History

BLOCK -I: INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY
"History " is one of the important subject among disciplines in general and in social
sciences in particular. History is the root to the all disciplines. So the historian says that "History
is the Mother of Social Sciences" and also it is "Laboratory of Social Sciences". In recent
times many historians rewrite history in scientific manner.
History had good relation with all disciplines. It gives valuable basic information
for strengthening the subjects like Economics, Political Science, Sociology, Public
Administration, Anthropology and Science. Historical writing depends on Sources,
Archaeological, Literary, Native, Foreign and Oral sources. The sources are useful for
reconstruction of history.
The "Geography and Chronology are Sun and Moon, the right and the left eye of
History". The Mountains, Coast, Rivers, Ghats, Plains and Desert are impact the polity,
economy, society and culture of the state. History is the study of all these aspects in systematic
way. This block deals the above things in specific manner. In this block there are four units
such as
Unit-1: Definition, Scope and Significance of History
Unit-2: Relation with other Disciplines
Unit-3: Sources of History
Unit-4: Influence of Geography and Environment
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UNIT-1: DEFINITION, SCOPE AND
SIGNIFICANCE OF HISTORY
Contents
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning of History
1.3 Definition of History
1.4 Nature of History
1.5 Scope of History
1.6 Significance of History
1.7 Summary
1.8 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
1.9 Model Examination Questions
1.10 Further Readings
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
l Know the meaning of History.
l Examine the Definitions of History.
l Explain the Nature of History
l Discuss the Scope of History
l Analyse the Significance of History
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Knowledge of history is indispensable to understand our pst and our place in the world.
Historians have envied the tremendous advances made in the realm of science and technology
by the adoption of an exclusive method, the scientific method, which they wanted to graft to
the body of history as well. The writing of history, which is not an easy job, required the
reconstruction of the past as nearly as it had really happened. In recent times history emerged
as a fascinating study. A tendency is there in history to be coloured by the current ideas of
every age or country. The Greeks glorified the rational element in history, the Romans had an
eye on political events, and the Church historians made God live in history, the Germans made
imperialistic, and the Marxist, more materialistic.
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Man has consciousness which produces rational will. The rational will is the root of the
human institutions and human history. History is nothing but the embodiment or the objectification
of the rational will, which also produces art, religion, and philosophy. History is most valuable
subject in the world. It was played an important role to reconstruct the vivid progressive and
scientific methods for human development.
1.2 MEANING OF HISTORY

It is necessary to understand the meaning of history for having a proper understanding
of our History. The Greeks were the pioneers in defining history. The term "History" derived
from the Greek word "istopia" (istoria). Istoria means enquiry, research, examine and information.
History is a record of unique events in the life of mankind is stir and vibration of life. History is
the barometer to record the progress of mankind. The term History has been taken from the
German word "Geschichte" meaning an intelligible and significant narrative of past events.
History is record the human actions, thoughts and un-observed. It is a record of the past
events. History also means an epic, examine, news, record, event etc.
History is not the light and the truth, but a search thereof, a sermon thereon, a consecration
thereto. History is a science. It is study in a systematic way due to the chronological and
genealogical. History attempts to give us the meaning of life. History has two main functions to
perform. One is to offer broad principles and generalizations of historical truth. The other is to
combine the merits of drama or epic poetry with the merit of truth. History has the ability to
improve the understanding of man. It is for human self-knowledge. History has always been
what human beings thought about the past and this sense it has always been of creation of the
past.
Many historians defined history in the scientific way. The definitions were useful to
understood the history and historiography. History is one of the most important and valuable
subject in social sciences.
1.3 DEFINATION OF HISTORY

