Practical Design to Eurocode 2

Week 5 - Foundations

Eurocode 7
Eurocode 7 has two parts:
Part 1: General Rules
Part 2: Ground Investigation and testing

1
Limit States
The following ultimate limit states apply to foundation
design:
EQU: Loss of equilibrium of the structure
STR: Internal failure or excessive deformation of the
structure or structural member
GEO: Failure due to excessive deformation of the ground
UPL: Loss of equilibrium due to uplift by water pressure
HYD: Failure caused by hydraulic gradients

Categories of Structures
Category Description Risk of Examples from
geotechnical EC7
failure

1 Small and relatively Negligible None given

simple structures

2 Conventional types of No exceptional Spread

structure – no difficult risk foundations
ground

3 All other structures Abnormal risks Large or

unusual
structures

2
EC7 – ULS Design
EC7 provides for three Design Approaches

UK National Annex - Use Design Approach 1 – DA1

For DA1 (except piles and anchorage design) there are

two sets of combinations to use for the STR and GEO limit
states.
Combination 1 – generally governs structural resistance
Combination 2 – generally governs sizing of foundations

STR/GEO ULS – Actions partial factors

Permanent Actions Leading Accompanying variable

variable actions
Unfavourable Favourable action Main Others

Combination 1
Exp 6.10 1.35Gk 1.0Gk 1.5Qk 1.5ψ0,iQk

Exp 6.10a 1.35Gk 1.0Gk 1.5ψ0,1Qk 1.5ψ0,iQk

Exp 6.10b 1.25Gk 1.0Gk 1.5Qk 1.5ψ0,iQk

Combination 2

Exp 6.10 1.0Gk 1.0Gk 1.3Qk 1.3ψ0,iQk

Notes:
If the variation in permanent action is significant, use Gk,j,sup and Gk,j,inf
If the action if favourable, γQ,i = 0 and the variable actions should be ignored

3
Factors for EQU, UPL and HYD
Permanent Actions Variable Actions
Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Favourable
EQU 1.1 0.9 1.5 0
UPL 1.1 0.9 1.5 0
HYD 1.335 0.9 1.5 0

Partial factors – material properties

Symbol Combination 1 Combination 2

Angle of shearing γφ 1.0 1.25

resistance

Effective cohesion γc’ 1.0 1.25

Undrained shear γcu 1.0 1.4

strength

Unconfined strength γqu 1.0 1.4

Bulk density γγ 1.0 1.0

4
Spread Foundations
EC7 Section 6
Three methods for design:
• Direct method – check all limit states
• Indirect method – experience and testing used to
determine SLS parameters that also satisfy ULS
• Prescriptive methods – use presumed bearing
resistance (BS8004 quoted in NA)

5
Pressure distributions

EQU : 0.9 Gk + 1.5 Qk (assuming variable action is

destabilising e.g. wind, and permanent action is
stabilizing)

STR : 1.35 Gk + 1.5 Qk (6.10)

(6.10a or 6.10b could be used)

6
Strip and Pad Footings
(12.9.3) – Plain concrete

hF

a a
bF

0,85 ⋅ hF
≥ √(3σgd/fctd,pl)
a
σgd is the design value of the ground pressure

• as a simplification hf/a ≥ 2 may be used

Strip and Pad footings

Plain concrete

C16/20 C20/25 C25/30 C30/37

allowable
pressure σgd hF /a hF /a hF/a hF /a
50 70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.52
100 140 0.92 0.85 0.78 0.74
150 210 1.12 1.04 0.95 0.90
200 280 1.29 1.21 1.10 1.04
250 350 1.45 1.35 1.23 1.17

hF

a a
bF

7
Reinforced Bases
• Check critical bending moment at column face
• Check beam shear and punching shear
• For punching shear
the ground reaction
within the perimeter
may be deducted
from the column load

Worked Example
Design a square pad footing for a 350 × 350 mm column
carrying Gk = 600 kN and Qk = 505 kN. The presumed
allowable bearing pressure of the non-aggressive soil is
200 kN/m2.
Category 2, using prescriptive methods
Base size: (600 + 505)/200 = 5.525m2
=> 2.4 x 2.4 base x .5m (say) deep.

