Open Journal of Orthopedics, 2013, 3, 300-305

Published Online November 2013 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/ojo)

http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojo.2013.37055

Phantom Fighters: Coping Mechanisms of Amputee

Patients with Phantom Limb Pain: A Longitudinal Study
Daniella Margalit1,2*, Eyal Heled3, Corinne Berger4, Hod Katzir5
1
Department of Orthopedic Rehabilitation, Sheba Medical Center, Ramat Gan, Israel; 2Department of Psychology, Ariel University,
Ariel, Israel; 3The Day Care Rehabilitation Unit, Sheba Medical Center, Ramat Gan, Israel; 4Pain Rehabilitation Department, Sheba
Medical Center, Ramat Gan, Israel; 5Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
Email: *daniella.margalit@sheba.health.gov.il

Received October 8th, 2013; revised November 7th, 2013; accepted November 12th, 2013

Copyright © 2013 Daniella Margalit et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

ABSTRACT
Phantom Limb Pain (PLP) is a phenomenon commonly observed in orthopedic rehabilitation units that can have detri-
mental effects on patients’ functioning. Psychological aspects of PLP have been widely investigated showing that some
coping mechanisms are advantageous at certain points but not at others. However, the mechanisms related to positive
adjustment to PLP during the course of rehabilitation have not been adequately examined. The aim of the study was to
investigate the relationship between PLP and coping mechanism at two points during the rehabilitation process. Thirty
one orthopedic inpatients, who had undergone lower-limb amputation following diabetic complications, rated their pain
levels and mental coping strategies. The Ways of Coping Checklist, Life Orientation Test, and the McGill Pain Ques-
tionnaire, 1 - 15 days post-surgery and six months post-surgery were used for evaluation. Denial was found to be nega-
tively correlated with PLP shortly after amputation. In contrast, optimism was found to be negatively correlated with
PLP six months after the surgery. Emotion-focused coping mechanisms were found to be positively correlated with PLP.
It is concluded that denial during the early stages of recuperation and optimism at later stages of rehabilitation is associ-
ated with reduced PLP. Awareness of these mental processes by both medical staff and family members may enable
acceptance of these processes and thus facilitate patients’ rehabilitation.

Keywords: Phantom Limb Pain; Mental Coping Mechanisms; Denial; Optimism

1. Introduction primarily psychological, however later, physiological

explanations were proposed to explain the source of the
Phantom Limb Pain (PLP) refers to painful sensations in
phenomenon [12,13]. Current views maintain that an
an amputated or denervated part of the body [1]. These
integrative bio-psycho-social approach is mandatory in
painful sensations are reported by 50% - 85% of limb
order to better understand PLP [4].
amputees beginning a short period after the procedure,
Research on psychological factors related to PLP ad-
with the reported episodes ranging from a minimum of
justment revealed positive correlations between pain and
several weeks per year to daily occurrences [2-4].
various psychiatric disorders, such as: depression, anxi-
PLP is a challenge to caregivers and researchers in
ety, stress, post-traumatic stress disorder, which may
multi-disciplinary fields, and is sometimes detrimental to
increase pain sensation. Cognitions have also been stud-
the sufferers. The occurrence of PLP can substantially
ied and catastrophizing was associated with pain. How-
disrupt the rehabilitation process, and can have serious
ever, perceived control was found to be negatively cor-
consequences for the health and functioning of the pa-
related with pain sensations [4,11,15-21].
tient [5]. These consequences might be physical, emo-
Various coping mechanisms help amputee patients
tional or functional [5-12].
deal with pain [22]. Moreover, coping styles were found
The perception of the etiology of PLP has changed
to be important predictors of psychosocial adjustment.
substantially over time. Initially, PLP was perceived as
For example, the psychosocial functioning of adults with
*
Corresponding author. acquired limb amputations was shown to be significantly

