularly for plants and filter-feeding
mollusks, if other environmental drivers are not degraded. Degradation in oxygen is
one of the most serious threats to aquaculture. This usually unseen decrease in oxygen
in bottom and shallow waters can lead to reduced growth and mortality. The emphasis
on dissolved oxygen is warranted given the importance of oxygen for sustaining life
for all fishes and invertebrates. Metaphorically speaking, the American Lung
Association motto could be adopted for this situation. “When you can’t breathe,
nothing else matters.”
Use of an ecosystem-based management approach that addresses cumulative
effects to ensure the protection and maintenance of all ecosystem components, while
promoting multiple sustainable uses is needed. For example, environmental
management dictates that effects from nitrogen and phosphorus loading need to be
considered in setting limits for total nutrient loading. To gain better understanding of

how the stressors discussed above will interact in the context of both aquaculture and
coastal eutrophication will require new research directions on responses to these
multiple stressors. How the effects of nutrient enrichment resulting from agriculture
interacts with other ecosystem stressors, such as toxic contaminants, capture fisheries,
habitat loss, and climate change, will determine the future direction for aquaculture in
any given area. In addition, systems vary tremendously in the amount of nutrient
loading that will cause hypoxia because of variation in physical characteristics of
systems (Breitburg et al., 2009).
Trends in aquaculture to mitigate effects of agricultural pollution
Multiculture
A major development in the sustainability of aquaculture has been the culture of
combinations of offsetting species. Offsetting species are those that can reduce
negative impacts of eutrophication drivers from both agriculture and other aquaculture
species. For example, filter-feeding bivalves can be used to take up organic matter
resulting from nutrient discharges from land-based nutrient activities or intensive fish
culture. In particular, oysters (Crassostrea gigas) have been found to grow up to three
times faster and have better condition factors when grown near Chinook salmon cages
compared to control sites. This is a consequence of the greater availability of
particulate organic matter (Jones and Iwama, 1991). Not all filter feeding bivalves can
benefit from co-location with finfish aquaculture, however. Mussels, Mytilus edulis,
grow well on a diet of phytoplankton organic matter but their growth does not increase
in response to organic matter from fish farms (Taylor et al.., 1992). This difference in
response between bivalve species is related to fine details in life-histories, primarily
diet preferences and feeding mechanisms (Dame, 1996).
As the characteristics of each species are different, there are some combinations of
species that will work better than others at optimizing production and reducing
environmental stress from agricultural related eutrophication. For example,
macroalgae can be very efficient at directly taking up nutrients, and bivalves are most
efficient at converting consumed organic matter into biomass. An added benefit to
these species groups is that plants and filter feeders do not require additional input of
feed to grow well, and therefore do not contribute to water quality problems. In
contrast, most fishes and crustaceans are higher up the food chain and require higher
protein content food to sustain higher growth rates, which can add to agricultural
eutrophication stresses. Costa-Pierce (2008) in a review of ecosystem approaches to
aquaculture in marine water found that combinations of species could lessen
environmental impacts and at the same time maximize economic and social profit.
It has even been proposed that in systems that have lost historic populations of
filter-feeding bivalves, restoration of these populations would reduce hypoxia by
sequestering nutrients and organic matter in bivalve biomass (Newell et al., 2005). For
example, in Chesapeake Bay intense mortality associated with fisheries and disease
caused a dramatic decline in eastern oyster stocks and associated Bay water filtration,
which may have exacerbated the effects of eutrophication driven by excess nutrient
loading (Kemp et al., 2005).

Movement into offshore waters

Multiple uses of estuarine and marine habitats have increased in recent years from
many different economic sectors (such as aquaculture, capture fisheries, recreation,
marine transportation, mineral mining, oil and gas development, and recently,
renewable energy; Halpern et al., 2008; Godfray et al., 2010). The growing awareness
of the cumulative negative environmental impacts in inshore water from multiple
sources makes the expansion of aquaculture into offshore or open coastal waters an
important option. Movement to the offshore provides needed area and also eliminates
or greatly lessens concerns over impacts from land-based eutrophication. The move of
aquaculture into offshore waters may be especially important for fishes that require
feeding and have high oxygen demands. Open coastal areas tend to have sufficient
physical drivers (wind, current, and tides) to disperse wastes and excess food, and
maintain good water quality, particularly for oxygen. While there is a general long-
term trend of declining oxygen in coastal waters, the decline is greatest within 30 km
of the coastline (Gilbert et al., 2009). For filter feeders and plants, the move to
offshore waters could reduce growth as nutrients and primary production decline with
distance offshore.
To accommodate competing uses in both inshore and offshore waters, spatial
planning needs to be undertaken to manage estuarine and marine habitats in a manner
that reduces conflict, and enhances compatibility among uses, and sustains ecosystem
functions and services (Turnipseed et al., 2010). Aquaculture should be a big part of
any coastal and marine spatial planning.
Principle externalities
The principle externalities effecting aquaculture can be divided into market or

economic drivers and environmental or ecosystem health drivers. Controlling and
accounting for environmental quality externalities will be a major concern for
expansion and sustainability of aquaculture. There is a very tight coupling of
aquaculture to ecosystem health. Both capture fisheries and aquaculture are vulnerable
to external factors that shock ecosystems and reduce water or habitat quality (Smith
et al., 2010). Here we consider environmental drivers.
Damage to aquaculture and coastal ocean fisheries

Damage to both aquaculture and capture fisheries is likely to occur through
intensification of eutrophication and hypoxia in both the inshore and offshore waters.
Effects on mobile wild finfish and crustaceans, however, will be fundamentally
different from sessile or captive aquaculture stocks. Wild stocks of many mobile
species at least have some ability to behaviorally avoid habitats negatively impacted
by eutrophication (Breitburg et al., 2009). In contrast, mobility is constrained by
aquaculture making organisms particularly susceptible to mortality resulting from
negative effects of eutrophication as behavioral avoidance will be limited. Both
hypoxia and HABS are of particular concern. For example, mass mortality of cultured
fish (yellowtail Seriola quinqueradiata and red sea bream Pagrus major) in the
eastern Seto Island Sea due to HABs is a frequent occurrence (Bruslé 1995). In the
eutrophic Prevost Lagoon hypoxia and H2S can result in reduced bivalve production
(Guyoneaud et al., 1998).

Hypoxia fundamentally affects the use of space and movement through the system
by altering migration pathways and transport. For example, a hypoxic event in 1976
that affected an area of about 1 000 km2 along the coast of New York and New Jersey
displaced demersal fishes and also blocked the migration of pelagic bluefish
(Pomatomus saltatrix). Northward migrating bluefish that encountered the hypoxic
zone did not pass through or around it, but stayed to the south waiting for it to
dissipate and then continued their migration north (Azarovitz et al., 1979). Hypoxia
also alters spatial patterns of human use by influencing the spatial distribution of
fisheries resources (Selberg et al., 2001, Craig and Crowder 2005). Most negative
effects tend to occur locally, within the region of the water body in which oxygen
concentrations are reduced, but much wider ranging consequences can be mediated
through the indirect effects of altered distributions and abundances (Breitburg et al.,
2009).
Fish kills are the most dramatic manifestation of both HABs and hypoxia and
result from a combination of severe physical conditions and the failure of mobile
animals to avoid or escape lethal conditions. The frequency and magnitude of fish kills
have increased as nutrient-related hypoxia has worsened. Hypoxia-related kills that
involve thousands to millions of finfish and crustaceans have been reported from
systems as diverse as Mariager Fjord in Norway, Neuse River Estuary in North
Carolina, along the Texas coast, and subtropical Richmond River Estuary in New
South Wales (Fallesen et al., 2000; NCDWQ 2006; Walsh et al., 2004; Thronson and
Quigg, 2008). In US waters, menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus and B. patronus) kills
feature prominently in records (Thronson and Quigg, 2008). These fish possess swim
bladders, float where they are readily seen, and travel in large schools, so kills are
often highly visible and affect large numbers of individuals.
It is important to consider that habitats avoided are functionally lost to species
(Breitburg 2002; Rabalais and Turner, 2001). As a result, habitat loss due to hypoxia
is far greater than would be estimated by calculations based on species recruitment or
survival tolerances. Because species vary in their oxygen requirements, sensitive
predators can lose access to prey. Crowding in more highly oxygenated refuges can
result in density-dependent growth reductions (Eby and Crowder, 2002) or increased
cannibalism (Aumann et al., 2006). Because hypoxia can make deeper, cooler waters
unavailable in the summer, or overlaps with nursery habitat, the combined effects of
temperature and oxygen can result in habitat compression or squeeze that affects both
pelagic and demersal species (Coutant 1985; Niklitschek and Secor 2005; Pearce and
Balcom, 2005).
Some of the clearest examples of hypoxia-related population and fisheries declines
involve systems in which discharges of raw sewage have caused severe oxygen
depletion in tidal river portions of rivers and estuaries. The location and seasonal
persistence of hypoxia appears to be particularly damaging to anadromous and
catadromous species that require use of, and transit through, both saline and
freshwater portions of systems to complete life cycles (Breitburg et al., 2009). Large
stretches of river estuaries such as the Mersey, Thames, Elbe, and Delaware have been
described as devoid of fish prior to implementation of primary sewage treatment
(Thiel et al., 1995; Weisberg et al., 1996; Tinsley, 1998; Jones, 2006). These hypoxic
zones have blocked upriver spawning migrations or downriver outmigrations of
species such as American shad (Alosa sapidissima) in the Delaware (Weisberg et al.,
1996); sea trout (Salmo trutta) in the Mersey (Jones, 2006); and sturgeon (Acipenser
sturio), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), allis shad (Alsoa alosa), twait shad (Alosa
fallaxx fallax) sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), and European eel (Anguilla
anguilla) in the Scheldt (Maes et al., 2007), resulting in population declines or local
extirpations.
There is also persuasive evidence of system-wide declines in fisheries landings
and abundances of sensitive species in systems with very high percentages of bottom
hypoxia (Breitburg et al., 2009). For example, abundances of demersal fish and
crustaceans, including mantis shrimp (Oratosquilla oratoria), have declined in Tokyo
Bay, where up to two-thirds of the bottom becomes hypoxic during summer (Kodama
et al., 2002, 2006). Hypoxia also appears to contribute to system-wide fisheries
declines in combination with pathogens (e.g. American lobster, Homarus americanus,
in Long Island Sound; Pearce and Balcom, 2005) and other effects of eutrophication
(e.g. reduced plaice recruitment in the Kattegat; Pihl et al., 2005), particularly where
the co-occurring or interacting stressors affect organisms in highly oxygenated areas
that would otherwise serve as refuges from hypoxia.
Degradation of particularly critical or essential habitat can affect recruitment or
fisheries landings. One of the better-known examples is the interannual variation in
egg mortality and fisheries landings of Baltic cod in the Baltic. Spawning success of
cod in the central Baltic is hindered by hypoxic and anoxic water below the halocline
(70–80 m) where salinity is high enough to provide buoyancy for cod eggs (Nissling
and Vallin, 1996; Cardinale and Modin, 1999; Köster et al., 2005). In the Western
Atlantic, hypoxia appears to contribute to low per capita productivity and slow
recovery of cod stocks in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Dutil et al., 2007). Along the
Texas and Louisiana shelf of the Gulf of Mexico, interannual variation in landings of
brown shrimp (Farfantepenaeus aztecus) is negatively correlated with size of the
hypoxic zone (O’Connor and Whitall, 2007). However, Texas fisheries regulations
may contribute to the apparent strength of this correlation as fishing is prohibited on
the inner shelf that serves as a refuge from hypoxia during much of the summer when
northern Gulf of Mexico hypoxia is most extensive.
The continued expansion and development of hypoxia related to eutrophication
may be the biggest externality that will damage both aquaculture. Hypoxia already
forces movement of wild stock from large areas both inshore and offshore and at times
can cause extensive mortality. It is also a major reason for the practice of fallowing of
aquaculture facilities (O’Connor et al., 1989). As aquaculture moves into offshore and
deeper waters, oxygen will be a limiting factor in many areas around the globe that
seasonally develop severe bottom water hypoxia. Offshore areas that may be risky
places for aquaculture include the northern Gulf of Mexico off the coasts of
Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, much of the Danish straits, the northern Adriatic
Sea, the northwest Black Sea, the East China Sea off the Changjiang River (Rabalais
et al., 2010). If upwelling and OMZ move into shallower coastal water, as predicted
with global climate change (Keeling et al., 2010) and has occurred off the coast of
Washington and Oregon (Chan et al., 2008), then these areas will also be risky for
aquaculture.
Water and sediment quality

Sedimentary processes are very important in development of hypoxia because this
is where excess organic material in the form of senescent phytoplankton, fecal pellets,
marine aggregates, and excess waste from finfish aquaculture is deposited. It then is
either decomposed by aerobic and anaerobic processes or buried. As aerobic bacteria
decompose the organic matter, the oxygen concentration overlying the sediments is
consumed, and hypoxic/anoxic conditions can develop. In this transition from oxic to
anoxic conditions, numerous biological and geochemical shifts occur. Bioturbation by
benthic organisms declines, mortality increases, and bacteria thrive, which impacts
elemental cycling (Middleburg and Levin, 2009).
In the Baltic Sea interannual changes in dissolved inorganic phosphate (DIP) pools
below the pycnocline were positively correlated to changes in sediment area covered
by hypoxic water (Conley et al., 2002a). The changes in DIP were attributed to the
release of phosphorus during hypoxic conditions with it returning to the sediments
during non-hypoxic periods. Similarly, the flux of nitrogen in the form of ammonium
from microbial respiration increases. The nitrification/denitrification cycle within
sediments, which returns N2 to the atmosphere, is the main mechanism for removal of
reactive nitrogen. This cycle is disrupted by the limited availability of oxygen in
sediments during hypoxia and the greenhouse gas N2O is produced (Paulmier and
Ruiz-Pino, 2009).
With continued accumulation of organic carbon at the seabed, microbial
decomposition and oxygen consumption increase, but not in simple linear
relationships (Meyer-Reil and Köster, 2000). The redox potential discontinuity layer
migrates upward to the sediment-water interface, sulfate respiration replaces oxygen
respiration, H2S is generated from the sediments and oxygen penetrates less deeply
into the sediments as the bioturbation potential of the infauna decreases during their
demise due to sulfide toxicity or lack of sufficient oxygen (Figure 14.4) (Rumohr
et al., 1996; Gutiérrez et al., 2000). Some shifts in the benthic microbial community
are visible at the sediment-water interface in the form of bacterial mats (Jørgensen,
1980; Rosenberg and Díaz, 1993). These bacterial mats are indicators of near anoxic
conditions and are commonly observed in both eutrophication driven hypoxia and
where naturally occurring oxygen minimum zones intersect the seabed (Graco et al.,
2001; Levin et al., 2009). When oxygen is severely depleted, or anoxic, H2S builds up
in the bottom waters as anaerobic bacteria metabolism reduces sulfate to H2S
(Jørgensen, 1980), the sediment becomes almost uniformly black, and there are no
signs of aerobic life. Hydrogen sulfide is toxic to most metazoans and contributes to
the overall mortality of benthic organisms.

Figure 14.4: Model stages of Baltic Sea benthos along a south/north transect
(Danish straits to Bothnian Sea)
Notes : I:Climax community dominated by deep-burrowing species and a deep RPD layer. II:
First signs of low oxygen stress, strong fluctuations, decreasing species reichness, increased
biomass/production and shallowe RPD layer. III: Periods of hypoxia, dominated by small worms
and RPD layter close to the sediment/water interface. IV: Long periods of hypoxia and
formation of bacterial mats (Beggiatoa spp.) at the sediment surface, no macrofauna. V:
Complete break-down of benthic communities
Water quality can be either degraded or improved by aquaculture depending on the

species and environmental conditions. Certain groups of species, primarily mollusks
and plants, can reduce organic and nutrient loading to the water column (Table 14.3).
But physical drivers play a large role in determining the degree of impact to the water
column. Suspension-feeders serve to couple pelagic and benthic processes because
they filter suspended particles from the water column and the undigested remains,
ejected as mucus-bound feces and pseudofeces, sink to the sediment surface. This
biodeposition can be extremely important in regulating water column processes
(Newell, 2004). Nitrogen excreted by the bivalves and regenerated from their
biodeposits is recycled back to the water column to support further phytoplankton
production. Where biodeposits are incorporated into surficial aerobic sediments that
overlay deeper anaerobic sediments, microbially mediated, coupled nitrification-
denitrification can permanently remove nitrogen from the system as N2 gas.
Consequently, aquaculture of bivalves may provide a supplement to water quality
management and offset negative effects of agricultural nutrient loading. For example,
modeled effect of mussel culture on nitrogen cycling at the mouth of the Gullmar
Fjord, Swedish west coast, was to reduce the net transport of nitrogen by 20%
(Lindahl et al., 2005).

Table 14.3: Examples of multiculture or polyculture that have improved production and
environmental quality
Species Aquaculture/ecosystem response Reference

Combinations (in Costa-Pierce 2008)
Shrimp and Bay Scallops grew quickly in shrimp pond Walker et al., 1991
Scallop water at intermediate densities.
Shrimp, Mullet, and 4 ha modular shrimp system produced Sandifer and Hopkins 1996
Oysters 40 t shrimp, 7 t mullet, 500 000 oysters
per year
Shrimp and Devoting 30-50% of shrimp pond to Binh et al., 1997
Mangroves mangroves gave highest annual
economic return.
Salmon and Improved water quality and increased Buschmann et al., 1996
Macroalgae economic return.
Seabream, Bivalves, Improvements in whole system Shpigel and Neori 1996
and Macroalgae productivity and economics, but higher
capital and marketing costs.
Seabream and Mullet under seabream reduced organic Angle et al., 1992
Mullet matter accumulations and improved
sediment quality
Salmon and Mussels Mussels grew well on organic matter Troell et al., 1999
waste from salmon, good economic
potential
Salmon and Bivalves Higher economic potentials with Cross 2004
integration of scallops, oysters, and
salmon
Salmon and Improved water quality and economics, Chopin et al., 1999
Seaweed but increased management and
marketing needed
Source: Summarised from Costa-Pierce (2008)
Currents may be the most significant driver of water quality around aquaculture
facilities. Development of hypoxia and anoxia under aquaculture facilities, for
example, is directly correlated to currents. Aquaculture sites well flushed by tidal
currents, as in the Rias Baixas, northwest Spain, do not allow accumulation of organic
matter (Tenore et al., 1982). High flow rate bring a continuous supply of oxygen to
the sediment water interface, which permits the survival of modified benthic
communities even when sedimentary processes become anaerobic (Godbold and
Solan, 2009). Low rates of water renewal can lead to deoxygenation in the overlying
water column as sedimentary BOD increases (Pearson and Black, 2001). For example,
fish culture in enclosed brackish waters of the Finnish archipelago, in the northern
Baltic Sea, increased the level of eutrophication and enhanced algal mat growth,
which at times has lead to anoxia and reductions in local fish and benthic populations
(Bonsdorff et al., 1997). When currents can keep surface sediments from becoming
anaerobic impacts tend to be localized and not extend far from the culture facility.
Habitat
The process of eutrophication has occurred over long time periods during which
basic characteristics of the ecosystem have changed, such as composition of the
phytoplankton community, sequential demise of components of the benthic
community, shifts in sedimentary structure and composition, and biogeochemical
processes. Eutrophication from excess nutrients from land runoff and the subsequent
development of hypoxia do not occur in a vacuum. Other stressors such as
overfishing, habitat destruction, invasive species, and global climate change also
contribute to degradation of habitat (Galloway et al., 2008; Oguz, 2005; Cloern, 2001;
Rabalais et al., 2008).
The effect of hypoxia on sustainable yields of capture fisheries and aquaculture
will depend on both the severity of eutrophication and whether critical or essential
habitat is negatively affected. In the majority of highly nutrient-enriched systems,
eutrophication creates a spatial and temporal mosaic of habitats that vary in
physiological suitability. Eutrophication can simultaneously stimulate prey production
and create areas of less favorable or completely unsuitable habitat by causing hypoxia,
increasing macroalgal growth, and leading to the decline or disappearance of SAV. A
result of this mosaic of prey-enhanced and degraded habitats, eutrophication, in
general, and hypoxia, in particular, fundamentally alter the way mobile organisms
utilize space and move through systems (Breitburg et al., 2009).
Opportunistic and adaptive behaviors of mobile stocks can reduce the potential
negative effects of eutrophication-degraded habitat patches (Pihl et al., 1992; Brandt
and Mason, 1994). However, this is not an option for captive aquaculture stocks.
Avoidance of low dissolved oxygen concentrations and crowding of organisms into
favorable habitat patches comes at a cost to predator or prey or both. In the northern
Gulf of Mexico large-scale hypoxia (up to 22 000 km2) on the Louisiana shelf occurs
in regions that typically support high-density brown shrimp and results in substantial
habitat loss (up to ~25% of the Louisiana shelf from May to September), with shifts in
distribution and associated high densities both inshore and offshore of the hypoxic
region. These shifts in spatial distribution during hypoxia have implications for
organism energy budgets, trophic interactions, and fishery pressure (Craig and
Crowder, 2005; Craig et al., 2005).
Effects of fisheries on eutrophication, and of eutrophication on fish yields, may be
strongest in systems with extensive aquaculture production. Excess feed and feces
associated with intensive cage culture of fish can cause localized hypoxia and HABs,
resulting in losses of both cultured and wild fish production (Rosenthal, 1985; Naylor
et al., 2000). Bivalve aquaculture, in contrast, removes phytoplankton and can
sometimes reduce negative effects of nutrient enrichment. Removal of farmed
suspension-feeder biomass may have a greater potential than fisheries exploitation of
wild populations to reduce eutrophication because of high rates of aquaculture
removals. Aquaculture may, however, be particularly susceptible to mortality resulting
from negative effects of eutrophication.
Function
In marine ecosystems, oxygen depletion has become a major structuring force for
communities and energy flows. The elimination of fauna and compression of habitat
by hypoxia not only alters population dynamics but also have profound effects of
ecosystem energetics and functions. If oxygen concentrations decline below tolerance
levels, organisms die and are decomposed by microbes. Ecosystem models for the
Neuse River estuary (Baird et al., 2004), Chesapeake Bay (Baird and Ulanowicz,
1989), and Kattegat (Pearson and Rosenberg, 1992) all show a hypoxia-enhanced
diversion of energy flows into microbial pathways to the detriment of higher trophic
levels.

Specific ecological effects will depend on the duration and severity of hypoxia.
Short-lived and mild hypoxia may not have severe costs to energy flows as
communities have been pre-conditioned to other eutrophication stresses and have
developed resilience to hypoxia. Within a narrow range of conditions hypoxia
facilitates upward trophic transfer as physiologically stressed fauna being forced to the
sediment surface during hypoxia may be exploited by epibenthic predators (Pihl et al.,
1992). Under mild hypoxia, prey may also experience a relief from predation, as
hypoxia is typically more stressful to the predators than the prey. In the Kattegat, for
example, seasonal hypoxia led to an estimated 23% reduction in predation by crabs
(Pearson and Rosenberg, 1992). Upward energy transfer is not enabled in areas where
hypoxia is severe as either the benthos is killed directly and/or predators would be too
stressed to enter the area. In all cases, the increase in the proportion of production
transferred to predators is temporary and as mortality occurs, microbial pathways
quickly dominate energy flows (Figure 14.5).
Figure 14.5: Conceptual view of how hypoxia alters ecosystem energy flow
Notes: For normoxia, area indicates the range of energy transferred from the benthos to higher-level
predators, typically 25 to 75% of macrobenthic production. As a system experiences mild or periodic
hypoxia, there can be a pulse of benthic energy to predators. This “windfall” is typically short-lived and
does not always occur. With declining oxygen, higher-level predation is suspended, benthic predation
may continue, and the proportion of benthic energy transferred to microbes rapidly increases. Under
persistent hypoxia, some energy is still processed by tolerant benthos. Microbes process all benthic
energy as H2S, and anoxia develops.
Source: Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008
This energy diversion tends to occur in ecologically important places (nursery and
recruitment areas) and at the most inopportune time (summer) for predator energy
demands, and causes an overall reduction in an ecosystem’s functional ability to
transfer energy to higher trophic levels and renders the ecosystem potentially less
resilient to other stressors. Reduction of the primary prey base for demersal predators
from dead zones has consequences for ecosystem functioning and services other than
biomass production for food webs. Key geochemical cycles are controlled by a
complex interaction of oxygen, bioturbation, and sediment properties, for example, the
balance between nitrification and denitrification.

Systems exposed to extensive periods of hypoxia and anoxia have low annual
benthic secondary production with the amount of productivity a function of how
quickly benthos can recruit and grow during periods of normoxia. Marine benthic
systems suffering from hypoxia and anoxia at present once had benthic life. In some
systems it is possible to make crude estimates of the biomass from prehypoxic times,
e.g. estimate the “missing biomass” of today. For areas of the Baltic that are now
persistently hypoxic and anoxic (70 000 km2, Karlson et al., 2002) missing biomass
amounts to about 1.7 million metric tonnes wet weight, which represents about 30% of
total Baltic secondary production (Elmgren, 1989). Similarly, estimates for
Chesapeake Bay indicate that about 67 000 million tonnes wet weight is lost because
of hypoxia each year, about 5% of total Bay secondary production (Díaz and
Schaffner, 1990). If we assume about 40% of the benthic biomass is passed up the
food chain in the Baltic (Möller et al., 1985) and 60% in Chesapeake Bay (Díaz and
Schaffner, 1990), then a total of 700 000 million tonnes wet weight of potential fish
food energy is lost in the Baltic and 27 000 million tonnes wet weight in Chesapeake
Bay. In the northern Gulf of Mexico that experience severe seasonal hypoxia, benthic
biomass is reduced by as much as 9.3 million tonnes wet weight/km2 (Rabalais et al.,
2001b), which is approximately a 113 000 million tonnes wet weight lost from the
fisheries forage base when the size of the dead zone is 20 000 km2, assuming a 60%
transfer efficiency.
These losses in biomass from hypoxia deprive higher trophic levels of significant
amounts of forage base. Because of the physiological dependence of productivity on
temperature, hypoxia develops at times when production and benthic recruitment
generally peak for non-opportunistic species; thus the longer hypoxia lasts the less
time a system has to regain the lost biomass through production. The duration of
seasonal hypoxia then becomes the primary factor affecting ecosystem energy flows.
Within most systems that have strong seasonal cycles, increases in populations are
related to recruitment events timed to take advantage of the input of new organic
matter and populations decline from a combination of resource depletion and
predation. The shorter the time between arrival of the new organic matter and the
onset of hypoxia the greater the effect on energy flows up the food chain as during
hypoxia energy is shunted to microbial pathways (Díaz and Rosenberg, 2008).
Economic consequences for fisheries and ecosystem services
Some aspects of agriculture can contribute to enhanced ecosystem services in

terrestrial ecosystems (Swinton et al., 2007), but in marine ecosystems agriculture
impacts are usually negative and rarely positive (Tilman et al., 2001, Galloway et al.,
2008). This is due to the transformative nature of excess nutrients in fueling
eutrophication, altering productivity pathways and species composition. For example,
the primary negative drivers on biodiversity appear to be displacement of long-lived
sensitive species by short-lived opportunistic spices adapted to rapidly respond to the
influx of organic matter and alteration or loss of habitat quality.
The growing demand for the ecosystem service of food provisioning has resulted
in stress and change to regulating and supporting ecosystem services (Table 14.1).
This expanding need for food provisioning has lead to over half of all ecosystem
services being degraded or used unsustainably (MA, 2005). The increasing production
of food services, such as crops, livestock, and aquaculture, has led to a consumption of
an increasing fraction of other service (for example, diverting more water for
irrigation or capturing more fish from the sea) and has put downward pressure on
others (for example, habitat quality and biodiversity). Much of this downward
pressure can be traced to agricultural waste products (nutrient, toxic chemical, organic
runoff). There are many examples of mortality and stress on fisheries species from
eutrophication driven hypoxia (Table 14.4).

Table 14.4: Examples of fisheries mortality or losses related to eutrophication driven hypoxia
References (in Díaz
System Country Fisheries Comment and Rosenberg
2008)
Beauford Inlet Australia Massive fish kills reported as early as 1936 Eutrophic inlet with high nutrients and at times Brearley 2005
HABs
Scheldt Estuary Belgium Flatfish stressed by low oxygen, Low oxygen Improved from nutrient management from 1970s Maes et al.., 2004,
tolerant eels declined with improved oxygen to 1980s Buysse et al.., 2008
and diadromous fish returned.
Ebrie lagoon Cote d'Ivoire Fish kills, loss of biodiversity, altered trophic Domestic waste and industrial waste from Ukwe et al.., 2006
structure coastal population
Limfjord/Løgstør Denmark Demersal fisheries gone. Heavily polluted with anoxic conditions. Jorgensen 1980,
Bredn. Hylleberg 1993
Humber estuary England Adverse effects on fish migrations. Related to industrial discharge. Lowest oxygen Uncles et al.., 1998,
in turbidity maximum from bacterial respiration. 2000
Mersey Estuary England With recovery fish returned, Salmon runs Improved from nutrient management. Jones 2006
from 1990's
Prevost Lagoon France Reduced aquaculture production 1976 bacterial blooms with H2S production and Guyoneaud et al..,
Purple Sulfur bacteria present, Increased 1998, Reijs et al..,
macroalgae 1999
Sommone Bay France Collapse of cockle fishery Eutrophication first became apparent in 1982-85 Desprez et al.., 1992
Thau Lagoon France Mortality/Reduced shellfish production Runoff and coastal population contribute to Mazouni et al.., 1996,
eutrophication. Chapelle et al.., 2000
Rhine River Germany River described as almost lifeless in 1960s Heavily polluted with anoxic conditions, Anonymous 2006
improved from management.
Ise Bay Japan Shellfish and fisheries in shallow areas and low oxygen water upwells into shallower areas Nakata et al.., 1997
tidal flats reduced and causes damage.

