UNIT-5

NON – DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Non destructive testing or non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques used in
science and technology industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without
causing damage. The terms non destructive examination (NDE), non destructive inspection (NDI), and non
destructive evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used to describe this technology. Because NDT does not
permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a highly valuable technique that can save both money and
time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research. The six most frequently used NDT methods
are eddy-current, magnetic-particle, liquid penetrant, radiographic, ultrasonic, and visual testing

Fluorescent Penetrant Testing:

The advantage that a liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) offers over an unaided visual inspection is that it
makes defects easier to see for the inspector. There are basically two ways that a penetrant inspection
process makes flaws more easily seen. First, LPI produces a flaw indication that is much larger and easier
for the eye to detect than the flaw itself. Many flaws are so small or narrow that they are undetectable by the
unaided eye. Due to the physical features of the eye, there is a threshold below which objects cannot be
resolved. This threshold of visual acuity is around 0.003 inch for a person with 20/20 vision.

The second way that LPI improves the detectability of a flaw is that it produces a flaw indication with a high
level of contrast between the indication and the background also helping to make the indication more easily
seen. When a visible dye penetrant inspection is performed, the penetrant materials are formulated using a
bright red dye that provides for a high level of contrast between the white developer. In other words, the
developer serves as a high contrast background as well as a blotter to pull the trapped penetrant from the
flaw. When a fluorescent penetrant inspection is performed, the penetrant materials are formulated to glow
brightly and to give off light at a wavelength that the eye is most sensitive to under dim lighting conditions.

Basic Processing Steps of a Liquid Penetrant Inspection

1. Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant inspection is the surface
preparation. The surface must be free of oil, grease, water, or other contaminants that may prevent
penetrant from entering flaws. The sample may also require etching if mechanical operations such as
machining, sanding, or grit blasting have been performed. These and other mechanical operations
can smear metal over the flaw opening and prevent the penetrant from entering.

2. Penetrant Application: Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and dried, the penetrant
material is applied by spraying, brushing, or immersing the part in a penetrant bath.

3. Penetrant Dwell: The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to allow as much penetrant
as possible to be drawn from or to seep into a defect. Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the
penetrant is in contact with the part surface. Dwell times are usually recommended by the penetrant
producers or required by the specification being followed. The times vary depending on the
application, penetrant materials used, the material, the form of the material being inspected, and the
type of defect being inspected for. Minimum dwell times typically range from five to 60 minutes.
Generally, there is no harm in using a longer penetrant dwell time as long as the penetrant is not
 allowed to dry. The ideal dwell time is often determined by experimentation and may be very
specific to a particular application.

4. Excess Penetrant Removal: This is the most delicate part of the inspection procedure because the
excess penetrant must be removed from the surface of the sample while removing as little penetrant
as possible from defects. Depending on the penetrant system used, this step may involve cleaning
with a solvent, direct rinsing with water, or first treating the part with an emulsifier and then rinsing
with water.

5. Developer Application: A thin layer of developer is then applied to the sample to draw penetrant
trapped in flaws back to the surface where it will be visible. Developers come in a variety of forms
that may be applied by dusting (dry powdered), dipping, or spraying (wet developers).

6. Indication Development: The developer is allowed to stand on the part surface for a period of time
sufficient to permit the extraction of the trapped penetrant out of any surface flaws. This
development time is usually a minimum of 10 minutes. Significantly longer times may be necessary
for tight cracks.

7. Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect indications from any
flaws which may be present.

8. Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the part surface to remove the
developer from the parts that were found to be
acceptable.

Common Uses of Liquid Penetrant Inspection

Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) is one of the most

widely used nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods. Its
popularity can be attributed to two main factors: its
relative ease of use and its flexibility. LPI can be used to inspect almost any material provided that its
surface is not extremely rough or porous. Materials that are commonly inspected using LPI include the
following:

 Metals (aluminum, copper, steel, titanium, etc.)

 Glass
 Many ceramic materials
 Rubber
 Plastics

LPI offers flexibility in performing inspections because it can be applied in a large variety of applications
ranging from automotive spark plugs to critical aircraft components. Penetrant materials can be applied with
a spray can or a cotton swab to inspect for flaws known to occur in a specific area or it can be applied by
dipping or spraying to quickly inspect large areas. In the image above, visible dye penetrant is being locally
applied to a highly loaded connecting point to check
for fatigue cracking.

Penetrant inspection systems have been developed to

inspect some very large components. In the image
shown right, DC-10 banjo fittings are being moved
into a penetrant inspection system at what used to be
the Douglas Aircraft Company's Long Beach,
California facility. These large machined aluminum forgings are used to support the number two engine in
the tail of a DC-10 aircraft.

Liquid penetrant inspection can only be used to inspect for flaws that break the surface of the sample. Some
of these flaws are listed below:

 Fatigue cracks
 Quench cracks
 Grinding cracks
 Overload and impact fractures
 Porosity
 Laps
 Seams
 Pin holes in welds
 Lack of fusion or braising along the edge of the bond line

Advantages and Disadvantages of Penetrant Testing

Like all nondestructive inspection methods, liquid penetrant inspection has both advantages and
disadvantages. The primary advantages and disadvantages when compared to other NDE methods are
summarized below.

Primary Advantages

 The method has high sensitivity to small surface discontinuities.

 The method has few material limitations, i.e. metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and nonmagnetic,
and conductive and nonconductive materials may be inspected.
 Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly and at low cost.
 Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely inspected.
 Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual representation of
the flaw.
 Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.
 Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.

Primary Disadvantages

 Only surface breaking defects can be detected.

 Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected.
 Precleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects.
 Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must be removed prior to LPI.
 The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
 Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
 Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
 Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
 Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.
 Acoustic Emission Testing

Acoustic Emission (AE) refers to the generation of transient elastic waves produced by a sudden
redistribution of stress in a material. When a structure is subjected to an external stimulus (change in
pressure, load, or temperature), localized sources trigger the release of energy, in the form of stress waves,
which propagate to the surface and are recorded by sensors. With the right equipment and setup, motions on
the order of picometers (10 -12 m) can be identified. Sources of AE vary from natural events like
earthquakes and rockbursts to the initiation and growth of cracks, slip and dislocation movements, melting,
twinning, and phase transformations in metals. In composites, matrix cracking and fiber breakage and
debonding contribute to acoustic emissions. AE’s have also been measured and recorded in polymers, wood,
and concrete, among other materials.

Detection and analysis of AE signals can supply valuable information regarding the origin and importance
of a discontinuity in a material. Because of the versatility of Acoustic Emission Testing (AET), it has many
industrial applications (e.g. assessing structural integrity, detecting flaws, testing for leaks, or monitoring
weld quality) and is used extensively as a research tool.

Acoustic Emission is unlike most other nondestructive testing (NDT) techniques in two regards. The first
difference pertains to the origin of the signal. Instead of supplying energy to the object under examination,
AET simply listens for the energy released by the object. AE tests are often performed on structures while in
operation, as this provides adequate loading for propagating defects and triggering acoustic emissions.

The second difference is that AET deals with dynamic processes, or changes, in a material. This is
particularly meaningful because only active features (e.g. crack growth) are highlighted. The ability to
discern between developing and stagnant defects is significant. However, it is possible for flaws to go
undetected altogether if the loading is not high enough to cause an acoustic event. Furthermore, AE testing
usually provides an immediate indication relating to the strength or risk of failure of a component. Other
advantages of AET include fast and complete volumetric inspection using multiple sensors, permanent
sensor mounting for process control, and no need to disassemble and clean a specimen.

