1.

Defination of Computer Network

The merging of computers and communications has had a profound influence on the way computer
systems are organized. The once-dominant concept of the ‘‘computer center’’ as a room with a
large computer to which users bring their work for processing is now totally obsolete (although data
centers holding thousands of Internet servers are becoming common). The old model of a single
com- puter serving all of the organization’s computational needs has been replaced by one in which
a large number of separate but interconnected computers do the job.
These systems are called computer networks. Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms..
They are usually connected together to make larger networks, with the Internet being the most well-
known example of a network of networks.

Figure 1. A network with two clients and one server.

2. Different Networ cables

Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device to another.
There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a network
will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use a variety of cable types. The type of
cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol, and size. Understanding
the characteristics of different types of cable and how they relate to other aspects of a network is
necessary for the development of a successful network.

The following sections discuss the types of cables used in networks and other related topics.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber Optic Cable
Cable Installation Guides
 Wireless LANs
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair
(UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option for school networks (See figure 2).

Figure 2. UTP Cable

2.1 Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector. This is a plastic
connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector (See figure 3). A slot allows the RJ-45 to
be inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the connector follows a
standard borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard designates which wire goes with each
pin inside the connector.

Figure 3. UTP Connector

2.2 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

Although UTP cable is the least expensive cable, it may be susceptible to radio and electrical
frequency interference (it should not be too close to electric motors, fluorescent lights, etc.). If you
must place cable in environments with lots of potential interference, or if you must place cable in
extremely sensitive environments that may be susceptible to the electrical current in the UTP,
shielded twisted pair may be the solution. Shielded cables can also help to extend the maximum
distance of the cables.

Shielded twisted pair cable is available in three different configurations:

1.Each pair of wires is individually shielded with foil.

2.There is a foil or braid shield inside the jacket covering all wires (as a group).
3.There is a shield around each individual pair, as well as around the entire group of wires
(referred to as double shield twisted pair).

2.2.1 Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation
between the center conductor and a braided metal shield (See figure 4). The metal shield helps to
block any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.

Figure 4. Coaxial cable

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In

addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable. The
two types of coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.

Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin coaxial
cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being
200 meters. In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial cable has been
popular in school networks, especially linear bus networks.

Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length being 500
meters. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away from
the center conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when running longer lengths in a
linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it does not bend easily and is difficult
to install.
2.2.2.1 Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman
(BNC) connector (See figure 5). Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors,
including a T-connector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable are the weakest
points in any network. To help avoid problems with your network, always use the BNC connectors
that crimp, rather screw, onto the cable.

Figure 5. BNC connector

2.3 Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective
materials (See figure 6). It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of
electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of
electrical interference. It has also made it the standard for connecting networks between buildings,
due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.

Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and
twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity
broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and interactive
services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is more
difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for fiber optic cable carrying
Ethernet signals.

The center core of fiber cables is made from glass or plastic fibers (See figure 6). A plastic coating
then cushions the fiber center, and kevlar fibers help to strengthen the cables and prevent breakage.
The outer insulating jacket made of teflon or PVC.

Figure 6. Fiber optic cable

2.4 Serial Cable

A serial cable is a cable used to transfer information between two devices using a serial
communication protocol. The form of connectors depends on the particular serial port used. A cable
wired for connecting two DTEs directly is known as a null modemcable.Serial cables are typically
used for RS-232 communication.

This is one of the most misunderstood areas of RS-232. DTE stands for Data Terminal Equipment,
and

DCE stands for Data Communications Equipment. DTE is typically either a dumb terminal or the
serial

port on a computer/workstation. DCE is typically a modem, DSU/CSU, or other piece of data

communications equipment, hence the names. This is all most people really need to know about
these

terms.

Where it gets confusing is when you start to talk about signal definitions and direction. For
example,

it's easy for someone to understand that when you transmit data, you send it out. However, when
you

talk in terms of DCE, it becomes an input signal. This is because the specification was written from
the

perspective of the DTE end of the link. Another example is the Receive Data signal is an input to
DTE,

but an output from DCE.

