SOM 2014 Bhopal

For 2014 (IES, GATE & PSUs)
Strength of Materials
Contents
Chapter – 1: Stress and Strain
Chapter - 2 : Principal Stress and Strain
Chapter - 3 : Moment of Inertia and Centroid
Chapter - 4 : Bending Moment and Shear
Force Diagram
Chapter - 5 : Deflection of Beam
S K Mondal
Chapter - 6 : Bending Stress in Beam
Chapter - 7 : Shear Stress in Beam
Chapter - 8 : Fixed and Continuous Beam
Chapter - 9 : Torsion
Chapter-10 : Thin Cylinder
Chapter-11 : Thick Cylinder
Chapter-12 : Spring
Chapter-13 : Theories of Column
Chapter-14 : Strain Energy Method
Chapter-15 : Theories of Failure
Chapter-16 : Riveted and Welded Joint
S K Mondal
IES Officer (Railway), GATE topper, NTPC ET-2003 batch,
12 years teaching experienced, Author of Hydro Power
Familiarization (NTPC Ltd)
Page 1 of 454 Bhopal

Note
“Asked Objective Questions” is the total collection of questions from:-
22 yrs IES (2013-1992) [Engineering Service Examination]
22 yrs. GATE (2013-1992) [Mechanical Engineering]
11 yrs. GATE (2013-2003) [Civil Engineering]
and 14 yrs. IAS (Prelim.) [Civil Service Preliminary]
Copyright © 2007 S K Mondal
Every effort has been made to see that there are no errors (typographical or otherwise) in the
material presented. However, it is still possible that there are a few errors (serious or
otherwise). I would be thankful to the readers if they are brought to my attention at the
following e-mail address: swapan_mondal_01@yahoo.co.in
S K Mondal

1. Stress and Strain
Theory at a Glance (for IES, GATE, PSU)

1.1 Stress (σ)
When a material is subjected to an external force, a resisting force is set up within the component. The
internal resistance force per unit area acting on a material or intensity of the forces distributed over a given
section is called the stress at a point.
• It uses original cross section area of the specimen and also known as engineering stress or
conventional stress.
P
Therefore, σ =
A
• P is expressed in Newton (N) and A, original area, in square meters (m2), the stress σ will be
expresses in N/ m2. This unit is called Pascal (Pa).
• As Pascal is a small quantity, in practice, multiples of this unit is used.

1 kPa = 103 Pa = 103 N/ m2 (kPa = Kilo Pascal)
1 MPa = 106 Pa = 106 N/ m2 = 1 N/mm2 (MPa = Mega Pascal)
1 GPa = 109 Pa = 109 N/ m2 (GPa = Giga Pascal)
Let us take an example: A rod 10 mm × 10 mm cross-section is carrying an axial tensile load 10 kN. In
this rod the tensile stress developed is given by
P 10 kN 10×103 N
(σt ) = = = = 100N/mm2 = 100MPa
A (10 mm ×10 mm ) 100 mm 2
• The resultant of the internal forces for an axially loaded member is
normal to a section cut perpendicular to the member axis.
• The force intensity on the shown section is defined as the normal stress.
ΔF P
σ = lim and σavg =
ΔA → 0 Δ A A
• Tensile stress (σt)

If σ > 0 the stress is tensile. i.e. The fibres of the component
tend to elongate due to the external force. A member
subjected to an external force tensile P and tensile stress
distribution due to the force is shown in the given figure.

Chapter-1 Stress and Strain S K Mondal’s
• Compressive stress (σc)
If σ < 0 the stress is compressive. i.e. The fibres of the
component tend to shorten due to the external force. A
member subjected to an external compressive force P and
compressive stress distribution due to the force is shown in
the given figure.
• Shear stress ( τ )
When forces are transmitted from one part of a body to other, the stresses
developed in a plane parallel to the applied force are the shear stress. Shear
stress acts parallel to plane of interest. Forces P is applied
transversely to the member AB as shown. The corresponding
internal forces act in the plane of section C and are called shearing
P
forces. The corresponding average shear stress (τ ) =
Area
1.2 Strain (ε)

The displacement per unit length (dimensionless) is
known as strain.
• Tensile strain ( ε t)
The elongation per unit length as shown in the
figure is known as tensile strain.
εt = ΔL/ Lo
It is engineering strain or conventional strain.
Here we divide the elongation to original length
not actual length (Lo + Δ L)
Let us take an example: A rod 100 mm in original length. When we apply an axial tensile load 10 kN the
final length of the rod after application of the load is 100.1 mm. So in this rod tensile strain is developed
and is given by
ΔL L − Lo 100.1mm −100 mm 0.1mm
(εt ) = = = = = 0.001 (Dimensionless) Tensile
Lo Lo 100 mm 100 mm
• Compressive strain ( ε c)
If the applied force is compressive then the reduction of length per unit length is known as
compressive strain. It is negative. Then εc = (-∆L)/ Lo
Let us take an example: A rod 100 mm in original length. When we apply an axial compressive load 10
kN the final length of the rod after application of the load is 99 mm. So in this rod a compressive strain is
developed and is given by

ΔL L − Lo 99 mm −100 mm −1mm
(εc ) = = = = = −0.01 (Dimensionless)compressive
Lo Lo 100 mm 100 mm
• Shear Strain ( γ ): When a
force P is applied tangentially to

the element shown. Its edge
displaced to dotted line. Where
δ is the lateral displacement of

the upper face
of the element relative to the lower face and L is the distance between these faces.
δ
Then the shear strain is (γ ) =
L
Let us take an example: A block 100 mm × 100 mm base and 10 mm height. When we apply a tangential
force 10 kN to the upper edge it is displaced 1 mm relative to lower face.
Then the direct shear stress in the element
10 kN 10×103 N
(τ ) = = = 1 N/mm2 = 1 MPa
100 mm×100 mm 100 mm×100 mm
1mm
And shear strain in the element ( γ ) = = = 0.1 Dimensionless
10 mm
1.3 True stress and True Strain

The true stress is defined as the ratio of the load to the cross section area at any instant.
(σT ) =
load = σ (1 + ε)
Instantaneous area
Where σ and ε is the engineering stress and engineering strain respectively.
• True strain
L
⎛L⎞ ⎛A ⎞ ⎛d ⎞
= ln ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ = ln (1 + ε) = ln ⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟⎟ = 2ln ⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟⎟
dl
(εT ) = ∫
Lo
l ⎝⎜ Lo ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ A ⎠ ⎝⎜ d ⎠
or engineering strain ( ε ) = e εT -1
The volume of the specimen is assumed to be constant during plastic deformation. [
∵ Ao Lo = AL ] It is valid till the neck formation.
• Comparison of engineering and the true stress-strain curves shown below

• The true stress-strain curve is also known as
the flow curve.
• True stress-strain curve gives a true indication
of deformation characteristics because it is
based on the instantaneous dimension of
the specimen.
• In engineering stress-strain curve, stress drops
down after necking since it is based on the
original area.
• In true stress-strain curve, the stress however increases after necking since the cross-
sectional area of the specimen decreases rapidly after necking.
• The flow curve of many metals in the region of uniform plastic deformation can be expressed by
the simple power law.
σT = K(εT)n Where K is the strength coefficient
n is the strain hardening exponent
n = 0 perfectly plastic solid
n = 1 elastic solid
For most metals, 0.1< n < 0.5
• Relation between the ultimate tensile strength and true stress at maximum load
Pmax
The ultimate tensile strength (σu ) =
Ao
Pmax
The true stress at maximum load (σu )T =
A
⎛ Ao ⎞⎟ Ao
And true strain at maximum load (ε)T = ln ⎜⎜ ⎟ or = e εT
⎝⎜ A ⎠⎟ A
Pmax Pmax Ao
Eliminating Pmax we get , (σu )T = = × = σu e εT
A Ao A
Where Pmax = maximum force and Ao = Original cross section area
A = Instantaneous cross section area
Let us take two examples:
(I.) Only elongation no neck formation
In the tension test of a rod shown initially it was Ao
= 50 mm2 and Lo = 100 mm. After the application of
load it’s A = 40 mm2 and L = 125 mm.
Determine the true strain using changes in both
length and area.
Answer: First of all we have to check that does the (If no neck formation
member forms neck or not? For that check Ao Lo = AL occurs both area and
or not? gauge length can be used
Here 50 × 100 = 40 × 125 so no neck formation is for a strain calculation.)
there. Therefore true strain

L
dl ⎛125 ⎞⎟
(εT ) = ∫ = ln ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 0.223
Lo
l ⎝100 ⎠⎟
⎜
⎛ Ao ⎞⎟ ⎛ 50 ⎞
(εT ) = ln ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟ = ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ = 0.223
⎝A⎠ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 40 ⎠
(II.) Elongation with neck formation

A ductile material is tested such and necking occurs
then the final gauge length is L=140 mm and the
final minimum cross sectional area is A = 35 mm2.
Though the rod shown initially it was Ao = 50 mm2
and Lo = 100 mm. Determine the true strain using
changes in both length and area.
Answer: First of all we have to check that does the (After necking, gauge
member forms neck or not? For that check Ao Lo = AL length gives error but
or not? area and diameter can
Here AoLo = 50 × 100 = 5000 mm3 and AL=35 × 140 be used for the
= 4200 mm3. So neck formation is there. Note here calculation of true strain
AoLo > AL. at fracture and before
Therefore true strain fracture also.)
⎛ Ao ⎞⎟ ⎛ 50 ⎞
(εT ) = ln⎜⎜⎜ ⎟ = ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ = 0.357
⎝A⎠ ⎟ ⎝⎜ 35 ⎠
L
dl ⎛140 ⎞⎟
But not (εT ) = ∫ = ln ⎜⎜ = 0.336 (it is wrong)
l ⎜⎝100 ⎠⎟⎟
Lo
1.4 Hook’s law

According to Hook’s law the stress is directly proportional to strain i.e. normal stress (σ) α normal strain
(ε) and shearing stress ( τ ) α shearing strain ( γ ).
σ = Eε and τ = Gγ
The co-efficient E is called the modulus of elasticity i.e. its resistance to elastic strain. The co-efficient G is
called the shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity.
1.5 Volumetric strain (εv )

A relationship similar to that for length changes holds for three-dimensional (volume) change. For
P
volumetric strain, (εv ) , the relationship is (εv ) = (V-V0)/V0 or (εv ) = ΔV/V0 =
K
• Where V is the final volume, V0 is the original volume, and ΔV is the volume change.
• Volumetric strain is a ratio of values with the same units, so it also is a dimensionless quantity.
• ΔV/V= volumetric strain = εx +εy + εz = ε1 +ε2 + ε3

• Dilation: The hydrostatic component of the total stress contributes to deformation by changing the
area (or volume, in three dimensions) of an object. Area or volume change is called dilation and is
p
positive or negative, as the volume increases or decreases, respectively. e = Where p is pressure.
K
PL σ
1.6 Young’s modulus or Modulus of elasticity (E) = =
Aδ ∈
τ PL
1.7 Modulus of rigidity or Shear modulus of elasticity (G) = = =
γ Aδ
Δp Δp
1.8 Bulk Modulus or Volume modulus of elasticity (K) = − =
Δv ΔR
v R
1.10 Relationship between the elastic constants E, G, K, µ
9KG
E = 2G (1 + μ ) = 3K (1 − 2μ ) =
3K + G [VIMP]
Where K = Bulk Modulus, μ = Poisson’s Ratio, E= Young’s modulus, G= Modulus of rigidity
• For a linearly elastic, isotropic and homogeneous material, the number of elastic constants
required to relate stress and strain is two. i.e. any two of the four must be known.
• If the material is non-isotropic (i.e. anisotropic), then the elastic modulii will vary with additional
stresses appearing since there is a coupling between shear stresses and normal stresses for
an anisotropic material.
Let us take an example: The modulus of elasticity and rigidity of a material are 200 GPa and 80 GPa,
respectively. Find all other elastic modulus.
9KG
Answer: Using the relation E = 2G (1 + μ ) = 3K (1 − 2 μ ) = we may find all other elastic modulus easily
3K + G
E E 200
Poisson’s Ratio ( μ ) : 1+ μ = ⇒μ= −1 = − 1 = 0.25
2G 2G 2 × 80
E E 200
Bulk Modulus (K) : 3K = ⇒K = = = 133.33GPa
1 − 2μ 3 (1 − 2μ ) 3 (1 − 2 × 0.25 )
1.11 Poisson’s Ratio (µ)

Transverse strain or lateral strain − ∈y
= =
Longitudinal strain ∈x
(Under unidirectional stress in x-direction)
• The theory of isotropic elasticity allows Poisson's ratios in the range from -1 to 1/2.
• Poisson's ratio in various materials

Material Poisson's ratio Material Poisson's ratio
Steel 0.25 – 0.33 Rubber 0.48 – 0.5
C.I 0.23 – 0.27 Cork Nearly zero
Concrete 0.2 Novel foam negative

• We use cork in a bottle as the cork easily inserted and removed, yet it also withstand the pressure
from within the bottle. Cork with a Poisson's ratio of nearly zero, is ideal in this application.
• If a piece of material neither expands nor contracts in volume when subjected to stress, then the
Poisson’s ratio must be 1/2.
1.12 For bi-axial stretching of sheet

⎛ Lf 1 ⎞
∈1 = ln ⎜ ⎟ Lo − Original length
⎝ Lo1 ⎠
⎛ Lf 2 ⎞
∈2 = ln ⎜ ⎟ L f -Final length
⎝ Lo 2 ⎠
Initial thickness(t o )
Final thickness (tf) =
e∈1 × e∈2
1.13 Elongation
• A prismatic bar loaded in tension by an axial force P
For a prismatic bar loaded in tension by
an axial force P. The elongation of the bar
can be determined as
PL
δ=
AE
Let us take an example: A Mild Steel wire 5 mm in diameter and 1 m long. If the wire is subjected to an
axial tensile load 10 kN find its extension of the rod. (E = 200 GPa)
PL
Answer: We know that (δ ) =
AE
Here given, Force (P) = 10 kN = 10 × 1000N
Length(L) = 1 m
π × ( 0.005 )
2
πd2
Area(A) = = m2 = 1.963 × 10−5 m2
4 4
Modulous of Elasticity (E ) = 200 GPa = 200 × 109 N/m2
Therefore Elongation(δ ) =
PL
=
(10 × 1000 ) × 1 m
AE (1.963 × 10−5 ) × ( 200 × 109 )
= 2.55 × 10−3 m = 2.55 mm
• Elongation of composite body

Elongation of a bar of varying cross section A1, A2,----------,An of lengths l1, l2,--------ln respectively.
P ⎡ l1 l2 l3 ln ⎤
δ= ⎢ + + −−−−−−−+ ⎥
E ⎣ A1 A2 A3 An ⎦
Let us take an example: A composite rod is 1000 mm long, its two ends are 40 mm2 and 30 mm2 in area
and length are 300 mm and 200 mm respectively. The middle portion of the rod is 20 mm2 in area and 500
mm long. If the rod is subjected to an axial tensile load of 1000 N, find its total elongation. (E = 200 GPa).

Answer: Consider the following figure
Given, Load (P) =1000 N

Area; (A1) = 40 mm2, A2 = 20 mm2, A3 = 30 mm2
Length; (l1) = 300 mm, l2 = 500 mm, l3 = 200 mm
E = 200 GPa = 200 × 109 N/m2 = 200 × 103 N/mm2
Therefore Total extension of the rod
P ⎡ l1 l 2 l 3 ⎤
δ= ⎢ + + ⎥
E ⎣ A1 A2 A3 ⎦
1000 N ⎡ 300 mm 500 mm 200 mm ⎤
= ×⎢ + + ⎥
200 × 10 N / mm ⎣ 40 mm 2 20 mm 2 30 mm 2 ⎦
3 2
= 0.196mm
• Elongation of a tapered body

Elongation of a tapering rod of length ‘L’ due to load ‘P’ at the end
4PL
δ= (d1 and d2 are the diameters of smaller & larger ends)
π Ed1 d 2
PL PL
You may remember this in this way, δ= i.e.
⎛π ⎞ EA eq
E ⎜ d1 d 2 ⎟
⎝4 ⎠
Let us take an example: A round bar, of length L, tapers uniformly from small diameter d1 at one end to
bigger diameter d2 at the other end. Show that the extension produced by a tensile axial load P is
4PL
(δ )= .
π d1 d 2 E
If d2 = 2d1, compare this extension with that of a uniform cylindrical bar having a diameter equal to the
mean diameter of the tapered bar.
Answer: Consider the figure below d1 be the radius at the smaller end. Then at a X cross section XX
located at a distance × from the smaller end, the value of diameter ‘dx’ is equal to

d x d1 x ⎛ d 2 d1 ⎞
= + ⎜ − ⎟
2 2 L⎝ 2 2 ⎠
x
or d x = d1 + ( d 2 − d1 )
L
d 2 − d1 1
= d1 (1 + kx ) Where k = ×
L d1
We now taking a small strip of diameter 'd x 'and length 'd x 'at section XX .
Elongation of this section 'd x ' length
PL P .dx 4P .dx
d (δ ) = = =
π .{d1 (1 + kx )} E
2
AE ⎛ π d x ⎞
2
⎜ ⎟ × E
⎝ 4 ⎠
Therefore total elongation of the taper bar
x =L
4P dx
δ = ∫ d (δ ) = ∫ π Ed (1 + kx )
2 2
x =0 1
4PL
=
π E d1d 2
Comparison: Case-I: Where d2 = 2d1
4PL 2PL
Elongation (δ I ) = =
π Ed1 × 2d1 π Ed12
Case –II: Where we use Mean diameter
d1 + d 2 d1 + 2d1 3
dm = = = d1
2 2 2
PL P .L
Elongation of such bar (δ II ) = =
AE π ⎛ 3 ⎞2
⎜ d1 ⎟ .E
4⎝2 ⎠
16PL
=
9π Ed12
Extension of taper bar 2 9
= =
Extension of uniform bar 16 8
9

• Elongation of a body due to its self weight
(i) Elongation of a uniform rod of length ‘L’ due to its own weight ‘W’
WL
δ=
2AE
The deformation of a bar under its own weight as compared to that when subjected to a
direct axial load equal to its own weight will be half.
(ii) Total extension produced in rod of length ‘L’ due to its own weight ‘ ω ’ per with
ω L2
length. δ=
2EA
(iii) Elongation of a conical bar due to its self weight
ρ gL2 WL
δ= =
6E 2 Amax E
1.14 Structural members or machines must be designed such that the working stresses are less than the
ultimate strength of the material.
σy ⎫
Working stress (σ w ) = n=1.5 to 2 ⎪
n ⎪
⎬ factor of safety
σ ult
= n1 = 2 to 3 ⎪
n1 ⎪⎭
σp
= σ p = Proof stress
n
σ y or σ p or σ ult
1.15 Factor of Safety: (n) =
σw
1.16 Thermal or Temperature stress and strain
• When a material undergoes a change in temperature, it either elongates or contracts depending
upon whether temperature is increased or decreased of the material.
• If the elongation or contraction is not restricted, i. e. free then the material does not experience
any stress despite the fact that it undergoes a strain.
• The strain due to temperature change is called thermal strain and is expressed as,
ε = α ( ΔT )
• Where α is co-efficient of thermal expansion, a material property, and ΔT is the change in
temperature.
• The free expansion or contraction of materials, when restrained induces stress in the material
and it is referred to as thermal stress.

σ t = α E ( ΔT ) Where, E = Modulus of elasticity
• Thermal stress produces the same effect in the material similar to that of mechanical stress. A
compressive stress will produce in the material with increase in temperature and the stress
developed is tensile stress with decrease in temperature.
Let us take an example: A rod consists of two parts that are made of steel and copper as shown in figure
below. The elastic modulus and coefficient of thermal expansion for steel are 200 GPa and 11.7 × 10-6 per °C
respectively and for copper 70 GPa and 21.6 × 10-6 per °C respectively. If the temperature of the rod is
raised by 50°C, determine the forces and stresses acting on the rod.
Answer: If we allow this rod to freely expand then free expansion
δ T = α ( ΔT ) L
= (11.7 × 10−6 ) × 50 × 500 + ( 21.6 × 10−6 ) × 50 × 750
= 1.1025 mm ( Compressive )
But according to diagram only free expansion is 0.4 mm.
Therefore restrained deflection of rod =1.1025 mm – 0.4 mm = 0.7025 mm
Let us assume the force required to make their elongation vanish be P which is the reaction force at the
ends.
⎛ PL ⎞ ⎛ PL ⎞
δ =⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟
⎝ AE ⎠Steel ⎝ AE ⎠Cu
P × 500 P × 750
or 0.7025 = +
⎧π 2⎫ ⎧ π 2⎫
⎨ × ( 0.075 ) ⎬ × ( 200 × 10 ) ⎨ × ( 0.050 ) ⎬ × ( 70 × 10 )
9 9
⎩4 ⎭ ⎩4 ⎭
or P = 116.6 kN
Therefore, compressive stress on steel rod
P 116.6 × 103
σ Steel = = N/m2 = 26.39 MPa
ASteel π
× ( 0.075 )
2
4
And compressive stress on copper rod
P 116.6 × 103
σ Cu = = N/m2 = 59.38 MPa
ACu π × 0.050 2
( )
4

1.17 Thermal stress on Brass and Mild steel combination
A brass rod placed within a steel tube of exactly same length. The assembly is making in such a
way that elongation of the combination will be same. To calculate the stress induced in the brass
rod, steel tube when the combination is raised by toC then the following analogy have to do.
(a) Original bar before heating.
(b) Expanded position if the members are allowed to

expand freely and independently after heating.
(c) Expanded position of the compound bar i.e. final

position after heating.
• Compatibility Equation: Assumption:
δ = δ st + δ sf = δ Bt − δ Bf 1. L = Ls = LB
2. α b > α s
• Equilibrium Equation:
3. Steel − Tension
σ s As = σ B AB Brass − Compression
Where, δ = Expansion of the compound bar = AD in the above figure.
δ st = Free expansion of the steel tube due to temperature rise toC = α s L t
= AB in the above figure.
δ sf = Expansion of the steel tube due to internal force developed by the unequal expansion.
= BD in the above figure.
δ Bt = Free expansion of the brass rod due to temperature rise toC = α b L t
= AC in the above figure.
δ Bf = Compression of the brass rod due to internal force developed by the unequal expansion.
= BD in the above figure.
And in the equilibrium equation
Tensile force in the steel tube = Compressive force in the brass rod
Where, σ s = Tensile stress developed in the steel tube.
σ B = Compressive stress developed in the brass rod.

As = Cross section area of the steel tube.
AB = Cross section area of the brass rod.
Let us take an example: See the Conventional Question Answer section of this chapter and the question
is “Conventional Question IES-2008” and it’s answer.

1.18 Maximum stress and elongation due to rotation
ρω 2L2 ρω 2L3
(i) σ max = and (δ L ) =
8 12E
ρω 2L2 ρω 2L3
(ii) σ max = and (δ L ) =
2 3E
For remember: You will get (ii) by multiplying by 4 of (i)
1.18 Creep
When a member is subjected to a constant load over a long period of time it undergoes a slow permanent
deformation and this is termed as “creep”. This is dependent on temperature. Usually at elevated
temperatures creep is high.
• The materials have its own different melting point; each will creep when the homologous
Testing temperature
temperature > 0.5. Homologous temp = > 0.5
Melting temperature
A typical creep curve shows three distinct stages
with different creep rates. After an initial rapid
elongation εo, the creep rate decrease with time
until reaching the steady state.
1) Primary creep is a period of transient creep.

The creep resistance of the material increases
due to material deformation.
2) Secondary creep provides a nearly constant

creep rate. The average value of the creep rate
during this period is called the minimum creep
rate. A stage of balance between competing.
Strain hardening and recovery (softening) of the material.
3) Tertiary creep shows a rapid increase in the creep rate due to effectively reduced cross-sectional area
of the specimen leading to creep rupture or failure. In this stage intergranular cracking and/or
formation of voids and cavities occur.
Creep rate =c1 σ
c2
Creep strain at any time = zero time strain intercept + creep rate ×Time
= ∈0 + c1 σ ×t
c2
Where, c1 , c2 are constants σ = stress
1.19 If a load P is applied suddenly to a bar then the stress & strain induced will be double than
those obtained by an equal load applied gradually.
1.20 Stress produced by a load P in falling from height ’h’

⎡ 2h ⎤ ⎫⎪
σ d = σ ⎢1 + 1 + ⎥⎬ σ,
⎢⎣ ∈ L ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
∈ being stress & strain produced by static load P & L=length of bar.
A⎡ 2 AEh ⎤
= ⎢1 + 1 + ⎥
P⎣ PL ⎦
1.21 Loads shared by the materials of a compound bar made of bars x & y due to load W,
Ax Ex
Px = W .
Ax Ex + Ay E y
Ay E y
Py = W .
Ax Ex + Ay E y
PL
1.22 Elongation of a compound bar, δ =
Ax Ex + Ay E y
1.23 Tension Test
i) True elastic limit: based on micro-strain measurement at strains on order of 2 × 10-6. Very low value
and is related to the motion of a few hundred dislocations.
ii) Proportional limit: the highest stress at which stress is directly proportional to strain.
iii) Elastic limit: is the greatest stress the material can withstand without any measurable permanent
strain after unloading. Elastic limit > proportional limit.
iv) Yield strength is the stress required to produce a small specific amount of
deformation. The offset yield strength can be determined by the stress
corresponding to the intersection of the stress-strain curve and a line
parallel to the elastic line offset by a strain of 0.2 or 0.1%. ( ε = 0.002 or
0.001).

• The offset yield stress is referred to proof stress either at 0.1 or 0.5% strain used for design and
specification purposes to avoid the practical difficulties of measuring the elastic limit or
proportional limit.
v) Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength (UTS) σ u is the maximum load Pmax divided by the
original cross-sectional area Ao of the specimen.
Lf − Lo
vi) % Elongation, = , is chiefly influenced by uniform elongation, which is dependent on the strain-
Lo
hardening capacity of the material.
Ao − Af
vii) Reduction of Area: q =
Ao
• Reduction of area is more a measure of the deformation required to produce failure and its chief
contribution results from the necking process.
• Because of the complicated state of stress state in the neck, values of reduction of area are
dependent on specimen geometry, and deformation behaviour, and they should not be taken as
true material properties.
• RA is the most structure-sensitive ductility parameter and is useful in detecting quality

changes in the materials.
viii) Stress-strain response
1.24 Elastic strain and Plastic strain

The strain present in the material after unloading is called the residual strain or plastic strain and the
strain disappears during unloading is termed as recoverable or elastic strain.
Equation of the straight line CB is given by
σ =∈total ×E − ∈Plastic ×E =∈Elastic ×E
Carefully observe the following figures and understand which one is Elastic strain and which one is Plastic
strain

Let us take an example: A 10 mm diameter tensile specimen has a 50 mm gauge length. The load
corresponding to the 0.2% offset is 55 kN and the maximum load is 70 kN. Fracture occurs at 60 kN. The
diameter after fracture is 8 mm and the gauge length at fracture is 65 mm. Calculate the following
properties of the material from the tension test.
(i) % Elongation
(ii) Reduction of Area (RA) %
(iii) Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
(iv) Yield strength
(v) Fracture strength
(vi) If E = 200 GPa, the elastic recoverable strain at maximum load
(vii) If the elongation at maximum load (the uniform elongation) is 20%, what is the plastic strain at
maximum load?
π
Answer: Given, Original area ( A0 ) = × ( 0.010 ) m2 = 7.854 × 10−5 m2
2
4
π
Area at fracture ( Af ) = × ( 0.008 ) m2 = 5.027 × 10−5 m2
2
4
Original gauge length (L0) = 50 mm
Gauge length at fracture (L) = 65 mm
Therefore
L − L0 65 − 50
(i) % Elongation = × 100% = × 100 = 30%
L0 50
A0 − Af 7.854 − 5.027
(ii) Reduction of area (RA) = q = × 100% = × 100% = 36%
A0 7.854
Pmax 70 × 103
(iii) Tensile strength or Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), σ u = = N/m2 = 891 MPa
Ao 7.854 × 10−5
Py 55 × 103
(iv) Yield strength (σ y ) = = −5
N/m2 = 700 MPa
Ao 7.854 × 10
PFracture 60 × 103
(v) Fracture strength (σ F ) = = N/m2 = 764MPa
Ao 7.854 × 10−5
Pmax / Ao 891× 106

(vi) Elastic recoverable strain at maximum load ( ε E ) = = = 0.0045
E 200 × 109

(vii) Plastic strain ( ε P ) = ε total − ε E = 0.2000 − 0.0045 = 0.1955
1.25 Elasticity
This is the property of a material to regain its original shape
after deformation when the external forces are removed. When
the material is in elastic region the strain disappears
completely after removal of the load, The stress-strain
relationship in elastic region need not be linear and can be
non-linear (example rubber). The maximum stress value below
which the strain is fully recoverable is called the elastic limit.
It is represented by point A in figure. All materials are elastic
to some extent but the degree varies, for example, both mild
steel and rubber are elastic materials but steel is more elastic
than rubber.
1.26 Plasticity
When the stress in the material exceeds the elastic limit, the
material enters into plastic phase where the strain can no
longer be completely removed. Under plastic conditions
materials ideally deform without any increase in stress. A
typical stress strain diagram for an elastic-perfectly plastic
material is shown in the figure. Mises-Henky criterion gives a
good starting point for plasticity analysis.
1.27 Strain hardening

If the material is reloaded from point C, it will follow the
previous unloading path and line CB becomes its new elastic
region with elastic limit defined by point B. Though the new
elastic region CB resembles that of the initial elastic region
OA, the internal structure of the material in the new state has
changed. The change in the microstructure of the material is
clear from the fact that the ductility of the material has come
down due to strain hardening. When the material is reloaded,
it follows the same path as that of a virgin material and fails
on reaching the ultimate strength which remains unaltered
due to the intermediate loading and unloading process.

1.28 Stress reversal and stress-strain hysteresis loop
We know that fatigue failure begins at a local discontinuity and when the stress at the discontinuity
exceeds elastic limit there is plastic strain. The cyclic plastic strain results crack propagation and fracture.
When we plot the experimental data with reversed loading which can induce plastic stress and the true
stress strain hysteresis loops is found as shown below.
True stress-strain plot with a number of stress reversals
The area of the hysteresis loop gives the energy dissipationper unit volume of the material, per stress cycle.
This is termed the per unit volume damping capacity.
Due to cyclic strain the elastic limit increases for annealed steel and decreases for cold drawn steel.
Here the stress range is Δσ. Δεp and Δεe are the plastic and elastic strain ranges, the total strain range
being Δε. Considering that the total strain amplitude can be given as
Δε = Δεp+ Δεe

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS (GATE, IES, IAS)
Previous 20-Years GATE Questions
Stress in a bar
GATE-1. Two identical circular rods of same diameter and same length are subjected to same
magnitude of axial tensile force. One of the rods is made out of mild steel having the
modulus of elasticity of 206 GPa. The other rod is made out of cast iron having the
modulus of elasticity of 100 GPa. Assume both the materials to be homogeneous and
isotropic and the axial force causes the same amount of uniform stress in both the
rods. The stresses developed are within the proportional limit of the respective
materials. Which of the following observations is correct? [GATE-2003]
(a) Both rods elongate by the same amount
(b) Mild steel rod elongates more than the cast iron rod
(c) Cast iron rod elongates more than the mild steel rod
(d) As the stresses are equal strains are also equal in both the rods
GATE-1(i).A rod of length L having uniform cross-sectional area A is subjected to a tensile force
P as shown in the figure below If the Young's modulus of the material varies linearly
from E1, to E2 along the length of the rod, the normal stress developed at the section-
SS is [GATE-2013]
( − )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( + )
GATE-2. A steel bar of 40 mm × 40 mm square cross-section is subjected to an axial

compressive load of 200 kN. If the length of the bar is 2 m and E = 200 GPa, the
elongation of the bar will be: [GATE-2006]
(a) 1.25 mm (b) 2.70 mm (c) 4.05 mm (d) 5.40 mm
GATE-2(i) A bar of varying square cross-section is loaded symmetrically as shown in the figure.
Loads shown are placed on one of the axes of symmetry of cross-section. Ignoring self
weight, the maximum tensile stress in N/ mm2 anywhere is [CE: GATE-2003]

100 mm
50 mm
100 kN 100 kN
50 kN
(a) 16.0 (b) 20.0 (c) 25.0 (d) 30.0
GATE-2(ii) A curved member with a straight vertical leg is carrying a vertical load at Z. As shown in the
figure. The stress resultants in the XY segment are [CE: GATE-2003]
(a) bending moment, shear force and axial force

(b) bending moment and axial force only
(c) bending moment and shear force only
(d) axial force only
True stress and true strain

GATE-3. The ultimate tensile strength of a material is 400 MPa and the elongation up to
maximum load is 35%. If the material obeys power law of hardening, then the true
stress-true strain relation (stress in MPa) in the plastic deformation range is: [GATE-
2006]
(a) σ = 540ε 0.30 (b) σ = 775ε 0.30 (c) σ = 540ε 0.35 (d) σ = 775ε 0.35
Elasticity and Plasticity

GATE-4. An axial residual compressive stress due to a manufacturing process is present on the
outer surface of a rotating shaft subjected to bending. Under a given bending load,
the fatigue life of the shaft in the presence of the residual compressive stress is:
(a) Decreased
(b) Increased or decreased, depending on the external bending load[GATE-2008]
(c) Neither decreased nor increased
(d) Increased
GATE-5. A static load is mounted at the centre of a shaft rotating at uniform angular velocity.
This shaft will be designed for [GATE-2002]
(a) The maximum compressive stress (static) (b) The maximum tensile stress (static)
(c) The maximum bending moment (static) (d) Fatigue loading

GATE-6. Fatigue strength of a rod subjected to cyclic axial force is less than that of a rotating
beam of the same dimensions subjected to steady lateral force because
(a) Axial stiffness is less than bending stiffness [GATE-1992]
(b) Of absence of centrifugal effects in the rod
(c) The number of discontinuities vulnerable to fatigue are more in the rod
(d) At a particular time the rod has only one type of stress whereas the beam has both the
tensile and compressive stresses.
Relation between the Elastic Modulii

GATE-7. A rod of length L and diameter D is subjected to a tensile load P. Which of the
following is sufficient to calculate the resulting change in diameter?
(a) Young's modulus (b) Shear modulus [GATE-2008]
(c) Poisson's ratio (d) Both Young's modulus and shear modulus
GATE-8. In terms of Poisson's ratio (µ) the ratio of Young's Modulus (E) to Shear Modulus (G)
of elastic materials is [GATE-2004]
1 1
(a) 2(1 + μ ) (b) 2(1 − μ ) (c) (1 + μ ) (d ) (1 − μ )
2 2
GATE-9. The relationship between Young's modulus (E), Bulk modulus (K) and Poisson's ratio
(µ) is given by: [GATE-2002]
(a) E = 3 K (1 − 2μ ) (b) K = 3 E (1 − 2μ )
(c) E = 3 K (1 − μ ) (d) K = 3 E (1 − μ )
GATE-9(i) For an isotropic material, the relationship between the Young’s modulus (E), shear
modulus (G) and Poisson’s ratio ( μ ) is given by [CE: GATE-2007]
E G E E
(a) G = (b) E = (c) G = (d) G =
2(1 + μ) 2(1 + μ ) (1 + μ ) 2(1 − 2μ )
Stresses in compound strut

GATE-10. In a bolted joint two members
are connected with an axial
tightening force of 2200 N. If
the bolt used has metric
threads of 4 mm pitch, then
torque required for achieving
the tightening force is
(a) 0.7Nm (b) 1.0 Nm
(c) 1.4Nm (d) 2.8Nm [GATE-2004]
GATE-11. The figure below shows a steel rod of 25 mm2 cross sectional area. It is loaded at four
points, K, L, M and N. [GATE-2004, IES 1995, 1997, 1998]
Assume Esteel = 200 GPa. The total change in length of the rod due to loading is:
(a) 1 µm (b) -10 µm (c) 16 µm (d) -20 µm
GATE-12. A bar having a cross-sectional area of 700mm2 is subjected to axial loads at the
positions indicated. The value of stress in the segment QR is: [GATE-2006]

P Q R S
(a) 40 MPa (b) 50 MPa (c) 70 MPa (d) 120 MPa
GATE-12(i)A rigid bar is suspended by three rods made of the same material as shown in the
figure. The area and length of the central rod are 3A and L, respectively while that of
the two outer rods are 2A and 2L, respectively. If a downward force of 50 kN is
applied to the rigid bar, the forces in the central and each of the outer rods will be
(a) 16.67 kN each (b) 30 kN and 15 kN [CE: GATE-2007]
(c) 30 kN and 10 kN (d) 21.4 kN and 14.3 kN
50 kN
GATE-13. An ejector mechanism consists of a

helical compression spring having a
spring constant of K = 981 × 103 N/m.
It is pre-compressed by 100 mm
from its free state. If it is used to
eject a mass of 100 kg held on it, the
mass will move up through a
distance of
(a) 100mm (b) 500mm
(c) 981 mm (d) 1000mm
[GATE-2004]
GATE-14. The figure shows a pair of pin-jointed

gripper-tongs holding an object
weighing 2000 N. The co-efficient of
friction (µ) at the gripping surface is
0.1 XX is the line of action of the
input force and YY is the line of
application of gripping force. If the
pin-joint is assumed to be
frictionless, then magnitude of force
F required to hold the weight is:
(a) 1000 N
(b) 2000 N
(c) 2500 N
(d) 5000 N
[GATE-2004]

GATE-15. A uniform, slender cylindrical rod is made of a homogeneous and isotropic material.
The rod rests on a frictionless surface. The rod is heated uniformly. If the radial and
longitudinal thermal stresses are represented by σr and σz, respectively, then[GATE-
2005]
(a) σ r = 0, σ z = 0 (b) σ r ≠ 0, σ z = 0 (c) σ r = 0, σ z ≠ 0 (d ) σ r ≠ 0, σ z ≠ 0
Thermal Effect
GATE-15(i). A solid steel cube constrained on all six faces is heated so that the
temperature rises uniformly by ΔT. If the thermal coefficient of the
material is α, Young’s modulus is E and the Poisson’s ratio is υ , the
thermal stress developed in the cube due to heating is
α ( ΔT ) E 2α ( ΔT ) E 3α ( ΔT ) E α ( ΔT ) E
(a) − (b ) − (c ) − (d ) − [GATE-2012]
(1 − 2υ ) (1 − 2υ ) (1 − 2υ ) 3 (1 − 2υ )
GATE-15(ii) A metal bar of length 100 mm is inserted between two rigid supports and its
temperature is increased by 10º C. If the coefficient of thermal expansion is
12 × 10−6 per º C and the Young’s modulus is 2 × 105 MPa, the stress in the bar is
(a) zero (b) 12 MPa (c) 24 Mpa (d) 2400 MPa
[CE: GATE-2007]
Tensile Test
GATE-16. A test specimen is stressed slightly beyond the yield point and then unloaded. Its
yield strength will [GATE-1995]
(a) Decrease (b) Increase
(c) Remains same (d) Becomes equal to ultimate tensile strength
GATE-17. Under repeated loading a

material has the stress-strain
curve shown in figure, which of
the following statements is
true?
(a) The smaller the shaded area,
the better the material damping
(b) The larger the shaded area, the
better the material damping
(c) Material damping is an
independent material property
and does not depend on this
curve
[GATE-1999]
(d) None of these
Previous 20-Years IES Questions
Stress in a bar due to self-weight

IES-1. A solid uniform metal bar of diameter D and length L is hanging vertically from its
upper end. The elongation of the bar due to self weight is: [IES-2005]
(a) Proportional to L and inversely proportional to D2
(b) Proportional to L2 and inversely proportional to D2
(c) Proportional of L but independent of D
(d) Proportional of U but independent of D

IES-2. The deformation of a bar under its own weight as compared to that when subjected
to a direct axial load equal to its own weight will be: [IES-1998]
(a) The same (b) One-fourth (c) Half (d) Double
IES-3. A rigid beam of negligible weight is supported in a horizontal position by two rods of
steel and aluminum, 2 m and 1 m long having values of cross - sectional areas 1 cm2
and 2 cm2 and E of 200 GPa and 100 GPa respectively. A load P is applied as shown in
the figure [IES-2002]
If the rigid beam is to remain horizontal then

(a) The forces on both sides should be equal
(b) The force on aluminum rod should be twice the force on steel
(c) The force on the steel rod should be twice the force on aluminum
(d) The force P must be applied at the centre of the beam
Bar of uniform strength

IES-4. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IES 2007]
A beam is said to be of uniform strength, if
(a) The bending moment is the same throughout the beam
(b) The shear stress is the same throughout the beam
(c) The deflection is the same throughout the beam
(d) The bending stress is the same at every section along its longitudinal axis
IES-5. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IES-2006]

Beams of uniform strength vary in section such that
(a) bending moment remains constant (b) deflection remains constant
(c) maximum bending stress remains constant (d) shear force remains constant
IES-6. For bolts of uniform strength, the shank diameter is made equal to [IES-2003]
(a) Major diameter of threads (b) Pitch diameter of threads
(c) Minor diameter of threads (d) Nominal diameter of threads
IES-7. A bolt of uniform strength can be developed by [IES-1995]

(a) Keeping the core diameter of threads equal to the diameter of unthreaded portion of the
bolt
(b) Keeping the core diameter smaller than the diameter of the unthreaded portion
(c) Keeping the nominal diameter of threads equal the diameter of unthreaded portion of the
bolt
(d) One end fixed and the other end free
IES-7a. In a bolt of uniform strength:

(a) Nominal diameter of thread is equal to the diameter of shank of the bolt
(b) Nominal diameter of thread is larger than the diameter of shank of the bolt
(c) Nominal diameter of thread is less than the diameter of shank of the bolt
(d) Core diameter of threads is equal to the diameter of shank of the bolt.

[IES-2011]
Elongation of a Taper Rod

IES-8. Two tapering bars of the same material are subjected to a tensile load P. The lengths
of both the bars are the same. The larger diameter of each of the bars is D. The
diameter of the bar A at its smaller end is D/2 and that of the bar B is D/3. What is the
ratio of elongation of the bar A to that of the bar B? [IES-2006]
(a) 3 : 2 (b) 2: 3 (c) 4 : 9 (d) 1: 3
IES-9. A bar of length L tapers uniformly from diameter 1.1 D at one end to 0.9 D at the
other end. The elongation due to axial pull is computed using mean diameter D. What
is the approximate error in computed elongation? [IES-2004]
(a) 10% (b) 5% (c) 1% (d) 0.5%
IES-10. The stretch in a steel rod of circular section, having a length 'l' subjected to a tensile
load' P' and tapering uniformly from a diameter d1 at one end to a diameter d2 at the
other end, is given [IES-1995]
Pl pl.π pl.π 4 pl
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 Ed1d 2 Ed1d 2 4 Ed1d 2 π Ed1d 2
IES-11. A tapering bar (diameters of end sections being d1 and d2 a bar of uniform cross-
section ’d’ have the same length and are subjected the same axial pull. Both the bars
will have the same extension if’d’ is equal to [IES-1998]
d1 + d 2 d1d 2 d1 + d 2
(a ) ( b) d1d 2 (c) (d)
2 2 2
IES-11(i). A rod of length l tapers uniformly from a diameter D at one end to a diameter d at the
other. The Young’s modulus of the material is E. The extension caused by an axial
load P is [IES-2012]
4 4 4 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( − ) ( + )
Poisson’s ratio
IES-12. In the case of an engineering material under unidirectional stress in the x-direction,
the Poisson's ratio is equal to (symbols have the usual meanings)
[IAS 1994, IES-2000]
εy εy σy σy
(a) (b) (c) (d)
εx σx σx εx
IES-13. Which one of the following is correct in respect of Poisson's ratio (v) limits for an
isotropic elastic solid? [IES-2004]
(a) −∞ ≤ν ≤ ∞ (b) 1/ 4 ≤ν ≤1/ 3 (c) −1≤ν ≤1/ 2 (d) −1/ 2 ≤ν ≤1/ 2
IES-14. Match List-I (Elastic properties of an isotropic elastic material) with List-II (Nature
of strain produced) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the
Lists: [IES-1997]
List-I List-II
A. Young's modulus 1. Shear strain
B. Modulus of rigidity 2. Normal strain
C. Bulk modulus 3. Transverse strain
D. Poisson's ratio 4. Volumetric strain
Codes: A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 2 1 3 4
(c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 1 2 4 3

IES-15. If the value of Poisson's ratio is zero, then it means that [IES-1994]
(a) The material is rigid.
(b) The material is perfectly plastic.
(c) There is no longitudinal strain in the material
(d) The longitudinal strain in the material is infinite.
IES-16. Which of the following is true (µ= Poisson's ratio) [IES-1992]

(a) 0 < μ < 1/ 2 (b) 1 < μ < 0 (c) 1 < μ < −1 (d) ∞ < μ << −∞
IES-16a. If a piece of material neither expands nor contracts in volume when subjected to
stress, then the Poisson’s ratio must be
(a) Zero (b) 0.25 (c) 0.33 (d) 0.5 [IES-2011]

IES-17. If the area of cross-section of a wire is circular and if the radius of this circle
decreases to half its original value due to the stretch of the wire by a load, then the
modulus of elasticity of the wire be: [IES-1993]
(a) One-fourth of its original value (b) Halved (c) Doubled (d) Unaffected
IES-18. The relationship between the Lame’s constant ‘λ’, Young’s modulus ‘E’ and the
Poisson’s ratio ‘μ’ [IES-1997]
Eμ Eμ Eμ Eμ
(a ) λ = (b)λ = (c) λ = (d)λ =
(1 + μ )(1 − 2μ ) (1 + 2μ )(1 − μ ) 1+ μ (1 − μ )
IES-19. Which of the following pairs are correctly matched? [IES-1994]
1. Resilience…………… Resistance to deformation.
2. Malleability …………..Shape change.
3. Creep ........................ Progressive deformation.
4. Plasticity .... ………….Permanent deformation.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
Codes: (a) 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
IES-19a Match List – I with List - II and select the correct answer using the code given below
the lists: [IES-2011]
List –I List –II
A. Elasticity 1. Deform non-elastically without fracture
B. Malleability 2. Undergo plastic deformation under tensile load
C. Ductility 3. Undergo plastic deformation under compressive load
D. Plasticity 4. Return to its original shape on unloading
Codes A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 4 2 3 1
(c) 1 3 2 4 (d) 4 3 2 1
IES-19b. Assertion (A): Plastic deformation is a function of applied stress, temperature and strain rate.
[IES-2010]
Reason (R): Plastic deformation is accompanied by change in both the internal and external
state of the material.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
Creep and fatigue

IES-20. What is the phenomenon of progressive extension of the material i.e., strain
increasing with the time at a constant load, called? [IES 2007]
(a) Plasticity (b) Yielding (b) Creeping (d) Breaking

IES-21. The correct sequence of creep deformation in a creep curve in order of their
elongation is: [IES-2001]
(a) Steady state, transient, accelerated (b) Transient, steady state, accelerated
(c) Transient, accelerated, steady state (d) Accelerated, steady state, transient
IES-22. The highest stress that a material can withstand for a specified length of time
without excessive deformation is called [IES-1997]
(a) Fatigue strength (b) Endurance strength
(c) Creep strength (d) Creep rupture strength
IES-23. Which one of the following features improves the fatigue strength of a metallic
material? [IES-2000]
(a) Increasing the temperature (b) Scratching the surface
(c) Overstressing (d) Under stressing
IES-24. Consider the following statements: [IES-1993]

For increasing the fatigue strength of welded joints it is necessary to employ
1. Grinding 2. Coating 3. Hammer peening
Of the above statements
(a) 1 and 2 are correct (b) 2 and 3 are correct
(c) 1 and 3 are correct (d) 1, 2 and 3 are correct

IES-25. For a linearly elastic, isotropic and homogeneous material, the number of elastic
constants required to relate stress and strain is:[IAS 1994; IES-1998, CE:GATE-2010]
(a) Two (b) Three (c) Four (d) Six
IES-26. E, G, K and μ represent the elastic modulus, shear modulus, bulk modulus and
Poisson's ratio respectively of a linearly elastic, isotropic and homogeneous material.
To express the stress-strain relations completely for this material, at least[IES-2006]
(a) E, G and μ must be known (b) E, K and μ must be known
(c) Any two of the four must be known (d) All the four must be known
IES-27. The number of elastic constants for a completely anisotropic elastic material which
follows Hooke's law is: [IES-1999]
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 21 (d) 25
IES-28. What are the materials which show direction dependent properties, called?
(a) Homogeneous materials (b) Viscoelastic materials[IES 2007, IES-2011]
(c) Isotropic materials (d) Anisotropic materials
IES-29. An orthotropic material, under plane stress condition will have: [IES-2006]
(a) 15 independent elastic constants (b) 4 independent elastic constants
(c) 5 independent elastic constants (d) 9 independent elastic constants
IES-30. Match List-I (Properties) with List-II (Units) and select the correct answer using the
codes given below the lists: [IES-2001]
List I List II
A. Dynamic viscosity 1. Pa
B. Kinematic viscosity 2. m2/s
C. Torsional stiffness 3. Ns/m2
D. Modulus of rigidity 4. N/m
(a) 3 2 4 1 (b) 5 2 4 3
(b) 3 4 2 3 (d) 5 4 2 1
IES-31. Young's modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio of a material are 1.25 × 105 MPa and
0.34 respectively. The modulus of rigidity of the material is:
[IAS 1994, IES-1995, 2001, 2002, 2007]

(a) 0.4025 ×105 Mpa (b) 0.4664 × 105 Mpa
(c) 0.8375 × 105 MPa (d) 0.9469 × 105 MPa
IES-31(i). Consider the following statements:

Modulus of rigidity and bulk modulus of a material are found to be 60 GPa and 140
GPa respectively. Then [IES-2013]
1. Elasticity modulus is nearly 200 GPa
2. Poisson’s ratio is nearly 0.3
3. Elasticity modulus is nearly 158 GPa
4. Poisson’s ratio is nearly 0.25
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 3
IES-32. In a homogenous, isotropic elastic material, the modulus of elasticity E in terms of G

and K is equal to [IAS-1995, IES - 1992]
G + 3K 3G + K 9 KG 9 KG
(a) (b) (c) (d)
9 KG 9 KG G + 3K K + 3G
IES-33. What is the relationship between the linear elastic properties Young's modulus (E),
rigidity modulus (G) and bulk modulus (K)? [IES-2008]
1 9 3 3 9 1 9 3 1 9 1 3
(a) = + (b) = + (c) = + (d) = +
E K G E K G E K G E K G
IES-34. What is the relationship between the liner elastic properties Young’s modulus (E),
rigidity modulus (G) and bulk modulus (K)? [IES-2009]
KG 9 KG 9 KG 9 KG
(a) E= (b) E= (c) E= (d) E=
9K + G K +G K + 3G 3K + G
IES-35. If E, G and K denote Young's modulus, Modulus of rigidity and Bulk Modulus,
respectively, for an elastic material, then which one of the following can be possibly
true? [IES-2005]
(a) G = 2K (b) G = E (c) K = E (d) G = K = E
IES-36. If a material had a modulus of elasticity of 2.1 × 106 kgf/cm2 and a modulus of rigidity
of 0.8 × 106 kgf/cm2 then the approximate value of the Poisson's ratio of the material
would be: [IES-1993]
(a) 0.26 (b) 0.31 (c) 0.47 (d) 0.5
IES-37. The modulus of elasticity for a material is 200 GN/m2 and Poisson's ratio is 0.25.
What is the modulus of rigidity? [IES-2004]
(a) 80 GN/m2 (b) 125 GN/m2 (c) 250 GN/m2 (d) 320 GN/m2

1. Two-dimensional stresses applied to a thin plate in its own plane represent the
plane stress condition.
2. Under plane stress condition, the strain in the direction perpendicular to the
plane is zero.
3. Normal and shear stresses may occur simultaneously on a plane.
Which of the above statements is /are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
IES-38(i). A 16 mm diameter bar elongates by 0.04% under a tensile force of 16 kN. The average
decrease in diameter is found to be 0.01% Then: [IES-2013]
1. E = 210 GPa and G = 77 GPa
2. E = 199 GPa and v = 0.25
3. E = 199 GPa and v = 0.30
4. E = 199 GPa and G = 80 GPa
Which of these values are correct?


IES-39. Eight bolts are to be selected for fixing the cover plate of a cylinder subjected to a
maximum load of 980·175 kN. If the design stress for the bolt material is 315 N/mm2,
what is the diameter of each bolt? [IES-2008]
(a) 10 mm (b) 22 mm (c) 30 mm (d) 36 mm
IES-40. For a composite consisting of a bar enclosed inside a tube of another material when
compressed under a load 'w' as a whole through rigid collars at the end of the bar.
The equation of compatibility is given by (suffixes 1 and 2) refer to bar and tube
respectively [IES-1998]
W1 W W1 W
(a ) W1 + W2 = W (b) W1 + W2 = Const. (c ) = 2 (d ) = 2
A1 E1 A2 E2 A1 E2 A2 E1
IES-41. When a composite unit consisting of a steel rod surrounded by a cast iron tube is
subjected to an axial load. [IES-2000]
Assertion (A): The ratio of normal stresses induced in both the materials is equal to
the ratio of Young's moduli of respective materials.
Reason (R): The composite unit of these two materials is firmly fastened together at
the ends to ensure equal deformation in both the materials.
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A
IES-42. The figure below shows a steel rod of 25 mm2 cross sectional area. It is loaded at four
points, K, L, M and N. [GATE-2004, IES 1995, 1997, 1998]
Assume Esteel = 200 GPa. The total change in length of the rod due to loading is
(a) 1 µm (b) -10 µm (c) 16 µm (d) -20 µm
IES-43. The reactions at the rigid

supports at A and B for
the bar loaded as shown
in the figure are
respectively.
(a) 20/3 kN,10/3 kN
(b) 10/3 kN, 20/3 kN
(c) 5 kN, 5 kN
(d) 6 kN, 4 kN
[IES-2002, IES-2011; IAS-2003]
IES-43(i) In the arrangement as shown in the figure, the stepped steel bar ABC is loaded by a
load P. The material has Young’s modulus E = 200 GPa and the two portions. AB and
BC have area of cross section 1 cm2 and 2cm2 respectively. The magnitude of load P
required to fill up the gap of 0.75 mm is: [IES-2013]

A
B P C
1m 1m Gap 0.75 mm
(a) 10 kN (b) 15 kN (c) 20 kN (d) 25 kN
IES-44. Which one of the following is correct? [IES-2008]

When a nut is tightened by placing a washer below it, the bolt will be subjected to
(a) Compression only (b) Tension
(c) Shear only (d) Compression and shear
IES-45. Which of the following stresses are associated with the tightening of nut on a bolt?
[IES-1998]
1. Tensile stress due to the stretching of bolt
2. Bending stress due to the bending of bolt
3. Crushing and shear stresses in threads
4. Torsional shear stress due to frictional resistance between the nut and the bolt.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below
Codes: (a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
Thermal effect
IES-46. A 100 mm × 5 mm × 5 mm steel bar free to expand is heated from 15°C to 40°C. What
shall be developed? [IES-2008]
(a) Tensile stress (b) Compressive stress (c) Shear stress (d) No stress
IES-47. Which one of the following statements is correct? [GATE-1995; IES 2007, 2011]
If a material expands freely due to heating, it will develop
(a) Thermal stress (b) Tensile stress (c) Compressive stress (d) No stress
IES-48. A cube having each side of length a, is constrained in all directions and is heated
uniformly so that the temperature is raised to T°C. If α is the thermal coefficient of
expansion of the cube material and E the modulus of elasticity, the stress developed
in the cube is: [IES-2003]
αTE α TE αTE α TE
(a) (b) (c) (d)
γ (1 − 2γ ) 2γ (1 + 2γ )
Thermal stress is induced in a component in general, when
1. A temperature gradient exists in the component
2. The component is free from any restraint
3. It is restrained to expand or contract freely
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 alone (d) 2 alone
IES-49(i). In a body, thermal stress is induced because of the existence of: [IES-2013]
(a) Latent heat (b) Total heat
(c) Temperature gradient (d) Specific heat
IES-50. A steel rod 10 mm in diameter and 1m long is heated from 20°C to 120°C, E = 200 GPa
and α = 12 × 10-6 per °C. If the rod is not free to expand, the thermal stress developed
is: [IAS-2003, IES-1997, 2000, 2006]

(a) 120 MPa (tensile) (b) 240 MPa (tensile)
(c) 120 MPa (compressive) (d) 240 MPa (compressive)
IES-51. A cube with a side length of 1 cm is heated uniformly 1° C above the room
temperature and all the sides are free to expand. What will be the increase in volume
of the cube? (Given coefficient of thermal expansion is α per °C)
(a) 3 α cm3 (b) 2 α cm3 (c) α cm3 (d) zero [IES-2004]
IES-52. A bar of copper and steel form a composite system. [IES-2004, 2012]
They are heated to a temperature of 40 ° C. What type of stress is induced in the
copper bar?
(a) Tensile (b) Compressive (c) Both tensile and compressive (d) Shear
IES-53. α =12.5×10-6 / o C, E = 200 GPa If the rod fitted strongly between the supports as shown
in the figure, is heated, the stress induced in it due to 20oC rise in temperature will
be: [IES-1999]
(a) 0.07945 MPa (b) -0.07945 MPa (c) -0.03972 MPa (d) 0.03972 MPa
IES-54. The temperature stress is a function of [IES-1992]

1. Coefficient of linear expansion 2. Temperature rise 3. Modulus of elasticity
The correct answer is:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Impact loading
IES-55. Assertion (A): Ductile materials generally absorb more impact loading than a brittle
material [IES-2004]
Reason (R): Ductile materials generally have higher ultimate strength than brittle
materials
IES-56. Assertion (A): Specimens for impact testing are never notched. [IES-1999]
Reason (R): A notch introduces tri-axial tensile stresses which cause brittle fracture.
Tensile Test
IES-57. During tensile-testing of a specimen using a Universal Testing Machine, the
parameters actually measured include [IES-1996]
(a) True stress and true strain (b) Poisson’s ratio and Young's modulus
(c) Engineering stress and engineering strain (d) Load and elongation

IES-58. In a tensile test, near the elastic limit zone [IES-2006]
(a) Tensile stress increases at a faster rate
(b) Tensile stress decreases at a faster rate
(c) Tensile stress increases in linear proportion to the stress
(d) Tensile stress decreases in linear proportion to the stress
IES-59. Match List-I (Types of Tests and Materials) with List-II (Types of Fractures) and
select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List I List-II [IES-2002; IAS-2004]
(Types of Tests and Materials) (Types of Fractures)
A. Tensile test on CI 1. Plain fracture on a transverse plane
B. Torsion test on MS 2. Granular helecoidal fracture
C. Tensile test on MS 3. Plain granular at 45° to the axis
D. Torsion test on CI 4. Cup and Cone
5. Granular fracture on a transverse plane
Codes:
A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 2 3 1 (c) 4 1 3 2
(b) 5 1 4 2 (d) 5 2 4 1
IES-60. Which of the following materials generally exhibits a yield point? [IES-2003]
(a) Cast iron (b) Annealed and hot-rolled mild steel
(c) Soft brass (d) Cold-rolled steel
IES-61. For most brittle materials, the ultimate strength in compression is much large then
the ultimate strength in tension. The is mainly due to [IES-1992]
(a) Presence of flaws and microscopic cracks or cavities
(b) Necking in tension
(c) Severity of tensile stress as compared to compressive stress
(d) Non-linearity of stress-strain diagram
IES-61(i). A copper rod 400 mm long is pulled in tension to a length of 401.2 mm by applying a
tensile load of 330 MPa. If the deformation is entirely elastic, the Young’s modulus of
copper is [IES-2012]
(a) 110 GPA (b) 110 MPa (c) 11 GPa (d) 11 MPa
IES-62. What is the safe static tensile load for a M36 × 4C bolt of mild steel having yield stress
of 280 MPa and a factor of safety 1.5? [IES-2005]
(a) 285 kN (b) 190 kN (c) 142.5 kN (d) 95 kN
IES-63. Which one of the following properties is more sensitive to increase in strain rate?
[IES-2000]
(a) Yield strength (b) Proportional limit (c) Elastic limit (d) Tensile strength
IES-64. A steel hub of 100 mm internal diameter and uniform thickness of 10 mm was heated
to a temperature of 300oC to shrink-fit it on a shaft. On cooling, a crack developed
parallel to the direction of the length of the hub. Consider the following factors in
this regard: [IES-1994]
1. Tensile hoop stress 2. Tensile radial stress
3. Compressive hoop stress 4. Compressive radial stress
The cause of failure is attributable to
(a) 1 alone (b) 1 and 3 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
IES-65. If failure in shear along 45° planes is to be avoided, then a material subjected to
uniaxial tension should have its shear strength equal to at least [IES-1994]
(a) Tensile strength (b) Compressive strength
(c) Half the difference between the tensile and compressive strengths.
(d) Half the tensile strength.

IES-66. Select the proper sequence [IES-1992]
1. Proportional Limit 2. Elastic limit 3. Yielding 4. Failure
(a) 2, 3, 1, 4 (b) 2, 1, 3, 4 (c) 1, 3, 2, 4 (d) 1, 2, 3, 4
IES-67. Elastic limit of cast iron as compared to its ultimate breaking strength is
(a) Half (b) Double [IES-2012]
(c) Approximately (d) None of the above
IES-68. Statement (I): Steel reinforcing bars are used in reinforced cement concrete.
Statement (II): Concrete is weak in compression. [IES-2012]
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true and Statement (II) is the correct
explanation of Statement (I)
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true but Statement (II) is not the
correct explanation of Statement (I)
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true
Previous 20-Years IAS Questions
Stress in a bar due to self-weight

IAS-1. A heavy uniform rod of length 'L' and material density 'δ' is hung vertically with its
top end rigidly fixed. How is the total elongation of the bar under its own weight
expressed? [IAS-2007]
2δ L2 g δ L2 g δ L2 g δ L2 g
(a) (b) (c) (d)
E E 2E 2E
IAS-2. A rod of length 'l' and cross-section area ‘A’ rotates about an axis passing through one
end of the rod. The extension produced in the rod due to centrifugal forces is (w is
the weight of the rod per unit length and ω is the angular velocity of rotation of the
rod). [IAS 1994]
ωwl 2 ω 2 wl 3 ω 2 wl 3 3gE
(a) (b) (c) (d)
gE 3 gE gE ω 2 wl 3
Elongation of a Taper Rod

IAS-3. A rod of length, " ι " tapers uniformly from a diameter ''D1' to a diameter ''D2' and
carries an axial tensile load of "P". The extension of the rod is (E represents the
modulus of elasticity of the material of the rod) [IAS-1996]
4 P1 4 PE1 π EP1 π P1
(a) (b ) (c) (d)
π ED1 D2 π D1 D2 4 D1D2 4 ED1D2
Poisson’s ratio
IAS-4. In the case of an engineering material under unidirectional stress in the x-direction,
the Poisson's ratio is equal to (symbols have the usual meanings)
[IAS 1994, IES-2000]
εy εy σy σy
(a) (b) (c) (d)
εx σx σx εx
IAS-5. Assertion (A): Poisson's ratio of a material is a measure of its ductility.

Reason (R): For every linear strain in the direction of force, Poisson's ratio of the
material gives the lateral strain in directions perpendicular to the direction of force.
[IAS-1999]

IAS-6. Assertion (A): Poisson's ratio is a measure of the lateral strain in all direction
perpendicular to and in terms of the linear strain. [IAS-1997]
Reason (R): The nature of lateral strain in a uni-axially loaded bar is opposite to that
of the linear strain.

IAS-7. A weight falls on a plunger fitted in a container filled with oil thereby producing a
pressure of 1.5 N/mm2 in the oil. The Bulk Modulus of oil is 2800 N/mm2. Given this
situation, the volumetric compressive strain produced in the oil will be:[IAS-1997]
(a) 400 × 10-6 (b) 800 × 106 (c) 268 × 106 (d) 535 × 10-6

IAS-8. For a linearly elastic, isotropic and homogeneous material, the number of elastic
constants required to relate stress and strain is: [IAS 1994; IES-1998]
(a) Two (b) Three (c) Four (d) Six
IAS-9. The independent elastic constants for a homogenous and isotropic material are
(a) E, G, K, v (b) E, G, K (c) E, G, v (d) E, G [IAS-1995]
IAS-10. The unit of elastic modulus is the same as those of [IAS 1994]
(a) Stress, shear modulus and pressure (b) Strain, shear modulus and force
(c) Shear modulus, stress and force (d) Stress, strain and pressure.
IAS-11. Young's modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio of a material are 1.25 × 105 MPa and
0.34 respectively. The modulus of rigidity of the material is:
[IAS 1994, IES-1995, 2001, 2002, 2007]
(a) 0.4025 × 105 MPa (b) 0.4664 × 105 MPa
(c) 0.8375 × 10 MPa
5 (d) 0.9469 × 105 MPa
IAS-12. The Young's modulus of elasticity of a material is 2.5 times its modulus of rigidity.
The Posson's ratio for the material will be: [IAS-1997]
(a) 0.25 (b) 0.33 (c) 0.50 (d) 0.75
IAS-13. In a homogenous, isotropic elastic material, the modulus of elasticity E in terms of G

and K is equal to [IAS-1995, IES - 1992]
G + 3K 3G + K 9 KG 9 KG
(a) (b) (c) (d)
9 KG 9 KG G + 3K K + 3G
IAS-14. The Elastic Constants E and K are related as ( μ is the Poisson’s ratio) [IAS-1996]
(a) E = 2k (1 – 2 μ ) (b) E = 3k (1- 2 μ ) (c) E = 3k (1 + μ ) (d) E = 2K(1 + 2 μ )
IAS-15. For an isotropic, homogeneous and linearly elastic material, which obeys Hooke's
law, the number of independent elastic constant is: [IAS-2000]
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 6
IAS-16. The moduli of elasticity and rigidity of a material are 200 GPa and 80 GPa,
respectively. What is the value of the Poisson's ratio of the material? [IAS-2007]
(a) 0·30 (b) 0·26 (c) 0·25 (d) 0·24


IAS-17. The reactions at the rigid supports at A and B for the bar loaded as shown in the
figure are respectively. [IES-2002; IAS-2003]
(a) 20/3 kN,10/3 Kn (b) 10/3 kN, 20/3 kN (c) 5 kN, 5 kN (d) 6 kN, 4 kN
Thermal effect
IAS-18. A steel rod 10 mm in diameter and 1m long is heated from 20°C to 120°C, E = 200 GPa
and α = 12 × 10-6 per °C. If the rod is not free to expand, the thermal stress developed
is: [IAS-2003, IES-1997, 2000, 2006]
(a) 120 MPa (tensile) (b) 240 MPa (tensile)
(c) 120 MPa (compressive) (d) 240 MPa (compressive)
IAS-19. A. steel rod of diameter 1 cm and 1 m long is heated from 20°C to 120°C. Its
α = 12 ×10−6 / K and E=200 GN/m2. If the rod is free to expand, the thermal stress
developed in it is: [IAS-2002]
(a) 12 × 104 N/m2 (b) 240 kN/m2 (c) zero (d) infinity
IAS-20. Which one of the following pairs is NOT correctly matched? [IAS-1999]
(E = Young's modulus, α = Coefficient of linear expansion, T = Temperature rise, A =
Area of cross-section, l= Original length)
(a) Temperature strain with permitted expansion δ ….. ( αTl − δ )
(b) Temperature stress ….. αTE
(c) Temperature thrust ….. αTEA
E (αTl − δ )
(d) Temperature stress with permitted expansion …..
l
Impact loading
IAS-21. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below
the lists: [IAS-1995]
List I (Property) List II (Testing Machine)
A. Tensile strength 1. Rotating Bending Machine
B. Impact strength 2. Three-Point Loading Machine
C. Bending strength 3. Universal Testing Machine
D. Fatigue strength 4. Izod Testing Machine
(a) 4 3 2 1 (b) 3 2 1 4
(c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 3 4 2 1
Tensile Test
IAS-22. A mild steel specimen is tested in tension up to fracture in a Universal Testing
Machine. Which of the following mechanical properties of the material can be
evaluated from such a test? [IAS-2007]
1. Modulus of elasticity 2. Yield stress 3. Ductility
4. Tensile strength 5. Modulus of rigidity
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 3, 5 and 6 (b) 2, 3, 4 and 6 (c) 1, 2, 5 and 6 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

IAS-23. In a simple tension test, Hooke's law is valid upto the [IAS-1998]
(a) Elastic limit (b) Limit of proportionality (c) Ultimate stress (d) Breaking point
IAS-24. Lueder' lines on steel specimen under simple tension test is a direct indication of
yielding of material due to slip along the plane [IAS-1997]
(a) Of maximum principal stress (b) Off maximum shear
(c) Of loading (d) Perpendicular to the direction of loading
IAS-25. The percentage elongation of a material as obtained from static tension test depends
upon the [IAS-1998]
(a) Diameter of the test specimen (b) Gauge length of the specimen
(c) Nature of end-grips of the testing machine (d) Geometry of the test specimen
IAS-26. Match List-I (Types of Tests and Materials) with List-II (Types of Fractures) and
select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List I List-II [IES-2002; IAS-2004]
(Types of Tests and Materials) (Types of Fractures)
A. Tensile test on CI 1. Plain fracture on a transverse plane
B. Torsion test on MS 2. Granular helecoidal fracture
C. Tensile test on MS 3. Plain granular at 45° to the axis
D. Torsion test on CI 4. Cup and Cone
5. Granular fracture on a transverse plane
(a) 4 2 3 1 (c) 4 1 3 2
(b) 5 1 4 2 (d) 5 2 4 1
IAS-27. Assertion (A): For a ductile material stress-strain curve is a straight line up to the
yield point. [IAS-2003]
Reason (R): The material follows Hooke's law up to the point of proportionality.
IAS-28. Assertion (A): Stress-strain curves for brittle material do not exhibit yield point.
[IAS-1996]
Reason (R): Brittle materials fail without yielding.
IAS-29. Match List I (Materials) with List II (Stress-Strain curves) and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the Lists: [IAS-2001]

(a) 3 1 4 1 (b) 3 2 4 2
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 4 1 3 2
IAS-30. The stress-strain curve of an ideal elastic strain hardening material will be as
[IAS-1998]
IAS-31. An idealised stress-strain curve for a perfectly plastic material is given by
[IAS-1996]
IAS-32. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below
the Lists: [IAS-2002]
List I List II
A. Ultimate strength 1. Internal structure
B. Natural strain 2. Change of length per unit instantaneous length
C. Conventional strain 3. Change of length per unit gauge length
D. Stress 4. Load per unit area
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 1 3 2 4 (d) 4 2 3 1
IAS-33. What is the cause of failure of a short MS strut under an axial load? [IAS-2007]
(a) Fracture stress (b) Shear stress (c) Buckling (d) Yielding
IAS-34. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given the lists:
[IAS-1995]
List I List II
A. Rigid-Perfectly plastic
B. Elastic-Perfectly plastic
C. Rigid-Strain hardening

D. Linearly elastic
(a) 3 1 4 2 (b) 1 3 2 4
(c) 3 1 2 4 (d) 1 3 4 2
IAS-35. Which one of the following materials is highly elastic? [IAS-1995]

(a) Rubber (b) Brass (c) Steel (d) Glass
IAS-36. Assertion (A): Hooke's law is the constitutive law for a linear elastic material.
Reason (R) Formulation of the theory of elasticity requires the hypothesis that there
exists a unique unstressed state of the body, to which the body returns whenever all
the forces are removed. [IAS-2002]
IAS-37. Consider the following statements: [IAS-2002]

1. There are only two independent elastic constants.
2. Elastic constants are different in orthogonal directions.
3. Material properties are same everywhere.
4. Elastic constants are same in all loading directions.
5. The material has ability to withstand shock loading.
Which of the above statements are true for a linearly elastic, homogeneous and
isotropic material?
(a) 1, 3, 4 and 5 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2 and 5
IAS-38. Which one of the following pairs is NOT correctly matched? [IAS-1999]
(a) Uniformly distributed stress …. Force passed through the centroid of the
cross-section
(b) Elastic deformation …. Work done by external forces during
deformation is dissipated fully as heat
(c) Potential energy of strain …. Body is in a state of elastic deformation
(d) Hooke's law …. Relation between stress and strain
IAS-39. A tensile bar is stressed to 250 N/mm2 which is beyond its elastic limit. At this stage
the strain produced in the bar is observed to be 0.0014. If the modulus of elasticity of
the material of the bar is 205000 N/mm2 then the elastic component of the strain is
very close to [IAS-1997]
(a) 0.0004 (b) 0.0002 (c) 0.0001 (d) 0.00005
OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
PL 1
GATE-1. Ans. (c) δ L = or δ L ∞ [AsP, L and A is same]
AE E
(δ L )mild steel ECI 100
= = ∴ (δ L )CI > (δ L )MS
(δ L )C.I EMS 206
GATE-1(i) Ans. (a)
PL ( 200 × 1000 ) × 2
GATE-2. Ans. (a) δ L = = m = 1.25mm
AE ( 0.04 × 0.04 ) × 200 × 109
GATE-2(i) Ans. (c)

50 × 1000
The stress in lower bar = = 20 N/ mm2
50 × 50
250 × 1000
The stress in upper bar = = 25 N/ mm2
100 × 100
Thus the maximum tensile anywhere in the bar is 25 N/ mm2
GATE-2(ii) Ans. (d)
There is no eceentricity between the XY segment and the load. So, it is subjected to axial force
only. But the curved YZ segment is subjected to axial force, shear force and bending moment.
GATE-3. Ans. (b)

A true stress – true strain curve in
tension σ = kε n
k = Strength co-efficient = 400 ×
(1.35) = 540 MPa
n = Strain – hardening exponent =
0.35
GATE-4. Ans. (d)
A cantilever-loaded rotating beam, showing the normal distribution of surface stresses. (i.e.,
tension at the top and compression at the bottom)
The residual compressive stresses induced.
Net stress pattern obtained when loading a surface treated beam. The reduced magnitude of the
tensile stresses contributes to increased fatigue life.
GATE-5. Ans. (d)
GATE-6. Ans. (d)
GATE-7. Ans. (d) For longitudinal strain we need Young's modulus and for calculating transverse strain
we need Poisson's ratio. We may calculate Poisson's ratio from E = 2G (1 + μ ) for that we need
Shear modulus.
GATE-8. Ans. (a)
9KG
GATE-9. Ans. (a) Remember E = 2G (1 + μ ) = 3K (1 − 2 μ ) =
3K + G
GATE-9(i) Ans.(a)

0.004
GATE-10. Ans. (c) T = F × r = 2200 × Nm = 1.4Nm
2π
GATE-11. Ans. (b) First draw FBD of all parts separately then
PL
Total change in length = ∑ AE
GATE-12. Ans. (a)
F.B.D
P 28000
σ QR = = MPa = 40MPa
A 700
GATE-12(i) Ans. (c)
If the force in each of outer rods is P0 and force in the central rod is Pc , then
2P0 + Pc = 50 …(i)
Also, the elongation of central rod and outer rods is same.
P0 L0 PC LC
∴ =
A0E ACE
P0 × 2 L PC × L
⇒ =
2A 3A
⇒ PC = 3P0 …(ii)
Solving (i) and (ii) we get
PC = 30 kN and P0 = 10 kN
GATE-13. Ans. (a) No calculation needed it is pre-compressed by 100 mm from its free state. So it can’t
move more than 100 mm. choice (b), (c) and (d) out.
GATE-14. Ans. (d) Frictional force required = 2000 N
2000
Force needed to produce 2000N frictional force at Y-Y section = = 20000N
0.1
So for each side we need (Fy) = 10000 N force
Taking moment about PIN
Fy × 50 10000 × 50
Fy × 50 = F × 100 or F = = = 5000N
100 100
GATE-15. Ans. (a) Thermal stress will develop only when you prevent the material to contrast/elongate.
As here it is free no thermal stress will develop.
3
GATE-15(i). Ans. (a) ΔV p a (1 + αT ) − a
3 3
= =
V K a3
p
Or = 3αT
E
3 (1− 2υ )
α ( ΔT ) E α ( ΔT ) E
Or p = or stress (σ ) = − p = − i.e. compressive
(1 − 2υ ) (1 − 2υ )
Same question was asked in IES-2003 please refer question no. IES-48 in this chapter.
GATE-15(ii). Ans. (c)
Temperature stress = α TE = 12 × 10−6 × 10 × 2 × 105 = 24 MPa
GATE-16. Ans. (b)

GATE-17. Ans. (b)
IES
π D2
×L × ρ × g×L
WL 4
IES-1. Ans. (d) δ = = or δ ∞ L2
2AE π D2
2× ×E
4
IES-2. Ans. (c)
IES-3. Ans. (b)
IES-4. Ans. (d)
IES-5. Ans. (c)
IES-6. Ans. (c)
IES-7. Ans. (a)
IES-7a. Ans. (d)
PL
IES-8. Ans. (b) Elongation of a taper rod (δ l ) =
π
d1d2E
4
(δ l)A ( d2 )B ⎛D / 3⎞ 2
or = =⎜ ⎟=
(δ l)B ( d2 )A ⎝D / 2⎠ 3
PL PL
IES-9. Ans. (c) Actual elongation of the bar (δ l )act = =
⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞
⎜ 4 d1d2 ⎟ E ⎜ 4 × 1.1D × 0.9D ⎟ E
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
PL
Calculated elongation of the bar (δ l )Cal =
π D2
×E
4
(δ l)act − (δ l )cal ⎛ D2 ⎞
∴ Error ( % ) = × 100 = ⎜ − 1⎟ × 100% = 1%
(δ l)cal ⎝ 1.1D × 0.9D ⎠
PL
IES-10. Ans. (d) Actual elongation of the bar (δ l )act =
⎛π ⎞
⎜ 4 d1d2 ⎟ E
⎝ ⎠
IES-11. Ans. (b)
IES-11(i). Ans. (c)
IES-12. Ans. (a)
IES-13. Ans. (c) Theoretically −1 < μ < 1/ 2 but practically 0 < μ < 1/ 2
IES-14. Ans. (c)
IES-15. Ans. (a) If Poisson's ratio is zero, then material is rigid.
IES-16. Ans. (a)
IES-16a. Ans. (d)
IES-17. Ans. (d) Note: Modulus of elasticity is the property of material. It will remain same.
IES-18. Ans. (a)
IES-19. Ans. (a) Strain energy stored by a body within elastic limit is known as resilience.

IES-19b. Ans. (b) Plastic deformation
• Following the elastic deformation, material undergoes plastic deformation.
• Also characterized by relation between stress and strain at constant strain rate and temperature.
• Microscopically…it involves breaking atomic bonds, moving atoms, then restoration of bonds.
• Stress-Strain relation here is complex because of atomic plane movement, dislocation movement,
and the obstacles they encounter.
• Crystalline solids deform by processes – slip and twinning in particular directions.
• Amorphous solids deform by viscous flow mechanism without any directionality.
• Equations relating stress and strain are called constitutive equations.
• A true stress-strain curve is called flow curve as it gives the stress required to cause the material to
flow plastically to certain strain.
IES-20. Ans. (c)
IES-21. Ans. (b)
IES-22. Ans. (c)
IES-23. Ans. (d)
IES-24. Ans. (c) A polished surface by grinding can take more number of cycles than a part with rough
surface. In Hammer peening residual compressive stress lower the peak tensile stress
IES-25. Ans. (a)
IES-26. Ans. (c)
IES-27. Ans. (c)
IES-28. Ans. (d)
IES-29. Ans. (d)
IES-30. Ans. (a)
IES-31. Ans.(b) E = 2G (1 + μ ) or 1.25x105 = 2G(1+0.34) or G = 0.4664 × 105 MPa
IES-31(i). Ans. (d)
IES-32. Ans. (c)
9KG
IES-33. Ans. (d) E = 2G (1 + μ ) = 3K (1 − 2μ ) =
3K + G
9KG
IES-34. Ans. (d) E = 2G (1 + μ ) = 3K (1 − 2μ ) =
3K + G
9KG
IES-35. Ans.(c) E = 2G (1 + μ ) = 3K (1 − 2 μ ) =
3K + G
1
the value of μ must be between 0 to 0.5 so E never equal to G but if μ = then
3
E = k so ans. is c
IES-36. Ans. (b) Use E = 2G (1 + μ )
E 200
IES-37. Ans. (a) E = 2G (1 + μ ) or G = = = 80GN / m2
2 (1 + μ ) 2 × (1 + 0.25 )
IES-38. Ans. (d) Under plane stress condition, the strain in the direction perpendicular to the plane is not
zero. It has been found experimentally that when a body is stressed within elastic limit, the
lateral strain bears a constant ratio to the linear strain. [IES-2009]
IES-38(i). Ans. (b)
π d2 P 980175
IES-39. Ans. (b) Total load (P ) = 8 × σ × or d = = = 22.25mm
4 2πσ 2π × 315
IES-40. Ans. (c) Compatibility equation insists that the change in length of the bar must be compatible
with the boundary conditions. Here (a) is also correct but it is equilibrium equation.
IES-41. Ans. (a)
IES-42. Ans. (b) First draw FBD of all parts separately then
PL
Total change in length = ∑ AE
IES-43. Ans. (a) Elongation in AC = length reduction in CB
R A × 1 RB × 2
=
AE AE

And RA + RB = 10
IES-43(i) Ans. (b)
IES-44. Ans. (b)
IES-45. Ans. (d)
IES-46. Ans. (d) If we resist to expand then only stress will develop.
IES-47. Ans. (d)
3
IES-48. Ans. (b) ΔV = σ = ( p) = a (1 + αT ) − a
3 3
3
V K a
p
Or = 3αT
E
3 (1− 2γ )
IES-49. Ans. (c)
IES-49(i). Ans. (c)
( ) ( )
IES-50. Ans. (d) α EΔt = 12 × 10 × 200 × 10 × (120 − 20 ) = 240MPa
−6 3
It will be compressive as elongation restricted.

IES-51. Ans. (a) co-efficient of volume expansion ( γ ) = 3 × co − efficient of linear expansion (α )
IES-52. Ans. (b)
IES-53. Ans. (b) Let compression of the spring = x m
Therefore spring force = kx kN
Expansion of the rod due to temperature rise = LαΔt
(kx ) × L
Reduction in the length due to compression force =
AE
(kx ) × L = x
Now LαΔt −
AE
0.5 × 12.5 × 10 −6 × 20
Or x = = 0.125 mm
⎧ ⎫
⎪⎪ 50 × 0.5 ⎪⎪
⎨1 + ⎬
⎪ π × 0.010 × 200 × 106 ⎪
2
⎪⎩ 4 ⎪⎭
kx 50 × 0.125
∴ Compressive stress = − = − = −0.07945MPa
A ⎛ π × 0.0102 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
IES-54. Ans. (d) Stress in the rod due to temperature rise = (αΔt ) × E
IES-55. Ans. (c)
IES-56. Ans. (d) A is false but R is correct.
IES-57. Ans. (d)
IES-58. Ans. (b)
IES-59. Ans. (d)
IES-60. Ans. (b)
IES-61. Ans. (a)
IES-61(i). Ans. (a)
W π d2
IES-62. Ans. (b) σ c = or W = σ × ;
π d2
c
4
4
W σ c × π × d2 280 × π × 362
Wsafe = = = N = 190kN
fos fos × 4 1.5 × 4
IES-63. Ans. (b)
IES-64. Ans. (a) A crack parallel to the direction of length of hub means the failure was due to tensile hoop
stress only.
IES-65. Ans. (d)
IES-66. Ans. (d)

IES-67. Ans. (c)

IES-68. Ans. (c)
IAS
WL (δ ALg ) L δ L2 g
IAS-1. Ans. (d) Elongation due to self weight = = =
2 AE 2 AE 2E
IAS-2. Ans. (b)
Pl
IAS-3. Ans. (a) The extension of the taper rod =
⎛π ⎞
⎜ 4 D1D2 ⎟ .E
⎝ ⎠
IAS-4. Ans. (a)
IAS-5. ans. (d)
IAS-6. Ans. (b)
P P 1.5
IAS-7. Ans. (d) Bulk modulus of elasticity (K) = or ε v = = = 535 × 10 −6
εv K 2800
IAS-8. Ans. (a)
IAS-9. Ans. (d)
IAS-10. Ans. (a)
IAS-11. Ans.(b) E = 2G (1 + μ ) or 1.25x105 = 2G(1+0.34) or G = 0.4664 × 105 MPa
E ⎛ E ⎞ ⎛ 2.5 ⎞
IAS-12. Ans. (a) E = 2G (1 + μ ) ⇒ 1+ μ = ⇒μ =⎜ − 1⎟ = ⎜ − 1⎟ = 0.25
2G ⎝ 2G ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
IAS-13. Ans. (c)
IAS-14. Ans. (b) E = 2G (1 + μ ) = 3k (1- 2 μ )
IAS-15. Ans. (b) E, G, K and µ represent the elastic modulus, shear modulus, bulk modulus and poisons
ratio respectively of a ‘linearly elastic, isotropic and homogeneous material.’ To express the
stress – strain relations completely for this material; at least any two of the four must be
9 KG
known. E = 2G (1 + μ ) = 3K (1 − 3μ ) =
3K + G
E 200
IAS-16. Ans. (c) E = 2G (1+ μ ) or μ = −1 = − 1 = 0.25
2G 2 × 80
IAS-17. Ans. (a) Elongation in AC = length reduction in CB
R A × 1 RB × 2
=
AE AE
And RA + RB = 10
(
IAS-18. Ans. (d) α EΔt = 12 × 10
−6
) × ( 200 × 10 ) × (120 − 20 ) = 240MPa
3
It will be compressive as elongation restricted.