Unfortunately, AE systems can only qualitatively gauge how much damage is contained in a structure. In
order to obtain quantitative results about size, depth, and overall acceptability of a part, other NDT methods
(often ultrasonic testing) are necessary. Another drawback of AE stems from loud service environments
which contribute extraneous noise to the signals. For successful applications, signal discrimination and noise
reduction are crucial.

Theory - AE Sources

As mentioned in the Introduction, acoustic emissions can result from the initiation and growth of cracks, slip
and dislocation movements, twinning, or phase transformations in metals. In any case, AE’s originate with
stress. When a stress is exerted on a material, a strain is induced in the material as well. Depending on the
magnitude of the stress and the properties of the material, an object may return to its original dimensions or
be permanently deformed after the stress is removed. These two conditions are known as elastic and plastic
deformation, respectively.

The most detectible acoustic emissions take place when a loaded material undergoes plastic deformation or
when a material is loaded at or near its yield stress. On the microscopic level, as plastic deformation occurs,
atomic planes slip past each other through the movement of dislocations. These atomic-scale deformations
release energy in the form of elastic waves which “can be thought of as naturally generated ultrasound”
traveling through the object. When cracks exist in a metal, the stress levels present in front of the crack tip
can be several times higher than the surrounding area. Therefore, AE activity will also be observed when the
material ahead of the crack tip undergoes plastic deformation (micro-yielding).

Two sources of fatigue cracks also cause AE’s. The first source is emissive particles (e.g. nonmetallic
inclusions) at the origin of the crack tip. Since these particles are less ductile than the surrounding material,
they tend to break more easily when the metal is strained, resulting in an AE signal. The second source is the
propagation of the crack tip that occurs through the movement of dislocations and small-scale cleavage
produced by triaxial stresses.

The amount of energy released by an acoustic emission and the amplitude of the waveform are related to the
magnitude and velocity of the source event. The amplitude of the emission is proportional to the velocity of
crack propagation and the amount of surface area created. Large, discrete crack jumps will produce larger
AE signals than cracks that propagate slowly over the same distance.

Detection and conversion of these elastic waves to electrical signals is the basis of AE testing. Analysis of
these signals yield valuable information regarding the origin and importance of a discontinuity in a material.
As discussed in the following section, specialized equipment is necessary to detect the wave energy and
decipher which signals are meaningful.

Activity of AE Sources in Structural Loading

AE signals generated under different loading patterns can

provide valuable information concerning the structural
integrity of a material. Load levels that have been previously
exerted on a material do not produce AE activity. In other
words, discontinuities created in a material do not expand or
move until that former stress is exceeded. This phenomenon,
known as the Kaiser Effect, can be seen in the load versus AE
plot to the right. As the object is loaded, acoustic emission
events accumulate (segment AB). When the load is removed
and reapplied (segment BCB), AE events do not occur again
until the load at point B is exceeded. As the load exerted on the
material is increased again (BD), AE’s are generated and stop
when the load is removed. However, at point F, the applied
load is high enough to cause significant emissions even though
the previous maximum load (D) was not reached. This
phenomenon is known as the Felicity Effect. This effect can be
quantified using the Felicity Ratio, which is the load where
considerable AE resumes, divided by the maximum applied
load (F/D).

Knowledge of the Kaiser Effect and Felicity Effect can be used

to determine if major structural defects are present. This can be Basic AE history plot showing Kaiser
achieved by applying constant loads (relative to the design effect (BCB), Felicity effect (DEF), and
loads exerted on the material) and “listening” to see if emission during hold (GH) 2
emissions continue to occur while the load is held. As shown
in the figure, if AE signals continue to be detected during the holding of these loads (GH), it is likely that
substantial structural defects are present. In addition, a material may contain critical defects if an identical
load is reapplied and AE signals continue to be detected. Another guideline governing AE’s is the Dunegan
corollary, which states that if acoustic emissions are observed prior to a previous maximum load, some type
of new damage must have occurred. (Note: Time dependent processes like corrosion and hydrogen
embrittlement tend to render the Kaiser Effect useless)

Noise
The sensitivity of an acoustic emission system is often limited by the amount of background noise nearby.
Noise in AE testing refers to any undesirable signals detected by the sensors. Examples of these signals
include frictional sources (e.g. loose bolts or movable connectors that shift when exposed to wind loads) and
impact sources (e.g. rain, flying objects or wind-driven dust) in bridges. Sources of noise may also be
present in applications where the area being tested may be disturbed by mechanical vibrations (e.g. pumps).

To compensate for the effects of background noise, various procedures can be implemented. Some possible
approaches involve fabricating special sensors with electronic gates for noise blocking, taking precautions to
place sensors as far away as possible from noise sources, and electronic filtering (either using signal arrival
times or differences in the spectral content of true AE signals and background noise).

Pseudo Sources

In addition to the AE source mechanisms described above, pseudo source mechanisms produce AE signals
that are detected by AE equipment. Examples include liquefaction and solidification, friction in rotating
bearings, solid-solid phase transformations, leaks, cavitation, and the realignment or growth of magnetic
domains (See Barkhausen Effect).

Equipment

Acoustic emission testing can be performed in the field with portable instruments or in a stationary
laboratory setting. Typically, systems contain a sensor, preamplifier, filter, and amplifier, along with
measurement, display, and storage equipment (e.g. oscilloscopes, voltmeters, and personal computers).
Acoustic emission sensors respond to dynamic motion that is caused by an AE event. This is achieved
through transducers which convert mechanical movement into an electrical voltage signal. The transducer
element in an AE sensor is almost always a piezoelectric crystal, which is commonly made from a ceramic
such as lead zirconate titanate (PZT). Transducers are selected based on operating frequency, sensitivity and
environmental characteristics, and are grouped into two classes: resonant and broadband. The majority of
AE equipment is responsive to movement in its typical operating frequency range of 30 kHz to 1 MHz. For
materials with high attenuation (e.g. plastic composites), lower frequencies may be used to better distinguish
AE signals. The opposite holds true as well.

Ideally, the AE signal that reaches the mainframe will be free of background
noise and electromagnetic interference. Unfortunately, this is not realistic.
However, sensors and preamplifiers are designed to help eliminate unwanted
signals. First, the preamplifier boosts the voltage to provide gain and cable drive
capability. To minimize interference, a preamplifier is placed close to the
transducer; in fact, many transducers today are equipped with integrated
preamplifiers. Next, the signal is relayed to a bandpass filter for elimination of
low frequencies (common to background noise) and high frequencies. Following
completion of this process, the signal travels to the acoustic system mainframe
and eventually to a computer or similar device for analysis and storage.
Depending on noise conditions, further filtering or amplification at the mainframe
may still be necessary.

