Butchering, Processing and Preservation of Meat

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This handbook is a complete step-by-step guide to _the butchering, proc-
essing, and preserving of meat for the farm, home, or commune.
Whether your fresh meat comes from your own farm, suburban prop-
erty, backyard, or a wholesale market; whether it was shot or trapped in the
wild or fished from a pond or the ocean-you will find on these pages the
answers you need to beat the cost of inflated food prices and still provide
meat of superior quality and flavor.
A random sample of subjects covered:

Man's Eating Customs--Facts about Meat-Changes after Slaugh-
ter-Modern Meat Consumption-Game on the Table-Domestic
Rabbit-Poultry-Fish-Federal Meat Inspection-Preparations
for Butchering-Equipment and Tools-Skinning or Raying-
Butchering Hogs-Butchering Cattle-Butchering Sheep and
Lambs-Selection for Slaughter-Sticking and Stunning-
Skinning the Legs-Fisting the Pelt off the Carcass--Opening the
Carcass-Care of Internal Organs--Dressing Game Animals-
Handling Hides and Skins--Saving the Head-Cutting the
Carcass-Pork, Beef and Veal-Lamb and Mutton-Venison-
Dressing Poultry and Wild Fowl-ProCUring, Cleaning and Cutting
Fish-Preserving Meat, Fowl, and Seafood-freeZing-Curing
Meats-Pickling-Testing Smoked Meat-Home Canning-
Sausages and Puddings-Soap Making--dozens of other topics!
Profusely illustrated, clear concise explanations show every step of the

best' 'amateur" practice and demonstrate that a 'wider variety of the finest
quality meat at lower cost-impossible as that sounds-is still available to
most families.
L . . - -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _j
--Butchering, Processing
and Preservation of Meat
......................................
CATTLE · HOGS • SHEEP • GAME • POULTRY · FISH
"
Frank G. Ashbrook
. __
~S5 .45 ...,....._ _...._ _...._ -
-AlVlanual for the Home and Farm

,""
FRANK G. ASMBROOK
Fish and Wildlife Service
United States Department oj the Interior
ANGRAU
~ Centre' Llbrery
M RaJendranagar
~IIIIIIIIIIIIIII" 1111I1I111 11111111
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I
WILLIAM HENRY TOMHA VE

whose enthusiastic teaching
inspired this book
.; i, PREFACE
This book is written primarily for the family to help solve the
meat problem and to augment the food supply. Producing and
preserving meats for family meals are sound practices for farm
families and some city folks as well-they make possible a wider
variety of meats, which can be of the best quality, at less cost.
Meat is an essential part of the American diet. It is also an ex-
pensive food. With the costs high, many persons cannot afford to
buy the better cuts; others are being forced to restrict the meat
portion of the diet to a minimum, or to use ineffectual substitutes.
Commercially in the United States, meat means the flesh of cattle,
hogs, and sheep, except where used with a qualifying word such as
reindeer meat, crab meat, whale meat, and so on. Meat in this book
is used in a broader sense, although not quite so general as to com-
prise anything and everything eaten for nourishment either by man
or beast. To be sure, it includes the flesh of domestic animals and
large and small game animals as well; also poultry, domestic fowl
raised for their meat and eggs, and game birds, all wild upland
birds, shore birds, and waterfowl; and fish.
Born in Pennsylvania, the author was reared in an atmosphere
where custom dictated the utilization of plainer foods in the con-
cocting of tasty dishes. In his grandmother's family, a German cook,
with knowledge of old-world ways and customs, brought into the
household a happy solution to many of the food problems which
confront us even today.
The author's first introduction to some phases of the home proc-
essing of meats came when, as a very small boy, his grandfather put
him to chopping and grinding meat, fat, and suet, and mixing these
with other ingredients in making sausage, headcheese, scrapple
(ponhaws in Pennsylvania Dutch), and other meat concoctions.
Later, at the Pennsylvania State College as an animal husbandry
student, he was taught by Professor W. H. Tomhave the scientific
methods involved in dressing and curing meats.
v
VI I PREFACE
After college, the author conducted research in swine production
for the Federal Department of Agriculture at Beltsville, Maryland,
and supervised the construction of an abattoir in which experi-
mental hogs ran the gamut of slaughter, dressing, cooling, cutting,
curing, and smoking. From this background and experience, the
author expanded his research avocationally into the gastronomic
art, to which he has been an ardent devotee throughout the years.
You who read this book may fall into one of the following cate-
gories: a livestock farmer specializing in cattle, hogs or sheep; a
poultryman raising chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, or guineas; a
general farmer, keeping some livestock or poultry as a side line or
for home consumption; a city or suburban dweller with a pen of
chickens, pigeons, or rabbits in the back yard or lot; a person with a
half interest in a pIg, a lamb, or a calf that someone else is feeding
until time for slaughter, and after dressing, a portion of the carcass
is yours; a hunter who each season kills a deer, antelope, elk, moose,
bear, or ducks, geese and upland game birds; a fisherman who fre-
quently catches his limit; or you may be one of the more fortunate
recipients from your generous friends who have an overabundance
of good luck in the wild, and pass on to you a portion of their catch
or kill.
Teachers and students in agriculLural colleges, high schools, and
vocational schools engaged in animal husbandry and home-
economics studies will find the material in this book most helpful
in their clas~room and in their project work. All phases of the
preparation of meat and meat products for home use, including
slaughtering and dressing fresh and seasoned meat, cutting the car-
cass, refrigeration, curing, smoking, and canning, and the home
tanning of hides and pelts are discussed in this book.
Carefully selected sources for those who desire more information
than this book contains are given in the Appendix. This includes
a list of publications issued by the United States Departments of
Agriculture and the Interior, the State Game Departments, and
reference books. Along with these, it seemed advisable to include
a list of books that give methods and recipes for cooking all the
meats discussed in this book. In addition, there is a directory of
state agriculture experiment stations. Don't hesitate to ask your
county agent for information and guidance.
A review was made of all recent scientific and practical literature
in this field published in the United States, because the author be-
lieves it is not only desirable but essential that a book on practical
meat economies be something more than a mere collection of ideas.
PREFACE vii
The author is especially grateful to the Agricultural Research
Service, Agric,Ultural Marketing Service, Federal Extension Service,
and Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture; to the
Fish and Wildlife Service, United States Department of the Interior
for material based on investigation and for permission to use photo-
graphs and drawings; also to the technical workers in the two fed-
eral departments for data and statistics obtained from research; to
the Smithsonian Institution, Texas A. and M. College, Iowa State
College, University of Missouri, and Pennsylvania State University
for photog'taphs and suggestions; to the Morton Salt Company and
the National Livestock and Meat Board for material, including
photographs and charts of wholesale and retail cuts of meat.
Sincere thanks are due to M. o. Cullen and Reba Staggs, National
Livestock and Meat Board for charts, illustrations and data; to Pro-
fessor J. H. Vondell, University of Massachusetts for photographs
of cutting up a chicken, and to Dr. Jessop B. Low, Utah State Col-
lege for illustrations of dressing wild ducks.
The preparation of this book has been a joint undertaking with
Caroline McKinley Ashbrook who has contributed many construc-
tive ideas and given valuable help and advice. Special acknowledg-
ment is due Mary Ryan for suggestions of treatment, arrangement
of material and splendid editing.
To all others who have lent material, called attention to special
features, or aided with personal criticism or advice in the prepara-
tion of this book, the author desires to express appreciation and
thanks.
FRANK G. ASHBROOK
Washington, D. C.
November, 1954
-- ---,--
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I MAN'S EATING CUSTOMS
Old and New Techniques Combined Solve Meat
Problem 6
Facts about Meat 7
Changes after Slaughter 9
Fresh and Seasoned Meat 10
II MEAT CHARACTERISTICS 15
Structure of Meat 15
Composition of Meat 16
Meat as Food 18
Food Nutrients 18
Modern Meat Consumption 32
Game on the Table 35
Domestic Rabbit 38
Poultry 39
Fish 41
III FOOD PLANNING 44
A Ready-Made Food Plan 44
How to Figure the Family's Needs 45
Food and Economy 46
Daily Dietary Needs 47
Federal Meat Inspection 50
Federal Meat Grading and Stamping Service 51
Federal-State Grading and Inspection of Poultry 55
IV PRESLAUGHTER CONSIDERATIONS 57
Preparations for Butchering 58
Equipment and Tools 58
Primary Considerations 64
Skinning or Flaying 67
ix '"
•
x
CHAPTER
\ CONTENTS
PAGE
Examining the Carcass 71
Regulations for Shipping Meat or Meat Food Products 72
V BUTCHERING HOGS 73
Selection of Hogs for Slaughter 73
Sticking 73
Scalding 76
Scraping 78
Removing and Cleaning the Head 80
Removing the Entrails 81
Handling and Care of Edible Organs 84
Cleaning the Intestines 86
Chilling 87
VI BUTCHERING CATTLE 91
Stunning 91
Bleeding 91
Skinning and Removing Head 95
Skinning the Carcass 97
Opening the Abdominal Cavity 97
Hoisting 99
Splitting the Carcass 99
Chilling 103
Removing Tongue and Brains and Stripping Fat
from Offal 103
Cleaning the Tripe 104
Slaughtering Calves 104
VII BUTCHERING SHEEP AND LAMBS 105

Lambs Selected for Slaughter 106
Sticking and Stunning 107
Skinning the Legs 109
Fisting the Pelt off the Carcass III
Removing the Pelt 113
Opening the Carcass 115
Care of Internal Organs 115
VIII DRESSING GAME ANIMALS 117

Big Game 117
Dressing Deer on the Ground 118
Butchering a Hanging Deer 119
,)
CONTENTS xi
CHAPTER PAGE
Removing the Tongue and Brains 120
Saving the Head 120
Small Game i': 122
IX HANDLING HIDES AND SKINS 124

Salting and Curing 124
Having Hides Tanned 126
X CUTTIN G THE CARCASS 127

Pork 127
Beef and Veal 137
Lamb and Mutton 148
Venison 152
XI DRESSING POULTRY AND WILD FOWL 155

Methods of Killing Poultry 155
Removing Feathers ;;' 155
Chickens 157
Turkeys 159
Ducks 159
Geese 160
Squabs 160
Drawing Poultry 160
Wild Fowl 164
XII PROCURING, CLEANING, AND CUTTING

FISH 169
Purchasing Fresh Fish 169
Purchasing Frozen Fish 170
Ca tching Fish 171
How to Clean Fish 172
XIII PRESERVING MEAT, FOWL, AND SEAFOOD 176

Freezing 176
Chemical Action Caused by Enzymes 177
Ice Formation in Meat 177
Drying or Freezer Burn 178
Cut to Fit Family Needs 178
Packaging Meat for Freezing 181
Storage in the Home Freezer 194
Thawing 195
#~ ~
xu
CHAPTER
Cooking Frozen Meat
I CONTENTS
PAGE
196
Frozen-Food Locker Plants 197
Curing Meats 198
Pork 201
Corning Beef 209
Curing Tongue 210
Lamb 211
Curing Game Meats 212
Curing Fowl 213
Fish 215
Pickling 223
Drying Meat and Fish 228
Smoking Meat and Fish 231
Testing Smoked Meat 245
Storing Cured and Smoked Meat 245
Home Canning 247
Procuring Raw Fjsh 262
How to Pack the Container 263
Recommended Canning Methods 264
When Canning is Completed 267
XIV MEAT PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS 271
Sausages and Puddings 271
Other Meat Products 285
Scrapple Recipes 287
Rendering Lard 293
Preserving Meat in Lard 295
Soap Making 295
XV HELPFUL REFERENCES 299
Appendix A-Publications of the Department of
Agriculture 30 I
Appendix B-Publications of the Department of the
Interior 302
Appendix C-Motion Pictures Produced by the De-
partments of Agriculture and the Interior 303
Appendix D-Reference Books 304
Appendix E-State Garne Departments 306
Appendix F-United States Agricultural Experirnent
Stations 309
INDEX 311
."
;'.' ,
MAN'S EATING CUSTOMS
Are you a creature of habit? Do you resist anything new in food?

Are you in a gastronomic rut? Do you eat just those things your
mother used to cook? Day after day, year after year, do you tread
the tiresome trail of steak, gravy, and potatoes, little dreaming of
the appetizing side trails, never knowing the challenge of America's
great variety of succulent meats, game, and wondrously varied sea
food?
Naturally temperaments vary, as do tastes in food. Let us con-
sider the man of habit. He rises early in the morning and already
has the day planned. A strict disciplinarian, he keeps all appoint-
ments and always on time. But when he sits down to dine what
does he eat? Beefsteak or roast beef, of course, with potatoes and
one or two other vegetables. Just good plain food. He has no flair
for any dishes with a touch of the unusual.
The extreme opposite of this creature of habit is the chap whose
pattern is unpredictable. His preferences for food are startling. He
craves hummingbird wings sauteed in coconut oil, or Chinese eggs
with the vintage of a century. He is convinced that these are foods
for the gods.
Now the man who strikes a happy medium between these ex-
tremes is one of real taste, a true gourmet. He welcomes change
and loves to embark on a new food experience. Savory roasts, lus-
cious broiled chops, and steaks are relished by him, but his palate is
always his guide. Eating a tasteless dish simply because it is exotic
has no appeal for him.
The gourmet also enjoys the less familiar parts of meat animals
often spurned by the uninformed. Heads, brains, kidneys, tongues,
ribs, shanks, hocks, feet, and tails all make delectable concoctions
when properly prepared.
Pigs' feet and spareribs may not sound glamorous, but they can be
developed by proper culinary methods into pungent, sumptuous,
1
2 MAN'S EATING CUSTOMS
and delectable dishes. Even the most determined pessimist will find
it difficult to refuse a serving of this "good eating."
\ fi90d has a greater effect on our health than any other element
in our environment. Meals eaten in haste or leisure, aversion or
enjoyment, are more important to our well-being than most of us
realize. "Tell me what you eat and I'll tell you what you are," said
Jean Anthelme Brilliat-Savarin, the celebrated French gastronome.
History tells us that prehistoric man was both herbivorous and
carnivorous, and that he ate nuts, fruits, berries, leaves, and buds.
He had birds' eggs, young birds, and honey; snails, frogs, fish, mus-
sels, and crayfish. He obtained larger birds and small mammals by
setting snares and by throwing sticks and stones.
Early man is sometimes described as a hunter of the great hairy
mammoth, of the bear and the lion; but he probably hunted the
smaller animals, the rabbit, the hare, and the rat, because his hunt-
ing implements were limited indeed. He had spears of wood,
wooden clubs, and big pieces of flint. Nevertheless, he ate meat
whenever he had the chance and consumed part of the kill wher-
ever it fell; but he brought back the big marrow bones to crack and
eat at leisure, for great quantities of these cracked and split bones
have been found in caves. He hunted the horse as well as the rein-
deer and bison. Bone deposits show he ate much horsemeat.
FIG. 1. Prehistoric tribesmen hunted wild horses for meat.

1"' .••
MAN'S EATING CUSTOMS 3
Later, as man's expertness in hunting, trapping, and fishing in-
creased, he naturally ate more meat than vegetables. Undoubtedly,
man's wild instincts caused him to love the chase, which he pre-
ferred to the work entailed in searching for vegetable food, so he
became largely a meat eater. Perhaps that is why the American
Indian was such a meat eater.
The early Greeks subsisted largely on mea~ They preferred pig,
but also ate cattle, sheep, and poultry. Fish and game were sought
as food. Later, the consumption of meat in Greece became less im-
portant because such food was only offered at religious festivals. At
such occasions, the masses had an opportunity to enjoy this luxury.
\ (!he wealthy Romans were indebted to the _.Greeks for their yen
for meat, but the common people ate little of i!J The edible organs,
including tripe, were their fare, but the proletariat literally de-
vO~lred meat on the numerous holidays.
\ Cit has been estimated that, of the two million known species of
animals, only fifty have been domesticated and normally contribute
to the food suppl~~l However, in many localities, man's ingenuity
is making full use of local animals, and he is becoming master of
his environment.
Of the Australian aborigine it may be said that in terms of food,
nothing living is alien to him-the caterpillar and the moth, the
frog and the kangaroo are trapped by,- appropriate and effective
methods and eaten with relish. Certain@rican tribes are catholic
in taste; snails, frogs, crocodiles have their place in the diif}
There are many regions where the ordinary staple foods are sup-
plemented, perhaps at irregular intervals, through hunting, trap-
ping, and fishing. These occasional supplements make important
contributions to the diet.
The fundamental biochemical investigations of the past half cen-
tury, conducted chiefly in Europe and North America, provide the
basis for the approach to nutrition problems on all continents, yet
there is much to be learned from well-established food habits in
various countries, in that primitive peoples in many areas have suc-
ceeded in reaching good dietary standards.
Eating was no problem for the early American Indian, trapper,
trader, and mountain man. They obtained the finest.-llleat on the
continent from the buffalo, elk, deer, and antelope. Great herds
of these big game animals roamed the plains and provided an
abundance of fresh meat. Probably no other primitive peoples had
such a bQuntiful supply.
ThiJ Eild meat was surprisingly rich and J!asily digestible. The
Indian squaw raised a few vegetables but these were a meager sup-
plement indeed to the diet. All the evidence points to the fact that
the Indians were chiefly meat eaters and consumed enormous quan-
tities of it.
''The Indian is a great epicure," said Colonel Richard Dodge,
"knows the choicest tidbits of every animal, and how to cook it to
suit his taste. The great fall hunt yields to him the fullest enjoy-
ment of his appetite."
History records that the average Indian ate from IO to 15 pounds
of buffalo meat daily; if it was abundant and he could select the
parts that best suited him, he would consume as much as 20 poun~:i J/
As soon as the Indian made his kill he would cut open the buffalo
and select his raw tidbit or hors d'oeuvre. He made generous use
of glandular and visceral tissues, and was particularly fond of the
honeycomb stomach, or tripe, also the liver, lungs, and small intes-
tines, raw or roasted.
7, : WI'l" ilji.~~
FIG. 2. The buffalo furnished the American Indian, trapper, trader, and traveler
the finest meat on the continent.
The de'pouille, a fatty tissue lying along the backbone just under
the hide and extending from shoulder blade to the last rib, was cut
and pulled out all in one piece. It was then dipped in hot fat for
a short time and hung up inside the tepee. Here this choice morsel
would dry and be smoked for a day or two. Cured in this manner,
MAN'S EATING CUSTOMS 5
it kept indefinitely and was used principally as a substitute for
bread.
The flesh of the buffalo or bison, in good condition, is juicy and
well flavored, and resembles that of beef. The tongue, in pioneer
days, was deemed a delicacy, either roasted, boiled fresh, or cured
and smoked. Smoked buffalo tongue was considered to surpass in
flavor and texture that of the cow or steer. The hump of flesh cover-
ing the long spinal processes of the first dorsal vertebrae was also
much esteemed. Fine-grained, mellow, and when partly salt-cured
and sliced crosswise, it was considered as rich, tender, and luscious
as tongue. Hump ribs and other choice cuts were roasted in the
deep ashes of a fire, as were the marrow bones. These portions of
the buffalo were most relished by the trappers, traders, pioneers,
and travelers who came later.
The Indians also laid up large winter stores of buffalo meat. To
acquire this meat, they staged large community hunts. Before win-
ter, in this manner, they would store as much as 5,000 pounds of
dried buffalo meat in certain localities.
Pemmican was made from buffalo, deer, and antelope. The raw
meat was cut into thin slices, wound about sticks which were slanted
over a slow fire or laid upon a rick of wickerwood, and allowed to
dry. Often the sun alone would furnish sufficient heat to dry the
meat. These dried slices of meat were then pounded into a flaky
mass, and over alternating layers of it, fat was poured. This mass
was then packed in bags made of buffalo or deer hide; thus making
a compact and nutritious food which could be kept indefinitely.
Pemmican was quite acceptable to the taste and became the stand-
ard food of the trappers and mountain men when on the trail.
The white men who early invaded the Great Plains quickly
adopted the hunting and eating customs of the Indians. Those who
crossed the plains lived exceptionally well on unlimited quantities
of choice cuts of buffalo and antelope. These hungry mountaineers
relished the appetizing brown intestines, ribs of the tender hump,
and baked tongues, so soft, sweet and well-flavored. When such a
quantity of primitive food was readily available, white men and
Indians knew very well the portions of the carcass they liked best.
From the earliest times, buffalo meat was the chief sustenance of
the pioneers as they journeyed westward. Later it was the staple
meat served in hotels and restaurants through the buffalo country.
After guns were acquired by the Indians, and the trappers and
traders organized systematic hunts, the buffalo herds were greatly
reduced. It was the beginning of a real exploitation, with a growing
MAN'S EATING CUSTOMS
trade in hides, robes, and pemmican. This was the threat that led
to the practical extermination of the wild buffalo in the United
States.
The tongue hunters were more wasteful than the hide hunters
because they simply killed for tongues alone, and the rest of the
carcass was left on the plains. The tongues were cured, smoked,
packed in barrels, and shipped to the large eastern cities. Occasion-
ally, some of the meat was pickled and sent to market; and, at times
during the winter, buffalo carcasses were also hog-dressed and
shipped east, but more often the hindquarters were the only portiun
utilized.
Today there are about 9,000 buffalo on Federal, State, and private
lands in territorial United States. The U. S. Fish and Wildlife
Service maintains four fenced refuges for buffalo and elk, where the
animals run at large and are maintained as nearly as possible under
natural conditions. An annual disposition of surplus animals is
made from these areas to avoid overgrazing. Both live and butch-
ered animals are generally available.
The Director of the Fish and Wildlife Service determines each
year, usually in August, the number of animals that are surplus on
each refuge and establishes the prices at which they will be sold.
The first settlers on the shores of America-the Dutch, British,
French, Spaniards, Germans, and others-brought with them from
the Old World their own eating customs. All these people have
contributed to the development of fine American food.
OLD AND NEW TECHNIQUES COMBINED SOLVE MEAT PROBLEM
As trade opened up with the Orient and the West Indies, the
American table was enriched by the addition of pepper, curry, and
all sorts of spices, tropical fruits, chocolate, coffee, and rum. With
this oriental touch, and drawing upon European lore, an entirely
new school of cooking began to develop.
One might ask, what has all this to do with the meat situation
and how does it relate to our present problems? Many of the recipes
and methods for butchering and preserving meat developed during
the Colonial period have come down to us without much alteration,
some of them exactly as the Indians and colonists taught them to
our ancestors. Many of the formulas are as valid now as they were
in the good old days. We can benefit immeasurably, then, if we
combine modern techniques with the thrift and ingenuity of our
~; forefathers. It is the constant increase in the cost of living that
,;
FACTS ABOUT MEAT 7
forces us to adopt old-world economies which we have more or
less been neglecting. We are fortunate in having a unique grip on
the combination of the old usages with the new techniques. In
attempting to solve the meat problem, today's generation may find
in these new approaches a satisfactory and practical solution-a new
frontier not only for American farm and suburban families but
for city families as well.
It matters not whether your fresh meat comes from a farm, a
suburban property, a vacant lot, a back yard, or a wholesale meat
market; nor if it is shot or trapped in the wild or fished from a
farm pond, brook, lake, river, or ocean-somewhere in this book is
a solution to your meat problem.
Perhaps you prefer not to kill, dress, and cut up an animal, a
bird, or even a fish. Do not let any of these processes between the
kill and the range frustrate you. They can be met by your local
butcher or those employed at the local cold-storage locker plant,
who will be glad to render this service.
Freezing meat, poultry, fish, and game in the home freezer or
locker plant is the latest thing in food preservation. With modern
methods of freezing, any day of the year a family can have a luscious
steak, fried chicken, baked fish, broiled rabbit, or barbecued game.
Cold-storage lockers and deep freezers have a great appeal, because
they furnish storage space for fresh foods the entire year. It is the
easiest way and requires the minimum of time and energy. Whether
the meat is produced by you or purchased wholesale alive or
dressed, there is a considerable saving. You can save money and live
better by purchasing meat in quantity and preserving it. It is not
an uncommon procedure these days for people LO purchase cattle,
hogs, sheep, poultry, and fish at wholesale when the price is right,
and dress and butcher them at home, or have the locker plant or the
local butcher do the work.
Freezing is a practical, desirable way to preserve meat, poultry,
and fish, but it is not the only method. There are others, such as
brine and dry curing, corning, pickling, drying, smoking, and can-
ning. All are good, add variety, and make the meals most delectable
with that country-cured taste.
FACTS ABOUT MEAT .
2 i at makes the meal. It is the dish that gets star billing at the
ta e. Nearly everyone thinks there is nothing else like the prized
savoriness of meat. It stimulates the appetite and makes the whole
meal seem more interesting and full of flavor. Formerly meat was
regarded by many as the cause of most of the ills to which we are
heir. Now it is considered a must in our diet instead of a necessary
evil.
One of the chief reasons that the meat supply does not meet hu-
man demands is that man has concentrated his appetite on fewer
and fewer animals for meat. It is surprising to note that away back
in the Middle Ages meat was more varied and occupied a more
important position in the cuisine.
Swans, peacocks, peahens, and many other species of birds and
animals, such as deer, pheasants, and quail, were kept in domestica-
tion or semidomestication. Rabbits, woodchucks, raccoons, and
opossums offer possibilities for much more exploitation as dinner
meats.
Meat is good for you. It should comprise a basic part of the daily
diet of every healthy person. It provides energy, health, and vigor.
While meat is used as the main dish in meals day after day, it never
becomes monotonous. This is because there are numerous varieties
of meats and so many interesting and appetizing ways in which they
may be prepared and served. Meat surely has appetite appeal and
it satisfies.
FIG. 3. Meat should comprise a basic part of the daily diet of every healthy
person. Roast fresh or cured pork shoulder, with savory stuffing, can supply
'f this essential part of the daily diet, cheaper and every bit as tasty as ham .
•• ',I
CHANGES AFTER SLAUGHTER 9
Meat is important primarily for high-quality protein. It also pro-
vides iron, copper phosphorus, fat, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and
vitamin A. Lean meat is primarily protein. The lean and fat tissues
are highly digestible and are easily and rapidly assimilated. Meat
proteins have a high digestibility, and the amino acids contained in
it are biologically complete. Therefore, it is natural that meat plays
an important part in keeping the human body in order.
The value of any food is directly dependent upon the thorough-
ness with which its nutrients are utilized by the body. Beef, veal,
lamb, and pork are all digested quite thoroughly since 97 per cent
of the proteins and 96 per cent of the fats are digested. Pork, how-
ever, takes a little longer to digest, as does turkey. There is no
difference, however, in the digestibility of red and white meat and
fowl. After all, the chief reason for the popularity of meat is its
palatability, which consists of tenderness and flavor or aroma and
tas~~~
CHANGES AFTER SLAUGHTER
After slaughter the animal heat leaves the carcass; this is hastened
by chilling. Refrigeration also causes the fat and muscle to become
solid and hard. Consequently, meats become rather firm in the
cooler. When meat is in refrigeration, other changes take place.
The meat firms up and remains so for some little time. Fresh
meat is usually tough and tasteless. After 24 to 36 hours of chilling,
however, the meat becomes progressively more tender. Then the
enzymes gradually soften the tissues, making them more tender.
Remember that bacteria are found in foods not sterilized, and
this is also true of meat. These will begin to grow and act on the
meat. They consist of molds, yeasts, ordinary types of bacteria, and
spore-forming spoilage bacteria. Oxygen in the air and enzymes in
the meat affect the fat and thus tend to make it rancid. When meat
is kept in the cooler for weeks, some rancid fat may be found on
the surface of the meat. The bacterial growth mentioned previously
and the effect of oxygen in the air on fat are changes of an undesir-
able nature. Therefore, precautions to prevent these changes must
be taken to keep meats fresh and to prevent spoilage.
All meats are highly perishable. The primary cause of low or
inferior quality, off flavor, taint, or actual spoilage is due to allow-
ing the natural forms of bacteria to develop and multiply. There-
fore, bacteria from within and outside of the meat must be pre-
vented from multiplying and held in check until the meat is cured,
smoked, or otherwise preserved.
The pinK or red color of meat is produced by muscle and blood
hemoglobin. This is an important criteria in judging meat. Beef
and some other red meats are always darker when first cut. Upon
exposure to the air for a short time, however, the hemoglobin be-
comes oxidized, thereby producing a brighter shade of red.
Generally speaking, the older the animal, the darker the meat;
but frequently dark meat occurs in fairly young animals after the
carcass is cut up. The bone, then, is the determining factor, for it
is red and porous in young animals, whereas in old ones it is hard,
white, and flinty. Therefore, dark meat may occur regardless of
age; although it is a characteristic of the flesh of older animals or of
meat that has been cut for some time. Meat that has been aged or
seasoned for a month or more becomes very dark, also moldy or
slimy on the surface. This can be removed by cutting off thin slices
and the newly cut surface will be bright red again.
FRESH AND SEASONED MEAT
Meat from an animal just slaughtered or shot is usually tough

and tasteless. Beef, mutton, venison, and game birds become more
tender and palatable by the process of ripening, hanging, aging, or
maturing. Pork, veal, and lamb, however, should not be aged, for
nothing is gained. Therefore, these animals should be processed as
soon as possible after butchering and chilling.
The difficulty of developing well-seasoned meat has always been
an uncertainty because of bacteria. The primitive method of hang-
ing a carcass in the attic of the farmhouse or in an outbuilding is
slowly giving way to the use of cold-storage lockers and home freez-
ers, although it is still common practice for hunters to hang game
for a period of seasoning.
What makes meat tender? There are about twenty-five enzymes
in meat. Enzymes are ferments. They act on the proteins, carbo-
hydrates, and fats in the meat and break down the connective tissue,
reducing it to a gelatinous consistency. This process makes meat
tender and also improves its palatability, since certain juices are
released which enhance the flavor.
The same enzyme action takes place in professional ripening as
in home hanging. The chemical changes must occur to make meat
tender through nature's process. "But by contrast," says M. O.
Cullen, "" meat carving expert of the National Live Stock and Meat
• How to Carve Meat, Game and Poultry, by M. O. Cullen, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1941. r
FRESH AND SEASONED MEAT 11
Board, "one is done under the strictest hygienic conditions with
every step of cleanliness and moisture control (so encouraging to
the growth of molds), vigilantly watched, while the other relies
primarily on faith, hope and naked-eye sentinel service."
At a temperature of 35° to 38° F., three to five days of storage
between slaughter of a hog and consumption of the fresh pork is
regarded by many as an optimum period.
FIG. 4. A typical meat cooler. Good quality beef and mutton will chill and
season in 7 to 10 days in a cooler 35° to 45° F. Highly finished beef can be
ripened for 6 weeks. Venison and other game may be kept to advantage for
2 weeks or more.
Good quality beef and mutton having a firm texture and a coating
of fat on the outside will chill and season in 7 to 10 days in a cooler
set at 35° to 45° F. Highly finished beef can be ripened for 6 weeks.
Venison and other game may be kept to advantage for 2 weeks
or more.
Any family wishing to solve the meat problem has a choice of
several alternatives for storing fresh meat. For example, use may
be made of one of the million or so lockers located in more than
11,000 frozen locker plants, where, for a nominal fee, meat can be
dressed, wrapped, frozen, and stored until the family is ready to
use it. The home freezer is also useful in preserving a large variety
of meats. The meat can be sharp frozen at the locker plant in the
usual way or in the deep freeze, then stored in the home freezer
until it is to be cured or cooked. If the family does not have access
to either of these modern conveniences, the only course is to hang
the meat in a cool outbuilding, trusting to luck that it will be in
good condition when the time arrives for eating or curing.
Mr. Cullen says:
In this primitive method of ripening, birds and small game usually
present no problem' because they can if necessary be eaten quickly without
sacrificing too much in the way of flavor. It is the big game, such as deer,
elk and moose, that are most troublesome, since like beef this class of
meats improves with aging. The English usually hang the large carcass at
least 14 days; however, their climate is somewhat more steadily cool than
ours. Here 10 days of hanging is about the general practice, and certainly
nothing less than a week will accomplish very much toward making the
meat more tender. The animal's age will have some relation to the length
of the ripening period, and if the carcass is that of an old buck it is best
to give it some extra time if possible.
Needless to repeat, the place where the carcass hangs should be as cool
and dryas possible, and it is advisable to leave the skin on as added pro·
tection during the aging period. Later, after the skin has been removed
and the backbone split, it is a wise precaution to strip out the spinal
cord, which runs along the backbone.
Birds present no complications in the matter of size and space, but
they do require a watchful eye, and the delicate decision as between the
moment of full aroma and risking another night's hanging has caused
countless hunters many an uneasy hour. They usually reach their "high"
moment just as they begin to decompose and with their full quota of per·
fumes achieved. Timing to this split second of greatest succulence must
be done without benefit of rulers or meters and sometimes the least wrong
calculation may result in sacrificing the bird.
Since birds are always hung in their feathers these serve as a great pro·
tection against flies. But it is advisable as an added precaution to apply a
good sprinkling of pepper, which can be counted on to keep the pests
away. In cold, frosty weather, birds may hang 10 days safely without much
fear of becoming tainted. If the weather should be damp and muggy, it
is well to provide a larder or storehouse with a good current of air and cut
the hanging period when necessary. An old country prescription suggests
covering the birds loosely with a thin cloth. In some households the cus·
tom is to hang birds by their heads only; in others, strings are tied to
both ends and the hanging position is changed every day, alternating
from head to feet.
Partridge taints first in the crop; other birds start to decompose around
the vent. In either case, as soon as there is the first sign of taint, remove
the feathers and draw the birds. Wash them in water that is well salted
and add a little vinegar to the rinse. If they are badly tainted, repeat with
FRESH AND SEASONED MEAT 13
two or three different solution changes, and finally wash off with clear,
fresh water. Dry them thoroughly and place a little piece of charcoal or
some powdered charcoal in a muslin square inside the crop before cook-
ing. They may be cooked with the sweetener in them but remember to
remove it before serving. If there is no charcoal at hand, place some
charred wood in the oven until it is burnt through and use this the same
as you would the charcoal.
Whatever opinion or prejudice may be held in regard to gami-

ness, one thing is quite certain: the meat of freshly killed game and
that of "high" game are totally different. Fresh meat is flavorless,
whereas, when reasonably high, meat is tender, full of taste and of
incomparable flavor. Taste varies with individuals; so handle the
storage of the game the way you like best.
FIG. 5. Choice rib cut showing a high degree of

marbling of fat in the lean, which denotes quality.
There are other methods of ripening or tenderizing meat. Freez-

ing meat is a tenderizing process; but once frozen it should remain
that way until it is to be cooked, as intermittent freezing and thaw-
ing causes it to loose flavor and lowers the keeping quality.
Science has contributed much to the processes of maturing meat.
The "tenderay" process has put meat tendering on a purely scientific
basis. Three years of research at the Mellon Institute evolved this
I
-~-
method. It is a combination of controlled higher temperatures

made possible by the sterilamp, humidity, and air circulation. This
treatment tenderized beef so rapidly that results were produced in
2 days which formerly required 2 or 3 weeks. In fact, the investi-
gators claimed that this method of tenderization improved the eat-
ing quality of beef by several grades. There was also a substantial
saving to the meat industry and noticeable increase in customer
satisfaction. The "tenderay" process can improve all grades of meat,
but it raises the questions of whether increasing the tenderness alone
enhances the grade and if the consumer will be able to pay the extra
tax on the per pound cost of such treated meat. There are still
other methods of tenderizing meat, such as grinding, scoring, cubing,
and marinating. These are,usually applied to meat cuts and not to
the entire carcass.
A recent development to make tough meat tender is a compound
of salt-like crystals, the active ingredient of which is a vegetable
enzyme, papain, obtained from the papaya melon. This meat tend-
erizer is winning a place on grocers' shelves all over the country,
largely because food experts agree that it puts good meat back on
the family menu in the face of soaring prices.
It is important to sprinkle the tenderizer evenly and then allow
the treated meat to stand at room temperature 30 minutes for each
half inch of thickness. Thus, an inch-thick steak, sprinkled on both
sides, should stand for one hour before cooking. Thick roasts (beef,
lamb, or pork) can be tenderized in 2 or 3 hours. Roasts so treated
have up to 20 per cent less shrinkage; hamburgs, too, cook plump
and juicy without shrinking.
I
.,. ~'-'
··11· I.
I
MEAT CHARACTERISTICS
In order to handle and preserve meats satisfactorily one should

know something about their structure and composition and the
animals that produce them. That these animals are not uniform in
structure is apparent to anyone who has had a steak or a roast.
Meat includes all parts of domestic and wild animals and birds
used as food. Lean flesh, fat flesh, skin, edible glands, and organs
all classify as meat. Certain meats also are sold, cooked, and eaten
with the skin attached. Tris is true of some cuts of pork, also fowl
and fish. !
. '3 i~TRUCTURE OF MEA~J .
3 L~eat is composed mainly of lean muscle, fatty and connective

tIssue, bones, and skin. In addition, there are blood vessels, lym-
phatic vessels, glands, and nerve tissue. The skin or hide is, of
course, on the outside. The bones are in or near the center in some
cuts of meat; in others, near the inside surface where they are plainly
visible. Most of the balance of the meat cut is more or less lean
meat. However, fat tissue is generally found under the skin and
lying between the separate muscles of the meat. Fat is distributed
more generously throughout the lean tissue and gives it a "marbled"
appearance. This is always the case in a well-fattened animal.
The lean tissue or muscles are made up of bundles of muscle cells.
They are tubular in shape, minute in diameter, and of various
lengths. These bundles of muscle cells are bound together by a fine
network of connective tissue. It follows, then, that the smaller and
more numerous the muscle cells, the greater the amount of connec-
tive tissue. The connective tissues are much less tender than the cell
content, and their presence in large quantities characterize the less
tender meat. The small bundles of muscles are, in turn, bound to-
gether by connective tissue to form larger bundles, and some of
these larger bundles are held together by connective tissue to form
16
16 MEAT CHARACTERISTICS
---
a large voluntary muscle. These muscles comprise most of the

meat cuts.
There is a heavy accumulation of connective tissue at the end of
the muscle to form the tendon, which affixes the muscle to the bone.
That is why the center portion of a muscle is tender, while the cuts
from the extremities are tough. Connective tissue increases in
amount and becomes tougher as the animal grows older. Meat from
younger animals is therefore more tender than meat from old ones.
blood veS6el
connective
mu.scle
FIG. 6. Cross section of a ham showing where the four classes of tissues are found.
When a meat animal begins to fatten, it deposits fat first around

some of the internal organs-kidneys, stomach, and intestines. Fat
is also deposited in certain cells of the connective tissue, although
some fat in small quantities may appear in any cell of the connec-
tive tissue. There are certain cells, known as fat cells, in which
quantities of fat may be stored. This deposition of fat greatly in-
flates these cells and causes the cell walls to expand and become
thinner. When one bites into a piece of meat containing consider-
able fat, the cells are easily broken in chewing and therefore such
meat is more tender than that containing little fatJ .5
3<1\ [COMPOSITION OF MEAT J

_J,().._
CMeat, except the bone, is rather soft and contains considerable
water. In fact, lean muscle may be 75 per cent water. The re-
mainder is 20 per cent protein, about I per cent mineral matter,
I'f
some 3 per cent fat, together with small amounts of glycogen, meat
extractives, and other miscellaneous organic substances.
COMPOSITION OF MEAT 17
The white or creamy-white parts of meat are connective tissue,
ligaments, and fatty tissue_ These also contain water, fat, protein,
and mineral matter- The fat (chemical fat) may make up 95 per
cent of such fat tissue as kidney fat. In body fat, such as the fat
found on a roast, the percentage of true fat will be less, and may be
as little as 5 or 10 per cent in lean animals.
FIG. 7. High magnification shows that

the lean muscle is made up of long
slender fibers, cylindrical in shape. (a)
These individual fibers are about
1/500th inch in diameter and often an
inch or more in length; (b) longitu-
dinal; and (c) cross section.
c
Bones also contain water, fat, protein, and mineral matter, but
the four chemical substances are more nearly equal in the bones.
Fresh bones of beef cattle may contain 30 to 40 per cent water, the
fat may run from 15 to 20 per cent, and the protein content may
also be 15 to 20 per cent. The remainder is mineral matter and
forms from 15 to 25 per cent of the total.
The skin of meat animals also is composed of water, protein, fat,
and mineral matter. The water content of the skin of young veal
may be as high as 70 per cent, while that of old cattle may be as low
as 50 to 55 per cent. Fat is present in small amounts, usually 5 to 6
per cent or less. The protein content is usually 30 to 40 per cent,
and the ash from 1 to 1.5 per cent. <.~
MEAT AS FOOD
Nutrition is the science that deals with food at work-food on the

job for you, says the United States Department of Agriculture. The
right food, it claims, helps us to be at our best in health and vitality.
It can even help us to stay young longer. An individual fed prop-
erly from babyhood has a chance to enjoy a long life. But at any
age, you are better off when you are well fed.
Food scientists in the Department of Agriculture know all about
the body's needs. They know that from vitamin A to the mineral
zinc, a list of nutrients-chemical substances that the body is known
to require from food-totals more than 40. And there may be some
yet undiscovered. You can eat well and properly without being
introduced to all of the body's A to Z requirements. Making suffi-
cient provision for certain key nutrients will assure you of getting
the rest. Let us consider these key nutrients and see how much meat
contributes to the body's building and repai:] 3 ~
3:. b O~OOD NUTRIENTS J

(The Greeks, as always, had a name for the first one, "Protein,"
and believe it or not, it means "first." And even down to a hundred
years ago it was recognized as the main substance in all the body's
muscles and organs, skin, hair, and other tissues. The top-rating
proteins are always found in foods from animal sources-meat, poul-
try, fish, eggs, milk, and cheese. Calcium, the chief mineral material
in bones and teeth, is not supplied by meat to any considerable
extent. The outstanding foods for calcium, however, are milk and
leafy green vegetables; but for calcium to be assimilated properly, the
right quantities of vitamin D and phosphorus are required, and these
may be supplied by seafood and meat. Another essential material for
red blood is iron. It may be supplied from many different foods. Liver
is outstanding for iron. Meat in general adds iron, and leafy green
vegetables have high iron content. The body requires a small but
steady amount of iodine. Salt-water fish or other food from the sea
will help a great deal in supplying iodine. It is wise also to use
iodized table salt regularly as a safety measure.
When you eat a variety of foods, you are pretty sure of getting the
vitamins you need. Vitamin A is important to the young for growth
and to all ages for normal vision. Here, again, animal foods excel;
for good sources of vitamin A are calf and sheep liver, beef, lamb,
hog, and pig liver and kidneys, and chicken liver. The B vitamin
family includes thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin. These are the most
FOOD NUTRIENTS 19
generally known and best understood B vitamins. Thiamine pro-
motes growth, stimulates appetite, aids assimilation, and is essential
for normal functioning of nerve tissue. Pork is an excellent source,
as is meat juice or broth. In fact, liver, fresh meat, bacon, fish, and
oysters are also good sources of thiamine. Riboflavin is the growth-
promoting member of the vitamin B family. A deficiency of this
factor causes stunted growth and premature aging. Veal and beef
liver, beef kidney, Iamb liver, pork liver, and pork kidney are all
rich in riboflavin. Beef heart, oysters, sardines, crabs, ham, bacon,
chicken, fish, Iamb, and beef are also meat sources of this vitamin.
Scientists tell us that 25 per cent of the budget spent on meats fur-
nishes about 30 per cent of riboflavin requirement.
Niacin or nicotinic acid plays an important part in building body
tissue. It is found abundantly in pork, beef, veal, and lamb liver;
in pork and beef kidney; pork and beef heart; and pork, veal,
chicken, beef, and Iamb.
Few foods contain a real wealth of B vitamins, but in a varied diet
many foods contribute some and so build an adequate supply. How-
ever, one-fourth pound of liver or one-half pound of veal, pork,
or beef per day is said to furnish the daily niacin requirement.
The first vitamin separated from food was vitamin C, also called
ascorbic acid or the antiscorbutic vitamin. Tissues throughout the
body cannot keep in good condition without this vitamin. It is re-
quired daily because the body does not store much. A deficiency of
vitamin C causes scurvy. All the familiar citrus fruits are bountiful
sources of this vitamin. Tomatoes and tomato juice, canned or
fresh; fresh strawberries and cantaloupe; also cabbage, green pepper,
and lettuce are other good sources.
The "sunshine vitamin," or vitamin D, is especially important
to the young because it works with minerals to form straight, strong
bones and sound teeth. This vitamin is formed in the body when
the skin is exposed to the direct sunlight. Some of this vitamin
should be consumed daily, especially through the growing period.
It is also necessary for pregnant and nursing mothers. Rich sources
of vitamin D are cod-liver oil, fish, egg yolk, irradiated foods, and
milk. Babies and young children usually require a special vitamin
D preparation or one of the fish-liver oils regularly.
The preceding information should not be considered a complete
treatise on proteins, minerals, and vitamins or vitamin require-
ments. It is only an effort to bring the reader up-to-date quickly and
to show the importance of meat as a source of supply for those
elements that enable the body to use other materials and to func-
tion smoothlYJ ~ b
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FOOD NUTRIENTS 29
MEAT·; PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION PER CAPITA
SPECIFIED COUNTRIES
CONSUMPTION PER
PRODUCTION PER CAPITA IN POUNDS CAPITA IN POUNDS
300 500 600 100
NEW
ZEALAND
URUGUAY
DENMARK
AUSTRALIA
ARGENTINA
UNITED
STATES
CANADA
IRELAND
FRANCE
~ AI( 1946-50
jiiiiiiii /952
NETHERLANDS
SWEDEN
BELGIUM
SWITZERLAND
UNITED
KINGDOM
MEXICO
* CARCAS MEAT - EXCLUDES OFFAL, LARD, RABBIT AND POULTRY MEAT

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31
MEAT!
PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION, BY TYPES, IN SPECIFIED COUNTRIES IN 1952,
WITH COMPARISON
Average 1946-50 1952 2

Beef Pork Mutton Beef Pork Mutton
and (exd and and (excl and
Country veal lard) lamb Total veal lard) lamb Total
---
Lb. Lb.
---
Lb.
--- ---
Lb. Lb.
- - - ---
Lb. Lb.
Lb.
Canada ..........••• , 70
--- - - - --- --- _-- - - - ---
. 55 48 134 52 62 23 123
United States ........ 73 69 5 147 68 72 4 144
Belgium ............• 35 33 2' 85 41 42 l' 91

Denmark .........••. 48 70 2" 126 36 68 1" 108
Finland .............. 24 28 3" 57 26 29 3" 60
}<-rance ..............• 49 36 6" 94 53 42 6" 105
Ireland .... " ..•.... , 37 44 13 94 35 42 13 90
Netherlands ........•. 27 27 1" 58 34 40 1" 78
Norway ............. 28 24 10 " 64 29 27 11" 69
Sweden .........•.... 41 50 1" 96 40 55 1" 100
Switzerland ....•..... 42 34 1" 79 44 44 1" 91
United Kingdom .•... 43 17 24 " 99 33 37 22" 96
Argentina .........•.. 194 19 19 232 202 14 14 230

Brazil" ............•.• 40 10 17 52 45 11 1• 57
Chile ............••.. 49 10 14 • 73 42 10 117 64
Uruguay ..........••• 142 6 70 218 174 17 52 243
Union of South
Africa ... , •..•.•••• 56 7' 15 78 52 77 15 74
Australia .. " ......•• 116 22 69 • 212 123 17 64 • 208

New Zealand 8 •••••••• 107 33 71 211 115 28 77 220
1 Carcass meat-excludes edible offal, lard, rabbit, and poultry meat. • Pre-
liminary. "Total includes canned meat. • Total inCludes goat, horse, and canned
meat. • Total includes goat and horse meat. 6 Excludes farm production and
consumption. 7 Includes goat meat. 6 Year ended September 30.
Foreign Agricultural Service. Prepared or estimated from official statistics
of foreign governments, reports of United States Foreign Service officers, and
other information,-August 1953.
MODERN MEAT CONSUMPTION
It is generally assumed that earlier civilizations ate more meat

than the later ones; however, there are no statistics of any value on
this point. As a population of a country increases and agriculture
develops, less meat is eaten. The decrease in meat consumption
MODERN MEAT CONSUMPTION 33
MEAT PRODUCTION IN SPECIFIED COUNTRIES AND PER CENT OF
WORLD TOTAL
AVERAGE 1946-50 AND 1952
AVERAGE 1946-50 1952
TOTAL 67.0 BILLION POUNDS TOTAL 77.2 BILLION POUNDS
*60AT AND HORSE MEAT
SOURCE: U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WORLD MEAT PRODUCTION BY TYPES

AVERAGE 1946-50 AND 1952
AVERAGE 1946-50 1952

TOTAL 67.0 BILLION POUNDS TOTAL 77.2 BILLION POUNDS
ALL ALL OTHER 10.2%

OTHER 10.7'0
SOURCE: U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

!
MEAT 'CHARACTERISTICS
S4
is realized -more fully if we look back to the feasting at Christ-
mas in Tudor England when, according to Life Magazine, dinner
began around noon and often went on for eight or nine hours. At
the end of the h~ll, seated upon a dais, the lord presided over the
feast, surrounded by his family and numerous guests and attend-
ants. One by one, to the blast of trumpets, the tremendous platters
of food were borne into the hall. The greatest fanfare was reserved
for the wild boar's head, the stuffed swan, and the roasted peacock,
fully dressed with spreading tail and gilded beak. All about the
table were urns of fruit, steaming pies, wassail bowls of ale floating
with toasted apples, and confections in the intricate forms of ships
or castles. Jesters, musicians, and mummers in fantastic masks
rollicked about the table, dogs barked and snapped at morsels, and
a "Lord of Misrule" appointed to govern for the day entertained
the assembly with nonsensical edicts and clownish commands. But
most of the guests were too busy devouring the food, with the aid
of their fingers, to pay much attention to the festive confusion and
frolicking.
In the not too long past we have further evidence of the de-
crease in meat consumption by reading a menu of the 1890's, when
game was a food for epicures. Imagine sitting down to an elabor-
ate and sophisticated dinner where the course of soup and fish were
followed by "releves," six or more in number, among them turkey
d la Toulouse, saddle of venison with currant jelly, and stewed
terrapin d la Maryland. And after that came a number of cold,
ornamented dishes; then the entrees and hors d'oeuvres.
The second main course offered canvasback ducks, pheasants,
partridges, and grouse, with ten vegetables. And finally came 15
desserts and coffee. Such was the culinary tradition of the inns,
taverns, and hotels of our larger cities during the nineteenth cen-
tury.
However, there are indications that, while the number of meat
eaters increases steadily, the average consumption per person tends
to decrease. It is also generally accepted that, as the standard of
comfort rises, the diet becomes more varied. The consumption of
meat in the United States, for example, was probably greater in
the nineteenth century than in the twentieth century when there
is a larger variety of food available.
During the past five decades ending in 1950 the domestic con-
sumption, per person, of meat, excluding lard, was as follows:
1901-1910, 153 pounds per person; 1911-1920, 140 pounds; 1921-
\
GAME ON THE TABLE 35
1930, 136 pounds; 1931-1940, 131 pounds; 1941-1950, 147 pounds.
During 1951 the consumption was 138 pounds per person, but in
1952 it was around 145 pounds per person. This represents a
daily consumption per person of approximately 3 ounces each of
beef and pork and a half an ounce of the other meats, or a total of
slightly more than 6 ounces.
Consumer purchase studies made by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture tend to show that city people eat more meat
per person than rural farm and non-farm rural people who have the
same incomes. Farmers, however, eat more meat than non-farm
rural people. Within each income class, city families consume more
beef and veal per person than either farmers or non-farm rural peo-
ple. City folks generally eat more lamb than rural people who have
the same income.
GAME ON THE TABLE
Game is the term applied to animals and birds which live free
in the fields, woods, and mountains in a state of nature and are good
to eat. Game is one of the delicacies of the dinner table; it is health-
ful, savory, tasty, and easily digested. The share of food contributed
by game to the average table is at present relatively small, and it is
surprising how few persons in this country have ever eaten game.
Most American families, in fact, have never even tasted it.
If game meats were used more commonly and a taste for venison
and wildfowl cultivated, there could be more variety in the diet with
practically no increase in cost.
The flesh of game, when young, is generally tender, contains less
fat than poultry, is of a fine, though strong flavor, and is easy of diges-
tion. Game meat is usually of dark color, ruffed grouse and quail
being exceptions, and is usually cooked rare.
Climatic conditions, food, and cover all bear a definite relation
to the quality and taste of game meat. Many small game species
survive and thrive in densely populated farm areas.
Farms on which the crop rotation includes wheat, corn, buck-
wheat, lespedeza, soybeans, and similar seed-producers are especially
attractive to upland game birds and rabbits. In addition, rabbits
are fond of almost any green vegetation, especially that grown in
vegetable gardens.
Age affects the flavor and texture of the meat from wild animals.
It is impossible to state the age at which an animal will be best
for meat, but everyone knows that meat from old animals is tougher
than that from young ones. The flesh of very young animals, how-
ever, frequently lacks flavor and is watery. An old animal, if fat
and healthy, is better than a young one in poor condition.
Venison has the same chemical composition as beef but is not
nearly so fat as meat from well-fed cattle. A lean venison roast be-
fore cooking contains, on the average, 75 per cent water, 20 per cent
protein, and 2 per cent fat; a lean beef rump, 65 to 70 per cent
water, 20 to 23 per cent protein, and 5 to 14 per cent fat; and a lean
leg of mutton, 67 per cent water, 19 per cent protein, and 13 per
cent fat. Venison, like beef and other common meats, is thoroughly
digestible, whatever the method of cooking.
Nutrition Tests. In experiments conducted at the technological
laboratory of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service at College
Park, Md., proximate analyses and vitamin assays were made on the
comparative nutritive value of muskrat meat and beef.
PROXIMATE ANALYSES OF EDIBLE PORTIONS OF ROASTED MEATS
Dry Mineral Calories per

Meat Tested Matter Protein Fat matter 100 grams
% % % %
Muskrat ....... 32.1 27.1 4.2 1.4 150
Beef. .......... 42.4 30.3 10.8 1.3 220
The two meats are quite similar in composition except that the
muskrat meat contained less than half as much fat as the bee£. The
muskrat meat contained .16 milligram of thiamine and .21 milligram
of riboflavin per 100 grams, as compared with values reported for
beef of .11 milligram of thiamine and .20 milligram of riboflavin per
100 grams. The proximate analyses and vitamin values, of course,
vary somewhat from sample to sample.
Feeding tests to determine the comparative nutritive value of
these two meats showed that muskrat meat had an apparent digesti-
bility of 93.4 per cent and that of beef 95.9 per cent. Both meats
were easily digested.
Proximate analyses and vitamin assays were made on cooked sam-
ples of domestic rabbit, raccoon, opossum, muskrat and beaver
meats. The ~~sults are shown in the following tables:
GAME ON THE TABLE 37
PROXIMATE ANALYSES OF COOKED SAMPLES OF
GAME ANIMALS
Min-
Mois- Pro- eral
Meat tested ture tein Fat matter
% % % %
Beaver:
Boiled ............. 56.2 29.2 13.7 0.9
Roasted ........... 64.2 30.0 5.1 1.2
67.1 29.7 3.8 1.5
Muskrat, roasted ..... { 66.4 26.7 5.3 1.4
70.2 25.2 3.3 1.2
Oppossum, roasted .... 58.3 30.2 10.2 2.3
57.2 24.9 13.8 1.4
Rabbit, roasted .......
{ 60.8
60.2
32.4
33.6
6.2
5.4
1.3
1.5
Raccoon, roasted ..... 54.3 29.2 14.5 1.5
VITAMIN ASSAYS ON COOKED SAMPLES OF GAME ANIMALS
Micrograms per 100 grams

of cooked meat
Meat tested
Thiamine Riboflavin
Beaver:
Baked ................... 76 380
Boiled ................... 60 270
Cottontail rabbit, fried ..... 160 230
Muskrat, roasted ........... 160 210
Opossum:
Broiled .................. 150 2,580
Roasted ................. 100 375
Rabbit:
Baked ................... 105 105
Roasted ................. 104 116
Stewed .. " .............. 50 77
Rabbit kidney, broiled ...... 400 2,300
Rabhit liver, roasted ........ 200 2,30()"'2,500
Raccoon, roasted ........... 575-600 525
Raccoon liver, broiled ...... 200 1,840
The North American wild turkey, as its name implies, is truly