IAS-19. Ans. (c) Thermal stress will develop only if expansion is restricted.
IAS-20. Ans. (a) Dimensional analysis gives (a) is wrong
IAS-21. Ans. (d)
IAS-22. Ans. (d)
IAS-23. Ans. (b)

IAS-24. Ans. (b)
IAS-25. Ans. (b)
IAS-26. Ans. (d)
IAS-27. Ans. (d)
IAS-28. Ans. (a) Up to elastic limit.
IAS-29. Ans. (b)
IAS-30. Ans. (d)
IAS-31. Ans. (a)
IAS-32. Ans. (a)
IAS-33. Ans. (d) In compression tests of ductile materials fractures is seldom obtained. Compression is
accompanied by lateral expansion and a compressed cylinder ultimately assumes the shape of a
flat disc.
IAS-34. Ans. (a)
IAS-35. Ans. (c) Steel is the highly elastic material because it is deformed least on loading, and regains its
original from on removal of the load.
IAS-36. Ans. (a)
IAS-37. Ans. (a)
IAS-38. Ans. (b)
IAS-39. Ans. (b)

Previous Conventional Questions with Answers

Conventional Question IES-2010
Q. If a load of 60 kN is applied to a rigid
bar suspended by 3 wires as shown
in the above figure what force will
be resisted by each wire?
The outside wires are of Al, cross-

sectional area 300 mm2 and length 4
m. The central wire is steel with area
200 mm2 and length 8 m.
Initially there is no slack in the
5 2
wires E = 2 × 10 N / mm for Steel
5 2
= 0.667 × 10 N / mm for Aluminum
[2 Marks]
Ans.
Aluminium wire
FA1
FSt FA1
Steel wire
60kN
P = 60 kN
a A1 = 300 mm 2 l A1 = 4 m
ast = 200 mm 2 lst = 8 m
E A1 = 0.667 × 105 N / mm 2
Est = 2 × 105 N / mm 2
Force balance along vertical direction
2FA1 + Fst = 60 kN (1)
Elongation will be same in all wires because rod is rigid remain horizontal after loading
FA1 × l A1 Fst .lst
= (2)
a Al .E Al ast .Est
FA1 × 4 Fst × 8
5
=
300 × 0.667 × 10 200 × 2 × 105
FA1 = 1.0005 Fst (3)
60 × 103
From equation (1) Fst = = 19.99 kN or 20 kN
3.001

FA1 = 20 kN
FA1 = 20 kN ⎫
⎬ Answer.
Fst = 20 kN ⎭
Conventional Question GATE

Question: The diameters of the brass and steel segments of the axially loaded bar shown in
figure are 30 mm and 12 mm respectively. The diameter of the hollow section of the
brass segment is 20 mm.
Determine: (i) The maximum normal stress in the steel and brass (ii) The displacement of the free end ;
Take Es = 210 GN/m2 and Eb = 105 GN/m2
π
× (12 ) = 36π mm2 = 36π × 10−6 m2
2
Answer: As =
4
π
( Ab )BC = × ( 30 ) = 225π mm2 = 225π × 10−6 m2
2
4
π
( Ab )CD =
4
( )
× 302 − 202 = 125π mm2 = 125π × 10−6 m2
(i) The maximum normal stress in steel and brass:

10 × 103
σs = × 10 −6 MN / m2 = 88.42MN / m2
36π × 10 −6
5 × 103
(σ b )BC = × 10 −6 MN / m2 = 7.07MN / m2
225π × 10 −6
5 × 103
(σ b )CD = × 10 −6 MN / m2 = 12.73MN / m2
125π × 10 −6
(ii) The displacement of the free end:
δ l = (δ ls )AB + (δ lb )BC + (δ lb )CD
88.42 × 0.15 7.07 × 0.2 12.73 × 0.125 ⎛ σl ⎞
= −6
+ −6
+ ⎜∵ δ l = E ⎟
210 × 10 × 10
9
105 × 10 × 10
9
105 × 109 × 10 −6 ⎝ ⎠
= 9.178 × 10 −5 m = 0.09178 mm

Question: Distinguish between fatigue strength and fatigue limit.
Answer: Fatigue strength as the value of cyclic stress at which failure occurs after N cycles. And
fatigue limit as the limiting value of stress at which failure occurs as N becomes very large
(sometimes called infinite cycle)

Question: List at least two factors that promote transition from ductile to brittle fracture.
Answer: (i) With the grooved specimens only a small reduction in area took place, and the
appearance of the facture was like that of brittle materials.

(ii) By internal cavities, thermal stresses and residual stresses may combine with the effect
of the stress concentration at the cavity to produce a crack. The resulting fracture will
have the characteristics of a brittle failure without appreciable plastic flow, although
the material may prove ductile in the usual tensile tests.

Question: Distinguish between creep and fatigue.
Answer: Fatigue is a phenomenon associated with variable loading or more precisely to cyclic stressing
or straining of a material, metallic, components subjected to variable loading get fatigue,
which leads to their premature failure under specific conditions.
When a member is subjected to a constant load over a long period of time it undergoes a slow
permanent deformation and this is termed as ''Creep''. This is dependent on temperature.

Question: What different stresses set-up in a bolt due to initial tightening, while used as a
fastener? Name all the stresses in detail.
Answer: (i) When the nut is initially tightened there will be some elongation in the bolt so tensile
stress will develop.
(ii) While it is tightening a torque across some shear stress. But when tightening will be
completed there should be no shear stress.

Question: A Copper rod 6 cm in diameter is placed within a steel tube, 8 cm external diameter
and 6 cm internal diameter, of exactly the same length. The two pieces are rigidly
fixed together by two transverse pins 20 mm in diameter, one at each end passing
through both rod and the tube.
Calculated the stresses induced in the copper rod, steel tube and the pins if the
temperature of the combination is raised by 50oC.
[Take ES=210 GPa, αs = 0.0000115 / C ; Ec=105 GPa, αc = 0.000017 / C ]
o o
Answer:
σc σs
+ = Δt (αc − αs )
Ec E s
2
πd 2 π ⎛⎜ 6 ⎞⎟ 2 −3 2
Area of copper rod(A c ) = = ⎜⎜ ⎟ m = 2.8274 ×10 m
4 4 ⎝100 ⎠⎟
πd 2 π ⎢⎡⎛⎜ 8 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 6 ⎞⎟ ⎥⎤ 2
2 2
−3 2
Area of steel tube (A s ) = = ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟ m = 2.1991×10 m
4 4 ⎢⎣⎝100 ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜100 ⎠⎟ ⎥⎥⎦
Rise in temperature,Δt = 50o C
Free expansion of copper bar=αc L t
Free expansion of steel tube =αs L t
Difference in free expansion = (αc − αs ) L t
=(17-11.5)×10−6 × L × 50=2.75×10-4L m
A compressive force (P) exerted by the steel tube on the copper rod opposed the extra
expansion of the copper rod and the copper rod exerts an equal tensile force P to pull the steel

tube. In this combined effect reduction in copper rod and increase in length of steel tube
equalize the difference in free expansions of the combined system.
Reduction in the length of copper rod due to force P Newton=
PL PL
( L )C = = m
Ac Ec (2.8275 ×10−3 )(105 ×109 )
Increase in length of steel tube due to force P
PL P .L
( L)S = = m
As Es (2.1991 ×10−3 )(210 ×109 )
Difference in length is equated
( L)c + ( L)s = 2.75 ×10−4 L
PL P.L
+ = 2.75 ×10−4 L
( 2.8275 × 10−3
)(105 × 10 9
) ( 2.1991× 10−3
)( 210 × 10 9
)
Or P = 49.695 kN
P 49695
Stress in copper rod, σc = = MPa=17.58MPa
Ac 2.8275 ×10−3
P 49695
Stress in steel tube, σs = = MPa = 22.6MPa
As 2.1991×10−3
Since each of the pin is in double shear, shear stress in pins ( τ pin )
P 49695
= = = 79 MPa
2 × Apin 2 × π (0.02)2
4

Question: Why are the bolts, subjected to impact, made longer?
Answer: If we increase length its volume will increase so shock absorbing capacity will increased.

Question: Explain the following in brief:
(i) Effect of size on the tensile strength
(ii) Effect of surface finish on endurance limit.
Answer: (i) When size of the specimen increases tensile strength decrease. It is due to the reason
that if size increases there should be more change of defects (voids) into the material
which reduces the strength appreciably.
(ii) If the surface finish is poor, the endurance strength is reduced because of scratches
present in the specimen. From the scratch crack propagation will start.

Question: Mention the relationship between three elastic constants i.e. elastic modulus (E),
rigidity modulus (G), and bulk modulus (K) for any Elastic material. How is the
Poisson's ratio ( μ ) related to these modulli?
9KG
Answer: E =
3K + G
9KG
E = 3K (1− 2µ) = 2G(1 + µ) =
3K + G

Question: The elastic and shear moduli of an elastic material are 2×1011 Pa and 8×1010 Pa
respectively. Determine Poisson's ratio of the material.
9KG
Answer: We know that E = 2G(1+ µ ) = 3K(1 - 2µ) =
3K + G

E
or,1 + µ =
2G
E 2 ×1011
or µ = −1= − 1 = 0.25
2G 2 × (8 ×1010 )

Question: A steel bolt of diameter 10 mm passes through a brass tube of internal diameter 15
mm and external diameter 25 mm. The bolt is tightened by a nut so that the length
of tube is reduced by 1.5 mm. If the temperature of the assembly is raised by 40oC,
estimate the axial stresses the bolt and the tube before and after heating. Material
properties for steel and brass are:
E S = 2×105 N / mm 2 αS = 1.2×10−5 / o C and Eb= 1×105 N/mm2 α b=1.9×10-5/oC
Answer:
π
Area of steel bolt (A s )= × (0.010)2 m 2 = 7.854 ×10−5 m 2
4
π
Area of brass tube (A b )= ⎡⎢⎣(0.025)2 − (0.015)2 ⎤⎥⎦ = 3.1416 ×10−4
4
Stress due to tightening of the nut
Compressive force on brass tube= tensile fore on steel bolt
or, σb Ab = σS As
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
(Δl )b ⎢ σ σ ⎥
or , Eb. .Ab = σ s As ⎢∵ E= = ⎥
⎢ ∈ ⎜⎛ L ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ L ⎠⎦
Let assume total length ( )=1m
(1.5 ×10−3 )
Therefore (1×105 ×106 ) × × (3.1416 ×10−4 ) = σs × 7.854×10-5
1
or σs = 600 MPa (tensile )
(Δl )b (1.5 ×10−3 )
and σb =Eb. = (1×105 ) × MPa = 150MPa (Compressive )
1
So before heating
Stress in brass tube (σb ) = 150MPa (compressive )
Stress in steel bolt(σ s ) = 600MPa (tensile)
Stress due to rise of temperature

' '
Let stress σ b & σ s are due to brass tube and steel bolt.

If the two members had been free to expand,
Free expansion of steel = αs × t ×1
Free expansion of brass tube = αb × t ×1
Since αb > σs free expansion of copper is greater than the free expansion of steel. But they
are rigidly fixed so final expansion of each members will be same. Let us assume this final
expansion is ' δ ', The free expansion of brass tube is grater than δ , while the free expansion of
steel is less than δ . Hence the steel rod will be subjected to a tensile stress while the brass
tube will be subjected to a compressive stress.
For the equilibrium of the whole system,
Total tension (Pull) in steel =Total compression (Push) in brass tube.

As 7.854 ×10−5 '
σ 'b Ab = σ 's As or , σb' = σ 's ×
= σS = 0.25σS'
Ab 3.14 ×10−4
Final expansion of steel =final expansion of brass tube
σs' σ'
αs ( t ).1 + ×1 = αb ( t ) ×1− b ×1
Es Eb
σs' σ 'b
or ,(1.2 ×10−5 )× 40 ×1 + = (1.9 × 10−5
) × 40 × 1 − − −(ii )
2 ×105 ×106 1×105 ×106
From(i) & (ii) we get
⎡ 1 0.25 ⎤
σs' ⎢ + 11 ⎥ = 2.8 ×10−4
⎢ 2 ×10 11
10 ⎥⎦
⎣
or , σs' = 37.33 MPa (Tensile stress)
or, σ b' = 9.33MPa (compressive)
Therefore, the final stresses due to tightening and temperature rise
Stress in brass tube =σ b +σ b' =150+9.33MPa=159.33MPa
Stress in steel bolt =σ s +σ 's = 600 + 37.33 = 637.33MPa.

Question: A Solid right cone of axial length h is made of a material having density ρ and
elasticity modulus E. It is suspended from its circular base. Determine its
elongation due to its self weight.
Answer: See in the figure MNH is a solid right cone of
length 'h' .
Let us assume its wider end of diameter’d’ fixed
rigidly at MN.
Now consider a small strip of thickness dy at a
distance y from the lower end.
Let 'ds' is the diameter of the strip.
1 ⎛ πd 2 ⎞
∴ Weight of portion UVH= ⎜⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟⎟ y × ρg − (i )
3 ⎜⎝ 4 ⎠⎟
From the similar triangles MNH and UVH,
MN d
= =
UV ds y
d .y
or , ds = − − − −(ii )

force at UV Weight of UVH
∴ Stress at section UV = =
cross − sec tion area at UV ⎛ πd 2 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ s ⎟
⎜⎝ 4 ⎠⎟⎟
1 πds2
. .y .ρg
1
=3 4 2 = y ρg
⎛ πds ⎞⎟ 3
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ 4 ⎠⎟⎟
⎛1 ⎞
⎜⎜ y ρg ⎟⎟.dy
⎜⎝ 3 ⎠⎟
So, extension in dy=
E
1
h y ρgdy
3 ρgh 2
∴ Total extension of the bar =∫ =
0
E 6E
From stress-strain relation ship

δ δ δ.
E= = or , d =
∈ d E

Question: Which one of the three shafts listed hare has the highest ultimate tensile strength?
Which is the approximate carbon content in each steel?
(i) Mild Steel (ii) cast iron (iii) spring steel
Answer: Among three steel given, spring steel has the highest ultimate tensile strength.
Approximate carbon content in
(i) Mild steel is (0.3% to 0.8%)
(ii) Cost iron (2% to 4%)
(iii) Spring steel (0.4% to 1.1%)

Question: If a rod of brittle material is subjected to pure torsion, show with help of a sketch,
the plane along which it will fail and state the reason for its failure.
Answer: Brittle materials fail in tension. In a torsion test the maximum tensile test Occurs at 45° to
the axis of the shaft. So failure will occurs along a 45o to the axis of the shaft. So failure will
occurs along a 45° helix
X
X
So failures will occurs according to 45° plane.
Conventional Question IAS-1995

Question: The steel bolt shown in Figure has a thread pitch of 1.6 mm. If the nut is initially
tightened up by hand so as to cause no stress in the copper spacing tube, calculate
the stresses induced in the tube and in the bolt if a spanner is then used to turn the
nut through 90°.Take Ec and Es as 100 GPa and 209 GPa respectively.
Answer: Given: p = 1.6 mm, Ec= 100 GPa ; Es = 209 CPa.

Stresses induced in the tube and the bolt, σ c ,σ s :

2
π
⎛ 10 ⎞
As = × = 7.584 × 10−5 m2
4 ⎜⎝ 1000 ⎟⎠
π ⎡⎛ 18 ⎞ ⎛ 12 ⎞ ⎤
2 2
−5
A s = × ⎢⎜ − ⎥ = 14.14 × 10 m
2
4 ⎣⎢⎝ 1000 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1000 ⎟⎠ ⎦⎥

Tensile force on steel bolt, Ps = compressive force in copper tube, Pc = P
Also, Increase in length of bolt + decrease in length of tube = axial displacement of nut
90
i,e (δ l)s + (δ l)c = 1.6 × = 0.4mm = 0.4 × 10 −3 m
360
Pl Pl
or + = 0.4 × 10−3 (∵ ls = lc = l)
A sEs A cEc
⎛ 100 ⎞ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
or P×⎜ ⎟ ⎢ −5
+ −5 9 ⎥
= 0.4 × 10−3
⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎣ 7.854 × 10 × 209 × 10 14.14 × 10 × 100 × 10 ⎦
9
or P = 30386N
P P
∴ = 386.88MPa and = 214.89MPa
As Ac
Conventional Question AMIE-1997

Question: A steel wire 2 m long and 3 mm in diameter is extended by 0·75 mm when a weight
W is suspended from the wire. If the same weight is suspended from a brass wire,
2·5 m long and 2 mm in diameter, it is elongated by 4 -64 mm. Determine the
modulus of elasticity of brass if that of steel be 2.0 × 105 N / mm2
Answer: Given, ls = 2 m, ds = 3 mm, δ ls = 0·75 mm; Es = 2·0 × 105 N / mm2; lb = 2.5 m, db
=2 mm δ lb = 4.64m m and let modulus of elasticity of brass = Eb
Pl
Hooke's law gives, δ l = [Symbol has usual meaning]
AE
Case I: For steel wire:
Pls
δ ls =
A sEs
P × ( 2 × 1000 ) ---- (i)
or 0.75 =
⎛π 2⎞ 1
⎜ 4 × 3 ⎟ × 2.0 × 10 × 2000
5
⎝ ⎠
Case II: For bass wire:

Plb
δ lb =
A bEb
P × ( 2.5 × 1000 )
4.64 = ---- (ii)
⎛π 2⎞
⎜ 4 × 2 ⎟ × Eb
⎝ ⎠
⎛π ⎞ 1
or P = 4.64 × ⎜ × 22 ⎟ × Eb ×
⎝4 ⎠ 2500
From (i) and (ii), we get
⎛π ⎞ 1 ⎛π ⎞ 1
0.75 × ⎜ × 32 ⎟ × 2.0 × 105 × = 4.64 × ⎜ × 22 ⎟ × Eb ×
⎝4 ⎠ 2000 ⎝4 ⎠ 2500
or Eb = 0.909 × 10 N / mm
5 2

Question: A steel bolt and sleeve assembly is shown in figure below. The nut is tightened up
on the tube through the rigid end blocks until the tensile force in the bolt is 40 kN.
If an external load 30 kN is then applied to the end blocks, tending to pull them
apart, estimate the resulting force in the bolt and sleeve.
2
⎛ 25 ⎞ −4
Answer: Area of steel bolt, A b = ⎜ ⎟ = 4.908 × 10 m
2
⎝ 1000 ⎠
π ⎡⎛ 62.5 ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞ ⎤
2 2
−3
Area of steel sleeve, A s = ⎢⎜ − ⎥ = 1.104 × 10 m
2
4 ⎣⎢⎝ 1000 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1000 ⎟⎠ ⎦⎥

Forces in the bolt and sleeve:
(i) Stresses due to tightening the nut:
Let σ b = stress developed in steel bolt due to tightening the nut; and
σ s = stress developed in steel sleeve due to tightening the nut.
Tensile force in the steel bolt = 40 kN = 0·04 MN
σ b × A b = 0.04
or σ b × 4.908 × 10 −4 = 0.04
0.04
∴ σb = −4
= 81.5MN / m2 ( tensile )
4.908 × 10
Compressive force in steel sleeve = 0·04 MN
σ s × A s = 0.04
or σ s × 1.104 × 10−3 = 0.04
0.04
∴ σs = = 36.23MN / m2 ( compressive )
1.104 × 10−3
(ii) Stresses due to tensile force:

Let the stresses developed due to tensile force of 30 kN = 0·03 MN in steel bolt and sleeve be
σ 'b and σ 's respectively.
Then, σ 'b × A b + σ 's × A s = 0.03
σ 'b × 4.908 × 10−4 + σ 's × 1.104 × 10 −3 = 0.03 − − − (i)
In a compound system with an external tensile load, elongation caused in each will be the
same.
σ 'b
δ lb = × lb
Eb
σ 'b
or δ lb = × 0.5 ( Given,lb = 500mm = 0.5 )
Eb
σ 's
and δ ls = × 0.4 ( Given,ls = 400mm = 0.4 )
Es
But δ lb = δ s
σ 'b σ 's
∴ × 0.5 = × 0.4
Eb Es
or σ 'b = 0.8σ 's ( Given,Eb = Es ) − − − (2)
Substituting this value in (1), we get
0.8σ 's × 4.908 × 10−4 + σ 's × 1.104 × 10−3 = 0.03
gives σ 's = 20MN / m2 ( tensile )
and σ 'b = 0.8 × 20 = 16MN / m2 ( tensile )
Re sulting stress in steel bolt,
(σ b )r = σ b + σ 'b = 81.5 + 16 = 97.5MN / m2
Re sulting stress in steel sleeve,
(σ s )r = σ s + σ 's = 36.23 − 20 = 16.23MN / m2 ( compressive )
Re sulting force in steel bolt, = (σ b )r × A b
= 97.5 × 4.908 × 10 −4 = 0.0478MN ( tensile )
Re sulting force in steel sleeve = (σ b )r × A s
= 16.23 × 1.104 × 10 −3 = 0.0179MN ( compressive )

2. Principal Stress and Strain

2.1 States of stress
• Uni-axial stress: only one non-zero
principal stress, i.e. σ1
Right side figure represents Uni-axial state of
stress.
• Bi-axial stress: one principal stress

equals zero, two do not, i.e. σ1 > σ3 ; σ2 = 0
Right side figure represents Bi-axial state of
stress.
• Tri-axial stress: three non-zero

principal stresses, i.e. σ1 > σ2 > σ3
Right side figure represents Tri-axial state of
stress.
• Isotropic stress: three principal

stresses are equal, i.e. σ1 = σ2 = σ3
Right side figure represents isotropic state of
stress.
• Axial stress: two of three principal

stresses are equal, i.e. σ1 = σ2 or σ2 = σ3
Right side figure represents axial state of
stress.

Chapter-2 Principal Stress and Strain S K Mondal’s
• Hydrostatic pressure: weight of column of
fluid in interconnected pore spaces.
Phydrostatic = ρfluid gh (density, gravity, depth)
• Hydrostatic stress: Hydrostatic stress is

used to describe a state of tensile or
compressive stress equal in all directions
within or external to a body. Hydrostatic Or
stress causes a change in volume of a

material. Shape of the body remains
unchanged i.e. no distortion occurs in the
body.
Right side figure represents Hydrostatic state of
stress.
2.2 Uni-axial stress on oblique plane

Let us consider a bar of uniform cross sectional area A under direct tensile load P giving rise to axial
normal stress P/A acting on a cross section XX. Now consider another section given by the plane YY inclined
at θ with the XX. This is depicted in following three ways.
Fig. (a)
Fig. (b)
Fig. (c)
A
Area of the YY Plane = ; Let us assume the normal stress in the YY plane is σn and there is a
cos θ
shear stress τ acting parallel to the YY plane.
Now resolve the force P in two perpendicular direction one normal to the plane YY = P cos θ and another
parallel to the plane YY = Pcosθ

P
Therefore equilibrium gives, σn
A
cos θ
= P cos θ or σn = cos 2 θ
A
P
A P τ= sin 2θ
and τ × = P sin θ or τ = sin θ cos θ or 2A
cos θ A
• Note the variation of normal stress σn and shear stress τ with the variation of θ . When θ = 0 ,
P
normal stress σ n is maximum i.e. (σ n )max = and shear stress τ = 0 . As θ is increased, the
A
normal stress σ n diminishes, until when θ = 0, σ n = 0 . But if angle θ increased shear stress τ
P π
increases to a maximum value τ max = at θ = = 45 and then diminishes to τ = 0 at θ = 90o
o
2A 4
• The shear stress will be maximum when sin2θ = 1 or θ = 45

o
P
• And the maximum shear stress, τ max =
2A
• In ductile material failure in tension is initiated by shear stress i.e. the failure occurs across the
shear planes at 45o (where it is maximum) to the applied load.
Let us clear a concept about a common mistake: The angle θ is not between the applied load and the
plane. It is between the planes XX and YY. But if in any question the angle between the applied load and
the plane is given don’t take it as θ . The angle between the applied load and the plane is 90 - θ . In this
P P
case you have to use the above formula as σ n = cos2 (90 − θ ) and τ = sin(180 − 2θ ) where θ is the angle
A 2A
between the applied load and the plane. Carefully observe the following two figures it will be clear.
Let us take an example: A metal block of 100 mm2 cross sectional area carries an axial tensile load of 10
kN. For a plane inclined at 300 with the direction of applied load, calculate:
(a) Normal stress
(b) Shear stress
(c) Maximum shear stress.
Answer: Here θ = 90o − 30o = 60o
P 10 × 103 N
(a) Normal stress (σ n ) = cos2 θ = × cos2 60o = 25MPa
A 100 mm 2

P 10 × 103 N
(b) Shear stress (τ ) = sin2θ = × sin120o = 43.3MPa
2A 2 × 100 mm 2
P 10 × 103 N
(c) Maximum shear stress (τ max ) = = = 50MPa
2 A 2 × 100 mm 2
• Complementary stresses
Now if we consider the stresses on an oblique plane Y’Y’ which is perpendicular to the previous plane
YY. The stresses on this plane are known as complementary stresses. Complementary normal stress
is σ n′ and complementary shear stress is τ ′ . The following figure shows all the four stresses. To
obtain the stresses σ n′ and τ ′ we need only to replace θ by θ + 900 in the previous equation. The
angle θ + 900 is known as aspect angle.
Therefore
cos 2 ( 90o + θ ) = sin 2 θ

P P
σ n′ =
A A
sin 2 ( 90o + θ ) = −
P P
τ′ = sin 2θ
2A 2A
P
It is clear σ n′ + σ n = and τ ′ = −τ
A
i.e. Complementary shear stresses are always equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.
• Sign of Shear stress

For sign of shear stress following rule have to be followed:
The shear stress τ on any face of the element will be considered positive when it has a clockwise
moment with respect to a centre inside the element. If the moment is counter- clockwise with respect
to a centre inside the element, the shear stress in negative.

Note: The convention is opposite to that of moment of force. Shear stress tending to turn clockwise is
positive and tending to turn counter clockwise is negative.
Let us take an example: A prismatic bar of 500 mm2 cross sectional area is axially loaded with a tensile
force of 50 kN. Determine all the stresses acting on an element which makes 300 inclination with the
vertical plane.
Answer: Take an small element ABCD in 300 plane as shown in figure below,
Given, Area of cross-section, A = 500 mm2, Tensile force (P) = 50 kN
P 50×103 N
Normal stress on 30° inclined plane, ( σn ) = cos2 θ = 2
×cos2 30o =75MPa (+ive means tensile). Shear
A 500 mm
P 50 × 103 N
stress on 30° planes, (τ ) = sin2θ = × sin ( 2 × 30o ) = 43.3MPa
2A 2 × 500 mm 2
(+ive means clockwise)
Complementary stress on (θ ) = 90 + 30 = 120 o
P 50 × 103 N
Normal stress on 1200 inclined plane, (σ n′ ) = cos2 θ = 2
× cos2 120o = 25MPa
A 500 mm
(+ ive means tensile)
P 50 × 10 N 3
Shear stress on 1200 nclined plane, (τ ′ ) = sin2θ = × sin ( 2 × 120o ) = − 43.3MPa
2A 2 × 500 mm 2
(- ive means counter clockwise)

State of stress on the element ABCD is given below (magnifying)

2.3 Complex Stresses (2-D Stress system)
i.e. Material subjected to combined direct and shear stress
We now consider a complex stress system below. The given figure ABCD shows on small element of
material
Stresses in three dimensional element Stresses in cross-section of the element
σx and σy are normal stresses and may be tensile or compressive. We know that normal stress may come
from direct force or bending moment. τ xy is shear stress. We know that shear stress may comes from direct
shear force or torsion and τ xy and τ yx are complementary and
τ xy = τ yx
Let σn is the normal stress and τ is the shear stress on a plane at angle θ .
Considering the equilibrium of the element we can easily get
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
Normal stress (σ n ) = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ and
2 2
σx − σy
Shear stress (τ ) = sin 2θ - τ xy cos 2θ
2
Above two equations are coming from considering equilibrium. They do not depend on material properties
and are valid for elastic and in elastic behavior.
• Location of planes of maximum stress

(a) Normal stress, (σ n )max
For σn maximum or minimum

∂σ n
= 0, where σ n =
(σ x + σ y )+
(σ x − σ y ) cos 2θ + τ sin 2θ
∂θ
xy
2 2
(σ x − σ y ) × sin 2θ × 2 + τ cos 2θ × 2 = 0 2τ xy
or − ( ) xy ( ) or tan2θ p =
2 (σ x − σ y )
(b) Shear stress, τ max

For τ maximum or minimum
∂τ σx −σy
= 0, where τ = sin 2θ − τ xy cos 2θ
∂θ 2
σx −σy
or ( cos 2θ ) × 2 − τ xy ( − sin 2θ ) × 2 = 0
2
−2τ xy
or cot 2θ =
σx −σy
Let us take an example: At a point in a crank shaft the stresses on two mutually perpendicular planes
are 30 MPa (tensile) and 15 MPa (tensile). The shear stress across these planes is 10 MPa. Find the normal
and shear stress on a plane making an angle 300 with the plane of first stress. Find also magnitude and
direction of resultant stress on the plane.
Answer: Given σ x = +25MPa ( tensile ) , σ y = +15MPa ( tensile ) , τ xy = 10MPa and 400
Therefore, Normal stress (σ n ) = +cos 2θ + τ xy sin2θ
2 2
30 + 15 30 − 15
= + cos ( 2 × 30o ) + 10 sin ( 2 × 30o ) = 34.91 MPa
2 2
σ x −σ y
Shear stress (τ ) = sin2θ − τ xy cos2θ
2
30 − 15
= sin ( 2 × 30o ) − 10cos ( 2 × 30o ) = 1.5MPa
2
Resultant stress (σ r ) = ( 34.91)

2
+ 1.52 = 34.94MPa
τ 1.5
and Obliquity (φ ) , tanφ = = ⇒ φ = 2.460
σ n 34.91

2.4 Bi-axial stress
Let us now consider a stressed element ABCD where τ xy =0, i.e. only σ x and σ y is there. This type of
stress is known as bi-axial stress. In the previous equation if you put τ xy =0 we get Normal stress, σ n and
shear stress, τ on a plane at angle θ .
• Normal stress , σn = + cos 2θ
2 2
σ x −σ y
• Shear/Tangential stress, τ= sin 2θ
2
• For complementary stress, aspect angle = θ + 900
• Aspect angle ‘ θ ’ varies from 0 to π /2
• Normal stress σ n varies between the values
σ x (θ = 0) & σ y (θ = π / 2)
Let us take an example: The principal tensile stresses at a point across two perpendicular planes are 100
MPa and 50 MPa. Find the normal and tangential stresses and the resultant stress and its obliquity on a
plane at 200 with the major principal plane
Answer: Given σ x = 100MPa ( tensile ) , σ y = 50MPa ( tensile ) and θ = 200
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y 100 + 50 100 − 50
Normal stress, (σ n ) = + cos 2θ = + cos ( 2 × 20o ) = 94MPa
2 2 2 2
σ x −σ y 100 − 50
Shear stress, (τ ) =
2
sin2θ =
2
(
sin 2 × 200 = 16MPa )
Resultant stress (σ r ) = 94 2 + 162 = 95.4MPa
⎛τ ⎞ −1 ⎛ 16 ⎞
Therefore angle of obliquity, (φ ) = tan−1 ⎜ ⎟ = tan ⎜ ⎟ = 9.7
0
⎝ σn ⎠ ⎝ 94 ⎠
• We may derive uni-axial stress on oblique plane from
σx +σ y σ x −σ y
σn = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2

and σx − σ y
τ= sin2θ - τ xy cos 2θ
2
Just put σ y = 0 and τ xy =0
Therefore,
σx + 0 σx − 0 1
σn = + cos 2θ = σ x (1 + cos 2θ ) = σ x cos2 θ
2 2 2
σx − 0 σx
and τ = sin 2θ = sin 2θ
2 2
2.5 Pure Shear
• Pure shear is a particular case of bi-axial stress where σ x = −σ y

Note: σ x or σ y which one is compressive that is immaterial but one should be tensile and other
should be compressive and equal magnitude. If σ x = 100MPa then σ y must be − 100 MPa otherwise if
σ y = 100 MPa then σ x must be − 100MPa .
• In case of pure shear on 45o planes
τ max = ±σ x ; σ n = 0 and σ n′ = 0
• We may depict the pure shear in an element by following two ways
(a) In a torsion member, as shown below, an element ABCD is in pure shear (only shear stress is
present in this element) in this member at 45o plane an element A′B′C ′D′ is also in pure shear
where σ x = −σ y but in this element no shear stress is there.
(b) In a bi-axial state of stress a member, as shown below, an element ABCD in pure shear where
σ x = −σ y but in this element no shear stress is there and an element A′B′C′D′ at 45o plane is
also in pure shear (only shear stress is present in this element).

Let us take an example: See the in the Conventional question answer section in this chapter and the
question is “Conventional Question IES-2007”
2.6 Stress Tensor
• State of stress at a point ( 3-D)

Stress acts on every surface that passes through the point. We can use three mutually perpendicular
planes to describe the stress state at the point, which we approximate as a cube each of the three planes
has one normal component & two shear components therefore, 9 components necessary to define stress
at a point 3 normal and 6 shear stress.
Therefore, we need nine components, to define the state of stress at a point
σ x τ xy τ xz
σ y τ yx τ yz
σ z τ zx τ zy
For cube to be in equilibrium (at rest: not moving, not spinning)
τ xy = τ yx If they don’t offset, block spins therefore,

τ xz = τ zx only six are independent.
τ yz = τ zy
The nine components (six of which are independent) can be written in matrix form
⎛ σ xx σ xy σ xz ⎞ ⎛τ xx τ xy τ xz ⎞ ⎛ σ x τ xy τ xz ⎞ ⎛ σ 11 σ 12 σ 13 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
σ ij = ⎜ σ yx σ yy σ yz ⎟ or τ ij = ⎜ τ yx τ yy τ yz ⎟ = ⎜τ yx σ y τ yz ⎟ = ⎜ σ 21 σ 22 σ 23 ⎟
⎜σ σ zy σ zz ⎟⎠ ⎜τ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ zx ⎝ zx τ zy τ zz ⎠ ⎝ τ zx τ zy σ z ⎠ ⎝ σ 31 σ 32 σ 33 ⎠
This is the stress tensor
Components on diagonal are normal stresses; off are shear stresses

• State of stress at an element (2-D)
2.7 Principal stress and Principal plane

• When examining stress at a point, it is possible to choose three mutually perpendicular planes
on which no shear stresses exist in three dimensions, one combination of orientations for the three
mutually perpendicular planes will cause the shear stresses on all three planes to go to zero this is
the state defined by the principal stresses.
• Principal stresses are normal stresses that are orthogonal to
each other
• Principal planes are the planes across which principal
stresses act (faces of the cube) for principal stresses (shear
stresses are zero)
• Major Principal Stress
2
σx +σ y ⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞
σ1 = + ⎜
⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ xy
2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
• Minor principal stress

2
σ2 = − ⎜
⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ 2
xy
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
• Position of principal planes
2τ xy
tan2θ p =
(σ x − σ y )
• Maximum shear stress
2
σ1 − σ 2 ⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞
τ max = = ⎜
⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ 2
xy
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
Let us take an example: In the wall of a cylinder the state of stress is given by, σ x = 85MPa
( compressive ) , σ y = 25MPa ( tensile ) and shear stress (τ xy ) = 60MPa
Calculate the principal planes on which they act. Show it in a figure.

Answer: Given σ x = −85MPa,σ y = 25MPa,τ xy = 60MPa
2
σ x +σy ⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞
Major principal stress (σ 1 ) = + ⎜ ⎟ + τ xy
2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
−85 + 25 ⎛ −85 − 25 ⎞
= + ⎜ ⎟ + 60
2
= 51.4MPa
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
σ x +σ y ⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞
Minor principal stress (σ 2 ) = − ⎜ ⎟ + τ xy
2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
−85 + 25 ⎛ −85 − 25 ⎞
= − ⎜ ⎟ + 60
2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
= −111.4 MPa i.e. 111.4 MPa ( Compressive )
For principalplanes
2τ xy 2 × 60
tan2θP = =
σ x −σ y −85 − 25
or θ P = −240 it is for σ 1
Complementary plane θ P ′ = θ P + 90 = 660 it is for σ 2
The Figure showing state of stress and principal stresses is given below

The direction of one principle plane and the principle stresses acting on this would be σ 1 when is acting
normal to this plane, now the direction of other principal plane would be 900 + θ p because the principal
planes are the two mutually perpendicular plane, hence rotate the another plane 900 + θ p in the same
direction to get the another plane, now complete the material element as θ p is negative that means we are
measuring the angles in the opposite direction to the reference plane BC. The following figure gives clear
idea about negative and positive θ p .
2.8 Mohr's circle for plane stress

• The transformation equations of plane stress can be represented in a graphical form which is
popularly known as Mohr's circle.
• Though the transformation equations are sufficient to get the normal and shear stresses on any
plane at a point, with Mohr's circle one can easily visualize their variation with respect to plane
orientation θ.
• Equation of Mohr's circle

σx +σ y σ x −σ y
We know that normal stress, σn = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
σx − σ y
And Tangential stress, τ= sin 2θ - τ xy cos 2θ
2
⎛ σ x +σ y ⎞ σ x −σ y
Rearranging we get, ⎜ σ n − ⎟⎟ = cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ ……………(i)
⎜ 2 2
⎝ ⎠

σx − σ y
and τ= sin 2θ - τ xy cos 2θ ……………(ii)
2
A little consideration will show that the above two equations are the equations of a circle with σn and τ as
its coordinates and 2θ as its parameter.

If the parameter 2θ is eliminated from the equations, (i) & (ii) then the significance of them will become
clear.
2
σ avg = and R = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ xy
2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
(σ − σ avg ) + τ xy2 = R 2
2
Or n
⎛σx +σ y ⎞
It is the equation of a circle with centre, (σ avg ,0 ) i.e. ⎜⎜
2
,0 ⎟
⎟
⎝ ⎠
2
⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞
R= ⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ xy
2
and radius,
⎜ 2
⎝ ⎠
• Construction of Mohr’s circle

Convention for drawing
• A τ xy that is clockwise (positive) on a face resides above the σ axis; a τ xy anticlockwise
(negative) on a face resides below σ axis.
• Tensile stress will be positive and plotted right of the origin O. Compressive stress will be
negative and will be plotted left to the origin O.
• An angle θ on real plane transfers as an angle 2θ on Mohr’s circle plane.
We now construct Mohr’s circle in the following stress conditions
I. Bi-axial stress when σ x and σ y known and τ xy = 0

II. Complex state of stress ( σ x ,σ y and τ xy known)
I. Constant of Mohr’s circle for Bi-axial stress (when only σ x and σ y known)
If σ x and σ y both are tensile or both compressive sign of σ x and σ y will be same and this state of stress
is known as “ like stresses” if one is tensile and other is compressive sign of σ x and σ y will be opposite and
this state of stress is known as ‘unlike stress’.
• Construction of Mohr’s circle for like stresses (when σ x and σ y are same type of stress)
Step-I: Label the element ABCD and draw all stresses.

Step-II: Set up axes for the direct stress (as abscissa) i.e., in x-axis and shear stress (as ordinate) i.e. in
Y-axis
Step-III: Using sign convention and some suitable scale, plot the stresses on two adjacent faces e.g. AB
and BC on the graph. Let OL and OM equal to σ x and σ y respectively on the axis O σ .
Step-IV: Bisect ML at C. With C as centre and CL or CM as radius, draw a circle. It is the Mohr’s
circle.
θ
Step-V: At the centre C draw a line CP at an angle 2 , in the same direction as the normal to the
plane makes with the direction of σ x . The point P represents the state of stress at plane
ZB.

Step-VI: Calculation, Draw a perpendicular PQ and PR where PQ = τ and PR = σ n
σx + σy σx − σy
OC = and MC = CL = CP =
2 2
σx + σy σx − σy
PR = σ = + cos 2θ
n 2 2
σx − σy
PQ = τ = CPsin 2θ = sin 2θ
2
[Note: In the examination you only draw final figure (which is in Step-V) and follow the
procedure step by step so that no mistakes occur.]
• Construction of Mohr’s circle for unlike stresses (when σ x and σ y are opposite in sign)
Follow the same steps which we followed for construction for ‘like stresses’ and finally will get the figure
shown below.

Note: For construction of Mohr’s circle for principal stresses when (σ 1 and σ 2 is known) then follow the
same steps of Constant of Mohr’s circle for Bi-axial stress (when only σ x and σ y known) just change the
σ x = σ 1 and σ y = σ 2
II. Construction of Mohr’s circle for complex state of stress ( σ x ,σ y and τ xy known)
Step-I: Label the element ABCD and draw all stresses.
Step-II: Set up axes for the direct stress (as abscissa) i.e., in x-axis and shear stress (as ordinate) i.e. in
Y-axis

Step-III: Using sign convention and some suitable scale, plot the stresses on two adjacent faces e.g. AB
and BC on the graph. Let OL and OM equal to σ x and σ y respectively on the axis O σ .
Draw LS perpendicular to oσ axis and equal to τ xy .i.e. LS=τ xy . Here LS is downward as
τ xy on AB face is (– ive) and draw MT perpendicular to oσ axis and equal to τ xy i.e. MT=
τ xy . Here MT is upward as τ xy BC face is (+ ive).
Step-IV: Join ST and it will cut oσ axis at C. With C as centre and CS or CT as radius, draw circle. It
is the Mohr’s circle.
Step-V: At the centre draw a line CP at an angle 2θ in the same direction as the normal to the plane
makes with the direction of σx .

Step-VI: Calculation, Draw a perpendicular PQ and PR where PQ = τ and PR = σ n

σx +σy
Centre, OC =
2
2
2 2 ⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞
Radius CS = ( CL ) + (LS ) = ⎜ ⎟⎟ +τ xy 2 = CT = CP
⎜ 2
⎝ ⎠
PR = σ = + cos 2θ + τ sin 2θ
n 2 2 xy
σ x −σ y
PQ = τ = sin 2θ −τ xy cos 2θ .
2
[Note: In the examination you only draw final figure (which is in Step-V) and follow the
procedure step by step so that no mistakes occur.]
Note: The intersections of oσ axis are two principal stresses, as shown below.
Let us take an example: See the in the Conventional question answer section in this chapter and the
question is “Conventional Question IES-2000”

2.9 Mohr's circle for some special cases:

i) Mohr’s circle for axial loading:
P
σ x = ; σ y = τ xy = 0
A
ii) Mohr’s circle for torsional loading:
Tr
τ xy = ; σx =σy = 0
J
It is a case of pure shear
iii) In the case of pure shear
(σ1 = - σ2 and σ3 = 0)
σ x = −σ y
τ max = ±σ x
iv) A shaft compressed all round by a hub
σ1 = σ2 = σ3 = Compressive (Pressure)

v) Thin spherical shell under internal pressure
pr pD
σ1 = σ 2 = = (tensile)
2t 4t
vi) Thin cylinder under pressure
pD pr pd pr
σ1 = = (tensile) and σ 2 = = (tensile)
2t t 4t 2t
vii) Bending moment applied at the free end of a cantilever
My
Only bending stress, σ 1 = and σ 2 = τ xy = 0
I
2.10 Strain
Normal strain
Let us consider an element AB of infinitesimal length δx. After deformation of the actual body if
∂u
displacement of end A is u, that of end B is u+ .δ x. This gives an increase in length of element AB is
∂x
⎛ ∂u ⎞ ∂u ∂u
⎜ u+ ∂x .δ x - u ⎟ = ∂x δ x and therefore the strain in x-direction is ε x = ∂x
⎝ ⎠
∂ν ∂w
Similarly, strains in y and z directions are ε y = and ε z = .
∂x ∂z
Therefore, we may write the three normal strain components
∂u ∂ν ∂w
εx = ; εy = ; and εz = .
∂x ∂y ∂z

Change in length of an infinitesimal element.

Shear strain
Let us consider an element ABCD in x-y plane and let the displaced position of the element be A′B′C′D′
.This gives shear strain in x-y plane as γ xy =∝ + β where ∝ is the angle made by the displaced live B′C′
with the vertical and β is the angle made by the displaced line A ′D′ with the horizontal. This gives
∂u ∂ν
.δ y .δ x
∂u ∂ν
∝ = ∂x = and β = ∂x =
δy ∂y δx ∂x
We may therefore write the three shear strain components as
∂u ∂ν ∂ν ∂w ∂w ∂u
γ xy = + ; γ yz = + and γ zx = +
∂y ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z
Therefore the state of strain at a point can be completely described by the six strain components and the
strain components in their turns can be completely defined by the displacement components u,ν , and w.
Therefore, the complete strain matrix can be written as

⎡∂ ⎤
⎢ ∂x 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ∂
⎧ε x ⎫ ⎢0 0⎥
∂y ⎥
⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎥
⎪ε y ⎪ ⎢ ∂ ⎥
⎪ε ⎪ ⎢0 0 ⎧u ⎫
⎪ z ⎪ ∂z ⎥ ⎪ ⎪
⎨ ⎬=⎢ ⎥ ⎨υ ⎬
⎪γ xy ⎪ ⎢ ∂ ∂ ⎥
0 ⎪⎩ w ⎪⎭
⎪γ ⎪ ⎢ ∂x ∂y ⎥
⎪ yz ⎪ ⎢ ⎥
⎪⎩γ zx ⎪⎭ ⎢0 ∂ ∂⎥
⎢ ∂y ∂z ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢∂ 0
∂ ⎥
⎣⎢ ∂z ∂x ⎦⎥

Shear strain associated with the distortion of an infinitesimal element.
Strain Tensor
The three normal strain components are
∂u ∂ν ∂w
ε x = ε xx = ; ε y = ε yy = and ε z = ε zz = .
∂x ∂y ∂z
The three shear strain components are
γ xy 1 ⎛ ∂u ∂ν ⎞ γ yz 1 ⎛ ∂ν ∂w ⎞ γ zx 1 ⎛ ∂u ∂w ⎞
∈xy = = ⎜ + ⎟; ∈yz = = ⎜ + ⎟ and ∈zx = = +
2 2 ⎝ ∂y ∂x ⎠ 2 2 ⎝ ∂z ∂y ⎠ 2 2 ⎜⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎟⎠
Therefore the strain tensor is
⎡ γ xy γ xz ⎤
⎢∈xx ⎥
⎡∈xx ∈xy ∈xz ⎤ ⎢ 2 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢γ γ yz ⎥
∈ij = ⎢∈yx ∈yy ∈yz ⎥ = ⎢ yx ∈yy ⎥
⎢ ⎥ 2 2 ⎥
⎣∈zx ∈zy ∈zz ⎦ ⎢ γ zy
⎢ γ zx ⎥
⎢ ∈zz ⎥
⎣ 2 2 ⎦
Constitutive Equation
The constitutive equations relate stresses and strains and in linear elasticity. We know from the
Hook’s law (σ ) = E.ε
Where E is modulus of elasticity
σx
It is known that σ x produces a strain of in x-direction
E
σx σx
and Poisson’s effect gives − μ in y-direction and −μ in z-direction.
E E
Therefore we my write the generalized Hook’s law as
1 1 1
∈x = ⎡σ x − μ (σ y + σ z ) ⎤ , ⎡σ y − μ (σ z + σ x ) ⎤ and ∈z = ⎡σ z − μ (σ x + σ y ) ⎤
∈y =
E⎣ ⎦ E ⎣ ⎦ E⎣ ⎦
It is also known that the shear stress, τ = Gγ , where G is the shear modulus and γ is shear strain. We may
thus write the three strain components as
τ xy τ yz τ zx
γ xy = , γ yz = and γ zx =
G G G
In general each strain is dependent on each stress and we may write
⎧ε x ⎫ ⎡K11 K12 K13 K14 K15 K16 ⎤ ⎧σ x ⎫
⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪ ⎪
⎪ε y ⎪ ⎢K 21 K 22 K 23 K 24 K 25 K 26 ⎥ ⎪σ y ⎪
⎪ε ⎪ ⎢K K K K K K ⎥ ⎪σ ⎪
⎪ z ⎪ 31 32 33 34 35 36 ⎪ z ⎪
⎨ ⎬=⎢ ⎥⎨ ⎬
⎪ xy ⎪ ⎢K 41 K 42 K 43 K 44 K 45 K 46 ⎥ ⎪τ xy ⎪
γ
⎪γ ⎪ ⎢K K K K K K ⎥ ⎪τ ⎪
⎪ yz ⎪ ⎢ 51 52 53 54 55 56 ⎥ ⎪ yz ⎪
⎪⎩γ zx ⎪⎭ ⎢⎣K 61 K 62 K 63 K 64 K 65 K 66 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎩τ zx ⎭⎪
∴ The number of elastic constant is 36 (For anisotropic materials)

For Anisotropic material only 21 independent elastic constant are there.
For isotropic material

1
K11 = K 22 = K 33 =
E
1
K 44 = K 55 = K 66 =
G
μ
K12 = K13 = K 21 = K 23 = K 31 = K 32 = −
E
Rest of all elements in K matrix are zero.
For isotropic material only two independent elastic constant is there say E and G.
• 1-D Stress
Let us take an example: A rod of cross sectional area Ao is
loaded by a tensile force P.
P
It’s stresses σx = , σ y = 0, and σ z = 0
Ao
1-D state of stress or Uni-axial state of stress

⎛ σ xx 0 0⎞ ⎛ τ xx 0 0 ⎞ ⎛σ x 0 0⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
σ ij = ⎜ 0 0 0 ⎟ or τ ij = ⎜ 0 0 0⎟ = ⎜ 0 0 0⎟
⎜ 0 0 0 ⎟⎠ ⎜ 0 0 0 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 0 0 0 ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎝
Therefore strain components are
σx σx σx
∈x = ; ∈y = − μ = − μ ∈x ; and ∈z = − μ = − μ ∈x
E E E
Strain
⎛σx ⎞
⎜E 0 0 ⎟
⎛εx 0 0 ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ ⎛ py 0 0⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ σx ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
ε ij = ⎜ 0 − με x 0 ⎟ =⎜ 0 −μ 0 ⎟ =⎜ 0 qy 0⎟
⎜ E
⎝0 0 − με x ⎠⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜0 0 qy ⎠⎟
⎜ 0 σx ⎟ ⎝
⎜ 0 −μ
⎝ E ⎟⎠
• 2-D Stress (σ z = 0)
1
(i) ∈x = ⎡⎣σ x − μσ y ⎤⎦
E
1
∈y = ⎣⎡σ y − μσ x ⎦⎤
E
μ
∈z = − ⎡σ x + σ y ⎤⎦
E⎣
[Where, ∈x ,∈y ,∈z are strain component in X, Y, and Z axis respectively]

E
(ii) σx = ⎡∈ + μ ∈y ⎤⎦
2 ⎣ x
1− μ
E
σy = ⎡∈ + μ ∈x ⎤⎦
2 ⎣ y
1− μ
• 3-D Stress & Strain
1⎡
(i) ∈x = σ x − μ (σ y + σ z ) ⎤⎦
E⎣
1
∈y = ⎡⎣σ y − μ (σ z + σ x ) ⎤⎦
E
1
∈z = ⎡⎣σ z − μ (σ x + σ y ) ⎤⎦
E
⎡(1 − μ ) ∈x + μ (∈y + ∈z ) ⎤
E
(ii) σx =
(1 + μ )(1 − 2 μ )⎣ ⎦
E
σy = ⎡⎣(1 − μ ) ∈y + μ (∈z + ∈x ) ⎤⎦
(1 + μ )(1 − 2 μ )
⎡(1 − μ ) ∈z + μ (∈x + ∈y ) ⎤
E
σz =
(1 + μ )(1 − 2 μ )⎣ ⎦
Let us take an example: At a point in a loaded member, a state of plane stress exists and the strains are
ε x = 270 × 10 −6 ; ε y = −90 × 10 −6 and ε xy = 360 × 10 −6 . If the elastic constants E, μ and G are 200
GPa, 0.25 and 80 GPa respectively.
Determine the normal stress σ x and σ y and the shear stress τ xy at the point.
Answer: We know that

1
εx =
E
{σ x − μσ y }
1
. ε y = {σ y − μσ x }
E
τ xy
ε xy =
G
E 200 × 109
This gives σ x =
1− μ 2
{ε x + με y } = ⎡ +270 × 10−6 − 0.25 × 90 × 10−6 ⎤⎦ Pa
1 − 0.252 ⎣
= 52.8 MPa (i.e. tensile)

E
and σ y = ⎡ε y + με x ⎤⎦
1− μ 2 ⎣
200 × 109
= ⎡ −90 × 10−6 + 0.25 × 270 × 10−6 ⎤⎦ Pa = − 4.8 MPa (i.e.compressive)
2 ⎣
1 − 0.25
and τ xy = ε xy .G = 360 × 10−6 × 80 × 109 Pa = 28.8MPa
γ xy
2.12 An element subjected to strain components ∈x ,∈y &
2
Consider an element as shown in the figure given. The strain component In X-direction is ∈x , the strain
component in Y-direction is ∈y and the shear strain component is γ xy .
Now consider a plane at an angle θ with X- axis in this plane a normal strain ∈θ and a shear strain γ θ .
Then
∈x + ∈y ∈x − ∈y γ xy
• ∈θ = + cos 2θ + sin 2θ
2 2 2
γθ ∈x − ∈y γ xy
• =− sin 2θ + cos 2θ
2 2 2
We may find principal strain and principal plane for strains in the same process which we followed for
stress analysis.
In the principal plane shear strain is zero.
Therefore principal strains are
2 2
∈x + ∈y ⎛ ∈x − ∈y ⎞ ⎛ γ xy ⎞
∈1,2 = ± ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
The angle of principal plane
γ xy
tan 2θ p =
(∈x − ∈y )
• Maximum shearing strain is equal to the difference between the 2 principal strains i.e
(γ xy ) max =∈1 − ∈2

Mohr's Circle for circle for Plain Strain
We may draw Mohr’s circle for strain following same procedure which we followed for drawing Mohr’s
circle in stress. Everything will be same and in the place of σ x write ∈x , the place of σ y write ∈y
γ xy
and in place of τ xy write .
2
2.15 Volumetric Strain (Dilation)

• Rectangular block,
ΔV
=∈x + ∈y + ∈z
V0
Proof: Volumetric strain
ΔV V − Vo
=
V0 V0
L (1 + ε x ) × L (1 + ε y ) × L (1 + ε z ) − L3
= Before deformation, After deformation,
L3
=∈x + ∈y + ∈z Volume (Vo) = L3 Volume (V)
= L (1 + ε x ) × L (1 + ε y ) × L (1 + ε z )
(neglecting second and third order
term, as very small )

• In case of prismatic bar,
dv
Volumetric strain, = ε (1 − 2μ )
v
Proof: Before deformation, the volume of the bar, V =
A.L
After deformation, the length (L′ ) = L (1 + ε )
and the new cross-sectional area ( A ′ ) = A (1 − με )

2
Therefore now volume (V ′ ) = A ′L ′=AL (1 + ε )(1 − με )

2
ΔV V ′-V AL (1 + ε )(1 − με ) − AL
2
∴ = = = ε (1 − 2μ )
V V AL
ΔV
= ε (1 − 2μ )
V
• Thin Cylindrical vessel
σ1 σ2 pr
∈ 1=Longitudinal strain = −μ = [1 − 2μ ]
E E 2 Et
∈2 =Circumferential strain = σ 2 − μ σ 1 = pr [2 − μ ]
E E 2Et
ΔV pr
=∈1 +2 ∈2 = [5 − 4μ]
Vo 2 Et
• Thin Spherical vessels

pr
∈=∈1 =∈2 = [1 − μ ]
2 Et
ΔV 3 pr
= 3 ∈= [1 − μ ]
V0 2 Et
• In case of pure shear

σ x = −σ y = τ
Therefore
τ
εx = (1 + μ )
E
τ
εy = − (1 + μ )
E
εz = 0
dv
Therefore ε v = = εx + εy + εz = 0
v
2.16 Measurement of Strain

Unlike stress, strain can be measured directly. The most common way of measuring strain is by use of the
Strain Gauge.

Strain Gauge
A strain gage is a simple device, comprising of a thin
electric wire attached to an insulating thin backing
material such as a bakelite foil. The foil is exposed to the
surface of the specimen on which the strain is to be
measured. The thin epoxy layer bonds the gauge to the
surface and forces the gauge to shorten or elongate as if it
were part of the specimen being strained.
A change in length of the gauge due to longitudinal strain

creates a proportional change in the electric resistance,
and since a constant current is maintained in the gauge, a
proportional change in voltage. (V = IR).
The voltage can be easily measured, and through

calibration, transformed into the change in length of the
original gauge length, i.e. the longitudinal strain along the
gauge length.
Strain Gauge factor (G.F)
The strain gauge factor relates a change in resistance with strain.
Strain Rosette
The strain rosette is a device used to measure the state of strain at a point in a plane.
It comprises three or more independent strain gauges, each of which is used to read normal strain at the
same point but in a different direction.
The relative orientation between the three gauges is known as α , β and δ
The three measurements of normal strain provide sufficient information for the determination of the
complete state of strain at the measured point in 2-D.
We have to find out ∈x , ∈y , and γ xy form measured value ∈a , ∈b , and ∈c

Chapter--2 Principa
al Stress an
nd Strain S K Mondal’s
General arrangeme
ent:
The orien
ntation of strain gaugees is given in the
figure. To
T relate sstrain we have
h to usse the
following formula.
∈x + ∈y ∈x − ∈y γ xy
∈θ = + cos 2θ + sin 2θ
2 2 2
We get
∈x + ∈y ∈x − ∈y γ xy
∈a = + cos 2α + sin 2α
2 2 2
∈x + ∈y ∈x − ∈y γ xy
∈b = + cos 2 (α + β ) + n 2 (α + β )
sin
2 2 2
∈x + ∈y ∈x − ∈y γ xyy
∈c = + cos 2 (α + β + δ ) + sin 2 (α + β + δ )
2 2 2
From thiss three equations and th wn we may solve ∈x , ∈y , and γ xy
hree unknow
• Tw
wo stand
dard arran
ngement of the of the strain
n rosette are as fo
ollows:
(i) 45° strain rose
ette or Rec
ctangular sttrain rosettte.
In the general arrangement
a t above, pu
ut
α = 0o ; β = 45o and
a δ = 45o
Putting
g the value we
w get
• ∈a ==∈x
∈x + ∈x γ xy
• ∈b = + 45
o
2 2
• ∈c =
=∈y
(ii) 60° strain rose
ette or Deltta strain ro
osette
In the general arrrangement above, pu
ut
α = 0o ; β = 60o and
a δ = 60o
Putting
g the value we
w get
• ∈a ==∈x
60o 120
0
∈x +3 ∈y3
• ∈b = + γ xy
4 4
∈ +3 ∈y 3 or
• ∈c = x − γ xy
4 4
Solving above threee equation we
w get

Stresses at different angles and Pure Shear

GATE-1. A block of steel is loaded by a tangential force on its top surface while the bottom
surface is held rigidly. The deformation of the block is due to
[GATE-1992]
(a) Shear only (b) Bending only (c) Shear and bending (d) Torsion
GATE-2. A shaft subjected to torsion experiences a pure shear stress τ on the surface. The
maximum principal stress on the surface which is at 45° to the axis will have a value
[GATE-2003]
(a) τ cos 45° (b) 2 τ cos 45° (c) τ cos2 45° (d) 2 τ sin 45° cos 45°
GATE-3. The number of components in a stress tensor defining stress at a point in three
dimensions is: [GATE-2002]
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 9
GATE-3(i) In a two dimensional stress analysis, the state of stress at a point is shown below. If
σ = 120 MPa and τ = 70 MPa, σx and σ y , are respectively. [CE: GATE-2004]
y
AB = 4
BC = 3 A
AC = 5
τ σ
σx
B C x
σy
(a) 26.7 MPa and 172.5 MPa (b) 54 MPa and 128 MPa
(c) 67.5 MPa and 213.3 MPa (d) 16 MPa and 138 MPa
GATE-3(ii) The symmetry of stress tensor at a point in the body under equilibrium is obtained
from
(a) conservation of mass (b) force equilibrium equations
(c) moment equilibrium equations (d) conservation of energy [CE: GATE-2005]
Principal Stress and Principal Plane

GATE-3(i) Consider the following statements: [CE: GATE-2009]
1. On a principal plane, only normal stress acts
2. On a principal plane, both normal and shear stresses act
3. On a principal plane, only shear stress acts
4. Isotropic state of stress is independent of frame of reference.
Which of these statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 4 (d) 2 and 3

GATE-3(ii)Consider the following statements:

When a thick plate is subjected to external loads:
1. State of plane stress occurs at the surface
2. State of plane strain occurs at the surface
3. State of plane stress occurs in the interior part of the plate
4. State of plane strain occurs in the interior part of the plate
Which of these statements are correct? [IES-2013]
GATE-4. A body is subjected to a pure tensile stress of 100 units. What is the maximum shear
produced in the body at some oblique plane due to the above? [IES-2006]
(a) 100 units (b) 75 units (c) 50 units (d) 0 unit
GATE-5. In a strained material one of the principal stresses is twice the other. The maximum
shear stress in the same case is τ max .Then, what is the value of the maximum
principle stress? [IES 2007]
(a) τ max (b) 2 τ max (c) 4 τ max (d) 8 τ max
GATE-5(i) If principal stresses in a two-dimensional case are –10 MPa and 20 MPa respectively,
then maximum shear stress at the point is [CE: GATE-2005]
(a) 10 MPa (b) 15 MPa
(c) 20 MPa (d) 30 MPa
GATE-6. A material element subjected to a plane state of stress such that the maximum shear
stress is equal to the maximum tensile stress, would correspond to
[IAS-1998]
GATE-7. A solid circular shaft is subjected to a maximum shearing stress of 140 MPs. The
magnitude of the maximum normal stress developed in the shaft is:
[IAS-1995]
GATE-8. The state of stress at a point in a loaded member is shown in the figure. The
magnitude of maximum shear stress is [1MPa = 10 kg/cm2] [IAS 1994]
(a) 10 MPa (b) 30 MPa (c) 50 MPa (d) 100MPa

GATE-9. A solid circular shaft of diameter 100 mm is subjected to an axial stress of 50 MPa. It
is further subjected to a torque of 10 kNm. The maximum principal stress
experienced on the shaft is closest to [GATE-2008]
GATE-9(i).The state of two dimensional stresses acting on a concrete lamina consists of a direct
tensile stress, σx = 1.5 N/ mm2 , and shear stress, τ = 1.20 N/ mm2 , which cause cracking
of concrete. Then the tensile strength of the concrete in N/ mm2 is [CE: GATE-2003]
(a) 1.50 (b) 2.08
(c) 2.17 (d) 2.29
GATE-10. In a bi-axial stress problem, the stresses in x and y directions are (σx = 200 MPa and σy
=100 MPa. The maximum principal stress in MPa, is: [GATE-2000]
(a) 50 (b) 100 (c) 150 (d) 200
GATE-10(i)The state of plane stress at a point in a loaded member is given by:

σ x = + 800 MPa
σ y = + 200 MPa
τxy = ± 400 MPa [IES-2013]
The maximum principal stress and maximum shear stress are given by:
(a) σmax = 800 MPa and τmax = 400 MPa
(b) σmax = 800 MPa and τmax = 500 MPa
(c) σmax = 1000 MPa and τmax = 500 MPa
(d) σmax = 1000 MPa and τmax = 400 MPa
GATE-11. The maximum principle stress for the stress

state shown in the figure is
(a) σ (b) 2 σ
(c) 3 σ (d) 1.5 σ
[GATE-2001]
GATE-12. The normal stresses at a point are σx = 10 MPa and, σy = 2 MPa; the shear stress at this
point is 4MPa. The maximum principal stress at this point is:
[GATE-1998]
GATE-13. In a Mohr's circle, the radius of the circle is taken as: [IES-2006; GATE-1993]
(σ −σ y )
2 2
⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞
⎟ + (τ xy ) + (τ xy )
2 x 2
(a) ⎜ (b)
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
2
⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞
⎟ − (τ xy ) (σ − σ y ) + (τ xy )
2 2 2
(c) ⎜ (d)
⎝ 2 ⎠
x
Where, σx and σy are normal stresses along x and y directions respectively and τxy is the shear
stress.
GATE-14. A two dimensional fluid element rotates like a rigid body. At a point within the
element, the pressure is 1 unit. Radius of the Mohr's circle, characterizing the state of
stress at that point, is: [GATE-2008]
(a) 0.5 unit (b) 0 unit (c) 1 unit (d) 2 units

GATE-14(i). The state of stress at a point under plane stress condition is
σxx = 40 MPa, σyy = 100 MPa and τxy = 40 MPa.
The radius of the Mohr’s circle representing the given state of stress in MPa is
(a) 40 (b) 50 (c) 60 (d) 100 [GATE-2012]
⎡30 0 ⎤
GATE-14(ii) Mohr’s circle for the state of stress defined by ⎢ ⎥ MPa is a circle with
⎣ 0 30 ⎦
(a) center at (0, 0) and radius 30 MPa (b) center at (0, 0) and radius 60 MPa
(c) center at (20, 0) and radius 30 MPa (d) center at (30, 0) and zero radius
[CE: GATE-2006]
GATE-15. The Mohr's circle of plane stress

for a point in a body is shown.
The design is to be done on the
basis of the maximum shear
stress theory for yielding. Then,
yielding will just begin if the
designer chooses a ductile
material whose yield strength is:
(a) 45 MPa (b) 50 MPa
(c) 90 MPa (d) 100 MPa [GATE-2005]
GATE-16. The figure shows the state of

stress at a certain point in a
stressed body. The magnitudes of
normal stresses in the x and y
direction are 100MPa and 20 MPa
respectively. The radius of
Mohr's stress circle representing
this state of stress is:
(a) 120 (b) 80
(c) 60 (d) 40
[GATE-2004]
Data for Q17–Q18 are given below. Solve the problems and choose correct answers.
[GATE-2003]
The state of stress at a point "P" in a two dimensional loading is such that the Mohr's circle is a
point located at 175 MPa on the positive normal stress axis.
GATE-17. Determine the maximum and minimum principal stresses respectively from the
Mohr's circle
(a) + 175 MPa, –175MPa (b) +175 MPa, +175 MPa
(c) 0, –175 MPa (d) 0, 0
GATE-18. Determine the directions of maximum and minimum principal stresses at the point
“P” from the Mohr's circle [GATE-2003]
(a) 0, 90° (b) 90°, 0 (c) 45°, 135° (d) All directions
Principal strains
GATE-19. If the two principal strains at a point are 1000 × 10-6 and -600 × 10-6, then the
maximum shear strain is: [GATE-1996]
(a) 800 × 10-6 (b) 500 × 10-6 (c) 1600 × 10-6 (d) 200 × 10-6

Strain Rosette
GATE-19(i)The components of strain tensor at a point in the plane strain case can be obtained
by measuring logitudinal strain in following directions.
(a) along any two arbitrary directions (b) along any three arbitrary direction
(c) along two mutually orthogonal directions
(d) along any arbitrary direction [CE: GATE-2005]

IES-1. If a prismatic bar be subjected to an axial tensile stress σ, then shear stress induced
on a plane inclined at θ with the axis will be: [IES-1992]
σ σ σ σ
(a ) sin 2θ ( b) cos 2θ ( c) cos 2 θ (d) sin 2 θ
2 2 2 2
IES-2. In the case of bi-axial state of normal stresses, the normal stress on 45° plane is equal
to [IES-1992]
(a) The sum of the normal stresses (b) Difference of the normal stresses
(c) Half the sum of the normal stresses (d) Half the difference of the normal stresses
A point in two-dimensional stress state, is σ

IES-2a A
subjected to biaxial stress as shown in the
above figure. The shear stress acting on
the plane AB is
(a) Zero (b) σ
σ
(c) σ cos2 θ (d) σ sin θ. cos θ σ
θ
B
σ
[IES-2010]
IES-3. In a two-dimensional problem, the state of pure shear at a point is characterized by

[IES-2001]
(a) ε x = ε y and γ xy = 0 (b) ε x = −ε y and γ xy ≠ 0
(c) ε x = 2ε y and γ xy ≠ 0 (d) ε x = 0.5ε y and γ xy = 0
IES-3a. What are the normal and shear stresses on

the 45o planes shown?
(a) σ 1 = −σ 2 = 400 MPa and τ = 0
(b) σ 1 = σ 2 = 400 MPa and τ = 0
(c) σ 1 = σ 2 = −400 MPa and τ = 0
(d ) σ 1 = σ 2 =τ = ± 200 MPa

IES-4. Which one of the following Mohr’s circles represents the state of pure shear?
[IES-2000]
IES-5. For the state of stress of pure shear τ the strain energy stored per unit volume in the
elastic, homogeneous isotropic material having elastic constants E and ν will be:
[IES-1998]
τ2 τ2 2τ 2 τ2
(a) (1 +ν ) (b) (1 +ν ) (c) (1 +ν ) (d) ( 2 +ν )
E 2E E 2E
IES-6. Assertion (A): If the state at a point is pure shear, then the principal planes through
that point making an angle of 45° with plane of shearing stress carries principal
stresses whose magnitude is equal to that of shearing stress.
Reason (R): Complementary shear stresses are equal in magnitude, but opposite in
direction. [IES-1996]
IES-7. Assertion (A): Circular shafts made of brittle material fail along a helicoidally surface
inclined at 45° to the axis (artery point) when subjected to twisting moment.
Reason (R): The state of pure shear caused by torsion of the shaft is equivalent to one
of tension at 45° to the shaft axis and equal compression in the perpendicular
direction. [IES-1995]
IES-8. A state of pure shear in a biaxial state of stress is given by [IES-1994]

⎛ σ1 0 ⎞ ⎛ σ1 0 ⎞ ⎛ σ x τ xy ⎞
(a) ⎜ ⎟ (b) ⎜ ⎟ (c) ⎜ ⎟ (d) None of the above
⎝ 0 σ2 ⎠ ⎝ 0 −σ 1 ⎠ ⎝ τ yx σ y ⎠
IES-9. The state of plane stress in a plate of 100 mm thickness is given as [IES-2000]
σxx = 100 N/mm2, σyy = 200 N/mm2, Young's modulus = 300 N/mm2, Poisson's ratio = 0.3.
The stress developed in the direction of thickness is:
(a) Zero (b) 90 N/mm2 (c) 100 N/mm2 (d) 200 N/mm2
IES-10. The state of plane stress at a point is described by σ x = σ y = σ and τ xy = 0 . The normal
stress on the plane inclined at 45° to the x-plane will be: [IES-1998]
( a )σ ( b) 2σ (c) 3 σ ( d ) 2σ

IES-10(i). An elastic material of Young’s modulus E and Poisson’s ratio ν is subjected to a
compressive stress of σ1 in the longitudinal direction. Suitable lateral compressive
stress σ2 are also applied along the other two each of the lateral directions to half of
the magnitude that would be under σ1 acting alone. The magnitude of σ2 is
[IES-2012]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( + ) ( − ) ( + ) ( − )
IES-11. Consider the following statements: [IES-1996, 1998]

State of stress in two dimensions at a point in a loaded component can be completely
specified by indicating the normal and shear stresses on
1. A plane containing the point
2. Any two planes passing through the point
3. Two mutually perpendicular planes passing through the point
Of these statements
(a) 1, and 3 are correct (b) 2 alone is correct
(c) 1 alone is correct (d) 3 alone is correct
IES-11a If the principal stresses and maximum shearing stresses are of equal numerical value
at a point in a stressed body, the state of stress can be termed as
(a) Isotropic (b) Uniaxial [IES-2010]
(c) Pure shear (d) Generalized plane state of stress

IES-12. A body is subjected to a pure tensile stress of 100 units. What is the maximum shear
produced in the body at some oblique plane due to the above? [IES-2006]
(a) 100 units (b) 75 units (c) 50 units (d) 0 unit
IES-13. In a strained material one of the principal stresses is twice the other. The maximum
shear stress in the same case is τ max . Then, what is the value of the maximum
principle stress? [IES 2007]
(a) τ max (b) 2 τ max (c) 4 τ max (d) 8 τ max
IES-14. In a strained material, normal stresses on two mutually perpendicular planes are σx
and σy (both alike) accompanied by a shear stress τxy One of the principal stresses
will be zero, only if [IES-2006]
σ x ×σ y
(a) τ xy = (b) τ xy = σ x × σ y (c) τ xy = σ x × σ y (d) τ xy = σ x2 +σ y2
2
IES-15. The principal stresses σ1, σ2 and σ3 at a point respectively are 80 MPa, 30 MPa and –40
MPa. The maximum shear stress is: [IES-2001]
IES-15(i). A piece of material is subjected, to two perpendicular tensile stresses of 70 MPa and
10 MPa. The magnitude of the resultant stress on a plane in which the maximum
shear stress occurs is [IES-2012]
IES-16. Plane stress at a point in a body is defined by principal stresses 3σ and σ. The ratio of
the normal stress to the maximum shear stresses on the plane of maximum shear
stress is: [IES-2000]
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
IES-17. Principal stresses at a point in plane stressed element are σ x = σ y = 500 kg/cm 2 .
Normal stress on the plane inclined at 45o to x-axis will be: [IES-1993]
(a) 0 (b) 500 kg/cm2 (c) 707 kg/cm2 (d) 1000 kg/cm2

IES-18. If the principal stresses corresponding to a two-dimensional state of stress are σ1

and σ2 is greater than σ2 and both are tensile, then which one of the following
would be the correct criterion for failure by yielding, according to the maximum
shear stress criterion? [IES-1993]
(a)
(σ 1 − σ 2 ) = ± σ yp (b)
σ1
=±
σ yp
(c )
σ2
=±
σ yp
(d ) σ 1 = ±2σ yp
2 2 2 2 2 2
IES-19. For the state of plane stress.
Shown the maximum and
minimum principal stresses are:
(a) 60 MPa and 30 MPa
(b) 50 MPa and 10 MPa
(c) 40 MPa and 20 MPa
(d) 70 MPa and 30 MPa
[IES-1992]
IES-20. Normal stresses of equal magnitude p, but of opposite signs, act at a point of a
strained material in perpendicular direction. What is the magnitude of the resultant
normal stress on a plane inclined at 45° to the applied stresses? [IES-2005]
(a) 2 p (b) p/2 (c) p/4 (d) Zero
IES-21. A plane stressed element is subjected to the state of stress given by

σ x = τ xy = 100 kgf/cm and σy = 0. Maximum shear stress in the element is equal to
2
[IES-1997]
( a ) 50 3 kgf/cm 2
( b )100 kgf/cm 2
( c ) 50 5 kgf/cm 2
( d )150 kgf/cm2
IES-22. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer, using the codes given below
the lists: [IES-1995]
List I(State of stress) List II(Kind of loading)
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 2 3 4 1 (c)
2 4 3 1 (d) 3 4 1 2
Mohr's circle
IES-22(i). Statement (I): Mohr’s circle of stress can be related to Mohr’s circle of strain by some
constant of proportionality. [IES-2012]
Statement (II): The relationship is a function of yield strength of the material.

IES-23. Consider the Mohr's circle shown

above:
What is the state of stress
represented by this circle?
(a)σ x = σ y ≠ 0, τ xy = 0
(b)σ x + σ y = 0, τ xy ≠ 0
(c)σ x = 0, σ y =τ xy ≠ 0
(d)σ x ≠ 0, σ y =τ xy = 0
[IES-2008]
IES-24. For a general two dimensional stress system, what are the coordinates of the centre
of Mohr’s circle?
[IES 2007]
σx −σ y σx +σy σx +σy σx −σ y
(a) ,0 (b) 0, (c) ,0(d) 0,
2 2 2 2
IES-25. In a Mohr's circle, the radius of the circle is taken as: [IES-2006; GATE-1993]
(σ −σ y )
2 2
⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞
⎟ + (τ xy ) + (τ xy )
2 x 2
(a) ⎜ (b)
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
2
⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞
⎟ − (τ xy ) (σ − σ y ) + (τ xy )
2 2 2
(c) ⎜ (d)
⎝ 2 ⎠
x
Where, σx and σy are normal stresses along x and y directions respectively and τxy is the shear
stress.
IES-26. Maximum shear stress in a Mohr's Circle [IES- 2008]

(a) Is equal to radius of Mohr's circle (b) Is greater than radius of Mohr's circle
(c) Is less than radius of Mohr's circle (d) Could be any of the above
IES-27. At a point in two-dimensional stress system σx = 100 N/mm2, σy = τxy = 40 N/mm2. What
is the radius of the Mohr circle for stress drawn with a scale of: 1 cm = 10 N/mm2?
[IES-2005]
(a) 3 cm (b) 4 cm (c) 5 cm (d) 6 cm
IES-28. Consider a two dimensional state of stress given for an element as shown in the
diagram given below: [IES-2004]
What are the coordinates of the centre of Mohr's circle?

(a) (0, 0) (b) (100, 200) (c) (200, 100) (d) (50, 0)

IES-29. Two-dimensional state of stress at a point in a plane stressed element is represented
by a Mohr circle of zero radius. Then both principal stresses
(a) Are equal to zero [IES-2003]
(b) Are equal to zero and shear stress is also equal to zero
(c) Are of equal magnitude but of opposite sign
(d) Are of equal magnitude and of same sign
IES-30. Assertion (A): Mohr's circle of stress can be related to Mohr's circle of strain by some
constant of proportionality. [IES-2002]
Reason (R): The relationship is a function of yield stress of the material.
IES-31. When two mutually perpendicular principal stresses are unequal but like, the
maximum shear stress is represented by [IES-1994]
(a) The diameter of the Mohr's circle
(b) Half the diameter of the Mohr's circle
(c) One-third the diameter of the Mohr's circle
(d) One-fourth the diameter of the Mohr's circle
IES-32. State of stress in a plane element is shown in figure I. Which one of the following
figures-II is the correct sketch of Mohr's circle of the state of stress?
[IES-1993, 1996]
Figure-I Figure-II
Strain
IES-33. A point in a two dimensional state of strain is subjected to pure shearing strain of
magnitude γ xy radians. Which one of the following is the maximum principal strain?
[IES-2008]
(a) γ xy (b) γ xy / 2 (c) γ xy /2 (d) 2 γ xy
IES-34. Assertion (A): A plane state of stress does not necessarily result into a plane state of
strain as well. [IES-1996]
Reason (R): Normal stresses acting along X and Y directions will also result into
normal strain along the Z-direction.
IES-34a Assertion (A): A plane state of stress always results in a plane state of strain.
Reason (R): A uniaxial state of stress results in a three-dimensional state of strain.
(c) A is true but R is false [IES-2010]

IES-34b Assertion (A): A state of plane strain always results in plane stress conditions.
Reason (R): A thin sheet of metal stretched in its own plane results in plane strain conditions.
[IES-2010]
Principal strains
IES-35. Principal strains at a point are 100 × 10−6 and −200 × 10−6. What is the maximum shear
strain at the point? [IES-2006]
(a) 300 × 10–6 (b) 200 × 10–6 (c) 150 × 10–6 (d) 100 × 10–6
IES-36. The principal strains at a point in a body, under biaxial state of stress, are 1000×10–6
and –600 × 10–6. What is the maximum shear strain at that point?
[IES-2009]
(a) 200 × 10–6 (b) 800 × 10–6 (c) 1000 × 10–6 (d) 1600 × 10–6
IES-37. The number of strain readings (using strain gauges) needed on a plane surface to
determine the principal strains and their directions is: [IES-1994]
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
Principal strain induced by principal stress

IES-38. The principal stresses at a point in two dimensional stress system are σ 1 and σ 2 and
corresponding principal strains are ε1 and ε 2 . If E and ν denote Young's modulus
and Poisson's ratio, respectively, then which one of the following is correct?
[IES-2008]
E
(a) σ 1 = Eε 1 (b)σ 1 = [ε1 + νε 2 ]
1−ν 2
E
(c)σ 1 = [ε1 − νε 2 ] (d)σ 1 = E [ε 1 − νε 2 ]
1−ν 2
IES-39. Assertion (A): Mohr's construction is possible for stresses, strains and area moment of
inertia. [IES-2009]
Reason (R): Mohr's circle represents the transformation of second-order tensor.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
IES-40. A rectangular strain rosette, shown

in figure, gives following reading in a
strain measurement task,
ε1 =1000×10-6 , ε2 =800×10-6
and ε3 =600×10-6
The direction of the major principal
strain with respect to gauge l is
(a) 0o (b) 15o
(c) 30 o (d) 45o
[IES-2011]


IAS-1. On a plane, resultant stress is inclined at an angle of 45o to the plane. If the normal
stress is 100 N /mm2, the shear stress on the plane is: [IAS-2003]
(a) 71.5 N/mm2 (b) 100 N/mm2 (c) 86.6 N/mm2 (d) 120.8 N/mm2
IAS-2. Biaxial stress system is correctly shown in [IAS-1999]
IAS-3. The complementary shear stresses of

intensity τ are induced at a point in
the material, as shown in the figure.
Which one of the following is the
correct set of orientations of principal
planes with respect to AB?
(a) 30° and 120° (b) 45° and 135°
(c) 60° and 150° (d) 75° and 165°
[IAS-1998]
IAS-4. A uniform bar lying in the x-direction is subjected to pure bending. Which one of the
following tensors represents the strain variations when bending moment is about the
z-axis (p, q and r constants)? [IAS-2001]
⎛ py 0 0 ⎞ ⎛ py 0 0 ⎞
⎜
(a) 0
⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ qy 0 ⎟ (b) 0 qy 0
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 0 ry ⎟⎠ ⎜ 0 0 0⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ py 0 0 ⎞ ⎛ py 0 0 ⎞
⎜
(c) 0
⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ py 0 ⎟ (d) 0 qy 0
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 0 py ⎟⎠ ⎜ 0 0 qy ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠
IAS-5. Assuming E = 160 GPa and G = 100 GPa for a material, a strain tensor is given as:
[IAS-2001]
⎛ 0.002 0.004 0.006 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0.004 0.003 0 ⎟
⎜ 0.006 0 0 ⎟⎠
⎝
The shear stress, τ xy is:

IAS-6. A material element subjected to a plane state of stress such that the maximum shear
stress is equal to the maximum tensile stress, would correspond to
[IAS-1998]

IAS-7. A solid circular shaft is subjected to a maximum shearing stress of 140 MPs. The
magnitude of the maximum normal stress developed in the shaft is: [IAS-1995]
IAS-8. The state of stress at a point in a loaded member is shown in the figure. The
magnitude of maximum shear stress is [1MPa = 10 kg/cm2] [IAS 1994]
(a) 10 MPa (b) 30 MPa (c) 50 MPa (d) 100MPa
IAS-9. A horizontal beam under bending has a maximum bending stress of 100 MPa and a
maximum shear stress of 20 MPa. What is the maximum principal stress in the beam?
[IAS-2004]
(a) 20 (b) 50 (c) 50 + 2900 (d) 100
IAS-10. When the two principal stresses are equal and like: the resultant stress on any plane
is: [IAS-2002]
(a) Equal to the principal stress (b) Zero
(c) One half the principal stress (d) One third of the principal stress
IAS-11. Assertion (A): When an isotropic, linearly elastic material is loaded biaxially, the
directions of principal stressed are different from those of principal strains.
Reason (R): For an isotropic, linearly elastic material the Hooke's law gives only two
independent material properties. [IAS-2001]
IAS-12. Principal stress at a point in a stressed solid are 400 MPa and 300 MPa respectively.
The normal stresses on planes inclined at 45° to the principal planes will be:
[IAS-2000]
(a) 200 MPa and 500 MPa (b) 350 MPa on both planes
(c) 100MPaand6ooMPa (d) 150 MPa and 550 MPa
IAS-13. The principal stresses at a point in an elastic material are 60N/mm2 tensile, 20 N/mm2
tensile and 50 N/mm2 compressive. If the material properties are: µ = 0.35 and E = 105
Nmm2, then the volumetric strain of the material is: [IAS-1997]
(a) 9 × 10–5 (b) 3 × 10-4 (c) 10.5 × 10–5 (d) 21 × 10–5

Mohr's circle
IAS-14. Match List-I (Mohr's Circles of stress) with List-II (Types of Loading) and select the
correct answer using the codes given below the lists: [IAS-2004]
List-I List-II
(Mohr's Circles of Stress) (Types of Loading)
1. A shaft compressed all round by a hub
2. Bending moment applied at the free

end of a cantilever
3. Shaft under torsion
4. Thin cylinder under pressure
5. Thin spherical shell under internal

pressure
(a) 5 4 3 2 (b) 2 4 1 3
(c) 4 3 2 5 (d) 2 3 1 5
IAS-15. The resultant stress on a certain plane makes an angle of 20° with the normal to the
plane. On the plane perpendicular to the above plane, the resultant stress makes an
angle of θ with the normal. The value of θ can be: [IAS-2001]
(a) 0° or 20° (b) Any value other than 0° or 90°
(c) Any value between 0° and 20° (d) 20° only
IAS-16. The correct Mohr's stress-circle drawn for a point in a solid shaft compressed by a
shrunk fit hub is as (O-Origin and C-Centre of circle; OA = σ1 and OB = σ2)
[IAS-2001]
IAS-17. A Mohr's stress circle is drawn for a body subjected to tensile stress f x and f y in
two mutually perpendicular directions such that f x > f y . Which one of the following
statements in this regard is NOT correct? [IAS-2000]
fx + f y
(a) Normal stress on a plane at 45° to f x is equal to
2
fx − f y
(b) Shear stress on a plane at 45° to f x is equal to
2
(c) Maximum normal stress is equal to fx .

fx + f y
(d) Maximum shear stress is equal to
2
IAS-18. For the given stress condition σ x =2 N/mm2, σ x =0 and τ xy = 0 , the correct Mohr’s circle
is: [IAS-1999]
IAS-19. For which one of the following two-dimensional states of stress will the Mohr's stress
circle degenerate into a point? [IAS-1996]
Principal strains
IAS-20. In an axi-symmetric plane strain problem, let u be the radial displacement at r. Then
the strain components ε r , ε θ , ϒeθ are given by [IAS-1995]
u ∂u ∂ 2u ∂u u
(a) ε r = , εθ = , ϒ rθ = (b) εr = , εθ = , ϒ rθ = o
r ∂r ∂r ∂θ ∂r r
u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂ 2u
(c) ε r = , ε θ = , ϒ rθ = 0 (d) ε r = , εθ = , ϒ rθ =
r ∂r ∂r ∂θ ∂r∂θ
IAS-21. Assertion (A): Uniaxial stress normally gives rise to triaxial strain.
Reason (R): Magnitude of strains in the perpendicular directions of applied stress is
smaller than that in the direction of applied stress. [IAS-2004]
IAS-22. Assertion (A): A plane state of stress will, in general, not result in a plane state of
strain. [IAS-2002]
Reason (R): A thin plane lamina stretched in its own plane will result in a state of
plane strain.

OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (a) It is the definition of shear stress. The force is applied tangentially it is not a point load
so you cannot compare it with a cantilever with a point load at its free end.
σ +σy σx −σy
GATE-2. Ans. (d) σ n = x + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
Here σ x = σ 2 = 0, τ xy = τ , θ = 45o
GATE-3. Ans. (d) It is well known that,
τ xy = τ yx, τ xz = τ zx and τ yz = τ zy
so that the state of stress at a point is given by six components σ x ,σ y ,σ z and τ xy , τ yz ,τ zx
GATE-3(i) Ans. (c)
Let ∠CAB = θ
3 4 3
∴ sin θ = ; cos θ = ; tan θ =
5 5 4
y
A
θ σ
τ
4 θ
σx
5
B C
x
3
σy
Thus from force equilibrium,
σx × AB = AC × ( σ cos θ − τ sin θ)
5 ⎛ 4 3⎞
⇒ σx = × ⎜120 × − 70 × ⎟
4 ⎝ 5 5⎠
⇒ σx = 67.5 MPa
And, σ y × BC = AC × ( σ sin θ + τ cos θ)
5 ⎛ 3 4⎞
⇒ σy = × ⎜120 × + 70 × ⎟
3 ⎝ 5 5⎠
⇒ σ y = 213.3 MPa
GATE-3(ii) Ans. (c)

σy
τyx
τxy
d
2
σx σx
d
d 2
2 d
2
τxy
τyx
σy
Taking moment equilibrium about the centre, we get
d d d d
τ yx × + τ yx × = τ xy × + τ xy ×
2 2 2 2
∴ τxy = τ yx
GATE-3(i) Ans. (a) On a principal plane, only normal stresses act. No shear stresses act on the principal
plane.
GATE-3(ii) Ans. (a)
σ1 − σ 2 100 − 0
GATE-4. Ans. (c) τ max = = = 50 units.
2 2
σ1 − σ 2 σ2
GATE-5. Ans. (c) τ max = , σ 1 = 2σ 2 or τ max = or σ 2 = 2τ max or σ 1= 2σ 2 = 4τ max
2 2
GATE-5(i) Ans. (b)
σ1 − σ2
Maximum shear stress =
2
20 − ( −10)
= = 15 MPa
2
σ − σ 2 σ 1 − ( −σ 1 )
GATE-6. Ans. (d) τ max = 1 = = σ1
2 2
σ1 − σ 2
GATE-7. Ans. (a) τ max = Maximum normal stress will developed if σ 1 = −σ 2 = σ
2
2
⎛σ x −σ y ⎞
2
⎛ − 40 − 40 ⎞
GATE-8. Ans. (c) τ max = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ xy = ⎜
2
⎟ + 30 = 50 MPa
2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
16T 16 × 10000
GATE-9. Ans. (b) Shear Stress ( τ )= = Pa = 50.93 MPa
πd 3 π × (0.1)3
2
⎛σ ⎞ σb
Maximum principal Stress = + ⎜ b ⎟ + τ 2 =82 MPa
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
GATE-9(i) Ans. (c)
Maximum principal stress
2 2
σx ⎛σ ⎞ 1.5 ⎛ 1.5 ⎞
= + ⎜ x ⎟ + τ2 = + ⎜ 2
⎟ + (1.20) = 2.17 N/ mm
2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
σx + σy ⎛σx −σy ⎞
GATE-10. Ans. (d) σ 1 = + ⎜ ⎟ + τ xy
2
if τ xy = 0
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠

2
σx +σy ⎛σx −σy ⎞
= + ⎜ ⎟ = σx
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
GATE-10(i). Ans. (c)
GATE-11. Ans. (b) σ x = σ , σ y = σ , τ xy = σ
2
σx + σy ⎛σx − σy ⎞ σ +σ
∴(σ 1 )max = (0)
2
+ ⎜ ⎟ + τ xy = + + σ 2 = 2σ
2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
2
σx + σy ⎛σx −σy ⎞ 10 + 2 ⎛ 10 − 2 ⎞
2
GATE-12. Ans. (c) σ 1 = + ⎜ ⎟ + τ xy

2
= + ⎜ ⎟ + 4 = 11.66 MPa
2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
GATE-13. Ans. (a)
GATE-14. Ans. (b)

GATE-14(i). Ans. (b)
2
⎛ 40 − 100 ⎞
⎟ + ( 40 ) = 50 MPa
2
⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠
GATE-14(ii) Ans.(d)
The maximum and minimum principal stresses are same. So, radius of circle becomes zero and
centre is at (30, 0). The circle is respresented by a point.
GATE-15. Ans. (c)
Given σ 1 = −10 MPa, σ 2 = −100 MPa
σ1 − σ 2 σy
Maximum shear stress theory give τ max = =
2 2
or σ 1 − σ 2 = σ y ⇒ σ y = −10 − ( −100) = 90MPa
GATE-16. Ans. (c)
σ x = 100MPa, σ y = −20MPa
σx − σy 100 − ( −20 )
Radius of Mohr 's circle = = = 60
2 2
GATE-17. Ans. (b)
σ 1 = σ 2 = σ x = σ y = +175 MPa
GATE-18. Ans. (d) From the Mohr’s circle it will give all directions.
GATE-19. Ans. (c) Shear strain emax − emin = {1000 − ( −600 )} × 10 −6 = 1600 × 10 −6
GATE-19(i) Ans.(b)

When strain is measured along any three arbitrary directions, the strain diagram is called
rosette.
IES
IES-1. Ans. (a)
σx +σy σx −σy
IES-2. Ans. (c) σ n = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
σx +σy
At θ = 45o andτ xy = 0; σ n =
2
σx − σy
IES-2a Ans. (a) Shear stress (τ ) = sin 2θ - τ xy cos 2θ
2
Here σ x = σ , σ y = σ and τ xy = 0
IES-3. Ans. (b)
IES-3a. Ans. (a)
IES-4. Ans. (c)
IES-5. Ans. (a) σ 1 = τ , σ 2 = −τ , σ 3 = 0
1 ⎡ 2 1+ μ 2
τ + ( −τ ) − 2μτ ( −τ )⎤ V =
2
U= τ V
2E ⎣ ⎦ E
IES-6. Ans. (b)
IES-7. Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is correct explanation for A.
IES-8. Ans. (b) σ 1 = τ , σ 2 = −τ , σ 3 = 0
IES-9. Ans. (a)
σx +σy σx −σy
IES-10. Ans. (a) σ n = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
IES-10(i). Ans. (b)
IES-11. Ans. (d)
IES-11a Ans. (c)
σ1 − σ 2 100 − 0
IES-12. Ans. (c) τ max = = = 50 units.
2 2
σ1 − σ 2 σ2
IES-13. Ans. (c) τ max = , σ 1 = 2σ 2 or τ max = or σ 2 = 2τ max or σ 1= 2σ 2 = 4τ max
2 2
2
IES-14. Ans. (c) σ 1,2 = + ⎜ ⎟ + τ xy
2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
if σ 2 = 0 ⇒ = ⎜ ⎟ + τ xy
2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2 2
⎛σx +σy ⎞ ⎛σx −σy ⎞
⎟ =⎜ ⎟ + τ xy or τ xy = σ x × σ y
2
or ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
σ1 − σ 2 80 − ( −40)
IES-15. Ans. (d) τ max = = = 60 MPa
2 2
IES-15(i). Ans. (c)
2τ xy
IES-16. Ans. (b) tan 2θ = ⇒θ = 0
σx −σy
σ1 − σ 2 3σ − σ
τ max = = =σ
2 2
3σ + σ
Major principal stress on the plane of maximum shear = σ 1 = = 2σ
2

IES-17. Ans. (b) When stresses are alike, then normal stress σn on plane inclined at angle 45° is
2 2
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡1 1⎤
σ n = σ y cos 2 θ + σ x sin 2 θ = σ y ⎜ ⎟ +σx ⎜ ⎟ = 500 ⎢ 2 + 2 ⎥ = 500 kg/cm
2
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎣ ⎦
IES-18. Ans. (a)
2
IES-19. Ans. (d) σ 1,2 = + ⎜ ⎟ + τ xy
2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
50 + ( −10) ⎛ 50 + 10 ⎞
σ 1,2 = + ⎜ ⎟ + 40
2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
σ max = 70 and σ min = −30
σx +σy σx −σy
IES-20. Ans. (d) σ x = cos 2θ
+
2 2
P −P P +P
σn = + cos 2 × 45 = 0
2 2
2
σx +0 ⎛σ +0⎞
IES-21. Ans. (c) (σ )1,2 = ± ⎜ x ⎟ + τ xy = 50 ∓ 50 5
2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
(σ )1 − (σ )2
Maximum shear stress = = 50 5
2
IES-22. Ans. (c)
IES-22(i). Ans. (c)
IES-23. Ans. (b) It is a case of pure shear. Just put σ 1 = −σ 2
IES-24. Ans. (c)
IES-25. Ans. (a)
IES-26. Ans. (a)

2
2 ⎛ 2 ⎞
⎛ σx + σy
⎞ 2 ⎜ ⎛ σx − σy ⎞ 2 ⎟
⎜⎜ σ x′ − ⎟⎟ + τ x ′y′ =
⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ xy ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎜ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
∴ Radius of the Mohr Circle
2
⎛ σx − σy ⎞ 2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ xy
⎝ 2 ⎠
2
σx + σy ⎛ σx − σy ⎞ 2
∴ σt = + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ xy
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
σx + σy ⎛ σx − σy ⎞ 2
σ2 = − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ xy
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
σ1 − σ2 ⎛ σx − σy ⎞ 2
⇒ τmax = =r ⇒ τmax = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ xy
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
IES-27. Ans. (c) Radius of the Mohr circle
⎡ σ −σ 2 ⎤ ⎡ 100 − 40 2 ⎤
⎛ x y ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
=⎢ ⎜ ⎟ + τ xy 2 ⎥ / 10 = ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ + 40 2
⎥ / 10 = 50 / 10 = 5 cm
⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥ ⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎛ σ x + σ y ⎞ ⎛ 200 − 100 ⎞
IES-28. Ans. (d) Centre of Mohr’s circle is ⎜ ,0 ⎟ = ⎜ ,0 ⎟ = ( 50,0 )
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
IES-29. Ans. (d)
IES-30. Ans. (c)
IES-31. Ans. (b)
IES-32. Ans. (c)
IES-33. Ans. (c)
IES-34. Ans. (a)
IES-34a. Ans. (d)
IES-34b. Ans. (d)
IES-35. Ans. (a) γ max = ε1 − ε 2 = 100 − ( −200 ) × 10−6 = 300 × 10−6
σ1 − σ 2
don' t confuse withMaximumShear stress (τ max ) =
2
γ xy ε1 − ε 2 σ1 − σ 2
in strain = and τ max = that is the difference.
2 2 2
IES-36. Ans. (d)
∈x − ∈y φxy
2
=
2
⇒ (
φxy = ∈x − ∈y = 1000 × 10−6 − −600 × 10−6 = 1600 × 10 −6 )
IES-37. Ans. (c) Three strain gauges are needed on a plane surface to determine the principal strains and
their directions.
σ1 σ σ2 σ
IES-38. Ans. (b) ε1 = −μ 2 and ε2 = − μ 1 From these two equation eliminate σ2 .
E E E E
IES-39. Ans. (a)
IES-40. Ans. (a)
IAS
IAS-1. Ans. (b) Weknow σ n = σ cos θ and τ = σ sinθ cos θ
2
100 = σ cos 45 or σ = 200

2
τ = 200 sin 45 cos 45 = 100

IAS-2. Ans. (c)
IAS-3. Ans. (b) It is a case of pure shear so principal planes will be along the diagonal.
IAS-4. Ans. (d) Stress in x direction = σx
σx σx σx
Therefore εx = , ε y = −μ , ε z = −μ
E E E
IAS-5. Ans. (c)
⎡ε xx ε xy ε xz ⎤
⎢ ⎥ γ xy
⎢ε yx ε yy ε yz ⎥ and ε xy =
⎢ε ε ε ⎥ 2
⎣ zx zy zz ⎦
τ xy = G γ xy = 100 × 10 × ( 0.004 × 2 ) MPa = 800MPa
3
σ1 − σ 2 σ 1 − ( −σ 1 )
IAS-6. Ans. (d) τ max = = = σ1
2 2
σ1 − σ 2
IAS-7. Ans. (a) τ max = Maximum normal stress will developed if σ 1 = −σ 2 = σ
2
2
⎛σ −σ y ⎞
2
⎛ − 40 − 40 ⎞
IAS-8. Ans. (c) τ max = ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ + τ xy 2 = ⎜ ⎟ + 30 = 50 MPa
2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
IAS-9. Ans. (c) σb=100MPa τ =20 mPa
2
σb ⎛σ ⎞
σ1,2= + ⎜ b ⎟ +τ 2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2 2
σb
⎛σ ⎞
σ 1,2 =
2
+ ⎜ b ⎟ +τ 2 =
⎝ ⎠2
100
2
+ ⎜
⎛ 100 ⎞
⎝ 2
⎟ + 20 = 50 + 2900 MPa
⎠
2
( )
IAS-10. Ans. (a) σ n = + cos 2θ
2 2
[We may consider this as τ xy = 0 ] σ x = σ y = σ ( say ) So σ n = σ for any plane
IAS-11. Ans. (d) They are same.
IAS-12. Ans. (b)
⎛ σ x +σ y ⎞ ⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞ 400 + 300 400 − 300
σn = ⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ cos 2θ = + cos 2 × 45o = 350 MPa
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 2
IAS-13. Ans. (a)
σx ⎛σy σz ⎞ σy ⎛σ σ ⎞ σ ⎛σ σy ⎞
∈x = − μ⎜ + ⎟ , ∈y = − μ ⎜ z + x ⎟ and ∈z = z − μ ⎜ x + ⎟
E ⎝E E ⎠ E ⎝E E ⎠ E ⎝ E E ⎠

σ x + σ y + σ z 2μ
∈v =∈x + ∈y + ∈z =
E
− (σ x + σ y + σ z )
E
⎛ σ x + σ y + σ z ⎞ ⎛ 60 + 20 − 50 ⎞
= (1 − 2μ ) ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ (1 − 2 × 0.35 ) = 9 × 10
−5
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ 105 ⎠
IAS-14. Ans. (d)
IAS-15. Ans. (b)
IAS-16. Ans. (d)
fx − f y
IAS-17. Ans. (d) Maximum shear stress is
2
⎛σx +σy ⎞ ⎛2+0 ⎞
IAS-18. Ans. (d) Centre ⎜ ,0 ⎟ = ⎜ ,0 ⎟ = (1, 0 )
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
⎛σx −σy ⎞
2
⎛2−0⎞
radius = ⎜ ⎟ +τx = ⎜ ⎟ +0 =1
2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
IAS-19. Ans. (c) Mohr’s circle will be a point.
2
⎛σx −σy ⎞
⎟ + τ xy ∴ τ xy = 0 andσ x = σ y = σ
2
Radius of the Mohr’s circle = ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠
IAS-20. Ans. (b)
IAS-21. Ans. (b)

IAS-22. Ans. (c) R is false. Stress in one plane always induce a lateral strain with its orthogonal plane.

Question: What are principal in planes?
Answer: The planes which pass through the point in such a manner that the resultant stress across
them is totally a normal stress are known as principal planes. No shear stress exists at the
principal planes.

Q. The Mohr’s circle for a plane stress is a circle of radius R with its origin at + 2R on σ
axis. Sketch the Mohr’s circle and determine σ max , σ min , σ av , ( τxy )max for this
situation. [2 Marks]
Ans. Here σ max = 3R

σ min = R
3R + R
σ σv = = 2R
2
σ − σ min 3R − R
and τ xy = max = =R
2 2

R R
(2R,0)
3R

Question: Direct tensile stresses of 120 MPa and 70 MPa act on a body on mutually
perpendicular planes. What is the magnitude of shearing stress that can be applied
so that the major principal stress at the point does not exceed 135 MPa? Determine
the value of minor principal stress and the maximum shear stress.
Answer: Let shearing stress is 'τ' MPa.
The principal stresses are
2
120 + 70 ⎛120 − 70 ⎞⎟
σ1,2 = ± ⎜⎜ ⎟ +τ
2
2 ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠⎟
Major principal stress is
2
120 + 70 ⎛ ⎞
σ1 = + ⎜⎜120 − 70 ⎟⎟ + τ 2
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠⎟
= 135 (Given) or , τ = 31.2MPa.
Minor principal stress is
2
120 + 70 ⎛ 120 − 70 ⎞ 2
σ2 = − ⎜ ⎟ + 31.2 = 55 MPa
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
σ − σ 2 135 − 55
τ max = 1 = = 40 MPa
2 2

Q. The state of stress at a point in a loaded machine member is given by the principle
stresses. [ 2 Marks]
σ1 = 600 MPa, σ 2 = 0 and σ3 = −600 MPa .
(i) What is the magnitude of the maximum shear stress?
(ii) What is the inclination of the plane on which the maximum shear stress acts
with respect to the plane on which the maximum principle stress σ1 acts?
Ans. (i) Maximum shear stress,
σ1 − σ3 600 − ( −600 )
τ= =
2 2
= 600 MPa
(ii) At θ = 45º max. shear stress occurs with σ 1 plane. Since σ 1 and σ 3 are principle stress
does not contains shear stress. Hence max. shear stress is at 45º with principle plane.

Question: A prismatic bar in compression has a cross- sectional area A = 900 mm2 and carries
an axial load P = 90 kN. What are the stresses acts on
(i) A plane transverse to the loading axis;
(ii) A plane at θ = 60o to the loading axis?
Answer: (i) From figure it is clear A plane
transverse to loading axis, θ =0o
P 90000
∴ σn = cos2 θ= N / mm 2
A 900
= 100 N / mm 2
P 90000
and τ = Sin 2θ= × sinθ=0
2A 2×900
(iii) A plane at 60o to loading axis,
θ = 90°- 60° = 30°
P 90000
σn = cos 2 θ= × cos2 30
A 900
= 75N / mm 2
P 90000
τ= sin2θ = sin2 × 60o
2A 2 × 900
= 43.3N / mm 2

Question: A tension member with a cross-sectional area of 30 mm2 resists a load of 80 kN,
Calculate the normal and shear stresses on the plane of maximum shear stress.
P P
Answer: σn = cos2 θ τ= sin 2θ
A 2A
For maximum shear stress sin2θ = 1, or, θ = 45o

80 ×103 P 80 ×103
(σ n ) = × cos2 45 = 1333MPa and τmax = = = 1333MPa
30 2A 30 × 2

Question: At a point in a loaded structure, a pure shear stress state τ = ± 400 MPa prevails
on two given planes at right angles.
(i) What would be the state of stress across the planes of an element taken at +45°
to the given planes?
(ii) What are the magnitudes of these stresses?
Answer: (i) For pure shear
σ x = −σ y ; τ max = ±σ x = ±400 MPa

(ii) Magnitude of these stresses
σ n = τ xy Sin 2θ = τ xy Sin 90o = τ xy = 400 MPa and τ = (−τ xy cos 2θ ) = 0
Conventional Question IAS-1997

Question: Draw Mohr's circle for a 2-dimensional stress field subjected to
(a) Pure shear (b) Pure biaxial tension (c) Pure uniaxial tension and (d) Pure
uniaxial compression
Answer: Mohr's circles for 2-dimensional stress field subjected to pure shear, pure biaxial tension, pure
uniaxial compression and pure uniaxial tension are shown in figure below:

Question: A Solid phosphor bronze shaft 60 mm in diameter is rotating at 800 rpm and
transmitting power. It is subjected torsion only. An electrical resistance strain
gauge mounted on the surface of the shaft with its axis at 45° to the shaft axis, gives
the strain reading as 3.98 × 10–4. If the modulus of elasticity for bronze is 105 GN/m2
and Poisson's ratio is 0.3, find the power being transmitted by the shaft. Bending
effect may be neglected.
Answer:
Let us assume maximum shear stress on the cross-sectional plane MU is τ . Then

1
Principal stress along, VM = - 4τ 2 = -τ (compressive)
2
1
Principal stress along, LU = 4τ 2 = τ (tensile)
2
Thus magntude of the compressive strain along VM is
τ
= (1 + µ) = 3.98 ×10−4
E
3.98 ×10−4 ×(105 ×109 )
or τ = = 32.15 MPa
(1 + 0.3)
π
∴ Torque being transmitted (T) = τ × ×d 3
16
π
= (32.15 ×106 )× × 0.063 =1363.5 Nm
16
⎛ 2πN ⎞⎟ ⎛ 2π×800 ⎞⎟
∴ Power being transmitted, P =T.ω =T.⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ =1363.5×⎜⎜ ⎟W = 114.23 kW
⎝⎜ 60 ⎠ ⎝⎜ 60 ⎠⎟

Question: The magnitude of normal stress on two mutually perpendicular planes, at a point in
an elastic body are 60 MPa (compressive) and 80 MPa (tensile) respectively. Find
the magnitudes of shearing stresses on these planes if the magnitude of one of the
principal stresses is 100 MPa (tensile). Find also the magnitude of the other
principal stress at this point.
Answer: Above figure shows stress condition assuming
shear stress is ' τ xy' 80Mpa
Jxy
Principal stresses
2
σx + σ y ⎛ σ − σ y ⎞⎟
σ1,2 = ± ⎜⎜ x ⎟ + τ xy2 60Mpa 60Mpa
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠⎟⎟ Jxy
Jxy
2
−60 + 80 ⎛ −60 − 80 ⎞⎟
or , σ1,2 = ± ⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟ + τ xy
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ Jxy
80Mpa
2
−60 + 80 ⎛ −60 − 80 ⎞⎟
or , σ1,2 = ± ⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟ + τ xy
2 ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠
To make principal stress 100 MPa we have to consider '+' .
∴ σ1 = 100 MPa = 10 + 702 + τ xy2 ; or, τ xy = 56.57 MPa
Therefore other principal stress will be
2
−60 + 80 ⎛ −60 − 80 ⎞⎟
σ2 = − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + (56.57)
2
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠
i.e. 80 MPa(compressive)

Question: A steel tube of inner diameter 100 mm and wall thickness 5 mm is subjected to a
torsional moment of 1000 Nm. Calculate the principal stresses and orientations of
the principal planes on the outer surface of the tube.
π ⎡
(0.110) − (0.100) ⎤⎦⎥ = 4.56 ×10−6 m 4
4 4
Answer: Polar moment of Inertia (J)=
32 ⎣⎢

5mm
T τ T .R 1000 × (0.055)
Now = or J = =
J R J 4.56 ×10−6
= 12.07MPa
2τ xy
Now,tan 2θ p = =∝,
σx − σy 50mm
0 0
gives θp = 45 or 135
∴ σ1 = τ xy Sin 2θ = 12.07 × sin 900
= 12.07 MPa
and σ 2 = 12.07 sin 2700
= −12.07MPa

Question: At a point in a two dimensional stress system the normal stresses on two mutually
perpendicular planes are σ x and σ y and the shear stress is τ xy. At what value of
shear stress, one of the principal stresses will become zero?
Answer: Two principal stressdes are
2
σx + σ y ⎛σ - σ ⎞
σ1,2 = ± ⎜⎜ x y ⎟⎟⎟ + τ xy2
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠⎟
Considering (-)ive sign it may be zero
2 2 2
⎛ σ + σ y ⎞⎟ ⎛ σ x − σ y ⎞⎟ ⎛ σ + σ y ⎞⎟ ⎛ σ x − σ y ⎞⎟
∴ ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟ + τ xy2 or, ⎜⎜ x ⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟ + τ xy2
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠⎟⎟ ⎝⎜ 2 ⎠⎟⎟
2 2
⎛ σ + σ y ⎞⎟ ⎛ σ x − σ y ⎞⎟
or, τ = ⎜⎜ x
2
⎟ −⎜ ⎟ 2
or, τ xy = σ xσ y or,τ xy = ± σ x σ y
xy
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠⎟⎟ ⎝⎜⎜ 2 ⎠⎟⎟

Question: A solid shaft of diameter 30 mm is fixed at one end. It is subject to a tensile force of
10 kN and a torque of 60 Nm. At a point on the surface of the shaft, determine the
principle stresses and the maximum shear stress.
Answer: Given: D = 30 mm = 0.03 m; P = 10 kN; T= 60 Nm
Pr incipal stresses (σ 1,σ 2 ) and max imum shear stress (τ max ) :
10 × 103
Tensile stress σ t = σ x = = 14.15 × 106 N / m2 or 14.15 MN / m2
π
× 0.03 2
T τ
As per torsion equation, =
J R

TR TR 60 × 0.015
∴ Shear stress, τ= = = = 11.32 × 10 N / m
6 2
J π 4 π
× ( 0.03 )
4
D
32 32
or 11.32 MN / m2
The principal stresses are calculated by u sin g the relations :
⎛σx + σy ⎞ ⎡⎛ σ − σ y ⎞ 2 ⎤
σ 1,2 = ⎜ ⎟± ⎢⎜ x ⎟ ⎥ + τ xy
2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Here σ x = 14.15MN / m2 ,σ y = 0;τ xy = τ = 11.32 MN / m2
2
14.15 ⎛ 14.15 ⎞
+ (11.32 )
2
∴ σ 1,2 = ± ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
= 7.07 ± 13.35 = 20.425 MN / m2 , −6.275MN / m2 .
Hence,major principal stress, σ 1 = 20.425 MN / m2 ( tensile )
Minor principal stress, σ 2 = 6.275MN / m2 ( compressive )
σ1 − σ 2 24.425 − ( −6.275 )
Maximum shear stress,τ max = = = 13.35mm / m2
2 2

Question: Two planes AB and BC which are at right angles are acted upon by tensile stress of
140 N/mm2 and a compressive stress of 70 N/mm2 respectively and also by shear
stress 35 N/mm2. Determine the principal stresses and principal planes. Find also
the maximum shear stress and planes on which they act.
Sketch the Mohr circle and mark the relevant data.
Answer: Given 70N/mm
2
σ x =140MPa(tensile) C B
σ y = -70MPa(compressive) 2
35Nmm
τ xy = 35MPa 140N/mm2
Principal stresses; σ1, σ2 ;

A
2
σx + σy ⎛ σ x − σ y ⎞⎟
We know that, σ1,2 = ± ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟ + τ xy
2
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠⎟⎟
2
140 − 70 ⎛140 + 70 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜⎜
2
= ± ⎟⎟ + 35 = 35 ± 110.7
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
Therefore σ1 =145.7 MPa and σ 2 = −75.7MPa
Position of Principal planes θ1, θ 2

2τ xy 2 × 35
tan 2θ p = = = 0.3333
σx − σy 140 + 70
σ1 - σ 2 145 + 75.7
Maximum shear stress, τmax = = = 110.7MPa
2 2

Y
Mohr cirle:
OL=σ x = 140MPa
S 2θp =198.4
OM = σ y = −70MPa
SM = LT = τ xy = 35MPa U L
M O 2θ=7 V
N 8.4
Joining ST that cuts at 'N'
σ = 140 T
SN=NT=radius of Mohr circle =110.7 MPa
OV=σ1 = 145.7MPa
OV = σ 2 = −75.7MPa
Q6. The data obtained from a rectangular strain gauge rosette attached to a stressed
steel member are ε 0 = −220 × 10 , ε 45 = 120 × 10 and ε 90 = 220 × 10 . Given that the
−6 −6 −6
5 2
value of E = 2 × 10 N / mm and Poisson’s Ratio μ = 0.3 , calculate the values of
principal stresses acting at the point and their directions. [10 Marks]
Ans. Use rectangular strain gauge rosette

Question: When using strain-gauge system for stress/force/displacement measurements how
are in-built magnification and temperature compensation achieved?
Answer: In-built magnification and temperature compensation are achieved by
(a) Through use of adjacent arm balancing of Wheat-stone bridge.
(b) By means of self temperature compensation by selected melt-gauge and dual element-
gauge.

Question: A cylinder (500 mm internal diameter and 20 mm wall thickness) with closed ends is
subjected simultaneously to an internal pressure of 0-60 MPa, bending moment
64000 Nm and torque 16000 Nm. Determine the maximum tensile stress and
shearing stress in the wall.
Answer: Given: d = 500 mm = 0·5 m; t = 20 mm = 0·02 m; p = 0·60 MPa = 0.6 MN/m2;
M = 64000 Nm = 0·064 MNm; T= 16000 Nm = 0·016 MNm.
Maximum tensile stress:
First let us determine the principle stresses σ 1 and σ 2 assuming this as a thin cylinder.
pd 0.6 × 0.5
We know, σ1 = = = 7.5MN / m2
2t 2 × 0.02
pd 0.6 × 0.5
and σ2 = = = 3.75MN / m2
4t 4 × 0.02
Next consider effect of combined bending moment and torque on the walls of the cylinder.
Then the principal stresses σ '1 and σ '2 are given by

16 ⎡
σ '1 = 3 M + M2 + T 2 ⎤
πd ⎣ ⎦
16
and σ '2 = 3 ⎡M − M2 + T 2 ⎤
πd ⎣ ⎦
16 ⎡0.064 + 0.0642 + 0.0162 ⎤ = 5.29MN / m2
∴ σ '1 = 3 ⎣
π × ( 0.5 ) ⎦
16 ⎡0.064 − 0.0642 + 0.0162 ⎤ = −0.08MN / m2
and σ '2 =
π × ( 0.5 ) ⎣ ⎦
3
Maximum shearing stress,τ max :

σ I − σ II
We Know, τ max =
2
σ II = σ 2 + σ '2 = 3.75 − 0.08 = 3.67MN / m2 ( tensile )
12.79 − 3.67
∴ τ max = = 4.56MN / m2
2

3. Moment of Inertia and Centroid

3.1 Centre of gravity
The centre of gravity of a body defined as the point through which the whole weight of a body may be
assumed to act.
3.2 Centroid or Centre of area

The centroid or centre of area is defined as the point where the whole area of the figure is assumed to be
concentrated.
3.3 Moment of Inertia (MOI)

• About any point the product of the force and the perpendicular distance between them is known as
moment of a force or first moment of force.
• This first moment is again multiplied by the perpendicular distance between them to obtain second
moment of force.
• In the same way if we consider the area of the figure it is called second moment of area or area
moment of inertia and if we consider the mass of a body it is called second moment of mass or mass
moment of Inertia.
• Mass moment of inertia is the measure of resistance of the body to rotation and forms the basis
of dynamics of rigid bodies.
• Area moment of Inertia is the measure of resistance to bending and forms the basis of strength
of materials.
3.4 Mass moment of Inertia (MOI)
I = ∑ mi ri2
i
• Notice that the moment of inertia ‘I’ depends on the distribution of mass in the system.
• The furthest the mass is from the rotation axis, the bigger the moment of inertia.
• For a given object, the moment of inertia depends on where we choose the rotation axis.
• In rotational dynamics, the moment of inertia ‘I’ appears in the same way that mass m does in
linear dynamics.

Chapter-3 Moment of Inertia and Centroid
• Solid disc or cylinder of mass M and radius R, about perpendicular axis through its centre,
1
I= MR 2
2
• Solid sphere of mass M and radius R, about an axis through its centre, I = 2/5 M R2
• Thin rod of mass M and length L, about a perpendicular axis through
its centre.
1
I= ML2
12
• Thin rod of mass M and length L, about a perpendicular axis through its
end.
1
I = ML2
3
3.5 Area Moment of Inertia (MOI) or Second moment of area
• To find the centroid of an area by the first moment of the area

about an axis was determined ( ∫ x dA )
• Integral of the second moment of area is called moment of
inertia (∫ x2dA)
• Consider the area ( A )
• By definition, the moment of inertia of the differential area
about the x and y axes are dIxx and dIyy
• dIxx = y2dA Ixx = ∫ y2 dA
• dIyy = x2dA Iyy = ∫ x2 dA
3.6 Parallel axis theorem for an area

The rotational inertia about any axis is the sum of
second moment of inertia about a parallel axis
through the C.G and total area of the body times
square of the distance between the axes.
INN = ICG + Ah2

3.7 Perpendicular axis theorem for an area
If x, y & z are mutually perpendicular axes as shown, then
I zz ( J ) = I xx + I yy
Z-axis is perpendicular to the plane of x – y and vertical to this page as

shown in figure.
• To find the moment of inertia of the differential area about the pole (point of origin) or z-axis, (r) is
used. (r) is the perpendicular distance from the pole to dA for the entire area
J = ∫ r2 dA = ∫ (x2 + y2 )dA = Ixx + Iyy (since r2 = x2 + y2 )
Where, J = polar moment of inertia
3.8 Moments of Inertia (area) of some common area

(i) MOI of Rectangular area
Moment of inertia about axis XX which passes
through centroid.
Take an element of width ‘dy’ at a distance y
from XX axis.
∴ Area of the element (dA) = b × dy.
and Moment of Inertia of the element about XX
axis = dA × y = b.y .dy

2 2
∴Total MOI about XX axis (Note it is area

moment of Inertia)
+h h
2 2
bh3
∫ by dy = 2 ∫ by2dy =
2
I xx =
−h 0
12
2
bh3
I xx =
12
hb3
Similarly, we may find, I yy =
12
bh3 hb3
∴Polar moment of inertia (J) = Ixx + Iyy = +
12 12

If we want to know the MOI about an axis NN passing
through the bottom edge or top edge.
Axis XX and NN are parallel and at a distance h/2.
Therefore INN = Ixx + Area × (distance) 2
2
bh3 ⎛h⎞ bh3
= +b×h×⎜ ⎟ =
12 ⎝2⎠ 3
Case-I: Square area
a4
I xx =
12
Case-II: Square area with diagonal as axis
a4
I xx =
12
Case-III: Rectangular area with a centrally
rectangular hole
Moment of inertia of the area = moment of inertia of BIG
rectangle – moment of inertia of SMALL rectangle
BH 3 bh3
I xx = −
12 12

(ii) MOI of a Circular area
The moment of inertia about axis XX this passes through
the centroid. It is very easy to find polar moment of inertia
about point ‘O’. Take an element of width ‘dr’ at a distance
‘r’ from centre. Therefore, the moment of inertia of this
element about polar axis
d(J) = d(Ixx + Iyy ) = area of ring × (radius)2
or d(J) = 2π rdr × r 2
Integrating both side we get

R
π R4 π D4
J = ∫ 2π r 3dr = =
0 2 32
Due to summetry I xx = I yy
J π D4
Therefore, I xx = I yy = =
2 64
π D4 π D4
I xx = I yy = and J =
64 32
Case-I: Moment of inertia of a circular
area with a concentric hole.

Moment of inertia of the area = moment of inertia of
BIG circle – moment of inertia of SMALL circle.
π D4 π d4
Ixx = Iyy = –
64 64
π
= ( D4 − d4 )
64
π
and J = ( D4 − d4 )
32
Case-II: Moment of inertia of a semi-

circular area.
1
I NN = of the momemt of total circular lamina
2
1 ⎛ π D4 ⎞ π D4
= ×⎜ ⎟=
2 ⎝ 64 ⎠ 128
We know that distance of CG from base is

4r 2D
= = h ( say )
3π 3π
i.e. distance of parallel axis XX and NN is (h)
∴ According to parallel axis theory

I NN = I G + Area × ( distance )
2
π D4 1 ⎛ π D2
⎞
⎟ × (h)
2
or = I xx + ⎜
128 2⎝ 4 ⎠
π D4 1 ⎛ π D 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2D ⎞
or = I xx + ×⎜ ⎟×
128 2 ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎜⎝ 3π ⎟⎠
or I xx = 0.11R 4
Case – III: Quarter circle area
IXX = one half of the moment of Inertia of the Semi-
circular area about XX.
1
I XX =
2
( )
× 0.11R 4 = 0.055 R 4
I XX = 0.055 R4
INN = one half of the moment of Inertia of the Semi-
circular area about NN.
1 π D4 π D4
∴ I NN = × =
2 64 128
(iii) Moment of Inertia of a Triangular area

(a) Moment of Inertia of a Triangular area of
a axis XX parallel to base and passes through
C.G.
bh3
I XX =
36
(b) Moment of inertia of a triangle about an
axis passes through base
bh3
I NN =
12

(iv) Moment of inertia of a thin circular ring:
Polar moment of Inertia
( J ) = R2 × area of whole ring

= R2 × 2π Rt = 2π R3 t
J
I XX = IYY = = π R 3t
2
(v) Moment of inertia of a elliptical area
π ab3
I XX =
4
Let us take an example: An I-section beam of 100 mm wide, 150 mm depth flange and web of thickness
20 mm is used in a structure of length 5 m. Determine the Moment of Inertia (of area) of cross-section of the
beam.
Answer: Carefully observe the figure below. It has sections with symmetry about the neutral axis.
bh3
We may use standard value for a rectangle about an axis passes through centroid. i.e. I = . The
12
section can thus be divided into convenient rectangles for each of which the neutral axis passes the
I Beam = I Re c tan gle - I Shaded area
⎡ 0.100 × ( 0.150 )3 0.40 × 0.1303 ⎤ 4
centroid. =⎢ -2 × ⎥m
⎢⎣ 12 12 ⎥⎦
= 1.183 × 10-4 m4
3.9 Radius of gyration

Consider area A with moment of inertia Ixx. Imagine
that the area is concentrated in a thin strip parallel to
the x axis with equivalent Ixx.

I xx
2
I xx = kxx A or kxx =
A
kxx =radius of gyration with respect to the x axis.
Similarly
I yy
2
I yy = kyy A or kyy =
A
J
J = ko2 A or ko =
A
ko2 = kxx
2 2
+ kyy
Let us take an example: Find radius of gyration for a circular area of diameter ‘d’ about central axis.
Answer:
2
We know that, I xx = K xx A

πd 4
I XX 64 = d
or K XX = =
A π d2 4
4

Moment of Inertia (Second moment of an area)

GATE-1. The second moment of a circular area about the diameter is given by (D is the
diameter) [GATE-2003]
π D4 π D4 π D4 π D4
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 16 32 64
GATE-2. The area moment of inertia of a square of size 1 unit about its diagonal is:
[GATE-2001]
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 4 12 6
Radius of Gyration
Data for Q3–Q4 are given below. Solve the problems and choose correct
answers.
A reel of mass “m” and radius of gyration “k” is rolling down smoothly from rest with one end of
the thread wound on it held in the ceiling as depicted in the figure. Consider the thickness of
the thread and its mass negligible in comparison with the radius “r” of the hub and the reel
mass “m”. Symbol “g” represents the acceleration due to gravity. [GATE-2003]
GATE-3. The linear acceleration of the reel is:

gr 2 gk2 grk mgr 2
(a) 2 (b) 2 (c) (d)
(
r +k 2
) (
r + k2 ) (r 2
+k 2
) (r 2
+ k2 )
GATE-4. The tension in the thread is:
mgr 2 mgrk mgk2 mg
(a) 2 (b) 2 (c) (d)
(
r +k 2
) (
r + k2 ) (r 2
+k 2
) (r 2
+ k2 )
d
GATE-5. For the section shown below, second moment of the area about an axis distance
4
above the bottom of the area is [CE: GATE-2006]

b
bd3 bd 3 7bd3 bd3

(a) (b) (c) (d)
48 12 48 3
r
GATE-6. A disc of radius r has a hold of radius cut-out as shown. The centroid of the
2
remaining disc(shaded portion) at a radial distance from the centre “O” is
r/2
O′
O
[CE: GATE-2010]
r r r r
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 3 6 8
Centroid
IES-1. Assertion (A): Inertia force always acts through the centroid of the body and is
directed opposite to the acceleration of the centroid. [IES-2001]
Reason (R): It has always a tendency to retard the motion.
Radius of Gyration
IES-2. Figure shows a rigid body of mass
m having radius of gyration k
about its centre of gravity. It is to
be replaced by an equivalent
dynamical system of two masses
placed at A and B. The mass at A
should be:
a×m b×m
(a) (b)
a +b a +b
m a m b
(c) × (d) ×
3 b 2 a
[IES-2003]
IES-3. Force required to accelerate a cylindrical body which rolls without slipping on a
horizontal plane (mass of cylindrical body is m, radius of the cylindrical surface in

contact with plane is r, radius of gyration of body is k and acceleration of the body is
a) is: [IES-2001]
( )
(a) m k 2 / r 2 + 1 .a (
(b) mk 2 / r 2 .a )
(c) mk2 .a (d) mk 2 / r + 1 .a( )
IES-4. A body of mass m and radius of gyration k is to be replaced by two masses m1 and m2
located at distances h1 and h2 from the CG of the original body. An equivalent
dynamic system will result, if [IES-2001]
(a) h1 + h2 =k (b) h1 + h2 = k
2 2 2
(c) h1h2 = k
2
(d) h1h2 = k 2
Radius of Gyration
IAS-1. A wheel of centroidal radius of gyration 'k' is rolling on a horizontal surface with
constant velocity. It comes across an obstruction of height 'h' Because of its rolling
speed, it just overcomes the obstruction. To determine v, one should use the principle
(s) of conservation of [IAS 1994]
(a) Energy (b) Linear momentum
(c) Energy and linear momentum (d) Energy and angular momentum
OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (d)
a 4 (1)
4
GATE-2. Ans. (c) I xx = =

12 12
GATE-3. Ans. (a) For downward linear motion mg – T = mf, where f = linear tangential acceleration = rα,
α = rotational acceleration. Considering rotational motion Tr = I α .
f gr 2
or, T = mk 2 × therefore mg – T = mf gives f = 2
r 2
(
r + k2 )

f gr 2 mgk2
GATE-4. Ans. (c) T = mk × 2 = mk 2 × 2 2
2
=
r r r + k2 (r 2 + k2 ) ( )
GATE-5. Ans. (c)
Using parallel axis theorem, we get the second moment of inertia as
2
bd3 ⎛d d⎞ bd3 bd3 7bd3
I= + bx ⎜ − ⎟ = + =
12 ⎝2 4⎠ 12 16 48
GATE-6. Ans. (c)
The centroid of the shaded portion of the disc is given by
A x + A 2 x2
x= 1 1
A1 + A 2
where x is the radial distance from Q.
A1 = πr 2 ; x1 = 0;
2
⎛r⎞ πr 2
A2 = − π × ⎜ ⎟ = −
⎝2⎠ 4
r
x2 =
2
πr 2 r πr 2
πr 2 × 0 − ×
∴ x= 4 2 =− 2
2
πr 3πr 2
πr 2 −
4
r
⇒ x=−
6
IES-1. Ans. (c) It has always a tendency to oppose the motion not retard. If we want to retard a motion
then it will wand to accelerate.
IES-2. Ans. (b)
IES-3. Ans. (a)
IES-4. Ans. (c)
IAS-1. Ans. (a)

Question: When are I-sections preferred in engineering applications? Elaborate your answer.
Answer: I-section has large section modulus. It will reduce the stresses induced in the material. Since
I-section has the considerable area are far away from the natural so its section modulus
increased.

4. Bending Moment and Shear Force
Diagram
4.1 Shear Force and Bending Moment
At first we try to understand what shear force is and what is bending moment?
We will not introduce any other co-ordinate system.
We use general co-ordinate axis as shown in the
figure. This system will be followed in shear force and
bending moment diagram and in deflection of beam.
Here downward direction will be negative i.e.
negative Y-axis. Therefore downward deflection of the
We use above Co-ordinate system
beam will be treated as negative.
Some books fix a co-ordinate axis as shown in the

following figure. Here downward direction will be
positive i.e. positive Y-axis. Therefore downward
deflection of the beam will be treated as positive. As
beam is generally deflected in downward directions
and this co-ordinate system treats downward Some books use above co-ordinate system
deflection is positive deflection.
Consider a cantilever beam as shown subjected to
external load ‘P’. If we imagine this beam to be cut by
a section X-X, we see that the applied force tend to
displace the left-hand portion of the beam relative to
the right hand portion, which is fixed in the wall.
This tendency is resisted by internal forces between
the two parts of the beam. At the cut section a
resistance shear force (Vx) and a bending moment
(Mx) is induced. This resistance shear force and the
bending moment at the cut section is shown in the
left hand and right hand portion of the cut beam.
Using the three equations of equilibrium
∑F x =0 , ∑Fy = 0 and ∑M i =0
We find that Vx = −P and M x = −P . x
In this chapter we want to show pictorially the

Chapter-4 Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagram S K Mondal’s
variation of shear force and bending moment in a
beam as a function of ‘x' measured from one end of
the beam.
Shear Force (V) ≡ equal in magnitude but opposite in direction

to the algebraic sum (resultant) of the components in the
direction perpendicular to the axis of the beam of all external
loads and support reactions acting on either side of the section
being considered.
Bending Moment (M) equal in magnitude but opposite in

direction to the algebraic sum of the moments about (the
centroid of the cross section of the beam) the section of all
external loads and support reactions acting on either side of
the section being considered.
What are the benefits of drawing shear force and bending moment diagram?
The benefits of drawing a variation of shear force and bending moment in a beam as a function of ‘x'
measured from one end of the beam is that it becomes easier to determine the maximum absolute value of
shear force and bending moment. The shear force and bending moment diagram gives a clear picture in our
mind about the variation of SF and BM throughout the entire section of the beam.
Further, the determination of value of bending moment as a function of ‘x' becomes very important so as to
determine the value of deflection of beam subjected to a given loading where we will use the formula,
d 2y
EI = Mx .
dx 2
4.2 Notation and sign convention

• Shear force (V)
Positive Shear Force
A shearing force having a downward direction to the right hand side of a section or upwards to the
left hand of the section will be taken as ‘positive’. It is the usual sign conventions to be followed for
the shear force. In some book followed totally opposite sign convention.

The upward direction shearing The downward direction

force which is on the left hand shearing force which is on the
of the section XX is positive right hand of the section XX is
shear force. positive shear force.
Negative Shear Force

A shearing force having an upward direction to the right hand side of a section or downwards to the
left hand of the section will be taken as ‘negative’.
The downward direction The upward direction shearing

shearing force which is on the force which is on the right
left hand of the section XX is hand of the section XX is
negative shear force. negative shear force.
• Bending Moment (M)

Positive Bending Moment
A bending moment causing concavity upwards will be taken as ‘positive’ and called as sagging
bending moment.

Sagging
If the bending moment of If the bending moment of A bending moment causing

the left hand of the section the right hand of the concavity upwards will be
XX is clockwise then it is a section XX is anti- taken as ‘positive’ and
positive bending moment. clockwise then it is a called as sagging bending
positive bending moment. moment.
Negative Bending Moment
Hogging
If the bending moment of If the bending moment of A bending moment causing
the left hand of the section the right hand of the convexity upwards will be
XX is anti-clockwise then section XX is clockwise taken as ‘negative’ and called
it is a positive bending then it is a positive as hogging bending moment.
moment. bending moment.
Way to remember sign convention

• Remember in the Cantilever beam both Shear force and BM are negative (–ive).
4.3 Relation between S.F (Vx), B.M. (Mx) & Load (w)
dVx
• = -w (load) The value of the distributed load at any point in the beam is equal to
dx
the slope of the shear force curve. (Note that the sign of this rule may change depending on the sign
convention used for the external distributed load).
dM x
• = Vx The value of the shear force at any point in the beam is equal to the slope of the
dx
bending moment curve.

4.4 Procedure for drawing shear force and bending moment diagram
Construction of shear force diagram
• From the loading diagram of the beam constructed shear force diagram.
• First determine the reactions.
• Then the vertical components of forces and reactions are successively summed from the left end of
the beam to preserve the mathematical sign conventions adopted. The shear at a section is simply
equal to the sum of all the vertical forces to the left of the section.
• The shear force curve is continuous unless there is a point force on the beam. The curve then
“jumps” by the magnitude of the point force (+ for upward force).
• When the successive summation process is used, the shear force diagram should end up with the
previously calculated shear (reaction at right end of the beam). No shear force acts through the
beam just beyond the last vertical force or reaction. If the shear force diagram closes in this fashion,
then it gives an important check on mathematical calculations. i.e. The shear force will be zero at
each end of the beam unless a point force is applied at the end.
Construction of bending moment diagram
• The bending moment diagram is obtained by proceeding continuously along the length of beam from
the left hand end and summing up the areas of shear force diagrams using proper sign convention.
• The process of obtaining the moment diagram from the shear force diagram by summation is
exactly the same as that for drawing shear force diagram from load diagram.
• The bending moment curve is continuous unless there is a point moment on the beam. The curve
then “jumps” by the magnitude of the point moment (+ for CW moment).
• We know that a constant shear force produces a uniform change in the bending moment, resulting
in straight line in the moment diagram. If no shear force exists along a certain portion of a beam,
then it indicates that there is no change in moment takes place. We also know that dM/dx= Vx
therefore, from the fundamental theorem of calculus the maximum or minimum moment occurs
where the shear is zero.
• The bending moment will be zero at each free or pinned end of the beam. If the end is built in, the
moment computed by the summation must be equal to the one calculated initially for the reaction.
4.5 Different types of Loading and their S.F & B.M Diagram
(i) A Cantilever beam with a concentrated load ‘P’ at its free end.

Shear force:
At a section a distance x from free end consider the forces to
the left, then (Vx) = - P (for all values of x) negative in sign
i.e. the shear force to the left of the x-section are in downward
direction and therefore negative.
Bending Moment:
Taking moments about the section gives (obviously to the left
S.F and B.M diagram
of the section) Mx = -P.x (negative sign means that the
moment on the left hand side of the portion is in the
anticlockwise direction and is therefore taken as negative
according to the sign convention) so that the maximum
bending moment occurs at the fixed end i.e. Mmax = - PL
(at x = L)
(ii) A Cantilever beam with uniformly distributed load over the whole length
When a cantilever beam is subjected to a uniformly
distributed load whose intensity is given w /unit length.
Shear force:
Consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from
the free end. If we just take the resultant of all the forces on
the left of the X-section, then
Vx = -w.x for all values of ‘x'.
At x = 0, Vx = 0
At x = L, Vx = -wL (i.e. Maximum at fixed end)
Plotting the equation Vx = -w.x, we get a straight line
because it is a equation of a straight line y (Vx) = m(- w) .x
Bending Moment:
Bending Moment at XX is obtained by treating the load to the
S.F and B.M diagram
left of XX as a concentrated load of the same value (w.x)
acting through the centre of gravity at x/2.
Therefore, the bending moment at any cross-section XX is
x w .x 2
M x = ( −w .x ) . =−
2 2
Therefore the variation of bending moment is according to parabolic law.
The extreme values of B.M would be
at x = 0, Mx = 0
wL2
and x = L, Mx = −
2

2
wL
Maximum bending moment, Mmax = at fixed end
2
Another way to describe a cantilever beam with uniformly distributed load (UDL) over it’s whole length.
(iii) A Cantilever beam loaded as shown below draw its S.F and B.M diagram
In the region 0 < x < a

Following the same rule as followed previously, we get
Vx =- P; and Mx = - P.x
In the region a < x < L
Vx = - P +P=0; and Mx = - P.x +P ( x − a ) = P.a
S.F and B.M diagram
(iv) Let us take an example: Consider a cantilever bean of 5 m length. It carries a uniformly distributed
load 3 KN/m and a concentrated load of 7 kN at the free end and 10 kN at 3 meters from the fixed end.
Draw SF and BM diagram.

Answer: In the region 0 < x < 2 m
Consider any cross section XX at a distance x from free end.
Shear force (Vx) = -7- 3x
So, the variation of shear force is linear.
at x = 0, Vx = -7 kN
at x = 2 m , Vx = -7 - 3 × 2 = -13 kN
at point Z Vx = -7 -3 × 2-10 = -23 Kn

x 3x 2
Bending moment (Mx) = -7x - (3x). =− − 7x
2 2
So, the variation of bending force is parabolic.
at x = 0, Mx = 0
2
at x = 2 m, Mx = -7 × 2 – (3 × 2) × = - 20 kNm
2
In the region 2 m < x < 5 m
Consider any cross section YY at a distance x from free end
Shear force (Vx) = -7 - 3x – 10 = -17- 3x
So, the variation of shear force is linear.
at x = 2 m, Vx = - 23 kN
at x = 5 m, Vx = - 32 kN
⎛x⎞
Bending moment (Mx) = - 7x – (3x) × ⎜ ⎟ - 10 (x - 2)
⎝2⎠
3
= − x 2 − 17 x + 20
2
So, the variation of bending force is parabolic.
3 2
at x = 2 m, Mx = − × 2 − 17 × 2 + 20 = - 20 kNm
2
at x = 5 m, Mx = - 102.5 kNm
(v) A Cantilever beam carrying uniformly varying load from zero at free end and w/unit
length at the fixed end

Consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from the free end.

w
At this point load (wx) = .x
L
L L
w wL
∫
Therefore total load (W) = w x dx =
0
∫ L .xdx =
0 2
Shear force ( Vx ) = area of ABC (load triangle)

1 ⎛w ⎞ wx 2
= − . ⎜ x ⎟ .x = −
2 ⎝L ⎠ 2L
∴ The shear force variation is parabolic.
at x = 0, Vx = 0
WL − WL
at x = L, Vx = − i.e. Maximum Shear force (Vmax ) = at fixed end
2 2
Bending moment ( Mx ) = load × distance from centroid of triangle ABC
wx 2 ⎛ x ⎞ wx 3
=−
.⎜ ⎟ = −
2L ⎝ 3 ⎠ 6L
∴ The bending moment variation is cubic.
at x= 0, Mx = 0
wL2 wL2
at x = L, Mx = − i.e. Maximum Bending moment (Mmax ) = at fixed end.
6 6

Alternative way : ( Integration method)
d ( Vx ) w
We know that = − load = − .x
dx L
w
or d(Vx ) = − .x .dx
L
Integrating both side
Vx x
w
∫ d ( Vx ) = − ∫
0 0
L
. x .dx
w x2
or Vx = − .
L 2
Again we know that
d (Mx ) wx 2
= Vx = -
dx 2L
wx 2
or d (Mx ) = - dx
2L
Integrating both side we get ( at x=0,Mx =0 )
Mx
wx 2
x
∫0
d(Mx ) = − ∫
0
2L
.dx
w x3 wx 3
or Mx = - × =-
2L 3 6L
(vi) A Cantilever beam carrying gradually varying load from zero at fixed end and w/unit
length at the free end
wL2 wL
Considering equilibrium we get, MA = and Reaction (R A ) =
3 2
Considering any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from the fixed end.
W
At this point load (Wx ) = .x
L
Shear force ( Vx ) = R A − area of triangle ANM
wL 1 ⎛ w ⎞ wL wx 2
= - . ⎜ .x ⎟ .x = + -
2 2 ⎝L ⎠ 2 2L
wL wL
at x = 0, Vx = + i.e. Maximum shear force, Vmax = +
2 2
at x = L, Vx = 0
wx 2 2x
Bending moment ( Mx ) =R A .x - . - MA
2L 3

wL wx 3 wL2
= .x - -
2 6L 3
∴ The bending moment variation is cubic
wL2 wL2
at x = 0, Mx = − i.e.Maximum B.M. (Mmax ) = − .
3 3
at x = L, Mx = 0
(vii) A Cantilever beam carrying a moment M at free end
Consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from the free end.

Shear force: Vx = 0 at any point.
Bending moment (Mx) = -M at any point, i.e. Bending moment is constant throughout the length.
(viii) A Simply supported beam with a concentrated load ‘P’ at its mid span.

P
Considering equilibrium we get, RA = RB =
2
Now consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from left end A and section YY at a
distance from left end A, as shown in figure below.
Shear force: In the region 0 < x < L/2
Vx = RA = + P/2 (it is constant)
In the region L/2 < x < L
P
Vx = RA – P = - P = - P/2 (it is constant)
2
Bending moment: In the region 0 < x < L/2
P
Mx = .x (its variation is linear)
2
PL
at x = 0, Mx = 0 and at x = L/2 Mx = i.e. maximum
4
PL
Maximum bending moment, Mmax = at x = L/2 (at mid-point)
4
P PL P
Mx = .x – P(x - L/2) = − .x (its variation is linear)
2 2 2
PL
at x = L/2 , Mx = and at x = L, Mx = 0
4
(ix) A Simply supported beam with a concentrated load ‘P’ is not at its mid span.
Pb Pa
Considering equilibrium we get, RA = and RB =
L L
Now consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance x from left end A and another section YY at
a distance x from end A as shown in figure below.

Shear force: In the range 0 < x < a
Pb
Vx = RA = + (it is constant)
L
In the range a < x < L
Pa
Vx = RA - P = - (it is constant)
L
Bending moment: In the range 0 < x < a
Pb
Mx = +RA.x = .x (it is variation is linear)
L
Pab
at x = 0, Mx = 0 and at x = a, Mx = (i.e. maximum)
L
In the range a < x < L
Pb
Mx = RA.x – P(x- a) = .x – P.x + Pa (Put b = L - a)
L
⎛ x⎞
= Pa (1 - Pa ⎜ 1 − )
⎝ L ⎟⎠
Pab
at x = a, Mx = and at x = L, Mx = 0
L
(x) A Simply supported beam with two concentrated load ‘P’ from a distance ‘a’ both end.
The loading is shown below diagram

Take a section at a distance x from the left support. This section is applicable for any value of x just to the
left of the applied force P. The shear, remains constant and is +P. The bending moment varies linearly from
the support, reaching a maximum of +Pa.
A section applicable anywhere between the two applied forces. Shear force is not necessary to maintain
equilibrium of a segment in this part of the beam. Only a constant bending moment of +Pa must be resisted
by the beam in this zone.
Such a state of bending or flexure is called pure bending.

Shear and bending-moment diagrams for this loading condition are shown below.
(xi) A Simply supported beam with a uniformly distributed load (UDL) through out its length
We will solve this problem by following two alternative ways.

(a) By Method of Section
wL
Considering equilibrium we get RA = RB =
2
Now Consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance x from left end A.

Then the section view
wL
Shear force: Vx = − wx
2
(i.e. S.F. variation is linear)
wL
at x = 0, Vx =
2
at x = L/2, Vx = 0
wL
at x = L, Vx = -
2
wL wx 2
Bending moment: M x = .x −
2 2
(i.e. B.M. variation is parabolic)
at x = 0, Mx = 0
at x = L, Mx = 0
Now we have to determine maximum bending
moment and its position.
d (Mx ) ⎡ d (Mx ) ⎤
For maximum B.M: = 0 i .e. Vx = 0 ⎢∵ = Vx ⎥
dx ⎣ dx ⎦
wL L
or − wx = 0 or x=
2 2
wL2
Therefore, maximum bending moment, Mmax = at x = L/2
8
(a) By Method of Integration
Shear force:
d (Vx )
We know that, = −w
dx
or d (Vx ) = −wdx
wL
Integrating both side we get (at x =0, Vx = )
2

Vx x
∫ d (V ) = −∫ wdx
wL
x
0
+
2
wL
or Vx − = −wx
2
wL
or Vx = − wx
2
Bending moment:
d ( Mx )
We know that, = Vx
dx
⎛ wL ⎞
or d ( M x ) = Vx dx = ⎜ − wx ⎟ dx
⎝ 2 ⎠
Integrating both side we get (at x =0, Vx =0)
Mx
⎛ wL ⎞
x
∫ d (Mx ) = ∫ ⎜ − wx ⎟ dx
o 0⎝
2 ⎠
wL wx 2
or M x = .x −
2 2
Let us take an example: A loaded beam as shown below. Draw its S.F and B.M diagram.
Considering equilibrium we get
∑M A
= 0 gives
- ( 200 × 4 ) × 2 − 3000 × 4 + RB × 8 = 0
or RB = 1700N
And R A + RB = 200 × 4 + 3000

or R A = 2100N
Now consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance 'x' from left end A and
as shown in figure

In the region 0 < x < 4m
Shear force (Vx) = RA – 200x = 2100 – 200 x
⎛x⎞
Bending moment (Mx) = RA .x – 200 x . ⎜ ⎟ = 2100 x -100 x
2
⎝2⎠
at x = 0, Vx = 2100 N, Mx = 0
at x = 4m, Vx = 1300 N, Mx = 6800 N.m
In the region 4 m < x < 8 m
Shear force (Vx) = RA - 200 × 4 – 3000 = -1700
Bending moment (Mx) = RA. x - 200 × 4 (x-2) – 3000 (x- 4)
= 2100 x – 800 x + 1600 – 3000x +12000 = 13600 -1700 x
at x = 4 m, Vx = -1700 N, Mx = 6800 Nm
at x = 8 m, Vx = -1700 N, Mx = 0

(xii) A Simply supported beam with a gradually varying load (GVL) zero at one end and w/unit
length at other span.
1
Consider equilibrium of the beam = wL acting at a point C at a distance 2L/3 to the left end A.
2
∑M B
= 0 gives
wL L
R A .L - . =0
2 3
wL
or R A =
6
wL
Similarly ∑M A
= 0 gives RB =
3
w
The free body diagram of section A - XX as shown below, Load at section XX, (wx) = x
L

1 w wx 2
The resulted of that part of the distributed load which acts on this free body is = ( x). x = applied
2 L 2L
at a point Z, distance x/3 from XX section.
wx 2 wL wx 2
Shear force (Vx) = R A - = -
2L 6 2L
Therefore the variation of shear force is parabolic
wL
at x = 0, Vx =
6
wL
at x = L, Vx = -
3
wL wx 2 x wL wx 3
and Bending Moment (Mx ) = .x − . = .x −
6 2L 3 6 6L
The variation of BM is cubic
at x = 0, Mx = 0
at x = L, Mx = 0
d (Mx ) ⎡ d (Mx ) ⎤
For maximum BM; =0 i.e. Vx = 0 ⎢∵ = Vx ⎥
dx ⎣ dx ⎦
wL wx 2 L
or - = 0 or x =
6 2L 3
3
wL ⎛ L ⎞ w ⎛ L ⎞ wL2
and Mmax = ×⎜ ⎟ − × ⎜ ⎟ =
6 ⎝ 3 ⎠ 6L ⎝ 3 ⎠ 9 3
wL2
i.e. Mmax = at x =
L
9 3 3

(xiii) A Simply supported beam with a gradually varying load (GVL) zero at each end and w/unit
length at mid span.
⎛1 L ⎞ wL
Consider equilibrium of the beam AB total load on the beam = 2 × ⎜ × × w⎟ =
⎝2 2 ⎠ 2
wL
Therefore R A = RB =
4
2w
The free body diagram of section A –XX as shown below, load at section XX (wx) = .x
L
1 2w wx 2
The resultant of that part of the distributed load which acts on this free body is = .x. .x =
2 L L
applied at a point, distance x/3 from section XX.
Shear force (Vx):
In the region 0 < x < L/2

wx 2 wL wx 2
( Vx ) = R A − = −
L 4 L
Therefore the variation of shear force is parabolic.
wL
at x = 0, Vx =
4
at x = L/4, Vx = 0
In the region of L/2 < x < L
The Diagram will be Mirror image of AC.
Bending moment (Mx):

wL ⎛ 1 2wx ⎞ wL wx 3
Mx = .x − ⎜ .x. . ( x / 3 ) = -
4 ⎝2 L ⎟⎠ 4 3L
at x = 0, Mx = 0
wL2
at x = L/2, Mx =
12
BM diagram will be mirror image of AC.
For maximum bending moment
d (Mx ) ⎡ d (Mx ) ⎤
=0 i.e. Vx = 0 ⎢∵ = Vx ⎥
dx ⎣ dx ⎦
wL wx 2 L
or - = 0 or x =
4 L 2
2
wL
and Mmax =
12
wL2
i.e. Mmax = at x =
L
12 2

(xiv) A Simply supported beam with a gradually varying load (GVL) zero at mid span and w/unit
length at each end.
We now superimpose two beams as

(1) Simply supported beam with a UDL through
at its length
wL
( Vx )1 = − wx
2
wL wx 2
(Mx )1 = .x −
2 2
And (2) a simply supported beam with a gradually varying load (GVL) zero at each end and w/unit length at
mind span.
In the range 0 < x < L/2
wL wx 2
( Vx )2 = −
4 L
wL wx 3
( Mx ) 2 = .x −
4 3L
Now superimposing we get
Shear force (Vx):
In the region of 0< x < L/2

⎞ ⎛ wL wx ⎞
2
⎛ wL
Vx = ( Vx )1 − ( Vx )2 = ⎜ -wx ⎟ − ⎜ - ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 4 L ⎠
w
= ( x - L/2 )
2
L
Therefore the variation of shear force is parabolic
wL
at x = 0, Vx = +
4
at x = L/2, Vx = 0
The diagram will be mirror image of AC
Bending moment (Mx) = (Mx )1 - (Mx )2 =
⎛ wL wx 2 ⎞ ⎛ wL wx 3 ⎞ wx 3 wx 2 wL
=⎜ .x − −
⎟ ⎜ .x − ⎟= − + .x
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 4 3L ⎠ 3L 2 4
at x = 0, Mx = 0
wx 2
at x = L / 2, Mx =
24
(xv) A simply supported beam with a gradually varying load (GVL) w1/unit length at one end
and w2/unit length at other end.

At first we will treat this problem by considering a UDL of identifying (w1)/unit length over the whole
length and a varying load of zero at one end to (w2- w1)/unit length at the other end. Then superimpose the
two loadings.
Consider a section XX at a distance x from left end A

(i) Simply supported beam with UDL (w1) over whole length
w1L
( Vx )1 = − w1x
2
wL 1
(Mx )1 = 1 .x − w1x 2
2 2
And (ii) simply supported beam with (GVL) zero at one end (w2- w1) at other end gives
(w 2 − w1 ) − (w 2 − w1 ) x 2
(Vx )2 =
6 2L
L (w 2 − w1 ) x 3
( M x )2 = ( w 2 − w 1 ) . .x −
6 6L
Now superimposing we get
w 1L w 2L x2
Shear force ( Vx ) = ( Vx )1 + ( Vx )2 = + − w 1x − ( w 2 − w 1 )
3 6 2L
∴ The SF variation is parabolic
w1L w 2L L
at x = 0, Vx = + = ( 2w1 + w 2 )
3 6 6
L
at x = L, Vx = − ( w1 + 2w 2 )
6
w1L wL 1 ⎛ w -w ⎞
Bending moment ( Mx ) = (Mx )1 + (Mx )2 = .x + 1 .x − w1x 2 − ⎜ 2 1 ⎟ .x 3
3 6 2 ⎝ 6L ⎠
∴The BM variation is cubic.
at x = 0, Mx = 0
at x = L, Mx = 0

(xvi) A Simply supported beam carrying a continuously distributed load. The intensity of the
⎛πx ⎞
load at any point is, w x = w sin ⎜ ⎟ . Where ‘x’ is the distance from each end of the beam.
⎝ L ⎠
We will use Integration method as it is easier in this case.
d ( Vx ) d (Mx )
We know that = load and = Vx
dx dx
d ( Vx ) ⎛πx ⎞
Therefore = −w sin ⎜ ⎟
dx ⎝ L ⎠
⎛πx ⎞
d ( Vx ) = −w sin ⎜ ⎟ dx
⎝ L ⎠
⎛πx ⎞
w cos ⎜ ⎟
⎛πx ⎞ ⎝ L ⎠ + A = + wL cos ⎛ π x ⎞ + A
∫ d ( V ) = − w ∫ sin ⎜⎝
x
L ⎟⎠
dx or Vx = +
π π ⎜ L ⎟
⎝ ⎠
L
[ where, A = constant of Integration]

Again we know that
d (Mx ) ⎧ wL ⎛πx ⎞ ⎫
= Vx or d (Mx ) = Vx dx = ⎨ cos ⎜ ⎟ + A ⎬ dx
dx ⎩π ⎝ L ⎠ ⎭
wL ⎛πx ⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟
π ⎝ L ⎠ + Ax + B = wL sin ⎛ π x ⎞ + Ax + B
2
Mx = ⎜ L ⎟
π π2 ⎝ ⎠
L
[Where B = constant of Integration]
Now apply boundary conditions
At x = 0, Mx = 0 and at x = L, Mx = 0
This gives A = 0 and B = 0
⎛πx ⎞
wL wL
∴ Shear force ( Vx ) =
cos ⎜ ⎟ and Vmax = at x = 0
π ⎝ L ⎠ π
wL2 ⎛πx ⎞
And Mx = 2 sin ⎜ ⎟
π ⎝ L ⎠
wL2
∴ Mmax = at x = L/2
π2
(xvii) A Simply supported beam with a couple or moment at a distance ‘a’ from left end.
Considering equilibrium we get

∑ A
M = 0 gives
M
RB ×L +M = 0 or RB = −
L
and ∑M B = 0 gives
M
− R A ×L +M = 0 or R A =
L
Now consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance ‘x’ from left end A and another section YY at a
distance ‘x’ from left end A as shown in figure.
In the region 0 < x < a
M
Shear force (Vx) = RA =
L
M
Bending moment (Mx) = RA.x = .x
L
In the region a< x < L
M
Shear force (Vx) = RA =
L
M
Bending moment (Mx) = RA.x – M = .x - M
L

(xviii) A Simply supported beam with an eccentric load
When the beam is subjected to an eccentric load, the eccentric load is to be changed into a couple = Force ×
(distance travel by force)
= P.a (in this case) and a force = P
Therefore equivalent load diagram will be
Considering equilibrium
∑M A = 0 gives
-P.(L/2) + P.a + RB × L = 0
P P.a P P.a
or RB = − and RA + RB = P gives RA = +
2 L 2 L
Now consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance ‘x’ from left end A and another section YY at a
distance ‘x’ from left end A as shown in figure.


P P.a
Shear force (Vx) = +
2 L
⎛ P Pa ⎞
Bending moment (Mx) = RA . x = ⎜ + ⎟.x
⎝2 L ⎠
P Pa P Pa
Shear force (Vx) = + −P =- +
2 L 2 L
Bending moment (Vx) = RA . x – P.( x - L/2 ) – M
PL ⎛ P Pa ⎞
= − − .x - Pa
2 ⎜⎝ 2 L ⎟⎠
4.6 Bending Moment diagram of Statically Indeterminate beam

Beams for which reaction forces and internal forces cannot be found out from static equilibrium equations
alone are called statically indeterminate beam. This type of beam requires deformation equation in addition
to static equilibrium equations to solve for unknown forces.
Statically determinate - Equilibrium conditions sufficient to compute reactions.

Statically indeterminate - Deflections (Compatibility conditions) along with equilibrium equations
should be used to find out reactions.
Type of Loading & B.M Diagram Reaction Bending Moment

RA= RB =
P PL
2 MA = MB = -
8
wL wL2
RA = RB =
2 MA= MB = -
12
Pb 2 Pab 2
R A = 3 (3a + b) MA = - −
L L2
Pa 2 Pa 2b
RB = (3b + a ) MB = - −
L3 L2
3wL
RA= RB =
16
5wL
Rc =
8
RA RB
+
- -

4.7 Load and Bending Moment diagram from Shear Force diagram
OR
Load and Shear Force diagram from Bending Moment diagram
If S.F. Diagram for a beam is given, then
(i) If S.F. diagram consists of rectangle then the load will be point load
(ii) If S.F diagram consists of inclined line then the load will be UDL on that portion
(iii) If S.F diagram consists of parabolic curve then the load will be GVL
(iv) If S.F diagram consists of cubic curve then the load distribute is parabolic.
After finding load diagram we can draw B.M diagram easily.
If B.M Diagram for a beam is given, then
(i) If B.M diagram consists of inclined line then the load will be free point load
(ii) If B.M diagram consists of parabolic curve then the load will be U.D.L.
(iii) If B.M diagram consists of cubic curve then the load will be G.V.L.
(iv) If B.M diagram consists of fourth degree polynomial then the load distribution is parabolic.
Let us take an example: Following is the S.F diagram of a beam is given. Find its loading diagram.
Answer: From A-E inclined straight line so load will be UDL and in AB = 2 m length load = 6 kN if UDL is
w N/m then w.x = 6 or w × 2 = 6 or w = 3 kN/m after that S.F is constant so no force is there. At last a 6 kN
for vertical force complete the diagram then the load diagram will be
As there is no support at left end it must be a cantilever beam.

4.8 Point of Contraflexure

In a beam if the bending moment changes sign at a point, the point itself having zero bending moment, the
beam changes curvature at this point of zero bending moment and this point is called the point of contra
flexure.
Consider a loaded beam as shown below along with the B.M diagrams and deflection diagram.
In this diagram we noticed that for the beam loaded as in this case, the bending moment diagram is partly
positive and partly negative. In the deflected shape of the beam just below the bending moment diagram
shows that left hand side of the beam is ‘sagging' while the right hand side of the beam is ‘hogging’.
The point C on the beam where the curvature changes from sagging to hogging is a point of contraflexure.
• There can be more than one point of contraflexure in a beam.
4.9 General expression

d4y
• EI = −ω
dx 2
d3y
• EI = Vx
dx3
d2y
• EI = Mx
dx 2
dy
• = θ = slope
dx
• y= δ = Deflection
• Flexural rigidity = EI

Shear Force (S.F.) and Bending Moment (B.M.)

GATE-1. A concentrated force, F is applied
(perpendicular to the plane of the figure) on
the tip of the bent bar shown in Figure. The
equivalent load at a section close to the fixed
end is:
(a) Force F
(b) Force F and bending moment FL
(c) Force F and twisting moment FL
(d) Force F bending moment F L, and twisting
moment FL
[GATE-1999]
GATE-2. The shear force in a beam subjected to pure positive bending is……
(positive/zero/negative) [GATE-1995]
GATE-2(i) For the cantilever bracket, PQRS, loaded as shown in the adjoining figure(PQ = RL =
L, and QR = 2L), which of the following statements is FALSE? [CE: GATE-2011]
S
Fixed R
P
2L
W Q
(a) The portion RS has a constant twisting moment with a value of 2WL
(b) The portion QR has a varying twisting moment with a maximum value of WL.
(c) The portiona PQ has a varying bending moment with a maximum value of WL
(d) The portion PQ has no twisting moment
Cantilever
GATE-3. Two identical cantilever beams are supported as shown, with their free ends in
contact through a rigid roller. After the load P is applied, the free ends will have
[GATE-2005]
(a) Equal deflections but not equal slopes

(b) Equal slopes but not equal deflections
(c) Equal slopes as well as equal deflections
(d) Neither equal slopes nor equal deflections

GATE-4. A beam is made up of two

identical bars AB and BC, by
hinging them together at B. The
end A is built-in (cantilevered)
and the end C is simply-
supported. With the load P acting
as shown, the bending moment at
A is:
[GATE-2005]
PL 3PL
(a) Zero (b) (c) (d) Indeterminate
2 2
Cantilever with Uniformly Distributed Load

GATE-5. The shapes of the bending moment diagram for a uniform cantilever beam carrying a
uniformly distributed load over its length is: [GATE-2001]
(a) A straight line (b) A hyperbola (c) An ellipse (d) A parabola
Cantilever Carrying load Whose Intensity varies

GATE-6. A cantilever beam carries the anti-
symmetric load shown, where ωo is
the peak intensity of the
distributed load. Qualitatively, the
correct bending moment diagram
for this beam is:
[GATE-2005]
Simply Supported Beam Carrying Concentrated Load

L
GATE-7. A concentrated load of P acts on a simply supported beam of span L at a distance
3
from the left support. The bending moment at the point of application of the load is
given by [GATE-2003]
PL 2 PL PL 2 PL
(a) (b) (c ) (d )
3 3 9 9

GATE-8. A simply supported beam carries a load 'P'
through a bracket, as shown in Figure. The
maximum bending moment in the beam is
(a) PI/2 (b) PI/2 + aP/2
(c) PI/2 + aP (d) PI/2 – aP
[GATE-2000]
Simply Supported Beam Carrying a Uniformly Distributed

Load
Statement for Linked Answer and Questions Q9-Q10:
A mass less beam has a loading pattern as shown in the figure. The beam is of rectangular cross-
section with a width of 30 mm and height of 100 mm. [GATE-2010]
GATE-9. The maximum bending moment occurs at

(a) Location B (b) 2675 mm to the right of A
(c) 2500 mm to the right of A (d) 3225 mm to the right of A
GATE-10. The maximum magnitude of bending stress (in MPa) is given by

(a) 60.0 (b) 67.5 (c) 200.0 (d) 225.0
Data for Q11-Q12 are given below. Solve the problems and choose correct
answers
A steel beam of breadth 120 mm and
height 750 mm is loaded as shown in the
figure. Assume Esteel= 200 GPa.
[GATE-2004]
GATE-11. The beam is subjected to a maximum bending moment of
(a) 3375 kNm (b) 4750 kNm (c) 6750 kNm (d) 8750 kNm
GATE-12. The value of maximum deflection of the beam is:

(a) 93.75 mm (b) 83.75 mm (c) 73.75 mm (d) 63.75 mm
Statement for Linked Answer and Questions Q13-Q14:

A simply supported beam of span length 6m and 75mm diameter carries a uniformly distributed
load of 1.5 kN/m [GATE-2006]
GATE-13. What is the maximum value of bending moment?

(a) 9 kNm (b) 13.5 kNm (c) 81 kNm (d) 125 kNm
GATE-14. What is the maximum value of bending stress?

(a) 162.98 MPa (b) 325.95 MPa (c) 625.95 MPa (d) 651.90 MPa
Common Data for Question 14(i) and 14(ii):

A three-span continuous beam has an internal hinge at B. Section B is at the mid-span of AC,
Section E is at the mid-span of CG. The 20 kN load is applied at section B whereas 10 kN loads
are applied at sections D and F as shown in the figure. Span GH is subjected to uniformly

distributed load of magnitude 5 kN/m. For the loading shown, shear force immediate to the
right of section E is 9.84 kN upwards and the hogging moment at section E is 10.31 kN-m
[CE: GATE-2004]
20 kN 10 kN 10 kN 5 kN /m
B D F
A
C G H
4m 4m 4m
GATE-14(i)The magnitude of the shear force immediate to the left and immediate to the right of
section B are, respectively [CE: GATE-2004]
(a) 0 and 20 kN (b) 10 kN and 10 kN
(c) 20 kN and 0 (d) 9.84 kN and 10.16 kN
GATE-14(ii)The vertical reaction at support H is [CE: GATE-2004]

(a) 15 kN upward (b) 9.84 kN upward
(c) 15 kN downward (d) 9.84 downward
Simply Supported Beam Carrying a Load whose Intensity

varies Uniformly from Zero at each End to w per Unit Run
at the MiD Span
GATE-16. A simply supported beam of length 'l' is subjected to a symmetrical uniformly varying
load with zero intensity at the ends and intensity w (load per unit length) at the mid
span. What is the maximum bending moment? [IAS-2004]
3wl 2 wl 2 wl 2 5wl 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 12 24 12
GATE-16(i)For the simply supported beam of length L, subjected toa uniformly distributed
moment M kN-m per unit length as shown in the figure, the bending moment (in kN-
m) at the mid-span of the beam is [CE: GATE-2010]
M kN-m per unit length
L
M
(a) zero (b) M (c) ML (d)
L
GATE-16(ii) A simply supported beam of length L is subjected to a varying distributed load

( / ) Nm-1, where the distance x is measured from the left support. The
magnitude of the vertical reaction force in N at the left support is [GATE-2013]
(a) zero (b) L/3π (c) L/π (d) 2L/π
GATE-17. List-I shows different loads acting on a beam and List-II shows different bending
moment distributions. Match the load with the corresponding bending moment
diagram.
List-I List-II [CE: GATE-2003]
A. 1.

B. 2.
C. 3.
D. 4.
5.
Codes
A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 2 1 3 (b) 5 4 1 3
(c) 2 5 3 1 (d) 2 4 1 3
GATE-18. The bending moment diagram for a beam is given below: [CE: GATE-2005]
b 200 kN-m
a
100 kN-m
a′ b′
0.5m 0.5m 1m 1m
The shear force at sections aa′ and bb′ respectively are of the magnitude.
(a) 100 kN, 150 kN (b) zero, 100 kN
(c) zero, 50 kN (d) 100 kN, 100 kN
GATE-19. A simply supported beam AB has the bending moment diagram as shown in the
following figure: [CE: GATE-2006]
M
D
A B
M M
L L L
The beam is possibly under the action of following loads

(a) Couples of M at C and 2M at D (b) Couples of 2M at C and M at D

M 2M
(c) Concentrated loads of at C and at D
L L
M
(d) Concentrated loads of at C and couple of 2M at D
L
GATE-20. Match List-I (Shear Force Diagrams) beams with List-II (Diagrams of beams with
supports and loading) and select the correct answer by using the codes given below
the lists: [CE: GATE-2009]
List-I List-II
1
A. q/unit length q/unit length
qL qL L L
+ L
2 + 4 4
4
–
2.
qL – qL
4
2 q q
q
2 2
B.
L L L
qL 4 4
4 +
– qL 3.
4
C. q/unit length
q q q
2 + 2 + 2 L L
L
q q q 4 4
– –
2 2 2 4.
D.
q q
2 2
q
2 +
– q L L
L
2 4 4
Codes:
A B C D A B C D
(a) 3 1 2 4 (b) 3 4 2 1
(c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 2 4 3 1

IES-1. A lever is supported on two
hinges at A and C. It carries a
force of 3 kN as shown in the
above figure. The bending
moment at B will be
(a) 3 kN-m (b) 2 kN-m
(c) 1 kN-m (d) Zero

[IES-1998]
IES-2. A beam subjected to a load P is shown in
the given figure. The bending moment at
the support AA of the beam will be
(a) PL (b) PL/2
(c) 2PL (d) zero
[IES-1997]
IES-3. The bending moment (M) is constant over a length segment (I) of a beam. The
shearing force will also be constant over this length and is given by [IES-1996]
(a) M/l (b) M/2l (c) M/4l (d) None of the above
IES-4. A rectangular section beam subjected to a bending moment M varying along its
length is required to develop same maximum bending stress at any cross-section. If
the depth of the section is constant, then its width will vary as [IES-1995]
(a) M (b) M (c) M2 (d) 1/M

If at a section distant from one of the ends of the beam, M represents the bending
moment. V the shear force and w the intensity of loading, then
1. dM/dx = V 2. dV/dx = w
3. dw/dx = y (the deflection of the beam at the section)
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
IES-5a Shear force and

bending moment 200 N
diagrams for a beam A D
ABCD are shown in B C
300 N
figure. It can be
concluded that 10 m 25 m
(a) The beam has
three supports
(b) End A is fixed
(c) A couple of 2000
3000 Nm 3000 Nm
Nm acts at C
(d) A uniformly
distributed load 1000 Nm
is confined to A
B C D
portion BC only 10 m 10 m 15 m
[IES-2010]
Cantilever
IES-6. The given figure shows a beam BC simply supported at C and hinged at B (free end)
of a cantilever AB. The beam and the cantilever carry forces of
100 kg and 200 kg respectively. The bending moment at B is: [IES-1995]

(a) Zero (b) 100 kg-m (c) 150 kg-m (d) 200 kg-m
IES-7. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below
the lists: [IES-1993, 2011]
List-I List-II
(Condition of beam) (Bending moment diagram)

A. Subjected to bending moment at the 1. Triangle
end of a cantilever
B. Cantilever carrying uniformly distributed 2. Cubic parabola
load over the whole length
C. Cantilever carrying linearly varying load 3. Parabola
from zero at the fixed end to maximum at
the support
D. A beam having load at the centre and 4. Rectangle
supported at the ends
(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d) 3 4 1 2
IES-8. If the shear force acting at every section of a beam is of the same magnitude and of
the same direction then it represents a [IES-1996]
(a) Simply supported beam with a concentrated load at the centre.
(b) Overhung beam having equal overhang at both supports and carrying equal concentrated
loads acting in the same direction at the free ends.
(c) Cantilever subjected to concentrated load at the free end.
(d) Simply supported beam having concentrated loads of equal magnitude and in the same
direction acting at equal distances from the supports.

IES-9. A uniformly distributed load ω (in kN/m) is acting over the entire length of a 3 m long
cantilever beam. If the shear force at the midpoint of cantilever is 6 kN, what is the
value of ω ? [IES-2009]
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5
IES-10. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given below the
Lists: [IES-2009]
Code: A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 5 2 4 (b) 4 5 2 3
(c) 1 3 4 5 (d) 4 2 5 3

IES-11. The shearing force diagram for a

beam is shown in the above figure.
The bending moment diagram is
represented by which one of the
following?
[IES-2008]
IES-12. A cantilever beam having 5 m length is so loaded that it develops a shearing force of
20T and a bending moment of 20 T-m at a section 2m from the free end. Maximum
shearing force and maximum bending moment developed in the beam under this load
are respectively 50 T and 125 T-m. The load on the beam is: [IES-1995]
(a) 25 T concentrated load at free end
(b) 20T concentrated load at free end
(c) 5T concentrated load at free end and 2 T/m load over entire length
(d) 10 T/m udl over entire length
Cantilever Carrying Uniformly Distributed Load for a Part

of its Length
IES-13. A vertical hanging bar of length L and weighing w N/ unit length carries a load W at
the bottom. The tensile force in the bar at a distance Y from the support will be given
by [IES-1992]
W
( a ) W + wL ( b )W + w( L − y) ( c )(W + w) y / L (d) W + ( L − y)
w

IES-14. A cantilever beam of 2m length supports a triangularly distributed load over its
entire length, the maximum of which is at the free end. The total load is 37.5 kN.What
is the bending moment at the fixed end? [IES 2007]
(a) 50 × 106 N mm (b) 12.5 × 106 N mm (c) 100 × 106 N mm (d) 25 × 106 N mm

IES-15. Assertion (A): If the bending moment along the length of a beam is constant, then the
beam cross section will not experience any shear stress. [IES-1998]
Reason (R): The shear force acting on the beam will be zero everywhere along the
length.