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Worked Example
Use C30/37
Loading = 1.35 x 600 + 1.5 x 505
= 1567.5kN
ULS bearing pressure =
1567.5/2.42
= 272kN/m2
Critical section at face of column
MEd = 272 x 2.4 x 1.0252 / 2
= 343kNm
d = 500 – 50 – 16 = 434mm
K = 343 x 106 / (2400 x 4342 x 30)
= 0.025

Worked Example
⇒ z = 0.95d = 0.95 x 434 = 412mm
⇒ As = MEd/fydz = 343 x 106 / (435 x 412) = 1914mm2
⇒ Provide H16 @ 250 c/c (1930mm2)
Beam shear
Check critical section d away from column face
VEd = 272 x (1.025 – 0.434) = 161kN/m
vEd = 161 / 434 = 0.37MPa
vRd,c (from table) = 0.41MPa => beam shear ok.

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Worked Example
Punching shear
Basic control perimeter at 2d from face of column
vEd = βVEd / uid < vRd,c
β = 1, ui = (350 x 4 + 434 x 2 x 2 x π) = 6854mm
VEd = load minus net upward force within the area of the
control perimeter)
= 1567.5 – 272 x (0.352 + π x .8682 + .868 x .35 x 4)
= 560kN
vEd = 0.188MPa; vRd,c = 0.41 (as before) => ok

Workshop Problem 1
Pad foundation for a 300mm square column taking
Gk = 600kN, Qk = 350kN.
Permissible bearing stress = 225kPa.
Concrete for base C30/37.

Work out
• size of base,
• tension reinforcement and
• any shear reinforcement.

10
Workshop Problem 1
Category 2, using prescriptive methods
Base size: (Gk + Qk)/bearing stress = ______m2
⇒ ____ x ____ base x ____mm deep (choose size of pad)
Use C__/___ (choose concrete strength)
Loading = γg x Gk + γq x Qk = _____kN
ULS bearing pressure = ____/____2 = _____kN/m2
Critical section at face of column
MEd = ____ x ____ x _____2 / 2 = _____kNm
d = ___ – cover – assumed ø = _____mm
K = M/bd2fck= ______

Workshop Problem 1
⇒ z = ____d = ____ x ____= ____mm
⇒ As = MEd/fydz = _____mm2
⇒ Provide H__ @ ____ c/c (_____mm2)
Check minimum steel
100As,prov/bd = _____
For C__/__ concrete As,min = ____ ∴ OK/not OK
Beam shear
Check critical section d away from column face
VEd = ___ x _____= _____kN/m
vEd = VEd / d = _____MPa
vRd,c (from table) = ____MPa ∴ beam shear OK/not OK.

11
Workshop Problem 1
Punching shear
Basic control perimeter at 2d from face of column
vEd = βVEd / uid < vRd,c
β = 1, ui = = _____mm
VEd = load minus net upward force within the area of the control
perimeter)
= _____ – ____ x ( )
= _____kN
vEd = _____MPa; vRd,c = ______ (as before) => ok/not ok

Retaining Walls

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 Ultimate Limit States
for the design of
retaining walls

Calculation Model A

Model applies if bh≥ ha tan (45 - ϕ’d/2)

13
General expressions

Ws = b sHγ k,c
Wb = tbBγ k,c
bh = B − b s − b t
b
L s = bt + s
2
B
Lb =
2

For Calculation Model A

h = tb + H + bh tan β
 b tan β 
Wf = bh  H + h  γ k,f
 2 
b
L f ≈ bt + bs + h
2
Ω=β
L vp = B

14
Calculation Model B

15
Partial factors – Material properties

Symbol Combination 1 Combination 2

Angle of shearing γφ 1.0 1.25

resistance

Effective cohesion γc’ 1.0 1.25

Undrained shear γcu 1.0 1.4

strength

Unconfined strength γqu 1.0 1.4

Bulk density γγ 1.0 1.0

Overall design
procedure

16
Initial sizing

bs ≈ tb ≈ h/10 to h/15
B ≈ 0.5h to 0.7h
bt ≈ B/4 to B/3

Overall design
procedure

17
Figure 6 for overall
design procedure

Panel 2

18
Overall design
procedure

Design against
sliding
(Figure 7)