Table 14.4: Examples of fisheries mortality or losses related to eutrophication driven hypoxia (cont.)
System Country Fisheries Comment References (in Díaz

and Rosenberg
2008)
Tokyo Bay Japan Avoidance and reduced abundance, failure High fisheries production in early 1930s from Kodama et al., 2002,
of spring cohort of whipfin Dragon, reduced moderate eutrophication, by mid 1930s industrial 2006
stomatopod fishery development lead to decline of fisheries and
high eutrophication, 1940s Bay quickly
recovered and fisheries restored, peak yield in
1960. By 1970s Bay bad again and fisheries
declined. Hypoxia and anoxia in inner Bay June
to October.
Chinhae Bay Korea Reduced Lim et al., 2006
Chonsu Bay Korea Reduced Lim et al.., 2006
Jinhae Bay Korea Oyster mortality related to oxygen and red Related to summer algal blooms, annual from Lee and Kim 2008
tide 1980s
Kamak Bay Korea Reduced Lim et al., 2006
Youngsan Korea Reduced Lim et al., 2006
Estuary
Clyde Estuary Scotland Salmon runs returned in 1983 with improved Inner part anoxic in 1970s, now hypoxic, outer SEPA 2008
oxygen, had been absent for >120 years. part not hypoxic since 1980s.
Gotland Basin Sweden Low oxygen hampers the development of Due to long-term eutrophication of Baltic, areas Nissling and Vallin
cod eggs; cod prey has also been reduced: are reconlonized after renewal of bottom water 1996
large isopod and snake blenny have
disappeared from deep waters
Kattegat (SE) Sweden, Reduced demersal fish abundance, Norway Related to general eutrophication, oxygen Baden et al., 1990,
Denmark Lobster fishery effected lowest in Sept-Oct Josefson and Jensen
1992
Black Sea NW Ukraine, Reduced demersal fisheries, now recovering First reported in the 1960's, Improved from Mee 2006
Shelf Romania, nutrient reductions in the 1990's, by 1993
Bulgaria hypoxic was eliminated. Hypoxic even in 2001
caused mass fish kill.


and Rosenberg
2008)
Mobile Bay US- Occasional shoreward migration of hypoxia May have been hypoxic in 1800s. Has winter Loesch 1960, May,
Alabama stressed fish and crustaceans (Jubilees), hypoxia. Some improvement in oxygen between 1973
Mortality of oyster 1900s and 2000s.
Connecticut US- Fish kill of Alosa up river related to low Episodic events in tidal freshwater zone Moss et al., 1976
River Connecticut oxygen in 1966-1971
Bald Eagle US- Fish kills Eutrophication and limited tidal exchange with Luther et al., 2004
Creek Delaware adjacent body of water
Delaware River US- Recovering American shad and striped bass low oxygen first recorded in 1915, Improved Patrick 1988,
Delaware fishery from nutrient management Weisberg et al., 1996
Pepper Creek US- Fish migrate in and out of creek depending Daily cycle of oxygen from supersaturated to Tyler et al., 2009,
Delaware on oxygen hypoxic Tyler and Targett
2007
Inner US-Florida Mortality of fishes from combined effects of low oxygen from HAB (toxic dinoflagellate FWRI 2005
Continental HAB and low oxygen. Karenia brevis) bloom in August 2005. Multiple
Shelf stressors involved in mortalities.
Pensacola Bay US-Florida Loss of fisheries species, Fish kills Primarily related to industrial discharges. Some Hagy et al., 2006,
improvement in oxygen between 1980s and Hagy and Murrell
2000s. 2007
Inner & Mid US- Avoidance, Area coincides with historic Annual hypoxia developed in 1970s, is now the Rabalais and Turner
Continental Louisiana white and brown shrimp fishing grounds largest hypoxic area in US. Related to 2001, Craig and
Shelf discharge and nutrient loads from Crowder 2005
Mississippi/Atchafalaya River Plumes.


and Rosenberg
2008)
Chesapeake US- Crabs killed in pots Seasonal anoxia detected in sediment record as Officer et al., 1984,
Bay Mainstem Maryland far back as 1934-1948. Low oxygen area has Kemp et al.., 2005
increased from 1980 to 2000, anoxia has also
increased.
Patuxent River US- Avoidance, low egg hatching/larval mortality, Duration and spatial extent of low oxygen Keister et al.., 2000,
Maryland bay anchovy eggs killed by hypoxia increased from 1930-79. Hypoxia may have Breitburg et al., 1992
occurred in 1700s from watershed modifications
and wet periods. Rise in anoxia in 1970s linked
to nutrient runoff and wet weather.
Long Island US-New Avoidance, some mortality. Hypoxic June to September; duration, Howell and Simpson
Sound York frequency, spatial extend all increased since 1994, Schimmel
1987. Oxygen declined from 1990s to 2000s et al., 1999
New York Bight US-New Surf clam/finfish mortality, Avoidance, Clam weather lead to stratification and bloom of Boesch and Rabalais
York northward migration of bluefish blocked Ceratium tripos, one time event. May have 1991
involved upwelling on nutrient rich water
Albemarle US-North Mortality Hurricane increased freshwater and nutrient Paerl et al., 2000
Sound Carolina input. Hypoxia has worsened in 2000s
Neuse River US-North Fish kills, mortality of oyster. Reduced prey Improvement in oxygen from 1990s to 2000s. Lenihan and
Estuary Carolina abundance and habitat quality for fish. Perterson 1998,
Baird et al., 2004
Inner US-Oregon Mass Mortality Hypoxia developed on inner shelf in 2000s. Grantham et al.,
Continental Related to upwelling and phytoplankton bloom 2004, Chan et al.,
Shelf associated with California Current System. 2008
Shifting wind patterns lead to extensive shallow
shelf hypoxia, may be related to global climate
change.
Source: based on Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008

300 – 14. AGRICULTURE’S IMPACT ON AQUACULTURE: HYPOXIA AND EUTROPHICATION IN MARINE WATER
Unless stress on nonprovisioning ecosystem services can be lessened, for example

through ecosystem based management, there will likely be declines in food provisioning
services from aquaculture with negative economic consequences. The effects of
eutrophication vary from system to system, and there are accounts of loss of aquaculture
production, and presumably loss of economic value, related to failure of supporting
ecosystem services. For example, general eutrophication of coastal lagoons on the French
Mediterranean coast has deteriorated water quality and at times led to the develop
hypoxia. This in turn has reduced the lagoon systems supporting ecosystem services and
lowered the production potential for aquaculture, in, for example, Thau Lagoon (Mazouni
et al., 1996). Combinations of stressors from agriculture, and municipal and industrial
wastewater put greater pressure on ecosystem services but provisioning by aquaculture
may not be negatively affected, as in Lake Saroma, Japan and Saldanha Bay, South
Africa, where there are accounts of ecosystem degeneration but aquaculture production
does not appear affected (Table 14.4). Even at sub-optimal levels of dissolved oxygen
that are not near hypoxic, there can be reductions in growth of cultured salmon (Page
et al., 2005). From the beginning of fish aquaculture dissolved oxygen was recognized as
a limiting factor and many cultured species were selected because of their tolerance to
low dissolved oxygen. For example, carp (Carassius spp.) can survive months of hypoxia
and is possibly the most anoxia-tolerant vertebrate (Nilson and Renshaw, 2004).
Cost of lost ecosystem services

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA, 2005) documented the importance of
ecosystem services to humans and how losses and degradation of these services was
occurring, primarily through unsustainable human activity. The valuation of these
services is difficult in terms of either monetary costs or nonmarket ecological costs.
Costanza et al., (1997) estimated ecosystems to provide at least USD 33 trillion (in 1994
US dollars) worth of provisioning and supporting services annually. The majority of this
value is outside the market system, in services such as gas regulation
(USD 1.3 trillion/year), disturbance regulation (USD 1.8 trillion/year), waste treatment
(USD 2.3 trillion/year) and nutrient cycling (USD 17 trillion/year). About 63% of the
estimated value is contributed by marine systems (USD 20.9 trillion/year). Most of this
comes from coastal systems (USD 10.6 trillion/year). About 38% of the estimated value
comes from terrestrial systems, mainly from forests (USD 4.7 trillion/year) and wetlands
(USD 4.9 trillion/year) (Costanza et al., 1997). Sustainability of food provisioning
services require that supporting services be maintained as a sort of natural capital. In this
sense ecosystem services are complementary rather than substitutable (Costanza and
Daly, 1992).
Aquaculture production will be particularly sensitive to loss of ecosystem services
from eutrophication. The primary ecosystem services needed by aquaculture are:
Regulating Services:
• Water purification and waste treatment
• Biological control, trophic structure
Supporting Services:
• Nutrient cycling
• Habitat
ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS– © OECD 2010

These are also the ecosystem services most affected by eutrophication and the
development of hypoxia. Significant reductions in any of these four services will reduce
or eliminate aquaculture productivity, and other ecosystem services and functions. To
investigate the cost of lost ecosystem services to aquaculture productivity will require
data on the number, size, and area of aquaculture facilities. The area of ecosystems
affected by other stressors that reduce services will also need to be accounted for. The
values assigned to ecosystem services by Costanza et al., (1997) are a first approximation
of their relative magnitude (Table 5). As such, the valuation should be interpreted with
caution, but these estimates do show that there are significant externalities associated
with environmental stressors.
Table 14.5: Valuation of ecosystem services lost to hypoxia
2
Value in USD/Km /yr Total Area
2
Habitat Nutrient cyclingBiodiversity Biological Control Habitat (Km ) % Total Area
Ocean 15500 500 500 0 332000000 91.5
Shelf 143100 4000 3900 0 26600000 7.3
Estuaries 2110000 21000 7800 13100 1800000 0.5
Seagrass/Algal Beds 1900200 0 0 0 2000000
Coral 5800 1000 500 700 620000 0.2
2
Total value in millions USD (Value in USD/Km /yr x Total Area)
Nutrient cyclingBiodiversity Biological Control Habitat
Ocean 5146000 166000 166000 0
Shelf 3806550 106400 103700 0
Estuaries 3798000 37800 14000 23600
Seagrass 3800400 0 0 0
Coral 3600 600 300 400
2
Value lost to hypoxia in millions USD (Value in USD/Km /yr x Hypoxic Area)
Lost Nutrient cyclingBiodiversity Biological Control Habitat Hypoxic Area % Hypoxic
Shelf Natural 164600 4600 4500 0 1150000 4.3
Shelf Human 24300 700 700 0 170000 0.6
Estuaries 147700 1500 600 900 70000 3.9
Notes: Assumptions are that hypoxia completely eliminates the ecosystem service for the entire year,
which may not be the case for seasonal hypoxia, and that value lost is a relative
Source: Value of services based on Costanza et al. (1997). Estimates of hypoxic area based on Díaz and
Rosenberg (2008)
Current estimates are that hypoxia related to eutrophication annually affects at least
240 000 km2 globally (Díaz and Rosenberg, 2008). About 70 000 km2 are inshore
(estuarine/brackish waters and embayments), and about 170 000 km2 are coastal offshore
waters. There is also another 1.1 million km2 of outer continental shelf bottom area
affected by natural oxygen minimum zones (Helly and Levin, 2004). In total, about 4%
of estuarine/brackish water and about 5% of shelf area are affected globally by hypoxia
of some type. This translates to losses in ecosystem services in the billions of USD
(Table 14.5).
The value lost highlights the importance of developing sustainability in agriculture
through an ecosystem-based management approach that considers land-sea interactions.
Integration of aquaculture into management plans, especially multiculture of species that
can lessen impacts of land based activities offers the possibility of offsetting declines or
even increasing the value of nutrient cycling services by removal of nutrients and organic
matter as cultured species biomass.
ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS – © OECD 2010

Future issues and projected trends for agriculture and aquaculture
As both agriculture and aquaculture expand to provide more food for a growing
human population, the greatest challenge faced is sustainability (Godfray et al., 2010).
The 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (UNCED 1992) laid the
groundwork for future sustainable development around the world. This early attempt at
integrated coastal management can still be used as a means of bringing agriculture and
aquaculture to environmental and social sustainability. Goals towards sustainable forms
of aquaculture or other coastal development should be stated as (Olsen, 2003):
• Specific improvements in ecosystem services (for example, aerial extent
of mangroves or improved water quality).
• Specific improvements in the quality of life of the human population in

the area of concern (for example, greater equity in how coastal resources
are allocated, improved livelihoods, reduced conflicts among user
groups).
Olsen (2003) proposed four orders of outcomes that group sequences of institutional,
behavioral and social/environmental changes that can lead to more sustainable forms of
coastal development.
One problem with making adjustments to optimize sustainability is that generally, the
institutions that should be involved in discussions are often separate entities that compete
rather than cooperate, such as ministries of agriculture versus the environment. This is a
central impediment to rational decision-making in the ecosystem service context that
must be overcome (Mooney, 2010). A much tighter coupling of science, policy, and
management will be required to control and reverse the negative effects of agriculture on
ecosystem services.
Lack of management of nonpoint nutrient loadings is the main factor fueling the
expanding number of dead zones. The challenge will be to reduce nutrient loads reaching
our coastal systems by increasing the efficiency of agriculture and restoring landscapes.
As with climate change and increasing atmospheric CO2, the time to act to reduce excess
nitrogen and phosphorus is now. More people require more provisioning services of food,
fuel, and fiber. So problems with oxygen in our coastal seas will not solve themselves.
There is growing evidence that delays in reducing nutrient loads to marine systems will
be increasingly costly to both humans and ecosystems. Over the years, the accumulation
of organic matter and nutrients within ecosystems has set the stage for shifts that led to
more hypoxia for a given input of additional nutrients. Once past this tipping point,
greater reductions in nutrients will be required to control dead zone formation and reduce
their size (Turner et al., 2008). In addition, systems may not recover along the same
trajectory as they degrade and may take many years to recover altered ecosystem services
and functions (Duarte and Conley 2009; Kemp et al., 2010).
Projected impact of climate change

Superimposed on the immediate environmental issues related to eutrophication from
export of agricultural nutrients to coastal waters is global climate change. The world’s
climate has changed and human activities will continue to contribute to the acceleration
of greenhouse gases and temperature rise. The regional outcomes of the various global
climate change scenarios (IPCC, 2007) will be manifested in many different and

synergistic effects on various components of ecosystems. Policy decisions, such as

incentives to use food crops for production of biofuels, will contribute to the expansion
of agriculture and eutrophication of marine waters (Costello et al., 2009; UNEP, 2009).
Climate change effects will be difficult to detect in the near-term because they currently
exist within the ‘background’ variability inherent in estuarine and marine systems as a
result of both natural and anthropogenic forces (Díaz and Breitburg, 2009; Rabalais et al.,
2009, 2010).
Generally perceived as having mostly negative impacts, climate change provides an
additional reason for agriculture and aquaculture to move towards sustainability. The
positive side of climate change appears to be limited to expanding suitable habitat area
for tropical and temperate species as temperatures increase, and possibly higher
metabolism and growth. But for cold-water boreal species, higher temperatures will lead
to habitat squeeze and contraction of range to higher and higher latitudes.
The primary negative impacts for aquaculture will be from the combined effects of
climate change and expanding agriculture (Figure 14.6) because increased temperatures
increase both hypoxia and oxygen requirements of many organisms. Increased water
temperatures decrease oxygen solubility and increase microbial respiration that consumes
dissolved oxygen. Oxygen concentrations in the Danish straits declined 0.238
(±0.084) mg O2/l/oC from 1965 to 2003 as temperatures rose (about 2 oC rise over the
period) (Conley et al.., 2007). This decline in oxygen was very close to the predicted
effect of temperature on the solubility of oxygen (approximately -0.26 mg O2/l/oC). By
the end of this century a 4 oC rise in temperature would reduce oxygen by another 0.952
mg O2/l (Conley et al., 2009) and would severely impact aquaculture and capture
fisheries in the Danish straits. In addition to lower concentrations of oxygen, hypoxia
would expand in area and duration (Díaz and Rosenberg, 2008; Rabalais et al., 2009,
2010). For the Danish straits the area of hypoxia would approximately double with a 4 oC
rise in temperature and in the most severe years would cover most of the region (Conley
et al., 2009).

Figure 14.6: Potential physical and hydrological changes resulting from climate
change and their interaction with current and future human activities
Dashed lines represent negative feedback to the system.
Source: Rabalais et al., 2009
Conclusions
Management of aquaculture cannot be successful without coordinated management of

other stressors, principally nutrient runoff from agriculture, in a broader management
strategy. Recent scientific and ocean policy assessments within the US determined that a
fundamental change in our current management system is required to assure long-term
health of coastal and ocean areas in order to sustain the ecosystem services and benefits
they provide to society (IOP, 2009). The IOP task force concluded that present
management strategies for these areas cannot properly account for cumulative effects,
sustain multiple ecosystem services, and holistically and explicitly evaluate the tradeoffs
associated with proposed alternative human uses. The task force proposed development
of a new planning approach called coastal and marine spatial planning (CMSP) to
facilitate maintenance of essential ecosystem services, encourage compatible uses,
minimize conflicts, evaluate tradeoffs in an open and transparent manner, and include
significant and meaningful stakeholder involvement.
Ideally, any management strategy would also be adaptive and offer a way to address
the pressing need to take steps to manage for factors affecting hypoxia. The National
Research Council (2004) identified six elements of adaptive management that are directly
relevant to goal setting and research needs:
• Resources of concern are clearly defined.
• Conceptual models are developed during planning and assessment.

• Management questions are formulated as testable hypotheses.
• Management actions are treated like experiments that test hypotheses to

answer questions and provide future management guidance.
• Ongoing monitoring and evaluation is necessary to improve accuracy and

completeness of knowledge.
• Management actions are revised with new cycles of learning.
Adaptive management is designed to support action in the face of the limitations of

scientific knowledge and the complexities of large ecosystems (Holling, 1978).
Management efforts to reduce the size of seasonal hypoxia in the northern Gulf of
Mexico provide a good case study. This hypoxic zone is the largest in US coastal waters
and is driven by freshwater and nutrients derived from the Mississippi and Atchafalaya
River Basins (MARB) that cover 41% percent of the contiguous United States.
Additional details on development and causes can be found in Rabalais et al., (2007) and
Turner et al., (2007).
In 1998, the US EPA established the Mississippi River/Gulf of Mexico Watershed
Nutrient Task Force (MTF) to bring together stakeholders and consider options for
reducing, mitigating, and controlling hypoxia. An integrated science assessment,
requested by the MTF, was published in 1999 and 2000 (CENR, 2000,
www.oceanservice.noaa.gov/products/pubs_hypox.html). Using this science assessment,
the Task Force developed its first Action Plan (MTF 2001), which was endorsed by
Federal agencies, states, and tribal governments. The goal was to reduce the five-year
running average size of the hypoxic zone to 5 000 km2 by 2015. It estimated that an
overall reduction in nitrogen load of 30–45% would be required. In 2007, EPA Science
Advisory Board updated the science assessment (US EPA 2007) that was used by the
Task Force to update the Action Plan (MTF 2008). The Action Plan retained the goal of
reducing the hypoxic zone to less than 5 000 km2 by 2015 but this time acknowledged the
difficulty of meeting this goal. The 2008 plan also identified the requirement that
phosphorus as well as nitrogen loads be reduced and increased the required nitrogen
reduction to at least 45%. Implementation of the Action Plan was based on a series of
voluntary and incentive-based activities that address both reducing nutrient inputs and
increasing assimilation in aquatic ecosystems, including proper timing and amount of
fertilizer applications, best management practices on agricultural lands, restoration and
creation of wetlands, river hydrology restoration, riparian buffer strips, nutrient removal
from storm- and wastewater, and coastal diversions.
Although overall total annual nutrient loads to the northern Gulf from 2001–2005 for
nitrogen declined relative to the previous 24-year average, reductions in nitrate during the
critical spring period have not occurred (MTF 2008). Further, the five-year running
average (2004–2008) of the hypoxic area at 17 100 km2 is more than three times the
Action Plan goal of 5 000 km2. The adaptive management approach put forth commits to
a reliance on sound science and continual feedback between the interpretation of new
information and improved management actions as the key to targeting actions within
watersheds where they will be most effective.
Great strides have been made in mitigating nutrient and organic loadings from point
source discharges. Similar effort will need to be applied to non-point agricultural runoff.

As agricultural production expands even lower nutrient loading levels will become a
problem. Recent studies have shown that after years of eutrophication, it may not be as
simple as reducing nutrients to reverse water quality problems, especially associated with
hypoxia (Turner et al., 2008; Rabalais et al., 2010; Kemp et al., 2010). If in the next 50
years humans continue to modify and degrade coastal systems as in previous years
(Halpern et al., 2008), human population pressure will likely continue to be the main
driving factor in the persistence and spreading of coastal dead zones (Figure 14.7).
Expanding agriculture for production of crops to be used for food and biofuels will result
in increased nutrient loading and expand eutrophication effects. Climate change,
however, may make systems more susceptible to development of hypoxia through direct
effects on stratification, solubility of oxygen, metabolism, and mineralization rates. This
will likely occur primarily though warming, which will lead to increased water
temperatures, decreased oxygen solubility, increased organism metabolism and
remineralization rates, and enhanced stratification.
Figure 14.7: Relative contribution of global climate change and land use to future
hypoxia
Thickness of arrows indicated relative magnitude of effect

Source: Diaz and Breitburg, 2009

Notes
1 Ecosystem services are simply defined as ‘‘the benefits people obtain from ecosystems’’ (MA 2005)
and are summarised in Table 14.1.

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15. CANADA: THE NATIONAL AQUACULTURE STRATEGIC ACTION PLAN INITIATIVE – 319
Chapter 15
Canada:
The National Aquaculture Strategic Action Plan Initiative
Eric Gilbert and Daniel Stechey

Aquaculture Management Directorate,
Fisheries and Oceans Canada
Abstract
Aquatic resource development, including aquaculture, is integral to the economic and
cultural fabric of Canada. Nevertheless, aquaculture presents a formidable policy
challenge. Jurisdiction over aquaculture is determined by the division of constitutional
authority between the federal and provincial / territorial governments set out in the
Constitution Act, 1867. Between 1987 and 1995, governments set aside constitutional
matters and established bilateral memoranda of understanding (MOUs) to delineate
responsibility, avoid duplication and improve support for industry. Despite the MOUs,
the regulatory framework governing aquaculture remains complex and costly to navigate.
To help fulfil Canada's inherent potential in aquaculture for the benefit of all Canadians,
it was apparent that a more strategic approach to sector development was required.
Under the leadership of the Canadian Council of Fisheries and Aquaculture Ministers
(CCFAM), the National Aquaculture Strategic Action Planning Initiative (NASAPI) was
launched as a national, collaborative exercise to enhance and advance economically,
environmentally and socially sustainable aquaculture development. Following extensive
consultations, the NASAPI has been launched with an implementation structure designed
to improve aquaculture management, policy and regulatory decision-making. It is
envisaged that this initiative will enhance the sector's social license and stimulate
investor confidence. This paper outlines the process by which Canada was able to
address and resolve policy coherence across policy domains.

320 – 15. CANADA: THE NATIONAL AQUACULTURE STRATEGIC ACTION PLAN INITIATIVE
Introduction
Aquatic resources have long played an important role in Canada’s development and
growth as a nation. They are integral to the historical, economic and cultural fabric of
Canada’s coastal communities, providing a strong and reliable resource base around
which Canada’s national economy and sense of nationhood grew. More recently,
aquaculture has emerged as a principal force within the Canadian fish and seafood sector.
Today, commercial aquaculture operations exist in every province as well as in the
Yukon Territory, and the sector accounts for one third of the total value of Canada’s
fisheries production. Additionally, more than a dozen First Nations communities are
involved in aquaculture for food, social, ceremonial and/or commercial purposes.
Nevertheless, Canada’s output is a small fraction of global production. In 2006, Canada
ranked 23rd among world aquaculture producers and contributed less than 0.3% of total
output.
Salmon is the main species produced on Canadian farms, accounting for 69% of total
production (145 000 tonnes in 2008), followed by mussels (14%), oysters (8%) and trout
(3%). British Columbia contributes the most farm-raised fish and seafood, followed by
New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland and Labrador.
In the inland provinces, trout is the main product, accounting for more than 92% of total
production. Ontario is the largest producer, followed by Quebec and Saskatchewan.
Regulation and management of aquaculture in Canada
Aquaculture development in Canada presents a formidable policy challenge. The

sector straddles the line between fishing and farming, cuts across significant regional
differences, and is placed in a complex jurisdictional context involving the participation
of municipal, provincial/territorial and federal governments and First Nations. Moreover,
'aquaculture' is not defined in Canadian law which adds further confusion to policy
development and regulation in the sector.
Within the Canadian federation, jurisdiction and authority over aquaculture operations
and production is determined by the division of constitutional authority between the
federal parliament and provincial/territorial legislatures as set out in sections 91 and 92 of
the Constitution Act, 1867. Clearly, the Act was in place long before aquaculture
activities were ever envisaged. Under Section 91 of the Act, the federal government is
given exclusive jurisdiction and authority over SeaCoast and Inland Fisheries, including
those situated entirely within one province. Section 92 assigns the provinces and
territories exclusive jurisdiction over matters dealing with Property and Civil Rights and
the Management of Public Lands and general Matters of a Merely Local or Private
Nature within the province. Essentially, the federal government has jurisdiction over the
waters, including the harvesting and protection of fish within those waters, while the
provinces and territories have authority over the seabed within their territory (i.e. in the
intertidal zone and within the jaws of the land). In Canada, the majority of aquaculture
production occurs within federal waters in systems situated on provincial lands.
Further complexity was added to the federal-provincial legal framework in February
2009 when the British Columbia Supreme Court (BCSC) ruled that the activity of
aquaculture is a fishery which falls under exclusive federal jurisdiction pursuant to sub-
section 91(12) of the Constitution Act, 1867 and struck down the provincial regulatory

regime governing aquaculture in the province. In light of the BCSC decision, it is clear
that only the federal government has the authority to establish the comprehensive
regulatory regime needed to ensure that the industry in British Columbia is appropriately
regulated and managed. Notably, the Province of British Columbia retains the authority
to grant leases to the seafloor within provincial jurisdiction for purposes of aquaculture,
to set labour safety requirements as well as certain measures respecting business
practices. In response to the BCSC decision, the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans has
confirmed the commitment of the Government of Canada to establish a federal regulatory
regime governing aquaculture pursuant to the Fisheries Act in the geographic area of
British Columbia and along the Pacific coast. Undoubtedly, this will have a significant
effect on future management of aquaculture in British Columbia and, potentially,
throughout the rest of Canada; however, the scope of this effect remains uncertain since
the process to establish a new federal aquaculture regulation is still a work in progress.
The federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) is the lead federal agency for
aquaculture development. Part of DFO's mandate is to create the conditions necessary for
a vibrant and innovative aquaculture industry that is environmentally and socially
responsible, economically viable, and internationally competitive for the benefit of all
Canadians. These responsibilities include the following:
• Lead agency role to foster innovation and competitiveness through
investments in science, R&D and industry development programs;
• Administering, monitoring and enforcing compliance with its important
regulations, including: fish habitat, fish communities/ecosystem
management, enforcement supporting Canadian Shellfish Sanitation
Program and laboratory services and research in support of National
Aquatic Animal Health Program;
• Carrying out its ocean management responsibilities relating to
conservation and protection, environmental and habitat protection and fish
health;
• Small Craft Harbours (wharf infrastructure);
• Coordinating and bringing increased coherence to federal aquaculture
program and policy development;
• Facilitating harmonization of federal and provincial aquaculture regulatory
frameworks and coordination of intergovernmental aquaculture program
and policy development; and
• Facilitating increased dialogue between aquaculture stakeholders on issues
of mutual interest.
In addition, several other federal departments and agencies are implicated in the
development and management of aquaculture in Canada. Most notably, these include:
• Agriculture Agri-Food Canada
− International Food Marketing Program
− Rural Secretariat
− Farm Credit Canada (aquaculture loans)

• Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency

− Oversees federal environmental assessment practice and policy under its
Canadian Environmental Assessment Act
• Canadian Food Inspection Agency