Schematic Diagram of a Basic Four-channel Acoustic Emission Testing System

After passing the AE system mainframe, the signal comes to a detection/measurement circuit as shown in
the figure directly above. Note that multiple-measurement circuits can be used in multiple sensor/channel
systems for source location purposes (to be described later). At the measurement circuitry, the shape of the
conditioned signal is compared with a threshold voltage value that has been programmed by the operator.
Signals are either continuous (analogous to Gaussian, random noise with amplitudes varying according to
the magnitude of the AE events) or burst-type. Each time the threshold voltage is exceeded, the
measurement circuit releases a digital pulse. The first pulse is used to signify the beginning of a hit. (A hit is
used to describe the AE event that is detected by a particular sensor. One AE event can cause a system with
numerous channels to record multiple hits.) Pulses will continue to be generated while the signal exceeds the
threshold voltage. Once this process has stopped for a predetermined amount of time, the hit is finished (as
far as the circuitry is concerned). The data from the hit is then read into a microcomputer and the
measurement circuit is reset.
Hit Driven AE Systems and Measurement of Signal Features
Although several AE system designs are available
(combining various options, sensitivity, and cost), most AE
systems use a hit-driven architecture. The hit-driven design
is able to efficiently measure all detected signals and record
digital descriptions for each individual feature (detailed
later in this section). During periods of inactivity, the
system lies dormant. Once a new signal is detected, the
system records the hit or hits, and the data is logged for
present and/or future display.

Also common to most AE systems is the ability to perform

routine tasks that are valuable for AE inspection. These
tasks include quantitative signal measurements with
corresponding time and/or load readings, discrimination between real and false signals (noise), and the
collection of statistical information about the parameters of each signal.

AE Source Location Techniques

Multi-Channel Source Location Techniques:

Locating the source of significant acoustic emissions is often the main goal of an inspection. Although the
magnitude of the damage may be unknown after AE analysis, follow up testing at source locations can
provide these answers. As previously mentioned, many AE systems are capable of using multiple
sensors/channels during testing, allowing them to record a hit from a single AE event. These AE systems
can be used to determine the location of an event source. As hits are recorded by each sensor/channel, the
source can be located by knowing the velocity of the wave in the material and the difference in hit arrival
times among the sensors, as measured by hardware circuitry or computer software. By properly spacing the
sensors in this manner, it is possible to inspect an entire structure with relatively few sensors.

Source location techniques assume that AE waves travel at a constant velocity in a material. However,
various effects may alter the expected velocity of the AE waves (e.g. reflections and multiple wave modes)
and can affect the accuracy of this technique. Therefore, the geometric effects of the structure being tested
and the operating frequency of the AE system must be considered when determining whether a particular
source location technique is feasible for a given test structure.

Linear Location Technique

Several source location techniques have been developed
based on this method. One of the commonly used computed-
source location techniques is the linear location principle
shown to the right. Linear location is often used to evaluate
struts on truss bridges. When the source is located at the
midpoint, the time of arrival difference for the wave at the
two sensors is zero. If the source is closer to one of the
sensors, a difference in arrival times is measured. To
calculate the distance of the source location from the
midpoint, the arrival time is multiplied by the wave velocity.
Whether the location lies to the right or left of the midpoint is
determined by which sensor first records the hit. This is a
linear relationship and applies to any event sources between
the sensors.

Because the above scenario implicitly assumes that the source

is on a line passing through the two sensors, it is only valid for a linear problem. When using AE to identify
a source location in a planar material, three or more sensors are used, and the optimal position of the source
is between the sensors. Two categories of source location analysis are used for this situation: zonal location
and point location.

Zonal Location Technique

As the name implies, zonal location aims to trace the waves to a
specific zone or region around a sensor. This method is used in
anisotropic materials or in other structures where sensors are spaced
relatively far apart or when high material attenuation affects the
quality of signals at multiple sensors. Zones can be lengths, areas or
volumes depending on the dimensions of the array. A planar sensor
array with detection by one sensor is shown in the upper right figure.
The source can be assumed to be within the region and less than
halfway between sensors.

When additional sensors are applied, arrival times and amplitudes

help pinpoint the source zone. The ordered pair in lower right figure
represents the two sensors detecting the signal in the zone and the
order of signal arrival at each sensor. When relating signal strength to
peak amplitude, the largest peak amplitude is assumed to come from
the nearest sensor, second largest from the next closest sensor and so
forth.

Point Location
In order for point location to be justified, signals must be detected in a
minimum number of sensors: two for linear, three for planar, four for
volumetric. Accurate arrival times must also be available. Arrival
times are often found by using peak amplitude or the first threshold crossing. The velocity of wave
propagation and exact position of the sensors are necessary criteria as well. Equations can then be derived
using sensor array geometry or more complex algebra to locate more specific points of interest.

Applications:

Acoustic emission is a very versatile, non-invasive way to gather information about a material or
structure. Acoustic Emission testing (AET) is be applied to inspect and monitor pipelines, pressure vessels,
storage tanks, bridges, aircraft, and bucket trucks, and a variety of composite and ceramic components. It is
also used in process control applications such as monitoring welding processes. A few examples of AET
applications follow.
Weld Monitoring
During the welding process, temperature changes induce stresses between the
weld and the base metal. These stresses are often relieved by heat treating the
weld. However, in some cases tempering the weld is not possible and minor
cracking occurs. Amazingly, cracking can continue for up to 10 days after the
weld has been completed. Using stainless steel welds with known inclusions
and accelerometers for detection purposes and background noise monitoring,
it was found by W. D. Jolly (1969) that low level signals and more sizeable
bursts were related to the growth of microfissures and larger cracks
respectively. ASTM E 749-96 is a standard practice of AE monitoring of
continuous welding.

Bucket Truck (Cherry Pickers) Integrity Evaluation

Accidents, overloads and fatigue can all occur when operating bucket trucks
or other aerial equipment. If a mechanical or structural defect is ignored,
serious injury or fatality can result. In 1976, the Georgia Power Company
pioneered the aerial manlift device inspection. Testing by independent labs
and electrical utilities followed. Although originally intended to examine
only the boom sections, the method is now used for inspecting the pedestal,
pins, and various other components. Normally, the AE tests are second in a
chain of inspections which start with visual checks. If necessary, follow-up
tests take the form of magnetic particle, dye penetrant, or ultrasonic
inspections. Experienced personnel can perform five to ten tests per day, saving valuable time and money
along the way. ASTM F914 governs the procedures for examining insulated aerial personnel devices.

Gas Trailer Tubes

Acoustic emission testing on pressurized jumbo tube trailers was authorized
by the Department of Transportation in 1983. Instead of using hydrostatic
retesting, where tubes must be removed from service and disassembled, AET
allows for in situ testing. A 10% over-pressurization is performed at a
normal filling station with AE sensors attached to the tubes at each end. A
multichannel acoustic system is used to detection and mapped source
locations. Suspect locations are further evaluated using ultrasonic inspection,
and when defects are confirmed the tube is removed from use. AET can
detect subcritical flaws whereas hydrostatic testing cannot detect cracks until they cause rupture of the tube.
Because of the high stresses in the circumferential direction of the tubes, tests are geared toward finding
longitudinal fatigue cracks.