IES-16. Assertion (A): If the bending moment diagram is a rectangle, it indicates that the
beam is loaded by a uniformly distributed moment all along the length.
Reason (R): The BMD is a representation of internal forces in the beam and not the
moment applied on the beam. [IES-2002]
IES-17. The maximum bending moment in a simply supported beam of length L loaded by a
concentrated load W at the midpoint is given by [IES-1996]
WL WL WL
(a) WL (b) (c) (d)
2 4 8
IES-18. A simply supported beam is

loaded as shown in the above
figure. The maximum shear force
in the beam will be
(a) Zero (b) W
(c) 2W (d) 4W
[IES-1998]
IES-19. If a beam is subjected to a constant bending moment along its length, then the shear
force will [IES-1997]
(a) Also have a constant value everywhere along its length
(b) Be zero at all sections along the beam
(c) Be maximum at the centre and zero at the ends (d) zero at the centre and maximum at
the ends
IES-20. A loaded beam is shown in

the figure. The bending
moment diagram of the
beam is best represented as:
[IES-2000]
IES-21. A simply supported beam has equal over-hanging lengths and carries equal
concentrated loads P at ends. Bending moment over the length between the supports
[IES-2003]
(a) Is zero (b) Is a non-zero constant
(c) Varies uniformly from one support to the other (d) Is maximum at mid-span
IES-21(i). A beam simply supported at equal distance from the ends carries equal loads at each
end. Which of the following statements is true? [IES-2013]
(a) The bending moment is minimum at the mid-span

(b) The bending moment is minimum at the support
(c) The bending moment varies gradually between the supports
(d) The bending moment is uniform between the supports
IES-22. The bending moment diagram for the case shown below will be q as shown in
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
[IES-1992]
IES-23. Which one of the following
portions of the loaded beam
shown in the given figure is
subjected to pure bending?
(a) AB (b)DE
(c) AE (d) BD
[IES-1999]
IES-24. Constant bending moment over span "l" will occur in [IES-1995]
IES-25. For the beam shown in the above

figure, the elastic curve between the
supports B and C will be:
(a) Circular (b) Parabolic
(c) Elliptic (d) A straight line
[IES-1998]
IES-26. A beam is simply supported at its ends and is loaded by a couple at its mid-span as
shown in figure A. Shear force diagram for the beam is given by the figure.
[IES-1994]
(a) B (b) C (c) D (d) E

IES-27. A beam AB is hinged-supported at its ends and is loaded by couple P.c. as shown in
the given figure. The magnitude or shearing force at a section x of the beam is:
[IES-1993]
(a) 0 (b) P (c) P/2L (d) P.c./2L

Load
IES-28. A freely supported beam at its ends carries a central concentrated load, and maximum bending
moment is M. If the same load be uniformly distributed over the beam length, then what is the
maximum bending moment? [IES-2009]
M M
(a) M (b) (c) (d) 2M
2 3
Simply Supported Beam Carrying a Load who’s Intensity

varies uniformly from Zero at each End to w per
Unit Run at the MiD Span
IES-29. A simply supported beam is
subjected to a distributed
loading as shown in the
diagram given below:
What is the maximum shear
force in the beam?
(a) WL/3 (b) WL/2
(c) 2WL/3 (d) WL/4
[IES-2004]
Simply Supported Beam carrying a Load who’s Intensity

varies
IES-30. A beam having uniform cross-section carries a uniformly distributed load of intensity
q per unit length over its entire span, and its mid-span deflection is δ.
The value of mid-span deflection of the same beam when the same load is distributed
with intensity varying from 2q unit length at one end to zero at the other end is:
[IES-1995]
(a) 1/3 δ (b) 1/2 δ (c) 2/3 δ (d) δ
Simply Supported Beam with Equal Overhangs and

carrying a Uniformly Distributed Load
IES-31. A beam, built-in at both ends, carries a uniformly distributed load over its entire
span as shown in figure-I. Which one of the diagrams given below, represents
bending moment distribution along the length of the beam?
[IES-1996]

The Points of Contraflexure

IES-32. The point· of contraflexure is a point where: [IES-2005]
(a) Shear force changes sign (b) Bending moment changes sign
(c) Shear force is maximum (d) Bending moment is maximum
IES-33. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below
the Lists: [IES-2000]
List-I List-II
A. Bending moment is constant 1. Point of contraflexure
B. Bending moment is maximum or minimum 2. Shear force changes sign
C. Bending moment is zero 3. Slope of shear force diagram is
zero over the portion of the beam
D. Loading is constant 4. Shear force is zero over the
portion of the beam
(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 3 2 1 4
(c) 4 2 1 3 (d) 3 1 2 4
Loading and B.M. diagram from S.F. Diagram

IES-34. The bending moment diagram shown in Fig. I correspond to the shear force diagram
in [IES-1999]
IES-35. Bending moment distribution in a built beam is shown in the given
The shear force distribution in the beam is represented by [IES-2001]

IES-36. The given figure shows the

shear force diagram for the
beam ABCD.
Bending moment in the portion
BC of the beam
[IES-1996]
(a) Is a non-zero constant (b) Is zero
(c) Varies linearly from B to C (d) Varies parabolically from B to C
IES-37. Figure shown above represents the

BM diagram for a simply supported
beam. The beam is subjected to
which one of the following?
(a) A concentrated load at its mid-
length
(b) A uniformly distributed load over
its length
(c) A couple at its mid-length
(d) Couple at 1/4 of the span from each
end
[IES-2006]
IES-38. If the bending moment diagram for

a simply supported beam is of the
form given below.
Then the load acting on the beam
is:
(a) A concentrated force at C
(b) A uniformly distributed load over
the whole length of the beam
(c) Equal and opposite moments
applied at A and B
(d) A moment applied at C [IES-1994]
IES-39. The figure given below shows a bending moment diagram for the beam CABD:
Load diagram for the above beam will be: [IES-1993]

IES-40. The shear force diagram shown in the following figure is that of a [IES-1994]
(a) Freely supported beam with symmetrical point load about mid-span.
(b) Freely supported beam with symmetrical uniformly distributed load about mid-span
(c) Simply supported beam with positive and negative point loads symmetrical about the mid-
span
(d) Simply supported beam with symmetrical varying load about mid-span
Statically Indeterminate beam

IES-41 Which one of the following is NOT a statically indeterminate structure?
P
T
C (b) A B
(a) B
A C
(c) Steel
(d) F
Y Aliminium
X T [IES-2010]
O

IAS-1. Assertion (A): A beam subjected only to end moments will be free from shearing force.
[IAS-2004]
Reason (R): The bending moment variation along the beam length is zero.

IAS-2. Assertion (A): The change in bending moment between two cross-sections of a beam is
equal to the area of the shearing force diagram between the two sections.[IAS-1998]
Reason (R): The change in the shearing force between two cross-sections of beam due
to distributed loading is equal to the area of the load intensity diagram between the
two sections.
IAS-3. The ratio of the area under the bending moment diagram to the flexural rigidity
between any two points along a beam gives the change in [IAS-1998]
(a) Deflection (b) Slope (c) Shear force (d) Bending moment
Cantilever
IAS-4. A beam AB of length 2 L having a
concentrated load P at its mid-span
is hinge supported at its two ends A
and B on two identical cantilevers as
shown in the given figure. The
correct value of bending moment at
A is
(a) Zero (b) PLl2
(c) PL (d) 2 PL [IAS-1995]
IAS-5. A load perpendicular to the plane of the handle is applied at the free end as shown in
the given figure. The values of Shear Forces (S.F.), Bending Moment (B.M.) and
torque at the fixed end of the handle have been determined respectively as 400 N, 340
Nm and 100 by a student. Among these values, those of [IAS-1999]
(a) S.F., B.M. and torque are correct
(b) S.F. and B.M. are correct
(c) B.M. and torque are correct
(d) S.F. and torque are correct

IAS-6. If the SF diagram for a beam is a triangle with length of the beam as its base, the
beam is: [IAS-2007]
(a) A cantilever with a concentrated load at its free end
(b) A cantilever with udl over its whole span
(c) Simply supported with a concentrated load at its mid-point
(d) Simply supported with a udl over its whole span
IAS-7. A cantilever carrying a uniformly distributed load is shown in Fig. I.

Select the correct R.M. diagram of the cantilever. [IAS-1999]

IAS-8. A structural member ABCD is loaded

as shown in the given figure. The
shearing force at any section on the
length BC of the member is:
(a) Zero (b) P
(c) Pa/k (d) Pk/a
[IAS-1996]

IAS-9. The beam is loaded as shown in Fig. I. Select the correct B.M. diagram
[IAS-1999]

IAS-10. Assertion (A): In a simply supported beam carrying a concentrated load at mid-span,
both the shear force and bending moment diagrams are triangular in nature without
any change in sign. [IAS-1999]
Reason (R): When the shear force at any section of a beam is either zero or changes
sign, the bending moment at that section is maximum.
IAS-11. For the shear force to be uniform throughout the span of a simply supported beam, it
should carry which one of the following loadings? [IAS-2007]
(a) A concentrated load at mid-span
(b) Udl over the entire span
(c) A couple anywhere within its span
(d) Two concentrated loads equal in magnitude and placed at equal distance from each
support
IAS-12. Which one of the following figures represents the correct shear force diagram for the
loaded beam shown in the given figure I? [IAS-1998; IAS-1995]


Load
IAS-13. For a simply supported beam of length fl' subjected to downward load of uniform
intensity w, match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes
given below the Lists: [IAS-1997]
List-I List-II
5wι 4
A. Slope of shear force diagram 1.
384 E I
B. Maximum shear force 2. w
wι 4
C. Maximum deflection 3.
8
wι
D. Magnitude of maximum bending moment 4.
2
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 3 1 2 4
(c) 3 2 1 4 (d) 2 4 1 3
Simply Supported Beam Carrying a Load whose Intensity

varies Uniformly from Zero at each End to w per Unit Run
at the MiD Span
IAS-14. A simply supported beam of length 'l' is subjected to a symmetrical uniformly varying
load with zero intensity at the ends and intensity w (load per unit length) at the mid
span. What is the maximum bending moment? [IAS-2004]
3wl 2 wl 2 wl 2 5wl 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 12 24 12

Simply Supported Beam carrying a Load whose Intensity
varies
IAS-15. A simply supported beam of span l is subjected to a uniformly varying load having
zero intensity at the left support and w N/m at the right support. The reaction at the
right support is: [IAS-2003]
wl wl wl wl
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 5 4 3
Simply Supported Beam with Equal Overhangs and

carrying a Uniformly Distributed Load
IAS-16. Consider the following statements for a simply supported beam subjected to a couple
at its mid-span: [IAS-2004]
1. Bending moment is zero at the ends and maximum at the centre
2. Bending moment is constant over the entire length of the beam
3. Shear force is constant over the entire length of the beam
4. Shear force is zero over the entire length of the beam
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 4
IAS-17. Match List-I (Beams) with List-II (Shear force diagrams) and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the Lists: [IAS-2001]
(a) 4 2 5 3 (b) 1 4 5 3
(c) 1 4 3 5 (d) 4 2 3 5
The Points of Contraflexure

IAS-18. A point, along the length of a beam subjected to loads, where bending moment
changes its sign, is known as the point of [IAS-1996]
(a) Inflexion (b) Maximum stress (c) Zero shear force (d) Contra flexure
IAS-19. Assertion (A): In a loaded beam, if the shear force diagram is a straight line parallel
to the beam axis, then the bending moment is a straight line inclined to the beam
axis. [IAS 1994]
Reason (R): When shear force at any section of a beam is zero or changes sign, the
bending moment at that section is maximum.

Loading and B.M. diagram from S.F. Diagram

IAS-20. The shear force diagram of a
loaded beam is shown in the
following figure:
The maximum Bending Moment of
the beam is:
(a) 16 kN-m (b) 11 kN-m
(c) 28 kN-m (d) 8 kN-m
[IAS-1997]
IAS-21. The bending moment for a loaded beam is shown below: [IAS-2003]
The loading on the beam is represented by which one of the followings diagrams?
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
IAS-22. Which one of the given bending moment diagrams correctly represents that of the
loaded beam shown in figure? [IAS-1997]

IAS-23. The shear force diagram is shown
above for a loaded beam. The
corresponding bending moment
diagram is represented by
[IAS-2003]
IAS-24. The bending moment diagram for a simply supported beam is a rectangle over a
larger portion of the span except near the supports. What type of load does the beam
carry? [IAS-2007]
(a) A uniformly distributed symmetrical load over a larger portion of the span except near the
supports
(b) A concentrated load at mid-span
(c) Two identical concentrated loads equidistant from the supports and close to mid-point of
the beam
(d) Two identical concentrated loads equidistant from the mid-span and close to supports

Chapter--4 Bending Momen
nt and Shea
ar Force Diiagram S K Mondal’s
OBJEC
CTIVE ANSW
WERS
GATE-1. Ans. (c)
GATE-2. Ans. Zero
GATE-2(i). Anss. (b)
GATE-3. Ans. (a) Ass it is rigid roller,
r deflecction must be
b same, beccause after d
deflection th
hey also will be in
coontact. But slope
s unequa al.
GATE-4. Ans. (b)
GATE-5. Ans. (d)
GATE-6. Ans. (d)
wx 2 wx 3
Mx = −
2 6L
GATE-7. Ans. (d)

⎛ L ⎞ ⎛ 2L ⎞
P×⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟
Pab ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ = 2PL
Mc = =
l L 9
GATE-8. Ans. (b)

GATE-9. Ans. (c)

3000 N/m
R1 R2
R1 + R 2 = 3000 × 2 = 6000N
R1 × 4 − 3000 × 2 × 1 = 0
R1 = 1500,
S.F. eqn . at any section x from end A.
R1 − 3000 × ( x − 2 ) = 0 {for x > 2m}
x = 2.5 m.
GATE-10. Ans. (b)
Binding stress will be maximum at the outer surface
So taking 9 = 50 mm
ld 3 m × 50
and I = & σ= 3
12 ld
12
x2
m x = 1.5 × 103 [2000 + x] −
2
∴ m2500 = 3.375 ×10 N − mm
6
3.375 × 106 × 50 ×12

∴σ = = 67.5 MPa
30 × 1003
wl2 120 × 152
GATE-11. Ans. (a) Mmax = = kNm = 3375kNm
8 8
bh3 0.12 × ( 0.75 )
3
GATE-12. Ans. (a) Moment of inertia (I) = = = 4.22 × 10−3 m4

12 12
5 wl4 5 120 × 103 × 154
δ max = = × m = 93.75mm
384 EI 384 200 × 109 × 4.22 × 10−3
wl2 1.5 × 62
GATE-13. Ans. (a) Mmax = = = 6.75kNm But not in choice. Nearest choice (a)
8 8
32M 32 × 6.75 × 103
GATE-14. Ans. (a) σ = = Pa = 162.98MPa
π d3 π × ( 0.075 )
2
GATE-14(i) Ans. (a)

The moment about B from left = 0
If RA × 2 = 0
⇒ RA = 0
∴ Shear force immediate to the left of
B = RA = 0
Shear force immediate to the right of
B = 20 kN(↓)
GATE-14(ii) Ans.(b)

10 kN
5 kN /m
E
9.84kN
F
10.31kN -m
1m
G RG H RH
1m 4m
Taking moments about G
R H × 4 − 5 × 4 × 2 + 10.31 − 9.84 × 2 + 10 × 1 = 0
39.37
⇒ RH = = 9.84 kN
4
GATE-16. Ans. (b)
GATE-16(i). Ans. (a)
Let the reaction at the right hand support be VR upwards. Taking moments about left hand
support, we get
VR × L − ML = 0
⇒ VR = M
Thus, the reaction at the left hand support VL will be M downwards.
∴ Moment at the mid-span
L L
= −M× + M× =0
2 2
Infact the bending moment through out the beam is zero.
GATE-16(ii) Ans. (b)
GATE-17. Ans. (d)
GATE-18. Ans. (c)
The bending moment to the left as well as right of section aa′ is constant which means shear
force is zero at aa′.
200 − 100
Shear force at bb′ = = 50 kN
2
GATE-19. Ans. (a)
The shear force diagram is
C D
A B
M – M
L L
SFD
M 2M
RA Loading diagram RB
3M M
R A = RB = =
3L L
GATE-20. Ans. (a)

IES
IES-1. Ans. (a)
PL
IES-2. Ans. (b) Load P at end produces moment in
2
anticlockwise direction. Load P at end
produces moment of PL in clockwise
direction. Net moment at AA is PL/2.
IES-3. Ans. (d) Dimensional analysis gives choice (d)

M bh3
IES-4. Ans. (a) = const. and I=
I 12
IES-5. Ans. (b)
IES-5a Ans. (c) A vertical increase in BM diagram entails there is a point moment similarly a vertical
increase in SF diagram entails there is a point shear force.
IES-6. Ans. (a)
IES-7. Ans. (b)
IES-8. Ans. (c)
IES-9. Ans. (c)
Shear force at mid point of cantilever

ωl
= =6
2
ω× 3
⇒ =6
2
6×2
⇒ ω= = 4 kN / m
3
IES-10. Ans. (b)
IES-11. Ans. (b) Uniformly distributed load on cantilever beam.
IES-12. Ans. (d)

IES-13. Ans. (b)
IES-14. Ans. (a)

4
M = 37.5 × KNm = 50 × 106 Nmm
3
IES-15. Ans. (a)
IES-16. Ans. (d)
IES-17. Ans. (c)
IES-18. Ans. (c)
IES-19. Ans. (b)
IES-20. Ans. (a)
IES-21. Ans. (b)
IES-21(i). Ans. (d)

IES-22. Ans. (a)
IES-23. Ans. (d) Pure bending takes place in the section between two weights W
IES-24. Ans. (d)
IES-25. Ans. (b)
IES-26. Ans. (d)
IES-27. Ans. (d) If F be the shearing force at section x (at point A), then taking moments about B, F x 2L =
Pc
Pc Pc
or F = Thus shearing force in zone x =
2L 2L
IES-28. Ans. (b)

WL
B.MMax = =M
4
Where the Load is U.D.L.
Maximum Bending Moment
⎛ W ⎞⎛L ⎞
2
= ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ L ⎠⎝ 8 ⎠
WL 1 ⎛ WL ⎞ M
= = ⎜ =
8 2 ⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ 2
IES-29. Ans. (d) 1 WL
Total load = ×L× W =
2 2
⎛ ⎞
WL 1 ⎜ W ⎟ WL Wx 2
Sx = − x. ⎜ × X ⎟ = −
4 2 ⎜ L ⎟ 4 L
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
WL
Smax at x = 0 =
4
IES-30. Ans. (d)

IES-31. Ans. (d)
IES-32. Ans. (b)
IES-33. Ans. (b)
IES-34. Ans. (b) If shear force is zero, B.M. will also be zero. If shear force varies linearly with length, B.M.
diagram will be curved line.
IES-35. Ans. (a)
IES-36. Ans. (a)
IES-37. Ans. (c)
IES-38. Ans. (d) A vertical line in centre of B.M. diagram is possible when a moment is applied there.
IES-39. Ans. (a) Load diagram at (a) is correct because B.M. diagram between A and B is parabola which is
possible with uniformly distributed load in this region.
IES-40. Ans. (b) The shear force diagram is possible on simply supported beam with symmetrical varying
load about mid span.
IES-41 Ans. (c)

IAS
IAS-1. Ans. (a)
IAS-2. Ans. (b)
IAS-3. Ans. (b)
IAS-4. Ans. (a) Because of hinge support between beam AB and cantilevers, the bending moment can't be
transmitted to cantilever. Thus bending moment at points A and B is zero.
IAS-5. Ans. (d)
S.F = 400N and BM = 400 × ( 0.4 + 0.2 ) = 240Nm
Torque = 400 × 0.25 = 100Nm
IAS-6. Ans. (b)
x wx 2
IAS-7. Ans. (c) Mx = − wx × =−
2 2
IAS-8. Ans. (a)

IAS-9. Ans. (d)
IAS-10. Ans. (d) A is false.
IAS-11. Ans. (c)

IAS-12. Ans. (a)
IAS-13. Ans. (d)

IAS-14. Ans. (b)

IAS-15. Ans. (d)
IAS-16. Ans. (c)
IAS-17. Ans. (d)

IAS-18. Ans. (d)
IAS-19. Ans. (b)
IAS-20. Ans. (a)
IAS-21. Ans. (d)

IAS-22. Ans. (c) Bending moment does not depends on moment of inertia.
IAS-23. Ans. (a)
IAS-24. Ans. (d)


Question: A simply supported beam of length 10 m carries a uniformly varying load whose
intensity varies from a maximum value of 5 kN/m at both ends to zero at the centre
of the beam. It is desired to replace the beam with another simply supported beam
which will be subjected to the same maximum 'bending moment’ and ‘shear force' as
in the case of the previous one. Determine the length and rate of loading for the
second beam if it is subjected to a uniformly distributed load over its whole length.
Draw the variation of 'SF' and 'BM' in both the cases.
Answer:
X
5KN/m 5KN/m
B
X
RA 10m RB
10
Total load on beam =5× = 25 kN
2
25
∴ RA = RB = = 12.5 kN
2
Take a section X-X from B at a distance x.
For 0 ≤ x ≤ 5 m we get rate of loading
ω = a + bx [as lineary varying]
at x=0, ω =5 kN / m
and at x = 5, ω = 0
These two bounday condition gives a = 5 and b = -1
∴ ω = 5− x
dV
We know that shear force(V), = −ω
dx
x2
or V =∫ −ωdx = − ∫ (5 − x )dx = −5 x + + c1
2
at x = 0, F =12.5 kN (RB ) so c1 = 12.5
x2
∴ V = -5x + + 12.5
2
It is clear that maximum S.F = 12.5 kN
dM
For a beam =V
dx
x2 5x 2 x 3
or , M =∫ Vdx = ∫ (−5 x + + 12.5)dx = - + + 12.5 x + C2
2 2 6
at x = 0, M = 0 gives C2 = 0
M = 12.5x - 2.5x 2 + x 3 / 6

dM
for Maximum bending moment at =0
dx
x2
or-5x+ + 12.5 = 0
2
2
or , x − 10 x + 25 = 0
or , x = 5 means at centre.
So, Mmax = 12.5 × 2.5 − 2.5 × 52 + 53 / 6 = 20.83 kNm
X
ωKNm
A B
RA L RB
Now we consider a simply supported beam carrying uniform distributed load

over whole length (ω KN/m).
WL
Here R A = RB =
2
S.F .at section X-X
WA
Vx = + − ωx
2
Vmax = 12.5 kN
B.M at section X-X

WA Wx 2
Mx = + x−
2 2
2 2
dM x WL ω ⎛⎜ L ⎞⎟ WL
= − ×⎜ ⎟⎟ = = 20.83 −−−−(ii )
dx 2 2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ 8
Solving (i ) & (ii ) we get L=6.666m and ω=3.75kN/m
X
5KN/m 5KN/m
3.75kN/m
B
-12.5KN/m 12.5KN/m
X
10m 6.666m
RA RB 12.5kN 12.5kN
S.F.D S.F.D
Parabola
20.83KNm
Cubic parabola
B.M.D 20.83kNm

Question: A Uniform beam of length L is carrying a uniformly distributed load w per unit
length and is simply supported at its ends. What would be the maximum bending
moment and where does it occur?
Answer: By symmetry each support
WA
reaction is equal i.e. RA=RB=
2
B.M at the section x-x is
WA Wx 2
Mx=+ x−
2 2
For the B.M to be maximum we
dM x
have to = 0 that gives.
dx
WA Bending Moment Diagram
−ωx = 0
+ 2
or x= A i.e. at mid point.
2
2
ωA A ω ⎡A⎤ wA 2
And Mmax= × − ×⎢ ⎥ = +
2 2 2 ⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥ 8

Question: Calculate the reactions at A and D for the beam shown in figure. Draw the bending
moment and shear force diagrams showing all important values.
Answer: Equivalent figure below shows an overhanging beam ABCDF supported by a roller support at
A and a hinged support at D. In the figure, a load of 4 kN is applied through a bracket 0.5 m
away from the point C. Now apply equal and opposite load of 4 kN at C. This will be
equivalent to a anticlockwise couple of the value of (4 x 0.5) = 2 kNm acting at C together with
a vertical downward load of 4 kN at C. Show U.D.L. (1 kN/m) over the port AB, a point load of
2 kN vertically downward at F, and a horizontal load of 2 3 kN as shown.

For reaction and A and D.

Let ue assume RA= reaction at roller A.
RDV vertically component of the reaction at the hinged support D, and
RDH horizontal component of the reaction at the hinged support D.
Obviously RDH= 2 3 kN ( → )
In order to determine RA, takings moments about D, we get
⎛2 ⎞
R A × 6 + 2 × 1 = 1× 2 × ⎜ + 2 + 2 ⎟ + 2 + 4 × 2
⎝ 2 ⎠
or R A = 3kN
Also R A + RDV = (1× 2 ) + 4 + 2 = 8
or RDV = 5kN vetrically upward
(R ) + ( R ) ( )
2 2
2
∴ Re action at D, RD = DV DH = 52 + 2 3 = 6.08kN
5
Inclination with horizontal = θ = tan−1 = 55.30
2 3
S.F.Calculation :
VF = −2kN
VD = −2 + 5 = 3kN
VC = 3 − 4 = −1kN
VB = −1kN
VA = −1 − (1× 2 ) = −3kN

B.M.Calculation :
MF = 0
MD = −2 × 1 = −2kNm
MC = ⎡⎣ −2 (1 + 2 ) + 5 × 2 ⎤⎦ + 2 = 6kNm
The bending moment increases from 4 kNm in (i,e., −2 (1 + 2 ) + 5 × 2 )

to 6kNm as shown
MB = −2 (1 + 2 + 2 ) + 5 ( +2 ) − 4 × 2 + 2 = 4 kNm
⎛ 2⎞ 1
MP = −2 ⎜ 1 + 2 + 2 + ⎟ + 5 ( 2 + 2 + 1) − 4 ( 2 + 1) + 2 − 1× 1×
⎝ 2⎠ 2
= 2.5 kNm
MA = 0
Conventional Question GATE-1997

Question: Construct the bending moment and shearing force diagrams for the beam shown in
the figure.
Answer:
Calculation: First find out reaction at B and E.

Taking moments, about B, we get

0.5
RE × 4.5 + 20 × 0.5 × + 100 = 50 × 3 + 40 × 5
2
or RE = 55kN
Also, RB + RE = 20 × 0.5 + 50 + 40
or RB = 45kN [∵ RE = 55kN]
S.F. Calculation : VF = −40kN
VE = −40 + 55 = 15kN
VD = 15 − 50 = −35kN
VB = −35 + 45 = 10kN
B.M.Calculation : MG = 0
MF = 0
ME = −40 × 0.5 = −20kNm
MD = −40 × 2 + 55 × 1.5 = 2.5kNm
MC = −40 × 4 + 55 × 3.5 − 50 × 2 = −67.5kNm
The bending moment increases from − 62.5kNm to 100.
0.5
MB = −20 × 0.5 × = −2.5kNm
2

Question: Two bars AB and BC are connected by a frictionless hinge at B. The assembly is
supported and loaded as shown in figure below. Draw the shear force and bending
moment diagrams for the combined beam AC. clearly labelling the important
values. Also indicate your sign convention.
Answer: There shall be a vertical reaction at hinge B and we can split the problem in two parts. Then
the FBD of each part is shown below

Calculation: Referring the FBD, we get,

Fy = 0, and R1 + R2 = 200kN
From ∑M B = 0,100 × 2 + 100 × 3 −R2 × 4 = 0
500
or R2 = = 125kN
4
∴ R1 = 200 − 125 = 75kN
Again, R3 = R1 = 75kN
and M = 75 × 1.5 = 112.5kNm.

Question: A tube 40 mm outside diameter; 5 mm thick and 1.5 m long simply supported at 125
mm from each end carries a concentrated load of 1 kN at each extreme end.
(i) Neglecting the weight of the tube, sketch the shearing force and bending
moment diagrams;
(ii) Calculate the radius of curvature and deflection at mid-span. Take the modulus
of elasticity of the material as 208 GN/m2
Answer: (i) Given, d0 = 40mm = 0.04m; di = d0 − 2t = 40 − 2 × 5 = 30mm = 0.03m;
W = 1kN; E = 208GN / m2 = 208 × 102 N / m2 ; l = 1.5; a = 125mm = 0.125m

Calculation:
(ii) Radius of coordinate R
As per bending equation:
M σ E
= =
I y R
EI
or R = − − − (i)
M
Here,M = W × a = 1× 103 × 0.125 = 125Nm
π
I=
64
(d 4
0 − d14 )
π ⎡
( 0.04 ) − ( 0.03 ) ⎤ = 8.59 × 10−8 m4
4 4
=
64 ⎣ ⎦
Substituting the values in equation ( i ) , we get
208 × 108 × 8.59 × 10 −8
R= = 142.9 m
125
Deflection at mid − span :
d2 y
EI = Mx = − Wx + W ( x − a ) = − Wx + Wx − Wa = − Wa
dx 2
Integrating, we get
dy
EI = − Wax + C1
dx
1 dy
When, x= , =0
2 dx
1 Wal
∴ 0 = − Wa + C1 or C1 =
2 2
dy Wal
∴ EI = − Wax +
dx 2

Integrating again, we get
x 2 Wal
EIy = − Wa + x + C2
2 2
When x = a, y = 0
Wa3 Wa2l
∴ 0=− + + C2
2 2
Wa3 Wa2l
or C2 = −
2 2
Wax 2
Walx ⎡ Wa3 Wa2l ⎤
∴ EIy = − + +⎢ − ⎥
2 2 ⎣ 2 2 ⎦
Wa ⎡ x 2 lx a2 al ⎤
or y= ⎢− + + − ⎥
EI ⎣ 2 2 2 2 ⎦
At mid − span,i,e., x = l / 2
Wa ⎡ ( l / 2 ) l × ( l / 2 ) a2 al ⎤
2
y= ⎢− + + − ⎥
EI ⎢ 2 2 2 2⎥
⎣ ⎦
Wa ⎡ l 2
a 2
al ⎤
= ⎢− + − ⎥
EI ⎣ 8 2 2 ⎦
1× 1000 × 0.125 ⎡1.52 0.1252 0.125 × 1.5 ⎤
= ⎢ + − ⎥
208 × 109 × 8.59 × 10 −8 ⎣ 8 2 2 ⎦
= 0.001366m = 1.366mm
It will be in upward direction
Question: What is meant by point of contraflexure or point of inflexion in a beam? Show the
same for the beam given below:
17.5kN/m 20kN
A C B D
4M 4M
2m
Answer: In a beam if the bending moment changes sign at a point, the point itself having zero bending
moment, the beam changes curvature at this point of zero bending moment and this point is
called the point of contra flexure.
17.5kN/m 20kN
A C B D
4M 4M 2M
BMD
From the bending moment diagram we have seen that it is between A & C.
[If marks are more we should calculate exact point.]

5. Deflection of Beam

5.1 Introduction
• We know that the axis of a beam deflects from its initial position under action of applied forces.
• In this chapter we will learn how to determine the elastic deflections of a beam.
Selection of co-ordinate axes
We will not introduce any other co-ordinate system.
We use general co-ordinate axis as shown in the
figure. This system will be followed in deflection of
beam and in shear force and bending moment
diagram. Here downward direction will be negative
i.e. negative Y-axis. Therefore downward deflection of
the beam will be treated as negative.
We use above Co-ordinate system
To determine the value of deflection of beam
subjected to a given loading where we will use the
d 2y
formula, EI = Mx .
dx 2
Some books fix a co-ordinate axis as shown in the

following figure. Here downward direction will be
positive i.e. positive Y-axis. Therefore downward
deflection of the beam will be treated as positive. As
beam is generally deflected in downward directions
and this co-ordinate system treats downward
deflection is positive deflection. Some books use above co-ordinate system
To determine the value of deflection of beam
subjected to a given loading where we will use the
d 2y
formula, EI = −M x .
dx 2
Why to calculate the deflections?
• To prevent cracking of attached brittle materials
• To make sure the structure not deflect severely and to “appear” safe for its occupants
• To help analyzing statically indeterminate structures
• Information on deformation characteristics of members is essential in the study of vibrations of

machines

Chapter-5 Deflection of Beam S K Mondal’s
Several methods to compute deflections in beam

• Double integration method (without the use of singularity functions)
• Macaulay’s Method (with the use of singularity functions)
• Moment area method
• Method of superposition
• Conjugate beam method
• Castigliano’s theorem
• Work/Energy methods
Each of these methods has particular advantages or disadvantages.
Methods to find
deflection
Double integration Geometrical Energy Method
Moment area Conjugate

method beam method
Castiglian’s Virtual
theorem Work
Assumptions in Simple Bending Theory

• Beams are initially straight
• The material is homogenous and isotropic i.e. it has a uniform composition and its mechanical
properties are the same in all directions
• The stress-strain relationship is linear and elastic
• Young’s Modulus is the same in tension as in compression
• Sections are symmetrical about the plane of bending
• Sections which are plane before bending remain plane after bending
Non-Uniform Bending
• In the case of non-uniform bending of a beam, where bending moment varies from section to section,
there will be shear force at each cross section which will induce shearing stresses
• Also these shearing stresses cause warping (or out-of plane distortion) of the cross section so that
plane cross sections do not remain plane even after bending

5.2 Elastic line or Elastic curve
We have to remember that the differential equation of the elastic line is
2
d y
EI 2 =M x
dx
Proof: Consider the following simply supported beam with UDL over its length.
From elementary calculus we know that curvature of a line (at point Q in figure)
d2 y
1 dx 2
= where R = radius of curvature
R ⎧⎪ 2 3/2
⎛ dy ⎞ ⎫⎪
⎨1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎪⎭
dy
For small deflection, ≈0
dx
1 d2 y
or ≈
R dx 2

Bending stress of the beam (at point Q)
− (Mx ) .y
σx =
EI
From strain relation we get
1 ε σx
= − x and ε x =
R y E
1 Mx
∴ =
R EI
d2 y Mx
Therefore =
dx 2 EI
d2 y
or EI = Mx
dx 2
5.3 General expression
d2y
From the equation EI = M x we may easily find out the following relations.
dx 2
d4y
• EI = −ω Shear force density (Load)
dx 4
d3y
• EI = Vx Shear force
dx3
d2y
• EI = M x Bending moment
dx 2
dy
• = θ = slope
dx
• y = δ = Deflection, Displacement
• Flexural rigidity = EI
5.4 Double integration method (without the use of singularity functions)
• Vx = ∫ −ω dx
• ∫
Mx = Vx dx
d2y
• EI = Mx
dx 2
1
EI ∫
• θ = Slope = M x dx
• δ = Deflection = ∫ θ dx
4-step procedure to solve deflection of beam problems by double integration method
Step 1: Write down boundary conditions (Slope boundary conditions and displacement boundary
conditions), analyze the problem to be solved
d2y
Step 2: Write governing equations for, EI = Mx
dx 2

Step 3: Solve governing equations by integration, results in expression with unknown integration constants
Step 4: Apply boundary conditions (determine integration constants)
Following table gives boundary conditions for different types of support.

Types of support and Boundary Conditions Figure
Clamped or Built in support or Fixed end :

( Point A)
Deflection, ( y ) = 0
Slope, (θ ) = 0
Moment , ( M ) ≠ 0 i.e.A finite value
Free end: (Point B)
Deflection, ( y ) ≠ 0 i.e.A finite value

Slope, (θ ) ≠ 0 i.e.A finite value
Moment , ( M ) = 0
Roller (Point B) or Pinned Support (Point A) or

Hinged or Simply supported.
Deflection, ( y ) = 0
Moment , ( M ) = 0
End restrained against rotation but free to

deflection
Slope, (θ ) = 0
Shear force, (V ) = 0
Flexible support
dy
Moment , ( M ) = kr
dx
Shear force, (V ) = k . y

Using double integration method we will find the
deflection and slope of the following loaded beams
one by one.
(i) A Cantilever beam with point load at the free end.
(ii) A Cantilever beam with UDL (uniformly distributed load)
(iii) A Cantilever beam with an applied moment at free end.
(iv) A simply supported beam with a point load at its midpoint.
(v) A simply supported beam with a point load NOT at its midpoint.
(vi) A simply supported beam with UDL (Uniformly distributed load)
(vii) A simply supported beam with triangular distributed load (GVL) gradually varied load.
(viii) A simply supported beam with a moment at mid span.
(ix) A simply supported beam with a continuously distributed load the intensity of which at any
⎛πx ⎞
point ‘x’ along the beam is w x = w sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ L ⎠
(i) A Cantilever beam with point load at the free end.

We will solve this problem by double integration method. For that at first we have to calculate (Mx).
Consider any section XX at a distance ‘x’ from free end which is left end as shown in figure.
∴ Mx = - P.x
We know that differential equation of elastic line
d2 y
EI = M x = −P .x
dx 2
d2 y
∫ EIdx 2
= − P ∫ x dx
dy x2
or EI = − P. + A .............(i)
dx 2

Again integrating both side we get
⎛ x2 ⎞
EI∫ dy = ∫ ⎜⎝ P 2 + A ⎟⎠ dx
Px 3
or EIy = - + Ax +B ..............(ii)
6
Where A and B is integration constants.
Now apply boundary condition at fixed end which is at a distance x = L from free end and we also know that
at fixed end
at x = L, y=0
dy
at x = L, =0
dx
PL3
from equation (ii) EIL = - + AL +B ..........(iii)
6
PL2
from equation (i) EI.(0) = - +A …..(iv)
2
PL2 PL3
Solving (iii) & (iv) we get A = and B = -
2 3
Px 3 PL2 x PL3
Therefore, y=- + −
6EI 2EI 3EI
The slope as well as the deflection would be maximum at free end hence putting x = 0 we get
PL3
ymax = - (Negative sign indicates the deflection is downward)
3EI
PL2
(Slope)max = θ max =
2EI
Remember for a cantilever beam with a point load at free end.
3
PL
Downward deflection at free end, (δ ) =
3EI
PL2
And slope at free end, (θ ) =
2EI

(ii) A Cantilever beam with UDL (uniformly distributed load)
We will now solve this problem by double integration method, for that at first we have to calculate (Mx).
Consider any section XX at a distance ‘x’ from free end which is left end as shown in figure.
x wx 2
∴ Mx = − ( w.x ) . =−
2 2
d2 y wx 2
EI = −
dx 2 2
Integrating both sides we get
d2 y wx 2
∫ EI dx 2
= ∫−
2
dx
dy wx 3
or EI =− + A ......(i)
dx 6
⎛ wx 3 ⎞
EI∫ dy = ∫ ⎜ − + A ⎟ dx
⎝ 6 ⎠
4
wx
or EIy = - + Ax + B.......(ii)
24
[ where A and B are integration constants]
Now apply boundary condition at fixed end which is at a distance x = L from free end and we also know that
at fixed end.
at x = L, y=0
dy
at x = L, =0
dx
-wL3 +wL3
from equation (i) we get EI × (0) = + A or A =
6 6
wL4
from equation (ii) we get EI.y = - + A.L + B
24
wL4
or B=-
8
The slope as well as the deflection would be maximum at the free end hence putting x = 0, we get

wL4
y max =−
8EI
[Negative sign indicates the deflection is downward]
wL3
( slope )max = θmax =
6EI
Remember: For a cantilever beam with UDL over its whole length,
4
wL
Maximum deflection at free end (δ ) =
8EI
wL3
Maximum slope, (θ ) =
6EI
(iii) A Cantilever beam of length ‘L’ with an applied moment ‘M’ at free end.
Consider a section XX at a distance ‘x’ from free end, the bending moment at section XX is
(Mx) = -M
d2 y
or EI = −M
dx 2
d2 y
or EI∫ = − ∫ M dx
dx 2
dy
or EI = −Mx + A ...(i)
dx

EI∫ dy = ∫ (M x +A ) dx
Mx 2
or EI y = − + Ax + B ...(ii)
2
Where A and B are integration constants.
applying boundary conditions in equation (i) &(ii)
dy
at x = L, = 0 gives A = ML
dx
ML2 ML2
at x = L, y = 0 gives B = − ML2 = −
2 2
2
Mx MLx ML2
Therefore deflection equation is y = - + −
2EI EI 2EI
Which is the equation of elastic curve.
2
ML
∴Maximum deflection at free end (δ ) = (It is downward)
2EI
ML
∴ Maximum slope at free end ( )
θ =
EI
Let us take a funny example: A cantilever beam AB of length ‘L’ and uniform flexural rigidity EI has a
bracket BA (attached to its free end. A vertical downward force P is applied to free end C of the bracket.
Find the ratio a/L required in order that the deflection of point A is zero.
[ISRO – 2008]
We may consider this force ‘P’ and a moment (P.a) act on free end A of the cantilever beam.

PL3
Due to point load ‘P’ at free end ‘A’ downward deflection (δ ) =
3EI
ML2 (P.a)L2
Due to moment M = P.a at free end ‘A’ upward deflection (δ ) = =
2EI 2EI
For zero deflection of free end A
PL3 (P.a)L2
=
3EI 2EI
a 2
or =
L 3
(iv) A simply supported beam with a point load P at its midpoint.

A simply supported beam AB carries a concentrated load P at its midpoint as shown in the figure.
We want to locate the point of maximum deflection on the elastic curve and find its value.
Bending moment at any point x (According to the shown co-ordinate system)
⎛P⎞
Mx = ⎜ ⎟ .x
⎝2⎠
and In the region L/2 < x < L
P
Mx = ( x − L / 2)
2
d2 y P
EI = .x (In the region 0 < x < L/2 )
dx 2 2
d2 y P
or EI ∫ dx2 = ∫ 2 x dx
dy P x 2
or EI = . + A (i)
dx 2 2

⎛P 2 ⎞
EI ∫ dy = ∫ ⎜ x + A ⎟ dx
⎝4 ⎠
3
Px
or EI y = + Ax + B (ii)
12
[ Where A and B are integrating constants]
Now applying boundary conditions to equation (i) and (ii) we get
at x = 0, y=0
dy
at x = L/2, =0
dx
PL2
A=- and B = 0
16
Px 3 PL12
∴ Equation of elastic line, y = - x
12 16
3
PL
Maximum deflection at mid span (x = L/2) (δ ) =
48EI
PL2
and maximum slope at each end (θ ) =
16EI
(v) A simply supported beam with a point load ‘P’ NOT at its midpoint.
A simply supported beam AB carries a concentrated load P as shown in the figure.
We have to locate the point of maximum deflection on the elastic curve and find the value of this deflection.
Taking co-ordinate axes x and y as shown below

For the bending moment we have
⎛ P.a ⎞
In the region 0 ≤ x ≤ a, Mx = ⎜ ⎟ .x
⎝ L ⎠
P.a
And, In the region a ≤ x ≤ L, Mx = − (L - x )
L
So we obtain two differential equation for the elastic curve.
d2 y P.a
EI = .x for 0 ≤ x ≤ a
dx 2 L
d2 y P.a
and EI 2 = − . (L - x ) for a ≤ x ≤ L
dx L
Successive integration of these equations gives
dy P.a x 2
EI = . + A1 ......(i) for o ≤ x ≤ a
dx L 2
dy P.a 2
EI = P.a x - x + A2 ......(ii) for a ≤ x ≤ L
dx L
P.a x 3
EI y = . +A1x+B1 ......(iii) for 0 ≤ x ≤ a
L 6
x 2 P.a x 3
EI y = P.a − . + A 2 x + B2 .....(iv) for a ≤ x ≤ L
2 L 6
Where A1, A2, B1, B2 are constants of Integration.
Now we have to use Boundary conditions for finding constants:
BCS (a) at x = 0, y = 0
(b) at x = L, y = 0
⎛ dy ⎞
(c) at x = a, ⎜ ⎟ = Same for equation (i) & (ii)
⎝ dx ⎠
(d) at x = a, y = same from equation (iii) & (iv)
Pb 2 P.a
We get A1 =
6L
(L − b2 ;) A2 =
6L
(
2L2 + a2 )
and B1 = 0; B2 = Pa3 / 6EI
Therefore we get two equations of elastic curve

Pbx 2
EI y = -
6L
( L −b − x 2
) 2
..... (v) for 0 ≤ x ≤ a
Pb ⎡⎛ L ⎞ ⎤
EI y =
6L ⎢⎣⎜⎝ b ⎟⎠
(
3
)
( x - a ) + L2 − b2 x - x3 ⎥ . ...(vi) for a ≤ x ≤ L
⎦
For a > b, the maximum deflection will occur in the left portion of the span, to which equation (v) applies.
Setting the derivative of this expression equal to zero gives
a(a+2b) (L-b)(L+b) L2 − b2
x= = =
3 3 3
at that point a horizontal tangent and hence the point of maximum deflection substituting this value of x
P.b(L2 − b2 )3/2
into equation (v), we find, y max =
9 3. EIL
Case –I: if a = b = L/2 then
L2 − (L/2 )
2
Maximum deflection will be at x = = L/2

3
i.e. at mid point
{ }
3/2
P. (L/2 ) × L2 − (L/2 )
2
PL3
and y max = (δ ) = =
9 3 EIL 48EI
(vi) A simply supported beam with UDL (Uniformly distributed load)

A simply supported beam AB carries a uniformly distributed load (UDL) of intensity w/unit length over its
whole span L as shown in figure. We want to develop the equation of the elastic curve and find the
maximum deflection δ at the middle of the span.
Taking co-ordinate axes x and y as shown, we have for the bending moment at any point x
wL x2
Mx = .x - w.
2 2
Then the differential equation of deflection becomes
d2 y wL x2
EI = Mx = .x - w.
dx 2 2 2

dy wL x 2 w x 3
EI = . − . +A .....(i)
dx 2 2 2 3
Again Integrating both side we get
wL x 3 w x 4
EI y = . − . + Ax + B .....(ii)
2 6 2 12
Where A and B are integration constants. To evaluate these constants we have to use boundary conditions.
at x = 0, y = 0 gives B=0
dy wL3
at x = L/2, =0 gives A=−
dx 24
Therefore the equation of the elastic curve
wL 3 w wL3 wx
y= .x − .x 4 − .x = ⎡L3 − 2L.x 2 + x 3 ⎤⎦
12EI 24EI 12EI 24EI ⎣
The maximum deflection at the mid-span, we have to put x = L/2 in the equation and obtain
4
5wL
Maximum deflection at mid-span, (δ ) = (It is downward)
384EI
And Maximum slope θ A = θB at the left end A and at the right end b is same putting x = 0 or x = L
wL3
Therefore we get Maximum slope (θ ) =
24EI
(vii) A simply supported beam with triangular distributed load (GVL) gradually
varied load.
A simply supported beam carries a triangular distributed load (GVL) as shown in figure below. We have to
find equation of elastic curve and find maximum deflection (δ ) .

In this (GVL) condition, we get
d4 y w
EI = load = − .x .....(i)
dx 4 L
Separating variables and integrating we get
d3 y wx 2
EI = ( x)
V = − +A .....(ii)
dx 3 2L
Again integrating thrice we get
d2 y wx 3
EI 2
= Mx = − + Ax +B .....(iii)
dx 6L
dy wx 4 Ax 2
EI =− + +Bx + C .....(iv)
dx 24L 2
wx 5 Ax 3 Bx 2
EI y = − + + +Cx +D .....(v)
120L 6 2
Where A, B, C and D are integration constant.
Boundary conditions at x = 0, Mx = 0, y=0
at x = L, Mx = 0, y = 0 gives
wL 7wL3
A= , B = 0, C = - , D=0
6 360
wx
Therefore y = -
360EIL
{
7L4 − 10L2 x 2 + 3x 4 } (negative sign indicates downward deflection)
dy
To find maximum deflection δ , we have =0
dx
wL4
And it gives x = 0.519 L and maximum deflection (δ ) = 0.00652
EI
(viii) A simply supported beam with a moment at mid-span

A simply supported beam AB is acted upon by a couple M applied at an intermediate point distance ‘a’ from
the equation of elastic curve and deflection at point where the moment acted.
M M
Considering equilibrium we get RA = and RB = −
L L
Taking co-ordinate axes x and y as shown, we have for bending moment
M
In the region 0 ≤ x ≤ a, Mx = .x
L
M
In the region a ≤ x ≤ L, Mx = x-M
L

So we obtain the difference equation for the elastic curve
d2 y M
EI = .x for 0 ≤ x ≤ a
dx 2 L
d2 y M
and EI 2 = .x − M for a ≤ x ≤ L
dx L
Successive integration of these equation gives
dy M x 2
EI= . + A1 ....(i) for 0 ≤ x ≤ a
dx L 2
dy M x 2
EI = = - Mx+ A 2 .....(ii) for a ≤ x ≤ L
dx L 2
M x3
and EI y = . + A1x + B1 ......(iii) for 0 ≤ x ≤ a
L σ
M x 3 Mx 2
EI y = − + A 2 x + B2 ......(iv) for a ≤ x ≤ L
L σ 2
Where A1, A2, B1 and B2 are integration constants.
To finding these constants boundary conditions
(a) at x = 0, y = 0
(b) at x = L, y = 0
⎛ dy ⎞
(c) at x = a, ⎜ ⎟ = same form equation (i) & (ii)
⎝ dx ⎠
(d) at x = a, y = same form equation (iii) & (iv)
ML Ma2 ML Ma2
A1 = −M.a + + , A2 = +
3 2L 3 2L
2
Ma
B1 = 0, B2 =
2
With this value we get the equation of elastic curve
Mx
y=-
6L
{
6aL - 3a2 − x 2 − 2L2 } for 0 ≤ x ≤ a
∴ deflection of x = a,
Ma
y=
3EIL
{
3aL - 2a2 − L2 }
(ix) A simply supported beam with a continuously distributed load the intensity
⎛πx⎞
of which at any point ‘x’ along the beam is wx = w sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ L ⎠
At first we have to find out the bending moment at any point ‘x’ according to the shown co-ordinate system.
We know that

d ( Vx ) ⎛πx ⎞
= − w sin ⎜ ⎟
dx ⎝ L ⎠
⎛πx ⎞
∫ d ( V ) = −∫ w sin ⎜⎝
x
L ⎟⎠
dx +A
wL ⎛πx ⎞
or Vx = + .cos ⎜ ⎟+A
π ⎝ L ⎠
and we also know that
d (Mx ) wL ⎛πx ⎞
= Vx = cos ⎜ ⎟+A
dx π ⎝ L ⎠
Again integrating both sides we get
⎧ wL ⎛πx ⎞ ⎫
∫ d (M ) = ∫
x ⎨
⎩π
cos ⎜ ⎟
⎝ L ⎠
+ A ⎬ dx
⎭
wL2 ⎛πx ⎞
or Mx = sin ⎜ ⎟ + Ax +B
π 2
⎝ L ⎠
Where A and B are integration constants, to find out the values of A and B. We have to use boundary
conditions
at x = 0, Mx = 0
and at x = L, Mx = 0
wL2 ⎛πx ⎞
From these we get A = B = 0. Therefore Mx = sin ⎜ ⎟
π 2
⎝ L ⎠
So the differential equation of elastic curve
d2 y wL2 ⎛πx ⎞
EI = Mx = sin ⎜ ⎟
dx 2
π 2
⎝ L ⎠
Successive integration gives
dy wL3 ⎛πx ⎞
EI = − 3 cos ⎜ ⎟+C .......(i)
dx π ⎝ L ⎠
wL4 ⎛πx ⎞
EI y = − 4 sin ⎜ ⎟ + Cx + D .....(ii)
π ⎝ L ⎠
Where C and D are integration constants, to find out C and D we have to use boundary conditions
at x = 0, y=0
at x = L, y=0
and that give C = D = 0
dy wL3 ⎛πx ⎞
Therefore slope equation = − 3 cos ⎜
EI ⎟
dx π ⎝ L ⎠
wL4 ⎛πx ⎞
and Equation of elastic curve y = − 4 sin ⎜
π EI ⎝ L ⎟⎠
(-ive sign indicates deflection is downward)
⎛πx⎞
Deflection will be maximum if sin ⎜ ⎟ is maximum
⎝ L ⎠

⎛πx⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟=1 or x = L/2
⎝ L ⎠
WL4
and Maximum downward deflection (δ ) = (downward).
π 4EI
5.5 Macaulay's Method (Use of singularity function)
• When the beam is subjected to point loads (but several loads) this is very convenient method for
determining the deflection of the beam.
• In this method we will write single moment equation in such a way that it becomes continuous for
entire length of the beam in spite of the discontinuity of loading.
• After integrating this equation we will find the integration constants which are valid for entire
length of the beam. This method is known as method of singularity constant.
Procedure to solve the problem by Macaulay’s method

Step – I: Calculate all reactions and moments
Step – II: Write down the moment equation which is valid for all values of x. This must contain brackets.
Step – III: Integrate the moment equation by a typical manner. Integration of (x-a) will be
( x-a ) ( x-a ) so on.

2 3
⎛ x2 ⎞
not ⎜ − ax ⎟ and integration of (x-a)2 will be
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 3
Step – IV: After first integration write the first integration constant (A) after first terms and after second
time integration write the second integration constant (B) after A.x . Constant A and B are valid for all
values of x.
Step – V: Using Boundary condition find A and B at a point x = p if any term in Macaulay’s method, (x-a) is
negative (-ive) the term will be neglected.
(i) Let us take an example: A simply supported beam AB length 6m with a point load of 30 kN is applied
at a distance 4m from left end A. Determine the equations of the elastic curve between each change of load
point and the maximum deflection of the beam.
Answer: We solve this problem using Macaulay’s method, for that first writes the general momentum
equation for the last portion of beam BC of the loaded beam.
d2 y
EI = Mx = 10x -30 ( x - 4 ) N.m ....(i)
dx 2
By successive integration of this equation (using Macaulay’s integration rule
( x − a)
2
e.g ∫ ( x − a ) dx = 2
)
We get

dy
= 5x + A -15 ( x-4 ) ..... ( ii )
2 2
EI N.m2
dx
5
and EI y = x 3 + Ax + B - 5 (x - 4)3 N.m3 ..... ( iii)
3
Where A and B are two integration constants. To evaluate its value we have to use following boundary
conditions.
at x = 0, y=0
and at x = 6m, y = 0
Note: When we put x = 0, x - 4 is negativre (–ive) and this term will not be considered for x = 0 , so our
5 3
equation will be EI y = x + Ax +B, and at x = 0 , y = 0 gives B = 0
3
But when we put x = 6, x-4 is positive (+ive) and this term will be considered for x = 6, y = 0 so our equation
5 3
will be EI y = x + Ax + 0 – 5 (x – 4)3
3
This gives
5 3
EI .(0) = .6 + A.6 + 0 − 5(6 − 4)3
3
or A = - 53
So our slope and deflection equation will be
dy
= 5x 2 - 53 - 15 ( x - 4 )
2
EI
dx
5
and EI y = x 3 - 53x + 0 - 5 ( x - 4 )
3
3
Now we have two equations for entire section of the beam and we have to understand how we use these
equations. Here if x < 4 then x – 4 is negative so this term will be deleted. That so why in the region
o ≤ x ≤ 4m we will neglect (x – 4) term and our slope and deflection equation will be
dy
EI= 5x 2 -53
dx
5
and EI y = x 3 - 53x
3
But in the region 4m < x ≤ 6m , (x – 4) is positive so we include this term and our slope and deflection
equation will be
dy
= 5x 2 - 53 - 15 ( x - 4 )
2
EI
dx
5
EI y = x3 - 53x - 5 ( x - 4 )
3
3
Now we have to find out maximum deflection, but we don’t know at what value of ‘x’ it will be maximum.
For this assuming the value of ‘x’ will be in the region 0 ≤ x ≤ 4m .
dy
Deflection (y) will be maximum for that = 0 or 5x 2 - 53 = 0 or x = 3.25 m as our calculated x is in the
dx
region 0 ≤ x ≤ 4m ; at x = 3.25 m deflection will be maximum
5
or EI ymax = × 3.253 – 53 × 3.25
3

115
or ymax = - (-ive sign indicates downward deflection)
EI
But if you have any doubt that Maximum deflection may be in the range of 4 < x ≤ 6m , use EIy = 5x2 – 53x
– 5 (x – 4)3 and find out x. The value of x will be absurd that indicates the maximum deflection will not
occur in the region 4 < x ≤ 6m .
dy
Deflection (y) will be maximum for that =0
dx
5x 2 - 53 - 15 ( x - 4 ) = 0
2
or
or 10x2 -120x + 293 = 0

or x = 3.41 m or 8.6 m
Both the value fall outside the region 4 < x ≤ 6m and in this region 4 < x ≤ 6m and in this region
maximum deflection will not occur.
(ii) Now take an example where Point load, UDL and Moment applied simultaneously in a
beam:
Let us consider a simply supported beam AB (see Figure) of length 3m is subjected to a point load 10 kN,
UDL = 5 kN/m and a bending moment M = 25 kNm. Find the deflection of the beam at point D if flexural
rigidity (EI) = 50 KNm2.
Answer: Considering equilibrium
∑M A = 0 gives
-10 × 1 - 25 - ( 5 × 1) × (1 + 1 + 1/ 2 ) + RB × 3 = 0
or RB = 15.83 kN
R A + RB = 10 + 5 × 1 gives R A = −0.83 kN
We solve this problem using Macaulay’s method, for that first writing the general momentum equation for
the last portion of beam, DB of the loaded beam.
5 ( x-2 )
2
d2 y
-10 ( x-1) +25 ( x-2 ) −
0
EI = Mx = −0.83x
dx 2 2
By successive integration of this equation (using Macaulay’s integration rule
( x − a)
2
e.g ∫ ( x − a) dx =
2
)
We get

dy 0.83 2 5
.x + A -5 ( x − 1) +25 ( x − 2 ) − ( x − 2 )
2 3
EI =−
dx 2 6
0.83 3 5 25 5
x + Ax +B - ( x − 1) + ( x − 2) − ( x − 2)
3 2 4
and EIy = −
6 3 2 24
Where A and B are integration constant we have to use following boundary conditions to find out A & B.
at x = 0, y=0
at x = 3m, y = 0
Therefore B = 0
0.83 5 5
and 0 = - × 33 + A × 3 + 0 - × 23 +12.5 × 12 − × 14
6 3 24
or A = 1.93
EIy = - 0.138x3 + 1.93x -1.67 ( x − 1) +12.5 ( x − 2 ) − 0.21( x − 2 )

3 2 4
Deflextion at point D at x = 2m
EIyD = −0.138 × 23 + 1.93 × 2 − 1.67 × 13 = −8.85
8.85 8.85
or yD = − =− m ( −ive sign indicates deflection downward )
EI 50 × 103
= 0.177mm ( downward ) .
(iii) A simply supported beam with a couple M at a distance ‘a’ from left end
If a couple acts we have to take the distance in
the bracket and this should be raised to the
power zero. i.e. M(x – a)0. Power is zero because
(x – a)0 = 1 and unit of M(x – a)0 = M but we
introduced the distance which is needed for
Macaulay’s method.
d2 y
= M = R A. x − M ( x-a )
0
EI 2
dx
Successive integration gives
dy M x 2
= . + A - M ( x-a )
1
EI
dx L 2
M ( x-a )
2
M 3
EI y = x + Ax + B -
6L 2
Where A and B are integration constants, we have to use boundary conditions to find out A & B.
at x = 0, y = 0 gives B = 0
M (L-a )
2
ML
at x = L, y = 0 gives A = −
2L 6

8. Moment area method

• This method is used generally to obtain displacement and rotation at a single point on a beam.
• The moment area method is convenient in case of beams acted upon with point loads in which case
bending moment area consist of triangle and rectangles.
A C B
Loading
L
Mn
MB
Mc θ
B.M.diag
X
Deflection
θ2 OA
A ymax
C B
D
θ AD
θ AB
tBA
tÎ A
• Angle between the tangents drawn at 2 points A&B on the elastic line, θ AB
1
θ AB = × Area of the bending moment diagram between A&B
EI
A B.M.
i.e. slope θ AB =
EI
• Deflection of B related to 'A'
M
yBA = Moment of diagram between B&A taking about B (or w.r.t. B)
EI
A B.M × x
i.e. deflection yBA =
EI
Important Note
If A1 = Area of shear force (SF) diagram

A2 = Area of bending moment (BM) diagram,
A1 × A2
Then, Change of slope over any portion of the loaded beam =
EI
Some typical bending moment diagram and their area (A) and distance of C.G
from one edge ( x ) is shown in the following table. [Note the distance will be
different from other end]

Shape BM Diagram Area Distance from C.G
1. Rectangle
b
A = bh x=
2
2. Triangle
b
x=
3
3. Parabola
b
x=
4
4. Parabola
5.Cubic Parabola
6. y = k xn
7. Sine curve
Determination of Maximum slope and deflection by

Moment Area- Method
(i) A Cantilever beam with a point load at free end
Area of BM (Bending moment diagram)

1 PL2
( A ) = × L × PL =
2 2
Therefore
A PL2
Maximum slope (θ ) = = (at free end)
EI 2EI
Ax
Maximum deflection (δ ) =
EI
⎛ PL ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
2
⎜ ⎟× L
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ PL3
= = (at free end)
EI 3EI
(ii) A cantilever beam with a point load not at free end

1 Pa2
Area of BM diagram ( A ) = × a × Pa =
2 2
Therefore
A Pa2
Maximum slope (θ ) = = ( at free end)
EI 2EI
Ax
EI
⎛ Pa ⎞ ⎛ a ⎞
2
⎜ ⎟ × L-
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ Pa2 ⎛ a ⎞
= = . L- (at free end)
EI 2EI ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
(iii) A cantilever beam with UDL over its whole length

1 ⎛ wL2 ⎞ wL3
Area of BM diagram ( A ) = ×L × ⎜ ⎟=
3 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 6
Therefore
A wL3
Maximum slope (θ ) = = (at free end)
EI 6EI
Ax
EI
⎛ wL3 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟× L
⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ wL4
= = (at free end)
EI 8EI
(iv) A simply supported beam with point load at mid-spam

Area of shaded BM diagram
1 L PL PL2
(A) = × × =
2 2 4 16
Therefore
A PL2
Maximum slope (θ ) = = (at each ends)
EI 16EI
Ax
EI
⎛ PL L ⎞
2
⎜ × ⎟
⎝ 16 3 ⎠ PL3
= = (at mid point)
EI 48EI
(v) A simply supported beam with UDL over its whole length
Area of BM diagram (shaded)
2 ⎛ L ⎞ ⎛ wL2 ⎞ wL3
(A) = × ×⎜ ⎟=
3 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠ 24
Therefore
A wL3
Maximum slope (θ ) = = (at each ends)
EI 24EI
Ax
EI
⎛ wL ⎞ ⎛ 5 L ⎞
3
⎜ ⎟× ×
24 ⎠ ⎜⎝ 8 2 ⎟⎠ 5 wL4
=⎝ = (at mid point)
EI 384 EI
9. Method of superposition
Assumptions:
• Structure should be linear
• Slope of elastic line should be very small.
• The deflection of the beam should be small such that the effect due to the shaft or rotation of the
line of action of the load is neglected.
Principle of Superposition:
• Deformations of beams subjected to combinations of loadings may be obtained as the linear
combination of the deformations from the individual loadings
• Procedure is facilitated by tables of solutions for common types of loadings and supports.
Example:
For the beam and loading shown, determine

the slope and deflection at point B.

Superpose the deformations due to Loading I and Loading II as shown.
10. Conjugate beam method

In the conjugate beam method, the length of the conjugate beam is the same as the length of the actual
beam, the loading diagram (showing the loads acting) on the conjugate beam is simply the bending-
moment diagram of the actual beam divided by the flexural rigidity EI of the actual beam, and the
corresponding support condition for the conjugate beam is given by the rules as shown below.
Corresponding support condition for the conjugate beam

Conjugates of Common Types of Real Beams

Conjugate beams for statically determinate Conjugate beams for Statically
real beams indeterminate real beams
By the conjugate beam method, the slope and deflection of the actual beam can be found by using
the following two rules:
• The slope of the actual beam at any cross section is equal to the shearing force at the
corresponding cross section of the conjugate beam.
• The deflection of the actual beam at any point is equal to the bending moment of the conjugate
beam at the corresponding point.
Procedure for Analysis

• Construct the M / EI diagram for the given (real) beam subjected to the specified (real) loading. If a
combination of loading exists, you may use M-diagram by parts
• Determine the conjugate beam corresponding to the given real beam
• Apply the M / EI diagram as the load on the conjugate beam as per sign convention
• Calculate the reactions at the supports of the conjugate beam by applying equations of
equilibrium and conditions
• Determine the shears in the conjugate beam at locations where slopes is desired in the real
beam, Vconj = θreal
• Determine the bending moments in the conjugate beam at locations where deflections is
desired in the real beam, Mconj = yreal

The method of double integration, method of superposition, moment-area theorems, and Castigliano’s
theorem are all well established methods for finding deflections of beams, but they require that the
boundary conditions of the beams be known or specified. If not, all of them become helpless. However,
the conjugate beam method is able to proceed and yield a solution for the possible deflections of the beam
based on the support conditions, rather than the boundary conditions, of the beams.
(i) A Cantilever beam with a point load ‘P’ at its free end.
For Real Beam: At a section a distance ‘x’ from free end

consider the forces to the left. Taking moments about the
section gives (obviously to the left of the section) Mx = -P.x
(negative sign means that the moment on the left hand side
of the portion is in the anticlockwise direction and is
therefore taken as negative according to the sign convention)
so that the maximum bending moment occurs at the fixed
end i.e. Mmax = - PL ( at x = L)
wL2 wL
Considering equilibrium we get, MA = and Reaction (R A ) =
3 2
Considering any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from the fixed end.
W
At this point load (Wx ) = .x
L
Shear force ( Vx ) = R A − area of triangle ANM
wL 1 ⎛ w ⎞ wL wx 2
= - . ⎜ .x ⎟ .x = + -
2 2 ⎝L ⎠ 2 2L
wL wL
at x = 0, Vx = + i.e. Maximum shear force, Vmax = +
2 2
at x = L, Vx = 0
wx 2 2x
Bending moment ( Mx ) = R A .x - . - MA
2L 3
wL wx 3 wL2
= .x - -
2 6L 3
∴ The bending moment variation is cubic
wL2 wL2
at x = 0, Mx = − i.e.Maximum B.M. (Mmax ) = − .
3 3
at x = L, Mx = 0

Beam Deflection
GATE-1. A lean elastic beam of given flexural
rigidity, EI, is loaded by a single force F
as shown in figure. How many boundary
conditions are necessary to determine
the deflected centre line of the beam?
(a) 5 (b) 4
(c) 3 (d) 2
[GATE-1999]
GATE-1(i) A “H” shaped frame of uniform felxural rigidity EI is loaded as shown in the figure.
The relative outward displacement between points K and O is [CE: GATE-2003]
R R
I M
J N
K O
L
RL h2 RL2 h
(a) (b)
EI EI
RL h2 RL2 h
(c) (d)
3 EI 3EI
Double Integration Method
GATE-1(ii)The following statement are related to bending of beams [CE: GATE-2012]

I. The slope of the bending moment diagram is equal to the shear force.
II. The slope of the shear force diagram is equal to the load intensity
III. The slope of the curvature is equal to the flexural rotation
IV. The second derivative of the deflection is equal to the curvature.
The only FALSE statement is
(a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV
GATE-2. A simply supported beam carrying a concentrated load W at mid-span deflects by δ1

under the load. If the same beam carries the load W such that it is distributed

uniformly over entire length and undergoes a deflection δ2 at the mid span. The ratio
δ1: δ2 is: [IES-1995; GATE-1994]
(a) 2: 1 (b) 2:1 (c) 1: 1 (d) 1: 2
GATE-3. A simply supported laterally loaded beam was found to deflect more than a specified
value. [GATE-2003]
Which of the following measures will reduce the deflection?
(a) Increase the area moment of inertia
(b) Increase the span of the beam
(c) Select a different material having lesser modulus of elasticity
(d) Magnitude of the load to be increased
GATE-4. A cantilever beam of length L is subjected to a moment M at the free end. The moment of
inertia of the beam cross section about the neutral axis is I and the Young’s modulus is E. The
magnitude of the maximum deflection is
ML2 ML2 2 ML2 4 ML2
(a ) (b) (c ) (d ) [GATE-2012]
2 EI EI EI EI
Statement for Linked Answer Questions GATE-5 and GATE-6:
A triangular-shaped cantilever beam of
t P
uniform-thickness is shown in the figure.
The Young’s modulus of the material of the
beam is E. A concentrated load P is applied l
at the free end of the beam
x
α
b
α
[GATE-2011]
GATE-5. The area moment of inertia about the neutral axis of a cross-section at a distance x
measure from the free end is
bxt3 bxt 3 bxt 3 xt 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
61 121 241 12
GATE-6. The maximum deflection of the beam is [GATE-2011]

24Pl3 12Pl3 8Pl3 6Pl3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Ebt 3 Ebt 3 Ebt 3 Ebt 3
GATE-7. For the linear elastic beam shown in the figure, the flexural rigidity, EI is 781250
kN- m2 . When w = 10 kN/m, the vertical reaction R A at A is 50 kN. The value of R A for
w = 100 kN/m is [CE: GATE-2004]

w(kN/m)
B
A
6 mm gap
5m Rigid
platform
(a) 500 kN (b) 425 kN

(c) 250 kN (d) 75 kN
GATE-8. Consider the beam AB shown in the figure below. Part AC of the beam is rigid while
Part CB has the flexural rigidity EI. Identify the correct combination of deflection at
end B and bending moment at end A, respectively [CE: GATE-2006]
P
A C B
L L
PL3 PL3
(a) , 2PL (b) , PL
3EI 3EI
8 PL3 8 PL3
(c) , 2 PL (d) , PL
3 EI 3EI
Statement for Linked Answer Questions 8(i) and 8(ii):

In the cantilever beam PQR shown in figure below, the segment PQ has flexural rigidity EI and
the segment QR has infinite flexural rigidity. [CE: GATE-2009]
W
El O Rigid
P R
L L
GATE-8(i) The deflection and slope of the beam at Q are respectively [CE: GATE-2009]
3 2 3 2
5 WL 3 WL WL WL
(a) and (b) and
6 EI 2EI 3EI 2EI
WL3 WL2 WL3 3 WL2
(c) and (d) and
2 EI EI 3EI 2EI
GATE-8(ii) The deflection of the beam at R is [CE: GATE-2009]

8 WL 3
5 WL3
(a) (b)
EI 6 EI
7 WL3 8 WL3
(c) (d)
3EI 6 EI
Common Data for Questions 9 and 10:

Consider a propped cantilever beam ABC under two loads of magnitude P each as shown in the
figure below. Flexural rigidity of the beam is EI. [CE: GATE-2006]

P a
B C
A P a
L L
GATE-9. The reaction at C is [CE: GATE-2006]

9Pa 9Pa
(a) (upwards) (b) (downwards)
16 L 16 L
9Pa 9Pa
(c) (upwards) (d) (downwards)
8L 8L
GATE-10. The rotation at B is [CE: GATE-2006]

5 PL a 5 PL a
(a) (clockwise) (b) (anticlockwise)
16 EI 16 EI
59 PL a 59 PL a
(c) (clockwise) (d) (anticlockwise)
16 EI 16 EI
GATE-11. The stepped cantilever is subjected to moments, M as shown in the figure below. The
vertical deflection at the free end (neglecting the self weight) is [CE: GATE-2008]
2El
El
M
L L
2 2
ML2 ML2 ML2

(a) (b) (c) (d) Zero
8 El 4 El 2E l
Statement for Linked Answer Questions 12 and 13:

Beam GHI is supported by three pontoons as shown in the figure below. The horizontal cross-
sectional area of each pontoon is 8m2 , the flexural rigidity of the beam is 10000 kN- m2 and the
unit weight of water is 10 kN/ m3 .
Pontoons
5m 5m
GATE-12. When the middle pontoon is removed, the deflection at H will be
(a) 0.2 m (b) 0.4 m
(c) 0.6 m (d) 0.8 m [CE: GATE-2008]
GATE-13. When the middle pontoon is brought back to its position as shown in the figure above, the
reaction at H will be [CE: GATE-2008]
(a) 8.6 kN (b) 15.7 kN (c) 19.2 kN (d) 24.2 kN

Statement for Linked Answer Questions 14 and 15:
A rigid beam is hinged at one end and supported on linear elastic springs (both having a
stiffness of ‘k’) at points ‘1’ and ‘2’, and an inclined load acts at ‘2’, as shown. [CE: GATE-2011]
Hinge √2 P
1 45° 2
45°
Fixed L L
GATE-14. Which of the following options represents the deflections δ1 and δ2 at points ‘1’ and ‘2’?
2 ⎛ 2P ⎞ 4 ⎛ 2P ⎞ 2⎛P⎞ 4⎛P⎞
(a) δ1 = ⎜ ⎟ and δ2 = ⎜ ⎟ (b) δ1 = ⎜ ⎟ and δ2 = ⎜ ⎟
5⎝ k ⎠ 5⎝ k ⎠ 5⎝ k ⎠ 5⎝ k ⎠
2⎛ P ⎞ 4⎛ P ⎞ 2⎛ 2P⎞ 4⎛ 2P⎞
(c) δ1 = and δ2 = ⎜ (d) δ1 = ⎜ ⎟ and δ2 = ⎜ ⎟
5 ⎜⎝ 2k ⎟⎠ 5 ⎝ 2k ⎟⎠ 5⎝ k ⎠ 5⎝ k ⎠
[CE: GATE-2011]
GATE-15. If the load P equals 100 kN, which of the following options represents forces R1 and R 2 in the
springs at points ‘1’ and ‘2’? [CE: GATE-2011]
(a) R1 = 20 kN and R 2 = 40 kN (b) R1 = 50 kN and R 2 = 50 kN
(c) R1 = 30 kN and R 2 = 60 kN (d) R1 = 40 kN and R 2 = 80 kN
GATE-16. The simply supported beam is subjected to a uniformly distributed load of intensity w per unit
length, on half of the span from one end. The length of the span and the flexural stiffness are
denoted as l and El respectively. The deflection at mid-span of the beam is
5 wl4 5 wl4
(a) (b) [CE: GATE-2012]
6144 E l 768 E l
5 wl4 5 wl4
(c) (d)
384 E l 192 E l

In a cantilever subjected to a concentrated load at the free end
1. The bending stress is maximum at the free end
2. The maximum shear stress is constant along the length of the beam
3. The slope of the elastic curve is zero at the fixed end
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1 and 2
IES-1(i). If E = elasticity modulus, I = moment of inertia about the neutral axis and M =
bending moment in pure bending under the symmetric loading of a beam, the radius
of curvature of the beam: [IES-2013]
1. Increases with E 2. Increases with M
3. Decreases with I 4. Decreases with M
Which of these are correct?

IES-2. A cantilever of length L, moment of inertia I. Young's modulus E carries a

concentrated load W at the middle of its length. The slope of cantilever at the free
end is: [IES-2001]
WL2 WL2 WL2 WL2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 EI 4 EI 8 EI 16 EI
IES-3. The two cantilevers A

and B shown in the
figure have the same
uniform cross-section
and the same material.
Free end deflection of
cantilever 'A' is δ. [IES-2000]
The value of mid- span deflection of the cantilever ‘B’ is:
1 2
(a ) δ ( b) δ (c) δ ( d ) 2δ
2 3
IES-4. A cantilever beam of rectangular cross-section is subjected to a load W at its free end.
If the depth of the beam is doubled and the load is halved, the deflection of the free
end as compared to original deflection will be: [IES-1999]
(a) Half (b) One-eighth (c) One-sixteenth (d) Double
IES-5. A simply supported beam of constant flexural rigidity and length 2L carries a
concentrated load 'P' at its mid-span and the deflection under the load is δ . If a
cantilever beam of the same flexural rigidity and length 'L' is subjected to load 'P' at
its free end, then the deflection at the free end will be: [IES-1998]
1
(a ) δ (b) δ ( c ) 2δ ( d ) 4δ
2
IES-6. Two identical cantilevers are

loaded as shown in the
respective figures. If slope at
the free end of the cantilever in
figure E is θ, the slope at free
and of the cantilever in figure Figure E Figure F
F will be:
[IES-1997]
1 1 2
(a) θ (b) θ (c) θ (d) θ
3 2 3
IES-7. A cantilever beam carries a load W uniformly distributed over its entire length. If the
same load is placed at the free end of the same cantilever, then the ratio of maximum
deflection in the first case to that in the second case will be:
[IES-1996]
(a) 3/8 (b) 8/3 (c) 5/8 (d) 8/5
IES-8. The given figure shows a

cantilever of span 'L' subjected to
a concentrated load 'P' and a
moment 'M' at the free end.
Deflection at the free end is
given by
[IES-1996]
2 2 2 3 2 3 2
PL ML ML PL ML PL ML PL3
(a) + (b) + (c) + (d) +
2 EI 3EI 2 EI 3EI 3EI 2 EI 2 EI 48EI

IES-9. For a cantilever beam of length 'L', flexural rigidity EI and loaded at its free end by a
concentrated load W, match List I with List II and select the correct answer.
List I List II
A. Maximum bending moment 1. Wl
B. Strain energy 2. Wl2/2EI
C. Maximum slope 3. Wl3/3EI
D. Maximum deflection 4. W2l2/6EI
(a) 1 4 3 2 (b) 1 4 2 3
(c) 4 2 1 3 (d) 4 3 1 2
IES-10. Maximum deflection of a cantilever beam of length ‘l’ carrying uniformly distributed
load w per unit length will be: [IES- 2008]
(a) wl4/ (EI) (b) w l4/ (4 EI) (c) w l4/ (8 EI) (d) w l4/ (384 EI)
[Where E = modulus of elasticity of beam material and I = moment of inertia of beam cross-
section]
IES-11. A cantilever beam of length ‘l’ is subjected to a concentrated load P at a distance of l/3
from the free end. What is the deflection of the free end of the beam? (EI is the
flexural rigidity) [IES-2004]
2 Pl 3 3Pl 3 14 Pl 3 15 Pl 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
81EI 81EI 81EI 81EI
IES-11(i). A simply supported beam of length l is loaded by a uniformly distributed load w over
the entire span. It is propped at the mid span so that the deflection at the centre is
zero. The reaction at the prop is: [IES-2013]
5 1 5 1
(a) wl (b) wl (c) wl (d) wl
16 2 8 10
IES-12. A 2 m long beam BC carries a single

concentrated load at its mid-span
and is simply supported at its ends
by two cantilevers AB = 1 m long and
CD = 2 m long as shown in the figure.
The shear force at end A of the
cantilever AB will be
(a) Zero (b) 40 kg
(c) 50 kg (d) 60 kg [IES-1997]
IES-13. Assertion (A): In a simply supported beam subjected to a concentrated load P at mid-
span, the elastic curve slope becomes zero under the load. [IES-2003]
Reason (R): The deflection of the beam is maximum at mid-span.
IES-14. At a certain section at a distance 'x' from one of the supports of a simply supported
beam, the intensity of loading, bending moment and shear force arc Wx, Mx and Vx
respectively. If the intensity of loading is varying continuously along the length of
the beam, then the invalid relation is: [IES-2000]
Mx dM x d 2M x dVx
( a ) Slope Qx = ( b )Vx = ( c )Wx = ( d )Wx =
Vx dx dx 2 dx

IES-15. The bending moment equation, as a function of distance x measured from the left
end, for a simply supported beam of span L m carrying a uniformly distributed load
of intensity w N/m will be given by [IES-1999]
wL w wL w
( a ) M= ( L-x ) - ( L-x ) Nm ( b ) M= ( x ) - ( x ) Nm
3 2
2 2 2 2
wL 2 w wL 2 wLx
( c ) M= ( L-x ) - ( L-x ) Nm ( d ) M= ( x ) -
3
Nm
2 2 2 2
IES-16. A simply supported beam with width 'b' and depth ’d’ carries a central load W and
undergoes deflection δ at the centre. If the width and depth are interchanged, the
deflection at the centre of the beam would attain the value [IES-1997]
2 3 3/2
( b ) ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ δ ( c ) ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ δ ( d ) ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
d d d d
(a ) δ δ
b ⎝b⎠ ⎝b⎠ ⎝b⎠
IES-17. A simply supported beam of rectangular section 4 cm by 6 cm carries a mid-span

concentrated load such that the 6 cm side lies parallel to line of action of loading;
deflection under the load is δ. If the beam is now supported with the 4 cm side
parallel to line of action of loading, the deflection under the load will be:[IES-1993]
(a) 0.44 δ (b) 0.67 δ (c) 1.5 δ (d) 2.25 δ
IES-18. A simply supported beam carrying a concentrated load W at mid-span deflects by δ1

under the load. If the same beam carries the load W such that it is distributed
uniformly over entire length and undergoes a deflection δ2 at the mid span. The ratio
δ1: δ2 is: [IES-1995; GATE-1994]
(a) 2: 1 (b) 2:1 (c) 1: 1 (d) 1: 2
Moment Area Method

IES-19. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below
the Lists: [IES-1997]
List-I List-II
A. Toughness 1. Moment area method
B. Endurance strength 2. Hardness
C. Resistance to abrasion 3. Energy absorbed before fracture in a
tension test
D. Deflection in a beam 4. Fatigue loading
(a) 4 3 1 2 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d) 3 4 1 2
Slope and Deflection at a Section

IAS-1. Which one of the following is represented by the area of the S.F diagram from one
end upto a given location on the beam? [IAS-2004]
(a) B.M. at the location (b) Load at the location
(c) Slope at the location (d) Deflection at the location

IAS-2. Which one of the following is the correct statement? [IAS-2007]
dM
If for a beam = 0 for its whole length, the beam is a cantilever:
dx
(a) Free from any load (b) Subjected to a concentrated load at its free end

(c) Subjected to an end moment (d) Subjected to a udl over its whole span
IAS-3. In a cantilever beam, if the length is doubled while keeping the cross-section and the
concentrated load acting at the free end the same, the deflection at the free end will
increase by [IAS-1996]
(a) 2.66 times (b) 3 times (c) 6 times (d) 8 times
Conjugate Beam Method

IAS-4. By conjugate beam method, the slope at any section of an actual beam is equal to:
[IAS-2002]
(a) EI times the S.F. of the conjugate beam (b) EI times the B.M. of the conjugate beam
(c) S.F. of conjugate beam (d) B.M. of the conjugate beam
IAS-5. I = 375 × 10-6 m4; l = 0.5 m

E = 200 GPa
Determine the stiffness of the
beam shown in the above figure
(a) 12 × 1010 N/m
(b) 10 × 1010 N/m
(c) 4 × 1010 N/m
(d) 8 × 1010 N/m
[IES-2002]

OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
d2 y
GATE-1. Ans. (d) EI = M . Since it is second order differential equation so we need two boundary
dx 2
conditions to solve it.
GATE-1(i) Ans. (a)
The bending moment in the member JN = R × h(sagging)
Rh × L
∴ Slope at J or N =
2EI
Thus, outward displacement between points K and O
RhL RhL R h2 L
= ×h+ ×h=
2 EI 2 EI EI
GATE-1(ii) Ans. (c)
We know that
ds
=W
dx
dM
=S
dX
d2 y
EI . =M
dx 2
d2 y M
∴ =
dx 2 EI
M σ E M 1
Also = = ∴ =
I y R EI R
d2 y 1
∴ =
dx 2 R
⎛W⎞
3 5 ⎜ ⎟ l4 3
GATE-2. Ans. (d) δ1 =
Wl
= and δ 2 =
⎝ l ⎠ = 5Wl Therefore δ : δ = 5: 8
1 2
48EI 384EI 384EI
Wl3
GATE-3. Ans. (a) Maximum deflection (δ) =
48EI
To reduce, δ, increase the area moment of Inertia.
GATE-4. Ans. (a)
GATE-5. Ans. (b) At any distance x
X-Section at x distance
Area moment of inertia about P
b h
Neutral-axis of cross-section
b 3
×t x
bxt 3
Ix = l =
12 121 l
GATE-6. Ans. (d) From strain energy method

1
M 2 dx
U=∫ [Here, M = Px ]
0 2EI
1 1
P 2x2 6l P 2 6l P 2 l 2 3l3 P 2
= ∫ bxt 3
=
Ebt 03 ∫
x dx = × =
Ebt 3 2 Ebt 3
0
2E × dx
121
Deflection at free end
∂U 6P l3
δ = =
∂P Ebt 3
GATE-7. Ans. (b)
The deflection at the free end for
w L4 10 × (5)4 × 1000
w(10 kN/ m) = = = 1mm
8 EI 8 × 781250
The gap between the beam and rigid platform is 6 mm. Hence, no reaction will be developed
when w = 10 kN/m
Now, deflection at the free end for w(100 kN/m) will be = 10 × 1 mm = 10 mm
But, this cannot be possible because margin of deflection is only 6m.
Thus, w = 100 kN/m will induce a reaction R B at B.
w L4 PB L3
∴ − = Permissible deflection
8 EI 3EI
100 × (5)4 R B × (5)3 6
⇒ − =
8 × 781250 3 × 781250 1000
10 6 R B × 125
⇒ − =
1000 1000 3 × 781250
⇒ R B = 75 kN
∴ R A = (100 × 5 − 75) = 425 kN
GATE-8. Ans. (a)
Part AC of the beam is rigid. Hence C will act as a fixed end. Thus the deflection at B will be
PL3
given as δB =
3EI
But the bending moment does not depend on the rigidity or flexibility of the beam
∴ BM at P = P × 2L = 2PL
GATE-8(i) Ans. (a)
The given cantilever beam can be modified into a beam as shown below
W
El
P WL
L
Q
3 2
WL WL × L
Deflection at Q = +
3EI 2EI
2 WL3 + 3 WL3 5 WL3
= =
6 EI 6 EI
WL2 WL × L WL2 + 2 WL2 3 WL2
Slope at Q= + = =
2 EI EI 2 EI 2 EI
GATE-8(ii) Ans. (c)
Since the portion QR of the beam is rigid, QR will remain straight.
Deflection of R = Deflection at Q + Slope at Q × L
5 WL3 3 WL2 5 WL3 + 9 WL3
= + ×L=
6 EI 2EI 6 EI

14 WL3 7 WL3
= =
6 EI 3EI
GATE-9. Ans. (c)
The moment at point B = 2 Pa
In the cantilever beam ABC, the deflection at C due to meoment 2Pa will be given as
2P a × L ⎛ L⎞
δc = ⎜L + ⎟
EI ⎝ 2⎠
3 P a L2
= (downwards)
EI
∴ The reaction at C will be upwards
δ(2L)3 8 RL3
δc = = (upwards)
3EI 3EI
Thus, δc = δ′c
3P a L2 8 RL3
=
EI 3EI
9Pa
⇒ R= (upwards)
8L
GATE-10. Ans. (a)
The rotation at B
(i) Due to moment
2Pa × L
θB1 = (clockwise)
EI
(ii) Due to reaction R
RL2 RL2 3 RL2 27 P a L
θB2 = + = = (anti clockwise)
2EI EI 2 EI 16 EI
∴ θB = θB1 − θB 2
⎛ 27 ⎞ P a L 5 P a L
= ⎜2 − ⎟ = (clockwise)
⎝ 16 ⎠ EI 16 EI
GATE-11. Ans. (c)
Using Moment Area Method
M
M
A 2El
El B
L L
2 2
+
2M M
BMD
M
El
M diaghram
El
M
Deflection at B w.r.t. A = Moment of area of diagram between A and B about B
El
M L ML2
= ×L× =
El 2 2E l

GATE-12. Ans. (b)
The reactions at the ends are zero as there are hinges to left of G and right of I. Hence when the
middle pontoon is removed, the beam GHI acts as a simply supported beam.
48 kN
G H I
24 kN 24 kN
The deflection at H will be due to the load at H as well as due to the displacement of pontoons at
G and I in water. Since the loading is symmetrical, both the pontoons will be immersed to same
height. Let it be x.
∴ x × area of cross section of pontoon × unit weight of water = 24
⇒ x × 8 × 10 = 24
⇒ x = 0.3 m
Also, deflection at H due to load
PL3 48 × (10)3
P= = = 0.1m
48 EI 48 × 104
∴ Final deflection at H = 0.3 + 0.1 = 0.4 m
GATE-13. Ans. (c)
Let the elastic deflection at H be δ.
(P − R) L3
∴ δ= …(i)
48 EI
The reactions at G and I will be same, as the beam is symmetrically loaded.
Let the reaction at each G and I be Q.
Using principle of buoyancy, we get
x × area of cross-section of pontoon × γ w = Q
⇒ x × 8 × 10 = Q
Q
⇒ x= …(ii)
80
P
G I
δ
x x
x+δ
Q Q
R
Also, we have
Q+Q+R=P
⇒ 2Q + R = 48 …(iii)
Also, ( x + δ) × area of cross-section of Pontoon × γ w = R
R
⇒ x+δ=
80
Q R
⇒ +δ= [from (ii)]
80 80
48 − R R
⇒ +δ= [from (iii)]
2 × 80 80

2 R − 48 + R
⇒ δ=
160
3 R − 48
⇒ δ=
160
(48 − R) × 103 3R − 48
∴ = [from (i)]
48 × 104 160
⇒ R = 19.2 kN
GATE-14. Ans. (b)
The free diagram of the beam is shown below.
√2 P
P
45°
P
RH
Kδ1 Kδ2
RV
Kδ1 Kδ2
L L
L L
δ1
δ2
From similar triangles, we get

L 2L
=
δ1 δ2
⇒ δ2 = 2δ1 …(i)
Taking moments about hinge, we get
P × 2 L − kδ2 × 2 L − kδ1 × L = 0
⇒ 2 P − k(2δ2 + δ1 ) = 0 [ ∴ from (i)]
⇒ 2P − k(4δ1 + δ1 ) = 0
2P
⇒ δ1 =
5k
From (i), we get
2P 4 P
δ2 = 2 × =
5k 5k
GATE-15. Ans. (d)
2P 2 × 100
R1 = kδ1 = k × = = 40 kN
5k 5
4 P 4 × 100
R 2 = kδ 2 = k × = = 80 kN
5k 5
GATE-16. Ans. (b)

+
δ δ
=
δ′
⇒ 2δ = δ′
5 wl4
⇒ 2δ =
384 E l
5 wl4
⇒ δ=
768 E l
IES
IES-1. Ans. (b)
IES-1(i). Ans. (d)
2
⎛L⎞
W ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ WL2
IES-2. Ans. (c) θ = =
2EI 8EI
WL 3
⎛ WL2 ⎞ 5WL3
IES-3. Ans. (c) δ = +⎜ ⎟ L =
3EI ⎝ 2EI ⎠ 6EI
W ⎛ 2Lx 2 x 3 ⎞ 5WL3
ymid = ⎜ − ⎟ = =δ
EI ⎝ 2 6 ⎠at x =L 6EI
Wl 3 Wl 3 ×12 4Wl 3
IES-4. Ans. (c) Deflectionin cantilever = = =
3EI 3Eah3 Eah3
4Wl 3 1 4Wl 3
If h is doubled, and W is halved, New deflection = = ×
2 Ea ( 2h )
3
16 Eah3
W ( 2L )
3
WL3
IES-5. Ans. (c) δ for simply supported beam = =
48 EI 6 EI
3
WL
and deflection for Cantilever = = 2δ
3EI
ML ( PL / 2 ) L PL2
IES-6. Ans. (d) When a B. M is applied at the free end of cantilever, θ = = =
EI EI 2 EI
PL2
When a cantilever is subjected to a single concentrated load at free end, then θ =
2 EI
3 3
Wl Wl 3
IES-7. Ans. (a) ÷ =
8EI 3EI 8
IES-8. Ans. (b)
IES-9. Ans. (b)
IES-10. Ans. (c)

IES-11. Ans. (c) Moment Area method gives us
1 ⎛ 2Pl ⎞ ⎛ 2l ⎞ ⎛ l 4 ⎞
× × × + l
Area 2 ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 9 ⎟⎠
δA = x=
EI EI
Pl 2 7 14 Pl3
3
= × × =
EI 9 9 81 EI
2
⎛ 2l ⎞
W⎜ ⎟
Wa2 ⎧ l a ⎫ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎧ l 2l / 3 ⎫
Alternatively Ymax = ⎨ − ⎬= ⎨ − ⎬
EI ⎩ 2 6 ⎭ EI ⎩ 2 6 ⎭
Wl3 4 ( 9 − 2 )
= × ×
EI 9 18
3
14 Wl
=
81 EI
IES-11(i). Ans. (c)

IES-12. Ans. (c) Reaction force on B and C is same 100/2 = 50 kg. And we know that shear force is same
throughout its length and equal to load at free end.
IES-13. Ans. (a)
IES-14. Ans. (a)
IES-15. Ans. (b)
Wl3 Wl3
IES-16. Ans. (b) Deflection at center δ = =
48EI ⎛ bd3 ⎞
48E ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠
Wl 3 Wl 3 Wl 3 d2 d2
In second case, deflection = δ ′ = = = = δ
48EI ′ ⎛ db3 ⎞ ⎛ bd 3 ⎞ b 2 b 2
48E ⎜ ⎟ 48E ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠
IES-17. Ans. (d) Use above explanation
⎛W⎞
3 5 ⎜ ⎟ l4 3
IES-18. Ans. (d) δ1 =
Wl
= and δ 2 =
⎝ l ⎠ = 5Wl Therefore δ : δ = 8: 5
1 2
48EI 384EI 384EI
IES-19. Ans. (c)
IAS
IAS-1. Ans. (a)
IAS-2. Ans. (c) udl or point load both vary with x. But
if we apply Bending Moment (M) = const.
dM
and =0
dx
IAS-3. Ans. (d)
3
PL3 δ ⎛L ⎞
δ = ∴ δ ∞L3
∴ 2 =⎜ 2⎟ =8
3EI δ1 ⎝ L1 ⎠
IAS-4. Ans. (c)

IAS-5. Ans. (c) Stiffness means required load for unit deformation. BMD of the given beam
Loading diagram of conjugate beam
The deflection at the free end of the actual beam = BM of the at fixed point of conjugate beam
⎛1 ML ⎞⎟ 2L ⎛⎜ WL ⎞⎟ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 3
y = ⎜⎜ × L × ⎟ × + ⎜ × L ⎟ × ⎜⎜L + L ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ 1 × L × WL ⎟⎟× ⎜⎜L + 2L ⎟⎟ = 3WL
⎜⎝ 2 EI ⎠⎟ 3 ⎝⎜ 2EI ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 2 ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 2 2EI ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 3 ⎠⎟ 2EI
W 2EI 2 ×(200 ×10 )×(375 ×10 )
9 −6
Or stiffness = = 3 = 3
= 4 ×1010 N / m
y 3L 3 ×(0.5)

Question: Consider the signboard mounting shown in figure below. The wind load acting
perpendicular to the plane of the figure is F = 100 N. We wish to limit the deflection,
due to bending, at point A of the hollow cylindrical pole of outer diameter 150 mm
to 5 mm. Find the wall thickness for the pole. [Assume E = 2.0 X 1011 N/m2]
Answer: Given: F = 100 N; d0 = 150 mm, 0.15 my = 5 mm; E = 2.0 X 1O11 N/m2
Thickness of pole, t
The system of signboard mounting can be considered as a cantilever loaded at A i.e. W = 100
N and also having anticlockwise moment of M = 100 x 1 = 100 Nm at the free end. Deflection
of cantilever having concentrated load at the free end,
WL3 ML2
y= +
3EI 2EI
100 × 53 100 × 53
5 × 10 −3 = +
3 × 2.0 × 1011 × I 2 × 2.0 × 1011 × I
1 ⎡ 100 × 53 100 × 53 ⎤ −6 4
or I= ⎢ + ⎥ = 5.417 × 10 m
5 × 10 −3 ⎣ 3 × 2.0 × 1011 2 × 2.0 × 1011 ⎦

π
But I=
64
(d
4
0 −d 4
i )
π
∴ 5.417 × 10−6 =
64
( 0.15 4
− di4 )
or di = 0.141m or 141 mm
d0 − di 150 − 141
∴ t= = = 4.5 mm
2 2

Question: Find the slope and deflection at the free end of a cantilever beam of length 6m as
loaded shown in figure below, using method of superposition. Evaluate their
numerical value using E = 200 GPa, I = 1×10-4 m4 and W = 1 kN.
Answer: We have to use superposition
theory.
1st consider
PL3 (3W ) × 23 8W
δc = = =
3EI 3EI EI
PL2 (3W ).22 6W
θc = = =
2EI 2EI EI
8W 6W 32W
Deflection at A due to this load(δ1 ) = δ c + θc .(6 − 2) = + ×4 =
EI EI EI
2nd consider:
(2W )× 43 128W
δB = =
3EI 3EI
2
(2W ) × 4 16W
θB = =
2EI EI
Deflection at A due to this load(δ 2 )
224W
=δB + θB × (6 − 4)=
3EI
.
3rd consider :
W × 63 72W
(δ3 ) = δ A = =
3EI EI
2
W ×6 18W
θA = =
2EI EI
Apply superpositioning form ula
6W 16W 18W 40W 40 × (10 3 )
θ=θ A + θ B + θ c = + + = =
EI EI EI EI (200 × 10 9 )× 10 − 4
32W 224W 72W 40W 563×W
δ = δ1 + δ 2 + δ 3 = + + = =
EI 3 EI EI EI 3EI
563×(10 3 )
= = 8.93 m m
3 × (200 × 10 9 ) × (10 − 4 )

Question: If two cantilever beams of identical dimensions but made of mild steel and grey cast
iron are subjected to same point load at the free end, within elastic limit, which one
will deflect more and why?