− Lead for National Aquatic Animal Health Program under Health of
Animals Act
− Fish inspection program (processing facilities and operations)
− Certification of on-farm food safety
− Biotoxin aspects of Canadian Shellfish Sanitation Program (fisheries
and aquaculture)
− Regulations of fee under the federal Feeds Act
− Regulation of vaccines
• Environment Canada
− Water quality aspects of Canadian Shellfish Sanitation Program
(fisheries and aquaculture)
− Regulatory responsibilities related to water quality aspects of the
Fisheries Act
− Approval of aquaculture biotechnology products
• Health Canada
− Standard setting under the Food and Drug Act (tolerance limits)
− Approval of veterinary drugs under the Food and Drug Act
− Approval of pesticides under the Pest Control Products Act
• Industry Canada (including the National Research Council)

− Industrial Research Assistance Program
− Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) grants
− Business Development Bank (export programming)
• Regional Development Agencies (Atlantic Canada Opportunities Agency,

Canada Economic Development for Quebec Regions, FedNor, Western
Economic Diversification)
− Financial support for business development and R&D
− Atlantic Innovation Fund
• Statistics Canada
− Compiles and analyses annual aquaculture production and value-added
statistics

• Transport Canada
− Approval of aquaculture sites for navigational safety under Navigable
Waters Protection Act (NWPA)
− Responsible authority for Canadian Environmental Assessment
Reviews related to issuance of NWPA permits
Given the cross-disciplinary nature of the aquaculture sector, there is a significant

need for coordination across federal departments, agencies and Crown corporations.
Therefore, policy coherence amongst these and other federal departments and agencies is
maintained through the Interdepartmental Sustainable Aquaculture Program Coordination
Committee (SAPCC). The Committee consists of Directors General from each agency
with decision-making authority to yield positive results to ensure multilateral support of a
growing, vibrant and sustainable aquaculture sector that contributes to the economic
prosperity of rural, coastal and First Nations communities, in addition to the overall
Canadian economy.
To further distinguish federal and provincial / territorial roles with regard to
aquaculture, the Government of Canada signed bilateral Memoranda of Understanding
(MOUs) with six coastal provinces (BC, NB, NS, PEI, NL, QC) and one territory (YT)
between 1987 and 1995. The MOUs are designed to delineate responsibility, avoid
duplication, and improve support for industry. Under the MOUs, responsibility for
leasing public lands/waters was transferred to the provinces/territories, which were also
given greater control over promotion, development and regulation of the sector. In broad
terms, the MOUs allocate federal and provincial / territorial responsibilities regarding
aquaculture as follows:
Table 15.1: MOU federal and provincial/territorial aquaculture responsibilities
Federal Provincial/Territorial Joint
Science (basic research) Innovation Compliance & Inspection

Innovation Leasing Review of Lease Applications
Drug & Vaccine
Issue Aquaculture Licences Development Programming
Registration
Conservation & Protection Education & Training Coastal Resource Zoning
Fish Disease Management
Despite the MOUs, the regulatory framework governing aquaculture in Canada

remains complex and costly to navigate. In 2000, a comprehensive study commissioned
by the Canadian Aquaculture Industry Alliance concluded that no other Canadian
industry is subject to the degree of government intervention as is aquaculture and,
comparatively, among five leading aquaculture nations none appear to have the same
diffusion in regulatory responsibility on the scale of that in Canada. Justifiably,
environmental sustainability is at the core of the federal and provincial regulatory
frameworks; however, regulatory duplication and overlap subjects Canadian aquaculture
producers to added operating expenses and delays.
To foster a significant improvement in intergovernmental relations with respect to the
development and management of ecologically sustainable and economically viable
fisheries and aquaculture industries, in June of 1999 the federal government and the

governments of the provinces and territories endorsed the Agreement on

Interjurisdictional Cooperation with Respect to Fisheries and Aquaculture. In the spirit of
cooperation, governments agreed to pursue opportunities where increased efficiency,
effectiveness and streamlining would foster mutually beneficial improvements for both
orders of government, with particular emphasis on pursuit of a harmonized approach to
the development of fisheries and aquaculture policies and objectives. Through the
Canadian Council of Fisheries and Aquaculture Ministers (CCFAM) and its public
service Strategic Management Committee (CCFAM-SMC), the Ministers are intent upon:
• Identifying and establishing common goals;
• Coordinating public policy objectives;
• Improving consultations and information sharing on inter-jurisdictional
matters;
• Improving resource management and services to industry and the public.
Policy coherence amongst federal - provincial/territorial governments is achieved
through the CCFAM-SMC. The Committee provides leadership and strategic advice at a
decision-making level to facilitate the development and implementation of coordinated
federal - provincial/territorial policies, regulations and programs in support of the
Canadian aquaculture sector. The Committee also identifies priority areas requiring
federal - provincial/territorial coordination and establishes ad hoc working groups to
address specific issues. Membership is comprised provincial and territorial Assistant
Deputy Ministers (ADMs) with responsibilities for aquaculture, as well as the federal
Director General (DG) of the Aquaculture Management Directorate (AMD) within
Fisheries and Oceans Canada.
The National Aquaculture Strategic Action Plan Initiative (NASAPI)
Considering Canada’s aquatic resource base and other strategic advantages, the
current level of output is not commensurate with the opportunity and potential that exists
for aquaculture development. The Canadian aquaculture sector is well-positioned to
benefit from the following competitive advantages:
• Plentiful resource base (i.e. water supplies, low cost energy, labour, etc.);
• Industry experience, expertise and desire to support sustainable
development;
• Substantial export potential with proximity to the U.S. market which is

increasingly dependent on imported seafood and increasing global demand
for fish and seafood due to population growth, increased affluence and the
recognized health benefits of the products;
• A considerable potential and need for coastal and rural economic

development, including opportunities to diversify traditional agriculture
operations and to offer meaningful economic development within First
Nations communities.
To help fulfil Canada's inherent potential in aquaculture, it was apparent that a more
strategic approach to sector development was required. Under the leadership of the

Canadian Council of Fisheries and Aquaculture Ministers (CCFAM), the National

Aquaculture Strategic Action Planning Initiative (NASAPI) was launched as a national,
collaborative exercise to enhance and advance economically, environmentally and
socially sustainable aquaculture development throughout Canada.
As a first step, it was essential to develop a collective understanding of the challenges
and opportunities within the sector. Therefore, for more than nine months, DFO led an
extensive and inclusive consultation process to solicit input from interested and affected
stakeholders. The latter consisted of more than thirty 1 to 2-day meetings across the
country, including specific meetings with Aboriginal peoples. More than 500
representatives from federal and provincial governments, industry, fish feed suppliers,
First Nations/Aboriginal groups, NGOs, academia and other parties participated in these
sessions. In advance of the sessions, a background document was circulated to stimulate
ideas, and strategic questions were posed within the document to guide the discussions.
These consultative sessions generated considerable input regarding the scope and
nature of the many challenges and opportunities related to aquaculture development.
They also provided numerous suggestions to help formulate solutions to specific issues
and helped to establish a more co-operative position from which to address and resolve
challenges pertaining to industry, governments and other interested parties. The data and
information compiled from these consultations was analyzed using the 'SWOT-Plus'
technique, which is an effective tool for revealing the underlying causal factors that must
be addressed to generate the intended results. The technique facilitates development of a
comprehensive understanding of the core issues leading to the development of options for
potential go-forward strategies that are aligned with insights gained through the analysis,
thereby identifying specifically ‘what needs to be addressed’ to bring about meaningful
implementation and measurable results.
Once the initial drafts of the action plans were prepared, they were reviewed and
edited by all-stakeholder steering committees. The members of these committees
represented producers and processors, industry associations, federal and
provincial/territorial governments, First Nations, other aboriginal groups, non-
governmental organizations and academia.
The NASAPI has generated targeted action plans that will facilitate responsible
growth in three sub-sectors of the Canadian aquaculture industry - east coast marine
finfish, east coast shellfish and freshwater. Action Plans will also be developed for the
Pacific finfish and shellfish sectors following development of a federal Regulation for
Aquaculture in British Columbia in late spring, 2010. By targeting precise and realistic
objectives to be achieved within a five-year time frame, resources (people, time and
money) are being directed toward those initiatives that can deliver meaningful and
progressive advancement within the industry. The action plans also present an
opportunity to renew federal–provincial/territorial coordination and implementation
mechanisms to better service industry needs and government objectives for the benefit of
all Canadians. Additionally, it is important to recognize that the NASAPI is a dynamic,
living process. Therefore, the action plans will be revised and updated regularly to keep
them current, on-track and progressive, leading toward solutions to emerging challenges
and opportunities in the sector.
Successful implementation of the NASAPI will foster sustainable growth in Canadian
aquaculture, generating improved public, investor and consumer confidence in the sector.
Attaining this objective, however, will be dependent upon a collaborative effort amongst
all pertinent and implicated parties to establish a framework for advancement of

aquaculture based on the three principles of sustainable development, which inherently

build upon each other.
Environmental mandating that maintenance of healthy and productive

i.e.
Protection ecosystems is prerequisite for all aquaculture ventures
will lead to improved
12
Social Well-Being i.e. earning and upholding a social licence to operate
that will enable

Economic
i.e. responsible sectoral growth and development
Prosperity
Within each of the action plans, four principle areas for action are presented:
1. Governance (Regulatory and Management Regimes for Sustainable

Development);
2. Productivity & Competitiveness;
3. Social License & Reporting; and
4. Strategic Aboriginal Engagement in Aquaculture. Governments and
industry, therefore, are aligning resources to implement specific strategic
initiatives and actions as outlined below:
• Governance
− Environmental Management
− Introductions & Transfers of Aquatic Organisms
− Navigable Waters Protection Act
− On-Site Inspection and Enforcement
− Access to Wild Aquatic Resources for Aquaculture Purposes
− Canadian Shellfish Sanitation Program
− Other Regulatory & Governance Issues
• Productivity & Competitiveness
− Fish and Shellfish Health

− Aquatic Invasive Species
− Emerging Technologies
− Alternative Species Development
− Risk Management & Access to Financing
− Infrastructure
− Market Access & Certification
− Labour & Skills Development
• Social Licence & Reporting
− Aquaculture Sustainability Reporting

− Coastal Zone Management

• Strategic Aboriginal Engagement in Aquaculture
− Capacity Building (training, skills development, etc.)

− Aboriginal aquaculture ventures
− Governance Partnerships
Within the Atlantic Canadian marine finfish and shellfish sectors, and in the national
freshwater sector, 64 strategic objectives have been identified with 174 associated
specific action items. Amongst the strategic objectives, 45 are common to all three
sectors, reflecting the scope of broader issues that affect all sectors of the Canadian
aquaculture industry. For each of the specific action items, lead responsibility for
implementation has been assigned to the appropriate industry, federal, provincial /
territorial, First Nation, aboriginal or other stakeholder (e.g. ENGOs, community groups,
etc.) organizations.
Assuming that these measures will be implemented effectively, industry’s social
licence should improve – but only if First Nations, Aboriginal groups, community
interests and the general public are aware of the progress within the sector. Therefore,
timely and transparent communications as well as active community engagement are
necessary to disseminate information about the economic, social and environmental
sustainability of Canadian aquaculture. Therefore, a fundamental component of the
NASAPI is the annual compilation of a document entitled Aquaculture Sustainability
Reporting in which the economic, environmental and social sustainability of Canadian
aquaculture will be objectively presented to the Canadian public. DFO will lead this
exercise in collaboration with Statistics Canada and the Provinces and Territories.
Implementation
In developing an implementation structure for the NASAPI, the intent was to avoid
duplication of existing structures and mechanisms for aquaculture governance and
management. The federal-provincial/territorial framework provided by the aquaculture
MOUs, with increased industry participation, is perceived to be the best means to
achieving the objectives of the NASAPI.
Successful implementation of any action plan generally rests within the hands of a
guiding coalition that is empowered to oversee the implementation process. For the
NASAPI, this guiding coalition is the CCFAM - Strategic Management Committee
(CCFAM-SMC) comprised of senior federal government personnel and provincial /
territorial Assistant Deputy Ministers responsible for fisheries and aquaculture. The
CCFAM-SMC is supported in its efforts by several other bodies, as illustrated in the
diagram below.
Regional (provincial / territorial) implementation through the MOU Management
Committees is envisaged as the principal interface between industry and governments.
Working together, industry and governments will establish an annual work plan specific
to their province / territory. The MOU Management Committees will prepare an annual
progress report for presentation to the CCFAM-SMC to coincide with each fiscal period.
By providing input into the 'Aquaculture Sustainability Reporting' initiative, the
CCFAM-SMC will be the principal interface between the aquaculture sector and the
public. As noted above, the Interdepartmental Sustainable Aquaculture Program
Coordinating Committee is responsible for policy coordination amongst federal

departments and agencies, and federal-provincial/territorial policy coordination is

achieved through the CCFAM-SMC.
Renegotiation of the existing MOUs, and development of new MOUs with provinces
where they do not yet exist, is among the first actions to be performed during
implementation of the National Aquaculture Strategic Action Plans.
Canadian Coucnil of Fisheries

and Aquaculture Ministers
Aquaculture Sustainability Reporting
Interdepartmental Sustainable
CCFAM - Strategic National Aquaculture Advisory
Aquaculture Program
Management Committee Committee
Coordination Committee
Federal-Provincial/Territorial
Regional Aquaculture
MOU Management
Advisory Committees
Committees

Notes
1
‘Social licence’ is an emerging concept intended to reduce user-group conflict and generate public
acceptance in natural resource sectors. It is based on the notion that the development of natural resources
for commercial interests requires consent from communities affected by the proposed development
through mutual understandings and agreements. Through meaningful engagement of local stakeholders to
recognize their values and beliefs, and to identify appropriate mitigation measures, community support
for a project is more readily secured. (Salim, E. (2004) “Striking a Better Balance: The World Bank
Group and Extractive Industries: The Final Report of the Extractive Industries Review”, 44 p.; Shepard,
R.B. (2008). “Gaining a Social License to Mine”, www.MINING.com April 2008, p. 20-23)

16. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN FARMED AND WILD FISH – 331
Chapter 16
Connections between farmed and wild fish:

Fishmeal and fish oil as feed ingredients in sustainable aquaculture
Andrew Jackson and Jonathan Shepherd

International Fishmeal and Fish Oil Organisation (IFFO),
United Kingdom
Abstract
All farmed fish and crustaceans have a requirement for animal protein and omega-3 fatty
acids, if only at the initial fry stage. This has been traditionally met by incorporating
marine lipids in feeds, hence somehow copying what takes place in the wild. Key demand
drivers by feed manufacturers include scope for cost optimisation while adequately
meeting specific nutritional requirements under conditions of rapidly changing ingredient
costs for marine ingredients and their commercially available non-marine alternatives.
Innovation increases dietary options to control costs, maintains and improves
performance, and addresses supply security. Partial substitution by vegetable proteins
and oils has enabled rapid growth in global aquaculture without over-exploitation of
marine ingredients. To the extent that the use of marine oil for aquaculture and human
consumption could become limiting (due to the unique advantages of its omega-3
content), the development of genetically modified plants incorporating the key nutrients
has obvious relevance for long term supply.
To demonstrate that marine ingredients are sourced sustainably, it is important to ensure
that the fisheries in question are not overfished and are being managed in compliance
with the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing. Certification and eco-labels play
a role to provide reassurance but pose potential problems for fisheries in developing
countries.
Improved nutrition, better raw material processing and responsibly sourced marine
ingredients should ensure that aquaculture has the means to remain sustainable in the
future.

332 – 16. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN FARMED AND WILD FISH
Introduction
According to the latest FAO estimates (FAO, 2008), the annual global fish catch
(excluding aquaculture) of around 90 million metric tonnes includes approx 30 million
metric tonnes representing fish which go for non-direct food use (Figure 16.1). Of this
30 million metric tonnes around 16.5 million metric tonnes goes for fishmeal and fish oil
production, the remainder going for a range of uses, including direct feeding as wet fish
to animals (particularly fish and crustaceans in Asia), as well as pet foods and fur-
producing animals.
The main use of the fishmeal and fish oil derived from that 16.5 million metric tonnes
of whole fish is as feed ingredients for the farming of aquatic animals by means of
aquaculture, although other uses include pig and poultry feed as well as fish oil
supplements for human health. In addition to this fishmeal and fish oil produced from
whole fish, an increasing proportion of fishmeal and fish oil is derived from trimmings as
a by-product of fish processing (approx. 5 million metric tonnes in 2008). The purpose of
this study is to survey the changing usage pattern of fishmeal and fish oil as components
of aquaculture feed and to comment on the implications for sustainable aquaculture.
Figure 16.1: Total capture fisheries
100
90
80
70
million tonnes
60 Non-direct food use

50
40
Capture to direct human
30 consumption
20
10
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 FAO (2008)
The use of fishmeal and fish oil as feed ingredients
Fishmeal was originally a by-product from fish oil production when fish oil was a
low cost oil for margarine production. Fishmeal is now increasingly used as a specialist
feed ingredient in aquaculture, young pigs and poultry. The main nutritional benefits of
fishmeal are that it is high in protein with an excellent amino-acid profile as well as being
highly digestible with no anti-nutritional factors. Figure 16.2 shows the changing use of
fishmeal from 1960 when it was roughly split 50/50 between pigs and chicken and 2008
when 59% was used by aquaculture, 31% by pigs and only 9% by poultry. In 2008 just
over 3 million metric tonnes of fishmeal were used in aquaculture and Figure 16.3
explains that salmonids represented 29% of aquaculture use, crustaceans were 28% and
marine fish were 21%, followed by a variety of other freshwater fish.

Figure 16.2: Changing uses of fishmeal
Figure 16.3: Fishmeal usage in aquaculture, 2008
Fish oil was used in the 1960s and 1970s as a low cost source of oil for margarine
following hydrogenation, but with the wish to move to unsaturated vegetable margarine,
fish oil fell out of favour with margarine manufacturers. However, fish oil is very
appropriate for fish feed use being natural, liquid at low temperature and rich in very long
chain omega-3 fatty acids, especially EPA and DHA. This last characteristic has fuelled a
growth in the market for fish oil as human nutritional supplements for health use mainly
via capsules. Fig 16.4 shows the changing use of fish oil from 1970 when it was split
80% between hardened edible oil and 20% industrial usage to the situation in 2010 when
it is estimated that 80% will be used for aquaculture, 12% as refined oil for human use
and 7% industrial usage. Thus the predominant use of fish oil is in aquaculture and
Figure 16.5 shows that this is dominated by salmonids at 76% of total aquaculture use.

Figure 16.4: Changing uses of fish oil
Figure 16.5: Use of fish oil in aquaculture, 2008
Global overview of fishmeal and fish oil production and consumption
Figure 16.6 shows that the use of fishmeal for aquaculture rose during the period 2000
to 2004 and then reached a plateau at about 3.1 million metric tonnes. This compares
with total fishmeal supply in 2008 of approx 4.9 million metric tonnes (the balance being
taken up mainly by pigs and poultry). It can be seen that the annual use of fish oil for
aquaculture over the period 2000 to 2008 remained fairly constant at between 700 000
and 800 000 metric tonnes compared with a total annual supply of around 1.0 million
metric tonnes.

Figure 16.6: Global fishmeal and fish oil usage in aquaculture, 200-2008
3.50
3.00
2.50
Tonnes millions
2.00
Fish meal used in aquaculture
1.50 Fish Oil used in aquaculture
1.00
0.50
0.00
Data FAO & IFFO
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Figure 16.7 and tables 16.1, 16.2 and 16.3 are mass balance calculations derived from
data by FAO (2009), IFFO (unpublished), and Tacon and Metian (2008). The model
shows that in 2008 16.473 million metric tonnes of wild fish were harvested and
processed for fishmeal and fish oil, together with 5.491 million metric tonnes of process
trimmings from human consumption fisheries. These inputs yielded 4.942 million metric
tonnes of fishmeal, 1.032 million metric tonnes of fish oil and 15.990 million metric
tonnes of water (the water obviously remained at the site of production released as water
or steam).
Table 16.1 and table 16.2 are the result of analysing where the outputs of fishmeal
and fish oil are used and the amount of raw material and whole fish that can be attributed
to each activity on the basis of each marine product separately. The resulting whole fish
attribution is then used to calculate a Fish-In:Fish-Out ratio (FIFO) for each fed
aquaculture activity (using the definition of fed aquaculture used by Tacon, 2005). These
tables show clearly why looking at fishmeal and fish oil attribution separately gives a
distorted view. For example, it can be seen that according to Table 16.2, to produce the
120 000 metric tonnes of fish oil going for direct human use, such as capsules, required
over 2 million metric tonnes of fish. Whilst being correct, this implies that the fish were
only caught for their oil. This is of course not the case since almost as much as five times
the amount of meal is extracted as oil.
Given that both fishmeal and fish oil currently yield about the same revenue per
tonne (USD 1000-1500/tonne), the fishmeal and fish oil are therefore equally valued and
equally important in determining the profitability of the enterprise. It therefore seems
logical to combine the fishmeal and fish oil production and conduct a full mass balance
analysis of the global system for their production. Table 16.3 is the result of such a mass
balance analysis which accounts for all raw materials entering the system and the
resulting outputs (meal, oil and water) and their attribution to each destination activity.
Taking fed aquaculture alone it can be seen that, if the inputs and outputs are
compared by species, 27.495 million metric tonnes of ‘fed’ aquaculture were produced in
2008 using feed derived from 10.684 million metric tonnes of whole wild ‘feed’ fish
representing a Fish-In:Fish-Out ratio of 0.39:1. This is further broken down to show the
corresponding ratios for species groupings, ranging from 2.26:1 for farmed eels down to

0.03:1 for carp, with salmonids at a ratio of 1.77:1. It should be noted that this mass
balance approach gives FIFO ratios that are lower than those calculated by Tacon and
Metian (2008) using the single ingredient approach, but is consistent with those
calculated by Jackson (2010).
Figure 16.7: Mass Balance in the global production of fishmeal and fish oil, 2008 (IFFO data)
Source: IFFO
Table 16.1: Fishmeal used in farmed production and the resultant whole fish FIFO ratio, 2008
(‘000 tonnes)
Fishmeal Raw material Whole fish Farmed FIFO
production
Farm animals
Chicken 440 1 957 1 468 n/a n/a
Pig 1 263 5 613 4 210 n/a n/a
Other land animals 160 711 533 n/a n/a
Aquatic species
Crustaceans 786 3 494 2 621 4 673 0.56
Marine fish 738 3 281 2 461 2 337 1.05
Salmon and trout 916 4 069 3 052 2 365 1.29
Eels 186 825 619 244 2.53
Cyrprinids 130 577 433 13 037 0.03
Tilapias 143 636 477 2 737 0.17
Other freshwater 180 800 600 2 102 0.29
Aquaculture sub-
3 079 13 683 10 262 27 495 0.37
total
Total 4 942 21 964 16 473
Source: IFFO

Table 16.2: Fish oil used in farmed production and the resultant whole fish FIFO ratio, 2008 (‘000 tonnes)
Farmed
Fish oil Raw material Whole fish FIFO
production
Human 126 2 689 2 017 n/a n/a

consumption
Other uses 110 2 340 1 755 n/a n/a
Crustaceans 28 589 442 4 673 0.09
Marine fish 115 2 455 1 841 2 337 0.79
Salmon and trout 604 12 857 9 642 2 365 4.08
Eels 15 320 240 244 0.98
Cyrprinids 1 24 18 13 037 0.00
Tilapias 18 376 282 2 737 0.10
Other freshwater 15 313 235 2 102 0.11
Aquaculture sub-
795 16 934 12 700 27 495 0.46
total
Total 1 032 21 964 16 472
Source: IFFO.
Table 16.3: Mass balance for fish oil and fishmeal combined including overall whole fish FIFO ratio, 2008
(‘000 tonnes)
Fish Fishmeal Water Total Whole Farmed FIFO
oil fish production
Non-marine uses
Chicken 0 440 1 178 1 619 1 214 n/a n/a
Pig 0 1 263 3 380 4 643 3 482 n/a n/a
Other land
0 160 428 588 441 n/a n/a
animals
Other oil uses 110 0 294 404 303 n/a n/a
Human
126 0 337 463 347 n/a n/a
consumption
Aquatic species
Crustaceans 28 786 2 178 2 992 2 244 4 673 0.48
Marine fish 115 738 2 285 3 138 2 354 2 337 1.01
Salmon and
604 916 4 069 5 588 4 191 2 365 1.77
trout
Eels 15 186 537 738 554 244 2.26
Cyrprinids 1 130 350 481 361 13 037 0.03
Tilapias 18 143 430 591 443 2 737 0.16
Other freshwater 15 180 521 716 537 2 102 0.26
Aquaculture sub-
796 3 079 10 371 14 246 10 684 27 495 0.39
total
Total 1 032 4 942 15 990 21 964 16 473
Source: IFFO.
The impact of innovation on feed formulation for aquaculture
Worldwide a whole range of different species is being cultured, from herbivorous

species of carp through omnivorous fish, such as tilapia and pangasius, to carnivorous
species, such as salmon, seabass and eels. However, all species of fish, even herbivorous
species of carp, have a very high protein requirement when in the early fry or juvenile

stage. In the wild these young fish will feed on small microscopic animals or zooplankton
and in some extensive farming systems an environment rich in zooplankton can be
created by fertilising the pond. However, the commercial rearing of fish under most
intensive conditions now requires the production of protein-rich fry feeds which yields
the maximum number of healthy, fast growing fry for on-growing. This means that it is
very difficult to meet the high protein requirement of young fish and crustacean of
different species without the inclusion of fishmeal under farming conditions.
In some farmed species which were formerly fed diets containing a high proportion of
fishmeal (e.g. salmon and shrimp), a growing knowledge of their nutritional requirements
is allowing the partial substitution of the marine ingredients with complementary
ingredients, particularly those that are plant-derived. The ability to achieve this
substitution is most marked at the latter part of the growth cycle when using on-growing
diets and it is being aided by two important developments. Plant breeding has produced
new varieties of plants like soya and rapeseed which contain fewer harmful anti-
nutritional factors and higher protein levels. This has been combined with new
techniques for processing the products post-harvest, which makes the nutrients more bio-
available; such techniques include both heat and enzyme treatment.
As regards the security of long-term supply, the limited volumes of fish oil produced
globally have led some to speculate that aquaculture production will be limited in the
future more by availability of fish oil than of fishmeal. This is likely to be avoided in the
short to medium term as fish feed companies have learnt how to make existing volumes
of fish oil go further by developing techniques of including a blend of different vegetable
oils (e.g. rapeseed oil) in diets with the dietary fish oil. These diets combined with
special feeding regimes, can give excellent growth performance, when done carefully
within appropriate limits and will produce finished aquaculture products, which although
lower in total EPA and DHA, have sufficient for fish welfare and to provide some health
benefit to the final consumer.
In the longer-term a number of plant breeding companies are working on producing
genetically modified varieties of oil seeds which will contain long-chain omega-3 fatty
acids. This has now been achieved and the resulting products are currently going through
the lengthy licensing process.
The practical result of such innovation is demonstrated by the falling inclusion levels
of marine ingredients in salmon and trout diets worldwide over the period 2000 – 2008
(Figure 16.8), which is continuing. The technology of substitution in salmonids is now
sufficiently well-developed that, if the price ratio of soyabean meal to fishmeal gets much
higher than the long-run average of 3:1 (Figure 16.9), there is reduced demand for
fishmeal due to increased substitution of fishmeal by soyabean meal. In a similar way
there is a close relationship between the prices of fish oil and rapeseed oil with increased
substitution of fish oil if the price climbs above that of rapeseed oil (Figure 16.10),
despite the advantage of fish oil’s omega-3 content. The challenge for the fish feed
formulator is optimising feed costs while meeting nutrient needs of the farmed fish
against a background of changing raw material costs.
Figure 16.11 clearly shows that increasing global aquaculture production during
2000 – 2008 has taken place against a simultaneous pattern of stable (or even slightly
declining) usage of fishmeal and fish oil for aquaculture. The consequence is that the use
of fishmeal and fish oil for aquaculture has not risen since 2004 and 2001 respectively
despite 10% annual growth in global aquaculture. This is due mainly to innovations
enabling improved efficiency of use and substitution by complementary ingredients. Also

given that some cross-substitution of demand exists between fishmeal and fish oil with
vegetable proteins and oils, the market has played a role in balancing supply and demand
for feed ingredients. At the same time it’s clear that demand for marine ingredients by
aquaculture has been stronger than for their use in feed for poultry and (grower) pigs at
the prices prevailing over the last decade in particular. Whereas it is possible to replace
increasing proportions of fishmeal and fish oil with proteins and lipids from non-marine
sources, fishmeal and fish oil continue to be vital strategic ingredients for farmed fish and
crustaceans, especially at the critical growth stages.
Figure 16.8: Inclusion levels of marine ingredients in Salmonid diets

35.0
30.0
25.0
% Dietary Inclusion
20.0
Fishmeal %
15.0
Fish OIl%
10.0
5.0
0.0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Figure 16.9: Fishmeal to soymeal ration 1998-2009

7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Fishmeal:Soyameal Price Ratio Average Ratio 1998-2009

Figure 16.10: Monthly prices of fish oil and rape oil, 1999-2009
2000
1800
1600
1400
T 1200
M
/ 1000
$
S
U 800
600
400
200
0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Fish Oil Rape Oil
Figure 16.11: Global aquaculture production with fishmeal and fish oil usage, 2000-2008
60 3.50
50 3.00
2.50
s 40
n
io
lli 2.00 Aquaculture
m30 Fed Aquaculture
s
e 1.50
n Fish meal used in aquaculture
n
o
T 20 Fish Oil used in aquaculture
1.00
10
0.50
0 0.00
Data FAO & IFFO
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Compliance with the FAO code of Responsible Fishing
Almost all feed fishing takes place within national waters and, as with all fishing,
there is the potential risk that short-term benefit will drive over-exploitation. By far the
largest feed fishery in the world (and the largest fishery with 6.14 million metric tonnes
in 2009) is that for the Peruvian anchovy and it is noteworthy that Peru has in place the
following controls to avoid overfishing:
Biomass controls
• Statutory seasons when the fisheries are open and closed
• Annual and seasonal total catch limits

• Only artisanal boats are permitted to fish within five miles of the coast
• Rapid closure when limits are reached or more than 10% juveniles in catch
• Maximum catch limits per vessel (MCLV), a form of catch share
By-catch controls
• By-catch limit 5% (actual 2007 3.6%)
• Minimum mesh size of 1/2 inch (13mm)
Unloading
• Formal declaration of hold capacity
• Closed entry to new fishing boats
• Licences required to fish within the 200 mile limit and to land catch
• Security sealed satellite tracking of all boats operating outside the 5 mile
limit
• 24 hour independent recording of landings at 134 unloading points
• Fines and revoking of licences for breaches of rules
The 1995 United Nations FAO Code of Responsible Fishing is the only
internationally recognised reference for responsible fisheries management at an
intergovernmental level. How closely a country implements the Code is a good measure
of the quality of their fisheries management. Compliance with the code is therefore an
important objective in focusing efforts to ensure long-term sustainability of fisheries,
whether for feed use or human consumption.
The aquaculture supply chain is increasingly demanding assurance that products are
produced sustainably; in the case of marine ingredients this is often over and above
indications from the government statistics for the fishery in question. The Marine
Stewardship Council’s (MSC) eco-label is the most widely recognised evidence for
sustainable fishing for human consumption and cross-refers to the FAO Code. However,
as of today (Feb. 2010) there is virtually no fishmeal and fish oil that comes from MSC
approved fisheries and their scheme is focused on the fishery and fish processing plants,
whereas fishmeal and fish oil have a different supply chain.
IFFO has recently established a Global Standard for the Responsible Supply of
fishmeal and fish oil as a Business-to-Business accreditation scheme with two elements:
Responsible Sourcing (i.e. demonstrating fishery stocks are responsibly managed in
compliance with the FAO code, including avoidance of illegal, unreported, or
unregulated (IUU) fish); and Responsible Production (i.e. demonstrably well managed
factories with control systems to prevent contamination).