Open Access OJO

 Phantom Fighters: Coping Mechanisms of Amputee Patients with Phantom Limb Pain: A Longitudinal Study 301

related to the use of coping strategies [23]. Folkman and coping with pain.
Lazarus [24] identified two main coping mechanisms: We hypothesize that the coping mechanisms for pain
emotion-focused coping and problem-focused coping. management that are more prevalent a few days after sur-
According to this model, coping refers to the cognitive, gery (such as denial and other emotion-focused strategies)
emotional, and behavioral efforts aimed at keeping a would be negatively correlated with pain sensations [37].
balance between the person and the environment. Coping However, these same coping mechanisms would be posi-
has two main functions: to regulate distress (emotion- tively correlated with PLP six months later.
focused coping) and to take actions to change and im-
prove the situation (problem-focused coping). Problem- 2. Methods
focused coping is related to a special form of emotion- 2.1. Ethics Statement
focused coping, namely, “emphasizing the positive”
which facilitates problem-focused coping [24]. Studies All participants received written and oral instructions of
have shown emotion-focused coping to be associated the research aims and procedures and gave informed
with poor psychosocial outcomes [25-27]. written consent. This study was approved by the local
Optimism (defined as a generalized expectation that ethic committee of Sheba Medical Center and Bar-Ilan
future outcomes will be positive) was also found to be University and performed in accordance with the De-
correlated with coping in patients with amputation claration of Helsinki.
[28,29]. Dunn [30] showed that having an optimistic
disposition was associated with lower levels of depres- 2.2. Participants
sion and higher levels of self-esteem during the rehabili- The study sample consisted of 31 lower-limb amputee
tation process after lower-limb amputation. Horgan and patients suffering from diabetes (28 men and 3 women)
MacLachlan [31] demonstrated that respondents with who were hospitalized in the orthopedic department of
high levels of optimism were more likely to search for the Sheba Medical Center. All patients with reported PLP
positive meanings for their amputations. Furthermore, (as opposed to those reported as having stump pain or
additional research showed a correlation between opti- phantom sensations), as detailed in their medical records
mism and good rehabilitation outcomes [32,33]. were enrolled in the study. No patients approached were
A broadly acknowledged coping mechanism specifi- subsequently excluded from the study. Of the partici-
cally found to be a common defense mechanism in the pants, 21 were below-knee amputees, 4 were above-the-
etiology of PLP is denial, that is, the refusal to believe knee amputees, and 6 were foot amputees. The selection
that the stressor exists or the attempt to act as though the criteria for the group were as follows: 1. Patients who
stressor is not real [34]. People who experience the loss suffered from diabetes and had above- or below-knee
of a limb have been shown to go through the five stages amputation surgery; 2. Patients who experienced phan-
of grief also experienced by people who are dying: denial, tom limb pain; 3. Patients for whom a maximum of fif-
anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance [8,35]. teen days had elapsed since the operation; and 4. Patients
Research shows that denial of the implications of an with no chronic pain complaints other than those associ-
amputation (as a type of emotion-focused coping) is a ated with the amputation.
positive short-term coping style following amputation The use of drugs, including painkillers, major and mi-
[36]. However, in the long term, denial is associated with nor tranquilizers, and muscle relaxants was prevalent,
higher levels of depression and hostility and poor ad- with 71% of the patients reporting drug use. Table 1
justment [37,38,19]. provides a demographic breakdown of the sample.
While coping mechanisms and psychosocial adjust-
ment in amputees have been studied, little is known Table 1. Demographic and clinical data of the patients (n =
about the psychological processes associated with PLP 31).
reduction during rehabilitation of lower-limb loss. Elabo- Maximum Minimum Mean (SD)
rating on the psychological aspects of this phenomenon
Age (years) 55 (7.12) 75 45
may add an additional perspective to caregivers’ under-
standing of coping with PLP. Education (years) 11.34 (3.12) 17 5
Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the Time since amputation
9.29 (3.23) 15 4
(days)
correlation between coping mechanisms adopted by pa-
tients and PLP at two different points in time, following Present Pain Intensity
indices
lower-limb amputation: a few days after the procedure,
At present 1.64 (0.52) 5 1
and six months later: a point in time when stump pain
should have been resolved and when PLP would be Minimum level 1.29 (0.52) 3 1
deemed to be chronic [2], indicating a different stage in Maximum level 4.03 (1.01) 5 2

