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Chapter 1
AIR POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL
B. C. Meikap, Ph.D.
Chemical Engineering Department,
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
School of Chemical Engineering, University of Kwazulu-Natal,
Howard College Campus, Keng George V Avenue, Dunban, Pin-4041, South Africa
bcmeikap@che.iitkgp.ernet.in
Akhila Kumar Swar, Ph.D.

State Pollution Control Board, Orissa Unit — VIII, Bhubaneswar 751012, India
swarakhila@rediffmail.com
Chittaranjan Mohanty, Ph.D.

Civil Engineering Department,
Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology,
Burla, Sambalpur, Orissa, India
crm0072002@yahoo.co.in
J. N. Sahu, Ph.D.
Chemical Engineering Department,
University Malaya, Kuala Lumpur-50603, Malaysia
jay sahu@yahoo.co.in
Yung-Tse Hung, Ph.D., P.E., DEE

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cleveland State University,
16945 Deerfield Dr. Strongsville, Ohio 44136-6214, USA
yungtsehung@yahoo.com, yungtsehung@gmail.com
Abstract
Chemical and allied process industries emit huge air pollutants and causes severe
degradation to the environment. The control option of air pollutants greatly depends
on the nature of pollutants and type of sources. There is a tremendous demand for air
1
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2 B. C. Meikap et al.
pollution control in fertilizer, coal-fired thermal power plants, petroleum refinery,

cement, steel industries, etc. to meet the stringent demands. The topics covered
are air pollution sources, nature, transport, pollution problems encountered, and
control technologies usually used with design consideration.
Keywords: Air pollution, particulate matters, bag filters, electro static precipitator,
environmental pollution, clean technology.
1. Introduction
The “air pollutant” means any solid, liquid, or gaseous substance present in the
atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings
or other living creatures or plants, property, or environment. Air pollution means
the presence of air pollutants in the atmosphere of any air. The atmosphere contains
a number of air pollutants generated from either natural or anthropogenic sources.
Pollutants are released into our atmosphere by many methods. Smokestacks from
factories have been increasing due to the rise of industry in the last century. These are
known as stationary sources. Mobile sources, on the other hand, include exhaust from
motor vehicles, trains, airplanes, etc. The pollution from these sources is measured
by the amount emitted as well as by the amount of pollution in the ambient air. Both
of these sources contribute significant amounts of contaminants into the air that we
breathe. All such pollutants are called primary pollutants.
1.1. Source of Air Pollutants1−5

There are many natural sources of air pollution such as eruption of volcanoes, bio-
logical decay, and lightning-caused forest fire. Naturally, the Earth already has its
own air pollution loading. However, industrialization or just everyday routines has
become added burden to the existing air pollution loading. Most air pollutants orig-
inate from human-made sources, including mobile sources (e.g., cars, trucks, buses,
ships, train, airplanes, aircrafts, etc.) and stationary sources (e.g., factories, power
plants, fertilizer, petroleum refinery, cement, steel industries, etc.), as well as indoor
sources (e.g., building materials and activities such as cleaning). Some general pol-
lutants are carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, carbon dioxide, ozone,
lead, particulate matter (PM), and synthetic compounds (i.e., chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs)]. They are discussed in detail below.
1.1.1. Carbon Monoxide (CO)

It is a colorless, odorless gas formed when carbon in fuel is not burned completely.
Motor vehicle exhaust contributes about 60% of all CO emissions nationwide (Latest
Finding on National Air Quality 2002). Other nonroad engines and vehicles (such
Air Pollution and Its Control 3
as construction equipment and boats) contribute about 22% of all CO emissions

nationwide. Higher levels of CO generally occur in areas with heavy traffic con-
gestion. In cities, 95% of all CO emissions may come from motor vehicle exhaust.
Other sources of CO emissions include industrial processes (such as metal processing
and chemical manufacturing), residential wood burning, and natural sources such as
forest fires. Woodstoves, gas stoves, cigarette smoke, and unvented gas and kerosene
space heaters are sources of CO indoors. The highest levels of CO in the outside air
typically occur during the colder months of the year when CO automotive emissions
are greater and nighttime inversion conditions are more frequent. In inversion condi-
tions, the air pollution becomes trapped near the ground beneath a layer of warm air.
1.1.2. Sulfur Oxides (SOx )

These are colorless gases formed by burning sulfur. SOx gases are formed when fuel
containing sulfur, such as coal and oil, is burned, and when gasoline is extracted from
oil or metals are extracted from ore. Sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) is the criteria pollutant that
is the indicator of sulfur oxide concentrations in the ambient air. SO2 dissolves in
water vapor to form acid and interacts with other gases and particles in the air to form
sulfates and other products that can be harmful to people and their environment.
1.1.3. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx )

These compounds pose problems, for the most part, in the forms of nitrogen oxide
(NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ). They combine with hydrocarbons and other
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the presence of ultraviolet (UV) sunlight to
produce photochemical smog, mainly ozone (O3 ), which has adverse health effects.
1.1.4. Carbon Dioxide (CO2 )

This chemical, a byproduct of most fuel combustion, is a greenhouse gas and a major
contributor to global warming.
1.1.5. Ozone (O3 )

It is a gas composed of three oxygen atoms. It is a colorless compound that has an
electric discharge-type odor. It is a unique criteria pollutant in that it is exclusively a
secondary pollutant. It is not usually emitted directly into the air, but at ground level
it is created by a chemical reaction between oxides of nitrogen (NOx ) and VOCs in
the presence of heat and sunlight. The concentration of ozone in a given locality is
influenced by many factors, including the concentration of NO2 and VOCs in the
area, the intensity of the sunlight, and the local weather conditions. Ozone and the
chemicals that react to form it can be carried hundreds of miles from their origins,
causing air pollution over wide regions.
1.1.6. Synthetic Compounds (i.e., CFCs)

Until banned by new provisions of the Montreal Protocol, these compounds were
produced and released by industries for air conditioning, insulation, cleaning fluids,
etc. Some have been known to contribute to the destruction of stratospheric ozone.
CFCs are lowering the average concentration of ozone in the stratosphere. Since 1978
the use of CFCs in aerosol cans has been banned in the United States, Canada, and
most Scandinavian countries. Depending on the type, CFCs stay in the atmosphere
from 22 to 111 years. CFCs move up to the stratosphere gradually over several
decades. Under high-energy UV radiation, they break down and release chlorine
atoms, which speed up the breakdown of ozone (O3 ) into oxygen gas (O2 ).
1.1.7. Lead (Pb)

It is a metal found naturally in the environment as well as in manufactured products.
Because of unique physical properties that allow it to be easily formed and molded,
lead has been used in many applications. The major sources of lead emissions have
historically been motor vehicles (such as cars and trucks) and industrial sources.
Due to the phase out of leaded gasoline, metal processing is the major source of
lead emissions to the air today. The highest levels of lead in the air are generally
found near lead smelters. Other stationary sources are waste incinerators, utilities,
and lead-acid battery manufacturers.
1.1.8. Particulate Matter

It is the general term used for a heterogeneous mixture of solid particles and liquid
droplets found in the air, including dust, dirt, soot, smoke, and liquid droplets. Par-
ticles can be suspended in the air for long periods of time. Some particles are large
or dark enough to be seen as soot or smoke. Others are so small that individually
they can only be detected with an electron microscope. PM can be a primary or sec-
ondary pollutant. “Primary” particles, such as dust or black carbon (soot), are directly
emitted into the air. They come from a variety of sources such as cars, trucks, buses,
factories, construction sites, tilled fields, unpaved roads, stone crushing, and burning
of wood. “Secondary” particles are formed in the air from the chemical change of
primary gaseous emissions. They are indirectly formed when gases from burning
fuels react with sunlight and water vapor. These can result from fuel combustion in
motor vehicles, at power plants, and in other industrial processes. PM2.5 describes
the “fine” particles that are less than or equal to 2.5 µm in diameter. PM10 refers to
all particles less than or equal to 10 µm in diameter (about one-seventh the diameter
of a human hair).
1.2. Important Primary Pollutants

The primary pollutants are SOx, CO, NOx , Pb; hydrocarbons including the photo-
chemically reactive aliphatic hydrocarbons, like alkenes and nonreactive alkenes,
and carcinogenic substances mainly consisting of aromatic hydrocarbons; allergic
agents like pollens and spores; and radioactive substances. These primary pollutants
often react with one another or with water vapor in the presence of sunlight to form
an entirely new set of pollutants, called secondary pollutants. These secondary pol-
lutants are the chemical substances, which are produced from the chemical reactions
of natural or anthropogenic pollutants or due to their oxidation, etc., caused by the
energy of the sun. These new pollutants are often more harmful than the original
basic chemicals that produce them.
1.3. Important Secondary Pollutants

Once the smoke, containing air pollutants, is released into the atmosphere from a
source like an automobile or a factory chimney, it gets dispersed into the atmosphere
into various directions depending upon the prevailing winds and temperature and the
pressure conditions in the environment. Generally secondary pollutants are sulfuric
acid (H2 SO4 ), ozone (O3 ), formaldehydes, and peroxy–acyl-nitrate (PAN), etc.
1.4. Air Pollutant Transport and Dispersion4