American. This is the bird with which the Pilgrim Fathers inau-
gurated the first Thanksgiving. It differs from its domestic kin in
shape, size, and flavor. It has a very deep breast, longer legs, and
the dark meat is as delicious as the light. Rare now in native
I
38 MEAT CkARACTERISTICS
habitat, it is as difficult and sporting a game bird to hunt as the
woodcock. The flavor of the meat is not so different from domestic
turkey. It does not possess as gamey a taste as pheasant or quail.
Some prefer it to the domestic species. The flesh, however, differs
from other game birds in that it is juicy-not dry.
FIG. 8. Fried or broiled domestic rabbit is delicious any time and can be
served throughout the year.
DOMESTIC RABBIT
Although domestic rabbit has no place in the category of game

meats, it is nevertheless rapidly assuming a position of considerable
importance as a "new meat."
Home dwellers with available space for a small back-yard rabbitry
have discovered that, for the time, labor, and expense involved, the
easy-to-raise domestic rabbit, which is ready for table use in 90 days,
pays a handsome dividend in good eating. Each doe can produce
4 litters, of 7 to 8 each, in a year. Fryer rabbits at two months will
dress about 2 pounds, and slightly more than 77 per cent of the
product is edible. Older and heavier rabbits-those beyond the
fryer age-are delicious in a fricassee or roast. Meat markets in
~
j y' ... ,~:: ... ··f·
'f' .. ;.~ 'f~
, ... ~f:_'
POULTRY 39
many sections of the country can supply rabbit meat for families
unable to raise their own.
In food value, the domestic rabbit ranks with poultry and other
lean table meats as a protein builder of muscle and body. It is fine-
grained, delicately flavored, and highly nutritious. Chemical anal-
ysis shows it to be composed of 19.7 to 21 per cent protein, 8.5 to
16.0 per cent fat, 62 to 70 per cent water, and I per cent mineral
salts. The edible part of the carcass is about 82 to 85 per cent of
the dressed weight. This percentage is much higher in the aressed
carcasses of mature rabbits weighing 3 to 7 pounds than it is in those
of younger rabbits weighing from to 2 to 2% pounds.
Some housewives still have a prejudice against the use of rabbit
meat, because they confuse the domestic grain-fed rabbit with the
wild animal, such as the cottontail and the hare. This may be due
in part to the unattractive way in which the carcasses of wild rab-
bits, shot by hunters, have been offered to housewives.
The meat of the domestic rabbit is all white, like the breast of
chichn; and in both color and flavor it is entirely different from
wild rabbit. Unlike the wild rabbit, the domestic rabbit is available
the year round, the same as chicken, and is as palatable and nutri-
tious in hot weather as in cold.
POULTRY
The term poultry in its general sense includes all domestic birds
bred and raised for human food. It implies turkeys, geese, ducks,
guinea fowl, and pigeons, just as well as chickens.
The meat of well-fattened chickens of young or medium age has
about the same nutritive value as beef, but it is considered easier
to digest and therefore suitable for invalids and convalescents.
Squabs, the young of pigeons, were recognized as delicious and
nourishing food hundreds of years before Christ. They supply
choice, tender meat for home consumption. They sometimes sub-
stitute for game birds. The flesh of a squab contains a larger pro-
portion of soluble protein and a smaller proportion of connective
tissue than pigeon flesh; it is a good source of liquid protoplasm
and vitamin G and is relatively rich in phosphorus.. Squab meat
has a fine texture and a distinctive, delicious flavor, is tender, and
easily digested. A squab is desirable for an individual serving.
Today the precedent of the traditional turkey at Thanksgiving,
Christmas, and other special occasions has given way to serving this
choice bird at all times of the year, and it is becoming less and less
expensive. Meatier turKeyS are being developed so that a small (9
to 12 Ib_) turkey will serve a family of five generously at two meals.
Any day in any year may now be turkey day.
FIG. 9. Any day in the year can be turkey day. They are sold live, dressed, or
ready-to-cook, in various sizes and parts.
Duck and goose differ considerably from both turkey and chicken
in shape, in proportion of dark and light meat, and in fat content.
Raising ducks and geese has been practiced in Europe for centuries.
It began in the United States with the arrival of the early settlers.
The increase in human population and the development of cities
created a demand for duck and goose meat, especially on the part
of the foreign-born population, and therefore duck and goose pro-
duction has expanded considerably from its early beginning. The
dark meat of ducks and geese provides the consumers with a change
from the white meat of chicken and turkeys. Ducks and geese, be-
cause they are quite fat, are efficient self-basters, and no extra basting
is necessary during roasting. Both goose and duck fat are desirable
for pan-frying or sauteing all kinds of food_
Guineas, like game fowl that have been a rarity of the past, are
becoming more popular and the demand is increasing due to present
meat prices. The distinct dark color and wild flavor of this small,
compact bird is being appreciated more. The breast of the guinea
hen is still a great delicacy. It is the meatiest part of the bird and,
since the hen has the plumpest breast, the guinea hen is most prized
for cooking.
Guinea fowl, are also used as a substitute for game birds such as
grouse, partridge, and pheasant. Many hotels and restaurants in the
FISH 41
large cities serve prime young guineas at banquets and club dinners
as a special delicacy. When well-cooked, guineas are attractive in
appearance, although darker than chicken, turkey, or squab. Young
guinea is tender and of especially fine flavor resembling that of wild
game birds. Like other old fowl, old guineas are likely to be tough
and rather dry.
Finally there are the giblets, edible viscera of both domestic and
wildfowl-livers, hearts, gizzards-which give rise to a number of
preparations. Before it was possible to buy cut-up chicken these
various parts of poultry, considered valuable in foreign countries,
were generally discarded or used chopped in gravies. The head of
a chicken is in Europe left on the bird when it is cooked, as the
brain is accounted a tidbit; blanched cocks' combs and wattles are
rated by French cooks as a delicacy worthy of preparation as a sepa-
rate dish, and especially desirable for garnishing; and the feet
skinned and dressed are used for broths.
Cooked giblets may be chopped, heated in gravy, baked in dress-
ing, and folded into omelets. They are high in nutritive value.
Giblets cooked together with necks, backs, and wing tips make an
appetizing soup or stew. Livers sauteed in butter or bacon fat, with
or without onions or mushrooms, served on toast are excellent.
FISH
Fish is one of the keys to successful meal planning. There are so

many kinds of fish-and so many ways to serve it. Fish is a boon to
the budget and in these days of quick freezing, refrigeration, and
fast transportation, it is easy to get and easy to prepare. It may be
caught or bought fresh, frozen, or canned. Few people realize how
many varieties of fish are available on the market. In fact, only
about a dozen or so species, namely the pilchard of California,
sardine, salmon, tuna, mackerel, sea herring, menhaden, shrimp,
oysters, haddock, rosefisQ, crabs, cod, and flounders, make up 80 per
cent of the total catch.
Many fish are on the list of under-utilized species that could be
caught in greater quantity and so supply a considerable poundage
of needed food. Conservative in its eating habits, the public tends
to ask for only the staple and well-known kinds. Many fish discarded
in the United States have been on European menus for years.
Inland fish in particular could be used more widely. The neg-
lected carp is so abundant throughout the Middle West that sports-
men consider it a nuisance. Properly handled and prepared, it is an
excellent food, considered a delicacy by Europeans.
It",. ..
\ , 'I,
~ l'
.
i"
,~~
.( . . . . I!iII'IIIItII"*~~.
FIG. 10. Fish are rich in nutritive value since they are excellent sources of very
digestible proteins.
Buffalo fish are also available in quantity, as are the sweet-meated,

though bony, suckers. The burbot, a wholesome food dish, is
present in quantities in the Great Lakes during most of the year.
Among ocean species, we are likely to see more frequently in the
markets such varieties as skates, sharks, anglerfish, puffers, sea
robins, mussels, and squids. Now the public, faced with high meat
prices, is more willing to try the new species seen in sea food mar-
kets. The once-neglected sea mussel is now enjoying some popu-
larity on the Atlantic Coast.
Still more or less in the field of marine curiosities as far as the
general public is concerned are squids, periwinkles, conches, and
sea urc,hins. However, Americans of recent European or Asiatic
origin regard these creatures as delicacies. Although comparatively
few Americans have ever tasted squid, the canning of this marine
mollusk is an old and well-established industry in California, and
before World War II more squid than crab was being canned in
the United States.
r., ..•
FISH 43
The meat of our largest marine mammal, the whale, has been
quite popular recently. The meat is dark red and tastes something
like beef. It is eaten in many countries. Its flesh is wholesome when
properly handled.
Fish are rich in nutritive value since they are excellent sources
of digestible proteins, and contain essential minerals, vitamins, and
fats. Government nutrition charts recommend that all of us eat at
least one serving of fish, meat, or fowl every day. Fish may be eaten
interchangeably with meat or fowl because most varieties contain
as much food value as meat-in many cases more. A good policy
for health insurance is to follow the Government's suggestion and
eat more fish. Once a week is good-twice is better.
III
FOOD PLANNING
This book is about home meat economies. Remember! It is

written primarily for the family, to help solve the meat problem and
to amplify the meat supply. Meat is entitled to a high-ranking spot
in our present-day culinary setup.
Every homemaker strives to serve enjoyable meals and keep the
family well nourished. It is a difficult task; and to maintain a
healthy and happy family one must practice thrift and save time
and energy wherever possible.
To complete the food program, then, it is important to tell some-
thing about food planning to provide meals that contain vitamins
and other nutrients in quantities which different individuals need.
Your family will agree that food intelligently selected, carefully
prepared, and properly served tastes better.
A READy-MADE FOOD PLAN
Even though meat has a top rating as food, it is not a perfect

food. There is no single food that supplies all the body require-
ments. So when you eat a variety of food you are pretty sure of
getting a well-rounded assortment of the nutrients and vitamins you
need. To be sure your family is well fed you must provide each
important kind of food-and enough of it. This requires wise
planning.
A helpful guide for weekly shopping and meal planning has been
developed by the nutritionists of the United States Department of
Agriculture. They tell us at the beginning that a food fact worth
knowing is: When families in this country are poorly fed, the foods
they neglect are most often milk and milk products, and vegetables
and fruits-especially the leafy, green, and yellow vegetables and
citrus fruits. Watch for these in planning.
In the nutrition plan given on page 48, foods are in groups ac-
44
HOW TO FIGURE THE FAMILY'S NEEDS 45
cording to their major contributions of nutrients, as well as their
place in the meal. Amounts to provide for adequate diets are shown
in pounds and quarts of food for a week.
You can use the allowance plan on page 49 in several ways. It
can serve as a shopping guide, as it stands to show the approximate
amount of food needed for each member of the family. Or you can
compare it to kinds and quantities of food you regularly use, just
to make sure that you are not short in any important kind.
If you have a garden and put up food for the winter, the food
plan can help as a general guide to amounts of foods that the family
will use.
FIG. 11. Ground beef broiled on toast, with or without onion rings, is a favorite
with the youngsters and the oldsters as well.
How TO FIGURE THE FAMILY'S NEEDS
In using the food plan, figure weekly amounts of the food groups
that will fit your family. The figures in the columns preceding
pounds or quarts are arranged to show food quantities according to
age, sex, and how active the individual is. Where a range is given:
For children, the first quantity is for the youngest age. For adults,
the first quantity is for the less active. The most active adults do
really heavy work or take strenuous exercise. For pregnant and
46 \ FOOD PLANNING
nursing women, the first quantity is for pregnant women and the
second for nursing women.
No figures are given for children under one year because they are
often breast fed or have formulas or other food prepared especially
for them.
Guided by these ranges, you can estimate the quantity needed
for each person in the family. Use judgment in doing this. If a
child is having a spurt of growing, he may need the amount of food
usually suggested for children a year or two older.
FIG. 12. Pot roast of beef-chuck, rump or round-with potatoes, onions and
carrots, is a thrifty and savory dish.
As you add up the amount of each kind of food your family mem-
bers need in a week, write the figure in the column provided in the
food plan sheet. This is your guide, to use as it stands or to com-
pare with amounts you have been using.
FOOD AND ECONOMY
Quantities in the food plan can be purchased for about the same
money that the average family in this country spends for food. This
DAILY DIETARY NEEDS 47
assumes that you will choose moderate-priced foods, or mix some
cheaper foods with more expensive ones. On the other hand, if you
want to reduce food costs and still eat well and in some instances
much better, then preserve some food. You can save money by pur-
chasing meat, vegetables, and fruits in quantity and preserving them
at home. Freezing is the easiest method and requires the minimum
of time and energy. Other methods, principally for fruits and
vegetables, are canning and preserving, and for meats, marinating,
corning, brine and dry curing, and smoking. Remember that meat,
poultry, fish, eggs, milk, and cheese contain the top-rating proteins
and some of these protein foods are needed each day; it is an ad-
vantage to include some in each meal.
FIG. 13. Mixed grill-lamb chop, sausage cake, liver, broiled tomatoes and
parsley potatoes-makes a sumptuous meal.
DAILY DIETARY NEEDS
The following table gives a rough idea of how servings from

groups of familiar foods contribute toward dietary needs. These
ratings, calculated by the Bureau of Human Nutrition and Home
Economics, U. S. Department of Agriculture, are based on daily
allowances of the nutrients for a moderately active man as recom-
mended by the National Research Council.
A serving that rates 5 stars provides more than 50 per cent of the
day's need for a nutrient. A 4-star serving provides about 40 per
cent; 3-star serving, 30 per cent; 2-star serving, 20 per cent; and I-star
serving, 10 per cent. Smaller amounts are not shown.
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'8" 0 ..,., ..,., ..,., 0 ..,.,
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49
50 FOOD PLANNING
FEDERAL MEAT INSPECTION
The United States and the Canadian governments require meat

processing establishments to maintain satisfactory cleanliness and
sanitary conditions before they are granted meat inspection service.
All meat processors engaged in interstate, interprovincial, or for-
eign trade are required to maintain government inspection during
the various stages of meat processing. However, these regulations
do not prevent uninspected meat from being sold within the state
or province. Of all meat and meat products consumed, about two-
thirds in the United States and about one-half in Canada are fed-
erally inspected. The remainder is processed and consumed within
the state or province, where it is subject only to local inspection
laws. Some states have state inspection which is nearly identical to
the United States Federal inspection. Some cities also have a similar
inspection.
Meat inspection in both the United States and Canada is an
assurance that the meat has been slaughtered, dressed, and prepared
under sanitary conditions; also that it is free from disease and en-
tirely wholesome at the time the meat was marked with the inspec-
tion stamp.
The meat inspection stamps of the United States and Canada are
illustrated below.
This stamp on fresh and

cured meat (and certain
other meat products) shows
that the meat was inspected
and passed as wholesome
food. The purple coloring
is absolutely harmless.
This stamp printed on canned

or packaged meat products shows
that the contents were inspected
and passed as wholesome food.
ANGRAU
Q Centrel Library
~ RaJendran8gar
~ 11"111 IIIIUIIII 11111 11111 "II lUI

FEDERAL MEAT GRADING AND STAMPING SERVICE 51
All labels or tags affixed to federally inspected meat and meat
food products must be approved in the United States by the Meat
Inspection Branch, United States Department of Agriculture, Wash-
ington, D. C., and in Canada by the Health of Animals Division,
Dominion Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Canada.
Meat and meat food products cannot be imported into the United
States unless the country from which they are exported has compar-
able inspection to that of the United States. The imported product
is inspected by United States Government inspectors at the port of
entry. Any product found to be unfit for human food is either de-
stroyed or refused entry. Meat products imported into Canada must
be acceptable under Canadian inspection meat requirements. Both
governments require an official certificate of inspection from the
exporting country to accompany the meat at the time it is offered
for entry.
When buying federally inspected meat or meat food products,
look for the round stamps, brands, or labels showing the processing
establishment number.
The fluid used to stamp the meat is made of vegetable coloring
and is harmless. The imprint usually disappears when the meat is
cooked. Therefore, it is not absolutely necessary to cut off the stamp
before cooking the meat. Sometimes the inspection legend, in abbre-
viated form, is burned into smoked meats, liver and beef hearts. La-
bels applied to cans, tins, buckets, and cartons of federally inspected
products are required to bear the statement, "U. S. Inspected and
Passed by the Department of Agriculture" in the United States, and
in Canada the statement "Canada Approved." The number of the
meat processor or packing establishment also appears on these labels.
Kosher meat is slaughtered, examined, and given the necessary
rites by the shohet or representative of the Orthodox Jewish religion.
It is then marked with the Hebrew symbols. These symbols are not
to be confused with the United States inspection stamp or the Can-
adian inspection legend, although kosher meat often carries the
government inspection stamp as well as the Hebrew symbols.
For a more detailed explanation of the Federal meat inspection
system, write the Meat Inspection Branch, United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington 25, D. C.
FEDERAL MEAT GRADING AND STAMPING SERVICE
Most consumers have decided preferences with regard to meat.

Those whose incomes will permit are usually willing to pay pre-
52 FOOD PLANNING
mium prices for meat of higher quality, and those whose incomes
necessitate economy in purchases desire to get the highest grade
obtainable for the price paid. But the price of meat is not always
an accurate indicator of quality. Unless the grade name is stamped
on the product or indicated by some other method, the consumer
has no way of identifying either the highest grade or the highest
grade obtainable for the price paid. Then, too, most consumers
are not good judges of meat.
Meat possesses an unusually wide range in quality. It is graded
on factors which determine its relative value to the consumer.
Quality is determined by color, texture, grain, and the degree of
marbling (intermingling of fat through the lean). Finish indicates
the amount, color, character and distribution of fat. Conformation
refers to the general build and shape of the carcass, side or cut. Its
main consideration in grading is the close relationship which exists
between conformation and the relative proportion of lean meat to
bone. These are the principal factors that determine the grade of
meat.
\
\
The U. S. grade stamp
The meat-grading and stamping service of the government gives

consumers a means by which they can select meat with reasonable
assurance that they are getting the quality or grade of meat that
they want and are paying for. Government experts-men who know
meat-carefully grade it while it is still at the packing plant. With
a roller stamp they mark the carcass so that the grade name appears
'-j
on all the principal cuts sold in the stores.
,'I
./
FEDERAL MEAT GRADING AND STAMPING SERVICE 53
Description of the grades. Beef of each grade will provide a satis-
factory dish if the meat is appropriately cooked. The degree of
quality to associate with each of the grades is briefly discussed III
the paragraphs that follow:
:;
--"
As the name implies, beef of this grade is
highly acceptable and palatable. Prime grade
beef is produced from young and well-fed beef-
type cattle. The youth of the animal and the
careful intensive feeding which it has had, com-
bine to produce very high quality cuts of beef.
Such cuts have liberal quantities of fat inter-
spersed within the lean (marbling). These char-
acteristics contribute greatly to the juiciness,
tenderness, and flavor of the meat. Rib roasts
and loin steaks of this grade are consistently
tender and cuts from the round and chuck
should also be highly satisfactory.
This grade is preferred by most consumers be-

cause it is of high quality but has less fat than
beef of the Prime grade. More of this grade of
beef is produced than of any other grade. Choice
grade beef is usually available the year-round in
substantial quantity. Roasts and steaks from the
loin and rib are tender and juicy and other cuts,
such as those from the round or chuck which
are more suitable for braising and pot roasting,
should be tender with a well·developed flavor.
This grade pleases thrifty homemakers who

seek beef with little fat but with an acceptable
)uSDA( degree of quality. Although cuts of this grade
lack the juiciness associated with a higher degree
~ of fatness, their relative tenderness and high

proportion of lean to fat make them the prefer-
ence of many people.
54 FOOD PLANNING
Beef that is graded Commercial is produced
largely from older animals and usually lacks the
tenderness of the higher grades. Cuts from this
grade, if carefully prepared, can be made into
satisfactory and economical meat dishes. Most
cuts require long, slow cooking with moist heat
to make them tender and to develop the rich,
full, beef flavor characteristic of mature beef.
Some young animals produce beef of Com-
mercial grade. Cuts from carcasses of such ani-
mals have a very thin fat covering and are prac-
tically devoid of marbling.
Beef of this grade is produced mostly from cat-

tle somewhat advanced in age and is usually
lacking in natural tenderness and juiciness. The
cuts of this grade, as they appear in the retail
markets, carry very little fat but provide a pala-
table, economical source of lean meat for pot
roasting, stewing, boiling, or ground-meat dishes.
For satisfactory results, long, slow cooking by
moist heat is essential.
OTHER There are also two other grades of beef-Cut-

GRADES ter and Canner. These are ordinarily used in
processed meat products and are rarely, if ever,
sold as cuts in retail stores.
" -----:_
Government standards have been developed chiefly for the grad-
ing and standardization of beef sold at retail. The grade stamp
found on all the main cuts takes much of the gambling out of buy-
ing beef. It is different from the round purple stamp used in Fed-
eral meat inspection work. The round stamp shows that the meat
has been inspected and passed for food. The grading work takes
place later. It is an optional service to aid in the merchandizing
of meats under exact and true grade names, thus enabling the house-
wife, when she wants a "Good" grade roast or steak to be sure of
obtaining that quality.
i 'cl.fj)::)"" , : ,~TrKA" Ll J;;'<:):,:;,{ -V
GRADING AND INSPECTION OF PO{JLTRY SO· ~'. 55
<...-; __ ~-..:r~.1'."'lI'
For more detailed explanation of Federal grading program and

services offered, write the Live Stock Division, Agricultural Market-
ing Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington
25, D. C.
Lamb and veal, as well as beef, are graded by the government
when the meat packer or distributor asks for the service and pays
for it. At present the government is grading pork on contract orders
only.
Beef is the only meat that is government graded in Canada. The
grade stamp is red or blue depending on grade; it runs the full
length of the carcass.
Federal meat grading service is also available in Canada to meat
packers, wholesalers, and jobbers, and, as in the United States, it is
not compulsory.
The two official Canadian grade names of beef are "Choice" and
"Good."
Choice is the best quality of beef. It is marked with a red ribbon-
like stamp. A portion of this stamp appears on practically every
major retail cut. The word "Choice" does not appear, as the red
color indicates the grade.
Good is the standard grade of beef and is marked with a blue
ribbon-like stamp. The word "Good" does not appear, as the blue
color indicates the grade. This grade is in demand with those who
desire good-eating quality without undue waste or cost.
Veal in Canada is not graded or marked for the consumer, but
it is for the wholesaler and the retail dealer; there are three grades:
"Good," "Medium," and "Fair."
Also, pork is not marked for the retail grade, although it is classi-
fied in the wholesale market into three principal grades: "Selects,"
"Bacons," and "Butchers." "Selects" and "Bacons" represent the
highest grades.
FEDERAL-STATE GRADING AND INSPECTION OF POULTRY
The Voluntary Poultry Regulations of the United States Depart-

ment of Agriculture offer several grading and inspection programs
and services. Although they are used mostly by commercial opera-
tors, some producers having large processing operations are now
operating under one or more of these programs. Poultry producers
who use any of the following kinds of services must adhere to the
above-mentioned regulations, as long as they are operating under
them:
: .. i,' ,,'
56 FOOD PLANNING
(1) Grading of Dressed Poultry. Under this program, Federal
or Federal-State graders do the grading. Only carcasses of A quality
or B quality may be individually identified by a Federal grade mark,
illustrated below. The containers of such poultry may also be
identified with a grade mark. If dressed poultry is of C quality,
only the bulk containers may be so identified, even though the
grading may have been performed on an individual bird basis.
Left to right: A Federal grade mark for ready-to-cook chickens;

the Federal inspection mark; a Federal combination mark, bearing
the inspection and grade marks.
(2) Grading of Ready-to-Cook Poultry. Under this program, the

birds must be inspected for wholesomeness and condition by a
Federal inspector, or by an inspector for some other approved
agency as a prerequisite to grading. The birds are graded by a
Federal or Federal-State grader. Ready-to-cook birds that have been
graded and inspected, or their containers, may be identified by a
Federal grade mark such as that shown above for dressed poultry.
However, if such a grade mark is used, the Federal inspection mark
must be used with it, or a Federal combination mark can be used
when the inspection was made by a Federal inspector. If the inspec-
tion was made by an inspector from an approved agency other than
the United States Department of Agriculture, some identification
other than the Federal inspection mark must be used with the grade
mark to shaw that the birds were so inspected.
(3) Inspection of Dressed Poultry for Processing as Ready-to-
Cook Poultry. Under this inspection service, a Federal inspector
examines dressed poultry for wholesomeness and condition while
the birds are being eviscerated. The ready-to-cook birds (whole or
cut up, prepared from such poultry) or the containers in which
they are packed can be identified with the inspection mark.
For a more detailed explanation of the grading and inspection
programs and services offered by the United States Department of
Agriculture, write the Agricultural Marketing Service, United States
Department of Agriculture, Washington 25, D. C.
, '" ~i:.:
~\
[PRESLAUGHTER
CONSIDERA TION~
Butchering and preserving meat and meat products on the farm

constitute a major home industry. In many sections of our country,
raising, slaughtering, and processing the farm pork supply is tradi-
tional. Around 13 Y2 million hogs, almost 1Y2 million beef cattle
and calves, and over Y2 million sheep and lambs are butchered each
year on the farm for home use.
This concept of meat economy should extend into the suburban
and city families; because modern developments, such as unit freez-
ers for the home, freezer locker plants, improved methods of home
curing and meat preservation, not only help solve the meat problem
but amplify the food supply. Home meat curing, sausage making,
and canning are no longer matters of guesswork and no longer diffi-
cult projects. Practical meat economies in the home should gain
popularity and become more universal because of changing eco-
nomic conditions which are affecting our mode of living.
Louis Bromfield says this about raising pigs:
You can breed the pigs and buy the corn and get on; you can raise the
corn and buy the pigs and get on;
If you buy the corn and buy the pigs to feed, you haven't a chance;
But if you breed the pigs and raise the corn, you'll make money.
However, it is not essential to breed the pigs and raise the corn
to procure better and less expensive meat. Obviously, one who does
produce, process, and consume his own meat products has a decided
advantage over a nonproducer for he eliminates the middlemen,
thus increasing his operating margin. One would act wisely if he
made himself independent of the world market insofar as his family
fare is concerned, but it is quite impossible with a continuation of
our standard of living to accomplish this completely. However, one
57
58 PRESLAUGHTER CONSIDERATIONS
way to stabilize the family budget is to lick the meat problem. This
should gain in popularity even though it requires the preservation
and storage of a larger variety and a greater poundage of meat than
previously. It is not even necessary to cure, smoke, and can the
entire meat supply, for it is now possible to have a considerable
quantity of fresh meats during the year, thanks to unit freezers for
household use and freezer locker plants. Although the raising and
slaughtering of meat animals on the farm is quite essential and
should be extended to reduce the family meat bill, it is not, how-
ever, absolutely necessary that the suburbanite and the city dweller
butcher the animals that supply the meat to be preserved and stored.
Most communities have experienced butchers who will do custom
butchering, and practically all refrigerator locker plants have pro-
fessional butchers who slaughter and cut up the carcass.
If.: I [!REPARATIONS FOR BUTCHERING}
.. ; I tt_he production or the procurement of the animal is only the first

step in obtaining a home meat supply. If the meat requirements
of the family are sufficiently large and conditions are favorable,
home butchering may be a practical undertaking. Without the
proper equipment or the knowledge and ability to butcher and
process the meat, the result may prove costly and disappointi~
Butchering and preserving meat require considerable thougfit and
preparation. The warm carcass of a freshly slaughtered meat animal
is a highly perishable food product up to the time the meat is ready
to be cooked.
Precise application to correct methods, cautious cleanliness in
handling meat, and the correct tools and equipment are all impor-
tant to do the job properly and successfully.
It- : 2- [EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS_i'-
A shed or building properly equipped for butchering, with small

pens adjacent for holding the animals prior to slaughter, is, of
course, an ideal structure in which to do the job. Slaughtering can
be done, however, in a garage, in the basement of a house, or out-
doors.
illoper means for hoisting the carcass should be provided, such
as a tripod made of timbers, a tree, or a brace extending out from
a building. A chain hoist, block-and-tackle, or windlass is necessary
for hoisting. This equipment should be sufficiently strong to carry
.:,'J '
.' "i I'! (' . " ..
EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS 59
FIG. 14. Equipment for use in slaughtering and dressing hogs: Gambrel (single-
tree), hook, smooth steel, skinning knife, boning knife, saw, bell-shaped hog
scrapers, and thermometer.
FIG. 15. "Hobbyhorse." A simple and inexpensive means· for

lifting, as well as suspending, the hog carcass.
the weight easily. Hooks, gambrel sticks, or a single tree will suffice
for hogs and sheep, and a neck yolk makes a satisfactory tree for
hanging light beef carcasses, whereas for heavy cattle a double tree
should be used. A pair of ordinary clevises should be used to fasten
the tendons in the case of a beef carcass to prevent it from slipping
off the trei}
In the case of hogs, a water-heating arrangement with scalding
vat and a substantial table are basic requirements; however, a hog
60 PRESLA UGRTEll CONSIDERATIONS
FIG. 16. Homemade beef hoist. A simple method of hoisting a beef carcass is
illustrated in these sketches. A fork or rake handle or gas pipe is slipped
through incisions between tendon and shank bone; ropes are sllspended from
tree limb or other suppOrt (wide apart at top) to height of hocks below. To
free ends of rope are tied short sticks, as 2·foot pieces of broom handle or
equally strong material. These are placed inside the shanks and are used as
levers for winding up ropes around fork or rake handle, as shown. Two men
wind up the rope around pipe or handle. When beef is at right height, another
pipe or handle is laid across between ropes and ends of sticks to prevent lin·
winding. As the beef is raised the legs are spread farther and farther, as desired.
can be scalded in a metal or wooden barrel. A thermometer, hand

hooks, bell-shaped hog scrapers, meat saw, cleaver, knives, whet-
stone, and a steel are needed. If a cleaver or meat saw is not avail-
able, a sharp hatchet and a wood saw will suffice. A sledge or an
ax can be used to stun an animaL
It JYor slaughtering Iambs, a low bench or box is required. If many
Iambs are to be killed, a V-shaped trough of proper height is ntost
. convenient]
ltv [Some heavy and light rope, plenty of buckets, tubs, clean cloths,
and an abundance of fresh water should be on hand for butchering
. any animaL]
~ v Cb: good ·set of knives is required, but they need not be elaborate
or expensive. Certain tools are essential and others are desirable.
Most useful of all is the curved 6-inch skinning knife. It may be
used for sticking hogs, raising the gambrel tendons, shaving and
dressing the carcass, and cutting and trimming the meat. It is also
the best knife for skinning cattle and lambs. Once the user becomes
accustomed to its shape, the curved knife will be found to cut more
easily and smoothly than the straight butcher knife. A narrow-
bladed boning knife, the narrower the better, is needed in preparing
boneless roasts and in boning meat that is to be made into sausage
or·canned. A butcher knife, whetstone, steel, cleaver, bell scrapers,
'-j
meat saw, meat hooks, and a stunning ax or hammer are also re-
quired0
.Lt- ~ .'. .r
;;{,' .
~
FIG.18. Method of holding 2- by 4·inch removable slats. It is a

good plan to have the vat and most of the wooden parts
mounted so that they can be removed, cleaned, and stored when
not in use.
9~ {Additional "tools" useful in preparing meat for curing and smok-

ing are a salinometer; meat pump; meat-curing thermometer; and
meat needle for sewing rolled or folded cuts; curing barrels; a meat
grinder; sausage stuffer; lard containers; pans and bowls for pieces
of meat and meat trimmings, scrapple, and headcheese; and a smoke-
house. 7
Plan well ahead of the time for butchering and organize a conven-
ient, well-equipped place for doing the work. Then, by conscien-
tiously following the methods given in this book, you will proceed
easily and more safely toward better processed meat.
It is quite important to have a good set of knives and the proper
gadgets to keep them sharp. The knives must be designed for the
work they are supposed to do. They must keep their cutting edges
if used for the right purpose and given the proper care. A good
knife should be well balanced, and the blade should be neither too
stiff nor too limber to be manipulated with ease in performing the
job intended. A high carbon content of steel indicates a good
quality of knife; but unfortunately one cannot tell by looking at a
knife whether it has a high or low carbon content in the steel blade.
The best plan is to purchase knives made by well-known manufac-
turers.
43 [Grinding. When offered for sale, knives are not usually sharpened
for immediate use. All of them require honing, and some need
further grinding before they are honed. When it is necessary to
,.!
have extra thinness on the cutting edge of the blade, a sandstone
can be used. The stone shou!d be water-cooled when in use so as to
prevent heating the steel blade. The idea in grinding is to develop
a bevel of about one-fourth of an inch from the edge on both sides
of the knife to be used in sticking and skinning. The stone should
be run at a right angle against the edge or with the edge of the blade.
Care should be taken not to cut or scar the blade further back than
the required bevel. After grinding, the knife should be honed.
Honing. Special whetstones made for this operation are obtain-
able. Either water or oil, as the case may be, is used to develop the
proper abrasive surface. Perhaps you have seen such a stone used
by the barber to hone a razor or by the shoemaker to sharpen his
leather-cutting knives. Such a stone is generally set in a heavy
wooden base to keep it stationary. To hone a knife, grasp the han-
dle in the right hand. Place the heel of the knife blade on the left
end of the stone. Tilt the blade up high enough so that the bevel
lies flat on the stone. Place the fingers of the left hand on the blade
near the back edge and put pressure on the entire blade. Draw the
knife with a sweeping motion to the right, completely across and
inward against the cutting edge of the blade. Then turn the knife
over in the palm of the hand by a twist of the thumb and an index
finger and draw the blade across the stone in the opposite direction.
Always draw the knife across the stone against the edge of the blade
to prevent forming a wire edge. To put the edge in perfect condi-
tion and complete the sharpening process, the knife must be steeled.
Steeling. There are steels of various kinds adapted for definite
use. The mirror steel is the one best adapted for butchering, as it
puts a razor-sharp edge on the blade. One 10 or 12 inches long is
quite satisfactory. In his book, How to Caroe Meat, Game and
Poultry, M. O. Cullen, meat carving expert of the National Live-
stock and Meat Board, stat§ ...."
Steeling requires definite techniqJ, for anything but the right way will
produce the exact reverse of the end desired, which is to straighten the
edge of the blade.
The detailed instructions for steeling, difficult to describe in words,
are much simpler to follow if the directions are acted out with the imple-
ments in the hand.
Hold the steel, thumb over the handle, firmly in the left hand and on
a level with the elbow. The steel should be pointed slightly away from
the body and upward at about a 45-degree angle. The carving knife is
held in the right hand, almost at a perpendicular. In the next steps the
knife actually comes in contact with the steel, and the angle at which this
takes place is the important thing to watch. The angle should be some-
where between 25 and 35 degrees. No one, of course, expects you to re-
view the basic principles of geometry in order to measure out the angle to
the nth degree. A fair approximation of the tilt of the knife will ordinarily
serve the purpose of laying the blade against the steel so that the edge
can be straightened rather than rounded. This is the tapering process
which takes place when a blade is trued up.
Then, once having established the angle, place the heel of the blade
at the tip end of the steel, and on the side farthest from the body. Bring
the knife downward the whole length of the steel, so that at the end of
this stroke the point of the knife is at the hilt of the steel. Now lift the
knife up again to the original starting position, alternate to the other side
of the steel and repeat the motion, remembering each time to take in the
full length of the blade. Most people find this way of alternating surfaces
(nearer and farther) on the steel the surest and easiest one for maintaining
the blade at its correct and steady angle while in motion.
Once you have mastered the knack of steeling, the trick is to draw the
knife along lightly but steadily, with very little pressure, keeping the wrist
relaxed (like the bow arm of the violinist), the steel stationary and the
eye on the alert to hold the angle. However complicated all this may sound
(it takes a good many words to describe the simplest of steps involving one
completed movement), I hasten to reassure you that it is a fundamentally
easy and elementary physical action. True, a novice, translating words into
deeds, might in the very beginning get worked up into knots and go at it
too tensely, but after a little effort the arms relax and the free swing up
and back becomes as automatic as shifting the gears on your car.
The beginner might well return to his boyhood days long enough to
whittle himself a wooden knife, corresponding in size and shape to the
knife. With this harmless imitation, he can practice the arm and wrist
movement in the steeling action without too much concern for the per-
fectly good hand holding the steel.
PRIMARY CONSIDERATIONS
It is important to emphasize again that fresh meat is highly perish-

able, and proper handling is essential to make it into sound and
palatable products that will keep satisfactorily. Absolute cleanliness
must be practiced at all stages of killing and processing the meat.
Only through the elimination of waste and spoilage can the advan-
tages of home butchering be realized.
Preservation of meat begins with the choice of animals for slaugh-
ter. In the commercial meat industry, however, there is no critical
selection for slaughter because the meat industry adapts the animals
offered by producers to meet consumer demands.
But the farmer or anyone who selects an animal for home use
often has the chance to choose one that best meets the family re-
quirements. The animal selected should naturally, be a healthy one,
showing good growth and development. Size and weight are impor-
'.
./ './.
PRIMARY CONSIDERATIONS 65
FIG. 19. Steeling the knife: (toP) Start

first stroke with heel of blade against
far side and near tip of steel. (middle)
Draw blade down across steel toward
left hand with swinging motion of
right wrist and forearm. (bottom) Use
near side of steel and make second
stroke similar to first one.
I
tant, because they indicate the sizes and weights of the different cuts
and the total amount of meat that will be produced.
The late O. G. Hankins, formerly in charge of meat research for
the United States Department of Agriculture, states:
Highly important in the selection of animals for butchering is their de-
gree of fatness. Thin, underfinished animals do not make good eating.
Moderately well fattened cattle, hogs, and sheep yield the most generally
acceptable products. Some consumers prefer highly finished meat, usually
because they believe a relatively large percentage of intramuscular fat adds
to the eating quality of the lean meat. The meat of highly finished ani-
66 PRESLA UGHTER CONSIDERATIONS
mals is "wasty," however, and in hogs might mean too much lard. A 250-
pound hog yields about 60 percent (10 to 15 pounds) more lard than a
200-pound hog-an example of how weight and finish affect the production
of lard.
FIG. 20. A good sausage grinder, with stulfer spout and different
size plates, makes it easy to put up sausage. Size of plates pic-
tured here %-, ¥!i-, %6-' and lis-inch holes.
Meat preservation begins with the live animal because the quality
of the finished meat depends a lot on how the animals were handled
when slaughtered, bled, dressed, and chilled. Actual souring has
been brought about by improper butchering. The prevention of
meat spoilage and also the foundation of quality meat begins with
the handling of the live animal. For this reason. the wise thing to
do is to carry out properly every step in butchering and processing
the meat.
Preslaughter feeding and management call for first consideration.
Animals that are to be butchered should be confined in small indi-
vidual pens for two or three days before they are slaughtered, and
for 24 hours prior to killing they should not be given food but
should have plenty of fresh water. Meat animals should never be
slaughtered when they are overheated, excited, or fatigued, but
should be perfectly quiet and rested. Striking with a stick or whip
will cause bruises or bloody spots on the dressed carcass that must
be trimmed out.
!C • • •
',J.
SKINNING OR FLAYING 67
Meat animals should be dispatched quietly and quickly. Bleeding
must start promptly and proceed freely and rapidly. Time and
temperature are important factors in the preservation Qf meat. Mr.
Hankins emphasizes that there should be no delay in carrying out
all subsequent steps, such as scalding and scraping hogs, removing
hides of cattle, pelts of sheep, eviscerating, and splitting cattle and
hog carcasses. Cleanliness at all stages of the operation is impera-
tive.
The meat experts of the Department of Agriculture tell us that
fresh meat is an excellent medium for the growth and development
of bacteria. Therefore, dressed carcasses have to be chilled promptly.
Cool them at an internal temperature of 35°F. or lower within 24
hours or less.
Meat animals for home use should be slaughtered when weather
conditions are favorable for rapid cooling of the carcasses. About
24 hours are necessary for proper chilling, and a good rule to follow
in warmer sections is to kill in the afternoon, and then the cool
night is just ahead for starting the chill.
SKINNING OR FLAYING
Before one begins to slaughter one should be well informed on

the methods of skinning meat animals. Hides and skins are an im-
portant source of the raw material of the leather industry. Tanners
buy these raw materials on their merits, paying a price based largely
on the quality and quantity of the leather and on the uses to which
it can be put.
Packers' hides and skins are taken off by men employed exclu-
sively for the purpose of removing hides. As the hides are taken off
in large numbers they are uniformly selected and cured. The result
is a product of uniform selection, good pattern and trim, and with
few imperfections, making possible a maximum yield of leather of
the best quality.
Country hides and skins are taken off by farmers, ranchmen, rural
folk, local butchers, or by their helpers, who are usually inexperi-
enced in skinning. Such hides and skins are usually handled several
times before becoming available for uniform selection. Not only is
the yield of leather from such hides and skins comparatively low
and uncertain, but the leather is adapted to limited use only.
The wide difference between the prices of the raw and the finished
products, as well as the low prices paid for the so-called country
hides and skins as compared with the prices paid for those marketed
\,
FIG.21. Top and bottom show the proper ripping-open cuts for
a correct pattern. The dotted lines show the path of the knife,
and the solid lines show the appearance of the hide when
spread out. .'. ::f-;·
r·-
SKINNING OR FLAYING 69
by the packers, is also due partly to several factors less difficult to
control than those just mentioned. Among them is the general
inferiority of country hides and skins, due to indifferent and im-
proper methods of handling. Much improvement is possible along
these lines. It rests entirely with the one who handles the hides and
skins, whether he be farmer, country butcher, or suburbanite.
There are three important operations in the handling of hides
and skins: take-off or skinning; salting and curing; and marketing.
Unless these operations are performed properly and efficiently, bear-
ing constantly in mind that the hide or skin, as well as the meat, is
an article of value, the loss to anyone with only an occasional hide
or skin to market, will be appreciable. The improvement in quality
and the better returns will more than offset the little extra time and
effort required for carefully following correct methods.
Always clean the animal before killing it. Remove the dirt and
manure carefully so that the hide is not scratched or scarred. Care-
less cleaning, particularly in the case of calves and other young
animals, often causes serious damage to the skin. The old-fashioned
curry comb or other instruments with sharp teeth are not satisfac·
tory. A fiber brush and water are most satisfactory.
Avoid causing damage to the hide or skin while handling the
animal. In stunning or knocking it down, be sure it does not fall
on stones or rocks that will bruise the hide. In subsequent handling
do not drag the carcass around so as to rub the hair off the skin.
FIG. 22. Hide of good pattern and FIG. 23. Hide of poor pattern and
trim. trim.
""f,.,:
70 PRESLA UGHTER CONSIDERA TIONS
Keep the skinning knife sharp; use it carefully but no more than
necessary. Avoid cutting the hide or skin but not at the expense of
the meat. Leave the flesh on the animal; besides a loss of food, its
presence on the hide or skin is very objectionable-it lowers the
quality of the hide. Skinning is done best and most easily before
the animal heat has escaped.
The techniques of skinning are difficult to describe so that they
may be followed easily. In fact, expertness in flaying, especially of
hides, can be acquired only by practice. It requires patience and
skill, and care must be exercised until the skill is obtained. Written
directions cannot be as clear and effective as actual observations and
trials. Before killing an animal one can learn much by visiting a
small or large slaughter house and observing the methods employed.
Although proper skinning, without scores or cuts, requires prac-
tice, a proper pattern requires only a sharp knife and straight rip-
ping-open cuts along the correct lines. All the ripping-open cuts
for skinning a beef are clearly shown by dotted lines on page 68.
The outlines show the resulting correct pattern or appearance of the
hide when spread out flat. The contrasting points in pattern and
FIG. 24. Careless skinning will produce