Such schemes are a valuable tool to differentiate and reward good practice and to
drive up standards and lie at the heart of progress towards sustainable fisheries. At the
same it should be noted that the FAO code avoids reference to sustainability and refers
instead to responsible practice. However, a problem can arise where ecolabels or
accreditation schemes can become a barrier to trade, particularly from poorer regions, if
they act in practice to prevent the export of farmed fish or other products to customers
demanding accreditation. One way of managing this situation, without in any way
diluting the standard, is to construct some form of improvement scheme which offers an
incentive for upgrading resources over a transitional period until the improver is able to
apply for the standard in question. In the short term a mutually-agreed improvement plan
might be followed in order to give some confidence to buyers who might not otherwise
wish to source such product; but the main practical difficulty is likely to be a lack of
capital to allow the necessary upgrading.
Conclusions
Feed is the highest cost input to most forms of aquaculture and also one of the areas
under most scrutiny with regard to sustainability. It is therefore important that
aquaculture pays particular attention to the efficient use of feeds and the inclusion of
responsibly sourced ingredients. The use of direct ‘trash fish’ feeding for aquaculture,
mainly in South East Asia, is an area of concern leading to increased risk of health and
hygiene problems and also water pollution, when compared with the use of compounded
dry diets. The dominance of feed cost encourages farmers to focus on achieving the best
conversion from feed to fish and since fish are excellent converters of feed, many
farming systems operate with a feed conversion rate (FCR) of approximately 1:1,
although there are always trade-offs between achieving maximum growth, minimum
FCR and optimum earnings. However, the optimum solution from a short-term
commercial farming standpoint may well differ from that based on optimising resource
allocation from a longer term perspective.
With regard to the sustainability of ingredients, this logically applies to all
ingredients, whether of marine origin or not. As already discussed, marine ingredients
should come from fisheries managed under the key principles of the FAO Code of
Responsible Fishing. As regards the sourcing of other ingredients, we would suggest that
at the minimum they conform to the Brundtland Commission definition of sustainability
as production that "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs" (Brundtland, 1987). Wherever possible some
form of independent verification should be adopted to demonstrate sustainable sourcing
and production; in the case of marine ingredients this could include MSC or IFFO (which
offer a more rational approach than utilising Fish-in:Fish-out ratios as has been
suggested). More work is needed to construct a comprehensive, practical model as a basis
for evaluating the overall sustainability of different aquaculture feeds.

References
Brundtland, G.H. (1987), The Report of the Brundtland Commission: Our Common
Future, Oxford University Press.
FAO (1995), Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing, FAO, Rome.
FAO (2008), The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, FAO, Rome.
FAO (2009), FAO FISHSTAT, FAO, Rome.
Jackson, A.J. (2010) “Fishmeal and Fish Oil: Prime feed ingredients not limiting factors
for responsible aquaculture”, Global Aquaculture Advocate January/February, 14-17.
Tacon, A.G.J. (2005), “Salmon aquaculture dialogue: status of information on salmon
aquaculture feed and the environment”, International Aquafeed 8, 22–37.
Tacon, A.G.J. and Metian, M. (2008), “Global overview on the use of fish meal and fish
oil in industrially compounded aquafeeds: trends and future prospects”, Aquaculture
285, 146–158.

17. BARRIERS TO AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT AS A PATHWAY TO POVERTY ALLEVIATION AND FOOD SECURITY – 345
Chapter 17
Barriers to aquaculture development as a pathway to

poverty alleviation and food security
Malcolm Beveridge, Michael Phillips, Patrick Dugan, Randy Brummet

WorldFish Center
Abstract
The importance of aquaculture production in developing countries is reviewed
briefly. Two sets of barriers to realizing the potential of aquaculture to alleviate
poverty and improve food security and nutrition are identified: those directly
attributable to aquaculture development policies and those arising from a lack of
policy coherence for development (PCD). The latter applies to a wide range of
sectors, the most important from an aquaculture perspective being energy,
environment, agriculture and food production, and trade and sanitary standards.
Lack of PCD is apparent at many levels: within development cooperation policies,
between aid and non-aid policies within a single donor and between donors, and
donor-partner coherence to achieve shared development objectives.
We conclude that development agencies can play a greater role in fostering the
emergence of aquaculture as a means of alleviating poverty and improving food
security and nutrition. This requires broadening the focus beyond poor producers to
include small and medium aquaculture enterprises, adopting a value chain
perspective on aquaculture development that fosters a “whole industry” approach
that delivers key human development goals, and pursuing greater internal coherence
within and between development policies. We also propose that development agencies
promote mechanisms and interventions that redress policy imbalances by raising
awareness among policy makers and through more integrated approaches to
development assistance.

346 – 17. BARRIERS TO AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT AS A PATHWAY TO POVERTY ALLEVIATION AND FOOD SECURITY
Introduction
Aquaculture addresses poverty and food insecurity through a variety of routes and at
various scales. It offers a means for smallholder farmers to diversify production, thereby
providing nutritious food for their own families, and sometimes those of their neighbours,
while also generating surpluses for sale. Aquaculture enterprises from micro to large
scale, providing fish exclusively for sale, create farm income and employment
opportunities throughout the value chain and provide affordable, highly nutritious food in
response to market demand.
While the development benefits from aquaculture are increasingly understood in
development circles, the key question remains: where and in what circumstances is
aquaculture the most appropriate option to improve livelihoods, foster economic
development and improve food security and nutrition? Equally there is uncertainty as to
how aquaculture can minimize impact on the environment, and where other policy
investments are needed to foster aquaculture output and optimize its development
benefits.
The present paper considers these issues and explains the importance of the
aquaculture sector in developing countries. We consider how aquaculture contributes to
poverty alleviation and food security and nutrition and review the sector’s consumption
of, and contribution to, ecosystem services. We analyze how aquaculture affects
vulnerability and consider how development policies that focus on smallholder producers
limit the potential of the sector to alleviate poverty and improve food security. We
examine the coherence of OECD policies on energy, environment, trade and sanitary and
phytosanitary standards with those on development, and examine how they can
compound external shocks to increase vulnerability of the global poor and the ecological
services upon which they depend.
Aquaculture in the developing world
Introduction
Fish provides an important source of protein (>20% animal protein) for 2.6 billion
people worldwide and is the dominant source of animal protein in many small island
developing states, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Equatorial Guinea, French Guiana, the
Gambia, Ghana, Indonesia and Sierra Leone (FAO, 2009). More importantly, it is a rich
and highly bioavailable source of much-needed micronutrients and vitamins. Provisional
FAO statistics for 2008 show that aquaculture now supplies almost half of all fish
consumed. While capture fisheries production has stabilized at around 95 million tonnes
for the past 20 years, aquaculture production has grown at an average rate of 7% per
annum, ahead of world population growth. Preliminary data for 2008 from the FAO
indicate that 53.3 million tonnes was produced, a 6% increase on production in 2007.
Farm gate value is estimated at USD 81 billion, but two-three times this figure from a
value chain perspective.
The developing world accounts for the vast majority of global aquaculture production
and increasingly is a producer of fish for the developed world. Ninety percent of global
aquaculture production is from Asia, 67% from China alone. An increasing proportion of

Asian aquaculture production is traded both regionally and internationally, especially

with Europe and North America. Three commodities in particular are worthy of note:
tropical penaeid shrimp (predominantly Penaeus monodon and P. stylirostris), Mekong
catfish (Pangasius spp.) and tilapia (Oreochromis spp.). Annual shrimp sales alone are
worth an estimated USD 18 billion at farm gate. The Vietnamese striped catfish
(Pangasionodon hypophthalmus) industry is the fastest growing single species farmed
commodity ever recorded and today produces close to 700 000 tonnes, generating an
estimated USD 645 million at farm gate values (Phan et al., 2010). Ninety percent of the
fish is processed and, trading under a plethora of names, striped catfish has rapidly
penetrated markets throughout the developed world, especially in Europe, as an
affordable and acceptable substitute for the depleted stocks of marine white fish formally
supplied by domestic fisheries.
In contrast, there is little aquaculture production in Africa (775 500 t), the bulk of
which (635 000 t) comes from Egypt where the indigenous Nile tilapia is the most
important species. Aquaculture production in Africa is, however, now growing rapidly,
albeit from a very low baseline. Five of the ten countries with the most rapid rates of
production increase are African: Uganda, Mozambique, Malawi, Togo and Nigeria
(FAO, 2009). Domestic markets are strong, and negligible amounts of African
aquaculture production are traded outside the region (Gordon 2009; Bené et al., 2010).
Nonetheless, per capita fish consumption in sub-Saharan Africa remains the World’s
lowest through a combination of population growth, stagnating capture fisheries supplies
and slow regional growth in aquaculture production, compounded by increasing world
fish prices that constrain imports.
The bulk of developing world aquaculture is of herbivores and omnivores, in contrast
to the intensive production of carnivorous marine finfish that dominates developed world
aquaculture (Tacon et al., 2010). There is also an enormous diversity of producer types in
developing country aquaculture. Smallholder ‘subsistence’ type fish farmers raise crops
of fish in ponds on their farms. Production volumes tend to be low, a result of both small
pond size and low productivity, the latter arising through dependence on on-farm (farm
wastes), sometimes augmented with off-farm (inorganic fertilizers, manures from
intensive agriculture and feeds) resources. The term small and medium aquaculture
enterprises (aquaculture SMEs) is applied to a wide range of producer types that produce
fish and other aquatic products for sale. The smallest enterprises may generate income
from aquaculture as one component of a household livelihood strategy, but many small
and medium enterprises are characterized by livelihoods largely dependent on
aquaculture. SME production is typically semi-intensive, reliant on fertilizer and/or feed,
with production levels between 1 and 100 tonnes per farm per annum. Larger,
commercial aquaculture operations, which may produce as much as several thousand
tonnes per annum, remain relatively uncommon in developing countries, other than in the
Mekong delta of Vietnam. They are generally multinational operations, often targeting
multiples in regional and international markets.
The FAO estimates that there are some nine million fish farmers (FAO, 2009), a
figure widely acknowledged as a considerable underestimate. The aquaculture value
chain comprises producers, those who supply inputs (e.g seed, fertilizers and feed) to
producers and those engaged in downstream processing, distribution, marketing and trade
of aquaculture produce. Although data are scant the numbers employed throughout the
aquaculture value chain often exceed those directly involved in production by a factor of
two or three. Employment opportunities are provided for a wide variety of actors
including many women, the landless and the socially and culturally marginalized.

Aquaculture, ecosystem services and poverty
Aquaculture and ecosystem services

Aquatic foods - plants, shellfish and fish - obtained via hunting (collecting, trapping,
fishing) and farming (aquaculture) are one of the most important provisioning ecosystem
services derived from aquatic ecosystems - coastal areas, estuaries, lakes, rivers and
wetlands (Béné et al., 2010b). While some forms of aquaculture, especially of seaweed
and molluscs, provide both food and supporting ecosystem services through the removal
of anthropogenically generated nutrients (Soto et al., 2009), the farming of fish and
shrimp is dependent upon use of a wide range of provisioning and regulating ecosystem
services - land, water, seed, feed and the dispersion and assimilation of wastes, including
escaped farmed organisms (Beveridge et al., 1997; Soto, 2009; Béné et al., 2010a). At
the farm level, consumption of ecosystem services is largely determined by species,
system and intensity of production methods. While land and water use per unit
production decreases with intensity of production methods, demand for seed, feed,
energy and the use of ecosystem services to disperse and assimilate wastes tends to
increase. Attempts to address these issues include policies to promote ‘integrated multi-
trophic aquaculture’, where seaweed, molluscs and occasionally echinoderms are farmed
alongside finfish.
While aquaculture can thus make significant contributions to reducing poverty and
improving food security and nutrition, it does so at the cost of the ecosystem services
consumed. Certain types of aquaculture are particularly heavy users of ecosystem
services and therefore need particular care in their planning, design and operation. For
example, conversion of mangroves and sea grass beds for aquaculture use should be
avoided as they provide a wide range of ecological services, including the sequestration
of carbon (Beveridge et al., 2010). Cage aquaculture depends on the use of common
property resources – lakes and coastal areas - and, per quantity of fish production, makes
greatest use of certain types of ecosystem services (food; waste dispersion and
assimilation) (Beveridge, 2004). Good governance, appropriate legal frameworks, strong
institutions with good institutional capacity and the adoption of adaptive management are
all essential to the sustainable use of such services and the equitable share of benefits
from this type of aquaculture. Intensification of production methods is essential to
achieving more productive use of land and water (e.g. Verreth et al., 2008) but will also
increase consumption of other ecosystem services, both provisioning (notably
aquaculture feeds) and supportive (the dispersion and assimilation of nutrients and other
wastes). Analyses of various types of aquaculture show that energy consumption, and
thus global warming potential, is most strongly associated with feed use, especially when
feeds are from outside the production area, and with up-stream post-harvest processing
and distribution (Tyedmers, 2009; Henrikksen, 2009). Nonetheless, the linkages between
different types of aquaculture production systems, value chains, and ecosystem services
remain poorly defined and understood, contributing to the lack of policy coherence.
Poverty, vulnerability and aquaculture

One of the most important dimensions of poverty is the ability of individuals and
communities to respond effectively to external shocks such as climate change and
globalisation of markets. Resilience in the face of external shocks is dependent on both
the degree of exposure to such shocks and the adaptive capacity of individuals and

communities. A vulnerability framework is useful in examining both potential and

realized vulnerability at a range of scales. Individuals whose livelihoods are most
exposed to climate change, for example who live in low-lying coastal areas and work as
aquaculture labourers, and who are particularly sensitive to impacts through their
dependence on aquaculture, are potentially most vulnerable. However, if those who are
potentially most impacted through exposure and sensitivity are also young, have had a
reasonable education, belong to well-organized producer organizations and are supported
by strong institutions with sound policies, then they are more likely to be able to adapt to
the impacts of external shocks than those who lack such adaptive capacity (Beveridge
et al., 2010). Development investments – including in aquaculture - that reduce exposure
to shocks, reduce sensitivity and build adaptive capacity are increasingly seen as key
components in effective approaches to reducing poverty. This requires an approach to
aquaculture that goes beyond investment in production to investments in better policies,
institutional support and services necessary to build adaptive capacity, particularly when
exposing producers to the increased risks associated with international markets.
Aquaculture and development
Introduction
For a decade the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have provided an agreed
international focus for national governments, development agencies, NGOs and private
philanthropic organizations in their efforts to reduce global poverty and hunger. There
has been no consensus on how to achieve this, however, and some sectors have received
less attention. The share of agriculture in overseas development assistance declined from
a high of 18% in 1979 to 3.5% in 2004. It also declined in absolute terms, from a high of
approximately $8 billion (2004 USD) to $3.4 billion in 2004 (World Bank 2007). Only
relatively recently, spurred in particular by the World Development Report (World Bank
2007) and rapidly escalating fuel and food commodity prices during 2007-2009, has
greater focus been placed on agriculture and food production.
Within this evolving development arena and only recent resurgence in attention to
agriculture, aquaculture has had a particular history. This has differed between Africa and
Asia. As reflected by the current levels of production, 53.3 million tonnes in Asia and
775 500 tonnes in Africa, aquaculture has been spectacularly successful in Asia, but not
so in Africa. The poor performance of aquaculture in Africa has resulted in little
investment in the sector in recent years. This is beginning to change, however, in
response to the growing gap between fish demand and supply and emerging signs that
many of the historical constraints to aquaculture development can be overcome. The
following section examines the case for aquaculture development investment. We do so
by first examining experiences from Africa, the continent that has so far faced the hardest
challenges, but where potential is seen as being greatest. In doing so we compare the
development case for investment in small-holder aquaculture with its direct impact on
poor producers, and investment in SME where many fewer people are engaged in
production but where the impact on food security and nutrition at national and regional
levels are likely to be greater.

Aquaculture in Africa
Since the late 1980s there have been a variety of donor investments in smallholder
aquaculture in sub-Saharan Africa. Notable among these are the investments made by
GTZ/BMZ (Germany), USAID, CIRAD (France), DFID (UK), SIDA (Sweden) and
NORAD (Norway). The WorldFish Center, among others, has used such investments to
work with farmers and NGOs through farmer-scientist research partnerships to pursue the
development of smallholder-based aquaculture in Cameroon, Ghana and Malawi as a
primary focus of efforts to foster the emergence of African aquaculture as an approach to
reducing poverty and hunger.
A central conclusion from these investments is that adoption of fish farming by
smallholders has produced many benefits. The farm pond assumes a central importance
in integrated smallholder systems generating not only crops of fish but also offering
additional flexibility to farmers to use the water for alternative crops or for irrigation and
household needs if rains are late or smaller than expected (Miller, 2009). Ex-post analysis
of the development and dissemination of small-scale integrated aquaculture in Malawi
(Brummett and Williams, 2000; Dey et al., 2007, 2010; Poumogne and Pemsl, 2008;
Russell et al., 2008), for example has shown that:
• total farm productivity improved by 10%;

• per hectare farm income increased by 134%;
• total farm income increased by 61%;
• technical efficiency improved by 40%;
• per capita household consumption of fresh (208%) and dried fish (21%)
increased.
There are also positive impacts on the environment: reduced nitrogen loss and
improved nitrogen use efficiency (Dey et al., 2007, 2010).
In sum, where input and output markets are weak, but environmental conditions and
on-farm resources for aquaculture are adequate, the development of farm ponds as means
of diversifying and improving farm productivity has proved successful. The numbers of
smallholders practicing aquaculture in southern Malawi, for example, has risen from 300
to 7 000 over the past 25 years (Russell et al., 2008). Because individual farm production
is low, this type of subsistence oriented smallholder aquaculture has had little discernible
impact on national food fish supplies, but it has had a substantial impact on food security
and nutrition of participating smallholders and has helped build the resilience of farmers
in times of drought.
There are thus substantial benefits for agriculture households to be gained from
integrating fish ponds into agriculture farming systems. To contribute substantially to
food supplies and nutrition, this form of aquaculture needs to be widely replicated among
the farming population, or intensification is required. Intensification needs to be
supported by the development and dissemination of improved pond production
technologies, improved seed and feed and provision of effective extension. Smallholder
farmers in Africa do not, however, have the resources to pay for these inputs and their
sustained provision requires long-term subsidies, especially in terms of technical support
(Brummett et al., 2008, 2010). We believe, however, that this can be an appropriate
development investment in support of small farm producers, complementing social

protection policies such as food for education that helps improve nutrition, protect people
against risks and vulnerability, and mitigates against the impact of shocks and supports
people with few alternative means of livelihood diversification.
Analysis of performance success in Egypt, Cameroon, Ghana, Nigeria and Uganda
shows that fish production begins to significantly impact on food security where
conditions support the emergence of small and medium-scale aquaculture enterprises
with a more commercial market-led orientation (Brummett et al., 2008, 2010). Where
market demand is strong and accessible, such as near centres of high population density,
and where the required technologies and expertise have been available entrepreneurial
farmers have seized opportunities to specialize in fish production. For example, in the
areas where WorldFish has been working in southern Cameroon the number of
commercial farms has increased in peri-urban areas. Many of these are new adopters
seeking to replicate the success of the minority of project participants who succeeded to
commercialize their farms through integrated agriculture-aquaculture.
This experience has shown that the SME sector is more likely to have the assets
(educational and health; cash or access to credit to invest in larger ponds and use of off-
farm resources, especially seed, fertilizers and feed) to develop and adopt the more
productive and profitable technologies. Greater quantities of fish are produced and
production is primarily market oriented. Opportunities are thus created for employment
not only in production but also in supplying input markets (especially seed), trading and
transport in addition to the benefits to poor consumers secured through stabilization of
fish prices. As Brummett et al. (2008, 2010) have shown in Cameroon, providing public
investment to SME aquaculture producers generates more income and food per
development dollar invested, and when projects end they are better able to continue to
grow, proliferate and generate jobs and food throughout the value chain, ultimately
stabilizing fish prices for the benefit of lower income consumers.
Aquaculture in Asia
There is a long tradition of farming herbivorous and omnivorous carps in Asia,
especially in wetland areas (Beveridge and Little, 2002). Despite this, aquaculture
production was largely only of local importance until the 1970s. Since then growth in
production has been substantial, often exceeding 10% annually, and the region now
contributes 90% of global production.
As with the green revolution in Asia in the 1960s that was led by smallholders, so has
much of the increase in aquaculture production. Growth was spurred by a number of
factors: strong and growing demand from rapidly urbanizing populations, stagnating fish
and shellfish supplies from fisheries, highly productive farms, availability of fast growing
strains of fish such as genetically improved farm tilapia (GIFT) (Asian Development
Bank, 2005), investment in education and research, a dynamic private sector, and high
levels of public investment in agriculture and in roads needed to get farm produce to
market. The past 15 years has also seen the emergence of a vibrant SME aquaculture
sector in many Asian countries, especially in China, Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia and
the Philippines. This SME sector targets not only local, national and regional markets
but, increasingly, international markets.
In Bangladesh, agriculture is dominated by small and marginal farms. Nonetheless,
aquaculture production has risen almost five-fold in 20 years, from 337 818 tonnes in
1988 to 1 612 969 tonnes in 2007 (FAO, 2009). Aquaculture now accounts for two-thirds

of fish production, all of which comes from freshwater farms, most of which are operated
by smallholders. Fishponds largely originated as borrow pits, excavated to raise
homesteads above flood levels. Growth in production has come from an increase in
number of aquaculture farmers and improvements in individual farm productivity. This
has been achieved through the involvement of public and private sectors and civil society
which have driven increases in stocking densities, increased fertilizer and feed use and
better management. The impacts of extension are illustrated by the study of Jahan
et al. (2008). As the result of a five-year USAID funded aquaculture development
project, productivity of farms receiving NGO-led provision of technical advice increased
by 25% per annum compared to less than 4% per annum for non-project farmers.
Aquaculture and policy coherence for development
Introduction
Fish is one of the most widely traded commodities, and trade from the developing
world to the developed is increasing in both volume and in value. OECD member states
import 60% of their fish from developing countries (OECD, 2008). South-North trade not
only responds to consumer demand but also to the growing requirement for fish oil and
fishmeal for intensive fish farming, especially for farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Western Europe and North America, and
sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and sea bream (Pagrus major) in the Mediterranean.
While globalisation underlies much of the policy discussion on fisheries and aquaculture,
there remain significant challenges in understanding, gauging and developing appropriate
policy responses (OECD/FAO, 2007). Foremost are how best to address concerns about
food security, food safety and public health, and potential conflicts with domestic
economic policy in developed countries. Increasingly, too, concerns over impacts of trade
on internationally agreed targets on limiting greenhouse gas emissions, can be expected
to influence policy.
Policy Cohesion for Development, defined by the OECD as ‘the pursuit of
development objectives through the systematic promotion of mutually reinforcing policy
actions on the part of both [developed] and developing countries’, is one of the MDGs.
Development cannot occur through aid alone: globalisation and liberalization increase the
gains from interdependence and integration, while lack of PCD has an economic cost
both for the global poor and for taxpayers in the developed world. The importance of
fisheries in PCD is explicitly recognized in OECD documents (OECD, 2006,
www.oecd.org/dataoecd/41/0/41412053.pdf). However, the pursuit of domestic policies,
both with regard to aquaculture and to cross-sectoral issues such as environment, energy
and consumer protection, can result in a lack of coherence towards development. Key
policy sectors and questions to be considered are summarized in Table 17.1.