Air pollution does not always stay where it was made. It can make its way around
the Earth. This is called transport and dispersion and is very complex. There are
many things that affect the way pollution is spread, including wind and atmospheric
stability.
Wind is caused by differences in pressure in the atmosphere. Wind can carry
pollutants away from sources, and sometimes can bring pollutants to clean regions.
Atmospheric stability is the up and down motion of the atmosphere. The air near the
surface of the Earth is usually warmer in the day because it absorbs the sun’s rays. The
warmer air at the surface rises and mixes with the cooler air in the upper atmosphere.
This is known as convection. This movement also spreads the polluted air.
Air is stable when warm air is above cool air. This is also called a temperature
inversion. During a temperature inversion, air pollution released near the ground is
trapped there and can only be moved by strong winds. When a temperature inversion
happens over an industrial area, it usually causes smog. Other weather factors can
affect air pollution, like solar radiation, precipitation, and humidity. Solar radiation
helps make ozone a secondary air pollutant. Humidity and precipitation can also
help create other dangerous secondary pollutants, like acid rain. Precipitation can
also help by washing pollution from the air, removing PM.
1.5. Air Quality Management — National Ambient

Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)2
In 1970, President Nixon created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) by
Executive Order. An executive order is an order issued by a government’s chief
executive, intended to give attention to a certain law or body of laws and to direct
federal agencies how to implement them. The formation of EPA marked a dramatic
change in national policy regarding the control of air pollution. Whereas previous
federal involvement had been mostly in advisory and educational roles, the new
EPA emphasized stringent enforcement of air pollution laws. The EPA was assigned
the daunting task of repairing the damage already done to the natural environment
and establishing new criteria to guide Americans in making a cleaner environment
a reality. A few weeks later, the United States Congress passed the Clean Air Act
Amendments (CAAA) of 1970. The passage of the CAAA of 1970 marked the
beginning of modern efforts to control air pollution.
The CAAAmendments of 1970 serve as the principal source of statutory authority
for controlling air pollution and establish the basic United States program for con-
trolling air pollution. The CAA Amendments require EPA to set NAAQS for certain
pollutants, to develop programs to address specific air quality problems, to establish
EPA enforcement authority, and to provide for air quality research. These amend-
ments placed the major responsibility for achieving NAAQS by 1975 on the states
via their implementation plans.
The EPA established the NAAQS for six common air pollutants, called cri-
teria pollutants. The criteria pollutants are carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide
(NO2 ), sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), lead (Pb), PM, and ozone (O3 ). Ambient air is the air
to which the general public has access, as opposed to air within a facility or at a
smokestack. The NAAQS is based on comprehensive studies of available ambient
air monitoring data, health effects data, and material effects studies. NAAQS regu-
lates criteria pollutants by setting ambient air concentration and time standards and
taking actions to attain these standards. Most pollutants regulated by the NAAQS
have two limits. One limit, the “primary” standard, protects everyone including
children, people with asthma, and the elderly from health risk. The other limit, the
“secondary” standard, prevents unacceptable effects on the public welfare, e.g., unac-
ceptable damage to crops and vegetation, buildings and property, and ecosystems.
The primary and secondary standards for each of the criteria pollutants are shown
in Table 1. Each NAAQS corresponds to a specific averaging time, and some pol-
lutants have standards for more than one averaging time. The averaging time is the
time period over which air pollutant concentrations are averaged for the purpose of
determining attainment with the NAAQS.
Table 1. Primary and Secondary Standards for Each of the Criteria Pollutants.
Secondary Standard
Primary Standard (Health-Based) (Welfare-Based)
Standard Level Type of Standard Level
Pollutant Type of Average Concentration Average Concentration
PM10 Annual arithmetic mean 50 µg/m3 — Same as primary

standard
24-hour average not to be 150 µg/m3 — Same as primary
exceeded more than standard
once per year on
average over three
years
PM25 Spatial and annual 15 µg/m3 — Same as primary
arithmetic mean in area standard
98th percentile of the 65 µg/m3 — Same as primary
24-hour average standard
Oa3 Maximum daily one-hour 0.12 mg/L — Same as primary
average to be exceeded standard
no more than once per
year averaged over
three consecutive years
Three-year average of the 0.08 mg/L — Same as primary
annual fourth highest standard
daily eight-hour
average
NO2 Annual arithmetic mean 0.053 mg/L — Same as primary
standard
SO2 Annual arithmetic mean 0.03 mg/L Three hours 0.50 mg/L
24-hour average 0.14 mg/L — —
CO Eight-hours (not to be 9 mg/L — No secondary
once per year)
one hour (not to be 35 mg/L — No secondary
once per year)
Lead Maximum quarterly 1.5 µg/m3 — Same as primary
average standard
Source: USEPA, 2007.2

a EPA is phasing out the one-hour, 0.12-mg/L standards (primary and secondary) and putting
in place the eight-hour, 0.08-mg/L standards. However, the 0.12-mg/L standards will not
be revoked in a given area until that area has achieved three consecutive years of air quality
data meeting the one-hour standard.
1.6. Effects on Health and the Environment6−8

Like photochemical pollutants, sulfur oxides contribute to the incidence of respi-
ratory diseases. Acid rain, a form of precipitation that contains high levels of sulfuric
or nitric acids, can contaminate drinking water and vegetation, damage aquatic life,
and erode buildings. When a weather condition known as a temperature inversion
prevents dispersal of smog, inhabitants of the area, especially children and the elderly
and chronically ill, are warned to stay indoors and avoid physical stress. The dra-
matic and debilitating effects of severe air pollution episodes in cities throughout
the world—such as the London smog of 1952 that resulted in 4000 deaths—have
alerted governments to the necessity for crisis procedures. Even everyday levels
of air pollution may insidiously affect health and behavior. Indoor air pollution is a
problem in developed countries, where efficient insulation keeps pollutants inside the
structure. In less developed nations, the lack of running water and indoor sanitation
can encourage respiratory infections. Carbon monoxide, for example, by driving
oxygen out of the bloodstream, causes apathy, fatigue, headache, disorientation, and
decreased muscular coordination and visual acuity.
Air pollution may possibly harm populations in ways so subtle or slow that they
have not yet been detected. For that reason research is now underway to assess
the long-term effects of chronic exposure to low levels of air pollution — what
most people experience — as well as to determine how air pollutants interact with
one another in the body and with physical factors such as nutrition, stress, alcohol,
cigarette smoking, and common medicines. Another subject of investigation is the
relation of air pollution to cancer, birth defects, and genetic mutations.
A recently discovered result of air pollution is seasonal “holes” in the ozone
layer in the atmosphere above Antarctica and the Arctic, coupled with growing
evidence of global ozone depletion. This can increase the amount of UV radiation
reaching the Earth, where it damages crops and plants and can lead to skin cancer
and cataracts. This depletion has been caused largely by the emission of CFCs from
refrigerators, air conditioners, and aerosols. The Montreal Protocol of 1987 required
that developed nations signing the accord not exceed 1986 CFC levels. Several more
meetings were held from 1990 to 1997 to adopt agreements to accelerate the phasing
out of ozone-depleting substances.
2. Air Pollution Control
The atmosphere, just like a river, do possesses self-cleansing properties, which con-
tinuously dilute/clean/remove the pollutants from the atmosphere under natural pro-
cesses. So long as the pollutants discharged by human into the environment is lower
than the natural cleansing capacity of the environment, we live comfortably without
any air pollution problem. But as and when the discharged pollutants exceed the
natural cleansing capacity, our environment becomes polluted, giving us diseases,
spoiling our clothes, plants, eatables, buildings, etc.Attempts are then made to reduce
the emission of pollutants from the automobiles or factories by adopting mechanical
means, or by using high-rise chimneys for better dispersion and dilution of pollutants
over a longer range of environment. The natural self-cleansing process of the envi-
ronment, and the engineering measures adopted to artificially clean the industrial
and vehicular gases, before they are emitted into the environment.
2.1. The Natural Self-Cleansing Properties of the Environment

The various natural properties, which continuously clean the environment, automat-
ically are:
• dispersion;
• gravitational settling with or without flocculation of particles;
• absorption includes washout and scavenging;
• rain washout; and
• adsorption.
2.2. Dilution Method for Controlling Air Pollution

from Stationary Sources (Factories)
The emitted smokes can be spread over a larger area, through the use of high-
rise chimneys, thereby transporting the pollutants over larger distance, and thus,
reducing the pollution near the emission source. This method is largely adopted
in developing countries, because the pollution is generally confined to a smaller
environment near cities and industrial towns only. The neighboring environment,
which is free from emissions, is thus made to share some of the pollutant burden,
thereby causing somewhat equitable distribution of the pollutants in the surrounding
area. Nevertheless, this method only reduces the concentration of pollutants at par-
ticular place(s), rather than reducing or removing the pollution load from the total
environment, as a whole.
2.3. Controlling Air Pollution from Stationary Sources

by Installing Engineering Devices
In order to reduce the pollution load entering the environment from stationary
sources, several measures may be taken; out of them, replacement of burning fuel
by electricity or solar energy is by far the best method, as it will eliminate the very
production of pollutants in the combustion process. Besides this, we can use better
quality of fuels and efficient engines, for reducing pollution loads from emissions.
Say for example, LPG (liquid petroleum gas) and LNG (liquefied natural gas) may
be used in industries in place of coal, as they will produce much less pollutants in the
emission. Replacement of old obsolete processes in industries with the new efficient
processes may also lead to reduced pollution emissions. Besides such innovations
and precautions, certain mechanical devices may be installed in the industrial pro-
cesses, which may help in reducing the emission of pollutants. Such mechanical
devices are generally divided into two categories: (i) those devices which help in
reducing PM; and (ii) those devices which help in reducing gaseous pollutants. These
devices are discussed below:
Basically, four ways are available for control of emission of air pollutants dis-
charged by the industries into the atmosphere to control their detrimental effects on
the surrounding environment. These are:
1. Reduction of pollutant discharge at the source by the application of control
equipment.
2. Reduction at the source through raw material changes, operational changes,
or modification, or replacement of process equipment.
3. Dilution of the source emission using tall stacks.
4. Proper planning and zoning of industrial areas.
But the most effective methods are reduction at the source by the application of
control equipment and process control. Air pollution problems should be properly
considered when an industry is designed and built to get the real benefit. But in
most cases, air pollution control is an afterthought, and ways and means have to be
devised to treat the polluted emissions leading to retrofitting problems.
To remove the PM from flue gas, various types of control equipment are available.
But to select the required equipment, certain basic data must be available:
• Quantity of gas to be treated and its variation with time.
• Nature and concentration of the PM to be removed.
• Temperature and pressure of the gas stream.
• Nature of the gas phase (for solubility and corrosive effects).
• Desired quality of the treated emission, i.e., removal efficiency of particulates
required.
2.3.1. Objectives of Using Control Equipment

• Prevention of nuisance.
• Prevention of physical damage to property.
• Elimination of health hazards to plant personnel and to the general population.
• Recovery of valuable waste products.
• Minimization of economic losses through the reduction of plant maintenance.

