Effects of Fiber Denier, Fiber Cross-Sectional Shape and

Fabric Density on Acoustical Behavior of Vertically

Lapped Nonwoven Fabrics
Mevlut Tascan, Ph.D., Edward A. Vaughn, Ph.D.

Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA

Correspondence to:
Mevlut Tascan email: mevlutt@clemson.edu

ABSTRACT the microstructure of nonwovens. The structure of

Acoustical insulation and absorption properties of nonwovens only has fibers and voids that are filled
nonwoven fabrics depend on fiber geometry and fiber by air. The different structures of the fibers result in
arrangement within the fabric structure. The different total surface areas of nonwoven fabrics.
different structures of the fibers result in different
total surface areas of nonwoven fabrics. Nonwoven Nonwoven fabrics such as vertically lapped are ideal
fabrics such as vertically lapped fabrics are ideal materials for use as acoustical insulation products,
materials for use as acoustical insulation products, because they have high total surface. Vertically
because they have high total surface. Vertically lapped nonwoven fabric technology consists of
lapped nonwoven technology consists of carding, carding, vertical layering of the carded webs, and
perpendicular layering of the carded webs, and through-air bonding using synthetic fibers. The
through-air bonding using synthetic binder fibers. surface area of the fabric is directly related to the
The surface area of the fabric is directly related to the denier and cross-sectional shape of the fibers in the
denier and cross-sectional shape of the fibers in the fabric. Smaller deniers yield more fibers per unit
fabric. Smaller deniers yield more fibers per unit weight of the material, higher total fiber surface area,
weight of the material, higher total fiber surface area, and greater possibilities for a sound wave to interact
and greater possibilities for a sound wave to interact with the fibers in the structure.
with the fibers in the fabric structure.
A number of numerical and experimental methods
The research in the literature uses two methods for relevant to sound absorption behavior of textiles have
measuring acoustical properties of fabric materials: been reported [1-7] in the literature. The methods that
the impedance tube and reverberation room method. are shown in the literature are mainly based on the
Small test samples are in the impedance tube method energy dissipation behavior of sound waves while
and sound absorption coefficient is determined at they travel through the media. Shoshani and Yakubov
each frequency. Large reverberation rooms and large [1] report that in order to increase the absorption
test samples are used for the reverberation room coefficient, textile material should be designed such
method. A direct comparative acoustical properties that porosity will increase along the propagation
measurement device that was designed and fabricated direction of the sound wave, and porosity should be
at Clemson University School of Materials Science & at its maximum value in the middle of the material.
Engineering was used to measure acoustical Ballagh [2] shows the relationship between the fiber
insulation in this research. This paper provides a properties such as density, fiber diameter, and
description of the measurement devices and acoustic properties. The results were used to predict
acoustical measurement data for vertically lapped the acoustical properties of wool fiber. Voronina [3]
nonwoven fabrics made from three different determined the sound absorption coefficient of a
polyester fiber shape and two denier levels. fibrous material layer by acoustic parameters such as
the dimensionless characteristic impedance and
INTRODUCTION propagation constants.
Insulation and absorption properties of nonwoven
fabrics depend on fiber geometry and fiber The research in the literature uses two methods for
arrangement within the fabric structure. Because of measuring acoustical properties of fabric materials:
their complex structure, it is very difficult to define the impedance tube and reverberation room method.

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Volume 3, Issue 2—2008
Small test samples are used in the impedance tube computer to be analyzed. If no sample is in the path
method and sound absorption coefficients are of the sound wave, a background reference is
determined at each frequency. Large reverberation obtained and sample data can be compared to this air
rooms and large test samples are used for the reference. If two samples are compared, data from
reverberation room method. A direct comparative one sample is compared to the other with no changes
acoustical properties measurement device that was to the settings of the instrument.
designed and fabricated at Clemson University
School of Materials Science & Engineering was used Data from the sound measurement apparatus were
in this research to measure acoustical insulation. taken as transfer function magnitude (dB). By
definition, the dB is 10 times the common logarithm
EXPERIMENTAL MATERIALS AND of the ratio of two powers, as expressed in equation
METHODS 1.