Open Access OJO

302 Phantom Fighters: Coping Mechanisms of Amputee Patients with Phantom Limb Pain: A Longitudinal Study

2.3. Instruments two-stage procedure. If the patient agreed to proceed, he

or she was given the informed consent form and, after
The Ways of Coping Checklist (WOCC) is a measure
signing, was asked to complete the questionnaire. Six
that operationalizes and quantifies coping capabilities
months later, the patients were contacted via telephone
[24]. This checklist was administered in its translated and
and the questionnaires were re-administered.
validated Hebrew version [39,40]. The instrument is a
42-item measure, utilizing a 5-point scale format, with
responses ranging from 0 (not appropriate) to 4 (regu-
2.5. Analytic Strategy
larly used). The scores of the WOCC are produced by All analyses were conducted using SPSS (SPSS-15 Inc.,
calculating the means of the responses. Chicago, Illinois). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
The questionnaire consists of four subscales: a prob- was used to compare WOCC indices of patients in the
lem-focused coping strategy (PF; e.g., “I planned a hospitalization stage, followed by Tukey post-hoc test. In
course of action and followed it”), an emotion-focused order to test the correlation between the mental variables
coping strategy (EF; e.g., “I wish I had the ability to and Present Pain Intensity in both time periods, Pearson
change the way I feel”), a seeking-social-support coping correlation coefficient was employed. Significance was
strategy (SSS; e.g., “I accept sympathy and understand- set at α < 0.05.
ing from others”), and denial (e.g., “I tried to forget the
whole thing”) [40]. A high score on a specific subscale 3. Results
indicates greater use of the coping strategy measured by
the subscale. The internal reliability of the WOCC was Comparison of WOCC indices in the hospitalization
tested using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient; the coefficient phase, revealed a significant difference between the dif-
confirmed satisfactory internal reliability of the subscales ferent indices shortly after the amputation procedure
(PF = 0.88, EF = 0.82, SSS = 0.86, denial = 0.74). (F(3,28) = 91.69, p < 0.001). Tukey post hoc test re-
The Life Orientation Test (LOT) measures generalized vealed that denial of life-long implications of the surgery
optimism [28]; that is, it tests individuals’ sense of the was the most commonly employed coping mechanism,
probability that hopeful expectations will indeed materi- whereas seeking social support was the least common
alize. The Hebrew version of the questionnaire was ad- (see Table 2 for the data).
ministered to the patients [41]. The LOT scale is com- Table 3 presents correlation coefficients between op-
prised of twelve items: four positive items (e.g., “I am timism and coping abilities, and Present Pain Intensity at
always optimistic about the future”), four negative items the first administration and at the second phase of the
(e.g., “Things never work out the way I want them to”), study. That is, the scores on the same questionnaires re-
and four distracters (e.g., “I find it important to keep
Table 2. Means (standard deviations) and ranges of the
busy”). The LOT is rated on a 4-point scale ranging from WOCC (n = 31).
1 (I agree very much) to 4 (I disagree very much). A high
score on this scale indicates a high level of optimism. Variable Mean (SD) Minimum Maximum
The McGill Pain Questionnaire (MPQ), compiled by
Problem-focused 2.59 (0.57) 1.5 3.7
Melzack [42], was used in its validated Hebrew transla-
tion form [43-45]. The MPQ assesses qualitative com- Emotion-focused 2.57 (0.55) 1.4 3.5
ponents of pain and differentiates among different as- Seeking social support 2.52 (0.64) 1.3 3.7
pects of pain. Although the scale is made up of four parts, Denial 2.65 (0.79) 1.2 4
we made use of the Present Pain Intensity (PPI) scale,
which consists of six items, rated from 1 (mild) to 5 (ex-
Table 3. Pearson correlations between scores on the WOCC,
cruciating). When presented with this questionnaire, re- LOT, and PPI indices of recently amputated respondents
spondents were asked to rate how well a statement (n=31).
matches their PLP sensation at present, at its minimum
In Six
level, at its maximum level, and when experiencing other hospitalization Maximum months
types of pain (toothache, headache, and stomachache). At present
Minimum Level l
We used the values of the three initial items. At present
Level
Optimism −0.02 −0.06 −0.19 −0.44*
2.4. Procedure Problem-focused 0 −0.05 0 0.01
Personal data on the patients were obtained from their Emotion-focused 0.01 −0.02 0.23 0.45*
medical records. Patients who met inclusion criteria were Seeking social
0.22 0.09 0.2 0.03
approached in their room a few days after the amputation support
*
procedure. The researcher introduced himself and ex- Denial −0.31 −0.25 0.17 0.33
plained the research and its goals while emphasizing the *
p < 0.05.

