University of Kurdistan

Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Smart/Micro Grid Research Center
smgrc.uok.ac.ir

Intelligent Automatic Generation Control

Bevrani H, Hiyama T

Published (to be published) in: CRC Press(Taylor & Francis Group)

publication date: 2011

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Bevrani H, Hiyama T (April 2011) Intelligent Automatic Generation Control, CRC Press (Taylor &
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Copyright © Smart/Micro Grid Research Center, 2016

I NTELLIGENT
A UTOMATIC
G ENERATION
C ONTROL

HASSAN BEVRANI
TAKASHI HIYAMA
I NTELLIGENT
A UTOMATIC
G ENERATION
C ONTROL
I NTELLIGENT
A UTOMATIC
G ENERATION
C ONTROL
HUniversity
ASSAN BEVRANI
of Kurdistan
Kumamoto University

TAKASHI HIYAMA
Kumamoto University

Boca Raton London New York

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© 2011 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents

Preface.................................................................................................................... xiii
Acknowledgments.............................................................................................. xvii

1 Intelligent Power System Operation and Control: Japan

Case Study......................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Application of Intelligent Methods to Power Systems..................... 2
1.2 Application to Power System Planning.............................................. 3
1.2.1 Expansion Planning of Distribution Systems.......................3
1.2.2 Load Forecasting....................................................................... 4
1.2.3 Unit Commitment..................................................................... 5
1.2.4 Maintenance Scheduling......................................................... 6
1.3 Application to Power System Control and Restoration....................6
1.3.1 Fault Diagnosis..........................................................................6
1.3.2 Restoration.................................................................................6
1.3.3 Stabilization Control................................................................. 7
1.4 Future Implementations........................................................................8
1.5 Summary................................................................................................. 9
References..........................................................................................................9

2 Automatic Generation Control (AGC): Fundamentals and

Concepts.......................................................................................................... 11
2.1 AGC in a Modern Power System....................................................... 11
2.2 Power System Frequency Control...................................................... 15
2.2.1 Primary Control...................................................................... 18
2.2.2 Supplementary Control.......................................................... 19
2.2.3 Emergency Control................................................................. 21
2.3 Frequency Response Model and AGC Characteristics................... 24
2.3.1 Droop Characteristic.............................................................. 25
2.3.2 Generation-Load Model......................................................... 27
2.3.3 Area Interface.......................................................................... 27
2.3.4 Spinning Reserve.................................................................... 29
2.3.5 Participation Factor................................................................. 29
2.3.6 Generation Rate Constraint................................................... 29
2.3.7 Speed Governor Dead-Band.................................................. 30
2.3.8 Time Delays.............................................................................30
2.4 A Three-Control Area Power System Example............................... 31
2.5 Summary............................................................................................... 35
References........................................................................................................ 35

© 2011 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC vii

viii Contents

3 Intelligent AGC: Past Achievements and New Perspectives................ 37

3.1 Fuzzy Logic AGC................................................................................. 39
3.1.1 Fuzzy Logic Controller.......................................................... 40
3.1.2 Fuzzy-Based PI (PID) Controller..........................................43
3.2 Neuro-Fuzzy and Neural-Networks-Based AGC...........................44
3.3 Genetic-Algorithm-Based AGC.......................................................... 47
3.4 Multiagent-Based AGC........................................................................ 50
3.5 Combined and Other Intelligent Techniques in AGC.................... 51
3.6 AGC in a Deregulated Environment.................................................54
3.7 AGC and Renewable Energy Options............................................... 55
3.7.1 Present Status and Future Prediction.................................. 56
3.7.2 New Technical Challenges.................................................... 57
3.7.3 Recent Achievements............................................................. 58
3.8 AGC and Microgrids........................................................................... 60
3.9 Scope for Future Work.........................................................................63
3.9.1 Improvement of Modeling and Analysis Tools..................63
3.9.2 Develop Effective Intelligent Control Schemes for
Contribution of DGs/RESs in the AGC Issue.....................64
3.9.3 Coordination between Regulation Powers
of DGs/RESs and Conventional Generators.......................64
3.9.4 Improvement of Computing Techniques
and Measurement Technologies...........................................64
3.9.5 Use of Advanced Communication and
Information Technology........................................................65
3.9.6 Update/Define New Grid Codes..........................................65
3.9.7 Revising of Existing Standards.............................................65
3.9.8 Updating Deregulation Policies............................................ 66
3.10 Summary............................................................................................... 66
References........................................................................................................ 67