Table 17.1: Key cross-sectoral policy areas and issues pertaining to aquaculture
Policy area Issues
What are the risks associated with an increasing reliance on

aquaculture and can the sector absorb growing demand? How much of
Domestic economies domestic demand should policy makers accept being met from
and trade developing countries and what proportion of the value added
throughout the value chains should policies facilitate in domestic as
opposed to developing economies?
Sanitary and What are the public health risks associated with aquaculture and with
phytosanitary developing country aquaculture in particular? What policies must be
standards implemented and by whom and where to ensure sanitary standards for
import of farmed fish and shellfish are met?
What ecosystem services are consumed by the different types of
Environment aquaculture production systems and value chains? What policies both
minimize use of ecosystem services and foster equitable use?
How energy efficient are the different fisheries and aquaculture sub-
sectors? What is the effect on global warming potential - and more
Energy specifically on national targets - of international trade of fish from
different parts of the world and what policies are needed to minimize
these whilst maintaining essential commodity supplies?
Sanitary and phytosanitary standards

Trade in aquaculture products is subject to stringent sanitary and pohytosanitary
standards with regard to food hygiene, packing traceability and labeling (OECD, 2008).
The food safety issues associated with aquaculture products and trade have been
reviewed by the WHO and others (WHO, 1999; Jahnke et al., 2002). International
standards are developed through CODEX but there are an increasing number of other
mandatory and voluntary (public and private) standards being developed. While there are
legitimate concerns, these can be unnecessarily protectionist. Private standards are often
driven by consumer demands but also to sustain retailers own brands, which may have
higher margins (OECD, 2008). Developing countries are concerned about access to
information on standards, predictability, transparency and lack of involvement in
standards setting, and insufficient funds and knowledge to comply with standards and
implement traceability processes. Private production standards for many important
aquaculture sub-sectors, such as tilapia, catfish and shrimp, are being developed, but
there are fears that the plethora of emerging standards will confuse consumers. There are
also concerns about the clarity and stability of standards, and the costs and capacity of
developing countries to conform with, in particular, a concern that small, poor producers
are particularly disadvantaged by such standards.
Domestic economies and trade

Developed country fisheries catches have stagnated or declined at the same time as
demand has been growing due to increasing wealth and changing consumer preferences
(FAO 2007; Ernst & Young 2008). The strategy launched in 2002 to help meet demand
and engender economic growth and employment by implementing policies to foster
growth of domestic production in Europe by 4% per annum (European Commission,

2002), however, has failed (Eurostat, 2007) due to increased competition, the success of
substitution products (e.g. striped catfish for marine white fish), reduced profit margins,
higher investment risks, sector fragmentation, lack of sites for expansion, poor image and
increasingly stringent environmental and health regulations. As a result fish imports,
which until recently have largely excluded value added products, increased three-fold
between 2002 and 2007 (Ernst and Young, 2008).
In 2009, the EC launched a new strategy for the development of a sustainable
aquaculture industry: to promote its competitiveness, to establish conditions for
sustainable growth and to improve the sectors organization and governance (European
Commission, 2009). If successful, and there are those that question how the strategy can
be implemented in the face of ever stricter environmental policies, notably the Water
Framework Directive, the policy will also likely have adverse impacts on fish imports
from developing country aquaculture. What might be better for both exporting and
importing counties would be to encourage stronger partnerships across value chains for
aquaculture products, and communication and cooperation that explores and brings
mutual benefits to producers and consumers, such as is promoted by the Asia-Europe
Meeting (ASEM) aquaculture platform:
http://www.asemaquaculture.org/content/view/2/5/
Energy
There have been several recent analyses of impact of aquaculture on climate change
(e.g. Tyedmers, 2009). Henriksson (2009) examined the global warming potential (kg
CO2 tonne production-1) of Asian aquaculture. Confining his analyses to up-stream and
on-farm processes, the GWP of shrimp and fish culture was found to be greater than that
of oyster farming, while the GWP of extensive fish farming was less than that associated
with more intensive aquaculture practices. For shrimp and fish culture the greatest GWP
was generally linked with feed use; the exception was for intensive Pangasius catfish
farming systems in the lower Mekong, where pumping accounted for the greatest
proportion of GWP. Extending the boundaries of such analyses is likely to also highlight
the importance of not releasing carbon already locked in storage materials such as
mangroves when seeking areas for sectoral expansion. Large quantities of carbon are also
sequestered in fishpond muds (Bunting et al., 2007). Releases to the atmosphere can
probably be greatly reduced through the development of polyculture or use of sediments
in crop and vegetable production.
There is also increasing interest in the high transport mileage, and thus high energy
use and global warming potential, when importing aquaculture produce from developing
countries. However, research is needed on the energy and ecosystem services costs of
aquaculture in different parts of the world and policies must strive to balance concerns
about climate change with the need for countries to be able to trade their way out of
poverty.
Conclusions
Aquaculture has grown dramatically in recent decades to become a major provider of

fish and other aquatic foods. The greatest increases in production have been in the
developing world, which now supplies not only much of its own demand but also that of
the developed world. However sectoral growth has been very uneven, with Asia
(including China) producing some 45 million tonnes per annum, and Africa producing

less than 0.2% of this amount. The relatively poor performance of African aquaculture
has been caused by a number of factors, among them the different market conditions in
Africa, but also the externally driven focus on smallholder aquaculture. While this has
proved successful in building resilience of poor smallholder farmers to external shocks
through improving household nutrition, building social capital (through exchange of fish
within communities) and reducing sensitivity to periodic drought, it has not led to
significant growth in production at national or continental levels. Rather, current
evidence indicates that significant increases in farmed fish production in Africa are most
likely to be achieved through careful investment in well targeted value-chain approaches
to the development of the SME aquaculture sector in places where this can respond to
strong markets and harness the potential of an emerging private sector. In this sectoral
context smallholder aquaculture still has an important place, but should be pursued where
it provides a viable crop alternative for improving livelihoods of poor smallholders and
improving on-farm resource use efficiency. It is unlikely to be a viable approach for
increased fish production at national levels.
The importance of aquaculture, and the need for a more holistic approach to its
development, is now acknowledged by a number of African countries, as seen in the
development of national strategies and in the plans of regional and sub-regional research
and development organizations. Although fisheries and aquaculture were something of an
afterthought in the CAADP (Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development
Programme), their potential role in achieving the 6% growth annual growth target is
recognized through the new Partnership for African Fisheries (PAF)
(www.caadp.net/news/?p=133) and elsewhere. The development community has a major
opportunity to build on this through the promotion of aquaculture in those countries
where market conditions now favour development of the SME sector.
The sustainable growth of aquaculture for poverty reduction and improved food
security and nutrition in developing countries needs coherent, mutually supportive
policies across a wide range of economic, social and environmental issues. Both national
and donor communities have roles to play. To create a favourable investment climate,
developing countries must continue to improve governance, promote transparency,
accountability, effective user rights and tackle corruption (OECD 2008). Aquaculture
will not flourish everywhere but where prospects seem good and where the benefits
appear attractive, countries should facilitate dialogue among policy makers, stakeholders,
civil society and consumers to assess the prospects for the sector to contribute to meeting
MDGs and to resolve trade-offs with other economic sectors and with environmental
requirements. National strategies and sectoral plans help establish clear sectoral goals but
must be developed within a broad economic, social and environmental policy context.
Strategies and plans should focus on addressing key challenges to sectoral growth but are
of no value if the resources or political will for implementation are lacking.
For their part, development agencies need to continue to strive for PCD. They must
understand the likely development benefits from different types of aquaculture, the
economic, social and institutional realities of the countries with which they engage, and
the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of different types of intervention. In any such
analysis, the present focus on producers must enlarge to consider the entire value chain,
the impacts on ecosystem services and the policy and institutional environment needed
for sustainable development of the sector. Investment in training and capacity building is
needed with a view to developing technologies to meet local needs, and institutions
strengthened so as to develop and implement supportive policies. World Trade
Organization and OECD policies make it tough for developing country aquaculture

produce, especially from small producers, to enter international markets (Umesh

et al., 2009). Producers need stability in standards, which must also be clearly
communicated. Support is often needed to help meet standards. Some sub-sectors, such
as the Vietnamese striped catfish industry, have secured access through investments from
government and international development agencies as well as the private sector. A lack
of investment hampers others, however. Bangladesh, for example, currently faces
constraints on export of farmed freshwater prawns and shrimp to the EU due to concerns
related to chemical contamination of products, which it finds difficult to resolve without
technical expertise.
There remain concerns that unconstrained expansion of aquaculture, combined with
intensification of production methods and demands on ecosystem services, may have
undesirable impacts on poverty. While existing approaches such as Life Cycle Analysis
help identify and quantify some of the environmental impacts, a wider suite of tools, such
as vulnerability frameworks and those being developed in support of the emergent
Ecosystem Approach to Aquaculture, are needed to determine and manage both social
and ecological impacts, essential for sustainable growth of the sector (Soto et al., 2009).
These novel approaches need to be applied more widely and lessons drawn from their
strengths and weaknesses. Only by doing so will aquaculture realise its full potential to
increase fish production in ways that strengthen livelihoods and national economies in
ways that are sustainable.

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18. CONDITIONS FOR ESTABLISHING AQUACULTURE PRODUCTION SITES IN OECD COUNTRIES – 361
Chapter 18
Conditions for establishing aquaculture production sites in

OECD countries:
Survey result discussion and summary
OECD Fisheries Policies Division,

based on information supplied by OECD Committee for Fisheries member
economies and observers and released under the responsibility of the Secretary-
General
Abstract
In 2009 the OECD conducted a survey on ‘Conditions for establishing
aquaculture production sites in OECD countries’. The questionnaire aimed to
capture main fieatures of the regulatory architecture for aquaculture and to
identify areas for improvement. The findings from the survey, integrated with
relevant literature, are distilled in key messages to policy makers. These
messages focus on (i) the need to simplified regulation and procedures in terms
of access to and operation of production sites, (ii) the added value of
stakeholder consultation in developing regulation and (ii) the importance of
economic incentives.

362 – 18. CONDITIONS FOR ESTABLISHING AQUACULTURE PRODUCTION SITES IN OECD COUNTRIES
“States should consider aquaculture, including culture-based fisheries, as a

means to promote diversification of income and diet. In doing so, States should
ensure that resources are used responsibly and adverse impacts on the
environment and on local communities are minimized.”
Article 6.19 - General Principles - Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
Introduction
An increasing world population and shifting consumption patterns due to higher

income and health motivations ensure a growing demand for seafood. Concurrently,
many fish stocks in capture fisheries are overfished. Aquaculture plays therefore an
increasingly important role in aquatic protein supply. The contribution of aquaculture to
the global food fish supply for human consumption reached 47% in 2006 (FAO, 2009),
an impressive figure, especially in view of the G8 leaders’ consideration of food security
after the 2008 food crisis.
OECD economies accounted for 35% of the value and 30% of the volume of the total
aquaculture production in 1984. These figures decreased to 18% and 9% respectively in
2007, underscoring the increasing importance of developing countries are aquaculture
production (Figure 18.1).
Figure 18.1: Total Aquaculture Production - Volume and value
80
OECD - value (USD)
70
Other - value (USD)
60
OECD - volume (tonnes)
50
Millions
Other - volume (tonnes)

40
30
20
10
0
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Source: FAO
Among OECD economies, Korea, Japan, Norway, USA, Spain and France alone
represented around 75% of the aquaculture production in terms of volume in 2006. In
terms of value, Japan, Norway, Korea, USA and Canada produce 73% of the total in the
same year (Figures 18.2 and 18.3).

Figure 18.2: OECD Aquaculture production in 2006 - Volume (million tonnes)
Source: OECD
Figure 18.3: OECD Aquaculture production in 2006 - Value (USD billion)
Source: OECD

The performance of the aquaculture sector is a function of four key components and
their interplay:
• Resources, including:
− Biological (species, genetic material, etc.);

− Physical (land, water, feed, labour)
− Financial (capital).
• Governance, which encompasses:
− Access to productive assets (land, water, etc.);

− Management of externalities (environmental, health, etc.);
− Enabling policy and institutions environment for biosecurity (safeguard
animal health, promote environmental sustainability, and enhance food
safety).
• Technology, e.g.:
− Rearing techniques;
− Facilities;
− Biotechnology/engineering;
− Feed.
• Markets:
− Demand and supply (function of for example sector reputation, prices,

availability);
− Substitutes;
− Trade regulations (e.g. food safety regulations, WTO competition issues).
From a policy perspective, the aquaculture sector has several dimensions (Figure
18.4). In the first place, potential negative externalities generated by aquaculture
production require measures to ensure environmental protection. Secondly, in terms of
economic activity, aquaculture can be an important pillar and employment provider, in
particular in rural coastal areas. In this context, access to the publicly managed productive
assets land and water is crucial. Thirdly, high aquaculture production volumes contribute
to the policy objective ‘food security’. There is however an ongoing discussion about the
‘fishmeal trap’, which questions the ethical acceptability of using fish from capture
fisheries for the production of high-value fish. Finally, aquaculture product safety and
hygiene is important to ensure consumer protection.

Figure 18.4: Policy dimensions of the aquaculture sector
The concept of ‘sustainability’ contributes to align the different policy measures and
objectives associated with the four dimensions. The public sector has a long-term interest
in a healthy ecosystem which provides key inputs for current and future economically
efficient and safe aquaculture production. By developing policies and a regulatory
framework that favour sustainable aquaculture production methods the public sector
influences the sectors’ development towards sustainability.
The economic motivation behind government intervention in the aquaculture sector
stems mainly from two types of externalities that generate market failures: negative
environmental impacts of aquaculture production and externalities deriving from
competition for access to scarce land and water resources. As identified in Bartely et al.
(2007), one function of the public sector is the mitigation of market failures, for example
by providing stable structures for human interactions that minimize uncertainty and hence
the cost of conducting business.
The OECD Committee for Fisheries has recognized the growing importance of the
aquaculture sector at the global level. It has therefore decided to engage in a project
dedicated to ‘Advancing the aquaculture agenda’. The overall project objective is to
examine the policy challenges for a competitive and sustainable aquaculture sector in
OECD countries. It consists of two components:
(i) a Workshop1 on ‘Advancing the aquaculture agenda: policies to ensure a
sustainable aquaculture sector’ and
(ii) an inventory of conditions for establishing aquaculture production sites in

OECD countries.
The project is set against the background of two megatrends2 which are high on
international policy agendas: sustainability and food security. In addition, the project fully
embraces the vision of the recent OECD Declaration on Green Growth (OECD, 2009)
which states that ‘the OECD can, through policy analysis and identification of best
practices, assist countries in their efforts to respond to the growing policy demands to
foster green growth and work with countries to develop further measures to build
sustainable economies’.

Method
The Committee for Fisheries (see Programme of Work - Suggested Implementation

Plan 2009-2011 [TAD/FI(2008)2/ANN]) agreed that the project Advancing the
aquaculture agenda should address the question ‘What should the future role of public
authorities in regulating aquaculture be’. The present paper is a summary of the survey
conducted to develop the inventory of conditions for establishing aquaculture production
sites in OECD countries. It takes stock of key aspects of the existing regulatory
framework for aquaculture and for establishing aquaculture production sites in OECD
countries. It contributes to the identification of institutional strengths and weaknesses in
aquaculture policy frameworks, in particular with regard to access to production sites, and
hence to identify key challenges for an economically, environmentally and socially
sustainable aquaculture sector in OECD countries. More specifically, the analysis aims to
contribute to addressing the following questions:
• What planning lessons can be learned from examining individual country
regulatory frameworks for aquaculture production site access and
operation?
• How could the planning and regulation process for access to aquaculture
production sites be improved?
The results from the survey are discussed and integrated with evidence from the
literature in the following ‘Discussion of lessons learned and potential areas for
improvement’. The paper concludes with a short section that distils key messages for
policy makers.
In Annex I the paper presents a summary of the results of the OECD survey on
conditions for establishing aquaculture production sites in OECD countries. 19 OECD
member countries3 out of 30 as well as one observer and one accession country
returned the OECD questionnaire. The objective of the survey was to investigate the
current governance architecture for the aquaculture sector, in particular with regard to
access to and operation of aquaculture production sites. It reflects legal, institutional
and management aspects of the aquaculture sector. The questionnaire is structured
into three levels (the full questionnaire is available in Annex II):
1. Legal and institutional framework applying to land and water;

2. Relevant regulations for aquaculture production sites;
3. Authorisation system to access and operate aquaculture production sites.
This paper is mainly addressed to policy makers involved in aquaculture

regulation and spatial planning at national and sub-national level in OECD countries.

Discussion of lessons learned from the survey and potential areas for
improvement
Complexity of regulatory frameworks

The relationship between the regulator and the aquaculture sector are shaped through
the sector’s governance structure. Governance is intended as the exercise of political,
economic and administrative authority to manage the sector. Governments choose their
level of engagement with the aquaculture sector primarily based on its economic and
strategic importance. The theoretical continuum of regulatory policy options stretches
from a ‘total control’ to a ‘laissez-faire’ attitude where the industry operates on the basis
of self-regulation.
As an economic activity in the International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC
of the United Nations Statistics Division), “aquaculture” was part of “fishing” until the
ISIC Rev.3.1 was released in 2002. This is rather illustrative of the legal and institutional
situation of aquaculture, as already outlined in the FAO Technical Guidelines (1997):
‘Frequently, aquaculture is still under a general fisheries basic legislation, and is often
not being recognized as the aquatic equivalent to agriculture.’ Aquaculture regulations
overlap often with existing regulations for spatial planning, water quality, animal welfare,
pharmaceutical use and food safety due to the need to pursue broader societal goals and
consistency with other policy objectives. This explains the fragmentation of responsibility
among different national or regional authorities (Figure 18.5). The fragmentation of
responsibilities among different administrative entities is a root cause of delays in permit
processing.
Figure 18.5: Authorities involved in aquaculture regulation

The survey reveals that the current OECD aquaculture governance system at the legal
and institutional level is characterized by a polycentric organisation of authorities and
multi-layered institutional arrangements dealing with different aspects of the aquaculture
sector. The perception of regulatory complexity is also a recurrent theme in the literature:
‘…usually the framework is complex, with permits and regulations associated with a
range of government departments and agencies’ (FAO, 2009a, p. 6).
In many OECD member countries, aquaculture started as a small-medium enterprise
(SME) activity. In the EU in particular, aquaculture production units are mostly family
businesses or SME with less than ten employees, operating traditional freshwater farms
(e.g. trout, carp) and marine shellfish farming systems (e.g. mussels). These small-sized
businesses are particularly vulnerable to complex and slow administrative processes for
production licences.
It is interesting to see that despite the existence of a ‘Strategy for the Sustainable
Development of European Aquaculture’, a recent Communication from the Commission
to the European Parliament and the Council (2009) affirms that ‘the aquaculture industry
is still relatively unknown to public authorities and investors’.
Reducing the regulatory burden

OECD countries are increasingly aware of regulatory weaknesses with regard to
aquaculture operations. A number of OECD countries has developed or updated
dedicated sector policies, strategies and/or plans. This is for obvious reasons happening
primarily in countries in which aquaculture has considerably intensified in recent years
(e.g. Chile, Norway, Mexico, Greece, Sweden). The European Commission during its
consultation on the opportunities for the development of aquaculture called for ‘clear and
simplified procedures, with established time lines for decisions, for obtaining aquaculture
operating licences’ (European Commission, 2007). Subsequently, in its 2009
Communication the European Commission specifically included ‘reducing the
administrative burden’ among the measures to improve the sector’s image and
governance (European Commission, 2009).
Box 18.1 provides examples for OECD member country approaches to reduce
regulatory complexity in aquaculture at different levels.

Box 18.1: Reducing complexity and increasing coherence in regulation:

Examples from Norway, New Zealand and the US
Towards the One-Stop-Shop for aquaculture licenses in Norway
With the new system introduced by the 2006 Aquaculture Act, the industry player directly
sends an application to the central fishery authority. The fishery authority sends the
application to other relevant authorities as part of their own processing of the application.
The fishery authority ensures that statements and decisions are obtained from the local
municipality, as well as from other sector authorities, such as the County Governor
(environmental authorities), the Norwegian Food Safety Authority and the Norwegian
National Coastal Administration. Licenses for land-based aquaculture that entail an
encroachment on watercourses, such as hatchery production, must also be evaluated and
allocated a license by the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate (NVE).
Again, it is the central fishery authority that arranges for the license on behalf of the
applicant.
The purpose of this scheme is to enable applicants to deal with one public agency, which
will coordinate the necessary licenses and statements from other sector authorities. Trials
have been conducted since 2001 to test alternative models to improve the coordination
and efficiency of the application processing between the various sector authorities.
Evaluation of the project is not complete, but the aquaculture industry is very satisfied, and
the results so far show that the administrative processing time for routine matters has been
reduced from over a year to less than six months.
The fishery authority is allocated additional responsibility and competence to undertake
an efficient and comprehensive execution of the allocation process, including regulation
competence to prescribe time limits for the processing of aquaculture applications. All the
processing by the sector authorities can thus be coordinated so that they are finished at
the same time or in an appropriate sequence. Norway has recently approved a regulation
concerning coordination and time limits in the processing of aquaculture licences. The
regulations states that the total executive work shall, as a a main rule, not exceed 22
weeks in cases where a complete application is delivered and where the coastal
communities have opened up for aquaculture through their coastal plan.
Source : Norway, Aquaculture Act 2006
New Zealand’s aquaculture reform status

New Zealand started a reform of its aquaculture regulation in 2004 to decentralize the
sectors’ management to regional councils. The first step of the reform amended five
existing acts and introduced two new acts, including the Aquaculture Reform Act 2004.
Licence applicants are required to obtain a resource consent [authorization given to certain
activities or uses of natural and physical resources required under the New Zealand
Resource Management Act] for marine farming activities from their regional council once a
so-called Aquaculture Management Area (AMA) is approved, but they no longer must
apply for the subsequent fisheries permit under the Fisheries Act as well.
The Aquaculture Legislation Amendment Bill passed in 2008 and was followed by the
second Aquaculture Amendment Bill in 2010, which is at the stage of the second reading
in Parliament. This bill is an omnibus bill that amends the Resource Management Act
1991, the Fisheries Act 1996, the Maori Commercial Aquaculture Claims Settlement Act
2004, and the Aquaculture Reform (Repeals and Transitional Provisions) Act 2004 to
correct problems with current law and further improve its operation.
Source: www.parliament.nz/en-NZ/PB/Legislation/Bills/9/0/9/00DBHOH_BILL8663_1-Aquaculture-
Legislation-Amendment-Bill-No-2.htm

USA: An online ‘one-stop-shop’

‘Michigan Business One Stop’ is hosted on the official website of the US State of
Michigan. This online facility has one section dedicated to ‘Aquaculture Facility
Registration and Permit’. It provides the necessary applications forms through links to the
responsible Michigan Department of Agriculture. It also provides a link to the Michigan
Aquaculture Development Act, 1996.
The site describes the permit/approval process in its single steps and provides links to all
the necessary background documents (e.g. list of approved aquatic species, legislation)
and forms:
1. Applicability
2. Pre-application requirements
3. Application submission requirements
4. Procedures and time-frame for obtaining permit
5. Operational requirements
6. Fees
7. Appeal process
8. Public input opportunities
Source : www.onestophelp.state.mi.us/wiki/Aquaculture_Facility_Registration_and_Permit
The regulatory framework ideally should foster the transition to decoupling

aquaculture development from negative environmental externalities. Paraphrasing the
UNDP et al., the remedy to global environment and development problems lies not in
reducing growth, but in breaking the connection between expanded prosperity and
depleted or degraded resources (UNDP et al., 2000). This concept is also central to the
2009 OECD Declaration on Green Growth.
In 2008 the FAO has proposed an outline for Technical Guidelines on Improving
Planning and Policy Formulation and Implementation for Aquaculture Development
which may provide useful guidance to regulators in the future (FAO, 2008a) and Brugère
and Ridler (2004) propose an aquaculture policy planning process that consists of three
phases:
1. the development of a policy framework that establishes broad aims for the
sectors’ development;
2. the development of a sector strategy that outlines the specific objectives
associated with each aim of the policy framework; and
3. the development of a plan that specifies and quantifies targets as well as the
related activities to achieve the objectives outlines in the policy framework.
A precondition for any regulatory improvement is an appropriate knowledge base

about the sector for decision making and management. Transparency and accountability
which are important for the sectors reputation also demand the availability of reliable data
and information. In this respect FAO has developed a ‘Strategy and Outline Plan for
Improving Information on Status and Trends in Aquaculture’ (FAO, 2008) to develop
indicators for the sector’s governance and monitoring.
As underlined in Brugère and Hsihamunda (2007), regulatory planning in aquaculture
reduces risks, informs decision-making, establishes trust and conveys information.
Regulatory uncertainty on the other hand increases operating costs. Hence there is a need
for stable, transparent and clear regulations with regard to establishing and maintaining
aquaculture production sites. Monitoring systems with timely feedback mechanisms on

the other hand are crucial to ensure that the management framework can quickly adapt to
emerging threats and needs (e.g. disease outbreaks).
The OECD Regulatory Impact Analysis (RIA) is a tool for regulatory planning that can
be useful for future improvements in aquaculture sector regulation. RIA is an
institutionalised model for analysis that provides a systemic approach to critically
assessing the positive and negative effects of proposed and existing regulations and non-
regulatory alternatives (Box 18.2).
Box 18.2: Steps of a Regulatory Impact Analysis (RIA)
1. Definition of the policy context and objectives, in particular the systematic identification
of the problem that provides the basis for action by government.
2. Identification and definition of all possible regulatory and non-regulatory options that
will achieve the policy objective.
3. Identification and quantification of the impacts of the options considered, including
costs, benefits and distributional effects.
4. The development of enforcement and compliance strategies for each option, including
an evaluation of their effectiveness and efficiency.
5. The development of monitoring mechanisms to evaluate the success of the policy
proposal and to feed that information into the development of future regulatory responses.
6. Public consultation incorporated systematically to provide the opportunity for all
stakeholders to participate in the regulatory process. This provides important information
on the costs and benefits of alternatives, including their effectiveness.
Source: OECD (2008)
Raising awareness of the need for stakeholder participation and policy

coherence
It clearly emerges from the survey that public awareness (consolidated through
international agreements or guidelines, including for example Agenda 21 or the FAO
Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries) of environmental impacts of aquaculture and
the intensification of production has generated additional environmental regulation for the
sector, in particular with regard to pollution and discharges, diseases, feed resources, and
genetic interaction and escapes. Table 18.1 provides an example of finfish and shellfish
farming impacts on coastal processes.

Table 18.1: Aquaculture and impacts on costal processes

Level Types Typical Characterisitcs Impact on
species coastal
processes
Salmon, sea
Often very high intensity production with controlled
Land-based bass (FR) and
flow rates and recircultation. Small environmental
tanks and sea bream Negligible
footprint, often covered and possible to control
Intensive
raceways (FR), turbot,

effluents
sole, eel
Salmon, sea Relies on good initial siting as depended upon site
Minor alterations
bass, sea environmental conditions. Permit less control than
Sea cages to nearshore
bream, halibut, pump-ashore systems byt sites are less costly and
currents
cod movable.
Larger environmental food-print than the above,
Finfish
either situated above the high tide in low-lying

intensive
Mullet, sea Potential small

Semi-
coastal plains (e.g. salt marshes in Portugal),

Pond culture bass, sea impact on beach
Usually used for lower density culture of shrimp or
bream, shrimp sediment drift
finfish e.g. mullets, sea bass and sea bream. May
require extensive effluent settlement areas.
Impact on
Traditional methods (e.g. Italian vallicultura) using
Mullet, sea lagoodnal
Lagoon natural fry and no or limited supplementary feeds.
bass, sea hydrodynamics,
culture May require natural compartmentalization of
bream, shrimp not open sea
natural lagoon areas.
Extensive
hydrodynamics
Restocking of species which are either migratory,
returning close to the point of release (e.g.
Salmon, salmon), or non-migratory, remaining for at least a
Ranching Negligible
lobster, cod substantial portion of the life-cycle in restricted
areas, where they enter the local fishery (e.g.
lobster).
Mussels,
Ropes, covered with spat kept in place by nylon
Suspended oysters
nets, are suspended either from rafts, wooden Negligible
rope culture (Mediterranean
frames or from long lines of floating plastic buoys.
)
Negligible –
Mussels, possible
Bottom Seed mussels are relayed in suitable grow-out
oysters, localised
culture sites.
scallops sediment
impacts
Oysters are laid out on wooden trestles or racks
Shellfish
Rack culture Oysters Negligible

laid out in the intertidal zone.
Uses a series of wooden poles as supports, onto
‘Bouchot’ Mussels
which the mussles are transplanted for on- Negligible
culture (France)
growing.
In France, a special treatment (‘affinage’) may be
Negligible on
Oysters, applied for the supply of top quality oysters – prior
Ponds open sea
shrimp to selling these are placed in former salt marshes
hydrodynamics
which have been converted into ponds (‘claires’)
Possible
Juveniles are released into controlled marine
localised
Lagoon Clams areas (lagoons, salt pans, large ponds or ‘parks’ in
alteration to tidal
the open sea)
currents
Source: Poseidon Aquatic Resource Management Ltd. (2006, p. 74)
However, the public concern for environmental sustainability is not necessarily in

conflict with the private sector orientation. On the contrary, the industry is developing its
own codes of conducts or best aquaculture practices (BAP) to cater to the needs of an
increasingly demanding and competitive market with high sensitivity for sustainability.
These codes of conducts and BAPs are often a common effort of the industry to improve
its reputation. Although with a delay compared to capture fisheries, eco-labelling is thus
an issue for aquaculture products and FAO is developing guidelines for aquaculture
certification. They are expected to be approved in 2010 and to represent a benchmark for

standard developers, like the ongoing WWF Aquaculture Dialogues or the Global
Aquaculture Alliance’s Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP). In addition, the Aquaculture
Stewardship Council is to be established and operative by 2011, following the patterns of
the Marine Stewardship Council for sustainable capture fisheries certification.
There seems to be a trend towards promoting this sector self-regulation with regard to
environmental sustainability. For example, the Irish Sea Fisheries Board (BIM)
introduced ECOPACT, an initiative to facilitate the adoption of environmental
management systems (EMS) in the industry. In Australia, a National Aquaculture EMS
initiative provides a voluntary cost effective solution to comply with regulations. In the
US, the Massachusetts Department of Agriculture Resources and the USDA Risk
Management Agency have collaborated with the Massachusetts Shellfish Growers to
develop Best Management Practices for Shellfish Farming.
Given the environmental implications of aquaculture, good communication between
the regulator and the aquaculture sector and with other competing users of land and water
resources is important to reduce constraints for the sector, but also for policy coherence.
It is recognised that a number of countries already consult widely among aquaculture and
other relevant inter-sectoral stakeholders, e.g. through permanent advisory committees or
working groups, but in some cases dialogue is still perceived as insufficient. Denmark for
example has pointed out the need for a strong and coherent communication platform with
wide stakeholder participation, which can address criticism and misconceptions about the
industry. Box 18.3 introduces a new environmental performance assessment tool that
should improve future environmental impact assessments for aquaculture operations.
Box 18.3: The Global Aquaculture Performance Index (GAPI)

GAPI empowers the seafood industry leaders and policymakers to make informed
decisions about the environmental costs and benefits of farmed seafood. GAPI uses a
well-established statistical methodology to provide rigorous and objective evaluation of the
environmental performance of marine aquaculture. Adapted from Yale and Columbia
University’s 2008 Environmental Performance Index (EPI) (www.epi.yale.edu/Home), on a
100-point scale, GAPI measures how close marine aquaculture is coming to meeting a
suite of environmental targets, or goalposts. GAPI currently assesses performance on a
country-species level (e.g. Norwegian Atlantic cod, Scottish Atlantic salmon).
In summer 2010, the GAPI project will launch a web-based, interactive tool that will not
only allow users to query the aquaculture database but also to enter real or hypothetical
data for analysis and comparison. The development of a Farm- Level Aquaculture
Performance Index and a benchmarking study of the environmental performance of marine
aquaculture standards will commence in summer 2010. In this phase, developers will also
explore the incorporation of social and economic indicators into the GAPI methodology.
GAPI is constantly adapting as new science and data become available and novel
production technologies are brought on-line.
GAPI condenses vast quantities of complex, environmental data into simple, numerical
scores that are easily applied in the policy setting and markets context. From a policy
perspective, it allows to assess how well one country’s aquaculture sector is performing
relative to another. Additionally, it offers direct insight into where the greatest levelof
environmental improvement can be most efficiently achieved. The inherent flexibility of the
GAPI tool meansthat it can be used to help inform a number of pressing questions, such
as:
How close are producers to achieving strong environmental performance in marine finfish
aquaculture as a whole? In salmon farming? In cod farming?
How well is one country or region performing compared to another? Is one country
performing significantly better than the rest, and why?