Bridges
Bridges contain many welds, joints and connections, and a combination of
load and environmental factors heavily influence damage mechanisms such
as fatigue cracking and metal thinning due to corrosion. Bridges receive a
visual inspection about every two years and when damage is detected, the
bridge is either shut down, its weight capacity is lowered, or it is singled out
for more frequent monitoring. Acoustic Emission is increasingly being used
for bridge monitoring applications because it can continuously gather data
and detect changes that may be due to damage without requiring lane
closures or bridge shutdown. In fact, traffic flow is commonly used to load or
stress the bridge for the AE testing.
Aerospace Structures
Most aerospace structures consist of complex assemblies of components that
have been design to carry significant loads while being as light as
possible. This combination of requirements leads to many parts that can
tolerate only a minor amount of damage before failing. This fact makes
detection of damage extremely important but components are often packed
tightly together making access for inspections difficult. AET has found
applications in monitoring the health of aerospace structures because sensors
can be attached in easily accessed areas that are remotely located from
damage prone sites. AET has been used in laboratory structural tests, as well
as in flight test applications. NASA's Wing Leading Edge Impact Detection
System is partially based on AE technology. The image to the right shows a
technician applying AE transducers on the inside of the Space Shuttle
Discovery wing structure. The impact detection system was developed to
alert NASA officials to events such as the sprayed-on-foam insulation impact
that damaged the Space Shuttle Columbia's wing leading edge during launch
and lead to its breakup on reentry to the Earth's atmosphere.

Others

 Fiber-reinforced polymer-matrix composites, in particular glass-fiber reinforced parts or structures

(e.g. fan blades)
 Material research (e.g. investigation of material properties, breakdown mechanisms, and damage
behavior)
 Inspection and quality assurance, (e.g. wood drying processes, scratch tests)
 Real-time leakage test and location within various components (small valves, steam lines, tank
bottoms)
 Detection and location of high-voltage partial discharges in transformers
 Railroad tank car and rocket motor testing

Radiography
Nature of Penetrating Radiation

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

X-rays and gamma rays differ only in their source of origin. X-rays are produced by an x-ray generator and
gamma radiation is the product of radioactive atoms. They are both part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. They are waveforms, as are light rays, microwaves, and radio waves. X-rays and gamma rays
cannot been seen, felt, or heard. They possess no charge and no mass and, therefore, are not influenced by
electrical and magnetic fields and will generally travel in straight lines. However, they can be diffracted
(bent) in a manner similar to light.

Both X-rays and gamma rays can be characterized by frequency, wavelength, and velocity. However, they
act somewhat like a particle at times in that they occur as small "packets" of energy and are referred to as
"photons." Electromagnetic radiation has also been described in terms of a stream of photons (massless
particles) each traveling in a wave-like pattern and moving at the speed of light.

Each photon contains a certain amount (or bundle) of energy, and all electromagnetic radiation consists of
these photons. The only difference between the various types of electromagnetic radiation is the amount of
energy found in the photons. Due to their short wavelength they have more energy to pass through matter
than do the other forms of energy in the electromagnetic spectrum. As they pass through matter, they are
scattered and absorbed and the degree of penetration depends on the kind of matter and the energy of the
rays.

Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays

 They are not detected by human senses (cannot be seen, heard, felt, etc.).
 They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
 Their paths cannot be changed by electrical or magnetic fields.
 They can be diffracted to a small degree at interfaces between two different materials.
 They pass through matter until they have a chance encounter with an atomic particle.
 Their degree of penetration depends on their energy and the matter they are traveling through.
 They have enough energy to ionize matter and can damage or destroy living cells.

Thermal Testing:
 (AKA Thermal Inspection, Thermography, Thermal Imaging, Thermal Wave Imaging and Infrared
Testing)

(Photo courtesy of NASA/JPL-Caltech/IPAC)

 Thermal NDT methods involve the measurement or mapping of surface temperatures as heat flows
to, from and/or through an object. The simplest thermal measurements involve making point
measurements with a thermocouple. This type of measurement might be useful in locating hot spots,
such as a bearing that is wearing out and starting to heat up due to an increase in friction.
 In its more advanced form, the use of thermal imaging systems allow thermal information to be very
rapidly collected over a wide area and in a non-contact mode. Thermal imaging systems are
instruments that create pictures of heat flow rather than of light. Thermal imaging is a fast, cost
effective way to perform detailed thermal analysis. The image above is a heat map of the space
shuttle as it lands.
 Thermal measurement methods have a wide range of uses. They are used by the police and military
for night vision, surveillance, and navigation aid; by firemen and emergency rescue personnel for fire
assessment, and for search and rescue; by the medical profession as a diagnostic tool; and by
 industry for energy audits, preventative maintenance, processes control and nondestructive testing.
The basic premise of thermographic NDT is that the flow of heat from the surface of a solid is
affected by internal flaws such as disbonds, voids or inclusions. The use of thermal imaging systems
for industrial NDT applications will be the focus of this material.
Scientific Principles of Thermal Testing
 Thermal Energy
Energy can come in many forms, and it can change from one form to another but can never be lost.
This is the First Law of Thermodynamics. A byproduct of nearly all energy conversion is heat, which
is also known as thermal energy. When there is a temperature difference between two objects or two
areas within the same object, heat transfer occurs. Heat energy transfers from the warmer areas to the
cooler areas until thermal equilibrium is reached. This is the Second Law of Thermodynamics. When
the temperature of an object is the same as the surrounding environment, it is said to be at ambient
temperature.
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Thermal energy transfer occurs through three mechanisms: conduction, convection, and/or radiation.
Conduction occurs primarily in solids and to a lesser degree in fluids as warmer, more energetic
molecules transfer their energy to cooler adjacent molecules. Convection occurs in liquids and gases,
and involves the mass movement of molecules such as when stirring or mixing is involved.
 The third way that heat is transferred is through electromagnetic radiation of energy. Radiation needs
no medium to flow through and, therefore, can occur even in a vacuum. Electromagnetic radiation is
produced when electrons lose energy and fall to a lower energy state. Both the wavelength and
intensity of the radiation is directly related to the temperature of the surface molecules or atoms.
 Wavelength of Thermal Energy


 The wavelength of thermal radiation extends from 0.1 microns to several hundred microns. As
highlighted in the image, this means that not all of the heat radiated from an object will be visible to
the human eye… but the heat is detectable. Consider the gradual heating of a piece of steel. With the
application of a heat source, heat radiating from the part is felt long before a change in color is
noticed. If the heat intensity is great enough and applied for long enough, the part will gradually
change to a red color. The heat that is felt prior to the part changing color is the radiation that lies in
the infrared frequency spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. Infrared (IR) radiation has a
wavelength that is longer than visible light or, in other words, greater than 700 nanometers. As the
wavelength of the radiation shortens, it reaches the point where it is short enough to enter the visible
spectrum and can be detected with the human eye.
 An infrared camera has the ability to detect and display infrared energy. Below is an infrared image
of an ice cube melting. Note the temperature scale on side, which shows warm areas in red and cool
areas in purple. It can be seen that the ice cube is colder than the surrounding air and it is absorbing
heat at its surface. The basis for infrared imaging technology is that any object whose temperature is
above 0°K radiates infrared energy. Even very cold objects radiate some infrared energy. Even
though the object might be absorbing thermal energy to warm itself, it will still emit some infrared
energy that is detectable by sensors. The amount of radiated energy is a function of the object's
temperature and its relative efficiency of thermal radiation, known as emissivity.
 