Sound Measurement Apparatus

The sound insulation measurement apparatus ⎛P ⎞
N dB = 10 log⎜⎜ 1 ⎟
⎟
(1)
developed at Clemson and termed the “Clemson- ⎝ P2 ⎠
Boston Differential Sound Insulation tester” [8]. As
shown in Figure 1, this device consists of six where NdB is the number of decibel, P1 is the power
components: the sound signal-processing computer, of the generated signal from the source, and P2 is
the sound signal amplifier, the sound source, the power of the transmitted/reflected signal from the
sound chamber, the sound detector, and the material microphones.
sample holder. The white noise with the sound
frequencies ranging from 73Hz to 30,000Hz is used It can be seen that a 6dB change in power gives 4
for the sound insulation measurements. times the loudness and 2 times the voltage or current
of a sound signal.

This sound spectrometer is not an ideal sound

chamber with perfect acoustical properties, but it
provides a comparison of the samples under the same
conditions and therefore yields a direct acoustical
comparison.

It should be noted that the reproducibility of the

apparatus can be verified by the fact that when, after
initial calibration and Fourier Transformation,
subsequent tests are made with no specimen in the
sample holder, no transfer function magnitude data
are generated – i.e. the plotted results are identical to
the base line.

Fiber Materials and Processes

FIGURE 1. Illustration of the Clemson–Boston Differential Sound Five different vertically lapped nonwoven fabrics
Insulation Tester (1) computer, (2) amplifier, (3) sound source, (4) were used with three different fiber shapes and two
sound chamber, (5) sample holder, and (6) sound detector.
different fiber deniers. They were compressed at a
temperature of 180°C in a Carver motorized
compression-molding apparatus. The compression-
The signal-processing computer generates the sound
molded samples were trimmed to appropriate sample
signals. The signals are amplified by the signal
dimension for the Sound Insulation Tester, namely
amplifier. The amplified signals are sent to the sound
30.5cm by 30.5cm (12in by 12in).
source to be converted to sound waves. The material
to be tested is mounted in on sample holder, placed in
Fiber mixtures composed of 65% matrix polyester
the sound path. The sound wave is transmitted inside
fiber and 35% binder fiber were used for all vertically
the sound chamber passing through the sample
lapped nonwoven samples. The binder fiber was a 4
material to the sound detector. The sound detector
denier co-polyester low-melt fiber. Three different
converts the received sound signals to electrical
cross-sectional fibers (4DG, trilobal, and round) two
signals and sends back to the signal-processing
different fiber deniers were used as matrix to make

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Volume 3, Issue 2—2008
vertically lapped nonwoven fabrics. 4DG, trilobal, form a fiber batt on the conveyor belt of the through
and round fiber photos are shown in Figure 2. air thermal bonding Chamber (3). After passing
through the chamber the vertically lapped fabric is
cooled and wound up (4). In addition a supporting
layer (5) can be brought from below onto the
conveyor belt of the bonding chamber to produce
two-layer nonwoven fabric [10].

Weight, thickness, and total surface area data for

(a) (b) (c) vertically lapped fabrics are given in Table II. Fiber
perimeters were measured with Scalex Plan Wheel
FIGURE 2. (a) 4DG, (b) trilobal, and (c) round fiber cross- XLU [13] by using the SEM pictures of the fabrics
sections.
for the total surface area calculation. Three different
fiber samples for the same fiber were measured and
each fiber was measured three times and final
4DG fiber has deep groves and channels along its
average value was taken as fiber perimeter. The
longitudinal axis. These grooves provide higher fiber
surface areas of the fibers are calculated by
surface area [9]. 4DG fiber has an octalobal cross
multiplying the perimeter and the total fiber length in
sectional shape. The properties of matrix fibers and
the fabric. The surface areas of 30.5cm x 30.5cm
binder fiber that were used to make nonwoven fabrics
nonwoven fabrics are shown in Table II.
are shown in Table I.