tS
' dl + r-~C" defects from scores and flesh prevalent
,. s,.••t ~"1-1-"""
in the areas indicated in the diagram.
'A.
(~
Scores are very numerous around the
~~~
tail and in the butt, which is the most
{(/~ valuable portion of the hide. Careful
r 1;.""
knife work will prevent these defects.
"~.''''''~
~,
++
trim are shown on page 69. The irregular edges and the shape of
the hides, the split shanks and tail, and the dewclaws shown in the
hide of poor pattern and trim are absent in the hide of good pat-
tern. The dotted lines marking the hide of poor pattern show how
much must be trimmed off before tanning. This is all waste and
reduces the area or size of the hide.
Detailed instructions for killing and skinning the various species
of meat animals are given in the following chapters.
EXAMINING THE CARCASS 71
EXAMINING THE CARCASS
All the internal organs, as well as the carcass, of animals intended

for food, induding poultry, wild fowl, and other game, should be
carefully examined at the time of slaughter for disease or other con-
dition that might affect the fitness of the meat for food. The only
person qualified to do this properly is a veterinarian educated and
trained to perform this important duty. If one is not available, an
examination of some value can be made by anyone thoroughly
familiar with the appearance of normal organs and meat. If a per-
son is not familiar with such appearance he will not be able to
recognize changes from the normal. If evidence of disease or change
is found, the next point to be determined is whether the condition
is local or general. A localized condition affects a limited part only.
Bruises, minor injuries, parasites in organs, an inclosed abscess, or a
single tumor, may be cited as local conditions, and removal of the
affected part is usually all that is required. A generalized condition
is one which more or less affects the whole carcass. The presence of
great congestion or inflammation in the lungs, intestines, kidneys,
or on the inner surface of the chest or abdominal walls is to be re-
garded as showing generalized conditions. Numerous yellowish or
pearl-like growths scattered through the organs or on inner surfaces
of chest or abdominal walls indicate generalized tuberculosis. An
FIG.25. A calf skin of good pattern and FIG. 26. A calf skin of poor pattern and
trim. The dotted lines indicate the trim. The dotted lines show the exces-
amount cut off before tanning. sive amount of trimming necessary be-
cause of the poor pattern. The head
and practically all of each shank must
be cut off.
abnormal color of the meat is usually due to some generalized con-
dition. All generalized conditions are to be viewed seriously. Any
such case should be submitted to a graduate veterinarian for exami-
nation and opinion as to the fitness of the meat for food.
REGULATIONS FOR SHIPPING MEAT OR MEAT FOOD PRODUCTS
Farmers who ship their meats must comply with official State and
Federal regulations. Below is shown a sample shipper's certificate
such as must be used in interstate shipments of uninspected meat or
meat food products which are from animals slaughtered by the
farmer on the farm. Blank certificates should follow this sample.
In size the certificate should be 5Y2 by 8 inches.
Shipper'S Certificate
Date_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, 19__ .
Name of carrier _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Shipper_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___
Point of shipmenL-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___
Consignee____________________________
Destination____________________________
I hereby certify that the following-described uninspected meat or meat

food products are from animals slaughtered by a farmer on the farm, and
are offered for transportation in interstate or foreign commerce as exempted
from inspection according to the Meat Inspection Act of March 4, 1907,
as amended, and that at this date they are sound, healthful, wholesome,
and fit for human food, and contain no preservative or coloring matter or
other substances prohibited by the Federal meat inspection regulations.
Kind of product Amount and weight
(Signature of shipper)
(Address of shipper)
Two copies of this form are to be presented to the common carrier with
each shipment.
fr. I •.•
.~(
or· t,¥ .i~ ~.
v
5 BUTCHERING HOGS_]
!) nork is the most popular meat for home processing. It can be

prepared in many different ways and is easy to cure and to keep
over long periods of time. Pork is also our most nutritious meat and
produces a highe~ ~ercentage of e. dible meat products than any
other meat animaU
_I- ': ./ >.'
r.;;'( [SELECTION OF HOGS FOR SLAUGHTER)
[JIigh quality meat, with a full finish and rich flavor, is produced
by medium-weight hogs, and these should be the only ones butchered
for home use. Thrifty, properly fattened hogs from 8 to 10 months
old and weighing from 180 to 250 pounds are the best ones for home
butchering. Hogs of this size are more easily handled, and the meat
chills more quicklyj They produce moderate-sized cuts and usually
a desirable portion of fat and lean. Medium-weight cuts will also
cure quicker and more uniformly than heavier cuts. Medium-weight
hams, shoulders, and bacon are finer in texture and flavor and are
of better quality than those from older, heavier hogs. Heavier hogs
will produce more lard.
s-).. CSTICKING 1
[T'he care of lln animal just before it is slaughtered, previously
~, has much to do with getting a good "stick."
Sticking is the best method of killing. It is practical, efficient, and
humane. It is best not to stun or shoot a hog before sticking.
If the animal is stuck without being stunned, the blood will drain
out more completely than if it is stunned first. If a block and tackle
with hoisting arrangement is available and fastened securely 10 or
more feet above the ground, loop a chain around one hind leg and
73
I <.
74 BUTCHERING HOGS
AVERAGE PERCENT AGES
(Of Certain Parts of Hog Carcasses Classified According to Live Weight
of Animal)
Data for hogs weighing-
Less than 130 to 160 to 200 to 250 lb.
Hogs, carcasses, and parts 130 lb. 1591b. 1991b. 2491b. or more
- - - ----- - -
Hogs ..................... number. 26 41 199 240 92
A verage live weight at
slaughter ................ pounds. 106 146 183 218 289
A verage weight of chilled
carcass.. .. . ............... do ... 78.0 116.0 146.0 177.5 238.5
HamS' ................... per cent 1. 19.9 18.4 18.4 17.5 17.0
Loins ........................ do ... 13.2 12.2 12.1 11.6 11.0
Bacons ....................... do ... 9.4 10.1 10.8 11.4 11.9
~\ Shoulder (3'rib, full cut) ....... do ... 18.5 17.7 17.4 17.0 16.7
Head ........................ do ... 10.7 9.8 9.4 8.9 8.5
Cutting fat 2 • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • do ... 10.9 15.0 16.8 19.5 21.5
1Percentages of parts based on weight of chilled carcass.
2Consisting of back fat, leaf fat, and fat trimmings.
SOURCE: AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
PERCENT AGE COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE ORGANS (PORK)

Other
Water Protein Fat Ash constituents
% % % % %
Liver ................ 72.84 19.81 5.28 1.50 0.73
Kidney ............... 76.25 17.00 5.41 1.18 0.16
Heart ................ 79.29 17.69 1.63 1.10 0.29
Tongue .............. 68.30 17.00 13.27 0.94 0.49
Brains ............... 78.36 I 10.31 7.48 1.45 2.40
draw the hog backward through the gate of the pen and up for
swinging. Care should be taken to loop th6 chain between the hock
and the hoof so as not to bruise the ham shank. This is the easiest
way, for both man and hog, to restrain the animal for sticking with-
out stunnin&J.5'l..
1£ a gadget for hoisting the hog is not available, then roll the hog
on its back and stick on the ground. To get the hog in proper posi-
tion for sticking on the ground, reach under the animal and grasp
its opposite front leg, then roll it upon its back and hold it firmly
by the front feet. The man holding the hog stands astride of it,
i facing forward, with his feet and knees pressed against the shoulders
of the animal to prevent it from rolling.
" '"' ,'
STICKING 75
Jt.
r-
"
J.'\,~.- "'-.~ , ,"
FIG. 27. Sticking the hog on the ground. The feet and legs of the man holding
the hog are pressed against the shoulders of the animal to prevent it rolling.
FIG. 28. The three positions of the

knife in sticking a hog: (a) the knife
inserted in the fat; (b) the second po·
Il( sition places the knife above the artery;
(c) the final position, after the down-
ward thrust has been made and the
artery severed.
The following sticking method for the beginner is recommended

by the United States Department of Agriculture. The man doing
the sticking takes a position squarely in front of the hog, holds down
the snout, and opens the skin for a distance of about 3 inches in
front of the breastbone, not downward as is often done. When
the breastbone is reached, he follows downward with the point of
the knife until the knife slips under the breastbone and between the
ribs. He then pushes the knife in about I inch and directs the cut
first downward toward the backbone, then forward toward the head.
76 BUTCHERING HOGS
Care should be taken to hold the animal squarely on its back and to
keep the knife in the center so as not to stick a shoulder. It is diffi-
cult and unwise to stick the heart. Let it pump out the blood as
long as possible. A quick and thorough bleed is one of the founda-
tion steps in processing high quality meat, and too much emphasis
cannot be placed on the importance of a good bleed.
6
5 [SCALDlNc:J
LA hard wood or metal barrel, 50-gallon capacity, is satisfactory to
scald a hog weighing up to 250 pounds. The most convenient vessel
in which to heat the water for scalding is a large caldron or kettle,
which should be located near the place of butchering. A scalding
tank built for the purpose makes the job easier. A metal trough or
watering tank 5 to 6 feet long, 30 inches wide, and 15 to 24 inches
deep may be converted into a combination water heater and scalding
vat. It can be set up on bricks or put over a pit. The sides are
banked with earth and a fire built beneath. This arrangement per-
mits holding the temperature of the water at the proper point for
scalding any number of hogs.
A convenient table is one 4V2 feet wide, 2V2 feet high, and 4 to
8 feet long. On a table this wide the hog can be laid crosswise so
that one man may scrape the rear end while the other scrapes the
head.
At a slaughterhouse where steam is available to maintain the
scalding water at a steady temperature, the water is usually held at
140 0 to 144°F. In water at these temperatures it requires from 3 to 6
minutes to loosen the hair and scurf, but there is little or no danger
of setting the hair or cooking the skin. In autumn when the winter
hair is beginning to grow and most hogs are difficult to scald, tem-
peratures as high as 146 0 to 150 0 are sometimes used.
At home on the farm or in the suburbs when a barrel is used for
scalding, it is difficult to maintain the required water temperature
or to reheat the water promptly, and temperatures of 155 0 to 165 0
often must be used at the beginning so that the water will not be-
come cold before the hog is completely cleaned. In water this hot,
the hog must be kept in motion and pulled from the barrel to give it
frequent chances to cool. This lessens the danger of setting the hair.
It is advisable to have plenty of boiling water available so that the
lower temperatures can be used at the beginning and more hot water
added if necessary. By using a good thermometer you can always
know when the water is at the correct temperature, which not only
makes scalding easier but eliminates the setting of ha~ 5
, t "~'.'''' 3
~y
.'.,
,(.
SCALDING 77
FIG. 29. Scalding the hog in a barrel. Keeping it in motion lessens the danger
of setting the hair, and works the water into the wrinkles of the skin.
78 BUTCHERING HOGS
Lime, wood ashes, and rosin put into the water make the hair
cling to the scraper and pull out more easily. Remember, however,
that the temperature of the water when scalding a hog is more im-
portant than any substance that can be put into it.
Twenty-five to thirty gallons of water is ordinarily enough to
scald a hog in a 50-gallon barrel. Light-weight or medium-weight
hogs can be practically immersed in the barrel.
The barrel should be set at about a 45° angle at one end of the
scraping table; or, if a hoist is available, the barrel may be set up-
right under the hoist to save lifting. It is good practice to scald the
head first while the hind legs are dry. Two men are required to
handle this job satisfactorily. Each grips a hind leg and the hog is
immersed in the hot water. It should be kept moving in the water
to be sure no part rests against the side of the barrel. Occasionally
the lmg should be drawn part way out of the water to air when the
hair may be "tried." When the hair and scurf slip from the surface,
scalding is complete. Then pull the hog out of the barrel, place the
hook in the lower jaw, and scald the hindquarters. At this time, a
third man, if available, can remove most of the hair from the hot
forelegs, flanks, ears, and head even though the animal is kept in
motion. This should be done immediately, as these parts cool
quickly.
s-1- ~CRAPING 7
t)tt [When the hog is completely scalded, pull it out of the water and
turn it crosswise on the table. One man should grip the hind legs
with both hands and twist off the hair, then with the hook pull off
the dewclaws and toes while hot. With a bell scraper he should re-
move the hair and scurf from the hindquarters. Scraping strokes
made with the lay of the hair will remove it easier. Another should
scrape the hair from the forequarters, feet, and head. After some
experience, one will learn to stretch the skin by the leg or head so
as to smooth the wrinkles and make scraping easier. If patches of
hair have not been thoroughly scalded, it is often possible to loosen
them by covering them with sacks or hog hair and pouring hot water
on them. The removal of hair and dirt from the hot carcass should
be done as rapidly as possible, as there is a tendency for the skin to
"set" and render the removal of the hair difficult. As soon as the
hair is removed, pour hot water on the carcass and place the bell
scraper flat against the skin and work the scraper in a rotary fashion.
This will massage out much of the dirt and scurf from the skin. A
blowtorch and a wire brush will be useful in singeing and scrubbing
the head and feet. Next, rinse the hog completely with cold water
SCRAPING 79
FIG. 30. The hair and dirt are scraped off by tilting the bell scraper on its far
edge and pulling forward. Use both hands and plenty of pressure.
FIG. 31. The head is cleaned by scraping, singeing, and then scrubbing with a
wire brush.
and shave the entire carcass with a knife. It is now ready to be

hung up. Make a deep cut up the center of the hind legs from the
foot toward the hock. Push the skin aside with the knife and
the tendons will be found. Cut down to the bone at the side of the
tendons. Free the tendons on both sides with the knife and fingers.
Lift the tendons with the fingers and hook over the gambrel. Be
sure the gambrel or singletree hooks engage both tendons. After the
80 BUTCHERING HOGS
carcass is raised by a block and tackle or a chain hoist, wash the
carcass again with cold water and shave. If the carcass does not have
a clean white appearance, douse it again with water and scrape
down with the back of a knife so that the carcass will be clean and
dry. Before opening the carcass be sure that all knives are clean and
well scalded.i:1 s-
J IJ
FIG. 32. Raising the gambrel tendon.

5"5"
[REMOVING AND CLEANING THE HEAD J
[First removing the head permits the complete drainage of blood
from the carcass, and it also is an aid to rapid chilling. Make a cut
just above the ears at the first joint of the backbone and all the way
across the back to the neck. Sever the gullet and windpipe to let the
head drop, then pull down on the ears and continue the cut around
the ears to the eyes and then to the point of the jawbone. This frees
the head but leaves the jowls on the carcass. The head should be
washed thoroughly and trimmed as soon as possible.
Make a deep slit on the underside of the ears and peel and clean
out the core or waxy portion. With a narrow sharp knife, cut out
the eyes and eyebrows by following around the eye socket.
Cut out the tongue, clean thoroughly in water, and hang it up.
Cut the muscles free from each side of the lower jaw and revolve
the jaw out of its socket or hinge joint by pulling the jaws apart.
~
.~. I
.'1
..... ;.
REMOVING THE ENTRAILS 81
, FIG. 33. Removing the head.
Carefully trim all the meat off the lower jaw and discard the bone.
Remove the snout and the skin from the front of the face. Saw off
the face bones just back of the teeth. With the saw, cut the skull
lengthwise and remove the brain. This method of preparing the
head leaves no bone splinters. Now the head is cleaned and ready
for making headcheese and other pork delicacies] S r-
REMOVING THE ENTRAILS
Score the belly by making a slight incision from a point between

the hams to the sticking cut in the throat, but be careful not to cut
through the belly wall. Now, insert the skinning knife, edge up,
into the place the hog was stuck and cut up through the full length
of the breastbone as a pry to split the breastbone and divide the first
pair of ribs. If the breastbone is hard to cut, as it may be in older
82 BUTCHERING HOGS
FIG. 34. Scoring the belly. FIG. 35. Cutting through the breast-
bone.
hogs, the cut may be made a little to one side of the middle where
there is softer bone, or a saw may be used to cut the breastbone. In
making this cut care should be taken not to extend the incision up-
ward beyond the chest cavity. To do so will cut into the stomach or
cause the intestines and stomach to protrude and interfere with the
next operation. The blood that has accumulated in the chest cavity
will drain out when the breastbone is split, and you can tell whether
you did a good job of sticking by the amount of blood in the chest
cavity when the breast is opened.
If the hog was swung before sticking and the vein and artery
severed well in front of the heart, very little blood will be left in
the chest cavity to drain out. Getting a good bleed is very impor-
tant, as meat cannot be properly chilled and cured without being
properly bled.
\'
, /.
REMOVING THE ENTRAILS 83
FIG. 36. This method of opening the FIG. 37. Opening the bung.
carcass prevents cutting the intestine or
stomach.
Now, begin at the other end of the carcass and make a short inci-
sion in the abdominal wall near the top. Place the hand clasping
the knife handle inside the abdominal wall, with the blade pointing
out. Let the fist that grips the handle drop down until the knife
slants upward. The cutting is done with the heel of the blade and
the fist crowds the intestines away from the outer edge as the rip-
ping is continued downward. When the belly wall is cut through,
the intestines will fall downward, but the attached muscle fiber will
not let them fall far. This is the safest and quickest way to rip the
belly, and there is no danger of cutting the intestines or stomach.
Make a cut down between the hams, taking care to keep the knife
in the center. As the hams open, the white membrane which marks
the exact middle can be seen. Follow this if possible to the pelvic
84 BUTCHERING HOGS
bone. When the aitchbone is reached, the point of the knife is
placed against the center seam of the bone. By striking the butt of
the knife handle with the palm of the hand, the seam of the aitch-
bone is split quite easily. With older hogs, it may be necessary to
use a saw to split the aitchbone. While dividing this bone, care
should be taken to avoid puncturing the urinary bladder, which lies
just below. In dressing a barrow, loosen the penis and let it hang, .II.
to be removed later with the bung. ~
Stand facing the back of the carcass on a bench and dissect out
the bung (rectum). Grasp the bung gut just below the split in the
aitchbone and loosen upward toward the end of the bung. Then
begin in the front and cut completely around the bung end. Se-
curely tie the end with a cord and pull the bung out and down,
cutting around it where it does not pull loose.
When the bung gut is worked down toward the entrails, the entire
mass of entrails should be worked outward and downward, leaving
as much fat as possible along the backbone. The kidneys are left
in the leaf fat which surrounds them.
With the left hand, grasp the intestines firmly just below the kid-
neys at the point where they appear to be attached to the backbone.
Push down slowly but firmly until they loosen from the back. Free
the liver by running the fingers of the right hand behind it and
pulling it away from the back. Still holding the intestines in the left
hand, cut through the diaphragm to the backbone. Extend the cut
around the white fibrous portion of the diaphragm, which is parallel
to the ribs, to the breastbone and down the breastbone to the throat.
This last cut loosens the heart and lungs in the chest cavity. Still
holding the intestines with the left hand, repeat the cut on the left
side of the carcass, crossing the right hand over the left. It may some-
times be necessary to cut the back artery from the backbone, thus
permitting the left hand to pull the entire offal out of the carcass.
The gullet is still attached to the throat, but one cut of the knife
will free it. A tub should be handy to receive the mass of entrails
when they are freed from the carcass. The body cavity should be
washed and rinsed with cold water before the carcass is split.
t:
::> b [}IANDLING AND CARE OF EDIBLE ORGANS _]
[Bow work over the entrails in a tub or on a table. Cut off the
liver and remove the gall bladder. The small upper end of the gall
bladder can be lifted with the thumb and finger and the bladder
peeled out. The heart is cut off through the auricles or "ears." Next
..;,.t;/J.
, .
';'.
HANDLING AND CARE OF EDIBLE ORGANS 85
FIG. 38. In removing the intestines, FIG. 39. The warm leaf fat is pulled
grasp them carefully and firmly so they out by loosening it at the rib end and
will not tear and fall. fisting it up and out.
remove the spleen or "melt." All these parts should be washed

promptly in clean, cool water and hung up for further chilling and
drying. A thin layer of caul fat covers the stomach and is attached
to its outer border. It can be separated from the stomach with the
hands, washed in cold water, and hung up to chill. The stomach
should be cut loose and tied off.
The small intestines can be used for sausage casings. If they are
to be used for this purpose, they should be worked while they are
still warm. Lay them on a table and tie the end of the small intes-
tines. Then remove them or "run" them from the rutHe fat by
pulling the fat in one direction with the right hand and the intes-
tines in the opposite direction with the left. The rutHe fat is then
86 B'UTCHERING HOGS
peeled off. This fat, if not fouled in dressing, can be saved for lard,
although such lard is not high grade. It is better adapted for mak-
ing soap grease. At any rate, it should be thoroughly washed and
promptly chilled in cold water. Then it should be hung up to dry
before being renderec!J "
.:>-{
5' 1 [CLEANING THE INTESTINES J

'6 7 [ljext, the contents of the small intestines should be carefully
stripped out and the casings thoroughly washed. Then reverse them
by turning up a fold at the end of the casings like the cuff on a pair
of trousers; pour warm water into this fold. One person should
hold the intestines while another pours the water, and a third
"feeds" in the intestines as the weight of the water reverses them.
To facilitate this operation, the intestines should be cut into several
lengths. The mucous coat, which is now on the outside after the
intestines are reversed, can be scraped off with the back of a knife
blade, or scraped through a sharpened notched stick by drawing the
casing between the notch and the thumb.
To do a thorough job of cleaning, this operation should be re-
peated several times, and the casings washed in lukewarm water.
The casings should be clear when completely cleaned. If dull spots
appear, continue scraping until they are removed. If the casings are
not to be used at once after cleaning, they should be packed in dry
salt until they are to be used.
Muslin, cellophane, and other manufactured casings are now
available for sausage making, and some folks prefer to use these and
feed the intestines to the hogs or the chickens.
The intestines and stomachs, if properly cleaned, are edible.
These are known as chitterlings. 1£ the stomach is to be used as a
container for he~dcheese, cut a slit 4 or 5 inches long in the small
end. Work out the contents without enlarging the opening. Then
turn the stomach inside out and wash it thoroughly. Place the
stomach in scalding water until the inner lining can be removed
easily. Scrape off all the inner lining and wash with cold water.
Pack in salt until ready to use. If the stomachs are to be used as an
ingredient of headcheese, cooked sausage, or scrapple, the same pro-
cedure is followed with the exception that the stomach may be split
wide open for greater convenience in cleaning.
Split the hog carcass while it is still warm. This helps hasten the
chilling, as more surface is exposed. With a saw or cleaver, split
down the middle of the backbone. Leave about 15 inches of skin
(I
.J' r" (
"~or"~
~: \,
i'f" ~J
.> ~
HILLING 87
FIG. 40. Splitting the backbone.
uncut at the shoulders to keep the carcass from completely separat-

ing or slipping off the gambrel or singletree. This method of split-
ting the carcass eliminates the savory country-style backbone piece
or chine, but it gives more useful finished cuts suitable for curing
and canning] 5
1 'Jp (CHILLING)
tig (!he split carcass will chill more rapidly if the leaf fat is pulled
out. This can be done efficiently by loosing it where it is attached to
the diaphragm at the last rib. Hold the end of the leaf fat with one
hand and, with the fist of the other, loosen the leaf fat by fisting
upward. This is easily accomplished while the carcass is warm, and
its removal helps the carcass chill out qui~
88 BUTCHERING HOGS
For the same reason, the hams should be faced while warm. This
cut is started on flank side of the ham. Grasp the skin you have cut
loose, and continue cutting by following the curvature of the ham
to remove the outer layer of fat and skin from the inside of the ham.
Cut over the face of the ham muscle to the tail head. When the
carcass is chilled it is not so easy to do a neat job. Exposing the ham
muscle permits a more rapid chilling and the thin fibrous membrane
next to the lean meat will shrink to it, giving a smooth appearance
to the hams after they are cured.
The carcass is now ready for chilling. Be sure to suspend the
whole or half carcasses so they do not touch. When hams touch each
other, chilling is often delayed too long, and spoilage occurs. The
need for prompt chilling of warm carcasses cannot be overempha-
sized. To do a neat job of cutting and trimming, the carcass must
be thoroughly and completely chilled. This is also an important
factor in turning out good meat. With the head removed, splitting
the carcass, the leaf fat fisted out, and the hams faced, the carcass
is in the best possible condition for chilling. The air can circulate
freely to each part of the carcass, thus taking full advantage of the
weather for getting a good chill. About 24 hours are required for
proper chilling, and a good rule to follow in warmer sections is to
kill in the afternoon, so that the cool night is just ahead for starting
the chill.
Many communities in the South as well as other sections of the
country have access to local cold-storage plants with facilities to
chill the carcass and to store the curing meat. The warm sides are
brought in immediately after slaughter, and the owner returns I or
2 days later to cut the pork and put the meat in cure in the drawer,
box, or bin assigned to him. The fresh cuts, meat trimmings for
sausage, and fat for rendering into lard are taken home. In some
cases the cold-storage locker plant does the cutting. Where a com-
munity cooperates with a cold-storage plant, nominal charges to
those who participate can often be obtained. More about cold-stor-
age locker plants and the services rendered are given in Chapter
XIII.
For proper chilling, the temperature in the center of the hams
should be lowered to around 33 to 35°F. A meat thermometer in-
serted into the center of one ham will show you when the meat is
properly chilled.
If the weather becomes warm and no cold storage is available,
the iced-brine method of chilling is a good one to follow. By cutting
';I
each half of the carcass as illustrated on page 90, you can quickly
5
.~. ' ...
\'1'.' ~ ~". 'i~' 't
'.1
CHILLING 89
separate it into a few major pieces. Fill a clean barrel about a third
full of water, stirring up in the water about 3 pounds of common
salt. Put in some large chunks of ice and the pieces of meat. This
iced brine will be colder than ordinary ice water and will satisfac-
torily chill the meat even in mild weather. Another method is to
place a layer of chipped ice on a clean surface, spreading the carcass
out on the ice and putting additional chipped ice on top. The
iced-brine method in the barrel, however, is more efficient and gives
a better chill.
Sometimes insufficiently cooled pieces are salted lightly with a
FIG. 41. The carcass is now ready for chilling. The meat
thermometer inserted into the center of the ham shows
when the meat is properly chilled (30 0 to 35° F.).
90
I
BUTCHERING HOGS
dry-cure mIxture an-d spread on a rack where they will have as much
ventilation as possible. None of the methods just described for
chilling pork are as safe or as satisfactory as storing the meat at the
proper temperature, either natural or artificial.
Meat should not be cut up and put into cure until it is thoroughly
chilled and all the animal heat is out. A good job of cutting and
trimming meat cannot be done on warm meat. Neither should salt
be applied to warm meat. Quite often home-cured meat has been
made inferior in quality and actual loss caused by cutting up and
salting meat that still has the animal heat in it.
FIG. 42. Brine chilling. Separate each half of the carcass into these major cuts or
pieces.
VI
[B UTCHERING CATTLE]
[Home dressing and cutting up beef often rnakes it possible to pro-

cure meat at a considerable saving. The most satisfactory animals
to select for this purpose are yearlings from a good type of beef cat-
tle. Yearlings produce light carcasses and light cuts which chill
quicker, and the meat is more tender than that from older anima§ .
The care and management of animals before slaughter and the {, I
equipment and tools have been discussed previously.
,£ ~ (§TUNNING )
yLThe animal should be killed where the Carcass is to be hoisted.

Stunning is the best method to render a beef animal unconscious in
order that it may be bled properly. It may be tied securely to a post
or tree, or tied in position for stunning. To accomplish this, the
head is tied in a position that will enable a rnan to stun the animal
by a blow on the forehead with an axe or sledge. The proper place
to strike is just above the center of the forehead. Draw imaginary
crosslines from the horns to the eyes. Strike with a short, powerful
blow at a point just above where these lines Cross. _)
b? (BLEEDING)
~ LWith the animal lying on its side, the sticker should face the same
/ direction as the animal. He should stretch the animal's neck out as
far as possible, holding it in position with one foot against the jaw
and the other in front and against the forelegs. Pressure should be
applied on both the jaw and forelegs to maintain the stretch and
make it more convenient for sticking the animal. This also lessens
the danger of the sticker being struck by the front feet of the animal.
With the sticking knife, cut through the skin from the breastbone
toward the throat, making a cut about 10 to 12 inches long and deep
enough to expose the windpipe. Insert the knife with the back of
91
92 BUTCHERING CATTLE
FIG. 43. Beef animal tied in position for stunning.
FIG. 44. Sticking.
the blade against the breastbone, and point the tip directly toward
the backbone at the top of the shoulders just under the windpipe,
and cut forward toward the head. This will sever ample arteries
and veins to facilitate free bleeding.
After the animal is stuck, place your foot on the animal's flank and
alternately lunge forward on this foot and then pull back on the
'}
tail in order to speed up the bleeding materiallV '
. i _
BLEEDING 93
AVERAGE PERCENTAGES
(Certain Parts of Carcasses of Full-fed Hereford Steersl Classified According
to Fatness and Average Weights of the Animals and Carcasses)
Data for carcasses containing indicated

proportions of fat 2
Steers, carcasses, and parts 12 to 16 to 20 to 24 to 28to 32 to
15.99 19.99 23.99 27.99 31.99 35.99
% % % % % %
Steers .................... number .. 4 8 5 11 6 2
Final feed-lot weight ...... pounds .. 604 748 769 809 883 972
Live weight at slaughter ...... do .... 593 723 740 789 850 944
Empty-body weight .......... do .... 557 679 711 751 832 918
Chilled carcass weight ........ do .... 342.0 425.5 433.8 477.1 533.1 603.0
Parts of carcass-per cent of
empty-body weight:
Forequarters ...... , .... per cent .. 31.06 31.54 31.19 32.14 32.58 33.22
Prime rib cuts ........... do .... 5.15 5.36 5.36 5.75 5.91 6.29
Chucks ................. do .... 16.66 16.73 16.18 16.29 16.73 16.39
Plates ................... do .... 6.67 6.98 7.22 7.82 7.91 8.45
Foreshanks .............. do .... 2.60 2.43 2.32 2.17 2.16 2.05
Hindquarters .............. do .... 29.11 30.41 29.25 30.77 31.00 31.70
Rounds ................. do .... 13.32 12.99 12.50 12.02 12.03 11.09
Rumps ................. do .... 2.93 2.93 2.83 2.97 2.99 3.01
Flanks ....... , .......... do .... 2.30 2.99 2.92 3.55 3.65 4.15
Loin ends ........ ' " .... do .... 5.84 5.74 5.23 5.50 5.39 5.32
Short loins ........... , .. do .... 5.06 5.78 5.57 6.46 6.73 8.13
1The 36 steers ranged from approximately 11 to 17 months of age at slaughter.

2Based on ether-extract content of right side.
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE ORGANS (BEEF)
Other
% % % % %
Liver ................. , 69.5 20.0 2.5 1.5 6.5
Kidney .............. ' " 77.0 16.5 3.5 1.1 1.9
Heart .................. 77.5 16.0 3.5 1.0 2.0
Tongue ................ 67.0 16.0 13.5 0.9 2.5
Brains ................. 71.0 10.8 13.5 1.7 3.0
Tripe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80.0 8.0 8.0 0.9 0.5

FIG. 45. Severing the tendons. Cut at FIG. 46. Skinning the head-first opera·
a mark below the dewclaws. tion.
FIG. 47. Skinning the head-the last FIG. 48. Detach the head by cUlling
operation before detaching it. across the neck just back of the jaw.
If a block and tackle or hoist is available, untie the animal and

quickly loop a heavy rope around the hind legs with a couple of
extra half hitches and hoist the animal clear of the ground before
sticking. In such a position a better bleed will be obtained. The
hoisting can also be done after the animal is stuck on the ground.
SKINNING AND REMOVING HEAD 95
FIG. 49. Propping the carcass in posi· FIG. 50. Skinning the foreleg.
tion with a pritch.
FIG. 51. Freeing the shank and hoof. FIG. 52. Skinning the hind shank.
6" (SKINNING AND REMOVING HEAD)
The hide is a valuable by-product of a beef animal, and care should

be taken in skinning it from the carcass and in handling it prior
to tanning. A smooth, clean job of skinning should be done and no
meat should be left on the hide. The treatment of hides and their
ultimate use is given in Chapter IX, "Handling Hides and Skins."
mart skinning at the head, cutting back of the poll, thence to the
nostril on the left siae of the head along the line of the eye. Skin
the side of the head and a short distance down the neck. Turn the
head up on its base to finish skinning it.
\
FIG. 53. Removing hind shank at lower FIG. 54. Skinning the thigh.
hock joint.
FIG. 55. The thigh is only partly FIG. 56. Opening a line on the hide
skinned before hoisting the carcass. It from the brisket to the tail.
is more convenient to complete the
skinning when hoisted, and it is also
conducive to cleanliness.
Now grasp the head by the lower jaw and unjoint it at the atlas
joint, which is the first joint back of the head. Make a cut across the
neck just behind the jaws. A slight twist of the head will unjoint
it from the neck after the muscles and connective tissue have been
':i severed. '\ .
_J6
9 F., ..•
I
SKINNING THE CARCASS 97
k>s-- (SKINNING THE CARCASS )
£.r---tfrop the carcass squ~rely on its back with a block of wood, a stick
sharpened at both ends, or a pritch. Split the hide over the back of
the forelegs from the dewclaws to a point 2 or 3 inches above the
knee. Skin out the shank and remove it just below the knee. Be sure
to pull the hide back on both sides of the shank, then saw through
the shank bone just below the lower joint. After some practice it is
easy to cut through this straight joint with a knife.
Cut across the hind leg at the joint below the hock, severing the
tendons to permit the leg to relax. Split the hide from the dew-
claws to the hock and up over the rear of the thigh to a point from
4 to 6 inches back of the cod. Skin the hock and shin and sever the
leg at the lowest joint of the hock. In splitting the hide over the
thigh, the knife should be turned down flat, with the edge pointed
outward and a little upward to avoid cutting or gouging into the
lean of the round. The inside of the thigh may be skinned well
down but the outside should not be skinned until after the carcass
has been raised. Before hoisting the carcass, split the hide down
the middle of the belly from the brisket to the tail and then skin
back from this line until the side is well started.
The next, and the most difficult, part of skinning is known as
"siding." The skinning knife should have a smooth, keen edge.
Grasp the handle well up toward the blade and hold the blade flat
against the surface of the hide, which must be stretched tightlil {; ._
This will avoid cuts and scores on the flesh. In removing the hicte: :..s
keep the blade turned slightly toward it in order to avoid gashing
the flat muscle covering the abdomen, or thin "fell" membrane
which lies between the meat and the skin. This membrane serves
to protect the meat from drying out and from the attack of molds.
The carcass should be sided down as far as possible. It is easier
to do this in the present position than to delay the siding until the
carcass is hoisted.
The appearance of the carcass will be improved if all blood spots
are wiped from the surface during the skinning operation. A bucket
of warm water and a clean cloth are needed for this purpose. The
cloth should be wrung out so it contains as little moisture as pos-
sible.
-GG (OPENING THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY)
[Open the carcass down the midline by starting- the incision large
enough for entrance of the hand just back of the breastbone. Point
the knife upward on the outside of the abdomen, the hand and
r
FIG. 57. Siding is the most difficult part FIG. 58. Opening the abdominal cavity.
of the skinning operation. Care should
be taken to avoid gashing the flat
muscle covering the "fell" membrane.
The hide is held with the hand on the
olltside, for both convenience and
cleanliness.
FIG. 59. Sawing the breastbone. FIG. 60. The pelvic bone divided.
handle of the knife inside, cutting from this point all the way down
the midline of the carcass to a point near the cod or udder. Cut
through the abdomen carefully so as to avoid puncturing the paunch
or intestines and protect them from the knife blade with the left
hand. Cut through the brisket, exposing the breastbone, and saw
~; through the latter. Loosen the windpipe and gullet, but do not
. .r' ' .t •. I ....
, ,
if' ~01
HOISTING 99
cut them off. Saw or split the pelvic bone, which is exposed by cut-
ting through the muscle midway between the hind legs. Remove
the caul fat:] {, I
b HOISTING
Make an incision between the large tendons and the hock. Be-
tween the tendons and shank bones insert the beef tree or spreader.
Now raise the hind part of the carcass to a height convenient for
skinning the rump and tail. Cut through the hide on the underside
of the tail. Sever the tail bone at a joint near the base and pull it
out of the hide. Skin the rump on each side of the tail. Hoist the
carcass a little higher now and skin the hide from the hindquarters.
The hide may be removed from the thighs by pulling and jerking,
or it may be "beaten" off by striking the hide with the back of the
cleaver. If the hide does not yield readily, it can be loosened with
the knife. As in siding, one should be careful to avoid removing the
fell with the hide. Dip a clean cloth in hot water, wring it out, and
wipe the hocks and hindquarters to clean off blood and other debris.
Next, loosen the rectum by cutting around it. After the rectum
is cut free, tie it off with heavy twine and then work it loose from
the backbone. Leave the kidneys and fat in which they are im-
bedded in the carcass. Let the rectum and the intestines drop down
over the paunch. Now, cut the liver from the intestines to prevent
the gall bladder breaking and fouling the liver. Then grasp the
connective tissue of the gall bladder with the fingers and pull the
gall bladder loose. Wash the liver thoroughly in cold, fresh water
and hang it up to drain and cool. Pull down on the paunch to tear
it loose from the carcass and let it fall into a tub or other container.
Hoist the carcass until it clears the ground. Cut out the dia-
phragm (the sheet of muscle which separates the heart and lungs
from the stomach and intestines), but allow the muscles of the
diaphragm to remain attached to the carcass. Take out the heart,
lungs, and gullet. Wash the heart and hang it by the small end to
drain. Complete skinning by removing the hide from the shoulders.
7 (!PLlTTING THE CARCASS)
(The carcass is no~ ready to be split do~n. the cente~ of the back-
bone. In commerCIal slaughterhouses this IS done With a cleaver,
but most people can do a better and smoother job with a saw. After
the carcass is split, it should be washed completely with clean, tepid
water. Move each foreleg up and down several times, to aid in
draining the blood from vessels in the shoulders. Trim off all the
ragged edges over the carcass to improve its appearance)" ,
6r
FIG. 61. Opening the hide on the un- FIG. 62. Pulling the tail out of the
derside of the tail. hide.
FIG. 63. Skinning the outside of the FIG. 64. Pulling the hide from the
thigh (rump). thighs.
SPLITTING THE CARCASS 101
FIG. 65. Loosening the offal. FIG. 66. Removing the offal.
\),
FIG. 67. Removing the heart, lungs and FIG. 68. Removing the hide from the
gullt:t. back.
FIG. 69. Sawing the backbone. FIG. 70. Splitting the bones in the neck
with an ax.
FIG. 71. Removing the tongue. FIG. 72. Splitting the skull to remove
the brains .
. .;,..
CHILLING 103
-6..g (CHILLING ' )
(Under farm and home conditions it is best to shroud the carcass

to protect it from dust and dirt during the chilling process. This
can be easily done with clean muslin cloth. Immerse two pieces in
hot water, wring them out and cover each half of the carcass, pin-
ning them tightly. This will smooth out the fat and also bleach it.
The carcass should now be hoisted high enough to protect it during
the chilling period. Quick and complete removal of animal heat is
essential to prevent spoilage. A beef carcass should be allowed to
hang from 12 to 24 hours, or at least long enough to cool, before
being cut up. Chilling is best accomplished at 34 to 38°F. As pre-
viously stated, farm and home butchering is generally done in the
late afternoon and the carcass is permitted to chill overnight. How-
ever, the carcass should not be permitted to freeze immediately after
slaughter, since the formation of an outer layer of ice will prevent
the proper elimination of animal heat from the thicker portions of
the meat.) ; 7
If farm a;-;cf home conditions are not too favorable for proper
chilling and ripening of the meat, the carcass should be placed in a
chilling room at a local cold-storage plant. The carcass should be
thoroughly chilled, however, before it is cut up, as it is impossible
to make attractive cuts where the meat is not thoroughly chilled.
When meat is to be used fresh. the best meat is obtained when the
beef is allowed to ripen. This will tenderize the meat and also add
to its flavor. Ripening of beef is discussed under "Fresh and Sea-
soned Meat," page 10, in Chapter I.
C, ~EMOVING TONGUE AND BRAINS AND STRIPPING FAT FROM OFFAL)

(!o remov~ the tongue, pl~ce the h~ad face do~n. Cut along ~oth
SIdes of the Jawbone, loosenmg the tIP and cuttmg all connectlOns
back of the base. A hatchet or cleaver is sometimes used to cut the
bones at the base of the tongue. Allow the fat to remain attached
to the tongue. Wash the tongue in clean, cool water and scrape it
from tip to base. When it is thoroughly cleaned, hang it up by the
tip to drain and cool. Saw or split the skull and lift out the brains.
Trim the fat from the intestines and pauncll as it can be rendered
and used in making soap or sold as tallOW)
, , / £1 .,
-& 10 (CLEANING THE TRIPE)
The first and second stomach of a beef carcass, properly cleaned

and processed, can be used as food. It is known as tripe. Cut off
these two stomachs and empty their contents by turning them inside
out. Then wash them thoroughly in several waters, making sure
that they are perfectly clean. Place in scalding water, approximately
150°F., for 10 or 15 minutes and then remove the inner lining by
scraping.) Continue scraping until the inner surface is very white.
Processing tripe for food is discussed under "Meat Products and By-
Products," page 271, Chapter XIV.
~ ~SLAUGHTERING CALVES)
Veal is the dressed carcass of a calf between 1 and 3 months old,
weighing from 75 to 150 pounds. The same general procedure in
butchering, skinning, and eviscerating cattle can be followed for
calves except the animal should not be kept off feed for longer than
6 to 8 hours before butchering; but during this time the calf should
have plenty of clean, fresh water. Calves produced by beef cattle
furnish the most desirable veal, as the calves are blockier in form
and more heavily muscled. However, calves from dairy cattle are
also used for veaL)
Stun the calf before sticking, as in cattle, but the blow need not
be too heavy. Butchering is made easier if the carcass is hoisted to
a convenient height before skinning. Wash the hide and split it
from head to tail, following the middle line of the belly. If the
carcass is to be cut up at home, the hide may be removed at once, as
the carcass can be skinned more easily while it is still warm. With a
sharp skinning knife cut open the hide, then "fist" it off. Eviscerate
and then split the breastbone and pelvis, as described for cattle. If
the carcass is to be shipped or transported some distance, the hide
should not be removed, for it preserves the light color and prevents
the carcass from drying out.
A carcass dressed with the hide removed dries out quite rapidly.
When the hide is removed, rapid drying can be prevented to some
extent by draping and spreading the caul fat over the hindquarters.
The caul fat is the thin sheet of membrane extending from the
stomach over the intestines.
VII
~ [BUTCHERING SHEEP AND

LAMBS]
The ease with which lambs and sheep can be dressed makes them
a convenient source of fresh meat for family use. Lamb is the flesh
of young sheep. Handy-weight 25- to 45-pound lamb carcasses yield
comparatively small cuts. The entire carcass is small enough so that
with home refrigeration a family can consume the meat before
spoilage occurs. Portions of lamb can also be frozen or canned.
Some cuts can be cured satisfactorily. It can be kept as an emer-
gency food reserve or as a source of variety in the diet.
A lamb carcass chills quickly and cures easily. Lambs generally
dress out about 50 per cent, which means that an SO-pound lamb
will make approximately a 40-pound carcass. The trimmed leg
roasts from a 40-pound carcass will weigh about 6 pounds each; and
the shoulder roasts, about 5 pounds apiece. There will be about 7
pounds of breast and neck and S pounds of loin and rib to be roasted
or cut into 30 medium-thick chops.
The United States Department of Agriculture tells us that all
these cuts are normally tender enough to be adapted to cooking in
any of several ways. The shoulder and even the breast may be oven-
roasted if that method is preferred to braising the breast with vege-
tables. Cold roast lamb is an excellent filler for sandwiches, and the
leftovers from any cooked lamb can be utilized in many tasty com-
binations.
Many families who were formerly not familiar with lamb now
enjoy its characteristic flavor and have included this fresh meat in
their regular diet. The desirability of lamb as a meat for home use
depends on four principal factors, as does that of other meat. These
are the breeding of the animal, how and to what extent it has been
fed, the age at which it is slaughtered, and the method of handling
the meat.
105
106 BUTCHERING SHEEP AND LAMBS
AVERAGE PERCENTAGES
(Of Certain Parts of Lamb Carcasses Classified According to Fatness)
Data for carcasses containing indicated

proportions of fat 1
Carcasses and parts Under 20 to 34 35%
20% % or more
Carcasses ............ , ..... number .. 13 19 10
Average weight of chilled
carcass • • • • • ' . 0 • • • • • • • • • • • pounds .. 21.9 34.4 47.5
Trimmed legs .............. per cent .. 30.17 25.60 26.14
Rib cuts (9-rib) .............. do .... 15.31 16.83 17.92
Shoulders (3-rib) ..... , .... per cent .. 19.73 19.53 18.80
Loins ........................ do .... 7.64 9.08 9.78
Neck ......................... do .... 3.89 3.28 2.94
Breast " ...................... do .... 15.32 15.36 14.83
1 Based on ether-extract content of edible portion.

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE ORGANS (MUTTON)
Other
% % % % %
Liver .................. 71.26 19.38 3.90 1.22 -.
Kidney ................. 78.96 15.88 3.52 1.20 .22
Heart .................. 69.80 16.88 11.54 1.12 .46
Tongue ............. , .. 69.46 14.50 14.71 1.21 .17
Brains .................. 80.24 10.38 6.92 1.30 ..
Tripe .................. "
.. .. .. ..
1/ [LAMBS SELECTED FOR SLAUGHTER)
Lambs of the so-called mutton breeds are generally more suitable

for meat than those of the breeds bred primarily for wool produc-
tion. Lambs of the mutton breeds will fatten more readily, dress a
higher proportion of carcass to live weight, and yield meatier roasts
and chops.
A high degree of finish or fatness is not essential for a lamb that
is to be slaughtered for home use. One that is moderately well fat-
tened and making rapid growth should produce a carcass having
tender, desirable
•\(i
meat .
';i
['! {~. - .)~'
"
(" '"
'r'
STICKING AND STUNNING 107
(The term "mutton," as commonly used commercially, applies to
tin:-flesh of older sheep, that is lives (over 12 months of age) and
wethers (over 18 months of age). Such meat, especially that from
well-fed sheep, though frequently less tender than the meat from
the younger lambs, also is suitable for family use. Be sure that sheep
and lambs selected for slaughter are thrifty and healthy. Slaugh-
tering equipment (page 58) and care before slaughtering (page 64)
have been discussed previously. However, a bench, box, or even a
clean floor will serve as the place on which to kill and dress a lamb;
nevertheless, a V-shaped trough of proper height is very convenient,
if much lamb or sheep slaughtering is to be done.
Twenty-four hours before they are killed lambs should be penned
up in order that the fleece will be dry. It is difficult to keep the
wool from touching the carcass at times during dressing, but the
drier the fleece the cleaner the carcass will be. During this penned
period, no feed but plenty of clean, fresh water should be available.
A lamb with a full stomach is harder to butcher than one with an
empty stomach.
Naturally, a lamb should be handled carefully and gently before
slaughter. Pushing it around and grabbing it by the fleece will cause
a bruised and unattractive carcass. Such meat is not only unattrac-
tive, but has poor keeping quality. Quietly and carefully place the
left hand under the throat and the right hand at the tail head. I
. --.) / j
7V ['STICKING AND STUNNING}
1- rA lamb should be held or suspended in su~h a manner that the

brood will not run into the fleece after the animal is stuck. Place
the lamb on its side. If no attendant is available to hold the legs,
tie the two front legs to a hind leg to prevent struggling. An easier
and cleaner job of sticking can be done by tying the hind legs to-
gether and suspending the lamb from a beam, limb of a tree, or
some other stout support about 7 feet from the ground. In the left
hand hold the lamb's nose, being careful not to shut off breathing.
Stretch out the neck. Hold a sharp-pointed knife in the right hand
with the cutting edge away from the neck bone. Push the knife
through the neck close to the neck bone just behind the angle of
the jaw and below the base of the ear. Cut out at right angles from
the neck. If the knife was not inserted close enough to the neck
bone to lift up and sever the main arteries and veins, cut back to
the bone. In slitting a lamb's throat, the cut can be made either
away from or toward the neck bon=.]
7.ra.
FIG. 73. Sticking a lamb on a bench. Pressure from the right knee holds the
lamb in position.
J,'IG. 74. Sticking a lamb [rom a sus- FIG. 75. Stunning a lamb. Pull the
pended position. With the left hand head up and back with the left hand
hold the head securely, to prevent its and push dOWJ} hard with the heel of
swinging. the right hand.
,
"
SKINNING THE LEGS 109
After the throat is cut, the neck should be broken. Grasp the nose
with the left hand and the wool, on the face between the lamb's
eyes, with the right. Pull the nose up and back and push down hard
with the heel of the right hand on the lamb's face. This should
easily break open the big atlas joint at the base of the head, if the
muscles next to the neck bone were severed in cutting the throat.
Permitting the Iamb to struggle promotes bleeding. For this reason,
holding the lamb is preferable to tying.
) 1, 73 [~KINNING THE LEGS J

'\ L<\fter the lamb is well-bled, place it on a table, a platform, or a
clean floor for skinning. The method of skinning described here
is the easiest for the beginner. To open the pelt remove a narrow
strip of skin from the front of the front legs and from the back of
the hind legs. The pelt is then pushed or "fisted" off the brisket,
belly, and flanks before the carcass is hung up.
K. F. Warner, formerly meat specialist for the United States De-
partment of Agriculture, tells beginners to stand at the side of a lamb
and hold the front leg between the knees while leaning away, so
the leg is stretched tightly. Then below the lamb's knee to the hoof
head raise a narrow strip of pelt. Extend this opening in the pelt
from the point below the knee to a point well in front of the brisket.
Be careful not to cut too deeply or through the paper-thin protec-
tive membrane, or fell, that covers the meat just underneath the
pelt. To avoid cutting through the fell and into the meat, the be-
ginner should "choke" the knife, hold it with the cutting edge up
against the skin, rather than toward the meat, and cut with a short,
curving wrist motion that swings only the point of the knife against
the pelt. With the left hand, raise the pelt from the meat and hold
it tight while the knife is turned against it.
Grasp the point or head end of the V-shaped strip of pelt over
the brisket, formed by opening the fleece over the front legs, and
pull it up and back over the brisket. If the pelt sticks so tightly to
the brisket that the fat and fell begin to tear, stop pulling and begin
"fisting.":I 7 s
Now hold the hind leg between the knees, in the same way as the
front leg, and raise a strip of skin from a point below the hock along
the tendon and into the hoof head. Extend the cut to a point just
in front of the anus. Be careful to use the same rotary wrist motion
to prevent the point of the knife from cutting into the choice leg
muscles. Keep holding the leg between the knees and skin out the
FIG.
..
.";-..,:,~~
-"'~
76. Opening the

front of the foreleg.
,
.
,
-
pelt over the

Keep the edge
FIG. 77. Opening the pelt in front of
the brisket. Slow, short strokes up
of the knife against the leg rather against the pelt will prevent cuttmg
than up against the skin. down into the meat.
FIG. 78. Pulling the pelt over the bris- FIG. 79. Unjointing the foot from the
ket. Hold the pelt at the end and pull skinned hindleg.
steadily.
{,
,~,
FlSTING THE PELT OFF THE CARCASS III
hock and leg. Then unjoint the foot at the lowest joint or the one
next the hoof. Be sure to unjoint the foot as described, so that the
tendons will not pull out when the carcass is hung.
Slip the knife between the leg bone and the tendons to make an
opening for the gambrel used in hanging the carcass. There are two
tendons; so be sure to raise both, as one may not be strong enough
to hold the carcass. Skin out the other hind leg. Now grasp the
pointed strip of pelt and pull it back over the cod or ud.der as far
as it will go without tearing the flesh.
In- (iISTING THE PELT OFF THE CARCASS '1

7ttcPlace the lamb back down on the platform, box, or bench on
which you are working. Hot water and dry cloths should be avail-
able to wash and dry the hands when they become dirty. Clean
hands are necessary to produce a clean carcass.
Begin "fisting" the pelt off the belly. This is done with a tightly
clenched fist, taking care not to tear the thin membrane or "fell,"
which should be left upon the carcass to protect it. Be sure to wash
the hands and arms frequently in clean, warm water while "fisting,"
to prevent soiling the carcass.
Clench the fist with the thumb on top of the first finger, which
is used to lead the fist in under the pelt. Direct the motion and the
pressure of the fist up against the skin. Push and work it away from
the meat. Follow along with the left hand just above the right,
grasping the wool and holding the pelt taut as the fist pushes against
it underneath. Breaking through the fell and muscles of the carcass
with the fist will produce an unattractive carcass but it will not be
ruined. With little experience-.pne. can soon tell by the feel whether
fisting is proceeding properly_...) 7
Fist in on one side of the briskeif and loosen the pelt as far down
as it is possible to reach conveniently. Now work down behind the
shoulder but do not attempt to loosen the pelt along the entire side.
Fist in on the opposite side of the brisket and repeat the operation.
Usually the pelt sticks to the brisket, but sometimes it can be worked
off from behind. Often the thumb can work it loose from each side.
Occasionally a knife is required to cut the skin from the center of
the brisket. Young, well-fattened lambs are skinned more easily
than older, thinner sheep.
Loosen the pelt at the rear. To do this, stand between the hind
legs and grasp the pelt with the left hand. Work the right fist down
the center, over the cod or udder to the navel. Now push the hand
l'
FIG. 80. Pulling the pelt free up to the

cod or udder.
FIG. 82. Opening the pelt down the

middle.
FIG. 81. Holding the pelt tight and FIG.

1
83. Wedging in the fist up along
fisting forward under the cod or udder. the leg.
and arm sideways and free the pelt over the flank and inside of the
hind leg. Here fisting is begun down the middle instead of at the side
as in skinning the brisket. Fisting in this manner lessens the chances
of getting beneath and tearing the flank muscles.
REMOVING THE PELT 113
7_~ (REMOVING THE PELT )
~r(After the legs have been skinned and the pelt fisted off the belly,
insert a gambrel in the hind legs, between the tendons and the leg
bones, and suspend the carcass. A hook or support 7 feet from the
ground or floor is a good working height.
Cut the pelt open down the middle of the belly, cutting loose the
navel. Hold the pelt tightly with the left hand, work the right hand
around the stifle and then up the outside of the left leg. Change
hands, or cross hands, and fist out the right hind leg. This will roll
the fleece away from the clean carcass. Fist down past the shoulder,
pull the skin free from the foreleg, and then fist out the side of the
neck. Push the pelt free from the sides and fist off the rump. The
rump may stick, so to free it work the pelt from both sides. Push up
from underneath until the pelt hangs only by the skin fastened to
the anus and tail. ,-
At the lower end of the sheep's front leg is a true joint. This must
be opened to cut off the pastern and foot of mature sheep. Up the
leg from the true joint is a cartilaginous suture in the bone. With
a sharp twist it can be broken apart at the suture joint in most
lambs. With yearling lambs and with old sheep this suture joint
will not break and the foot must be unjointed. It is customary to cut
off the forefeet of lambs at this suture, which identifies the carcass
as lamb. This break joint is taken as a definite indication of the age
of the animal. Cut or nick the membranes on the side of the leg just
over this lamb joint. Break the joint open where it has been cut by
pressing the foot sideways. If necessary, the leg can be held against
the knee in making this breaD 1S.~
While the pelt is still hangmg to and stretching the tail, push
the knife in beside and above the anus, cut clear around it and
loosen the anus so that 10 or 12 inches of the colon can be pulled up
and out of the body cavity. Tie the colon before it is dropped back
into the body cavity so that its contents will not foul the carcass.
Cut and pull the skin free from the dock and pull and fist it free
from the back. It is usually possible to do this without any knife
work and leave a smooth carcass.
Pull the pelt down the neck. Use the knife to free the pelt around
the skull and ove~the face. Remove the head by cutting through the
throat just back of the jaw, unjointing it at the atlas bone. Wash
the carcass well with clean, warm water and wipe it dry with clean
cloths wrung out in hot water.
FIG. 84. Pushing the pelt away from FIG. 85. Fisting the pelt free from the
the foreflank and shoulder. back. The next step will he to cut the
pelt free from the dock.
FIG. 86. Pulling the pelt free from the :FIG. 87. Insert the fingers of the left
neck. This should be easily accom- hand inside the abdominal cavity to
plished if the sides have first been hold the intell1al organs away from
fisted free. the knife while opening the carcass
,,,! t·V. '! down the front.
OPENING THE CARCASS 115
7t (OPENING THE CARCASS )
71, (Cut down the middle of the carcass from just below the cod or
udder to the cartilage of the breastbone or brisket. Into this, the
clenched fist grasping the knife is forced. The fist pushes away
the paunch from the heel of the knife and prevents cutting into the
paunch as the belly wall is ripped downward. Allow the paunch
and intestines to roll out and hang. Reach in and locate the already
loosened and tied colon and pull and work it down past the kidneys.
Grasp and remove the bladder taking care not to split its contents
on the meat. Roll out the paunch slightly and get a firm grip on it
with the left hand where it joins the intestines. Work the right
hand into the body cavity, up the ribs and behind the liver. Tear it
loose where it is attached near the right kidney. Use care in remov-
ing it, for the liver is a choice product. Still keep a firm hold on the
viscera, work the right hand under the paunch along the diaphragm
and pull and push the organs up and from the carcass. Tie the
gullet with a stout cord where it enters the chest cavity; then cut
the paunch free by severing the gullet below the cord. Tying pre-
vents the digestive contents from spilling over the carcass when the
gullet is cut. A helper will be needed in making the tie and cutting,_
the gullet. Drop the offal into a clean container for later inspecti~~J,£
Next split the breastbone. If the animal is over 1 year old, a saw .
may be required as well as a knife. To remove the pluck (heart
and lungs), cut the white part of the diaphragm. Then cut loose
the pluck on each side of the brisket, loosen the large blood vessels
along the backbone and pull the pluck down and out.
17 (9 ARE OF INTERNAL ORGANS ' \
(Remove the gall bladder from the liver by pinching under the
neck or small end of the bladder with the thumb and forefinger.
Tear or cut the upper or smaller end free and pull gently to peel
out the main body of the bladder. The bladder can also be cut out
with a knife. In removing the gall bladder precaution should be
taken not to puncture or cut it, for then the gall will run over the
liver and cause a bitter flavor. After the gall bladder is removed,
wash the liver in clean, cold water to remove any possible bitter
'" i
flavor. /c
After the tongue is cut from the head, split the skull and remove
the brains. The liver, heart, and tongue should be carefully washed
in clean, cold water and hung up to chill. The caul fat if clean
may be used in cooking. Cut the small intestines from the stomach
and remove the fat. They are easily separated from the fat by pull-
ing carefully with the hands. They may be cleaned, salted and used
for sausage casings. The fat is usually used for soap stock.
Now the freshly slaughtered carcass is ready for chilling. It should
be chilled to a temperature above freezing and below 40°F. as soon
as possible. Fresh meat, in commercial establishments, is held at
about 34° for storing and ripening. (See section on "Fresh and
Seasoned Meat" in Chapter I.)
FIG. 88. Removing the heart and lungs after splitting the
brisket.
VIII
DRESSING GAME ANIMALS
Relatively few people realize that venison and other game meats
will give any family budget a much needed lift. It is surprising how
few persons in this country have ever eaten game.
In mo~ecent times game has been hunted primarily for sport,
and the emphasis has been on recreation rather than on obtaining
food. Therefore, game meats have not been utilized to the fullest
possible extent in supplementing the domestic meat supply, and
little time has been devoted to their preparation and cooking.
Game meats should be used more often and a taste for venison
and wild fowl cultivated. This will increase variety in the diet with
practically no increase in cost. Game is not expensive if one shoots
it, but if it is badly dressed or cooked improperly it is a total loss.
Considerable game meat is wasted each hunting season through
spoilage because some hunters are ignorant, indifferent, or lazy
when it comes to processing their kill. Warm, freshly killed game
requires even more prompt attention to bleeding and chilling than
domestic meat animals. Spoilage starts quickly, especially in the
muscles that have been torn or bruised by bullets.
BIG GAME
Deer, elk, moose, antelope, mountain sheep, or other big game

animals should be stuck and bled promptly as soon as they are
dropped by the shot of the hunter. Hanging and dressing the car-
cass will speed up chilling. How completely the carcass should be
dressed, cut up, and packed for transportation depends on the dis-
tance it is to be transported, the time involved in transportation,
and the temperature.
If the game is taken to camp or hauled home quickly, a better job
of butchering can be accomplished because the carcass can be hung
up properly and more tools will be available to do the work. How-
117
118 DRESSING GAME ANIMALS
ever, as soon as possible after the deer is killed it should be "field
dressed," -that is, the viscera, lungs, heart, and liver removed. Bac-
teria in the abdominal cavity of any animal will soon cause spoilage;
therefore the contents of the stomach and chest should be emptied
quickly. One advantage in taking the carcass home is that your
neighborhood butcher or one at the cold-storage locker plant can
do the job for you; but if you do it yourself in the woods, proceed
according to the following directions.
FIG. 89. Open chest cavity by spreading with a stick.·

Drain off blood and wipe with a clean cloth.
DRESSING DEER ON THE GROUND
As soon as the animal is shot, unless you wish to save the head
for mounting, bleed it by cutting the throat. If possible, turn the
carcass with the head downhill so that it will bleed freely. There
are two ways of dressing a big game animal. One is with the carcass
lying on the ground, the other is hoisting it off the ground. Some
hunters carry a very light block-and-tackle so they can hoist the
animal.
., To open the body cavity of a deer lying on the ground, insert
-!- • •
BUTCHERING A HANGING DEER 119
the knife near the breastbone. Locate the lower end of it and slit
the skin. Make a small opening, then insert two fingers beneath the
hide and back of the knife to guard it from piercing the stomach
and intestines when the knife is advanced toward the tail of the
animal. Open the carcass from throat to crotch. When you cut to
the genitals, stop. Remove the knife, cut around the genitals, and
pull them out. Then cut out the rectum. A stout hunting knife or
a belt ax may be used to split the breastbone. Be as careful as pos-
sible in preventing the hair from coming in contact with the meat.
Now cut loose the organs in the pelvic cavity. Reach inside the
carcass, down between the hip bones, catch hold of the large intes-
tine, and pull it out and tie it off.
Now turn the carcass with the head uphill, cut windpipe and gullet
free at throat. Hold these in the hand and pull backward, at the
same time cutting free from the carcass any part that tends to hold.
Remove the entrails to the base of the tail. If the carcass must be
removed from the woods before cooling and quartering, leave the
liver and heart in the body cavity. Open the chest cavity by spreading
with a stick. Drain off blood and wipe with a clean cloth. Do not
wash with water. Trim away all parts damaged by gunshot.
BUTCHERING A HANGING DEER
After the animal -!las been bled, loosen the tendons in each hind
leg. Insert a pole, 3~ to 4 feet long and pointed on both ends. Then
hoist the carcass with a block-and-tackle, or by the limb of a tree,
a crossbeam, or a tripod erected for the purpose. At the hock joint
cut around the skin on each hind leg. Run the knife down along
the inside of each leg to the cod or testicles. Skin out the hind legs
carefully, using the knife skillfully. Pull the tail out of the skin
as far as possible and then cut it off. Proceed in the same manner
as described for skinning and dressing calves. With a sharp knife
held nearly flat against the surface and with the hide stretched
tightly, remove the skin down over the sides with steady down
strokes of the knife. "Fisting," will help separate the hide from the
flesh on certain parts of the body. Some prefer as a matter of pro-
tection in transportation to leave the skin on the carcass. This is
only advisable in very cool weather. If state laws permit, it is better
to quarter the animal before moving. Eviscerate and remove the
edible organs in the same manner as that described for cattle.
Remove the liver-there is no gall bladder-save the heart, liver,
kidneys, and pancreas (sweetbread). They are delicacies and well
worth all the trouble you may experience in saving them.
INSERT STICK
AT £1lI1£ R OF'
FIG. 90. A deer carcass can be hoisted with an improvised winch or a small
block-and-tackle.
REMOVING THE TONGUE AND BRAINS
In removing the tongue from the head, place the head face down,
cut along the inner surface of the lower jaw, lift up the tongue and
cut it off at the base. A hand ax can be used to cut the bones at the
base of the tongue. Allow the fat to remain at the base of the
tongue. Wash the tongue well in clean, cold water and scrape it
with a knife, from the tip to the base, then hang it up to drain and
cool. Saw or split the skull and lift out the brains.
SAVING THE HEAD
If you plan on mounting the animal's head, a special method of

treatment is necessary. The United States Forest Service recom-
mends the following procedure: Do not puncture the skin; cut it
around the body so as much as possible of the hide from the shoul-
der and brisket is included. Cut along back of neck and to base of
antlers. Peel skin from neck and head, cutting ears close to skull.
Exercise care in peeling skin from around antlers, eyes, and lips so
that no holes or tears result. Remove all flesh and fat; salt well.
After several hours, re-salt skin and turn flesh side out to dry slowly
in shade. Take care that no folds are left while drying. Do not re-
move antlers from head except with a saw. A generous portion of
skull should be included.
SMALL GAME· \
It is much easier to eviscerate and skin an animal while it is still

warm than after the carcass has become cold. Rabbits, squirrels,
woodchucks, and other small animals are generally disembowled in
the field soon after they are shot. Tularemia (a disease of wild rab-
bits) which is transmissible to man, has given hunters and their wives
considerable worry. There is no need for this if the proper precau-
tion is taken. When a rabbit is bagged, pick it up in gloved hands.
Slit the belly from the anus up to the breastbone. Grab the forelegs
and head in one gloved hand and the hindquarters and legs in the
other and dash out the entrails on the ground. Take a stick ant'(
stir through these to locate the liver. It if possesses a clear, dark,
blood-red healthy looking color with no visible white cyst-like spots
the size of a pea or smaller, the rabbit does not have tularemia. As
a secondary precaution, however, the hunter should carry a small
bottle containing a solution of Lysol or similar disinfectant in his
hunting jacket and, after he has handled a rabbit, should pour some
of this liquid in the palm of one hand and bathe his hands vigor-
ously. If there were any tularemia germs on his hands, they have
been destroyed.
Small game can be skinned in the field, in camp, or at home.
Hang the carcass of a rabbit or woodchuck up by the right hindleg
on a nail or a hook inserted near the hock joint between the tendon
and the bone of the leg. Remove the head and front feet. Next cut
off the tail and sever the left hind foot at the first joint. All cuts
should be made clean so as not to splinter the bone or make a rough
surface on the meat. Then cut the pelt around the right hind leg
at the hock. Slit the pelt on the inside of the leg to the root of the
tail. The fat should be cut away from the pelt before this is pulled
down over the carcass. Then with both hands firmly pull the pelt
down off the carcass. Rabbits and woodchucks can be skinned in
this manner, but opossums, raccoons, muskrats, and beavers are
pelted differently. All these furs have some value, and care should
be taken in skinning the animals and preparing the pelt for the raw
fur market.
Whenever small game animals are skinned, remember that some
of them, such as muskrat, woodchuck, beaver, raccoon, and opossum,
have scent glands, and these should be removed as soon as possible.
If they are left intact the meat will become tainted from the strong
musky odor. These glands are located under the forelegs and along
• Cooking Wild Game, by Frank G. Ashbrook and Edna N. Sater, Orange Judd
Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1945.
1- • • •
'.J.
SMALL GAME 12~
the spine in the small of the back near the rump. They are generally
pea-shaped, waxy or reddish looking "kernels." Avoid cutting these
glands, or bringing them in contact with the meat. The degree to
which they flavor the meat varies with the season, but in most fur
animals they are always objectionable.
In the case of the cottontail and jack rabbit, these small, waxy-
looking glands are located under the front legs just where they join
the body. The same is true of raccoons-these so-called "kernels" or
scent glands are located under the front legs and on either side of
the spine in the small of the back. The woodchuck also has these
glands in the form of red nodules under the forelegs. The muskrat
derives its name from its scent or musk glands. They give off a
characteristic pungent odor and, if cooked with the meat, impart
a strong flavor. The large pair of musk glands lie under the skin
on the lower part of the abdomen. They are light yellow and have a
corrugated appearance. In addition, there are some small internal
glands located in the inguinal region of the thighs, between the
forelegs and between the shoulders on the back. They resemble
small, yellow, fat bodies and are so inconspicuous they are over-
looked by most people. As the breeding season approaches, the
glands become more active and should be removed.
FIG. 94. Domestic and wild rabbits may be skinneti in the same way. Steps
(right to left): remove the head; cut off the tail, thell free hind leg at the hock
joint, and the front feet; then cut the skin just below the hock of the suspended
leg and open it on the inside of the leg to the TOot of the tail, continuing the
cut to the hock of the left leg; and carefully separate the skin from the carcass
and start pulling it down over the animal.
IX
HANDLING HIDES AND SKINS

I
Hides and skins of animals are made into leather. Those from
large and adult bovines are suitable for sale, harness, belting, or
heavy leathers. Skins from small animals, such as sheep, goats,
calves, deer, and antelope, are made into light and fancy leathers.
While there are other commercial sources of hides and skins, the
important ones are the usual domesticated farm and range animals.
The hides and skins of animals are valuable. The first essential
for a satisfactory yield of good leather is a sound, clean hide or skin.
Therefore, skinning should be done properly, without cutting or
scoring the hide; and at the same time all the fat and flesh should
be removed, for, if left on, they increase the tendency of the hide or
skin to rot or spoil.
Preparation of the hide or skin may be begun as soon as it has
been taken off the animal, drained, and cooled. Overnight will be
long enough to allow the hide to lose its body heat. Remove dirt,
blood, and any pieces of flesh by scraping the skin side with the back
of a butcher knife and by careful trimming. Split the ears twice.
Immediately wash both sides of the hide with clear, cold water and
use a brush, scrubbing particularly the hair side to remove all dirt.
Let the hide drain thoroughly to remove the e~(!ss water, and then
begin to apply the salt. --
When the weather is cold, hides and skins may be kept safely
for some time without salting, though care should be taken to pre-
vent them from freezing. During spring, summer, and fall, however,
they must be salted promptly and thoroughly if they are to be made
into sound leather and pay for the work of curing them.
SALTING AND CURING
Cattle and Horse Hides. Select a cool, clean place, preferably a

cellar, garage, or barn floor free from draughts and out of the direct
124
~., ..
'.. -
.;,:.'. .: ' "~~;" ',~'
SALTING AND CURING 125
sunlight. A floor with a slight slope and a drain is the best. Sprinkle
on the space chosen a thin layer of clean crystal salt (about pea
size) or ordinary salt of the kind used for salting meat. Spread the
washed and drained hide, hair side down, over the salted area, being
sure to straighten out all folds and laps. Sprinkle fresh, dean salt
all over the flesh side of the hide, using nearly a pound of salt for
every pound of hide. Be sure that all parts of the flesh side receive
a sprinkling of the salt. Use plenty of salt and rub it in well along
the cut edges, head, neck, legs, wrinkles, and the heavy portions.
If several hides are to be cured, pile them one upon another, hair
side down, with the heads at one end. Salt each one as directed.
Lay the hides one upon the other but do not drag them across the
others, as this disturbs the salt on the hides underneath, causing
unsalted spots and spoiled hides.
As the liquor accumulates it must be drained away to prevent
damage to the hides on the bottom.
Properly salted hides will become firm and stiff in about 12 to
14 days. They are sometimes known as "salt firm" or "salt hard."
The hides are now ready for bundling and shipping. Hides should
not be bundled immediately after salting.
Horse hides are removed in practically the same way as cattle
hides. They are graded almost entirely on the condition of the rear
portion which covers the buttocks. Therefore, great care should
be taken with this portion of the hide, which should be free of
scores, cuts, and dragged spots. Tails and manes should be removed
from the hides and sold separately.
FIG. 95. Each hide is bundled separately and tied securely. A soft rope or line
at least 14 inch thick will answer the purpose. Never use wire. An individual
hide to be shipped requires more wrapping. ,;'
I
\
126 HANDLING HIDES AND SKINS

Calf and Deer Skins. The hide of a deer or elk is also valuable.
Gloves can be made, and a vest or hunting jacket is not only prac-
tical but good looking.
After the skins have cooled, salt them in the same way as cattle
or horsehides. A finer salt is more satisfactory, and it should be
rubbed in well with the hands on neck, head, tail root, legs, and
shanks. A wooden platform with a slight slope is excellent for salt-
ing calf, deer, lamb, and sheep skins. The brine that accumulates
will drain away properly.
Sheep and Lamb Skins. Apply the salt in the same manner as
previously described but use about one-half pound of clean fine salt
to one pound of skin. Sprinkle it on by hand and rub it in. Be sure
that every spot of skin gets this salt treatment.
Sheep and lambskins should be sent to market promptly. Do not
hold them more than 4 or 5 days. They will heat, causing decom-
position and loss in value. For the same reason, do not place more
than ten pelts in one pile.
Keeping Cured Hides and Skins. Properly and thoroughly cured
hides and skins other than sheep and lambskins may be bundled and
safely kept for some time in a cool place. Fall, winter, and spring
hides may be kept until Mayor June without undue deterioration.
As a rule, however, it is inadvisable to keep hides and skins during
the summer.
HAVING HIDES TANNED ';'.
Ordinarily it is more economical to have hides and skins proc-

essed by tanners who are willing to tan one or more hides than to
do the work at home. Some tanners tan only hides with the hair
on for robes and coats; some also tan harness, strap, or lace leather;
and a few tan sale leather. Some accept one-half of the hide in pay-
ment for tanning the other half; that is, if one sends a hide to be
tanned, the tanner will send back one-half tanned into leather, and
keep the other half to pay for his work. This is probably the best
way for some farmers or ranchers to get their leather.
Hides and skins should be tanned only by experienced tanners.
An inexperienced person cannot hope to make leather equal in ap-
pearance, or possibly in quality, to that obtainable on the market.
However, some farmers and ranchers are able to make serviceable
leather for most farm purposes by carefully following directions for
home tanning of leather. If you desire information on the home
tanning of leather, consult the references at the back of this book.
r' <,
" ",~.
x
-----
8 \.CUTTING THE CARCASS)
9 1 (::rhere is no "best way" to cut a carcass. The choice depends on

how the meat is to be used. If it is to be sold, the cuts should con-
form to local preferences. If the meat is to be preserved by freezing,
each piece should be of a size and character suitable for convenient
cooking. The methods described here show how to make the major
cuts, and suggestions are offered for using them in order to produce
the maximum amount of meat that can be preserved by curing,
smoking, or refrigeration_:) -g,
}
f _ i )__ (PORK -> .

yCpork carcasses are cut as soon as they are thoroughly chilled, usu-
ally within 48 hours after slaughter. It pays to do a neat job of
cutting and trimming whether the meat is to be consumed at home
or some is to be marketed. One derives a great deal of pleasure
months later in unwrapping a neatly trimmed ham, shoulder, or
bacon. After all, attractive pieces of meat on your own table are
most desirable.
The cutting method prescribed separates the thick ham, loin, and
shoulder from the thinner bacon strip, fat, and head. All the other
pieces can be classified as trimmings. All trimmings, including the
very small ones, can be used to advantagt: in making sausage, scrap-
ple, headcheese, and other pork products):? J.--"'
Considerable research for improving methods of home butchering,
curing, and meat preservation has been conducted by the Morton
Salt Company. Their objective has been to remove all guesswork
and to make the job easier and certain. Here is a precise and easy
procedure recommended by this company for cutting up a hog
carcass.
Place the cold side of pork, skin down, on the table and start
cutting it. Saw at the shoulder through the third and fourth ribs
127
128 CUTTING THE CARCASS
FIG. 96. The different cuts of pork. Guide lines (in the side of pork at the top)
show where cuts should be made. Underneath are the principal cuts before they
are trimmed-jowl, shoulder, loin, bacon, ham; next are the trimmed cuts; and
last the trimmings.
F.,\".
PORK 129
FIG. 97. If the head has not been removed previously. cut it off at a point where
the backbone ends.
FIG. 98. Start cutting up the carcass at the shoulder. through the third and
fourth ribs.
at right angles to the back. Use the knife to complete the cut. If
the head has not been removed previously, then cut off the jowl at
a point where the backbone ends, which is in line with the wrinkle
of the neck.
Trim some of the cheek meat from the jowl and flatten it out
with the broad side of a cleaver or hatchet and square it up by
trimming with a knife. The trimmed jowl is known as a "bacon
square" and can be cured and used the same as bacon, or used for
seasoning with boiled foods.
Remove the neck bone from the shoulder, leaving very little meat
on the bone. Trim the shoulder and cut off the shank. This is the
"long-cut" method of trimming and will give the maximum of cured
meat from the shoulder. Saw the shank off above the knee joint.
FIG. 99. Remove the neckbone from the shoulder, leaving very little meat on the
bone. Trim up the shoulder and cut off the shank.
FIG. 100. This is the long-cut method of trimming and gives the maximum of
cured meat from the shoulder. Shank is sawed off above knee joint.
PORK 131
If smaller cured cuts are desired, the shoulder can be divided
between the smallest part of the blade bone, producing a picnic
shoulder and butt. The picnic shoulder will cure quicker than the
long·cut method and makes a convenient, handy-size shoulder for
small families. When the shoulder is separated into picnic and butt,
the clear plate, which is the covering of fat on the top of the shoul-
der butt, is skinned off. The fat may be cured for seasoning or used
for lard. The lean portion is known as the "Boston" butt and can
be cured or used for sausage. When neatly trimmed, the picnic
shoulder has the appearance of a small ham.
To take off the ham, saw on a line at right angles to the hind
shank and at a point about three finger widths in front of the aitch-
bone. Finish the cut with the knife and begin shaping the ham by
curving the cut on the belly side.
FIG. 101. To take off the ham, saw on a line at right angles to the hind shank
and at a point about three finger-widths in front of the aitchbone.
FIG. 102. Smooth up the ham by trimming off all the loose pieces of meat.
Hams that are neatly trimmed cure better and are easier to wrap.
To remove the tail bone slip the knife under the tail bone and
continue the cut along the bone, keeping the knife as fiat as possible.
If the hams were faced when the carcass was hung up to chill, each
ham then will require comparatively little trimming. When the
tail bone is removed the hams should be trimmed smooth of all loose
pieces of meat which can be used for sausage. If the corners and
loose pieces are left on the hams they will dry up in the cure, having
little food value, and the hams will be less attractive. Hams that
are neatly trimmed and rounded cure better and are easier to wrap.
If hams are exceptionally fat, and if too much fat is objectionable,
the hams can be skinned. This is done by leaving a collar of skin
around one-third of the ham at the shank end. The balance of the
fat is trimmed off, leaving about one-fourth inch of fat over the
lean. Skinned hams do not keep as well as hams that are not
skinned, and for that reason skinning is not recommended as a gen-
eral practice. After hams are trimmed, saw off the shanks just below
the button of the hock.
FIG. 103. After the ham is trimmed, saw off the shank just below the bottom
of the hock.
To separate the loin from the belly, the ribs are sawed across at
their greatest curvature. This is about one-third the distance from
the top of the backbone to the bottom part of the belly edge. Make
this cut so as to include the tenderloin with the loin. After the
ribs are sawed through, finish the cut with the knife, completely
separating the belly side from the loin. Lay the belly on the table,
skin side up, and smooth out the wrinkles as well as possible with
the palm of the hand. A few sharp blows from the side of the cleaver
or hatchet will help loosen the spare ribs from the belly.
' ..
PORK 133
Now turn the belly, skin side down, and trim out the ribs. Start
this cut by loosening the neck bone at the top of the ribs. Keep the
knife as flat as possible to avoid gouging the bacon. Pull the ribs
upward as the cut is made and trim as close to the ribs as possible.
FIG. 104. Separate the loin from the belly by sawing aCross their greatest curva·
ture.
FIG. 105. After the ribs are sawed through, finish the cut with the knife.
The cartilaginous ends or "buttons" of the lower ribs are left on
the bacon.
Square the bacon by trimming the lower edge first to a straight
line. All of the "seeds," the mammary glands along the lower edge,
should be trimmed out of choice bacon. Next trim the top on a line
parallel to the lower edge until a good streak of lean appears and
then square both ends enough to reach an attractive lean streak.
Frequently there is an uneven space at the front end of the bacon,
FIG. 106. Start cutting out the ribs with the neck bone at the top or the ribs, and
keep the knife as flat as possible.
FIG. 107. square up the bacon by trimming all four sides.
I". \ •.•
PORK 135
which is known as the bacon brisket. This may be cured or used
for sausage or lard.
The tenderloin is the small lean muscle which lies underneath the
backbone in the rear of the loin. It is one of the most popular of all
pork cuts to be used fresh. It is generally prepared by cutting across
into pieces about I inch thick, and "frenching." This is done by
placing the pieces of tenderloin (on end) on a strip of parchment
or waxed paper and folding the paper over the top of the meat. The
meat is then struck a sharp blow with the flat side of the cleaver,
flattening it out. The paper keeps the meat from sticking to the
table or the cleaver. These delightful morsels cannot be equaled for
tenderness by any other pork cut.
FIG. 108. Trim out the small lean muscle (tenderloin) which lies underneath the
backbone in the rear of the loin.
After taking out the tenderloin, remove the fat back from the
loin. Place the loin skin side down, set the knife about one-fourth
inch under the lean or muscle meat, and make a full length cut.
Reverse the loin and make the same cut from the other side. This
separates the fat back from the loin. The fat back may be used for
lard or may be cured and used for seasoning when cooking. The
remaining fat on the loin should be smoothed off up to about one-
fourth inch in thickness. The loin is one of the choicest cuts of
pork and it is made possible by splitting the carcass down the
FIG. 109. Separate the fat back from the loin and smooth up the remaining fat to
about ~ inch in thickness.
FIG. 110. Well-trimmed pieces of pork (left to right): shoulder hutt, picnic ham,
and trimmings piled on plate.
middle of the back instead of cutting along each side of the back-
bone. One of the most practical ways to use the loin is to cure it
as Canadian style bacon.
After trimming the loin cut up the other one-half of the carcass,
starting with the shoulder and finishing with the loin.
All pieces for curing should be trimmed smoothly and uniformly.
Remove all blood spots (almost always found in the shoulder) and
ragged pieces of meat and fat. A good job of trimming reduces
waste. The meat will get a uniform cure and have a better flavor
and a more appetizing appearance.
BEEF AND VEAL 137
FIG. Ill. Skinning fat trimmings. Keep the knife parallel with the table and
the edge turned slightly downward toward the skin.
st 2 (p,EEF AND VEAL )
i
7( Beef.
• The first step in cutting the beef carcass is quartering or
"ribbing down." This divides the fore and hindquarters. Each side
of beef has thirteen ribs. Insert the knife blade between the twelfth
and thirteenth ribs at a point midway between the backbone and
flank. Cut the backbone on a parallel with the ribs, then cut toward
the flank leaving 6 to 8 inches of flank to hold up the forequarter
when the backbone has been sawed. Saw the backbone in two on a
line with the knife cut between the ribs. This will leave the fore-
quarter hanging from the uncut strip at the flank. Now, while one
person holds the forequarter to keep it from falling, another one
finishes the cut at the flank, completing the separation of the fore
and hindquarters. ) ? t,
There are different methods of cutting up the beef carcass. The
fOllowing one, however, is intended to give pieces suitable for cur-
ing, cooking, and canning.
Cutting the Forequarter. Place the forequarter on the cutting
table with the outside up. Along the twelfth rib about 10 inches
from the backbone is the point to begin making the first cut. The
idea is to separate the plate from the rib. Start at this point and
make a straight line cut across the shank just above the elbow
joint. Cut through the meat to the ribs. Saw along the same line
and remove the plate and brisket. A saw rather than an ax or
cleaver should be used for cutting bones. This will avoid splintering
Meat Cuts and How to Cook Them

PORK CHART
Retail Cuts Wholesale Cuts Retail Cuts
Boneless Tenderloin
Loin Roast F,ench.d and Whole
- - 101l.t - . -Roa.t, Iroi ••, 'anfry-
~36
Canadian Style Bacon loin Chop
-~t:"p.n~i'Y-~
~ ~\'4~lOS
Rib Frenched Butterfly
Chop R;b Chop Chop
- - - - B r G i •• 0, P a n f r y - - - -
··fr~~
Sirloin Roas.
"2~
loin Roost
Cenler C\lt
Crown Roost
RO.II------
Spate Ribs
~~~
100,1 llakel. lroi •• , Cook In Llquld - -
Fat Bock lard