• Improvement of product quality.
2.4. Particulate and Gaseous Pollutant Control Devices3−8

The important devices, which are used to control PM and gaseous pollutants, are
gravitational settling chambers, cyclone, wet scrubbers (collectors) and Venturi
scrubbers, fabric filters, electrostatic precipitators (ESPs), gas absorption, gas
adsorption, condensation, incineration, biofiltration, etc.
2.4.1. Gravitational Settling Chambers

The settling chamber is the simplest type of equipment used for the collection of
solid particulates. It consists of a chamber in which the carrier gas velocity is reduced
so as to allow the particulates to settle out of the moving stream under the action
of gravity. The most common form is a long box-like structure, with an inlet at
one end and an outlet at the other, set horizontally, often on the ground. It can be
constructed from brick and concrete. The carrier gas is made to pass at low velocities.
The solid particulates having higher density than the surrounding gas settle under
the influence of gravity on the base of the chamber, from where they are removed
through hoppers. The gas velocity must be sufficiently low (less than about 3 m/s
to prevent re-entrainment of the settled particles; less than 0.5 m/s for good results).
To minimize turbulence and ensure uniform velocity, curtains, rods, and wire mesh
screens may be suspended in the chamber. The pressure drop through the settling
chamber is usually small and consists mostly of entrance and exit losses. Installation
costs are low because of the simple structure.
A simplified analysis of the gravity settling chamber assumes that the solids move
along the chamber with the velocity of the gas and also settle with Stoke’s velocity.
A particle entering the chamber at the top will be collected by the chamber, if its
settling time is the same (or less than) the time the gas takes to pass through the
chamber. To achieve this, horizontal trays or shelves are sometimes incorporated in
the chambers. The trays (plates) are fitted at about 1–3 cm height intervals as shown
in Fig. 1. The increase in efficiency obtained by the insertion of horizontal trays is
directly proportional to the number of trays. Even with such equipment, however,
the minimum particle size which can be removed in practice is about 10 µ. Also, the
use of this modified settling chamber is limited by difficulties in cleaning the closely
spaced trays and by their tendency to warp during high-temperature operation.
2.4.1.1. Advantages
• Low initial cost.
• Simple construction.
GRAVITATIONAL SETTLING CHAMBERS
GAS OUTLET
GAS INLET
Components
Air inlet
Mid casing
Collection hopper
Dust discharge devise
DUST COLLECTION HOOPERS
Baffles or Louvers
Air outlet
Figure 1. Schematics of Gravitational Settling Chambers.

Source: Kumar and Chenchaiah, 2006.4
• Low maintenance cost.

• Low pressure drop.
• Dry and continuous disposal of solid particulates.
• It can be constructed out of almost any material.
• Temperature and pressure limitations imposed only by materials of construction
used.
2.4.1.2. Disadvantages
• Large space requirements.
• Only comparatively large particles (definitely not less than 10 µ, if very dense
and 40 µ, if of low density) can be collected.
2.4.1.3. Applications
Industrial application of this equipment is limited. Settling chambers are used gen-
erally to remove particulates above 40 µ in diameter. However, fine materials such as
carbon black and various metallurgical fumes form agglomerates which have enough
mass to permit collection in settling chambers. Settling chambers are used widely for
the removal of large solid particulates from natural draft furnaces, kilns, etc. They
are also sometimes used in the process industries, particularly the food and metallur-
gical industries, as a first step in dust control. Because of simplicity of construction
and low maintenance costs, gravity settling chambers have found quite widespread
application as pre-cleaners for high-efficiency collectors. This reduces the inlet dust
loadings to the second-stage cleaner and can remove large highly abrasive materials,
thus reducing maintenance costs of high-efficiency equipment which is more subject

to abrasive deterioration.
2.4.2. Cyclones
The cyclonic separator is an important and popular type of dust-removal equipment.
This class of separators is the most common of a general group of separators that
are classified as centrifugal or inertial separators. It depends upon centrifugal force
for its action. They produce a continuous centrifugal force as a means of exerting
the greater inertial effects of the dispersoid.
A cyclone collector can be defined as a structure without moving parts in which
the velocity of an inlet gas stream is transformed into a confined vortex from which
centrifugal forces tend to drive the suspended particles to the wall of the cyclone
body. It consists of vertically placed cylinders which has an inverted cone attached
to its base. The particulate-laden gas stream enters tangentially at the inlet point into
the cylinder. The outlet pipe for the purified gas is a central cylindrical opening at the
top. The dust particulates are collected at the bottom in a storage hopper (Fig. 2).
The gas path generally follows a double vortex. First, the gas spirals downward at
the outer periphery of the cylindrical portion, continues through the conical portion,
CYCLONE
Outlet
Inlet
Vortex
Finder
Cyclone
Cylinder
body
Cone
Dust
Discharger
Figure 2. Schematic of a Cyclone Separator.

and reaches the bottom. The gas stream then moves upward in a narrower inner
spiral, concentric with the first, and leaves through the outlet pipe. Due to the rapid
spiraling movement of the gas, the dispersoids are projected toward the wall by the
centrifugal force and then they drop by gravity to the bottom of the body, where they
are collected in the storage hopper. During cyclonic separation, carrier gas rotational
velocity may exceed several times the average inlet gas velocity. Cyclones are not
sized from theory but are normally designed by set procedures. One set of sizes of
various parts is as follows:
The design factor having the greatest effect on the collection efficiency is the
cyclone diameter. For a given pressure drop, smaller the diameter, higher is the
efficiency, because centrifugal action increases with decreasing radius of rotation.
Centrifugal forces employed in modern designs vary from 5 to 2500 times the gravity
depending on the diameter of the cyclone. Cyclone efficiencies are greater than 90%
for particles with diameter of the order of 10 µ. For particles with diameter higher
than 20 µ, efficiency is about 95%.
In practice, cyclonic separators may be designed for the satisfactory collection
of particles over wide ranges of size and concentration, and over wide ranges of
pressure and temperature. They can be operated at temperatures as high as 1000◦ C
and pressures 500 atmospheres. They can handle gas volumes ranging from about
0.85 to 700 cubic meters per minute. Particles of diameter 50–10 µ can be easily
separated. If particles are large (5–200 µ), a properly designed cyclone will perform
adequately with moderate power requirement. For particles larger than 200 µ, a set-
tling chamber is desirable, as it is more resistant to abrasion. An important precaution
to be taken in operating a cyclone is to prevent gas leakage. A 15% gas leakage can
bring down the efficiency to virtually zero.
2.4.2.1. Efficiency
Cyclones are generally divided into two classes, “conventional” and “high effi-
ciency.” High-efficiency cyclones merely have a smaller body diameter to create
greater separating forces, and there is no sharp dividing line between the two groups.
High-efficiency cyclones are generally considered to be those with body diameters
up to about 0.25 m.
One particular cyclone efficiency problem is the formation of eddies at the top
of the unit where the dirty gas is introduced. The turbulence in the eddies causes
some of the incoming dirty gas to be mixed with the outgoing clean gas stream. The
effect of this problem can be minimized by removing the exit gas stream at a point
below the zone of maximum turbulence. This is done by adding a central tube called
a vortex finder which projects into the cyclone body below the turbulent entry region
to confine the rising inner gas spiral.
In general, increase in collection efficiency will result if there is an increase in
any of the following: dust particle size, dust particle density, gas inlet velocity, inlet
dust loading, cyclone body length (number of gas revolutions), and ratio of body
diameter to gas outlet tube diameter. On contrary, collector efficiency will decrease if
there is an increase in gas viscosity or density, cyclone diameter, gas outlet diameter,
inlet width, and inlet area. To get increased efficiency, especially for the collection
of smaller sized particles, a small-diameter, long taper cyclone should be used.
2.4.2.2. Tangential inlet and involute inlet — a comparison

Inlets are of two types — tangential and involute. A straight tangential entry creates
quite a bit of turbulence which will lead to back mixing and loss of efficiency even
when a vortex finder is included in the cyclone design. On the other hand, the involute
design (Fig. 2) brings in the gas parallel to the outer edge of the cyclone (tangent at
that point) and leads it around a spiral for 180◦ to enter the top section with minimum
turbulence. The other advantages of the involute design are better particle projection
to the wall and a decrease in the loss of finer particles. The higher velocity in the
central core can cause a slight increase in the Bernoulli effect, drawing more fine
particles from the wall toward the central core. However, fine loses at the top and
the pressure loss are much less and the efficiency is much higher for the involute
design than for the tangential entry design.
2.4.2.3. Operating problems