TABLE II
TABLE I VERTICALLY LAPPED FABRIC PROPERTIES USED FOR
MATRIX AND BINDER FIBERS USED TO PRODUCE SOUND INSULATION MEASUREMENTS
VERTICALLY LAPPED NONWOVEN FABRICS FOR SOUND
INSULATION MEASUREMENTS
Fabric Fabric Total Fiber
Sample Weight Thickness surface area
Fiber ID * (g/m²) (cm) (m²/g)
Sample Fiber Fiber Cross- Fiber
ID * Denier Type Section Length 1A 1807 1.0 72.6
1 3 FIT 401-4111 4DG 1.5" 1B 1933 0.4 77.7
2 3 Fortrel 282 Round 2"
1C 1900 0.2 76.3
3 15 FIT 1310 4DG 2"
4 15 FIT 1309 Trilobal 2" 1D 2013 0.2 80.9
5 15 Martin Colorfi Round 2" 1E 2022 0.1 81.2
Hoechst
Binder Cellbond 2A 1989 1.0 29.6
fiber 4 Bi-Co PET Round 2” 2B 2019 0.4 30
(*) 1–5 denotes the sample ID for the matrix fibers that were used
2C 1817 0.2 27
to produce vertically lapped nonwoven fabrics.
2D 1694 0.2 25.2
3A 1911 1.1 35.5
Vertical lapping (Struto) technology was developed
3B 1800 0.4 33.5
at the Technical University of Liberec, Czech
Republic. In this technology, fibers are processed into 3C 1689 0.2 31.4
vertically lapped highloft nonwovens. Struto 3D 1678 0.2 31.2
technology consists of carding, vertical layering of 3E 1903 0.1 35.4
the carded webs, and thermal bonding using [10]. 4A 1956 1.0 21.7
The fabric samples listed in Table II were produced 4B 1656 0.4 18.4
by Struto International Inc. Kings Mountain, NC 4C 1844 0.3 20.5
[11]. Vertically lapped nonwoven fabric can also be
4D 1748 0.2 19.4
produced by the Santex Wavemaker by Santex-
Group International AG [12]. 5A 1719 1.0 11.4
5B 1822 0.4 12.1
A very simple layout of a struto (vertical lapping) 5C 1611 0.3 10.7
line is shown in Figure 3. A carding machine 5D 1444 0.2 9.6
processes a properly mixed blend of matrix and
binder fibers (1). The carded web is formed into a (*) 1–5 denotes the sample ID as shown in Table I; A–E represent
the sample densities A= 0.07g/cm3, B=0.16g/cm3, C=0.28g/cm3,
vertically lapped web using a vibration Lapper (2) to D=0.43g/cm3, E=1.15g/cm3.

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Volume 3, Issue 2—2008
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The acoustical insulation behavior comparison
among the vertically lapped nonwoven fabrics made
from three different shaped and two different denier
fibers was used to study the effect of the fiber denier,
fiber cross-sectional shape, and fabric density on
fabric acoustical insulation.

Data from the test device are appropriate for

obtaining the acoustical insulation information,
because the sound spectrometer measures sound
FIGURE 3. A simple layout of struto line [11] and the position of transmission, and fewer transmitted sound waves
fibers after carding and struto processes. equate to better acoustical insulation. The results are
given in the form of plots between the frequency (Hz)
and the transfer function magnitude (dB). Following
Fabric air permeability is very important parameter a Fourier Transformation, the data from the test
for thermal and acoustical insulation of nonwoven without the test sample serves as the base line or zero
fabrics. Higher air permeability results in higher point on the x-axis. Data from each test material are
sound transmission, therefore less sound insulation. plotted as negatively increasing sound frequency
Air permeability was measured using FX3300 values. If the transmitted sound difference is not
Textech Air Permeability Tester [14]. more than 1dB, the difference is not significant,
because of the accuracy of the device and the range
The vertically lapped fabrics were compressed and of human hearing. The sound spectrometer used in
thermally molded to comparable thicknesses and this experiment has the capability of measuring
densities on a Carver press using 12.7mm (0.5in), frequencies between 0Hz and 30,000Hz. Because the
6.4mm (0.25in), and 3.2mm (125in) frames. The frequency range of human hearing is between 0Hz
minimum thickness was achieved by compressing the and 20,000Hz, this zone was selected as the test
fabrics without a frame at a pressure of 30 tons. frequency range.
After the samples were compressed, they were cut Fabric Air Permeability
into 30.5cm by 30.5cm (12in by 12in) test specimens. Fabric air permeability is very important parameter
From the sample population, fabrics with two for thermal and acoustical insulation of nonwoven
comparable structural parameters were selected for a fabrics. Higher air permeability results in higher
comparative analysis. SEM pictures of vertically sound transmission, therefore less sound insulation.
lapped nonwoven fabrics made from 15 denier round,
4DG, and trilobal polyester fibers are shown in
Figure 4.