Fresh Smoked
Picnic Shoulder Picnic Shoulder
- - R",t - • -ROCIlt (lake), Cook In liquid
~j C\Q,
,
Blode Smoked
Steaks Shoulder Butt
_araile, 'GAfry-e-Roa" Ilok.), Cook' in-
\j
Liquid, .roil, 'anbroil,
'·"lJy
T Cush;on
Picnic Shoulder
- -_ _ _ _ 10••' _ _ _ _ __
Rolled Fresh
Picnic Shoulder
Bolton Butt Rolled 80ston Butt

~
Jowl Bocon Square \l-
fresh Shoulder Hock Arm Steak
-Cook in LI~uld, I'oil, ,."broil, 'on'ry- -arai,., Cook in Liquid- •
,
t
'"
BEEF AND VEAL 139
FIG. 113. Black lines show wholesale cuts, and white lines show retail cuts.
FIG. 114. Dividing the forequarter and the hindquarter.

The cut is made between the last two ribs.
the bone and causing unnecessary waste of meat. Now, saw the
foreshank off at the elbow. Cut between the fifth and sixth ribs to
separate the rib cut from the chuck. Complete the cut with the saw,
passing through the backbone. There are seven ribs in the set of
ribs which may be further divided into two or three rib roasts.
Roasts are made by cutting between the ribs. These roasts may be
boned and rolled if desired. The chuck is somewhat less tender and
better adapted for pot roasts, corning, or grinding. It can also be
cut into roasts if desired. A two-rib roast called a chuck roast can
be cut. A round-bone pot roast can be removed by cutting across
the shank bone. Additional chuck roasts are then cut parallel with
the ribs. The remainder, the neck and shoulder, may be cut into
suitable size pieces for stewing or boned out for hamburger or mince
,Jj
meat. . ' ,'It
Jr.;
BEEF AND VEAL 141
FIG. 115. Separating the plate from the rib. Start cutting 10 inches from the
backbone along the 12th rib.
FIG. 116. Sawing off plate and foreshank.
Cutting the Hindquarter. Lay the hindquarter on the table with

the inside or the carcass up. Remove the flank from the hindquarter
along the natural division by cutting alongside a continued line of
the inside of the hind shank across the last rib. This contains the
flank steak which can be pulled out. The balance of the flank can
be used for boiling or ground for hamburger, meat loaf, or mince
meat.
FIG. 117. Separating rib and chuck. Cut between the fifth and sixth ribs.
FIG. llB. Removing Hank from hindquarter.
FIG. ll9. Trimming out the kidney.
1"'. \ ..•
'f
BEEF AND VEAL 143
Now trim out the kidney and the fat in which It IS imbedded,
but leave enough fat on the backbone to COver the tenderloin.
Separate the loin from the round and rump at the ball-and-socket
hip joint. Cut directly below and parallel to the pelvic arch. Start
this cut with a knife; complete it with the Saw. The loin may be
divided into the sirloin and porterhouse at the hip joint. Steaks
from the short loin are good eating. Separate the rump from the
round by sawing across the floor of the aitchbone. The rump makes
a desirable roast or choice corned bee£. The pelvic bone may be
trimmed out of the rump. The shank may be cut off at the upper
end of the long bone.
FIG. 120. separate the loin from the round at the hall-and-socket hip joint.
FIG. 121. After starting the cut with a knife, complete it with the saw.
FIG. 122. Dividing the loin into short loin and loin end.
FIG. 123. The rump is removed from the round by sawing across the floor of the
aitchbone.
BEEF AND VEAL 145