(Photo courtesy of NASA/JPL-Caltech/IPAC)
 Emissivity
A very important consideration in radiation heat transfer is the emissivity of the object being
evaluated. Emissivity is a measure of a surface's efficiency in transferring infrared energy. It is the
ratio of thermal energy emitted by a surface to the energy emitted by a perfect blackbody at the same
temperature. A perfect blackbody only exists in theory and is an object that absorbs and reemits all of
its energy. Human skin is nearly a perfect blackbody as it has an emissivity of 0.98, regardless of
actual skin color.
 If an object has low emissivity, IR instruments will indicate a lower temperature than the true surface
temperature. For this reason, most systems and instruments provide the ability for the operator to
adjust the emissivity of the object being measured. Sometimes, spray paints, powders, tape or
"emissivity dots" are used to improve the emissivity of an object.
Equipment - Detectors
 Thermal energy detection and measurement equipment comes in a large variety of forms and levels
of sophistication. One way to categorize the equipment and materials is to separate thermal detectors
from quantum (photon) detectors. The basic distinction between the two is that thermal detectors
depend on a two-step process. The absorption of thermal energy in these detectors raises the
temperature of the device, which in turn changes some temperature-dependent parameter, such as
electrical conductivity. Quantum devices detect photons from infrared radiation. Quantum detectors
are much more sensitive but require cooling to operate properly.
 Thermal Detectors
Thermal detectors include heat sensitive coatings, thermoelectric devices and pryoelectric devices.
Heat sensitive coatings range from simple wax-based substances that are blended to melt at certain
temperatures to specially formulated paint and greases that change color as temperature changes.
Heat sensitive coatings are relatively inexpensive but do not provide good quantitative data.
 Thermoelectric devices include thermocouples, thermopiles
(shown right), thermistors and bolometers. These devices produce
an electrical response based on a change in temperature of the
sensor. They are often used for point or localized measurement in
a contact or near contact mode. However, thermal sensors can be
miniaturized. For example, mirobolometers are the active elements
in some high-tech portable imaging systems, such as those used by
fire departments. Benefits of thermal detectors are that the element
does not need to be cooled and they are comparatively low in
price. Thermal detectors are used to measure the temperature in
everything from home appliances to fire and intruder detection systems to industrial furnaces to
rockets.
 Quantum (Photon) Detectors
Unlike thermal detectors, quantum detectors do not rely
on the conversion of incoming radiation to heat, but
convert incoming photons directly into an electrical
signal. When photons in a particular range of
wavelengths are absorbed by the detector, they create
free electron-hole pairs, which can be detected as
electrical current. The signal output of a quantum
detector is very small and is overshadowed by noise
generated internally to the device at room temperatures.
Since this noise within a semiconductor is partly
proportional to temperature, quantum detectors are operated at cryogenic temperatures [i. e. down to
77 K (liquid nitrogen) or 4 K (liquid helium)] to minimize noise. This cooling requirement is a
significant disadvantage in the use of quantum detectors. However, their superior electronic
performance still makes them the detector of choice for the bulk of thermal imaging applications.
Some systems can detect temperature differences as small as 0.07°C.
 Quantum detectors can be further subdivided into photoconductive and photovoltaic devices. The
function of photoconductive detectors are based on the photogeneration of charge carriers (electrons,
holes or electron-hole pairs). These charge carriers increase the conductivity of the device material.
Possible materials used for photoconductive detectors include indium antimonide (InSb), quantum
well infrared photodetector (QWIP), mercury cadmium telluride (mercad, MCT), lead sulfide (PbS),
and lead selenide (PbSe).
 Photovoltaic devices require an internal potential barrier with a built-in electric field in order to
separate photo-generated electron-hole pairs. Such potential barriers can be created by the use of p-n
junctions or Schottky barriers. Examples of photovoltaic infrared detector types are indium
antimonide (InSb), mercury cadmium telluride (MCT), platinum silicide (PtSi), and silicon Schottky
barriers.
 Detector Cooling
There are several different ways of cooling the detector to the required temperature. In the early days
of thermal imaging, liquid nitrogen was poured into imagers to cool the detector. Although
satisfactory, the logistical and safety implications led to the development of other cooling methods.
High pressure gas can be used to cool a detector to the required temperatures. The gas is allowed to
rapidly expand in the cooling systems and this expansion results in the significant reduction in the
temperature of a gas. Mechanical cooling systems are the standard for portable imaging systems.
These have the logistical advantage of freeing the detection system from the requirements of carrying
high pressure gases or liquid nitrogen.
Equipment - Imaging Technology
 Imaging Systems
Thermal imaging instruments measure radiated infrared energy and convert the
data to corresponding maps of temperatures. A true thermal image is a gray
scale image with hot items shown in white and cold items in black.
Temperatures between the two extremes are shown as gradients of gray. Some
thermal imagers have the ability to add color, which is artificially generated by
the camera's video enhancement electronics, based upon the thermal attributes
seen by the camera. Some instruments provide temperature data at each image
pixel. Cursors can be positioned on each point, and the corresponding
temperature is read out on the screen or display. Images may be digitized, stored, manipulated,
processed and printed out. Industry-standard image formats, such as the tagged image file format
(TIFF), permit files to work with a wide array of commercially available software packages.
 Images are produced either by scanning a detector (or group of detectors) or by using with focal
plane array. A scanning system in its simplest form could involve a single element detector scanning
along each line in the frame (serial scanning). In practice, this would require very high scan speeds,
so a series of elements are commonly scanned as a block, along each line. The use of multiple
elements eases the scan speed requirement, but the scan speed and channel bandwidth requirements
are still high. Multiple element scans do, however, result in a high degree of uniformity. The frame
 movement can be provided by frame scanning optics (using mirrors) or in the case of line scan type
imagers, by the movement of the imager itself. Another method is to use a number of elements
scanning in parallel (parallel scanning). These scanners have one element per line and scan several
lines simultaneously. Scan speeds are lower but this method can give rise to poor image uniformity.
 Another way thermal images are produced is with focal plane
arrays (FPA), which are also known as staring arrays. A focal
plane array is a group of sensor elements organized into a
rectangular grid. A high magnification image of a portion of a
mirobolometer focal plane array is shown to the right. The
entire scene is focused on the array, each element cell then
provides an output dependent upon the infrared radiation
falling upon it. The spatial resolution of the image is
determined by the number of pixels of the detector array.
Common formats for commercial infrared detectors are 320 by
240 pixels (320 columns, 240 rows), and 640 by 480. The latter format is nearly the resolution
obtained by a standard TV. Spatial resolution, the ability to measure temperatures on small areas, can
be as fine as 15 microns. Temperature resolution, the ability to measure small temperature
differences, can be as fine as 0.1° C.
 The advantage of FPAs is that no moving mechanical parts are needed and that the detector
sensitivity and speed can both be slower. The drawback is that the detector array is more complicated
to fabricate and manufacturing costs are higher. However, improvements in semiconductor
fabrication practices are driving the cost down and the general trend is that infrared camera systems
will be based on FPAs, except for special applications. A microbolometer is the latest type of thermal
imaging FPA, and consists of materials that measure heat by changing resistance at each pixel. The
most common microbolometer material is vanadium oxide (VOX). Amorphous silicon is another
relatively new microbolometer material.
Applications extend from microelectronic levels to scanning wide areas of the earth from space.
Airborne systems can be used to see through smoke in forest fires. Portable, hand-held units can be
used for equipment monitoring in preventative maintenance and flaw detection in nondestructive
testing programs.
 Equipment for Establishing Heat Flow
In some inspection applications, such as corrosion or flaw detection, the components being inspected
may be at ambient temperature and heat flow must be created. This can be accomplished by a variety
of means. Heating can be accomplished by placing the part in a warm environment, such as a
furnace, or directing heat on the surface with a heat gun or with flash lamps. Alternately, cooling can
be accomplished by placing the component in a cold environment or cooling the surface with a spray
of cold liquid or gas.
 Image Capturing and Analysis
IR cameras alone or used with an external heat source can often detect large, near-surface flaws.
However, repeatable, quantifiable detection of deeper, subtler features requires the additional
sensitivity of a sophisticated computerized system. In these systems, a computer is used to capture a
number of time sequence images which can be stepped through or viewed as a movie to evaluate the
thermal changes in an object as a function of time. This technique is often referred to as thermal
wave imaging.
 The image to the right shows a pulsed thermography system. This
system uses a closely controlled burst of thermal energy from a xenon
flash lamp to heat the surface. The dissipation of heat is then tracked
using a high speed thermal imaging camera. The camera sits on top of
the gray box in the foreground. The gray box houses the xenon flash
lamp and it is held against the surface being inspected. The equipment
was designed to inspect the fuselage skins of aircraft for corrosion
damage and can make quantitative measurements of material loss. It
has also been shown to detect areas of water incursion in composites
and areas where bonded structure have separated.
 Image Interpretation
 Most thermal imagers produce a video output in which white indicates
areas of maximum radiated energy and black indicates areas of lower
radiation. The gray scale image contains the maximum amount of
information. However, in order to ease general interpretation and facilitate subsequent presentation,
the thermal image can be artificially colorized. This is achieved by allocating desired colors to blocks
of grey levels to produce the familiar colorized images. This enables easier image interpretation to
the untrained observer. Additionally, by choosing the correct colorization palette the image may be
enhanced to show particular energy levels in detail.