19
Overall design
procedure

20
Design against Toppling
(Figure 9)

Overall design
procedure

21
 Design against bearing failure
(Figure 10)

Panel 4 – Expressions for bearing resistance

22
 Overall design
procedure

Figure 13 – Structural design

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 Piles

Flexural and axial resistance of

piles
‘Uncertainties related to the cross-section of cast in place piles and
concreting procedures shall be allowed for in design’
‘In the absence of other provisions’, the design diameter of cast in place
piles without permanent casing is less than the nominal diameter Dnom:
• Dd = Dnom – 20 mm for Dnom < 400 mm
• Dd = 0.95 Dnom for 400 ≤ Dnom ≤ 1000 mm
• Dd = Dnom – 50 mm for Dnom > 1000 mm

ICE SPERW B1.10.2 states ‘The dimensions of a constructed pile or wall

element shall not be less than the specified dimensions’. A tolerance of 5%
on auger diameter, casing diameter, and grab length and width is
permissible.

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Flexural and axial resistance of
piles
• The partial factor for concrete, γc, should be multiplied by a
factor, kf, for calculation of design resistance of cast in place
piles without permanent casing.
• The UK value of kf = 1.1, therefore γc,pile = 1.65
• “If the width of the compression zone decreases in the direction
of the extreme compression fibre, the value η fcd should be
reduced by 10%”

Bored piles
Reinforcement should be detailed for free flow of
concrete
Minimum diameter of long. reinforcement = 16mm
Minimum number of longitudinal bars = 6
BUT – BS EN 1536 Execution of special geotechnical work
Bored Piles says 12 mm and 4 bars!

Pile cross Min area of long. Pile

section: Ac rebar, As,bpmin diameters
Ac ≤ 0.5 m2 ≥ 0.5% Ac < 800 mm
0.5 m2< Ac≤ 1.0 m2 ≥ 2500 mm2
Ac > 1.0 m2 ≥ 0.25% Ac >1130 mm

25
Minimum reinforcement
Minimum area of reinforcement,

5000
4500
4000
3500
As,bpmin (mm2)

3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Pile diameter, mm

Strut & Tie

26
What is Strut and Tie?
A structure can be divided into:
• B (or beam or Bernoulli) regions in which plane sections remain plane and
design is based on ‘normal’ beam theory,
and
• D (or disturbed) regions in which plane sections do not remain plane; so
‘normal’ beam theory may be considered inappropriate and Strut & Tie
may be used

D
regions

56

What is strut and tie?

Strut-and-tie models (STM) are
trusses consisting of struts, ties
and nodes.
a) Modelling
Imagine or draw stress
paths which show the
elastic flow of forces
through the structure
b) STM A deep beam
Replace stress paths with
polygons of forces to
provide equilibrium.
Conventionally, struts are
drawn as dashed lines, ties
as full lines and nodes
numbered.
57

27
At failure which is bigger P1 or P2?
P1

P2

Concept by R
Whittle, drawn by
I Feltham. Used
with permission

At failure which is bigger P1 or P2?

P1

P2 ≈ 2P1

Concept by R
Whittle, drawn by
I Feltham. Used
with permission

28
What is strut and tie?
Strut and tie models are based on the lower bound
theorem of plasticity which states that any distribution of
stresses resisting an applied load is safe providing:

Equilibrium is maintained
and

Stresses do not exceed “yield”

What is strut and tie?

In strut and tie models trusses are used with the following components:
• Struts (concrete)
• Ties (reinforcement)
• Nodes (intersections of struts and ties)
Eurocode 2 gives guidance for each of these.