There are three important operating problems associated with cyclones. They are
erosion, corrosion, and material build-up.
• Erosion — Heavy, hard, sharp-edged particles, in a high concentration, moving at

high velocity in the cyclone, continuously scrape against the wall and can erode
the metallic surface unless suitable materials are used.
• Corrosion — It is a problem if the cyclone is operating below the condensation
point when reactive gases are present in the effluent stream. The best solution to
any corrosion problem in a cyclone is to keep the product above the dew point. If
the gas and dust are corrosive at low temperatures then perhaps the only alternative
is to use a stainless alloy.
• Build-up — Build-up of dust cake on the cyclone walls, especially around the
vortex finder, at the ends of any internal vanes, and opposite the entry can become
a severe problem. It occurs most frequently with hygroscopic dusts.
In case the dust builds up on the wall of the cyclone cone, a simple solution is to
pound on the cone with a sledge hammer. Another solution is to hang chains inside;
this works, but reduces efficiency. A better solution is to flange a section between
the dust-collecting hopper and the cyclone body. It can be removed periodically and
scraped.
2.4.2.4. Advantages of cyclones

• Low initial cost.
• Simple construction and operation.
• Low pressure drop.
• Low maintenance requirements.
• It has no moving parts.
• Continuous disposal of solid particulates.
• They can be constructed of any material which will meet the temperature and
pressure requirements and the corrosion potential of the carrier gas stream.
2.4.2.5. Disadvantages of cyclones

• Low collection efficiency for particles below 5–10 in diameter.
• Equipment is subject to severe abrasive deterioration.
• Decreasing collection efficiencies for decreasing dispersoid concentrations in the
gas stream.
2.4.2.6. Applications
Cyclones are widely used for the control of gas-borne particulates in such indus-
trial operations as cement manufacture, feed and grain processing, food and bev-
erage processing, mineral processing, paper and textile industries, and wood working
industries.
Cyclones are also used to separate dust in disintegration operations, such as rock
crushing, ore handling, and sand conditioning in industries. They are also used in
the recovery of catalyst dust in the petroleum industry, and in the reduction of fly
ash emissions.
2.4.3. Multiple Cyclones

For high efficiency at reasonable capacity, a battery of smaller cyclones operating in
parallel is used in preference to a large single unit. This battery of smaller cyclones is
known as “multiple cyclones.” It is also referred to as multi-clones, tubular cyclones,
tubular collectors, and multiple collectors.
Multiple cyclones consist of rows of parallel tubes, about 25 cm in diameter, with
a common inlet chamber, a common outlet plenum, and a common dust-collection
system as shown in Fig. 3. These chambers must be designed for a constant pressure
drop in each, to avoid any channeling of the dirty gas to any particular single cyclone
or group of cyclones.
Such a situation leads immediately to overloading which increases the pressure
drop in that section and causes further overloading in other parts of the system. The
hopper (dust bin) must be designed with more care than that designed for a single
MULTI CYCLONE Clean Gas

Outlet
Clean Gas
Outlet
Raw Gas
Axial Inlet
Raw Gas Baffle

Inlet Plates
Cyclone
Body
High Efficiency
Dust
Small Cyclones Collection
Dust
Common Discharge
Hopper
Dust Discharge
Figure 3. Schematic of a Multicyclone Separator.

cyclone because the rate of dust collection will be generally much larger (because
of greater centrifugal action due to smaller diameter of the cyclones). The velocities
are much higher in the smaller cyclones which can cause re-entrainment problems
to be more severe than in larger units. Continuous dust bin emptying and very
often a deeper hopper are required to reduce the potential for dust re-entrainment.
Multiple cyclones have good abrasion resistance, are compact, and have convenient
inlet and outlet arrangements. They have low pressure drops and are highly efficient
in collecting heavy particles. But their main disadvantage is they kplug (materials
build-up). Multiple cyclones are used as collectors for cement clinkers, steel mill
sinter, and stone dust in quarry and asphalt operations.
2.4.3.1. Cyclone in series

The second cyclone serves to remove particles which were not collected in the first
cyclone owing to a statistical distribution across the inlet, accidental re-entrainment
due to eddy currents, and re-entrainment in the vortex core. The efficiency of the
second cyclone will be less than that of the first cyclone. Cyclones operated in series
are advantageous under the following circumstances:
1. Cyclones in series may be used to maintain a large degree of dust collection even
if the dust outlet of the primary cyclone plugs. In such a condition, the secondary
cyclone acts as a primary cyclone as far as collection efficiency is concerned.
2. A primary large-diameter cyclone may be used to collect coarse material which

would otherwise clog the smaller passages of more efficient small-diameter sec-
ondary cyclones.
Cyclone collectors are often installed in series with other type of dust-collecting
equipment. For example, to install high-efficiency cyclones ahead of ESPs. In an
installation of this type, the cyclone exhibits an increased efficiency with an increase
of gas load or dust load. On the other hand, the precipitator shows an increase in effi-
ciency with a reduced gas load or dust load. Thus the characteristics of the two types
of equipment compensate for each other, and this results in maintaining efficiency
over a wide range of gas flow and dust loading. In general, if the particle-size distri-
bution is such that most of the particulates can be removed in cyclones, then in such
a case, very high overall efficiencies can be obtained by operating cyclones in series.
2.4.4. Wet Scrubbers

In these devices, the flue gas is made to push up against a down failing water (liquid)
current. The particulate matter mixes up with water droplets and, thus, falls down and
gets removed. Water solutions, when replaced with other aqueous chemical solutions,
like lime, potassium carbonate, slurry of MnO, and MgO, etc. do help in removing
gaseous pollutants also from the flue gases. Venturi scrubbers offer high-performance
collection of fine particles, usually smaller than 2–3 µm in diameter. They are particu-
larly suitable when the particular matter is sticky, flammable, or highly corrosive. The
high performance of the Venturi scrubbers is achieved by accelerating the gas stream
to very high velocities, of the order of 60–120 m/s. The high-speed action atomizes
the feed liquid, generally introduced in a uniform fashion across the throat through
several low-pressure spray nozzles directed radically inward as shown in Fig. 4.
The droplets accelerate in the throat section, and due to the velocity difference
between the particles and the droplets the particles are impacted against the slow-
moving droplets. This acceleration of the droplets is not likely to be complete at
the end of the throat, so that particle collection continues to some extent into the
diverging section of theVenturi. The gas liquid mixture is then directed to a separation
device such as a cyclone separator where the droplets carrying the particulate matter
are separated from the gas stream.
The mechanisms affecting the collection of particulates in the Venturi scrubber
are inertial impaction, diffusion, electrostatic — phenomenon and condensation and
agglomeration.
• Uses energy of moving gas stream to atomize liquid into droplets.

• Gas flow through a narrow throat where high velocity is produced.
• Water introduced into throat is sheared to droplets because of gas.
Figure 4. Typical Industrial Venturi Scrubber.

Source: Panda and Sharma, 2006.5
• Droplets become targets for particle collection.

• Large-bottom inlet cyclonic separators are used for collecting particulate matter
leaving Venturi.
• Mist eliminators are used to remove liquid droplets before gas exit into
atmosphere.
2.4.4.1. Advantages
• They can be made to remove gaseous pollutants also, along with the remaining
particulate matter.
• Hot gases can be cooled down.
• Corrosive gases can be removed and neutralized.
• The separated gases through contact with aqueous chemicals may produce useful
byproducts, as chemicals and fertilizers.
2.4.4.2. Disadvantages
• A lot of wastewater, needing disposal, may be produced.
• Maintenance cost is high, when corrosive materials are collected.
• Wet outlet gases cannot rise high from the stack.
• Poses freezing problems in cold countries.

• Plume may sometimes be visible in the sky due to the presence of water vapor.
2.4.5. Fabric Filters

Filtration is one of the most reliable, efficient, and economic methods by which
particulate matter can be removed from gases. Filters can be broadly divided into
the following two types.
1. Fabric or cloth filters.
2. Fibrous or deep-bed filters.
In cloth filters, the filter is in the form of a fabric bag arrangement — tubular bags
or as cloth envelopes — and is suitable for a dust loading of the order of 1 g/cu m.
In the case of deep-bed filters, a fibrous medium like mats of wool, cellulose, etc.,
acts as a separator and the collection takes place in the interstices of the bed and is
suitable for light dust loads of the order of 1 mg/cu m.
2.4.5.1. Fabric or cloth filters

The most common type of fabric collector is the tubular type, consisting of tubular
bags. A bag house or bag filter consists of numerous vertical bags 120–400 mm
diameter and 2–10 m long. They are suspended with open ends attached to a manifold.
The hopper at the bottom serves as a collector for the dust (Fig. 5). The gas entering
through the inlet pipe strikes a baffle plate, which causes the larger particles to fall
into a hopper due to gravity. The carrier gas then follows upward into the tubes and
then outward through the fabric leaving the particulate matter as a “cake” on the
inside of the bags. Efficiency during pre-coat forms part of the filtering medium,
which helps in further removal of the particulates. Thus dust becomes the actual
filtering medium! The bags, in effect, act primarily as a matrix to support the dust
cake. The cake is usually formed in a matter of minutes, or sometimes even seconds.
The accumulation of dust increases the air resistance of the filter, and therefore filter
bags have to be periodically cleaned. They can be cleaned by rapping, shaking or
vibration, or by reverse air flow, causing the filter cake to be loosened and to fall into
the hopper below. The normal velocities at which the gas is passed through the bags
is 0.4–1 m/min. There are many types of “filter bags” depending on the bag shape,
the type of housing, and the method of cleaning the fabric.
2.4.5.2. Factors affecting efficiency