 Many thermal imaging applications are qualitative in nature. The inspection simply involves
comparing the temperatures at various locations within the field of view. The effects of the sun,
shadows, moisture and subsurface detail must all be taken into account when interpreting the image,
but this type of inspection is straightforward. However, great care must be exercised when using an
infrared imager to make quantitative temperature measurements. As mentioned previously, the
amount of infrared radiation emitted from a surface depends partly upon the emissivity of that
surface. Accurate assessment of surface emissivity is required to acquire meaningful quantitative
results.
Techniques and Select Industrial Applications of Thermal Imaging
 Some thermal imaging techniques simply involve pointing a camera at a component and looking at
areas of uneven heating or localized hot spots. The first two example applications discussed below
fall into this category. For other applications, it may be necessary to generate heat flow within the
component and/or evaluate heat flow as a function of time. A variety of thermal imaging techniques
have been developed to provide the desired information. A few of these techniques are highlighted
below.
 Electrical and Mechanical System Inspection
Electrical and mechanical systems are the backbone of many manufacturing operations. An
unexpected shutdown of even a minor piece of equipment could have a major impact on production.
Since nearly everything gets hot before it fails, thermal inspection is a valuable and cost-effective
diagnostic tool with many industrial applications.
 With the infrared camera, an inspector can see the
change in temperature from the surrounding area,
identify whether or not it is abnormal and predict the
possible failure. Applications for infrared testing
include locating loose electrical connections, failing
transformers, improper bushing and bearing
lubrication, overloaded motors or pumps, coupling
misalignment, and other applications where a change
in temperature will indicate an undesirable condition.
Since typical electrical failures occur when there is a
temperature rise of over 50°C, problems can be
detected well in advance of a failure.
 The image on the right above shows three electrical
connections. The middle connection is hotter than the others. Connections can become hot if they are
loose or if corrosion causes an increase in the electrical resistance.
 Electronic Component Inspection
In electronics design and manufacturing, a key reliability factor is
semiconductor junction temperature. During operation, a
semiconductor generates heat and this heat will flow from the
component. The heat will flow from the component in all
directions, but will flow particularly well along thermally
conductive connectors. This leads to an increase in temperature at
the junctions where the semiconductor attaches to the board.
Components with high junction temperatures typically have
shorter life spans. Thermal imaging can be used to evaluate the
dissipation of heat and measure the temperature at the junctions.
 Corrosion Damage (Metal Thinning)
IR techniques can be used to detect material thinning of relatively
thin structures since areas with different thermal masses with
absorb and radiate heat at different rates. In relatively thin,
thermally conductive materials, heat will be conducted away from
the surface faster by thicker regions. By heating the surface and
monitoring its cooling characteristics, a thickness map can be
produced. Thin areas may be the result of corrosion damage on the
backside of a structure which is normally not visible. The image to
the right shows corrosion damage and disbonding of a tear
strap/stringer on the inside surface of an aircraft skin. This type of
damage is costly to detect visually because a great deal of the
interior of the aircraft must be disassembled. With IR techniques,
the damage can be detected from the outside of the aircraft.
 Flaw Detection
Infrared techniques can be used to detect flaws in materials or structures. The inspection technique
monitors the flow of heat from the surface of a solid and this flow is affected by internal flaws such
as disbonds, voids or inclusions. Sound material, a good weld, or a solid bond will see heat dissipate
rapidly through the material, whereas a defect will retain the heat for longer.
 A new technique call vibrothermograph or thermosonic testing was recently introduced by
researchers at Wayne State University for the detection of cracks. A solid sample is excited with
bursts of high-energy, low-frequency acoustic energy. This causes frictional heating at the faces of
any cracks present and hotspots are detected by an infrared camera.
Despite the apparent simplicity of the scheme, there are a number of experimental considerations that
can complicate the implementation of the technique. Factors including acoustic horn location, horn-
crack proximity, horn-sample coupling, and effective detection range all significantly affect the
degree of excitation that occurs at a crack site for a given energy input.
 Below are two images from an IR camera showing a 0.050" thick 7075 aluminum plate sample with
a prefabricated crack being inspected using a commercial vibrothermography system. The image on
 the left is the IR image with a pre-excitation image subtracted. A crack can be seen in the middle of
the sample and just to the right of the ultrasonic horn. Also seen is heating due to the horn tip,
friction at various clamping sites, and reflection from the hole at the right edge of the sample. The
image on the right is the same data with image processing performed to make the crack indication
easier to distinguish.

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations and make
measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation, dimensional measurements,
material characterization, and more. To illustrate the general inspection principle, a typical pulse/echo
inspection configuration as illustrated below will be used.

A typical UT inspection system consists of several functional units, such as the pulser/receiver, transducer,
and display devices. A pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can produce high voltage electrical pulses.
Driven by the pulser, the transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic energy. The sound energy is
introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of waves. When there is a discontinuity (such as
a crack) in the wave path, part of the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave
signal is transformed into an electrical signal by the transducer and is displayed on a screen. In the applet
below, the reflected signal strength is displayed versus the time from signal generation to when a echo was
received. Signal travel time can be directly related to the distance that the signal traveled. From the signal,
information about the reflector location, size, orientation and other features can sometimes be gained.

Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method. Some of the advantages of ultrasonic
inspection that are often cited include:

 It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.

 The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other NDT methods.
 Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is used.
 It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating size and shape.
 Minimal part preparation is required.
 Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
 Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
 It has other uses, such as thickness measurement, in addition to flaw detection.

As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations, which include:

 Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.

 Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
 It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound energy into the test
specimen.
 Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are
difficult to inspect.
 Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low sound transmission
and high signal noise.
 Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
 Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and the characterization of flaws.