(a) (b)

Figure 5. Air permeability results of vertical lapped test fabrics at

different fabric densities and fiber cross-sections.
(c)

FIGURE 4. SEM photos of three vertically lapped nonwoven

fabric made from (a) round, (b) 4DG, and (c) trilobal fibers.

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Volume 3, Issue 2—2008
As shown in Figure 5, vertical lapped fabrics made better than the sound insulation of nonwoven test
from 4DG fiber has less air permeability data at all material made from 15den round fibers.
fabric densities and deniers than vertical lapped
fabrics made from round fibers. Air permeability Effect of Fiber Shape
difference of vertical fabric made from different fiber The acoustical insulation comparison for the
cross-section depends on the total surface area in vertically lapped nonwoven test materials made from
fabric. 15den round, trilobal, and 4DG shaped fibers with
comparable thicknesses and densities was used to
Effect of Fiber Denier study the effect of expanded surface area. Expanded
The acoustical insulation comparison among the surface area results from trilobal and 4DG fiber
nonwoven fabrics made from 3den round, 3den 4DG, shapes.
15den round, and 15den 4DG polyester fibers were
used to study the effect of the fiber denier on fabric
acoustical insulation.

FIGURE 7. Transmitted sound results for vertically lapped fabrics

made from 15 denier 4DG, trilobal, and round fibers with
0.43g/cm3 density.
FIGURE 6. Transmitted sound results for vertically lapped
nonwoven fabrics made from 3 and 15 denier fibers with
0.07g/cm3 fabric density.
As shown in Figure 7, the vertically lapped fabrics
made from 4DG and trilobal fibers have better sound
As shown in Figure 6, vertically lapped test materials insulation characteristics than nonwoven fabrics
made from 3den round fibers are better sound made from round fibers. For the frequencies between
insulators than test materials made from 15den round 4500Hz and 5000Hz, the difference in sound
polyester fibers. For all frequencies between 73Hz insulation data between the vertically lapped fabric
and 20,000Hz, vertically lapped fabrics made from 3 made from 15 denier 4DG fiber and fabric made from
denier round polyester fibers insulate the sound 15 denier round fiber reaches 8dB, which shows that
approximately 5dB more than vertically lapped fabric vertically lapped fabric made from 15 denier 4DG
made from 15 denier round polyester fibers. The 5dB polyester fiber insulates the sound 6.3 times more
difference indicates that vertically lapped fabric made than the fabric made from 15 denier round polyester
from 3 denier round polyester fiber insulates the fiber at those given frequencies. The reason for this
sound 3.16 times more than the vertically lapped result may be because of the effect of surface area in
fabric made from 15 denier round polyester fiber. the fabric. As shown in Table IV, 4DG fibers have
The reason for this result may be because smaller approximately three times more surface area than
deniers yield more fibers per unit weight of the round fibers. Higher surface area in a nonwoven
material, higher total fiber surface area, and greater fabric increases the possibility of the sound wave
possibilities for a sound wave to interact with the interaction with the fibers and results in more
fibers in the structure. effective sound deadening in the nonwoven fabric.