Efficiency of bag filters may decrease on account of the following factors:
• Excessive filter ratios — “Filter ratio” is defined as the ratio of the carrier gas
volume to gross filter area, per minute flow of the gas. Excessive filter ratios
Figure 5. Typical Industrial Bag House of the Pulse-Jet Design.

lower particulate removal efficiency and result in increased bag wear. Therefore,
low filter ratios are recommended for high concentration of particulates.
• Improper selection of filter media — While selecting filter media, properties
like temperature resistance, resistance to chemical attack, and abrasion resistance
should be taken into consideration.
2.4.5.3. Reverse jet filter

Recently, bag filters cleaned by an air jet from a traversing ring have been developed.
This unit differs basically from the usual tubular type unit with regard to the method
of cleaning and the type of filter medium employed. The tubular filters in this unit
are cleaned by a high-velocity air jet discharged from the inner side of a traversing
ring which moves on the outside of the filter tube. The air jet passes through the
fabric in a direction reverse to the normal flow and removes cake continuously from
the filter surface. Current designs employ felt as the filtration medium.
Following are the advantages and disadvantages of a reverse jet filter.
• Requires no shutdowns or programming for cleaning. Blow rings are a continuous
cleaning mechanism in that some part of each bag is being cleaned at all times.
• Filter works at a higher velocity of 3–6 m/min as compared to 0.5–2 m/min for
the usual cloth filters.
• The cloth resistance can be maintained at a nearly constant value in contrast to

other cloth filters in which the resistance builds up to the design value.
But the main disadvantages of blow rings are the mechanical linkages and the indi-
vidual air hose attachments required for each bag. The degree of maintenance
required is also high. The bag house specifications for a reverse jet filter must include
linear ring travel rate, number of rings per bag, and the flow rate and pressure of
the cleaning air.
2.4.5.4. Envelope type fabric filter

This type of filter is in the form of a cloth envelop supported on a wire screen frame.
The individual units range from 0.6 to 1 m wide and 3 to 5 cm thick. In contrast to
the bag filter, gas is introduced on the outside of each envelop, passes through the
fabric in the frame of the unite, and then out of the collector. The filters are prevented
from collapsing due to the inner framework. As in bag filters, the envelop panels
mounted in multiples.
2.4.5.5. Multi-compartment-type bag house

If the requirements of the process being controlled are such that continuous operation
is necessary, the bag filter must be of a multicompartment type to allow individual
units of the bag filter to be successively off-stream during shaking. This is achieved
either manually in small units or by programming control in large, fully automatic
units. In this case, sufficient cloth area must be provided to ensure that filtering
capacity will not be reduced during shaking periods when any one unit of the filter
is off-stream.
2.4.5.6. Fibrous or deep-bed filters

In the deep-bed filters, a fibrous medium acts as the separator, and the collection
takes place in the interstices of the bed. Fibrous filters may be composed of mats of
wool, asbestos, cellulose, glass, or iron fibers. They find their most extensive use in
air conditioning and heating and ventilating systems, but high-efficiency mat filters
are also employed as after-cleaners and less efficient ones roughing units to protect
still more efficient equipment for pollution-control purposes. They are most suitable
for light dust loads, of the order of mg/cu m.
The filters can be classified as either viscous or dry. In the viscous type the filter
is coated with a sticky material or “adhesive” to help in catching the particles and
prevent re-entrainment. The adhesive is usually an oil or grease of high flash point
and low volatility, and it should be a good wetting agent. The filter medium, gen-
erally glass wool, is placed on metal or cardboard with a wire mesh, approximately
50 cm square and several centimeters deep. The fibers will be generally packed with
increasing density from front to back so most of the large particles are removed before
the more efficient part is reached. This helps in prolonging the life of the filter. When
resistance to air flow becomes excessive, glass wool media are usually discarded
while the wire mesh is washed with hot water and then recoiled. In fact, as a general
rule, used filters are discarded rather then cleaned and reused. Automatic viscous
filters are also available. They can be used for handling large quantities of atmo-
spheric air containing high concentration of dust (about two grains per 1000 cu ft).
The fiber is formed into an endless belt, which continuously moves through an oil
bath at the bottom of the housing. They can be operated at high air velocities of the
order of 90–150 m/min. Dry filters for air conditioning are supplied in units similar
in size to the viscous type except that the depth of the dry cell is usually greater.
The filter materials may be paper, glass fibers, or cotton batting. Dry filters which
are automatically vibrated at intervals to dislodge the dust are also available. They
handle higher concentrations than the usual dry-cell filters but not the heavy loadings
of the cloth filters. High-efficiency dry fibrous filters have been developed for special
applications, such as the removal of radioactive or toxic particles or the cleaning of
air in industrial plants manufacturing photographic film or fine instruments. Loosely
packed pads of glass fibers have been found particularly suitable for such cases.
Another important advantage of deep-bed filters is that they are generally very good
for service in a corrosive atmosphere because of their “throwaway” nature.
2.4.6. Electrostatic Precipitators

Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) are particulate collection devices that utilize elec-
trical energy directly to assist in the removal of the particulate mater. They have been
successfully used for the removal of fine dusts from all kinds of waste gases with
very high efficiency. Particles as small as a tenth of a micron can be removed. The
principle on which this equipment operates is that, when a gas containing aerosols
is passed between two electrodes that are electrically insulated from each other and
between which there is a considerable difference in electric potential, aerosol par-
ticles precipitate on the low potential electrode. There are various types of ESPs.
They are mainly used for industrial purposes. They can also be used for air cleaning
in public buildings, theatres, railway cars, etc.
2.4.6.1. Description of general system

Basically, an ESP consists of six major components as shown in Fig 6.
1. A source of high voltage.

2. Discharge electrodes and collecting electrodes.
Rectifiers
Raw Gas
Distribution Gas
Plate Outlet
Discharge
Collecting Electrodes
Electrode
Plates
Gas Inlet
Rapping Hoppers
Hammers
Figure 6. Cutaway View of a Large Modern ESP Showing the Various Parts.
3. Inlet and outlet for the gas.

4. A means (generally a hopper) for disposal of the collected material.
5. An electronic cleaning system.
6. An outer casing to form an enclosure around the electrodes (precipitator shell).
The gases entering an ESP may or may not have pretreatment before entering the unit.
Pretreatment could consist of removing part of the dust loading by use of certain
mechanical collectors, or by adding chemicals to the gas to change the physical
properties of the gas to enhance precipitator action. The entire ESP is enclosed, in a
casing. The actual geometric configuration may be either rectangular or cylindrical.
In all cases, there is an inlet and outlet connection for gases, hoppers to collect the
precipitated matter, and the necessary discharge electrode and collector surfaces.
Usually, there will be a penthouse on the precipitator. This is a weatherproof gastight
enclosure over the precipitator that houses the high-voltage insulators.
Precipitators are usually built with a number of auxiliary components, which
include access doors, dampers, safety devices, and gas distribution systems. The
access provisions can be either a door or a plate which are closed and bolted under
normal operating conditions but which can be opened when necessary for inspection
and maintenance. Dampers are the means by which the quantity of gas is controlled.
They may be either a guillotine, a louver, or some similar device which opens and
closes to adjust gas flow. In addition, the safety grounding system is extremely
important and must always be in place during operation and especially during periods
of inspection. The most common grounding system consists of a conductor, one
end of which is grounded to the casing, and the other end is attached to the high-
voltage system by an insulated operating lever. The collecting system consists of
the collecting surfaces where the particulate matter is deposited. Also, a device for
rapping or vibrating the collecting surfaces is included so that the deposited particles
can be dislodged. The high-voltage system includes the discharge electrode and the
insulators. Electrical insulation must be done for safety purposes. The precipitator
hopper is integral with the precipitator shell and is made from the same materials.
The function of the hopper is to collect the precipitated material for final disposal.
ESPs require a high-voltage direct current source of energy for operation. Therefore,
transformers are required to step up the normal service voltages to high voltages.
Rectifiers convert the alternating current to unidirectional current.
2.4.6.2. Principle of electrostatic precipitation

In ESPs, the gas stream is passed between two electrodes, across which a high
potential difference is maintained. Out of the two electrodes, one is a discharging
electrode and the other a collecting electrode. Because of a high potential difference
and the discharge system, a powerful ionizing field is formed. Potentials as high as
100 kilovolts (but usually 40–60 kV) are used. Consequently, ionization creates an
active glow zone (blue electric discharge) called the “corona” or “corona glow.” Gas
ionization is the dissociation of gas molecules into free ions. As the particulates in
the carrier gas pass through this field, they get charged and migrate to the oppo-
sitely charged collecting electrode. The particles, once deposited on the collecting
electrode, lose their charge and are removed mechanically by rapping, vibrating, or
washing to a hopper below. Thus, the four steps in the process are:
1. Place the charge on the particle to be collected.