BEEF CHART
~
Ground Beef Heel of Round
Roatt (80ke), Broil, ._"Gi,e 0' _ _ Steak Top Round Bottom Round
(Swlu Steak)
•
Plllnbroil, Pantry, Cook in lhtuid _ B r a i , e - - Braile *___ Brai.e_
~q
Hind Shank Rolled Rump Standing Rump
- Cook in liquid {Soup) or Brai,.- - - - - Brai .. or Rooll
~~~
Rolled Flank Flank Meat
- - Broil. or Cook in LiIllUid - -
Shank
Knuckle
~(j~Triangl. Bon ..I.... Chuck Should..r
--Cook in Liquid (SOl,lp), I r a i , . - - Pot-Roast Pot-Roast Fillet
~ ~~
Rolled Neck Bonel .... Nee,
- _ .rai,. or Cook in Liquid - - . -
*' Prime and choice grad., may be

_~';"d, panbroiled or ~anfri.d
FIG_ 124.
1J,_ (Veal. Veal is very tender and is mostly lean meat. It contains
very little fat. Veal also contains a high percentage of moisture, and
for that reason most of the carcass should be utilized as fresh meat.
The heavier cuts can be cured and canned advantageously.
After the carcass has been chilled thoroughly, cutting can begin.
The same general pattern followed in cutting a beef carcass can
also apply to veal. The sweetbreads, brains, and liver are choice
FIG. 125. Guide lines for making veal cuts. The sweet·
breads, brains and liver are choice parts that are used
first.
parts. They should be removed and used first. The neck and shank
can be cut into chunks and used tor stews and soups. The trim-
mings can be ground for veal loaf. 1\t J
,t(' (Split the carcass with a saw in the sa~e manner as that prescribed
for beef. Now the veal carcass is ready for cutting. Separate the
147
BEEF AND VEAL d How to Cook Them
Meat Cuts an RT
VEAL CHA
__
\#~ H••I of
Round
Hind Shank
.d
lrab. 0' Cook in Liqlll
__
----~ .,.,1,••r 'anfry--- Round

Steak (Cu,l.t)
C.~::,-Cut
• -Roo,t
Roast
or Broi •• _
-Irol,. Of 'onfTy-
\) Blade
Roast Roost or Ired,.
~
Blade
~
Arm
Steak
- - - Steok. rai •• or Panfry
RolI.d City Chick.n

Shoulder Roast 'anfry-
-Brai .. ,
--Io.s. or Iroi .. - --_,
NATIONAL LIVE STOCK AND MEAT BOARD
FIG. 126.
fore from the hindquarter. Remove the foreleg by cutting just above
the elbow bone. Separate the front shank from the shoulder and
back. The shoulder may be cut into chops or steaks, as they are
sometimes called, or it may be boned and used for a roast. After
the bone is removed, the meat is rolled lengthwise and tied tightly
with cord crosswise around the roll about an inch apart.
Work on the hindquarter begins by cutting the sirloin roast from
the leg of veal. After that, remove the rump from the leg. Round
steaks or cutlets are cut from the leg of veal) 'J.s.-
. '2 J_LAMB AND MUTTON)
(prdinarily the lamb carcass is not split down the center of the
backbone, but it may be. The beginner, however, will find it easier
to divide the carcass into the most desirable pieces for using fresh
or for curing. There are many different ways of cutting the lamb
carcass. The cuts made depend a great deal on the uses to be made
of the meat, whether most of it is to be used fresh, canned, or cured.
The hrger cuts, liKe the legs and shoulders, are the best wts f.ur
curing. Corned lamb is easy to process, and the breast and shank
are best suited for this purpose. A good way to use the small pieces
and trimmings is to grind the meat and make lamb patties or mix
it with pork in making sausage.
FIG. 127. Black guide lines show where to make the cuts to separate the lamb
carcass into the most desirable pieces for using fresh or for curing.
-%k CThe lamb carcass, like beef, has thirteen pairs of ribs. Begin by
sawing off the shoulder between the fifth and sixth ribs; or, if a
narrow shoulder is preferred, saw between the third and fourth ribs.
Then cut the neck off on a line flush with the shoulder. Saw off the
shank. Separate the shoulders by sawing through the backbone.
Turn the carcass on its side, with the legs toward you and saw off
the breast piece. Then separate the rack frorn the loin by cutting
between the last two ribs to the backbone. Start the cut with a knife
..D;:: ......
~
11. .i, b.O ...

1 ~! ~ ..!:: '"0
~
..0 :;u ....

, ...
,I
;.
0 bo .......
'"0
E c:: :;
... .s:
.... 0
~.
....... ~
'"0
-5i
.,.u
~
c::
f ...c::
~
c::
:§ oj
!,
"
...'"'"
vc::
.D
0
'"0 '"0
c::~ ~ ~
I'"'
....
...'" :;u E ~
.......
~
l'
..D
;:: c::
- I .D 0
... .... :.a
-5 :; ~
:l
U
. 'I .... ~
... ....
.\" -
(~..
!
~ ~
co
.....
oi ..:
... <.!i
;:l '"0 ~
:;
~
<.!i
~
149
and complete with a saw through the backbone. Rib chops may be
cut from the rack after splitting, or the piece can be used for making ,-.Ill
a crown roast. Cut and saw the loin from the long legs through the II
small of the back or just forward of the hip bones. Now the sirloin
is cut from the loin in the same manner. The thickness is optional.
The sirloin makes an excellent size roast, or it can be cut into
chops. The legs are then separated by splitting down the center of
the backbone with the saw. )
( ....
,. i~
, \
,
FIG. 132. Two methods of trimming a leg of lamb for roasting: (1) French
method, with chops removed (shown at 3); (2) long-cut leg.
:~
LAMB AND MUTTON 151
~. LAMB CHART
80neless
Sirloin Roast"
Leg
(lh,.. (uh "0m one leg)
-Ioo.f - e·l,oil, 'onbroil, Ponfry -.-Irais.,-
Roo,'
.1 English
Chop
-I,oil, 'a"b,oll, Pon"y_ • _
~~
Pattie,
Rolled Loin
Roasf
Roa.t-
L.... '
c.~Rolled
Shoulde,
80neless
Shoulde, Chops
-Roa,t, .tol •• - . - - - .roll, - - -
'a"broll, 'onfry, Itol ..
Neck Slice, Shanks

- - ar.I,., Cook in .Liq",id-- - - - - lrai ••• r C•• k In Liqt.tld--
NATIONAL LIVE STOCK AND MEAT BOARD
FIG. 133.
VENISON
Venison 1 from tbe deer or elk has always been a staple article of
diet, a favorite with hunters and epicures. It is covered with white,
scented fat, which connoisseurs greatly appreciate.
Venison is an excellent substitute for beef and mutton, which
meats it resembles in texture, color, and general characteristics. Its
flavor is distinctive, suggestive of beef rather than mutton.
Venison becomes more tender and palatable when allowed to
ripen or age for a short time. When conditions permit, it may be
allowed to hang from two to three weeks before being cut up.
The first step in cutting a venison carcass is to split it with a saw
down through the back and neck. From this point on the procedure
is the same as that described for a beef or veal carcass. It is not
necessary to make all these cuts in cutting up venison because it is
not nearly as long oor as well-fleshed in all its parts as an average
steer. However, if you wish to take time and trouble to make such
cuts, you will be rewarded by a more efficient utilization of the meat
and attain better results in cooking. Stew and soup meat come from
the neck and shanks; the round and rump furnish roasts, round
steaks, and soup bones. From the flank and plate come ribs and
good stew meat, and the chuck yields roasts.
How to cut up venison without wasting any of it is best described
in an article, "Venison-(As You Like It)," which appeared in the
December 1941 issue of Gourmet Magazine.
A deer, though it is not a very large animal, may seem large, indeed,
when one is confronted with the eating of it. There seems so much meat
all at once, and surely some must be wasted. Yet of waste there need be
but little. I mind the -white-tail I once prepared in this manner:
The neck I boned, and trimmed the meat into a square. The trimmings
went through the food chopper, and were mixed, half and half, with fresh
fat pork, then seasoned with salt and pepper, nutmeg, and a little sage.
This ground venison made an excellent breakfast sausage and a meat loaf.
The bones went into chasseur soups, consomme, and venison stock. And
the square of neck meat was used for stews, salmis, and ragouts.
The front legs, too, were boned, and then tied, and steeped for four or
five days in a marinade made of 1 part red sour wine to 2 parts water, and
seasoned with garlic, celery, onions, bay leaves, carrots, cloves, caraway
seeds, whole black pepper, salt and a little sugar. After the marinating,
1 The term "venison" comes from the Latin term venatus which means "to
hunt." The latter probably is akin to the Sandskrit term venati, which means
"he desires, attacks, gains." Originally, the word venison applied to the flesh of
any beast or bird of the chase, but has now come to apply only to flesh of deer
and deer kind.
VENISON 153
FIG. 134. Some cuts of venison: upper left-a roll-top shoulder with a slice of
fresh pork fat for self-basting; upper right-a rolled shoulder of a fat doe; center
-rib chops from a fat doe (they show some marbling); lower-a venison round
steak.
I roasted the meat in a hot oven till it was just done, and used the mari-
nade as a basting liquor for the roast and a foundation for the gravy.
The ribs, of. course, became chops. Cut between each bone, the chops
were seasoned with salt, pepper, and butter, and were broiled over an
open fire until they were done to a medium turn. And just before they
were taken from the fire, they were seasoned again with salt and freshly
ground black pepper.
The hindlegs were treated as though they were lamb. With a clove of
garlic the meat was rubbed well, and into the pan with the meat went an-
other clove of garlic, along with 2Y2 cups of tomatoes-a No.2 can-and a
sprig of celery-top tied together with a few sprigs of parsley and a large
bay leaf, and pepper and salt, of course. When the meat had been cooked,
the surplus fat went into the gravy, made from browned flour and stock
from venison bones. The gravy, cooked till the flour taste was gone, was
strained through a cheese cloth, and enriched with half a cup of currant
jelly, the juice of an orange and half a lemon, and a bit of the shredded
rind of both.
The short ribs were cut, some one, some two ribs to the piece, and were
placed in a covered roasting pan with canned tomatoes, and seasoned with
whole black peppers and smoked salt. The ribs were then baked until
they were almost done. When the meat began to appear dry during the
baking, it was basted with venison stock, not water. For the final cooking,
•
(
FIG. 135. Rabbit carcasses cut up for the pan. The heart is to the left and the
liver to the right of each carcass. Left to right: carcass of small fryer rabbit cut
into seven pieces; carcass cut with bandsaw into uniform pieces; a larger carcass
cut into portions for individual serving.
the ribs were placed in an open pan, and returned to the oven for crisp-
ing. The drippings from the ribs became a gravy through the addition
of a thin paste made of flour and butter. This gravy was allowed to boil
up a few times to eliminate the flour taste, and was then strained through
a cheese cloth.
The flanks wound up in a ragout. The meat was cut into I-inch pieces,
and dredged with flour, then fried until it was a rich brown. In a heavy
pot some butter was heated to a nut brown color, and some finely diced
onions and garlic were added to brown. With these the already browned
meat was placed, and covered with venison stock. Twenty minutes before
the meat was ready, fresh mushrooms and green peppers, both cut in
half-inch dice, were dropped in the ragout, along with a bouquet garni,
salt, pepper, and enough good red wine barely to cover.
For these dishes no other accompaniment is needed but a prefatory cup
of consomme, a side dish of a fine chestnut puree, a climaxing light
dessert, and a red Burgundy of good year and good name. There are those,
of course, who prefer Champagne, and those, again, whose tastes run to
whiskey and rum.
Of course, all these dishes were not made at once. A deer carcass
will probably last for some time, so it should be properly stored so
that pieces may be sliced off when they are needed.
J.
2. (, 39/)
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_ . .~ 20.8'· gr'
XI
r (QRESSING POULTRY AND

WILD FOWl:)
9/ (There are numerous ways of killing, plucking, and drawing

poultry and wild fowl, but it is important to have an attractive
carcass when the work is completed. The appearance and condition
of dressed birds depend greatly on the care used in applying these
dressing processes and in cooling the carcass.
Domestic birds ready for killing should be deprived of feed for
24 hours. This will clean out the feed from the crops and intestines.
The dressed birds also will keep longer and will be of better quality.
During the period they are not fed they should have water, which
will wash feed particles out of the digestive tract. This "starving
before killing" is very important.) '1,
CfJ-- (METHODS OF KILLING POULTRY \
<Poultry may be killed by beheading, dislocating the neck, or

sticking. Cutting off the head is the common home-and-farm
method. Dislocating the neck is rarely practiced. Sticking involves
severing the arteries in the bird's neck and is most commonly used
commercially,) 9 "
J--r{REMOVING FEATHERS , )
('The feathers of poultry and game birds can be removed by dry

pftrcking, scalding, semi-scalding, and wax plucking.
Dry picking is difficult and requires considerable practice and
skill, but it makes an attractive carcass either when used fresh or
frozen. In dry plucking, rapidity of movement is necessary.
Scalding is accomplished by immersing the bird for a few seconds
in hot water (150 0 to 190°F.). If the water is too hot or the bird
is kept in it too long the skin may appear as if cooked. Young birds
155
156 DRESSING POULTRY AND WILD FOWL
\
FIG. 136. Cutting the bird's throat from
the outside. Cut the large vein and the
cross vein at the same time (0 insure
good bleeding.
AVERAGE PERCENT AGES

(Based on Empty-body Weight of Parts of Carcasses of 45 White Plymouth
Rock and 70 White Leghorn Cockerels at Increasing Weights and Stages 0/
Growth and Fattening)
Data for birds of approximate slaughter weight of-

Breed of chickens
and parts of carcass 0.5 lb. llb. 1.5 lb. 21b. 31b. 41b. 51b. 61b. 7 lb.
% % % % __1L_ -%- % % %
White Plymouth
Rock:
", -
Skin '0 • • • • • • • • • 6.5 7~8 7.7 7.3 7.0 7.4 8.1 7.6 8.5
Neck .......... 3.7 3.5 3.3 3.9 3.7 3.7 3.4 3.4 3.4
Legs above hock 16.2 18.0 19.0 20.2 21.5 22.1 22.1 22.2 24.9
Wings '0 • • • • • . , 6.5 ti.4 6.3 6.4 6.7 6.6 5.9 5.9 5.7
Torso •• •• ••• ·0 21.3 22.5 22.4 22.0 23.4 24.6 25.0 26.4 26.9
White Leghorn:
Skin ........... 7.08 6.52 6.47 6.43 6.82 7.16 6.65 ... '" 0 · · 0 • •
Neck • ,. ' •••• 00 3.59 3.61 3.24 3.21 3.34 3.10 2.85 .... ' . .. ....
Legs above hock 15.60 17.30 18.80 19.70 21.20 20.90 21.60 .... " ···0 ..
Wings , ..... " . 6.65 6.93 6.98 7.03 7.29 6.74 6.41 ...... .. ....
Torso ......... 20.50 23.30 24.00 25.10 25.40 26.60 26.70 .... " ......

REMOVING FEATHERS 157
scald best in temperatures 150° to 160°; and older and tough ones
require temperatures of 180° to 190°. Scalding and plucking the
feathers is a good method if the birds are to be consumed a short
time after dressing. They do not keep well in storage or present an
attractive appearance.
Semi-scalding is the method used by large commercial poultry
killing plants. It is not practical for dressing birds at home and is
not generally used by farmers. Therefore it is not necessary to
describe the method in detail.
Wax plucking involves dipping the birds into melted wax. The
birds are first roughly dry-plucked-that is, the main tail feathers are
removed, the wings picked clean, and most of the body feathers
are removed. The chickens are then dipped 3 times into a special
kind of melted wax heated to a temperature of 125° to 130°F.
After 20 minutes the waxed bird is dipped into or sprayed with
cold water to stiffen the wax. The wax is then removed in pieces,
taking with it the remainingjair ~nd feathers. Paraffin will serve
the same purpose as the wax. Cj .,
Upland game birds, shore rds;~d waterfowl should never be
scalded for plucking but should be dry-picked. The feathers should
be pulled downward in the direction that they grow-never upward
as this tears the skin.
The best time to pluck a game bird is shortly after it is killed
when the feathers droop. It is important that it be done rapidly
so as to complete the work before the feathers set.
With ducks and geese, owing to the thickness of the feathers, dry
Jili:...king is a slower process than with other fowl.
" l Chickens. One of the best ways to kill a chicken is to bleed it by
If severing the arteries in the neck. The fowl is suspended by the feet
at about the height of the shoulder of the plucker. Any stout cord
with a short stick at the end will do to wrap around the bird's feet.
In that position it is ready to be bled.
A particular kind of killing knife is desirable. The blade should
be a heavy piece of steel, about 2 inches long, one-quarter of an
inch wide, and one-eighth of an inch thick on the back. It should
be ground to a sharp point with a straight cutting edge rather than
from the front. The handle should be fairly stout so that it can be
grasped readily. A strong, sharp jackknife could be used to ad-
vantage. ):.i.j
The head "bf the fowl is taken in the left hand and the knife in
the right hand. With the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, the
mouth is forced open by pressure and the knife is inserted into the
mouth with the blade pointing toward the back of the head. The
knife is then forced up to the juncture of the head and neck where
the arteries come down on each side of the neck; these are severed and
the fowl bleeds freely. For a left-handed person the operation would
be performed the opposite way.
Immediately afterward the knife is forced into the roof of the
mouth. This is done by withdrawing the knife from the juncture
of the head and neck and turning it over so that the back of the
knife passes along the upper beak into the groove in the roof of the
mouth. It is then immediately forced into the brain cavity so that
the brain is pierced. When this is done properly the bird will
squawk and it will also make a convulsive movement which tends
,t
:I
'i
,
,
Jg
FIG. 137. Dry-picking of birds (feathers twisted and rolled out instead of pulled):
(a) removing tail feathers; (b) removing large wing feathers; (c) removing
feathers from sides; (d) removing feathers from legs; (e) removing feathers from
back, hips, and wings (smaller feathers are picked with thumb and forefinger);
(I) removing neck feathers; (g) removing pinfeathers.
to loosen the feathers in the feather muscles. If the brain has not
been properly pierced, the feathers are hard to pluck and the skin
is frequently torn badly. A blood can, weighted in the bottom, is
hooked on to the lower mandible (beak) to catch the blood. The
can also prevents the bird from moving too much.
In dry plucking, rapidity of movement is necessary. Different
pluckers have different methods, but it has been found that the
following order is convenient and rapid: wings, tail, breast, body,
back, legs, neck and finishing of the wings.
As soon as the blood can has been hooked to the beak, a squeezing
motion with the fingers around the neck from the base toward the
head removes the feathers of the neck.
j
REMOVING FEATHERS 159
Then the wings are held firmly in the left hand, and the main
wing feathers are removed with one jerk by the right hand, and
the main tail feathers are given a slight twist, which should remove
them with ease. The soft feathers covering the breast are removed
readily by a sort of rubbing motion, rubbing the same way the
feathers normally lie. The thighs and legs are easily plucked in
much the same manner as the neck, and lastly the back and body
of the bird are plucked. After plucking has been completed, pin-
feathers may be removed by using a dull, round-bladed knife. Care
should be taken not to tear the skin; even small blemishes lower
the market value of the dressed bird.
Wet plucking after scalding the chickens is much simpler than
dry plucking and is satisfactory where the dressed birds are sold
locally or are not to be stored. Care should be taken not to have the
water too hot (not more than about 190°F.), or the skin will be
hardened or partially scalded.
After the bird has been dressed, the head and feet should be
washed with a stiff brush. The vent should be squeezed, and if any
feed remains in the crop it should be removed through an opening
made just above the shoulders.
The head should be wrapped in parchment paper. Then the bird
is put into a cool place, because it is necessary that the heat pass out
of the body as soon as possible after the fowl has been killed. The
dressed birds should be hung or laid separate from each other to
allow the air to pass around all parts of the body. Proper cooling
prevents bacteria from developing and tends to keep the fowls
much longer.
Turkeys. Usually turkeys are killed and plucked in the same
manner as chickens. Dry plucking is the method preferred for
dressing turkeys for home use or local trade. Scald plucking may
also be used if the turkey is to be consumed at home. Dressed
turkeys should be thoroughly cooled as soon as possible.
Ducks. No feed should be given to ducks for at least 12 hours
prior to killing. The bird is suspended by the feet; the jugular vein
in the throat just below the base of the skull is cut through the
mouth or stuck in the neck. A blood cup is attached to hold the
head down and permit good bleeding.
When bleeding is completed, begin plucking or the dressed car-
cass is likely to be discolored. Ducks are plucked either dry or after
being scalded. The temperature of the water should be just below
the boiling point. If the water is not hot enough, plucking is diffi-
cult; and if the water is too hot or the ducks are left in it too long,
the skin is likely to be torn. When plucking is completed, plunge
the bird into scalding water and pull it out quickly, then remove
all pinfeathers with a small knife. Wash dirt off the feet witli a
damp cloth. Remove all blood from the head and bill. Squeeze
vent to remove any feces, and singe the bird. After plucking, cool
the bird thoroughly in cold water. Change water frequently in
order to remove body heat quickly and to chill the duck thoroughly.
Geese. Care should be taken in handling geese at killing time as
the flesh bruises easily, and the bruised spots detract from the ap-
pearance of the dressed product. Stick a goose in the same way as
previously described for ducks. Hang a weighted blood cup on the
lower bill to steady the bird and catch the blood. The dry plucking
of geese is rather difficult, and the most common practice is to scald
or steam the feathers before plucking. After geese are picked they
are usually washed and put into ice water to cool.
Squabs. When squabs are fully feathered under their wings,
which is when the birds are from 25 to 30 days of age, they are ready
to kill and dress. They may be taken from the nests the evening
before they are to be killed so that the crops will be emptied when
they are dressed. If there is any feed in the crops after the birds are
killed it should be flushed out. The usual method of killing squabs
is to hang them by the feet on a hook or nail, and cut the jugular
vein in the mouth just below the base of the skull, using a knife
with a long slender blade. After bleeding, they should be dry-picked
immediately, as the feathers are hard to pull out if the birds are
allowed to get cold. Squabs may be picked on a bench or held in
the lap. They should be picked clean and all pinfeathers removed.
Care must be taken not to bruise or tear the skin for the skin of a
squab is very tender. After squabs are plucked, they are washed and
cooled promptly in cold water to remove all body heat. Squabs
that are not properly cooled after plucking never make first quality
birds, no matter how well they are chilled later.
DRAWING POULTRY
There are different methods for drawing poultry, but it is im-

portant to have an attractive carcass when the work is completed.
Preparing poultry for the oven consists of removing the head,
shanks, and feet and withdrawing the viscera or internal organs.
The Pennsylvania State University Extension Service, in Circular
168, recommends the following procedure in dressing roasting
chickens, broilers, and springers:
,.~'.
DRAWING POULTRY 161
FIG. 138. Method of eviscerating a bird to be left whole: (a) removing head; (b)
slitting skin down the back of the neck; (c) remuving crop and windpipe; (d)
removing neck.
FIG. 139. (a) Cutting off the leg; (b) cutting out the oil sack.
In dressing roasting chickens, first remove the head. Second, the

neck can be removed by peeling back the skin and cutting off the
neck close to the shoulders. This is done by pressing on the knife
and moving it from side to side at the same time. This causes the
blade to slip between two vertebrae. The prying action of the knife
blade severs the neck from the body. Third, remove the crop and
windpipe. The crop can be removed by hooking the short gullet
between the crop and gizzard with a finger. Then pull the crop
loose from the skin by working it forward. Fourth, insert a finger
into the body cavity between the wishbone and loosen the lungs
FIG. 140. Cutting up a chicken: (a) removing legs at thighs
(b) clltting legs in two pieces at second joint
,~
_~_;t·(·
(c) removing wings
f' 10 r ..
(d) cutting body in half
(e) splitting upper half of the breast
(j) chicken completely cut up into pieces
163
and other vital organs from the ribs and walls of the chest. Fifth,
remove the feet at the hock joints, leaving a small bit of the hock
skin on the hock joint. This will help tq> keep the skin anchored over
the drumstick while roasting. Sixth, make an incision between the
rear end of the keel bone and the rectum large enough to remove
the contents of the body cavity easily. Cut around the rectum and
draw out the lungs, heart, liver, and intestines. In fat birds it is
best to remove the abdominal fat before the intestines.
After the vital organs are removed, examine the abdominal cavity
for bits of lungs or other organs that may have been missed. Cool
or partially cooled birds draw more easily than warm ones. The
gizzard linings peel more easily when cooled and dipped in cold
water. The gall bladder can be removed by grasping the lobes of
the liver and letting the weight of the intestines pull down on the
bile sacs. Then cut the gall bladder out of the liver.
Broilers and springers can be drawn by cutting them along the
spinal column, starting at the base of the tail head. Both sides of
the spinal column can be cut loose and removed with the neck. The
bird can be laid open to remove the entrails. The two halves can
be left intact at the keel after the entrails are removed, or they can
be cut into halves or quarters.
WILD FOWL
Every precaution should be taken by the hunter to make sure his

pheasants, quail, woodcock, doves, ducks, geese, and other game
birds are fit to eat when he gets them home. Quite often during the
first few weeks of the hunting season for birds there is a large per-
centage of warm days. This is especially true in the South.
It is not good practice to place warm, undrawn birds in the pocket
of a hunting coat or bag and pack them around all day. Clots of
blood caused by gunshot or partly digested food will taint the flesh
and spoil the flavor. A too-common practice among hunters is not
to eviscerate the birds but throw them in the automobile trunk or
in the back of the car and forget them until the destination is
reached. These are thoughtless procedures, for there is absolutely
no chance for the body heat to escape and consequently the delicate
meat spoils. Therefore, take time to remove the entrails and cool
the birds as soon as possible after they are killed. Some hunters
prefer not to eviscerate ducks and other small game birds in cool
weather for they contend the meat becomes too dry.
WILD FOWL t
Both game birds and waterfowl should be drawn as soon as possi-
ble-that is, the internal organs removed. Practice varies in different
localities. Opening the body and removing the viscera undoubt-
edly exposes the internal surface to the air which always contains
microorganisms, and this invites decomposition; but on the other
hand, it must be remembered that the viscera decomposes more
rapidly than other parts of the body, and if left in are likely to
infect the rest of the bird. Of course, in removing them, great care
and cleanliness should be observed.
How to Draw a Bird. With a knife slit the skin on the neck from
the breast toward the head large enough to pull out the windpipe
and the gullet or tube that carries the food. Then make another
incision at the rectum and cut around it. Slit the abdominal cavity
back far enough from the rectum to permit the withdrawal of the
entrails. Care must be taken not to break the gall bladder which is
attached to the liver lest the bile ruin the liver, heart, and gizzard
which are edible. Save the giblets-they make a good stew. Cut the
gizzard into the inner white lining or bag and remove it and its
contents without cutting the gizzard in two. This bag cannot be
removed so easily in waterfowl, so the gizzard must be split and the
lining scraped out. When the entrails have been removed, wipe out
the abdominal and neck cavities with a soft damp cloth. A more
thorough cleaning can be given after the feathers are removed. Stuff
a handful of grass or more if necessary inside the bird to allow air
to circulate. Birds will keep much better if they are handled in this
manner and carried outside rather than in a coat or bag.
Most small towns have a quick-freezing plant where birds can be
hung until they are taken home. Frozen birds wrapped in several
thicknesses of newspaper remain frozen for a long time.
Plucking. Feathered game should never be scalded for plucking
but should always be dry-picked and the feathers pulled downward
in the direction that they grow. Pulling upward or against the way
they grow tears the skin which is usually very tender. If, however,
the birds are to be hung for ripening, then they should not be
plucked until the ripening period has ended.
To pluck the breast lay the bird on its back with the head out-
ward, grasping it in the left hand over the wings and shoulders.
Begin at the base of the neck, grasp as many feathers as can be
handled between the thumb and side of the forefinger, taking hold
near the skin. Then roll the right hand outwardly. This will re-
move neatly all feathers and down from a small area. Continue this
method systematically by plucking row after row of feathers across
the breast. This will leave a clean, pink skin.
With ducks and geese, owing to the thickness of the feathers, dry
picking is a slower process than with other fowls. When the feathers
have been removed, the down may be singed off with a flame from
burning paper, or with gasoline or alcohol flame. A hot flame
should not be used as it will give an oily appearance to the skin.
FIG. 141. Plucking a duck. Hold the duck in the left hand
and pluck with the right hand. With the thumh and
forefinger grasp feathers and down near the skin. Then
roll the right hand outward.
A simpler method of plucking a duck is by the use of paraffin.

Place a quantity of paraffin in a large saucepan and melt it over a
slow heat. A bucket of cold water should be near at hand. Pluck
all the large wing feathers and quickly immerse the duck in the
melted paraffin, then quickly into the cold water. The paraffin will
congeal and can be pulled off in chunks, bringing the feathers, in-
cluding the pinfeathers, with it. The paraffin can be reclaimed by
melting and straining out the feathers through a fine sieve or cheese-
cloth.
Fowls have an oil sac at the base of the tail, and this should be
removed after the bird is plucked. Never cook a bird without first
removing the triangular piece of flesh at the base of the tail head in
which the oil glands are imbedded.
'.
WILD FOWL 167
FIG. 142. Remove pinfeathers with a small knife pressed

against thumb and feather.
FIG. 143. Singeing with an alcohol flame to remove hair and down
feathers.
FIG. 144. Ducks and "giblets" ready f()r cooking.

XII
_PROCURING, CLEANING, AND

CUTTING FISH)
I
I
(Today the modern housewife can obtain almost any kind of fish
she wants-fresh or frozen-in fillet or steak form. It is also possible
for her to buy fish in the retail or wholesale markets in the round
(just as it comes from the water), drawn (which means the entrails
have been removed), or dressed (scales, entrails, head, tail, and fins
removed). Fish is marketed in various forms for different uses. To
buy intelligently requires a knowledge of these commercial forms
or "cuts." So to aid the consumer in purchasing fish the U. S. Fish
and Wildlife Service has prepared illustrations and descriptive mate-
rial which are presented here~
~PURCHASING FRESH FISH!f;

"-
When fish are purchased in the round be sure they are fresh.
Examine the eyes. Fresh fish have bright, clear, bulging eyes; the
gills are reddish-pink, free from slime or odor; the scales adhere
tightly to the skin and are bright colored with characteristic sheen;
the flesh is firm and somewhat elastic, springing back when pressed,
not mushy or separating from the bones; and the odor should be
fresh and free from objectionable odors. Most fish delivered to our
ports have been iced for several days or more aboard the fishing
boat.
Fish, like many other food products, will spoil easily if not
handled with care. When fish is received from the market, it should
be wrapped in moisture-proof paper or placed in a tightly covered
dish and stored immediately in the refrigerator. Stored in this man-
ner, the odor of fish will not penetrate other foods. If fish cannot.
be thoroughly refrigerated, it should be cooked at once and reheated
for serving.
169
170 PROCURING} CLEANING} AND CUTTING FISH
PURCHASING FROZEN FISH
Most varieties of fish can be purchased frozen, and they are avail-
able the year round. Frozen fish can now be obtained by the con-
sumers who live near or far from the source of supply. Frozen fish
may be used interchangeably with fresh fish.
FIG. 145. Whole or round fish are those FIG. 146. Drawn fish are marketed with
marketed lust as they come from the only the entrails removed. In prepara-
water. Before cooking, they must be tion for cooking, they generally are
scaled and eviscerated (which means re- scaled. Head, tail, and fins are re-
moving the entrails). The head, tail, moved, if desired, and the fish split or
and fins may be removed if desired, cut into serving-size portions. Small
and the fish either split or cut into drawn fish, or larger sizes intended for
serving-size portions, except in fish in- baking, may be cooked in the form
tended for baking. Some small fish, purchased after being scaled.
like smelt, are frequently cooked with
only the entrails removed.
FIG. 147. Dressed or Pan-dressed. FIG. 148. steaks are cross section slices
Dressed fish are scaled and eviscerated, of the larger sizes of dressed fish. They
usually with the head, tail, and fins are ready to cook as purchased, except
removed. The smaller sizes are ready for dividing the very largest into serv-
for cooking as purchased (pan-dressed). ing-size portions. A cross section of the
The larger sizes of dressed fish may be backbone is lIsually the only bone in
baked as purchased but frequently are the steak.
Cll t into steaks or serving-size portions.
CATCHING FISH 171
FIG. 149. Single fillet. The sides of the
fish, cut lengthwise away from the
backbone, are called Fillets. They are
practically boneless and require no
preparation for cooking. Sometimes the
skin, with the scales removed, is left on
the fillets; others are skinned. A fillet
cut from one side of a fish is called a
single fillet. This is the type of fillet
most generally seen in the market.
FIG. 150. Butterfly Fillets are the two FIG. 151. Sticks are pieces of fish cut
sides of the fish corresponding to two lengthwise or crosswise from fillets or
single fillets held together by uncut steaks into portions of uniform width
flesh and the skin. and length.
Frozen fish is generally wrapped in parchment paper or cello-

phane. Before placing it in the refrigerator it should be enclosed
in another wrapping of paper. This will prevent the absorption of
odors by other foods as the fish thaws. Frozen fish should remain
in the unopened package until time to use.
To keep frozen fish for several days, place the unopened package
in the freezing unit or frozen foods compartment of the refrigerator.
Fish will keep as long as it is solidly frozen, but once it thaws it
should be used immediately. Never refreeze fish after it thaws.
CATCHING FISH
When the fisherman of the family is relied upon to supply the

fish, he should be careful in handling them. They should not be
permitted to flop around on the bank or in the bottom of a boat to
become bruised. The fish should be killed immediately after being
caught, preferably by a method which will permit the blood to
drain from the flesh. The viscera and gills should be removed im-
mediately, and the dressed fish packed in ice or wrapped in wax
paper and placed in a refrigerator as soon as possible.
172 PROCURING, CLEANING, AND CUTTING FISH
How TO CLEAN FISH
One never can tell when the husband or the boys are going fish-
ing, or when a kindly neighbor will proudly present the little
woman with part of his catch. This happens most unexpectedly, so
one must be prepared for this emergency. It is easier when you
know how. This is how you go about it.
Scales come off a wet fish easier than a dry one, so soak the fish in
water before you begin to scale it. Lay the fish on a cutting or
chopping board. Grasp the fish firmly with one hand by the head.
With a saw-toothed knife or scaler, scrape off the scales, working
from the tail toward the head. Do a clean job and work off all the
scales near the base of the fins and head.
Now cut a slit in the fish's belly, from head to the vent (anal
opening) and remove the entrails. Cut off the head, including the
pectoral fins, by cutting above the collarbone. If the backbone is
large, cut down to it on each side of the fish. Snap the backbone
by bending the head over the cutting board or table. Now cut off
the head and tail. Remove the fins by cutting into the flesh on both
sides of the fish at the base of the fins. Then the fin and fin bones
can be pulled out easily. Never trim the fins off with shears or a
knife since the bones at the base will be left in the fish. Wash the
fish in cold running water to remove blood and all remaining scales,
viscera, and membranes.
\(,
,.,,{' FIG. 152. Scaling fish. Use dull blade or back edge of knife.
f"
'.1.
HOW TO CLEAN FISH 173
',r enlll fl_t:

FIG. 153. Removing head. Cut above the collarbone.
FIG. ]54. Breaking backbone.
FIG. ISS. Cutting to remove dorsal fin.

174 PROCURING) CLEANING) AND CUTTING FISH
FIG. 156. Removing fin.
FIG. 157. Cutting a steak.
;;1·
i-
~ fr FIG. 158. Cutting fillet from tail to head.

HOW TO CLEAN FISH 175
FIG. 159. Cutting along backbone to remove fillets.
FIG. 160. Freeing fillet at the tall.
FIG. 161. Removing the skin from the fillet.

XIII
PRESERVING MEAT, FOvVL,

AND SEAFOOD
\
There are different methods of preserving meats, such as freezing,

curing, drying, smoking, and canning. Freezing is the most popular
means by which families can store their food supply. It is a practical
and desirable way to preserve meats and by far the easiest method.
Freezing, however, is not the only way to preserve meats for family
meals. Some of the other methods are still quite popular, for they
produce an entirely different product such as corned beef, hickory
smoked ham, and canned meat products that many families will
enjoy for quick meals and variety. Freezing is best used to supple-
ment other methods of meat preservation.
FREEZING
The frozen-food locker in a freezer-storage plant or in the home

has proved an excellent facility for maintaining an ever ready sup-
ply of a wide variety of meats at moderate cost. The home freezer
in the kitchen is practically a member of the family in the homes of
millions of farmers and city dwellers alike. Where home freezers
and efficient cold-storage locker plants are available, frozen meat
can be kept satisfactorily for 6 months to a year.
Freezing is the only known method by which meat and meat
products can be preserved in a condition similar to their normal
,tate. These frozen products resemble fresh meats in appearance,
flavor, and food value, and add desirable variety to cured, smoked,
canned, and dehydrated meats.
The modern frozen meats bear little resemblance to the "cold
,torage" products of former years. Modern refrigeration equipment
has made possible more uniform near-zero storage temperatures.
Coupled with this has been the discovery of better methods for
r ps"
.:(
CHEMICAL ACTION CA USED BY ENZYMES 177
selecting, preparing, packaging, and freezing products prior to
storage. Most of the original goodness of meat and meat products
can be preserved in the frozen product if proper methods are used.
On the other hand, even solidly frozen meat will dry out and lose
flavor and nutritive value if not properly prepared or stored. An
understanding of the changes that may take place in frozen meat
will help the family to guard against loss.
CHEMICAL ACTION CAUSED BY ENZYMES
Meat experts in the U. S. Department of Agriculture,· tell us

that meat starts to freeze at about 29°F. As the temperature drops
to 15°F. or lower, the growth of microorganisms ceases, and hydro-
litic enzyme action on protein and fat becomes slight. At about
15°F. the oxidation of the fat, which is caused largely by the accel-
erating effect of enzyme action, begins to become the chief, if not
the sole, kind of composition. That type of breakdown progresses
slowly at first, but, as decomposition products accumulate, it gains
velocity. Because of its greater exposure to air, the surface always
oxidizes more rapidly than the inside fat. Modern freezer storage
is usually at O°F. or lower. Because of differences in chemical con-
stitution and activity of enzymes, animal fats vary considerably in
their tendency to oxidize. Pork fat oxidizes much faster than beef
or lamb fat.
Although freezing at O°F. for 24 hours is reported to kill tri-
chinae, the Department of Agriculture recommends different hold-
ing periods, depending on the temperature and the thickness of
the cut or pack.
For instance, the recommendation for pork 6 to 27 inches thick
stored at 5°F. IS 20 to 30 days; at _10°, 10 to 20 days; at -20°,
6 to 12 days.
I
ICE FORMATION IN MEAT
When water in meat juice freezes it draws pure water to the ice
crystals and leaves behind the coloring, flavor, and food material
that has been dissolved or suspended in it. Freezing is a kind of
drying process which produces changes in the composition of the
meat. These meat juices are not re-formed when the meat thaws.
However, when meat is quickly frozen, these changes are slight.
When meat is frozen slowly, the changes may be so great as to cause
.. Hankins, O. G., Hiner, R. L., Sulzbacher, W. L., Gaddis, A. M., How to
Keep Meat from Spoiling: The Year Book of Agriculture, 1950·51.
178 PRESERVING MEAT, FOWL, AND SEAFOOD
a loss of quality. There is also some rupture or tearing of the cell
tissues as the ice crystals form and expand.
Rapid freezing produces minute crystals which are rather evenly
distributed through the meat. When such a product is thawed, the
moisture is reabsorbed as the crystals melt. There are three different
methods of quick freezing-direct immersion in low-temperature
brine, ipdirect contact with the refrigerant, and air blast.
DRYING OR FREEZER BURN
The air in most freezers is dry. This is so because the refrigerator

coils freeze much of the moisture out of it. This dry, cold air drops
from the coils toward the floor and circulates around the frozen
food and absorbs all the moisture it can find. Meat frozen and
stored without protective wrapping at 15°F. will remain wholesome
and edible for some time, but the loss of quality is quite rapid.
Through the weeks of storage this drying-out process removes ice
from the exposed meat. This causes a dry, pithy surface or "freezer
burn" to develop on the frozen meat. The meat changes in color,
develops undesirable flavors, and becomes dry and hard. It may be
well preserved, but no longer does it resemble fresh meat in flavor,
texture, and appearance.
This surface drying on meat in a home freezer or in a locker is
not serious, although under unfavorable conditions it may become
severe enough to cause a real loss of quality. To prevent this drying,
considerable care is required in selecting the proper vapor-proof
wrap or container and to be sure that the meat has been packaged
and sealed effectively.
CUT TO FIT FAMILY NEEDS
Select animals or dressed carcasses with the weight that will give
the size of steaks and roasts desired. Popular weights are: hogs, 200-
250 pounds; calves, 150-250 pounds, steers or heifers, 600-1,000
pounds. All animals must be healthy. Suitable veterinarian in-
spection is available in many localities, and its use should be en-
couraged:
Slaughtering, chilling, aging, or ripening and cutting for all meats
has been discussed previously. However, a few additional sug-
gestions for the proper cutting of meat for freezing will be given
here. The main considerations are the family needs and the cook-
ing methods adapted to the tenderness of the meat to be cooked.
The proper cutting method, then, is to separate the tender steaks
CUT TO FIT FAMILY NEEDS 179
and roasts from pot roasts, stew meat, and meat that should be
ground.
Remember the best carcass contains many muscles that are too
well filled with connective tissue to be tender unless the tissue is
slowly softened by braising or stewing. The thin, less tender shanks,
neck, brisket, plate, and flank must be prepared for pot roasts, or
ground.
The thick, heavy muscles of the shoulder and rump from young, -+
well·fattened cattle make reasonably tender roasts and steaks. They

are, however, more truly pot roasts and Swiss steaks and not so well
adapted to oven-cooking, frying, or charcoal-broiling as the meat in
the rib and loin (rib roasts, T-bone, and sirloin steak). If the car-
cass is thin and from an older animal, even the loin and rib cuts
may be better suited to braising than to frying.
With these considerations in mind, examine the carcass for qual-
ity and proceed to make the cuts according to the way they should
be cooked. Also, the size of the cuts can be made to suit the family's
preference.
The approved methods for cutting beef, veal, and pork carcasses
for freezer storage are given below. l
CUTTING METHODS FOR CUTTING METHODS

BEEF AND VEAL FOR PORK
The tender loin

(4) and rib (5) Cut or slice the
are suitable for thick ham (1),
broiling, frying loin (2) and
and roasting; the shoulder (4) into
chuck (8), rump roasts, steaks or
(3), and round chops. Trim the
(2), for Swiss bacon strip (3) for
steaks and pot curing, or cut in-
roas ts; the thin- to boiling pieces.
ner shanks (1), Trim all meat
flank (6), plate closely, using lean
(7), and neck for sausage and
(9) for stew and fat for lard.
ground meat.
The size of roasts, number of steaks, amount of ground meat,

proportion of fat in the sausage, and the quantity in each package
must be decided by size of the family. Thickness of steaks can also
be suited to family requirements. One advantage of a home freezer
or a locker is the opportunity to have inch-thick steaks at all seasons
of the year.
Percentage of Cuts Expected
Trimmed Per cento£

Live Carcass cut total trimmed
Trimmed weight weight weight cut weight
Animal cuts lb. lb. lb. in each cut
Veal 150 90 70
Beef 1000 580 450
Steak and
oven roasts 40
Pot roasts 20
Stew and
ground meat 20
Lamb 100 50 35
Legs, chops
and shoulders 75
Breast and stew 15
POIk 225 180 115 plus
Ham, shoulder, 30 lard
bacon and jowls 50
Loins, ribs
and sausages 20
Rendered lard 15
1 Courtesy of the Agricultural Extension Service, Iowa State College.
All lamb ctits can be made tender by slow roasting, and lamb can
be cut up most satisfactorily for freezer storage.
Boning all the cuts from a side of beef or lamb reduces the storage
space required by about one-fourth. Trim all the cuts closely to save
space. Sharp edges of bone that may puncture the wrapping paper
should be removed.
A large variety of meats can be frozen in the home freezer and
then later thawed and cured as you like them. It is quite possible to
have delicious, fresh pork sausage or fresh cured breakfast bacon in
June or July from hogs that were butchered in late fall and early
winter.
For freezer storage of fresh pork, hams can be cut into good,
usable sized pieces-pork shoulders as rolled picnics; Boston butts
can be boneless or left with the blade bone in. Bacon sides can be
cut into convenient 3- or 4-pound pieces.
Loins can be boned, cut in half, and later cured as delicious
Canadian-style bacon. Jowls, when cured, can be used for boiling
PACKAGING MEAT FOR FREEZING 181
or frying. Pork trimmings can be used months later for making
fresh pork sausage; hog-head meat, for making headcheese any time
of the year. Sausage is often frozen without seasoning, as the aro-
matic flavor of the spices may disappear during several months of
storage. If the seasoning is added before freezing, be sure that the
sausage is packaged in a vapor-resistant wrap or container.
Beef can be taken from the freezer and cured as corn beef or dried
beef, and tongues when cured can be cooked and used for hot or
cold meals or served as cold cuts.
Freezing, curing, smoking, and canning game, including fish, in
some states is definitely restricted, and the meat is subject to posses-
sion limits during closed seasons the same as fresh game. Consult
your local game warden or locker operator for regulations regarding
legal periods for storage of game and fish.
PACKAGING MEAT FOR FREEZING
The ideal wrapping for meat to be frozen must resist water vapor
and gases, have good tensile strength and pliability at all tempera-
tures, be odorless and nontoxic, and be easily peeled from the frozen
meat. It can be sealed with heat, is easy to mark for identification,
and is moisture- and stain-proof.
No existing wrapper or container possesses all these qualities.
Each home processor must select the one or ones best suited to the
meat and meat products handled, to the available storage condi-
tions, and to the length of the intended storage period.
Films, foils, and laminates are among the most effective wrapping
materials available. Different kinds of films are available for packag-
ing. Among them are the cellophanes or cellophane-like films, such
as polyethelene. The only foils used for wrapping foods are alumi-
num foils. Use only the freezing-weight foil (.0015 gauge) to
package frozen meat. Laminates are made of two sheets of material
stuck together. The inner sheet protects the product; the outer re-
sists scuffing. Films and foils are more subject to scuffing, tearing,
and puncturing, and may require some protection. Ordinary waxed
freezer papers are not satisfactory for packaging meat, fish, or
poultry, because they are no guarantee against oxygen moisture.
Butcher paper and kraft paper should not be placed against the
food; they should be used only to protect the inner wrap.
The best wrapping material is of little value unless it is properly
applied. A good plan to follow in selecting the proper wrapping
for frozen meat is to give the best protection to the products that are
182 PRESERVING MEAT, FOWL, AND SEAFO('T'o
FIG. 162. Drugstore wrap. Place meat in center of a suit-

able wrapping material.
FIG. 163. Bring two edges of wrapping together and fold.
FIG. 164. Press and mold wrap firmly against the meat.
Pull folded ends tightly.
to be stored for 6 months or longer. Use the less effective, cheaper
coverings for the others. Seasoned sausage should have airtight
protection.
When frozen meat is removed from freezer storage, examine it
carefully for drying. In your home freezer or locker the cheaper
material may be good enough for long storage, or it may be neces-
sary to put a more effective vapor-resistant covering on all foods.
The same wrapping materials are used for meat and poultry.
Freezing does little to improve meat and only tends to maintain
its original condition. Therefore, care is essential in choosing meat
to be stored. Lean cuts generally store better than fat cuts. Ripened
or aged meat tends to lose quality more rapidly than unripened.
Beef and lamb should be held in the cooler only a few days. Pork
should be stored immediately after the animal heat has left the car-
cass. Pork turns rancid if kept much longer before freezing. Freeze
veal, liver, heart, and other specialty meats immediately after chill-
ing. Veal loses quality rapidly after chilling, so it requires immedi-
ate freezing. The liver, heart, and sweetbreads are not protected
by fat and are quite moist. They are easily contaminated and very
perishable. Not only should they be frozen immediately after chill-
ing, but they should be used a few weeks after freezing.
Beef, Veal, Lamb and Pork. Cut the meat into such sizes as you
will wish to remove from the freezer and use at one time. Be sure
to remove all sharp edges or corners from the meat and poultry that
might puncture the paper. Put the meat in as compact a form as
possible. This will save storage space and paper and make wrapping
easier.
Pull the wrapping material tight, and smooth down to force out
the air. Folding the two edges of paper together and over until tight
against the meat, as a drugstore clerk wraps a box of candy, reduces
air leakage through the seam. Fold the ends of the paper together
and turn them under the package. Pull the ends tight and then
heat-seal, tie, or seal with freezer tape. The seam may be also heat
sealed or taped.
Cellophane, latex, and some double-waxed paper can be sealed
by heating the top fold of the bag or the seams of the package with
a moderately warm flatiron or curling iron. Use just enough heat
and pressure to melt the paper or wax until it seals. If the seal is
scorched, a new seal or a new wrapper should be used. If it is not
possible to seal the package by heat, then proper folding and sticky
tape can be substituted. Ordinary gummed tape is not satisfactory;
a special tape is made for this purpose. Remember that careful
wrapping and sealing are as important as good wrapping material.
FIG. 165. Butcher-type wrap.
FIG. 166. Turn the meat over completely, twice, pulling

the paper tight as the meat is turned. Mold tightly to
exclude air.
FIG. 167. Fold for double thickness everywhere.

FIG. 168. Fold in sides and ends to exclude air, then tie or
tape.
FIG. 169. Label each package. Include kind and cut of

meat, weight and date of freezing.
The U. S. Department of Agriculture suggests that emergency

cover or homemade bags can be made by heat-sealing the edges of
strip cellophane, latex, or double-waxed paper. A strip of 7 x 21
inches will make a 6 x 10 inch bag with half-inch folds along the
seam and a I-inch flap at the top.
Poultry. Any day in the year may be poultry day. Chicken,
turkey, duck, goose, and game birds can all be preserved in the
home freezer. One convenient arrangement is to pack the meaty
pieces (breast and legs) separately from the bony parts (backs, necks,
and wings).
FIG. 170. Plastic bags containing meat should be plunged

in water to remove air. Twist top shut and tie.
FIG. 171. Meat packaged in films, foils and laminates are

subject to scuffing, tearing and puncturing; stockinette
material serves as protection. Label package and insert in
stockinette.
;' (' FIG. 172. Pull stockinette light and tie.
'.J.
Giblets, livers, hearts, and gizzards have a short storage life. They
should be packaged separately and eaten within 3 months. If many
birds are dressed at one time, package the livers and freeze for that
special occasion when broiled or saute chicken livers are served.
Cool the gizzards and hearts and pack for freezing.
Cut·up chicken, because it can be packaged flat, requires little
freezer space. Chilled poultry, however, may be dressed for freezing
and storage in different ways.
Broiler-fryer chickens are quite popular for home freezing. Fryers
weighing 2Y2 to 4 pounds, 10 to 16 weeks of age, are most desirable.
Many prefer to cut the chicken into regular frying pieces and pack
them into cellophane-lined rectangular cartons. A quart container
will hold an average-sized fryer. Just before sealing the package add
about one-half cup of water-enough to encase the pieces in ice.
The water forced the air out. If the giblets are included, be sure
they are first packaged separately in locker paper.
Broilers may be prepared by splitting down the back with a sharp
knife or kitchen scissors. Cut down both sides of the backbone and
remove it if desired. Dip the broiler halves in water and place skin
down on packaging material. Place two pieces of wrapping material
between the halves so they can be separated when frozen. Package
in films, foils, or laminated packaging materials.
FIG.173. Broilers may be prepared for freezing by splitting the bird into halves
with the kitchen shears and cutting along both sides of the backbone and re-
moving it .
•
Roasters-those large, well-fleshed birds-are left whole after dress-
ing. The neck and feet are cut off and the legs and wings are tied
tightly to the breast to save storage space.
Pieces of chicken, turkey, and other poultry are often frozen in
small packages. Divide the bird into portions required for one meal.
Usually the meaty pieces are put into one group, and the bony
pieces in another. Place each meaty piece in a fold of cellophane to
prevent freezing together. Package wet or add water just before
sealing. Allow no space for air pockets. Tie, heat-seal, or tape to
keep package air- and vapor-tight.
Bony pieces, necks, backs, and wings may also be cooked until
the meat falls from the bones, then frozen or canned with the broth
for stews, pies, or fricassee. Like other pre-cooked meats, cooked
poultry may be frozen, but the storage life is quite short.
Fish. Fish of all types and kinds, both salt and fresh water, can
be preserved perfectly when frozen. This includes shellfish-shrimp,
lobster, crab, and the like. Preparing them for freezing is simple,
but it should be done immediately. Freshness is indispensable to
well-flavored, palatable, and wholesome sea food. Stale odors and
flavors, as well as spoilage, develop rapidly when fish are removed
from the water and held at warm temperatures. Letting the fish
you buy or the fish you catch get warm before you pack it away in
the freezer is bad business. Keep it in a fine state of chill and you'll
have a fine fish when you remove it from the home freezer.
Like beef and pork, the quality of frozen fish and shellfish is de-
termined to a large degree by the quality of the product at the time
of freezing and the manner in which it is stored.
The methods of freezing fish and shellfish are much like those for
other meats. The package requirements are similar, as are also the
storage requirements.
Preparation for Freezing. All fish intended for freezing should be
scaled, dressed, and washed. Large fish are then cut into steaks, or
boneless strips known as fillets. Small fish are made ready for cook-
ing in like manner by removing the viscera, head, tail, and fins. All
this preparation has been previously described in Chapter XII,
Procuring, Cleaning, and Cutting Fish.
For home consumption, packaged fish has two distinct advan-
tages. First, a considerable saving in storage space is realized by
scaling and dressing. Second, it is possible to put into one package
just the amount of fish required for one family meal.
Frozen fish dry rapidly in freezer storage and must be carefully
wrapped in vapor-resistant paper. Fish may also be glazed with ice
by being frozen without wrapping and then dipped one or more
times in near-freezing water. This plain water glaze is not perma-
nent. It cracks or evaporates and may need renewal every 4 to 6
weeks. Further protection by wrapping the glazed frozen fish in
vapor-resistant paper is recommended.
J
.1
FIG. 174. Small fish may be eviscerated and packaged for freezing.
In some cases it is advisable to give the steaks or fillets a prelimi-

nary brine treatment before wrapping and freezing; this pretreat-
ment will reduce drip upon subsequent thawing. It is especially
desirable for cuts of non-oily fish, such as cod and flounder. Com-
mercial practice indicates the desirability of a 30-second dip in a
salt solution of the following strength: 21'2 per cent for croaker,
flounder, sole, and mullet; and 5 per cent for barracuda, cod, cusk,
haddock, hake, halibut, pollock, rockfish, rose fish, sable fish, and
whiting. Two-thirds cup of salt to a gallon of water makes a 5 per
cent salt solution, and one-third cup of a 21'2 per cent solution. The
salt used should be free from impurities which would adversely
affect the quality of the fish. Ordinary table salt may be used, but
the pure salt which does not have added potassium or magnesium
compounds is preferable.
Glass Containers. Fish can also be packed in glass fruit jars fitted
with airtight covers and frozen. These containers are generally
available in the home. Steaks, fillets, very small whole or round
fish, and shellfish should be carefully packed in the jar to within
one and one-half inches of the top for quart jars and one inch of
the top for pint jars. Enough 21'2 per cent brine should be added to
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fill the spaces between and around the fish and to just cover the
product. Air bubbles should be removed with the aid of a spatula
or blunt knife. The lid should be screwed tightly into place on the
rubber gasket, assuring an airtight seal. The jars are now ready for
freezing and subsequent storage. The ice serves to keep the air
away from the fish, and the jar seal prevents the loss of moisture
from the contents. Jars require considerable space in storage as com-
pared to other packaging methods and they are easily broken at low
temperature. However, some new types of jars are designed for
frozen food packaging. They are stronger and more efficiently
shaped for storage.
The following table was prepared by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife
Service to compare the protective qualities of various materials used
in packaging frozen fish.
COMPARISON OF PROTECTIVE QUALITIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS.
Method of
Protection preparation Advantages Disadvantages
l. Ice glaze ......Round, dressed or Only satisfactory Reglazing is re-
drawn fish. Chunks. method for fish quired at inter-
in the rollnd va Is
2. Moisture-vapor Chunks, steaks, fil- Ease of handli ng Not adequate for
proof paper 1. lets and very small fish which have a
fish short storage life
3. Glass jars ...... Steaks, fillets and Maximum protec- Color may leach
very small fish tion
1 Moisture-vapor proof paper may be used to wrap glazed chunks for protec-
tion against evaporation of the glaze.
No one material is suitable for all cuts of fish; however, glazed

chunks wrapped in moisture-vapor-proof paper are protected nearly
as well as the cuts packaged in jars. In general, glazing is a good
form of protection, wrapping in moisture-vapor-proof paper a bet-
ter one, and packaging in glass jars in 2Y2 per cent brine gives maxi-
mum protection.
All packages and jars of fish should be plainly labeled and inven-
toried. Glass and cellophane surfaces, provided they are clean and
dry, can be readily marked with a wax pencil (glass-marking pencil).
Sometimes it is advantageous to use thin cardboard labels. These
are attached to the packages with a cellulose fiber tape. The label
should indicate the species of fish, the way it was dressed, the num-
ber of pieces, and the date of freezing. For example: silver salmon,
4 steaks, frozen November 15, 1952.
',f.
Shellfish. Freezing shellfish presents quite a different problem
from that of fin fish, because more preparation is required before
they can be frozen. Some shellfish are available for only short pe-
riods of the year, and therefore it may be especially advantageous to
freeze them for later home use.
Oysters, scallops, and clams can be successfully frozen. To open
the shell satisfactorily requires considerable experience, so an inex-
perienced person will do better to obtain the shucked products,
which are readily available in season. Prior to shucking all bivalves
should be washed in clean water to eliminate sand. Oysters and
clams are opened by inserting a slender bladed knife between the
shells so as to sever the abductor muscle from the shell. The bill of
the shell may have to be hammered off to permit inserting the knife.
When shucking scallops only the abductor muscle or "eye," as it is
called, is utilized.
METHODS OF PREPARING SHELLFISH 1 FOR FREEZER STORAGE
Suggested method of
preparing
Shucked, Cooked
headed,or in Cooked
Name Producing area Season dressed shell meat
Abalone ' " .. Pacific
Clams ... ' , ..
March to Jan. x - -
Atlantic & Pacific All year x - -
Crabs ....... Atlantic & Pacific All year - x x
Lobsters ..... Atlantic All year x x -
Mussels .....
Oysters ......
Atlantic March to June x - -
Atlantic, Gulf,
and Pacific Sept. to April x - -
Scallops ..... Atlantic All year x - -
Shrimp ...... Atlantic, Gulf,
and Pacific All year x x x
Spiny lobsters Atlantic & Pacific All year x x -
1 Clams, crabs, lobsters, mussels, oysters, and spiny lobsters, when purchased in
the shells, shOUld be alive, unless cooked.
To eliminate sand, the raw shellfish meats may be washed under

a spray of clean, cold water or in a 2Y2 per cent brine solution. After
draining, they are packed in glass jars and covered with 2Y2 per cent
brine solution before sealing, as described previously for fin fish.
To prepare shrimp for freezing, the head and appendages are
broken off but the shell is not removed from the tailor edible por-
194
!
PRESERVING MEAT, FOWL, AND SEAFOOD
tion. The tails are then washed and packed in glass jars with a 2V2
per cent brine.
Live crabs and lobsters should be cooked for 10 to 20 minutes in
boiling 2V2 to 5 per cent salt brine. When cool, the shell, gills, and
viscera of the crab are removed and the body meat taken out with
a pointed knife. The meat from the claws of crabs and lobsters may
be removed by cracking the claws with a small wooden mallet or nut
cracker, then shaking or picking out the meat. In addition to the
claws, the tail of the lobster contains edible meat. It may be re-
moved with a fork; it is then split lengthwise to remove the intes-
tinal tract. Crab meat and lobster meat should be packed in jars
with 2Y2 per cent brine.
Frozen shellfish should be used within a period of three or four
months; however, a storage life of six months may be attained where
storage accommodations are especially good and the temperature is
as low as 10°F.
Labeling. Label each package. Include kind and cut of meat,
weight, and date of freezing. If you store the meat in a commercial
locker plant instead of a home freezer, be sure to add your name
and address to the label. Special stamps, inks, and pencils are made
for labeling packages of frozen food. Ordinary lead pencils will not
be effective unless the writing is done on strips of cold-storage tape
stuck on the waxed coverings. Tags can be tied on, and wrapping
paper or tape of different colors can be used to identify various
products of different dates of storage.
STORAGE IN THE HOME FREEZER
The life of frozen meats depends upon proper storage conditions.

Mistakes in selecting, preparing, wrapping, and freezing meats are
less serious if the home-freezer temperature, humidity, and air move-
ment are right. Follow the directions that came with your freezer.
Set the temperature at 15°F. or lower if possible. A temperature
of O°F. is recommended. The temperature always rises when un-
frozen meat is placed in the freezer area. Usually 24 to 48 hours are
required for satisfactory freezing in the home freezer. Beef can be
held with reasonable safety for some time at 5° or 10°, or even 12°
to 15°. Of course, as the temperature of storage becomes higher, the
time frozen meats can be held satisfactorily becomes less. Pork,
poultry, and fish need zero storage if they are to retain their fresh
quality beyond a few months. Temperatures below zero are even
better than zero but are not necessary and are rarely practical be-
cause of excessive operating cost.
THAWING 195
Time Limit on Storage. Thawed meats are an easy prey to spoil-
age. They must be used or cooked promptly after thawing. Even
those that are frozen solidly will not keep fresh and well flavored
indefinitely. There will be some changes in flavor, texture, and
appearance of the meat during the storage period. They should
not be objectionable, however, unless the meats are stored a longer
time than is recommended. If you follow the normal storage periods
for meats, poultry, and fish recommended by the U. S. Department
of Agriculture in the following table, your meats will be at their
best.
Normal storage
Product period
(months)
Sausage and other ground meat. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ... 1-3
;~:h POrk}. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3~
~::::b }. ............................................
. \
6-9
[~::Nd""' }... ..... ,'................... 6-12
~:~~:ables }-.. .. . .... .... .... ...................... 12 or more
THAWING
The best place to thaw frozen meat is in the home refrigerator.

[hawing is so slow at these 45° to 50°F. temperatures that some of
the drip is reabsorbed. In addition, the meat remains cold so that
spoilage bacteria grow slowly on the wet, thawed surface. Frozen
meats handled in this manner will keep for a day or longer. Allow
3 to 5 hours per pound to thaw meat in the home refrigerator, 2
to 2y-2 hours at room temperature, or about half that time in front
of an electric fan.
Thawing in the open air or by immersion of a sealed package in
90° to lOO°F. running water is satisfactory for meats that are to be
used at once. In any case, thaw the product in its original package
to exclude air and prevent discoloration.
All frozen meat removed from the home freezer for curing must
be thawed before applying any cure. Meat for curing should be
taken from the freezer one day before it is to be cured. Leave it in
the wrapper at room temperature until it shows signs of thawing.
Then remove wrapper and place it in the refrigerator or any cool
place where the temperature is not lower than 38° and not higher
than 50°. Twelve hours or overnight allows enough time to thaw
the average-sized piece of meat.
COOKING FROZEN MEAT
All frozen meat cooks more quickly and uniformly if it is thawed

or at least partly thawed. However, it may be thawed before it is
cooked or during cooking. Meat that is thawed at air temperatures
should be cooked promptly, as the warm, wet, outer surface is an
ideal place for spoilage to start. If the meat is thawed first, the cook-
ing time is about the same as for fresh meat. Cooking frozen meat
without preliminary thawing requires a much longer time than is
necessary for fresh meat or for thawed frozen meat.
When steaks or chops are pan-broiled, they are usually thawed
before cooking. Thawed steaks and chops are broiled by the same
methods and for the same lengths of time as those which have not
been frozen.
The Bureau of Human Nutrition and Home Economics, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, recommends the following time for
cooking frozen meats.
TIME REQUIRED FOR ROASTING FROZEN AND THAWED BEEF TO THREE

DEGREES OF DONENESS AT AN OVEN TEMPERATURE OF 300° TO 350 0 F.l
MINUTES PER POUND (ApPROX.)
Degrees of done ness Standing rib Rolled rib

Thawed Frozen Thawed Frozen
Rare ................... 18 43 28 53
Medium ., .............. 22 47 32 57
Well done .............. 30 55
"-
-- 40 65
1 Data from the Minn. Univ. Agr. Expt. Sta. Spec. Bul. 189.
TIME REQUIRED FOR BROILING FROZEN AND THAWED PORTERHOUSE STEAKS

RARE TO MEDIUM DONE
MINUTES PER POUND (ApPROX.)
Size Thawed Frozen

I inch thick ........................ . 8-10 21-33
I \12 inches thick ..................... . 10-15 23-38
2 inches thick ....................... . 20-30 33-43
FROZEN-FOOD LOCKER PLANTS 197
FROZEN-FoOD LOCKER PLANTS
Renting cold-storage lockers to individuals for the preservation

of their fresh meats, poultry, fish, fruits, and vegetables has expanded
rapidly in many parts of the United States. Dr. E. V. Wilcox, agri-
cultural writer and investigator, tells us that refrigerated storage
was first started in Chico, California, by the local ice company in
1903. "The service," he says, "was first offered to merchants for the
storage of eggs and apples, but was soon extended to farmers for
the storage of meats, and individual wood lockers came into use in
1913. Somewhat later an ice plant manager in Centralia, Washing-
ton, offered refrigeration facilities to hunters for the storage of game
and to farmers for the storage of home butchered meat supplies."
This convenience in handling home-food requirements became so
popular that the movement spread rapidly throughout the Far West
and extended eastward. The latest report indicates that there are
at present more than eleven-thousand plants in the United States.
The June 1952 count of locker plants by states, reported by the
United States Department of Agriculture is as follows:
Alabama.............. 84 Nevada............... 13
Arizona............... 32 New Hampshire ....... 27
Arkansas .............. 102 New Jersey. . . . . . . .. . .. 50
California ............ 505 New Mexico.. . . ...... 49
Colorado ............. 221 New York ............ 225
Connecticut ........... 59 North Carolina ........ 100
Delaware ............. II North Dakota ......... 294
Florida. . . ............ 78 Ohio ................. 466
Georgia .............. 146 Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . . .. 300
Idaho ................ 200 Oregon ............... 504
Illinois ............... 581 Pennsylvania .......... 296
Indiana .............. 349 Rhode Island .. . . . . . . . . 8
Iowa ................. 858 South Carolina ........ 75
Kansas ............... 515 South Dakota . . . . . . . . .. 300
Kentucky ............. 110 Tennessee ............ 114
Louisiana ............. 42 Texas .. , ............. 546
Maryland ............. 21 Utah ................. 100
Massachussets ......... , 43 Vermont.............. 50
Michigan .............. 361 Virginia. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77
Minnesota ............ 701 Washington ........... 694
Mississippi ............ 70 West Virginia.......... 25
Missouri .............. 477 Wisconsin ............ 651
Montana .............. 223 Wyoming ............. 79
Nebraska ............. 520
FIG. 175. Cold-storage locker plants employ butchers to cut, package, and place
the meat in the quick freeze unit. Here it freezes within 6 to 8 hours.
The purpose of these plants is to provide freezer-storage space to

individuals for the storage of food products and to provide precool-
ing and processing service for meats {ann killed. These plants are
owned by individuals, partnerships, cooperatives, bu.chers, ice
plants, creameries, cheese factories, and corporations. Complete
butchering and curing service for meats is provided at many of the
locker plants, the total cost of such service, including annual rental
for the locker, being so many cents per pound of meat.
Prospective patrons will have to weigh the advantages and disad-
vantages of such service when compared with the purchase of meat
at retail, butchering and processing, and refrigeration available in
the home. Your county agent can give yoU the names and addresses
of frozen-food locker plants in your locality (Appendix F).
CURING MEATS
The term "curing" as applied to meatS is sometimes interpreted

as referring to both curing and subsequent smoking, but in the text
which follows, the word "curing" applies only to dry salt, brine sub-
-,.
CURING MEATS 199
mersion, corning, or pickling (vinegar cured). Preserving meats by
drying, smoking and canning are treated separately.
Meat curing has a twofold aim-first to preserve the meat for fu-
ture use; and second, to give it added, desirable flavor. Curing meat
includes the application of dry salts, brine, or pickle, which in the