Answer: Grey cost iron will deflect more.
We know that a cantilever beam of length 'L' end load 'P' will deflect at free end
PL3
(δ ) =
3EI
1
∴δ ∝
E
ECast Iron 125 GPa and EMild steel 200 GPa

Question: A uniform cantilever beam (EI = constant) of length L is carrying a concentrated
load P at its free end. What would be its slope at the (i) Free end and (ii) Built in
end
P
PL2
Answer: (i) Free end, θ =
2EI
(ii) Built-in end, θ=0

6. Bending Stress in Beam

6.1 Euler Bernoulli’s Equation or (Bending stress formula) or Bending Equation
σ M E
= =
y I R
Where σ = Bending Stress
M = Bending Moment
I = Moment of Inertia
E = Modulus of elasticity
R = Radius of curvature
y = Distance of the fibre from NA (Neutral axis)
6.2 Assumptions in Simple Bending Theory

All of the foregoing theory has been developed for the case of pure bending i.e. constant B.M along the
length of the beam. In such case
• The shear force at each c/s is zero.
• Normal stress due to bending is only produced.
• Beams are initially straight
• The material is homogenous and isotropic i.e. it has a uniform composition and its mechanical
properties are the same in all directions
• The stress-strain relationship is linear and elastic
• Young’s Modulus is the same in tension as in compression
• Sections are symmetrical about the plane of bending
• Sections which are plane before bending remain plane after bending
6.3

Chapter-6 Bending Stress in Beam S K Mondal’s
Mc1
σ max = σt =
I
Mc2
σ min = σ c = (Minimum in sense of sign)
I
6.4 Section Modulus (Z)
I
Z=
y
• Z is a function of beam c/s only
• Z is other name of the strength of the beam
• The strength of the beam sections depends mainly on the section modulus
M
• The flexural formula may be written as, σ=
Z
bh 2
• Rectangular c/s of width is "b" & depth "h" with sides horizontal, Z =
6
a3
• Square beam with sides horizontal, Z =
6
a3
• Square c/s with diagonal horizontal, Z =
6 2
πd3
• Circular c/s of diameter "d", Z =
32
A log diameter "d" is available. It is proposed to cut out a strongest beam
from it. Then
b( d 2 − b 2 )
Z=
6
bd 3 d
Therefore, Zmax = for b =
9 3
6.5 Flexural Rigidity (EI)

Reflects both
• Stiffness of the material (measured by E)
• Proportions of the c/s area (measured by I )
6.6 Axial Rigidity = EA

6.7 Beam of uniform strength
It is one is which the maximum bending stress is same in every section along the longitudinal axis.

For it M α bh 2
Where b = Width of beam
h = Height of beam
To make Beam of uniform strength the section of the beam may be varied by
• Keeping the width constant throughout the length and varying the depth, (Most widely used)
• Keeping the depth constant throughout the length and varying the width
• By varying both width and depth suitably.
6.8 Bending stress due to additional Axial thrust (P).

A shaft may be subjected to a combined bending and axial thrust. This type of situation arises in various
machine elements.
If P = Axial thrust
Then direct stress ( σ d ) = P / A (stress due to axial thrust)
This direct stress ( σ d ) may be tensile or compressive depending upon the load P is tensile or compressive.
My
And the bending stress ( σ b ) = is varying linearly from zero at centre and extremum (minimum or
I
maximum) at top and bottom fibres.
If P is compressive then
P My
• At top fibre σ= + (compressive)
A I
P
• At mid fibre σ= (compressive)
A
P My
• At bottom fibre σ= – (compressive)
A I
6.9 Load acting eccentrically to one axis

P ( P × e) y
• σ max = + where ‘e’ is the eccentricity at which ‘P’ is act.
A I
P ( P × e) y
• σ min = −
A I

Condition for No tension in any section
2k 2
• For no tension in any section, the eccentricity must not exceed
d
[Where d = depth of the section; k = radius of gyration of c/s]
h h
• For rectangular section (b x h) , e ≤ i.e load will be 2e = of the middle section.
6 3
d d
• For circular section of diameter ‘d’ , e ≤ i.e. diameter of the kernel, 2e =
8 4
D2 + d 2 D2 + d 2
For hollow circular section of diameter ‘d’ , e ≤ i.e. diameter of the kernel, 2e ≤ .
8D 4D

Bending equation
GATE-1. A cantilever beam has the
square cross section 10mm ×
10 mm. It carries a transverse
load of 10 N. Considering only
the bottom fibres of the beam,
the correct representation of
the longitudinal variation of
[GATE-2005]
the bending stress is:
GATE-1(i) A homogeneous, simply supported prismatic beam of width B, depth D and span L is
subjected to a concentrated load of magnitude P. The load can be placed anywhere
along the span of the beam. The maximum flexural stress developed in beam is
2 PL 3 PL
(a) (b) [CE: GATE-2004]
3 BD2 4 BD2
4 PL 3 PL
(c) ( d)
3 BD2 2 BD2
GATE-1(ii) Consider a simply supported beam with a uniformly distributed load having a
neutral axis (NA) as shown. For points P (on the neutral axis) and Q(at the bottom of
the beam) the state of stress is best represented by which of the following pairs?
NA
Q P
L L [CE: GATE-2011]
(a) (b)
P Q
P Q
(c) ( d)

P Q P Q
GATE-2. Two beams, one having square cross section and another circular cross-section, are
subjected to the same amount of bending moment. If the cross sectional area as well
as the material of both the beams are the same then [GATE-2003]
(a) Maximum bending stress developed in both the beams is the same
(b) The circular beam experiences more bending stress than the square one
(c) The square beam experiences more bending stress than the circular one
(d) As the material is same both the beams will experience same deformation
GATE-2(i) A beam with the cross-section given below is subjected to a positive bending
moment(causing compression at the top) of 16 kN-m acting around the horizontal
axis. The tensile force acting on the hatched area of the cross-section is
75 mm
25 mm
50 mm
50 mm 50 mm
[CE: GATE-2006]
(a) zero (b) 5.9 kN (c) 8.9 kN (d) 17.8 kN
Section Modulus
GATE-3. Match the items in Columns I and II. [GATE-2006]
Column-I Column-II
P. Addendum 1. Cam
Q. Instantaneous centre of velocity 2. Beam
R. Section modulus 3. Linkage
S. Prime circle 4. Gear
(a) P – 4, Q – 2, R – 3, S – l (b) P – 4, Q – 3, R – 2, S – 1
(c) P – 3, Q – 2, R – 1, S – 4 (d) P – 3, Q – 4, R – 1, S – 2
Combined direct and bending stress

GATE-4. For the component loaded with a force F as shown in the figure, the axial stress at
the corner point P is: [GATE-2008]

F (3L − b) F (3L + b) F (3L − 4b) F (3L − 2b)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4b3 4b3 4b3 4b3
GATE-5. A simply supported beam of uniform rectangular cross-section of width b and depth h
is subjected to linear temperature gradient, 0º at the top and Tº at the bottom, as
shown in the figure. The coefficient of linear expansion of the beam material is α.
The resulting vertical deflection at the mid-span of the beam is [CE: GATE-2003]
0°
T°
Temp. Gradient
α T h2 α TL2
(a) upward (b) upward
8L 8h
α T h2 α TL2
(c) downward (d) downward
8L 8h
GATE-6. The maximum tensile stress at the section X-X shown in the figure below is
L L L
3 3 3
X b
d/2
d
d/2
X
L L
2 2
8P 6P
(a) (b) [CE: GATE-2008]
bd bd
4P 2P
(c) ( d)
bd bd
Bending equation
IES-1. Beam A is simply supported at its ends and carries udl of intensity w over its entire
length. It is made of steel having Young's modulus E. Beam B is cantilever and carries
a udl of intensity w/4 over its entire length. It is made of brass having Young's
modulus E/2. The two beams are of same length and have same cross-sectional area. If
σA and σB denote the maximum bending stresses developed in beams A and B,
respectively, then which one of the following is correct? [IES-2005]
(a) σA/σB (b) σA/σB < 1.0
(c) σA/σB > 1.0 (d) σA/σB depends on the shape of cross-section
IES-2. If the area of cross-section of a circular section beam is made four times, keeping the
loads, length, support conditions and material of the beam unchanged, then the
qualities (List-I) will change through different factors (List-II). Match the List-I with
the List-II and select the correct answer using the code given below the Lists:[IES-
2005]
List-I List-II

A. Maximum BM 1. 8
B. Deflection 2. 1
C. Bending Stress 3. 1/8
D. Section Modulus 4. 1/16
(a) 3 1 2 4 (b) 2 4 3 1
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d) 2 1 3 4
IES-3. Consider the following statements in case of beams: [IES-2002]

1. Rate of change of shear force is equal to the rate of loading at a particular
section
2. Rate of change of bending moment is equal to the shear force at a particular
suction.
3. Maximum shear force in a beam occurs at a point where bending moment is
either zero or bending moment changes sign
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1 alone (b) 2 alone (c) 1 and 2 (d) 1, 2 and 3
IES-4. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given below the
Lists: [IES-2006]
List-I (State of Stress) List-II (Kind of Loading)
1. Combined bending and torsion of circular

shaft
2. Torsion of circular shaft
3. Thin cylinder subjected to internal

pressure
4. Tie bar subjected to tensile force
(a) 2 1 3 4 (b) 3 4 2 1
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 3 1 2 4
IES-4a. A T-section beam is simply supported and subjected to a uniform distributed load
over its whole span. Maximum longitudinal stress at [IES-2011]
(a) Top fibre of the flange (b) The junction of web and flange
(c) The mid-section of the web (d) The bottom fibre of the web
IES-4b. A rotating shaft carrying a unidirectional transverse load is subjected to:

(a) Variable bending stress (b) Variable shear stress [IES-2013]
(c) Constant bending stress (d) Constant shear stress
IES-4c. Statement (I): A circular cross section column with diameter ‘d’ is to be axially loaded
in compression. For this the core of the section is considered to be a concentric
d
circulation area of diameter ' '. [IES-2013]
4

Statement (II): We can drill and take out a cylindrical volume of material with
d
diameter ' ' in order to make the column lighter and still maintaining the same
4
buckling (crippling) load carrying capacity.
Section Modulus
IES-5. Two beams of equal cross-sectional area are subjected to equal bending moment. If
one beam has square cross-section and the other has circular section, then[IES-1999]
(a) Both beams will be equally strong
(b) Circular section beam will be stronger
(c) Square section beam will be stronger
(d) The strength of the beam will depend on the nature of loading
IES-6. A beam cross-section is used in

two different orientations as
shown in the given figure:
Bending moments applied to the
beam in both cases are same. The
maximum bending stresses
induced in cases (A) and (B) are
related as:
(a) σ A = 4σ B (b) σ A = 2σ B
σB σB A B
(c) σA = (d) σA =
2 4
[IES-1997]
IES-6(i). A beam with a rectangular section of 120 mm × 60 mm, designed to be placed

vertically is placed horizontally by mistake. If the maximum stress is to be limited,
the reduction in load carrying capacity would be [IES-2012]
1 1 1 1
4 3 2 6
IES-7. A horizontal beam with square cross-section is simply supported with sides of the
square horizontal and vertical and carries a distributed loading that produces
maximum bending stress σ in the beam. When the beam is placed with one of the
diagonals horizontal the maximum bending stress will be:
[IES-1993]
1
(a) σ (b) σ (c) 2σ (d) 2σ
2
IES-7(i). The ratio of the moments of resistance of a square beam (Z) when square section is
placed (i) with two sides horizontal (Z1) and (ii) with a diagonal horizontal (Z2 ) as
shown is [IES-2012]
= . = . =√ = .

IES-8. Which one of the following combinations of angles will carry the maximum load as a
column? [IES-1994]
IES-9. Assertion (A): For structures steel I-beams preferred to other shapes. [IES-1992]
Reason (R): In I-beams a large portion of their cross-section is located far from the
neutral axis.

IES-10. Assertion (A): A column subjected to eccentric load will have its stress at centroid
independent of the eccentricity. [IES-1994]
Reason (R): Eccentric loads in columns produce torsion.
IES-11. For the configuration of loading shown in the given figure, the stress in fibre AB is
given by: [IES-1995]
⎛ P P.e.5 ⎞
(a) P/A (tensile) (b) ⎜ − ⎟ (Compressive)
⎝ A I xx ⎠
⎛ P P.e.5 ⎞
(c) ⎜ + ⎟ (Compressive) (d) P/A (Compressive)
⎝ A I xx ⎠

IES-12. A column of square section 40 mm × 40

mm, fixed to the ground carries an
eccentric load P of 1600 N as shown in
the figure.
If the stress developed along the edge
CD is –1.2 N/mm2, the stress along the
edge AB will be:
(a) –1.2 N/mm2

(b) +1 N/mm2
(c) +0.8 N/mm2
(d) –0.8 N/mm2
[IES-1999]
IES-13. A short column of symmetric cross-

section made of a brittle material is
subjected to an eccentric vertical load P
at an eccentricity e. To avoid tensile
stress in the short column, the
eccentricity e should be less than or equal
to:
(a) h/12 (b) h/6
(c) h/3 (d) h/2
[IES-2001]
IES-14. A short column of external diameter D and internal diameter d carries an eccentric
load W. Toe greatest eccentricity which the load can have without producing tension
on the cross-section of the column would be: [IES-1999]
D+d D2 + d 2 D2 + d 2 D2 + d 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 8d 8D 8

IES-15 The ratio of the core of a rectangular section to the area of the rectangular section
when used as a short column is [IES-2010]
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
9 36 18 24
Bending equation
IAS-1. Consider the cantilever loaded as shown below: [IAS-2004]
What is the ratio of the maximum compressive to the maximum tensile stress?
(a) 1.0 (b) 2.0 (c) 2.5 (d) 3.0
IAS-2. A 0.2 mm thick tape goes over a frictionless pulley of 25 mm diameter. If E of the
material is 100 GPa, then the maximum stress induced in the tape is: [IAS 1994]
Section Modulus
IAS-3. A pipe of external diameter 3 cm and internal diameter 2 cm and of length 4 m is
supported at its ends. It carries a point load of 65 N at its centre. The sectional
modulus of the pipe will be: [IAS-2002]
65π 65π 65π 65π
(a) cm3 (b) cm3 (c) cm3 (d) cm3
64 32 96 128
IAS-4. A Cantilever beam of rectangular cross-section is 1m deep and 0.6 m thick. If the
beam were to be 0.6 m deep and 1m thick, then the beam would. [IAS-1999]
(a) Be weakened 0.5 times
(b) Be weakened 0.6 times

(c) Be strengthened 0.6 times
(d) Have the same strength as the original beam because the cross-sectional area remains the
same
IAS-5. A T-beam shown in the given figure is

subjected to a bending moment such that
plastic hinge forms. The distance of the
neutral axis from D is (all dimensions are
in mm)
(a) Zero
(b) 109 mm
(c) 125 mm
(d) 170 mm
[IAS-2001]
IAS-6. Assertion (A): I, T and channel sections are preferred for beams. [IAS-2000]
Reason(R): A beam cross-section should be such that the greatest possible amount of
area is as far away from the neutral axis as possible.
IAS-7. If the T-beam cross-section

shown in the given figure has
bending stress of 30 MPa in the
top fiber, then the stress in the
bottom fiber would be (G is
centroid)
(a) Zero
(b) 30 MPa
(c) –80 MPa
(d) 50 Mpa
[IAS-2000]
IAS-8. Assertion (A): A square section is more economical in bending than the circular
section of same area of cross-section. [IAS-1999]
Reason (R): The modulus of the square section is less than of circular section of same
area of cross-section.
Bimetallic Strip
IAS-9. A straight bimetallic strip of copper and steel is heated. It is free at ends. The strip,
will: [IAS-2002]
(a) Expand and remain straight (b) Will not expand but will bend
(c) Will expand and bend also (d) Twist only

IAS-10. A short vertical column having a
square cross-section is subjected to
an axial compressive force, centre
of pressure of which passes
through point R as shown in the
above figure. Maximum
compressive stress occurs at point
(a) S
(b) Q
(c) R
(d) P
[IAS-2002]
IAS-11. A strut's cross-sectional area A is subjected to load P a point S (h, k) as shown in the
given figure. The stress at the point Q (x, y) is: [IAS-2000]
P Phy Pkx
(a) + +
A Ix Iy
P Phx Pky
(b) − − −
A Iy Ix
P Phy Pkx
(c) + +
A Iy Ix
P Phx Pky
(d) + −
A Iy Ix
OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
M σ My 10 × ( x ) × 0.005
GATE-1. Ans. (a) Mx = P.x = or σ = = = 60.(x) MPa
( 0.01)
4
I y I
12
At x = 0; σ = 0
At x = 1m; σ = 60MPa
And it is linear as σ ∞ x
GATE-1(i) Ans. (d)
When the concentrated load is placed at the midspan, maximum bending moment will develop
at the mid span.
M ⎡ PL ⎤
Now, σ= y ⎢∵M =
I ⎣ 4 ⎥⎦
PL D
×
3 PL
= 4 32 =
BD 2BD2
12
GATE-1(ii) Ans. (a)
There can be two stresses which can act at any point on the beam viz. flexural stress and shear
stress.
M
σ= × ymax
I
SA y
τ=
Ib
Where all the symbols have their usual meaning.

M E σ My
GATE-2. Ans. (b) = = ; or σ = ;
I ρ y I
⎛a⎞ ⎛d⎞
M⎜ ⎟ M⎜ ⎟
2 6M 2 32M 4π π M 22.27M ⎡ π d2 ⎤
σ sq = ⎝ ⎠ = 3 ; σ cir = ⎝ 4⎠ = = = ⎢∵ = a2 ⎥
1 a πd π d3 a3 a3 ⎣ 4 ⎦
a.a3
12 64
∴ σ sq < σ cir
GATE-2(i) Ans. (c)
75 mm
25 mm
50 mm x
fmax
50 mm
100 mm Bending stress distribution
M
fmax = × ymax
I
16 × 106 × 12
= × 75 = 42.67 N/ mm2
100 × 1503
From similar traingles, we have
42.67 x
=
75 25
⇒ x = 14.22 N/ mm2
1
∴ Tensile force = × 25 × 14.22 × 50 × 10 −3 = 8.88 = 8.9 kN
2
GATE-3. Ans. (b)
GATE-4. Ans. (d) Total Stress = Direct stress + Stress due to Moment
= P + My = F + F (L − b) × b
A I 4b 2 2b × (b )3
12
GATE-5. Ans. (d)
T
The average change in temperature =
2
T
The compression in the top most fibre = α × L ×
2
T
Similarly, the elongation in bottom most fibre α × L ×
2
LαT αT
∴ Strain, ε0 = =
L×2 2
Therefore deflection at midpoint is downward. Now, from the equation of pure bending, we have
M E σ
= =
I R y
1 σ
⇒ Curvature, =
R Ey
Strain ⎡ h⎤
= ⎢⎣∵ y = 2 ⎥⎦
y

2ε αT
= 0 =
h h
Also, from the property of circle, we have
L2
Deflection, δ=
8R
L2 α T α TL2
= × = downward
8 h 8h
GATE-6. Ans. (a)
The section at X – X may be shown as in the figure below:
P b
d
4 d
2
The maximum tensile stress at the section X – X is

P M
σ= +
A Z
⎛d⎞
P×⎜ ⎟×6
P ⎝4⎠ 2P 6P 8P
= + = + =
⎛d⎞ ⎛ d2 ⎞ bd bd bd
b×⎜ ⎟ b×⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
IES
My
IES-1. Ans. (d) Bending stress (σ ) = , y and I both depends on the
I
σA
Shape of cross − sec tion so depends on the shape of cross − sec tion
σB
IES-2. Ans. (b) Diameter will be double, D = 2d.
A. Maximum BM will be unaffected
4
EI1 ⎛ d ⎞ 1
B. deflection ratio =⎜ ⎟ =
EI2 ⎝ 4 ⎠ 16
My M ( d / 2 )
3
σ2 ⎛ d ⎞ 1
C. Bending stress σ = = or Bending stress ratio = = ⎜ ⎟ =
I πd 4
σ1 ⎝ D ⎠ 8
64
3
Z2 I2 y1 ⎛ D ⎞
D. Selection Modulus ratio = = × = =8
Z1 y1 I1 ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠
IES-3. Ans. (c)
IES-4. Ans. (c)
IES-4a. Ans. (d)
IES-4b. Ans. (a)
IES-4c. Ans. (c)
π 4
IES-5. Ans. (b) If D is diameter of circle and 'a' the side of square section, d 2 = a 2 or d = a
4 π
πd2 a3 a3
Z for circular section = = ; and Z for square section =
32 4 π 6

2
⎛b⎞ b 2
b⎜ ⎟ 2 3 ×b b3
IES-6. Ans. (b) Z for rectangular section is
bd
, ZA =
⎝2⎠ = b , ZB = 2 =
6 6 24 6 12
3 3
b b
M = Z A .σ A = Z B .σ B or σ A = σ B , or σ A = 2σ B
24 12
IES-6(i). Ans. (c)
M
IES-7. Ans. (c) Bending stress =
Z
a3
For rectangular beam with sides horizontal and vertical, Z =
6
3
a
For same section with diagonal horizontal, Z =
6 2
∴ Ratio of two stresses = 2
IES-7(i). Ans. (c)
IES-8. Ans. (a)
IES-9. Ans. (a)
IES-10. Ans. (c) A is true and R is false.
P My Pky
IES-11. Ans. (b) σd = (compressive), σ x = = (tensile)
A Ix Ix
P ⎛ 6e ⎞ 1600 ⎛ 6e ⎞
IES-12. Ans. (d) Compressive stress at CD = 1.2 N/mm2 = ⎜1 + ⎟ = ⎜1 + ⎟
A⎝ b ⎠ 1600 ⎝ 20 ⎠
6e 1600
or = 0.2. So stress at AB = − (1 − 0.2 ) = −0.8 N/mm 2 (com)
20 1600
IES-13. Ans. (b)
IES-14. Ans. (c)
1 b h bh
IES-15 Ans. (c) A = × × ×4 =
2 6 6 18
IAS
My M ⎛ 2h ⎞
IAS-1. Ans. (b) σ= σ compressive, Max =
× ⎜ ⎟ at lower end of A.
I I ⎝ 3 ⎠
M ⎛h⎞
σ tensile, max = × ⎜ ⎟ at upper end of B
I ⎝3⎠
σ E 0.2 25
IAS-2. Ans. (d) = Here y = = 0.1 mm = 0.1 x 10-3 m, R = mm = 12.5 x 10-3 m
y R 2 2
100 × 103 × 0.1 × 10 −3
or σ = MPa = 800MPa
12.5 × 10 −3
π
I 64 (
34 − 24 )
65π
IAS-3. Ans. (c) Section modulus (z) = = cm3 = cm3
y 3 96
2

I 0.6 × 13
IAS-4. Ans. (b) z1 = = = 1.2m3
y 0.5
I 1× 0.63
and z 2 = = = 0.72m3
y 0.3
z 2 0.72
∴ = = 0.6 times
z1 1.2
IAS-5. Ans. (b)
IAS-6. Ans. (a) Because it will increase area moment of inertia, i.e. strength of the beam.
M σ1 σ 2 σ 30
IAS-7. Ans. (c) = = or σ 2 = y2 × 1 = (110 − 30 ) × = 80 MPa
I y1 y2 y1 30
As top fibre in tension so bottom fibre will be in compression.
IAS-8. ans. (c)
IAS-9. Ans. (c) As expansion of copper will be more than steel.
IAS-10. Ans. (a) As direct and bending both the stress is compressive here.
IAS-11. Ans. (b) All stress are compressive, direct stress,
P My Pky
σd = (compressive), σ x = = (compressive)
A Ix Ix
Mx Phx
and σ y = = (compressive)
Iy Iy


Question: A Simply supported beam AB of span length 4 m supports a uniformly distributed
load of intensity q = 4 kN/m spread over the entire span and a concentrated load P =
2 kN placed at a distance of 1.5 m from left end A. The beam is constructed of a
rectangular cross-section with width b = 10 cm and depth d = 20 cm. Determine the
maximum tensile and compressive stresses developed in the beam to bending.
Answer:
X
2KN 4kN/M
A
B
1.5
4m
NA
RA RB
B=10cm
X C/s
R A + RB = 2 + 4×4.........(i)
-R A ×4 + 2×(4-1.5) + (4×4)×2=0.......(ii)
or R A = 9.25 kN, RB =18-R A = 8.75 kN
if 0 ≤ x ≤ 2.5 m
( 2) -2(x-2.5)
Mx =RB ×x - 4x. x
=8.75x - 2x 2 - 2x + 5 = 6.75x - 2x 2 + 5 ...(ii)

From (i) & (ii) we find out that bending movment at x = 2.1875 m in(i)
gives maximum bending movement
dM
[Just find for both the casses]
dx
Mmax = 8.25 × 2.1875 − 2×18752 = 9.57K 7kNm
bh3 0.1× 0.23
Area movement of Inertia (I) = = = 6.6667 ×10−5 m 4
12 12
Maximum distance from NA is y = 10 cm = 0.1m
My (9.57×103 )× 0.1 N
σmax = = = 14.355MPa
I 6.6667 ×10−5 m2
Therefore maximum tensile stress in the lowest point in the beam is 14.355 MPa and
maximum compressive stress in the topmost fiber of the beam is -14.355 MPa.

Question: A simply supported beam made of rolled steel joist (I-section: 450mm × 200mm) has
a span of 5 m and it carriers a central concentrated load W. The flanges are
strengthened by two 300mm × 20mm plates, one riveted to each flange over the
entire length of the flanges. The second moment of area of the joist about the
principal bending axis is 35060 cm4. Calculate
(i) The greatest central load the beam will carry if the bending stress in the
300mm/20mm plates is not to exceed 125 MPa.

(ii) The minimum length of the 300 mm plates required to restrict the maximum
bending stress is the flanges of the joist to 125 MPa.
Answer:
Moment of Inertia of the total section about X-X

(I) = moment of inertia of I –section + moment of inertia of the plates about X-X axis.
⎡ 30 × 23 ⎛ 45 2 ⎞ ⎤
2
= 35060 + 2 ⎢⎢ + 30 × 2 ×⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟⎟ ⎥⎥ = 101370 cm4

⎜⎝ 2
⎣⎢ 12 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
(i) Greatest central point load(W):

For a simply supported beam a concentrated load at centre.
WL W × 5
M= = = 1.25W
4 4
σ.I (125 ×10 )×(101370 ×10 )
6 −8
M= = = 517194Nm
y 0.245
∴ 1.25W = 517194 or W = 413.76 kN
(ii) Suppose the cover plates are absent for a distance of x-meters from each support. Then at
these points the bending moment must not exceed moment of resistance of ‘I’ section alone
i.e
σ.I (35060 ×10−8 )
= (125 ×10 )×
6
= 178878Nm
y 0.245
∴ Bending moment at x metres from each support

W
= × x = 178878
2
41760
or , × x = 178878
2
or x = 0.86464 m
Hence leaving 0.86464 m from each support, for the
middle 5 - 2×0.86464 = 3.27 m the cover plate should be
provided.

Question: A beam of rectangular cross-section 50 mm wide and 100 mm deep is simply
supported over a span of 1500 mm. It carries a concentrated load of 50 kN, 500 mm
from the left support.
Calculate: (i) The maximum tensile stress in the beam and indicate where it occurs:
(ii) The vertical deflection of the beam at a point 500 mm from the right support.
E for the material of the beam = 2 × 105 MPa.
Answer: Taking moment about L
RR ×1500 = 50 × 500
or , RR = 16.667 kN
or , RL + RR = 50
∴ RL = 50 − 16.667=33.333 kN
Take a section from right R,
x-x at a distance x.
Bending moment (Mx ) = +RR .x
Therefore maximum bending moment will occur at 'c' Mmax=16.667×1 KNm

(i) Moment of Inertia of beam cross-section
bh3 0.050× (0.100)3 4

(I ) = = m = 4.1667×10−6 m4
12 12
Applying bending equation
⎛ 0.001⎞⎟
M σ E My
(16.67×103 )×⎜⎜⎜⎝ ⎟
2 ⎠⎟
= = or, σ max = = −6
N / m 2 = 200MPa
I y ρ I 4.1667×10
It will occure where M is maximum at point 'C'
(ii) Macaulay's method for determing the deflection
of the beam will be convenient as there is point load.
d2y
M x = EI = 33.333× x − 50× ( x − 0.5)
dx 2

Integrate both side we get
d2 y x 2 50
EI 2
= 33.333× − ( x − 0.5)2 + c1 x + c2
dx 2 2
at x=0, y=0 gives c2 = 0
at x=1.5, y=0 gives
0=5.556×(1.5)3 − 8.333×13 + c1 ×1.5
or , c1 = −6.945
∴ EIy = 5.556× x 3 −8.333( x − 0.5)3 − 6.945×1 = −2.43

−2.43
or , y = m = -2.9167 mm[downward so -ive]
(2×10 ×10 )× (4.1667×10−6 )
5 6

Question: If the beam cross-section is rectangular having a width of 75 mm, determine the
required depth such that maximum bending stress induced in the beam does not
exceed 40 MN/m2
Answer: Given: b =75 mm =0·075 m, σ max =40 MN/m2
Depth of the beam, d: Figure below shows a rectangular section of width b = 0·075 m and
depth d metres. The bending is considered to take place about the horizontal neutral axis N.A.
shown in the figure. The maximum bending stress occurs at the outer fibres of the rectangular
d
section at a distance above or below the neutral axis. Any fibre at a distance y from N.A. is
2
My
subjected to a bending stress, σ = , where I denotes the second moment of area of the
I
bd3
rectangular section about the N.A. i.e. .
12
d
At the outer fibres, y = , the maximum bending stress there becomes
2
⎛ d⎞
M× ⎜ ⎟
σ max = ⎝2⎠ = M − − − − (i)
bd3 bd2
12 6
bd2
or M = σ max . − − − −(ii)
6
For the condition of maximum strength i.e. maximum moment M, the product bd2 must be a
maximum, since σ max is constant for a given material. To maximize the quantity bd2 we
realise that it must be expressed in terms of one independent variable, say, b, and we may do
this from the right angle triangle relationship.

b2 + d2 = D2
or d2 = D2 − b2
Multiplying both sides by b, we get bd2 = bD2 − b3
To maximize bd2 we take the first derivative of expression with respect to b and set it equal to
zero, as follows:
d d
db
(
bd2 = )
db
( )
bD2 − b3 = D2 − 3b2 = b2 + d2 − 3b2 = d2 − 2b2 = 0
Solving, we have, depth d 2 b ...(iii)

This is the desired radio in order that the beam will carry a maximum moment M.
It is to be noted that the expression appearing in the denominator of the right side of eqn. (i) i.
bd2
e. is the section modulus (Z) of a rectangular bar. Thus, it follows; the section modulus is
6
actually the quantity to be maximized for greatest strength of the beam.
Using the relation (iii), we have
d= 2 x 0·075 = 0·0106 m
bd2
Now, M = σ max x Z = σ max x
6
Substituting the values, we get
0.075 × ( 0.106 )
2
M = 40 × = 0.005618 MNm
6
M 0.005618
σ max = = = 40MN / m2
Z ( 0.075 × ( 0.106 ) 2 / 6 )
Hence, the required depth d = 0·106 m = 106 mm

Q. (i)A cantilever of circular solid cross-section is fixed at one end and carries a
concentrated load P at the free end. The diameter at the free end is 200 mm and
increases uniformly to 400 mm at the fixed end over a length of 2 m. At what distance
from the free end will the bending stresses in the cantilever be maximum? Also
calculate the value of the maximum bending stress if the concentrated load P = 30 kN
[15-Marks]
σ M
Ans. We have = .... (i)
y I
Taking distance x from the free end we have
M = 30x kN.m = 30x × 103 N.m
x
y = 100 + ( 200 − 100 )
2
= 100 + 50x mm
πd4
and I =
64
Let d be the diameter at x from free end.
4
⎡
π ⎢200 +
( 400 − 200 ) x ⎤
⎥
2
= ⎣ ⎦
64
4
π ( 200 + 100x )
= mm 4
64
From equation (i), we have

σ
(100 + 50x ) × 10−3
30x × 103
=
π
( 200 + 100x )4 × 10−12
64
960x
∴ σ= ( 200 + 100x ) −3 × 1012 ...... (ii)
π
960x
= ( 200 + 100x ) −3 × 1012
π
dσ
For max σ , =0
dx
12
10 × 960
∴
π
⎡ x ( −3)(100)( 200 + 100x ) −4 + 1. ( 200 + 100x ) −3 ⎤ = 0
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⇒ - 300x + 200 + 100x = 0
⇒ x = 1m
30kN
200
400
2000mm
(2m)
Hence maximum bending stress occurs at the midway and from equation (ii), maximum bending
stress
960
σ= (1)( 200 + 100 ) −3 × 1012
π
960 × 1012
= 3
= 11.32 MPa
π × ( 300 )

7. Shear Stress in Beam

1. Shear stress in bending ( τ )
vQ
τ =
Ib
dM
Where, V = Shear force =
dx
c1
Q = Statical moment = ∫ ydA

y1
I = Moment of inertia
b = Width of beam c/s.
2. Statical Moment (Q)

c1
Q= ∫ ydA = Shaded Area × distance of the centroid of the shaded area from the neutral axis of the c/s.
y1
3. Variation of shear stress

Section Diagram Position of τ max
τ max
Rectangular N.A 3V
τ max =
2A
τ max = 1.5τ mean
= τ NA
Circular N.A
4
τ max = τ mean
3
Triangular h τ max = 1.5τ mean

from N.A
6
τ NA = 1.33 τ mean

Chapter-7 Shear Stress in Beam S K Mondal’s
Trapezoidal h
from N.A
6
Section Diagram τ max

Uni form In Flange,
I-Section V ⎡ 2− h12 ⎤
(τ max ) (τ max ) y = h1 = h
1
2 8I ⎣ ⎦
(τ max ) y =
1
h
2
=o
In Web
v
(τ max ) y =o = ⎡b(h12− h12 ) + th12 ⎤
1
8It ⎣ ⎦
vb 2
(τ m im ) y = h1 = ⎡ h − h12 ⎤
1
2 8It ⎣ ⎦
4. Variation of shear stress for some more section [Asked in different examinations]
Non uniform I-Section Diagonally placed square section
L-section Hollow circle
T-section Cross
5. Rectangular section

3V
• Maximum shear stress for rectangular beam: τ max =
2A
• For this, A is the area of the entire cross section
• Maximum shear occurs at the neutral axis
• Shear is zero at the top and bottom of beam
6. Shear stress in beams of thin walled profile section.

• Shear stress at any point in the wall distance "s" from the free edge
A
Shearing occurs here
B
Vx
s
V
τ= x
It ∫ ydA
o
where Vx = Shear force

τ = Thickness of the section
I = Moment of inrertia about NA
• Shear Flow (q)

s
Vx
q = τ t =
I NA ∫ ydA
o
• Shear Force (F)
F= ∫ qds
• Shear Centre (e)

Point of application of shear stress resultant

Shear Stress Variation

GATE-1. The transverse shear stress acting
in a beam of rectangular cross-
section, subjected to a transverse
shear load, is:
(a) Variable with maximum at the
bottom of the beam
(b) Variable with maximum at the
top of the beam
(c) Uniform
(d) Variable with maximum on the
neutral axis
[IES-1995, GATE-2008]
GATE-2. The ratio of average shear stress to the maximum shear stress in a beam with a
square cross-section is: [GATE-1994, 1998]
2 3
(a) 1 (b) (c) (d) 2
3 2
GATE-3. If a beam of rectangular cross-section is subjected to a vertical shear force V, the

shear force carried by the upper one third of the cross-section is [CE: GATE-2006]
7V 8V V
(a) zero (b) (c) (d)
27 27 3
GATE-4. I-section of a beam is formed by gluing wooden planks as shown in the figure below.
If this beam transmits a constant vertical shear force of 3000 N, the glue at any of the
four joints will be subjected to a shear force (in kN per meter length) of
50 mm
200 mm
50 mm
50 mm 75 mm
200 mm [CE: GATE-2006]
(a) 3.0 (b) 4.0 (c) 8.0 (d) 10.7
GATE-5. The shear stress at the neutral axis in a beam of triangular section with a base of 40
mm and height 20 mm, subjected to a shear force of 3 kN is [CE: GATE-2007]
GATE-6. The point within the cross sectional plane of a beam through which the resultant of
the external loading on the beam has to pass through to ensure pure bending without
twisting of the cross-section of the beam is called [CE: GATE-2009]

(a) moment centre (b) centroid
(c) shear centre (d) elastic centre

IES-1. At a section of a beam, shear force is F with zero BM. The cross-section is square with
side a. Point A lies on neutral axis and point B is mid way between neutral axis and
top edge, i.e. at distance a/4 above the neutral axis. If τ A and τ B denote shear
stresses at points A and B, then what is the value of τ A / τ B? [IES-2005]
(a) 0 (b) ¾ (c) 4/3 (d) None of above
IES-2. A wooden beam of rectangular cross-section 10 cm deep by 5 cm wide carries

maximum shear force of 2000 kg. Shear stress at neutral axis of the beam section is:
[IES-1997]
(a) Zero (b) 40 kgf/cm2 (c) 60 kgf/cm2 (d) 80 kgf/cm2
IES-3. In case of a beam of circular cross-section subjected to transverse loading, the

maximum shear stress developed in the beam is greater than the average shear stress
by: [IES-2006; 2008]
(a) 50% (b) 33% (c) 25% (d) 10%
IES-4. What is the nature of distribution of shear stress in a rectangular beam?

[IES-1993, 2004; 2008]
(a) Linear (b) Parabolic (c) Hyperbolic (d) Elliptic
IES-5. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IES 2007]

When a rectangular section beam is loaded transversely along the length, shear stress
develops on
(a) Top fibre of rectangular beam (b) Middle fibre of rectangular beam
(c) Bottom fibre of rectangular beam (d) Every horizontal plane
IES-6. A beam having rectangular cross-section is subjected to an external loading. The

average shear stress developed due to the external loading at a particular cross-
section is t avg . What is the maximum shear stress developed at the same cross-section
due to the same loading? [IES-2009]
1 3
(a) tavg (b) tavg (c) tavg (d) 2 tavg
2 2
IES-7. The transverse shear stress

acting in a beam of rectangular
cross-section, subjected to a
transverse shear load, is:
(a) Variable with maximum at the
bottom of the beam
(b) Variable with maximum at the
top of the beam
(c) Uniform
(d) Variable with maximum on the
neutral axis

[IES-1995, GATE-2008]
IES-8.
A cantilever is loaded by a concentrated load P at the free end as shown. The shear
stress in the element LMNOPQRS is under consideration. Which of the following
figures represents the shear stress directions in the cantilever?
[IES-2002]
IES-9. In I-Section of a beam subjected to transverse shear force, the maximum shear stress
is developed. [IES- 2008]
(a) At the centre of the web (b) At the top edge of the top flange
(c) At the bottom edge of the top flange (d) None of the above
IES-10. The given figure (all

dimensions are in mm) shows
an I-Section of the beam. The
shear stress at point P (very
close to the bottom of the
flange) is 12 MPa. The stress at
point Q in the web (very close
to the flange) is:
(a) Indeterminable due to
incomplete data
(b) 60MPa
(c) 18 MPa
(d) 12 MPa
[IES-2001]
IES-11. Assertion (A): In an I-Section beam subjected to concentrated loads, the shearing
force at any section of the beam is resisted mainly by the web portion.
Reason (R): Average value of the shearing stress in the web is equal to the value of
shearing stress in the flange. [IES-1995]

IES-11(i). Statement (I): If the bending moment along the length of a beam is constant, then the beam
cross-section will not experience any shear stress. [IES-2012]
Statement (II): The shear force acting on the beam will be zero everywhere along its length.
Shear stress distribution for different section

IES-12. The shear stress distribution over a beam cross-
section is shown in the figure above. The beam is of
(a) Equal flange I-Section
(b) Unequal flange I-Section
(c) Circular cross-section
(d) T-section
[IES-2003]

Two beams of identical cross-section but of different materials carry same bending
moment at a particular section, then
1. The maximum bending stress at that section in the two beams will be same.
2. The maximum shearing stress at that section in the two beams will be same.
3. Maximum bending stress at that section will depend upon the elastic modulus of
the beam material.
4. Curvature of the beam having greater value of E will be larger.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4
IAS-2. In a loaded beam under bending [IAS-2003]

(a) Both the maximum normal and the maximum shear stresses occur at the skin fibres
(b) Both the maximum normal and the maximum shear stresses occur the neutral axis
(c) The maximum normal stress occurs at the skin fibres while the maximum shear stress
occurs at the neutral axis
(d) The maximum normal stress occurs at the neutral axis while the maximum shear stress
occurs at the skin fibres
Shear stress distribution for different section

IAS-3. Select the correct shear stress distribution diagram for a square beam with a
diagonal in a vertical position: [IAS-2002]

IAS-4. The distribution of shear stress of a beam is shown in the given figure. The cross-
section of the beam is: [IAS-2000]
IAS-5. A channel-section of the beam shown in the given figure carries a uniformly
distributed load. [IAS-2000]
Assertion (A): The line of action of the load passes through the centroid of the cross-
section. The beam twists besides bending.
Reason (R): Twisting occurs since the line of action of the load does not pass through
the web of the beam.

OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
3
GATE-1. Ans (d) τ max = τ mean
2
GATE-2. Ans. (b)
3
τ max = τ mean
2
GATE-3. Ans. (b)
d
2
y
SA y
τ=
Ib
⎛⎛d⎞ ⎞
⎛d ⎞ ⎜⎜ ⎟ + y⎟
V × ⎜ − y⎟ × b × ⎜ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟
= ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Ib
⎛ d2 ⎞
V×⎜ − y2 ⎟
⇒ τ= ⎝ 4 ⎠
2I
∴ d F = τ × b dy
⎛ d2 ⎞
V×⎜ − y2 ⎟
= ⎝ 4 ⎠ × b dy
2I
Integrating both sides, we get
d
V b 2 ⎛ d2 ⎞
2 I ∫d ⎝ 4
⇒ F= ⎜ − y2 ⎟ dy
⎠
6
d
V b ⎡ d2 y3 ⎤ 2 V b ⎡ d 3 d 3 d 3 d3 ⎤
= ⎢ y− ⎥d = ⎢ − − + ⎥
2I ⎣ 4 3⎦ 2I ⎣ 8 24 24 648 ⎦
6
3
Vb d 28 V b d3 28 7V
= × × = × × × 12 =
2I 8 81 2bd3 8 81 27
GATE-4. Ans. (b)
VQ
Shear flow, q =
I
50 × 3003 ⎡150 × 503 ⎤
I= + 2× ⎢ + 150 × 50 × 1252 ⎥
12 ⎣ 12 ⎦

= 3.5 × 108 mm4
For any of the four joints,
Q = 50 × 75 × 125 = 468750 mm3
3000 × 468750
∴ q= = 4.0 N/ mm = 4.0 kN/ m
3.5 × 108
Note: In the original Question Paper, the figure of the beam was draw as I-section but in
language of the question, it was mentioned as T-section. Therefore, there seems to be an error in
the question.
GATE-5. Ans. (c)
SA y
Shear stress, τ=
Ib
Where
S = Shear force
A = Area above the level where shear stress is desired
y = Distance of CG of area A from neutral axis
I = Moment of Inertia about neutral axis
b = Width of the section at the level where shear stress is desired.
40 mm
3
20 mm
40 mm
40 40 40 80
Width at a distance of mm from the top = × = mm
3 20 3 3
⎛ 1 80 40 ⎞ ⎛ 1 40 ⎞
3 × 103 × ⎜ × × ⎟×⎜ × ⎟
∴ τ= ⎝2 3 3 ⎠ ⎝3 3 ⎠
⎛ 40 × 203 ⎞ 80
⎜ ⎟×
⎝ 36 ⎠ 3
3 × 103 × 3200 × 40 × 36 × 3
= = 10 MPa
162 × 3200 × 203
Alternatively,
12S
q= (hy − y2 )
bh3
12 × 3 × 103 ⎡ 20 ⎛ 20 ⎞ ⎤
2
= ⎢ 20 × − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 10 MPa
40 × 203 ⎣ 3 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎦
GATE-6. Ans. (c)
IES ANSWERS
a ⎛ a2 ⎞ 3 V
V × ⎜ − y2 ⎟ .a2
VAy 2 ⎝ 4 ⎠ = 3 V a2 − 4y 2 τ 4
IES-1. Ans. (c) τ =
Ib
=
a4 2 a3
( ) or A = 2 a3
τ B 3 V ⎧⎪⎛ 2
=
3
⎛ a ⎞ ⎞ ⎫⎪
2
×a . 3 . ⎨⎜ a − 4 ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎬
12 2 a ⎪⎩⎝⎜ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎠⎟ ⎭⎪

3 F 3 2000
IES-2. Ans. (c) Shear stress at neutral axis = × = × = 60 kg/cm 2
2 bd 2 10 × 5
IES-3. Ans. (b) In the case of beams with circular cross-section, the ratio of the maximum shear stress to
average shear stress 4:3
IES-4. Ans. (b)
V ⎛ h2 2⎞
τ= ⎜ − y1 ⎟ indicating a parabolic distribution of shear stress across the cross-section.
4I ⎝ 4 ⎠
IES-5. Ans. (b)
IES-6. Ans. (c)
Shear stress in a rectangular Shear stress in a circular beam, the

beam, maximum shear stress, maximum shear stress,
3F 4F 4
τmax = = 1.5 τ(average) τmax = = τ(average)
2b. h π 3
3 × d2
4
3
IES-7. Ans (d) τ max = τ mean
2
IES-8. Ans. (d)
IES-9. Ans. (a)
IES-10. Ans. (b)
IES-11. Ans. (c)
IES-11(i). Ans. (a)
IES-12. Ans. (b)

My VAy
IAS-1. Ans. (a) Bending stress δ = and shear stress ( τ ) = both of them does not depends on
I Ib
material of beam.
IAS-2. Ans. (c)
V ⎛ h2 2⎞
τ= ⎜ − y1 ⎟ indicating a parabolic distribution of shear stress across the cross-section.
4I ⎝ 4 ⎠
IAS-3. Ans. (d)
IAS-4. Ans. (b)
IAS-5. Ans. (c) Twisting occurs since the line of action of the load does not pass through the shear.

Question: A timber beam 15 cm wide and 20 cm deep carries uniformly distributed load over a
span of 4 m and is simply supported.
If the permissible stresses are 30 N/mm2 longitudinally and 3 N/mm2 transverse
shear, calculate the maximum load which can be carried by the timber beam.
ωN
m
N/A 20cm
bh3 ( 0.15 ) × ( 0.20 )

3
Answer: Moment of inertia (I) = = = 10−4 m4

12 12

20
Distance of neutral axis from the top surface y = = 10 cm = 0.1 m
2
M σ My
We know that = or σ =
I y I
Where maximum bending moment due to uniformly
ω 2
ω × 42
distributed load in simply supported beam ( M ) = = = 2ω
8 8
Considering longitudinal stress
30 × 106 =
( 2ω ) × 0.1
10 −4
or, ω = 15 kN/m
Now consideng Shear

ω.L ω.4
Maximum shear force = = = 2ω
2 2
2ω
Therefore average shear stress (τ mean ) = = 66.67 ω
0.15 × 0.2
For rectangular cross-section
3 3
Maximum shear stress(τ max ) =. τ = × 66.67ω = 100 ω
2 2
Now 3 × 106 = 100ω ; ω = 30 kN/m
So maximum load carring capacity of the beam = 15 kN/m (without fail).

8. Fixed and Continuous Beam

What is a beam?
A (usually) horizontal structural member that is subjected to a load that tends to bend it.
Types of Beams
Simply supported beam Cantilever beam
Simply Supported Beams Cantilever Beam
Single Overhang Beam

Continuous Beam
Single Overhang Beam with internal hinge

Double Overhang Beam
Fixed Beam Continuous beam
Continuous beams
Beams placed on more than 2 supports are called continuous beams. Continuous beams are used when
the span of the beam is very large, deflection under each rigid support will be equal zero.
Analysis of Continuous Beams

(Using 3-moment equation)
Stability of structure
If the equilibrium and geometry of structure is maintained under the action of forces than the structure
is said to be stable.

Chapter-8 Fixed and Continuous Beam Page-286
External stability of the structure is provided by the reaction at the supports. Internal stability is
provided by proper design and geometry of the member of the structure.
Statically determinate and indeterminate structures
Beams for which reaction forces and internal forces can be found out from static equilibrium equations
alone are called statically determinate beam.
Example:
P
RB
RA
∑X i = 0, ∑ Yi = 0 and ∑M = 0
i is sufficient to calculate R A & RB.
Beams for which reaction forces and internal forces cannot be found out from static equilibrium
equations alone are called statically indeterminate beam. This type of beam requires deformation
equation in addition to static equilibrium equations to solve for unknown forces.
Example:
P P
RA RB Rc RD

Advantages of fixed ends or fixed supports

• Slope at the ends is zero.
• Fixed beams are stiffer, stronger and more stable than SSB.
• In case of fixed beams, fixed end moments will reduce the BM in each section.
• The maximum deflection is reduced.
Bending moment diagram for fixed beam

Example:
BMD for Continuous beams

BMD for continuous beams can be obtained by superimposing the fixed end moments diagram over the
free bending moment diagram.

Three - moment Equation for continuous beams OR

Clapeyron’s Three Moment Equation

Overhanging Beam
IES-1. An overhanging beam ABC is supported at points A and B, as shown in the above
figure. Find the maximum bending moment and the point where it occurs.
[IES-2009]
(a) 6 kN-m at the right support

(b) 6 kN-m at the left support
(c) 4.5 kN-m at the right support
(d) 4.5 kN-m at the midpoint
between the supports
IES-2. A beam of length 4 L is simply supported on two supports with equal overhangs of
L on either sides and carries three equal loads, one each at free ends and the third
at the mid-span. Which one of the following diagrams represents correct
distribution of shearing force on the beam? [IES-2004]
IES-3. A horizontal beam carrying

uniformly distributed load is
supported with equal
overhangs as shown in the
given figure
The resultant bending moment at the mid-span shall be zero if a/b is: [IES-2001]
(a) 3/4 (b) 2/3 (c) 1/2 (d) 1/3

Overhanging Beam
IAS-1.
If the beam shown in the given figure is to have zero bending moment at its
middle point, the overhang x should be: [IAS-2000]
(a) wl 2 / 4 P (b) wl 2 / 6 P (c) wl 2 / 8P (d) wl 2 /12 P
IAS-2. A beam carrying a uniformly distributed load rests on two supports 'b' apart with
equal overhangs 'a' at each end. The ratio b/a for zero bending moment at mid-
span is: [IAS-1997]
1 3
(a) (b) 1 (c) (d) 2
2 2
IAS-3. A beam carries a uniformly distributed load and is supported with two equal
overhangs as shown in figure 'A'. Which one of the following correctly shows the
bending moment diagram of the beam? [IAS 1994]

OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
IES-1. Ans. (a) Taking moment about A
VB × 2 = ( 2 × 1) + ( 6 × 3 )
⇒ 2VB = 2 + 18
⇒ VB = 10 kN
VA + VB = 2 + 6 = 8kN
∴ VA = 8 − 10 = − 2 kN
∴ Maximum Bending Moment = 6
kN-m at the right support
IES-2. Ans. (d)
They use opposite sign conversions but for correct sign remember S.F & B.M of cantilever is
(-) ive.
IES-3. Ans. (c)
wl
IAS-1. Ans. (c) Rc = RD = P +
2
wl l l ⎛ l⎞ wl 2
Bending moment at mid point (M) = − × + RD × − P ⎜ x + ⎟ = 0 gives x =
2 4 2 ⎝ 2⎠ 8P
IAS-2. Ans. (d)
(i) By similarity in the B.M diagram a must be b/2

ω ⎡ b2 2⎤
(ii) By formula M = ⎢ − a ⎥ = 0 gives a = b/2
2⎣4 ⎦
IAS-3. Ans. (a)


Question: What are statically determinate and in determinate beams? Illustrate each case
through examples.
Answer: Beams for which reaction forces and internal forces can be found out from static
equilibrium equations alone are called statically determinate beam.
Example:
P
RB
RA
∑X i = 0, ∑Yi = 0 and ∑M = 0
i is sufficient
to calculate R A & RB.
Beams for which reaction forces and internal forces cannot be found out from static
equilibrium equations alone are called statically indeterminate beam. This type of beam
requires deformation equation in addition to static equilibrium equations to solve for
unknown forces.
Example:
P P
RA RB Rc RD

9. Torsion

• In machinery, the general term “shaft” refers to a member, usually of circular cross-
section, which supports gears, sprockets, wheels, rotors, etc., and which is subjected to
torsion and to transverse or axial loads acting singly or in combination.
• An “axle” is a rotating/non-rotating member that supports wheels, pulleys,… and
carries no torque.
• A “spindle” is a short shaft. Terms such as lineshaft, headshaft, stub shaft, transmission
shaft, countershaft, and flexible shaft are names associated with special usage.
Torsion of circular shafts

1. Equation for shafts subjected to torsion "T"
τ T Gθ
= = Torsion Equation
R J L
Where J = Polar moment of inertia
τ = Shear stress induced due to torsion T.
G = Modulus of rigidity
θ = Angular deflection of shaft
R, L = Shaft radius & length respectively
Assumptions
• The bar is acted upon by a pure torque.
• The section under consideration is remote from the point of application of the load and from
a change in diameter.
• Adjacent cross sections originally plane and parallel remain plane and parallel after
twisting, and any radial line remains straight.
• The material obeys Hooke’s law
• Cross-sections rotate as if rigid, i.e. every diameter rotates through the same angle

Chapter-9 Torsion S K Mondal’s
2. Polar moment of inertia

As stated above, the polar second moment of area, J is defined as
J = z0
R
2π r 3 dr
For a solid shaft J =

Lr O
2π M P
4 R
=
2 π R 4 π D4
= (6)
N4Q 0
4 32
For a hollow shaft of internal radius r:
LM r OP
z
R
4
π π
J =
0
R
2π r 3 dr = 2 π
N4Q
=
2
( R4 − r 4 ) =
32
cD 4
−d4 h (7)
r
Where D is the external and d is the internal diameter.
π d4
• Solid shaft “J” =
32
π
• Hollow shaft, "J” = (d o 4 − d i 4 )
32
3. The polar section modulus
Zp= J / c, where c = r = D/2
• For a solid circular cross-section, Zp = π D3 / 16
• For a hollow circular cross-section, Zp = π (Do4 - Di4 ) / (16Do)
• Then, τ max = T / Zp
• If design shears stress, τ d is known, required polar section modulus can be calculated from:
Zp = T / τ d
4. Power Transmission (P)

2π NT
• P (in Watt ) =
60
2π NT
• P (in hp) = (1 hp = 75 Kgm/sec).
4500

[Where N = rpm; T = Torque in N-m.]
5. Safe diameter of Shaft (d)

• Stiffness consideration
T Gθ
=
J L
• Shear Stress consideration
T τ
=
J R
We take higher value of diameter of both cases above for overall safety if other parameters are given.
6. In twisting
16T
• Solid shaft, τ max =
π d3
16Td o
• Hollow shaft, τ max =
π (d o 4 − di 4 )
TL
• Diameter of a shaft to have a maximum deflection " α " d = 4.9 × 4
Gα
[Where T in N-mm, L in mm, G in N/mm2]
7. Comparison of solid and hollow shaft

• A Hollow shaft will transmit a greater torque than a solid shaft of the same weight & same
material because the average shear stress in the hollow shaft is smaller than the average
shear stress in the solid shaft
⎡ If solid shaft dia = D ⎤

(τ max ) holloow shaft 16 ⎢ ⎥
• =
(τ max ) solid shaft 15 ⎢ Hollow shaft, d o = D, d i = D ⎥
⎣ 2⎦
• Strength comparison (same weight, material, length and τ max )
Th n2 + 1 External diameter of hollow shaft

= Where, n = [ONGC-2005]
Ts n n 2 − 1 Internal diameter of hollow shaft
• Weight comparison (same Torque, material, length and τ max )
Wh
=
(
n 2 − 1 n 2/3 ) Where, n =
External diameter of hollow shaft
[WBPSC-2003]
( )
2/3
Ws n4 − 1 Internal diameter of hollow shaft
• Strain energy comparison (same weight, material, length and τ max )
Uh n 2 + 1 1
= 2
= 1+ 2
Us n n

8. Shaft in series
θ = θ1 + θ 2
Torque (T) is same in all section
Electrical analogy gives torque(T) = Current (I)
9. Shaft in parallel
θ1 = θ 2 and T = T1 + T2
Electrical analogy gives torque(T) = Current (I)
10. Combined Bending and Torsion

• In most practical transmission situations shafts which carry torque are also subjected to
bending, if only by virtue of the self-weight of the gears they carry. Many other practical
applications occur where bending and torsion arise simultaneously so that this type of
loading represents one of the major sources of complex stress situations.
• In the case of shafts, bending gives rise to tensile stress on one surface and compressive
stress on the opposite surface while torsion gives rise to pure shear throughout the shaft.
• For shafts subjected to the simultaneous application of a bending moment M and torque T
the principal stresses set up in the shaft can be shown to be equal to those produced by an
equivalent bending moment, of a certain value Me acting alone.
• Figure
• Maximum direct stress ( σ x ) & Shear stress ( (τ xy ) in element A
32 M P
σx = +
πd3 A
16T
τ xy = 3
πd
• Principal normal stresses ( σ 1,2 ) & Maximum shearing stress ( τ max )
2
σx ⎛σ ⎞
σ 1,2 = ± ⎜ x ⎟ + τ xy2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
σ1 − σ 2 ⎛σ ⎞
τ max = = ± ⎜ x ⎟ + (τ xy ) 2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠

• Maximum Principal Stress ( σ max ) & Maximum shear stress ( τ max )
16 ⎡
σ max = 3 ⎣
M + M 2 +T2 ⎤
πd ⎦
16
τ max = M 2 +T2
πd3
• Location of Principal plane ( θ )
1 ⎛T ⎞
θ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝M ⎠
• Equivalent bending moment (Me) & Equivalent torsion (Te).
⎡M + M 2 +T2 ⎤
Me = ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ 2 ⎥⎦
Te = M 2 + T 2
• Important Note
o Uses of the formulas are limited to cases in which both M & T are known. Under any
other condition Mohr’s circle is used.
• Safe diameter of shaft (d) on the basis of an allowable working stress.
32M e
o σw in tension , d = 3
πσ w
16Te
o τw in shear , d= 3
πτ w
11. Shaft subjected to twisting moment only

• Figure
• Normal force ( Fn ) & Tangential for ( Ft ) on inclined plane AB
Fn = −τ × [ BC sin θ + AC cosθ ]
Ft = τ × [ BC cosθ - AC sinθ ]

• Normal stress ( σ n ) & Tangential stress (shear stress) ( σ t ) on inclined plane AB.
σn = −τ sin 2θ
σt = τ cos 2θ
• Maximum normal & shear stress on AB
θ ( σ n )max τ max
0 0 +τ
45° –τ 0
90 0 –τ
135 +τ 0
• Important Note
• Principal stresses at a point on the surface of the shaft = + τ , - τ , 0
i.e σ 1,2 = ± τ sin2θ
• Principal strains
τ τ
∈1 = (1 + μ ); ∈2 = − (1 + μ ); ∈3 = 0
E E
• Volumetric strain,
∈v =∈1 + ∈2 + ∈3 = 0
• No change in volume for a shaft subjected to pure torque.
12. Torsional Stresses in Non-Circular Cross-section Members

• There are some applications in machinery for non-circular cross-section members and shafts
where a regular polygonal cross-section is useful in transmitting torque to a gear or pulley
that can have an axial change in position. Because no key or keyway is needed, the
possibility of a lost key is avoided.
• Saint Venant (1855) showed that τ max in a rectangular b × c section bar occurs in the middle
of the longest side b and is of magnitude formula
T T ⎛ 1.8 ⎞
τ max = = 2 ⎜
3+
α bc 2
bc ⎝ b / c ⎟⎠
Where b is the longer side and α factor that is function of the ratio b/c.
The angle of twist is given by
Tl
θ =
β bc3G
Where β is a function of the ratio b/c

Shear stress distribution in different cross-section
Rectangular c/s Elliptical c/s Triangular c/s
13. Torsion of thin walled tube

• For a thin walled tube
T
Shear stress, τ =
2 A0t
τ sL
Angle of twist, φ=
2 AO G
[Where S = length of mean centre line, AO = Area enclosed by mean centre line]
• Special Cases
o For circular c/s
J = 2π r 3t ; Ao = π r 2 ; S = 2π r
[r = radius of mean Centre line and t = wall thickness]
T T .r T
∴ τ= = =
2π r t
2
J 2 Ao t
TL τL TL
ϕ= = =
GJ Ao JG 2π r 3tG
o For square c/s of length of each side ‘b’ and thickness ‘t’
A0 = b 2
S =4b
o For elliptical c/s ‘a’ and ‘b’ are the half axis lengths.
A0 = π ab
⎡3 ⎤
S ≈ π ⎢ ( a + b) − ab ⎥
⎣2 ⎦

Torsion Equation
GATE-1. A solid circular shaft of 60 mm diameter transmits a torque of 1600 N.m. The
value of maximum shear stress developed is: [GATE-2004]
(a) 37.72 MPa (b) 47.72 MPa (c) 57.72 MPa (d) 67.72 MPa
GATE-2. Maximum shear stress developed on the surface of a solid circular shaft under
pure torsion is 240 MPa. If the shaft diameter is doubled then the maximum
shear stress developed corresponding to the same torque will be: [GATE-2003]
GATE-2(i) A long shaft of diameter d is subjected to twisting moment T at its ends. The
maximum normal stress acting at its cross-section is equal to [CE: GATE-2006]
16 T 32 T 64 T
(a) zero (b) 3
(c) 3
(d)
πd πd πd 3
GATE-3. A steel shaft 'A' of diameter 'd' and length 'l' is subjected to a torque ‘T’ Another
shaft 'B' made of aluminium of the same diameter 'd' and length 0.5l is also
subjected to the same torque 'T'. The shear modulus of steel is 2.5 times the
shear modulus of aluminium. The shear stress in the steel shaft is 100 MPa. The
shear stress in the aluminium shaft, in MPa, is: [GATE-2000]
(a) 40 (b) 50 (c) 100 (d) 250
GATE-4. For a circular shaft of diameter d subjected to torque T, the maximum value of
the shear stress is: [GATE-2006]
64T 32T 16T 8T
(a) (b) (c) (d)
πd3 πd3 πd3 πd3
GATE-4a. A torque T is applied L L/2

at the free end of a
T
stepped rod of
circular cross- 2d
d
sections as shown in
the figure. The shear
modulus of the
material of the rod is
G. The expression for
d to produce an [GATE-2011]
angular twist θ at
the free end is
1 1 1 1
⎛ 32 TL ⎞ 4 ⎛ 18 TL ⎞ 4 ⎛ 16 TL ⎞ 4 ⎛ 2 TL ⎞ 4
(a) ⎜ ⎟ (b) ⎜ ⎟ (c) ⎜ ⎟ (d) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ πθ G ⎠ ⎝ πθ G ⎠ ⎝ πθ G ⎠ ⎝ πθ G ⎠
Power Transmitted by Shaft

GATE-5. The diameter of shaft A is twice the diameter or shaft B and both are made of
the same material. Assuming both the shafts to rotate at the same speed, the
maximum power transmitted by B is: [IES-2001; GATE-1994]
(a) The same as that of A (b) Half of A (c) 1/8th of A (d) 1/4th of A

GATE-5(i) A hollow circular shaft has an outer diameter of 100 mm and a wall thickness
of 25 mm. The allowable shear stress in the shaft is 125 MPa. The maximum
torque the shaft can transmit is [CE: GATE-2009]
(a) 46 kN-m (b) 24.5 kN-m (c) 23 kN-m (d) 11.5 kN-m
Combined Bending and Torsion

GATE-6. A solid shaft can resist a bending moment of 3.0 kNm and a twisting moment of
4.0 kNm together, then the maximum torque that can be applied is: [GATE-1996]
(a) 7.0 kNm (b) 3.5 kNm (c)4.5 kNm (d) 5.0 kNm
Comparison of Solid and Hollow Shafts

GATE-7. The outside diameter of a hollow shaft is twice its inside diameter. The ratio of
its torque carrying capacity to that of a solid shaft of the same material and the
same outside diameter is: [GATE-1993; IES-2001]
15 3 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
16 4 2 16
GATE-7(i) The maximum and minimum shear stresses in a hollow circular shaft of outer
diameter 20 mm and thickness 2 mm, subjected to a torque of 92.7 N-m will be
(a) 59 MPa and 47.2 MPa (b) 100 MPa and 80 MPa [CE: GATE-2007]
(c) 118 MPa and 160 MPa (d) 200 MPa and 160 Mpa
GATE-7(ii)The maximum shear stress in a solid shaft of circular cross-section having

diameter d subjected to a torque T is τ. If the torque is increased by four times
and the diameter of the shaft is increased by two times, the maximum shear
stress in the shaft will be [CE: GATE-2008]
τ τ
(a) 2τ (b) τ (c) (d)
2 4
Shafts in Series
GATE-8. A torque of 10 Nm is transmitted through a stepped shaft as shown in figure.
The torsional stiffness of individual sections of lengths MN, NO and OP are 20
Nm/rad, 30 Nm/rad and 60 Nm/rad respectively. The angular deflection between
the ends M and P of the shaft is: [GATE-2004]
(a) 0.5 rad (b) 1.0 rad (c) 5.0 rad (d) 10.0 rad
Shafts in Parallel
GATE-9. The two shafts AB and BC, of equal
length and diameters d and 2d, are
made of the same material. They are
joined at B through a shaft coupling,
while the ends A and C are built-in
(cantilevered). A twisting moment T is
applied to the coupling. If TA and TC
represent the twisting moments at the
ends A and C, respectively, then [GATE-2005]

(a) TC = TA (b) TC =8 TA (c) TC =16 TA (d) TA=16 TC
GATE-10. A circular shaft shown in the figure is subjected to torsion T at two points A
and B. The torsional rigidity of portions CA and BD is GJ1 and that of portion
AB is GJ 2 . The rotations of shaft at points A and B are θ1 and θ2 . The rotation
θ1 is [CE: GATE-2005]
C A B D
T T
L L L
TL TL
( a) (b)
GJ1 + GJ 2 GJ1
TL TL
(c) (d)
GJ 2 GJ1 − GJ 2
Torsion Equation
IES-1. Consider the following statements: [IES- 2008]
Maximum shear stress induced in a power transmitting shaft is:
1. Directly proportional to torque being transmitted.
2. Inversely proportional to the cube of its diameter.
3. Directly proportional to its polar moment of inertia.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 2 only
IES-2. A solid shaft transmits a torque T. The allowable shearing stress is τ . What is
the diameter of the shaft? [IES-2008]
16T 32T 16T T
(a) 3 (b) 3 (c) 3 (d) 3
πτ πτ τ τ
IES-2(i). If a solid circular shaft of steel 2 cm in diameter is subjected to a permissible

shear stress 10 kN/cm2, then the value of the twisting moment (Tr ) will be
(a) 10π kN-cm (b) 20π kN-cm (c) 15π kN-cm (d) 5π kN-cm [IES-2012]
IES-3. Maximum shear stress developed on the surface of a solid circular shaft under
pure torsion is 240 MPa. If the shaft diameter is doubled, then what is the
maximum shear stress developed corresponding to the same torque? [IES-2009]
IES-4. The diameter of a shaft is increased from 30 mm to 60 mm, all other conditions
remaining unchanged. How many times is its torque carrying capacity
increased? [IES-1995; 2004]
(a) 2 times (b) 4 times (c) 8 times (d) 16 times
IES-5. A circular shaft subjected to twisting moment results in maximum shear stress
of 60 MPa. Then the maximum compressive stress in the material is: [IES-2003]

IES-5(i). The boring bar of a boring machine is 25 mm in diameter. During operation,
the bar gets twisted though 0.01 radians and is subjected to a shear stress of 42
N/mm2. The length of the bar is (Taking G = 0.84 × 105 N/mm2) [IES-2012]
(a) 500 mm (b) 250 mm (c) 625 mm (d) 375 mm
IES-5(ii). The magnitude of stress induced in a shaft due to applied torque varies
(a) From maximum at the centre to zero at the circumference
(b) From zero at the centre to maximum at the circumference [IES-2012]
(c) From maximum at the centre to minimum but not zero at the circumference
(d) From minimum but not zero at the centre, to maximum at the circumference
IES-6. Angle of twist of a shaft of diameter ‘d’ is inversely proportional to [IES-2000]

(a) d (b) d2 (c) d3 (d) d4
IES-6a A solid steel shaft of diameter d and length l is subjected to twisting

moment T. Another shaft B of brass having same diameter d, but length l/2
is also subjected to the same moment. If shear modulus of steel is two times
that of brass, the ratio of the angular twist of steel to that of brass shaft is:
(a) 1:2 (b) 1:1 (c) 2:1 (d) 4:1 [IES-2011]
IES-7. A solid circular shaft is subjected to pure torsion. The ratio of maximum shear
to maximum normal stress at any point would be: [IES-1999]
(a) 1 : 1 (b) 1: 2 (c) 2: 1 (d) 2: 3
IES-8. Assertion (A): In a composite shaft having two concentric shafts of different
materials, the torque shared by each shaft is directly proportional to its polar
moment of inertia. [IES-1999]
Reason (R): In a composite shaft having concentric shafts of different
materials, the angle of twist for each shaft depends upon its polar moment of
inertia.
IES-9. A shaft is subjected to torsion as shown. [IES-2002]
Which of the following figures represents the shear stress on the element
LMNOPQRS ?