4 AGC in Restructured Power Systems........................................................77

4.1 Control Area in New Environment...................................................77
4.2 AGC Configurations and Frameworks............................................. 79
4.2.1 AGC Configurations............................................................... 79
4.2.2 AGC Frameworks.................................................................... 82
4.3 AGC Markets........................................................................................84
4.4 AGC Response and an Updated Model............................................ 86
4.4.1 AGC System and Market Operator...................................... 86
4.4.2 AGC Model and Bilateral Contracts..................................... 89
4.4.3 Need for Intelligent AGC Markets....................................... 91
4.5 Summary............................................................................................... 92
References........................................................................................................ 92

5 Neural-Network-Based AGC Design........................................................ 95

5.1 An Overview........................................................................................ 95
© 2011 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Contents ix

5.2 ANN-Based Control Systems............................................................. 97

5.2.1 Fundamental Element of ANNs........................................... 97
5.2.2 Learning and Adaptation...................................................... 99
5.2.3 ANNs in Control Systems................................................... 100
5.3 Flexible Neural Network................................................................... 104
5.3.1 Flexible Neurons................................................................... 104
5.3.2 Learning Algorithms in an FNN........................................ 105
5.4 Bilateral AGC Scheme and Modeling............................................. 107
5.4.1 Bilateral AGC Scheme.......................................................... 107
5.4.2 Dynamical Modeling........................................................... 108
5.5 FNN-Based AGC System.................................................................. 110
5.6 Application Examples........................................................................ 113
5.6.1 Single-Control Area.............................................................. 115
5.6.2 Three-Control Area.............................................................. 117
5.7 Summary............................................................................................. 119
References...................................................................................................... 121

6 AGC Systems Concerning Renewable Energy Sources....................... 123

6.1 An Updated AGC Frequency Response Model............................. 124
6.2 Frequency Response Analysis......................................................... 128
6.3 Simulation Study................................................................................ 131
6.3.1 Nine-Bus Test System........................................................... 131
6.3.2 Thirty-Nine-Bus Test System.............................................. 133
6.4 Emergency Frequency Control and RESs....................................... 138
6.5 Key Issues and New Perspectives................................................... 142
6.5.1 Need for Revision of Performance Standards.................. 142
6.5.2 Further Research Needs...................................................... 144
6.6 Summary............................................................................................. 146
References...................................................................................................... 146

7 AGC Design Using Multiagent Systems................................................ 149

7.1 Multiagent System (MAS): An Introduction.................................. 149
7.2 Multiagent Reinforcement-Learning-Based AGC......................... 153
7.2.1 Multiagent Reinforcement Learning.................................. 154
7.2.2 Area Control Agent.............................................................. 156
7.2.3 RL Algorithm......................................................................... 156
7.2.4 Application to a Thirty-Nine-Bus Test System................. 158
7.3 Using GA to Determine Actions and States................................... 161
7.3.1 Finding Individual’s Fitness and
Variation Ranges................................................................... 162
7.3.2 Application to a Three-Control Area
Power System......................................................................... 163
7.4 An Agent for β Estimation................................................................ 165
7.5 Summary............................................................................................. 169
References...................................................................................................... 169
© 2011 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
x Contents

8 Bayesian-Network-Based AGC Approach.............................................. 173

8.1 Bayesian Networks: An Overview.................................................. 174
8.1.1 BNs at a Glance..................................................................... 175
8.1.2 Graphical Models and Representation.............................. 177
8.1.3 A Graphical Model Example............................................... 179
8.1.4 Inference................................................................................. 182
8.1.5 Learning................................................................................. 184
8.2 AGC with Wind Farms..................................................................... 185
8.2.1 Frequency Control and Wind Turbines............................. 185
8.2.2 Generalized ACE Signal...................................................... 186
8.3 Proposed Intelligent Control Scheme............................................. 187
8.3.1 Control Framework............................................................... 187
8.3.2 BN Structure.......................................................................... 188
8.3.3 Estimation of Amount of Load Change............................ 190
8.4 Implementation Methodology......................................................... 193
8.4.1 BN Construction................................................................... 193
8.4.2 Parameter Learning.............................................................. 194
8.5 Application Results............................................................................ 195
8.5.1 Thirty-Nine-Bus Test System.............................................. 195
8.5.2 A Real-Time Laboratory Experiment................................. 200
8.6 Summary............................................................................................. 204
References...................................................................................................... 204