How well is one species performing compared to another? For instance, does farmed
Arctic char perform better than farmed salmon at this scale?
Are there common modes of production, geographic characteristics, etc. that enable a
species or country to perform better than others?
How well is Country X performing on a specific impact area compared to country Y, such
as escapes, disease or pollution?
Further, GAPI will quantitatively benchmark existing and proposed aquaculture standards
to determine how well they are performing compared to this set of ecological targets and
also relative to each other.
Source : Extracts from www.gapi.ca
Comprehensive spatial planning

As outlined in Bartley et al. (2007, p. 5), in the case of common property, boundaries
and access rights are less well defined and impacts more difficult to contain. But
predictable and long-term access to production areas (inland, coastal and marine areas) is
crucial for the sectors prosperity. In addition to the protection of public interests,
comprehensive territorial planning should also include resource efficiency considerations.
For example, while water requirements for aquaculture can appear high compared to
other food production systems (e.g. crops, meat) it needs to be kept in mind that in
contrast with the other systems, aquaculture water use is mainly non-consumptive (Table
18.2).
Table 18.2: Water requirements for different food production systems
Food production system Water requirements

3
m /mt)
Wheat 900
Corn 1 400
Rice 1 912
Soybeans 2 000
Broiler chicken 3 500
Beef 100 000
Clarias: intensive, static ponds 50 - 200
Tilapia: extensive, static ponds 3 000 – 5 000
Tilapia: sewage, minimal exchange ponds 1 500 – 2 000
Tilapia: intensive, aerated ponds 21 000
Carp/tilapia polyculture: conventional ponds 12 000
Carp/tilapia polyculture: semi-intensive ponds 5 000
Carp/tilapia polyculture : intensive ponds 2 250
Channel catfish : intensive ponds 3 000 – 6 000
Source: extracts from IWMI (2007)
Management frameworks for aquaculture production sites should be integrated with

other management frameworks, from national water body management to local zoning
plans, including integrated coastal zone management (ICZM). Zoning systems can be
‘positive’ (allocated specific areas to aquaculture production) or ‘negative’ (specifically
exclude any aquaculture production in a designated area) (FAO, 2009a). Marine spatial
planning is likely to become more important in the future as marine/off-shore farming and
coastal shellfish farming become more important.

Box 18.4 illustrates an Irish model for integrated local management of aquaculture.
Box 18.4: C.L.A.M.S
In Ireland, the unique Co-ordinated Local Aquaculture Management Systems (CLAMS)

process is a nationwide initiative to manage the development of aquaculture in bays and
inshore waters throughout Ireland at a local level. In each case, the plan fully integrates
aquaculture interests with relevant national policies, as well as:
Single Bay Management (S.B.M.) practices, which were initially introduced by salmon
farmers to co-operatively tackle a range of issues, and have now been extended to all
aquaculture species
The interests of other groups using the bays and inshore waters
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (I.C.Z.M.) plans, and
County Development plans.
The process has been widely adopted in bays and inshore waters where aquaculture is
practiced around the Irish coast, as a further proactive step by fish and shellfish farmers, to
encourage public consultation on their current operations and their future plans.
CLAMS allows for the successful integration of aquaculture into the coastal zone, taking
cognisance of the need to improve environmental compliance, product quality and
consumer confidence. As part of its commitment to the sustainable development of the
aquaculture industry, the CLAMS process facilitates the gathering and analysis of data in
relation to fish farming. This data is then made available to the local community.
Source : BIM - www.bim.ie/templates/text_content.asp?node_id=244
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can contribute to spatial planning at different

levels. The information stored in such systems allows studying spatial relationships and
contributes to informed decision-making. As identified before, integrating and managing
multiple stakeholder interests is one important contribution towards comprehensive
spatial planning (Brugère, C. and N. Hishamunda, 2007).
The importance of economic viability

Aquaculture sector operators are first and foremost economic agents. Profitability
expectations determine the amount of capital that is invested in the sector. One recurrent
comment in the consultation process on Community Aquaculture in the EC was that the
economic and environmental protection dimension of aquaculture should be ‘treated on
an equal footing’ (EC, 2007). The Finnish National Aquaculture Development Program
2015 sets out to develop the industry in a ‘more environment-friendly, but in an economic
and socially sustainable way’4.
Access to capital is important for the economic viability of the sector. Paragraph 1 of
the Norwegian 2006 Aquaculture Act outlines the overall objective of the government
policy as ‘to promote the profitability and competitiveness of the aquaculture industry
within the framework of a sustainable development and contribute to the creation of value
on the coast’. One of the novelties of the Act is to establish a statutory right to transfer
and mortgage aquaculture licences with the ultimate intention to deregulate ownership
requirements, shifting the focus from who owns the activity to its management
(Norwegian Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs, 2006). By deregulating the
ownership the aquaculture industry becomes ‘normalised’ in relation to other industries.
The asset value of an aquaculture production license increases with its transferability.

This is supposed to increase the creditworthiness of the industry and to allow for long-
term loans. The duration of a license is equally important in terms of investment planning
and access to credit. Another important feature of licenses is the maximum number of
production licenses any given company is allowed to hold. The orientation of the Act
confirms the increased public recognition of the main drivers for a healthy aquaculture
sector, economic profitability and environmental sustainability.
In Denmark, regulations for marine fish farming are readjusted from a fixed feed
quota system towards the documentation of environmental effects to avoid unnecessary
production restriction. Mexico has identified that ‘action is required to develop a
coherent, transparent, risk-based set of environmental parameters for aquaculture
operations in order to reduce the costs and uncertainty associated with environmental
compliance’ (OECD 2006, p. 293).
But is needs to stress that growth in the aquaculture industry cannot be determined
solely by market demand; it must occur within the limits that the environment can tolerate
(Strategy for an environmentally sustainable Norwegian aquaculture industry, 2008). This
entails that a ceiling has to be set for how large the industry can become, and ensuring
that production remains within what the environment can cope with is a determinative
factor in making this assessment. Eco-friendly sustainable production is therefore a
precondition for long-term development and growth.
Optimising economic outcomes of aquaculture regulation

Ideally, aquaculture policies, strategies and plans should provide private economic
incentives while safeguarding public interest and sustainability. The signatories of the
2009 OECD Declaration of Green Growth committed to ‘…work towards establishing
appropriate regulations and policies to ensure clear and long-term price signals
encouraging efficient environmental outcomes’ and to ‘encourage green investment and
sustainable management of natural resources.’
One option to reduce the regulatory burden in aquaculture can be to regulate outcomes
rather than inputs (pers. comm. G. Knapp) which is the avenue taken recently by a
number of governments (e.g. Norway, Denmark). A management framework for
aquaculture production sites with clear environmental objectives, associated indicators,
standards and reference points provides the private sector with the incentive to identify
the most cost-efficient solution in aquaculture production.
Technology developments, economies of scale and access to new markets have
fuelled the development and concentration of the industry; in this process, SMEs have
often been replaced by bigger players. In this context, the design of the authorization
system plays an important role in shaping the sectors’ profile. Increased transferability of
licenses is likely to contribute to economic efficiency through consolidation and crowding
out of smaller activities. As reported in Halweil (2008, p. 14) ‘In the salmon industry and
other fish-farming sectors, successive waves of consolidation have led farms and
aquaculture companies to cannibalize their smaller brethren, often to be cannibalized at
a later date by someone even larger. Ownership in industrial aquaculture has become
highly concentrated’. These industrial companies are often international and vertically
integrated, from hatcheries and feed producers to the distribution level. In this regard,
clear and long-term property right regulations for licences provide one key aspect for
aquaculture development.

Box 18.5 illustrates how Malaysia uses economic incentives to attract investment in
aquaculture development.
Box 18.5: What the others do: Malaysia’s Aquaculture Industrial Zones
According to the Government’s 2007 National Aquaculture Development Plan, the

Malaysian aquaculture industry will generate revenues up to 5.74 billion USD. In order to
overcome the land issue, an Aquaculture Industrial Zone (AIZ) was set up as part of the
permanent food production zones by the state governments. Objectives for creating AIZ
include among others:
− Create permanent areas for Aquaculture Industry Zones,
− Ensure the production of fish and fish products that are of high quality
and safe for consumption,
− Increase private sector participation through the provision of AIZ areas,
infrastructure and extension services,
− Create a chain of efficient aquaculture fish production areas.
The regulation of aquaculture activities is done through licensing. The two policies of
aquaculture industry zones and licensing are meant to give a degree of certainty to
potential investors and fish farmers.
Investment incentives
The government offers tax reduction and incentives for investments in selected food
production activities. Incentives are given in the form of exemptions in duty and sales tax.
Promoted product and activities for the fisheries sector are spawning, breeding and
culturing of aquatic products, off-shore fishing, cultivation and processing of aquatic
products, processing of aquaculture feed, and production of breeder stock. Below a list of
sample incentives: Investment tax allowance, incentives for research and development,
reinvestment allowance, infrastructure allowance double deduction on expenses for
promotion of export, special deduction for capital expenditure on approved projects,
incentives for cold chain facilities.
Incentives are granted with the following conditions:
I. The investing company should own 100% of the company that undertakes food
production.
II. The eligible food products are as approved by the Minister of Finance.
III. The food production project should commence within a period of one year from the
date the incentive is approved.
Total equity of local investor/foreign investor in any project involving request for
incentives is unlimited, except for aquaculture and deep-sea fishing which are:
a) Aquaculture – at least 30% equity belongs to local investors.
b) Deep-sea fishing – 100% owned by local investor.
Funding is available through the Fund For Food (3F), introduced by the government to
provide funding facilities for local companies involved in the food production and
processing sector. Under this financial facility, a company can apply for loan of a minimum
of RM30000 and a maximum of RM3 millions with 4% interest rate for a maximum period
of 8 years.
Source: Department of Fisheries, Indonesia – www.dof. Gov.my/55 and www.fishdept.sabah.gov.my

Key messages for policy makers
In a distilled form, the following key challenges for policy makers in relation to
aquaculture production site regulation emerged from the OECD survey and the literature:
• The need for simplified regulation and procedures in terms of access to and
operation of production sites
There is undeniably a need for regulation to ensure aquaculture sustainability and
consistency with other social and policy objectives. This need has to be balanced to avoid
that aquaculture producers struggle to comply with fragmented regulation administered
by a large number of public authorities. Delays in processing licence applications increase
business risks and costs. In a globalising world, complex access procedures restrict
development potential and may divert investment capital to aquaculture activities abroad.
‘One-stop- shops’ can reduce the administrative burden.
• The added value of stakeholder consultation in developing regulation
A form of institutionalized dialogue among stakeholders (including relevant inter-
sectoral players) can contribute to understand the respective needs and to develop
efficient, policy coherent solutions. Regular interaction between all stakeholders can
facilitate early recognition of emerging issues.
• The importance of economic incentives
As any other private business, aquaculture production is driven by profitability
expectations. A regulatory framework that stimulates innovation through output
regulation rather than through input restrictions can foster solutions that serve private and
public interests alike. Strong and clear property rights/licenses are another crucial
ingredient for long-term commitment to sustainable aquaculture production.
In conclusion, the FAO Technical Guidelines already outline the way forward:
‘Government authorities will increasingly have a key role to play in enhancing effective
collaboration with and among many players, in order to promote sustainable development
of aquaculture. Responsibilities for sustainable aquaculture development will need to be
shared among government authorities, aquafarmers, manufacturers and suppliers of
aquaculture inputs, processors and traders of aquaculture products, financing institutions,
researchers, special interest groups, professional associations, nongovernmental
organizations, and others.’
The importance and necessity of regulations as assets to achieve the long-term
sustainability of the aquaculture sector is acknowledged. The task ahead for policy
makers is to overcome current weaknesses in implementing the principles laid out in the
FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (CCRF) - Article 9 Aquaculture
Development and the FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries No. 5 –
Aquaculture Development the related supplements.

Notes
1. The Workshop took place in Paris on 15-16 April and the presentations are available at the OECD website -
www.oecd.org/document/3/0,3343,en_2649_33901_44041283_1_1_1_37401,00.html#Presentations
2
. A megatrend can be understood as ‘…a pattern of change that will profoundly impress the future of
mankind in its relationship with others and with the full gamut of the ecological domain including markets
and institutions’ (Heilbroner and Milberg 1996 in Choudhury 1999).
3. Belgium, Chinese Taipei, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, EU, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Iceland, Korea, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden,
Turkey
4 . Game and Fisheries Research Institute - www.rktl.fi/en/julkaisut/j/478.html

References
Bartley, D.M, C. Brugère, D. Soto, P. Gerber and B. Harvey (eds.) (2007), “Comparative
assessment of the environmental costs of aquaculture and other food production
sectors: methods for meaningful comparisons”, FAO/WFT Expert Workshop, 24-28
April 2006, Vancouver, Canada.
Brugère, C. and N. Hishamunda (2007), “Planning and policy development in
aquaculture”, FAO Aquaculture Newsletter No. 38, FAO, Rome.
Brugère, C. and N. Ridler (2004), “Global aquaculture outlook in the next decades: an
analysis of national aquaculture production forecasts to 2030”, FAO Fisheries
Circular. N. 1001, FAO, Rome.
European Commission (2009), “Building a sustainable future for aquaculture. A new
impetus for the Strategy for the Sustainable Development of European Aquaculture”,
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council,
COM(2009) 162 final.
European Commission (2007), “Overview of the contributions received in answer to the
consultation on the opportunities for the development of Community aquaculture”,
Working document of Directorate-General for Fisheries and Maritime Affairs.
FAO (2009), The State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2008. FAO, Rome.
FAO (2009a), “Environmental impact assessment and monitoring in aquaculture”, FAO
Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper, No. 527, FAO, Rome.
FAO (2008) Strategy and outline plan for improving information on status and trends of
aquaculture.
FAO (2008a), “Report of the Expert Consultation on improving planning and policy
development in aquaculture”, FAO Fisheries Report No. 858, FIEP/R858(En), FAO,
Rome.
FAO (2006), State of World Aquaculture. Aquaculture Management and Conservation
Service, Fisheries and Aquaculture Management Division, FAO, Rome.
FAO (1997), Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries No.5 – Aquaculture
Development, FAO, Rome.
Halweil, B. (2008), Farming fish for the future, Worldwatch Report 176, Worldwatch
Institute, Washington, DC.
Heilbroner and Milberg (1996), in M.A. Choudhury “Global Megatrends and the
Community”, World Futures, Volume 53, Issue 3 1999 , pages 229 – 252,
www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a922784475 .

IWMI/Earthscan (2007), Water for Food, Water for Life: Comprehensive Assessment of
Water Management in Agriculture, London: Earthscan, Colombo: International Water
Management Institute (IWMI).
North, Douglass C. (1993), “Economic performance through time”, Nobel Prize lecture,
www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1993/north-lecture.html.
Norwegian Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs (2006), The Aquaculture Act.
Ministère de l’Agriculture et de la Pêche (2008), Pêche et aquaculture. Les enjeux pour
demain. Agriculture, Alimentation et Espaces Ruraux, Cahiers du Conseil général de
l’agriculture, de l’alimentation et des espaces ruraux.
OECD (2008), “Building an Institutional Framework for Regulatory Impact Analysis
(RIA): Guidance for Policy Makers”, Version 1.1., Regulatory Policy Division,
Directorate for Public Governance and Territorial Development.
OECD (2006), Agricultural and Fisheries Policies in Mexico. Recent achievements,
continuing the reform agenda.
OECD (1995), The 1995 Recommendation of the Council of the OECD on Improving the
Quality of Government Regulation.
Poseidon Aquatic Resource Management (2006), “Some Aspects of the Environmental
impact of aquaculture in sensitive areas”, Final Report.
United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Environment Programme,
World Bank, World Resources Institute (2000), “World Resources 2000-2001: People
and ecosystems: The fraying web of life”.

Annex 18.AI - Survey result summary
The following presentation of the survey results follows the structure of the
questionnaire and cites selected articles from the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible
Fisheries.
Legal and institutional framework applying to land, water and aquaculture
Land and water administration

“States should establish, maintain and develop an appropriate legal and administrative
framework which facilitates the development of responsible aquaculture.” (CCRF
Article 9.1.1)”
Land and water are key production factors for the aquaculture sector. One main
motivation for the regulation of aquaculture lies in the legal nature of these two main
inputs, common property water bodies (inland and marine) and - often in the case of
coastal areas - common property land. The OECD survey confirms that both land and
water use are commonly administered at the national level and in some countries
supplemented by sub-national legislation. The EU has clearly identified access to land
and water as crucial for the development of a sustainable and competitive aquaculture
sector (European Commission, 2009, p.5).
Overall aquaculture regulatory framework

“States should produce and regularly update aquaculture development strategies and
plans, as required, to ensure that aquaculture development is ecologically sustainable
and to allow the rational use of resources shared by aquaculture and other activities.”
(CCRF Article 9.1.3)
Only four of the returned questionnaires (Finland, Iceland, New Zealand and Norway)
confirmed the existence of a specific stand-alone national aquaculture regulation or policy
framework. Aquaculture is otherwise included in the fisheries legislation, in
environmental legislation or not specifically included in any other legislation. In
Germany for example, the term aquaculture is not mentioned in any of the 16 ‘Länder’
fisheries laws.
The responsibility for aquaculture regulation and/or policy development is shared
among different national authorities in most countries that participated in the survey. The
main responsibility lies in 75% of the surveyed cases within the Ministry responsible
(exclusively) for agriculture and to a lesser extent within the Ministry of the Environment
(Figure 18.A1.1).

1
Figure 18.A1.1: Which authority is responsible for aquaculture regulation and/or policy making ?
(Number of respondents)
20
18
16 Not specified
14
12 Ministry of Environment
10
8 Minstry of Agriculture
and/or Fisheries
6
4
2
0
Compliance control with aquaculture regulations is well anchored in the public

domain (Figure 18.A1.2). Finland, for example, ensures compliance with environmental
regulations through an environmental permit system while Greece carries out inspections
through regional and prefectural authorities. In some cases, the private sector
complements public compliance control. In the Netherlands for example the Fish Product
Board is an industry organisation which actively monitors the compliance with
agreements made. It operates in the area where industry and policy meet.
Figure 18.A1.2: Who is responsible for compliance control with aquaculture regulations? (Number of
respondents)
No
specification, 2
Other , 2
Public
institution , 17

Cross-sectoral management
“States should ensure that the livelihoods of local communities, and their access
to fishing grounds, are not negatively affected by aquaculture developments.”
The survey confirms that in most cases countries integrate aquaculture in some way in
regional, coastal/river basin or community management/development plans (Figure
18.A1.3). To ensure policy coherence across different sectors, however, the OECD
member countries adopt different strategies. In the case of the Czech Republic for
instance, the Act on the Protection of Nature and Landscape prevails over the Act on
Fisheries and the Act on Waters. The French Environmental Code regulates coastal zone
management and attributes priority to aquaculture in the use of coastal zones outside
industrial or port areas.
Figure 18.A1.3: Existance of provisions for cross-sectoral management including

aquaculture(number of respondents)
No
specification ,
2
No , 4
Yes , 15
At the EU level, the Integrated Maritime Policy development process launched in

2007 specifically includes aquaculture considerations. Member states are invited to
develop marine spatial planning systems, which fully recognize the strategic importance
of aquaculture and terrestrial land planning systems, which fully integrates the needs and
values of freshwater aquaculture.
In many countries, representatives of the aquaculture industry participate in inter-
sectoral commissions, or similar structures, to ensure policy coherence between the
sectors. In New Zealand, for example, representative of the Ministries of Fisheries,
Conservation, Economic Development, Environment, Local Government and MƗori
Affairs meet regularly to address aquaculture issues, including the establishment of
dedicated Aquaculture Management Areas (AMA). A team of staff from these agencies
coordinates and implements aquaculture initiatives in partnership with industry, MƗori
and local government. This Aquaculture Implementation Team meets regularly and is
coordinated by the Ministry of Fisheries2. In Finland, the National Aquaculture
Programme 2015 provides that ‘employment and economic development centres’, the

industry, regional councils and environment centres identify suitable aquaculture areas
and develop spatial plans to ensure policy coherence between economic and
environmental needs.
Specific regulations for aquaculture production sites

“States should promote responsible development and management of aquaculture,
including an advance evaluation of the effects of aquaculture development on genetic
diversity and ecosystem integrity, based on the best available scientific information.”
“States should establish effective procedures specific to aquaculture to undertake
appropriate environmental assessment and monitoring with the aim of minimizing
adverse ecological changes and related economic and social consequences resulting from
water extraction, land use, discharge of effluents, use of drugs and chemicals, and other
aquaculture activities.” (CCRF Article 9.1.5)
Main features of regulations for aquaculture production sites

“States should conserve genetic diversity and maintain integrity of aquatic communities
and ecosystems by appropriate management. In particular, efforts should be undertaken
to minimize the harmful effects of introducing non-native species or genetically altered
stocks used for aquaculture including culture-based fisheries into waters, especially
where there is a significant potential for the spread of such non-native species or
genetically altered stocks into waters under the jurisdiction of other States as well as
waters under the jurisdiction of the State of origin. States should, whenever possible,
promote steps to minimize adverse genetic, disease and other effects of escaped farmed
fish on wild stocks.” (CCRF Article 9.3.1)
“States should, in order to minimize risks of disease transfer and other adverse effects on
wild and cultured stocks, encourage adoption of appropriate practices in the genetic
improvement of brood stocks, the introduction of non-native species, and in the
production, sale and transport of eggs, larvae or fry, brood stock or other live materials.
States should facilitate the preparation and implementation of appropriate national codes
of practice and procedures to this effect.” (CCRF Article 9.3.3)
“States should promote efforts which improve selection and use of appropriate feeds, feed
additives and fertilizers, including manures.” (CCRF Article 9.4.3)
“States should promote effective farm and fish health management practices favouring
hygienic measures and vaccines. Safe, effective and minimal use of therapeutants,
hormones and drugs, antibiotics and other disease control chemicals should be ensured.”
“States should regulate the use of chemical inputs in aquaculture which are hazardous to
human health and the environment.” (CCRF Article 9.4.5)
More than 80% of countries confirm the existence of some form of specific
regulations for aquaculture production sites (Figure 18.A1.4). In a few cases (countries)
the regulation is stand alone while in others it is integrated into spatial planning acts etc.
In some cases, rather than using a top-down regulatory approach, the aquaculture strategy
or program hands over responsibility for spatial planning to public-private partnerships

(e.g. in Finland: Employment and Economic Centers, the industry, scientists, Regional
Councils and Environmental Centre).
Figure 18.A1.4: Existence of specific regulations for aquaculture production sites among
respondents
No
No
specification,
specification,22
No
No ,,11
Yes
Yes,, 18
18
The main purposes of regulations for aquaculture production sites are to ensure
minimum environmental standards and to regulate access to productive assets (Figure
18.A4.5).
Figure 18.A1.5: Main purpose of aquaculture production site regulation (number or respondents)
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
To ensure To regulate To ensure Other
minimum access to minimum health
environmental productive and sanitary
standards assets (land, conditions
water, marine
space)
In some cases species or aquaculture system (freshwater; marine fin fish/shellfish;

off-shore) specific regulations apply. The survey shows that shellfish farming installation
receive more attention in terms of specific regulations or guidelines, in particular with
regard to water quality requirements.
Some countries, like New Zealand, the Netherlands, Denmark and Greece use spatial
classification systems. The Netherlands divide space into different types of production

areas and negative changes in environmental quality attributes can result in the
(temporary) reclassification or in the worst case in the closure of a production area.
‘Sampling plans’ describe how boundaries and the classification of production areas and
compartments are assessed and designated. Criteria for site selection include for example
pollution sources and pollution impact in terms of volume and distribution over time in
relation to rainfall and tidal cycles.
The New Zealand system refers to designated Aquaculture Management Areas
(AMA). These zones are identified in regional coastal plans. These plans define zones
within which aquaculture is permissible; outside these zones aquaculture is prohibited. To
create an incentive for aquaculture operators to actively participate in the regional
planning process: the regional council can invite members of the aquaculture sector to
promote change for an existing regional coastal plan or to provide for a new Aquaculture
Management Area (AMA). In case the AMA is successfully designated, the proponents
have preferential access to permits within that AMA. In Denmark, the counties have to
develop 12-year regional plans including the establishment of aquaculture zones. These
plans include shore water quality goals (general, reduced or high level quality goals). In
addition, an integrated marine water mapping was conducted to identify restrictions and
potential for marine aquaculture. In Greece, the central administration plans to move
towards Areas of Organised Aquaculture Development.
The specific aquaculture production site regulations address a broad range of issues
(Figure 18.A1.6). Not surprisingly the survey reveals that environmental concerns are
dominating this type of regulation, followed by aquatic animal health issues.
Figure 18.A1.6: Aquaculture production related issues covered by regulations (number of

respondents)
Escapement issues
Other
Environmental Impact Assessment
GMO, bioengineering
Site size/placement
Waste disposal
Feed specifications
Fish, fry, egg movement
Quarantine conditions/Disease control measures
Use of drugs/chemicals
Water quality requirements/Maximum water use levels/Discharge limits
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Regulations for the operation of aquaculture production sites are mostly providing
input limits (e.g. feed ratios and compositions, drugs, hormones) or output limits (e.g.
nutrients in effluents, maximum level of waste water). Environmental regulations in some
countries use market based mechanisms, more specifically the ‘polluter pays principle’.
The Netherlands, for example, use the inhabitant equivalent principle which is based on
the amount of oxygen-binding substances; the oxygen consumption during
biodegradation equals the amount of waste water produced by one inhabitant. In

Denmark, the emission of phosphorus, nitrogen and organic substances was limited at the
national level. The calculations for the effluent limits were based on the establishment of
fixed feed quotas for each farm. Feed quotas were not transferable between farms. This
triggered innovation in terms of feed composition and feeding techniques to allow
production to grow despite the fixed feed quotas.
Regulations not specific to aquaculture, but of potential relevance to the
establishment and maintenance of aquaculture production sites, can be grouped into the
following categories: veterinarian/animal health regulations (e.g. legislation on animal
feed, drug), food safety regulations (e.g. HACCAP/food sanitation laws), environmental
and spatial planning regulations.
Regulations referring to animal health and food safety often provide strict
requirements for installation features (e.g. location of slaughter houses and processing
premises) and disease control (e.g. obligation to notify authorities in case of disease
suspect and keeping of registers for fish movement, mortality rates, disease outbreaks
etc.).
For the EU, all EU "horizontal" legislation is applicable to the aquaculture industry
and its products as appropriate. Examples of relevant legislation include:
• Animal health: There is a specific package for the control of aquatic animal
disease applicable to reared fish, molluscs and crustaceans and wild aquatic
animals intended for farming3. The Council Directive 2006/88/EC lays down:
o minimum control measures in the event of a suspicion or outbreak of certain
diseases in aquatic animals;
o minimum preventive measures aimed at increasing the awareness of the
competent authorities, aquaculture production businesses operators and others
related to this industry, concerning diseases of aquaculture animals;
o the animal health requirements to be applied for the placing on the market and
the imports of aquaculture animals and products thereof.
• Food safety: Regulation laying down the general principles and requirements of
food law, establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down
procedures in matters of food safety 4. The Regulation contains also general
provisions for traceability which cover all food and feed, all food and feed
business operators, without prejudice to existing legislation on specific sectors
such as beef, fish, GMOs etc.
o Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council
of 3 October 2002 lays down health rules concerning animal by-products not
intended for human consumption.
o Regulation (EC) No 183/2005 of the European Parliament and of the Council
lays down requirements for feed hygiene: feed safety is considered at all
stages that may have an impact on feed and food safety, including primary
production.
o Regulation (EC) No 1831/2003 of the European Parliament and of the
Council of 22 September 2003 deals with additives for use in animal
nutrition.

o Environment law: The Water Framework Directive5 establishes a framework

for Community action in the field of water policy.
o Directive 2006/113/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12
December 2006 lays out the quality required of shellfish waters.
o The chemical package [Directive 98/8/EC of the European Parliament and of
the Council] regulates the market access and use of biocide products.
The conditions concerning use of alien and locally absent species in aquaculture are
established in the Council Regulation (EC) No 708/2007 of 11 June 2007 concerning use
of alien and locally absent species in aquaculture and in the Commission Regulation (EC)
No 506/2008 of 6 June 2008 amending Annex IV to Council Regulation (EC) No
708/2007 as well as in the Commission Regulation (EC) No 535/2008 of 13 June 2008
laying down detailed rules for the implementation of Council Regulation (EC) No
708/2007.
Thirteen of the 21 respondents answered the question if the regulatory framework for
aquaculture installations on private and public space is the same. Only three stated a
different treatment (Figure 18.A1.7). In France, an authorization system for fresh water
use applies in the case of private property and a concession system regulates the public
marine resources.
Figure 18.A1.7: Existence of different regulatory frameworks for aquaculture installations on private
and on public space (number of respondents)
Not
specified ,
Yes, 10
8
No , 3
Code of conducts
The survey also investigated the existence of codes of conduct for aquaculture
developed by the regulator, NGOs or industry associations (Figure 18.13). Codes of
Conducts or Best Management Practices focus primarily on environmental impacts of
aquaculture and can provide a useful complement to regulation. Eight countries confirm
the existence of codes of conducts.
In the EU, the Federation of European Aquaculture Producers (FEAP) gathers
national producer associations. FEAP has developed a Code of Conduct for European
Aquaculture, which is widely applied by its member organizations.