IES-10. A round shaft of diameter 'd' and

length 'l' fixed at both ends 'A' and
'B' is subjected to a twisting moment
'T’ at 'C', at a distance of 1/4 from A
(see figure). The torsional stresses in
the parts AC and CB will be:
(a) Equal
(b) In the ratio 1:3
(c) In the ratio 3 :1
(d) Indeterminate [IES-1997]
IES-10(i). A power transmission solid shaft of diameter d length l and rigidity modulus G
is subjected to a pure torque. The maximum allowable shear stress is τmax . The
maximum strain energy/unit volume in the shaft is given by: [IES-2013]
2 2 2 2
τ τ 2τ τ
(a) max (b) max (c) max (d) max
4G 2G 3G 3G
Hollow Circular Shafts

IES-11. One-half length of 50 mm diameter steel rod is solid while the remaining half is
hollow having a bore of 25 mm. The rod is subjected to equal and opposite
torque at its ends. If the maximum shear stress in solid portion is τ or, the
maximum shear stress in the hollow portion is: [IES-2003]
15 4 16
(a) τ (b) τ (c) τ (d) τ
16 3 15
Power Transmitted by Shaft

IES-12. In power transmission shafts, if the polar moment of inertia of a shaft is
doubled, then what is the torque required to produce the same angle of twist?
[IES-2006]
(a) 1/4 of the original value (b) 1/2 of the original value
(c) Same as the original value (d) Double the original value
IES-13. While transmitting the same power by a shaft, if its speed is doubled, what
should be its new diameter if the maximum shear stress induced in the shaft
remains same? [IES-2006]
1 1
(a) of the original diameter (b) of the original diameter
2 2
1
(c) 2 of the original diameter (d) 1
of the original diameter
( 2) 3
IES-14. For a power transmission shaft transmitting power P at N rpm, its diameter is
proportional to: [IES-2005]
1/3 1/2 2/3
⎛P⎞ ⎛P⎞ ⎛P⎞ ⎛P⎞
(a) ⎜ ⎟ (b) ⎜ ⎟ (c) ⎜ ⎟ (d) ⎜ ⎟
⎝N⎠ ⎝N⎠ ⎝N⎠ ⎝N⎠

IES-15. A shaft can safely transmit 90 kW while rotating at a given speed. If this shaft
is replaced by a shaft of diameter double of the previous one and rotated at
half the speed of the previous, the power that can be transmitted by the new
shaft is: [IES-2002]
(a) 90 kW (b) 180 kW (c) 360 kW (d) 720 kW
IES-16. The diameter of shaft A is twice the diameter or shaft B and both are made of
the same material. Assuming both the shafts to rotate at the same speed, the
maximum power transmitted by B is: [IES-2001; GATE-1994]
(a) The same as that of A (b) Half of A (c) 1/8th of A (d) 1/4th of A
IES-17. When a shaft transmits power through gears, the shaft experiences [IES-1997]
(a) Torsional stresses alone
(b) Bending stresses alone
(c) Constant bending and varying torsional stresses
(d) Varying bending and constant torsional stresses

IES-18. The equivalent bending moment under combined action of bending moment M
and torque T is: [IES-1996; 2008; IAS-1996]
1⎡
(a) M2 +T2 (b) M + M 2 +T2 ⎤
2 ⎣ ⎦
1 1
(c) [M + T ] (d) ⎡ M + T ⎤
2 2
2 4⎣ ⎦
IES-19. A solid circular shaft is subjected to a bending moment M and twisting moment
T. What is the equivalent twisting moment Te which will produce the same
maximum shear stress as the above combination? [IES-1992; 2007]
(a) M2 + T2 (b) M + T (c) M2 +T2 (d) M – T
IES-20. A shaft is subjected to fluctuating loads for which the normal torque (T) and
bending moment (M) are 1000 N-m and 500 N-m respectively. If the combined
shock and fatigue factor for bending is 1.5 and combined shock and fatigue
factor for torsion is 2, then the equivalent twisting moment for the shaft is:
[IES-1994]
(a) 2000N-m (b) 2050N-m (c) 2100N-m (d) 2136 N-m
IES-21. A member is subjected to the combined action of bending moment 400 Nm and
torque 300 Nm. What respectively are the equivalent bending moment and
equivalent torque? [IES-1994; 2004]
(a) 450 Nm and 500 Nm (b) 900 Nm and 350 Nm
(c) 900 Nm and 500 Nm (d) 400 Nm and 500 Nm
IES-22. A shaft was initially subjected to bending moment and then was subjected to
torsion. If the magnitude of bending moment is found to be the same as that of
the torque, then the ratio of maximum bending stress to shear stress would be:
[IES-1993]
(a) 0.25 (b) 0.50 (c) 2.0 (d) 4.0
IES-23. A shaft is subjected to simultaneous action of a torque T, bending moment M

and an axial thrust F. Which one of the following statements is correct for this
situation? [IES-2004]

(a) One extreme end of the vertical diametral fibre is subjected to maximum
compressive stress only
(b) The opposite extreme end of the vertical diametral fibre is subjected to
tensile/compressive stress only
(c) Every point on the surface of the shaft is subjected to maximum shear stress only
(d) Axial longitudinal fibre of the shaft is subjected to compressive stress only
IES-24. For obtaining the

maximum shear stress
induced in the shaft
shown in the given
figure, the torque
should be equal to
(a) T (b) Wl + T
1
⎡ ⎛ wL ⎞
2
⎤ 2
(c) ⎢(Wl ) + ⎜
2
⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
1
⎡⎧ wL2 ⎫
2
⎤2
(d) ⎢ ⎨Wl + ⎬ +T ⎥
2
⎢⎣ ⎩ 2 ⎭ ⎥⎦ [IES-1999]
IES-25. Bending moment M and torque is applied on a solid circular shaft. If the
maximum bending stress equals to maximum shear stress developed, them M is
equal to: [IES-1992]
T
(a) (b) T (c) 2T (d) 4T
2
IES-26. A circular shaft is subjected to the combined action of bending, twisting and
direct axial loading. The maximum bending stress σ, maximum shearing force
3σ and a uniform axial stress σ(compressive) are produced. The maximum
compressive normal stress produced in the shaft will be: [IES-1998]
(a) 3 σ (b) 2 σ (c) σ (d) Zero
IES-27. Which one of the following statements is correct? Shafts used in heavy duty
speed reducers are generally subjected to: [IES-2004]
(a) Bending stress only
(b) Shearing stress only
(c) Combined bending and shearing stresses
(d) Bending, shearing and axial thrust simultaneously

IES-28. The ratio of torque carrying capacity of a solid shaft to that of a hollow shaft is
given by: [IES-2008]
( ) ( )
−1
(a) 1 − K 4 (b) 1 − K 4 (c)K 4 (d)1/ K 4
Di
Where K = ; Di = Inside diameter of hollow shaft and Do = Outside diameter of hollow
Do
shaft. Shaft material is the same.
IES-29. A hollow shaft of outer dia 40 mm and inner dia of 20 mm is to be replaced by a

solid shaft to transmit the same torque at the same maximum stress. What
should be the diameter of the solid shaft? [IES 2007]

(a) 30 mm (b) 35 mm (c) 10 × (60)1/3 mm (d) 10 × (20)1/3 mm
IES-30. The diameter of a solid shaft is D. The inside and outside diameters of a hollow
D 2D
shaft of same material and length are and respectively. What is the
3 3
ratio of the weight of the hollow shaft to that of the solid shaft? [IES 2007]
(a) 1:1 (b) 1: 3 (c) 1:2 (d) 1:3
IES-31. What is the maximum torque transmitted by a hollow shaft of external radius R
and internal radius r? [IES-2006]
π π π π ⎛ R4 − r 4 ⎞
(a)
16
( )
R3 − r 3 f s (b)
2R
( )
R4 − r 4 fs (c)
8R
( )
R4 − r 4 fs (d) ⎜
32 ⎝
⎟ fs
R ⎠
( f s = maximum shear stress in the shaft material)
IES-32. A hollow shaft of the same cross-sectional area and material as that of a solid
shaft transmits: [IES-2005]
(a) Same torque (b) Lesser torque
(c) More torque (d) Cannot be predicted without more data
IES-33. The outside diameter of a hollow shaft is twice its inside diameter. The ratio of
its torque carrying capacity to that of a solid shaft of the same material and the
same outside diameter is: [GATE-1993; IES-2001]
15 3 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
16 4 2 16
IES-34. Two hollow shafts of the same material have the same length and outside
diameter. Shaft 1 has internal diameter equal to one-third of the outer
diameter and shaft 2 has internal diameter equal to half of the outer diameter.
If both the shafts are subjected to the same torque, the ratio of their twists
θ1 / θ 2 will be equal to: [IES-1998]
(a) 16/81 (b) 8/27 (c) 19/27 (d) 243/256
IES-35. Maximum shear stress in a solid shaft of diameter D and length L twisted
through an angle θ is τ. A hollow shaft of same material and length having
outside and inside diameters of D and D/2 respectively is also twisted through
the same angle of twist θ. The value of maximum shear stress in the hollow
shaft will be: [IES-1994; 1997]
16 8 4
(a ) τ (b) τ (c) τ ( d )τ
15 7 3
IES-36. A solid shaft of diameter 'D' carries a twisting moment that develops maximum
shear stress τ. If the shaft is replaced by a hollow one of outside diameter 'D'
and inside diameter D/2, then the maximum shear stress will be: [IES-1994]
(a) 1.067 τ (b) 1.143 τ (c) 1.333 τ (d) 2 τ
IES-37. A solid shaft of diameter 100 mm, length 1000 mm is subjected to a twisting
moment 'T’ The maximum shear stress developed in the shaft is 60 N/mm2. A
hole of 50 mm diameter is now drilled throughout the length of the shaft. To
develop a maximum shear stress of 60 N/mm2 in the hollow shaft, the torque 'T’
must be reduced by: [IES-1998, 2012]
(a) T/4 (b) T/8 (c) T/12 (d)T/16
IES-38. Assertion (A): A hollow shaft will transmit a greater torque than a solid shaft of
the same weight and same material. [IES-1994]

Reason (R): The average shear stress in the hollow shaft is smaller than the
average shear stress in the solid shaft.
IES-39. A hollow shaft is subjected to torsion. The shear stress variation in the shaft
along the radius is given by: [IES-1996]
Shafts in Series
IES-40. What is the total angle of
twist of the stepped
shaft subject to torque T
shown in figure given
above?
16Tl 38Tl
(a) (b)
π Gd 4 π Gd 4
64Tl 66Tl
(c) (d)
π Gd 4 π Gd 4 [IES-2005]
Shafts in Parallel
IES-41. For the two shafts connected in parallel, find which statement is true?
(a) Torque in each shaft is the same [IES-1992, 2011]
(b) Shear stress in each shaft is the same
(c) Angle of twist of each shaft is the same
(d) Torsional stiffness of each shaft is the same
IES-42. A circular section rod ABC is fixed at ends A and C. It is subjected to torque T
at B. AB = BC = L and the polar moment of inertia of portions AB and BC are 2
J and J respectively. If G is the modulus of rigidity, what is the angle of twist at
point B? [IES-2005]
TL TL TL 2TL
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3GJ 2GJ GJ GJ
IES-43. A solid circular rod AB of diameter D and length L is fixed at both ends. A
torque T is applied at a section X such that AX = L/4 and BX = 3L/4. What is the
maximum shear stress developed in the rod? [IES-2004]
16T 12T 8T 4T
(a) (b) (c) (d)
π D3 π D3 π D3 π D3

IES-44. Two shafts are shown in
the above figure. These
two shafts will be
torsionally equivalent to
each other if their
(a) Polar moment of inertias
are the same
(b) Total angle of twists are
the same
(c) Lengths are the same
(d) Strain energies are the
same [IES-1998]
Torsion Equation
IAS-1. Assertion (A): In theory of torsion, shearing strains increase radically away
from the longitudinal axis of the bar. [IAS-2001]
Reason (R): Plane transverse sections before loading remain plane after the
torque is applied.
IAS-2. The shear stress at a point in a shaft subjected to a torque is: [IAS-1995]
(a) Directly proportional to the polar moment of inertia and to the distance of the point
form the axis
(b) Directly proportional to the applied torque and inversely proportional to the polar
moment of inertia.
(c) Directly proportional to the applied torque and polar moment of inertia
(d) inversely proportional to the applied torque and the polar moment of inertia
IAS-3. If two shafts of the same length, one of which is hollow, transmit equal torque
and have equal maximum stress, then they should have equal. [IAS-1994]
(a) Polar moment of inertia (b) Polar modulus of section
(c) Polar moment of inertia (d) Angle of twist
Hollow Circular Shafts

IAS-4. A hollow circular shaft having outside diameter 'D' and inside diameter ’d’
subjected to a constant twisting moment 'T' along its length. If the maximum
shear stress produced in the shaft is σs then the twisting moment 'T' is given
by: [IAS-1999]
π D −d
4 4
π D −d
4 4
π D −d
4 4
π D −d4
4
(a) σ s (b) σs (c) σs (d) σs
8 D4 16 D4 32 D4 64 D4
Torsional Rigidity
IAS-5. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists: [IAS-1996]
List-I (Mechanical Properties) List-II ( Characteristics)
A. Torsional rigidity 1. Product of young's modulus and second
moment of area about the plane of
bending

B. Modulus of resilience 2. Strain energy per unit volume
C. Bauschinger effect 3. Torque unit angle of twist
D. Flexural rigidity 4. Loss of mechanical energy due to local
yielding
(a) 1 3 4 2 (b) 3 2 4 1
(c) 2 4 1 3 (d) 3 1 4 2
IAS-6. Assertion (A): Angle of twist per unit length of a uniform diameter shaft
depends upon its torsional rigidity. [IAS-2004]
Reason (R): The shafts are subjected to torque only.

IAS-7. A shaft is subjected to a bending moment M = 400 N.m alld torque T = 300 N.m
The equivalent bending moment is: [IAS-2002]
(a) 900 N.m (b) 700 N.m (c) 500 N.m (d) 450 N.m

IAS-8. A hollow shaft of length L is fixed at its both ends. It is subjected to torque T at
L
a distance of from one end. What is the reaction torque at the other end of
3
the shaft? [IAS-2007]
2T T T T
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 2 3 4
IAS-9. A solid shaft of diameter d is replaced by a hollow shaft of the same material
2d
and length. The outside diameter of hollow shaft while the inside diameter
3
d
is . What is the ratio of the torsional stiffness of the hollow shaft to that of
3
the solid shaft? [IAS-2007]
2 3 5
(a) (b) (c) (d) 2
3 5 3
IAS-10. Two steel shafts, one solid of diameter D and the other hollow of outside
diameter D and inside diameter D/2, are twisted to the same angle of twist per
unit length. The ratio of maximum shear stress in solid shaft to that in the
hollow shaft is: [IAS-1998]
4 8 16
(a) τ (b) τ (c) τ (d) τ
9 7 15
Shafts in Series
IAS-11. Two shafts having the same length and material are joined in series. If the
ratio of the diameter of the first shaft to that of the second shaft is 2, then the
ratio of the angle of twist of the first shaft to that of the second shaft is:
[IAS-1995; 2003]
(a) 16 (b) 8 (c) 4 (d) 2

IAS-12. A circular shaft fixed at A has diameter D for half of its length and diameter
D/2 over the other half. What is the rotation of C relative of B if the rotation of
B relative to A is 0.1 radian? [IAS-1994]
(a) 0.4 radian (b) 0.8 radian (c) 1.6 radian (d) 3.2 radian
(T, L and C remaining same in both cases)
Shafts in Parallel
IAS-13. A stepped solid circular shaft shown in the given figure is built-in at its ends
and is subjected to a torque To at the shoulder section. The ratio of reactive
torque T1 and T2 at the ends is (J1 and J2 are polar moments of inertia):
J 2 × l2 J 2 × l1
(a) (b)
J1 × l1 J 1 × l2
J ×l J ×l
(c) 1 2 (d) 1 1
J 2 × l1 J 2 × l2
[IAS-2001]
IAS-14. Steel shaft and brass shaft of same length and diameter are connected by a
flange coupling. The assembly is rigidity held at its ends and is twisted by a
torque through the coupling. Modulus of rigidity of steel is twice that of brass.
If torque of the steel shaft is 500 Nm, then the value of the torque in brass shaft
will be: [IAS-2001]
(a) 250 Nm (b) 354 Nm (c) 500 Nm (d) 708 Nm
IAS-15. A steel shaft with bult-in ends is subjected to the action of a torque Mt applied
at an intermediate cross-section 'mn' as shown in the given figure. [IAS-1997]
Assertion (A): The magnitude of the twisting moment to which the portion BC
M ta
is subjected is
a+b
Reason(R): For geometric compatibility, angle of twist at 'mn' is the same for
the portions AB and BC.
IAS-16. A steel shaft of outside diameter 100 mm is solid over one half of its length and
hollow over the other half. Inside diameter of hollow portion is 50 mm. The
shaft if held rigidly at two ends and a pulley is mounted at its midsection i.e., at
the junction of solid and hollow portions. The shaft is twisted by applying

torque on the pulley. If the torque carried by the solid portion of the shaft is
16000kg-m, then the torque carried by the hollow portion of the shaft will be:
[IAS-1997]
(a) 16000 kg-m (b) 15000 kg-m (c) 14000 kg-m (d) 12000 kg-m

OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
16T
GATE-1. Ans. (a) τ =
π d3
16T 16T 16T 240
GATE-2. Ans. (c) τ = , 240 = if diameter doubled d′ = 2d, then τ ′ = = = 30MPa
πd πd π ( 2d)
3 3 3
8
GATE-2(i) Ans. (a)
16 T
Maximum shear stress =
πd 3
Normal stress = 0
16T
GATE-3. Ans. (c) τ = as T & d both are same τ is same
π d3
GATE-4. Ans. (c)
GATE-4a. Ans. (b) Angular twist at the L L/2
free end
θ = θ1 + θ2
T
L
T× d
T ×L 2 θ1 θ2
= + 2d
π π
G× (2d )4 G × ( d )4
32 32
2TL 16TL 18TL
= + =
Gπ d 4 Gπ d 4 Gπ d 4
1
⎛ 18TL ⎞ 4
⇒ d=⎜ ⎟
⎝ πθ G ⎠
2π N 16T τπ d3
GATE-5. Ans. (c) Power, P = T × and τ = or T =
60 π d3 16
τπ d3 2π N
or P = × or P α d3
16 60
GATE-5(i) Ans. (c)
T τ
=
J R
J
⇒ τ=T×
R
π 2
= 125 × × (1004 − 504 ) × × 10 −6 = 23.00 k Ν − m
32 100
GATE-6. Ans. (d) Equivalent torque ( Te ) = M2 + T 2 = 32 + 42 = 5kNm
T Gθ τ τJ
GATE-7. Ans. (a) = = or T = if τ is const. T α J
J L R R
π ⎡
⎛D⎞ ⎤
4
⎢D − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
4
Th J 32 ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 15
= h = =
T J π 4 16
D
32
GATE-7(i) Ans. (b)
τ T
=
R J
π
Here, J= (204 − 164 )mm4 ;
32

20
R1 = = 10 mm;
2
T = 92.7 N-m;
16
R2 = = 8 mm
2
TR1 92.7 × 103 × 10
τ1 = = = 99.96 MPa ≈ 100 MPa
J ⎛ π ⎞ 4 4
⎜ ⎟ × (20 − 16 )
⎝ 32 ⎠
TR 2 92.7 × 103 × 8
and τ2 = = = 79.96 MPa ≈ 80 MPa
J ⎛ π ⎞ 4 4
⎜ ⎟ × (20 − 16 )
⎝ 32 ⎠
GATE-7(ii)Ans. (c)
We know that
τ T
=
R J
τ1 R1 T1 J 2
⇒ = × ×
τ2 R 2 T2 J1
4
τ1 R T ⎛ 2 R1 ⎞
⇒ = 1 × 1 ×⎜ ⎟
τ2 2 R1 4 T1 ⎝ R1 ⎠
τ1 1 1
⇒ = × × 16
τ2 2 4
τ1
⇒ τ2 =
2
τ
⇒ τ2 =
2
TL
GATE-8. Ans. (b) We know that θ = or T = k.θ [let k = tortional stiffness]
GJ
TMN T T 10 10 10
∴θ = θMN + θNO + θ OP = + NO + OP = + + = 1.0 rad
k MN kNO k OP 20 30 60
TA L A TL TA TC TC
GATE-9. Ans. (c) θ AB = θBC or = C C or = or TA =
π d4 π ( 2d)
4
GA JA GC JC 16
32 32
GATE-10. Ans. (b)
The symmetry of the shaft shows that there is no torsion on section AB.
TL
∴ Rotation, θ1 =
GJ1
IES-10(i). Ans. (a)
IES
T × r 16T
IES-1. Ans. (d) τ = =
J π d3
IES-2. Ans. (a)
IES-2(i). Ans. (d)
16T
IES-3. Ans. (c) Maximum shear stress = = 240 MPa = τ
πd3
Maximum shear stress developed when diameter is doubled

16τ 1 ⎛ 16T ⎞ τ 240
= = = = = 30MPa
π ( 2d)
3
8 ⎜⎝ πd3 ⎟⎠ 8 8
16T τπ d3
IES-4. Ans. (c) τ = or T = for same material τ = const.
πd3
16
3 3
T2 ⎛ d2 ⎞ ⎛ 60 ⎞
∴ T α d3 or =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =8
T1 ⎝ d1 ⎠ ⎝ 30 ⎠
IES-5. Ans. (b)
IES-5(i). Ans. (b)
IES-5(ii). Ans. (b)
IES-6. Ans. (d)
IES-6a Ans. (b)
IES-7. Ans. (a)
IES-8. Ans. (c)
IES-9. Ans. (d)
T τ Gθ GRθ 1
IES-10. Ans. (c) = = or τ = ∴τ ∞
J R L L L
T τ τJ
IES-11. Ans. (d) = or T =
J r r
τJ τ J ⎡ D⎤
or s = h h ; ⎢ rs = rh = ⎥
rs rh ⎣ 2⎦
π
D4
Js 32 1 1 ⎛ 16 ⎞
or τ h = τ × =τ × =τ × =τ × =τ ⎜ ⎟
π
( ⎡ ⎛d⎞ ⎤
) ⎡ ⎛ 25 ⎞ ⎤
4 4
Jh D4 − d 4 ⎝ 15 ⎠
32 ⎢ 1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ 1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ ⎝ 50 ⎠ ⎦⎥
IES-12. Ans. (d)
T Gθ τ T.L
= = or Q = if θ is const. T α J if J is doubled then T is also doubled.
J L R G.J
IES-13. Ans. (d) Power (P) = torque ( T ) × angular speed (ω )
T′ ω 1
1
if P is const.Tα = =
if or T ′ = ( T / 2 )
ω T ω′ 2
16T 16 ( T / 2 ) ⎛ d′ ⎞ 1
σ = 3 = or ⎜ ⎟ = 3
πd π ( d′ )
3
⎝d⎠ 2
2π N 16T τπ d3
IES-14. Ans. (a) Power, P = T × and τ = or T =
60 πd3
16
1/3
τπ d3 2π N 480 P ⎛P⎞
or P = × or d3 = 2 or d α ⎜ ⎟
16 60 π JN ⎝N⎠
IES-15. Ans. (c)
2π N 16T τπ d3
IES-16. Ans. (c) Power, P = T × and τ = or T =
60 π d3 16
τπ d3 2π N
or P = × or P α d3
16 60
IES-17. Ans. (d)
IES-18. Ans. (b)
IES-19. Ans. (c) Te = M2 + T2
(1.5 × 500 ) + ( 2 ×1000 )

2 2
IES-20. Ans. (d) Teq = = 2136 Nm
M + M2 + T 2 400 + 4002 + 3002
IES-21. Ans. (a) Equivalent Bending Moment (Me ) = = = 450N.m
2 2

Equivalent torque ( Te ) = M + T = 400 + 300 = 500N.m
2 2 2 2
IES-22. Ans. (c) Use equivalent bending moment formula,

1st case: Equivalent bending moment (Me) = M
0 + 02 + T 2 T
2nd case: Equivalent bending moment (Me) = =
2 2
IES-23. Ans. (a)
wL2
IES-24. Ans. (d) Bending Moment, M = Wl +
2
32 × M 16T
IES-25. Ans. (a) σ = and τ =
πd 3
π d3
IES-26. Ans. (a) Maximum normal stress = bending stress σ + axial stress (σ) = 2 σ
We have to take maximum bending stress σ is (compressive)
2
⎛σ ⎞ σb
The maximum compressive normal stress = − ⎜ b ⎟ + τ xy2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
−2σ ⎛ −2σ ⎞
( )
2
= − ⎜ ⎟ + 3σ = −3σ
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
IES-27. Ans. (c)
IES-28. Ans. (b) τ should be same for both hollow and solid shaft
−1
Ts ⎛ ⎛ Di ⎞ ⎞
4
Ts Th Ts D4
= ⇒ = 4 o 4 ⇒ ⎜
= 1− ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
π 4
D
32 o
π
(
32 o
D4 − Di4 ) Th Do − Di Th ⎜ ⎝ Do ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Ts
( )
−1
∴ 1− k4
Th
IES-29. Ans. (c) Section modules will be same
π
(404 − 204 )
JH J 64 π d4
= s or = ×
RH Rs 40 64 d
2
2
× 60 or d = 10 3 60 mm
or, d3 = (10)3
π ⎛ 4D 2 D 2 ⎞
⎜ − ⎟× L× ρ × g
WH 4 ⎜⎝ 3 3 ⎟⎠
IES-30. Ans. (a) = =1
WS π 2
D × L× ρ × g
4
π
T fs J
R4 − r 4
π ( )
IES-31. Ans. (b) =
J R
or T = × fs =
R
2
R
× fs =
2R
R 4 − r 4 .fs . ( )
T n2 + 1 D
IES-32. Ans. (c) H = , Where n = H
TS n n2 − 1 dH
T Gθ τ τJ
IES-33. Ans. (a) = = or T = if τ is const. T α J
J L R R
π ⎡ ⎛D⎞ ⎤
4
⎢D − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
4
Th J 32 ⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 15
= h = =
T J π 4 16
D
32

4
d14 − ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞
d
⎟
IES-34. Ans. (d) Q ∞
1 Q
∴ 1 = ⎝ 2 ⎠ = 243
4
256
d14 − ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞
J Q2 d
⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
T Gθ τ G.R.θ
IES-35. Ans. (d) = = or τ = if θ is const. τ α R and outer diameter is same in both
J L R L
the cases.
Note: Required torque will be different.
T Gθ τ TR 1
IES-36. Ans. (a) = = or τ = if T is const. τ α
J L R J J
τh J D 4
16
= = = = 1.06666
τ Jh ⎛D⎞
4
15
D −⎜ ⎟
4
⎝2⎠
Tr 16T T ′32(d / 2) T ′ 15
IES-37. Ans. (d) τs = = = 4 or =
J πd d − ( d / 2)
3 4
T 16
1
∴ Reduction =
16
IES-38. Ans. (a)
IES-39. Ans. (c)
T × 2l T×l Tl 66Tl
IES-40. Ans. (d) θ = θ1 + θ 2 = + =
π d4 G × π × 2d 4 Gd4
[64 + 2] = 4
Gd
G. ( )
32 32
IES-41. Ans. (c)
IES-42. Ans. (a) θ AB = θBC
TABL TBC.L
or = or TAB = 2TBC
G.2J G.J
TAB + TBC = T or TBC = T / 3
T L TL
or QB = Q AB = . =
3 GJ 3GJ
IES-43. Ans. (b) θ AX = θ XB & TA + TB = T
3L
TA.L / 4 TB × 4
or =
GJ GJ
3T
or TA = 3TB or TA = ,
4
3
16TA 16 × 4 × T 12T
τ max = = =
π D3 π D34 π D3
IES-44. Ans. (b)
IAS
IAS-1. Ans. (b)
T τ
IAS-2. Ans. (b) =
J R
T τ J
IAS-3. Ans. (b) = Here T & τ are same, so should be same i.e. polar modulus of section
J R R
will be same.

π
T Gθ τ τJ
σs × 4
32
(D − d4 ) π (D 4
− d4 )
IAS-4. Ans. (b) = = gives T = = = σs
J L R R D 16 D
2
IAS-5. Ans. (b)
IAS-6. Ans. (c)
M + M 2 + T 2 400 + 4002 + 3002
IAS-7. Ans. (d) Me = = = 450 Nm
2 2
IAS-8. Ans. (c)
π ⎧⎪⎛ 2d ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞ ⎫⎪
4 4
⎨⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟ ⎬
⎛T ⎞ GJ K H 32 ⎪⎩⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎪⎭ 5
IAS-9. Ans. (c) Torsional stiffness = ⎜ ⎟= or =
π 4
=
⎝θ ⎠ L KS .d 3
32
T τ Gθ Gθ R
IAS-10. Ans. (d) = = or τ = as outside diameter of both the shaft is D so τ is
J R L L
same for both the cases.
1 1
IAS-11. Ans. (a) Angle of twist is proportional to ∞
J d4
T Gθ 1 1 πd 4
IAS-12. Ans. (c) = or θ∞ or θ∞ 4 ∵ J =
J L J d 32
θ d 4
Here = or θ = 1.6 radian.
0.1 (d / 2 )4
T1l1 T2l2 T1 ⎛ J1 l2 ⎞
IAS-13. Ans. (c) θ1 = θ 2 or = or =⎜ × ⎟
GJ1 GJ 2 T2 ⎝ J 2 l1 ⎠
IAS-14. Ans. (a)
Ts ls Tl Ts Tb Tb Gb 1 Ts
θ1 = θ 2 or = bb or = or = = or Tb = = 250 Nm
Gs J s Gb J b Gs Gb Ts Gs 2 2
IAS-15. Ans. (a)
π
TsL THL JH 32
100 4 − 50 4 ( )
IAS-16. Ans.(b) θ s = θH or = or TH = TS × = 16000 × = 15000kgm
π
GJs GJH Js
32
100 4
( )


Conventional Question IES 2010
Q. A hollow steel rod 200 mm long is to be used as torsional spring. The ratio of
inside to outside diameter is 1 : 2. The required stiffness of this spring is 100
N.m /degree.
Determine the outside diameter of the rod.
Value of G is 8 ×104 N/mm2 . [10 Marks]
Ans. Length of a hollow steel rod = 200mm

Ratio of inside to outside diameter = 1 : 2
Stiffness of torsional spring = 100 Nm /degree. = 5729.578 N m/rad
4 2
Rigidity of modulus (G) = 8 × 10 N / mm
Find outside diameter of rod : -
We know that
T G.θ Where T = Torque
=
J L
T ⎛N−M⎞
= Stiffness ⎜ ⎟
θ ⎝ rad ⎠
J = polar moment
Stiffness = T = G.J θ = twist angle in rad
θ L
L = length of rod.
d2 = 2d1
π
J=
32
(
× d 42 - d14 )
π d1
J=
32
(
× 16 d14 - d14 ) ∵
d2
=
1
2
π
J= × d14 × 15
32
8 × 104 × 106 N / m2 π
5729.578 Nm / rad = × × d14 × 15
0.2 32
5729.578 × .2 × 32
10
= d14
8 × 10 × π × 15
d1 = 9.93 × 10 −3 m.
d1 = 9.93mm.
d 2 = 2 × 9.93 = 19.86 mm Ans.
Conventional Question GATE - 1998

Question: A component used in the Mars pathfinder can be idealized as a circular bar
clamped at its ends. The bar should withstand a torque of 1000 Nm. The
component is assembled on earth when the temperature is 30°C. Temperature
on Mars at the site of landing is -70°C. The material of the bar has an
allowable shear stress of 300 MPa and its young's modulus is 200 GPa. Design
the diameter of the bar taking a factor of safety of 1.5 and assuming a
coefficient of thermal expansion for the material of the bar as 12 × 10–6/°C.
Answer: Given:

Tmax = 1000Nm; tE = 30 C; t m = −70 C;
0 0
τ allowable = 300MPa
E = 200GPa; F.O.S. = 1.5; α = 12 × 10 / C −6 0
Diameter of the bar,D :

Change in length,δ L = L ∝ Δt,where L = original length,m.
Change in lengthat Mars = L × 12 × 10−6 × ⎡⎣30 − ( −70 )⎤⎦ = 12 × 10 −4 L meters
Change in length 12 × 10−4 L
Linear strain = = = 12 × 10−4
original length L
2
σ a = axial stress = E × linear strain = 200 × 109 × 12 × 10 −4 = 2.4 × 108 N / m
From max imum shear stress equation,we have
⎡ ⎛ 16T ⎞ 2 ⎛ σ a ⎞ 2 ⎤
τ max = ⎢ ⎜ 3 ⎟
+⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ π D ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
τ allowable
300
where, τ max = =
= 200MPa
F.O.S 1.5
2
⎛ 16 × 1000 ⎞
( )
2
4 × 1016 = ⎜ ⎟ + 1.2 × 10
8
⎝ π D 3
⎠
16 × 1000
or = 1.6 × 108
π D3
1/3
⎛ 16 × 1000 ⎞
or D = ⎜ 8 ⎟
= 0.03169 m = 31.69 mm
⎝ π × 1.6 × 10 ⎠

Q. In a torsion test, the specimen is a hollow shaft with 50 mm external and 30 mm
internal diameter. An applied torque of 1.6 kN-m is found to produce an
angular twist of 0.4º measured on a length of 0.2 m of the shaft. The Young’s
modulus of elasticity obtained from a tensile test has been found to be 200 GPa.
Find the values of
(i) Modulus of rigidity.
(ii) Poisson’s ratio. [10-Marks]
Ans. We have
T τ Gθ
= = ......... (i)
J r L
Where J = polar moment of inertia
J=
π
32
(
D4 − d4 )
=
π
32
( )
504 − 304 × 10−12
= 5.338 × 10−7
T = 1.6 kN − m = 1.6 × 103 N-m
θ = 0.4º
l = 0.2 m
E = 200 × 109 N/m 2
T Gθ
From equation (i) =
J L
⎡ π ⎤
G × ⎢ 0.4 ×
1.6 × 103 ⎣ 180 ⎥⎦
=
5.338 × 10 − 7 0.2
1.6 × 0.2 × 103 × 180
⇒ G=
0.4 × π × 5.338 × 10 − 7
= 85.92 GPa

We also have
E = 2 G (1 + v)
∴ 200 = 2 × 85.92 (1 + v )
⇒ 1 + v = 1.164
⇒ v = 0.164
Conventional Question IAS - 1996

Question: A solid circular uniformly tapered shaft of length I, with a small angle of
taper is subjected to a torque T. The diameter at the two ends of the shaft are
D and 1.2 D. Determine the error introduced of its angular twist for a given
length is determined on the uniform mean diameter of the shaft.
Answer: For shaft of tapering's section, we have
2TL ⎡ R12 + R1R 2 + R 22 ⎤ 32TL ⎡ D12 + D1D2 + D22 ⎤
θ= ⎥ = 3Gπ ⎢
3Gπ ⎢⎣ R13R 32 ⎦ ⎣ D13D32 ⎥
⎦
32TL ⎡ (1.2 ) + 1.2 × 1 + (1) ⎤
2 2
= ⎢ ⎥ [∵ D1 = D and D2 = 1.2D]
3Gπ D4 ⎢ (1.2) × (1)
3 3
⎣ ⎥⎦
32TL
= × 2.1065
3Gπ D4
1.2D + D
Now, Davg = = 1.1D
2
32TL ⎡ 3 (1.1D ) ⎤ 32TL

2
3 32TL
∴ θ'= ×⎢ ⎥= × = × 2.049
3Gπ ⎢ (1.1D )6 ⎥ 3Gπ (1.2 ) 4 .D4 3Gπ D4
⎣ ⎦
θ − θ ' 2.1065 − 2.049
Error = = = 0.0273 or 2.73%
θ 2.1065
Conventional Question ESE-2008

Question: A hollow shaft and a solid shaft construction of the same material have the
same length and the same outside radius. The inside radius of the hollow
shaft is 0.6 times of the outside radius. Both the shafts are subjected to the
same torque.
(i) What is the ratio of maximum shear stress in the hollow shaft to that of
solid shaft?
(ii) What is the ratio of angle of twist in the hollow shaft to that of solid shaft?
T τ Gθ
Solution: Using = =
J R L
Inside radius (r)
Given, = 0.6 and Th = Ts = T
Out side (R)
T .R T .R
(i) τ = gives ; For hollow shaft (τh ) =
π 4
J
2
(R − r 4 )
T .R
and for solid shaft ( τ s)=
π 4
.R
2
τn R4 1 1
Therefore = 4 = 4
= = 1.15
τs R −r 4 ⎛ r ⎞⎟ 1− 0.6 4
1− ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ R ⎠

TL T .L T .L
(ii) θ = gives θh = and θs =
GJ π ⎛ π ⎞
G. (R 4 − r 4 ) G.⎜⎜ .R 4 ⎟⎟⎟
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠
θh R4 1 1
Therefore = 4 = 4
= = 1.15
θs R −r 4 ⎛ r ⎞⎟ 1− 0.6 4
1− ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ R ⎠
Conventional Question ESE-2006:
Question: Two hollow shafts of same diameter are used to transmit same power. One
shaft is rotating at 1000 rpm while the other at 1200 rpm. What will be the
nature and magnitude of the stress on the surfaces of these shafts? Will it be
the same in two cases of different? Justify your answer.
Answer: We know power transmitted (P) = Torque (T) ×rotation speed ( ω )
T .R PR P. D
And shear stress ( τ ) = = = 2
ω J ⎛⎜ 2π N ⎞⎟ π
⎜⎜⎝ 60 ⎠⎟⎟ 32 ( D − d )
J 4 4
1
Therefore τ α as P, D and d are constant.
N
So the shaft rotating at 1000 rpm will experience greater stress then 1200 rpm shaft.

Question: A 5 cm diameter solid shaft is welded to a flat plate by 1 cm filled weld. What
will be the maximum torque that the welded joint can sustain if the
permissible shear stress in the weld material is not to exceed 8 kN/cm2?
Deduce the expression for the shear stress at the throat from the basic
theory.
Answer: Consider a circular shaft connected to a
plate by means of a fillet joint as shown in
figure. If the shaft is subjected to a torque,
shear stress develops in the weld.
Assuming that the weld thickness is very
small compared to the diameter of the
shaft, the maximum shear stress occurs in
the throat area. Thus, for a given torque
the maximum shear stress in the weld is
⎛d ⎞
T ⎜⎜ + t ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠
τmax =
J
Where T = Torque applied.
d = outer diameter of the shaft
t = throat thickness
J = polar moment of area of the throat
section
π ⎡ π
(d + 2t ) − d 4 ⎤⎥⎦ = d 3 × t
4
= ⎢
32 ⎣ 4
d
T
[As t <<d] then τmax = 2 = 2T
π 3 πtd 2
d t
4

Given
d = 5 cm = 0.05 m & t = 1cm = 0.1 m
8000N
τmax = 8 kN / cm 2 = = 80MPa = 80 ×106 N / m 2
(10 ) m
−4 2
πd 2t τmax π × 0.052 × 0.01× 80 ×106

∴T = = = 3.142 kNm
2 2
Question: The ratio of inside to outside diameter of a hollow shaft is 0.6. If there is a
solid shaft with same torsional strength, what is the ratio of the outside
diameter of hollow shaft to the diameter of the equivalent solid shaft.
Answer: Let D = external diameter of hollow shaft
So d = 0.6D internal diameter of hollow shaft
And Ds=diameter of solid shaft
From torsion equation
T τ
=
J R
π
{D 4 − ( 0 .6 D )4 }
τJ 3 2
o r ,T = = τ × f o r h o llo w s h a f t
R (D / 2 )
π
D s4
τJ 3 2
and T= = J × f o r s o lid s h a f t
R Ds
2
πD 3 π D 3s
τ {1 − ( 0 . 6 ) 4 } = τ
16 16
D 1
or, = 3 = 1 .0 7 2
Ds 1 − ( 0 .6 )4

Question: A cantilever tube of length 120 mm is subjected to an axial tension P = 9.0 kN,
A torsional moment T = 72.0 Nm and a pending Load F = 1.75 kN at the free
end. The material is aluminum alloy with an yield strength 276 MPa. Find the
thickness of the tube limiting the outside diameter to 50 mm so as to ensure a
factor of safety of 4.
πD 3 t
Answer: Polar moment of inertia (J) =2πR 3t =
4

T τ T.R TD TD 2T 2 × 72 18335
= or, τ = = = = = =
J R J 2J πD 3 t πD 2t π × (0.050)2 × t t
2×
4
P 9000 9000 57296
Direct stress (σ1 ) = = = =
A πdt π(0.050)t t
d
My M 2 Md
Maximum bending stress (σ 2 ) = = = [J = 2I ]
I I J
1750 × 0.120 × 0.050 × 4 106952
= =
π × (0.050)3 t t
164248
∴ Total longitudinal stress (σb ) = σ1 + σ 2 =
t
Maximum principal stress
σ ⎛σ ⎞
2
164248
2
⎛164248 ⎞⎟ ⎛18335 ⎞⎟
2
⎛ 276 ×106 ⎟⎞
(σ1) = b + ⎜⎜⎜ b ⎟⎟⎟ + τ 2 = + ⎜⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜
⎜⎝ 2t ⎠⎟ ⎜⎝ t ⎠⎟ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
2 ⎝2⎠ 2t 4
or , t = 2.4 ×10−3 m = 2.4 mm
Conventional Question ESE-2000 & ESE 2001
Question: A hollow shaft of diameter ratio 3/8 required to transmit 600 kW at 110 rpm,
the maximum torque being 20% greater than the mean. The shear stress is
not to exceed 63 MPa and the twist in a length of 3 m not to exceed 1.4
degrees. Determine the diameter of the shaft. Assume modulus of rigidity for
the shaft material as 84 GN/m2.
Answer: Let d = internal diameter of the hollow shaft
And D = external diameter of the hollow shaft
(given) d = 3/8 D = 0.375D
Power (P)= 600 kW, speed (N) =110 rpm, Shear stress( τ )= 63 MPa. Angle of twist ( θ
)=1.4°, Length ( ) =3m , modulus of rigidity (G) = 84GPa
2πN
We know that, (P) = T. ω = T. [T is average torque]
60
3
60× P 60× (600×10 )
or T= = = 52087Nm
2πN 2× π×110
∴ Tmax = 1.2×T = 1.2×52087 =62504 Nm
First we consider that shear stress is not to exceed 63 MPa
T τ
From torsion equation =
J R
T .R T .D
or J = =
τ 2τ
π ⎡ 4 4⎤ 62504× D
or ⎢ D − (0.375 D ) ⎥ =
32 ⎣ ⎦ 2×(63×106 )
or D = 0.1727m = 172.7 mm −−−−(i )
17 ×1.4
Second we consider angle of twist is not exceed 1.4 0 = radian
180

T Gθ
From torsion equation =
J
T Gθ
or =
J
π 62504×3
or ⎡⎣⎢ D 4 − (0.375 D) 4 ⎤⎦⎥ =
32 ⎛ π ×1.5 ⎞⎟
(84×109 ) ⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 180 ⎠⎟⎟
or D = 0.1755m = 175.5mm −−−−(ii )
So both the condition will satisfy if greater of the two value is adopted
so D=175.5 mm

Question: Determine the torsional stiffness of a hollow shaft of length L and having
outside diameter equal to 1.5 times inside diameter d. The shear modulus of
the material is G.
Answer: Outside diameter (D) =1.5 d
π π
Polar modulus of the shaft (J) =
32
( D 4 − d 4 ) = d 4 (1.54 −1)
32
T τ Gθ
We know that = =
J R L
π 4
G.θ d (1.54 − 1)
GθJ 32 0.4Gθd 4
or T = = =
L L L

Question: The maximum normal stress and the maximum shear stress analysed for a
shaft of 150 mm diameter under combined bending and torsion, were found
to be 120 MN/m2 and 80 MN/m2 respectively. Find the bending moment and
torque to which the shaft is subjected.
If the maximum shear stress be limited to 100 MN/m2, find by how much the
torque can be increased if the bending moment is kept constant.
Answer: Given: σ max = 120MN / m2 ;τ max = 80MN / m2 ;d = 150mm = 0.15m
Part − 1: M; T
We know that for combined bending and torsion, we have the following expressions:
16 ⎡
σ max = M + M2 + T 2 ⎤ − − − (i)
π d3 ⎣ ⎦
16
and τ max = 3 ⎡ M2 + T 2 ⎤ − − − − ( ii )
πd ⎣ ⎦
Substituting the given values in the above equations, we have
16 ⎡M + M2 + T 2 ⎤ − − − − − − ( iii )
120 = 3 ⎣
π × ( 0.15 ) ⎦
16 ⎡ M2 + T 2 ⎤ − − − − − − − − − (iv )
80 =
π × ( 0.15 )
3 ⎣ ⎦
80 × π × ( 0.15 )
3
or M2 + T 2 = = 0.053 − − − − − − ( v )
16

Substituting this values in equation ( iii ) , we get
16
120 = [M + 0.053]
π × ( 0.1503 )
∴ M = 0.0265MNm
Substituting for M in equation ( v ) , we have
( 0.0265 )
2
+ T 2 = 0.053
or T = 0.0459MNm
Part II : [∵τ max = 100MN / m2 ]
Increase in torque :
Bending moment (M) to be kept cons tan t = 0.0265MNm
2
⎡100 × π × ( 0.15 )3 ⎤
( 0.0265 )
2
or +T =⎢
2
⎥ = 0.004391
⎢⎣ 16 ⎥⎦
∴ T = 0.0607 MNm
∴The increased torque = 0.0607 − 0.0459 = 0.0148MNm

Question: A solid shaft is to transmit 300 kW at 120 rpm. If the shear stress is not to
exceed 100 MPa, Find the diameter of the shaft, What percent saving in
weight would be obtained if this shaft were replaced by a hollow one whose
internal diameter equals 0.6 of the external diameter, the length, material
and maximum allowable shear stress being the same?
Answer: Given P= 300 kW, N = 120 rpm, τ =100 MPa, d H = 0.6 DH
Diameter of solid shaft, Ds:
2πNT 2π ×120×T
We know that P = or 300 = or T=23873 Nm
60×1000 60×1000
T τ
We know that =
J R
π 4
100×106 × Ds
τ .J 32
or, T= or, 23873 =
R Ds
2
or, Ds= 0.1067 m =106.7mm
Percentage saving in weight:

TH = Ts

⎛τ × J ⎞⎟ ⎛τ × J ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝⎜ R ⎠H ⎝ R ⎠⎟ s
4 4
{D − d } D H4 − (0 .6 D H ) 4
or , H
= D s3
H
or , = D s3
DH DH
Ds 1 0 6 .7
or ,DH = = = 1 1 1 .8 m m
3 4
(1 − 0 .6 )
3
1 − 0 .6 4
WH A L ρ g A
A g a in = H H H = H
WS As Ls ρ s g As
π
AH 4
(D H2 − d H2 ) D H2 (1 − 0 .6 2 ) ⎛ 1 1 1 .8 ⎞ 2
= ⎜⎜ ⎟ 1 − 0 .6 )2 = 0 .7 0 2
⎜⎝ 1 0 6 .7 ⎠⎟⎟ (
= =
As π 2 D 2
D s
4 s
⎛ W ⎞
∴ P e rc e n ta g e s a v in g s in w e ig h t = ⎜⎜1 - H ⎟⎟⎟ × 1 0 0
⎜⎝ W ⎠⎟ s
= (1 -0 .7 0 2 )× 1 0 0 = 2 9 .8 %

10. Thin Cylinder
1. Thin Rings
Uniformly distributed loading (radial) may be due to
either
• Internal pressure or external pressure
• Centrifugal force as in the case of a rotating ring
Case-I: Internal pressure or external pressure

• s = qr Where q = Intensity of loading in kg/cm of Oce
r = Mean centreline of radius
s = circumferential tension or hoop’s
tension
(Radial loading ducted outward)
s qr
• Unit stress, σ= =
A A
σ qr
• Circumferential strain, ∈c = =
E AE
• Diametral strain, ( ∈d ) = Circumferential strain, ( ∈c )
Case-II: Centrifugal force
wω 2 r 2
• Hoop's Tension, s = Where w = wt. per unit length of circumferential element
g
ω = Angular velocity
s wω 2 r
• Radial loading, q = =
r g
s w 2 2
• Hoop's stress, σ= = .ω r
A Ag
2. Thin Walled Pressure Vessels

For thin cylinders whose thickness may be considered small compared to their diameter.
Inner dia of the cylinder (d i )
> 15 or 20
wall thickness (t)

Chapter-10 Thin Cylinder S K Mondal’s
3. General Formula
σ1 σ2 p
+ =
r1 r2 t
Where σ 1 =Meridional stress at A
σ 2 =Circumferential / Hoop's stress
P = Intensity of internal gas pressure/ fluid pressure
t = Thickness of pressure vessel.
4. Some cases:
• Cylindrical vessel
pr pD pr pD
σ1 = = σ2 = = ⎡⎣ r1 → ∞, r2 = r ⎤⎦
2t 4t t 2t
σ1 − σ 2 pr pD
τ max = = =
2 4t 8t
• Spherical vessel
pr pD
σ1 = σ 2 = = [r1 = r2 = r]
2t 4t
• Conical vessel
py tan α py tan α
σ1 = [ r1 → ∞ ] and σ2 = α
2t cos α t cos α
Notes: σ2 σ2
π α α
• Volume 'V' of the spherical shell, V= Di3 σ1
6
1/3
α
⎛ 6V ⎞
⇒ Di = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ π ⎠
• Design of thin cylindrical shells is based on hoop's stress
5. Volumetric Strain (Dilation)

ΔV
• Rectangular block, =∈x + ∈y + ∈z
V0
• Cylindrical pressure vessel
σ1 σ2 pr
∈ 1=Longitudinal strain = −μ = [1 − 2μ ]
E E 2 Et
pr σ2 σ1
∈2 =Circumferential strain = [1 − 2μ ]
−μ =
E E 2 Et
ΔV pr pD
Volumetric Strain, =∈1 +2 ∈2 = [5 − 4μ] = [5 − 4μ]
Vo 2 Et 4 Et
i.e. Volumetric strain, (∈v ) = longitudinal strain (∈1 ) + 2 × circumferential strain (∈2 )
• Spherical vessels

pr
∈=∈1 =∈2 = [1 − μ ]
2 Et
ΔV 3 pr
= 3 ∈= [1 − μ ]
V0 2 Et
6. Thin cylindrical shell with hemispherical end

Condition for no distortion at the junction of cylindrical and hemispherical portion
t2 1 − μ
= Where, t1= wall thickness of cylindrical portion
t1 2 − μ
t2 = wall thickness of hemispherical portion
7. Alternative method
Consider the equilibrium of forces in the z-direction acting on the part
cylinder shown in figure.
Force due to internal pressure p acting on area π D2/4 = p. π D2/4
Force due to longitudinal stress sL acting on area π Dt = σ 1 π Dt
Equating: p. π D2/4 = σ 1 π Dt
pd pr
or σ1 = =
4t 2t
Now consider the equilibrium of forces in the x-direction acting on the
sectioned cylinder shown in figure. It is assumed that the
circumferential stress σ 2 is constant through the thickness of the
cylinder.
Force due to internal pressure p acting on area Dz = pDz
Force due to circumferential stress σ 2 acting on area 2tz = σ 2 2tz
Equating: pDz = σ 2 2tz
pD pr
or σ 2 = =
2t t

Longitudinal stress
GATE-1. A thin cylinder of inner radius 500 mm and thickness 10 mm is subjected to an
internal pressure of 5 MPa. The average circumferential (hoop) stress in MPa is
[GATE-2011]
(a) 100 (b) 250 (c) 500 (d) 1000
GATE-2. The maximum principal strain in a thin cylindrical tank, having a radius of 25
cm and wall thickness of 5 mm when subjected to an internal pressure of 1MPa,
is (taking Young's modulus as 200 GPa and Poisson's ratio as 0.2) [GATE-1998]
(a) 2.25 × 10–4 (b) 2.25 (c) 2.25 × 10–6 (d) 22.5
GATE-3.A thin walled spherical shell is subjected to an internal pressure. If the radius of
the shell is increased by 1% and the thickness is reduced by 1%, with the internal
pressure remaining the same, the percentage change in the circumferential (hoop)
stress is [GATE-2012]
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 1.08 (d) 2.02
GATE-3(i). A long thin walled cylindrical shell, closed at both the ends, is subjected to
an internal pressure. The ratio of the hoop stress (circumferential stress) to
longitudinal stress developed in the shell is [GATE-2013]
(a) 0.5 (b) 1.0 (c) 2.0 (d) 4.0
Maximum shear stress

GATE-4. A thin walled cylindrical vessel of wall thickness, t and diameter d is fitted
with gas to a gauge pressure of p. The maximum shear stress on the vessel wall
will then be: [GATE-1999]
pd pd pd pd
(a) (b) (c) (d)
t 2t 4t 8t
Statement for Linked Answers and Questions 5 and 6
A cylindrical container of radius R = 1 m, wall
thickness 1 mm is filled with water up to a depth
of 2 m and suspended along its upper rim. The
density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and acceleration
due to gravity is 10 m/s2. The self-weight of the
cylinder is negligible. The formula for hoop
stress in a thin-walled cylinder can be used at all
points along the height of the cylindrical
container.
[GATE-2008]
GATE-5. The axial and circumferential stress ( σ a , σ c ) experienced by the cylinder wall
at mid-depth (1 m as shown) are
(a) (10,10) MPa (b) (5,10) MPa (c) (10,5) MPa (d) (5,5)MPa
GATE-6. If the Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio of the container material are 100
GPa and 0.3, respectively, the axial strain in the cylinder wall at mid-depth is:

(a) 2 × 10–5 (b) 6 × 10–5 (c) 7 × 10–5 (d) 1.2 × 10–5
GATE-7. A thin walled cylindrical pressure vessel having a radius of 0.5 m and wall
thickness of 25 mm is subjected to an internal pressure of 700 kPa. The hoop
stress developed is [CE: GATE-2009]
(a) 14 MPa (b) 1.4 MPa (c) 0.14 MPa (d) 0.014 MPa
Circumferential or hoop stress

IES-1. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer: [IES-2002]
List-I List-II
(2-D Stress system loading) (Ratio of principal stresses)
A. Thin cylinder under internal pressure 1. 3.0
B. Thin sphere under internal pressure 2. 1.0
C. Shaft subjected to torsion 3. –1.0
4. 2.0
Codes: A B C A B C
(a) 4 2 3 (b) 1 3 2
(c) 4 3 2 (d) 1 2 3
IES-2. A thin cylinder of radius r and thickness t when subjected to an internal

hydrostatic pressure P causes a radial displacement u, then the tangential
strain caused is: [IES-2002]
du 1 du u 2u
(a) (b) . (c) (d)
dr r dr r r
IES-3. A thin cylindrical shell is subjected to internal pressure p. The Poisson's ratio
of the material of the shell is 0.3. Due to internal pressure, the shell is subjected
to circumferential strain and axial strain. The ratio of circumferential strain to
axial strain is: [IES-2001]
(a) 0.425 (b) 2.25 (c) 0.225 (d) 4.25
IES-4. A thin cylindrical shell of diameter d, length ‘l’ and thickness t is subjected to
an internal pressure p. What is the ratio of longitudinal strain to hoop strain in
terms of Poisson's ratio (1/m)? [IES-2004]
m−2 m−2 2m − 1 2m + 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2m + 1 2m − 1 m−2 m −1
IES-5. When a thin cylinder of diameter 'd' and thickness 't' is pressurized with an
internal pressure of 'p', (1/m = μ is the Poisson's ratio and E is the modulus of
elasticity), then [IES-1998]
pd ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
(a) The circumferential strain will be equal to ⎜ − ⎟
2tE ⎝ 2 m ⎠
pd ⎛ 1 ⎞
(b) The longitudinal strain will be equal to ⎜1 − ⎟
2tE ⎝ 2m ⎠

pd
(c) The longitudinal stress will be equal to
2t
(d) The ratio of the longitudinal strain to circumferential strain will be equal to
m−2
2m − 1
IES-6. A thin cylinder contains fluid at a pressure of 500 N/m2, the internal diameter
of the shell is 0.6 m and the tensile stress in the material is to be limited to 9000
N/m2. The shell must have a minimum wall thickness of nearly [IES-2000]
(a) 9 mm (b) 11 mm (c) 17 mm (d) 21 mm
IES-7. A thin cylinder with closed

lids is subjected to internal
pressure and supported at
the ends as shown in figure.
The state of stress at point
X is as represented in
[IES-1999]
IES-8. A thin cylinder with both ends closed is subjected to internal pressure p. The
longitudinal stress at the surface has been calculated as σo. Maximum shear
stress at the surface will be equal to: [IES-1999]
( a ) 2σ o ( b ) 1.5σ o (c) σ o (d) 0.5σ o
IES-9. A metal pipe of 1m diameter contains a fluid having a pressure of 10 kgf/cm2. lf

the permissible tensile stress in the metal is 200 kgf/cm2, then the thickness of
the metal required for making the pipe would be: [IES-1993]
(a) 5 mm (b) 10 mm (c) 20 mm (d) 25 mm
IES-10. Circumferential stress in a cylindrical steel boiler shell under internal

pressure is 80 MPa. Young's modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio are
respectively 2 × 105 MPa and 0.28. The magnitude of circumferential strain in
the boiler shell will be: [IES-1999]
(a) 3.44 × 10 –4 (b) 3.84 × 10–4 (c) 4 × 10–4 (d) 4.56 ×10 –4
IES-11. A penstock pipe of 10m diameter carries water under a pressure head of 100 m.
If the wall thickness is 9 mm, what is the tensile stress in the pipe wall in MPa?
[IES-2009]
(a) 2725 (b) 545·0 (c) 272·5 (d) 1090
IES-12. A water main of 1 m diameter contains water at a pressure head of 100 metres.
The permissible tensile stress in the material of the water main is 25 MPa.
2
What is the minimum thickness of the water main? (Take g = 10 m/ s ).
[IES-2009]
(a) 10 mm (b) 20mm (c) 50 mm (d) 60 mm

IES-12(i). A seamless pipe of diameter d m is to carry fluid under a pressure of p kN/cm2.
The necessary thickness t of metal in cm, if the maximum stress is not to
exceed σ kN/cm2, is [IES-2012]
100 100
≥ ≥ ≤ ≤
2 2 2 2
Longitudinal stress
IES-13. Hoop stress and longitudinal stress in a boiler shell under internal pressure
are 100 MN/m2 and 50 MN/m2 respectively. Young's modulus of elasticity and
Poisson's ratio of the shell material are 200 GN/m2 and 0.3 respectively. The
hoop strain in boiler shell is: [IES-1995]
−3 −3 −3 −3
(a) 0.425 × 10 (b) 0.5 × 10 (c) 0.585 × 10 (d) 0.75 × 10
IES-14. In strain gauge dynamometers, the use of how many active gauge makes the
dynamometer more effective? [IES 2007]
(a) Four (b) Three (c) Two (d) One
Volumetric strain
IES-15. Circumferential and longitudinal strains in a cylindrical boiler under internal
steam pressure are ε1 and ε 2 respectively. Change in volume of the boiler
cylinder per unit volume will be: [IES-1993; IAS 2003]
(a) ε1 + 2ε 2 (b) ε ε2
1 2 (c) 2ε 1 + ε 2 (d) ε 12ε 2
IES-16. The volumetric strain in case of a thin cylindrical shell of diameter d, thickness
t, subjected to internal pressure p is: [IES-2003; IAS 1997]
pd pd pd pd
(a) . ( 3 − 2 μ ) (b) . ( 4 − 3μ ) (c) . ( 5 − 4μ ) (d) . ( 4 − 5μ )
2tE 3tE 4tE 4tE
(Where E = Modulus of elasticity, μ = Poisson's ratio for the shell material)
Spherical Vessel
IES-17. For the same internal diameter, wall thickness, material and internal pressure,
the ratio of maximum stress, induced in a thin cylindrical and in a thin
spherical pressure vessel will be: [IES-2001]
(a) 2 (b) 1/2 (c) 4 (d) ¼
IES-17(i). What is the safe working pressure for a spherical pressure vessel 1.5 m internal
diameter and 1.5 cm wall thickness, if the maximum allowable tensile stress is
45 MPa?
(a) 0.9 MPa (b) 3.6 MPa (c) 2.7 MPa (d) 1.8 MPa [IES-2013]
IES-18. From design point of view, spherical pressure vessels are preferred over
cylindrical pressure vessels because they [IES-1997]
(a) Are cost effective in fabrication
(b) Have uniform higher circumferential stress
(c) Uniform lower circumferential stress
(d) Have a larger volume for the same quantity of material used

Circumferential or hoop stress

IAS-1. The ratio of circumferential stress to longitudinal stress in a thin cylinder
subjected to internal hydrostatic pressure is: [IAS 1994]
(a) 1/2 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 4
IAS-2. A thin walled water pipe carries water under a pressure of 2 N/mm2 and
discharges water into a tank. Diameter of the pipe is 25 mm and thickness is
2·5 mm. What is the longitudinal stress induced in the pipe? [IAS-2007]
(a) 0 (b) 2 N/mm2 (c) 5 N/mm2 (d) 10 N/mm2
IAS-3. A thin cylindrical shell of mean diameter 750 mm and wall thickness 10 mm has
its ends rigidly closed by flat steel plates. The shell is subjected to internal
fluid pressure of 10 N/mm2 and an axial external pressure P1. If the
longitudinal stress in the shell is to be zero, what should be the approximate
value of P1? [IAS-2007]
(a) 8 N/mm2 (b) 9 N/mm2 (c) 10 N/mm2 (d) 12 N/mm2
IAS-4. Assertion (A): A thin cylindrical shell is subjected to internal fluid pressure
that induces a 2-D stress state in the material along the longitudinal and
circumferential directions. [IAS-2000]
Reason(R): The circumferential stress in the thin cylindrical shell is two times
the magnitude of longitudinal stress.
IAS-5. Match List-I (Terms used in thin cylinder stress analysis) with List-II
(Mathematical expressions) and select the correct answer using the codes
given below the lists: [IAS-1998]
List-I List-II
A. Hoop stress 1. pd/4t
B. Maximum shear stress 2. pd/2t
C. Longitudinal stress 3. pd/2σ
D. Cylinder thickness 4. pd/8t
(a) 2 3 1 4 (b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 2 4 1 3
Longitudinal stress
IAS-6. Assertion (A): For a thin cylinder under internal pressure, At least three strain
gauges is needed to know the stress state completely at any point on the shell.
Reason (R): If the principal stresses directions are not know, the minimum
number of strain gauges needed is three in a biaxial field. [IAS-2001]

Maximum shear stress
IAS-7. The maximum shear stress is induced in a thin-walled cylindrical shell having
an internal diameter 'D' and thickness’t’ when subject to an internal pressure
'p' is equal to: [IAS-1996]
(a) pD/t (b) pD/2t (c) pD/4t (d) pD/8t
Volumetric strain
IAS-8. Circumferential and longitudinal strains in a cylindrical boiler under internal
steam pressure are ε1 and ε2 respectively. Change in volume of the boiler
cylinder per unit volume will be: [IES-1993; IAS 2003]

(a) ε1 + 2ε 2 (b) ε ε 2
1 2 (c) 2ε 1 + ε 2 (d) ε 12ε 2
IAS-9. The volumetric strain in case of a thin cylindrical shell of diameter d, thickness
t, subjected to internal pressure p is: [IES-2003; IAS 1997]
pd pd pd pd
(a) . ( 3 − 2 μ ) (b) . ( 4 − 3μ ) (c) . ( 5 − 4μ ) (d) . ( 4 − 5μ )
2tE 3tE 4tE 4tE
IAS-10. A thin cylinder of diameter ‘d’ and thickness 't' is subjected to an internal
pressure 'p' the change in diameter is (where E is the modulus of elasticity and
μ is the Poisson's ratio) [IAS-1998]
pd 2 pd 2 pd 2 pd 2
(a) (2 − μ ) (b) (1 + μ ) (c) (2 + μ ) (d) (2 + μ )
4tE 2tE tE 4tE
IAS-11. The percentage change in volume of a thin cylinder under internal pressure
having hoop stress = 200 MPa, E = 200 GPa and Poisson's ratio = 0·25 is:
[IAS-2002]
(a) 0.40 (b) 0·30 (c) 0·25 (d) 0·20
IAS-12. A round bar of length l, elastic modulus E and Poisson's ratio μ is subjected to
an axial pull 'P'. What would be the change in volume of the bar? [IAS-2007]
Pl Pl (1 − 2 μ ) Pl μ Pl
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(1 − 2μ ) E E E μE
IAS-13. If a block of material of length 25 cm. breadth 10 cm and height 5 cm undergoes
a volumetric strain of 1/5000, then change in volume will be: [IAS-2000]
(a) 0.50 cm3 (b) 0.25 cm3 (c) 0.20 cm3 (d) 0.75 cm3
OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (b) Inner radius (r) = 500 mm
Thickness (t) = 10 mm
Internal pressure (p) = 5 MPa

6
pr 5 × 10 × 500
Hoop stress, σ c == Pa = 250 Mpa
t 10
pr 1× 250
GATE-2. Ans. (a) Circumferential or Hoop stress (σ c ) = = = 50MPa
t 5
pr
Longitudinal stress (σ l ) = = 25MPa
2t
σc σl 50 × 106 25 × 106
ec = −μ = − 0.2 × = 2.25 × 10−4
E E 200 × 109 200 × 109
GATE-3. Ans. (d)
GATE-3(i).Ans. (c)
pd pd σ − σ l pd
GATE-4. Ans. (d) σ c = , σl = , Maximum shear stress = c =
2t 4t 2 8t
GATE-5. Ans. (a) Pressure (P) = h ρ g = 1 × 1000 × 10 = 10 kPa
Axial Stress ( σ a ) ⇒ σ a × 2πRt = ρg × πR L
2
ρ gRL
1000 × 10 × 1 × 1
or σ a = = = 10 MPa
t 1 × 10 −3
PR 10 × 1
Circumferential Stress( σ c )= = = 10 MPa
t 1 × 10 −3
σa σc 10 10
GATE-6. Ans. (c) εa = −μ = −3
− 0 .3 × = 7 × 10 −5
E E 100 × 10 100 × 10 −3
GATE-7. Ans. (a)
pd
Hoop stress =
2t
700 × 103 × 2 × 0.5
= = 14 × 106 = 14 MPa
2 × 25 × 10−3
IES
IES-1. Ans. (a)
IES-2. Ans. (c)
σc σl pr
IES-3. Ans. (d) Circumferential strain, ec = −μ = (2 − μ )
E E 2Et
σl σc pr
Longitudinal strain, el = −μ = (1 − 2μ )
E E 2Et
Pr
IES-4. Ans. (b) longitudinal stress (σ l ) =
2t
Pr
hoop stress (σ c ) =
t
σl 1 σc 1 1
− −
∈l m = m−2
∴ = E m E = 2
∈c σ c 1 σ l 1 2m − 1
− 1−
E mE 2m
IES-5. Ans. (d) Ratio of longitudinal strain to circumferential strain
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
σl − ⎜ ⎟ σ c σ l − ⎜ ⎟ {2σ l } m − 2
=
⎝m⎠ = ⎝m⎠ =
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞ 2m − 1
σ c − ⎜ ⎟ σ l {2σ l } − ⎜ ⎟ σ l
⎝m⎠ ⎝m⎠

σcσ pr
Circumferential strain, ec = −μ l = (2 − μ )
E E 2Et
σl σc pr
Longitudinal strain, el = −μ = (1 − 2μ )
E E 2Et
IES-6. Ans. (c)
IES-7. Ans. (a) Point 'X' is subjected to circumferential and longitudinal stress, i.e. tension on all
faces, but there is no shear stress because vessel is supported freely outside.
IES-8. Ans. (d)
2σ o − σ o σ o
Longitudinal stress = σ o and hoop stress = 2σ o Max. shear stress = =
2 2
pd 10 × 100 1000
IES-9. Ans. (d) Hoop stress = or 200 = or t = = 2.5 cm
2t 2×t 400
1
IES-10. Ans. (a) Circumferential strain = (σ 1 − μσ 2 )
E
Since circumferential stress σ 1 = 80 MPa and longitudinal stress σ 2 = 40 MPa
1
∴Circumferential strain = [80 − 0.28 × 40] ×106 = 3.44 x10−4
2 ×105 × 106
Pd
IES-11. Ans. (b) Tensile stress in the pipe wall = Circumferential stress in pipe wall =
2t
Where, P = ρgH = 980000N / m2
980000 × 10
∴ Tensile stress = −3
= 544.44 × 106 N / m2 = 544.44MN / m2 = 544.44MPa
2 × 9 × 10
IES-12. Ans. (b) Pressure in the main = ρgh = 1000 × 10 × 1000 = 10 N / mm = 1000 KPa
6 2
Pd
Hoop stress = σc =
2t
∴ t=
Pd
=
(
106 (1)) =
1
m = 20 mm
2σc 2 × 25 × 10 6
50
IES-12(i). Ans. (b)
1 1
IES-13. Ans. (a) Hoop strain = (σ h − μσ l ) = [100 − 0.3 × 50] = 0.425 ×10−3
E 200 × 1000
IES-14. Ans. (a)
IES-15. Ans. (c) Volumetric stream = 2 × circumferential strain + longitudinal strain
IES-16. Ans. (c) Remember it.
IES-17. Ans. (a)
IES-17(i). Ans. (d)
IES-18. Ans. (c)
IAS
IAS-1. Ans. (c)
Pr 2 × 12.5
IAS-2. Ans. (c) σ= = = 5 N/mm 2
2t 2 × 2.5

⎛ π × 7502 ⎞
10 × ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
IAS-3. Ans. (c) Tensile longitudinal stress due to internal fluid pressure ( δ 1) t =
π × 750 ×10
tensile. Compressive longitudinal stress due to external pressure p1 ( δ l)c =
⎛ π × 750 ⎞ 2
P1 × ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ compressive. For zero longitudinal stress ( δ ) = ( δ ) .
l t l c
π × 750 × 10
Pr Pr
IAS-4. Ans. (b) For thin cell σ c = σl =
t 2t
IAS-5. Ans. (d)
IAS-6. Ans. (d) For thin cylinder, variation of radial strain is zero. So only circumferential and
longitudinal strain has to measurer so only two strain gauges are needed.
PD PD σ − σ l PD
IAS-7. Ans. (d) Hoop stress(σ c ) = and Longitudinalstress(σ l ) = ∴τ max = c =
2t 4t 2 8t
IAS-8. Ans. (c) Volumetric stream = 2 x circumferential strain + longitudinal strain.
IAS-9. Ans. (c) Remember it.
IAS-10. Ans. (a)
Pr
IAS-11. Ans. (d) Hoop stress (σ t ) = = 200 × 106 Pa
t
Pr σ
Volumetric strain (ev ) = ( 5 − 4μ ) = t ( 5 − 4μ )
2 Et 2E
200 × 10 6
2
9 (
= 5 − 4 × 0.25 ) =
2 × 200 × 10 1000
IAS-12. Ans. (b)
P
σx = , σ y = 0 and σ z = 0
A
σx σx
or ε x = , ε y = −μ
E E
σx
and ε z = − μ
E
σx P
or ε v = ε x + ε y + ε z = (1 − 2μ ) = (1 − 2μ )
E AE
Pl
δ V = ε v × V = ε v . Al = (1 − 2 μ )
E
IAS-13. Ans. (b)
Volume change(δV)
Volumetric strain(ε v ) =
Initial volume(V)
1
or (δ V ) = ε v × V = × 25 × 10 × 5 = 0.25cm3
5000


Question: A thin cylinder of 100 mm internal diameter and 5 mm thickness is subjected
to an internal pressure of 10 MPa and a torque of 2000 Nm. Calculate the
magnitudes of the principal stresses.
Answer: Given: d = 100 mm = 0.1 m; t = 5 mm = 0.005 m; D = d + 2t = 0.1 + 2 x 0.005 =
0.11 m p = 10 MPa, 10 x 106N/m2; T= 2000 Nm.
pd 10 × 106 × 0.1
Longitudinal stress, σ l = σ x = = = 50 × 106 N / m2 = 50MN / m2
4t 4 × 0.005
pd 10 × 106 × 0.1
Circumferential stress, σ c = σ y = = = 100MN / m2
2t 2 × 0.005
To find the shear stress, using Torsional equation,
T τ
= , we have
J R
TR T ×R 2000 × ( 0.05 + 0.005 )
τ = τ xy = = = = 24.14MN / m2
π π
J
32
D −d
4
(
4
32
) 0.11 − 0.1
4 4
( )
Principal stresses are:
2
⎟ + (τ xy )
2
σ 1,2 = ± ⎜
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
50 + 100 ⎛ 50 − 100 ⎞
⎟ + ( 24.14 )
2
= ± ⎜
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
= 75 ± 34.75 = 109.75 and 40.25MN / m2
σ 1 (Major principal stress ) = 109.75MN / m2 ;
σ 2 ( min or principal stress ) = 40.25MN / m2 ;

Question: A thin cylindrical pressure vessel of inside radius ‘r’ and thickness of metal ‘t’
is subject to an internal fluid pressure p. What are the values of
(i) Maximum normal stress?
(ii) Maximum shear stress?
p.r
Answer: Circumferential (Hoop) stress (σc ) =
t
p.r
Longitudinal stress (σ )==
2t
σc − σ p.r
Therefore (ii) Maximum shear stress, ( τ max) = =
2 4t
Question: A thin cylindrical vessel of internal diameter d and thickness t is closed at
both ends is subjected to an internal pressure P. How much would be the
hoop and longitudinal stress in the material?
Answer: For thin cylinder we know that
Pd
Hoop or circumferential stress (σ c ) =
2t

Pd
And longitudinal stress (σ ) =
4t
Therefore σ c = 2σ

Q. A cylindrical shell has the following dimensions:
Length = 3 m
Inside diameter = 1 m
Thickness of metal = 10 mm
Internal pressure = 1.5 MPa
Calculate the change in dimensions of the shell and the maximum intensity of
shear stress induced. Take E = 200 GPa and Poisson’s ratio ν = 0.3 [15-Marks]
Ans. We can consider this as a thin cylinder.

pd
Hoop stresses, σ1 =
2t
pd
Longitudinal stresses, σ2 =
4t
σ1 − σ 2
Shear stress =
2
pd
=
8t
Hence from the given data
1.5 × 106 × 1
σ1 = = 0.75 × 108
2 × 10 × 10−3
= 75 MPa
1.5 × 106 × 1
σ2 = −3
= 37.5 × 106
4 × 10 × 10
= 37.5 MPa
ε1 Hoop strain
1
ε1 = ( σ − vσ2 )
E 1
Pd
= (2 − v )
4tE
1.5 × 106 × 1
= ( 2 − 0.3 )
4 × 10 × 10−3 × 200 × 109
37.5 × 106
= ( 2 − 0.3)
200 × 109
= 0.31875 × 10−3
Δd
= 0.3187 × 10−3
d
∴ change in diameter,
Δd = 1 × 0.31875 × 10−3 m
= 0.31875 mm

Logitudinal strain, ε2
pd
∈2 = (1 − 2v )
4tE
37.5 × 106
= (1 − 2 × 0.3 )
200 × 109
= 7.5 × 10−5
Δl
= 7.5 × 10−5
l
or Δl = 7.5 × 10−5 × 3
= 2.25 × 10−4 m = 0.225mm
⇒ Change in length = 0.225 mm and maximum shear stress,

pd 1.5 × 106 × 1
σ= =
8t 8 × 10 × 10−3
= 18.75 MPa

Question: A thin cylinder with closed ends has an internal diameter of 50 mm and a
wall thickness of 2.5 mm. It is subjected to an axial pull of 10 kN and a torque
of 500 Nm while under an internal pressure of 6 MN/m2
(i) Determine the principal stresses in the tube and the maximum shear
stress.
(ii) Represent the stress configuration on a square element taken in the load
direction with direction and magnitude indicated; (schematic).
Answer: Given: d = 50 mm = 0.05 m D = d + 2t = 50 + 2 x 2.5 = 55 mm = 0.055 m;
Axial pull, P = 10 kN; T= 500 Nm; p = 6MN/m2
(i) Principal stresses ( σ 1,2 ) in the tube and the maximum shear stress ( tmax ):
pd P 6 × 106 × 0.05 10 × 103

σx = + = +
4t π dt 4 × 2.5 × 10−3 π × 0.05 × 2.5 × 10−3
= 30 × 106 + 25.5 × 106 = 55.5 × 106 N / m2
pd 6 × 106 × 0.05
σy = = −3
= 60 × 106
2t 2 × 2.5 × 10
Principal stresses are:
⎛σx + σy ⎞ ⎛σx −σy ⎞
σ 1,2 = ⎜ ⎟± ⎜ ⎟ + τ xy
2
− − − (1)
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
T τ
Us e Torsional equation, = − − − ( i)
J R
π π ⎡
where J =
32
(D 4
)
− d4 =
32 ⎣
( 0.055 ) − ( 0.05 ) ⎤ = 2.848 × 10−7 m4
4 4
⎦
( J = polar moment of in ertia )
Substituting the values in ( i ) , we get

500 τ
=
2.848 × 10−7 ( 0.055 / 2 )
500 × ( 0.055 / 2 )
or τ= = 48.28 × 106 N / m2
2.848 × 10−7
Now, substituting the various values in eqn. (i), we have
⎛ 55.5 × 106 + 60 × 106 ⎞ ⎛ 55.5 × 106 − 60 × 106 ⎞
( )
2
σ 1,2 = ⎜ ⎟ ± ⎜ ⎟ + 48.28 × 10
6
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
(55.5 + 60) × 106
= ± 4.84 × 1012 + 2330.96 × 1012
2
= 57.75 × 106 ± 48.33 × 106 = 106.08MN / m2 ,9.42MN / m2
Principal stresses are : σ 1 = 106.08MN / m2 ; σ 2 = 9.42MN / m2
σ1 − σ 2 106.08 − 9.42
Maximum shear stress,τ max = = = 48.33MN / m2
2 2
(ii) Stress configuration on a square element :

11. Thick Cylinder
1. Thick cylinder
Inner dia of the cylinder (d i )
< 15 or 20
wall thickness (t)
2. General Expression
3. Difference between the analysis of stresses in thin & thick cylinders

• In thin cylinders, it is assumed that the tangential stress σ t is uniformly distributed over
the cylinder wall thickness.
In thick cylinder, the tangential stress σ t has the highest magnitude at the inner surface of
the cylinder & gradually decreases towards the outer surface.
• The radial stress σr is neglected in thin cylinders while it is of significant magnitude in case
of thick cylinders.
4. Strain
du
• Radial strain, ∈r = .
dr
u
• Circumferential /Tangential strain ∈t =
r
σz ⎛σ σ ⎞
• Axial strain, ∈z = −μ⎜ r + t ⎟
E ⎝ E E ⎠

Chapter-11 Thick Cylinder S K Mondal’s
5. Stress
pi ri 2
• Axial stress, σ z = 2
r0 − ri 2
B
• Radial stress, σr = A−
r2
B
• Circumferential /Tangential stress, σt = A +
r2
[Note: Radial stress always compressive so its magnitude always –ive. But in some books they
B
assume that compressive radial stress is positive and they use, σr = − A]
r2
6. Boundary Conditions
At r = ri , σ r = − pi
At r = ro σ r = − po
pi ri 2 − po ro2 ri 2 ro2
7. A = and B = ( pi − po )
ro2 − ri 2 (ro2 − ri 2 )
8. Cylinders with internal pressure (pi) i.e. po = 0
pi ri 2
• σz = 2 2
r0 − ri
pi ri 2 ⎡ r02 ⎤
• σr = − 2 2 ⎢ 2 − 1⎥ [ -ive means compressive stress]
r0 − ri ⎣r ⎦
pi ri 2 ⎡ r02 ⎤
• σt = + 2 2 ⎢ 2 + 1⎥
r0 − ri ⎣r ⎦
(a) At the inner surface of the cylinder

(i ) r = ri
(ii ) σ r = − pi
pi (ro2 + ri 2 )
(iii ) σ t = +
ro2 − ri 2
ro2
(iv) τ max = . pi
ro2 − ri 2
(b) At the outer surface of the cylinder
(i) r = ro
(ii) σ r = 0
2pi ri2
(iii ) σ t = 2 2
ro − ri

(c) Radial and circumferential stress distribution within the cylinder wall when only
internal pressure acts.
9. Cylinders with External Pressure (po) i.e. pi = 0
po ro2 ⎡ ri 2 ⎤
• σ r = − 2 2 ⎢i − 2 ⎥
ro − ri ⎣ r ⎦
po ro2 ⎡ ri 2 ⎤
• σ t = − 2 2 ⎢i + 2 ⎥
ro − ri ⎣ r ⎦
(a) At the inner surface of the cylinder
(i) r = ri
(ii) σr = o
2 po ro2
(iii) σt = −
ro2 − ri 2
(b) At the outer surface of the cylinder
(i) r = ro
(ii) σ r = − po
po (ro2 + ri 2 )
(iii) σt = −
ro2 − ri 2
(c) Distribution of radial and circumferential stresses within the cylinder wall when
only external pressure acts
10. Lame's Equation [for Brittle Material, open or closed end]

There is a no of equations for the design of thick cylinders. The choice of equation depends upon two
parameters.

• Cylinder Material (Whether brittle or ductile)
• Condition of Cylinder ends (open or closed)
When the material of the cylinder is brittle, such as cast iron or cast steel, Lame's Equation is used to
determine the wall thickness. Condition of cylinder ends may open or closed.
It is based on maximum principal stress theory of failure.
There principal stresses at the inner surface of the cylinder are as follows: (i) (ii) & (iii)
(i ) σ r = − pi
pi (r02 + ri 2 )
(ii ) σ t = +
r02 − ri 2
pi ri 2
(iii ) σ z = +
ro2 − ri 2
• σt >σz >σr
ro σ t + pi
• σ t is the criterion of design =
ri σ t − pi
• For ro = ri + t
⎡ σ +p ⎤
• t = ri × ⎢ t i
− 1⎥ ( Lame ' s Equation)
⎢⎣ σ t − pi ⎥⎦
σ ult
• σt =
fos
11. Clavarino's Equation [for cylinders with closed end & made of ductile material]
When the material of a cylinder is ductile, such as mild steel or alloy steel, maximum strain theory
of failure is used (St. Venant's theory) is used.
Three principal stresses at the inner surface of the cylinder are as follows (i) (ii) & (iii)
(i ) σ r = − pi
pi (ro2 + ri 2 )
(ii )σ t = +
(ro2 − ri 2 )
pi ri 2
(iii )σ z = +
(ro2 − ri 2 )
1
• ∈t = ⎡σ t − (σ r + σ z ) ⎤
E⎣ ⎦
σ σ yld / fos
• ∈t = =
E E
σ yld
• Or σ = σ t − μ (σ r + σ z ). Where σ =
fos

• σ is the criterion of design
ro σ + (1 − 2μ ) pi
=
ri σ − (1 + μ ) pi
• For ro = ri + t
⎡ σ + (1 − 2μ ) pi ⎤
t = ri ⎢ − 1⎥ ( Clavarion's Equation )
⎣ σ − (1 + μ ) pi ⎦
12. Birne's Equation [for cylinders with open end & made of ductile material]
When the material of a cylinder is ductile, such as mild steel or alloy steel, maximum strain theory
of failure is used (St. Venant's theory) is used.
Three principal stresses at the inner surface of the cylinder are as follows (i) (ii) & (iii)
(i ) σ r = − pi
pi (ro2 + ri 2 )
(ii )σ t = +
(ro2 − ri 2 )
(iii )σ z = 0
σ yld
• σ = σ t − μσ r where σ =
fos
• σ is the criterion of design
ro σ + (1 − μ ) pi
=
ri σ − (1 + μ ) pi
• For ro = ri + t
⎡ σ + (1 − μ ) pi ⎤
t = ri × ⎢ − 1⎥ (Birnie's Equation)
⎣ σ − (1 + μ ) pi ⎦
13. Barlow’s equation: [for high pressure gas pipe brittle or ductile material]
pi
t = ro [GAIL exam 2004]
σt
σy
Where σ t = for ductile material
fos
σ ult
= for brittle material
fos
14. Compound Cylinder (A cylinder & A Jacket)
• When two cylindrical parts are assembled by shrinking or press-fitting, a contact pressure is
created between the two parts. If the radii of the inner cylinder are a and c and that of the

outer cylinder are (c- δ ) and b, δ being the radial interference the contact pressure is given
by:
Eδ ⎢ (b − c ) (c − a ) ⎥
⎡ 2 2 2 2 ⎤
P= Where E is the Young's modulus of the material

c ⎢⎢ 2c 2 (b 2 − a 2 ) ⎥⎥
⎣ ⎦
• The inner diameter of the jacket is slightly smaller than the outer diameter of cylinder
• When the jacket is heated, it expands sufficiently to move over the cylinder
• As the jacket cools, it tends to contract onto the inner cylinder, which induces residual
compressive stress.
• There is a shrinkage pressure 'P' between the cylinder and the jacket.
• The pressure 'P' tends to contract the cylinder and expand the jacket
• The shrinkage pressure 'P' can be evaluated from the above equation for a given amount of
interference δ
• The resultant stresses in a compound cylinder are found by supervision losing the 2- stresses
stresses due to shrink fit
stresses due to internal pressure
Derivation:
Due to interference let us assume δ j = increase in inner diameter

of jacket and δc = decrease in outer diameter of cylinder.
so δ= δ j + δc i.e. without sign.
Now δ j =∈ j c ⎡∈ j = tangential strain⎤

⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
1
= [ σt − µσr ] c
E
⎡ ⎤
⎢σ t =circumferential stress⎥
⎢ ⎥
cP ⎡⎢ b 2 + c 2 ⎤ ⎢ p(b2 +c 2 ) ⎥
= + µ⎥ − − − ( i ) ⎢ + 2 2 ⎥
E ⎣⎢ b − c
2 2 ⎥
⎦ ⎢ ( b -c ) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣σ r =-p (radial stress) ⎥⎦

⎡ 2 2 ⎤
1 ⎢σ t = − p(c + a ) ⎥
And in similar way δc =∈c c = [ σt − µσ r ] c ⎢ (c 2 − a2 ) ⎥⎥
E ⎢
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣σ r = −p ⎥⎦
cP ⎡⎢ c 2 + a 2 ⎤⎥
=- - µ − − − (ii ) Here -ive signrepresents contraction
E ⎢⎣ c 2 − a 2 ⎥⎦
Adding ( i ) & ( ii )
⎡ 2 2
− a 2 ) ⎤⎥ E δ ⎡⎢ (b 2 − c 2 )(c 2 − a 2 ) ⎤⎥
∴ δ = δ j + δc =
Pc ⎢ 22c ( b or P =
E ⎢ (b − c 2 )(c 2 − a 2 ) ⎥ c ⎢⎣ 2c 2 (b 2 − a 2 ) ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦
15. Autofrettage
Autofrettage is a process of pre-stressing the cylinder before using it in operation.
We know that when the cylinder is subjected to internal pressure, the circumferential stress at the
inner surface limits the pressure carrying capacity of the cylinder.
In autofrettage pre-stressing develops a residual compressive stresses at the inner surface. When
the cylinder is actually loaded in operation, the residual compressive stresses at the inner surface
begin to decrease, become zero and finally become tensile as the pressure is gradually increased.
Thus autofrettage increases the pressure carrying capacity of the cylinder.
16. Rotating Disc

The radial & circumferential (tangential) stresses in a rotating disc of uniform thickness are given
by
ρω 2 ⎛ 2 R02 Ri2 ⎞
σr = ( 3 + μ ) ⎜ R0 + Ri − 2 − r 2 ⎟
2
8 ⎝ r ⎠
ρω 2 ⎛ 2 R02 Ri2 1 + 3μ 2 ⎞
σt = ( 3 + μ ) ⎜ R0 + Ri + 2 −
2
.r ⎟
8 ⎝ r 3+ μ ⎠
Where Ri = Internal radius
Ro = External radius
ρ = Density of the disc material
ω = Angular speed
μ = Poisson's ratio.
⎛ 3+ μ ⎞ 2 ⎡ 2 ⎛ 1− μ ⎞ 2 ⎤
Or, Hoop’s stress, σt = ⎜ ⎟ .ρω . ⎢ R0 + ⎜ ⎟ Ri ⎥
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ 3+μ ⎠ ⎦
⎛ 3+ μ ⎞
Radial stress, σr = ⎜ ⎟ .ρω ⎡⎣ R0 − Ri ⎤⎦
2 2 2
⎝ 8 ⎠

Lame's theory
GATE-1. A thick cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure of 60 MPa. If the hoop
stress on the outer surface is 150 MPa, then the hoop stress on the internal
surface is: [GATE-1996; IES-2001]
Thick cylinder
IES-1. If a thick cylindrical shell is subjected to internal pressure, then hoop stress,
radial stress and longitudinal stress at a point in the thickness will be:
(a) Tensile, compressive and compressive respectively [IES-1999]
(b) All compressive
(c) All tensile
(d) Tensile, compressive and tensile respectively
IES-2. Where does the maximum hoop stress in a thick cylinder under external
pressure occur? [IES-2008]
(a) At the outer surface (b) At the inner surface
(c) At the mid-thickness (d) At the 2/3rd outer radius
IES-3. In a thick cylinder pressurized from inside, the hoop stress is maximum at
(a) The centre of the wall thickness (b) The outer radius [IES-1998]
(c) The inner radius (d) Both the inner and the outer radii
IES-5. A thick-walled hollow cylinder having outside and inside radii of 90 mm and 40
mm respectively is subjected to an external pressure of 800 MN/m2. The
maximum circumferential stress in the cylinder will occur at a radius of
[IES-1998]
(a) 40 mm (b) 60 mm (c) 65 mm (d) 90 mm
IES-6. In a thick cylinder, subjected to internal and external pressures, let r1 and r2 be
the internal and external radii respectively. Let u be the radial displacement of
a material element at radius r, r2 ≥ r ≥ r1 . Identifying the cylinder axis as z axis,
the radial strain component ε rr is: [IES-1996]
(a) u/r (b) u /θ (c) du/dr (d) du/dθ
Lame's theory
IES-7. A thick cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure of 60 MPa. If the hoop
stress on the outer surface is 150 MPa, then the hoop stress on the internal
surface is: [GATE-1996; IES-2001]
IES-8. A hollow pressure vessel is subject to internal pressure. [IES-2005]

Consider the following statements:
1. Radial stress at inner radius is always zero.