Open Access OJO

 Phantom Fighters: Coping Mechanisms of Amputee Patients with Phantom Limb Pain: A Longitudinal Study 303

administered six months after amputation. diverse population. More homogenous samples in terms
of the physical location of the amputation may aid in
4. Discussion further clarifying interactions between coping mecha-
nisms and PLP.
The current study examined the mental coping mecha-
Furthermore, future studies should examine other as-
nisms that are associated with PLP at two points in time.
pects associated with lower-limb PLP to expand our
In the first stage, a few days post-amputation, the most
grasp of this phenomenon, and should focus on patients
employed defense mechanism reported by PLP patients,
who have undergone upper-limb amputation as well. The
was denial, whereas seeking social support was the least
work presented here focuses on the psychological do-
employed. In addition, we found denial to be negatively
main in relation to pain prediction. However, in light of
correlated with PLP a few days after the operation, while
the need for a comprehensive perspective, future re-
six months after surgery, optimism was found to be nega-
searchers should study the interaction of physical, social,
tively correlated with PLP. Finally, a positive correlation
and psychological variables together on long-term post-
was found between emotion-focused mechanisms and
amputation PLP.
PLP at six months post surgery, showing that this mecha-
In conclusion, from a psychological standpoint, those
nism is associated with PLP a considerable period of
who deny the consequences of the amputation shortly
time following the surgical intervention.
after it has occurred may suffer less from PLP. Moreover,
Our results complement findings by Pucher et al. [1]
optimism is also associated with lower PLP six months
who concluded that patients’ coping strategies affect
after surgery, whereas emotion-focused coping mecha-
their experience of pain, denial, in particular, was found
nisms are associated with higher levels of PLP. In con-
to be associated with less reported pain in the initial
sequence, it seems that the relation between PLP and
phase of trauma following surgery [36,37]. By disre-
coping mechanisms indicates the six months post-am-
garding the implications of the disability, denial may
putation as a relevant time frame for rehabilitation which
enable other mental resources to surface in order to cope
with the physical aspects of the amputation. Hence, de- patients and caregivers of which caregivers should be
nial aids in focusing on regaining bodily capabilities [46]. aware.
The correlation between denial and lower pain levels The implications of this study lie in the importance of
demonstrates the tendencies of patients post lower limb understanding the underlying mental processes experi-
amputation to “favor” this self focused coping mecha- enced by patients shortly and six months after surgery.
nism over the interpersonal coping mechanism “seeking Caregivers such as physicians, rehabilitative therapists,
social support”. and family members can be educated regarding these
Furthermore, studies have shown that consistent use of mental processes and the emotional manifestations they
emotion-focused coping mechanisms is associated with should expect to see in patients following amputation.
depression in lower limb amputation patients, while for They can then be directed to be accepting of coping me-
example, denial, long after the surgery might also even- chanisms positively associated with rehabilitation such as
tually result in high levels of depression and hostility denial of disability in early stages of rehabilitation, al-
[47,36]. Our results add to this, by showing that use of lowing patients to utilize this coping mechanism at that
emotion-focused coping mechanisms in general, six point in time.
months after surgery is correlated with higher phantom
limb pain sensation, indicating that this strategy is nega- REFERENCES
tively associated with some aspects of rehabilitation.
[1] I. Pucher, W. Kickinger and O. J. Frischenschlager, “Cop-
On the other hand, it appears that adopting an optimis- ing with Amputation And Phantom Limb Pain,” Journal
tic view six months post amputation is associated with of Psychosomatic Research Vol. 46, No. 4, 1999, pp. 379-
low levels of PLP. Optimism may instill meaning in the 383. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3999(98)00111-1
amputation, providing one with a greater sense of control [2] C. Richardson, S. Glenn, M. Horgan and T. Nurmikko,
over the event, as well as over the resulting disability “A Prospective Study of Factors Associated with the
[30,31]. Presence of Phantom Limb Pain Six Months after Major
This study has several limitations. Although there are Lower Limb Amputation in Patients with Peripheral
numerous coping mechanisms and emotional constructs Vascular Disease,” Journal of Pain Vol. 8, No. 10, 2007,
pp. 793-801.
that most likely influence coping with PLP, we chose to http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2007.05.007
explore a number of specific ones. Had we included ad-
[3] R. A. Sherman, C. J. Sherman and I. Parker, “Chronic
ditional constructs, we may have obtained a broader and Phantom and Stump Pain Among American Veterans:
clearer picture of the factors associated with this phe- Results of A Survey,” Pain, Vol. 18, No. 1, 1984, pp.
nomenon. In addition, our sample included patients with 1883-1895.
lower-limb amputations at various sites, constituting a http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3959(84)90128-3

