Fluid Flow in Pipes

We will be looking here at the flow of real fluid in pipes – real meaning a fluid that possesses
viscosity hence loses energy due to friction as fluid particles interact with one another and
the pipe wall.

Recall from Level 1 that the shear stress induced in a fluid flowing near a boundary is given
du
τ∝
by Newton's law of viscosity: dy
This tells us that the shear stress in a fluid, is proportional to the velocity gradient - the rate
of change of velocity across the fluid path. For a “Newtonian” fluid we can write:
du
τ =μ
dy
where the constant of proportionality, μ, is known as the coefficient of absolute viscosity .

We have seen that flow can be classified into one of two types, laminar or turbulent flow
(with a small transitional region between these two). The non-dimensional number, the
Reynolds number, Re, is used to determine which type of flow occurs.

For a pipe:
Laminar flow: Re < 2000; Transitional flow: 2000 < Re < 4000; Turbulent flow: Re > 4000

It is important to determine the flow type as this governs how the amount of energy lost to
friction relates to the velocity of the flow. And hence how much energy must be used to
move the fluid.

1.1 Pressure loss due to friction in a pipeline.

Consider a cylindrical element of incompressible fluid flowing in the pipe, as shown

Figure 1: Element of fluid in a pipe

Let the pressure at the upstream end be p1, then at the downstream end, 2, the pressure will
have fallen by Δp. The driving force due to pressure, noting that force = pressure x area,
can then be written:
Driving force = pressure force at 1 - pressure force at 2
2
πd
= Δp A = Δp
Driving force 4

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The retarding force is that due to the shear stress by the walls
Retarding force = shear stress x area over which it acts

then retarding force = shear stress x area of pipe wall = τ w π d l

Where d is the diameter of the pipe and l the length

As the flow is in equilibrium, driving force = retarding force

2
πd
τ w π d l = Δp
4
τw 4 l
Δ p=
d

The shear stress will vary with velocity of flow and hence with Re. Many experiments have
been done with various fluids measuring the pressure loss at various Reynolds numbers.
These results plotted to show a graph of the relationship between pressure loss and Re look
similar to the figure below:

Figure 2: Relationship between velocity and pressure loss in pipes

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1.2 Poiseuilles equation

If we now consider a cylinder of fluid of radius y within the fluid stream and let the
pressure difference between each end of the cylinder be Δp as before. Then the

pressure force F = π y 2 lΔp . Then this force is balanced by the shear stress on the

sides of the cylinder = τπ2yl

2r y
y

du
τ =− μ
Remembering dy where the minus sign is introduced because we are
measuring distance from the centre line rather than the solid surface.

du
π y2 Δ p = − 2 π μ y l
We get dy

Δp
du = − y dy
Separating variables, we get 2μl

Integrating so that uy is the value at radius y from the centre line, we get

Δp 2
uy = − y +C
4μl where C is the constant of integration.

We can determine the constant of integration by considering the boundary conditions. On

the pipe wall we know that the velocity uy is zero and y = r

Δp 2 Δp 2
0 =− r +C C= r
Then 4μl hence 4μl

Δp 2 2
uy = (r − y )
That gives us 4μl

This gives us the velocity distribution across the pipe (remember it’s valid only for laminar
flow!) and it is parabolic. The maximum velocity umax is in the centre where y = 0 i.e.

Δp 2
umax = r
4 μl
And the average velocity is half the maximum

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 Δp 2
umean = r
8μl
4
¿
Δ p 2 π Δ pr
2
V = A umean = π r r =
And the flow rate 8μl 8μl

Writing in terms of the pressure drop Δp we get

¿ ¿
8V μl 128 V μ l
Δ p= 4 Δ p=
πr or in terms of diameter d, π d4

¿
d
2 32 μ l u mean
V = A umean = π umean Δ p=
Using again 4 we get d2

Then these two equations are the Poiseuille equations

¿
128 V μ l 32 μ l u mean
Δ p= Δ p=
π d4 and d2

1.3 Friction factor and Darcy’s equation

ρ u2
τw = f
We now introduce the friction factor f defined by 2 where u is the mean
velocity

Then equating forces as before

i.e. pressure force = wall shear forces =shear stress x wall area.

Or pressure difference x cross sectional area = shear stress x wall area

π d2 ρ u2
Δp = τw π d l = f πdl
Then 4 2
2
l u
Δp = 4 f ρ
This gives d 2

l u2
hf = 4 f
Witten in terms of head lost hf we get d 2g

This is the famous Darcy equation

We can now write f in terms of Re by equating pressure loss equations as follows>>

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 2
32 μ l u l u
Δ p= =4f ρ
d2 d 2 (NB the subscript mean has been dropped since u = umean)

μ 16
f = 16 =
We then get ρ u d Re

BEWARE... US practice is to use a different f but use the same symbol where

f US = 4 f

1.4 Turbulent flow

This is not as easy to model mathematically as laminar flow was, and more empirical
equations are used. The friction factor can be found from either the Moody diagram, which
plots f against Re and relative roughness ε. The roughness measure ε is the average size of
the bumps on the pipe wall. The relative roughness e/d is therefore the size of the bumps
compared to the diameter of the pipe. For commercial pipes this is usually a very small
number. Note that perfectly smooth pipes would have a roughness of zero.

Equations for calculating friction factor:

16
f=
Laminar flow... Re < 2000 Re

e
10−6 ≤ ≤ 10−2
Turbulent flow... 5000 < Re < 108 and for relative roughness d

0 .0625
f= 2
e 5. 74
[ (
log10 + 0.9
3 . 7 d Re )]
If the pipe is “smooth” then ε = 0 and the Blasius equation can be used for Re between 4000
and 105

0 .079
f=
i.e. Re0. 25

Note: there is an on line calculator available on this website:

(URL = http://www.lmnoeng.com/moody.htm)

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1.5 Hydraulic mean depth

If the pipe is non-circular, use the following to calculate the characteristic length...an
equivalent diameter...

de = 4 x cross sectional area/ length of perimeter = 4A/ P

π d2 π d2 1
A= and P = π d ∴ d e = 4 =d
If we take a circle, 4 4 πd

a
For a rectangle of sides a and b

4ab 2ab
de = =
i.e. A = a b and P = 2 ( a + b ) then 2 (a + b) ( a + b )

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 Note this is the US value of f...the UK version is a quarter of this!

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Note that the Moody diagram on the earlier page (page 7) also has the US f !! Hence each
value should be divided by 4.

Example:

Consider a smooth pipe with a Reynolds number of 104. From chart f = 0.008

0 . 079 0. 079
f= = = 0 .0079
From Blasius equation Re0. 25 5. 623

1.6 Development of the boundary layer at pipe entrance:

In the entry of a duct, the fluid boundary layer builds on the side of the duct, until it becomes
fully developed and then it fills the whole duct as shown in the diagram below. The example
shown is for laminar flow...the length Le is where the axial velocity no longer changes with
distance along the pipe and then the flow is said to be fully developed. The only parameter
affecting entrance length Le is Reynolds number, and the following apply for laminar and
turbulent flow:

Le
≈ 0 . 06 Re
For laminar flow d

If we assume that the critical Re value is 2300, then Le is equal to138 d, which is the longest
development length possible.
1
Le 6
≈4 . 4 Re
For turbulent flow d

Then when Re = 4000, Le = 18 d; when Re = 104, Le = 20 d; when Re = 105, Le = 30 d:

when Re = 106, Le = 44 d; when Re = 107, Le = 65 d; when Re = 108, Le = 95 d

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1.5 Velocity profiles within the different flow regimes

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