wider sense applies to any saline or acid preservative solution with
some modifications.
Curing is a race between the production of spoilage bacteria in
curing meats and the penetration of the preserving salts. It requires
weeks for the salts, brine, or pickle to reach sufficient concentration
to protect the center of hams, shoulders, and other large chunks of
meat. Low temperatures are the best means known today to prevent
the growth of spoilage organisms in meat until the salts have com-
pleted the tasks assigned to them.
Therefore, the success of curing depends on rapid distribution
of the curing ingredients before the putrefactive bacteria begin to
grow. This may be accomplished either by the dry-salt or sweet-
pickle method, with or without stitch pumping or artery pumping.
The essential ingredient then is salt. It draws moisture from the
muscle cells and at the same time enters the cells by osmosis. In this
way the salt is finally distributed through the tissue. Salt also
checks the action of certain harmful bacteria and inhibits several
types of enzymes. If too little salt is applied to the meat, the bacteria
that can grow in the presence of some salt will not be checked and
spoilage follows. The amount of salt applied may not be the de-
ciding factor, because complete distribution throughout the meat is
essential.
Sugar is used mainly to lessen the hardness of the straight salt
cure and to improve the flavor and texture of the meat. It also pro-
vides a suitable medium for the growth of the bacteria that are nec-
essary to break down the sugar into organic acids. One of these is
lactic acid which gives a pleasant flavor to meat. Sugar also helps
to fix color. Sugars commonly used in meat curing are cane, beet,
and corn.
Honey is often added to curing mixtures to give lean meat a
distinctive flavor. It can be used without sugar or to replace the
sugar. It is used in the same proportion as sugar.
Saltpeter is also an important ingredient of the curing mixture.
It has two functions-fixing color and checking the growth of certain
bacteria. Meat owes its red color to hemoglobin, an unstable pig-
ment which, say the meat specialists of the U. S. Department of
Agriculture, oxidizes to brown methemoglobin and combines with
nitric oxide to form red nitrosohemoglobin. Nitric oxide is formed
200 PRESERVING MEAT} FOWL} AND SEAFOOD
through the reduction of nitrate to nitrite. Certain bacteria which
occur normally on fresh meat are responsible for bringing about
this reaction. A combination of nitrite and nitrate in the ratio of
I to 10 makes a superior product. Saltpeter (nitrate of potassium)
preserves and dries the meat but it is used almost entirely because it
effectively fixes the bright-red color of the lean meat. Nitrate of
soda (Chile saltpeter) is a little stronger, and 1.7 ounces of nitrate of
soda will replace 2 ounces of saltpeter. The exact quantity of salt-
peter or nitrate of soda to be used should be weighed and mixed
thoroughly in the curing mixture. It is undesirable and quite un-
necessary to use more of either saltpeter or nitrate of soda than the
amount recommended.
FIG. 176. Be sure to weigh meat and curing ingredients

carefully. Too little salt may cause spoilage; too much salt
makes hard, dry, over-salty meat.
Various condiments, mainly spices and some herbs, can be added

to the curing mixture to give added aroma and flavor. They do not
interfere with the regular curing ingredients and may be added to
suit individual tastes.
Most persons prefer the sugar cure to the plain salt cure. It can
be applied either by the dry or brine method. The dry method is
faster, so it is used almost exclusively in the South for hams and
shoulders. Both methods are used for all cuts in colder climates.
The brine method will produce a milder bacon than the ordinary
dry cure.
: PORK 201
PORK
I The standard curing mixture for each 100 pounds of meat is 8

rpounds of salt, 2 pounds of sugar, 2 ounces of saltpeter, and 4V2 to
: 6 gallons of water.
Weigh the meat and put the measured or weighed water (8 pounds
= I gallon) into a crock or clean, well-soaked, odorless, hardwood
barrel. Pour the curing ingredients into the water and stir until
they dissolve. The water used for making the brine should be per-
fectly pure. In order to be sure that the water is pure, it is always
advisable to boil and cool it before using it to make the brine.
Brine Curing Pork. If a salinometer is available, use a little less
water to dissolve the salt than recommended. Then place the salino-
meter in this strong brine and dilute it to proper strength. The
standard curing mixture dissolved in 4V2 gallons of water will make
a brine that tests about 75° on the salinometer (sal). This is ex-
cellent for curing hams and shoulders. When 5V2 gallons of water is
used, the weaker brine, testing 650 sal, will produce a desirable mild
bacon.
If the brine is sterilized by boiling, it should be thoroughly
cooled before being used. Under ideal conditions both the brine
and meat will be at a temperature of about 38°F. when the meat
is put down.
Pack the hams and shoulders skin side down in the container. Fit
them closely together but do not squeeze them out of shape. Pour
in the cold 75° sal brine until the pack begins to shift at float a
little. This movement permits the brine to come in contact with
all surfaces of the meat. Then place a clean weight on the meat
just heavy enough to keep the meat below the surface. Then cover
the pack with brine.
The shape of the curing vessel or the loose packing of the meat
may cause the estimated quantity of brine to be insufficient to cover
the meat. If the meat cannot be packed more closely, add enough
more brine to cover the pack.
On the fifth, fifteenth, and thirtieth days after being put into the
brine, the hams and shoulders should be overhauled; that is, they
may be packed in another container, and re-covered with the same
brine, or the meat and the brine may be removed and repacked in
the same vessel. This overhauling re-mixes the brine and insures its
contact with all surfaces of each piece of meat.
The bacon sides are usually packed fiat, skin side down, each strip
being crosswise of the one below it. Jowls or shoulder butts may
be used to fill any unoccupied spaces. The milder 65° sal brine is
PORK 203
frequently used for bacon. Overhauling this meat on the third and
tenth days is usually sufficient.
The purpose of overhauling brine-cured meats is to shift the posi-
tion of the pieces and get the brine cure re-mixed while the meat is
curing. The brine should be stirred up or poured out of the con-
tainer and then poured back. This will make a uniform density
throughout.
Curing Time for Brine Method. Hams and shoulders are usually
kept in brine 4 days per pound; that is, a ] 5-pound ham will not be
removed from cure until the sixtieth day. It is probably better to
allow the small 4- to 6-pound picnic hams 25 to 30 days in cure.
Bacon can be cured in I Y2 to 2 days per pound.
A thin scum of white mold normally forms on top of the brine.
This generally takes place when the weather turns mild, causing the
brine to become ropy. If the mold becomes heavy and hard or if
the brine becomes ropy so that it drips from the fingers like sirup,
the brine should be changed. Remove the meat, scrub it thoroughly
with a brush and warm water, and repack it in a clean, scalded con-
tainer. The new brine, made following the original recipe, should
be diluted to as nearly the saltiness of the old brine as possible. If
the hams and shoulders have been in cure a week, use 70° brine
instead of 75°; if more than 2 weeks, use 65° brine. Maintain the
original curing schedule. This process may not save the meat but
it is the only course available.
Often the quantity of loin, spareribs, backbone, and other fresh
cuts at butchering time is greater than the family can use promptly
and economically. These cuts can be preserved by curing as well as
by freezing and by canning.
A mild 55° to 65° brine, which contains about 6 gallons of water,
is best for spareribs. They can be smoked after a week in cure or
used without smoking. The loin may be given a light smoke after
about 3 weeks in a 65° brine or may be used without being smoked.
Because of the area of lean meat exposed, these cuts are likely to
become dry and harsh if given a long cure or smoke. It may be
more satisfactory to allow them to remain in the brine if the meat
is to be used in a short time. Keep the temperature of this meat
as near 38°F. as possible while it is curing.
Dry-Salt Curing Pork. In dry-salt curing of meats, the curing
mixture is rubbed directly on the meat. This method is generally
more satisfactory than others when the curing temperature cannot
be kept at 30°F. Meat so processed is allowed to remain in cure
approximately 2 days for each pound.
There are many different formulas for dry-curing hams and shoul-
ders that call for various quantities of salt. Five pounds for each
100 pounds of meat is generally sufficient if one is sure that all the
salt will be absorbed by the meat. However, since some salt ordi-
narily falls off or drains away, 6 to 8 pounds is a safer quantity. In
the South, where the temperatures are often high, 8 pounds of salt
is probably better. More than this quantity should not be used as
it may injure the flavor and dry out the lean meat, making it too
hard.
Meat may spoil, regardless of the quantity of salt applied, if the
freshly slaughtered carcass and the meat to be cured are held at too
high temperatures.
For each 100 pounds of trimmed pork use 6 to 8 pounds of salt,
I Y2 to 2 pounds of sugar, and 2 ounces of saltpeter. This is the well
known 8-2-2 formula which is used for both the dry and the brine
cure. This same curing mixture with the salt reduced to 5 pounds
will dry cure 100 pounds of bacon.
Mix the ingredients thoroughly in a pan and divide into two
equal parts by weight. Use one part for the first rubbing and half
of the remainder for overhauling the meat on the third day, and
the other half for overhauling on the tenth day. The meat can
be packed in a barrel or a box with a few holes in the bottom to
let the bloody water drain out. Keep the container with the meat
in it free of the ground or floor, a few inches up, so the liquid can
drain out. Before the pack is started, sprinkle a little of the mix-
ture over the bottom of the container.
f
J
FIG. 180. Dry·cure. Weigh and mix in· FIG. 181. Divide the curing mixture
gredients thoroughly, being especially into two approximately equal portions,
careful to mix the finely powdered one portion to use at once, the other
saltpeter through the salt. for later resalting.
"
PORK 205
In applying the curing mixture one must take precaution to use
the proportionate amount to each piece. The dry-cure ingredients
are mixed in the proportion of 8-2-2 and the total is 10 pounds. One-
half of this amount, or 5 pounds, is to be applied to 100 pounds of
meat when it is first put in cure. For example, each 15-pound ham
should receive the application of 15 per cent of the 5 pounds of
mixture or three-fourths of a pound; each 20-pound ham, I pound.
Bacon strips, because of their large surface in proportion to weight,
are frequently over salted. It will require some practice to deter-
mine properly the amount of mixture required by each piece.
Put each ham and shoulder into the pan of curing mixture and
rub the meat thoroughly with the mixture. A slow circular motion
in applying the mixture on both flesh and skin sides will prove most
efficacious. Force some curing mixture into the hock and along the
cut face of the butt, taking care not to injure the hand on the butt
bone in the process. Cover the face of the cut with the mixture and
pack the pieces carefully in place. The heavier pieces should be at
the bottom and the lighter ones on top. Do not pack the meat more
than 3 feet deep. Repeat the process in overhauling. The pieces at
the top of the original pack should be at the bottom when the meat
is resalted.
In mild weather, cover the box with a clean cloth to prevent flies
and other insects from getting at the meat. In very cold weather,
the meat should be covered or otherwise protected against freezing.
FIG. 182. Rub one portion of the curing mixture on all

surfaces of meat, poking some into shank ends.
Meat that is allowed to freeze before or after it is put into cure will
never produce a fine product.
If a very mild cure is desired, do not give the second application
to bacon or other small pieces of pork. Also if the meat is to be
used shortly after it is cured, the total amount of the dry-cure mix-
ture used per 100 pounds of meat can be reduced. When meat is to
be kept for longer periods, from one curing season to the next, it is
necessary to give the meat a heavier cure.
Curing Time for Dry-Salt Method. The meat should remain in
cure about 2 days per pound for hams and shoulders and about 1Y2
days per pound for smaller pieces. For example, a 10-pound ham
should cure 20 days; a 20-pound ham 40 days; a 10-pound side of
bacon 15 days. Different sized pieces should cure in proportion to
their weight. Farmers who wish to store this meat for summer use
often remove the pieces of meat at full time, string them, and allow
them to hang for about 2 weeks before smoking them.
Weather conditions influence the length of time meat should cure
for the best results. A longer time is required for meat to cure in
very cold weather than in milder weather. Much home-cured meat
has become oversalted by being left in the cure too long. On the
other hand, if meat is taken out of the cure too soon and the weather
remains cold, the meat may be only partially cured because it will
not take the cure when the temperature of the meat goes below
34°F.
Pumping concentrated brine into curing meat, poking salt into
ham joints, removing the aitchbone, opening the stifle joints and the
shoulder joint or boning and slicing entire cuts are all variations of
an effort to speed up the penetration of the salt. Where the proper
temperatures are available and the meat is in good condition, these
methods are unnecessary. Where temperatures are too high or the
meat is not in good, sound condition, these methods mayor may not
prevent spoilage.
Scientifically prepared curing salts with smoke flavor and spices
ready for use in the dry curing and the brine or sweet pickle curing
of meats can be purchased at the grocery store. They consist of an
accurately proportioned, carefully combined blend of high-grade
meat salt with balanced sugar-curing ingredients. The condensed
wood smoke ingredient imparts the curative and flavoring proper-
ties of smoke to the meat while it is curing. This method of curing
and flavoring at the same time saves extra work and adds delicious
flavor.
The Morton method recommends pumping pickle into hams and
other large pieces of meat along the bones and at the joints. This
PORK 207
FIG. 183. Brine may be pumped into hams and other large
pieces along the bones and at the joints.
starts the cure right next to the bone, offsetting the chance of bone
taint, and gives a mild, thorough cure in the center of the meat.
After the pickle is pumped into the meat, the dry or sugar-cure is
rubbed on the outside of the meat in the regular manner.l
Smithfield Processed Ham. An especially cured ham is prepared
in Virginia and other South Atlantic States and has a countrywide
reputation as the Smithfield ham. Its distinctive aroma and flavor
are supposed to come from fattening the hogs on peanuts. However,
large numbers of fresh hams are shipped from the Middle West to
points in Virginia where they are given the Smithfield cure. Hogs
produced in the corn-belt states are not fed peanuts, so the distinc-
tive taste of the Smithfield ham undoubtedly is the result of special
processing rather than the feeding of peanuts.
These hams are cut with the long shank attached. They are
cured in a dry mixture for 5 to 7 days, depending on their weight.
They are then overhauled, resalted, and held in cure from 25 to 30
days (1 Y2 days per pound). After this dry cure is completed the
hams are washed in warm water, dried, sprinkled with pepper, and
cold smoked (70°-90°F.) for 10 to 15 days, after which they are aged
and mellowed by hanging in a dry room. These hams improve with
age and are in perfect condition when I year old.
Box-Cured Bacon. The box cure has been developed to produce
mild, fancy breakfast bacon with an appetizing flavor. The Morton
Salt Company has developed a special sugar cure and a box for
1 Home Curing Made Easy, published by Morton Salt Company, of Chicago,
Ill.
--
FIG. 184. A strong watertight container with suitable cover
is required to box cure fancy bacon.
curing fancy breakfast bacon. The box should be made strong and
watertight. Hardwood, such as oak or maple, is the best material
to use in constructing this box. The length and breadth of the box
should be approximately the size of an average bacon strip-lO
inches wide and 20 inches long. The depth can be determined by
the number of bacon strips to be cured at one time. Ordinarily a
box about 24 inches deep will accommodate the bacon sides from
5 or 6 hogs.
The top used to cover the meat in the box should be a slatted
gadget of the proper size to fit inside the box. This can be held
down by sufficient weight, or a hinged top can be made of the proper
dimensions so it will press on the slatted tray against the meat and
hold it under pressure while curing. The pressure should be firm
but not heavy.
This method is most successful for curing bacon, because the
shape of the pieces enables close packing. Select well-streaked, thick
bacon sides or bellies and trim the edges and ends square, leaving
the strip just large enough to fit flatly inside the bOi( to be used.
The formula for box-curing is 5 pounds of salt, 3 pounds of sugar,
and 3 ounces of saltpeter per 100 pounds of meat. Mix the ingredi-
ents well and then take a handful of the mixture and scatter it
evenly over the bottom of the box. Now pack a layer of bacon sides
just as closely as possible in the container. Tamp each belly as it is
packed with a wooden block in order to flatten it out and remove
CORNING BEEF 209
FIG. 185. Stringing a cured ham for FIG. 186. Scrub strung meat with stiff
smoking. Hams and shoulders through brush and hot (110 0 to 125 0 F.) water
shank; bacon, reinforce flank end with so it will take brighter color in smoke.
hardwood skewer or clean galvanized
wire to hold it squ31"e ill smoke.
any air pockets underneath. Distribute more of the curing mixture

evenly over the top of the meat and then pack another layer of meat
and continue this operation until the box is full.
Do not fail to sprinkle the top layer of meat with a portion of the
cure mixture when it is packed. In a few days a curing pickle will
be formed through the action of the curing ingredients on the juices
of the meat. In a short time there will be enough brine to cover
the entire pack. The time for curing is the same as for the other
methods of curing described previously.
Repacking or overhauling is necessary in from 7 to 10 days after
the start of the cure. At this time any leftover portion of the original
dry-cure mixture should be rubbed on the meat, and the top and
bottom pieces should be reversed when they are repacked.
CORNING BEEF
Corning, which means curing with brine, is used to preserve the

cheaper cuts of beef for future use. The foremost products of beef
processed in this manner are corned beef and dried or chipped beef.
In preparing corned beef, the plate, rump, and chuck are gener-
ally used. Meat from fat animals makes better corned beef than that
from thinner ones.
Cut the beef into pieces, 5 or 6 inches square. They should be
of uniform thickness so they may be packed in even layers in the
curing container. Just as soon as the beef is chilled it should be
corned. Never put frozen meat into cure.
Weigh all the pieces of beef, and for each 100 pounds allow 8
pounds of salt. Sprinkle a layer of salt about one-quarter inch deep
over the bottom of the vessel (a stone jar or wooden barrel which
has been thoroughly cleaned); pack the cuts of beef as closely as pos-
sible making a layer 5 or 6 inches thick; then add alternate layers
of salt and meat, being careful to cover the top layer of meat with
considerable salt.
Allow the salted meat to remain overnight; then add a solution
composed of ingredients in the following proportion: For 100
pounds of meat, use 4 pounds of sugar, 2 ounces of baking soda, and
4 ounces of saltpeter dissolved in one gallon of lukewarm water.
Mix thoroughly and pour over the meat. Then add 3 gallons of
water. Keep the meat entirely under the brine by using a board
cover with a weight on it. Do not permit any meat to project above
the liquid, for this will cause the brine to spoil in a short time.
If the meat has been corned during the winter and must be kept
into the summer season, watch the brine closely during spring, for
this is the time, more than any other season, that it is likely to spoil.
If the brine is ropy, discard it and proceed in the same manner as
previously described for pork.
To cure thoroughly, beef should be kept in the brine 28 to 40
days. Meat removed from the brine should be hung up and drained
thoroughly before wrapping or smoking.
CURING TONGUE
Tongue is one of the most popular meat delicacies. Beef tongue

is generally understood when "tongue" is employed as an unquali-
fied expression, but calf, lamb, sheep, and pig tongues also are freely
consumed. Beef tongues are used fresh, smoked, sweet pickled, and
canned. Lamb tongue is usually pickled. Sheep tongue is generally
used for making sausage. Pig tongue is canned.
Tongues can be cured in the same brine as that given for corned
beef. The time of curing is:
Days
Beef tongue ........... . 25 to 30
Calf tongue ........... . 12 to 14
Pig tongue ............ . 10
LaIllb tongue ......... . 8
LAMB 211
After they are cured, washed, and drained they can be given a
light smoke or they may be cooked without smoking.
LAMB
Among the peoples of the U.S.S.R. and some of the satellite coun-
tries, cured mutton is regarded as quite a delicacy. The neck, shoul-
der, and ribs are cut into small pieces and then sprinkled with salt,
pepper, pieces of garlic, dill, and parsley. The meat is then placed
in a stone crock and covered with boiled vinegar allowed to cool,
to which has been added an equal quantity of water flavored with
tarragon. The meat is allowed to remain in this mixture for several
hours to a day. Many eat the cured meat raw without smoking or
cooking it.
Lamb or mutton cured in this manner is generally run on long
skewers, separating each piece with onions, slices of bacon, and firm
tomatoes. They are then exposed to a flame or broiler and the juice
is collected. The meat is cooked rare and served on the skewer, gen-
erally with rice. The Russians call this Caucasian Shachlik or
Shahshlik. In Armenia, lamb or mutton prepared in this manner,
with a few national variations, is known as Shish Kebab. Both are
delicious when broiled out-of-doors over a low charcoal fire.
Lamb is easily and quickly cured, but there is the disadvantage
that the cuts dry rapidly after smoking and tend to become strong
in flavor. Legs and shoulders are the parts usually cured, although
any portion may be preserved by curing for later use. Ribs, loins,
and breasts that have been cured and smoked may become disa-
greeably dry and strong in flavor after only 3 or 4 weeks in storage.
Smoked legs store better than shoulders, but even legs will become
fairly dry and hard after 2 to 4 months' storage at room temperature.
Some families prefer the "gamey" flavor of cured lamb, and cure
several cuts for special use. Freshly smoked lamb may be boned and
canned in the pressure cooker by those who wish to prevent the
meat from drying. f
Either the brine or dry-cure method may be used in curing lamb.

Brine-Curing Lamb. A standard formula, calls for 8 pounds of
salt, 2 pounds of white or brown sugar, and two ounces of saltpeter.
The mixture, dissolved in cold water to make 6 gallons, produces a
mild brine. Pack the meat carefully and closely in a crock or other
clean container. Pour in the cold (36° to 38°F.) brine until the pack
begins to float and then proceed as previously described for other
brine-cured meat.
Six gallons of brine should cover 100 pounds of meat. If 6 gallons
is insufficient, more brine should be made and used to submerge the
meat.
Overhaul the meat on the third to fifth day. Overhaul, repack,
and cover with the brine; repeat at the end of another week. In
about 3 weeks the large pieces of meat will be well cured. For best
results each piece of meat should remain in the brine 3 days for
each pound. Smaller pieces should be removed at the first overhaul-
ing; otherwise they will be too salty. Wash the pieces in tepid water
after curing and allow them to soak for a half hour and drain. If
you desire the smoked flavor, hang in the smokehouse and expose
to hardwood smoke.
Dry-Curing Lamb. Make up a mixture of dry ingredients com-
posed of 5 pounds of salt, 4 pounds of sugar, and 4 ounces of salt-
peter for each 100 pounds of lamb. Mix the ingredients thoroughly,
sprinkle a little on the bottom of the clean container and rub and
pat the proportionate amount on each piece of lamb, fitting the
pieces carefully into the pack. Apply about two-thirds of the mix-
ture the first time, the remaining third being used when the meat
is overhauled 3 to 5 days later. The meat may be left in cure until
used or may be removed for smoking.
CURING GAME MEATS
Very little experimentation has been done to determine the best

methods for curing and smoking game meats. In some localities
where game laws permit possession of the meat after the close of
the hunting season, curing and smoking of venison has been carried
on. The methods followed, however, have been chiefly those com-
monly used to preserve meat of domestic animals.1
Recent attempts to find methods for preserving any surplus game
have undoubtedly contributed to the recent interest in smoked
game. Popular articles on the smoking of game have appeared in
sporting periodicals, the press, and a few cookbooks, but these ac-
counts give only general information as to methods and techniques.
Therefore, until some expansive data based on research are avail-
able, those who wish to preserve game meat for any appreciable
length of time will have to rely on the results obtained in curing
and smoking domestic animal meats.
1 Cured, smoked, and canned game meats are subject to possession limi.ts dur-
ing closed seasons the same as fresh game. Consult the local game warden for
this information (Appendix E) .
r,_t
, CURING FOWL 213
Venison resembles beef and mutton in texture, color, and general
characteristics. Its flavor is distinctive, suggesting beef rather than
mutton. The directions given for the curing of beef and lamb may
be used in curing venison. Corned and dried venison can be proc-
essed in the same manner as that described for beef. Cured and
smoked reindeer and bear loins were formerly a delicacy in Russia
and were obtainable in the best food shops.
CURING FOWL
Although the curing and smoking of fowl is a recent development

in the United States, the Chinese have been preserving ducks in this
manner for centuries. Cured smoked turkey is a delicacy that is fast
growing in popularity in the United States.
Turkeys, Ducks, and Chickens. The fowl to be used for curing
should be well fattened. Care should be taken not to break the skin
in the dressing and handling process. Birds with badly torn skin
should not be cured. In preparation for curing, the head, neck,
shanks, and feet are removed, leaving the body cavity open at both
the front and rear ends. The removal of the tendons in the drum-
stick is suggested to provide for better penetration of the curing
ingredients into the meat of that portion of the bird.
Turkeys may be cured by either the brine or dry-salt method. A
suitable brine cure mixture consists of 6 pounds of salt, 3 pounds of
brown sugar, and two ounces of saltpeter dissolved in 4V2 gallons
of water. This brine contains approximately 13 per cent of salt and
has a salinometer reading of about 70° at a temperature of 38°F.
About four times this indicated quantity of brine is required to
cover 100 pounds of moderately large, drawn turkeys when packed
carefully in a 50-gallon barrel.
Pack the turkeys in a suitable crock or a clean, well-soaked barrel
in the same manner as previously described for other meat. Place
a clean board and a stone or some other weight to hold the turkeys
down when the brine is added. Pour the solution over the turkeys
until they are covered with a slight excess of liquid. It is important
that the meat and the pickle mixture be approximately 38°F. when
the curing process is to begin and it should be kept at that point
throughout the curing period. At weekly intervals the turkeys
should be removed from the container and repacked in order to
remix the brine and to insure that it will come in contact with all
parts of the birds.
Experiments conducted by the U. S. Department of Agriculture
indicate that dressed turkeys weighing from 14 to 20 pounds should
remain in the curing solution approximately I y.4 days for each
pound. After the turkeys are cured they should be removed from
the brine and washed in warm water. Loop a stout cord under each
wing close to the body, tying the cord in the center of the back:
Then hang up the birds to dry. They should hang in this same
manner when smoking.
FIG. 187. Placing a turkey in brine. Turkeys, ducks and

chickens may be cured either by brine or dry-salt method.
Gourmet Magazine recommends a dry-cure method for curing

turkeys. In cutting off the head of the turkey leave the neck as long
as possible. Cut the neck skin in a straight line following the back-
bone. Pull back the neck skin, cut the windpipe, and then proceed
to draw the bird. After the turkey has been dressed, bend the skin-
less neck and stick it into the cavity. Flap the neck skin over the
neck opening. Fasten it on the back of the bird with. skewers and
by bending the wing tips backward. This is necessary to catch the
fat that will ooze out during the smoking.
Fill a small piepan with very fine salt and heat it thoroughly in
the oven. In a kettle large enough to hold the turkey, bring water
to a rapid boil and submerge the turkey. When the water has
returned to the boiling point, continue the boiling over a high
flame for 5 to 7 minutes, depending on the weight of the turkey-5
minutes is sufficient for a 14-pound turkey. Remove the turkey from
·1.
FISH 215
the water, drain it quickly, and, working very rapidly, rub into its
skin Y2 ounce finely ground saltpeter and as much of the very hot
salt as the meat will absorb. Continue to rub salt into the bird
until it has cooled to lukewarm, which should take about 15 to 20
minutes. This dry-curing must be done as rapidly as possible to rub
in the greatest amount of salt. Dissolve y.4 pound of salt in 1 pint
of boiling water, and inject this brine with a needle syringe into the
wing and leg joints and along the flat part of the breastbone. Stuff
the cavity of the turkey with a large bunch of fresh herbs-tarragon,
marjoram, thyme-or any combination of the three. Secure a stout
cord loop around the legs, wrap the turkey entirely in cheesecloth,
and tie the ends with a cord on the legs. Now the bird is ready for
the smoke house. Chickens and ducks can be cured in the same
manner as turkey.
Geese. The legs and breast of the goose are the only parts used
in curing and smoking goose.
The legs and the breast are cut from the goose and placed in
brine. Trim off both sides of the breast and both legs. Place the
two pieces of breast together, meat side in, and sew the skin all
around. When the breast is completely enclosed fasten the twine at
one end as a loop to hang up the meat. Trim smooth both legs and
fasten a twine loop to each. Make a brine consisting of 1 pound of
salt and y.4 pound granulated sugar dissolved in 2 quarts of boiling
water. Leave the meat in the pickle for 3 weeks. Remove, rinse with
warm water, and hang up to dry. The goose meat is now ready for
the smokehouse.
Pheasants. A good brine cure for pheasant is a solution consisting
of 2 pounds of sugar, cured salt, Y2 box of allspice, and 1 gallon of
water. The birds are dressed similar to a roasting chicken or turkey.
They must be completely submerged in the solution for 7 to 10 days.
After curing, they are placed in cold water for about 12 hours and
then hung up to drain and dry for another 12 hours. They are
then smoked.
FISH
Fish may be corned, brine-cured, dry salted, smoked, or pickled.

These methods are more advantageous than canning because they
are simpler, require little equipment, are less expensive, and permit
utilization of fish not canned successfully.
Preservation While Fishing. Sport fishermen, and the casual
angler, frequently bring in fish in poor condition. Sometimes the
fish must he relegated to the garbage can. This is often the case
when the weather is warm and the fisherman is far from home.
Even: tliough refrigeration is not available, such waste is avoidable
if the proper procedure is followed. Bleed the fish as soon as caught
by pulling out the gills completely, leaving no remnants. Clean the
fish as soon as possible, scraping out all traces of blood and intestinal
material. Wash the body cavity thoroughly. This delays spoilage;
if a thorough cleaning job is not done, the fish will spoil sooner
than if it were not cleaned at all.
FIG. 188. Do not let fish lie on the grass. Bleed it as soon as caught by pulling
out the gills completely. Then follow proper procedure to preserve it while
fishing.
.
To one cup of fine table salt add one tablespoon of pepper. Mix
thoroughly and rub the belly cavity well, also the flesh, at the ratio
of about one tablespoon to % pound of jish, sprinkling a small
amount on the skin side.
Place the fish in a clean basket or box. A loose packing of green
leaves around the fish has been found effective in inland regions.
Cover the container with several thicknesses of burlap. Do not let
the burlap rest on the fish but keep an air space a few inches above
them. Keep the cloth well moistened with water, since evaporation
of moisture lowers the temperature in the container. Corned in this
manner, fish will remain in good condition for at least 24 hours
when ice is not available. When rinsed thoroughly in clean, fresh
water these fish are ready for cooking in any manner desired. If
rolled in salt and packed with as much of it as will cling to them,
FISH 217
the fish will keep for about 10 days. Before they are cooked, be sure
to freshen them for about 10 hours in one or two changes of fresh,
cold water.
Almost any variety of fish may be cured at home. As a rule, the
so-called "lean" species are salted more readily; salt brine does not
penetrate as rapidly in "fat" fish.
Fresh-water fishes usually salted are lake trout, whitefish, lake
herring, blue pike, yellow pike, catfish, perch, and pickerel. Others
that may be salted at home are sheepshead, carp, suckers, buffalo
fish, river herring (alewife), eels-in fact, almost any fish of satis-
factory size.
Salt-water fishes, commonly salted at home, are cod, hake, cusk,
pollock, bluefish, sea trout, channel bass, rock or striped bass,
salmon, shad, sea bass, rockfish, mackerel, sea herring, and Florida
mullet.
Brine-Curing. Brine-curing fish at home requires stoneware
crocks, tight fitting covers, tubs or cut-down barrels, and a few sharp
knives. A family curing less than 50 pounds of fish needs only a
sharp knife and two 2-gallon stoneware crocks. Stoneware crocks
are preferable because there is litt!e danger of leakage, foreign
flavors are not absorbed by the container walls, and the crocks may
be used later for other purposes.
Use only pure, clean salt of fairly fine grain, "three-quarters"
ground or "dairy fine." Finely ground salt is preferable because it
forms into brine and penetrates the flesh more rapidly.
The method of curing, in general, is the same for all varieties.
Small fish are split down the back so as to lie out flat in one piece
with the belly not cut through. Cut just under the backbone and
then score the flesh with the point of a knife at intervals about one
inch apart. Clean the fish thoroughly so no trace of blood or in-
testinal contents remain, and remove the gills from the split head.
Large fish are split into fillets and the backbone is removed. The
collarbone just below the gills is not cut away. If this is done the
fish is damaged in handling and, if it is smoked, the pieces will drop
from the hangers in the smokehouse, because the skin and flesh will
not hold the weight unless the collarbone is there to give it support.
The flesh of the large pieces or filets is scored on the inside longi-
tudinally to a depth about Y2 inch at intervals, I or 2 inches apart.
These cuts should not be so deep that they penetrate the skin side.
Cut the pieces long enough to lie flat on the bottom of the con-
tainer.
Thick-skinned, spiny-finned fish with large scales, such as carp,
suckers, buffalo, black bass, channel bass, and catfish, should be
skinned and the fins removed. This is done by making a deep cut
along each side of the fin and pulling it by hand from its base.
All fish to be brined are washed thoroughly in fresh water, after
which they are soaked for 30 minutes to 1 hour in a brine made in
the proportion of Y2 cup of salt to 1 gallon of water. This removes
the diffused blood from the flesh and cuts away slime fwm the skin.
After brining, the fish are drained for 5 or 10 minutes.
Obtain a shallow wooden box about 2 feet square with sides 6
inches high. Fill it with dry salt. Scatter a thin layer of salt on the
bottom of the crock or keg in which the fish are to be salted. Dredge
each piece of fish with salt, and rub salt into the places where the
flesh is scored. Pick up the fish with as much salt as will cling to it
and pack in the container, skin side down. Arrange the pieces so
an even layer will result.
With large fish, this is best done if the thick side, usually the one
with the backbone, is placed next to the wall of the container. An
extra piece may be placed in the middle, if needed. Pieces should
overlap each other as little as possible. Scatter a thin layer of salt
over .the layer of fish, and arrange the next layer of fish in place at
right angles to the preceding layer.
Small fish, such as spots, butterfish, and croakers, are packed in
a ring with the tip of the head touching the walls of the container.
It will be necessary to lay one or two fish across the center to keep
the layer level. Stagger successive layers so that each fish rests on
two fish of the layer below. Scatter salt between each layer. The
top layer of fish, both large and small, should be packed skin side up.
FIG. 189. Methods of packing large fish (left) and small fish (right) in container
for brine-salting.
",~ .,
,>f!...'(' -"l!'.
FISH 219
The amount of salt used, says the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
depends on the purity and grain of the salt (less is required, for
example, if the salt is of high purity and small grain), the season of
the year (more salt is required in warm weather), size and fatness
(large, thick, or fat fish require more salt), and probably length of
preservation. The proportion of salt used runs from Y4 to Ya of
the total weight of the fish. A general rule is to use one part salt
to three parts fish. In salting, be careful not to exceed the proper
proportion-an excess will "burn" the fish, lowering the quality.
Place a loosely fitting wooden cover on the top layer of fish and
weight it down. Fair-sized rocks or bricks, previously well washed
and scrubbed, make good weights. The fish will make its own brine.
Small fish, like spots or croakers, may be "struck through" or com-
pletely brine-cured in 48 hours; thicker, larger, fatter fish will re-
quire a week or 10 days. At the end of this time, with the exception
of a few varieties, the fish are removed, scrubbed in a fresh saturated
brine with a stiff bristle brush, then repacked with a very light scat-
tering of salt between layers. Layers must be pressed down. Fill the
container with a fresh saturated salt brine and store the container
in a cool, dark place. After three months, or at the first sign of
fermentation-especially if the weather is warm-change the brine
again. Brine-cured fish generally keep longer, but should not be
expected to remain in good condition for more than nine months.
Dry-Salting. The dry-salt cure for fish is best adapted for warm
climates, but it is also used in northern areas as well. This method
is applied successfully to nearly all fish, although fatty fish are more
difficult to cure and they keep a shorter time. As a rule, dry-salted
fish keep longer than those cured by the brine method.
The home curing of cod, haddock, cusk, hake, and pollock, also
to most large nonfatty fish, is given here.
The fish are bled by cutting the throat and pulling out the gills
as soon as caught. \l\Then the fish reach shore they must be thor-
oughly washed. The head is cut off, but the "lugs" (hard, bony collar
plates) must remain. If not, the fish will separate during curing or
afterward in handling. Cut down the left side of the backbone, with
the knife edge at a slight downward slant, so that it scrapes the back-
bone. If the knife blade is held level, much flesh is left on the back-
bone. Continue the cut down to the tail so that the upper side is
removed in one piece. Then insert the edge of the knife blade just
below the end of the backbone at a slight upward angle, and cut
down to the tail. The fish is now separated into two sides of fillets.
If the cutting is well done, the sides are perfectly smooth, with
practically no flesh left on the backbone.
Another method, especially adapted to smaller fish (from 2 to 5
pounds) is to cut down the middle of the belly to the vent (anal
opening). Lay the fish on the edge of the table so that the head
overhangs. Grasp the head and give a quick downward jerk, which
removes the head more quickly and easily than by cutting. With the
fish lying on its side, cut above the backbone from neck to tail hold-
ing the knife horizontal and working from the belly side. This cut
must not be too deep. It must not go through the back skin. Next,
cut the backbone below the vent (leaving about one-fifth of tail
section as a hinge). Cut forward just below the backbone to the
head, thus removing it. Make another cut below the remaining
section of backbone in the tail section, so that salt may penetrate.
The fish should now lie open in one piece.
After the fish is split, scrub the inside of the belly cavity with a
piece of coarse sacking to remove the black skin and to clean away
blood, membranes, and bits of viscera. Place the fish in a tub of
water; wash, and brush thoroughly with a stiff bristle brush. Only
pure, fresh drinking water should be used. Brine made in the pro-
portion of 1 cup salt to 1 gallon water is often preferable to plain
water. Afterward, drain the fish to remove surplus moisture.
Dredge the fish in a box of salt as in brine-salting. Stack the
fish in rows on the floor, choosing a place where the brine formed
will run a way to a drain. First, scatter a thin layer of salt on the
place where the fish are to be stacked, and arrange them in place
by alternating heads and tails. Scatter a little salt between the layers
of fish. Fish are piled flesh side up, except for the last layer which
is piled skin side up. The average amount of salt used is 1 pound
to each 4 pounds of fish.
The fish are taken out of salt after 48 hours to one week, depend-
ing upon the size of the fish and the weather. In damp or stormy
weather, they are allowed to remain in the salt, as it is useless to
attempt drying. Less time is required for salting in warm weather.
When the fish are ready for drying, they should be scrubbed in
brine to remove all excess salt and dirt. No traces of salt should be
visible on the surface. After draining 15 to 20 minutes, the fish are
ready for the drying racks. These are frames of wood covered with
chicken wire and standing on legs about 4 feet high. A slat top of
thin poles or laths may be substituted for wire mesh, if a 2-inch
space is left between laths. The drying racks must be placed on dry
ground, preferably covered with gravel.
Oxidation, or rusting of the fish, occurs mostly readily if they are
dried in direct sunlight. If the fish are kept shaded in a breezy
FISH 221
location, they will dry well with a clear color. For this reason, dry-
ing is best done in the shade under an open-walled shed ventilated
by air currents. If only a few fish are being dried, they may be hung
under overhanging eaves, or from the rafters of a shed or barn where
there is good cross-ventilation.
FIG. 190. Drying shed and rack for dry-salting fish.
If placed on racks, the fish are

laid skin side down, but should
be turned three or four times
the first day. They should be
gathered up and stored each
night, for they sour and mold
if left spread out in the open.
The fish are stacked in rows,
alternating heads and tails,
flesh side up except for the top
layer. No stack should be more
than 2 feet high, and there
should be a rack at the bottom
to prevent contact with the
floor. Each stack is weighted
down evenly, the weights at least FIG. 191. Drying a few fish under over-
equaling that of the fish in the hanging eves.
stack. Additional moisture is pressed out of the flesh. If the fish
cannot be taken out to dry the next day because of unfavorable
weather, they must be repiled at the close of the day, placing the top
layers of fish at the bottom. If the weather continues to be unfavor-
able for drying, the fish are left in the stacks, but are repiled every
other day with a small amount of fine salt (about I pound to 10
pounds of fish) scattered between layers.
FIG. 192. Sheefish drying on racks beside Eskimo home during late summer,
Kotzebue, Alaska.
A smoke smudge under the drying racks may De necessary, for the
first day at least, to prevent the flies from "blowing' the fish. The
smudge should be made of green wood, or a wood fire smothered by
green branches. Resinous woods such as pine or fir must not be
used. The time required for drying depends upon weather condi-
tions, the size of the fish, and the length of preservation desired.
Fairly large cod, haddock, hake, or pollock must receive 60 hours of
air drying-about six good days of drying. The usual test to deter-
mine sufficiency of drying is to press the thick part of the flesh be-
tween thumb and forefinger; if no impression can be made, the fish
are sufficiently dried.
The cured fish are wrapped in waxed paper, packed in a thin
wooden box, tightly covered, and stored in a cool, dry place. At the
first signs of rust, mold, or reddening, scrub the fish off in a salt
brine and dry in the air for a day or two.
PICKLING 22~
" . ._. , ..
'" ..
FIG. 193. Shrimp sun-drying on platform.
PICKLING
Because of the abundance of our basic meats, the average Amer-

ican never has ventured into the culinary byways where there are
to be discovered so many delicious surprises. We are prone to put
into the discard such meats as tongues, brains, sweetbreads, spleens,
hearts, kidneys, tripe, feet, and tails. Many of these meat organs
are richer in iron and vitamins than the muscle meats_ These, if
prepared right, are just as full of food value and every bit as tasty
as steaks and roasts_ Chief difference is that some of them take
more time in the cooking and more skill in the seasoning. But when
one realizes that these so-called "variety meats" are not only nutri-
tious but also delicious, he will be the first to experiment in utilizing
them to the best advantage_
Pickling and spicing is an excellent way to preserve some of these
meats, and it increases their piquancy and softens the fibers. The
term pickled, although sometimes used to include meat, fish, and
vegetables cured in brine, is applied here only to meat and fish in
which vinegar, plain or spiced, wine, or cider is used in preserving.
Pickled Pigs' Feet. In the preparation of pickled pigs' feet,
special care must be taken to clean them thoroughly as previously
described (page 78)_ After the feet are cleaned and chilled they
should be put in cure at once. The clean, chilled feet are usually
(
. put in the ham brine for from 15 days to 3 weeks and then cooked
or simmered slowly until tender. Cook them slowly enough so that
the skin will not part too badly and the feet pull out of shape. The
cooked, cured feet are then thoroughly chilled and packed in cold,
moderately strong (35 grain) vinegar, to which spices such as bay
leaves or allspice may be added. The feet may be used at once, but
if kept in the vinegar for 3 weeks or even longer the quality and
taste is greatly enhanced.
Pigs' Feet Souse. This is made by cooking cured or uncured feet
in a little water until the meat slips from the bones. The meat and
strained broth in which the feet were cooked are then seasoned with
vinegar and spice, brought to a boil, put in molds, and allowed to
jell. Additional cooked pork trimmings may be added.
Here is another way to make pickled pigs' feet. Split the cleaned,
chilled feet and cover with water to whith vinegar has been added.
Cook the feet slowly enough so that the skin will not part too readily
and the feet pull out of shape. Remove all scum. Add seasonings
and boil slowly for 2 hours. After cooking, chill the feet and pack
into a tight vessel, stone crock preferred, and cover with the hot
broth. Later the feet can be served cold or fried in a batter of eggs,
flour, milk, and butter.
4 pigs' feet 6 whole cloves
3 cups vinegar I bay leaf
1 onion I tablespoon salt
12 whole peppers
Pickled Tripe. The fatty inner-lining of the stomach of cattle
and sheep (tripe) is prepared by thorough cleansing and boiling.
Its large proportion of connective tissue readily gelatinizes on boil-
ing, rendering it an easily digested food. It lacks flavor, but in the
hands of a competent housewife or cook there are a great many
methods of remedying this. Beef tripe is the kind most generally
used. It should be thick, white, and fat-if dark and thin, the qual-
ity is poor. The "honeycomb" part is generally considered the best;
this however, is a matter of individual opinion or taste. "Plain" or
"regular," tripe is smooth. "Pocket honeycomb," shaped like a
pocket, is the end of the stomach lining, the outside smooth, and
the inside honeycombed. Calf's tripe is more tender than beef tripe.
Clean the tripe thoroughly and rinse it in cold water, then scald
it in hot water (a little below the boiling point). When sufficiently
scalded, the inside linings of the stomachs may be removed by scrap-
ing, which will leave a clean, white surface. Tripe should be boiled
until tender; this usually takes about 3 hours. Then it is placed in
PICKLING 225
cold water so that the fat may be scraped from the outside. When
this has been done, peel off the membrane from the outside of the
stomach, and •. he clean white tripe is ready for pickling.
Place the tripe in a clean, hardwood barrel or earthenware jar,
and keep submerged in a strong brine for 3 or 4 days. Rinse well
with cold water and cover with pure cider vinegar, or a spiced
pickling liquid. Place a weight on the tripe to keep it from floating
on the surface of the liquid.
Spiced Corned Beef

This is made in the same manner as corned beef, but spices, garlic,
and onions are added to the brine. In a cheesecloth bag put 4
ounces of pickling spices and two bulbs of garlic or 2 pounds of
onions and place this in the brine with the meat. These amounts
are for 100 pounds of meat.
Pickled Tongue 1
beef tongue or 2 calf tongues Salt
Vinegar to cover 6 whole peppercorns
Juice of one lemon 2 or 3 tablespoons sugar
2 onions ~ cup seeded raisins
6 whole cloves I Y2 tablespoons flour
1 teaspoon cinnamon
Cover the tongue with vinegar and soak for 24 hours. Drain and
cover with water, adding lemon juice, sliced onions, cloves, cin-
namon, salt and pepper. Cook slowly until tender, about 1 hour
per pound. Skin and slice while warm. Brown the sugar. Strain
liquid from tongue, adding 2 cups of liquid to sugar. Add raisins
and then thicken the sauce with the flour that has been stirred until
smooth with a small amount of cold water. Cook the sauce a few
minutes, stirring frequently; add tongue and let simmer until
thoroughly heated in sauce.
Spiced Tongue Slices 1
1 beef tongue or two veal tongues 2 bay leaves

Ya cup salt 12 whole pepper corns
I quart water 2 cups sugar
2 pounds veal bones 2 cups vinegar
3 pieces celery 2 cups water
12 cloves 6 small onions
1 Courtesy of Department of Home Economics, National Live Stock and Meat
Board, Chicago, Ill.
PICKLING 227
Length of cure, therefore, depends upon the judgment of the
pickler, and varies with the temperature, freshness, and size of the
fish. The average time is about 5 days, but may vary from 3 to 7
days.
When the herring are judged sufficiently cured, they are repacked
more tightly, a very little dry salt is scattered among them, and they
are covered with a salt vinegar pickle one· half the strength of that
previously stated. The crock is stored in a cool place. At this stage,
the fish cannot be kept for more than 2 or 3 weeks.
The final process in pickling herring is the soaking of the herring
in a tub of cold water for 8 hours. Remove the fish, drain, and place
in a crock and cover with a solution of vinegar, salt, and water for
48 hours. This solution is made up in the proportions of I gallon
of 6 per cent distilled vinegar, I gallon of water, and I pound of
salt. Some prefer to eliminate this last step, utilizing the herring
immediately after they have been fresl)_ened in cold water.
Cut Spiced Herring

The quantities given in the following recipe are sufficient for 10
pounds of cleaned herring. Whole spices are used.
I quart vinegar I ounce red peppers
I pint water I ounce white peppers
3 ounces allspice I ounce sugar
2 ounces bay leaves Y2 ounce cloves
2 ounces mustard seed Y2 ounce sliced onions
I ounce black pepper
Cut the vinegar-salt-cured herring across the body in pieces I to
I Y2 inches long. Pack in layers in a crock with sliced onions, bay
leaves, and spices. Cover with vinegar diluted with water in which
the sugar is dissolved. Allow this liquid to stand in a cool place at
least 24 hours before using. The cut, spiced herring may be re-
packed in pint or quart glass jars. If packed in jars, the herring may
be stored in a refrigerator where it will remain in good condition for
as long as 6 months. Add to each jar a few fresh spices, a bay leaf
or two, and a slice of lemon at the side of the jar to give an attrac-
tive appearance. Rubber jar rings should not be used, since the
vinegar causes them to deteriorate.
There are more formulas for pickled herring and other species
such as carp, pike, salmon, eels, dams, oysters, mussels, and shrimp,
but that would require more space than is available for fish in this
q
PRESERVING MEAT, FOWL, AND SEAFOOD
. book. These additional formulas and instructions are given in
Fishery Leaflet 18, Home Preservation of Fishery Products (a copy
of which may be obtained on request to the Fish and Wildlife Serv-
ice, United States Department of the Interior, Washington 25, D. C.).
DRYING MEAT AND FISH
Probably the first method used to preserve meat and fish was dry-
ing in the wind and sun, sometimes with smoke to intimidate the
flies. Thus treated, fish and meat became an article of commerce
and of food for man and beast; could be stored for years if kept
dry; were portable, durable, nourishing; and could be eaten with or
without boiling.
This method of preserving meat and fish on the North American
continent was developed by the Indians, and the white man learned
it from these aborigines.
Not only do times change but names change with it. Dried meat
was desiccated meat in World War I and dehydrated meat during
World War II. This dried meat, a concentrated protein material, is
nutritious, palatable, and easily stored for months at ordinary at-
mospheric temperatures. It was developed to meet an emergency
and to save refrigel-ation facilities and tin-plate cans.
Char qui from the French also means dried meat. Biltong is a
Dutch South African term for strips of sun-dried meat of antelope,
buffalo, and other animals. "Jerky" or jerked beef is the name given
by our pioneers to meat dried in this manner.
Pemmican. This is the Cree Indian word for meat prepared in
such a way as to contain the greatest amount of nourishment in the
most compact form. The Indians made it of lean parts of meat-
deer, antelope, and buffalo-dried in the sun and pounded or
shredded and mixed into a paste with melted fat. They flavored it
with acid berries. If kept dry, it would keep for an indefinite time
and is thus particularly serviceable in Arctic and other explorations.
Pemmican is not only used as an emergency ration by explorers,
but hunters, canoers, and hikers rely upon it. Here is how it is
made.
Cut the lean meat of venison or beef into very thin slices. Hang
them in the sun where flies and dirt cannot contaminate them and
allow them to dry thoroughly. The strips may also be dried by sus-
pending them over a low fire made of hickory or ash wood until
they become brittle. The drying process may require a few hours
or a day depending on the humidity.
DRYING MEAT AND FISH 229
Pound or grind the dry strips of meat into a coarse powder and
work in enough hot fat to make a thick dough. Dried fruits such as
raisins, apricots, or prunes may be pounded or ground with the
meat before the fat is added.
Form the pemmican into one or more loaves and enclose it in a
canvas or muslin casing so that it resembles an old-fashioned plum
pudding. Dip the loaf into melted paraffin to seal the wrapping
and make it watertight, and then store it in a dry place.
Jerked Beef (dried beef). This was originally made by cutting
beef into long, thin strips dried in the air, without having been
previously immersed in brine. Later on it became the custom to
cure the meat lightly in brine before it was air-dried. The word
"jerked" comes from the Spanish-American clzarqui.
Jerked Venison. Nearly every hunter has his own ideas about
making "jerky." It is customary to cut the meat into strips 2 to 3
inches thick. They are then dipped into boiling hot brine. The
meat is placed on a smoking rack built of sticks. A fire is made with
green maple or other hardwood and, when the fire burns low, the
rack with the meat on it is placed over the fire and the meat is
thoroughly seared. The fire should not be permitted to blaze, only
to smoke, or the meat will be cooked instead of jerked. Flies will
not bother this meat. After it is smoked the meat should be dried
in the sun as much as possible.
Dried Beef. Our modern dried beef, sometimes called chipped
beef, is generally made from the round. The three muscles com-
prising this portion of the beef are split lengthwise along the natural
seams. This is done so that the muscle fibers may be cut crosswise
when the dried beef is sliced for table use. The larger muscle may
be split farther in order to have more uniform size of pieces. The
inside of the thigh is considered the choicest piece because it is
generally more tender. Cure the meat in the same manner as that
described for corned beef (page 209) with the exception of adding
an additional pound of sugar per 100 pounds of meat. Allow the
meat to cure about 2 days for each pound of weight of the pieces.
After being removed from the brine, drained and dried, it is ready
for the smokehouse.
The drier the climate in general, the more easily can meats be
dried. In arid regions, good dried meat can be made by exposing it
fresh (if protected from flies and dirt) to the air.
Fish. Preserving fish solely by drying in the open is not practiced
extensively in this country. This is because the weather is not suit-
able in many localities and because the flesh of many species avail-
able to the noncommercial fisherman has a fat content of 5 per cent
or more. Therefore it is difficult to preserve fish by air-drying alone.
Another reason is that a combination of salting and drying requires
much less time and skill than air-drying alone. However, the In-
dians in Alaska and Canada still air-dry fish to some extent. In the
North Pacific and Atlantic States (and for shrimp drying, in the
Gulf of Mexico area), air-drying offers some possibilities for those
desiring to preserve fish at home.
Rackling. This product was introduced to this country by Scan-
dinavian fishermen who prepare it for home use. Large flounder,
halibut, pollock, cusk, hake, rock cod, or similar fish with a fat
content of about 2 per cent are suitable. The head is removed, leav-
ing the collarbone. The fish is split into two sides and the back-
bone removed. Then the sides are cut in long, narrow strips about
an inch in width, left joined together at the collarbone. They are
washed thoroughly so that all traces of blood are removed and then
soaked in saturated salt brine for 1 hour. They are hung out to
dry, preferably in a shady place where they will not be exposed to
direct sunlight. Drying requires from I to 2 weeks. When wanted
for use, the rackling may be soaked for a few hours, and steamed
and made into fish cakes, fish loaf, or creamed fish. It is most often
eaten like jerked meat, however, without any preliminary prepara-
tion.
Dried Shrimp. Small shrimp not suitable for the commercial
market, or large catches which cannot be used fresh, may be dried
at home. The shrimp are first washed thoroughly, picking out all
bits of seaweed and other foreign material, and allowed to drain.
Prepare salt brine in the proportions of Y2 cup of salt to one quart
of water. Bring to a boil, put in the whole washed shrimp. Allow
them to boil for about 10 minutes, counting the time from the mo-
ment when the brine begins to boil after the shrimp have been
added. When the meat has separated from the shell it is cooked,
which may be determined by breaking open a shrimp. Spread the
boiled shrimp in a thin layer to dry in the sun. A slanting shed
roof makes an excellent drying platform. The layer of shrimp must
not be more than I inch thick. Turn them at half-hour intervals
during the first day of drying, so that all parts of the layer will be
equally dried. The shrimp are gathered at night and stored in a
dry, well-ventilated place. This must also be done at the first sign
of rain. Do not place a covering directly on the shrimp or they will
start to heat and sour.
SMOKING MEAT AND FISH 231
Drying requires about 3 days if the weather is good, and longer
if drying conditions are unfavorable. When the shrimp are
thoroughly dry and hard, place them in a sack. Beat the sack with
a piece of board. This separates the shells from the meats. Then
take a wooden-frame, wire-mesh screen with ~ inch mesh and set
it up at an angle. Shovel the mixture of meats and shells against
the screen as in sifting sand. The bits of shell and waste fall
through, while the meats roll down to the bottom of the screen.
From 100 pounds of green shrimp, 12 or 13 pounds of dry shrimp
should be obtained, together with an equal amount of shell. The
dried shrimp meat may be soaked in water for a few hours, wiped
dry, rolled in butter or in oil, and fried. They are also excellent in
curries, gumbos, and jambalayas. When the dried meats are ground
and mixed with butter and spices, they make an excellent sandwich
spread. The dried meats are also used with beverages as appetizers.
SMOKING MEAT AND FISH
Smoked meats are those preserved by wood smoke following their

curing by the dry- or brine-cured methods. Cured meats are gen-
erally smoked before they are put into storage. If the smoky flavor
is not desired and the meat is not smoked, it should be hung up to
dry until the dry-cured meat loses about 5 per cent of its cured
weight and the brine-cured meat loses about 10 per cent.
Cured meats are smoked primarily to give them their familiar
color and flavor. Smoking lowers the moisture content, imparts an
attractive mahogany brown color and mild, smoky aroma, and fur-
nishes some protection against bacteria and oxidation. Relatively
high smokehouse temperatures (110°F. or above) with a light smoke
will speed up the drying; lower temperatures (80° to 110°F.) with a
dense fog of smoke will intensify the smoky flavor in meat.
Smokehouse temperatures vary according to the type of cured
and smoked product that is being produced. Meat for storage at air
temperatures should be smoked in a temperature of 135°F. until
the inside of the meat has reached 110°. Then the smokehouse
temperature is lowered to 110° and maintained until the desired
color is attained.
After the meat has been cured, it is removed from cure, washed,
and hung up to dry, or it is soaked and then dried. Meat that has
remained in cure too long should be soaked for an hour in warm
water to dissolve some of the surface salt. After it is washed it
should be allowed to dry overnight.
Smokehouses. Many types of smokehouses are used successfully
to smoke meats, fowl, and fish. These houses .range from the tem-
porary "one-hog" type made from a 50-gallon barrel to permanent
structures suitable for both smoking and storing meat.
Smokehouses should be of reasonably tight construction to permit
easy regulation of temperature and flow of smoke and air. A rapid
flow of air past the meat is needed at the beginning of the smoking
operation to drive off surplus moisture. Less rapid air movement
near the end of the smoking period prevents excessive shrinkage in
the weight of the meat.
The drawings that follow were made by the agricultural en~g.
neers, United States Department of Agriculture. These drawin -
show details, so that blueprints will not be required by the builder.
Barrel Smokehouse. A 50-gallon barrel, with both heads removed'i
or a box with tight sides, can be used for smoking small quantities,
of meat, fowl, or fish. Set the barrel, with head and body removed,
over the upper end of a shallow, sloping, covered trench and dig a.
pit at the lower end for the fire. The heat of the fire can be con-l
trolled by covering the pit with a piece of sheet metal and mound.'
ing earth around the edges, so as to cut off most of the draft. Clean
muslin or burlap hung over the top of the barrel will protect a
I-inch opening between the barrel and the cleated top, which rests
on broomsticks supporting the meat.
Frame or Concrete Type. A smokehouse large enough for the
average family needs is easily constructed out of wood and concrete.
The outside fire pit makes temperature control easy and reduces
the fire hazard. Tight construction and well-fitted ventilators pro-
10'-0· '10 /2'-0"

r...12fal CCNar.
lXIO"board
FIG. 194. Barrel smokehouse. Smokepipe, or tile if available, could be used for
the flue.
\ "
I
r';'
"
vide effective regulation of the air flow past the meat. Movable.
two-by-fours across the house for hanging the meat enable the oper-
ator to adjust the hangers to the size of the pieces of meat being
smoked. Two or more tiers of meat can be hung in the house. A
taller house, holding four more tiers of meat, can be served by the
same fire pit.
The cost of the lumber and other materials for this 6-by-6 by
8-foot smokehouse will be about $65 if they must be bought new. If
built of commercial concrete blocks the cost will be about $85.
These prices may range widely in different localities. Masonry con-
struction reduces the fire hazard. Local stone which does not require
much dressing or skill for shaping the pieces can be used at low
cash cost. Logs are satisfactory if well fitted and chinked.
The frame type of smokehouse should not be located nearer than
. 50 feet to any other buildings.
A solid frost-proof foundation is essential. A concrete floor is
desirable, as it can be made rat-proof and is more easily cleaned
than wood.
The picnic-type firebox with a removable cover can also be used
for cooking meals out-of-doors. Broiled and barbecued dishes can
be prepared on this outside fireplace. The smoke pipe leading to
the house must be plugged when the firebox is used as a stove or
grill. A simple earthen pit at the end of the flue could be used in-
stead of the concrete or brick firebox shown. Also a small wood-
burning stove could be connected with the smoke pipe. In all cases,
it is desirable to slope the pipe slightly upward toward the outlet
in the smokehouse and to cover it with earth or masonry. This
covering will hold the heat and, in connection with the slope, give
a more positive draft.
Ventilators should be built into the gables as shown in the draw-
ings; a ventilator built in the roof is difficult to keep watertight.
Meat can be crowded into a smokehouse, the only rule being
that no piece touch another or the wall. The space required varies
with the weight of the cut, but 12 inches in width both ways and 2
feet in height for each piece is a fair basis for estimating the capac;ty
of the house. Movable rails and staggered hooks will make it pos-
sible to adapt the equipment to the quantity of meat to be smoked.
Remember that well-built, fly-tight smokehouses are not safe
places to store unbagged smoked meat. Ultimately flies or fly eggs
will get in, either on a piece of meat or when the door is opened.
Smokehouses are used satisfactorily for storing meat if each piece is
properly wrapped, bagged and hung separately, provided it is fly-
proof and, perhaps, thief-proof.
o..,
.1
FIG. 195A. Drawing and bill of material for frame smokehouse.

FIG. 195B. Drawing and bill of material for cement-block smokehouse.

I
FIG. 196. Picnic-type firebox.
Proper Wood. Woods used for smoking depend much upon the
locality and availability. In order of preference for smoking are
hickory, maple, birch, ash, oak, dried apple wood, and dry willow.
Green hickory wood and sawdust are the standard fuels for smoking
meat. Where timber is scarce corncobs may be used. Soft or resinous
wood should not be used, for it will blacken the meat and give it
an undesirable flavor. If paper or pine shavings are used to kindle
the green hardwood, be sure that all have been completely burned
or removed from the fire before the smokehouse door is closed. It is
better, however, to start the fire with the used woods and not with
paper or shavings from soft woods, because the ashes of these prod-
ucts rise and stick to the meat.
; . (
i'
All pieces to be smoked should be strung and scrubbed with
warm water to remove the excess salt and grease. Hams and shoul-
ders should be strung through the shank. Unless a regular stringing
needle is at hand, make an opening through the shank with the
narrow blade of the boning knife and pull a stout string through
with a wire loop. A wooden or wire skewer is usually run through
the flank end of the bacon strip and the string inserted just below
it. In the case of bacon, it is better to insert two loops just off the
center so that the piece hangs smoothly without wrinkling. If
wrinkling is permitted, the meat is hard to slice and some waste
will occur.
FIG. 197. Well-trimmed and smoked ham, bacon and shoulder. It pays to trim
cuts smoothly and evenly.
A good procedure is to hang the cured washed meat in the smoke-

house overnight to drain and dry. Start the fire in the morning. If
the meat is still dripping when smoking begins, hang the lower
pieces in such a manner that the drippings do not strike the meat
and make it streaked. Do not permit any two pieces of hanging meat
to come in contact.
Pork. Cured pork may be smoked at a temperature of 100° to
120°F. The ventilators should be left open, especially at first, to
- permit the moisture to escape. A heavy fog of smoke is not neces-
sary. Continue the smoking until the meat has the desired color.
Two days smoking should make it a rich mahogany brown.
Meat that is to be aged or held for summer use is usually smoked
more slowly. The temperature is held at 70° to gO°F. and the fires
rebuilt intermittently over a period of from one to several weeks.
This smoking and drying process helps to preserve the meat and to
develop a mellow flavor characteristic of smoked pork that has been
aged several months.
Beef and Lamb. Cured beef and lamb are smoked in the same
manner as pork. The pieces to be smoked should be removed from
the cure 2 or 3 days before being put into the smokehouse. If cured
in a strong brine, it is best to soak the pieces about 3 hours in cold
water to prevent a crust of salt from forming on the outside when
the beef is smoked. Washing the meat in tepid water and scrub-
bing clean with a brush is a good practice. The pieces should then
be hung up to drain. After being drained they may be hung in
the smokehouse.
When the fire is kept going steadily and an even temperature is
maintained, from 24 to 36 hours will be required to finish one lot
of meat. The meat should be cooled by opening the ventilators or
doors as soon as it is smoked sufficiently. When hard and firm, it
may be wrapped properly and stored for use later. Dried beef may
be used any time after it is smoked, although the longer it is stored,
the drier it will become.
Lamb may be exposed to hardwood smoke for about two days at
a temperature of about 100° to 120°F. in the same manner as cured
pork. The meat may be removed from the smokehouse as soon as
it is satisfactorily colored, or left in for longer or intermittent smok-
ing if desired.
Fowls. Turkeys, ducks, and other birds after taken from the cure
should be rinsed in fresh water and drained thoroughly. Be sure
that none of the cure is left in the pockets of the body cavities. Put
the bird in a stockinette and hang breast down. Another method
is to loop a cord under each wing close to the body, tying the cord
in the center above the back. Hang the birds and let them drip until
dry. Allow them to hang in this manner, breast down, when being
smoked. This provides for maximum exposure of skin as well as
an opportunity for further drainage.
For cured turkeys, make a fire of hardwood and maintain a tem-
perature of 135° to 140°F. for about 16 hours. This is more effective
in producing desirable color than lower temperatures. However, a
temperature of approximately 110°F. for 20 hours results in about
3 per cent less weight loss in the smokehoust'! than the higher tem-
perature for a shorter period of time. After smoking the turkeys
should be aged 4 weeks at 68°. The smoked turkey produced by
this process must be cooked before eating.
To produce a 6moke-cooked turkey that is ready for eating with-
out further cooking, the following procedure is recommended by the
Extension Service, Texas A. and M. College, College Station, Texas:
Make a brine of the following: 10 gallons of water; 9 pounds of
salt; I pound of prague powder; 1 Y2 pounds of sugar; 4 ounces of
ham spice emulsion. This mixture should give a reading of 45 to
50 per cent saturation when measured with a sodium chloride
salinometer.
FIG. 198. Turkeys and ducks smoking ill stockinettes.

After the bird has been dressed and chilled thoroughly, it must
be pumped for curing. Pump the fowl with the brine mixture by
injecting 10 per cent of its weight. Stitch with pressure pump, using
small or medium-sized needle. Pump bird to give uniform distri-
bution of brine in all muscles. This will require on each side of
the bird three stitches in the breast, one in the thigh, one in each
drumstick, one in each wing. and one in the back.
After pumping has been completed cover the bird with the brine
mixture and be sure it is completely submerged. Keep it in the
solution for 3 days. Remove and drain thoroughly. Be sure that
none of the brine is left in the pockets of body cavities. Put it in
stockinette and hang breast down. After it is about dry. put it in
the smokehouse with the heat control set at 170"F. As soon as it is
completely dry, smoke can be applied. Smoke to a light lustrous
pecan-nut brown. This usually takes 8 to 10 hours.