9 Fuzzy Logic and AGC Systems................................................................. 207

9.1 Study Systems..................................................................................... 207
9.1.1 Two Control Areas with Subareas...................................... 207
9.1.2 Thirty-Nine-Bus Power System.......................................... 208
9.2 Polar-Information-Based Fuzzy Logic AGC.................................. 211
9.2.1 Polar-Information-Based Fuzzy Logic Control................ 211
9.2.2 Simulation Results................................................................ 215
9.2.2.1 Trunk Line Power Control................................... 215
9.2.2.2 Control of Regulation Margin............................. 217
9.3 PSO-Based Fuzzy Logic AGC.......................................................... 220
9.3.1 Particle Swarm Optimization............................................. 220
9.3.2 AGC Design Methodology..................................................222
9.3.3 PSO Algorithm for Setting of Membership
Functions................................................................................ 224
9.3.4 Application Results............................................................... 224
9.4 Summary............................................................................................. 227
References...................................................................................................... 228

10 Frequency Regulation Using Energy Capacitor System...................... 229

10.1 Fundamentals of the Proposed Control Scheme........................... 230
10.1.1 Restriction of Control Action (Type I)................................ 231

© 2011 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents xi

10.1.2 Restriction of Control Action (Type II).............................. 232

10.1.3 Prevention of Excessive Control Action (Type III)........... 232
10.2 Study System...................................................................................... 233
10.3 Simulation Results.............................................................................234
10.4 Evaluation of Frequency Regulation Performance....................... 236
10.5 Summary............................................................................................. 239
References...................................................................................................... 240

11 Application of Genetic Algorithm in AGC Synthesis......................... 241

11.1 Genetic Algorithm: An Overview................................................... 242
11.1.1 GA Mechanism..................................................................... 242
11.1.2 GA in Control Systems......................................................... 243
11.2 Optimal Tuning of Conventional Controllers............................... 244
11.3 Multiobjective GA.............................................................................. 248
11.3.1 Multiobjective Optimization............................................... 248
11.3.2 Application to AGC Design................................................. 249
11.4 GA for Tracking Robust Performance Index.................................. 252
11.4.1 Mixed H2/H∞......................................................................... 252
11.4.2 Mixed H2/H∞ SOF Design................................................... 253
11.4.3 AGC Synthesis Using GA-Based Robust
Performance Tracking..........................................................254
11.5 GA in Learning Process.................................................................... 255
11.5.1 GA for Finding Training Data in a BN-Based AGC
Design..................................................................................... 257
11.5.2 Application Example............................................................ 258
11.6 Summary............................................................................................. 259
References...................................................................................................... 261

12 Frequency Regulation in Isolated Systems with Dispersed

Power Sources.............................................................................................. 263
12.1 Configuration of Multiagent-Based AGC System......................... 264
12.1.1 Conventional AGC on Diesel Unit..................................... 264
12.1.2 Coordinated AGC on the ECS and Diesel Unit................ 264
12.2 Configuration of Laboratory System............................................... 266
12.3 Experimental Results......................................................................... 268
12.4 Summary............................................................................................. 276
References...................................................................................................... 277