A number of codes of practice at national level have emerged in OECD countries,

applicable either for the entire sector or for specific sub-segments or specie. Examples
include:
• Environmental Code of Practice for Irish Aquaculture Companies and
Traders (BIM, Irish Shellfish Association, Irish Salmon Growers);
• ISGA Code – “Good farmers – good neighbours” (Irish Salmon Growers);
• Shetland Salmon Farmers Association Code of Best Practice;
• Code of Good Practice for Scottish Finfish Aquaculture;
• British Trout Association Code of Practice;
• French Charter for Trout Producers (Inter-professional Committee);
• Manual de Buenas Practicas Medioambientales en la Familia Profesional:
Pesca y Acuicultura (Spanish Ministry of the Environment) and
• Marine Fish Farm Manual of the Scottish Environment Protection Agency.
In some OECD member countries producer associations or organic associations have

developed specific guidelines or standards for organic aquaculture production.
Figure 18.A1.8: Availability of code of conducts for aquaculture (number of respondents)
Not specified , 4
Yes, 8
No , 9
Conflicting sectors
Among the sectors conflicting with aquaculture production sites competing for the
same resources, the fishing sector is the most prominent one, followed closely by tourism.
Agriculture and maritime transport seem to be less critical in this respect (Figure
18.A1.9). Other conflicting sectors identified by the survey are the environment/nature
conservation, urban development and industry.

Figure 18.A1.9: Conflicting sectors (number of respondents)
14
Fishing
12 Tourism
Other
10
8 Maritime Agriculture
transport
6
Authorisation system to access and operate aquaculture production sites

“States should require that the disposal of wastes such as offal, sludge, dead or diseased
fish, excess veterinary drugs and other hazardous chemical inputs does not constitute a
hazard to human health and the environment.” (CCRF Article 9.4.6)
“States should ensure the food safety of aquaculture products and promote efforts which
maintain product quality and improve their value through particular care before and
during harvesting and on-site processing and in storage and transport of the products.”
The majority of the countries operate some licensing system for aquaculture
operations. The system consists of two main parts: the license itself as an expression of an
administrative decision to allow production and a set of additional related laws and
regulations which define rights and obligations.
One respondent stated that the ‘…system of permits, defined by various laws and
controlled by different ministries, is elaborate and complex6’ while another one explained
that ‘despite recent revisions and efforts to simplify the licensing procedures it is still
quite complex and time consuming to grant a license for aquaculture production7’.
The maximum amount of licenses in terms of numbers or in terms of production
volume can be fixed. In Denmark on the other hand the licences for freshwater and
saltwater farms using feed are based on fixed feed quotas. In the case of a restriction, the
allocation process can vary: first come first served, auction, drawing of lots among
qualified applicants etc. Box 18.A1.1 illustrates the Norwegian option for allocating
salmon and trout licences.

Box 18.A1.1: Allocation system for trout and salmon licences in Norway
In the case of farming of salmon and trout in Norway there is a limited entry with regards
to how many licences to allocate. Since the interest in salmon and trout licences has been
greater than the number of licenses advertised, the applicants have had to compete for
the licences - normally in so-called allocation rounds.
In accordance to the Aquaculture Act the Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs may
prescribe regulations relating to the number of licences to be allocated, geographic
distribution of licenses and prioritization criteria. This implies that licenses are allocated to
applicants that meet the licence requirements. The Ministry can also prescribe regulations
relating to payment for the allocation of licences. In the 2002, 2003 and 2009 rounds, the
payment was a fixed, predefined amount.
Source : Norwegian Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs
With regard to the required documentation when applying for authorisation for a
production site, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) documentation is a prominent
feature in all countries covered by the survey (Figure 18.A1.10). In some cases it is
conducted as a separate administrative procedure while in others it is an integrated part of
the licensing procedure itself. In many countries EIA requirements depend on the
production volume: only above a certain threshold EIA becomes mandatory (e.g. Finland,
Portugal, Turkey).
Figure 18.A1.10: Documentation needed to establish aquaculture production sites in OECD

countries (number of respondents)
Environmental Impact Assessment/biogeographical …
Site development plan
Benthic/water quality analysis/Waste water permit
Business plan
Fish, egg, fry movement permit
Food safety-related certification of premises (e.g. …
Other
Escapement risk minimizations strategy
Strategy for minimizing adverse interaction with …
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

As in the case of EIA also water discharge permits are often administered by regional
authorities, both in terms of developing the regulations as well as in terms of cost
recovery through fees (e.g. New Zealand).
Who grants authorisation?

The ‘One-stop- shop’ solution for aquaculture production site authorisation is rather
rare. In most cases, applicants have to deal with different authorities to obtain the
necessary approvals (Figure 18.A1.11). There is evidence that regional or local spatial
planning authorities play a major role in the approval of site authorizations. For example,
In Finland, the regional environmental permission office issues production licences. In
the Flemish Region in Belgium applicants have to deal with the Department of Spatial
Planning, Housing Policy and Heritage of the Flemish Government and the related
municipalities with regard to the site development plan approval. The Flemish
Department of Environment, Nature and Energy is responsible for the approval of the
EIA while the food safety-related certification of premises is dealt with at the national
level (Federal Agency for the Safety of the Food Chain). Similar administrative set-up
occurs in other countries, including Chinese Taipei and Finland. In the UK, the
responsibility for marine fish farms has been transferred in 2007 from the Crown Estate
to local authorities.
Food safety related authorizations on the other hand are usually granted through
authorities at the national level. In some cases, the authorization procedure requires a
public hearing that can involve institutions like tax authorities, consumers’ services and
relevant professional organizations (e.g. France, Germany).
OECD countries adopt different systems to communicate the granting of an
aquaculture license. In France, the decision is notified to the applicant while in Germany
the authorization is considered to be approved if no notice is given within one month after
filing the application. In New Zealand the concession of an authority for an aquaculture
management area requires a series of certificates of compliance stating the absence of a
‘resource consent’, that is an authorization given to certain activities or uses of natural
and physical resources required under the New Zealand Resource Management Act. In
Scotland, administrations have a time limit for the processing of planning applications
(two months for non-EIA local development applications, four months for major
applications). In case the decision is not made within the time frame the applicant has the
right to appeal to Scottish Ministers within six month of the non-determination.

Figure 18.A1.11: Responsible authorities involved in the aquaculture production site process
(number of respondents)
How is authorisation for a production site granted?

Many countries report a distinction between the authorization system for coastal
marine aquaculture and for freshwater inland fisheries, the main reason being the
different legal status of the water source involved. Coastal marine aquaculture is
generally taking place in a common pool resource (i.e. the marine water bodies) while
inland freshwater fisheries can take place on a common property (e.g. lakes, rivers) or as
private land-based aquaculture installations. Requirements for marine fish farming tend to
be more restrictive then for inland fish farming. For marine farming, the authority to issue
a licence can also depend on the location of the planned activity. In Denmark for
example, inshore and coastal farms fall under the responsibility of the county councils
while off shore activities are administered thought he Ministry of Transport (Coastal
Directorate).
In some countries, some form of production permit is only requested above a certain
volume threshold. The threshold is set in terms of production volume (e.g. France,
Iceland) or in terms of feed volume (e.g. in Denmark, Finland). France applies the
‘classified installation system’, which is used for any industrial or agricultural operation
that (potentially) generates risks, pollution or nuisance. Depending on the probability and
the level of externalities, an aquaculture activity can be subject to an authorization or a
declaration. The threshold for an authorization is currently set at production size of more
than 20 tonnes.
Table 18.A1.1 illustrates the French classified installations system procedure which is
managed by the Prefect. It should be noted that under this system an Environmental
Impact Assessment is only required when an authorization is needed.

Table 18.A1.1: Classified installation system procedure in France
Types of fish Annual production Classified installation Law N. 2006-17 on Water and
farm volume system Aquatic Environment
Fresh water < 20 t na Declaration
1
farms > 20 t Authorisation Declaration
Marine water 5-20 t Declaration n/a
farms > 20 t Authorisation n/a
1. Except extensive production –
Source : adapted from country survey response.
Transferability of licenses seems to be generally possible but tied to some form of

ownership of the production site. A transferred licence however has to be used within the
agreed parameters (e.g. species, volume, location). Licenses are hence linked to a certain
production unit and not necessarily to an individual producer.
With regard to the duration of licences, a period of 5-10 years with the possibility to
renew is most common. In a few cases a maximum duration (30-60 years) for a license is
established. The establishment of a minimum lease period is uncommon but exists; in the
case of Germany for a period of 12 years. It is important to note that some countries
specifically indicated the possibility to withdraw a licence to establish or operate a farm
(e.g. Denmark for ocean farms).
Box 18.A1.2 illustrates the Icelandic licensing and monitoring system which requires
different procedures depending on the planned production volume.

Box 18.A1.2: Icelandic Fish Farming and Ranching Licensing and Monitoring System
The survey revealed that 14 countries maintain a public register of aquaculture

production sites exists.
Does the use of production sites imply payments?

Licenses can be granted against the payment of a fee or for free. If a fee applies it can
be a fixed amount or variable according to different criteria (e.g. site size). The survey did
not provide much insight in the cost structure of the national licensing systems. It
emerged that if applied, administrative fees are often payable to regional authorities (e.g.
in Finland, Greece).
According to the Norwegian Aquaculture Act, ‘An open or closed bidding round will
be suitable for taking into account the consequences of fluctuations in the market
situation for salmon on the ability/willingness to pay for new licences. What is of key
importance here is the fact that the payment for licences will be determined based on the
industry players' own assessment of the licence's value, and the price will thus
correspond to the market value. It will thus be up to the industry players to assess how
efficiently the licences can be operated.’ Norway doesn’t charges a general fee for the use
of sea areas for the purpose of aquaculture. However, each municipality has the
opportunity to introduce proper taxation which may also compromise aquaculture
facilities. Even though there is no general payment for the use of production sites,
payment is collected for aquaculture licences for salmon and trout.

In the United Kingdom, an annual rent is charged for the lease based on production
volumes.
Finland establishes fees for environmental compensation payments on a case by case
basis while the French water agency charges annual pollution fees for freshwater sites. In
the Netherlands, surface waters are administered by provincial authorities who usually
delegate the right to grant discharge permits and to charge levies to their water boards.
Other production site related cost items identified by the survey include rent (private
cost) and Environmental Impact Assessment and monitoring costs (Figure 18.A1.12).
Figure 18.A1.12: Aquaculture site related cost items (number of respondents)

12
10
0
License fees/user Environmental Administrative fees Other Taxes
rights service compensation
payments

Annex I8.A2 - Questionnaire on conditions for establishing aquaculture

production sites in OECD countries
Introduction and scope

As agreed at the 102st Session of the Committee for Fisheries, an important basis for
the work on aquaculture is to establish an inventory of conditions for establishing
aquaculture production sites in OECD countries. At the 102st Session it was also agreed
that the Secretariat would issue a questionnaire to start such an inventory. The following
serves this purpose.
The OECD Workshop on Aquaculture scheduled for April 2010 seeks to examine
policy challenges that OECD governments face in aquaculture development by
identifying constraints and best practices to create an enabling environment for a
competitive and sustainable sector. To this end, this questionnaire gathers information on
a range of aquaculture production site issues, including public regulations, major
constraints and potential areas for conflict. The questionnaire replies, once received, will
be the basis of compiling an inventory of practices of OECD (and observer) countries
with respect to conditions for aquaculture installations.
Explanatory notes for completing the template

Countries for which an Aquaculture Profile based on the FAO National Aquaculture
Legislation Overview is available are kindly requested to validate or modify the available
information as they deem appropriate.
If feasible and appropriate, one questionnaire should be filled for each sub-national
administrative unit (e.g. state, territory, county) which manages its own aquaculture
regulations.
The questionnaire is divided into three sections. Part 1 on the basic legal and
institutional framework seeks identify the main legislative requirements and authorities
within which aquaculture production is placed. Part 2 focuses specifically on relevant
regulations for aquaculture production site development. Part 3 investigates the
authorization system to access and operate production sites (land and marine sites).
If there are different legislation or regulations applying to aquaculture (in particular
production site regulations) the answers should always clarify which law, regulation or
responsible authority they refer to.
Where specifications are requested, they should be as exhaustive as possible.
Questions 3, 6 and 13 should provide as much information about the allocation of
responsibilities and decision making processes within and/or between institutions as
possible.

Question 6 refers specifically to spatial management aspects which may affect

aquaculture while Question10, Question 12 and Question 18 allow for the recording of
other laws and regulations with potential relevance for aquaculture production sites.
Question 8 should provide detailed information about additional laws, regulations or
policies resulting from or in addition to the main piece of legislation listed under 6.
With reference to Questions 10, 12 and 18, the Secretariat would greatly appreciate
any efforts that can be made to document relevant public regulation, policies and private
best practice/code/guideline relating to aquaculture production sites.

Part 1: Basic legal and institutional framework

1. Which administrative entity has primary responsibility for land and water management?
National/federal government (if several administrative entities - please

specify)
Sub-level (e.g. territories, departments, regions - please specify)
2. Is there a specific national aquaculture regulation or political framework?
Yes (please specify)

Within the fisheries regulation/policy framework:
Stand alone
No
3. Which national authority/ies is/are responsible for aquaculture regulation and/or policy
development?
At the national level (please specify)

At other levels (please specify)
4. How is compliance with aquaculture regulations and/or policies ensured?
Public institution (please specify)

Other (please specify – e.g. industry self-regulation, compliance and
auditing)
5. Cross-sectoral resource management: is aquaculture mentioned in any regional,

coastal/river basin or community management/development plans and if so, how is policy
coherence across the institutions achieved?

No

Part 2: Relevant regulations for aquaculture production sites

6. Are there any specific regulations for aquaculture production sites?

No
IF YES:
7. Main purpose of the regulation (tick as many as apply)
To regulate access to productive assets (e.g. land, water, marine space, fish
stocks)
To ensure minimum environmental standards
Other (please specify)
8. Does the regulation under 6. (directly or indirectly) or any other law/and regulation specify
any of the following (tick as many as apply and specify)?
Water quality requirements/discharge limits

Waste disposal
Fish, fry, egg movement
Use of drugs/chemicals
Feed specifications
Stock register
Quarantine conditions/Disease control measures
GMO, bioengineering
Escapement issues.
Environmental Impact Assessment:
Site size/ Site placement (e.g. in terms of minimum distances from
spawning area, touristic locations)
9. Is the regulatory framework the same for aquaculture installations on private and on public
space?
Yes
No (please specify)

10. Are there any codes of conduct for aquaculture production etc. developed by NGOs or
industry associations?

No
11. Which sectors are conflicting with aquaculture production site establishment or compete
for the same resources (tick as many as apply)?
Agriculture
Tourism/recreation
Maritime transport
Fishing
12. Which regulations not specifically dedicated to aquaculture are of relevance to establish
and maintain an aquaculture production site (e.g. environmental regulations, animal health
regulations, food safety regulations)? Please indicate also the respective responsible
Ministry/authority.

Part 3: Authorization system to access and operate production sites (land

and marine sites)
13. Which documentation must producers provide when applying for authorization for a
production site (tick as many as apply and specify responsible authority if applicable)?
Site development plan

Environmental Impact Assessment/biogeographical report
Water licence
Escapement risk minimizations strategy
Strategy for minimizing adverse interaction with seabirds, other
marine/terrestrial species
Fish, egg, fry movement permit
Business plan
Food safety-related certification of premises (e.g. HACCP)
14. Who grants authorization?
One authorization body (please specify)

Several authorization bodies (please specify body and area of responsibility)
15. How is authorization for a production site granted?
Production license (please specify duration and transferability)

Production site lease (please specify duration and transferability)
16. Is there a public register of aquaculture production sites?
Yes
No
17. Does the use of production sites imply any payments?
License fees/user rights

To whom (please specify)
How often (please specify)
Environmental service compensation payments


Administrative fees
Taxes
18. Further relevant information, including government agencies, websites,

publications, regulations, etc.

Notes
1. If two ministries are indicated they are accounted for as 0.5 in each category
2 . For more details: www.aquaculture.govt.nz/governments_role.php).
3 . Council Directive 2006/88/EC on Animal Health Requirements for Aquaculture Animals and the related
amendment through the Commission Directive 2008/53/EC
4 . Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 28 January 2002
5 . 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000
6 . The Netherlands.
7 . Turkey.

BIOGRAPHIES – 407
Biographies
Malcolm BEVERIDGE,
Director, Aquaculture and Genetic Improvement, WorldFish Centre, Cairo, Egypt
Malcolm Beveridge presented a paper on Barriers to aquaculture development as a

pathway to poverty alleviation and food security: policy coherence and the roles and
responsibilities of development agencies. He has a PhD in ecology from the University of
Glasgow and has applied his professional training to the field of aquaculture and fisheries
for 30 years. Following a one-year FAO post-doctoral fellowship at the University of the
Philippines, he joined the Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Scotland, where
he was appointed Reader in 2000. The following year he joined Fisheries Research
Services (Scotland), as Director of the Freshwater Laboratory. In 2006 he was appointed
Director of Aquaculture and Genetic Improvement at the WorldFish Center. He has
recently held a Visiting Research Fellowship at Imperial College, University of London
(2007-2008) and was appointed Buckland Professor in 2008, as a result of which he
delivered a number of public lectures on the theme of aquaculture, development and the
environment in the UK. He is based in Cairo, Egypt.
Cécile BIGOT
Deputy Director, Aquaculture and Fisheries Economic Survey Department, DG Fisheries
and Aquaculture, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Fisheries, Paris, France
Cécile Bigot participated in the Panel on national policies, strategies and plans for
sustainable aquaculture and participated in the Panel on best practices in aquaculture
management and development. She graduated from the National Agronomic Institute of
Paris in 1988 and from the National School of Rural, Water and Forestry Engineering in
1989. Since then she held different positions in the Ministry for Food, Agriculture and
Fisheries, including as Head of the Viticulture and of the Sea Products Unit. Between
2005 and 2007, Cécile Bigot was advisor for agriculture and fisheries at the French
embassy in Spain. In 2007 she was appointed Deputy Director in the Fisheries and
Aquaculture Direction of the Ministry for Food, Agriculture and Fisheries, where she
currently is responsible for the economic analysis of the fisheries sector and for
aquaculture industry policy development.
Torger BØRRESEN
Research Director, Department of Seafood Research, DTU Food, National Food
Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
Torger Børresen chaired the two-day workshop. He received a PhD in biotechnology
from the Norwegian Institute of Technology in 1976. He has held various research

408 –BIOGRAPHIES
positions in the Unites States, Norway and Denmark concerning food biochemistry and
seafood technology. He has a long-standing experience as manager of research at all
levels, including project leadership, management of project groups and a marine
biotechnology research centre, department management and top administrative
management at institute level. Presently he is the Research Director of the Department of
Seafood Research at the National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark.
Torger Børresen has been serving at more than 50 advisory groups for research and
development within the food technology area nationally and internationally. He has
published more than 100 papers, abstracts, posters, reports and other written material, and
given numerous presentations at scientific conferences, many of which have been keynote
presentations. He has served on the editorial board of several international journals and is
presently co-editor of the Journal of Aquatic Food Product Technology. He has a long
experience in collaborating with the industry and industry associations. He coordinated
the EU supported research project SEAFOODplus 2004-08, with a total budget of
26 million Euro and 68 participating institutes and industries in 16 countries. He was a
member of the Steering Group of the EU supported Cooperative Project CONSENSUS
and is presently a member of the European Aquaculture Technology and Innovation
Platform (EATIP), where he is serving at one of the Thematic Areas under the Strategic
Research Agenda.
Thierry CHOPIN
Professor, Biology Department, University of New Brunswick, Saint John, Canada
Dr. Thierry Chopin presented a paper on Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture – a
responsible practice providing diversified seafood products while rendering services to
the ecosystem and participated in the Panel on best practices in aquaculture management
and development. He was born and educated in France. He obtained his Doctorate from
the University of Western Brittany, Brest, France. He moved to Canada in 1989 and is
presently Professor in the Biology Department at the University of New Brunswick in
Saint John. Dr. Chopin’s research focuses on the ecophysiology and biochemistry of
seaweeds of commercial value and the development of integrated multi-trophic
aquaculture (IMTA) systems for environmental sustainability (biomitigation), economic
stability (product diversification and risk reduction) and societal acceptability (better
management practices). Dr. Chopin has published 76 refereed papers, 16 book chapters,
21 non-refereed publications, 263 abstracts (in 29 countries on 6 continents), 1
English/French DVD, and had 412 contacts with the media (magazine articles,
newspapers/radio/TV interviews and documentaries). Dr. Chopin is the Scientific
Director of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC)
Canadian Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture Network (CIMTAN). He is Past
President of the Aquaculture Association of Canada, the Phycological Society of America
and the International Seaweed Association. He is an advisor to the International
Foundation for Science, in Stockholm, and a member of the Editorial Board of the journal
Aquaculture International. Dr. Chopin is the recipient of the NSERC Synergy Award for
Innovation, the Aquaculture Association of Canada Research Award of Excellence, the
New Brunswick BioSciences Achievement Award and was an honouree at the R3
(Research, Results, Recognition) Gala of the New Brunswick Innovation Foundation. Dr.
Chopin is also Honorary Vice-Consul of France and Chevalier in the Ordre des Palmes
Académiques of France.

BIOGRAPHIES – 409
Hayri DENIZ
Director of Marine Aquaculture, Aquaculture Department, DG of Agricultural
Production and Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Ankara, Turkey
Hayri Deniz participated in the Panel on national policies, strategies and plans for
sustainable aquaculture. He works for the Aquaculture Department of the Ministry of
Agriculture and Rural Affairs as Director of Marine Aquaculture since 1988. In addition,
he implemented several international and national aquaculture projects funded through
international organizations such as FAO-GFCM, EUROFISH and MEDCOAST. He
graduated from the Fisheries Faculty of the Mediterranean University in 1887. He holds a
PhD in sea bass and sea bream production. His expertise is in marine aquaculture
management, interactions between aquaculture and other coastal sectors and integrated
coastal zone management.
Sena S. DE SILVA
Director General, Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand
Sena S. de Silva gave a presentation on Knowledge sharing in aquaculture: towards
sustainability through effective communication and participated in the Panel on
enhancing economic conditions for aquaculture. He graduated from the University of
Ceylon with B.Sc (Hons), obtained his PhD from the University of Stirling, UK, and in
1989 was awarded a DSc. by the University of Stirling, United Kingdom, for his
contributions to aquaculture and fisheries biology. Currently Sena is the Director General
of the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific, and Honorary Professor of
Aquaculture and Fisheries Biology, School for Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin
University, Victoria. Sena has been active in the academia for over 30 years, in Sri Lanka,
UK, Singapore and Australia, and associated with major research and development in the
Asian region and elsewhere. Sena is recognised as a leading researcher in the fields of
fish nutrition, inland fisheries management and aquaculture with a publication record of
over 220 original articles in peer reviewed, international journals, 10 edited works and the
senior author of three advanced texts related to aquaculture. Sena has received many
awards for his contributions including Honorary Life Membership of the World
Aquaculture Society in 2006.
Robert DIAZ
Professor, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Virginia,
United States
Robert Diaz presented a paper on Managing agriculture run offs in coastal areas and
participated in the Panel on best practices in aquaculture management and development.
He is a Professor of Marine Science at the College of William and Mary, Virginia
Institute of Marine Science. He received a PhD from the University of Virginia in 1977
and a Doctor Honoris Causa from Gothenburg University, Sweden, in 1996 for his
contributions to marine and estuarine ecology. Dr. Diaz has over 35 years of experience
working on environmental issues in a variety of marine and freshwater habitats from the
intertidal to the deep-sea. He specializes in documenting disturbance, both natural and
human, to systems and has developed several methods for evaluating benthic habitats and
identifying benthic resource value. His main expertise is in assessment of impacts from
low dissolved oxygen (hypoxia, dead zones) on ecosystem processes.

410 –BIOGRAPHIES
Philippe FERLIN
General Inspector, Conseil Général de l’Alimentation, de l’Agriculture et des Espaces
Ruraux (CGAAER), Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Fisheries, France.
Philippe Ferlin graduated from the National Agronomic Institute (INA) of Paris and
from the National Institute for Rural, Water and Forestry Engineering (ENGREF) in the
mid 60s. He then held different positions in several French research institutes:
CEMAGREF (a scientific and technical public research institute under the Ministries of
Agriculture and Research), IFREMER (French Research Institute for the Exploitation of
the Sea) and INRA (National Institute for Agriculture Research. He became Director of
International Relations and Cooperation for IFREMER in the early 1990s and later
Director of International Relations for INRA (1998-2005). Philippe Ferlin has then been
appointed General Inspector at the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Fisheries and is
chairman of the Expert Group on Sea Affairs. He is also involved in international
organisations as FAO expert for fisheries and aquaculture, vice president of the OECD
Fisheries Committee and member of the advisory committee of the Institute of
Aquaculture of Stirling (UK).
Marion FISCHER
Fisheries and Aquaculture Researcher, FranceAgriMer, Montreuil-sous-Bois, France
Marion Fischer presented the Findings from a recent study on consumer perceptions
of aquaculture products in France. An agricultural engineer by training, Marion Fischer
conducted research in the fish-farming industries of metropolitan and overseas France and
Asia for three years, with a focus on the development and marketing of aquaculture
products. She is currently a research assistant in the field of fisheries and aquaculture in
the Directorate for Markets, Studies and Outlook of FranceAgriMer, and is studying the
consumption of aquatic products, in particular through the analysis of consumer panel
data. She is also studying changes in consumption patterns, which she is linking to the
changing perception of fishery and aquaculture products by consumers, using external
studies and surveys carried out for FranceAgriMer.
Arne FREDHEIM
Research Manager and Director, Centre for Aquaculture Technology (CREATE),
SINTEF, Trondheim, Norway
Dr. Arne Fredheim presented a paper on Dealing with escapement issues and
participated in the Panel on best practices in aquaculture management and development.
He is presently employed with SINTEF Fisheries and Aquaculture, Trondheim, Norway,
as a research manager and director for the c Centre for Aquaculture Technology
(CREATE). He holds a PhD in marine hydrodynamics from the Norwegian University of
Science and Technology (NTNU). CREATE is a multi-disciplinary research centre
established among nine partners, research and industry, with the aim to develop
technology, products and solutions for the marine fish farming of tomorrow. In addition
to heading CREATE, his main current work involves research on topics related to
technology for marine aquaculture. Previous research has been on current forces on and
flow through net structures, structural and hydrodynamic analysis and assessment of
floating fish farms and design criteria to prevent escape of fish from floating aquaculture

BIOGRAPHIES – 411
installations. Dr. Fredheim is a member of the Norwegian Aquaculture Escapes

Commission and convener for the workgroup to develop standards for aquaculture
technology under the ISO/TC 234 fishery and aquaculture.
Éric GILBERT
Director, Innovation and Sector Strategies, Aquaculture Management Directorate,
Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO), Ottawa, Canada
Eric Gilbert gave a presented a country case study on How policy coherence is
addressed across policy domains. He has worked in the aquaculture industry for more
than 22 years. He holds an undergraduate degree in biology and a master’s degree in
Maritime Resources Management with a specialty in aquaculture economics. Mr. Gilbert
worked for Quebec’s Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Foods for 12 years before
joining Fisheries and Oceans Canada. He is currently responsible for aquaculture
innovation as well as for the preparation of strategic action plans for the entire Canadian
aquaculture sector. He has extensive experience in the conception and management of
programs and policies designed to ensure sustainable aquaculture development in Canada.
Maurice HÉRAL
Director, Prospective and Scientific Strategy, Institut Français de Recherche pour
l'Exploitation de la Mer (IFREMER), Issy-les-Moulineaux, France
Maurice Héral gave a presentation on The role of science and research and
participated in the Panel discussion on enhancing economic conditions for aquaculture.
He is Director of the Prospective ad Scientific Strategy at IFREMER. His background is
in coastal ecology. He has developed carrying capacity models for shellfish, coupling
eco-physiological models with food availability. Director of different IFREMER and
CNRS laboratories, he was Scientific Director of IFREMER since 2001. He published
more than 270 papers in scientific journals and public reports and supervised the
realisation of 15 PhD theses. He is member of several review panels and expert
in different commissions. He is outgoing chair of the European Fisheries and Aquaculture
Research Organisation (EFARO) that he has established and is outgoing ICES vice
president. He has coordinated 7 EU contracts and is actually involved in three marine
ERA-NETs (EU schemes to support the cooperation and coordination of research
activities carried out at national or regional level). Since May 2009, Maurice Héral is also
head of the Ecosystems and Sustainable Development Department at the French National
Research Agency (ANR), a funding agency for research projects whose aim is to provide
funding for the entire scientific community based on calls for proposals and peer review
selection processes.
Courtney HOUGH
General Secretary, European Aquaculture Technology and Information Platform
Courtney Hough presented the Industry perspective on enhancing economic
conditions and chaired the Panel discussion on enhancing economic conditions for
aquaculture. After starting in scientific research and development, mainly on food
product development, Courtney Hough worked on the international development of
aquaculture, specialising in project development, market research and economic
evaluation. Since 1993, he has been General Secretary of the Federation of European