Open Access OJO

304 Phantom Fighters: Coping Mechanisms of Amputee Patients with Phantom Limb Pain: A Longitudinal Study

[4] M. A. Hanley, M. P. Jensen, D. M. Ehde, A. J. Hoffman Persons with Limb Loss: Results of A National Survey,”
D. R. Patterson and L. R. Robinson, “Psychosocial Pre- Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Vol.
dictors of Long-Term Adjustment to Lower-Limb Ampu- 86, No. 4, 2005, pp. 650-658.
tation and Phantom Limb Pain,” Disability and Rehabili- http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2004.10.028
tation, Vol. 26, No. 14-15, 2004, pp. 882-893. [17] M. Asano, P. Rushton, W. C. Miller and B. A. Deathe,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09638280410001708896 “Predictors of Quality of Life among Individuals who
[5] R. Casale, L. Alaa, M. Mallick and H. Ring, “Phantom Have a Lower Limb Amputation,” Prosthetics and Or-
Limb Related Phenomena and Their Rehabilitation after thotics International, Vol. 32, No. 2, 2008, pp. 231-243.
Lower-Limb Amputation,” European Journal of Physical http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03093640802024955
and Rehabilitation Medicine, Vol. 45, No. 4, 2009, pp. [18] P. V. Giannoudis, P. J. Harwood, G. Kontakis, et al.,
559-566. “Long-Term Quality of Life in Trauma Patients Follow-
[6] R. A. Carabelli and W. C. Kellerman, “Phantom Limb ing the Full Spectrum of Tibial Injury (Fasciotomy,
Pain Relief by Tens to Contralateral Extremity,” Archives Closed Fracture, Grade IIIB/IIIC Open Fracture and
of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Vol. 66, No. 7, Amputation),” Injury, Vol. 40, No. 2, 2009, pp. 213-219.
1985, pp. 466-467. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2008.05.024
[7] S. Millstein, D. Bain and G. A. Hunter “A Review of [19] D. M. Desmond and M. MacLachlan, “Affective Distress
Employment Patterns of Industrial Amputees—Factors and Amputation-Related Pain among Older Men with
Influencing Rehabilitation,” Prosthetics and Orthotics Long-Term, Traumatic Limb Amputations,” Journal of
International, Vol. 9, No. 2, 1985, pp. 69-78. Pain Symptom Management, Vol. 31, No. 4, 2006, pp.
[8] C. M. Parkes “Factors Determining The Persistence of 362-368.
Phantom Pain in The Amputee,” Journal of Psychoso- http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2005.08.014
matic Research, Vol. 17, No. 2, 1973, pp. 97-108. [20] B. A. Arnow, C. M. Blasey, M. J. Constantino, et al.,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-3999(73)90010-X “Catastrophizing, Depression and Pain-Related Disabili-
[9] C. P. Van der Schans, J. H. B. Geertzen, T. Schoppen and ty,” General Hospital Psychiatry, Vol. 33, No. 2, 2011,
P. U. Djikstra, “Phantom Pain and Health-Related Quality pp. 150-156.
of Life in Lower Limb Amputees,” Journal of Pain and http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2010.12.008
Symptom Management, Vol. 24, No. 4, 2002, pp. 429-436. [21] F. J. Keefe and D. A. Williams, “A Comparison of Cop-
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0885-3924(02)00511-0 ing Strategies in Chronic Pain Patients in Different Age
[10] M. Marshall, E. Helmes and A. B. Deathe, “Comparison Groups,” Journal of Gerontology, Vol. 45, No. 4, 1990,