2. Migrate the particle to the collector.
3. Neutralize the charge at the collector.
4. Remove the collected particle.
2.4.6.3. Single-state and two-stage precipitators

ESPs can be either single stage or two stage in design. In a single-stage precipitator,
gas ionization and particulate collection are combined in a single step. Whereas in
the case of a two-stage precipitator, particles are ionized in the first chamber and
collected in the second chamber. Almost all industrial precipitators are of the single-
stage design. Usually the two-stage precipitator is used for lightly loaded gases and
the single stage, for more heavily loaded industrial gas stream.
2.4.6.4. Pipe-type and plate-type precipitators

There are two basic designs of the single 3-stage precipitator. They are the pipe-type
precipitator and the plate-type precipitator.
2.4.6.4.1. Pipe-type precipitator

In the pipe-type precipitator, the collecting electrodes are formed by a nest of parallel
pipes which maybe round, square octagonal. Generally, the pipe is about 30 cm in
diameter or less. The most common form of a discharge electrode is a wire with small
radius of curvature, suspended along the axis of each pipe. They must be weighted or
supported to retain proper physical tension and location, electrically insulated from
the support grid and strong enough to withstand rapping or vibrating for cleaning
purpose. The gas flow is axial from bottom to top.
Pipe electrodes may be 2–5 m high. Spacing between the discharge electrode
and collecting electrode ranges from 8 to 15 cm or even 20 cm. Precipitation of
the aerosol particles occurs on the inner pipe walls, from which the material can
be removed by periodic rapping of the pipes or flushing with water. Generally, the
pipe-type precipitator is used for the removal of liquid particulates.
2.4.6.4.2. Plate-type precipitator

In the plate-type precipitator, the collecting electrodes consist of parallel plates. The
discharge electrodes are similar to those used in the pipe-type precipitators, i.e., they
are wires with a small curvature. Sometimes square roads (approximately 4.8 mm)
and twisted square road (from 3.2 to 6.4 mm) are used. The wires are suspended
midway between the parallel collecting electrodes and usually hang free with a
weight suspended at the bottom to keep them straight. Discharge electrodes are
made from noncorrosive materials like tungsten, and alloys of steel and copper. The
gas flow is parallel to the plates.
Plates may be 1–2 m wide and 3–6 m high. The parallel plates should be spaced
at equal intervals (between 15 and 35 cm). The collection of the aerosols takes place
on the inner sides of the parallel plates. The dust material colleted can be removed
by rapping either periodically or continuously. The dust particles thus removed fall
into the hoppers at the base of the precipitator. Collection electrodes should have a
maximum amount of collection surface, bulking resistance, resistance to corrosion,
and have a consistent economic design. Plate-type precipitators may be classified
further on the basis of the direction of gas flow as horizontal-flow and vertical-
flow precipitators. Gas velocities are normally maintained at 0.5–0.6 m/s in these
precipitators.
2.4.6.5. Efficiency
Generally the collection efficiency of the ESP is high, approaching 100%. Many
installations operate at 98 and 99% efficiency. Some materials ionize more readily
than others and are thus more adapted to removal by electrostatic precipitation. Acid
mists and catalyst recovery units often have efficiencies in excess of 99%; carbon
black, because of its agglomerating tendency, has a normal collection efficiency of
less than 35%. However by proper combination of an ESP with a cyclonic collector,
high efficiencies may be obtained in collecting carbon black.
2.4.6.6. Particle re-entrainment

Particle re-entrainment is a problem associated with particle charging. It occurs
primarily in two situations — due to either inadequate precipitator area, or inadequate
dust removal from the hopper. Re-entrainment reduces ESP performance because
of the necessity of re-collecting dust which had been previously removed from the
carrier gas. The problem can be overcome by a proper design of the ESP.
2.4.6.7. Design parameters

The design parameters relating to the carrier gas are volumetric flow rate, compo-
sition, temperature, and dew point. The design parameters in relation to the dust
particles are concentration, size distribution, resistivity, bulk density, composition,
hygroscopicity, and tendency to agglomerate. Other important factors affecting the
efficiency of the ESP are velocity distribution at the entrance of the precipitator,
design of duct work, collection electrode area, ionization potential, etc.
2.4.6.8. Advantages of ESPs

• High collection efficiency.
• Particles as small as 0.1 m can be removed.
• Low maintenance and operating costs.
• Low pressure drop (0.25–1.25 cm of water).
• Satisfactory handling of a large volume of high-temperature gas.
• Treatment time is negligible (0.1–10 s).
• Cleaning is easy by removing units of the precipitator from operation.
• There is no limit to solid, liquid, or corrosive chemical usage.
2.4.6.9. Disadvantages of ESPs

• High initial cost.
• Space requirement is more because of the large size of the equipment.
• Possible explosion hazards during collection of combustible gases or particulates.
• Precautions are necessary to maintain safety during operation. Proper gas flow
distribution, gas resistivity, particulate conductivity, and corona spark over rate
must be maintained carefully.
• The poisonous gas, ozone, is produced by the negatively charged discharge elec-
trodes during gas ionization.
2.4.6.10. ESP for air cleaning

Air cleaning precipitators are used for cleaning air in public buildings, theatres,
ships, railway cars, and in some private homes and club house. The object of using
air cleaning precipitators is to make the air more healthy or pleasant to breathe
by removing tobacco smoke, pollen, etc., or to prevent dust from interfering with
delicate industrial operation such as manufacture of watches or electronic tubes, or
to prevent soiling of walls, paintings, etc.
2.4.7. Gas Absorption Equipment

The removal of one or more selected components from a gas mixture by absorption is
probably the most important operation in the control of gaseous pollutant emissions.
Absorption is a unit operation as shown in Fig. 7, in which a substance is transferred
from gaseous phase to a liquid phase. The substance may simply be dissolved in
the liquid phase, or may react with the liquid or a specific substance in the liquid.
Water is the most commonly used absorbent liquid. For example, sulfur dioxide in
a flue gas may be absorbed in water containing calcium hydroxide to form calcium
sulfate, which can then be scrubbed from the gas stream by more water. As the gas
stream passes through the liquid, the liquid absorbs the gas, in much the same way
that sugar is absorbed in a glass of water when stirred. Absorption is commonly used
Figure 7. Typical Packed Column Diagram.

to recover products or to purify gas streams that have high concentrations of organic
compounds. Absorption equipment is designed to get as much mixing between the
gas and liquid as possible.
Absorbers are often referred to as scrubbers, and there are various types of
absorption equipment. The principal types of gas absorption equipment include spray
towers, packed columns, plate towers, spray chambers, and venture scrubbers. The
packed column is by far the most commonly used for the absorption of gaseous pol-
lutants. The packed column absorber has a column filled with an inert (nonreactive)
substance, such as plastic or ceramic, which increases the liquid surface area for the
liquid/gas interface. The inert material helps to maximize the absorption capability
of the column. In addition, the introduction of the gas and liquid at opposite ends
of the column causes mixing to be more efficient because of the counter-current flow
through the column. In general, absorbers can achieve removal efficiencies grater
than 95%. One potential problem with absorption is the generation of waste-water,
which converts an air pollution problem to a water pollution problem.
2.4.8. Gas Adsorption Equipment

Here, the effluent gas is passed through solid adsorbers contained in collection
equipment. When a gas or vapor is brought into contact with a solid part of it is
taken up by the solid. The molecules that disappear from the gas either enter the
inside of the solid or remain on the outside attached to the surface. The former phe-
nomenon is termed absorption (or dissolution) and the latter adsorption. Adsorption
is the binding of molecules or particles to a surface. In this phenomenon, molecules
from a gas or liquid will be attached in a physical way to a surface. The binding to
the surface is usually weak and reversible. Adsorption may be physical or chemical
(chemisorption). In physical adsorption, the sorbed layer is loosely bound to the
adsorber solid and may be removed easily, for example, by reducing pressure, etc.
In chemisorption, the adsorbed layer is found more firmly to the solid surface and
greater energy is required to remove the adsorbed molecules. The most common
industrial adsorbents are activated carbon, silica gel, and alumina, because they have
enormous surface areas per unit weight. The common types of adsorption equipment
are thin-bed adsorbers and deep-bed adsorbers.
Thin-bed adsorber equipment consists of a thin layer or bed of adsorbed solid, like
activated alumina. The gaseous stream entering the device meets the solid surface and
gets rapidly adsorbed. Since the bed is thin, the resistance to flow is less and hence,
adsorption is quick. This type of adsorber is used for air steams containing trace
quantities or low volumes of pollutants. Another type deep-bed adsorber has a bed
of a depth of 2.5–4 cm and uses activated charcoal to adsorb air that is comparatively
heavily polluted.
Activated carbon is the universal standard for purification and removal of trace
organic contaminants from liquid and vapor streams. Carbon adsorption uses acti-
vated carbon to control and/or recover gaseous pollutant emissions. In carbon
adsorption, the gas is attracted and adheres to the porous surface of the activated
carbon. Removal efficiencies of 95–99% can be achieved by using this process.
Carbon adsorption is used in cases where the recovered organics are valuable. For
example, carbon adsorption is often used to recover perchloroethylene, a compound
used in the dry cleaning process.
Carbon adsorption systems are either regenerative or nonregenerative as shown
in Figs. 8 and 9. A regenerative system usually contains more than one carbon bed.
As one bed actively removes pollutants, another bed is being regenerated for future
use. Steam is used to purge captured pollutants from the bed to a pollutant recovery
Figure 8. Regenerative Carbon Adsorption System.

Figure 9. Non-Regenerative Carbon Adsorption System.

device. By “regenerating” the carbon bed, the same activated carbon particles can be
used again and again. Regenerative systems are used when the concentration of the
pollutant in the gas stream is relatively high. Nonregenerative systems have thinner
beds of activated carbon. In a nonregenerative adsorber, the spent carbon is disposed
of when it becomes saturated with the pollutant. Because of the solid waste problem
generated by this type of system, nonregenerative carbon adsorbers are usually used
when the pollutant concentration is extremely low.
2.4.9. Condensation Equipment

Condensation is the process of converting a gas or vapor to liquid. Any gas can
be reduced to a liquid by lowering its temperature and/or increasing its pressure.
The most common approach is to reduce the temperature of the gas stream, since
increasing the pressure of a gas can be expensive. A simple example of the conden-
sation process is droplets of water forming on the outside of a glass of cold water.
The cold temperature of the glass causes water vapor from the surrounding air to
pass into the liquid state on the surface of the glass.
Condensers are widely used to recover valuable products in a waste stream.
Condensers are simple, relatively inexpensive devices that normally use water or air
to cool and condense a vapor stream. Condensers are typically used as pretreatment
devices. They can be used ahead of adsorbers, absorbers, and incinerators to reduce
the total gas volume to be treated by more expensive control equipment. Condensers
used for pollution control are contact condensers and surface condensers. In a contact
condenser as shown in Fig. 10, the gas comes into contact with cold liquid. In a surface
condenser as shown in Fig. 11, the gas contacts a cooled surface in which cooled
liquid or gas is circulated, such as the outside of the tube. Removal efficiencies of
Figure 10. Contact Condenser.