The difference in transmitted sound between test Effect of Fabric Density

materials made from 3den round polyester fibers and To obtain an indication of the effect of fabric density
15den round polyester fibers does not change with on acoustical properties, nonwoven fabrics with
density of the fabric. Sound insulation of nonwoven comparable densities at the same thicknesses and
test material made from 3 denier round fibers is much weights were selected.

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Volume 3, Issue 2—2008
As shown in Figure 8, vertically lapped fabric at Therefore, we conclude that fabric density affects the
higher density insulated the sound more than the sound insulation property of the nonwoven fabrics
fabric at lower density. At the frequencies between positively.
4000Hz and 5000Hz, the difference in insulation data
between vertically lapped fabric at 0.43g/cm3 fabric SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
density and the fabric at 0.07g/cm3 fabric density The effects of fiber denier, fiber shape, and fabric
reaches 13dB, which shows that vertically lapped density on compression molded, vertically lapped
fabric at 0.43g/cm3 fabric density insulates the sound fabrics were investigated. Fabrics made from 3 denier
20 times more than fabric at 0.07g/cm3 fabric density. fibers were better sound insulators than those made
from 15 denier fibers for three different fiber shapes
(round, trilobal, and 4DG). The reason for this result
may be because smaller deniers yield more fibers per
unit weight of the material, higher total fiber surface
area, and greater possibilities for a sound wave to
interact with the fibers in the structure.

The acoustical insulation comparison for the

nonwoven test materials made from 15den round,
trilobal, and 4DG shaped fibers was used to study the
effect of expanded surface area. The vertically lapped
nonwoven fabrics made from 4DG and trilobal fibers
have better sound insulation results than nonwoven
fabrics made from round fibers. The reason for this
FIGURE 8. Transmitted sound results for vertically lapped fabrics result may be because of the effect of surface area in
the fabric. 4DG fibers have approximately three
made from 15 denier 4DG fibers with various volumetric densities.
times more surface area than round fibers. Higher
surface area in a nonwoven fabric increases the
possibility of the sound wave interaction with the
The reason for this result may be because increasing
fibers and results in more effective sound deadening
the density of the fabric results in smaller voids
in the nonwoven fabric.
between the fibers and smaller voids result in higher
possibility for the sound wave to interact with the
Vertically lapped fabrics at higher fabric densities
fibers. Another reason is that higher density at the
insulate the sound more than fabrics at lower
fabric surface results in more reflection of the sound
densities. The reason for this result may be because
wave than transmission. Therefore, fewer sound
increasing the density of the fabric results in smaller
waves will get in the fabric and fewer sound waves
voids between the fibers and smaller voids result in a
will be detected by the microphone of the sound
higher possibility for the sound wave to interact with
measurement apparatus.
the fibers. Another reason is that higher density at the
surface results in more reflection of the sound wave
At a fabric density level of approximately 1.15g/cm3,
than transmission. Therefore, fewer sound waves will
fibers are mostly crushed, and the material is no
get in the fabric and fewer sound waves will be
longer a nonwoven fabric; it is more like a polyester
detected by the microphone of the sound
plastic sheet film. The surface is very smooth on a
measurement apparatus.
plastic; and therefore, most of the sound wave is
reflected instead of moving into the material. This
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As indicated in Figure 8, vertically lapped fabrics (1996).
with higher densities yielded better sound insulation [3] Voronina N., Improved empirical Model of
properties than nonwoven fabrics at lower densities. Sound Propagation Through a Fibrous

Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics 37 http://www.jeffjournal.org

Volume 3, Issue 2—2008
 Material, Applied Acoustics. 48, 121–132 AUTHORS’ ADDRESSES
(1996).
Mevlut Tascan, Ph. D.
[4] Narang P.P., Material Parameter Selection in
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[8] Vaughn E. A., Boston R.J. and Tascan M.,
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[9] http://www.fitfibers.com/files/4DG%20Fibe
rs.ppt#1, Fiber Innovation Technology 4DG
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[12] http://www.santex-group.com, 09 05 2007.
[13] Scalex Plan Wheel XLU, Model No: Plan
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[14] Luftdurchlassigkeits – Prufgerat Air
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Volume 3, Issue 2—2008