In principle - where non-linear strain distribution exists, strut and tie models
may be used. e.g
• Supports
• Concentrated loads
• Openings

29
Struts
Where there is no transverse tension
σRd,max = fcd
= 0.85 fck /1.5
= 0.57 fck

Otherwise, where there is transverse tension

σRd,max = 0.6 ν’fcd
Where:
ν’ = 1-fck/250
σRd,max = 0.6 x (1-fck/250) x 1.0 x fck /1.5
= 0.4 (1-fck/250) fck

Bi-axial Strength of Concrete

fcu
compressive strength of
concrete with transverse
tension

fct fcu

fct
tensile stress in concrete

30
Biaxial stress relationship

σz

Reduction in
compression
strength

tension

σy

Strut & Tie Models

31
Struts

Dimensions of the strut are determined by dimensions of

the nodes and assumptions made there.
The stress in struts is rarely critical but the stress where
struts abut nodes is (see later).
However . . . . .

Discontinuities in struts
Areas of non-linear strain distribution are referred to as
“discontinuities”
Partial discontinuity Full discontinuity
Curved
compression
trajectories lead
to tensile forces

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Partial discontinuity
Tension in the reinforcement is T
When b ≤ H/2
T = ¼ [(b – a )/b] F
Reinforcement ties to resist T
the transverse force T may be
“discrete” or can be “smeared”
T
over the length of tension zone
arising from the compression
stress trajectories

Full discontinuity
When b > H/2
T = ¼ (1 – 0.7a /h) F
Reinforcement ties to resist the
transverse force T may be
“discrete” or can be “smeared” T
over the length of tension zone
T
arising from the compression stress
trajectories

33
Ties
Design strength, fyd = fyk/1.15

Reinforcement should be anchored into nodes

Nodes
Nodes are typically classified as:

CCC – Three compressive struts

CCT – Two compressive struts and one tie

CTT – One compressive strut and two ties

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 CCC nodes
The maximum stress at the edge of the node:
σRd,max = k1 ν’fcd
Where:
k1 = 1.0
ν’ = 1-fck/250

σRd,max = (1-fck/250) x 0.85 x fck /1.5

= 0.57 (1-fck/250) fck

The stresses σc0 & σRd,2 etc are all the same.

CCT nodes
The maximum compressive stress is:
σRd,max = k2 ν’fcd
Where:
k2 = 0.85
ν’ = 1-fck/250

σRd,max = 0.85 (1-fck/250) x 0.85 x fck /1.5

= 0.48 (1-fck/250) fck
(based on the more critical of the two struts)

35
CTT nodes
The maximum compressive stress is:
σRd,max = k2 ν’fcd
Where:
k2 = 0.75
ν’ = 1-fck/250

σRd,max = 0.75 (1-fck/250) x 0.85 x fck /1.5

= 0.43 (1-fck/250) fck

Pile-cap example
Using a strut and tie model, what tension reinforcement is required
for a pile cap supporting a 500 mm square column carrying 2 500 kN
(ULS), and itself supported by two-piles of 600 mm diameter. fck = 30
MPa

2 500 kN (ULS)

Breadth =
1400

900 mm

150
2700

36
Pile-cap example
STM
Angle of strut = tan-1(900/1300) 2 500 kN (ULS)
= 34.7°
Width of strut* = 250/cos 34.7°

1400
= 304 mm 34.7o 34.7o

Force per strut = 1250/cos 34.7° 866 kN

= 1520 kN

100
Force in tie = 1250 tan 34.7°
= 866 kN 1800
500/2 = 250
1 250 kN 1 250 kN
(ULS) (ULS)
Strut angle

* Conventional but simplistic - see later

Pile-cap example
Check forces in truss
Stress in strut =1520x103/(304 x 500)
=10.0 MPa
Strength of strut:
866 kN
σRd,max = 0.4 (1-fck/250) fck
= 10.6 MPa
Area of steel required:
As ≥ 866 x 103/435
≥ 1991 mm2
Use 5 H25s

37
Pile-cap example
Nodes: bottom

From above
σRd,2 = 10.0 MPa
σRd,1 = 1250 x 103/(Π 3002)
= 4.4 MPa
1038 kN
σRd,max (for CCT node)
= 0.48 (1-fck/250) fck = 1250 kN