The above introduction provides a simplified introduction to the NDT method of ultrasonic
testing. However, to effectively perform an inspection using ultrasonics, much more about the method
needs to be known. The following pages present information on the science involved in ultrasonic
inspection, the equipment that is commonly used, some of the measurement techniques used, as well as
other information.
Wave Propagation

Ultrasonic testing is based on time-varying deformations or vibrations in materials, which is generally

referred to as acoustics. All material substances are comprised of atoms, which may be forced into
vibrational motion about their equilibrium positions. Many different patterns of vibrational motion exist at
the atomic level, however, most are irrelevant to acoustics and ultrasonic testing. Acoustics is focused on
particles that contain many atoms that move in unison to produce a mechanical wave. When a material is not
stressed in tension or compression beyond its elastic limit, its individual particles perform
elastic oscillations. When the particles of a medium are displaced from their equilibrium positions, internal
(electrostatic) restoration forces arise. It is these elastic restoring forces between particles, combined with
inertia of the particles, that leads to the oscillatory motions of the medium.

In solids, sound waves can propagate in four principle modes that are based on the way the particles
oscillate. Sound can propagate as longitudinal waves, shear waves, surface waves, and in thin materials as
plate waves. Longitudinal and shear waves are the two modes of propagation most widely used in ultrasonic
testing.

Wavelength and Defect Detection

In ultrasonic testing, the inspector must make a decision about the frequency of the transducer that will be
used. As we learned on the previous page, changing the frequency when the sound velocity is fixed will
result in a change in the wavelength of the sound. The wavelength of the ultrasound used has a significant
effect on the probability of detecting a discontinuity. A general rule of thumb is that a discontinuity must be
larger than one-half the wavelength to stand a reasonable chance of being detected.

Sensitivity and resolution are two terms that are often used in ultrasonic inspection to describe a technique's
ability to locate flaws. Sensitivity is the ability to locate small discontinuities. Sensitivity generally increases
with higher frequency (shorter wavelengths). Resolution is the ability of the system to locate discontinuities
that are close together within the material or located near the part surface. Resolution also generally
increases as the frequency increases.

The wave frequency can also affect the capability of an inspection in adverse ways. Therefore, selecting the
optimal inspection frequency often involves maintaining a balance between the favorable and unfavorable
results of the selection. Before selecting an inspection frequency, the material's grain structure and thickness,
and the discontinuity's type, size, and probable location should be considered. As frequency increases, sound
tends to scatter from large or course grain structure and from small imperfections within a material. Cast
materials often have coarse grains and other sound scatters that require lower frequencies to be used for
evaluations of these products. Wrought and forged products with directional and refined grain structure can
usually be inspected with higher frequency transducers.

Since more things in a material are likely to scatter a portion of the sound energy at higher frequencies, the
penetrating power (or the maximum depth in a material that flaws can be located) is also reduced. Frequency
also has an effect on the shape of the ultrasonic beam. Beam spread, or the divergence of the beam from the
center axis of the transducer, and how it is affected by frequency will be discussed later.

It should be mentioned, so as not to be misleading, that a number of other variables will also affect the
ability of ultrasound to locate defects. These include the pulse length, type and voltage applied to the crystal,
properties of the crystal, backing material, transducer diameter, and the receiver circuitry of the instrument.
These are discussed in more detail in the material on signal-to-noise ratio.

Transducer Modeling

In high-technology manufacturing, part design and simulation of part inspection is done in the virtual world
of the computer. Transducer modeling is necessary to make accurate predictions of how a part or component
might be inspected, prior to the actual building of that part. Computer modeling is also used to design
ultrasonic transducers.

As noted in the previous section, an ultrasonic transducer may be characterized by detailed measurements of
its electrical and sound radiation properties. Such measurements can completely determine the response of
any one individual transducer.

There is ongoing research to develop general models that relate electrical inputs (voltage, current) to
mechanical outputs (force, velocity) and vice-versa. These models can be very robust in giving accurate
prediction of transducer response, but suffer from a lack of accurate modeling of physical variables inherent
in transducer manufacturing. These electrical-mechanical response models must take into account the
physical and electrical components in the figure below.

The Thompson-Gray Measurement Model, which makes very accurate predictions of ultrasonic scattering
measurements made through liquid-solid interfaces, does not attempt to model transducer electrical-
mechanical response. The Thompson-Gray Measurement Model approach makes use of reference data taken
with the same transducer(s) to deconvolve electro-physical characteristics specific to individual transducers.
See Section 5.4 Thompson-Gray Measurement Model.

The long term goal in ultrasonic modeling is to incorporate accurate models of the transducers themselves as
well as accurate models of pulser-receivers, cables, and other components that completely describe any
given inspection setup and allow the accurate prediction of inspection signals.

Normal Beam Inspection

Pulse-echo ultrasonic measurements can determine the location of a discontinuity in a part or structure by
accurately measuring the time required for a short ultrasonic pulse generated by a transducer to travel
through a thickness of material, reflect from the back or the surface of a discontinuity, and be returned to the
transducer. In most applications, this time interval is a few microseconds or less. The two-way transit time
measured is divided by two to account for the down-and-back travel path and multiplied by the velocity of
sound in the test material. The result is expressed in the well-known relationship

d = vt/2 or v = 2d/t

where d is the distance from the surface to the discontinuity in the test piece, v is the velocity of sound
waves in the material, and t is the measured round-trip transit time.
The diagram below allows you to move a transducer over the surface of a stainless steel test block and see
return echoes as they would appear on an oscilloscope. The transducer employed is a 5 MHz broadband
transducer 0.25 inches in diameter. The signals were generated with computer software similar to that found
in the Thompson-Gray Measurement Model and UTSIM developed at the Center for Nondestructive
Evaluation at Iowa State University.

Precision ultrasonic thickness gages usually operate at frequencies between 500 kHz and 100 MHz, by
means of piezoelectric transducers that generate bursts of sound waves when excited by electrical pulses. A
wide variety of transducers with various acoustic characteristics have been developed to meet the needs of
industrial applications. Typically, lower frequencies are used to optimize penetration when measuring thick,
highly attenuating or highly scattering materials, while higher frequencies will be recommended to optimize
resolution in thinner, non-attenuating, non-scattering materials.

In thickness gauging, ultrasonic techniques permit quick and reliable measurement of thickness without
requiring access to both sides of a part. Accuracy's as high as ±1 micron or ±0.0001 inch can be achieved in
some applications. It is possible to measure most engineering materials ultrasonically, including metals,
plastic, ceramics, composites, epoxies, and glass as well as liquid levels and the thickness of certain
biological specimens. On-line or in-process measurement of extruded plastics or rolled metal often is
possible, as is measurements of single layers or coatings in multilayer materials. Modern handheld gages are
simple to use and very reliable.

Angle Beams I

Angle Beam Transducers and wedges are typically used to introduce a refracted shear wave into the test
material. An angled sound path allows the sound beam to come in from the side, thereby improving
detectability of flaws in and around welded areas.