412 –BIOGRAPHIES
Aquaculture Producers (FEAP), assuring representation of the FEAP in the European

Commission’s Advisory Committee on Fisheries and Aquaculture (ACFA) and other
European bodies. Courtney Hough has worked as coordinator or participant on a large
number of Research and Technological Development (RTD) projects in Europe, as well
as training and educational issues. He has worked with the FAO and the IUCN - primarily
on networking and preparing reviews on European and global aquaculture. He has
participated in many aquaculture-related workshops and conferences, as co-organiser,
session chairman and speaker. In 2008, he was appointed General Secretary of the
European Aquaculture Technology and Innovation Platform (EATIP), an international
non-profit association, which provides pan-European support to the development of the
European aquaculture value-chain. Courtney holds a BSc degree in Zoology with
Chemistry (1972, Exeter University) and an MSc in Biochemistry (1973, Imperial
College, London).
Alistair LANE
Executive Director, European Aquaculture Society (EAS), Oostende, Belgium
Alistair Lane presented CONSENSUS – a multi-stakeholder platform for sustainable
aquaculture in Europe and chaired the Panel on best practices in aquaculture
management and development. EAS is an international non-profit association that brings
together 500 members from 45 countries for the development of sustainable aquaculture.
Alistair Lane has been the Executive Director of EAS since 2000. After graduating with
an MSc in Marine Biology, he worked in the aquaculture feeds business for ten years in
the United Kingdom, France and Spain, with responsibilities in distribution, marketing
and general management. He has a special interest in aquaculture networks and has been
involved in several European initiatives related to sustainable aquaculture development,
notably the CONSENSUS initiative that has defined indicators and provided balanced
information to European consumer organisations. He has participated as an expert in
several European Parliament Hearings on aquaculture and is a project evaluator for the
European Commission and the Research Council of Norway.
Jung-Uie LEE
General Director, Aquaculture Industry Department, National Fisheries Research and
Development Institute (NFRDI), Busan, Korea
Jung-Uie Lee participated in the Panel on national policies, strategies and plans for
sustainable aquaculture. He started his career in NFRDI in 1983 after graduating in
Aquaculture Science at the Cheju National University. His academic qualifications
furthermore include an MSc and a PhD in Aquaculture and Fish Biology from the
Pukyong National University. In NFRDI he held the following positions: Senior Scientist
of the West Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Director of Namjeju Marine Hatchery,
Director of Jeju Fisheries Research Institute and Director of the Aquaculture Division. He
became Director of the Aquaculture Industry Department in 2009. His current projects
include offshore aquaculture development and tuna farming.
Donal MAGUIRE
Director, Aquaculture Development, Irish Sea Fisheries Board (BIM), Co Dublin, Ireland

BIOGRAPHIES – 413
Donal Maguire presented an Irish case study on How policy coherence is addressed
across policy domains. A graduate in marine sciences, he is the director of aquaculture
development for the Irish Sea Fisheries Board, the state body charged with the
development of the seafood sector in Ireland. He has held the post since 1997 and in that
capacity has overseen the implementation of the national development programmes
applied to aquaculture. Prior to this Mr. Maguire worked as a senior executive in the
salmon farming sector in Scotland, particularly on the Western Isles where he ran a
number of companies over a period of 14 years.
Marie Christine MONFORT

Seafood Marketing Consultant, Paris, France
Marie Christine Monfort gave a presentation on Aquaculture products; consumer
perceptions and participated in the Panel on enhancing economic conditions for
aquaculture. Since 1990 Marie Christine Monfort operates as a consultant 100%
dedicated to seafood marketing and deals specifically with issues related to the European
market. She assists private companies in their attempts to meet European market
requirements and to reach professional buyers, through market studies and tailor-made
advice. She guides private investors prior to investing in the seafood business. She also
cooperates with public institutions (Ministries of Fisheries, universities), international
organisations (EU Commission, FAO, etc.), research institutes and NGOs (WWF,
Greenpeace, Seafood Choice Alliance). In the past years, she has extensively worked in
the field of sustainability and eco-labelling of aquatic products. Marie Christine Monfort
holds a degree in Economics from the Sorbonne University, Paris (Msc in Economics), in
Marketing from Nantes University (Msc Marketing) and from the Norwegian Fishery
Economics Institute (NHH), Bergen, Norway.
James F. MUIR
Emeritus Professor, University of Stirling and independent adviser, Edinburgh, United
Kingdom
James Muir prepared a paper on Growing the wealth of aquaculture: perspectives and
potential. James Muir is an Emeritus Professor at the University of Stirling and
independent adviser in aquatic resources and development, currently co-ordinating the
aquatic components of the UK Government Foresight Programme review of the ‘Future
of Food’. Formerly he was Assistant Director of the Institute of Aquaculture and until its
successful completion in 2006 Manager of the UK Department for International
Development (DFID) Aquaculture and Fish Genetics Research Programme. A former
FAO staff member, he has also served as Senior Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Adviser
for DFID, Senior Adviser to WorldFish and as programme developer, consultant and
evaluator to a range of agencies. The founder of Stirling Aquaculture and Stirling’s well
known international MSc in Aquaculture, he has also worked commercially in the
salmon, seabass/bream and other sectors. Prof. Muir’s background is in engineering,
economics and environmental management. He has wide experience in the academic,
commercial and public sectors, in development, planning, policy and programme design;
education and training; project assessment, management, design and engineering; social
and environmental impact assessment. His primary interests are in sustainability
strategies, international food and resource policy, development research and knowledge

414 –BIOGRAPHIES
management, and interactions between technical change, economic growth and human
development.
Oriol RIBÓ
Senior Scientific Officer, Team Leader Animal Welfare, Animal Health and Animal
Welfare (AHAW), European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Parma, Italy
Oriol Ribó presented on the issue of Animal welfare and food safety. He holds a
Veterinarian Science degree (1992) and a PhD and Master in Animal Production (1996)
from the Veterinarian Faculty of the Autonomous University of Barcelona. From 1996 to
2002 he was researcher in the Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen
(IPSC) of the Joint Research Centre (JRC- Ispra, Italy) of the European Commission,
working on the traceability of animals and food products from animal origin, linked with
the BSE and FMD crisis after 1996. After that he worked as consultant in the field of the
traceability of animals and food products of animal origin in Italy, Switzerland and Spain
(2002-2005). In November 2005, he joined the Animal Health and Welfare (AHAW)
Unit of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) as Senior Scientific Officer, leading
the Animal Welfare Team since May 2007.
Thomas RUTTER
Managing Director, Aquaculture Division, Sunderland Marine Mutual Insurance
Limited, United Kingdom
Thomas Rutter gave a presentation on Managing risk and uncertainty: insurance
issues. He has been employed for 30 years with the Sunderland Marine Mutual Insurance
Company Limited; a specialist marine mutual insurer established in 1882. The
Company’s Head Office is based in Durham City, England with branches in Australia,
New Zealand, Canada, Holland, USA and South Africa. Thomas Rutter has been
Managing Director of the Aquaculture Division since 2000, responsible for global
underwriting and reinsurance. He was initially employed as a Marine Claims Executive
and as an Underwriter since 1991. He has been an Executive Director of the Company
since 1995. Within his ambit is the Company’s wholly owned subsidiary, Aquaculture
Risk Management Limited (ARM), comprising of a survey team tasked with introducing
risk management ‘Best Practice’ techniques to the company’s aquaculture members.
Particular interests are in risk management, both financial but with a greater emphasis on
physical risk management of losses. Specialist knowledge of aquaculture underwriting,
markets and business critical risks has been developed during the 25 years in which
Sunderland Marine have acted as insurers to the industry.
Oliver SCHNEIDER
Senior Scientist, Institute for Marine Resources and Ecosystem Studies (IMARES),
University of Wageningen, Yerseke, The Netherlands
Dr. Oliver Schneider presented a paper on Best practices in managing ecosystem
impacts of aquaculture: managing finfish aquaculture using RAS technology. He is senior
scientist at the Institute for Marine Resources and Ecosystem Studies (IMARES),
Department of Aquaculture of the University of Wageningen. He focuses his research
around sustainable aquaculture production within various systems: from extensive ponds
to intensive recirculation aquaculture systems (RAS). After his studies at the Institute of

BIOGRAPHIES – 415
Marine Research, Kiel University (Germany), he became scientific staff at Wageningen

University (Netherlands) where he completed a second master in Aquaculture and his
PhD. During that period he worked on RAS and its waste management. In 2006, he
moved to IMARES where he is responsible for research programs and for project
development and coordination. He published several papers and communications and is
consultant to different governments and funding bodies. He is involved in several
European projects as coordinator or steering committee member (Pro-eel, AquaMed,
SustainAQ, GRRAS, Benefish, ZAFIRA). He is furthermore member of the board of
directors of the Aquacultural Engineering Society (AES), the Dutch Aquaculture Society
and moderator of the thematic workgroup on RAS of the European Aquaculture Society
(EAS).
Christina B.G. SCHROEDER

Former WTO Senior Counsellor, Geneva, Switzerland
Christina Schroeder gave a presentation on Do we need to differentiate farmed and
captured species in trade? She holds a PhD in International Law, International
Economics and International Relations from the Graduate Institute of International
Studies in Geneva as well as a Masters of Law degree from the University of Stockholm.
She worked on the WTO GATT from 1972 to 2005, including as Legal Advisor and/or
Secretary of numerous panels and dispute settlement procedures (e.g. skimmed milk
powder panel; Korea beef panels; sugar and banana panels). She was the Secretary of the
Meat Council from 1979-1989 and Secretary for Fisheries and Forestry Issues in
Negotiating Group 3 (Natural Resource Based Products) in the Uruguay Round from
1989-1991. Furthermore, she acted as co-ordinator for dispute settlement in the
Agriculture Division and as manager for fisheries, forestry and commodities. After
retiring from the WTO in 2005, Christina Schroeder has taken up consultancies on
fisheries issues with FAO and ACP countries.
Jonathan SHEPERD
Director General, International Fishmeal and Fish Oil Organisation (IFFO),
Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
Jonathan Shepherd presented a paper on Linkages between farmed and wild fish
(complementarities and competition). He is Director General of the International
Fishmeal and Fish Oil Organisation (IFFO), which is the trade association representing
producers of fishmeal and fish oil and their value chain partners worldwide. Jonathan
qualified as a veterinarian and has a PhD in aquaculture economics. After an initial
academic career, he started his own aquaculture consultancy firm. Thereafter he held a
series of senior posts in Unilever, Peter Hand and Norsk HyGRDo connected with fish
farming, pharmaceuticals and feed manufacture. Prior to joining IFFO as Director
General in 2004, Jonathan was Group Managing Director of the Danish-based fish feed
company, BioMar. He is married and lives in Richmond near London, UK.
Wally STEVENS
Executive Director, Global Aquaculture Alliance, St. Louis, United States
Wally Stevens gave a presentation on Trade issues in aquaculture: the role of
standards and certification and participated in the Panel on enhancing economic

416 –BIOGRAPHIES
conditions for aquaculture. A 40-year veteran of the seafood industry, Wally Stevens is
considered one of that industry’s most influential and respected leaders. An articulate
and persuasive spokesperson, Mr. Stevens is frequently asked to speak on key issues
affecting the global seafood industry—from seafood safety to free trade to the importance
of standards for farming and processing. After his retirement from the Boston-based
seafood distribution company, Slade Gorton & Company, Inc., where he was President
and Chief Operating Officer, Mr. Stevens was named Executive Director of the Global
Aquaculture Alliance (GAA), the leading global advocate and standards-setter for
aquaculture seafood. In his role at GAA, Mr. Stevens has helped expand the global reach
of GAA’s Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP). One of the pioneers of US aquaculture, Mr.
Stevens served as President of Ocean Products, a small salmon aquaculture company in
the state of Maine. Prior to joining Ocean Products, Mr. Stevens held several
management positions at the Chicago-based Booth Fisheries. Mr. Stevens has served as
Chairman of the Board of the National Fisheries Institute (NFI), where he helped
establish NFI’s highly successful “Future Leaders” program. He also served as one of the
industry’s leading proponents of free trade in seafood, serving as President of the
American Seafood Distributors Association (ASDA). Mr. Stevens graduated in 1962
from Plymouth State University where he currently serves as Chair of its President’s
Council.
Klaoudatos SPYROS
Professor, Department of Ichthyology and Aquatic Environment, School of Agriculture,
University of Thessaly, Greece
Professor S. Klaoudatos prepared a country case study on Best practices in
aquaculture management and development. He is working at the School of Agriculture of
the University of Thessaly, Department of Ichthyology and Aquatic Environment. He is
involved in the field of Aquaculture since 1972, as assistant researcher in the Hellenic
Centre of Marine Research (HCMR). From 1988 to 1994 he was the Director of the
Aquaculture Center of Acheloos (Western Greece) and from 1994 to 2002 Head of the
Aquaculture Department of the Hellenic Center of Marine Research. He has performed as
contributor and co-ordinator in many research projects. He has more than 100
publications in International Scientific Journals and conferences and numerous technical
reports for projects held at national and international level. Since 2006 he is Chair of the
Committee of Aquaculture of the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean.
He is an active member of scientific and steering committees, a consultant in many
national and international bodies concerning the aquaculture industry and a national
representative in international at hoc and regular meetings for the promotion of
aquaculture and marine environmental protection.
Albert TACON
Affiliate Research Faculty, Hawaiian Institute of Marine Biology (University of Hawaii at
Manoa) and Affiliate Professor of Aquaculture, University of Hawaii at Hilo, Hawaii,
United States
Albert G.J. Tacon presented a paper on Food security, climate change and aquaculture.
He earned his PhD in 1978 in aquaculture nutrition (University College, Cardiff, Wales)
and his BSc in 1973 in Botany and Zoology (Westfield College, University of London,
England). Dr. Tacon has over 30 years of experience in aquaculture nutrition and

BIOGRAPHIES – 417
development activities, including 14 years with the FAO within national, regional and
inter-regional aquaculture development projects. Dr. Tacon has over 42 in-country work
experiences with FAO and other agencies in aquaculture development related activities,
and has over 200 aquaculture development related publications. Dr. Tacon is an Affiliate
Research Faculty at the Hawaiian Institute of Marine Biology (University of Hawaii at
Manoa) and Affiliate Professor of Aquaculture at the University of Hawaii at Hilo. He also
serves as Scientific Advisor on Aquatic Resources to the International Foundation for
Science, Stockholm, Sweden (since 1998). Dr. Tacon is Editor in Chief of Reviews in
Aquaculture, and also serves on the editorial board of Aquaculture Research and
Aquaculture Nutrition.
Paloma Carballo TEJERO

Senior Technical Officer, Aquaculture Area Manager, General Direction of Fisheries
Management, General Secretariat of the Sea, Madrid, Spain
Paloma Carballo Tejero participated in the Panel on national policies, strategies and
plans for sustainable aquaculture. She holds a degree in Biology from the Universidad
Autónoma de Madrid. She started her career as technical officer at the Spanish Institute of
Oceanography before moving on to the General Secretariat of the Sea for the past 22
years. She has extensive experience in the coordination and organization of the Spanish
aquaculture sector. She regularly participates in international conferences, meetings of
national aquaculture organisations as well as of international fisheries governance bodies
like FAO, IUCN, NASCO, EIFAC and relevant EU bodies. She also advised new
member countries that have recently joined the EU on aquaculture related issues.
Yngve TORGERSEN
Deputy Director General, Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs, Oslo, Norway
Yngve Torgersen presented a paper on Norwegian aquaculture zoning policy and the
competition for marine space in aquaculture management and participated in the final
session on Lessons for policy makers: what future for aquaculture? He graduated from
the University of Oslo with a degree in microbiology in 1989. He worked for six years at
the National Veterinary Institute, Oslo, as a research scientist in the field of aquatic
animal diseases and general hygiene. From 1995 to 2002 he held different positions in the
Royal Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Veterinary Services, including
Head of the Ministry’s Animal Health Unit. Between 2002 and 2006 Mr. Torgersen
worked in the Animal Health Unit of the European Commission in Brussels (DG
SANCO). There he was “Chef de file” for aquatic animal health, and responsible for
developing the new EU legislation on aquatic animal health. In 2006 he was appointed
Deputy Director General in the Royal Norwegian Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal
Affairs, where he currently is responsible for the Norwegian Government’s portfolio on
environmental sustainability of the Norwegian aquaculture industry. Mr. Torgersen has
published more than 40 scientific papers and reports, and has been giving lectures and
presentations in the field of general hygiene, aquatic animal health and regulatory issues
in aquaculture.

PARTICIPANTS – 419
Participants
Canada Dr. Robert DAY

Department of Fisheries and Oceans Director, International Policy, Planning and Coordination
Mr. Éric GILBERT

Director, Innovation and Sector Strategies
Mr. Trevor SWERDFAGER
Director General
Czech Republic Ms. Helena CIZKOVA

First Secretary
Permanent Delegation to the OECD
France Mrs. Cécile BIGOT

Ministry for Food, Agriculture Chef du Bureau des produits de la mer
and Fisheries
Mr. Olivier CUNIN

Adjoint au Chef du Bureau de la Conchyliculture et de
l'Environnement Littoral
Dr. Philippe FERLIN

Ingénieur Général, CGAAER
Mr. Sébastien GOUPIL

Chargé de mission
Mr. Bruno LE MAIRE

Minister for Food, Agriculture and Fisheries
Mr. Philippe MAUGUIN

Director General
Mr. Philippe RONSIN

Chargé de mission au Bureau de la Conchyliculture et de
l'Environnement Littoral
Germany Ms. Ursula POSSELT

Fisheries Expert
Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection
Greece Mr. Constantinos PAPACONSTANTINOU

Director of the Institute of Marine Biological Resources

420 – PARTICIPANTS
Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR)
Ireland Mrs. Catherine MORRISON

Head of Environment and Quality Section
Irish Sea Fisheries Board
Korea Mr. Jung-Uie LEE

General Director
Aquaculture Research institute
National Fisheries Research and Development Institute
Mr. Nam Chul LIM

Deputy Director
Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
Netherlands Ms. Gieta MAHABIR

Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Advisor Fisheries
and Food Quality Department of Fisheries
Mr. Arjo ROTHUIS

Expert, Fisheries
Norway Mr. Martin BRYDE

Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs Deputy Director General
Ms. Anne B. OSLAND

Senior Advisor
Mr. Yngve TORGERSEN

Deputy Director General
Slovak Republic Mr. Jan SUKOVSKY

Ministry of Agriculture Department of Animal Production
Mrs. Andrea HRDA

Director of Department of Animal Production
Spain Mrs. Eva BLANCO MEDIO

Conseiller pour l'Agriculture
Permanent Delegation
Mrs. Paloma CARBALLO TEJERO

Head of Aquaculture
Ministry of the Environment, Rural and Marine Areas
Sweden Mr. Joacim JOHANNESSON

Fishery advisor
Swedish Board of Fisheries

Turkey Dr. Hayri DENIZ

Director of Marine Aquaculture
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, DG of Agricultural
Production and Development
United States Ms. Margaret HAWLEY-YOUNG

Advisor for Trade Policy and Agriculture
Permanent Delegation
Mr. Gregory SCHNEIDER

Senior International Trade Specialist
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Department of Commerce
European Union Mrs. Charlotte JAGOT

Research Programme Officer
European Commission
Dr. Oriol RIBO

Senior Scientific Officer
Animal Heatlh and Welfare Unit
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)
Mr. Jean WEISSENBERGER

Policy Officer
Politique commune de la pêche et aquaculture
Direction générale des affaires maritimes et de la pêche
Estonia Mr. Vahur VÕREL

Chief Specialist of the Department of Fisheries Economics
Ministry of Agriculture Republic of Estonia
South Africa Mr. Motseki HLATSHWAYO

Department of Agriculture, Forestry Chief Director
and Fisheries
Mrs. Mary KATERERE

Assistant Director
Marine Aquaculture
Ms. Mashebane THOSAGO

Assistant Director
Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
Chinese Taipei Mr. Chen-Chih KAO

Professor
Institute of Marine Biology, National Sun Yat-sen University
Thailand Mr. Pongpat BOONCHUWONG

Senior Expert, Fisheries Economics
Department of Fisheries

Organisations/Companies
OECD Mr. Mario AMANO

Deputy Secretary-General
SGE
Ms. Nicole FRANZ

Fisheries Policy Analyst
TAD/FISH
Mr. Gunnar HARALDSSON

Senior Fisheries Policy Analyst
TAD/FISH
Ms. Saba KHWAJA

Consultant, Fisheries Policy Analyst
TAD/FISH
Mr. SungBum KIM

Senior Fisheries Policy Analyst
TAD/FISH
Mr. Krzysztof MICHALAK

Administrator
ENV/EPI
Mrs. Karine RAVET

Assistant of Division
TAD/FISH
Mr. Carl-Christian SCHMIDT

Head of Division
TAD/FISH
Aquaculture et Qualité Mr. Herve LUCIEN-BRUN

Consultant
France
Aquatic Farms Ltd Dr. Albert TACON

Technical Director
United States
BIO-RAD Laboratories Mr. Jean-Francois CHAUVET

Marketing Manager
France
Centro de Ciências de Mar do Algarve Ms. Nadège RICHARD

Post-doctorante
Portugal

Ms. Dulce MARTINS

Post Doctoral Fellow
COFREPECHE Mr. Vincent DEFAUX

Project Director
France
Mr. Régis TOUSSAINT

PDG
France
CREATE Centre for Aquaculture Dr. Arne FREDHEIM

Technology Director
Norway
Cumbrian Seafoods Ltd Mr. Huw THOMAS

Head of Ethical & Sustainable Sourcing/Technical Director
United Kingdom
DEFRA Ms. Zoe HODGSON

Fisheries Food Policy Advisor
Marine Programme
United Kingdom
European Aquaculture Society Mr. Yves HARACHE

President 2010-2012
Belgium
Mr. Alistair LANE

Aquaculture Expert
Belgium
European Aquaculture Technology Mr. Courtney HOUGH

&Innovation Platform Aquaculture Expert
Belgium
Food and Veterinary Agencyof the Faroe Dr. Susanne KABELL

Islands Head of Department for Fish and Animal Diseases
Faroe Islands
FranceAgriMer Ms. Marion FISCHER

Chargée d’études Pêche et Aquaculture
France
Global Aquaculture Alliance Mr. Wally STEVENS

Executive Director

United States
IFFO Mr. Jonathan SHEPHERD

Director General
United Kingdom
IFREMER Mrs. Beatrice CHATAIN

Researcher
France
Mrs. Nicole DEVAUCHELLE

CaGRDe de Recherche
France
Mr. Maurice HERAL

Scientific Director
IMARES Dr. Oliver SCHNEIDER

Aquaculture expert
Netherlands
INRA Mr. Marc VANDEPUTTE

Coordinator of Aquaculture Research
France
Institute of Marine Research Dr. Karin Kroon BOXASPEN

Norway
IntraFish Media Ms. Eva TALLAKSEN

Journalist
United Kingdom
Irish Sea Fisheries Board (BIM) Mr. Donal MAGUIRE

Director of Aquaculture Development
Ireland
Marine Scotland, Scottish Government Mr. Mike WATSON

Head and Aquaculture Health and Welfare Team
United Kingdom
Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia- Mr. Sena DE SILVA

Pacific (NACA) Chief Executive Officer
Thailand

Consultants Mrs. Christina SCHROEDER

Retired WTO Senior Counsellor
Switzerland
Mrs. Tracey STRANGE

Sustainable Development Consultant
France
Mrs. Marie-Christine MONFORT
Consultant, Marketing Seafood
France
Sunderland Marine Mutual Insurance Mr. Tom RUTTER

Company Limited Manging Director Aquaculture Division
United Kingdom
Technical University of Denmark Mr. Torger BORRESEN

Research Director
National Food Institute
Denmark
University of Copenhagen Mr. Rasmus NIELSEN

PhD Student, Division of Fisheries Economics and Management
Denmark
University of New Brunswick Dr. Thierry CHOPIN

Professor of Marine Biology
Canadian Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture Network
(CIMTAN)
Canada
Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Mr. Robert DIAZ

College of William and Mary Professor
United States
World Fish Centre Mr. Malcolm BEVERIDGE

Director of Aquaculture and Genetic Improvement
Egypt
World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Mr. Eric BERNARD

Program Officer
WWF - France
Mr. Carson ROPER

Consultant
WWF - USA
Mr. Piers HART

Aquaculture Policy Officer
WWF - Scotland

Other Mr. Bertrand LANOISELÉE

ACA – Aquaculture Consulting and Advising
France
Dr. Rachael RITCHIE

Project Manager (Europe)/Consultant Aquaculture Science
Econoving/Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin en Yvelines
France

OECD PUBLISHING, 2, rue André-Pascal, 75775 PARIS CEDEX 16
PRINTED IN FRANCE
(53 2010 03 1 P) ISBN 978-92-64-08871-9 – No. 57499 2010
Aquaculture now provides more than 50% of the global supply of fisheries products for direct human
Advancing
consumption. Given stagnating capture fisheries and a growing demand for seafood, driven by
demographics and changing consumption patterns, the importance of aquaculture for food security the Aquaculture Agenda
is likely to increase.
Aquaculture production at the current level of intensity is a relatively new phenomenon. It poses workshop proceedings
economic, environmental and social challenges, which may be poorly understood or inadequately
addressed within current policy frameworks, and hence the sustainability of operations may be
compromised. Issues that may constrain the sector’s development and performance include the
management of externalities and the lack of an enabling business environment.
The OECD Committee for Fisheries acknowledges the important role of aquaculture, both in
terms of economic activity and in terms of food security. In April 2010, it organised a workshop
with support from the French Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Fisheries to address key policy
challenges of the aquaculture sector. Policy makers, academics, industry representatives, NGOs
and international organisations gathered to discuss the critical economic, environmental and social
aspects of aquaculture. This publication presents a selection of key issues covered by the workshop
and includes a large number of country case studies, which provide specific examples of national
approaches to aquaculture management.

Related reading
Review of Fisheries in OECD Countries: Policies and Summary Statistics (2010)
Globalisation in Fisheries and Aquaculture: Opportunities and Challenges (2010)
Globalisation and Fisheries: Proceedings of an OECD-FAO Workshop (2007)
The full text of this book is available on line via this link:
www.sourceoecd.org/agriculture/9789264088719
Those with access to all OECD books on line should use this link:
www.sourceoecd.org/9789264088719
SourceOECD is the OECD online library of books, periodicals and statistical databases.
For more information about this award-winning service and free trials ask your librarian, or write to us
at SourceOECD@oecd.org.
isbn 978-92-64-08871-9
www.oecd.org/publishing
53 2010 03 1 P -:HSTCQE=U]]\V^:

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Advancing the Aquaculture Agenda

Advancing the Aquaculture Agenda

ISBN 978-92-64-08871-9 (print)

Photo credits: Cover © Luke Jodouin.

Corrigenda to OECD publications may be found on line at: www.oecd.org/publishing/corrigenda

The aquaculture sector is uniquely placed to complement production from the

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

The Workshop Advancing the Aquaculture Agenda: Policies to Ensure a Sustainable

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

Chair’s summary ............................................................................................................................ 15

Résumé du président ........................................................................................................................ 25

Opening remarks ............................................................................................................................ 35

Chapter 1 Growing the wealth of aquaculture............................................................................ 39

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

Chapter 12 Chinese Taipei: A control strategy for viral diseases

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

Chapter 18 Conditions for establishing aquaculture production sites in OECD countries:

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

ACFA Advisory Council on Fisheries and Aquaculture

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

FIFG Financial Instrument for Fisheries Guidance (now the EFF)

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

SPS (WTO) Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

• Encourage mutual learning by sharing best practices and experiences in

Best practices in aquaculture management and development

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

Sustainable aquaculture should be ecologically efficient, environmentally acceptable,

Enhancing economic conditions for aquaculture

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

imbalance, osmoregulation disruption and immuno-suppression, amongst others. As a

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

development of small-scale production for rural markets or specialised niche supplies.

The main policy messages can be summarised as follows:

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

• Improve the image of the industry:

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

Les objectifs du Millénaire pour le développement prévoient de réduire de moitié la

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

• fournir aux participants des informations sur l’état actuel de l’aquaculture

En 2009, le Conseil de l’OCDE réuni au niveau des ministres a adopté la Déclaration

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

Résumé des débats

Pratiques exemplaires en matière de gestion et de développement de

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

en faveur de la recherche et développement et campagnes de communication pour

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

Améliorer les conditions économiques de l’aquaculture

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

et préserver si possible la structure des PME, le secteur souhaite voir la réglementation

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

ADVANCING THE AQUACULTURE AGENDA: WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS - © OECD 2010

• Améliorer l’image du secteur :