of Psychosocial Functioning and Personality in Amputee pp. 161-165. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geronj/45.4.P161
and Chronic Pain Populations,” The Clinical Journal of [22] D. M. Desmond. “Coping, Affective Distress, and Psy-
Pain, Vol. 8, No. 4, 1992, pp. 351-357. chosocial Adjustment among People with Traumatic Up-
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00002508-199212000-00010 per Limb Amputations,” Journal of Psychosomatic Re-
[11] A. S. Whyte and L. J. Carroll, “The Relationship between search, Vol. 62, No. 1, 2007, pp. 15-21.
Catastrophizing and Disability in Amputees Experiencing http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2006.07.027
Phantom Pain,” Disability and Rehabilitation, Vol. 26, [23] C. S. Carver, M. F. Scheier and J. K. Weintraub, “As-
No. 11, 2004, pp. 649-654. sessing Coping Strategies: A Theoretically Based Ap-
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09638280410001672508 proach,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
[12] J. Katz and L. Gagliese, “Phantom Limb Pain: A Con- Vol. 56, No. 6, 1989, pp. 267-283.
tinuing Puzzle,” In: R. J. Gatchel and D. C. Turk, Eds., http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.267
Psychosocial Factors in Pain: Critical Perspectives, [24] R. S. Lazarus and S. Folkman, “Stress Appraisal, and
Guilford Press, New York, 1999, pp. 284-300. Coping,” Springer Publishing Company, New York,
[13] A. Hill, C. A. Niven and C. Knussen, “The Role of Cop- 1984.
ing in Adjustment to Phantom Limb Pain,” Pain, Vol. 62, [25] I. Dudkiewicz, R. Gabrielov, I. Seiv-Ner, G. Zelig and M.
No. 1 1995, pp. 79-86. Heim, “Evaluation of Prosthetic Usage in Upper Limb
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3959(94)00253-B Amputees,” Disability and Rehabilitation, Vol. 26, No. 1,
[14] M. P. Jensen, D. M. Ehde, A. J. Hoffman, D. R. Patterson, 2004, pp. 60-63.
J. M. Czerniecki and L. R. Robinson, “Cognitions, Cop- http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09638280410001645094
ing and Social Environment Predict Adjustment to Phan- [26] W. J. Gaine, C. Smart and M. Bransby-Zachary, “Upper
tom Limb Pain,” Pain, Vol. 95, No. 1, 2002, pp. 133-142. Limb Traumatic Amputees. Review of Prosthetic Use,”
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3959(01)00390-6 Journal of Hand Surgery, Vol. 22, No. 1, 1997, pp 73-76.
[15] Z. M. Hawamdeh, Y. S. Othman and A. I. Ibrahim, “As- http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0266-7681(97)80023-X
sessment of Anxiety and Depression after Lower Limb [27] C. M Ga Kooijman, P. U. Dijkstra, J. H. B. Geertzen, A.
Amputation in Jordanian Patients,” Neuropsychiatric Elzinga, C. P. van der Schans, “Phantom Pain and Phan-
Disease and Treatment, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2008, pp. 627-633. tom Sensations in Upper Limb Amputees: An Epidemi-
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S2541 ological Study,” Pain, Vol. 87, No. 1, 2000, pp. 33-41.
[16] B. Darnall, P. Ephraim, S. T. Wegener, et al., “Depressive http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3959(00)00264-5
Symptoms and Mental Health Service Utilization Among [28] M. F. Scheier and C. S. Carver, “Optimism, Coping, and