2. Radial stress at outer radius is always zero.
3. The tangential stress is always higher than other stresses.
4. The tangential stress is always lower than other stresses.
IES-9. A thick open ended cylinder as shown in the

figure is made of a material with permissible
normal and shear stresses 200 MPa and 100 MPa
respectively. The ratio of permissible pressure
based on the normal and shear stress is:
[di = 10 cm; do = 20 cm]
(a) 9/5 (b) 8/5
(c) 7/5 (d) 4/5
[IES-2002]
Longitudinal and shear stress

IES-10. A thick cylinder of internal radius and external radius a and b is subjected to
internal pressure p as well as external pressure p. Which one of the following
statements is correct? [IES-2004]
The magnitude of circumferential stress developed is:
(a) Maximum at radius r = a (b) Maximum at radius r = b
(c) Maximum at radius r = ab (d) Constant

In a thick walled cylindrical pressure vessel subjected to internal pressure, the
Tangential and radial stresses are:
1. Minimum at outer side
2. Minimum at inner side
3. Maximum at inner side and both reduce to zero at outer wall
4. Maximum at inner wall but the radial stress reduces to zero at outer wall
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 4 only
IES-12. Consider the following statements at given point in the case of thick cylinder
subjected to fluid pressure: [IES-2006]
1. Radial stress is compressive
2. Hoop stress is tensile
3. Hoop stress is compressive
4. Longitudinal stress is tensile and it varies along the length
5. Longitudinal stress is tensile and remains constant along the length of the
cylinder
(a) Only 1, 2 and 4 (b) Only 3 and 4 (c) Only 1,2 and 5 (d) Only 1,3 and 5
IES-13. A thick cylinder with internal diameter d and outside diameter 2d is subjected
to internal pressure p. Then the maximum hoop stress developed in the
cylinder is: [IES-2003]
2 5
(a) p (b) p (c) p (d) 2p
3 3
Compound or shrunk cylinder

IES-14. Autofrettage is a method of: [IES-1996; 2005; 2006]
(a) Joining thick cylinders (b) Relieving stresses from thick cylinders
(c) Pre-stressing thick cylinders (d) Increasing the life of thick cylinders

IES-15. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the Lists: [IES-2004]
List-I List-II
A. Wire winding 1. Hydrostatic stress
B. Lame's theory 2. Strengthening of thin cylindrical shell
C. Solid sphere subjected to uniform 3. Strengthening of thick cylindrical shell
pressure on the surface
D. Autofrettage 4. Thick cylinders
Coeds: A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 2 1 3 (b) 4 2 3 1
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 2 4 1 3
IES-16. If the total radial interference between two cylinders forming a compound
cylinder is δ and Young's modulus of the materials of the cylinders is E, then
the interface pressure developed at the interface between two cylinders of the
same material and same length is: [IES-2005]
(a) Directly proportional of E x δ (b) Inversely proportional of E/ δ
(c) Directly proportional of E/ δ (d) Inversely proportional of E / δ
IES-17. A compound cylinder with inner radius 5 cm and outer radius 7 cm is made by
shrinking one cylinder on to the other cylinder. The junction radius is 6 cm
and the junction pressure is 11 kgf/cm2. The maximum hoop stress developed in
the inner cylinder is: [IES-1994]
(a) 36 kgf/cm2 compression (b) 36 kgf/cm2 tension
(c) 72 kgf/cm2 compression (d) 72 kgf/cm2 tension.
Thick Spherical Shell

IES-18. The hemispherical end of a pressure vessel is fastened to the cylindrical
portion of the pressure vessel with the help of gasket, bolts and lock nuts. The
bolts are subjected to: [IES-2003]
(a) Tensile stress (b) Compressive stress (c) Shear stress (d) Bearing stress
Longitudinal and shear stress

IAS-1. A solid thick cylinder is subjected to an external hydrostatic pressure p. The
state of stress in the material of the cylinder is represented as: [IAS-1995]

OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (c) If internal pressure = pi; External pressure = zero
p r2 ⎡r2 ⎤
Circumferential or hoop stress (σc) = 2 i i 2 ⎢ o2 + 1⎥
ro − ri ⎣ r ⎦
At pi = 60MPa, σ c = 150MPa and r = ro
2
r2 ⎡ ro2 ⎤ ri2 r2 150 5 ⎛r ⎞ 9
∴ 150 = 60 2 i 2 ⎢ 2 + 1⎥ = 120 2 2 or 2 i 2 = = or ⎜ o ⎟ =
ro − ri ⎣ ro ⎦ ro − ri ro − ri 120 4 ⎝ ri ⎠ 5
∴ at r = ri
⎡ ro2
ri2 ⎤ 5 ⎛9 ⎞
σ c = 60 ⎢ 2 + 1⎥ = 60 × × ⎜ + 1⎟ = 210 MPa
ro2 − ri2
⎣ ri ⎦ 4 ⎝5 ⎠
IES-1. Ans. (d) Hoop stress – tensile, radial stress – compressive and longitudinal stress – tensile.
Radial and circumferential stress Distribution of radial and circumferential

distribution within the cylinder wall stresses within the cylinder wall when only
when only internal pressure acts. external pressure acts.
IES-2. Ans. (b)
Circumferential or hoop stress = σ t
IES-3. Ans. (c)

IES-5. Ans. (a)
IES-6. Ans. (c) The strains εr and εθ may be given by
∂u 1
ε r = r = ⎣⎡σ r − vσ θ ⎦⎤ since σ z = 0
∂r E
εθ =
( r + ur ) Δθ − rΔθ = ur = 1 σ − vσ
⎡ θ ⎤
E ⎣
r⎦
r Δθ r
Representation of radial and

circumferential strain.
IES-7. Ans. (c) If internal pressure = pi; External pressure = zero

piri2 ⎡ ro2 ⎤
Circumferential or hoop stress (σc) = 2 ⎢ 2
+ 1⎥
r − ri ⎣ r ⎦
2
o
At pi = 60MPa, σ c = 150MPa and r = ro

2
ri2 ⎡ ro2 ⎤ ri2 ri2 150 5 ⎛r ⎞ 9
∴ 150 = 60 ⎢ 2 + 1⎥ = 120 or = = or ⎜ o ⎟ =
ro2 − ri2 ⎣ ro ⎦ ro2 − ri2 ro − ri
2 2
120 4 ⎝ ri ⎠ 5
∴ at r = ri
ri2 ⎡ ro2 ⎤ 5 ⎛9 ⎞
σ c = 60 ⎢ 2 + 1⎥ = 60 × × ⎜ + 1⎟ = 210 MPa
ro2 − ri2 ⎣ir ⎦ 4 ⎝5 ⎠
IES-8. Ans. (c)
IES-9. Ans. (b)
IES-10. Ans. (d)
B Pri i2 − Poro2 Pa2 − Pb2
σc = A + A= = = −P
r2 ro2 − ri2 b 2 − a2
(Pi − Po ) ro2ri2
∴σ c = −P B= =o
ro2 − ri2
IES-11. Ans. (c)
IES-12. Ans. (c) 3. For internal fluid pressure Hoop or circumferential stress is tensile.
4. Longitudinal stress is tensile and remains constant along the length of the cylinder.
IES-13. Ans. (c) In thick cylinder, maximum hoop stress
2
⎛d ⎞
d2 +⎜ ⎟
r +r
2 2
⎝2⎠ =5 p
σ hoop = p × 22 12 = p ×
r2 − r1 ⎛d ⎞
2
3
d −⎜ ⎟
2
⎝2⎠
IES-14. Ans. (c)
IES-15. Ans. (d)
IES-16. Ans. (a)
δ =
PD2 ⎢
⎡ (
2D22 D32 − D12 ) ⎤
⎥
( )(
E ⎢ ⎡ D32 − D22 D22 − D12 ⎤ ⎥
⎣⎣ ⎦⎦ )
∴ P α E.δ
Alternatively : if E ↑ then P ↑
and if δ ↑ then P ↑ so P α Eδ
IES-17. Ans. (c)

IES-18. Ans. (a)
IAS-1. Ans. (c)

Distribution of radial and circumferential stresses within the cylinder wall when only
external pressure acts.

Question: The pressure within the cylinder of a hydraulic press is 9 MPa. The inside
diameter of the cylinder is 25 mm. Determine the thickness of the cylinder
wall, if the permissible tensile stress is 18 N/mm2
Answer: Given: P = 9 MPa = 9 N/mm2, Inside radius, r1 = 12.5 mm;
σ t = 18 N/mm2
Thickness of the cylinder:
⎡r2 + r2 ⎤
Usin g the equation;σ t = p ⎢ 22 12 ⎥ , we have
⎣ r2 − r1 ⎦
⎡ r 2 + 12.52 ⎤
18 = 9 ⎢ 22 2 ⎥
⎣ r2 − 12.5 ⎦
or r2 = 21.65mm
∴ Thickness of the cylinder = r2 − r1 = 21.65 − 12.5 = 9.15 mm

Q. A spherical shell of 150 mm internal diameter has to withstand an internal
pressure of 30 MN/m2. Calculate the thickness of the shell if the allowable
stress is 80 MN/m2.
Assume the stress distribution in the shell to follow the law
2b b
σr = a − 3
and σ θ = a + 3 [10 Marks]
r r
Ans. A spherical shell of 150 mm internal diameter internal pressure = 30 MPa.
Allowable stress = 80 MN/m2
2b
Assume radial stress = σr = a −
r3
b
Circumference stress = σθ = a + 3
r
At internal diameter (r)

σr = −30N / mm2
σθ = 80N / mm2
2b
−30 = a − ..............(i)
(75)3
b
80 = a + .................(ii)
(75)3
Soluing eq n (i)&(ii)
110 × 753 130
b= a=
3 3
At outer Radius (R) radial stress should be zero
2b
o=a− 3
R
2b 2 × 110 × 753
R3 = = = 713942.3077
a 130
3×
3
R = 89.376mm
There fore thickness of cylinder = (R − r)
= 89.376 − 75 = 14.376mm

Question: A thick spherical vessel of inner 'radius 150 mm is subjected to an internal
pressure of 80 MPa. Calculate its wall thickness based upon the
(i) Maximum principal stress theory, and
(ii) Total strain energy theory.
Poisson's ratio = 0.30, yield strength = 300 MPa
Answer: Given:
1
r1 = 150mm; p (σ r ) = 80MPa = 80 × 106 N / m2 ; μ = = 0.30;
m
σ = 300MPa = 300 × 106 N / m2
Wall thickness t :
(i) Maximum principal stress theory :
⎛ K 2 + 1⎞ ⎛ r2 ⎞
We know that,σ r ⎜ 2 ⎟ ≤σ ⎜ Where K = ⎟
⎝ K − 1⎠ ⎝ r1 ⎠
⎛ K 2 + 1⎞
or 80 × 106 ⎜ 2 ⎟ ≤ 300 × 10
6
⎝ K − 1⎠
or K ≥ 1.314
or K = 1.314
r2
i.e. = 1.314 or r2 = r1 × 1.314 = 150 × 1.314 = 197.1mm
r1
∴ Metal thickness, t = r2 − r1 = 197.1 − 150 = 47.1 mm
(ii) Total strain energy theory:
Use σ + σ − μσ σ ≤ σ y2
2
1
2
2 1 2

2σ r2 ⎡⎣K 4 (1 + μ ) + (1 − μ ) ⎤⎦
σ2 ≥
(K )
2
2
−1
( ) ⎡⎣K 4 (1 + 03 ) + (1 − 0.3 ) ⎤⎦
2
2 × 80 × 106
( 300 × 10 )
2
∴ 6
≥
(K )
2
2
−1
( ) ( + 0.7 )
2
or 3002 K 2 − 1 = 2 × 802 1.3K 4
gives K = 1.86 or 0.59
It is clear that K > 1
∴ K = 1.364
r2
or = 1.364 or r2 = 150 × 1.364 = 204.6 mm
r1
∴ t = r2 − r1 = 204.6 − 150 = 54.6 mm

Question: What is the difference in the analysis of think tubes compared to that for thin
tubes? State the basic equations describing stress distribution in a thick
tube.
Answer: The difference in the analysis of stresses in thin and thick cylinder:
(i) In thin cylinder, it is assumed that the tangential stress is uniformly distributed
over the cylinder wall thickness. In thick cylinder, the tangential stress has highest
magnitude at the inner surface of the cylinder and gradually decreases towards the
outer surface.
(ii) The radial stress is neglected in thin cylinders, while it is of significant magnitude
in case of thick cylinders.
Basic equation for describing stress distribution in thick tube is Lame's equation.
B B
σr = 2
− A and σt = 2 + A
r r

Question: What is auto frettage?
How does it help in increasing the pressure carrying capacity of a thick
cylinder?
Answer: Autofrettage is a process of pre-stressing the cylinder before using it in operation.
We know that when the cylinder is subjected to internal pressure, the circumferential
stress at the inner surface limits the pressure carrying capacity of the cylinder.
In autofrettage pre-stressing develops a residual compressive stresses at the inner
surface. When the cylinder is actually loaded in operation, the residual compressive
stresses at the inner surface begin to decrease, become zero and finally become tensile
as the pressure is gradually increased. Thus autofrettage increases the pressure
carrying capacity of the cylinder.

Question: When two cylindrical parts are assembled by shrinking or press-fitting, a
contact pressure is created between the two parts. If the radii of the inner
cylinder are a and c and that of the outer cylinder are (c- δ ) and b, δ being
the radial interference the contact pressure is given by:
Eδ ⎢ (b − c ) (c − a ) ⎥
⎡ 2 2 2 2 ⎤
P=
c ⎢⎢ 2c 2 (b 2 − a 2 ) ⎥⎥
⎣ ⎦

Where E is the Young's modulus of the material, Can you outline the steps
involved in developing this important design equation?
Answer:
Due to interference let us assume δ j = increase in inner diameter

of jacket and δc = decrease in outer diameter of cylinder.
so δ= δ j + δc i.e. without sign.
Now δ j =∈ j c ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎣∈ j = tangential strain⎥⎦
1
= [ σt − µσr ] c
E
⎡ ⎤
⎢σ t =circumferential stress⎥
⎢ ⎥
cP ⎡⎢ b 2 + c 2 ⎤
⎥ − − − (i )
⎢ p(b2 +c 2 ) ⎥
= + µ ⎢ + ⎥
E ⎣⎢ b 2 − c 2 ⎥
⎦ ⎢ ( b 2
-c 2
) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣σ r =-p (radial stress) ⎥⎦
And in similar way δc =∈c c
⎡ 2 2 ⎤
1 ⎢σ t = − p(c + a ) ⎥
= [ σt − µσ r ] c ⎢ (c 2 − a2 ) ⎥⎥
E ⎢
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣σ r = −p ⎥⎦
cP ⎡⎢ c 2 + a 2 ⎤⎥
=- - µ − − − (ii ) Here -ive signrepresents contraction
E ⎢⎣ c 2 − a 2 ⎥⎦

Adding (i ) & (ii )
Pc ⎡⎢ 2c 2 (b2 − a 2 ) ⎤⎥
∴ δ = δ j + δc =
E ⎢⎣ (b 2 − c 2 )(c 2 − a 2 ) ⎥⎦
E δ ⎡⎢ (b 2 − c 2 )(c 2 − a 2 ) ⎤⎥
or P = Proved.
c ⎢⎣ 2c 2 (b2 − a 2 ) ⎥⎦

Question: A steel rod of diameter 50 mm is forced into a bronze casing of outside
diameter 90 mm, producing a tensile hoop stress of 30 MPa at the outside
diameter of the casing.
Find (i) The radial pressure between the rod and the casing
(ii) The shrinkage allowance and
(iii) The rise in temperature which would just eliminate the force fit.
Assume the following material properties:
−5 o
Es = 2×105 MPa, μS = 0.25 , αs = 1.2×10 / C
−5
Eb = 1×105 MPa , μb = 0.3, αb = 1.9×10 /o C
Answer:
There is a shrinkage pressure P between the steel rod and the bronze casing. The
pressure P tends to contract the steel rod and expand the bronze casing.
(i) Consider Bronze casing, According to Lames theory
B Piri 2 − P0 r02
σt = 2 + A Where A =
r r02 − ri 2
(Pi − P0 )r02 ri 2
and B =
r02 − ri 2
Pi = P, P0 = 0 and
Pri2 Pr02 ri 2 2Pri2
A= , B= =
r02 − ri 2 r02 − ri 2 r02 − ri 2
B Pri2 Pri2 2Pri2
∴ 30 = + A = + =
ro2 r02 − ri 2 r02 − ri 2 r02 − ri 2
30(r02 − ri 2 ) ⎡ r02 ⎤ ⎡⎛ ⎞2 ⎤
or , P= = 15 ⎢ − 1⎥ = 15 ⎢⎜⎜ 90 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ MPa=33.6MPa
⎢r ⎥ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 50 ⎠
2 2
2ri ⎣ i ⎦ ⎥⎦
Therefore the radial pressure between the rod and the casing is P= 33.6 MPa.
(ii) The shrinkage allowance:
Let δ j = increase in inert diameter of bronze casing
δ C= decrease in outer diameter of steel rod
1st consider bronze casing:

B
Tangential stress at the inner surface(σ t ) j = +A
ri 2
⎡ ⎛ 90 ⎞2 ⎤
⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎟ + 1⎥
2 2 2 2 ⎜
⎢ ⎜⎝ 50 ⎠⎟ ⎥
Pr Pr P (r0 + r1 ) ⎢ ⎥ = 63.6MPa
= 2 0 2+ 2 i 2= = 33.6 × ⎢ ⎥
r0 − ri r0 − ri (r02 − ri 2 ) 2
⎢ ⎛⎜ 90 ⎞⎟ − 1⎥
⎢ ⎜⎜⎝ ⎟⎠⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ 50 ⎥⎦
and radial stress(σr ) j = −P = −33.6MPa
longitudial stress(σ ) j = 0
1⎡
Therefore tangential strain (εt ) j = (σt ) j − µ( σr ) j ⎤⎥⎦
E ⎢⎣
1
= 5
[63.6 + 0.3 × 33.6] =7.368×10-4
1×10
∴ δ j = (εt ) j × d i = 7.368 ×10−4 × 0.050 = 0.03684mm
2nd Consider steel rod:

Circumferential stress (σ t )s = −P
and radial stress (σr )s = −P
1 ⎡
∴ δc = (∈t )s × d i = (σt )S − µ(σ r )s ⎤⎦⎥ × d i
Es ⎣⎢
Pd i 33.6 × 0.050
=− (1− µ) = − [1− 0.25 ] = −0.00588 mm [reduction]
Es 2 ×105
Total shrinkage = δ j + δc =0.04 mm[it is diametral] = 0.02mm [radial]
(iii) Let us temperature rise is ( Δt )
As αb > αs due to same temperature rise steel not will expand less than bronze
casing. When their difference of expansion will be equal to the shrinkage then
force fit will eliminate.
d i × αb ×Δt − d i × αs ×Δt = 0.04272
0.04272 0.04272
or t = = = 122o C
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ −5 −5 ⎤
d i ⎣⎢αb − αs ⎦⎥ 50 × ⎢⎣1.9 ×10 − 1.2 ×10 ⎦⎥

Question: A thick walled closed-end cylinder is made of an AI-alloy (E = 72 GPa,
1
= 0.33), has inside diameter of 200 mm and outside diameter of 800 mm.
m
The cylinder is subjected to internal fluid pressure of 150 MPa. Determine the
principal stresses and maximum shear stress at a point on the inside surface
of the cylinder. Also determine the increase in inside diameter due to fluid
pressure.
200 800
Answer: Given: r1 = = 100mm = 0.1m;r2 = = 400mm = 0.4;p = 150MPa = 150MN / m2 ;
2 2
1
E = 72GPa = 72 × 109 N / m2 ; = 0.33 = μ
m
Principal stress and maximum shear stress:
Using the condition in Lame’s equation:

b
σr = −a
r2
At r = 0.1m, σ 2 = +p = 150MN / m2
r = 0.4m, σ 2 = 0
Substituting the values in the above equation we have
b
150 = −a − − − − (i)
( 0.1)
2
b
0= −a − − − − ( ii )
( 0.4 )
2
From ( i ) and ( ii ) , we get

a = 10 and b = 1.6
The circumferential ( or hoop ) stress by Lame ' s equation,is given by

b
σc = +a
r2
1.6
∴ (σ c )max ,at r ( = r1 ) = 0.1m = 2
+ 10 = 170MN / m2 ( tensile ) , and
0.1
1.6
(σ c )min ,at r ( = r2 ) = 0.4m = 2 + 10 = 20MN / m2 ( tensile ) .
0.4
∴ Pr incipal stresses are 170 MN / m2 and 20MN / m2
(σ c )max − (σ c )min 170 − 20
Maximum shear stress, τ max = = = 75MN / m2
2 2
Increase in inside diameter,δ d1 :

150 × ( 0.1)
2
pr 2
We know,longitudinal ( or axial ) stress, σ l = 2 1 2 = = 10MN / m2
r2 − r1 ( 0.4 ) − ( 0.1)
2 2
Circumferential ( or hoop ) strain at the inner radius,is given by :

1 1
∈1 = ⎡σ c + μ (σ r − σ l ) ⎦⎤ =
⎣ ⎡170 × 106 + 0.33 (150 − 10 ) × 106 ⎦⎤ = 0.003
E 72 × 109 ⎣
δ d1
Also, ∈1 =
d1
δ d1
or 0.003 =
0.1
δ d1 = 0.003 × 0.1 = 0.003 m or 0.3 mm

12. Spring
1. A spring is a mechanical device which is used for the efficient storage
and release of energy.
2. Helical spring – stress equation

Let us a close-coiled helical spring has coil diameter D, wire diameter d and number of turn n. The
D
spring material has a shearing modulus G. The spring index, C = . If a force ‘P’ is exerted in both
d
ends as shown.
The work done by the axial

force 'P' is converted into
strain energy and stored in
the spring.
U=(average torque)
×(angular displacement)
T
= ×θ
2
TL
From the figure we get, θ =
GJ
PD
Torque (T)=
2
length of wire (L)=πDn

πd 4
Polar m om ent of Inertia(J)=
32
4P 2D 3 n
Therefore U=
Gd 4
According to Castigliano's theorem, the displacement corresponding to force P is obtained by
partially differentiating strain energy with respect to that force.
∂U ∂ ⎡⎢ 4 p 2 D3n ⎤⎥ 8PD3n
Therefore δ = = =
∂P ∂P ⎣⎢ Gd 4 ⎦⎥ Gd 4
8 PD 3n
Axial deflection δ =
Gd 4
P Gd 4
Spring stiffness or spring constant (k ) = =
δ 8D3n

Chapter-12 Spring S K Mondal’s
16T 16 ( PD / 2 ) 8PD
The torsional shear stress in the bar, τ 1 = = =
πd3 πd3 πd3
P 4P 8PD ⎛ 0.5d ⎞
The direct shear stress in the bar, τ 2 = = =
⎛ πd ⎞2
πd2 π d 3 ⎜⎝ D ⎟⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
8PD ⎛ 0.5d ⎞ 8PD
Therefore the total shear stress, τ = τ 1 + τ 2 = 3 ⎜
1+ ⎟ = Ks
πd ⎝ D ⎠ πd3
8PD
τ = Ks
πd3
0.5d
Where K s = 1 + is correction factor for direct shear stress.
D
3. Wahl’s stress correction factor

8PD
τ =K
πd3
⎛ 4C − 1 0.615 ⎞
Where K = ⎜ + is known as Wahl’s stress correction factor
⎝ 4C − 4 C ⎟⎠
Here K = KsKc; Where Ks is correction factor for direct shear stress and Kc is correction
factor for stress concentration due to curvature.
Note: When the spring is subjected to a static force, the effect of stress concentration is neglected
8PD
due to localized yielding. So we will use, τ = Ks
πd3
4. Equivalent stiffness (keq)
Spring in series (δe = δ1 + δ 2 ) Spring in Parallel (δe = δ1 = δ 2 )
1 1 1 K1 K 2 K eq = K1 + K 2
= + or K eq =
K eq K1 K 2 K1 + K 2
Shaft in series ( θ = θ1 + θ 2 ) Shaft in Parallel ( θ eq = θ1 = θ 2 )

1 1 1 K1 K 2 K eq = K1 + K 2
= + or K eq =
K eq K1 K 2 K1 + K 2
5. Important note
• If a spring is cut into ‘n’ equal lengths then spring constant of each new spring = nk
• When a closed coiled spring is subjected to an axial couple M then the rotation,
64 MDnc
φ=
Ed 4
6. Laminated Leaf or Carriage Springs

3PL3
• Central deflection, δ =
8Enbt 3
3PL
• Maximum bending stress, σ max =
2nbt 2
Where P = load on spring
b = width of each plate
n = no of plates
L= total length between 2 points
t =thickness of one plate.
7. Belleville Springs
4 Eδ ⎡ ⎛ δ⎞ 3⎤
Load, P = ⎢ (h − δ) ⎜ h − 2 ⎟ t + t ⎥
(1 − μ 2 )k f D02 ⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
Do
Where, E = Modulus of elasticity
δ = Linear deflection
μ =Poisson’s Ratio
kf =factor for Belleville spring P
Do = outside diamerer t
h = Deflection required to flatten Belleville spring ho
t = thickness
Note:
• Total stiffness of the springs kror = stiffness per spring × No of springs
• In a leaf spring ratio of stress between full length and graduated leaves = 1.5
• Conical spring- For application requiring variable stiffness
• Belleville Springs -For application requiring high capacity springs into small space

Helical spring
GATE-1. If the wire diameter of a closed coil helical spring subjected to compressive
load is increased from 1 cm to 2 cm, other parameters remaining same, then
deflection will decrease by a factor of: [GATE-2002]
(a) 16 (b) 8 (c) 4 (d) 2
GATE-2. A compression spring is made of music wire of 2 mm diameter having a shear

strength and shear modulus of 800 MPa and 80 GPa respectively. The mean coil
diameter is 20 mm, free length is 40 mm and the number of active coils is 10. If
the mean coil diameter is reduced to 10 mm, the stiffness of the spring is
approximately [GATE-2008]
(a) Decreased by 8 times (b) Decreased by 2 times
(c) Increased by 2 times (d) Increased by 8 times
GATE-3. Two helical tensile springs of the same material and also having identical mean
coil diameter and weight, have wire diameters d and d/2. The ratio of their
stiffness is: [GATE-2001]
(a) 1 (b) 4 (c) 64 (d) 128
GATE-4. A uniform stiff rod of length 300 mm

and having a weight of 300 N is
pivoted at one end and connected to
a spring at the other end. For
keeping the rod vertical in a stable
position the minimum value of
spring constant K needed is:
(a) 300 N/m (b) 400N/m
(c) 500N/m (d) 1000 N/m
[GATE-2004]
GATE-5. A weighing machine consists of a 2 kg pan resting on spring. In this condition,

with the pan resting on the spring, the length of the spring is 200 mm. When a
mass of 20 kg is placed on the pan, the length of the spring becomes 100 mm.
For the spring, the un-deformed length lo and the spring constant k (stiffness)
are: [GATE-2005]
(a) lo = 220 mm, k = 1862 N/m (b) lo = 210 mm, k = 1960 N/m
(c) lo = 200 mm, k = 1960 N/m (d) lo = 200 mm, k = 2156 N/m
Springs in Series
GATE-6. The deflection of a spring with 20 active turns under a load of 1000 N is 10 mm.
The spring is made into two pieces each of 10 active coils and placed in parallel
under the same load. The deflection of this system is: [GATE-1995]
(a) 20 mm (b) 10 mm (c) 5 mm (d) 2.5 mm

Helical spring
IES-1. A helical coil spring with wire diameter ’d’ and coil diameter 'D' is subjected to
external load. A constant ratio of d and D has to be maintained, such that the
extension of spring is independent of d and D. What is this ratio? [IES-2008]
4/3 4/3
D d
(a)D3 / d4 (b)d3 / D4 (c) 3 (d) 3
d D
IES-1(i). If both the mean coil diameter and wire diameter of a helical compression or
tension spring be doubled, then the deflection of the spring close coiled under
same applied load will [IES-2012]
(a) be doubled (b) be halved
(c) increase four times (d) get reduced to one – fourth
IES-2. Assertion (A): Concentric cylindrical helical springs are used to have greater
spring force in a limited space. [IES-2006]
Reason (R): Concentric helical springs are wound in opposite directions to
prevent locking of coils under heavy dynamic loading.
IES-3. Assertion (A): Two concentric helical springs used to provide greater spring
force are wound in opposite directions. [IES-1995; IAS-2004]
Reason (R): The winding in opposite directions in the case of helical springs
prevents buckling.
IES-4. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IES-1996; 2007; IAS-1997]
If a helical spring is halved in length, its spring stiffness
(a) Remains same (b) Halves (c) Doubles (d) Triples
IES-4(i). A closely coiled spring of 20 cm mean diameter is having 25 coils of 2 cm

diameter. Modulus of rigidity of the material is 107 N/ cm2 . Stiffness of spring is:
(a) 50 N/cm (b) 250 N/cm (c) 100 N/cm (d) 500 N/cm [IES-2013]
IES-5. A body having weight of 1000 N is dropped from a height of 10 cm over a close-
coiled helical spring of stiffness 200 N/cm. The resulting deflection of spring is
nearly [IES-2001]
(a) 5 cm (b) 16 cm (c) 35 cm (d) 100 cm
IES-6. A close-coiled helical spring is made of 5 mm diameter wire coiled to 50 mm

mean diameter. Maximum shear stress in the spring under the action of an
axial force is 20 N/mm2. The maximum shear stress in a spring made of 3 mm
diameter wire coiled to 30 mm mean diameter, under the action of the same
force will be nearly [IES-2001]
(a) 20 N/mm2 (b) 33.3 N/mm2 (c) 55.6 N/mm2 (d) 92.6 N/mm2
IES-7. A closely-coiled helical spring is acted upon by an axial force. The maximum
shear stress developed in the spring is τ . Half of the length of the spring is cut
off and the remaining spring is acted upon by the same axial force. The
maximum shear stress in the spring the new condition will be: [IES-1995]

(a) ½ τ (b) τ (c) 2 τ (d) 4 τ
IES-8. The maximum shear stress occurs on the outermost fibers of a circular shaft
under torsion. In a close coiled helical spring, the maximum shear stress
occurs on the [IES-1999]
(a) Outermost fibres (b) Fibres at mean diameter (c) Innermost fibres (d) End coils
IES-9. A helical spring has N turns of coil of diameter D, and a second spring, made of
same wire diameter and of same material, has N/2 turns of coil of diameter 2D.
If the stiffness of the first spring is k, then the stiffness of the second spring
will be: [IES-1999]
(a) k/4 (b) k/2 (c) 2k (d) 4k
IES-10. A closed-coil helical spring is subjected to a torque about its axis. The spring
wire would experience a [IES-1996; 1998]
(a) Bending stress
(b) Direct tensile stress of uniform intensity at its cross-section
(c) Direct shear stress
(d) Torsional shearing stress
IES-11. Given that: [IES-1996]

d = diameter of spring, R = mean radius of coils, n = number of coils and G =
modulus of rigidity, the stiffness of the close-coiled helical spring subject to an
axial load W is equal to
Gd 4 Gd 3 Gd 4 Gd 4
(a) (b) (c) (d)
64 R 3 n 64 R 3 n 32 R 3 n 64 R 2 n
IES-12. A closely coiled helical spring of 20 cm mean diameter is having 25 coils of 2 cm
diameter rod. The modulus of rigidity of the material if 107 N/cm2. What is the
stiffness for the spring in N/cm? [IES-2004]
(a) 50 (b) 100 (c) 250 (d) 500
IES-13. Which one of the following expresses the stress factor K used for design of
closed coiled helical spring? [IES-2008]
4C − 4 4C − 1 0.615 4C − 4 0.615 4C − 1
(a) (b) + (c) + (d)
4C − 1 4C − 4 C 4C − 1 C 4C − 4
Where C = spring index
IES-14. In the calculation of induced shear stress in helical springs, the Wahl's
correction factor is used to take care of [IES-1995; 1997]
(a) Combined effect of transverse shear stress and bending stresses in the wire.
(b) Combined effect of bending stress and curvature of the wire.
(c) Combined effect of transverse shear stress and curvature of the wire.
(d) Combined effect of torsional shear stress and transverse shear stress in the wire.
IES-15. While calculating the stress induced in a closed coil helical spring, Wahl's
factor must be considered to account for [IES-2002]
(a) The curvature and stress concentration effect (b) Shock loading
(c) Poor service conditions (d) Fatigue loading
IES-16. Cracks in helical springs used in Railway carriages usually start on the inner
side of the coil because of the fact that [IES-1994]
(a) It is subjected to the higher stress than the outer side.
(b) It is subjected to a higher cyclic loading than the outer side.
(c) It is more stretched than the outer side during the manufacturing process.
(d) It has a lower curvature than the outer side.
IES-17. Two helical springs of the same material and of equal circular cross-section
and length and number of turns, but having radii 20 mm and 40 mm, kept
concentrically (smaller radius spring within the larger radius spring), are

compressed between two parallel planes with a load P. The inner spring will
carry a load equal to [IES-1994]
(a) P/2 (b) 2P/3 (c) P/9 (d) 8P/9
IES-18. A length of 10 mm diameter steel wire is coiled to a close coiled helical spring
having 8 coils of 75 mm mean diameter, and the spring has a stiffness K. If the
same length of wire is coiled to 10 coils of 60 mm mean diameter, then the
spring stiffness will be: [IES-1993]
(a) K (b) 1.25 K (c) 1.56 K (d) 1.95 K
IES-18a. Two equal lengths of steel wires of the same diameter are made into two
springs S1 and S2 of mean diameters 75 mm and 60 mm respectively. The
stiffness ratio of S1 to S2 is [IES-2011]
2 3 2 3
⎛ 60 ⎞ ⎛ 60 ⎞ ⎛ 75 ⎞ ⎛ 75 ⎞
(a ) ⎜ ⎟ (b) ⎜ ⎟ (c ) ⎜ ⎟ (d ) ⎜ ⎟
75
⎝ ⎠ 75
⎝ ⎠ 60
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 60 ⎠
IES-19. A spring with 25 active coils cannot be accommodated within a given space.
Hence 5 coils of the spring are cut. What is the stiffness of the new spring?
(a) Same as the original spring (b) 1.25 times the original spring [IES-2004, 2012]
(c) 0.8 times the original spring (d) 0.5 times the original spring
IES-20. Wire diameter, mean coil diameter and number of turns of a closely-coiled steel
spring are d, D and N respectively and stiffness of the spring is K. A second
spring is made of same steel but with wire diameter, mean coil diameter and
number of turns 2d, 2D and 2N respectively. The stiffness of the new spring is:
[IES-1998; 2001]
(a) K (b) 2K (c) 4K (d) 8K
IES-21. When two springs of equal lengths are arranged to form cluster springs which
of the following statements are the: [IES-1992]
1. Angle of twist in both the springs will be equal
2. Deflection of both the springs will be equal
3. Load taken by each spring will be half the total load
4. Shear stress in each spring will be equal
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2 and 4 only

When two springs of equal lengths are arranged to form a cluster spring
1. Angle of twist in both the springs will be equal
2. Deflection of both the springs will be equal
3. Load taken by each spring will be half the total load
4. Shear stress in each spring will be equal
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 and 4 (c)2 only (d) 4 only
IES-22(i). The compliance of the spring is the: [IES-2013]

(a) Reciprocal of the spring constant
(b) Deflection of the spring under compressive load
(c) Force required to produce a unit elongation of the spring
(d) Square of the stiffness of the spring
IES-22(ii). A bumper consisting of two helical springs of circular section brings to rest a
railway wagon of mass 1500 kg and moving at 1 m/s. While doing so, the springs
are compressed by 150 mm. Then, the maximum force on each spring (assuming
gradually increasing load) is: [IES-2013]
(a) 2500 N (b) 5000 N (c) 7500 N (d) 3000 N

Close-coiled helical spring with axial load
IES-23. Under axial load, each section of a close-coiled helical spring is subjected to
(a) Tensile stress and shear stress due to load [IES-2003]
(b) Compressive stress and shear stress due to torque
(c) Tensile stress and shear stress due to torque
(d) Torsional and direct shear stresses
IES-24. When a weight of 100 N falls on a spring of stiffness 1 kN/m from a height of 2
m, the deflection caused in the first fall is: [IES-2000]
(a) Equal to 0.1 m (b) Between 0.1 and 0.2 m
(c) Equal to 0.2 m (d) More than 0.2 m
Subjected to 'Axial twist'

IES-25. A closed coil helical spring of mean coil diameter 'D' and made from a wire of
diameter 'd' is subjected to a torque 'T' about the axis of the spring. What is the
maximum stress developed in the spring wire? [IES-2008]
8T 16T 32T 64T
(a) 3 (b) 3 (c) 3 (d) 3
πd πd πd πd
Springs in Series
IES-26. When a helical compression spring is cut into two equal halves, the stiffness of
each of the result in springs will be: [IES-2002; IAS-2002]
(a) Unaltered (b) Double (c) One-half (d) One-fourth
IES-27. If a compression coil spring is cut into two equal parts and the parts are then
used in parallel, the ratio of the spring rate to its initial value will be: [IES-1999]
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) Indeterminable for want of sufficient data
Springs in Parallel
IES-28. The equivalent spring stiffness for the
system shown in the given figure (S is
the spring stiffness of each of the three
springs) is:
(a) S/2 (b) S/3
(c) 2S/3 (d) S
[IES-1997; IAS-2001]
IES-29. Two coiled springs, each having stiffness K, are placed in parallel. The stiffness
of the combination will be: [IES-2000]
K K
( a ) 4K ( b ) 2K (c) (d)
2 4
IES-30. A mass is suspended at the bottom of two springs in series having stiffness 10
N/mm and 5 N/mm. The equivalent spring stiffness of the two springs is nearly
[IES-2000]
(a) 0.3 N/mm (b) 3.3 N/mm (c) 5 N/mm (d) 15 N/mm

IES-31. Figure given above shows a spring-
mass system where the mass m is
fixed in between two springs of
stiffness S1 and S2. What is the
equivalent spring stiffness?
(a) S1- S2 (b) S1+ S2
(c) (S1+ S2)/ S1 S2 (d) (S1- S2)/

S1 S2
[IES-2005]
IES-32. Two identical springs
labelled as 1 and 2 are
arranged in series and
subjected to force F as
shown in the given
figure.
Assume that each spring constant is K. The strain energy stored in spring 1 is:
[IES-2001]
F2 F2 F2 F2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2K 4K 8K 16 K
IES-33. What is the equivalent stiffness (i.e. spring
constant) of the system shown in the given
figure?
(a) 24 N/mm (b) 16 N/mm
(c) 4 N/mm (d) 5.3 N/mm
[IES-1997]
Helical spring
IAS-1. Assertion (A): Concentric cylindrical helical springs which are used to have
greater spring force in a limited space is wound in opposite directions.
Reason (R): Winding in opposite directions prevents locking of the two coils in
case of misalignment or buckling. [IAS-1996]
IAS-2. An open-coiled helical spring of mean diameter D, number of coils N and wire
diameter d is subjected to an axial force' P. The wire of the spring is subject to:
[IAS-1995]
(a) direct shear only (b) combined shear and bending only
(c) combined shear, bending and twisting (d) combined shear and twisting only

IAS-3. Assertion (A): Two concentric helical springs used to provide greater spring
force are wound in opposite directions. [IES-1995; IAS-2004]
Reason (R): The winding in opposite directions in the case of helical springs
prevents buckling.
IAS-4. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IES-1996; 2007; IAS-1997]
If a helical spring is halved in length, its spring stiffness
(a) Remains same (b) Halves (c) Doubles (d) Triples
IAS-5. A closed coil helical spring has 15 coils. If five coils of this spring are removed
by cutting, the stiffness of the modified spring will: [IAS-2004]
(a) Increase to 2.5 times (b) Increase to 1.5 times
(c) Reduce to 0.66 times (d) Remain unaffected
IAS-6. A close-coiled helical spring has wire diameter 10 mm and spring index 5. If the
spring contains 10 turns, then the length of the spring wire would be: [IAS-2000]
(a) 100 mm (b) 157 mm (c) 500 mm (d) 1570 mm
IAS-7. Consider the following types of stresses: [IAS-1996]

1. torsional shear 2. Transverse direct shear 3. Bending stress
The stresses, that are produced in the wire of a close-coiled helical spring
subjected to an axial load, would include
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
IAS-8. Two close-coiled springs are subjected to the same axial force. If the second
spring has four times the coil diameter, double the wire diameter and double
the number of coils of the first spring, then the ratio of deflection of the second
spring to that of the first will be: [IAS-1998]
1
(a) 8 (b) 2 (c) (d) 1/16
2
IAS-9. A block of weight 2 N falls from a height of 1m on the top of a spring· If the
spring gets compressed by 0.1 m to bring the weight momentarily to rest, then
the spring constant would be: [IAS-2000]
(a) 50 N/m (b) 100 N/m (c) 200N/m (d) 400N/m
IAS-10. The springs of a chest expander are 60 cm long when unstretched. Their
stiffness is 10 N/mm. The work done in stretching them to 100 cm is: [IAS-1996]
(a) 600 Nm (b) 800 Nm (c) 1000 Nm (d) 1600 Nm
IAS-11. A spring of stiffness 'k' is extended from a displacement x1 to a displacement x2

the work done by the spring is: [IAS-1999]
2
1 2 1 2 1 1 ⎛ x + x2 ⎞
(a) k x1 − k x2 (b) k ( x1 − x2 ) (c) k ( x1 + x2 )
2 2
(d) k ⎜ 1 ⎟
2 2 2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
IAS-12. A spring of stiffness 1000 N/m is stretched initially by 10 cm from the

undeformed position. The work required to stretch it by another 10 cm is:
[IAS-1995]
(a) 5 Nm (b) 7 Nm (c) 10 Nm (d) 15 Nm.
Springs in Series
IAS-13. When a helical compression spring is cut into two equal halves, the stiffness of
each of the result in springs will be: [IES-2002; IAS-2002]
(a) Unaltered (b) Double (c) One-half (d) One-fourth

IAS-14. The length of the chest-expander spring when it is un-stretched, is 0.6 m and its
stiffness is 10 N/mm. The work done in stretching it to 1m will be: [IAS-2001]
(a) 800 J (b) 1600 J (c) 3200 J (d) 6400 J
Springs in Parallel
IAS-15. The equivalent spring stiffness for the
system shown in the given figure (S is
the spring stiffness of each of the three
springs) is:
(a) S/2 (b) S/3
(c) 2S/3 (d) S
[IES-1997; IAS-2001]
IAS-16. Two identical springs, each of stiffness K, are

assembled as shown in the given figure. The
combined stiffness of the assembly is:
(a) K2 (b) 2K
(c) K (d) (1/2)K
[IAS-1998]
Flat spiral Spring

IAS-17. Mach List-I (Type of spring) with List-II (Application) and select the correct
answer: [IAS-2000]
List-I List-II
A. Leaf/Helical springs 1. Automobiles/Railways coachers
B. Spiral springs 2. Shearing machines
C. Belleville springs 3. Watches
Codes: A B C A B C
(a) 1 2 3 (b) 1 3 2
(c) 3 1 2 (d) 2 3 1
Semi-elliptical spring
IAS-18. The ends of the leaves of a semi-elliptical leaf spring are made triangular in
plain in order to: [IAS 1994]
(a) Obtain variable I in each leaf
(b) Permit each leaf to act as a overhanging beam
(c) Have variable bending moment in each leaf
(d) Make Mil constant throughout the length of the leaf.

OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
8PD3N
GATE-1. Ans. (a) δ =
G.d4
G.d 4 P 1
GATE-2. Ans. (d) Spring constant (K) = = or K ∝
δ 8D 3 N D3
3 3
K 2 ⎛ D1 ⎞ ⎛ 20 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =8
K1 ⎜⎝ D2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 10 ⎠
P G.d 4 d4
GATE-3. Ans. (c) Spring constant (K) = = Therefore k ∞
δ 8D 3 N n
GATE-4. Ans. (c) Inclined it to a very low angle, dθ

For equilibrium taking moment about ‘hinge’
⎛l ⎞ W 300
W × ⎜ dθ ⎟ − k ( ldθ ) × l = 0 or k = = = 500N / m
⎝2 ⎠ 2l 2 × 0.3
GATE-5. Ans. (b) Initial length = lo m and stiffness = k N/m
2 × g = k ( lo − 0.2 )
2 × g + 20 × g = k ( lo − 0.1)
Just solve the above equations.
GATE-6. Ans. (d) When a spring is cut into two, no. of coils gets halved.
∴ Stiffness of each half gets doubled.
When these are connected in parallel, stiffness = 2k + 2k = 4k
Therefore deflection will be ¼ times. = 2.5 mm
IES
8PD3N
IES-1. Ans. (a) δ =
Gd4
D 1
T = F× ; U= Tθ
2 2
FD TL
Τ= ; θ=
2 GJ
L = π DN
2
1 ⎛ FD ⎞ ⎛ L ⎞ 4F2D3N
U= =
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ GJ ⎟⎠ Gd4
∂U 8FD3N
δ= =
∂F Gd4
IES-1(i). Ans. (b)
8
=
IES-2. Ans. (b)
IES-3. Ans. (c) It is for preventing locking not for buckling.
Gd4 1
IES-4. Ans. (c) Stiffness of sprin ( k ) = so k ∞ andn wiil behalf
8D3n n
IES-4(i). Ans. (c)
1 2
IES-5. Ans. (b) mg(h + x) = kx
2

8PD
IES-6. Ans. (c) Use τ = k s
π d3
8PD
IES-7. Ans. (b) Use τ = k s it is independent of number of turn
π d3
IES-8. Ans. (c)
Gd 4 Gd 4 k
IES-9. Ans. (a) Stiffness (k) = 3
; Second spring,stiffness (k 2 ) = =
64 R N 64 ( 2 R ) ×
3 N 4
2
IES-10. Ans. (a)
IES-11. Ans. (a)
IES-12. Ans. (b) Stiffness of sprin ( k ) = =

(
Gd4 10 N / cm × 2 cm
7 2 4 4
) (
= 100N / cm
)
8D3n (
8 × 203 cm3 × 25 )
IES-13. Ans. (b)
IES-14. Ans. (c)
IES-15. Ans. (a)
IES-16. Ans. (a)
3
W R 3 ⎛ 20 ⎞ 1 Wi W 8
IES-17. Ans. (d) o = i3 = ⎜ ⎟ = ; Wo = So Wi + i = P or Wi = P
Wi Ro ⎝ 40 ⎠ 8 8 8 9
Gd 4
IES-18. Ans. (c) Stiffness of spring (k) = Where G and d is same
64 R3n
k 1 1 1
Therefore = 3
= 3
=
k2 ⎛ R ⎞ ⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ 75 ⎞ ⎛ 8 ⎞ 1.56
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 60 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 10 ⎟⎠
⎝ R2 ⎠ ⎝ n2 ⎠
IES-18a. Ans. (a) But most of the students think answer will be (b). If your calculated answer is
also (b) then read the question again and see “Two equal lengths of steel wires” is
n D 75
written that means number of turns are different. And L = π D1n1 = π D2 n2 ∴ 2 = 1 =
n1 D2 60
Gd 4
Stiffness of spring (S) = Where G and d is same
64 R3 n
3 3 3 2
S1 ⎛ R2 ⎞ ⎛ n2 ⎞ ⎛ D2 ⎞ ⎛ n2 ⎞ ⎛ 60 ⎞ ⎛ 75 ⎞ ⎛ 60 ⎞
Therefore =⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟
S 2 ⎝ R1 ⎠ ⎝ n1 ⎠ ⎝ D1 ⎠ ⎝ n1 ⎠ ⎝ 75 ⎠ ⎝ 60 ⎠ ⎝ 75 ⎠
Gd4 1 k n 25
IES-19. Ans. (b) Stiffness of spring ( k ) = 3
∴ kα or 2 = 1 = = 1.25
8D n n k1 n2 20
Gd4
IES-20. Ans. (a) Stiffness of spring ( k ) =
8D3n
IES-21. Ans. (a)
IES-22. Ans. (a) Same as [IES-1992]

IES-22(i). Ans. (a)

IES-22(ii). Ans. (b)
IES-23. Ans. (d)
1 2
IES-24. Ans. (d) use mg (h + x ) = kx
2
IES-25. Ans. (b)
IES-26. Ans. (b)
IES-27. Ans. (c) When a spring is cut into two, no. of coils gets halved.
∴ Stiffness of each half gets doubled.
When these are connected in parallel, stiffness = 2k + 2k = 4k
1 1 1 2
IES-28. Ans. (c) = + or Se = S
Se 2 S S 3
IES-29. Ans. (b) W = kδ = k 1δ + k 2δ
1 1 1 10
IES-30. Ans. (b) = + or Se =
Se 10 5 3

IES-31. Ans. (b)
2
1 2 1 ⎛ F ⎞
IES-32. Ans. (c) The strain energy stored per spring = k .x / 2 = × keq × ⎜ ⎟⎟ / 2 and here total
2 2 ⎜k
⎝ eq ⎠
force ‘F’ is supported by both the spring 1 and 2 therefore keq = k + k =2k
IES-33. Ans. (a) Stiffness K1 of 10 coils spring = 8 N/mm
∴ Stiffness K2 of 5 coils spring = 16 N/mm
Though it looks like in series but they are in parallel combination. They are not subjected
to same force. Equivalent stiffness (k) = k1 + k2 = 24 N/mm
IAS
IAS-1. Ans. (a)
IAS-2. Ans. (d)
IAS-3. Ans. (c) It is for preventing locking not for buckling.
Gd4 1
IAS-4. Ans. (c) Stiffness of sprin ( k ) = so k ∞ andn wiil behalf
8D3n n
Gd 4 1 K N 15
IAS-5. Ans. (b) K= or K α or 2 = 1 = = 1.5
8 D3 N N K1 N 2 10
IAS-6. Ans. (d) l = π Dn = π ( cd ) n = π × ( 5 ×10 ) × 10 = 1570 mm
IAS-7. Ans. (b)
⎛ D2 ⎞ ⎛ N2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
8PD N 3
δ 2 ⎝ D1 ⎠ ⎝ N1 ⎠ 43 × 2
IAS-8. Ans. (a) δ = or = = =8
Gd4 δ1 ⎛ d2 ⎞
4
24
⎜ ⎟
⎝ d1 ⎠
IAS-9. Ans. (d) Kinetic energy of block = potential energy of spring
1 2 2Wh 2 × 2 × 1
or W × h = k .x or k = 2 = N / m = 400 N / m
2 x 0.12
⎧ ⎫
1 1 ⎪ 10N ⎪⎪
⎪
⎬ × {1 − 0.6} m = 800Nm
2
IAS-10. Ans. (b) E = kx 2 = × ⎨ 2
2 2 ⎪⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎪
m
⎪⎩ ⎜⎝ 1000 ⎟⎠ ⎪⎭
1 1
IAS-11. Ans. (a) Work done by the spring is = k x12 − k x 22
2 2
1 1
IAS-12. Ans. (d) E = k ( x 22 − x12 ) = × 1000 × {0.202 − 0.102 } = 15Nm
2 2
IAS-13. Ans. (b)
IAS-14. Ans. (a)
1 1 ⎛ 10N ⎞ 1 10 N
⎟ × (1 − 0.6 ) m = × 1
2
Work done = k.x 2 = × ⎜ 2
× 0.42 m 2 = 800 J
2 2 ⎝ 1mm ⎠ 2 ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟m
⎝ 1000 ⎠

1 1 1 2
IAS-15. Ans. (c) = + or Se = S
Se 2 S S 3
IAS-16. Ans. (b) Effective stiffness = 2K. Due to applied force one spring will be under tension and
another one under compression so total resistance force will double.
IAS-17. Ans. (b)
IAS-18. Ans. (d) The ends of the leaves of a semi-elliptical leaf spring are made rectangular in plan
in order to make M/I constant throughout the length of the leaf.

Question: A close-coiled helical spring has coil diameter D, wire diameter d and number
of turn n. The spring material has a shearing modulus G. Derive an
expression for the stiffness k of the spring.
Answer: The work done by the
axial force 'P' is
converted into strain
energy and stored in
the spring.
U=(average torque)
×(angular displacement)
T
= ×θ
2
TL
From the figure we get, θ =
GJ
PD
Torque (T)=
2
length of wire (L)=πDn
πd 4
Polar m om ent of Inertia(J)=
32
4P 2D 3 n
Therefore U=
Gd 4
According to Castigliano's theorem, the displacement corresponding to force P is
obtained by partially differentiating strain energy with respect to that force.
∂U ∂ ⎡⎢ 4 p 2 D3n ⎤⎥ 8PD3n
Therefore δ = = =
∂P ∂P ⎢⎣ Gd 4 ⎥⎦ Gd 4
P Gd 4
So Spring stiffness, (k ) = =
δ 8D3n

Q. A stiff bar of negligible weight transfers a load P to a combination of three
helical springs arranged in parallel as shown in the above figure. The springs
are made up of the same material and out of rods of equal diameters. They are
of same free length before loading. The number of coils in those three springs
are 10, 12 and 15 respectively, while the mean coil diameters are in ratio of 1 :
1.2 : 1.4 respectively. Find the distance ‘x’ as shown in figure, such that the stiff
bar remains horizontal after the application of load P. [10 Marks]
P
x
l l
Ans. Same free length of spring before loading
The number of coils in the spring 1,2 and 3 is 10, 12 and 15 mean diameter of spring 1,2
and 3 in the ratio of 1 : 1.2 : 1.4 Find out distance x so that rod remains horizontal
after loading.
Since the rod is rigid and remains horizontal after the load p is applied therefore the
deflection of each spring will be same
δ1 = δ2 = δ3 = δ (say)
Spring are made of same material and out of the rods of equal diameter
G1 = G2 = G3 = G and d1 = d 2 = d3 = d
Load in spring 1
Gd4 δ Gd 4 δ Gd 4 δ
P1 = = = .....(1)
64R13n1 64R13 × 10 640R13
Load in spring 2
Gd 4 δ Gd 4 δ Gd 4 δ
P2 = = = .....(2)
64 × R32n2 64 × (1.2)3 × 12R13 1327.10R13
Load in spring 3
Gd 4 δ Gd 4 δ Gd 4 δ
P3 = = = .....(3)
64R33n3 64 × (1.4)3 × 15R13 2634.2R13
From eqn (1) & (2)
640
P2 = P1
1327.1
P2 = 0.482 P1

n
from eq (1) & (3)
640
P3 = P1 = 0.2430 P1
2634.2
Taking moment about the line of action P1
P2 × L + P3 × 2L = P.x
0.4823 P1L + 0.2430 P1 × 2L = P.x.
x=
( 0.4823 + 0.486 ) P1L ........(4)
P
total load in the rod is
P=P1 +P2 +P3
P = P1 + .4823P1 + 0.2430P1
P = 1.725 P1 ......(5)
Equation (4) & (5)
0.9683L 0.9683L
x= = = 0.5613 L
1.725 P1 / P1 1.725
x = 0.5613 L

Question: A close-coiled helical spring has coil diameter to wire diameter ratio of 6. The
spring deflects 3 cm under an axial load of 500N and the maximum shear
stress is not to exceed 300 MPa. Find the diameter and the length of the
spring wire required. Shearing modulus of wire material = 80 GPa.
P Gd 4
Answer: Stiffness, K = =
δ 8D3 n
500 (80 ×10 )× d
9
D
or , = [given c= = 6]
0.03 8 × 63 × n d
or , d = 3.6 ×10−4 n −−− (i )
For static loading correcting factor(k)
⎛ 0.5 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 0.5 ⎞⎟
k=⎜⎜1+ ⎟
⎟ = ⎜⎜1+ ⎟ = 1.0833
⎝⎜ c ⎠ ⎝⎜ 6 ⎠⎟
8PD
We know that (τ ) =k
πd3
8kPC ⎡ D ⎤
d2 = ⎢ ∵ C = = 6⎥
πτ ⎣⎢ d ⎥⎦
1.0833 × 8 × 500 × 6
d= 6
= 5.252×10−3 m = 5.252 mm
π × 300 ×10
So D=cd=6×5.252mm=31.513mm
From, equation (i) n=14.59 15
Now length of spring wire(L) =πDn =π× 31.513×15 mm =1.485 m

Question: A coil spring of stiffness 'k' is cut to two halves and these two springs are
assembled in parallel to support a heavy machine. What is the combined
stiffness provided by these two springs in the modified arrangement?
Answer: When it cut to two halves stiffness of
each half will be 2k. Springs in parallel.
Total load will be shared so
Total load = W+W
or δ.K eq = δ.(2k ) + δ.(2k )
or K eq = 4k.

Question: A helical spring B is placed inside the coils of a second helical spring A ,
having the same number of coils and free axial length and of same material.
The two springs are compressed by an axial load of 210 N which is shared
between them. The mean coil diameters of A and B are 90 mm and 60 mm and
the wire diameters are 12 mm and 7 mm respectively. Calculate the load
shared by individual springs and the maximum stress in each spring.
Gd4
Answer: The stiffness of the spring (k) =
8D 3 N
Here load shared the springs are arranged in parallel
Equivalent stiffness(k e )=k A +k B
4 3
⎛d ⎞ ⎛ DB ⎞⎟ 4 3
K
Hear A = ⎜⎜⎜ A ⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ [As N = N ] = ⎜⎛12 ⎞⎟⎟ ×⎛⎜ 60 ⎞⎟⎟ = 2.559
⎟ ⎜ ⎜
KB ⎝⎜ dB ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜⎜ D ⎠⎟
A
A N
⎝⎜ 7 ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 90 ⎠⎟
Total load 210 N
Let total deflection is 'x' m x= =
Equivalet stiffness K A + K B
210 210
Load shared by spring 'A'(FA ) = K A × x = = =151N
⎛ k B ⎞⎟ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜⎜1 + ⎟
⎜⎝ k ⎠⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 2.559 ⎠⎟
A
Load shared by spring 'A'(FB ) = K B × x = (210 −151) = 59 N

⎛ 0.5 ⎞⎟ 8 PD
For static load: τ = ⎜⎜1+
⎜⎝ C ⎠⎟⎟ πd 3
⎧⎪ ⎫⎪
⎪⎪ ⎪
⎪⎪ 0.5 ⎪⎪⎪ 8×151× 0.090
(τ A )max = ⎨1 + ⎛ ⎞⎬ = 21.362 MPa
⎪⎪ ⎜ 90 ⎟⎪⎪ π ×(0.012)3
⎪⎪ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎪⎪
⎩⎪ ⎝ 12 ⎠⎭⎪
⎛ ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎜ 0.5 ⎟⎟⎟ 8×59× 0.060
(τ B )max = ⎜⎜1 + ⎟ = 27.816 MPa
⎜⎜ ⎛⎜ 60 ⎞⎟⎟⎟⎟ π ×(0.007)
3
⎜⎝ ⎜⎜⎝ 7 ⎠⎟⎟⎠⎟⎟

Question: A close-coiled spring has mean diameter of 75 mm and spring constant of 90
kN/m. It has 8 coils. What is the suitable diameter of the spring wire if
maximum shear stress is not to exceed 250 MN/m2? Modulus of rigidity of the
spring wire material is 80 GN/m2. What is the maximum axial load the spring
can carry?
Answer: Given D = 75mm; k = 80kN / m; n = 8
τ = 250MN / m2 ; G = 80GN / m2 = 80 × 109 N / m2
Diameter of the spring wire, d:
π
T =τ × d3 ( where T = P × R )
16
π
We know, (
P × 0.0375 = 250 × 106 × ) 16
d3 − − − (i)
Also P = kδ
or P = 80 × 103 × δ − − − ( ii )
Using the relation:
8PD3n 8P × ( 0.075 ) × 8
3
P
δ = = = 33.75 × 10−14 × 4
Gd4
80 × 10 × d
9 4
d
Substituting for δ in equation(ii), we get
P
P = 80 × 103 × 33.75 × 10−14 × or d = 0.0128m or 12.8mm
d4
Maximum axial load the spring can carry P:
From equation (i), we get
π
(
P × 0.0375 = 250 × 106 × ) 16
× ( 0.0128 ) ;
3
∴ P = 2745.2N = 2.7452kN

13. Theories of Column
1. Introduction
• Strut: A member of structure which carries an axial compressive load.
• Column: If the strut is vertical it is known as column.
• A long, slender column becomes unstable when its axial compressive load reaches a value
called the critical buckling load.
• If a beam element is under a compressive load and its length is an order of magnitude larger
than either of its other dimensions such a beam is called a columns.
• Due to its size its axial displacement is going to be very small compared to its lateral
deflection called buckling.
• Buckling does not vary linearly with load it occurs suddenly and is therefore dangerous
• Slenderness Ratio: The ratio between the length and least radius of gyration.
• Elastic Buckling: Buckling with no permanent deformation.
• Euler buckling is only valid for long, slender objects in the elastic region.
• For short columns, a different set of equations must be used.
2. Which is the critical load?

• At this value the structure is in equilibrium regardless of the magnitude of the angle
(provided it stays small)
• Critical load is the only load for which the structure will be in equilibrium in the disturbed
position
• At this value, restoring effect of the moment in the spring matches the buckling effect of the
axial load represents the boundary between the stable and unstable conditions.
• If the axial load is less than Pcr the effect of the moment in the spring dominates and the
structure returns to the vertical position after a small disturbance – stable condition.
• If the axial load is larger than Pcr the effect of the axial force predominates and the structure
buckles – unstable condition.
• Because of the large deflection caused by buckling, the least moment of inertia I can be
expressed as, I = Ak2
• Where: A is the cross sectional area and r is the radius of gyration of the cross sectional area,
Imin
i.e. kmin =
A

Chapter-13 Theories of Column S K Mondal’s
• Note that the smallest radius of gyration of the column, i.e. the least moment of inertia I
should be taken in order to find the critical stress. l/ k is called the slenderness ratio, it is a
measure of the column's flexibility.
3. Euler’s Critical Load for Long Column

Assumptions:
(i) The column is perfectly straight and of uniform cross-section
(ii) The material is homogenous and isotropic
(iii) The material behaves elastically
(iv) The load is perfectly axial and passes through the centroid of the column section.
(v) The weight of the column is neglected.
π 2 EI
Pcr = 2
Euler’s critical load, le
Where e=Equivalent length of column (1st mode of bending)
4. Remember the following table

Case Diagram Pcr Equivalent
length(le)
Both ends hinged/pinned π 2 EI

2
Both ends fixed 4π 2 EI

2
2
One end fixed & other end free π 2 EI 2

4 2

C
Chapter-13 Theorie
es of Colum
mn S K Mo
ondal’s
O end fixed & other en

One nd pinned
/h
hinged 2
5 Slenderrness Rattio of Collumn

5.
π 2 EI
Pcr = 2
wheere I=A k 2minn
Le
π 2 EA
= 2
k min = leasst radius of gyration
⎛ e ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ kmin ⎠
∴ Sleenderness Ratio
R = e
kmin
6 Rankine
6. e’s Cripp
pling Load
d
R
Rankine theoory is applieed to both
• Shortt strut /column (valid up
pto SR-40)
• Long
g Column (Valid upto SR
R 120)
• Slend
derness ratioo
π2 E Pcr
e
= (σ e = critiical stress)=
=
k σe A
• Cripp
pling Load , P
σc A
• P= 2
⎛ ⎞
1+ K '⎜ e ⎟
⎝k ⎠

σ
where k' = Rankine constant = 2 c depends on material & end conditions
π E
σ c = crushing stress
• For steel columns
1
K’ = for both ends fixed
25000
1
= for one end fixed & other hinged 20 ≤ e
≤ 100
12500 k
7. Other formulas for crippling load (P)

• Gordon’s formula,
Aσ c
P= 2
b = a constant, d = least diameter or breadth of bar
⎛ ⎞
1+ b⎜ e ⎟
⎝d ⎠
• Johnson Straight line formula,
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
P = σ c A ⎢1 − c ⎜ e ⎟ ⎥ c = a constant depending on material.
⎣ ⎝ k ⎠⎦
• Johnson parabolic formulae :
where the value of index ‘b' depends on the end conditions.
• Fiddler’s formula,
A⎡ ⎤
( )
2
P= ( σc + σe ) − σc + σe − 2cσ c σ e ⎥
C ⎢⎣ ⎦
π2 E
where, σ e = 2
⎛ ⎞
⎜ e
k ⎟⎠
⎝
8. Eccentrically Loaded Columns

• Secant formula
P ⎡ ey c ⎛ e ⎞ P ⎤ P
P
σ m ax = ⎢1 + 2 sec ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
A ⎣ k ⎝ 2k ⎠ EA ⎦ u
P P
Where σ max =maximum compressive stress
M
M
P = load

A = Area of c/s
y c = Distance of the outermost fiber in compression from the NA
e = Eccentricity of the load
le = Equivalent length
I
k = Radius of gyration =
A
E = Modulus of elasticity of the material
⎛ P ⎞
M = P.e.Sec ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟
⎝ 2k EA ⎠
Where M = Moment introduced.
• Prof. Perry’s Formula
⎛ σ max ⎞⎛ σ d ⎞ e1 yc
⎜ − 1⎟⎜ 1 − ⎟= 2
⎝ σd ⎠⎝ σ e ⎠ k
Where σ max = maximum compressive stress
P Load
σd = =
A c/s area
P Euler's load
σe = e =
A c / s area
π 2 EI
pe = Euler ' s load = 2
e
e ' = Versine at mid-length of column due to initial curvature

e = Eccentricity of the load
e1 = e '+ 1.2e
yc = distance of outer most fiber in compression form the NA
k = Radius of gyration
If σ max is allowed to go up to σ f (permssible stress)
e1 yc
Then, η=
k2
2
σ f + σ e (1 + η ) ⎧ σ + σ e (1 + η ) ⎫
σd = − ⎨ f ⎬ − σeσf
2 ⎩ 2 ⎭
• Perry-Robertson Formula

⎛ e⎞
η = 0.003 ⎜ ⎟
⎝k ⎠
⎛ ⎞ ⎧ e ⎫
σ f + σ e ⎜1 + 0.003 e ⎟
⎝ k ⎠ ⎪ σ f + σ e (1 + 0.003 k ⎪
σd = − ⎨ ⎬ − σeσ f
2 ⎪ 2 ⎪
⎩ ⎭
9. ISI’s Formula for Columns and Struts
•
e
For =0 to 160
k
σy
fos
Pc =
⎛ fos × pc ' ⎞
1 + 0.2sec ⎜ e ⎟
⎝k 4E ⎠
Where, Pc = Permissible axial compressive stress
Pc’ = A value obtained from above Secant formula
σ y = Guaranteed minimum yield stress = 2600 kg/cm2 for mild steel
fos = factor of safety = 1.68
le
= Slenderness ratio
k
E = Modulus of elasticity = 2.045 × 10 kg / cm for mild steel
6 2
le
• For > 160
k

Strength of Column
GATE-1. The rod PQ of length L and with
flexural rigidity EI is hinged at
both ends. For what minimum
force F is it expected to buckle?
π 2 EI 2π 2EI
(a) (b)
L2 L2
π 2 EI π 2 EI
(c) (b)
2L2 2L2
[GATE-2008]
Equivalent Length
GATE-2. The ratio of Euler's buckling loads of columns with the same parameters
having (i) both ends fixed, and (ii) both ends hinged is:
[GATE-1998; 2002; IES-2001, GATE-2012]
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 8
Euler's Theory (For long column)

GATE-3. A pin-ended column of length L, modulus of elasticity E and second moment of
the cross-sectional area I is loaded centrically by a compressive load P. The
critical buckling load (Pcr) is given by: [GATE-2006]
EI π 2 EI π EI π 2 EI
(a) Pcr = (b) Pcr = (c) Pcr = (d) Pcr =
π 2 L2 3L2 L2 L2
GATE-4. What is the expression for the crippling load for a column of length ‘l’ with one
end fixed and other end free? [IES-2006; GATE-1994]
2π 2 EI π 2 EI 4π 2 EI π 2 EI
(a) P = (b) P = (c) P = (d) P =
l2 4l 2 l2 l2
GATE-4A. The piston rod of diameter 20 mm and length 700 mm in a hydraulic cylinder is
subjected to a compressive force of 10 KN due to the internal pressure. The end
conditions for the rod may be assumed as guided at the piston end and hinged
at the other end. The Young’s modulus is 200 GPa. The factor of safety for the
piston rod is
(a) 0.68 (b) 2.75 (c) 5.62 (d) 11.0 [GATE-2007]
GATE-4(ii)A steel column, pinned at both ends, has a buckling load of 200 kN. If the
column is restrained against lateral movement at its mid-height, its buckling
load will be [CE: GATE-2007]
(a) 200 kN (b) 283 kN (c) 400 kN (d) 800 kN

GATE-5. A long structural column (length = L) with both ends hinged is acted upon by
an axial compressive load P. The differential equation governing the bending
of column is given by:
d2 y
EI = −Py [CE: GATE-2003]
dx 2
where y is the structural lateral deflection and EI is the flexural rigidity. The
first critical load on column responsible for its buckling is given by
π2 EI 2π2 EI
( a) ( b)
L2 L2
2π2 EI 4π2 EI
(c) ( d)
L2 L2
GATE-6. A thin-walled long cylindrical tank of inside radius r is subjected
simultaneously to internal gas pressure p and axial compressive force F at its
ends. In order to produce ‘pure shear’ state of stress in the wall of the cylinder,
F should be equal to
(a) pπr 2 (b) 2pπr 2 [CE: GATE-2006]
2 2
(c) 3pπr (d) 4 pπr
GATE-7. Cross-section of a column consisting of two steel strips, each of thickness t and width b is
shown in the figure below. The critical loads of the column with perfect bond and without
P
bond between the strips are P and P0 respectively. The ratio is [CE: GATE-2008]
P0
( a) 2 ( b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 8
GATE-8. A rigid bar GH of length L is supported by a hinge and a spring of stiffness K as

shown in the figure below. The buckling load, Pcr , for the bar will be
P K
H
G
[CE: GATE-2008]
(a) 0.5 KL (b) 0.8 KL (c) 1.0 KL (d) 1.2 KL
GATE-9. This sketch shows a column with a pin at the base and rollers at the top. It is
subjected to an axial force P and a moment M at mid height. The reaction(s) at
R is/are

O
h
2 P
h
2
[CE: GATE-2012]
P
(a) a-vertical force equal to P (b) a vertical force equal to
2
M
(c) a vertical force equal to P and a horizontal force equal to
h
P M
(d) a vertical force equal to and a horizontal force equal to
2 h
Classification of Column
IES-1. A structural member subjected to an axial compressive force is called
[IES-2008]
(a) Beam (b) Column (c) Frame (d) Strut
IES-2. Which one of the following loadings is considered for design of axles?
(a) Bending moment only [IES-1995]
(b) Twisting moment only
(c) Combined bending moment and torsion
(d) Combined action of bending moment, twisting moment and axial thrust.
IES-2a An axle is a machine part that is subjected to: [IES-2011]

(a) Transverse loads and bending moment (b) Twisting moment only
(c) Twisting moment an axial load (d) Bending moment and axial load
IES-3. The curve ABC is the Euler's

curve for stability of column. The
horizontal line DEF is the
strength limit. With reference to
this figure Match List-I with List-
II and select the correct answer
using the codes given below the
lists:
List-I List-II
(Regions) (Column specification)
A. R1 1. Long, stable
B. R2 2. Short
C. R3 3. Medium
D. R4 4. Long, unstable
[IES-1997]

(a) 2 4 3 1 (b) 2 3 1 4
(c) 1 2 4 3 (d) 2 1 3 4
IES-4. Mach List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given
List-I List-II
A. Polar moment of inertia of section 1. Thin cylindrical shell
B. Buckling 2. Torsion of shafts
C. Neutral axis 3. Columns
D. Hoop stress 4. Bending of beams
(a) 3 2 1 4 (b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 3 2 4 1 (d) 2 3 1 4
Strength of Column
IES-5. Slenderness ratio of a column is defined as the ratio of its length to its
(a) Least radius of gyration (b) Least lateral dimension [IES-2003]
(c) Maximum lateral dimension (d) Maximum radius of gyration
IES-6. Assertion (A): A long column of square cross section has greater buckling
stability than a similar column of circular cross-section of same length, same
material and same area of cross-section with same end conditions.
Reason (R): A circular cross-section has a smaller second moment of area than
a square cross-section of same area. [IES-1999; IES-1996]
Equivalent Length
IES-6(i). The end conditions of a column for which length of column is equal to the
equivalent length are [IES-2013]
(a) Both the ends are hinged (b) Both the ends are fixed
(c) One end fixed and other end free (d) One end fixed and other end hinged
IES-7. Four columns of same material and same length are of rectangular cross-
section of same breadth b. The depth of the cross-section and the end
conditions are, however different are given as follows: [IES-2004]
Column Depth End conditions
1 0.6 b Fixed-Fixed
2 0.8 b Fixed-hinged
3 1.0 b Hinged-Hinged
4 2.6 b Fixed-Free
Which of the above columns Euler buckling load maximum?
(a) Column 1 (b) Column 2 (c) Column 3 (d) Column 4
IES-8. Match List-I (End conditions of columns) with List-II (Equivalent length in
terms of length of hinged-hinged column) and select the correct answer using
the codes given below the Lists: [IES-2000]
List-I List-II
A. Both ends hinged 1. L
B. One end fixed and other end free 2. L/ 2
C. One end fixed and the other pin-pointed 3. 2L
D. Both ends fixed 4. L/2
(a) 1 3 4 2 (b) 1 3 2 4
(c) 3 1 2 4 (d) 3 1 4 2
IES-9. The ratio of Euler's buckling loads of columns with the same parameters
having (i) both ends fixed, and (ii) both ends hinged is:

[GATE-1998; 2002; IES-2001]
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 8

IES-10. What is the expression for the crippling load for a column of length ‘l’ with one
end fixed and other end free? [IES-2006; GATE-1994]
2π 2 EI π 2 EI 4π 2 EI π 2 EI
(a) P= (b) P= (c) P= (d) P=
l2 4l 2 l2 l2
IES-10(i). The buckling load for a column hinged at both ends is 10 kN. If the ends are
fixed, the buckling load changes to [IES-2012]
(a) 40 kN (b) 2.5 kN (c) 5 kN (d) 20 kN
IES-10(ii). For the case of a slender column of length L and flexural rigidity EI built in at
its base and free at the top, the Euler’s critical buckling load is [IES-2012]
4 2
4
IES-11. Euler's formula gives 5 to 10% error in crippling load as compared to

experimental results in practice because: [IES-1998]
(a) Effect of direct stress is neglected
(b) Pin joints are not free from friction
(c) The assumptions made in using the formula are not met in practice
(d) The material does not behave in an ideal elastic way in tension and compression
IES-12. Euler's formula can be used for obtaining crippling load for a M.S. column with
hinged ends.
l
Which one of the following conditions for the slenderness ratio is to be
k
satisfied? [IES-2000]
l l l l
(a) 5 < < 8 (b) 9 < < 18 (c) 19 < < 40 (d) ≥ 80
k k k k
IES-13. If one end of a hinged column is made fixed and the other free, how much is the
critical load compared to the original value? [IES-2008]
(a) ¼ (b) ½ (c) Twice (d) Four times
IES-14. If one end of a hinged column is made fixed and the other free, how much is the
critical load compared to the original value? [IES-2008]
(a) ¼ (b) ½ (c) Twice (d) Four times
IES-15. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given
below the Lists: [IES-1995; 2007; IAS-1997]
List-I (Long Column) List-II (Critical Load)
A. Both ends hinged 1. π 2EI/4l2
B. One end fixed, and other end free 2. 4 π 2EI/ l2
C. Both ends fixed 3. 2 π 2EI/ l2
D. One end fixed, and other end hinged 4. π 2EI/ l2
(a) 2 1 4 3 (b) 4 1 2 3
(c) 2 3 4 1 (d) 4 3 2 1
IES-16. The ratio of the compressive critical load for a long column fixed at both the
ends and a column with one end fixed and the other end free is: [IES-1997]
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 1: 4 (c) 1: 8 (d) 1: 16
IES-17. The buckling load will be maximum for a column, if [IES-1993]

(a) One end of the column is clamped and the other end is free
(b) Both ends of the column are clamped
(c) Both ends of the column are hinged
(d) One end of the column is hinged and the other end is free
IES-18. If diameter of a long column is reduced by 20%, the percentage of reduction in

Euler buckling load is: [IES-2001, 2012]
(a) 4 (b) 36 (c) 49 (d) 59
IES-19. A long slender bar having uniform rectangular cross-section 'B x H' is acted
upon by an axial compressive force. The sides B and H are parallel to x- and y-
axes respectively. The ends of the bar are fixed such that they behave as pin-
jointed when the bar buckles in a plane normal to x-axis, and they behave as
built-in when the bar buckles in a plane normal to y-axis. If load capacity in
either mode of buckling is same, then the value of H/B will be: [IES-2000]
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 8 (d) 16
IES-20. The Euler's crippling load for a 2m long slender steel rod of uniform cross-
section hinged at both the ends is 1 kN. The Euler's crippling load for 1 m long
steel rod of the same cross-section and hinged at both ends will be: [IES-1998]
(a) 0.25 kN (b) 0.5 kN (c) 2 kN (d) 4 kN
IES-20(i). Determine the ratio of the buckling strength of a solid steel column to that of a
hollow column of the same material having the same area of cross section. The
internal diameter of the hollow column is half of the external diameter. Both
column are of identical length and are pinned or hinged at the ends: [IES-2013]
P 2 P 3 P 4 P
( a) s = ( b) s = (c) s = (d) s = 1
Ph 5 Ph 5 Ph 5 Ph
IES-21. If σc and E denote the crushing stress and Young's modulus for the material of
a column, then the Euler formula can be applied for determination of cripping
load of a column made of this material only, if its slenderness ratio is:
(a) More than π E / σc (b) Less than π E / σc [IES-2005]
⎛ E⎞ ⎛ E⎞
(c) More than π2⎜ ⎟ (d) Less than π2⎜ ⎟
⎝ σc ⎠ ⎝ σc ⎠
IES-22. Four vertical columns of same material, height and weight have the same end
conditions. Which cross-section will carry the maximum load? [IES-2009]
(a) Solid circular section (b) Thin hollow circular section
(c) Solid square section (d) I-section
Rankine's Hypothesis for Struts/Columns

IES-23. Rankine Gordon formula for buckling is valid for [IES-1994]
(a) Long column (b) Short column
(c) Short and long column (d) Very long column
Prof. Perry's formula

IES-24. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given
below the lists: [IES-2008]
List-I (Formula/theorem/ method) List-II (Deals with topic)
A. Clapeyron's theorem 1. Deflection of beam
B. Maculay's method 2. Eccentrically loaded column
C. Perry's formula 3. Riveted joints
4. Continuous beam

Code: A B C A B C
(a) 3 2 1 (b) 4 1 2
(c) 4 1 3 (d) 2 4 3
Classification of Column
IAS-1. Mach List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given
List-I List-II
A. Polar moment of inertia of section 1. Thin cylindrical shell
B. Buckling 2. Torsion of shafts
C. Neutral axis 3. Columns
D. Hoop stress 4. Bending of beams
(a) 3 2 1 4 (b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 3 2 4 1 (d) 2 3 1 4
Strength of Column
IAS-2. Assertion (A): A long column of square cross-section has greater buckling
stability than that of a column of circular cross-section of same length, same
material, same end conditions and same area of cross-section. [IAS-1998]
Reason (R): The second moment of area of a column of circular cross-section is
smaller than that of a column of square cross section having the same area.
IAS-3. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched? [IAS-2003]
(a) Slenderness ratio : The ratio of length of the column to the least radius of gyration
(b) Buckling factor : The ratio of maximum load to the permissible axial load on the
column
(c) Short column : A column for which slenderness ratio < 32
(d) Strut : A member of a structure in any position and carrying an axial
compressive load
Equivalent Length
IAS-4. A column of length 'I' is fixed at its both ends. The equivalent length of the
column is: [IAS-1995]
(a) 2 l (b) 0.5 l (c) 2 l (d) l
IAS-5. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IAS-2000]

(a) Euler's formula holds good only for short columns
(b) A short column is one which has the ratio of its length to least radius of gyration
greater than 100
(c) A column with both ends fixed has minimum equivalent or effective length
(d) The equivalent length of a column with one end fixed and other end hinged is half
of its actual length

4π 2 EI
IAS-6. For which one of the following columns, Euler buckling load = ?
l2
(a) Column with both hinged ends [IAS-1999; 2004]
(b) Column with one end fixed and other end free
(c) Column with both ends fixed
(d) Column with one end fixed and other hinged
IAS-7. Assertion (A): Buckling of long columns causes plastic deformation. [IAS-2001]
Reason (R): In a buckled column, the stresses do not exceed the yield stress.
IAS-8. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given
below the Lists: [IES-1995; 2007; IAS-1997]
List-I (Long Column) List-II (Critical Load)
A. Both ends hinged 1. π 2EI/4l2
B. One end fixed, and other end free 2. 4 π 2EI/ l 2
C. Both ends fixed 3. 2 π 2EI/ l 2
D. One end fixed, and other end hinged 4. π 2EI/ l 2
(a) 2 1 4 3 (b) 4 1 2 3
(c) 2 3 4 1 (d) 4 3 2 1

OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (b) Axial component of the force FPQ = F Sin 450
π 2 EI
We know for both end fixed column buckling load (P) =
L2
2π 2EI
and Fsin450 = P or F=
L2
GATE-2. Ans. (b) Euler’s buckling loads of columns
4π 2EI
(1) both ends fixed = 2
l
π 2EI
( 2 ) both ends hinged = 2
l
GATE-3. Ans. (d)
GATE-4. Ans. (b)
GATE-4A. Ans. (c)
GATE-4(i). Ans. (c)

GATE-4(ii). Ans.(d)
When both ends are hinged, the buckling load is given by
π2 EI
Pcr =
L2
π2 EI
⇒ 200 =
L2
When the lateral movement at the mid-height is not available, then buckling load
π2 EI L
= Where L1 =
(L1 )2 2
4 π2 EI
= = 4 × 200 = 800 kN
L2
GATE-5. Ans. (a)
n2 π2 EI
The critical load, Pc =
L2
For first critical load, n=1
π2 EI
∴ Pc1 = 2
L
GATE-6. Ans. (c)
pr
Hoop stress, σθ =
t

pr F
Longitudinal stress, σz = −
2t 2πrt
Now, for pure shear state, z should be compressive and is equal to σ θ .
σ
∴ σθ = − σ z
pr pr F
⇒ =− +
t 2t 2πrt
3 pr F
⇒ =
2t 2πrt
⇒ F = 3πpr 2
GATE-7. Ans. (b)
We know that critical load for a column is proportional to moment of inertia irrespective
of end conditions of the column i.e.
Pcr ∝ I
When the steel strips are perfectly bonded, then
b × (2t )3 8 bt 3
Ppb = =
12 12
When the steel strips are not bonded, then
bt 3 2bt 3
Iwb = 2 × =
12 12
8bt 3
P
∴ = 12
P0 2bt 3
12
P
⇒ =4
P0
GATE-8. Ans. (c)
Let the deflection in the spring be δ and force in the spring be F.
Taking moments about G, we get
Pcr × δ = F × L [But F = K δ ]
Kδ × L
⇒ Pcr =
δ
⇒ Pcr = KL
δ Pcr
Pcr
G δ
GATE-9. Ans. (c)

Q
h
2 P
h
2
R
FH
FV
Σ FY = 0
⇒ FV − P = 0
⇒ FV = P
Σ MQ = 0
⇒ FH . h − M = 0
M
⇒ FH =
h
IES
IES-1. Ans. (d) A machine part subjected to an axial compressive force is called a strut. A strut may
be horizontal, inclined or even vertical. But a vertical strut is known as a column,
pillar or stanchion.
The term column is applied to all such members except those in which failure would be
by simple or pure compression. Columns can be categorized then as:
1. Long column with central loading
2. Intermediate-length columns with central loading
3. Columns with eccentric loading
4. Struts or short columns with eccentric loading
IES-2. Ans. (a) Axle is a non-rotating member used for supporting rotating wheels etc. and do not
transmit any torque. Axle must resist forces applied laterally or transversely to their
axes. Such members are called beams.
IES-2a Ans. (a) Axle is a non-rotating member used for supporting rotating wheels etc. and
do not transmit any torque. Axle must resist forces applied laterally or transversely
to their axes. Such members are called beams.
IES-3. Ans. (b)
IES-4. Ans. (b)
IES-5. Ans. (a)
IES-6. Ans. (a)
IES-6(i). Ans. (a)
IES-7. Ans. (b)
IES-8. Ans. (b)
IES-9. Ans. (b) Euler’s buckling loads of columns
4π 2EI
(1) both ends fixed = 2
l
π 2EI
( 2 ) both ends hinged = 2
l
IES-10. Ans. (b)

IES-10(i). Ans. (a)
IES-10(ii). Ans. (d)
IES-11. Ans. (c)
IES-12. Ans. (d)
IES-13. Ans. (a) Critical Load for both ends hinged = π 2EI/ l 2
And Critical Load for one end fixed, and other end free = π 2EI/4l2
2
π EI
IES-14. Ans. (a) Original load =
I2
When one end of hinged column is fixed and other free. New Le = 2L
π2EI π2EI 1
∴ New load = = = × Original value
( 2L ) 2
4L 2
4
IES-15. Ans. (b)
IES-16. Ans. (d) Critical Load for one end fixed, and other end free is π 2EI/4l2 and both ends fixed
is 4 π 2EI/ l 2
IES-17. Ans. (b) Buckling load of a column will be maximum when both ends are fixed
4 ′
P=
π 2 EI
P ∞ I or P ∞ d or
p − p′ d − d
4
=
4
( )
⎛ 0.8d ⎞
= 1− ⎜
4
IES-18. Ans. (d) 2

p d4 ⎟ = 0.59
L ⎝ d ⎠
π 2 EI 4π 2 EI ′ BH3 HB3 H
IES-19. Ans. (a) Pxx =2
and Pyy =
2
as Pxx = P yy then I = 4I′ or = 4 × or = 2
L L 12 12 B
π EI
2
IES-20. Ans. (d) For column with both ends hinged, P = 2 . If ‘l’ is halved, P will be 4 times.
l
IES-20(i). Ans. (b)
IES-21. Ans. (a) For long column PEuler < Pcrushing
2
π 2EI π 2EAK 2 ⎛ le ⎞ π 2E le
or < σcA or < σcA or ⎜ ⎟ > or > π E / σc
le 2
le 2
⎝k⎠ σc k
IES-22. Ans. (b)
IES-23. Ans. (c)
IES-24. Ans. (b)
IAS
IAS-1. Ans. (b)
IAS-2. Ans. (a)
IAS-3. Ans. (b) Buckling factor: The ratio of equivalent length of the column to the least radius of
gyration.
IAS-4. Ans. (b)
IAS-5. Ans. (c) A column with both ends fixed has minimum equivalent effective length (l/2)
IAS-6. Ans. (c)
IAS-7. Ans. (d) And Critical Load for one end fixed, and other end free = π 2EI/4l2
IAS-8. Ans. (b)

Conventional Question ESE-2001, ESE 2000
Question: Differentiate between strut and column. What is the general expression used
for determining of their critical load?
Answer: Strut: A member of structure which carries an axial compressive load.
Column: If the strut is vertical it is known as column.

Compressive force
For strut failure due to compression or σc =
Area
If σc > σ yc it fails.
π 2 EI
Euler's formula for column ( PC ) = 2
e

Q. Two long columns are made of identical lengths ‘l’ and flexural rigidities ‘EI’.
Column 1 is hinged at both ends whereas for column 2 one end is fixed and the
other end is free.
(i) Write the expression for Euler’s buckling load for column 1.
(ii) What is the ratio of Euler’s buckling load of column 1 to that column 2? [ 2 Marks]
Ans. (i)
π2EI π2EI
P1 = ( right )
; P2 =
L2 4L2
For column l, both end hinged l e = L
P1
(ii) =4
P2

Q. The piston rod of diameter 20 mm and length 700 mm in a hydraulic cylinder is
subjected to a compressive force of 10 kN due to internal pressure. The piston end
of the rod is guided along the cylinder and the other end of the rod is hinged at the
cross-head. The modulus of elasticity for piston rod material is 200 GPa. Estimate
the factor of safety taken for the piston rod design. [2 Marks]
Ans.
P 20mm P
P PL π2 EI
σ= ; δ= ; e = ; Pe = 2
(considering one end of the column is fixed and
A AE 2 e
other end is hinged)
Pe = Euler Crippling load
Compressive load, Pc = σ c × Area = 10 kN
Euler’s load, Pe =
( ) (
2π2 × 200 × 109 × π × 0.0204 / 64 ) = 63.278 kN
2
(0.7)
Euler 's load
F.S =
Compressive load
63.278
F.S = = 6.3
10

Question: State the limitation of Euler's formula for calculating critical load on
columns
Answer: Assumptions:
(i) The column is perfectly straight and of uniform cross-section
(ii) The material is homogenous and isotropic
(iii) The material behaves elastically
(iv) The load is perfectly axial and passes through the centroid of the column section.