When the desired color is obtained, increase the temperature in
the smokehouse to 185°F. Cook the bird until the inside tempera-
ture at the thickest breast muscle area is 160°F. To determine the
heat accurately it is necessary to insert an inside meat thermometer
in the bird at the thigh joints and breast muscles. Approximately
20 per cent shrinkage may be expected.
This process will cook the bird sufficiently to be eaten without
additional cooking. The cooked product will not keep under an or-
dinary refrigerator temperature any longer than other meats, such as
cured ham. If the birds are to be held longer than two weeks they
should be frozen, packaged, and held at OaF.
Fish. Smoking is a method which should be used more extensively
in home food preservation of fishery products, says the U. S. Fish
and Wildlife Service. When the curing is properly done, it is in-
expensive and the product is of high quality, attractive in appear-
ance and taste. Although preservation by smoking usually lasts for
a shorter time than by salting, the product is more appetizing.
If smoked fish spoils quickly and is poor in quality, it is because
the smoking has been done improperly. If proper attention is
given to materials and methods, little difficulty should be expe-
rienced.
The efficiency of smoking depends on the drying action; it is
only a flavoring and coloring agent. According to species, fish may
be smoked either in the round, gutted, split and beheaded, or cut
into pieces with or without the skin removed.
There are two general methods of smoking fish: hot-smoking or
barbecuing, and cold-smoking. In hot-smoking, the fish are hung
near the fire, usually not more than 3 or 4 feet distant, and smoked
Fig. 199., Various methods of hanging fish for smoking.
at temperatures from 150° to 200°F. so that they are partially or

wholly cooked. Therefore, while hot-smoked fish is very appetizing,
and requires no preparation, it will keep for only a short time. In
cold-smoking, the fish are hung at some distance from a low smould-
ering fire and smoked at temperatures usually lower than gO°F. (a
temperature of gO°F. may be used occasionally). The degree of
preservation depends on the length of time the fishes are smoked;
fish cold-smoked a few hours, for example, will keep only a short
time. If an extended period of preservation is desired, fish must be
cold-smoked from a few days to a week or more. The same general
principles governing the smoking, handling, and storing of cured
meats should be followed with fish.
Hot-Smoking. Almost any species may be hot-smoked. Mullet,
shad, Spanish mackerel, mackerel, alewives or river herring, herring,
lake herring, whitefish, and king mackerel. This method is recom-
mended if it is desired to prepare a fish that can be used imme-
diately without cooking. Fish smoked by this method may be kept
longer without molding or souring, but even so, it will preserve for
only a short time.
Split the fish along the back, just above the backbone so that it
will be open in one piece, leaving the belly solid. Scrape out all
viscera, blood, and membrane. Make an additional cut under the
backbone for the smaller fish. For the larger fish, cut out the for-
ward three-fifths of the backbone. Wash thoroughly and soak in
a 70° salt brine (Y2 cup salt to 1 quart water) for 30 minutes to
leach blood out of the flesh. Then prepare a brine, using the fol-
lowing ingredients: 2 pounds salt, 1 ounce saltpeter, 1 ounce crushed
black peppercorns, 1 ounce crushed bay leaves. This makes a 90
per cent brine (saturated salt solution). The amounts of ingredients
are increased in proportion to the amount of brine to be made. The
spices used may be increased both in variety and quantity.
The fish are held in this brine for periods varying from 2 to 4
hours, depending upon their size and thickness, amount of fat, and
the desire for a light or heavily cured fish. Weather conditions also
make a difference; the exact length of time/must be determined by
experiment. Rinse off the fish in fresh water and hang outside in a
cool, shady and breezy place to dry for about 3 hours before hanging
in the smokehouse, or until a thin shiny "skin" or pellicle has
formed on the surface. -
For the first 8 hours that the fish are in the smokehouse, the fire
is low and smoldering. The temperature should not be higher than
90°F. A dense smoke should then be built up. After 4 hours of
heavy smoking, the fire is increased until the temperature is be-
tween 130 0 and 150°F. The fish are cured at this temperature for
2 to 3 hours, or until they have a glossy, brown surface. This
partially cooks, or hot-smokes, the fish.
When smoking is finished, the fish must be cooled for 2 or 3 hours.
They may be brushed over lightly with vegetable oil (usually cot-
'_
'./
tonseed) while warm. This is sometimes done just after finishing
the cold-smoking part of the process. The oil forms a light pro-
tective coating, but the chief value of this treatment is to make the
appearance more attractive. Another method is to dip the fish in
melted paraffin; thus, a more effective protective coating is formed,
but the fish must be handled carefully as the coating is brittle. The
paraffin must be peeled off when preparing the fish for the table.
Each fish should be wrapped in waxed paper and stored in a cool,
dry place. Spoilage occurs more rapidly if the fish are stored in a
warm place or under damp and cold conditions.
Cold-Smoking. Small fish, such as sea herring, alewives (river
herring), spots, or butter fish may be cold-smoked in the round
(without cleaning), but they should be gibbed. Gibbing consists of
making a small cut just below the gills and pulling out the gills,
he.Ht, and liver, leaving the belly uncut. Fish larger than one pound
should be split along the back to lie flat in a single piece, leaving
the belly portion uncut. All traces of blood, black skin, and viscera
must be removed, paying special attention to the area just under the
backbone. The head does not need to be removed. If the head is
cut off, the hard bony plate just below the gills is allowed to remain,
as it will be needed to carry the weight when the fish are in the
smokehouse.
Next wash the fish thoroughly, whether gibbed or split, and place
them in a brine made in the proportion of I cup of salt to 1 gallon
of water. They should be left in the brine at least 30 minutes to
soak out blood diffused through the flesh. At the end of this time
rinse in fresh water to remove surplus moisture, and drain for a
few minutes.
Each fish is dropped singly into a shallow box of fine salt and
dredged thoroughly. The fish is picked up with as much salt as will
cling to it, and packed in even layers in a box or tub. A small
amount of salt may be scattered between each layer. The fish are
left in salt from 1 to 12 hours, depending upon the weather, size of
fish, fatness, length of time for which preservation is desired, and
whether the fish are round or split.
When the fish are taken out of the salt, they should be rinsed
thoroughly. All visible particles of salt or other waste should be
lCrubbed off. They are hung to dry in the shade as described in
dry-salting (page 220) of fish. An electric fan may be used if there is
not enough breeze. The chicken-wire drying racks used in dry-salt-
ing may be utilized if they are not exposed to direct sunlight. The
fish will dry on both sides but the impression of the chicken wire
detracts from its appearance. The fish is dried until a thin skin,
or pellicle, is formed on the surface. This should take about 3 hours
under average conditions. If smoking is begun while the fish are
still moist, the time required is longer, the color will not be as desir-
able, the fish will not have as good a surface, and will steam and
soften in smoking.
Start a low, smoldering fire an hour or two before the fish are
hung in the smokehouse. It must not give off too much smoke dur-
ing the first 8 or 12 hours if the entire cure is 24 hours, or for the
first 24 hours if the cure is longer. The temperature in the smoke-
house should not be higher than 90°F. in California or the southern
states, or 70°F. in the northern states. If available, a thermometer
should be used in controlling smokehouse temperature; if not, a rule-
of-thumb test is to insert a hand in the smokehouse and if the air
feels distinctly warm, the temperature is too high.
At the end of the first smoking process, a dense smoke may be
built up and maintained for the balance of the cure. If the fish are
to be kept for 2 weeks, they should be smoked for 24 hours, or for
a longer time. Smoking may require 5 days or even more. Hard-
smoked or red herring may require 3 or 4 weeks.
Keep the fire low and steady; if hardwood sawdust is not avail-
able, use chips and bark; they serve almost as well. The fire must
not be allowed to die out at night. Do not build it up before leav-
ing, as this will create too much heat. It must be tended regularly
during the night.
FIG. 200. Hanging fillets for smoking:. '" ;rid
Here is the best way to smoke fillets. Any white-fleshed, "lean"

fish will produce fillets weighing more than 1 pound which are satis-
factory for smoking. Cut the fish into fillets, removing the backbone
and skin. Cover with a 90° brine (saturated salt solution) and hold
for 2 hours. Remove and drain for 10 to 15 minutes and air-dry
for 2 hours. Hang across a three-sided smokes tick, each side about
3 inches in width. Smoke over a fire with a fairly light smoke for
4 hours at a temperature not higher than 90°F. Turn the fillets so
that the side resting on the smokestick is uppermost and smoke 4
hours longer. Smother the fire so that a dense cloud of smoke is
.... , ..
TESTING SMOKED MEAT 245
produced, and smoke until the fillets are a deep straw yellow, turn-
ing the fillets once or twice so that both sides will be evenly colored.
This operation should take about 6 hours.
TESTING SMOKED MEAT
When the warm meat is removed from the smokehouse it should

be tested for spoilage. Sourness and putrefaction can often be de-
tected at this time, and often a taint will be noticeable a week or
two after smoking. However, most of the meat that has safely
passed through all the processes of curing and smoking m;.ty be con-
sidered sound.
The instrument used to test smoked meats is called a "ham trier."
It resembles an old-fashioned ice pick or a harness awl. A lO-inch
skewer or brochette will serve the purpose, or a length of stiff wire
pointed at one end. This gadget is run along the bone to the center
of the ham from both hock and loin ends. In withdrawing the trier,
smell it. If the odor is sweet and pleasant, the meat is sound. If,
however, the trier carries an unpleasant sour odor, the piece should
be cut open and examined carefully for spoilage. If there is a defi-
nite odor of putrefaction it is best to destroy the entire piece. Shoul-
ders are tried in the shank, at the shoulder point, and under the
blade bone.
STORING CURED AND SMOKED MEAT
Cured smoked meats are an important part of the home food sup-
ply; consequently it is essential to protect and store them properly
so they are in the best condition for future use.
The objects sought in storing are protection from insects, control
of molds, and the prevention of excessive drying and rancidity. Ex-
cessive humidity and lack of ventilation are conducive to molding.
Rancidity is attributable mainly to light. Lack of protection per-
mits insect infestation.
After the smoked meat has cooled, it is ready to be wrapped and
stored. At this time, farmers, in particular, rub ground black pepper
mixed with a little red pepper on the meat to add flavor. The meat
is then well wrapped in parchment paper and put into muslin bags.
The paper wrapping should be heavy enough to keep the fat from
soaking the bottom of the bag. The top of the bag should be folded
over and tied securely, a loop for hanging the meat being made in
the outside tie string. Do not hang the meat by the string that is
fastened to the meat as insects may enter the package along this
string. As a further protection against insects, the U. S. Department
of Agriculture recommends painting each bag or sack with yellow
wash before storing for future use. In preparing the yellow wash
for 100 pounds of hams or bacon, use the following: 3 pounds of
barium sulphate, I Y4 ounces yellow ocher, I ounce of glue (dry),
and 6 ounces of flour.
Fill a pail half full of water and mix in the flour, breaking up
all the lumps thoroughly. Mix the ocher in a quart of water in a
separate vessel, add the glue, and pour them into the flour-and-water
mixture. Bring this mixture to a boil and add the barium sulphate
slowly, stirring constantly. Make the wash the day before it is re-
quired. Stir it frequently while using it and apply it with a brush.
Lime, clay, flour, or a similar substance mixed with water to a
rather thick consistency may also be used to paint the bags.
The date for killing, curing, and smoking should be planned, if
possible, so that the smoked meat can be bagged or put in an insect-
proof place before the flies appear in the spring. Careful watch
should be kept for insect infestation throughout the storage period.
If the meat has been properly cured and smoked, it should store
satisfactorily in a dry, dark, cool, well-ventilated place. Hams and
shoulders stored in this manner will keep a year or longer. Storing
cured smoked meats, especially hams, for long periods also develops
a product that has unique characteristics and is highly regarded for
its culinary value. During this period significant changes take place,
which develop a most pleasurable taste sensation. With the excep-
tion of a few special kinds, such as Virginia and Westphalia hams
which are improved by one or two years' keeping, the best ham and
bacon, other things being equal, are those which are freshest cured
and smoked.
Generally, mold will appear on "naked" or unwrapped hams and
bacons; it is not a sign of poor quality or deterioration. In humid
climates, mold may develop very rapidly on the meat but usually
can be rubbed or trimmed off without serious loss. A light mold
may be easily removed by rubbing with a cloth slightly moistened
with sweet oil and lard. This application is sometimes desirable
even when no mold appears, as it tends to prevent mold formation
and gives the meat a bright, fresh appearance. Meat should be
watched closely for evidence of mold penetration into the pieces.
Once the mold works in between the muscles it injures the flavor.
The shrinkage of dry-cured hams and shoulders just after being
smoked will range from 8 to 15 per cent of the fresh weight. Brine-
cured hams and shoulders will shrink from 3 to 8 per cent. The
shrinkage of either may run from 15 to 30 per cent at the end of
several months' storage.
HOME CANNING 247
Bacon does not store as well as hams and shoulders and is usually
most appetizing when freshly cured and smoked.
HOME CANNING
Since ancient times foods have been preserved by various methods,

such as drying, salting, and smoking; but it was not until early in
the nineteenth century that canning was developed. Although can-
ning principles are fundamentally the same for all foods, the meth-
ods and equipment employed must be suited to each type if a safe
and satisfactory pack is to be obtained.
Canning is one of the most satisfactory methods yet developed for
the preservation of perishable foods. Canning prevents the develop-
ment of bacteria within the food and contamination from without.
Beef, veal, lamb, pork, poultry, and fish may be canned success-
fully in the home provided they are processed according to approved
methods. Choice cuts may be canned in a number of ways to pre-
serve their identities and to add variety to the canned meat prod-
ucts. It is possible to can steaks, roasts, chops, ground beef, sausage,
spareribs, dried beef, and liver, as well as meat for stews, meat pies,
and other dishes. Canning chicken, beef, pork, rabbit, and other
home produced meats gives the family a greater variety of meat dur-
ing the year. Canned meat on the shelf is a real help when company
arrives unexpectedly, and a good timesaver for busy days.
Turkey, squab, other poultry, and small game should be canned
like chicken. Can veal, lamb, mutton, and large game animals like
beef.
All meat for canning should be handled in a strictly sanitary man-
ner and completely chilled before cutting and canning.
Frozen meat may be canned, but it does not make a high-quality
product. If meat has become frozen, do not thaw it before canning.
Cut or saw the meat into uniform strips I to 2 inches thick and
plunge at once into boiling water. Simmer until the color of raw
meat has almost disappeared, then pack and process.
Utensils and Equipment. Meat may be canned successfully in the
home only if it is processed under steam pressure. This means that
the meat must be processed in a steam-pressure canner to insure per-
fect safety. It requires a temperature of 240°F. for effective steriliza-
tion; and this high temperature, which can be obtained only under
steam pressure, is absolutely essential for canning meats safely. "If
a steam pressure canner is not available," says the U. S. Department
of Agriculture, "other methods of preservation should be used for
meats." Complete instructions for canning meats come with each
pressure canner and one should become thoroughly familiar with
all the canning-machine working parts and all the specific directions
and cautions_
Be sure to have every utensil and piece of equipment perfectly
clean. Leave everything thoroughly clean after the day's work. The
best utensils for meat canning are of enamelware, aluminum, re-
tinned metal, stainless metal, and porcelain. Copper or iron utensils
may discolor meat, and meat allowed to remain in galvanized iron
containers for more than 30 minutes may absorb harmful quantities
of zinc.
Cutting boards and table tops where meat has rested must be
scrupulously clean. They need special treatment to keep bacteria
under control, so scrape them, scrub with hot soapy water, and rinse
with boiling water. Then disinfect, using a hypochlorite solution
or a chloride-of-lime bleaching fluid diluted according to directions
on the can. Let this stay on about half an hour; then wash off with
scalding water. Do not let meat lie on linoleum. The cloths used
should be rinsed with cool water to remove meat juices. They
should then be washed in soapy hot water and boiled. Rinse in the
same kind of disinfectant you use for wood.
Containers for Canned Meats. Either tins or wide-top glass jars
may be used in canning meats, but they must be of the type that
can be sealed airtight to prevent the entrance or development of
bacteria, yeasts, and molds.
If tin cans are used, be sure you have a sealer in good working
order. It should be properly adjusted. To test it put a little water
into a can, seal it, then submerge the can in hot water for a few
minutes. If air bubbles rise from around the lid of the can, the
seam is not tight, and the sealer needs further adjusting.
Use only plain tin cans for meat, preferably with paper gaskets.
The sizes generally preferred are No.2, which holds 2Y2 cups (20
ounces); No. 2Y2, 3Y2 cups (28 ounces); No.3, about 4 cups (33
ounces).
Glass jars should be those made especially for canning, because
others may not withstand the heat or the processing period. It is
important that the glass jars be in good condition, with no nicked
or chipped edges to prevent proper seal. New lids and jar rubbers
should always be used in meat canning-the exception being the
glass tops.
There are four main types of glass jars suitable for preserving
meat. These glass containers and how to manipulate them when
canning and after canning are illustrated and described by the Bu-
reau of Human Nutrition and Home Economics, U. S. Department
of Agriculture, in the following manner:
.f,:" '0.' ..•

.,
'"f: "~ ~ ~i'
"
Glass Jars and How to Use Them
Before filling the jar, fit a wet rubber

9 11r Porcelain
lined ring down on the jar shoulder. Do not
screw cap
stretch more than needed. Fill jar. Par-
4 ( > Rubber tially seal by screwing lid down firmly
tight and turning it back !4 inch. At the
end of the processing period remove the
jar from the water bath or pressure cook.er
and immediately screw the lid down tight
to complete the seal.
Before filling the jar, fit the wet rub-

~GlaSSlid ber ring on the jar. Fill jar. Put on glass
lid. Partially seal by pushing the long
wire bail over top of lid, so it fits into
groove. Leave short wire bail up. At the
end of the processing period remove jar
from the water bath or pressure cooker
and immediately push short wire bail
down to complete the seal.
Before filling the jar, fit the wet rubber

Metal
ring on the glass lid. Fill jar. Put lid on
screw band with rubber side down. Partially seal by
screwing the deep metal band on firmly
~GlaSSl1d tight; then turn back a quarter of a tUfn
but make sure it really catches. At the
end of the processing period remove jar
from the water bath or pressure cooker
and immediately screw band down tight.
When the jar is cold remove the screw
band.
Fill the jar. Dip metal lid in boiling

water, place on top of the jar with sealing
compound next to the glass. Screw shal-
low metal band on firmly tight but not
~Mltallid with
~ sealing
hard enough to cut through the com-
compound pound. At the end of the processing pe-
riod remove the jar from the pressure
cooker or water bath. Do not tighten fur-
ther unless the band is very loose, then
hold the lid firmly while the band is tight-
ened. When the jar is cold remove the
screw band.
249
Number ot Glass Jars and Tin Cans Required. It is necessary to
know approximately the yield of canned meat from fresh before
one can approximate how many glass jars or tin cans will be re-
quired to accommodate the meat.
For a quart jar or No.3 can, allow 1 about-
5 to 5Y2 pounds of pork loin (untrimmed);

5 to 5Y2 pounds of beef rump (untrimmed);
3 to 3Y2 pounds of beef round (untrimmed);
4Y2 to 5Y2 pounds of chicken (dressed, undrawn) to be canned
with bone;
7 to 8 pounds of chicken (dressed, undrawn) to be canned
without bone.
Preparation of Meat for Canning_ There are four general ways

in which meat may be prepared for canning. It may be packed raw,
hot (seared or boiled), cured, or smoked.
Select the loin, roast cuts, steaks, or chops as the large pieces of
meat to be canned. The less tender and smaller pieces are best for
stew or soup meat.
Trim the meat from the bones. Keep the bones to make broth
or soup. Trim away most of the fat without slashing the lean. Re-
member to cut the larger pieces, with the grain running lengthwise,
into pieces that will slip into the glass jars or tin cans. The smaller
pieces of stew meat are handled and processed just like the larger
pieces.
Raw Pack. Some prefer to salt meat in the canning, others add
it later when the meat is being prepared for table. If salt is desired,
a level teaspoonful may be put into the clean, empty pint jars or
No.2 cans; ~ teaspoonful into No. 2Y2 cans; 1 teaspoonful in quart
jars or No.3 cans.
Pack the containers with the raw, lean meat, leaving about I inch
above the meat in glass jars; fill tin cans to the top; then set the
open jars or cans in a large vessel with warm water about 2 inches
below the rim of the jar or the can. Cover the vessel and heat the
water at a slow boil until the meat in all the jars or cans is steaming
hot and medium done. This requires about 50 minutes in tin cans
and 75 minutes in glass jars. When a thermometer placed in the
center of the jar or can registers 170°F., the meat is done. Press the
meat down into the tin cans Y2 inch below the rims and add boiling
water, if needed, to fill to the top. Adjust the lids on the glass jars
1 Adapted from Home and Garden Bulletin No.6, Home Canning of Meat,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
HOME CANNING 251
FIG. 201. Canning meat in large pieces. Select cuts commonly used for roasts,
steaks, or chops. Trim away most of the fat without unduly slashing the lean.
Too much fat makes meat hard to process.
FIG. 202. Cut meat in can-length strips, so that grain of the meat runs the
length of the can. Use small pieces and bits to fill space, or use them for stew
meat, ground meat, or soup. Fill cans to top with strips of meat.
1
Fig. 203. Insert thermometer (0 cemer ot can. Meat is ready when temperature
at center of can is 170 0 F. If no thermometer is available, cook meat until
medium done, auollt 50 minutes.
Fig. 204. Seal cans immediately, but follow directions that came with your sealer ..
HOME CANNING 253
.'fer
FIG. 205. Remove cans with tongs or thick cloth and cool at once in clean, cold
water-preferably running water-until cans are lukewarm.
FIG. 206. Dry cans quickly to prevent rust. Stagger them as you stack the cans,
to hasten cooling.
(page 249); seal the tin cans. Process at once in the steam-pressure
canner at 10 pounds pressure (240°F.)
Pint jars .............. 75 min. No. 2 cans ............. 65 min.
Quart jars ............ 90 min. No. 2V2 and No.3 cans. 90 min.
Hot Pack. Beef, veal, pork, lamb, and venison may be seared
before canning. The time required to sear these meats depends
upon their size and thickness. Steaks 2 inches thick will take about
15 minutes; other pieces require more or less time in proportion
to their thickness. Roasts, meat loaves, sausage patties, steaks, and
chops should be seared without flour until they are light brown on
the surface and heated through thoroughly. Floured meat causes a
thick, hard crust which retards heat penetration and often gives the
meat a charred, inferior flavor. Lamb and mutton should have
most of the fat removed and can be seared in bacon drippings, lard,
or butter. Care should be taken not to brown the meat too much
or burn it. Additional browning can be done when the meat is
reheated for serving.
Heat the fat in a roasting pan or skillet and sear meat quickly on
all sides to prevent the loss of juice during cooking. Add salt, pep-
per, and other seasoning to taste. Add boiling water to the fat in
the pan. Turn and baste the meat frequently until nicely browned
and heated through. Pack the hot meat into the containers solidly.
Leave above I inch above meat for head space in glass jars; V2 inch
in tin cans. Add 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls of liquid from the searing
pan. Again leave I inch at the top of glass jars for head space; fill
tin cans to the top. Work out the air bubbles with a knife and add
more liquid, if necessary, to cover the meat. Adjust the lids on glass
jars and seal tin cans. Process at once in the steam-pressure cooker
at 10 pounds pressure (240°F.)
Pint jars .............. 75 min. No.2 cans ............ 65 min.
Quart jars ............ 90 min. No. 2V2 and No.3 cans. 90 min.
Meat may also be boiled before canning. Cut the raw meat into
serving portions. Put it into a stew pot and "0arely cover with boil-
ing water. Simmer for 10 or 15 minutes until completely heated
through. Do not use any more water than necessary. All that is
required is a sufficient quantity with the meat to fill the containers.
It is not necessary to cook the meat tender, as the canning process
will complete the cooking.
Pack the meat firmly into the cans and fill up all the spaces be-
tween the meat with the liquid in which the meat was boiled. Add
seasoning and seal at once. Then process in the steam-pressure can-
ner as previously given for hot pack.
HOME CANNING 255
Ground meat may be packed either by the raw or hot process.
Small pieces of clean, fresh, cold lean meat can be ground. Do not
add any lump of fat in grinding. If desired, add 1 level teaspoon of
salt per pound of ground meat and mix thoroughly.
For raw pack, fill the tin cans with the ground meat, level with
the top. It is difficult to get the canned ground meat out of glass
jars when packed this way. Place the open cans in a large vessel
with water about 2 inches below the can rim. Cover the vessel and
heat at slow boil until meat in all the cans is steaming hot and
medium done. This requires about 75 minutes or until center of
the can registers 170°F. Press the meat down into the cans about
Y2 inch below the rim. Seal the tin cans and process at once in the
steam-pressure canner at 10 pounds pressure (240°F.).
No.2 cans ............... 100 min.
No. 2Y2 and No.3 cans ... 135 min.
Prepare fresh sausage as directed on page 273, or use any tested
sausage recipe, but omit seasoning, except salt and pepper. Sage and
other herbs give the meat a bitter taste after processing. Shape the
sausage meat into fairly thin cakes that can be packed in the con-
tainers without breaking. Put the cakes in a baking pan and pre-
cook them in the oven until medium done. Pack hot. Proceed as
directed for ground meat, hot packed.
Canning Corned Beef. After corned beef is cured it can be pre-
pared for canning. Wash the meat and cut into pieces suited for
packing. Place the pieces of corned beef in a kettle, cover with cold
water, and bring slowly to a boil. If the broth tastes very salty, drain
and cover the meat with fresh water and parboil again. Pack
the pieces of hot meat in glass jars and leave about 1 inch above the
meat for head space; Y2 inch in tin cans. Cover the meat with the
hot broth or hot water, using about Y2 to % cup for each quart
container. Leave 1 inch for head space in jars and fill the cans to
the top. Then work out all the air bubbles with a knife and add
more liquid, if needed, to cover the meat. Be sure to leave 1 inch
head space in jars and fill cans to the top. Adjust the lids on jars
(page 249); seal tin cans. Process at once in the steam-pressure
canner at 10 pounds pressure (240°F.).
Pint jars .............. 75 min. No. 2 cans ............. 65 min.
Quart jars ............ 90 min. No. 2Y2 and No.3 cans.90min.
Many excellent recipes for canning meats, such as beef-vegetable
stew, pork and beans with sauce, baked beans with pork, and many
others including soup stock, are given in Home and Garden Bulletin
No.6, Home Canning of Meat, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.
Poultry. Chicken, turkey, and other domestic and wild fowl, as
as well as rabbit, squirrel, muskrat, and ground hog, are all canned
successfully at home. Canning provides a good way to use the cock-
erels and nonlaying hens, as well as stewing chickens. The direc-
tions for killing and plucking fowl have been given previously in
Chapter XI. The plucked bird is washed and wiped immediately
with a damp cloth. Do not soak it in water. Instead of drawing
the bird, cut away the edible portions from the carcass.
With a sharp knife, cut off the wings and the legs at the joint
next to the body. Pulling on the wing or the leg while cutting will
aid in disjointing the bird. Turn the bird on its side and make a
cut beginning at the end of the breastbone along the side on a line
with the ends of the ribs. Do not make the cut so deep as to cut
into the body cavity and puncture the entrails. Turn the bird over
and cut the other side in a similar manner. Now lay the bird on
its back and break the backbone. Cut around the vent and remove
the entrails. Save the giblets. Carefully remove the gall bladder
from the liver without breaking it or the meat will get contaminated
and taste bitter. Remove lungs and kidneys, also cut out the oil
sack in the tail head. Discard these with the entrails. To remove the
breast meat from the bone, cut straight down between the wishbone
and the point of breast. Leave the meat attached to the breastbone.
Now remove the breast meat from the center bone by cutting down
the side of the breast. Leave the bone in the other meaty pieces.
Cut the legs into drumsticks and second joints. Saw or chop drum-
sticks off short, if desired. As you cut, trim off the large lumps of
fat. Sort the pieces into three piles-meaty pieces, bony pieces, and
giblets. The bony pieces are used to make broth which will be
needed later. Cover these pieces with water and simmer until the
meat is tender.
Drain broth into a bowl and skim off the fat. Remove the meat
from the bones and, if desired, can as little pieces.
Hot Pack With Bone. Place the pieces of chicken to be canned
in a cooking pan and pour the hot broth or hot water over the meat.
The liquid should almost cover it. Cover the pot with a lid and
precook the meat. Stir or shake the pot occasionally so the meat
will heat and cook evenly. Cook until the meat is medium done,
or when cut, shows no pink color at the center of the pieces.
HOME CANNING 257
If salt is desired, put level measure into clean empty containers:
Yz teaspoonful in pint jar or No.2 can; % teaspoonful in No. 2Yz
can; I teaspoonful in quart jar or No.3 can. Pack the second joints
and drumsticks with the skin next to the glass or tin. Fit the breast
meat into the center and the smaller pieces in vacant spaces where
needed. Leave about I inch above the meat for head space in the
glass jars and Yz inch in the tin cans. Cover the meat with the hot
broth and leave I inch for head space in the jars and fill the tin
cans to the top. Work out all the air bubbles with a knife and
then add more liquid to cover the meat if necessary. Be sure to
leave I-inch head space in the jars and fill the tin cans to the top.
Now adjust the lids on the glass jars (page 249) and seal the tin
cans. Process at once in the steam pressure canner at 10 pounds
pressure (240°F.).
Quart jars ............ 75 min. No. 2'if and No.3 cans. 75 min.
Hot Pack Without Bone. The procedure for this process is prac-
tically the same as for hot-packed poultry with bone, except the
bone is removed and the skin is left with the meat. Boning can be
done while the meat is raw or after precooking. Boned poultry
requires longer processing in the steam-pressure canner than poultry
with bone. Process bone poultry at 10 pounds pressure (240°F.).
Pint jars .............. 75 min. No. 2 cans ............ 65 min.
Quart jars ............ 90 min. No. 2Yz and No.3 cans.90 min.
Raw Pack, With Bone. Bone the fowl in the same manner as di-
rected for hot pack with bone. If salt is desired, use the quantity of
salt recommended; also pack the pieces of meat in the containers
in the same way. Now set the open jars or cans in a large vessel con-
taining warm water about 2 inches below the tops of the containers.
Cover the vessel and heat at a slow boil until the meat in all the
containers is steaming hot and medium done. This requires about
50 minutes in tin cans and 75 minutes in glass jars. If you have a
thermometer, place it in the center of the container, and when it
registers 170°F. the meat is heated sufficiently. Adjust the lids on
the glass jars (page 249) and seal the tin cans. Process at once in the
steam-pressure canner at 10 pounds pressure (240°F.).
Pint jars .............. 65 min. No.2 cans ............. 55 min.
Quart jars ............ 75 min. No. 2Yz and No.3 cans. 75 min.
258 PRESERVING MEAoT, FOWL, AND SEAFOOD
FIG. 207. Pour hot btoth or hot water over the pieces of raw chicken in a cooking
pan, almost covering them.
FIG. 20~. Pack secorld joints and drumsticks with skin next to glass; breast in
center of jar; smaller pieces fitted in.
lOME CANNING 259
..
"
(G. 209. Put on glass lid so groove on top is at right angles to bail. Push long
wire bail over lid into groove. Leave short wire loose. Work quickly.
FIG. 210. Return each jar into canner as soon as it is filled and sealed. Be sure
that the proper amount of water is in the canner so it will not boil dry and be
damaged. Fasten lid securely.
Raw Pack, Without Bone. Proceed as directed for raw-packed
poultry with bone, but remove the bone and leave the skin with
the meat. Pack the pieces. Boned chicken requires longer process-
ing in the steam-pressure canner than chicken with bone, so process
at 10 pounds pressure (240°F.).
Quart jars ............ 90 min. No. 20? and No.3 cans. 90 min.
Giblets. Giblets, livers, hearts, and gizzards can be canned success-
fully, but it is good practice to can the livers separately. In this
way the taste will be preserved more perfectly. Gizzards and hearts
may be canned together. Chicken giblets with white turnips, chicken
liver saute, en brochette, chicken liver omelet, giblet soup, giblet
stew, and giblet pie are only a few tasty and unusual dishes, not to
mention dressings and gravies that can be made from these tasty
by-products.
Clean the giblets thoroughly and wash them well in cold water.
Put them in a tooking pot and cover with chicken broth or hot
water. Cover the pot with a lid and precook the giblets until
medium done. Shake the pot or stir frequently while cooking. If
salt is desired, put level measure into clean, empty containers. In
the average family, giblets are canned in such small quantities that
only pint jars and No. 2 cans are considered. Here again, if salt is
desired, put a level measure into the clean empty containers: I tea-
spoon in a pint jar or No.2 can. Pack the giblets hot and leave
about f inch above the meat in the glass jars for head space and Y2
inch in the tin Cans. Cover the giblets with hot broth or hot water.
Leave I inch fot head space in jars and fill the tin cans to the top.
Adjust the lids on the glass jars (page 249) and seal the tin cans.
Then process in the steam-pressure canner at 10 pounds pressure
(240°F.) .
Small Game. Wild rabbits constitute the largest, cheapest, and
most generally available supply of game in the United States. More
of them are taken each season by hunters and trappers than any
other species of game, large or small.
Abundant mOst everywhere, shot for sport or market, and free
from nonsale restrictions in many states, they form an important
item of food supply. Squirrels are one of the most widely hunted
of the smaller game animals. Rabbit and squirrel meat, if properly
prepared, is truly delicious. Woodchuck is also good eating, believe
HOME CANNING 261
it or not, as is opossum and raccoon. All this game meat, including
quail and pheasant can be prepared and canned the same way as
chicken, with or without bone. 1
Fishery Products. There is an ever-increasing number of home-
makers who find it advantageous to can seafoods. The information
given here is for the guidance of all who desire to can such foods
in the home. Methods that are simple, practical, and safe have
been developed for the more important varieties of seafoods that
are suitable for canning. Only by adhering to these methods and
applying uniform workmanship will the homemaker bring forth a
product that will be welcomed at the family table.
The equipment necessary is practically the same as that required
for canning meats. Here, again, it must be emphasized that under
no circumstances should any fishery product be canned unless a
pressure canner is used. It is impossible to process thoroughly by
any other means. Keep in mind also that the temperature-pressure-
time relationships recommended for processing each product must
be adhered to if a safe and satisfactory product is to be obtained.
A wide-mouth jar with a short neck, I pint capacity, is best for
most fishery products. The type with a glass top that fits down on
a rubber ring and is sealed with a wire clamp is satisfactory. There
is always a chance of some breakage occurring with the glass tops.
Jars of the self- or vacuum-sealing type, fitted with enameled metal
tops edged with an inner composition gasket, are regarded as pref-
erable to all other types. They are somewhat more expensive because
the caps are not reusable.
Tin cans are used extensively for home canning of fishery prod-
ucts, especially on the Pacific Coast. Best results are obtained if
such products are packed in plain tin cans. Enamel-lined cans are
not satisfactory. Cans have some disadvantages in comparison with
glass jars, but they also have points in their favor. Glass jars cost
more than tin cans, but the jars can be used over and over. The
reuse of tin cans is dangerous and should not be practiced. In con-
tinuous service, therefore, the jars will prove the more economical.
The advantages of tin cans are that the product cannot be light-
struck, as may happen with glass jars. Cans are lighter than glass
jars and easier to handle, and there is no danger of breakage. Final
choice depends upon the individual. Perhaps a large quantity of
glass jars are on hand, if so, it would not be economical to purchase
a supply of cans. If, however, no containers are on hand and the
1 Cooking Wild Game, by Frank G. Ashbrook and Edna N. Sater, Orange Judd
Publishing Company, New York, N. Y.

plan is to pack large quantities, then the relative merits of the
two types of containers should be considered carefully before mak-
ing a selection.
Machines are required for sealing the covers on tin cans after
they are exhausted and put into the pressure-canner. These sealers
for home lIse are adjustable to various size cans.
The cans recommended for packing fish products at home vary
from half-flat to the No.2 can. The larger sizes are not suitable
for home canning. Information on the various sizes of tin cans
suitable for home canning of fishery products are given in the fol-
lowing table:
SPECIFICATIONS OF, AND USES FOR, THE VARIOUS SIZES OF STANDARD CANS 1
Capac- Con-
Common Can makers' Dimensions ity tents Recommended
designation Can size designation (inches) (fl. oz.) 2 (cups) use
Half-flat .. No. Y2 307 x 202\1 3~Gx2%2 9 1 Minced clams
and tuna-
style packs
Eastern
oyster ... No.1 211 x 400 2 1¥16 X 4 11 IYJ
Tall salmon No.1 tall 301 x 411 3¥16 x 41 ¥16 17 2
Pint . ..... No.2 307 x 409 3~6x4%6 21 2\1
1 Adapted from Conservation Bulletin 28, Home Canning of Fishery Products,
U. S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C.

2 The capacity as given indicates the approximate contents in terms of fluid
ounces and is not a recommended fill.
PROCURING RAW FISH
Studies by the Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Department of the

Interior, indicate that fish purchased at average wholesale prices
make the cost of home-canned products higher than those canned
commercially. A saving is made only when the raw material is
brought in by the members of the family and no outlay of money
is involved, or when it is obtained at prices well below wholesale.
Surplus catches of noncommercial fishermen are one of the best
sources of raw material for the home canner. Only the freshest of
fish should be canned.
How to handle, transport, inspect, dress and wash fish for preser-
vation have been discussed in Chapter XII and previously in this
chapter.
HOW TO PACK THE CONTAINER 263
Even if the fish are cleaned when caught, they still require further
cleaning and washing before canning. Naturally the fins must be
removed, the fish scraped free of scales and slime, the heads and
tails cut off, and any remaining bits of viscera or membranes cleaned
from the cavity. After the fish have been thoroughly washed in fresh
water, the color of the flesh usually can be improved by soaking 15
to 60 minutes in a light brine, made in the proportion of one-half
cup of salt to 1 gallon of water. This drains diffused blood out of
the flesh. Use only water of drinking quality in canning fish.
How TO PACK THE CONTAINER
Some fish are packed raw, with no preparation other than cutting
into container-length pieces. Others are precooked for a short time
before they are packed. Precooking removes excess moisture, thus
making the canned product firmer, makes packing easier, helps to
create a vacuum, and eliminates the exhausting. The time required
for processing is also shortened. Containers should be prepared as
previously directed under the various discussions of glass jars and
cans.
Raw-packed fish should be put into the containers flush with the
rim. The shrinkage occurring during processing will create sufficient
head space. If space is left below the rim, the space in the processed
can will be excessive and the container will be underfilled. This
will permit the contents to break up and become mushy when
moved. For precooked fish, the head space allowed is %6 of an inch
from the top.
Precooked fish packed into tin cans when hot and sealed immedi-
ately, need not be exhausted, because the shrinkage of the product
in cooling creates sufficient vacuum. Exhaust before sealing is nec-
essary only for cold-filled, raw-pack, or precooked fishery products
in tin containers. Products packed in glass, however, need not be
put through an exhaust process. Exhaust will occur during process-
ing, because the containers are not then completely sealed.
After the tin cans are exhausted and before they are put into the
pressure canner the covers must be sealed on the cans. The princi-
ple of operation is the same as that for meat canning, and the direc-
tions that accompany the can-closing machine should be carefully
and completely followed. This also applies to the steam-pressure
canner instructions on processing in both glass and tin containers.
All containers must be cooled as rapidly as practicable after
processing; otherwise the stored-up heat will continue the cooking
and the contents will be over-cooked. Plunge the tin cans into cold
running water, or standing water that is changed frequently. When
the cans feel only slightly warm they should be removed from the
water and wiped dry. It is also necessary to cool glass jars, but they
will break if subjected to cold water. Stack them where the air can
pass freely around them, but do not subject them to drafts while
cooling. When the jars are practically cool they should be washed
and dried.
RECOMMENDED CANNING METHODS
The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service conducted a series of canning

experiments with typical products. This work was carried on with
apparatus and under conditions usually found in the average home,
and the canned products were subjected to laboratory analyses. The
basic information developed is presented in Conservation Bulletin
28, Home Canning of Fishery Products, for the guidance of all who
desire to can sea foods in the home.
The fish technologists point out that the methods given are recom-
mended only for the products specifically named. Although the
processes are believed to be adequate for the sterilization of prac-
tically all varieties of fishery products, some species of fish, because
of certain physical and chemical properties, are not suited for can-
ning. The home canner should bear in mind that the information
obtained from the experiments conducted by the Fish and Wildlife
Service is only intended as a guide. Much depends upon the care
with which the general instructions are followed.
Here are the canning procedures recommended by the Fish and
Wildlife Service for certain species.
I
River Herring. 1. Thoroughly wash the fish and remove the fins and
scales. With a sharp knife cut completely through the fish just behind the
head. Continue the cut downward along one side of the fish directly be-
hind the gill to the belly, thence along the belly to the vent. The head
may then be removed, and with it the viscera. Wash and scrape the cavity
clean and rinse off all traces of blood.
2. Prepare a brine that will float an egg (70° to 80° salinometer) and
place the fish in it for approximately 6 hours. If the skin should show
signs of wrinkling or changing color within this period the fish must
immediately be removed.
3. Cut the fish into pieces equal in length to the containers in which
they are to be packed. Wrap each piece tightly in vegetable parchment
paper and pack it in the cans or jars (No.2 cans or pint jars are recom-
mended) in alternate positions; that is, head to tail, so that a uniform pack
will be obtained.
RECOMMENDED CANNING METHODS 265
4. Prepare a brine in the proportion of I Y2 tablespoons of salt to I quart
of water and pour it into the spaces between the paCked fish, completely
filling the container.
5. Covers are clinched loosely on tin cans, and jar tops are put on but
not completely tightened, and they are exhausted 10 minutes at 212°F. Im-
mediately following the exhaustion period tin cans must be completely
sealed. Glass jars are not sealed until after processing-.
Process. Pint jars must be processed 70 minutes and No.2 cans 60 min-
utes at 15 pounds pressure (250°F.).
To fill 12 No.2 cans or pint jars, 25 pounds of herring in the round
(not eviscerated) are required.
River Herring Roe. l. Wash the roe thoroughly in fresh water, picking
out all bits of "black skin," or intestine.
2. Spread the roe in a thin layer on a wire-mesh Screen and drain for
10 minutes.
3. Fill into No. I or No.2 cans (half-pint or pint gla.ss jars may be used).
If scales are available, fill by weight. As the roe swells somewhat in process-
ing, fill 14 ounces into a No.2 can or p.int jar, or 7 ounces into a No. I
can or half-pint jar. If scales are not available fill by volume, leaving
about three-fourths inch head space.
4. Fill the containers to die (Op with brine made in tbe proportion of
2 tablespoons of salt to I quart of water.
5. If canning in tin, the covers are clinched on loosely and the containers
exhausted 8 minutes at 212°F. Tin cans must be completely sealed im-
mediately after exhausting. If canning in glass, seal ja.rs loosely until after
process.
Process. No.2 cans 60 minutes and pint jars 70 minutes at 15 pounds
pressure (250°F.).
To fill 12 No.2 cans or pint jars, 10 pounds of roe are required.
Other Fish Roe. The roe of haddock, cod, hake, "Florida" or jumping
mullet, and channel bass makes an excellent canned pl'oduct. Roe of other
salt-water fishes may be used if obtainable in sufficient quantities and if
the individual eggs are not large. The roe of some fishes in southern waters
is said to cause severe illness, however, and only mullet and channel bass
roe can be recommended for canning in the South Atlantic and Gulf
regions and on the coast of southern California.
l. Spread the roe on trays with wire-mesh bottoms where it can be sorted
and allowed to drain. The roe must be picked free from all bits of in-
testine, gall bags, or other offal, and if it is dark-colored or bloody it can-
not be used. If a gall bag breaks, the area covered by the fluid from the
bag must be cut out and discarded immediately.
2. Wash the roe thoroughly in fresh water.
3. Slit the skin covering each lobe, or section of roe, and rub the lobe
on a one-eighth-inch mesh screen placed in an inclined position over a
pan. The roe will be separated from the membrane and drop into the pan.
The separation may be accomplished more rapidly by running the lobes
through a meat grinder that is fitted with a plate having one-eighth or one-
fourth-inch holes, but the membranes also will pass through the grinder
and must be skimmed off afterward_
4_ After the roe is separated from the membrane it should be stirred
vigorously for 5 minutes in brine made up in the proportion of 2 table-
spoons of salt to 1 quart of water and at the rate of 3 pints of brine to
5 pounds of roe.
5. Filling and other details, including process and quantity of raw ma-
terial, do not differ from the canning of herring roe.
Carp and Suckers. 1. Clean the fish and remove the fins, skin, and streak
of dark flesh along each side. Split the fish, but do not remove the back-
bone, and cut into container-length pieces.
2. Wash and soak the pieces in a brine, made up in the proportion of
one-fourth cup of salt to 1 gallon water, for 30 minutes. Then remove
and drain.
3. Rub the drained fish with dry salt and pack in a stone crock for 2
hours with as much salt as will cling to the flesh.
4. Rinse the fish in fresh water, removing all traces of salt, drain, and
pack them in either pint jars or No.2 cans.
5. Place the lids on the containers loosely and steam for 30 minutes at
3 pounds pressure (220°F.). Then remove and invert the containers on a
wire screen to drain for 2 or 3 minutes.
6. Place 1 bay leaf on top of the fish and fill up each container with
chopped onion. Seal tin cans immediately. Glass jars must not be com-
pletely sealed before they are processed.
Process. Pint jars 100 minutes and No.2 cans 90 minutes at 10 pounds
pressure (240°F.).
To fill 12 No.2 cans or pint jars, 34 to 38 pounds of carp or suckers,
round weight (as caught), are required.
Experimental packs following this method did not develop the. so-called
"muddy" or "kerosene" taste if the fish used were taken from clean waters.
Off tastes were present in fish taken from badly polluted waters, though
somewhat less prominent than when other canning methods were used.
Mackerel, Lake Trout, Whitefish, and Florida Mullet. 1. Clean the
fish thoroughly, cutting away strips of the thin belly section, wash them in
fresh water, and drain for a few minutes.
2. Split the fish, but do not remove the backbone, and cut them into
container-length pieces. Soak these in brine, made up in the proportion
of one-half pound of salt to 1 gallon water, for 60 minutes.
3. Drain the brined fish and fill into containers, flush with the rim, alter-
nating head and tail ends III order to secure a good fill. If pint glass jars
are used, the skin side of the fish should be placed against the glass. Sub-
merge the open jars or cans in brine, made up in the proportion of 4
ounces of salt to 1 gallon of water, and bring to a boil for 15 minutes.
4. Remove the containers and invert them on a wire screen to drain for
about 3 minutes. Drained liquid is discarded. Add 1 or 2 bay leaves and
1 or 2 slices of onion to each container. Seal tin cans immediately.
WHEN CANNING IS COMPLETED 267
Process. If packed in pint jars, process for 100 minutes at 10 pounds
pressure (240°F.). Release pressure very slowly from the pressure canner,
allowing 20 minutes or more, and remove the jars. If the pack is made in
tin, process for 90 minutes at 10 pounds pressure (240°F.). Release pres-
sure immediately.
To fill 12 No.2 cans or pint jars, 35 pounds of fish, round weight, are
required.
Mackerel in Tomato Sauce. Duplicate the method given above through
step No.3; then proceed as follows:
4. Remove the containers and invert them on a screen to drain for about
3 minutes and discard the drained liquid.
5. Pour hot tomato sauce over the fish to within one-half inch of the rim.
Seal glass jars immediately and process for 100 minutes at 10 pounds pres-
sure (240°F.), releasing pressure very slowly. Fill No. 2 cans with hot
tomato sauce, seal immediately, and process for 90 minutes at 10 pounds
pressure (240°F.).
Recipe for Tomato Sauce
gallon tomato puree tablespoon minced onion
6 tablespoons spiced vinegar sauce ounce salt
V2 ounce ground horseradish
Mix the ingredients and concentrate them by boiling to half their
original volume.
To fill 12 No.2 cans or pint jars, 33 pounds of fish, round weight, are
required.
These and many procedures for canning other species of fish in-
cluding clams, oysters, crabs, shrimp, and lobsters, also various
chowders, are given in Conservation Bulletin 28, Home Canning of
Fishery Products, for sale by the Superintendent of Documents,
U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. Price 10
cents.
WHEN CANNING Is COMPLETED
The day after canning, examine the glass jars for leaks. Turn the
jar partly over in the hands to see if it drips liquid. Examine cans
for leaky seals. Also set out any can that buckles and breaks its
seam. Sometimes too little food in the can or too fast cooling causes
this type of leak. If any jar or can has leaked, either use the food
at once or can it all over again, using another container. Heat the
meat all through; then pack and process in the steam-pressure
canner for the same length of 'time as if the meat were fresh. In the
case of canned fishery products, if leakage or other defects are found,
make no attempt to reprocess the product.
I
I
\

Labeling. Label each glass jar and tin can that has passed in-
spection so that you will know the contents and date. If more than
one lot of food has been canned during the day, add a lot number.
To fasten paper labels on tin, use rubber cement; or if the labels
are long enough, put glue along one end and wrap the label
smoothly around the can and lap the glued end over the other. Oc-
casionally, a tin can packed too full will bulge at the ends after
processing has been completed. Such a can should be marked to
distinguish it from one that may bulge later because of food spoilage.
,.
.•.
/
FIG. 211. Label plainly each good glass jar or tin can so you will know the con-
tents and date. If more than one lot was canned in a day, add the lot number.
Storing. Canned food should be stored in a cool place, as heat

will increase the loss of color, flavor, and food value, and may cause
flat-sour or-other kinds of spoilage. Make sure the canned food will
not be kept warm by a chimney, hot pipes, or a stove. It should be
stored in a dry place, as dampness may cause rusting of lids and
favors mold growth. Light causes food to fade and lose quality,
so glass jars should be protected from light. Freezing softens food.
But unless the freezing cracks the jars'or breaks the seal the product
will continue to keep.
..," ,
'f
VHEN CANNING IS COMPLETED 269
A good sturdy shelf, with ample space, should be provided for
ome canned foods. A good plan is to build the shelves so that the
us are only two deep and can be handled easily. The jars and cans
an be arranged on the shelf in the order in which they are to be
sed. This will simplify the planning of meals and distribute the
se of the canned food through the year.
Most canned fishery products require 2 or 3 months in storage to
ipen properly; that is, to allow sufficient time for complete absorp-
ion of the salt and other seasoning substances.
Using Home Canned Food. Before opening any jar or tin can,
xamine it thoroughly. Bulging covers or rubber rings, gas bubbles,
r leakage evident on a glass jar may indicate spoilage. Press the
nd of the tin can. Neither end should bulge or snap back, unless
J.e can was sprung when processed. Both ends should look fiat and
urved slightly inward. Seams should be tight and clean, with no
ign of leaks.
FIG. 212. Cured tongue slightly smoked is a popular cold cut.
When you open a jar or tin can there should be no outburst or

iUcking in of air or sputtering of liquid. Always smell the food as
ioon as the jar is opened. The odor should be characteristic of the
:>roduct. Note any off-odor and look carefully for any signs of off-
:olor, mold, or softening of the meat. These are signs of spoilage.
<\ tin can should be smooth and clean inside and show very little
:orrosion. If a metal cap of a jar or tin can has turned dark inside,
:his is not harmful. The sulphur from the meat caused this. The
)roth over the meat mayor may not be jellied. If it is liquid, this
:s not a sign of spoilage.
It is possible for meat to contain botulinus poison without show-
ing it, but it can usually be identified by a bad odor when the meat
is heated. So as a safety precaution before tasting, turn out the meat
into a pan, add a little water if needed, cover the pan and boil
twenty minutes before adding any other ingredients. If any meat
smells queer after this, destroy it without tasting. Spoiled meat and
fish should be burned to eliminate the possibility of it being eaten
by chickens and animals. If the meat is good and not to be used
at once after it has been boiled, chill it immediately in a refrig-
erator.
.j
XIV
~EAT PRODUCT~AND
BY -PRODUCTS
(]ecause there are so many kinds of meat and so many ways, to

prepare it, we can have just as much variety as we want.
Aside from the standard cuts there are heads, tails, feet, hocks,
trimmings, internal organs, blood, and fat that can be utilized in
making sausages, puddings, scrapple, headcheese, pickled pigs' feet,
pickled and smoked tongue, dried beef, and meat loaf. Many of
these products require no further cooking. for they can be served
as cold cuts. Others must be grilled, fried, or boiled before they are
served.
Commercially in the large packing houses these products are made
exclusively of trimmings, scraps, and hard-to-sell irregular cuts of
meat and other parts of the carcass not included in the standard cuts.
When the family's meat supply is prepared at home, certain
primary whole cuts can be used efficaciously and, with cate and
attention, the result is a choicer meat delicacy instead of a means of
using scraps. Many of these easy-to· make specialties require very
little preparati09 l. ~l'.: 1' . ," . .'
(SAUSAGES AND PUDDINGS)
Cro most people the term "sausage" means ground pork. Really
it means any ground or chopped meat. Technically. sausage is a
mixture of minced meat or meats seasoned, spiced, and stuffed into
casings which originally consisted of the intestines of hogs, sheep,
or cattle-sheep being most tender. The stuffed casing is tied shut
usually at short intervals to form a string of plump cylindrical sec-
tions with rounded ends. Some kinds are used fresh and can be
prepared for the table by grilling, frying. and boiling. Other
sausages, not classed as fresh meat, are boiled, smoked, or boiled
271
I
272 MEAT PRODUCTS 'AND BY-PRODUCTS
and smoked, or air dried. Some of these can be eaten as cold cuts
without any further preparation, while others require further cook-
ing to make them palatable.
FIG. 213. Meat should be cold when it is ground. Cleancut

meat assures fine texture.
Pudding is a variety of saus~ also made of spiced, minced meats

and edible entrails mixed"Wlth cereal, blood, milk, suet, shredded
onions, eggs, breadcrumbs, and other ingredients. The mixture is
stuffed into a casing, tied shut at both ends, and boiled directly
after it is made. The puddings are then kept in~ cool place and,
before serving, they may be boiled again or grille<!)
Pudding making had its greatest modern development in ~n.&
land, Scotland, and France. Boudins or boudins noir, or black pud-
dillgs as. ih.ey are called in E'ngtand and in some paits··orScQ_tl~n!:!L
are made of hogs' blood, shreJaedsuet, dried oatmeal, and minced -_
0Ilions with plenty of pepper and·salradded. Seasoning v.a~ies 1n
different localities. In some sections of England, coriander andcara-
way are pr~erred; in others, majoram and tliYiji·e:-T~· FraIlce,-oEet-
r~dgarIi~.. ~re favorites; in spain:£e_I!.I1~l; in.Ger!!l:~!!.i.-1IW"me
and mair~m; where-assase-iS=.~~p'r~domrn~te fa"orit~_!_n the United
States.
___.. .- --:-- .
SAUSAGES AND PUDDING~ t wc1, ~ W ~" , 273
Strange as it may seem, fsa~sages and puddings are age-old meat
products, dating back to tlhe time of the ancient ~reeks. As long
ago as the fifth century B.C., Aristophanes makes- anillusion in his
comedy The Clouds, "Let them make sausages of me and serve me
up to the students." And then later, A.D. 288, in the oldest cookbook
that has come down to us Diepnosophists, Athenaeus says, "Epi-
charm us mentions sausages, calling them oryae, a name by which
he even entitles one of his plays the Orya."
Hundreds of years later in Europe we find the highest peak of
development and appreciation of sausage and pudding making.
Originally these meat products were made to preserve fresh meat,
and salt and spices were added. Historically, Germany, Austria,
Italy, Czechoslovakia, and other European countries vied with one
another in their various varieties of sausages.
The Germans have been among the largest consumers of sausage
and have developed many kinds, the names of which often end in
wurst, meaning sausage. Thus we have wienerwurst, liverwurst,
bockwurst, and mettwurstCf
The delicious flavor of sausage appeals to the entire family alike;
consequently sausage has grown in popularity. Because of its palata-
bility and economy, sausage is a popular item in our diet, and its
use in our country is increasing. Of all meats produced commer-
cially, about one pound in eight is eaten as sausage. In 1952, we
consumed 1V2 billion ~ounds of federally inspected sausage. J
\ ~reparing Sausage. ~i:lusag~ of sllPerior quality is one of the most
pa8t~hl~..9J pork products. Good sausage is indeed a wholesome
fo~d is easy to__!!.!.~ke. )Whether you make a few pounds or many
pounds, -your sausage wnl always be appetizing if you exercise a
little patience and follow carefully the directions given here.
Vhere are many kinds of sausage varying according to the kind
of meat or combination of meats used; whether cooked or uncooked;
fresh or cured; the character and combination of spices and herbs;
whether or not cereals have been added; the style of casing; whether
natural or artificial; or where doth is used, with or without a para-
ffin covering:)
Fresh sa~ges are made from fresh, uncured meat. Thn are not
precooked and usually not smokea;lfOnsequeniTytheir keep!!1_g_qual-
ifles are no tJetter-man [nose of ground fresh meaL) Pork sausage,
ehher in bulk or in link stuffed into casings, is the most pOlular
fresh sausage. Smoked-pork sausage, bockwurst, bratwurst, andresh
tliuringer are o'ttrertyF-"--FTesIi sausagesconiprIse--onry a small
percef:itage <:)itOe1OtaI amount of sausages consumed. Fresh sausages
are cooked before eating. _-
1
274 MEAT PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS
(Cooked sausages are made of meat that has been given a light cure
o~ marinaae before grinding and Sh9l?WDg. Su~h sausages are
c~and usually smoKed. "Their keeping gualities are' muCh 'II
b~~!_~han_.rres!Ls~~.s.~ges. ) The frankfurter, a!soKiiown-asthe
wIel!.er oT, "hot dog, IS t~~.~ost .popular of t!!ecooked ~~ges:
These are rooked-and smoked-also cooked before serving~' Bologna
sausage is quite similar and is a closesecond in popularity. Braun-
schweiger TIverwurst is also stuffed into casings. and. cooked arid
smOk.;d'--B'otfl these sausages are sliced and eaten as'coldCiiti'-'
(QrL'?! :)M!!l}:r!,e,r" sau~ag_~s, such as salami an~~_<;!:iiifatrare not
generally made in the home, becauselilillany sections of the coun-
try the humidity is excessively high and the sausage does not dry
out. Therefore, it is likely to be green in the center when cut
because it is not thoroughly dried before smoking.
Good sausage makers prefer to use the shoulders,~loins, hams, and
the !?~~_on strips along with. the pork trimmings. Sausage, howev~,
is _usually made from th~ .pork trimmings alone. In or~~r to pro-
duce sausage that will keep and be of good quality, it is necessary to
use fresn meat that is in good condition, this also applies to sausages
that require the meat to be cured. Be sure to use only the meat that
has been thoroughly cooled and in good condition, free from s()ll('!~d
or bloodypOI'1lOris. Only materials' of 'superior quamy should be
used. This is also true of the spice.s. h~Jbs.dtl1d..J>ther Ingredients
used in making sausages. .Lf
&Trim all of the meat from th.e bones andt~hen trim Ol.lt all the
gristle and blood clots. Cold meat makes trim;e6n g easieONow cu.~
the meat into strips and then into small cub I Cut both the Tat
arurTeailii'fttriSmafinef,l)iitkeep them sep-$rate. The ne'x"istep is
) to ~igh the _f<l~ ,and lean meat separately.,-~trqt;.!l Il!ix together in
the proportion called for in the sausage recipgy After the meat is
weI~neral practice is to mix the fat and lean together
in the proportiqq spedfied",lOd apply the seasoning for ihe total
amount of mea(. .,?rhen mix the seaso~ing and meat together before
grinding. As the meat is gn~un(Cthe seasoning will be thoro~ghly
mixed and blended with it~t The meat should be cold when it is
gr~...Jor this makes the nicesCsa'usage. "'-
~u{(1)tgood sausage grinder with stuffer spout and equipped with four
''4- plates, having %-; %-; o/tu-; and Ys-inch holes, cerfai!!!Y.---rat'itiIa.'tes
i'niking . sa~e-:--With this equipment you have a choice, when
grinding, of coarse- or fine-cut sausage. Most people prefer c~
ground to finely ground meat in loose or bulk sausage. ThIS per-
tains chiefly to an all-pork sausage or a pork-and-beef combination
'"
SAUSAGES AND PUDDINGS 275
when it is used for patties or molded and sliced for cooking. If
the meat is ground too fine, it has a tendency to become hard a'lld
dry III cooEiilr' In eith~f-cas-e;-i:oo'fiiuctrfat'catrses'a'rarge coollri g .•
tQ~j_ wIllie-not enough fat wirriilakethe' s~ausaiS"Jiira;ory~Qiffi
cult to brown.
ror 'coafSe-cut sausage, use the cutting plate with the standard
7i G- incn noles and ran "it through ihe-griilder once: For a fine:cut
sausage, run the'1'fieal through the grillder twice, the first tim;using-
.!_he cut!lp,.gl?l,ate_ with large %-inch holes, and the second time USlll&
the plate with the standard %G-inch holes. If a still finer cut is
deSIred, a Ys-inch hole plat~ ID_£lY be used_£()f.. t,he second grinding.
-]TSausag'clsrun througll the grinder twice, it should stana over-
night in a cool place between the first and second grindings. This
will prevent the meat from becoming heated by being ground twice
in succession. It will also give the seasoning a chance to permeate
tne-meat and wilrTii'sure better Havor. Remember that, in cutting
me-at"for sausage, the cutting knife and plate on the grinder must be
sharp and the meat c<221, A Oiitni.nife and plate will crush out the
m~suft in i~erior-sausage.
(Small quantities of loose or bulk sausage for immediate use may
oe kept in a crock or jar in the refrigerator or where it is cool. If it
is to be kept for a longer period, it should be molded into patties
and partially fried. The s~usage is then placed in stone crocks and
covered with melted lard. \
(Fresh pork sausage made of beef and pork, or mutton and pork,
and headcheese may be used without being stuffed into casings. 1
NeveJ;theless, these so-called fresh sausages are also stuffed into cas-
ings. lSausages si~ilar to liver sausage ~!1_d )~Q.!()gn~~~!yle sausage
should.,?e s~uffed lllto casings: )/ ·(~ir·:1" ::
--p()rJ( casmgs are excelIent for stuffing soausage when properly
cleaned and handkd. For ~mall link sausage, however, ~se sheep
casings. For m~dium link sausage, use medium sheep casings or
na.rrow hog casings. For large link or country-style sausage, use
i1_gular hog casings. B!;e_f casings are too tough to u,~~_!or sau~~ge.
r
Bundles or sets of salted casings may be purchased from many local
butchers. Several types of manufactured casings are also on the
market. Animal casings should be soaked for several minutes in
warm water and then flushed out immediately before being used.
Sausage may also be stuffed in muslin bags. These can be made by
stitching strips of muslin to form bags about 2 to 2Y2 inches in
diameter and about 12 to 15 inches long. Muslin casings should be
dipped in water and wrung out before they are used. After being
chilled, these stuffed bags are usually dipped in paraffin')
( In stuffing, first attach the stuffer spout and force enough sausage
into it to fill the spout. Now slip the casing over the spout and
feed on as much as it will hold. If a muslin casing is used, pull
the closed end of the casing up tightly against the end of the stuffing
tube. These precautions will prevent the formation of air pockets
in t!Ie casing. )
\ C!E_stuff sau~~~f!ic~en~~yand successfully, the meat specialists of
the O.-S. Department of Agriculture recommend that the op_e~~~or
sllPport the casing at the enq of the stuffer with the first hnger of
his left hand while he turns the crank with his right hand. Pressing
upward with the left forefinger and raising the stuffed casIng above
the end of the stuffer spout will pack the casing more tightly,
tlu;reb-J" elini-inating aL~~~~ets. A,_!1imal casings are cut after the
proper-sized ,ring or length has been stuffed and a new length is then
begun~
FIG. 214. Force sausage into stulfer spout. Slip casing over the spout and start
filling casing; put in as milch as it will hold.
To tie the__ c~_~ings, the meat specialists advise driving a tenpenny
,_--
nail into the far corner of the table and fasten to--n--cfffe ei1a- ofa
stout, s6ft, -wnite-string 3 feet long. Grasp both cut ends of tne cas-
'4- .'
ing, for example, a ring sausage or pudding, in the left hand and tie
tnem together with two half-hitches of the strmg:llethe ]lrsi: ring
n~.ai:!h~ ii<iif and. ~ilch succeeding one a little farther down the
string. 'When the string is full, cut it free and attach a new one.
_----'"'--
FIG. 215. Some popular varieties of sausage-country style, sausage meat, and
breakfast links.
r (Fresh Pork Sausage)

C!,resh pork sausage is undoubtedly the favorite in the farm home
and is made more often there than in any other home. That is why
the all-pork ground-meat product is called "country sausage." It is
made of fresh pork about one-third fat and two-thirds lean. More
fat will make the sausage too rich and in cooking there will be con-
siderable shrinkage or cooking loss. Less fat will make the sausage
rather hard and dry) .
For the beginner, it is recommended that a small quantity of
sausage be made as a test of the recipe and the family's taste. After
all, more or less salt, pepper, or sage may be desired and this can be
determined by first experimenting with a small quantity of meat.
The following recipe is suggested as a family test.
4 pounds pork C!fa fat and % ~ level teaspoon ground cloves

lean) or
5 level teaspoons salt level teaspoon ground nut-
4 level teaspoons ground sage meg
2 level teaspoons grou_nd black teaspoon sugar
pepper
(The meat may have been cut too fine or too coarse. It may be de-
sirable to omit the cloves, the nutmeg, or perhaps the sage; or just
omit the cloves and nutmeg and increase the sage. Maybe less salt
and pepper are preferable. It is all a matter of taste,) and this is
essentially a tryout.
\ Fresh seasonings, mixed in the proper proportions, are required
tb produce a delicious flavor in sausage. The herbs, peppers, and
other condiments must have retained a considerable portion of
their essential oils in order that their characteristic aromas will
permeate the meat.) To simplify the seasoning of sausage and insure
the same delicious flavor every time, Morton Salt Company has
prepare.d a complete mixture of spices, sage, peppers, and other sea-
soning ingredients blended with salt in exactly the right proportIons
td-rnake delicious sausage. This mix is ready to use as you obtain
i(and you do not have'to add or mix any oiher ingredients. If you
like a well-seasoned sausage or prefer one of mild seasoning you
simply use Mo.I:tQn:s..salJ.ta.~ea~ni!!IL-~directed.
So, grind, season, and mix your sausage as you like it. That is
one of the many advantages derived from preparing meat products
at home.
For 100 pounds of pork trimmings and meat one-third fat and
two-thirds lean, use the following:
1% pounds of salt Ii2to 1 ounce of red pepper
2 to 4 ounces of ground sage Ii2to 1 ounce ground cloves, or
2 to 4 ounces of ground black I ounce of ground nutmeg
pepper
12 ounces of sugar may also be included if the sausage is to be
used reasonably soon.
The seasoning should be spread over the mixture of fat and lean
meat, and the whole quantity ground as previously described. If
the sausage is to be put into casings, it should be stuffed immedi-
ately after the last grinding. It should then be soft enough to pack
tightly in the casings without the addition of cold water. It may
be fried and preserved in lard or canned.
To make bulk sausage that will slice and fry without crumbling,
add a half cup of cold water to each 4 pounds of the ground sea-
soned sausage and knead with the hands until the meat becomes
very sticky and dough-like. Pack tightly in small molds or pans and
chill thoroughly before slicing.
. .3 (Smoked Pork Sausage)
eUse pork sausage made with 2 pounds of salt, instead of l~
pounds per 100 pounds of meat. If it is too stiff to stuff properly,
add from 3 to 5 per cent of cold water and knead until the mass
becomes dough-like. Stuff tightly in casings and allow it to cure for
about 24 hours in a cool place. Smoke and dry at a temperature of
70° to gO°F. for a day or two until a dark mahogany color is ob-
tained. The sausage should not be kept until hot weather unless
it is canne~
~ured Pork Sausag~
( The meat is handled in the same manner as for fresh sausage
and cut in medium-sized pieces, approximately 2 to 3 inches square.
Make the following curing mixture for each 100 pounds of meat. )
, 5 pounds salt (good quality) "