Figure 11. Surface Condenser.

condensers typically range from 50% to more than 95%, depending on design and
applications.
2.4.10. Incineration Equipment

Incineration, also known as combustion, is mostly used to control the emissions
of organic compounds from process industries. This control technique refers to the
rapid oxidation of a substance through the combination of oxygen with a combustible
material in the presence of heat. When combustion is complete, the gaseous stream
is converted to carbon dioxide and water vapor. Incomplete combustion will result
in some pollutants being released into the atmosphere. Smoke is one indication of
incomplete combustion. Equipment used to control waste gases by combustion can
be divided into three categories: direct combustion or flaring, thermal incineration,
and catalytic incineration. Choosing the proper device depends on many factors,
including the type of hazardous contaminants in the waste stream, concentration of
combustibles in the stream, process flow rate, control requirements, and an economic
evaluation.
A direct combustor or flare as shown in Fig. 12, is a device in which air and
all the combustible waste gases react at the burner. Complete combustion must
occur instantaneously since there is no residence chamber. Flares are commonly
used for disposal of waste gases during process upsets, such as those that take place
when a process is started or shutdown. A flare can be used to control almost any
emission stream containing (VOCs). Studies conducted by EPA have shown that the
destruction efficiency of a flare is about 98%.
In thermal incinerators, the combustible waste gases pass over or around a burner
flame into a residence chamber where oxidation of the waste gases is completed.
For thermal incineration, it is important that the vapor stream directed to the thermal
Figure 12. Thermal Incinerator General Case.

incinerator has a constant combustible gas concentration and flow rate. These devices
are not well-suited to vapor streams that fluctuate, because the efficiency of the
combustion process depends on the proper mixing of vapors and a specific residence
time in the combustion chamber. Residence time is the amount of time the fuel
mixture remains in the combustion chamber. Often, supplementary fuel is added
to a thermal incinerator to supplement the quantity of pollutant gases being burned
by the incinerator. Energy and heat produced by the incineration process can be
recovered and put to beneficial uses at a facility. Thermal incinerators can destroy
gaseous pollutants at efficiencies greater than 99% when operated correctly.
Catalytic incinerators are very similar to thermal incinerators as shown in Fig. 13.
The main difference is that after passing through the flame area, the gases pass over
a catalyst bed. A catalyst is a substance that enhances a chemical reaction without
being changed or consumed by the reaction. A catalyst promotes oxidation at lower
temperatures, thereby reducing fuel costs. Destruction efficiencies greater than 95%
are possible using a catalytic incinerator. Higher efficiencies are possible if larger
catalyst volumes or higher temperatures are used. Catalytic incinerators are best
suited for emission streams with low VOC content.
2.4.11. Biofiltration Equipment9−12

Air biofiltration has been practiced since the early decades of the last century and
has gained much interest in recent years for controlling odorous emissions into
Figure 13. Catalytic Incinerator.

the air, toxic compounds, VOCs. The principle of biofiltration is relatively simple:
a contaminated air stream is passed through a porous packed bed on which pollutant-
degrading cultures of microorganisms are immobilized, and air biotreatment relies
on microbial reactions for the degradation of waste compounds. As the odorous and
contaminated air passes through the media, the contaminants in the air stream are
absorbed by the biofilm. These contaminants are then oxidized to produce biomass,
CO2 , H2 O, NO3 , and SO4 . Biofiltration is an emerging technology, and in comparison
with traditional methods of air pollution control, it offers a number of advantages
for the treatment of low concentrations of polluted air streams. Besides its high
removal efficiency, low capital and operating costs, safe operating conditions, and
low energy consumption, it does not generate undesirable byproducts and converts
many organic and inorganic compounds into harmless oxidation products.
A biofilter normally consists of a simple bed of material that is conductive to
the support of microbe growth through which the pollutant gaseous passes at a low
velocity as shown in Fig. 14. The bed material filter normally compost, sphagnum
peat, wood chips, polystyrene, fiberglass wool, clay, soil, or granular activated
carbon. The bed material filters are surrounded by a film of aqueous liquor, which
Figure 14. Schematics of Biofilter Equipment on a Bench Scale.

Source: Pandey et al., 2006.13
is teeming with microorganisms. To promote microbe growth and activity levels,

the bed is usually kept moist and the gas is humidified before entry into the filter.
Biofilters may have one or more beds of biologically active materials. As the stream
of contaminated air flows through the filter, contaminates dissolve into the aqueous
liquor (driven by entropy). These dissolved contaminates are then consumed as food
by the microorganisms. Carbon dioxide, water, oxidized organic compounds, and
more microorganisms are the end products.
Biofilter can be used for removing wide range of organic (hydrocarbons, chlori-
nated hydrocarbons, ketones, esters, aldehydes, alcohols, and odors) and inorganic
compounds (hydrogen sulfide, carbon disulfide, ammonia, and nitrogen oxides). Bio-
scrubing, trickling biofiltration, and biofiltration are typical waste gas cleaning tech-
nologies. Biofiltration appears to be the cheapest and also the most studied and most
extensively used technology. Bioscrubing and trickling biofiltration are used rather
for special applications. Trickling biofilter and biofilter are packed columns with
organic or anorganic carrier material witch is covered with biocatalyst. Degration
rates of 50–100 (g/h m3 ) are typical. The chlorine content in chloinates hydrocarbon
significantly reduces the rate of degration. Removal efficiences of over 90% have
been achieved on these contaminates.
2.5. Controlling Air Pollution from Moving Sources (Automobiles)

Automobiles chiefly emit carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), and nitrogen
oxides (NOx ). The contents of these pollutants in the smoke emitted by the auto-
mobiles are combustion gaseous — i.e., CO, HC, H2 , — hundreds of oxygenated
hydrocarbons, as well as small fractions of nitrogen oxides. These pollutants are
highly dangerous to the overall environment, and to the life in general; and hence
the automobiles are nowadays seen as a symbol of technological menace.
The emissions from petrol engines of two, three, and four wheelers (including
cars, having four-stroke engines) contain heavier concentrations of HC and CO,
whereas the four-stroke diesel engines of diesel vehicles (buses and trucks) contain
heavier concentrations of NO along with thick smoke and particles. The auto emis-
sions also contain gaseous pollutants, like SO2 and lead compounds, especially when
lead-containing fuel is used, as in India.∗
Besides the above improvements required in the gasoline, the upkeep and main-
tenance of the auto engines is also of utmost importance. The proper tuning of
the engine and carburetor is very essential, in order to control pollutant emissions.
Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989, framed under Motor Vehicles Act, 1988, has,
therefore, stipulated permissible auto emission levels. The maximum permissible
CO emission, while idling, is limited to 3.0% for cars, and 4.5% for two and three
wheelers. Such stipulation for improved tuning and adjustment of the engines is
only an initial step to limit the vehicular pollution; as in fact, there is no other choice
left now, but to change the basic design of our automobiles, incorporating catalytic
convertors in their exhaust pipes, and to adopt multi-point fuel injection (MPFi)
system with dual intake valves to limit the fuel intake exactly to the needs of the
engine, with no excess fuel usage at any point.
The catalytic convertors are usually made of noble metals, like platinum, pal-
ladium, etc., and help in oxidizing CO and HC into their final product CO2 , and also
in reducing NO into nitrogen. These noble metal catalysts are highly active, and resist
sulfur poisoning. A catalytic convertor is generally placed inside the tail exhaust pipe
of the automobile, so as to pass through it the “partially oxidized emissions” before
they are let out into the atmosphere.
3. Universal Air Pollution Control Measures for Industries
I. To avoid generation of black smoke/dense particulate matter emission from