(v) The weight of the column is neglected.

Question: What is the value of Euler's buckling load for an axially loaded pin-ended
(hinged at both ends) strut of length 'l' and flexural rigidity 'EI'? What would
be order of Euler's buckling load carrying capacity of a similar strut but
fixed at both ends in terms of the load carrying capacity of the earlier one?
Answer: From Euler's buckling load formula,
π 2EI
Critical load (PC ) = 2
e
Equivalent length ( )= for both end hinged = for both end fixed.
e 2
π 2EI
So for both end hinged (Pc )beh = 2
π 2EI 4 π 2EI
and for both fixed (Pc )bef = =
( 2)
2 2

Question: Euler's critical load for a column with both ends hinged is found as 40 kN.
What would be the change in the critical load if both ends are fixed?
Answer: We know that Euler's critical laod,
π 2 EI
PEuler= 2
[Where E = modulus of elasticity, I = least moment of inertia
e
e = equivalent length ]
For both end hinged ( e) =
And For both end fixed ( e) = /2
π 2EI
∴ (PEuler )b.e.h. = 2 =40 kN(Given)
π 2EI π 2EI
and (PEuler )b.e.F . = 2
= 4 × 2 = 4 × 40 = 160 kN
( / 2)

Question: A hollow cast iron column of 300 mm external diameter and 220 mm internal
diameter is used as a column 4 m long with both ends hinged. Determine the
safe compressive load the column can carry without buckling using Euler's
formula and Rankine's formula
E = 0.7×105 N/mm2, FOS = 4, Rankine constant (a) = 1/1600
Crushing Stress ( σ c ) = 567 N/mm2
Answer: Given outer diameter of column (D) = 300 mm = 0.3 m.
Inner diameter of the column (d) = 220 mm = 0.22 m.
Length of the column ( ) = 4 m
End conditions is both ends hinged. Therefore equivalent length ( e )= = 4 m.
Yield crushing stress ( σ c ) = 567 MPa = 567×106 N/m2
Rankine constant (a) = 1 / 1600 and E = 0.7×105 N/mm2 = 70 x 109 N/m2

π π ⎡0.34 − 0.224 ⎤ = 2.826 ×10−4 m 4
Moment of Inertia (I) = (D 4 − d 4 ) =
64 64 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
π
I 64
(D 4 − d 4 ) D2 + d 2 0.32 + 0.222
= = = = 0.093m
A π 2 2 16 16
(D − d )
4
π π
Area(A) = (D 2 − d 2 ) = (0.32 − 0.222 ) = 0.03267 m 2
4 4
(i) Euler's buckling load, PEuler
π 2EI π 2 × (70 ×109 ) × (2.826 ×10−4 )
PEuler = 2
= = 12.2MN
e 42
PEuler 12.2
∴ Safe load = = = 3.05 MN
fos 4
(ii)Rankine's buckling load, PRankine
σ c .A (567×10 )× 0.03267
6
PRankine = 2
= 2
= 8.59 MN
⎛ ⎞ 1 ⎛ 4 ⎞⎟
1 + a.⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ 1+ ×⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ k ⎠⎟ 1600 ⎜⎝ 0.093 ⎟⎠
PRankine 8.59
∴ Safe load = = = 2.148 MN
fos 4

Question: A both ends hinged cast iron hollow cylindrical column 3 m in length has a
critical buckling load of P kN. When the column is fixed at both the ends, its
critical buckling load raise by 300 kN more. If ratio of external diameter to
internal diameter is 1.25 and E = 100 GPa determine the external diameter of
column.
π 2 EI
Answer: Pc =
I e2
For both end hinged column
π 2EI
P= 2 −−− (i )
L
For both end fixed column
π 2EI 4π 2EI
P+300= = −−− ( ii )
(L 2)
2
L2
Dividing (ii) by (i) we get

P+300
= 4 or P=100kN
P
Moment of inertia of a hollow cylinder c/s is
π PL2
I=
64
(D4 − d 4 ) = 2
πE
64 (100 ×10 ) 3
3 2
4 4
orD − d = 2 9
= 1.8577 ×10−5
π π ×100 ×10

D D
given = 1.25 or d =
d 1.25-5
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ 4
or D4 ⎢⎢1− ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 1.8577 ×10−5

⎜⎝1.25 ⎟⎠⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
or D=0.0749 m = 74.9 mm

Question: A piston rod of steam engine 80 cm long in subjected to a maximum load of 60
kN. Determine the diameter of the rod using Rankine's formula with
permissible compressive stress of 100 N/mm2. Take constant in Rankine's
1
formula as for hinged ends. The rod may be assumed partially fixed
7500
with length coefficient of 0·6.
Answer: Given: l = 80 cm = 800mm ;P = 60kN = 60 × 103 N, σ c = 100N / mm2 ;
1
a= for hinged ends; length coefficient = 0.6
7500
To find diameter of the rod, d:
Use Rankine’s formula
σcA
P= 2
⎛l ⎞
1+ a ⎜ e ⎟
⎝k⎠
Here le = 0.6l = 0.6 × 800 = 480 mm [∵length coefficient = 0.6]
π
d4
I 64 d
k= = =
A π 4
d2
4
⎛π ⎞
100 × ⎜ d2 ⎟
∴ 60 × 103 = ⎝4 ⎠
2
1 ⎡ 480 ⎤
1+
7500 ⎢⎣ d / 4 ⎥⎦
Solving the above equation we get the value of ‘d’
Note: Unit of d comes out from the equation will be mm as we put the equivalent
length in mm.
or d = 33.23mm

Question: A hollow cylinder CI column, 3 m long its internal and external diameters as
80 mm and 100 mm respectively. Calculate the safe load using Rankine
formula: if
(i) Both ends are hinged and
(ii) Both ends are fixed.
2
Take crushing strength of material as 600 N / mm , Rankine constant 1/1600
and factor of safety = 3.
π
Answer: Moment of Inertia (I)= (0.14 − 0.08 4 ) m 4 = 2.898 ×10−6 m 4
64

C
Chapter-13 Theorie
es of Colum
mn S K Mo
ondal’s
π
Area( A) =
4
(0.12 − 0.082 ) = 2.8274
2 0−3 m 2
×10
I 2.898 ×10−6
Radius off gyration (k) ( = = = 0..032m
A 2.8274 ×10−3
σ c .A
PRankine = 2
; [ e = equ
uivalent len
ngth]
⎛ e ⎞⎟
1+ a ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ k ⎠
(600 ×10 )×(2.8274 ×10 )

6 −3
(i) = 2
; [ e = l = 3 m for both
h end hinged]
⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 3 ⎞⎟
1+ ⎜⎜ ×⎜
⎜⎝1600 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎝⎜⎜ 0.0 ⎟
032 ⎟⎠
=2 261.026kN N
P 26126
Safe load d (P)= Rankine = = 87.09 kN
FOS S 3
(ii) For bo oth end fixxed, e = = 1.5 m
2
(600 ×106 )×(2.8274 ×10−3 )
PRankinee = 2
= 714.8 kN
k
1 ⎛ 1.5 ⎟⎞
1+ ×⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
1600 ⎜⎝ 0.032
0 ⎠
P 714.88
Safe load d (P)= Rankkine = = 238.277 kN
FOS S 3
C
Convention
nal Questiion AMIE--1997
Q
Question: A slender column is built-in att one end and
a an ecceentric load is applied at the
free end. Working from the first prin nciples fin
nd the exp pression foor the
maximum m length off column su uch that th
he deflectio
on of the fr
ree end dooes not
exceed th
he eccentriccity of load
ding.
A
Answer: Above figuure shows a slender coluumn of lengtth ‘I’. The coolumn is built in at one
e end B
and eccentric load P is applied at the
t free end A.
Let y be th n at any secttion XX disttant x from the fixed en
he deflection nd B. Let δ be the
deflection at
a A.
The bendinng moment ata the section XX is giveen by

2
dy
EI = P (δ + e − y ) − − − − (i)
dx 2
d2 y d2 y P P
EI 2 + Py = P (δ + e ) or 2
+ y = (δ + e )
dx dx EI EI
The solution to the above differential equation is
⎡ P⎤ ⎡ P⎤
y = C1 cos ⎢ x ⎥ + C2 sin ⎢ x ⎥ + (δ + e ) − − − ( ii )
⎢⎣ EI ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ EI ⎥⎦
Where C1 and C2 are the cons tan ts.
At the end B, x = 0 and y = 0
∴ 0 = C1 cos 0 + C2 sin 0 + (δ + e )
or C1 = − (δ + e )
Differentiating equation (ii ) we get
dy P ⎡ P ⎤ P ⎡ P ⎤
= −C1 sin ⎢ x ⎥ + C2 cos ⎢ x ⎥
dx EI ⎢⎣ EI ⎥⎦ EI ⎢⎣ EI ⎥⎦
Again,at the fixed end B,
dy
When x = 0, =0
dx
P P
∴ 0 = (δ + e ) × 0 + C2 cos 0
EI EI
or C2 = 0
At the free end A,x = ,y = δ
Substituting for x and y in equation (ii ) ,we have
⎡ P ⎤
δ = − (δ + e ) cos ⎢ ⎥ = (δ + e )
⎣ EI ⎦
⎡ P ⎤ e
∴ cos ⎢ ⎥= − − − (iii )
⎣ EI ⎦ δ + e
It is mentioned in the problem that the deflection of the free end does not exceed the
eccentricity. It means that δ = e
Substituting this value in equation (iii), we have
⎡ P⎤ e 1
cos ⎢ ⎥= =
⎣ EI ⎦ δ + e 2
P ⎛ 1⎞ π
∴ = cos −1 ⎜ ⎟ =
EI ⎝2⎠ 3
π EI
∴ =
3 P

Question: A long strut AB of length ' ' is of uniform section throughout. A thrust P is
applied at the ends eccentrically on the same side of the centre line with
eccentricity at the end B twice than that at the end A. Show that the
maximum bending moment occurs at a distance x from the end A,
2 − cos k P
Where, tan(kx)= and k=
sin k EI

C
Chapter-13 Theorie
es of Colum
mn S K Mo
ondal’s
An
nswer: Let at a distance 'x' from
L m end A defllection of the
b
beam is y
d 2y
∴ EI = −P.y
dx 2
d 2y P
o
or 2
+ y =0
dx EI
E
d 2y ⎡ ⎤
o
or + k 2y = 0 ⎢∵ k = P giiven ⎥
dx 2 ⎢ EI ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
C.F of this diifferential equation
C
y = A cos kx + B sin kx, Where
W A & B constant.
I is clear at x = 0, y = e
It
A at x = , y= 2e
And
∴ e = A..................(i )
⎡ 2e − e cos k ⎤
2e = A cos
s k + B sin k or B = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ sin k ⎥⎦
⎡ 2e − e cos k ⎤
os kx + ⎢
∴ y = e co ⎥ sin kx
⎢⎣ s k
sin ⎥⎦
Where be ending mom ment is maximum,
dy
the deflection will be maximum so s =0
dx
dy ⎡ 2e − e coss k ⎤
∴ e sin kx + k . ⎢
= −ek ⎥ cos kx = 0
dx ⎢⎣ sin k ⎥⎦
2 − cos k
or tan kx =
sin k
C
Convention
nal Questiion ESE-1996
Q
Question: The link of
o a mecha anism is su ubjected to axial com
mpressive fo orce. It has
s solid
circular cross-sectio
c on with dia ameter 9 mm
m and len ngth 200 mm m. The two o ends
of the linkk are hing
ged. It is made
m of stee
el having yield
y strength = 400 N/mm
N 2
and elastic moduluss = 200 kN N/mm2. Calcculate the critical lo

oad that thhe link
can carryy. Use Johnnon's equatiion.
A
Answer: According to
t Johnson'ss equation
⎡ σ y ⎛ ⎞⎟2 ⎤⎥
⎢
Pcr = σ y .A ⎢1− ⎜⎜ ⎟
4 n π 2
E ⎜⎝ k ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
πd2
Hear A=arrea of crosss section= = 63.62 2 mm 2
4
⎛ πd 4 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟
I ⎜⎝ 64 ⎠⎟⎟ d
least radiu
us of gyratio
on (k) = = = = 2.25 mm
m
A ⎛ πd 2 ⎞⎟ 4
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ 4 ⎠⎟⎟
For both end
e hinged n=1
⎡ 400 ⎛ 200 ⎞⎟ ⎤⎥
2
∴ Pcr = 400 × 63.62 ⎢⎢1− ⎜⎜ ⎟ =15.262kN

N
⎢⎣ 4 ×1× π 2 × (200 ×103 ) × ⎜⎝ 2.25 ⎠⎟ ⎥⎥⎦
C
Convention
nal Questiion GATE--1995
Q
Question: Find the shortest
s length of a hinged
h stee
el column having
h a re
ectangular cross-
section 60
00 mm × 10 00 mm, forr which the
e elastic Euler formuula applies. Take

yield strength and modulus of elasticity value for steel as 250 MPa and 200
GPa respectively.
Answer: Given: Cross-section, (= b x d) = 600 mm x 100 mm = 0.6 m x 0.1 m = 0.06 m2;
P
Yield strength = = 250MPa = 250MN / m2 ; E = 200 GPa = 200 ×1012 N / m2
A
Length of the column, L :
bd 3 0.6 × 0.13
Least area moment of Inertia, I = = = 5 ×10−5 m4
12 12
I 5 ×10−5
Also, k2 = = = 8.333 ×10−4 m 2
A 0.6 × 0.1
[ ∵ I = AK 2 ( where A = area of cross-section, k = radius of gyration)]
From Euler's formula for column, we have
π 2EI π 2EI
Crushing load , Pcr = = 2
L2e L
For both endhinged type of column, Le = L
π 2EAk 2
or Pcr =
L2
⎛ P ⎞ π 2EI
or Yield stress ⎜⎜ cr ⎟⎟⎟ = 2
⎜⎝ A ⎠ L
π 2Ek 2
or L2 =
(Pcr / A)
Substituting the value, we get
π 2 × 200 ×109 × 0.0008333
L2 = = 6.58
250 ×106
L = 2.565 m

Question: Determine the temperature rise necessary to induce buckling in a lm long
circular rod of diameter 40 mm shown in the Figure below. Assume the rod to
be pinned at its ends and the coefficient of thermal expansion as 20 ×10−6 / 0 C
. Assume uniform heating of the bar.
Answer: Let us assume the buckling load be'P'.

δL = L. ∝ . t , Where t is the temperature rise.
δL
or t=
L. ∝
PL δL.AE
Also, δL = or P=
AE L
π 2EI
Pcr = 2 − − − ( where L e =equivalent length)
Le
π 2EI δL.A.E
or = [QLe =L For both endhinged]
L2 L
π 2I
or δL =
LA
δL π 2I π 2I
t= = = 2
L. ∝ LA.L. ∝ L A. ∝
π 4
π 2 × × (0.040)
Temperature rise t= 64 = 49.350 C
2 π 4
(1) × ×(0.040) × 20 ×10 −6
4
So the rod will buckle when the temperature rises more than 49.35°C.

14. Strain Energy Method
1. Resilience (U)
• Resilience is an ability of a material to absorb energy when
elastically deformed and to return it when unloaded.
• The strain energy stored in a specimen when stained within
the elastic limit is known as resilience.
σ2 ∈2 E
U= × V o lu m e or U = × V o lu m e
2E 2
2. Proof Resilience
• Maximum strain energy stored at elastic limit. i.e. the strain energy stored in the body upto
elastic limit.
• This is the property of the material that enables it to resist shock and impact by storing
energy. The measure of proof resilience is the strain energy absorbed per unit volume.
3. Modulus of Resilience (u)

The proof resilience per unit volume is known as modulus of resilience. If σ is the stress due to
gradually applied load, then
σ2 ∈2 E
u= or u=
2E 2
4. Application
3 L
P2 L P2.
P2 L 4 4
U= = + L/4
π
2 AE 2 (2d ) 2 E πd 2 L
2. E
4 4
2d
Strain energy becomes smaller & smaller as the cross sectional area of bar
is increased over more & more of its length i.e. A ↑ , U ↓
5. Toughness
• This is the property which enables a material to be twisted, bent or stretched under impact
load or high stress before rupture. It may be considered to be the ability of the material to

C
Chapter-14 Strain En
nergy Meth
hod S K Mo
ondal’s
absorrb energy in
i the plasttic zone. Th
he measure
e of toughneess is the amount of energy
absorrbed after beeing stressed
d upto the point
p of fractture.
• Toug
ghness is an ability to ab
bsorb energy
y in the plasstic range.
• The ability
a to witthstand occa
asional stressses above th
he yield streess without ffracture.
• Toug
ghness = streength + ducttility
• The materials with
w higherr modulus of toughne
ess are useed to makee components and
strucctures that will
w be expossed to sudden and impacct loads.
M
Modulus off Toughnes
ss
• nit volume of materiall
The ability of un
to absorb energy
y in the plasttic range.
• The amount of work per unit
u volumee
that the material can withstand
d
withoout failure.
• The area
a under the entire stress strain
n
diagrram is called
d modulus off toughness,
h is a meassure of energy that can
which n UT = σu εf
be absorbed
a by
y the unit volume off
mateerial due to impact
i loadiing before itt
fractu
ures.
6 Strain energy
6. e in shear an
nd torsion
n
• Strain energy
e per unit
u volumee, (u s ) T A
τ2 Gγ 2
us = or, u s =
2G 2
• Totall Strain Eneergy (U) for a Shaft in Torsion
1
U s = Tφ
2
O B
φ
1 ⎛ T 2L ⎞ 1 GJφ 2 dφ
∴U s = ⎜ ⎟ or
2 ⎝ GJ ⎠ 2 L
τ 2max 2π L
2 ∫
or Us = ρ 2d ρ
2G r
• Case
es
τ 2max
•Sollid shaft , U s = ×π r2L
4G
τ 2max π ( D − d ) L τ 2max ( D + d )
4 4 2 2
• Hollow shaft , U s = × = × × Volume

4G D2 4G D2

Chapter--14 Strain
n Energy Method
M S K Mondal’s
2
τ
•T
Thin walledd tube , U s = × sLt
4G
w
where s = Leength of meean centre linne
2 2π n 2
GJ ⎛ dφ ⎞ GJ ⎛ PR ⎞
• Conical sppring , U S = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ dx =
2 ⎝ dx ⎠ 2 ∫
0
⎜ ⎟ .R.dα ( R = Radius
⎝ GJ ⎠
R )
2 2πn
P
∫ R dα (R varries with ∝ )
3
=
2GJ 0
3 ⎛ P2 L ⎞
• Cantilever beam
b with load
l 'p' at ennd, Us = ⎜ ⎟
5 ⎝ bhG ⎠
πP 2 R 3n
• Helical sprring , U s = (∵ L = 2π Rn )
GJ
7. Strain energy in bending.

Mx
• An ded by arc, θ =
ngle subtend ∫ EI .dxx
• Sttrain energy
y stored in beam.
L
M x2
Ub = ∫
0
2E I
.d x
2
EI
L
⎛ d 2y ⎞ ⎛ d 2y M ⎞
or U b =
2 ∫
0
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ dx ⎠
dx ⎜∵
⎝ dx 2
= − ⎟
EI ⎠
• Cases
P 2 L3
o Cantilever beam with a end load
l P, Ub =
6 EI
P 2 L3
o Simplly supported
d with a load
d P at centre
e, Ub =
96 EI
E
• mportant Note
Im N
o For pu
ure bending
g
• M is consttant along th
he length ‘L
L’
ML
• θ=
EI
M 2L EIθ 2
• U= wn =
if Misknow if curvature θ / L isknown
2EI 2L
o For noon-uniform bending
b
• Strain energy in shea
ar is neglecte
ed
• Strain energy in bend
ding is only considered.
8. Castiiglione’s theorem

Chapter-14 Strain Energy Method S K Mondal’s
∂U
= δn
∂Pn
∂U 1 ⎛ ∂M x ⎞
=
∂p EI ∫ Mx ⎜
⎝ ∂p ⎠
⎟dx
• Note:
o Strain energy, stored due to direct stress in 3 coordinates
1
U= ⎡ ∑ (σ x ) 2 − 2 μ ∑ σ x σ y ⎤⎦
2E ⎣
o If σ x = σ y = σ z ,in case of equal stress in 3 direction then
3σ 2 σ2
U= [1 − 2μ] = (volume strain energy)
2E 2k

Chapter--14 Strain
n Energy Method
M S K Mondal’s
OBJ VE QUESTI
JECTIV U IONS (GAT
TE, IES, IAS)
I
Prev
vious 20-Ye
ears GATE
G Q
Questi
ions
Strain
n Energ
gy or Resilien
R nce
GATE-1. The stra
ain energy stored in the beam with flexu
ural rigidity
y EI and loaded as
shown in
n the figure
e is: ATE-2008]
[GA
P 2L3 2P 2L3 4P 2L3 8P 2L3

(a) (b
b) (c) (d)
3EI 3EI 3EI 3EI
PL3
GATE-2. is th
he deflection under the
t ever beam [length L, modulus
load P of a cantile
3EI
of elastic
city, E, mom
ment of ine
ertia-I]. The
e strain en
nergy due to
o bending is:
[GAATE-1993]
P 2 L3 P 2 L3 P 2 L3 P 2 L3
(a) (b) (c ) (d )
3EI 6 EI 4 EI
E 48EI
E
GATE-2(i). U1 and U2 are the strain energ

gies stored
d in a prism
matic bar d
due to axia
al tensile
forces P1 and P2 , resspectively. The strain
n energy U stored in tthe same bar due to
combined action off P1 and P2 will
w be [C
CE: GATE-2
2007]
(a) U = U1 + U 2 b) U = U1 U2
(b
(c) U < U1 + U 2 d) U > U1 + U 2
(d
GATE-3. The str ress-strain behaviou ur of a

materiall is show wn in fig gure. Its
resilienc ce and tou ughness, in
n Nm/m3,
are respe ectively
(a) 28 × 1004, 76 × 104
(b) 28 × 1004, 48 × 104
(c) 14 × 10
04, 90 × 104
(d) 76 × 104
[GA
ATE-2000]
GATE-4. A square e bar of sid

de 4 cm and d length 100 cm is subbjected to a
an axial loaad P. The
same bar r is then ussed as a caantilever beeam and suubjected to all end loaad P. The
ratio of the
t strain energies, stored
s in th
he bar in the
t second case to that stored
in the fir
rst case, is: [GAATE-1998]
(a) 16 00
(b) 40 (c) 1000 (d) 25
500

GATE-4(i) For linear elastic systems, the type of displacement function for the strain
energy is
(a) linear (b) quadratic [CE: GATE-2004]
(c) cubic (d) quartic
GATE-4(ii)A mild steel specimen is under uniaxial tensile stress. Young’s modulus and
yield stress for mild steel are 2 × 105 MPa and 250 MPa respectively. The
maximum amount of strain energy per unit volume that can be stored in this
specimen without permanent set is
(a) 156 Nmm/ mm3 (b) 15.6 Nmm/ mm3 [CE: GATE-2008]
(c) 1.56 Nmm/ mm3 (d) 0.156 Nmm/ mm3
Toughness
GATE-5. The total area under the stress-strain curve of a mild steel specimen tested up
to failure under tension is a measure of [GATE-2002]
(a) Ductility (b) Ultimate strength (c) Stiffness (d) Toughness
GATE-6. For a ductile material, toughness is a measure of [GATE-2013]

(a) resistance to scratching (b) ability to absorb energy up to fracture
(c) ability to absorb energy till elastic limit (d) resistance to indentation
Strain Energy or Resilience

IES-1. What is the strain energy stored in a body of volume V with stress σ due to
gradually applied load? [IES-2006]
σE σ E2 σV 2 σ 2V
(a) (b) (c) (d)
V V E 2E
Where, E = Modulus of elasticity
IES-1(i). A circular bar L m long and d m in diameter is subjected to tensile force of F

kN. Then the strain energy, U will be (where, E is the modulus of elasticity in
kN/m2 ) [IES-2012]
4 2 3
∙ ∙ ∙ ∙
IES-1(ii). Statement (I): Ductile materials generally absorb more impact energy than the
brittle materials.
Statement (II): Ductile materials generally have higher ultimate strength than
brittle materials. [IES-2012]
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true and Statement (II) is the
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true but Statement (II) is not
the correct explanation of Statement (I)
IES-2. A bar having length L and uniform cross-section with area A is subjected to
both tensile force P and torque T. If G is the shear modulus and E is the
Young's modulus, the internal strain energy stored in the bar is: [IES-2003]
T 2 L P2 L T 2 L P2 L T 2 L P2 L T 2 L P2 L
(a) + (b) + (c) + (d) +
2GJ AE GJ 2 AE 2GJ 2 AE GJ AE

IES-3. Strain energy stored in a body of volume V subjected to uniform stress s is:
[IES-2002]
(a) s E / V (b) sE2/ V (c) sV2/E (d) s2V/2E
IES-4. A bar of length L and of uniform cross-sectional area A and second moment of
area ‘I’ is subjected to a pull P. If Young's modulus of elasticity of the bar
material is E, the expression for strain energy stored in the bar will be:
[IES-1999]
P2L PL2 PL2 P2L
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2AE 2EI AE AE
IES-5. Which one of the following gives the correct expression for strain energy
stored in a beam of length L and of uniform cross-section having moment of
inertia ‘I’ and subjected to constant bending moment M? [IES-1997]
ML ML M 2L M 2L
(a ) (b) (c) (d)
EI 2 EI EI 2 EI
2
IES-6. A steel specimen 150 mm in cross-section stretches by 0·05 mm over a 50 mm
gauge length under an axial load of 30 kN. What is the strain energy stored in
the specimen? (Take E = 200 GPa) [IES-2009]
(a) 0.75 N-m (b) 1.00 N-m (c) 1.50 N-m (d) 3.00 N-m
IES-7. What is the expression for the strain energy due to bending of a cantilever
beam (length L. modulus of elasticity E and moment of inertia I)? [IES-2009]
P 2 L3 P 2 L3 P 2 L3 P 2 L3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3EI 6 EI 4 EI 48EI
IES-8. The property by which an amount of energy is absorbed by a material without

plastic deformation, is called: [IES-2000]
(a) Toughness (b) Impact strength (c) Ductility (d) Resilience
IES-8a Resilience of material becomes important when it is subjected to :

(a) Fatigue (b) Thermal stresses
(c) Shock loading (d) Pure static loading [IES-2011]
IES-9. 30 C 8 steel has its yield strength of 400 N/mm2 and modulus of elasticity of 2 ×
105 MPa. Assuming the material to obey Hooke's law up to yielding, what is its
proof resilience? [IES-2006]
(a) 0·8 N/mm2 (b) 0.4 N/mm2 (c) 0·6 N/mm2 (d) 0·7 N/mm2
IES9a Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given
below the lists: [IES-2010]
List I List II
A. Point of inflection 1. Strain energy
B. Shearing strain 2. Equation of bending
C. Section modulus 3. Equation of torsion
D. Modulus of resilience 4. Bending moment diagram
(a) 1 3 2 4 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 1 2 3 4 (d) 4 2 3 1
Toughness
IES-10. Toughness for mild steel under uni-axial tensile loading is given by the shaded
portion of the stress-strain diagram as shown in [IES-2003]

Strain Energy or Resilience

IAS-1. Total strain energy stored in a simply supported beam of span, 'L' and flexural
rigidity 'EI 'subjected to a concentrated load 'W' at the centre is equal to:
[IAS-1995]
W 2 L3 W 2 L3 W 2 L3 W 2 L3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
40 EI 60 EI 96 EI 240 EI
IAS-2. If the cross-section of a member is subjected to a uniform shear stress of

intensity 'q' then the strain energy stored per unit volume is equal to (G =
modulus of rigidity). [IAS-1994]
(a) 2q2/G (b) 2G / q2 (c) q2 /2G (d) G/2 q2
IAS-4. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IAS-2004]

The work done in stretching an elastic string varies
(a) As the square of the extension (b) As the square root of the extension
(c) Linearly with the extension (d) As the cube root of the extension
Toughness
IAS-5. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given
List-I (Mechanical properties) List-II (Meaning of properties)
A. Ductility 1. Resistance to indentation
B. Hardness 2. Ability to absorb energy during plastic
C. Malleability deformation
D. Toughness 3. Percentage of elongation
4. Ability to be rolled into flat product
(a) 1 4 3 2 (b) 3 2 4 1
(c) 2 3 4 1 (d) 3 1 4 2
IAS-6. Match List-I (Material properties) with List-II (Technical

definition/requirement) and select the correct answer using the codes below
the lists: [IAS-1999]
List-I List-II
A. Hardness 1. Percentage of elongation

B. Toughness 2. Resistance to indentation
C. Malleability 3. Ability to absorb energy during plastic deformation
D. Ductility 4. Ability to be rolled into plates
(a) 3 2 1 4 (b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 1 3 4 2
IAS-7. A truck weighing 150 kN and travelling at 2m/sec impacts which a buffer
spring which compresses 1.25cm per 10 kN. The maximum compression of the
spring is: [IAS-1995]
(a) 20.00 cm
(b) 22.85 cm
(c) 27.66 cm
(d) 30.00 cm

OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
4L L 3L 4L
M 2dx M 2dx M 2dx M 2dx
GATE-1. Ans. (B) ∫ 2EI
=∫
2EI
+∫
2EI
+∫
2EI
0 0 L 3L
L
M 2dx
3L
M 2dx ⎡ L 2 4L 2 ⎤
= 2∫ +∫ ⎢By symmetry M dx = M dx ⎥
2EI 2EI ⎢
⎢⎣
∫ 2EI ∫ 2EI ⎥⎥⎦
0 L 0 3L
L 3L
(Px )2 dx (PL )2 dx 2P 2L3
= 2∫ +∫ =
0
2EI L
2EI 3EI
GATE-2. Ans. (b) We may do it taking average
⎛ P ⎞ PL
3
P 2 L3
Strain energy = Average force x displacement = ⎜ ⎟ × =
⎝ 2 ⎠ 3EI 6 EI
∂U
Alternative method: In a funny way you may use Castiglione’s theorem, δ = . Then
∂P
∂U PL3 PL3
δ= = or U = ∫ ∂U = ∫ ∂P Partially integrating with respect to P we get
∂P 3EI 3EI
P2L3
U=
6EI
GATE-2(i). Ans. (d)
P2 L
We know that Strain Energy, U =
2 AE
It is obvious from the above equation that strain energy is proportional to the square of
load applied. We know that sum of squares of two numbers is less than the square of
their sum. Thus U > U1 + U 2 .
GATE-3. Ans. (c) Resilience = area under this curve up to 0.004 strain
1
= × 0.004 × 70 × 106 = 14 × 10 4 Nm/m3
2
Toughness = area under this curve up to 0.012 strain
1
= 14 × 10 4 + 70 × 106 × ( 0.012 − 0.004 ) + × ( 0.012 − 0.004 ) × (120 − 70 ) × 10 6 Nm/m3
2
= 90 × 104 Nm/m3
2
⎛W⎞
⎜ A ⎟ AL W 2L
GATE-4. Ans. (d) U1 = ⎝ ⎠ =
2E 2AE
W 2L3 W 2L3 2W 2L3
U2 = = =
6EI ⎛ 1 ⎞ Ea 4
6E ⎜ a 4 ⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠
2
U2 4L2 ⎛ 100 ⎞
or = 2 = 4×⎜ ⎟ = 2500
U1 a ⎝ 4 ⎠
GATE-4(i) Ans. (b)
1 1
Strain Energy = × σ × ε = E ε2
2 2
GATE-4(ii)Ans. (d)
The strain energy per unit volume may be given as
2
1 σ y 1 (250)2
u= × = × = 0.156 N − mm/ mm3
2 E 2 2 × 105
GATE-5. Ans. (d)

GATE-6. Ans. (b)
IES
1 σ2
IES-1. Ans. (d) Strain Energy = . ×V
2 E
IES-1(i). Ans. (c)
IES-1(ii). Ans. (c)
1 1 1 PL 1 TL
IES-2. Ans. (c) Internal strain energy = Pδ + T θ = P + T
2 2 2 AE 2 GJ
IES-3. Ans. (d)
1 1 ⎛P⎞ ⎛P L⎞ PL2
IES-4. Ans. (a) Strain energy = x stress x strain x volume = × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ . ⎟ × ( AL ) =
2 2 ⎝ A⎠ ⎝ A E ⎠ 2 AE
IES-5. Ans. (d)
IES-6. Ans. (a) Strain Energy stored in the specimen
( 30000 ) × 50 × 10−3 = 0.75 N-m
2
1 1 ⎛ PL ⎞ P2L
= Pδ = P ⎜ = =
2 2 ⎝ AE ⎟⎠ 2AE 2 × 150 × 10−6 × 200 × 109
L L
(Px)2 dx P2 ⎛ x 3 ⎞ P2L3
IES-7. Ans. (b) Strain Energy Stored = ∫ = ⎜ ⎟ =
0
2E 2EI ⎝ 3 ⎠ 0 6EI
IES-8. Ans. (d)
IES-8a. Ans. (c)
1 σ 2 1 ( 400 )
2
IES-9. Ans. (b) Proof resilience (Rp ) = . = × = 0.4 N / mm2

2 E 2 2 × 105
IES9a Ans. (b)
IES-10. Ans. (d) Toughness of material is the total area under stress-strain curve.
IAS
L L/2 L/2 2
M2 dx M2 dx 1 ⎛ Wx ⎞ W 2L3
IAS-1. Ans. (c) Strain energy = ∫ = 2× ∫ = ×∫ ⎜ dx =
0
2EI 0
2EI EI 0 ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 96EI
∂U ∂U
Alternative method: In a funny way you may use Castiglione’s theorem, δ = =
∂P ∂W
WL3
We know that δ = for simply supported beam in concentrated load at mid span.
48EI
∂U ∂U WL3 WL3
Then δ = = = or U = ∫ ∂U = ∫ ∂W partially integrating with
∂P ∂W 48EI 48EI
W 2L3
respect to W we get U =
96EI
IAS-2. Ans. (c)
⎡ 2⎤
σ2 1 2 1 ⎢ (δl ) ⎥
IAS-4. Ans. (a) = ∈ E = ⎢ 2 ⎥E
2E 2 2⎢ L ⎥
⎣ ⎦
IAS-5. Ans. (d)
IAS-6. Ans. (b)
IAS-7. Ans. (c) Kinetic energy of the truck = strain energy of the spring

⎛ 150 × 10 ⎞ 2 3
⎜ ⎟×2
1 1 2 mv ⎝ 9.81 ⎠
2
mv = kx or x =
2
= = 0.2766 m = 27.66 cm
2 2 k ⎡ 10 × 1000 ⎤
⎢ 0.0125 ⎥
⎣ ⎦

Q. A close coiled helical spring made of wire diameter d has mean coil radius R,
number of turns n and modulus of rigidity G. The spring is subjected to an
axial compression W.
(1) Write the expression for the stiffness of the spring.
(2) What is the magnitude of the maximum shear stress induced in the spring
wire neglecting the curvature effect? [2 Marks]
W Gd4
Ans. (1) Spring stiffness, K = =
X 8nD3
8WD
(2) Maximum shear stress, τ =
πd3

Q. A semicircular steel ring of mean radius 300 mm is suspended vertically with
the top end fixed as shown in the above figure and carries a vertical load of 200
N at the lowest point.
Calculate the vertical deflection of the lower end if the ring is of rectangular
cross- section 20 mm thick and 30 mm wide.
5 2
Value of Elastic modulus is 2 × 10 N/mm .
Influence of circumferential and shearing forces may be neglected.
[10 Marks]
Ans. Load applied, F = 200 N

Mean Radius, R = 300 mm
5 2
Elastic modules, E = 2 × 10 N/mm
I = Inertia of moment of cross – section
bd3
I= b = 20 mm
12
d = 30 mm
20 × ( 30 )
3
= = 45,000 mm4
12
⇒ Influence of circumferential and shearing force are neglected strain energy at the section.

π 2
M Rd θ R
u= ∫ 2 EI
for
4
≥ 10
0
M = F × R sin θ
∂M
⇒ = R sinθ
∂F
π
∂u F R2 sin2 θ FR2
δ= =∫ dθ ⇒ ×π
∂F 0 EI 2EI
π × 200 × ( 300 )
2
π FR2
δ= =
2 EI 2 × 2 × 105 × 45000
δ = 3.14 × 10−3 mm.

Question: A simply supported beam is subjected to a single force P at a distance b from
one of the supports. Obtain the expression for the deflection under the load
using Castigliano's theorem. How do you calculate deflection at the mid-point
of the beam?
Answer: Let load P acts at a distance b from the support B, and L be the total length of the
beam.
Pb
Re action at A, RA = , and
L
Pa
Re action at A, RB =
L
Strain energy stored by beam AB,

U = Strain energy stored by AC (U AC) + strain energy stored by BC (U BC)
2 2
a ⎛ Pb ⎞ dx b ⎛ Pa ⎞ dx P 2b2 a 3 P 2b2 a 3
= ∫
0 ⎜ L .x ⎟ 2EI + ∫0 ⎜ L .x ⎟ 2EI =
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ 6EIL2
+
6EIL2
P 2b2 a 2 P ( L − b ) b
2 22
P 2b2 a 2
= ( a + b ) = = ⎡⎣∵ ( a + b ) = L ) ⎤⎦
6EIL2 6EIL 6EIL
∂U 2P ( L − b ) b P ( L − b ) b2
2 2 2
Deflection under the load P , δ = y = = =

∂P 6EIL 3EIL
Deflection at the mid-span of the beam can be found by Macaulay's method.
By Macaulay's method, deflection at any section is given by

P (x − a)
3
3
Pbx Pb 2
EIy =
6L
−
6L
(
L − b2 x −) 6
Where y is deflection at any distance x from the support.
L
At x = , i, e. at mid-span,
2
3
⎛L ⎞
P ⎜ − a⎟
Pb × ( L / 2 )
3
Pb 2 L 2
EIy =
6L
−
6L
(
L − b2 × − ⎝
2
) 6
⎠
or, EIy =
PbL 2
−
Pb L(
2
− b 2
−
P )
( L − 2 a )
3
48 12 48
P ⎡ 2
y=
48EI ⎣ ( )
bL − 4b L2 − b2 − ( L − 2a ) ⎤
3

15. Theories of Failure
1. Introduction
• Failure: Every material has certain strength, expressed in terms of stress or strain, beyond
which it fractures or fails to carry the load.
• Failure Criterion: A criterion used to hypothesize the failure.
• Failure Theory: A Theory behind a failure criterion.
Why Need Failure Theories?

• To design structural components and calculate margin of safety.
• To guide in materials development.
• To determine weak and strong directions.
Failure Mode
• Yielding: a process of global permanent plastic deformation. Change in the geometry of the
object.
• Low stiffness: excessive elastic deflection.
• Fracture: a process in which cracks grow to the extent that the component breaks apart.
• Buckling: the loss of stable equilibrium. Compressive loading can lead to bucking in
columns.
• Creep: a high-temperature effect. Load carrying capacity drops.
Failure Modes:
Excessive elastic Yielding Fracture
deformation
1. Stretch, twist, or • Plastic deformation at room • Sudden fracture of brittle
bending temperature materials
2. Buckling • Creep at elevated • Fatigue (progressive
temperatures fracture)
3. Vibration • Yield stress is the important • Stress rupture at elevated
design factor temperatures
• Ultimate stress is the
important design factor
2. Maximum Principal Stress Theory
(W. Rankin’s Theory- 1850) – Brittle Material
The maximum principal stress criterion:

Chapter--15 Theo
ories of Fa
ailure S K Mondal’s
• ankin stated
Ra d max principal stress theory
t as folllows- a matterial fails by
y fracturing
g when the
la
argest princiipal stress exceeds the ultimate
u strrength σu in a simple tension test. That
T is, at
th
he onset of frracture, |σ1| = σu OR |σ
σ3| = σu
• Crrack will sttart at the most highly
y stressed point
p in a brittle materrial when th
he largest
prrincipal streess at that pooint reachess σu
• Crriterion hass good experrimental verrification, even though it assumess ultimate strength is
sa
ame in comp
pression and
d tension
ure surface according

Failu g to maximu
um princip
pal stress th
heory
• Th
his theory of
o yielding has
h very pooor agreemen
nt with experiment. How
wever, the theory
t has
beeen used succcessfully forr brittle matterials.
• Used to descrribe fracture of brittle materials
m su
uch as cast iron
i
• Liimitations
o Doesn
n’t distinguissh between tension or co
ompression
o Doesn
n’t depend on
o orientatiion of princcipal planess so only ap
pplicable to
o isotropic
materrials
• Generalizatioon to 3-D stress case is easy:
e
3. Maximum She ear Stress

s or Stres
ss differe
ence theo
ory
(Guest’s or Tres
sca’s Theory-1868)- Ductilee Material
The Tressca Criterio
on:
• Allso known as the Maxim
mum Shear Stress
S criterrion.
• Yiielding will occur when the maximu
um shear sttress reaches that which
h caused yie
elding in a
simple tension
n test.

C
Chapter-15 Theorie
es of Failure S K Mo
ondal’s
• Recall that yield
ding of a material
m occu
urred by slip
ppage betweeen planes oriented at 45° to
princcipal stressees. This shoould indicatee to you tha
at yielding of a material depends on the
maxiimum shear stress in the material rather
r than the um normal stress.
t maximu
If σ 1 > σ 2 > σ 3 Then
T σ1 − σ 3 = σ y
• Failu
ure by slip (yielding)
( occcurs when the
t maximu g stress, τ max exceeds th
um shearing he yield
stress τ f as deterrmined in a uniaxial ten

nsion test.
• This theory givess satisfactory

ry result for ductile ma
aterial.
Failur
re surface according
a t maximu
to um shear sttress theory
y
4 Strain Energy
4. E Th
heory (Ha
aigh’s Theory)
T
The theory associated
d with Haig
gh
T
This theory is
i based on the assump
ption that sttrains are re
ecoverable up
u to the ela
astic limit, and
a the
energy absorrbed by the material
m at failure
f up too this point is a single valued
v function indepen
ndent of
th ng it. The strrain energy per unit vollume causin
he stress system causin ng failure is equal to the
e strain
energy at thee elastic limiit in simple tension.
1 σ y2
U= ⎡σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 − 2μ (σ 1σ 2 + σ 2σ 3 + σ 3σ 1 ) ⎦ =
2 2 2
⎤
2E ⎣ 2E
σ 12 + σ 22 + σ 32 − 2μ (σ 1σ 2 + σ 2σ 3 + σ 3σ 1 ) = σ y2 For 3D-
3 stress
σ 12 + σ 22 − 2 μσ
μ 1σ 2 = σ y2 For 2D-
2 stress
5 Shear Strain
5. S En
nergy Theeory (Disttortion En
nergy The
eory or M
Mises-Hen
nky
Theory
y or Von-M
Misses Theory)-Du uctile Maaterial
V
Von-Mises C
Criterion:
• Also known as th
he Maximum
m Energy of Distortion criterion
c
• Based on a more complex vieew of the rolle of the prin
ncipal stresss differencess.

Chapter--15 Theo
ories of Fa
• n simple term
In ms, the von Mises criterrion considerrs the diameeters of all tthree Mohr’ss circles as
coontributing to
t the characterization of
o yield onse
et in isotropiic materials.
• W
When the critterion is app
plied, its rela
ationship to the uniaxia
al tensile yield strength is:
• Foor a state off plane stress ( σ3 =0)
σ 12 − σ 1σ 2 + σ 22 = σ y2
• It is often con
nvenient to express
e this as an equivalent stress, σ e:
1 ⎡ 2 2 2⎤
1/2
σe = ⎢⎣(σ1 − σ2 ) + (σ2 − σ3 ) + (σ3 − σ1 ) ⎥⎦
2
1 ⎡ 2 2 2 2 2 2 ⎤
1/2
or σe = ⎢⎣(σ x − σ y ) + (σ y − σ z ) + (σ x − σ z ) + 6(
6 τ xy + τ yz + τ zx )⎥⎦
2
• n formulatin
In ng this failurre theory wee used generalized Hooke's law for an isotropicc material
soo the theory
y given is only appliccable to tho
ose materials but it ca
an be generalized to
an
nisotropic materials.
m
• Th
he von Misees theory is a little lesss conservativ
ve than the Tresca theoory but in most
m cases
th
here is little difference in
i their pred
dictions of fa
ailure. Mostt experimenttal results te
end to fall
on
n or between
n these two theories.
t
• It gives very good
g result in
i ductile material.
m
6. Maximum Prin
ncipal Strrain Theo
ory (St. Ve
enant The
eory)
According
g to this theeory, yieldin
ng will occurr when the maximum principal sttrain just ex
xceeds the
strain at the tensile yield point in either sim n or compreession. If ε1 and ε2 are maximum
mple tension
and minim
mum princip
pal strains correspondin
c ng to σ1 and σ2, in the lim
miting case

C
Chapter-15 Theorie
ondal’s
7 Mohr’s theory- Brittle

7. B Ma
aterial
M
Mohr’s Theo
ory
• Mohrr’s theory iss used to prredict the fracture
fr of a material having
h diffeerent properrties in
tensiion and comp
pression. Crriterion mak
kes use of Mo
ohr’s circle
• In Mohr’s
M circlee, we note that τ depends on σ, or τ = f(σ
σ). Note thee vertical liine PC
repreesents statess of stress on planes wiith same σ but g τ , which m
b differing means the weakest
w
planee is the one with
w mum τ , poin
maxim nt P.
• Pointts on the outer
o circle are the weeakest planes. On thesse planes th
he maximu
um and
minim
mum princip
pal stresses are sufficien
nt to decide whether or not failure w
will occur.
• Expeeriments aree done on a given mateerial to dete
ermine the states of strress that re
esult in
failurre. Each sta
ate defines a Mohr’s ciircle. If the
e data are obtained
o froom simple tension,
simple compression, and purre shear, the three resu
ulting circless are adequa
ate to constrruct an
enve
elope (AB & A’B’)
• Mohrr’s envelope thus represents the locu
us of all possible failuree states.
H
Higher shearr stresses arre to the lefft of origin, since most brittle mateerials have higher stren
ngth in
compression
8 Comparison
8.
A comparison
n among thee different failure
f theorries can be made
m by sup
perposing th
he yield surfa
faces as
shown in figu
ure

Chapter--15 Theo
ories of Fa

Chapter-15 Theories of Failure S K Mondal’s
Maximum Shear stress or Stress Difference Theory

GATE-1. Match 4 correct pairs between list I and List II for the questions [GATE-1994]
List-I List-II
(a) Hooke's law 1. Planetary motion
(b) St. Venant's law 2. Conservation Energy
(c) Kepler's laws 3. Elasticity
(d) Tresca's criterion 4. Plasticity
(e) Coulomb's laws 5. Fracture
(f) Griffith's law 6. Inertia
GATE-2. Which theory of failure will you use for aluminium components under steady
loading? [GATE-1999]
(a) Principal stress theory (b) Principal strain theory
(c) Strain energy theory (d) Maximum shear stress theory
GATE-2(i) An axially loaded bar is subjected to a normal stress of 173 MPa. The shear
stress in the bar is [CE: GATE-2007]
(a) 75 MPa (b) 86.5 MPa (c) 100 MPa (d) 122.3 MPa
Shear Strain Energy Theory (Distortion energy theory)

GATE-3. According to Von-Mises' distortion energy theory, the distortion energy under
three dimensional stress state is represented by [GATE-2006]
GATE-4. A small element at the critical section of a component is in a bi-axial state of

stress with the two principal stresses being 360 MPa and 140 MPa. The
maximum working stress according to Distortion Energy Theory is:
[GATE-1997]
GATE-5. The homogeneous state of stress for a metal part undergoing plastic
deformation is
⎛ 10 5 0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
T = ⎜ 5 20 0 ⎟
⎜ 0 0 −10 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

where the stress component values are in MPa. Using von Mises yield criterion,
the value of estimated shear yield stress, in MPa is
(a) 9.50 (b) 16.07 (c) 28.52 (d) 49.41 [GATE-2012]
GATE-6. Match the following criteria of material failure, under biaxial stresses σ 1 and
σ 2 and yield stress σ y , with their corresponding graphic representations:
[GATE-2011]
P. Maximum-normal-stress criterion L.
σ2
σy
σ1
–σy σy
–σy
Q. Minimum-distortion-energy criterion M.
σ2
σy
σ1
–σy σy
–σy
R. Maximum shear-stress criterion N.
σ2
σy
σ1
–σy σy
–σy
(a) P – M, Q – L, R – N (b) P – N, Q – M, R – L
(c) P – M, Q – N, R – L (d) P – N, Q – L, R – M
Maximum Principal Stress Theory

IES-1. Match List-I (Theory of Failure) with List-II (Predicted Ratio of Shear Stress to
Direct Stress at Yield Condition for Steel Specimen) and select the correct
answer using the code given below the Lists: [IES-2006]
List-I List-II
A. Maximum shear stress theory 1. 1·0
B. Maximum distortion energy theory 2. 0·577
C. Maximum principal stress theory 3. 0·62
D. Maximum principal strain theory 4. 0·50
(a) 1 2 4 3 (b) 4 3 1 2
(c) 1 3 4 2 (d) 4 2 1 3

C
Chapter-15 Theorie
ondal’s
IES-2. From a tension test, the
F t yield sttrength of steel is fou und to be 2
200 N/mm2. Using
a factor of safety
s of 2 and applying maxim mum princip pal stress ttheory of faailure,
the permisssible stresss in the steeel shaft sub
bjected to torque
t willl be: [IES S-2000]
a) 50 N/mm2
(a (b
b) 57.7 N/mmm2 (c) 86.6. N//mm2 (d) 100 N/m
mm2
IES-3. A circular solid shafft is subjec cted to a bending

b m
moment of 400 kNm and a
twisting mo oment of 300
3 kNm. OnO the bas sis of the maximum principal stress
theory, thee direct sttress is σ and accor rding to th he maximuum shear stress
theory, the shear stress is τ . The
e ratio σ/ τ is: S-2000]
[IES
1 3 9 11
(a ) (b) (c) (d)
5 9 5 6
IES-4. A transmisssion shaft subjected to t bendingg loads musst be desig

gned on the
e basis
o
of [IES
S-1996]
(aa) Maximum m normal strress theory
(bb) Maximum m shear stress theory
(cc) Maximum m normal strress and maxximum shea
ar stress theories
(dd) Fatigue strength
IES-5. Design of sh
D hafts madee of brittle materials
m is
i based on n [IESS-1993]
(a
a) Guest's th
heory (b) Rankine’s
R theeory (c) Stt. Venant's theory
t (d) Voon Mises the
eory
IES-5a Assertion (A):

A ( A castt iron speciimen shall fail due too shear wheen subjected to a
compressive load. [IES-2010]
R
Reason ngth of cast iron in compression is more
(R):: Shear stren m than h
half its comp
pressive
strength.
(aa) Both A an nd R are inddividually tru
ue and R is the correct explanation
e of A
(bb) Both A an nd R are inddividually tru
ue but R is NOT
N the corrrect explana
ation of A
(cc) A is true but
b R is false
(dd) A is false but R is tru
ue
M
Maximu
um She
ear strress or Stress
s Differrence T
Theory
y
IES-6. Which one of
W o the follo
owing figur
res represe
ents the ma
aximum she
ear stress theory
t
o Tresca cr
or riterion? [IES
S-1999]
IES-7. According to
A t the max ximum shea ar stress th
heory of fa
ailure, permmissible tw
wisting
m
moment in a circular r shaft is 'T'. The peermissible twisting m moment will the
s
same shaft as per the maximum principal stress
s theoory of failur
re will be:
[IES-1998: ISROO-2008]
(a
a) T/2 (b) T (c) 2T (d) 2T
IES-8. Permissible
P e bending moment in i a circular shaft under
u pur
re bendingg is M
a
according to maxim mum princ cipal stresss theory of failure e. Accordiing to
m
maximum s
shear stresss theory of
o failure, the permiissible ben
nding momment in
the same sh
haft is: [IES
S-1995]
a) 1/2 M
(a (b) M (c) 2M (d) 2M
IES-9. A rod havin ng cross-seectional ar rea 100 x 101 - 6 m2 is subjected

s tto a tensilee load.
B
Based on th
he Tresca failure
f crite
erion, if the uniaxial yield stresss of the ma aterial
iss 200 MPa, the failure
e load is: [IES
S-2001]
(a
a) 10 kN N
(b) 20 kN (c) 100 kN (d) 200 kN
k

IES-10. A cold roller steel shaft is designed on the basis of maximum shear stress
theory. The principal stresses induced at its critical section are 60 MPa and - 60
MPa respectively. If the yield stress for the shaft material is 360 MPa, the
factor of safety of the design is: [IES-2002]
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 6
IES-11. A shaft is subjected to a maximum bending stress of 80 N/mm2 and maximum

shearing stress equal to 30 N/mm2 at a particular section. If the yield point in
tension of the material is 280 N/mm2, and the maximum shear stress theory of
failure is used, then the factor of safety obtained will be: [IES-1994]
(a) 2.5 (b) 2.8 (c) 3.0 (d) 3.5
IES-12. For a two-dimensional state stress ( σ 1 > σ 2 , σ 1 > 0, σ 2 < 0 ) the designed values
are most conservative if which one of the following failure theories were used?
[IES-1998]
(a) Maximum principal strain theory (b) Maximum distortion energy theory
(c) Maximum shear stress theory (d) Maximum principal stress theory

IES-13. Who postulated the maximum distortion energy theory? [IES-2008]
(a) Tresca (b) Rankine (c) St. Venant (d) Mises-Henky
IES-14. Who postulated the maximum distortion energy theory? [IES-2008]

(a) Tresca (b) Rankine (c) St. Venant (d) Mises-Henky
IES-15. The maximum distortion energy theory of failure is suitable to predict the
failure of which one of the following types of materials? [IES-2004]
(a) Brittle materials (b) Ductile materials (c) Plastics (d) Composite materials
IES-16. If σy is the yield strength of a particular material, then the distortion energy
theory is expressed as [IES-1994]
(σ 1 − σ 2 ) + ( σ 2 − σ 3 ) + (σ 3 − σ 1 )
2 2 2
(a) = 2σ y2
(b) (σ 2
1 − σ 22 + σ 32 ) − 2 μ (σ 1σ 2 + σ 2σ 3 + σ 3σ 1 ) = σ y2
(σ 1 − σ 2 ) + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) + (σ 3 − σ 1 ) = 3σ y2
2 2 2
(c)
(d) (1 − 2 μ )(σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 ) = 2 (1 + μ ) σ y
2 2
IES-17. If a shaft made from ductile material is subjected to combined bending and
twisting moments, calculations based on which one of the following failure
theories would give the most conservative value? [IES-1996]
(a) Maximum principal stress theory (b) Maximum shear stress theory.
(d Maximum strain energy theory (d) Maximum distortion energy theory.
Maximum Principal Strain Theory

IES-18. Match List-I (Failure theories) with List-II (Figures representing boundaries of
these theories) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the
Lists: [IES-1997]
List-I List-II
A. Maximum principal stress
theory

B. Maximum shear stress theory
C. Maximum octahedral stress

theory
D. Maximum shear strain

energy theory
(a) 2 1 3 4 (b) 2 4 3 1
(c) 4 2 3 1 (d) 2 4 1 3
Maximum Principal Stress Theory

IAS-1. For σ1 ≠ σ 2 and σ3 = 0, what is the physical boundary for Rankine failure
theory? [IAS-2004]
(a) A rectangle (b) An ellipse (c) A square (d) A parabola

1. Experiments have shown that the distortion-energy theory gives an
accurate prediction about failure of a ductile component than any other
theory of failure.
2. According to the distortion-energy theory, the yield strength in shear is less
than the yield strength in tension.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

1. Distortion-energy theory is in better agreement for predicting the failure of
ductile materials.
2. Maximum normal stress theory gives good prediction for the failure of
brittle materials.
3. Module of elasticity in tension and compression are assumed to be different
stress analysis of curved beams.
Which of these statements is/are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 1 and 3
IAS-4. Which one of the following graphs represents Mises yield criterion? [IAS-
1996]

Maximum Principal Strain Theory

IAS-5. Given that the principal stresses σ1 > σ 2 > σ 3 and σe is the elastic limit stress in
simple tension; which one of the following must be satisfied such that the
elastic failure does not occur in accordance with the maximum principal strain
theory? [IAS-2004]
σe⎛σ σ σ ⎞ σe⎛σ σ σ ⎞
(a) <⎜ 1 −μ 2 −μ 3 ⎟ (b) >⎜ 1 −μ 2 −μ 3 ⎟
E ⎝E E E⎠ E ⎝E E E⎠
σ ⎛σ σ σ ⎞ σ ⎛σ σ σ ⎞
(c) e > ⎜ 1 + μ 2 + μ 3 ⎟ (d) e < ⎜ 1 + μ 2 − μ 3 ⎟
E ⎝E E E⎠ E ⎝E E E⎠
OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (a) - 3, (c) -1, (d) -5, (e) -2
St. Venant's law: Maximum principal strain theory
GATE-2. Ans. (d) Aluminium is a ductile material so use maximum shear stress theory
GATE-2(i) Ans. (b)
σ − σ2
Shear stress = 1
2
173 − 0
∴ Shear stress = = 86.5 MPa
2
GATE-3. Ans. (c)
Vs =
12G
1
{ 2 2 2
}
(σ 1 − σ 2 ) + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) + (σ 3 − σ 1 ) Where E = 2G(1 + μ ) simplify and get result.
GATE-4. Ans. (c) According to distortion energy theory if maximum stress (σt) then
or σ t2 = σ 12 + σ 22 − σ 1σ 2
or σ t2 = 3602 + 1402 − 360 × 140
or σ t = 314 MPa
GATE-5. Ans. (b)
We know that equivalent stress (σ e )
=
1
2
{(σ − σ ) + (σ − σ ) + (σ − σ ) + 6 (τ + τ + τ )}
x y
2
y z
2
z x
2 2
xy
2
yz
2
zx
=
2
1
{(10 − 20) + ( 20 − ( −10)) + ( −10 − 20) + 6 (5 + 0 + 0)}
2 2 2 2
= 27.84 MPa
σy σe 27.84
Therefore Yield shear stress (τ y ) = = = = 16.07 MPa
3 3 3
GATE-6. Ans. (c)
IES-1. Ans. (d)
IES-2. Ans. (d) For pure shear τ = ±σ x

IES-3. Ans. (c) σ =
16
π d3 (
M + M2 + T 2 ) 16
(
and τ = 3 M2 + T 2
πd
)
σ M + M2 + T 2 4 + 42 + 32 9
Therefore = = =
τ M2 + T 2 4 2 + 32 5
IES-4. Ans. (a)
IES-5. Ans. (b) Rankine's theory or maximum principle stress theory is most commonly used for
brittle materials.
IES-5a Ans. (d) A cast iron specimen shall fail due to crushing when subjected to a compressive
load.
A cast iron specimen shall fail due to tension when subjected to a tensile load.
IES-6. Ans. (b)
16T σ yt
IES-7. Ans. (d) Given τ = = principal stresses for only this shear stress are
π d3 2
σ 1,2 = τ 2 = ±τ maximum principal stress theory of failure gives
16 ( 2T )
max[σ 1,σ 2 ] = σ yt =
π d3
IES-8. Ans. (b) σ =
16
πd3 (
M + M2 + T 2 ) 16
πd
and τ =
3 (
M2 + T 2 put T = 0 )
⎛ 32M ⎞
32M 16M′ σ yt ⎜⎝ π d3 ⎟⎠ 16M
or σ yt = and τ = = = = ThereforeM′ = M
π d3 π d3 2 2 π d3
IES-9. Ans. (b) Tresca failure criterion is maximum shear stress theory.
P sin 2θ P σ yt
We know that,τ = or τ max = = or P = σ yt × A
A 2 2A 2
IES-10. Ans. (b)
2
⎛ 80 − 0 ⎞
⎟ + 30 = 50 N/mm
2 2
IES-11. Ans. (b) Maximum shear stress = ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠
σy 280
According to maximum shear stress theory, τ = ; ∴ F .S . = = 2.8
2 2 × 50
IES-12. Ans. (c)
Graphical comparison of different failure theories

Above diagram shows that σ 1 > 0, σ 2 < 0 will occur at 4th quadrant and most
conservative design will be maximum shear stress theory.
IES-13. Ans. (d)
IES-14. Ans. (d)
Maximum shear stress theory → Tresca
Maximum principal stress theory → Rankine
Maximum principal strain theory → St. Venant
Maximum shear strain energy theory → Mises – Henky

IES-15. Ans. (b)
IES-16. Ans. (a)
IES-17. Ans. (b)
IES-18. Ans. (d)
IAS
IAS-1. Ans. (c) Rankine failure theory or
Maximum principle stress theory.
σy
IAS-2. Ans. (c) τy = = 0.577σ y
3
IAS-3. Ans. (b)
IAS-4. Ans. (d)
IAS-5. Ans. (b) Strain at yield point>principal strain
σe σ1 σ2 σ3
> −μ −μ
E E E E

Q. The stress state at a point in a body is plane with
σ1 = 60N / mm 2 & σ 2 = −36 N / mm 2
If the allowable stress for the material in simple tension or compression is
100 N/mm2 calculate the value of factor of safety with each of the following
criteria for failure
(i) Max Stress Criteria
(ii) Max Shear Stress Criteria
(iii) Max strain criteria
(iv) Max Distortion energy criteria [10 Marks]
Ans. The stress at a point in a body is plane

2 2
σ1 = 60 N / mm σ2 = −36 N / mm
Allowable stress for the material in simple tension or compression is 100 N/mm2
Find out factor of safety for
(i) Maximum stress Criteria : - In this failure point occurs when max principal stress
reaches the limiting strength of material.
Therefore. Let F.S factor of safety
σ ( allowable )
σ1 =
F.S
100 N / mm2
F.S = = 1.67 Ans.
60 N / mm2
(ii) Maximum Shear stress criteria : - According to this failure point occurs at a point in a
member when maximum shear stress reaches to shear at yield point
σyt
γ max = σ yt = 100 N / mm2
2 F.S
σ1 − σ2 60 + 36 96
γ max = = = = 48 N / mm2
2 2 2
100
48 =
2 × F.S
100 100
F.S = = = 1.042
2 × 48 96
F.S = 1.042 Ans.
(iv) Maximum Distortion energy criteria ! – In this failure point occurs at a point in a
member when distortion strain energy per unit volume in a bi – axial system reaches the
limiting distortion strain energy at the of yield
2
⎛ σyt ⎞
σ12 + σ22 − σ1 × σ2 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ F.S ⎠
2
⎛ 100 ⎞
60 + ( 36 ) − ×60 × −36 = ⎜
2 2
⎟
⎝ F.S ⎠
F.S = 1.19

Question: A mild steel shaft of 50 mm diameter is subjected to a beading moment of 1.5
kNm and torque T. If the yield point of steel in tension is 210 MPa, find the
maximum value of the torque without causing yielding of the shaft material
according to
(i) Maximum principal stress theory
(ii) Maximum shear stress theory.
32M
Answer: We know that, Maximum bending stress (σb ) =
πd 3
16T
and Maximum shear stress (τ ) =
πd 3
Principal stresses are given by:
2
σ ⎛σ ⎞ 16 ⎡M ± M 2 + T 2 ⎤
σ1,2 = b ± ⎜⎜ b ⎟⎟⎟ + τ 2 = ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ πd 3

(i ) According to Maximum principal stress theory
Maximum principal stress=Maximum stress at elastic limit (σ y )
16 ⎡M + M 2 + T 2 ⎤ = 210 ×106
or ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
πd 3
16 ⎡1500 + 15002 + T 2 ⎤ = 210 ×106
or 3 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
π (0.050)
or T = 3332 Nm = 3.332 kNm
(ii ) According to Maximum shear stress theory
σ1 − σ 2 σ y
τmax = =
2 2
or , σ1 − σ 2 = σ y
16
or , 2× 3
M 2 + T 2 = 210 ×106
πd
or , T = 2096 N m = 2.096 kNm

Question: Illustrate the graphical comparison of following theories of failures for two-
dimensional stress system:
(i) Maximum normal stress theory
(ii) Maximum shear stress theory
(iii) Distortion energy theory
Answer:

Question: State the Von- Mises's theory. Also give the naturally expression.
Answer: According to this theory yielding would occur when total distortion energy absorbed
per unit volume due to applied loads exceeds the distortion energy absorbed per unit
volume at the tensile yield point. The failure criterion is
2 2 2
(σ1 − σ 2 ) + (σ 2 − σ3 ) + (σ3 − σ1) = 2σ 2y
[symbols has usual meaning]

Chapter-15
C Theorie
ondal’s
C
Conventionnal Questiion ESE-2
2002
Q
Question: Derive an
n expressio
on for the distortion
n energy pe er unit vollume for a body
subjected he σ 1 and σ 2 with the third
d to a unifform stress state, giiven by th
principal stress σ3 being
b zero..
A
Answer: According to this theoory yielding
g would occu ur when tottal distortion
n energy ab
bsorbed
per unit voolume due to
t applied looads exceedss the distorttion energy absorbed per unit
volume at the tensile yield point. Total strain
n energy ET and strain energy for volume
v
change EV can be givenn as
Substitutin
ng strains in
n terms of sttresses the distortion
d nergy can be given as
en
At the tenssile yield poiint, σ1 = σy , σ2 = σ3 = 0 which

w gives
The failuree criterion iss thus obtain

ned by equatting Ed and Edy , which gives
In a 2-D sittuation if σ3 = 0, the critterion reducces to
C
Convention
nal Questiion GATE--1996
Q
Question: A cube of 5mm side is loaded as
a shown inn figure bellow.
(i) Dete
ermine the principal stresses
s σ1,σ2 ,σ3 .
(ii) Will the cube yield
y if thee yield stre
ength of th
he materiall is 70 MPa
a? Use
Von--Mises theo ory.
A
Answer: Yield stren
ngth of the material
m σet = 70 MPa = 70 MN/m2 or
o 70 N/mm2.

(i) Principal stress σ1, σ2 , σ3 :
2000 1000
σx = = 80 N/mm2 ; σy = = 40 N/mm2
5×5 5×5
500 800
σz = = 20 N/mm2 ; τ xy = = 32 N/mm2
5×5 5×5
σ x + σy ⎛ σ x − σ y ⎞⎟ 80 + 40
2
⎛ 80 − 40 ⎞⎟
± ⎜⎜⎜ ⎜⎜⎜
2
⎟ + τ xy ⎟ + (32)
2
σ= = ±
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠⎟⎟ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠⎟
2 2
= 60 ± (20) + (32) = 97.74, 22.26
∴ σ1 = 97.74N/mm2 , or 97.74 MPa
and σ2 = 22.96N/mm2 or 22.96 MPa
σ3 = σz = 20N/mm2 or 22 MPa
(ii) Will the cube yieldor not?
According to Von-Mises yield criteria, yielding will occur if
2 2 2
(σ1 − σ2 ) + (σ2 − σ3 ) + ( σ3 − σ1) ≥ 2σyt2
2 2 2
Now (σ1 − σ2 ) + (σ2 − σ3 ) + ( σ3 − σ1)
2 2 2
= (97.74 − 22.96) + (22.96 − 20) + (20 − 97.74)
= 11745.8 −− − (i )
2
and, 2σyt2 = 2 ×(70) = 9800 −− − (ii )
Since 11745.8 > 9800 so yielding will occur.

Question: A thin-walled circular tube of wall thickness t and mean radius r is subjected
to an axial load P and torque T in a combined tension-torsion experiment.
(i) Determine the state of stress existing in the tube in terms of P and T.
(ii) Using Von-Mises - Henky failure criteria show that failure takes place
σ 2 + 3τ 2 = σ0 , where σ0 is the yield stress in uniaxial tension,
when
σ and τ are respectively the axial and torsional stresses in the tube.
Answer: Mean radius of the tube = r,

Wall thickness of the tube = t,
Axial load = P, and
Torque = T.
(i) The state of stress in the tube:
P
Due to axial load, the axial stress in the tube σ x =
2πrt
Due to torque, shear stress,
Tr Tr T
τ xy = = =
J 2πr t 2πr 3 t
3
π
J=
2
{ 4
}
(r + t ) − r 4 = 2πr 3t -neglecting t 2 higher power of t.
P T
∴ The state of stress in the tube is, σ x = , σy = 0, τ xy =
2πrt 2πr 3 t
(ii) Von Mises-Henky failure in tension for 2-dimensional stress is

2 2 2
σ = σ + σ − σ1σ2
0 1 2
2
σ x + σy ⎛ σ − σ y ⎞⎟
σ1 = + ⎜⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ + τ xy
2
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟
2
σ x + σy ⎛ σ − σy ⎞⎟
σ2 = − ⎜⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ + τ xy
2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟
σx σ x2 2
In this case, σ1 = + + τ xy , and
2 4
σx σ x2
σ2 =
2
−
4
2
+ τ xy (∵ σy = 0)
2 2 2
⎡σ σ x2 ⎤ ⎡σ 2 ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎡ 2 ⎤
∴ σ = ⎢⎢ x +
2 2 ⎥
+ τ xy + ⎢ x − σx + τ 2 ⎥ − ⎢ σx + σx + τ 2 ⎥ ⎢ σx − σx + τ 2 ⎥
0 ⎥ ⎢2 xy ⎥ ⎢2 xy ⎥ ⎢ xy ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 4 ⎥⎦
⎡ σ2 σ2 σ σ2 ⎤ ⎡σ2 σ2 2 ⎤
= ⎢⎢ x + x + τ xy2
+ 2. x . x + τ xy 2 ⎥
+ ⎢ x + x + τ 2 + 2. σ x . σ x + τ 2 ⎥
⎥ ⎢4 xy xy ⎥
⎢⎣ 4 4 2 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 4 2 4 ⎥⎦
⎡ σ2 σ2 ⎤
− ⎢ x − x − τ xy 2 ⎥
⎢4 4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
2 2
= σ x + 3τ xy
σ0 = σ x2 + 3τ xy
2

Question: Find the maximum principal stress developed in a cylindrical shaft. 8 cm in
diameter and subjected to a bending moment of 2.5 kNm and a twisting
moment of 4.2 kNm. If the yield stress of the shaft material is 300 MPa.
Determine the factor of safety of the shaft according to the maximum
shearing stress theory of failure.
Answer: Given: d = 8 cm = 0.08 m; M = 2.5 kNm = 2500 Nm; T = 4.2 kNm = 4200 Nm
σyield (σyt ) = 300 MPa = 300 MN/m2
2 2
Equivalent torque, Te = M 2 + T 2 = (2.5) + (4.2) = 4.888 kNm
Maximum shear stress developed in the shaft,
16T 16 × 4.888 ×103
τmax = = ×10−6 MN/m2 = 48.62MN/m2
πd 3 π ×(0.08)
3
300
Permissible shear stress = = 150MN/m2
2
150
∴ Factor of safety = = 3.085
48.62

16. Rive
eted and Weld
ded Joint
J
Th
heory at
a a Glance
G e (for IES,
I G
GATE, PSU)

Chapter--16 Riveted
d and Welde
ed Joint S K Mondal’s

Chapter-16 Riveted and Welded Joint S K Mondal’s
Failure of riveted joint

GATE-1. Bolts in the flanged end of pressure vessel are usually pre-tensioned Indicate
which of the following statements is NOT TRUE? [GATE-1999]
(a) Pre-tensioning helps to seal the pressure vessel
(b) Pre-tensioning increases the fatigue life of the bolts
(c) Pre-tensioning reduces the maximum tensile stress in the bolts
(d) Pre-tensioning helps to reduce the effect of pressure pulsations in the pressure vessel
Statement for Linked Answers and Questions Q2 and Q3

A steel bar of 10 × 50 mm is cantilevered with two M 12 bolts (P and Q) to support a static
load of 4 kN as shown in the figure.
GATE-2. The primary and secondary shear loads on bolt P, respectively, are:
[GATE-2008]
(A) 2 kN, 20 kN (B) 20 kN, 2kN (C) 20kN,0kN (D) 0kN, 20 kN
GATE-3. The resultant stress on bolt P is closest to [GATE-2008]

(A) 132 MPa (B) 159 MPa (C) 178 MPa (D) 195 MPa
GATE-3(i) Two threaded bolts A and B of same material and length are subjected to
identical tensile load. If the elastic strain energy stored in bolt A is 4 times that
of bolt B and the mean diameter of bolt A is 12 mm, the mean diameter of bolt B
in mm is [GATE-2013]
(a) 16 (b) 24 (c) 36 (d) 48
GATE-4. A bolted joint is shown below. The maximum shear stress, in MPa, in the bolts
at A and B, respectively are: [GATE-2007]

Chapter--16 Riveted
d and Welde
ed Joint S K Mondal’s
(a) 242.6, 42.5 (b) 42

25.5, 242.6 (c) 42.5, 42.5 42.6, 242.6
(d) 24
GATE-5. A bracke et (shown in

i figure) is
i rigidly mounted
m on
n wall usinng four rive
ets. Each
rivet is 6 mm in dia
ameter and
d has an efffective leng
gth of 12 m
mm. [GA
ATE-2010]
Direct sh
hear stress (in MPa) in
i the mostt heavily lo
oaded rivet is:
(a) 4.4 (b) 8.8
8 (c) 17.6 (d
d) 35.2
Commo
on Data fo
or Questiions GAT
TE-5(i) an
nd GATE-5
5(ii):
A single rive
eted lap joiint of two similar
s plates as show
wn in the fiigure below
w has the
ollowing ge
fo eometrical and material details.
width of the
w e plate w = 200 mm, th hickness off the plate t = 5 mm, n
number of rivets
r n=
3,, diameter of
o the rivett dr , = 10 mm,
m diametter of the riivet hole dh = 11 mm,

allowable tensile stress of the plate σp = 200 MPa, allowable shear stress of the
rivet σs, = 100 MPa and allowable bearing stress of the rivet σc, = 150 MPa.
GATE-5(i).If the rivets are to be designed to avoid crushing failure, the maximum
permissible load P in kN is [GATE-2013]
(a) 7.50 (b) 1 5.00 (c) 22.50 (d) 30.00
GATE-5(ii). If the plates are to be designed to avoid tearing failure, the maximum
permissible load P in kN is [GATE-2013]
(a) 83 (b) 125 (c) 167 (d) 501
Efficiency of a riveted joint

GATE-6. If the ratio of the diameter of rivet hole to the pitch of rivets is 0.25, then the
tearing efficiency of the joint is: [GATE-1996]
(a) 0.50 (b) 0.75 (c) 0.25 (d) 0.87
GATE-7. A manufacturer of rivets claims that the failure load in shear of his product is
500 ± 25 N. This specification implies that [GATE-1992]
(a) No rivet is weaker than 475 N and stronger than 525 N
(b) The standard deviation of strength of random sample of rivets is 25 N
(c) There is an equal probability of failure strength to be either 475 Nor 525 N
(d) There is approximately two-to-one chance that the strength of a rivet lies between
475 N to 525 N

IES-1. An eccentrically loaded
riveted joint is shown with 4
rivets at P, Q, R and S.
Which of the rivets are the
most loaded?
(a) P and Q
(b) Q and R
(c) Rand S
(d) Sand P
[IES-2002]
IES-2. A riveted joint has been designed to

support an eccentric load P. The load
generates value of F1 equal to 4 kN and F2
equal to 3 kN. The cross-sectional area of
each rivet is 500 mm2. Consider the
following statements:
1. The stress in the rivet is 10 N / mm2
2. The value of eccentricity L is 100 mm
3. The value of load P is 6 kN
4. The resultant force in each rivet is 6 kN
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 3 [IES-2003]

IES-3. If permissible stress in
plates of joint through a
pin as shown in the
given figure is 200 MPa,
then the width w will be
(a) 15 mm
(b) 18 mm
(c) 20 mm
(d) 25 mm
[IES-1999]
IES-4. For the bracket bolted as

shown in the figure, the bolts
will develop
(a) Primary tensile stresses and
secondary shear stresses
(b) Primary shear stresses and
secondary shear stresses
(c) Primary shear stresses and
secondary tensile stresses
(d) Primary tensile stresses and
secondary compressive
stresses
[IES-2000]
IES-5. Assertion (A): In pre-loaded bolted joints, there is a tendency for failure to
occur in the gross plate section rather than through holes. [IES-2000]
Reason (R): The effect of pre-loading is to create sufficient friction between the
assembled parts so that no slippage occurs.
IES-6. Two rigid plates are clamped by means of bolt and nut with an initial force N.
After tightening, a separating force P (P < N) is applied to the lower plate,
which in turn acts on nut. The tension in the bolt after this is: [IES-1996]
(a) (N + P) (b) (N – P) (c) P (d) N
Efficiency of a riveted joint

IES-7. Which one of the following structural joints with 10 rivets and same size of
plate and material will be the most efficient? [IES-1994]

IES-8. The most efficient riveted joint possible is one which would be as strong in
tension, shear and bearing as the original plates to be joined. But this can
never be achieved because: [IES-1993]
(a) Rivets cannot be made with the same material
(b) Rivets are weak in compression
(c) There should be at least one hole in the plate reducing its strength
(d) Clearance is present between the plate and the rivet
Advantages and disadvantages of welded joints

IES-9. Assertion (A): In a boiler shell with riveted construction, the longitudinal scam
is, jointed by butt joint. [IES-2001]
Reason (R): A butt joint is stronger than a lap joint in a riveted construction.

IAS-1. Two identical planks of
wood are connected by
bolts at a pitch distance
of 20 cm. The beam is
subjected to a bending
moment of 12 kNm, the
shear force in the bolts
will be:
(a) Zero (b) 0.1 kN
(c) 0.2 kN (d) 4 kN
[IAS-2001]
IAS-1. Ans. (a)
IAS-2. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given
below the Lists: [IAS-2007]
List-I List-II
(Stress Induced) (Situation/ Location)
A. Membrane stress 1. Neutral axis of beam
B. Torsional shear stress 2. Closed coil helical spring under axial load
C. Double shear stress 3. Cylindrical shell subject to fluid pressure
D. Maximum shear stress 4. Rivets of double strap butt joint
(a) 3 1 4 2 (b) 4 2 3 1
(c) 3 2 4 1 (d) 4 1 3 2
IAS-2. Ans. (c)
OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (c)
4 kN
GATE-2. Ans. (a) Primary (Direct) Shear load = = 2k N
2
GATE-3. Ans. (b)

GATE-3(i). Ans. (b)
GATE-4. Ans. (a)
GATE-5. Ans. (b)
1000 F 250
F= = 250 N and z= = = 8.8MPa
4 A π
(6) 2
4
GATE-5(i). Ans. (c)
GATE-5(ii). Ans. (c)
GATE-6. Ans. (b)
GATE-7. Ans. (a)
IES
IES-1. Ans. (b)
IES-2. Ans. (d)
P = 2F2 = 2 x 3 = 6 kN
and P.L = F1l + F1l = 2 F1l
or 6 L = 2 × 4l = 8l
L 8
or =
l 6
Resultant force on rivet,

R = F12 +F22 +2F1F2 cosθ
( 4 ) + ( 3)
2 2
= + 2 × 4 × 3cos θ
= 5 kN
∴ Shear stress on rivet,

R 5×103
τ= = =10 N/mm 2
Area 500
IES-3. Ans. (a) (w – 10) × 2 × 10-6 × 200 × 106 = 2000 N; or w = 15 mm.
IES-4. Ans. (a)
IES-5. Ans. (a)
IES-6. Ans. (a)
IES-7. Ans. (b)
IES-8. Ans. (c) Riveted joint can't be as strong as original plates, because there should be at least
one hole in the plate reducing its strength.
IES-9. Ans. (c)
IAS-1. Ans. (a)
IAS-2. Ans. (c)


Question: The longitudinal joint of a thin cylindrical pressure vessel, 6 m internal
diameter and 16 mm plate thickness, is double riveted lap point with no
staggering between the rows. The rivets are of 20 mm nominal (diameter with
a pitch of 72 mm. What is the efficiency of the joint and what would be the
safe pressure inside the vessel? Allowable stresses for the plate and rivet
materials are; 145 MN/m2 in shear and 230 MN/m2 in bearing. Take rivet hole
diameter as 1.5 mm more than the rivet diameter.
Answer: Given: Diameter of rivet = 20 mm
Diameter of hole = 20 + 1.5 = 21.5 mm
Diameter the pressure vessel, d = 6 m
Thickness of the plate, t = 16 mm
Type of the joint: Double riveted lap joint
Allowable stresses:
σ 1 = 145 MN / m2 ; τ = 120 MN / m2 ; σ c = 230 MN / m2
⎡ 72 − ( 2 × 21.5 ) ⎤ 16
Strength of plate in tearing/pitch, Rt = ⎢ ⎥× × 145
⎢⎣ 1000 ⎥⎦ 1000
= 0.06728 MN
2
π
⎛ 20 ⎞
Strength of rivert in tearing/pitch,Rs = 2 × × ⎜ × 120
4 ⎝ 1000 ⎟⎠
= 0.0754 MN
⎛ 20 16 ⎞
Strength of plate in crushing/pitch,Rs = 2 × ⎜ × ⎟ × 230
⎝ 1000 1000 ⎠
= 0.1472 MN
From the above three modes of failure it can be seen that the weakest element is the
plate as it will have tear failure at 0.06728 MN/pitch load itself.
Stresses acting on the plate for an inside pressure of pN/m2 is shown in figure.
pd p×6
Hoop stress = = = 187.5 p
2t 2 × ( 0.016 )
pd p×6
Longitudinal stress = = = 93.75 p
4t 4 × ( 0.016 )
pd
Maximum principal stress acting on the plate =
2t
only ( i, e.187.5 p ) as there is no shear stress.

0.06728
or 187.5 p ≤ ≤ 145
⎡ 72 − ( 2 × 21.5 ) ⎤
( 0.016 ) × ⎢ 1000 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
or p ≤ 0.7733 MN / m2 or 0.7733 MPa
Rt 0.06728
η jo int = = = 0.4028 = 40.28%
p.t.σ t ( 0.072 ) × ( 0.016 ) × 145

Question: Determine the shaft diameter and bolt size for a marine flange-coupling
transmitting 3.75 MW at 150 r.p.m. The allowable shear stress in the shaft and
bolts may be taken as 50 MPa. The number of bolts may be taken as 10 and
bolt pitch circle diameter as 1.6 times the shaft diameter.
Answer: Given, P = 3.75MW; N = 150 r.p.m.;
τ s = τ b = 50 MPa; n = 10, Db = 1.6 D
Shaft diameter, D :
2π NT
P=
60
2π × 150 × T
E 3.78 × 106 =
60
3.75 × 106 × 60
or T = = 238732 Nm
2π × 150
π
Also, T = τs × × D3
16
π
or 238732 = 50 × 106 × D3
16
⎛ 238732 × 16 ⎞
∴ D=⎜ ⎟ = 0.28 m or 290 mm
⎝ 50 × 10 × π ⎠
6
Bolt size,db :
Bolt pitch circle diameter, Db = 1.6 D = 1.6 × 0.29 = 0.464 m
π ⎛D ⎞
Now, T = n× db2 × τ b × ⎜ b ⎟
4 ⎝ 2 ⎠
π ⎛ 0.464 ⎞
or 238732 = 10 × db2 × 50 × 106 × ⎜ ⎟
4 ⎝ 2 ⎠
or db = 0.0512 m or 51.2 mm

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For 2014 (IES, GATE & PSUs)

Page 1 of 454 Bhopal

Copyright © 2007 S K Mondal

Page 2 of 454 Bhopal

Theory at a Glance (for IES, GATE, PSU)

• As Pascal is a small quantity, in practice, multiples of this unit is used.

• Tensile stress (σt)

Page 3 of 454 Bhopal

1.2 Strain (ε)

Page 4 of 454 Bhopal

• Shear Strain ( γ ): When a

force P is applied tangentially to

δ is the lateral displacement of

1.3 True stress and True Strain

Where σ and ε is the engineering stress and engineering strain respectively.

• Comparison of engineering and the true stress-strain curves shown below

Page 5 of 454 Bhopal

Page 6 of 454 Bhopal

(II.) Elongation with neck formation

1.4 Hook’s law

1.5 Volumetric strain (εv )

• ΔV/V= volumetric strain = εx +εy + εz = ε1 +ε2 + ε3

Page 7 of 454 Bhopal

Where K = Bulk Modulus, μ = Poisson’s Ratio, E= Young’s modulus, G= Modulus of rigidity

1.11 Poisson’s Ratio (µ)

• Poisson's ratio in various materials

Page 8 of 454 Bhopal

1.12 For bi-axial stretching of sheet

• Elongation of composite body

Page 9 of 454 Bhopal

Given, Load (P) =1000 N

• Elongation of a tapered body

Page 10 of 454 Bhopal

Page 11 of 454 Bhopal

(iii) Elongation of a conical bar due to its self weight

ultimate strength of the material.

Page 12 of 454 Bhopal

σ t = α E ( ΔT ) Where, E = Modulus of elasticity

Answer: If we allow this rod to freely expand then free expansion

Page 13 of 454 Bhopal

(a) Original bar before heating.

(b) Expanded position if the members are allowed to

(c) Expanded position of the compound bar i.e. final

• Compatibility Equation: Assumption:

σ B = Compressive stress developed in the brass rod.

AB = Cross section area of the brass rod.

Page 14 of 454 Bhopal

1) Primary creep is a period of transient creep.

2) Secondary creep provides a nearly constant

Where, c1 , c2 are constants σ = stress

1.20 Stress produced by a load P in falling from height ’h’

Page 15 of 454 Bhopal

Page 16 of 454 Bhopal

original cross-sectional area Ao of the specimen.

• RA is the most structure-sensitive ductility parameter and is useful in detecting quality

viii) Stress-strain response

1.24 Elastic strain and Plastic strain

Page 17 of 454 Bhopal

Pmax / Ao 891× 106

Page 18 of 454 Bhopal