© 2011 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Preface

Automatic generation control (AGC) is one of the important control prob-

lems in interconnected power system design and operation, and is becom-
ing more significant today due to the increasing size, changing structure,
emerging renewable energy sources and new uncertainties, environmental
constraints, and complexity of power systems. Automatic generation control
markets require increased intelligence and flexibility to ensure that they
are capable of maintaining a generation-load balance, following serious
disturbances.
The AGC systems of tomorrow, which should handle complex, multiob-
jective regulation optimization problems characterized by a high degree of
diversification in policies, control strategies, and wide distribution in demand
and supply sources, surely must be intelligent. The core of such intelligent
systems should be based on flexible intelligent algorithms, advanced infor-
mation technology, and fast communication devices. The intelligent auto-
matic generation control interacting with other ancillary services and energy
markets will be able to contribute to upcoming challenges of future power
systems control and operation. This issue will be performed by intelligent
meters and data analyzers using advanced computational methods and
hardware technologies in both load and generation sides.
Intelligent automatic generation control provides a thorough understand-
ing of the fundamentals of power system AGC, and addresses several new
schemes using intelligent control methodologies for simultaneous minimi-
zation of system frequency deviation and tie-line power changes to match
total generation and load demand, which is required for successful operation
of interconnected power systems. The physical and engineering aspects have
been fully considered, and most proposed control strategies are examined
by real-time simulations.
The present book could be useful for engineers and operators in power
system planning and operation, as well as academic researchers and univer-
sity students in electrical engineering. This book is organized into twelve
chapters.
Chapter 1 provides a review on intelligent power system operation and con-
trol, and is mainly focused on the application examples of intelligent technol-
ogies in Japanese power system utilities. The chapter presents the state of the
art of intelligent techniques in Japanese utilities based on the investigation
by the Subcommittee of the Intelligent Systems Implementations in Power
Systems of Japan. The current situation of intelligent methods application in
Japanese power systems in general is described. Artificial intelligent applica-
tions in power system planning and control/restoration are addressed, and
next steps and future implementations are explained.

© 2011 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC xiii

xiv Preface

Chapter 2 presents the fundamentals of AGC, providing structure, defini-

tions, and basic concepts. The AGC mechanism in an interconnected power
system, and the major functions, constraints, and characteristics are described.
The role of AGC systems in connection with the power system monitoring/
control master stations, and remote site control centers to manage the electric
energy, is emphasized. Power system operations and frequency control in
different ranges of frequency deviation are briefly explained. A frequency
response model is described, and its usefulness for the sake of AGC dynamic
analysis and simulation is examined.
Chapter 3 emphasizes the application of intelligent techniques on the
AGC synthesis and addresses the basic control configurations with recent
achievements. New challenges and key issues concerning system restruc-
turing and integration of distributed generators and renewable energy
sources (RESs) are also discussed. The applications of fuzzy logic, neural
networks, genetic algorithms, multiagent systems, combined intelligent
techniques, and evolutionary optimization approaches on the AGC syn-
thesis problem are briefly reviewed. An introduction to AGC design in
deregulated environments is given, and AGC analysis and synthesis in
the presence of RESs and microgrids, including literature review, pres-
ent worldwide status, impacts, and technical challenges, are presented.
Finally, a discussion on the future works and research needs is given.
Chapter 4 reviews the main structures, configurations, and characteristics
of AGC systems in a deregulated environment and addresses the control
area concept in restructured power systems. Modern AGC structures and
topologies are described, and a brief description on AGC markets is given.
Concepts such as AGC market and market operator, and the need for intel-
ligent AGC markets in the future are also explained. The chapter emphasizes
that the new challenges will require some adaptations of the current AGC
strategies to satisfy the general needs of different market organizations and
the specific characteristics of each power system. The existing market-based
AGC configurations are discussed, and an updated frequency response
model for decentralized AGC markets is introduced.
Chapter 5 describes a methodology for AGC design using neural networks
in a restructured power system. Design strategy includes enough flexibil-
ity to set a desired level of performance. The proposed control method is
applied to single- and three-control area examples under a bilateral AGC
scheme. It is recognized that the learning of both connection weights and
neuron function parameters increases the power of learning algorithms,
keeping high capability in the training process. It is shown that the flexible
neural-network-based supplementary frequency controllers give better area
control error minimization and a proper convergence to the desired trajec-
tory than do the traditional neural networks.
Chapter 6 covers the AGC system and related issues concerning the inte-
gration of new RESs in the power systems. The impact of power fluctuation
produced by variable renewable sources (such as wind and solar units) on
© 2011 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Preface xv