the stack of the kilns, boilers, furnaces, etc., the industry must install ade-
quately designed ESP/Gas Cleaning Plant and continuously operate the same
to meet the prescribed standard of the pollution control agencies/authorities.
II. The existing bag filters should be periodically overhauled and upgraded/
replaced with new bag filter to meet the norms in respect of particulate
matter emission. Portholes and platforms along with the ladder at each stack
attached to the individual bag filters and ESPs shall be provided to facilitate
the Pollution Control Board/ environmental authorities for stack monitoring.
III. D.G. sets should be equipped with AMF. (Auto Mains Failure Panel) for
auto changeover of power supply from grid power to D.G. power in the
event of power failure. The AMF Panel should preferably be PLC (pro-
grammable logic control) based. Dedicated D.G. sets of adequate capacity
shall be installed to ensure sufficient standby power supply to run all pol-
lution control devices of the plant in the event of power failure to ensure
continuous operation of pollution control equipments.
IV. All raw materials, product, and waste materials should be transferred through
covered vehicles without any spillage or leakages on the way. In the case of
any accidental spillage on the road, the materials/wastes shall be lifted by the
industry and suitably disposed off in designated solid waste dumping area.
V. All sources of fugitive dust emission generated from material stack yards,
material transfer points of conveyors, bottom of the bag filters, ESP hopper,
and intermediate bin should be fully enclosed.
VI. Inventory of excess spare parts air pollution control systems/spare bags shall
be in the store to meet emergency need of ESPs and bag filters.
VII. Approach roads and internal roads should be black topped or concreted and
good housekeeping practices should be followed to prevent the generation
of fugitive dust.
VIII. Appropriate devices like pneumatic dust handling system/mechanical dust
handling system/Pug mill shall be provided at the hoppers of ESPs and pulse
jet bag filters for continuous evacuation of dust from the hoppers without
creating fugitive emission near the ESP and bag filter area. The collected
dust from air pollution control equipments should be utilized or disposed
off in a designed land fill area. Until capping of land fill, the dust shall be
kept in wet condition with water sprinklers to avoid re-entrainment into the
surrounding area due to wind.
IX. Raw materials like iron ore and coal fines should be stored under covered
shed.
X. Accumulation of dust in the work zone and nondumping area inside the
factory premises shall be avoided. The work zone area shall be properly
cleaned either manually or mechanically every day and the dust so collected
shall be disposed off in the designated dump site.
XI. Accretion material/dust, waste material generated due to cleaning of the
kilns/ furnaces/ boilers/ equipments should not be dumped haphazardly
but it should be temporarily kept in an earmarked area and subsequently
removed and transferred to the designated dump site within two days of their
generation.
XII. Dust from approach roads and internal roads should be removed every day
and taken to the dump site. The approach road and internal roads shall be
cleaned by water hose periodically to avoid the accumulation of dust and to
control fugitive dust emission during plying of vehicles.
XIII. Permanent type of high-pressure water spraying system with nozzles should
be installed for regular spraying of water on all roads, work zone, and solid
waste dumping area.
XIV. Proper housekeeping should be maintained by a dedicated team.
XV. The industry must constitute a team of responsible and technically qual-
ified personnel who will ensure continuous operation of all pollution control
devices round the clock (including night hours).
XVI. In no case, leakage of flue gas should be allowed through the emergency
caps of process equipments bypassing the pollution control devices.
XVII. Air pollution control measures installed at crushers, screens, material transfer
points, product handling area, cooler discharge, magnetic separator, and
other potential dust generating points shall be operated continuously and
effectively to control fugitive dust emission.
XVIII. Additional bag filters should be provided at coal injection point, raw material
feeding point, storage bins, intermediate bins, and any other material transfer
points (if not provided yet) to control the emission of fugitive dust. Slip rings
of kilns shall be maintained properly to prevent dust leakages.
XIX. The industry should install separate energy meters for ESP/GCP and other
pollution control devices. A logbook shall be maintained to record the energy
meter readings, and a monthly statement of such energy meter readings of
power consumption along with monthly electricity bill shall be furnished to
the Pollution Control Board.
XX. Maintenance of all the pollution control devices shall be taken up during
normal shutdown of kilns. In case of failure of any air pollution control
devices at any point of time, the fact shall be intimated to the Board imme-
diately by fax, and immediate action shall be taken to resume the proper
functioning of the devices.
XXI. Boundary shall be provided around the existing/proposed solid waste
dumping area, and to prevent the generation of wind-borne dust, the height
of the dump shall not be more than the height of the boundary wall under
any circumstances.
XXII. The ambient air quality shall confirm to the prescribed standard. Areas within
the premises of the plant shall be considered as industrial area and areas
outside the premises shall be treated as residential and rural areas.
XXIII. The D.G. set shall be installed in an acoustically designed enclosure to
control noise level and over anti-vibration pads to avoid vibration.
XXIV. The height of the stack attached to the D.G. sets shall confirm to the fol-
√
lowing. H = h + 0.2 KVA where h = height of the building where it is
installed in meter, KVA = capacity of the D.G. set in KVA, H = height of
the stack in meter above ground level.
XXV. Green belt shall be developed along the boundary of factory premises during
the forthcoming monsoon. A plan showing the green belt area shall be sub-
mitted to the Board within one month. Number of species and existing
number of surviving trees shall be reported to the Board.
More information on air pollution control can be found from the literature.14−16
References
1. Garg, S.K. and Garg, R. (1999). Sewage Disposal and Air Pollution Engineering,
New Delhi, India: Khanna Publishers.
2. USEPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2007). Air Pollution Control Ori-
entation Course. SI: 422 Air Pollution Control Orientation Course Self-Instruction
Manual. epa.gov/oar/oaqps/eog/course422/index.html.
3. Biswas, D.K. and Mishra, P.C. (2006). Clean air is a national requirement. In:
Proceedings of International Conference on Impact of Industrialization on environ-
mental pollution — Its Control and Abatement, Orissa, India, pp. 42–48.
4. Kumar, K.S. and Chenchaiah, S. (2006). Controlling industrial air pollution emissions.
In: Proceedings of International Conference on Impact of Industrialization on Envi-
ronmental Pollution — Its Control and Abatement, Orissa, India, pp. 86–92.
5. Panda, B. and Sharma, U. (2006). Air pollution. In: Proceedings of International Con-
ference on Impact of Industrialization on Environmental Pollution — Its Control and
Abatement, Orissa, India, pp. 98–104.
6. Rao, C.S. (1992). Environmental Pollution Control Engineering, New Delhi, India:
Wiley Eastern Limited.
7. Master, G.M. (2007). Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science, New
Delhi, India: Pearson Education.
8. Buonicore, A.J. and Davis, W.T. (1992). Air Pollution Control Manual, Air and Waste
Management Association, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
9. Davis, W.T. (2000). Air Pollution Engineering Manual, Second Edition, A Wiley Inter-
science Publication.
10. Deshusses, M.A. and Cox, H.H.J. (2000). Biotrickling Filters for Air Pollution Control,
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California.
11. Sheridan, B., Curran, T., Dodd, U., and Couigan, J. (2002). Biofiltration of odor and
ammonia from a pig unit: a pilot-scale study. Biosystems Engineering 82(4): 441–453.
12. Deving, J.S., Deshusses, M.A., and Webster, T.S. (1999). Biofiltration for Air Pollution
Control, Lewis Publishers.
13. Pandey, R.A., Gangane, R., Mudliar, S.N., and Rajvaidya, A.S. (2006). Treatment of
waste gas containing monomethylamine in a biofilter enriched with Pseudomonas men-
docina, Waste Management 26(3), 233–244.
14. Wang, L.K., Pereira, N.C. and Hung, Y.T. (Eds.) (2004). Air Pollution Control
Engineering. New Jersey: Humana Press, 504 pp.
15. Wang, L.K., Pereira, N.C. and Hung, Y.T. (Eds.) (2005). Advanced Air and Noise
Pollution Control. New Jersey: Humana Press, 526 pp.
16. USEPA (2011). The Phasecut of Ozone-Depleting Substances. www.epa.gov/ozone/
title6/phaseout/.

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November 15, 2011 11:14 9.75in x 6.

AIR POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL

Akhila Kumar Swar, Ph.D.

Chittaranjan Mohanty, Ph.D.

Yung-Tse Hung, Ph.D., P.E., DEE

pollution control in fertilizer, coal-fired thermal power plants, petroleum refinery,

1.1. Source of Air Pollutants1−5

1.1.1. Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Air Pollution and Its Control 3

as construction equipment and boats) contribute about 22% of all CO emissions

1.1.2. Sulfur Oxides (SOx )

1.1.3. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx )

1.1.4. Carbon Dioxide (CO2 )

1.1.5. Ozone (O3 )

1.1.6. Synthetic Compounds (i.e., CFCs)

1.1.7. Lead (Pb)

1.1.8. Particulate Matter

Air Pollution and Its Control 5

1.2. Important Primary Pollutants

1.3. Important Secondary Pollutants

1.4. Air Pollutant Transport and Dispersion4

1.5. Air Quality Management — National Ambient

Air Pollution and Its Control 7

PM10 Annual arithmetic mean 50 µg/m3 — Same as primary

Source: USEPA, 2007.2

1.6. Effects on Health and the Environment6−8

2. Air Pollution Control

Air Pollution and Its Control 9

2.1. The Natural Self-Cleansing Properties of the Environment

2.2. Dilution Method for Controlling Air Pollution

2.3. Controlling Air Pollution from Stationary Sources

2.3.1. Objectives of Using Control Equipment

Air Pollution and Its Control 11

• Minimization of economic losses through the reduction of plant maintenance.

2.4. Particulate and Gaseous Pollutant Control Devices3−8

2.4.1. Gravitational Settling Chambers

GRAVITATIONAL SETTLING CHAMBERS

Figure 1. Schematics of Gravitational Settling Chambers.

• Low maintenance cost.

Air Pollution and Its Control 13

thus reducing maintenance costs of high-efficiency equipment which is more subject

Figure 2. Schematic of a Cyclone Separator.

Air Pollution and Its Control 15

2.4.2.2. Tangential inlet and involute inlet — a comparison

2.4.2.3. Operating problems

• Erosion — Heavy, hard, sharp-edged particles, in a high concentration, moving at

2.4.2.4. Advantages of cyclones

2.4.2.5. Disadvantages of cyclones

2.4.3. Multiple Cyclones

Air Pollution and Its Control 17

MULTI CYCLONE Clean Gas

Raw Gas Baffle

Figure 3. Schematic of a Multicyclone Separator.

2.4.3.1. Cyclone in series

2. A primary large-diameter cyclone may be used to collect coarse material which

2.4.4. Wet Scrubbers

• Uses energy of moving gas stream to atomize liquid into droplets.

Air Pollution and Its Control 19

Figure 4. Typical Industrial Venturi Scrubber.