1 pound sugar '~/
. 2 ounces saltpeter
~Thes~.jngredients should be thoroughly mixed with the meat.
Then pack the meat in a crock or other suitable container. Be sure
the meat is protected from the air as much as possible. This meat
will cure in one or two days and will be ready for further process-
ing. After meat is cured, add pepper, sage, and spice to taste. Addi-
tional salt may not be required. Then grind, stuff into sheep or
narrow hog casings, and smoke. J
B~ef, P?!!,~~_c:l" veal triqllpings can be cured in large and small
amounts with this same formula.
There are many delicious types and kinds of sausages that qm
be made with beef, veal, and pork or a combination of these meats
with hearts, livers, and tongues. Different combinations of these
meats and internal organs are possible, and seasoning and spices
may be used to suit the individual taste. Sausages ,m!lde of various
meat combinations may be fres!J:,. c::~.!?l<:c::<:iJ_.. !ll}_g I.J1~y_g!'_!!!ay not be
smoked. ' - -~-:----...
_. Beef and Pork Sausage
(A favorite and a very tasty sausage is made of a mixture of beef
and pork. Beef is naturally less fatty than pork, so its addition to
the mixture not only reduces the shrinkage in cooking but main-
tains the size of the original sausage. Whether used as a fresh bulk
sausage or stuffed into casings, this sausage is most popular with
many people. )A goodproporti01; .to use is 2 pounds of lean. bec:f jn
combination ~ith 2 pounds--oMean pork and I pound of fat pork.
\ I \
280 MEA T PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS
lMutton and Pork Sausage)

(Another tasty sausage is made by mixing t~~ pa~~s of lamb or
mutton with one part each of lean and fat pork. 'the"meat is cut'
in squares, mixed, seasoned, and ground in the same manner as
preViunsty-gi'ven for making sausage)-'"-'---------·----~"
--~--'-'•.. ' ... -.-'..
( Game or Hunters Sausage)
. /
(The less t:nder port~ons of deer, a?telope, elk, moose, alld other
bIg game ammals (vemson) can certamly be used)to best advantage
iilrrr:rtdng a palatable sausage. All these meats can be mixed in the _
pro ortion ·_£pgUPrls.,of veni~~!:..~.eaeh of·-leaQ.,e_nd
fat pork. ! -
.. ~.-.---' (Smoked Sausage)

('In some sections of the United States this sausage is !yjQ__ {;~1!~d
h>untry sausage. The following ingredients are used in making
this delectable product:
~~5 pounds lean pork 1 ounce red pepper
15 pounds beef 1 ounce sweet marjoram
r 1 Y2 to 2 pounds salt 1 ounce mace
4 ounces black pepper
Cut all the meat into small pieces and sprinkle the seasoning
over it; then run it through the grinder using the small plate. Store
the mixture in a cool place for 24 to 36 hours, then add a little
water and knead the mixture well. Stuff into hog casings and smoke
in a very cool smoke until the sausage' takes on a dark'mahogany
cOlotj·- -.....__' .-~~--"" ." ...... -.__._-", !
( Liver Sausage) !
I This sausage can be made by cooking pig heads, tongues, skins,

hearts, and other pieces. Put all the pieces of meat in a kettle, cover""-
with water, and simmer for 2 or 3 hours until the meat .pn- De --
boned. Do not cook too long or until the meat falls from the bones.
"'Veal or beef can be added and cooked with the pork. Liver con·
tributes a definite flavor to this sausage; 10 to 20 per cent of liver,
by weight, is usually added to the other cooked products. Sc~!~ the
livers last. If they are deeply cut with a knife they should be suJii·
ciently seared in about 10 minutes. Some formulas call for the addi-
tion of raw liver\_ .
@'iind all the cooked materials moderately fine and add about
T.l ..•
one-fifth as much broth by weight, using enough to make the mix-
ture soft but not sloppy. Season to taste and mix thoroughly. The
following are standard quantities of seasonings for 100 pounds of
the mixture:
\,,--~
y
\...-
v2 to 2 Y2 pounds salt ~ to 1 oun(:e red pepper
~ to 4 ounces black pepper 1 to 2 ounces allspice }
,L, to 3 ounces sage
I The seasoned, well-mixed sausage is usually stuffed in -b~ef cas-
i~gs and simmered. in water until it ~oats; the time req'Uired--is
Tot'O:30 minutes. After being cooked, the ~ausqge is plunged into
c"Ord water, chilled for at least 30 minutes, and hung up to drain.
"If the meat'is cooked too long in the first kettle, the second cook-
ing, after the sausage has beel} stuffed, will destroy the tight "live"
texture of the finished sausageJ
Another liver sausage can be made in accordance with the fol-
lowing formula:
35 pounds pork trimmings 2 ounces SWeet mafJ'oram
(heads, shanks, etc.) I ounce allspice
r 15 pounds lean veal or beef 10 pounds meat broth
7 pounds dry bread Garlic or onions
I pound salt
r Cook all meat as instructed in previous formula. Separ~~eit_from

b~nes and add raw liver and the water-soaked bread' from which
the surplus water has beeh"squeezed.
The whole mass is then ground through the fine plate. Now add
the 10 pounds of meat broth in which the meat was cooked and the
rest of the seasoning. Chop the onion or garlic fine. The mass is
then thoroughly mixed with the hands or a p<tddle for abo:t!Lll'..
minutes. Stuff into beef casings which have be(!n soaked in warm
Water.
Teasily
Liver sausage tied in strings of ~ve. or ~i,,: sal1sages can be most
handled. When the sausage IS tIed, It IS cooked in water, not
quite boiling, until it floats, then plunged into cold water to cool.
This sausage must be kept in a cool place or it filay spoil. It is best
fried, but it may be cooked in other ways. )
Frankfurt or Vienna Sausage
Frankfurt or Vienna-style sausages are more popular with the

meat packers and the trade than any other killd. They are also
- known as "wienic::"~~_~~.g_:1:!.Q_t dogs/' depending on the size and style
of casings used. .
The recommended proportions of beef and pork are two parts of
lean beef to one part of, fat po.rk. This may be varied to suit in-
dtviOtTal nisles. The beef may be increased to three parts to one of
pork.
20 pounds beef 3 ounces black pepper
10 pounds fat pork I Y2 ounces sage, mace or nut-
4 pounds water meg finely ground
Y2 or % pound salt Garlic or onions (if desired)
\ Mix the salt, pepper, and other seasoning together; then
thoroughly mix with the cut meat and run through the grinder,
using the fine plate. Grind the mixture two or three times to make
sure that the seasoning is evenly -aisfl'iouted . and that the meat is
ground very fine. Add water and mix thoroughly to make a pliable
mass. Stuff into sheep or hog casings, depending on whether you
want.fat or thin frankfurters. After the sausage is stuffed into the
casing; by means of the thl!Jll.b., and forefinger, press the casing to-
gether at about 4-inch intfrvals~ Twist the first link two or three
times. The next link made sho~ld be twisted in the opposite direc-
tion to keep the casing from un~isting. Hang the twisted links in
the smokehouse and smoke for abh~t 2 houis at a temperature nor to
exceed IZ5°F. or until they are a rich orange color. Then cook in
water to 155 0 until they float. If the water is hotter the casings may-
burst. The time required for cooking depends upon the thickness
of the frankfurters. After cooking, rinse them in hot water, plunge
them into cold water, and hang them in a cool place. Frankfurters
should be used soon after they are made. If they are to be kept
longer, they should be canned. ,.c" - - _.... - - -
Bologna Sausage
This is one of our most commonly used sausages. Its name is de-
rived from the town of Bologna in Italy, where it was first made and
where the people use it extensively to this day. However, our supply
is chiefly of domestic make. There is a comparatively small impor-
tation from both Italy and Germany.
Bolgg_~ sausage consists of ground por)' and beef mixed with
e!l~~gh_~~Ier -to give the sausage the de~rable fine, tenacious tex-
ture. .".,----,.__...- . -.-~---.-----
'_""'he ~ecipe that follows is a good one:

60 pounds beef 2 to 4 ounces black pepper
40 pounds pork ~, I to I Y2 ounces coriander
20 pounds cold water 1 ounce mace
"....-2 to 2Y2 pounds salt Onions or garlic (if desired)
1 ounce saltpeter '--,,- -_-
(_ Grind the chilled beef trimmings with salt at the rate of 2 pounds
'per 100 pounds of beef. Use the coarse grinding plate, and allow
the meat to cure in a cool place for about 48 hours. Salt, in the same
proportion, is added to the coarsely ground pork the next evening
and the pork is allowed to cure overnight. Many persons do not
CI;ue the pork. )
l R~grind the cured beef, using the plate with Ys.inch holes. Then
ai:ld the pork and grind the mixture again. If the pork was not
cured add the salt (13 ounces for each 40 pounds of pork) before
grinding. Add the spices and '"the water and stir or mix "vigorously
until the whole mass has become sticky. It often takes 30 minutes
to mix this sausage properly. J
Stuff the sausage tightly into beef casings or muslin bags and
allow it to hang and cure in a cool place until the next morning.
Put it in a well-ventilated smokehouse heated to 110° to 120°F.
Protect the casings from a direct blaze that might scorch them. The
sausage should take on a rich mahogany-brown color in about 2
hours. 1
r"put the hot, freshly smoked sausage immediately into water heated
to 160° to 175°F., and cook it until it squeaks when the pressure of
the thumb and finger on the casing is suddenly released. The usual
cooking time for sausage stuffed in beef "rounds" is 15 to 30 minutes.
Plunge the cooked sausage into cold water and chill it. Hang it in
a cool place to dry. Use as soon as possible. )
/
,
" " -
Summer Sausage
Summer sausage or cervelat is similar to salami in preparation.
t is made in the country during the winter and kept for use during
le summer. As a ,lunch sausage it has become very popular because
f its keeping qualities. Summer sausage is a hard, dry sausage that
i highly seasoned. It may be mixed in the following proportions:
5 pounds cured beef 1 ounce whole mustard seed

5 pounds fresh pork fat "1 ounce sage
7 ounces of white pepper Garlic finely ground if desired
~ -Y2 ounce coriander
Cure the beef in the same manner and with the same cured meat
mixture as that recommended for cured pork sausage. No addi-
tional salt is required in the mixture because the cured meat will
supply enough. The beef is ground through both the coarse and
fine plate of the grinder, but the pork fat is ground only through
the coarse plate, preferably two or three times. The ground meat
should be season~d and the pork and beef mixed thoroughly for at
least 30 minutes. It should then be spread out on a tray, table, or
bench in a cold, dry place and allowed to dry and chill for I to 4
days, depending upon the weather. It should be turned once or
twice so that all the meat is thoroughly chilled. After it has been
allowed to cool and dry, it should be stuffed tight!r.iE:~b$!.L!~Eaights,
or be,ef intestines, and then hung up to dry £or-about two more days
to give the seasoning a chance to act on the meat.
In smoking summer sausage, be careful not to allow the tempera-
ture to go above 70°F. In other words, the sausage should be
smoked with cold smoke. This requires 36 to 48 hours of conriiiu-
ous fire. A large piece of wood with a knot in it will smoke allniglit.
The sausage should be kept in a cool, ventilated place. A little
mold will improve the sausage, but if it spreads all over the casing,
it is harmful because it will give the sausage a moldy taste. If it
begins to get too moldy, rub off the mold with a cloth dipped in a
mixture of salt and lard.
§~l.~mi, a favorite in It~!y, Hungary, and GerIll\lny, and to a con-
siderable extent in this country is a large sausage made of about
two-thirds of lean pork, coarse-chopped, and one-third lean beef,
finely chopped, moistened with red wine (or grape juice), flavored
with garlic and various spices, stuffed into beef casings, ~allg air
dried. Hung in a suitable place it will keep for years. --
-.~ ... ~. '
(;oose Liver Sausage
Domestic goose liver sausage undoubtedly stems from pate de

foie gras, the principal form developed in France. I!l. Strasbq,urg
and Toulouse, geese are fed to enlarge their Hvers. These li_Y~Es are
cQok~c!, _~~,!§QIled with wine and aromatics, and, with cut truffles
added, are filled into earthenware "terrines" and surrounded and
covered with a forcemeat made of liver trimmings and pork. In
the be~t_ grades the livers are whole; the lesser qualities are of cut
pieces. The finest is made from fresh goose livers. It should always
be served very cold.----·-------·--------
Domestic goose liver sausage, put up in cans of cylindrical shape,
consists of the liver cut up in small pieces. Pistachio nuts and pieces
OTHER MEAT PRODUCTS 285
of truffle are added, and the whole is mixed with liver trimmings
and pork and forced into casings and cooked. If made of goose
livers exclusively, the product then compares favorably with the
imported pate de foie gras.
It is surprising to know that most of our. domestic goose Jiver
sausage contains very little goose liver, if any at all. Generally, it
is~made· of the parboiled livers from all our four-footed domestic
a-~!llals, roast pork, and spices. It mayor may not cOllt.<l,in.. tllin
~!~,~,~~,?!_goose_!L~er: !l1is,mixture is stuffed into hog casings.
Some tOIKs make a very fair goose liver sausage by using the
wing§, necks, backs, and giblets .. All of these are cooked until they
are tender or until the meat falls from the bones. Coo~ed hog liver
is also added to the goose meat.
--..~
"_
8 pounds cooked goose meat Salt, black pepper, red pepper,
;' 2 pounds cooked hog liver and allspice to taste
L--~ Goose broth
Grind all ingredients together through the fine plate. Add some
of the liquid in which the goose meat was cooked. Then add sea-
soning and mix thoroughly.
Stuff into casings and simmer in hot water until they fioat, which
requires from 15 to 30 minutes. After cooking, plunge into cold
water and chill thoroughly. Thjs sausage. may be eaten as fresh
liver sausage or it can be smoked. 'A Iight'smoKe greatIyimpruves
th~-'" .
Another good formula for this sausage is the following:
50 pounds. lean pork necks 3 ounces white pepper
cured I ounce nutmeg
\.w'pounds goose livers 1 ounce marjoram
1Y2 pounds salt Y2 ounce ground cloves
8 ounces sugar 16 ounces finely chopped pis-
1 ounce saltpeter tachio nuts or truffles
Grind pork and goose livers through fine plate of grinder. Add
all other ingredients and mix thoroughly. Stuff in medium-wide
hog bungs or beef middle casings. Cook for about I hour at 155°F.
Cool the sausage and allow it to dry overnight. Smoke it the next
day in a warm smokehouse.
(_()THER ~EAT PRODUCT§J

..---
l _In addition to sausages. numerous other meat products can be
made (with pork the principal ingredient) to furnish a means of
utilizing tb£edible parts of cuts difficult to bone, such as head, feet,
and tail. Cooking is a convenient means of preparing these parts
and of utilizing miscellaneous pieces of trimmings, liver, heart,
tongue, and the broth in which the meat has been cooked. All the
meat should be well trimmed and washed before being cooked. Hog
and calf heads should be split and cleaned thoroughly, removing the
eyes, eardrums, and nasal passages, and chopping off the teeth. Pig
jowls are usually cut off and cured as previously described. It is
better not to cook the jowls with the other meat in making ~ad
cheese and scrapple, because it will make these products too fa9
(The feet should be well shaved, cleaned, and the glandular -tissue
between the toes trimmed out. The toes and dewclaws should have
been removed when the carcass was dressed. They may be included
with the meat cooked for headcheese and scrapple or they may be
prepared separately as pickled pigs' feet.
Beef trimmings are frequently mixed with the pork, principally
because the product with pork a.l4_ded is more desirable than when
made solely from beef trimmings)
(Headcheese )
(!Ieadcheese is easily made. Make deep cuts in the thick pieces of
meat, cover with water, and simmer until the meat is well done and
slips from the bones. The skin, if used, should be cooked in a sack
so that it may be removed from the pot when so tender that a finger
can be pushed through it. The thick ears and snouts will require
longer cooking than the other skin. The skin is ground with the
plate having Va-inch holes. The other pieces of meat are boned
after they are cooked. These, with the boneless pieces such as the
heart, are ground with the plate that has Y2-inch holes. Some per-
sons prefer to cut the tongue and some of the larger pieces of fat
into strips instead of grinding them. Ot~rs prefer not to grind
any of the meat but pick or cut it in pieces._)
The meat, whether part of it is ground and some cut or all picked
to pieces, is then mixed with enough of the broth-the water in
which the meat was cooked-to make the mass soft without being
sloppy. This mixture is returned to the kettle and brought to a
boil. This reheating serves to mix the gelatin thoroughly through
the broth so that when the headcheese is poured into shallow pans
and chilled it will slice without crumbling.
Seasoning is added at the beginning of the second cooking. Usu-
ally it is safe to season to taste, though the ,following,. quantities of
,./.
~
SCRAPPLE RECIPES 287
seasoning per 100 pounds of cooked meat, including the added
broth, are a satisfactory guide:
2 to 2V2 pounds salt 1 ounce ground cloves
3 to 5 ounces black pepper 1 ounce coriander
~ to 1 ounce red pepper 2 ounces sweet marjoram
More piquancy to the flavor can be obtained by adding one or
two bay leaves, some cut or chopped parsley, and minced onion
fried tender but not brown. A little vinegar or lemon juice or
minced lemon rind also gives a desirable flavor.
If the headcheese is stuffed into casings, this should be done after
seasoning and before the second cooking. The stuffed headcheese
should then be placed in the remaining liquid and simmered until
it floats (10 to 30 minutes). Then take it out, chill and hang away.
Headcheese is usually sliced and eaten cold.
Headcheese is usually made from pork, but some beef or veal may
be added in the following proportions:
20 pounds pork ~ ounce allspice
5 pounds beef ~ ounce cloves
~ pound pepper V2 ounce caraway
V2 pound salt 4 pounds broth
The meat is cooked as previously described. It is cut up by hand
into half- or quarter-inch cubes. Then the broth in which the meat
was cooked is added with the seasoning, and the mass is thoroughly
mixed by hand until the seasoning is properly worked through the
meat. This mixture is then put into casings (hog paunches or beef
straights) and laid out to cool. They may be pressed by laying a
weighted board over them.
GCRAPPLE RECIPE_~)
,-
(Scrapple or ponhaws originated with the Germans who settled
in" the eastern part of the key-stone State. They came to be known
as Pennsylvania Dutch instead of Pennsylvania Deutsch. The old-
fashioned formula for ponhaws they developed calls for young pig's
head boiled until the meat is readily separated from the bones. The
meat is then chopped or ground very firie and put back into the
broth (the water in which the meat was cooked) and then thickened
with buckwheat or cornmeal, and seasoned with spices and herbs.
When of the consistence of mush, it is run into pans to cool, to be
later sliced and fried for the table.}
There are numerous formulas or recipes for making scrapple.
288 MEAT PRODUCT) AND BY-PRODUCTS
Therefore~ at this juncture it is pertinent to clarify just what is the
accepted idea of ponhaws and scrapple. In the process of time, in-
ferior recipes have lowered the general conception of ponhaws and
today scrapple made by the best recipes stands for what originally
was ponhaws. Not only have the fine basic recipes for ponhaws been
corrupted but the term as well; for example-pan has and pan house.
Most of the scrapple sold in the stores and served in the restau-
rants today is for the most part nothing more than a glorified mush,
flavored with a trace of pork liquor, and seasoned with over-aged
spices and herbs.
(Ponhaws_)
(Here is a most delicious ponhaws of old Pennsylvania vintage in
which pork plays a prominent part.
Clean a pig's head thoroughly (page 80), split it, and remove the
brains, tongue, and eyes. The tongue mayor may not be included
with the meat to be cooked. Put the head pieces and tongue, if de-
sired, into a large kettle, cover with 4 or 5 quarts of cold water and
simmer gently for 2 or 3 hours, or until the meat falls from the
bones. After the meat is cooked, let it stand a while until the fat
collects on the surface. Skim off this grease carefully; remove meat
and chop fine. Strain the broth to remove all bones and gristle.
Hold out a little broth to mix with cereal later. Return the re-
mainder of the liquid to the kettle, put in the chopped meat, and
bring the mixture to a boil. Add the finely ground yellow cornmeal,
moistened with some of the cooled broth, so that it may be added
to the hot mixture of meat and broth without forming lumps. Boil
slowly for about one-half hour, stirring almost constantly to prevent
sticking and scorching. Just a few minutes before cooking is com-
pleted or when the mixture attains the consistency of soft mush,
add one teaspoon of powdered sage, salt, and pepper; stir in well.
Pour the hot scrapple into small, shallow, greased pans and chill as
promptly as possible. Later, when it molds, the scrapple can be
sliced and fried to a crisp brown. If properly made it will not
separate when sliced nor crumble when fried. The slices may be
floured before they are fried)
(Scrapple _)
'£-he scrapple of general consumption, an especially favored break-
fast dish, is made chiefly of cornmeal, pigs' feet, tails, skin, and all
trimmings not used for sausage. The high standard of meat products
,I., " .
SCRAPPLE RECIPES 289
is largely determined by the quality of meat and other ingredients
that enter into their making, as well as the correct proportion of
each.
Cool, the heads, tongue, hearts, and trimmings all together until
the bones and much of the gristle can be removed. If skin is in·
cluded, cook until tender. Skin and gristle, no matter how long
they are cooked, will not contribute much quality to the meat por·
tion of the mixture or to the finished product. However, these two
items will enrich the broth in which it is cooked. Pour off the liquid
through a strainer and remove all bones and large portions of gristle.
A small portion of skin may be left with the meat. Grind all this
material through the fine plate. Pour all the broth in which the
meat. was cooked back into the kettle and then add all the ground
meat.)
The' cereal to be added may be only finely ground yellow corn·
meal or a cereal mixture, one consisting of 7 parts cornmeal and 3
parts of white or buckwheat flour; or 7 parts cornmeal, 2 parts
shorts, and I part of buckwheat flour.
Four parts ground·meat products with a low content of gristle and
skin, 3 parts of meat broth, and I part dry cereal or cereal mixture
(by weight) will produce a richly flavored and generally satisfactory
scrapple. More meal and broth may be used if desired. The same
is true of the meat.
In adding the cereal or cereal mixture, moisten it with some of
the cooled broth so that it may be added to the hot ground.meat
and broth without forming lumps. Boil the mixture for about one·
half hour, stirring it frequently or constantly to prevent sticking.
Add the seasoning shortly before the cooking is finished and stir
it well.
Salt, pepper, and a few or many spices may be added depending
upon the preference of the individual. The following seasonings
may be used for 100 pounds of scrapple, including the meat broth
and the dry cereal mixture:
2 to 2Y2 pounds of salt I ounce nutmeg (if desired)
2 to 4 ounces black pepper Y2 ounce of mace (if desired)
2 to 4 ounces sweet marjoram 2 ounces of ground onions dur·
2 to 4 ounces sage (if desired) ing second cooking (if de·
I ounce red pepper (if desired) sired)
When the scrapple is cooked it is poured into small shallow pans
and chilled as promptly as possible.
Scrapple
Select 3 pounds of bony pieces of pork. Simmer in 3 quarts of
water until the meat drops from the bone. Strain off the broth,
remove the bone, taking care to get all of the tiny pieces, and chop
the meat fine. There should be about 2 quarts of broth, and if nec-
essary add water to make this quantity. Bring the broth to the boil-
ing point, slowly add 2 cups of cornmeal, cook the mixture until it
is thick mush, and stir almost constantly. Add the chopped meat,
salt, and any other seasoning desired, such as onion juice, sage, and
thyme. Pour the hot scrapple into oblong enamelware pans which
have been rinsed with cold water. Let stand until cold and firm,
slice, and brown in a hot skillet. If the scrapple is rich with fat,
no more fat is needed for frying.
Oatmeal Scrapple
Cook a pork bone, on which there is still some meat, until it falls
from the bone. Steam a cupful of oatmeal in the meat broth. Clean
the bone of all pork and run it through the meat grinder. Add to
it the cooked oatmeal until it attains the consistency of soft mush.
Season with sage, or other herbs, salt, and pepper. Pour into shallow
pans and let stand until stiff and cold. Slice and fry to a crisp brown.
Turkey Scrapple
Here is a good way to use some of the left-over roast turkey:
4 cups turkey meat I V2 cups cornmeal
4 cups celery stuffing Turkey bones
1 teaspoon salt Giblet gravy
1 teaspoon poultry dressing
Chop together in a chopping bowl the meat and stuffing. Break
the turkey bones, cover with cold water and boil slowly 45 minutes.
Strain and pick all meat off the bones. There should be about 12
cups of liquid. Add meat and stuffing, gravy, salt, and poultry dress-
ing. Put into a large kettle over a slow fire and gradually add the
cornmeal, stirring constantly. When very thick pour into well-but-
tered bread pans to cool and harden. This will keep for a month in
a cool place. Slice as desired and fry in butter to a crisp brown.
MINCEMEAT 291
H·, .:,', . (Mincemeat )
j
(Originally mincemeat was a mixture of finely chopped or minced

meat, suet, fresh and dried fruits, and nuts, citron, molasses, sugar,
spices, and brandy and other spirituous liquor, or cider. Today, not
only is the spirituous liquor omitted but frequently the meat and
suet also, leaving a mixture chiefly of fruits, molasses or sugar, and
spices.
To be sure, the good grades of commercially prepared mincemeat
are very convenient, but the person who is seeking the full-bodied
richness, which is so characteristic of the genuine article, must either
begin from scratch to make it or supplement the commercial
product.
This Thanksgiving and Christmas necessity, as originally made in
many sections of the United States, contained a portion of venison,
rabbit, beef, or veal. It mayor may not have been the tougher
portions of the carcass. Tongues of deer, antelope, elk, calves, and
cattle are also used to make mincemeat and some of the old timers
claim that tongue makes a more delicate product than the muscle
meat.
Here are the ingredients for an excellent mincemeat:
5 pounds boiled beef or 6 pounds chopped peeled apples

tongues 1 tablespoon cinnamon
2Y2 pounds suet 1 tablespoon allspice
2 pounds raisins 1 tablespoon cloves
1 pound raisins (seeded) 1 tablespoon nutmeg
2 pounds currants 1 tablespoon salt
Y2 pound citron (cut or Y2 pound almonds (grated or
chopped fine) chopped)
Y2 pound candied orange peel 4 pounds sugar
(cut fine) Rind and juice or 4 oranges and
Y2 pound candied lemon peel 4 lemons
(cut fine) Brandy and whiskey
Cook the meat. After it is cool, chop or cut very fine, add sugar,
raisins, currants, citron. Mix these ingredients together. Chop or
cut apples fine but do not mash them, and add to chopped meat.
Add spices and mix thoroughly. Pour over the mixture one quart
of brandy and two quarts of whiskey; add rind, and juice of oranges
and lemons-.}
Put mixture into an earthen crock with a lid. Place a cloth over
the top and then put on the lid_ Keep in a cool place for about three
weeks. Then add more salt and spices if taste requires this. Let
stand for about 4 weeks before using. At this time it can be packed
in glass fruit jars. When making mincemeat pies, always bake this
filling between two crusts.
Mincemeat (Small Portion)

Here is a formula for making a small portion of mincemeat
(about 3 cups):
cup coarsely chopped beef Juice and grated rind from I

Yl cup chopped suet lemon
Y2 cup raisins cup brown sugar, firmly
Y2 cup currants packed
Y2 cup citron (chopped) I teaspoon salt
2 cups apples (chopped) 1 teaspoon cinnamon
I cup cider or apple juice I teaspoon allspice
I Y2 teaspoons brandy
Put all the ingredients except the brandy in a saucepan. Cook
slowly for about 1 hour and 15 minutes. Stir in brandy after the
cooked mincemeat has cooled.
])eer Mincemeat
The following is a formula that can be used with any venison-
deer, elk, or antelope, also rabbit and bear meat.
2 pounds cooked venison 2 pounds raisins

chopped or ground I Y2 teaspoons cinnamon
4 pounds chopped apple (not ~1! teaspoon nutmeg
mashed) Y2 teaspoon cloves
4 cups sugar brown or white Y2 teaspoon mace
~ pound chopped suet 2 teaspoons salt
Mix all the ingredients together. Add enough cider to cover
mixture. If cider is not available, use fruit juices or water with Y2
cup of vinegar. Sweet fruit juices reduce the amount of sugar re-
quired. Cook very slowly until the fruits are tender (about 1 hour).
This mincemeat will keep indefinitely if put in fruit jars.
RENDERING LARD 293
Deer Mincemeat, Canadian Method

5 pounds of deer meat 2 cups tarragon vinegar
5 pounds of unpeeled apples 5 pounds granulated sugar
2 pounds of seedless raisins I pound beef or deer suet
2 pounds currants I cup chopped lemons
I cup molasses I cup chopped orange peel
I cup candied citron Salt to taste and a pinch of
I tablespoon cinnamon black pepper
I tablespoon allspice Y2 cup of good brandy
I teaspoon doves (more or less,
according to taste)
l' . '
Cover the deer meat with cold water, add a bouquet garni made
of 10 sprigs of parsley, 10 sprigs of green celery leaves, 2 large bay
leaves, and one large or two small sprigs of thyme, tied together with
kitchen thread, and cook until tender; the time of cooking depends
upon the age of the deer, but the meat should be ready to fall from
the bones when done. Then remove the bones and put the meat
through a food chopper (using a coarse blade) together with all the
remaining ingredients. Put the entire mixture in a large kettle
with enough of the broth in which the meat was cooked barely to
cover, and cook for I hour over a medium Harne, stirring occasion-
ally. Pack while still hot in hot, sterilized quart jars, and before
sealing pour over each jar I generous tablespoon fine brandy. Store
in a cool, dry, dark place until wanted.
~. .,
(_RENDERING LAR_0 "

{cood homemade lard, the rendered fat from the hog, is one of
tk- choicest fats the housewife can use. The leaf fat, back fat, and
fat trimmings are usually rendered together. The caul and ruffle
fats from the offal yield a darker product and should be rendered
separately. This fat which is obtained from the internal organs
(killing fat) promptly chilled makes fair lard, but many prefer to
use it as soap stock.
All the lean meat should be trimmed out of the fat before it is
rendered. If lean meat remains in the fat it drops to the bottom
of the kettle and is likely to scorch and discolor the lard.
Fat will render more rapidly and yield a higher percentage of
lard if it is cut into small pieces of uniform size. It is not necessary
to remove the skin, but many persons prefer to remove it and then
run the pieces of fat through the coarse plate of the sausage grinder.
This is a good practice for home rendering where small kettles are
used_ The lard will render more quickly, yield more, and it will
not be necessary to use a lard press for the cracklings.
Be sure that the pieces of fat are clean. Place the fat, cut into
pieces or ground, in a cool and thoroughly cleaned kettle. Do not
fill the kettle too full or the lard may boil over and catch fire.
Cooking should be very slow until the fat has begun to melt and
it can be stirred freely in the kettle. Then a moderately hot fire
may be applied so that the rendering process is not too slow. The
fat should be stirred frequently during the entire cooking process
to prevent the crackling from sticking or scorchi~
As the rendering progresses, the crackling wilGurn light brown
and float. This is an indication that it is soon time to remove the
kettle from the fire. Lift some of the cracklings from the fat and, if
they are dry and crisp, the lard is rendered. However, when they
are more completely rendered they gradually sink to the bottom of
the kettle. Many persons stop cooking the fat when the cracklings
are still floating. The more complete rendering, however, removes
a greater proportion of the moisture, thus producing lard that will
keep better.
Allow the rendered lard to settle and cool slightly. Then dip the
lard out of the kettle and strain through a double thickness of
cheesecloth into containers which have been thoroughly cleaned.
If the fat has been cut into small pieces or cubes, the cracklings
should be run through the lard press and strained.
Finer-grained lard may be obtained by cooling quickly. Slowly
cooled lard tends to separate and become quite granular in texture.
Stirring the lard slowly while cooling makes it whiter, more uniform
in texture, and finer-grained, but the lard will not keep as long as if
it were not stirred. A method often used to whiten lard is to put a
potato in long enough to absorb some of the impurities.
Exposure to air and light help to develop rancidity in lard. For
this reason the containers should be filled as nearly full as possible,
sealed and stored in a dark, cool place. Lard should not be covered
tightly until it is thoroughly cooled. If the moisture has been elim-
inated from the lard by a thorough rendering no water-souring
should develop during sto·rage.
Light, air, and moisture coming in contact with lard start deterio-
ration. So, avoid digging down into your lard supply if it is packed
into large cans. Scrape off from the top surface the amount you re-
quire, keeping the main body of lard level in the container. Once
lard has become rancid it is impossible to bring it back .
. J.
I
PRESERVING MEAT IN LARD 295
~RESERVING MEAT IN LARD)
(Good lard has so many uses, it is so digestible, and forms a faun·

d~'ion for so many tasty dishes that it pays to render and store it
with extreme care. It is also a satisfactory preservative for meat if
only fresh meat is used and if precautions are taken to keep every-
thing clean and sterile.
Cook meat as you would cook it for serving. Place it in a dry,
sterilized crock and cover immediately with hot lard. Cover with
clean wax paper and place on this a crock cover or plate. Store in
a cool, dry place. Do not keep meat packed in lard during hot
weather unless the storage place is always cold.
When meat is removed from the crock, be sure to pack down the
remaining meat and cover it again with melted lard so that no air
will reach it. It is better to store this meat in small crocks than in
large ones, for then it will not be disturbed so often.
Roast pork, pork chops, po~ steaks, and sausage patties can be
cooked and preserved in lard)
(_SOAP MAKIN9
(vvaste lard or fat from cooking and fats rendered from tallow
at'la meat trimmings may be used in making soap at home. The
quality of the soap obtained depends on the kind and condition
of the fat. A combination of tallow and lard makes the best soap.
Poultry fat and vegetable oils should be combined with other fats,
as soap made from them alone is soft and spongy. Waste fat should
be clarified.
To clarify waste fat, melt it slowly and stI.lin it through two
thicknesses of cheesecloth. Then add an equal volume of hot water,
stir well, and bring to a boil. Remove from the fire, and with con-
stant stirring, add one quart of cold water. Set aside to cool. When
firm, the clean fat on top is ready to make into soap.
The other materials combined with fat to make soap are borax,
lye, and water. The addition of borax is not necessary. It is some-
time~ used, however, to improve the appearance and suds of the
soap.)
l..-ye can be obtained in grocery stores. Care should be taken
in dissolving it in water as the fumes are irritating and heat is gen-
erated. Avoid contact of the dry lye or the lye solution with the skin
or clothing. If this occurs, wash well with water and rinse with
diluted vinegar. Lye attacks aluminum. Therefore, never use alum-
inum utensils in making soap.
Soft water (rain water) is best for making soap. If hard water
must be used, add I to 2 tablespoons of lye per gallon, depending
on the hardness of the water, and let it stand for 2 days until the
hardness settles out.
Equipment. Enamel, iron, or earthenware containers must be
used for dissolving the lye and for mixing the soap ingredients.
Never use aluminum. Stir with a wooden paddle or with a wooden
or enamel spoon. A dairy thermometer is convenient for measuring
temperatures.
Molds for the soap may be made from cardboard or wooden
boxes or shallow enamel pans. The soap is more easily removed if
the mold is lined with waxed paper or with cotton cloth dipped in
cold water and wrung dry.
~oap Formula0 .
Go make about 9 pounds of soap the following is recommended:
6 pounds of clean fat (about 13 cups) I can lye (13 ounces)
'l:l
cup borax (optional) 2V2 pints soft water
To make one bar of soap use the following:
I cup clean fat 5 teaspoons lye
I teaspoon borax (optional) V2 cup soft water
Procedure. Weigh or measure the clarified fat, heat slowly until
completely melted, and cool to approximately 110°F. (slightly higher
than blood heat). If borax is desired, it should be added to the fat
at this point. Stir the fat occasionally during cooling to prevent
crystals from forming. Meanwhile, dissolve the lye in the water and
cool to about 85°F. (lukewarm). Pour the lye solution into the fat
in a thin, steady stream with slow, even stirring. Continue stirring
until a thin honey-like texture is obtained. This should take from
10 to 20 minutes. Always add the lye solution slowly to the fat, this
is important. Too rapid addition of the lye or too vigorous stirring
may cause separation of the ingredients.
If the soap mixture does not become thick within half an hour
and there is a greasy layer on top, perhaps it is too warm. In this
case, set the container in cool water and keep stirring from the sides
and bottom. On the other hand, if the mixture is lumpy, it may be
too cold. Then set it in a pan of warm water and stir until the
lumps disappear.
Pour the thickened soap mixture into the prepared molds. Cover
and keep warm for at least 24 hours. Remove the soap and cut it
SOAP MAKING 297
into bars. Before the soap is ready for use, the bars should age for
about 2 weeks in a dry place.
If the soap is crumbly or has streaks of grease it may be reclaimed.
To do this, cut the soap into fine pieces, add water (7 pints for g.
pound·soap formula, and I cup for the l·bar formula) and dissolve
over low heat. Stir occasionally. When the lumps have disappeared,
increase the heat and boil until the soap appears thick. Pour into
molds.
After proper aging, soap carefully prepared according to the pre·
ceding directions makes a good general household product. Home·
made soap will sometimes contain enough free alkali to be harmful
to the skin; hence it is not generally recommended for toiIet~
xv
HELPFUL REFERENCES
ApPENDIX A Publications of the Department of Agriculture

ApPENDIX B Publications of the Department of the Interior
ApPENDIX C Motion Pictures Produced by the Departments
of Agriculture and the Interior
ApPENDIX D Reference Books
ApPENDIX E State Game Departments
ApPENDIX F United States Agricultural Experiment Stations
ApPENDIX A
PUBLICATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
The bulletins and leaflets listed below are available for dis-
tribution by members of Congress; Office of Information. U. S.
Department of Agriculture. Washington 25. D. c.; or by the Super-
intendent of Documents. Government Printing Office. Washington
25. D. C. Some are for sale only. at the price quoted. For these
send order and remittance to the Superintendent of Documents.
FARMERS' BULLETINS
Number Title Price

684 Squab ralsmg
697 Duck raising
767 Goose raising
840 Farm sheep raising for beginners
849 Capons and caponizing '. I~
920 Milk goats

1055 Country hides and skins, skinning, curing and marketing .15
II 86 Pork on the farm; killing, curing and canning
1334 Home tanning of leather and small fur skins .15
1377 Marketing poultry .15
1378 Marketing eggs .15
1391 The guinea fowl
1409 Turkey raising
1415 Beef on the farm; slaughtering, cutting and curing
1424 Making vinegar in the home and on the farm .10
1508 Poultry keeping in back yards
1524 Farm poultry raising
1592 Beef production on the farm
1730 Rabbit production
1753 Livestock for small farms
1807 Lamb and mutton on the farm
1815 Grading dressed turkeys
1888 Poultry cooking
2011 Turkey on the table the year round
LEAFLETS
Number Title Price

L273 Curing pork country style
L279 Chicken in the freezer
L3l0 U. S. Grades of beef
C 706 Meat dehydration .10
C 731 Composition and nutritive value of pork as related
to weights of animals and cuts .10
C803 Feathers from domestic and wild fowl .10
C 886 The lymph glands of cattle, hogs and sheep .10
301
302 HELPFUL REFERENCES
Number Title Price
IS 52 Protect home cured meat from insects
IS 56 How to choose and use your refrigerator"
M6B7 Home freezers-their selection and use .10
M5241 Handling your big game kill
BULLETINS
Numbe1 Title Price

Gl Family fare-food. management and recipes .25
G6 Home canning of meat
G13 Food for families with school children
G27 Meat for thrifty meals
A.H.B Composition of foods-raw. processed. prepared .35
Tech. Bul.
No. 926 Estimation of composition of beef carcasses and cuts
Tech. Bul.
No. 944 Estimation of the composition of lamb carcasses and cuts .05
ApPENDIX B
PUBLICATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Publications listed with a price quotation can be obtained from

the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,
Washington 25, D. C. Those without a price quotation can be ob-
tained free from the Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the
Interior, Washington 25, D. C.
Number Title Price
1 TKS Fish cookery for one hundred .30
2TKS Basic fish cookery .20
3TKS How to cook oysters .10
4TKS How to cook salmon .15
5TKS How to cook ocean perch .10
6TKS How to cook shrimp .15
19FL Cooking carp
35FL Fish cookery in the open
36FL Food value of fish and shellfish
53FL Sauces for seafood
61 FL Garfish recipes
69FL Market and recipes for fresh water turtles
90FL Nutritive value of canned fishery products
106FL How to cook fish
116FL Composition of fish
194FL Recipes for Pacific rockfish
202FL Pacific salmon
247 FL Fish for breakfast and why not?
269FL Cod . . . the beef of the sea
275FL Fish and Shellfish canapes and hors d'oeuvre
295FL Chemical composition of some canned fishery products
320 FL Rose·fish cookery
IBFL Home preservation of fishery products (salting. smoking
and other methods of curing fish at home)
APPENDIX C 303
Number Title Price
377 FL Cosmopolitan fish cookery for the Philippines
404FL Title fish recipes
308 Sep. King Crall recipes
60FL Mild curing, pickling, dry salting and smoking salmon
122FL Smoking lake herring, white fish, lake trout and carp
196FL Smoked herring
270FL Electrostatic smoking of sardines
312FL Smoking shrimp
115 FL Handling fresh fish
128 FL Refrigerated locker storage of fish for home use
181 FL Fish can be stored in refrigerated lockers with other food
213FL Wrapping materials for frozen fish
214FL Fish refrigeration
229WL Recipes for cooking muskrat meat
246WL Save game meat; it is valuable
ApPENDIX C
MOTION PICTURES PRODUCED BY THE DEPARTMENTS OF AGRICULTURE
AND THE INTERIOR
Motion pictures produced by the U. S. Department of Agriculture

are a great help in classroom and cooperative extension work, as
they are designed to demonstrate improved methods in agriculture
and home economics. These films, as well as the slidefilms, may be
procured on a loan basis. Prints of the motion pictures may also be
purchased. Agriculture Handbook No. 14, Motion Pictures of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture, tells all about the films and how
they may be obtained and used to promote a better agriculture. A
copy may be obtained from Motion Picture Service, Office of In-
formation, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington 25, D. C.
Some of the current films pertaining to this book and related
subjects are listed below.
Title
Biology: Livestock:
How Animal Life Begins Do Unto Animals
In the Beginning Feeding Farm Animals
Ovulation, Fertilization, and Early Livestock and Mankind
Development of the Mammalian Livestock Cooperatives in Action
Egg
Transplanting Hen's Ova Nutrition:
For Health and Happiness
Curing Meat: Kids Must Eat
Curing Pork Country Style Something You Didn't Eat
Pork on the Farm
Meats With Approval Poultry:
Duck Farming
Poultry-A Billion Dollar Industry
Producing Quality Poultry
RELATED SLIDEFILMS
Title
Frozen Food Lockers and Your Food Cooking Poultry, Older Birds
Supply Cooking Poultry, Young Birds
Canning Chicken Home Grown Food: Production
Canning Meat Preservation
Cooking Meat According to Cut Federal Meat Inspection
Motion pictures may be borrowed from the U. S. Fish and Wild·

life Service without cost except that of returning the film. Those
listed below are of interest in connection with this book.
Title
Conservation in Action Pacific Halibut Fishing
Food for Thought Retailing Fish
Filleting and Packaging Fish Wildlife of the Aleutian Islands
It's the Maine Sardine
Address all correspondence about these motion pictures to U. S.

Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Box 128,
College Park, Maryland.
ApPENDIX D
REFERENCE BOOKS
Meat
Title Allthor Pllblisher
Meats and Meat Products William Henry l.B. Lippincott Company,
Tomhave Philadelphia, Pa.
Farm Meats M. D. Hesler The Macmillan Company,
New York, N. Y.
Meat for the Table Sleeter Bull McGraw-Hili Book Company, Inc.,
New York, N. Y.
The Meat We Eat P. Thomas Ziegler The Interstate Printers and
Publishers, Danville, III.
The Construction and Winton and Winton John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
Composition of Foods New York, N. Y.
Home Meat Curing Made Morton Salt Company,
Easy Chicago, Ill.
No.6 Meat-Better Household Finance Corporation,
Buymanship Chicago, I II.
Cooking
The Pennsylvania Dutch William K. Dorman Dorman and Davidow.
Cook Book Leonard Da vidow P. O. Box 250, Reading, Pa.
Louis Diat's Home Cook Louis Diat l. B. Lippincott Company,
Book Philadelphia, Pa.
The Boston Cooking· Fannie Merritt Little, Brown and Company,
School Cook Book Farmer Boston, 1\la55.
APPENDIX D 305
Title Author Publisher
The Alice Bradley Menu- Alice Bradley The Macmillan Company,
Cook Book New York, N. Y.
Meta Given's Modern En- Meta Given J. G. Ferguson and A.-ociates,
cyclopedia of Cooking Chicago, Ill.
Ida Bailey Allen's Step- Ida Bailey Allen Gosset and Dunlop, Inc.
by-Step Cook Book New York, N. Y.
Gay Nineties Cook Book F. Meredith Dietz The Dietz Press, Inc.,
August Dietz, Jr. Richmond, Va.
As The World Cooks International Institute of Lowell,
Inc., Lowell, Mass.
Picayune Creole Cook The Times Picayune Publishing
Book Company, New Orleans, La.
Jessie Marie Deboth's Jessie Marie Deboth Whitman Publishing Company,
Cook Book Racine, Wis.
Shaker Cook Book Caroline B. Piercy Crown Publishers,
New York, N. Y.
Better Homes and Gar- Meredith Publishing Company,
dens New Cook Book New York, N. Y.
Six American Home Mag- Doubleday, Page & Company,
azine Cooking Booklets New York, N. Y.
Hungarian Cooking Katalin Frank British Book Center,
New York, N. Y.
Clementine in the Phineas Beck Hastings House Publishers,
Kitchen New York, N. Y.
Specialties de la Maison American Friends of France, Inc.,
New York, N. Y.
The Joy of Cooking Irma S. Rombauer The Bobbs-Merril Company,
New York, N. Y.
The Best from Midwest Ada B. Lothe M. S. Mill Company, Inc.,
Kitchens Breta L. Greim New York, N. Y.
Ethel M. Keating
The Garland Cook Book Laura K. Leonard Chester R. Heck, Inc.,
Ruth W. Crosby New York, N. Y.
Fannie Engle's Cook Book Fannie Engle Duell, Sloan and Pierce, Inc.,
New York, N. Y.
The Settlement Cook Lizzie B. Kander The Settlement Cook Book Com-
Book pany, Milwaukee, Wis.
The Good Housekeeping Rinehart and Company, Inc.,
Mother Hubbard's Cook Marion White M. S. Mill Company, Inc.,
Book New York, N. Y.
Sunset's Kitchen Cabinet Lane Publishing Company,
Recipes San Franci ... co, Calif.
American Women's Cook Ruth Berolzheimer Garden City Publishing Company,
Book Inc., Garden City, N. Y.
The Philadelphia Cook Anna W. Reed Barrows and Company, Inc.,
Book of Town and New York, N. Y.
Country
Edith Barber's Cook Book Edith M. Barber G. P. Putnam's Sons,
New York, N. Y. 'j
America's Cook Book Charles Scribner's Sons,
New York, N. Y.
Ann Batchelder's Own Ann Batchelder M. Barrows and Company, Inc.,
The Escoffier Cook Book A. Escoffier Crown Publishers,
New York, N. Y.
The New American Cook Lily Haxworth Books Incorporated,
Book Wallace New York, N. Y.
Cook at Home in Chinese Henry Low The Macmillan Company,
New York, N. Y.
How to Cook and Eat in Buwei Yang Chao The John Day Company,
Chinese New York, N. Y.
The Epicure in Imperial Marie Alexandre The Colt Press,
Russia Markevitch San Francisco, Calif.
Guilded Notes on Cook- Wesleyan Service Guild, "" •.••
ery Lavonia, Ga.
t
j.
Title Author Publisher
Tropical Cooking Gladys R. Grayam The Panama American Press, Inc.,
Canal Zone, U.S.A.
Fish and Game Cookery Roy Wall M. S. Mill Company, Inc.,
New York, N. Y.
Cooking Wild Game Frank G. Ashbrook Orange] udd Publishing Company,
Edna M. Sater New York, N. Y.
Fowl and Game Cookery James Beard M. Barrows and Company, Inc.,
New York, N. Y.
Fish and Game Cook Harry Botsford Cornell Maritime Press,
Fish and Seafood Cook Rose and Bob Brown J. B. Lippincott Company,
Book Philadelphia, Pa.
Seafood Cookery Lily Haxworth M. Barrows and Company, Inc.,
Wallace New York, N. Y.
Casserole Cookery Marion and Modern Age Books, Inc.,
Nino Tracy New York, N. Y.
Casserole Magic Lousene Rossea u Harper and Brothers,
Brunner New York, N. Y.
The Outdoorsman's Cook Arthur H. Carhart The Macmillan Company,
A Cook Book of Left- Clare Newman and Little, Brown and Company,
overs Bell Wiley Boston, Mass.
Short Cuts and Leftovers Hannah W. Schloss M. Barrows and Company, Inc.,
New York. N. Y.
The Kitchen Cook Book Ruth Taylor Charles Scribner's Sons,
New York, N. Y.
Pressure Cookery Leone Rutledge M. Barrows and Company, Inc.,
Carroll New York, N. Y.
Press u re Cooking Ida Bailey Allen Garden City Publishing Company,
Inc., Garden City, N. Y.
Herbs for the Kitchen I rma Goodrich Little, Brown and Company,
Mozza Boston, Mass.
How to Carve Meat, M. O. Cullen McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
Game and Poultry New York, N. Y.
The Complete Meat Cook Beth Bailey McLean Chas. A. Bennett Co., Inc.,
Book Thora Hegstad Peoria, Ill.
Campbell
ApPENDIX E
STATE GAME DEPARTMENTS
Those who desire to preserve and store wild game and fish should
contact the State Game Department in the State In which these
pursuits are contemplated.
State OrganIzation Location
Alabama Director, Department of Conservation Montgomery 4
Alaska Fish and Wildlife Service Juneau
Arizona Director, Arizona Game and Fish Commission State Bldg., Phoenix
Arkansas Executive Secretary, Game and Fish Commis- State Capitol, Little
sion Rock
California Director, Department of Fish and Game Ferry Bldg., San
Francisco 11
Colorado Superintendent of Fur Resources, State Game 1350 Sherman Street,
and Fish Commission Denver 5
Connecticut Game Technician, State Board of Fisheries Hartford 1
and Game
Delaware Chief Game Warden, Board of Game and Dover
Fish Commissioners
APPENDIX E 307
State Organization Location
Florida Director, Game and Fresh Water Fish Com- Tallahassee
mission
Georgia Director, State Game and Fish Commission 412 State Capitol,
Atlanta 3
Hawaii Director, Division of Fish and Game, Board P. O. Box 3319,
of Commissioners of Agriculture and For- Honolulu 1
estry
Idaho Director, Department of Fish and Game Boise
Illinois Director, Department of Conservation Springfield
Indiana Director, Division of Fish and Game, Depart- 311 West Wash;ng-
ment of Conservation ton Street, Indian-
apolis 9
Iowa Director, State Conservation Commission East 7th and Court
Streets, Des Moines
8
Kansas Dir~ctor, Forestry, Fish and Game Commis- Pratt
Sion
Kentucky Director, Department of Conservation Frankfort
Louisiana Director, Division of Furs and Refuges, De- Civil Courts Bldg.,
partment of Wildlife and Fisheries New Orleans 16
Maine Chief Warden, Department of Inland Fish- State House, Augusta
eries and Game
Maryland State Game Warden, Board of Natural Re- 510-514 Munsey
sources, Department of Game and Inland Bldg., Baltimore 2
Fish
Massachusetts Commissioner, Department of Conservation 15 Ashburton Place,
Boston 8
Michigan Game Division, Conservation Commission Lansing 13
Minnesota Commissioner, Department of Conservation State Office Building,
St. Paull
Mississi ppi Director, State Game and Fish Commission 330 East Pearl Street,
Jackson 104
Missouri Director, State Conservation Commission Monroe Bldg., Jeffer-
son City
Montana State Fish and Game Warden, State Dept. of Helena
Fish and Game
Nebraska Project Leader, Pittman-Robertson Project, Lincoln 9
Game Forestation and Parks Commission
Nevada Secretary, State Fish and Game Commission Box 678, Reno
New Hampshire Director, Fish and Game Department State House Annex,
Concord
New Jersey Division of Fish and Game, Department of State House Annex,
Conservation and Economic Development Trenton 7
New Mexico State Game Warden, Department of Game Santa Fe
and Fish
New York Director, Division of Fish and Game, Con- Albany 7
servation Department
North Ca rolina Commissioner, Division of Game and Inland Raleigh
Fisheries, Department of Conservation and
Development
North Dakota Game Warden, State Game and Fish Depart- Bismarck
Olent
Ohio Chief, Division of Wildlife, Department of 1500 Dublin Road,
Natural Resources Columbus
Oklahoma Superintendent, Game Division, Game and State Capitol, Okla-
Fish Department homa City 5
Oregon State Game Comnlissioll P. O. Box 4136,
Portland 8
Pennsylvania Executive Director, Pennsylvania Game Com- Harrisburg
mission
Rhode Island Administrator, Division of Fish and Game, State House,
Department of Agriculture and Conserva- Providence 2
tion
South Carolina Director, Division of Game, Wildlife Re- Columbia
SOUrces Department
State Organization Location
South Dakota Director. Department of Game. Fish and Pierre
Parks
Tennessee Director. Division of Game and Fish. Depart- 304 State Office Bldg .•
ment of Conservation Nashville 3
Texas El(ecutive Secretary. Game and Fish Com- Austin
mission
Utah Director. State Fish and Game Commission 1596 West North
Temple. Salt Lake
City 16
Vermont Director. Fish and Game Service. Department Montpelier
of Natural Resources
Virginia El(ecutive Director. Commission of Game and Richmond 13
I nland Fisheries
Washington Director. Department of Game. State Game 509 Fairview North.
Commission Seattle
West Virginia Chief. Division of Game Management. Con- Charleston
servation Commission of West Virginia
Wisconsin GlIme Management Division. Conservation Madison 2
Department
Wyoming State Game Warden. Wyoming Game and Cheyenne
Fish Commission
Canada Chief. Canadian Wildlife Service. Depart- Ottawa
ment of Resources and Development
Alberta Fish and Game Commissioner. Department of Edmonton
Lands and Forests
British Columbia GlIme Commission 567 Burrard Street.
Vancouver 1
Manitoba Director of Game and Fisheries. Department Winnipeg
of Mines and Natural Resources
New Brunswick Chief Game Warden. Department of Lands Fredericton
and Mines
Newfoundland Chief Game Warden. Department of Mines St. Johns
and Resources
Northwest Director. Northern Administration and Lands Ottawa. Ontario
Territories Branch. Department of Resources and De-
velopment
Nova Scotia Director. Department of Lands and Forests Halifax
Ontario Chief. Division of Fish and Wildlife. Depart- Parliament Building.
ment of Lands and Forests Toronto
Prince Edward Deputy Minister of Industry and Natural Re- Charlottetown
Island sources
Quebec SUperintendent General. Department of Fish Quebec
and Game
Saskatchewan Game Commissioner, Department of Natural Regina
Resources
Yukon Ditector. Yukon Game and Publicity Depart- Whitehorse. Yukon
ment
Mexico SeCreta ria de Agricultura y Ganaderia Direc- Mexico. D. F.
tion General Forestal y de Caza
'PENDIX F 309
ApPENDIX F
)ublications relative to the subject matter in this book are issued

State Agricultural Colleges, experiment stations, or extension
vices. Such publications on various agricultural subjects may be
.ained from the director of the station. They are usually free of
lrge.
UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS-
State City
.. 1'·' Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Auburn
Palmer
Tucson
,
Arkansas Fa yetteville
California Berkeley 4
Colorado Fort Collins
Connecticut:
State station New Haven 4
Storrs sta tion Storrs
DeJa ware NewarK
Florida Gainesville
Georgia Experiment
Hawaii Honolulu 14
Idaho Moscow
Illinois Urbana
Indiana LaFayette
Iowa Ames
Kansas Manhattan
Kentucky Lexington 29
Louisiana University Sta.
Baton Rouge 3
Maine Orono
Maryland College Park
Massachusetts Amherst
Michigan East Lansing
Minnesota University Farm,
St. Paul I
Mississippi State College
Missouri Columbia
Montana Bozeman
Nebraska Lincoln I
Nevada Reno
New Hampshire Durham
New Jersey New Brunswick
New Mexico State College
New York:
State station Geneva
Cornell station Ithaca
North Carolina State College
Sta., Rall;igh
North Dakota State College
Sta., Fargo
Ohio Wooster
Oklahoma Stillwater
State City
Oregon Corvallis
Pennsylvania State College
Puerto Rico Rio Piedras
Rhode Island Kingston
South Carolina Clemson
South Dakota Brookings
Tennessee Knoxville 16
Texas College Station
Utah Logan
Vermont Burlington
Virginia Blacksburg
Washington Pullman
West Virginia Morgantown
Wisconsin Madison 6
Wyoming Laramie
-- - >-,---
INDEX
Age of animal: Birds:

judging, 10 game, 164-168 (see also Wild fowl)
and ripening period, 12 ripening, 12-13
Agricultural experiment stations, Black puddings, 272
309-310 Blood pudding, 272
Agricultural Marketing Service, U- Bockwurst, 273
S- Department of Agricul- Bologna sausage, 274, 275, 282-283
ture, 56 Botulinus poison, identifying, 270
American Indians: Box-cured bacon, 207-209
dried fish, 230 Bratwurst, 273
eating customs, of, 3-5 Braunschweiger liverwurst, 274
pemmican, 228-229 Brillat-Savarin, Jean Anthelme, 2
Antelope, II 7 Brine-curing:
Ashbrook, Frank G_. 122 fish, 217-219
fowl, 213-215
Bacon, 133, 134 lamb, 211-212
bacon brisket, 135 pork, 201-203
bacon square, 130 Bromfield, Louis, 57
box-cured, 207-209 Buffalo fish, 42
Canadian-style, 136, 180 Buffalo meat, 4-6
Bacteria, growth of, 9 Butchering, 57
Barrel smokehouse, 232 equipment, tools, 58-64
Bear meat, cured and dried, 213 examining carcass for disease, 71-
Beaver, 36, 37, 122 72
Beef: improper, results of, 66
corned beef, spiced, 225 killing animals, 67
cutting the carcass, 137-145 knives, 60-64
forequarter, 138-140 preparing {or, 58
hindquarter, 141-145 selection of animals for, 64-66
freezing: skinning or flaying, 67-70
cutting for, 179-181 Butchering cattle, 91-104
packaging for, 183-185 abdominal cavity, opening, 97-99
grade descriptions, 53-54 bleeding, 91-92,94
smoking, 238 calves, 104
Beef and pork sausage, 279 chilling, 103
Big game: deaning the tripe, 104
dressing, 117-121 edible organs, composition of, ta-
ripening, 12 ble, 93
311
312 INDEX
Butchering cattle (cont.): Canned goods (cont.):
head, skinning and removing, 94, labeling, 268
95,96 signs of spoilage, 269-270
hoisting, 99 storing, 268-269
offal: using, 269-270
loosening and removing, 101 Canning, 247-270
stripping fat from, 103 corned beef, 255-256
percentages of parts, table, 93 fishery products, 261-267
removing heart, lungs, gullet, 101 carp and suckers, 266
removing tongue and brains, 102, equipment and containers, 261-
103 262
skinning carcass, 97, 98, 101 fish roe, 265-266
splitting carcass, 99 Florida mullet, 266-267
stunning, 91, 92 lake trout, 266-267
Butchering hogs, 73-90
mackerel, 266-267
chilling, 87-90
edible organs: packing containers, 263-264
handling, 84-86 procuring fish, 262-263
table, 74 river herring, 264-265
entrails, removing, 81-84 whitefish, 266-267
head, removing, cleaning, 80-81 giblets, 260
intestines, cleaning, 86-87 glass jars, 248-250
percentages of parts, table, 74 hot pack, 254-255, 256-257
scalding, 76-78 mincemeat, 292
scraping, 78-80 number of utensils required. 250
selection of animals, 73 poultry, 256-260
sticking, 73-76 preparing meat for, 250-255
Butchering lambs and sheep, 105- raw pack, 250, 254, 257-260
116 small game, 260-261
chilling, 116 tin cans, 248, 250
fisting pelt from carcass, 111-112 utensils and equipment, 247-250
internal organs, care of, 115-116 Carp, 41
lambs. percentage of fat, table, canning, 266
106 Cattle:
opening carcass, 115 butchering (see Butchering cattle)
removing heart and lungs, 116 hides, salting and curing, 124-125
removing pelt, 113-114 Caul fat, 104, 293
selection of, 106-107 Charcoal in crop. 13
sheep. edible organs, composition
Cheese, 18
of, table, 106
skinning the legs, 109-111 Chickens. 39
sticking and stunning, 107-109 curing, 213-215
B vitamins, 18-19 cutting up, 162, 163
By-product meats, 271-297 federal-state grading of, 56
freezing, 187-188
Calcium, 18 killing and plucking, 157-159
Calves: vital organs, 164
hides, salting and curing, 126 Chitterlings, 86
slaughtering, 104 Clams, freezing, 193
Canned goods: Cold-storage locker plants, 197-198
examining jars after canning, 267 Cook books, listed, 304-306
;.1: .•
INDEX 313
Corned beef: Drawing poultry, 160-164
canning, 255-256 wild fowl, 165
spiced, 225 roasting chickens, 161, 164
Crabs, freezing, 193, 194 Dried beef, 229
Cracklings, 294 Dried fish, 229-230
Cubing meat, 14 Drying meat and fish, 228-231
Cullen, M. 0., 10, 63 dried beef, 229
Cured pork sausage, 279 dried shrimp, 230-231
Curing, 198-228 fish, 229-231
chickens, 218-215 jerked (dried) beef, 2Zg
ducks, 213-215 pemmican, 228-229
fish: Dry-salt curing:
brine curing, 217-219 fish, 219-222
dry-salting, 219-222 fowl, 213-215
fresh-water, 217 lamb, 212
salt-water, 217 pork, 203-208
game meats, 212-213 curing time, 206
geese, 215 Morton method, 206-207
ingredients used in, 199-201 Ducks, 40
lamb: curing, 213-215
brine curing, 211-212 killing and plucking, 159-160
dry-curing, 212 wild, 164, 166
motion pictures, 303
pheasants, 215 Edible organs:
pork, 201-209 beef, 93, 103-104
box-cured bacon, 207-209 deer, 119
brine curing, 201-203 hogs, 74, 84-86
dry-salt curing, 203-208 lamb, 115-116
Smithfield processed ham, 207 mutton, 106
processes, 198-20 I pork, 74, 84-86
standard curing mixture, 201 Eggs, 18
storing, 245-247 Elk, I 17
tongue, 210-211 Enzymes:
turkeys, 2 I 3-2 I 5 action in tenderizing meat, IO-I I
Cutting the carcass, 127-154 chemical action caused by, 177
beef. 137-145 Experiment stations, state, 309-310
lamb and mutton, 148-150
veal, 146- I 48 Farmers' bulletins, 301, 302
venison, 152-154 Fat:
caul, 104
Daily dietary needs, 47-49 leaf, 87
Deer (see also Venison), 8, 117 Federal meat inspection, 50-51
field-dressing, 1I8-l19 grading and stamping, 51-56
hanging, butchering, 119-121 Federal-state grading and inspec-
head, saving, 120 tion, poultry, 55-56
hides, salting and curing, 126 Fish, 41-43
removing tongue ilnd brain, 120 canning, 261-267 (see also Can-
Deer mincemeat, 292-293 ning: fishery products)
Digestibility of meat, 9 procuring for, 262-263
Dodge, Colonel Richard, 4 catching, 17 I
Doves, 164 ". cleaning, 172-175
314 INDEX
Fish (cont.): Freezing (cont.):
composition of, table, 20-28 labeling packages, 194
curing (see Curing: fish) packaging meat for, 181-194 (see
drawn, 170 also Packaging meat for
dressed or pan-dressed, 170 freezing)
fillets, 171, 244-245 when to freeze, 183
freezing, packaging for, 188-189, Frozen-food locker plants, 197-198
192 Frozen meats:
fresh, 169 cooking, 196
fresh-water, curing, 217 storage in home freezer, 194-195
frozen, 170, 171 thawing, 195-196
gibbing, 243 time limit on storage, 195
government publications, 302-303
inland, 41-42 Game:
marinated, 226 nutrition tests, 36-38
marine curiosities, 42 periods for processing, 181
ocean species, 42 ripening, 12-13
periods for processing, 181 state regulations re storage of, 181
pickling, 226-228 Game animals, dressing, 117-123
preserving, 215-222 big game, 117-118
rackling, 230 small game, 122-123
salt-water, 217 removing scent glands, 122-123
small, 218, 220, 243 skinning, 122, 123
smoking, 240-245 Game birds:
cold-smoking, 243-244 drawing, 165
fillets, 244-245 plucking, 165
hot-smoking, 242-243 Game meats, 35-39
state regulations re storage of, 181 curing, 212
steaks, 170 Game sausage, 280
sticks, 171 Geese:
whole, or round, 170 curing, 215
Fishery Leaflet 18, 228 killing and plucking, 160
Florida mullet, canning, 266-267 wild, 164, 166
Food nutrients, 18-28 Giblets, 41, 165
daily allowance, table, 49 canning, 260
Food planning, 44-56 freezing, 187
daily dietary needs, 47-49 Glass jars:
economy in, 46-47 for canning, 248-250
figuring family's needs, 45-46 for freezing, 189, 192
Foreign countries, consumption of Goose, 40
meat in, table, 32 Goose liver sausage, 284-285
Fowl (see also Birds; Game birds; Gourmet Magazine, 152,214
Poultry; Wild fowl): Government bulletins, 301-303
Fowl: Grading and stamping of meat, fel
curing, 213-215 eral, 51-56
smoking, 238-240 grade descriptions, 53-54
Frankfurters, 274, 281, 282 Guinea fowl, 40-41
Freezing, 7, 11-12, 176-198
cutting meat for, 178-181 Ham, Smithfield processed, 207
drying or freezer burn, 178 Ham trier, 245
ice formation in meat, 177-178 Hankins, O. G., 65
,,='
INDEX 315
Head cheese, 275 Lard:
recipe, 286-287 preserving meat in, 295
Herring: rendering, 293-294
cut spiced, 227-228 Leaf fat, 87, 293
pickling, 226-228 Liver, 18, 19
river, canning, 264-265 Liver sausage, 274, 280-281
Hides and skins: Liverwurst, 274, 275
having them tanned, 126 Lobsters, freezing, 193, 194
keeping, 126
removing, 67-70 Mackerel, canning, 266-267
Marinating, 14
salting and curing, 124-126
Meat:
shipping, 125 changes after slaughter, '9-10
Hogs, butchering, 73-90 (see Butch- composition of, 16-17
ering hogs) table, 20-28
Horse hides, salting and curing, 124- digestibility of, 9
125 enzymes in, 10
Horsemeat, 2 federal grading and stamping, 51-
Hot dogs, 282 56
Hunters' sausage, 280 federal inspection (U,S. and Can-
ada), 50-51
Insect infestation, stored meats, 245- freezing, 7, 11-12, 13, 176-198
246 fresh and seasoned, 10-14
Inspection of meat, federal, 50-51 fresh vs. high, 13
Iodine, 18 judging age of, 10
Iron, 18 modern consumption, 32-35
production and consumption, ta-
Jack rabbits, 123 bles, 29-33
Jerked beef, 229 ripening, 10-14
structure of, 15-16
Knives: tenderizing, 10-14
grinding, 62-63 value of, in diet, 7-9
honing, 63 Meat-eating, 3-6
killing, for fowl, 157-158 Milk, 18
steeling, 63-64, 65 Mincemeat, 291-292
Kosher meat, marking, 51 deer, 292-293
Moose, 117
Morton Salt Company, 127
Labeling frozen packages, 194 Motion pictures, 303-304
Lake trout, canning, 266-267 Mountain sheep, 117
Lamb: Muskrats, 37, 122, 123
butchering (see Butchering sheep compared with beef, 36
and lambs) Mutton:
curing, 211-212 Luring, 211
cutting the carcass, 148-150 cutting the carcass, 148-150
freezing: meaning of word, 107
cutting for, 180 Mutton and pork sausage, 280
packaging for, 183-185
mutton breeds, 106 Niacin, 18, 19
smoking, 238 Nutriants, food, 18-28
Lamb skins, handling, 126 daily allowance, table, 49
316 INDEX
\
Nutrition: Pork (cont.):
good, food plan for, 48 ham:
motion pictures, 303 skinned, 132
science of, 18 taking off, 131
Nutrition tests, game, 36-38 lard, rendering, 293-294
picnic shoulder and butt, 131
Oatmeal scrapple, 290 sausages, 273-284
Oil sac, removing, 166 scrapple recipes, 287-290
Opossums, 8, 36, 37, 122 smoking, 237-238
Organ meats (see Edible organs) spare ribs, 132
Oysters, freezing, 193 tenderloin, 132, 135, 137
trimming methods, 130
trimmings, 127
Packaging meats for freezing, 181- Poultry:
194 average percentages, table, 156
fish, 188-189, 192 canning, 256-260
labeling, 194 composition of, table, 20-28
methods, 181-186 drawing, 160-164
poultry, 186-188 dressing, 155-164
shellfish, 193-194 chickens, 157-159
wrapping materials, 181-183 ducks, 159-160
Paraffin plucking, 157, 166 geese, 160
Partridge, ripening, 12-13 squabs, 160
Peacocks, meat of, 8 turkeys, 159
Pennsylvania Germans, scrapple rec- federal-state grading and inspec-
ipes, 287-288 tion, 55-56
Pheasants, 8, 164 freezing, packaging for, 185, 187-
curing, 215 188
Pickling: killing, methods of, 155, 156
fish, 226-228 motion pictures, 303
pigs' feet, 223-224 removing feathers, 155, 157
pigs' feet souse, 224 removing oil sac, 166
spiced corned beef, 225 types of, 39-40
spiced tongue slices, 225-226 Prehistoric man, food of, 2
tongue, 225 Preserving meats, fowl, seafood (see
tripe, 224-225 also under separate head-
Plucking feathers, 155, 157 ings):
Poison, botulinus, 270 curing, 198-228
Ponhaws, 288 drying, 228-231
Pork: fish,215-222
freezing, 176-198
bacon (see Bacon) home canning, 247-270
Boston butt, 131 pickling, 223-228
Canadian style bacon, 136, 180 smoking, 231-247
casings, 275 Proteins, 18
curing, 201-209 (see also Curing: Publications:
pork) Department of Agriculture, 301-
cutting, for freezing, 179, 180 302
cutting the carcass, 127-136 Department of the Interior, 302-
digestibility of, 9 303
freezing, packaging for, 183-185 Puddings, 272-273
INDEX 317
Quail, 8, 164 River herring, canning, 264-265
Roe of fish, canning, 265-266
Rabbits, 8, 36, 37, 122
canning, 260-261 Sater, Edna N., 122
cutting the carcass, 154 Sausage, 271-285 oiJ:\' !
0
disease of, 122 beef and pork, 279 OJ

o domestic, 38 bologna, 274, 275, 282-283
scent glands, 123 casings, 271, 273, 275-277
skinning, 122, 123 cured pork, 279
wild, 35, 260-261 freezing, 180, 181
Raccoons, 8, 36, 37 fresh pork, 277-278
scent glands, 122, 123 game or hunters', 280
Rackling, 230 goose liver, 284-285
Recipes: liver, 274, 280-281
cut spiced herring, 227 mutton and pork, 280
headcheese, 286-287 preparing, 273-277
mincemeat, 291-293 smoked, 280
deer, 292-293 smoked pork, 279
pickled herring, 226-227 summer, 274, 283-284
pickled pigs' feet, 223-224 Sausage grinder, 274-276
pickled tongue, 225 Scallops, freezing, 193
pickled tripe, 224-225 Scent glands, removal of, 122-123
pigs' feet souse, 224 Scoring meat, 14
ponhaws, 288 Scrapple recipes, 287-290
sausage, 277-285 oatmeal scrapple, 290
beef and pork, 279 turkey scrapple, 290-291
bologna, 282-283 ponhaws, 288
cured pork, 279 scrapple, 288-290
Frankfurt or Vienna-style, 281- Seafoods, composition of, table, 20-
282 28
fresh pork, 277-278 Sheep:
game or hunters', 280 butchering (see Butchering sheep
goose liver, 284-285 and lambs)
liver, 280-281 mountain, 117
skins, handling, 126
mutton and pork, 280
Shellfish:
smoked,280 dried shrimp, 230-231
smoked pork, 279 freezing, packaging for, 193-194
summer, 283-284 Shipping meat, regulations for, 72
scrapple, 287-290 Shrimp:
oatmeal, 290 dried, 230-231
ponhaws, 288 freezing, 193-194
turkey, 290 Skinning or flaying animals, 67-70
soap-making formulas, 296 Skins and hides (see Hides and
spiced corned beef, 225 skins)
spiced tongue slices, 225-226 Small game:
standard curing mixture, 201 canning, 260-261
tomato sauce, 267 ripening, 12-13
venison, 152-154 Smithfield processed ham, 207
Reference books, 304-306 Smoked meats:
Riboflavin, 18, 19 insect infestation, 245-246
318
Smoked meats (cont.): -- Turkey, 39-40
storing, 245-247 curing, 213-215
testing, 245 digestibility of, 9
Smoked sausage, 279,280 killing and plucking, 159
Smokehouses, 231-237 smoke-cooked, 239
arrangement of meats in, 237 wild,37-38
barrel type, 232 Turkey scrapple, 290-291
frame or concrete type, 232-236
temperatures, 231 Variety meats> 223
woo'ds used, 236 Veal, 104
Smoking meat and fish, 231-247 cutting the carcass, 146-148
beef, 238 freezing:
fish, 240-245 cutting for, 179, 180
fowl, 238-240 packaging for, 183-185
lamb, 238 Venison, 36
pork, 237-238 curing, 213
shrinkage after, 246 cutting the carcass, 152-154
Soap making, 295-297 jerked, 229
formulas, 296-297 pemmican, 228
Souse, pigs' feet, 224 recipes, 152-154
Spiced corned beef, 225 Vienna sausage, 281-282
Spiced tongue slices, 225-226 Vitamin B, 18-19
Spicing, 223 Vitamin C, 19
Squabs, 39 Vitamin D, 19
killing and plucking, 160 Vitamin G, 39
Squirrels, 122 Vitamins, 18-19
State experiment stations, 309-310 in meat, poultry, seafoods, table,
State game departm(:nts, 306-308 20-28
Suckers, 42
canning, 266 Waterfowl, dressing, 159-160
Summer sausage, 274, 283-284 Wax plucking, 157
Sunshine vitamin (D), 19 Whalemeat, 43
Swans, meat of, 8 Whitefish, canning, 266-267
Wieners, 282
Wild fowl:
Tt'.Drl£.Tay prDU'Sl'" JJl-J 4-
Thiamine, 18, 19 drawing, I65
dressing, 164-168
Thuringer, fresh, 2n plucking, 165-166
Tin cans, 248, 250, 261-262 singeing, 167
Tongue: Woodchucks, 8, 122, 123
buffalo, 5, 6 Woodcocks, 164
curing,210-211 Woods:
Tongue slices, spicect, 225-226 for drying, 222
Tripe, 104 for smoking, 236
Tularemia, testing f(Jr, 122 Wurst, kinds of, 273

Butchering, Processing and Preservation of Meat

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A random sample of subjects covered:

Profusely illustrated, clear concise explanations show every step of the

-AlVlanual for the Home and Farm

~IIIIIIIIIIIIIII" 1111I1I111 11111111

VAN NOSTRAND REINHOLD COMPAl\

WILLIAM HENRY TOMHA VE

VII BUTCHERING SHEEP AND LAMBS 105

VIII DRESSING GAME ANIMALS 117

IX HANDLING HIDES AND SKINS 124

X CUTTIN G THE CARCASS 127

XI DRESSING POULTRY AND WILD FOWL 155

XII PROCURING, CLEANING, AND CUTTING

XIII PRESERVING MEAT, FOWL, AND SEAFOOD 176

MAN'S EATING CUSTOMS

Are you a creature of habit? Do you resist anything new in food?

FIG. 1. Prehistoric tribesmen hunted wild horses for meat.

OLD AND NEW TECHNIQUES COMBINED SOLVE MEAT PROBLEM

FACTS ABOUT MEAT .

FRESH AND SEASONED MEAT

Meat from an animal just slaughtered or shot is usually tough

Whatever opinion or prejudice may be held in regard to gami-

FIG. 5. Choice rib cut showing a high degree of

There are other methods of ripening or tenderizing meat. Freez-

method. It is a combination of controlled higher temperatures

In order to handle and preserve meats satisfactorily one should

. '3 i~TRUCTURE OF MEA~J .

3 L~eat is composed mainly of lean muscle, fatty and connective

a large voluntary muscle. These muscles comprise most of the

When a meat animal begins to fatten, it deposits fat first around

3<1\ [COMPOSITION OF MEAT J

FIG. 7. High magnification shows that

Nutrition is the science that deals with food at work-food on the

3:. b O~OOD NUTRIENTS J

l ' to 0 ....... J:'"-.. 0

t-: G'! oq "! i"'l oq

F l' f',. j'

§.8~ £I~I 00 o o 00000

* CARCAS MEAT - EXCLUDES OFFAL, LARD, RABBIT AND POULTRY MEAT

"E .2 ~.~ "

"'II:t!-.:fIlQLQlQl.Q&QlQLQ"'COLQq:,r... .... CCCOLQ~lQll)I.QCOLQLQLQC'Qcocococooo

Average 1946-50 1952 2

Belgium ............• 35 33 2' 85 41 42 l' 91

Argentina .........•.. 194 19 19 232 202 14 14 230

Australia .. " ......•• 116 22 69 • 212 123 17 64 • 208

MODERN MEAT CONSUMPTION

It is generally assumed that earlier civilizations ate more meat

AVERAGE 1946-50 1952

TOTAL 67.0 BILLION POUNDS TOTAL 77.2 BILLION POUNDS

*60AT AND HORSE MEAT

SOURCE: U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

WORLD MEAT PRODUCTION BY TYPES

AVERAGE 1946-50 1952

ALL ALL OTHER 10.2%

SOURCE: U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

GAME ON THE TABLE

PROXIMATE ANALYSES OF EDIBLE PORTIONS OF ROASTED MEATS

Dry Mineral Calories per

VITAMIN ASSAYS ON COOKED SAMPLES OF GAME ANIMALS