the system frequency performance is presented. An updated power system

frequency response model for AGC analysis considering RESs and associated
issues is introduced. Some nonlinear time-domain simulations on standard
power system examples are presented to show that the simulated results agree
with those predicted analytically. Emergency frequency control concerning
the RESs is discussed. Finally, the need for revising frequency performance
standards, further research, and new AGC perspectives is emphasized.
Chapter 7 addresses the application of multiagent systems in AGC design
for multiarea power systems. General frameworks for agent-based control
systems based upon the foundations of agent theory are discussed. A new
multiagent AGC scheme has been introduced. The capability of reinforce-
ment learning in the proposed AGC strategy is examined, and the appli-
cation of genetic algorithms (GAs) to determine actions and states during
the learning process is discussed. The possibility for building more agents,
such as estimator agents to cope with real-world AGC systems, is explained.
Finally, the proposed methodology is examined on some power system
examples. The application results show that the proposed multiagent control
schemes provide a desirable performance, even in comparison to recently
developed robust control design.
Chapter 8 proposes a Bayesian-network-based multiagent AGC frame-
work, including two agents in each control area for estimating the amount of
power imbalance and providing an appropriate control action signal accord-
ing to load disturbances and tie-line power changes. The Bayesian network’s
construction, concepts, and parameter learning are explained. Some nonlin-
ear simulations on a standard test system concerning the integration of wind
power units, and also a real-time laboratory experience, are performed. The
results show the proposed AGC scheme guarantees optimal performance for
a wide range of operating conditions.
Chapter 9 gives an overview on fuzzy-logic-based AGC systems with dif-
ferent configurations. Two fuzzy-logic-based AGC design methodologies
based on polar information and particle swarm optimization are presented
for the frequency and tie-line power regulation in multiarea power systems.
By using the proposed polar-information-based fuzzy logic AGC scheme,
the megawatt hour (MWh) constraint is satisfied to avoid the MWh contract
violation. The particle-swarm-optimization-based fuzzy logic AGC design
is used for frequency and tie-line power regulation in the presence of wind
turbines. The efficiency of the proposed control schemes is demonstrated
through nonlinear simulations.
Chapter 10 presents a coordinated frequency regulation for the small-sized,
high-power energy capacitor system and the conventional AGC participating
units to improve the frequency regulation performance. To prevent unneces-
sary excessive control action, two types of restrictions are proposed for the
upper and lower limits of the control signal, as well as for the area control
error. By the proposed coordination, the frequency regulation performance
is highly improved.
© 2011 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
xvi Preface

Chapter 11 starts by introducing GAs and their applications in control

s­ ystems. Then, several methodologies are presented for a GA-based AGC
design problem: optimal tuning of conventional AGC systems, AGC formu-
lation through a multiobjective GA optimization problem, GA-based AGC
synthesis to track the well-known standard robust performance indices,
and using GA to improve the learning performance in the AGC systems.
The proposed design methodologies are illustrated by suitable examples. In
most cases, the results are compared with recently developed robust control
designs.
Chapter 12 presents an intelligent multiagent-based AGC scheme for a
power system with dispersed power sources such as photovoltaic, wind
generation, diesel generation, and energy capacitor system. In the proposed
AGC scheme, the energy capacitor system provides the main function of
AGC, while the available diesel units provide a supplementary function
of the AGC system. A coordination system between the energy capacitor
system and the diesel units is proposed. The developed multiagent system
consists of three types of agents: monitoring agents for the distribution of
required information through a secure computer network; control agents for
the charging/discharging operation on the energy storage device, as well as
control of regulation power produced by diesel units; and finally, a supervi-
sor agent for the coordination purpose. Experimental studies in a power sys-
tem laboratory are performed to demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed
AGC scheme.

Hassan Bevrani
University of Kurdistan
Kumamoto University

Takashi Hiyama
Kumamoto University

© 2011 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Acknowledgments

Most of the contributions, outcomes, and insight presented in this book were
achieved through long-term teaching and research conducted by the authors
and their research groups on intelligent control and power system automatic
generation control over the years. It is pleasure to acknowledge the support
and awards the authors received from various sources, including Kumamoto
University (Japan), University of Kurdistan (Iran), Frontier Technology for
Electrical Energy (Japan), Kyushu Electric Power Company (Japan), and West
Regional Electric Company (Iran).
The authors thank their postgraduate students F. Daneshfar,
P.  R.  Daneshmand, A. G. Tikdari, H. Golpira, Y. Yoshimuta, G. Okabe, and
H.  Esaki, and their office secretary Y. Uemura for their active role and
­continuous support. The authors appreciate the assistance provided by
Professor Hussein Beurani from University of Tabriz. Finally, the authors
offer their deepest personal gratitude to their families for their patience dur-
ing preparation of this book.

© 2011 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC xvii