Open Access OJO

 Phantom Fighters: Coping Mechanisms of Amputee Patients with Phantom Limb Pain: A Longitudinal Study 305

Health: Assessment and Implications of Generalized Journal of Nursing, Vol. 81, No. 7, 1981, pp. 1349-1352.
Outcome Expectancies” Health Psychology, Vol. 4, No. 3, [39] P. P. Vitaliano, J. Russo, J. E. Carr, R. D. Maiuro and J.
1985, pp. 219-247. Becker, “The Ways of Coping Checklist: Revision and
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.4.3.219 Psychometric Properties,” Multivariate Behavioral Re-
[29] M. F. Scheier, C. S. Carver and M. W. Bridges, “Distin- search, Vol. 20, No. 1, 1985, pp. 3-26.
guishing Optimism from Neuroticism (and Trait Anxiety, http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr2001_1
Self-Mastery, and Self-Esteem): A reevaluation of the life [40] Z. Solomon, E. Avitzur and M. Mikulincer, “Coping Re-
orientation test,” Journal of Personality and Social Psy- sources and Social Function Following Combat Stress
chology, Vol. 67, No. 6, 1994, pp. 1063-1078. Reaction: A Longitudinal Study,” Journal of Social and
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1063 Clinical Psychology, Vol. 8, No. 1, 1989, pp. 87-96.
[30] D. S. Dunn, “Well-being Following Amputation: Salutary http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1989.8.1.87
Effects of Positive Meaning, Optimism, and Control,” [41] Z. German, “The Relationship between Procrastination
Rehabilitation Psychology, Vol. 41, No. 4, 1996, pp. 285- and Guilt as A Basis for the Typology of Procrastinators
302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0090-5550.41.4.285 and Non Procrastinators,” Ph.D. Thesis, Tel Aviv Uni-
[31] O. Horgan and M. MacLachlan, “Psychosocial Adjust- versity, Tel Aviv, 1990.
ment to Lower-Limb Amputation: A Review,” Disability [42] R. Melzack, “The McGill Pain Questionnaire: Major
and Rehabilitation, Vol. 26, No. 14-15, 2004, pp. 837- Properties and Scoring Methods,” Pain, Vol. 1, No. 3,
850. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09638280410001708869 1975, pp. 277-299.
[32] A. MacBride, J. Rogers, B. Whylie and S. J. J. Freeman, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3959(75)90044-5
“Psychosocial Factors in the Rehabilitation of Elderly [43] R. Defrin, A. Ohry, N. M. Blumen and G. Urca, “Acute
Amputees,” Psychosomatics, Vol. 21, No. 3, 1989, pp. Pain Threshold in Participants with Chronic Pain Fol-
258-265. lowing Spinal Cord Injury,” Pain, Vol. 83, No. 2, 1999,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0033-3182(80)73701-5 pp. 275-282.
[33] B. Rybarczyk, R. Edwards and J. Behel, “Diversity in http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3959(99)00115-3
Adjustment to A Leg Amputation: Case Illustrations of [44] A. Yaari, E. Eisenberg, R. Adler and J. Birkhan, “Chronic
Common Themes,” Disability and Rehabilitation, Vol. 26, Pain in Holocaust Survivors,” Journal of Pain and Symp-
No. 14-15, 2004, pp. 944-953. tom Management, Vol. 17, No. 3, 1999, pp. 181-187.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09638280410001708986 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0885-3924(98)00122-5
[34] R. S. Lazarus, “The Costs and Benefits of Denial,” In: S. [45] Y. P. Talmi, A. Waller, M. Bercovici, et al., “Pain Ex-
Breznitz, Ed., The Denial of Stress, International Univer- perienced by Patients with Terminal Head and Neck Car-
sities Press, New York, 1983, pp. 1-30. cinoma,” Cancer, Vol. 80, No. 6, 1997, pp. 1117-1123.
[35] E. Kubler-Ross, “On Death and Dying,” Macmillan, New http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0142(19970915)80:
York, 1968. 6<1117::AID-CNCR15>3.0.CO;2-B
[36] H. Livneh, R. F. Antonak and J Gerhardt, “Psychosocial [46] D. Arazi-Margalit, S. Rappaport, D. Neman, A. Fridman,
Adaptation to Amputation: The Role of Sociodemo- Z. Tzadok, H. Azaryah, et al., “The Mental Reaction to
graphic Variables, Disability-Related Factors, and Coping Physical Disability,” In: A. Bleich and Z. Solomon, Eds.
Strategies,” International Journal of Rehabilitation Re- Mental Disability. Medical, Research, Social, Legal and
search, Vol. 22, No. 1, 1999, pp. 21-31. Rehabilitative Aspects, Ministry of Defense Publication,
doi.:10.1097/00004356-199903000-00003 Tel-Aviv, 2002, pp. 201-259.
[37] C. Sjödahl, G. Gard and G. B. Jarnlo, “Coping after [47] N. S. Endler and J. D. Parker, “A Multidimensional As-
Trans-Femoral Amputation Due to Trauma or Tumor—A sessment of Coping: A Critical Evaluation,” Journal of
Phenomenological Approach,” Disability and Rehabilita- Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 58, No. 5, 1990,
tion, Vol. 26, No. 14-15, 2004, pp. 851-861. pp. 844-854.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09638280410001662996 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.5.844
[38] J. Walters, “Coping with Leg Amputation,” American

Open Access OJO