Basic Principles of Eddy Current Inspection

Eddy current inspection is one of several NDT methods that use the principal of “ electromagnetism” as the
basis for conducting examinations. Several other methods such as Remote Field Testing (RFT), Flux
Leakage and Barkhausen Noise also use this principle.
Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction. When alternating current is
applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and around the conductor. This
magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to maximum and collapses as the current is reduced to
zero. If another electrical conductor is brought into the close proximity to this changing magnetic field,
current will be induced in this second conductor. Eddy currents are induced electrical currents that flow in a
circular path. They get their name from “ eddies” that are formed when a liquid or gas flows in a circular
path around obstacles when conditions are right.

One of the major advantages of eddy current as an NDT tool is the variety of inspections and measurements
that can be performed. In the proper circumstances, eddy currents can be used for:

 Crack detection
 Material thickness measurements
 Coating thickness measurements
 Conductivity measurements for:
o Material identification
o Heat damage detection
o Case depth determination
o Heat treatment monitoring

Some of the advantages of eddy current inspection include:

 Sensitive to small cracks and other defects

 Detects surface and near surface defects
 Inspection gives immediate results
 Equipment is very portable
 Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
 Minimum part preparation is required
 Test probe does not need to contact the part
 Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials

Some of the limitations of eddy current inspection include:

 Only conductive materials can be inspected

 Surface must be accessible to the probe
 Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques
 Surface finish and and roughness may interfere
 Reference standards needed for setup
 Depth of penetration is limited
 Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding and probe scan direction are
undetectable
 Eddy Current Instruments

 Eddy current instruments can be purchased in a large

variety of configurations. Both analog and digital
instruments are available. Instruments are commonly
classified by the type of display used to present the
data. The common display types are analog meter,
digital readout, impedance plane and time versus
signal amplitude. Some instruments are capable of
presenting data in several display formats.
 The most basic eddy current testing instrument consists of an alternating current source, a coil of
wire connected to this source, and a voltmeter to measure the voltage change across the coil. An
 ammeter could also be used to measure the current change in the circuit instead of using the
voltmeter.


 While it might actually be possible to detect some types of defects with this type of equipment, most
eddy current instruments are a bit more sophisticated. In the following pages, a few of the more
important aspects of eddy current instrumentation will be discussed.

Resonant Circuits

 Eddy current probes typically have a frequency or a range of frequencies that they are designed to
operated. When the probe is operated outside of this range, problems with the data can occur. When
a probe is operated at too high of a frequency, resonance can occurs in the circuit. In a parallel circuit
with resistance (R), inductance (XL) and capacitance (XC), as the frequency increases XL decreases
and XC increase. Resonance occurs when XL and XC are equal but opposite in strength. At the
resonant frequency, the total impedance of the circuit appears to come only from resistance since
XL and XC cancel out. Every circuit containing capacitance and inductance has a resonant
frequency that is inversely proportional to the square root of the product of the capacitance and
inductance.


 In eddy current probes and cables, it is commonly stated that capacitance is negligible. However,
even circuits not containing discreet components for resistance, capacitance, and inductance can still
exhibit their effects. When two conductors are placed side by side, there is always some capacitance
between them. Thus, when many turns of wire are placed close together in a coil, a certain amount
of stray capacitance is produced. Additionally, the cable used to interconnect pieces of electronic
equipment or equipment to probes, often has some capacitance, as well as, inductance. This stray
capacitance is usually very small and in most cases has no significant effect. However, they are not
negligible in sensitive circuits and at high frequencies they become quite important.

Bridges

 The bridge circuit shown in the applet below is known as the Maxwell-Wien bridge (often called the
Maxwell bridge), and is used to measure unknown inductances in terms of calibrated resistance and
capacitance. Calibration-grade inductors are more difficult to manufacture than capacitors of similar
precision, and so the use of a simple "symmetrical" inductance bridge is not always practical.
Because the phase shifts of inductors and capacitors are exactly opposite each other, a capacitive
impedance can balance out an inductive impedance if they are located in opposite legs of a bridge, as
they are here.
 Unlike this straight Wien bridge, the balance of the Maxwell-Wien bridge is independent of the
source frequency. In some cases, this bridge can be made to balance in the presence of mixed
frequencies from the AC voltage source, the limiting factor being the inductor's stability over a wide
frequency range.
 Display - Analog Meter

 Analog instruments are the simplest of the

instruments available for eddy current
inspections. They are used for crack detection,
corrosion inspection, or conductivity testing.
These types of instruments contain a simple
bridge circuit, which compares a balancing load
to that measured on the test specimen. If any
changes in the test specimen occur which deviate
from normal you will see a movement on the
instruments meter.
 Analog meters such as the D'Arsonval design
pictured in the applet below, must "rectify" the
AC into DC. This is most easily accomplished
through the use of devices called diodes. Without
going into elaborate detail over how and why diodes work as they do, remember that they each act
like a one-way valve for electrons to flow. They act as a conductor for one polarity and an insulator
for another. Arranged in a bridge, four diodes will serve to steer AC through the meter movement in
a constant direction.
 An analog meter can easily measure just a few microamperes of current and is well suited for use in
balancing bridges.

Scanning
 Eddy current data can be collected using automated scanning systems to improve the quality of the
measurements and to construct images of scanned areas. The most common type of scanning is line
scanning where an automated system is used to push the probe at a fixed speed. Line scan systems
are often used when performing tube inspections or aircraft engine blade slot inspections, where
scanning in one dimension is needed. The data is usually presented as a strip chart recording. The
advantage of using a linear scanning system is that the probe is moved at a constant speed, so
indications on the strip chart can be correlated to a position on the part being scanned. As with all
automated scanning systems, operator variables, such as wobble of the probe, are reduced.

Multiple Frequency Techniques

Multiple frequency eddy current techniques simply involve collecting data at several different frequencies
and then comparing the data or mixing the data in some way.

Why the need for multiple frequencies? - Some background information

The impedance of an eddy current probe may be affected by the following factors:

 variations in operating frequency

 variations in electrical conductivity and the magnetic permeability of a object or structure, caused by
structural changes such as grain structure, work hardening, heat treatment, etc.
 changes in liftoff or fill factor resulting from probe wobble, uneven surfaces, and eccentricity of
tubes caused by faulty manufacture or damage
 the presence of surface defects such as cracks, and subsurface defects such as voids and nonmetallic
inclusions
 dimensional changes, for example, thinning of tube walls due to corrosion, deposition of metal
deposits or sludge, and the effects of denting
 the presence of supports, walls, and brackets
 the presence of discontinuities such as edges

 Pulsed Eddy Current Inspection

 Conventional eddy current inspection techniques use sinusoidal alternating electrical current of a
particular frequency to excite the probe. The pulsed eddy current technique uses a step function
voltage to excite the probe. The advantage of using a step function voltage is that it contains a
continuum of frequencies. As a result, the electromagnetic response to several different frequencies
can be measured with just a single step. Since the depth of penetration is dependent on the frequency
of excitation, information from a range of depths can be obtained all at once. If measurements are
made in the time domain (that is by looking at signal strength as a function of time), indications
produced by flaws or other features near the inspection coil will be seen first and more distant
features will be seen later in time.
 To improve the strength and ease interpretation of the signal, a reference signal is usually collected,
to which all other signals are compared (just like nulling the probe in conventional eddy current
inspection). Flaws, conductivity, and dimensional changes produce a change in the signal and a
difference between the reference signal and the measurement signal that is displayed. The distance of
the flaw and other features relative to the probe will cause the signal to shift in time. Therefore, time
gating techniques (like in ultrasonic inspection) can be used to gain information about the depth of a
feature of interest.