Therefore, a straight through "one to one" cable is all that is necessary between a modem and a

standard DTE serial port. However, if you want to connect two DTE ports together, you have to

simulate the existence of the pair of DCE devices, typically modems that would normally be
between

the two DTE devices. This is where the null-modem device or cable comes in.
 Figure 7. Fiber optic cable

3. Networking Devices

3.1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the
same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which
the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An important point to be noted about repeaters
is that they do not amplify the signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit
and regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2 port device.

3.2. Hub – A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from
different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations.
Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices.In other words, collision
domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have intelligence to find
out best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.

3.3 Bridge – A bridge operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on functionality of
filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination. It is also used for
interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single output
port, thus making it a 2 port device.

3.4 Switch – A switch is a multi port bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. Switch is data link layer
device. Switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, that makes it very efficient as it
does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to correct port only.
In other words, switch divides collision domain of hosts, but broadcast domain remains same.
3.5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses.
Router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and
have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data
packets. Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.
3.6. Gateway– A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks together that
may work upon different networking models. They basically works as the messenger agents that
take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called
protocol converters and can operate at any network layer. Gateways are generally more complex
than switch or router.

4. Network Topologies

4.1 Mesh Topology

In this topology each node or station is connected to every other station as shown in Figure 8. The
key characteristics of this topology are as follows:

Key Characteristics:
o Fully connected
o Robust – Highly reliable
o Not flexible
o Poor expandability
Two nodes are connected by dedicated point-point links between them. So the total number of
links to connect n nodes = n(n-1)/2; which is proportional to n2 . Media used for the connection
(links) can be twisted pair, co-axial cable or optical fiber. With this topology there is no need to
provide any additional information, that is from where the packet is coming, along with the packet
because two nodes have a point-point dedicated link between them. And each node knows which
link is connected to which node on the other end.
4.2 Bus Topology
In Bus Topology, all stations attach through appropriate hardware interfacing known as a tap,
directly to a linear transmission medium, or bus as shown in Figure 9. Full-duplex operation
between the station and the tap allows data to be transmitted onto the bus and received from the
bus. A transmission from any station propagates the length of the medium in both directions and
can be received by all other stations. At each end of the bus there is a terminator, which absorbs
any signal, preventing reflection of signal from the endpoints. If the terminator is not present, the
endpoint acts like a mirror and reflects the signal back causing interference and other problems.
Key Characteristics of this topology are:
o Flexible
o Expandable
o Moderate Reliability
o Moderate performance
4.3 STAR Topology

In the star topology, each station is directly connected to a common central node as shown in
Figure 10. Typically, each station attaches to a central node, referred to as the star coupler, via two
point-to-point links, one for transmission and one for reception.
Key features:
o High Speed
o Very Flexible
o High Reliability
o High Maintainability
In general, there are two alternatives for the operation of the central node.
o One approach is for the central node to operate in a broadcast fashion. A transmission of a frame
from one station to the node is retransmitted on all of the outgoing links. In this case, although the
arrangement is physically a star, it is logically a bus; a transmission from any station is received by
all other stations, and only one station at a time may successfully transmit. In this case the central
node acts as a repeater.
o Another approach is for the central node to act as a frame-switching device. An incoming frame
is buffered in the node and then retransmitted on an outgoing link to the destination station. In this
approach, the central node acts as a switch and performs the switching or routing function. This
mode of operation can be compared with the working of a telephone exchange, where the caller
party is connected to a single called party and each pair of subscriber who needs to talk have a
different connection.
4.4 Ring topology
In the ring topology, the network consists of a set of repeaters joined by point-to-point links in a
closed loop as shown in Figure 11. The repeater is a comparatively simple device, capable of
receiving data on one link and transmitting them, bit by bit, on the other link as fast as they are
received, with no buffering at the repeater. The links are unidirectional; that is data are transmitted
in one direction only and all are oriented in the same way. Thus, data circulate around the ring in
one direction (clockwise or counterclockwise).
4.5 Tree Topology
This topology can be considered as an extension to bus topology. It is commonly used in cascading
equipments. For example, you have a repeater box with 8-port, as far as you have eight stations, this
can be used in a normal fashion. But if you need to add more stations then you can connect two or
more repeaters in a hierarchical format (tree format) and can add more stations. In the Figure 12, R1
refers to repeater one and so on and each repeater is considered to have 8-ports.
5. OSI and TCP/IP model