= 12.7 MPa
OK

Pile-cap example
2500 kN
Nodes: top

From before 1520 kN 1520 kN

σRd,2 = 10.0 MPa
σRd,3 = 10.0 MPa 1520 kN 1520 kN

σRd,1 = 2500 x 103/(5002)

= 10.0 MPa
σRd,max (for CCC node)
= 0.57 (1-fck/250) fck
= 15.0 MPa
2500 kN

79

38
Pile-cap example
Detailing
Detailed checks are also required for the following:
• Small piles
• Determine local tie steel across struts (if req’d)
• Detailing of reinforcement anchorage (large radius bends may
be required)

Anchorage starts
from here

Strut dimensions
RE previous statement that calculated strut dimensions
were “Conventional but simplistic - see later”
For the CCT node: Not used in previous calcs.
Hence struts themselves
rarely critical.

Similarly for the CCC node

81

39
Pile-cap example

Comparison: design using bending theory

MEd =2500 x 1.800/4 = 1125 kNm

Assume:
25 mm φ for tension reinforcement
12 mm link
d = h – cnom - φlink - 0.5φ
= 1400 – 75 - 12 – 13
= 1300 mm

Worked example

K ' = 0.208 δ K’
M Ed 1.00 0.208
K =
bd 2f ck 0.95 0.195
1125 × 10 6
0.90 0.182
=
900 × 13002 × 30 0.85 0.168
= 0.025 < K ' 0.80 0.153
0.75 0.137
z =
d
2
[1 + 1 − 3.53K ] 0.70 0.120

=
1300
2
[
1 + 1 − 3.53 × 0.025 = 1270 mm ]
As = 1125 x 106 / (435 x 1270) = 2036 mm2
Use 5 H25 (2454 mm2)
c.f. using S&T 1991 mm2 req’d and 5H25 provided

40
Workshop problem 2
Using a strut and tie model, what tension reinforcement is required
for a pile cap supporting a 650 mm square column carrying 4 000 kN
(ULS), and itself supported by two-piles of 750 mm diameter. fck = 30
MPa

4 000 kN (ULS)

Breadth =

1800
1050 mm

150
3300

Workshop problem 2 Model answer

Angle of strut = tan-1(____/_____)

= _____° 4 000 kN (ULS)

Width of strut (?) = ____/cos ____°

1800

= ____ mm
Force per strut = _____/cos ____°
= _____ kN
Force in tie = ____ tan _____°
100

= _____ kN
2000 kN 2000 kN
325 (ULS) (ULS)
Strut angle 2250
(?)

41
Workshop problem 2 Model answer

Check forces in truss

Stress in strut = _____x103/(____x650)
= _____ MPa
Strength of strut:
σRd,max = 0.4 (1-fck/250) fck
= _____ MPa
Area of steel required:
As ≥ ____ x 103/435
≥ ______ mm2
Use H

Workshop problem 2 Model answer

Nodes: bottom

From above
σRd,2 = _____ MPa as before
σRd,1 = 2000 x 103/(3752 π)
= _____ MPa
______ kN
σRd,max = 0.48 (1-fck/250) fck
= _____ MPa 2000 kN

42
Workshop problem 2 Model answer

Nodes: top
2398 kN 2398 kN

From above
σRd,2 = ____ MPa
σRd,3 = ____ MPa
σRd,1 = 4000 x 103/(6502)
4000 kN
= _____ MPa
σRd,max
= 0.57 (1-fck/250) fck
= _____ MPa

Workshop problem 2 Model answer

Design using bending theory

MEd =4000 x 2.250/4 = _____ kNm

Assume:
25 mm φ for tension reinforcement
12 mm link
d = h – cnom - φlink - 0.5φ
= ______ mm

43
Workshop problem 2 Model answer

K’ = ______
δ K’
1.00 0.208
K=M/bd2fck
0.95 0.195
K= ______
0.90 0.182
0.85 0.168

z= ______ x d
0.80 0.153
z = ______ mm
0.75 0.137
0.70 0.120
As = MEd/fydz
As = ______/ (____ x _____) = _____mm2
Use __ H____ (_____ mm2)

End
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