Many scholars, writers, thinkers, philosophers and historians define history. Greeks
were the first to define history. In the middle of the 5th century C.E., Herodotus "the father of
history" wrote his monumental work on the wars between the Greeks and the Persians. He
called it the "Histories of Herodotus". By this he meant simply the results of his inquiries or
researches into the event of the Greece-Persian war and the factors leading unto it. The
Greek political thinker Aristotle says that "history is an account of the unchanging past". The
human nature does not change and all activities that originated with the same intentions and
motives differ only in the degree of details but not their basic nature. Another Greek writer
Thucydides defined "History is a story of things worthy of being remembered". Sir Francis
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Bacon defines "history is a discipline that makes man wise". Wisdom is different from mental
sharpness and it distinguishes between right and wrong. The subject history gives wisdom for
human beings. The great philosopher Karl Marx advocated the materialistic interpretation of
history. He defined in the following word: "the history of all hitherto existing society is the
history of class struggle". The eminent Professor in Modern History at Cambridge Lord Action
defined history as "the unfolding story of human freedom".
E.H. Carr in his work "What is History" says that "History is a continuous process of
interaction between the historians and his facts. It is an unending dialogue between the present
and the past". Lecky defined "history is the record and explanation of moral values." History
explains not only the political and administrative conditions and it also gives moral and ethical
values for the humans. John Bury described history is a "Science no less and no more" in his
inaugural address at Cambridge in 1903. Dr. Radhakrishnan says that the history is, "the
memory of a nation or a race. The discovery of historical facts should be in scientific method
and explain the same way. So, History is essential for all.
1.4 NATURE OF HISTORY

The cradle of all ancient civilizations happened to be the river valleys. The climate
conditions of Africa earned for it the nickname of Dark Continent. England escaped many a
time from foreign occupation mostly because of its isolated position. However, the physical
factors are not only determining factors in the scheme of historical causality, although it is one
of the most important factor. History has the ability to improve the understanding of man.
History not only tells us about the right principles of life, but also warns us through concrete
examples about the investable destruction. Of society, if these principles were to be neglected.
History is the store -house of human experience where nothing is wanting, and you get what
you deserve.
Historian is not satisfied with more facts about the past. But he is interested in finding
about the causes, the events to take place and attempt to explain the significance of the facts.
So history explain about the past events and activities with facts and causes. There is continuing
process of interaction between the historian and his facts. History is very much concerned
with the past events. Human aspirations and failures are, then, to be assessed, from human
point of view. The draw of the past is sought to be explained and interpreted to present from
human angels.
History is concerned with man in time. Time factor is the essence of history. It deals
with a series of events and each event occurs at a given point in time. It is time which affords
a perspective to events and lends a charm that brightens up the past. Human history, in fact, is
the process of human development in time. There are certain permanent characteristics for
nature of History which make it unique, and also certain transient features which may change
from time to time.
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The permanent characteristics of history is had its own immutable features. History can
be distinguished from science on the one hand and metaphysics on the other, literature on the
one hand and fine arts like music on the other. J.B. Bury rightly says that "History is science,
no less and no more". History gives vivid description about the society, economy, administration,
Religion and culture etc in a systematic and scientific manner. History describes every incident
and activity with a scientific source. They inquire the reality of the incident and activity and
also pursue the whole things with fruitful manner. History is man's attempt to describe and
interpret the past.
The most interesting fact about the extent and comprehensiveness of history is that
today we hear of "History of Physics, "History of Culture," History of Civilization," "History of
Religion." "History of Geography," "History of Biology," "History of Arts," "History of
Mathematics," "History of the Atom," "History of Literature," and History of what not. A
learned speaker on a political, religious, literary or any other platform linked to with any field
of human activity, will place before his audience pure and simple history, connected with the
life and achievements of some past of great human beings and nothing else. This makes the
scope of history almost limitless, which knows no ends and also speaks of the significance of
history.
History deals with knowledge only when it is associated with man's endeavours and
achievements. It primarily deals with those who "pass over land and ocean, without rest"
rather than with those who "only stand and wait." It deals with man's struggle through the ages.
History is a dynamic subject and implies growth, development and evolution. It traces
the fascinating story of how man has developed through the ages, how man has studied to use
and control his environment and how the present institutions have grown out of the past.
History studied human's struggle with his development and essential unity of human civilization.
It is not confined to one period and one area it is record all the activities in all periods. It is
never neglect any section in the society. It deals with various aspects, such as political, socio-
economic, religious and cultural aspects of human life.
As history is record of past facts. History enables a person to see himself as part of that
living process of human growth which has emerged out of the past and will inexorably project
itself out beyond our own life time. We are the product of the past but not the completed
product.
History is an interpretation of the past with the intention of predicting the future. History
in this sense becomes a prophecy in reserve, demonstrating the past as a meaningful preparation
for the future. Since historical occurrences take place in time and space, the nature of which
being one of causal connection and as its motivating force is the same human nature, it should
be possible to make a fair guess of what is in the womb of history.
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History is social memory; this is the collective memory. But it may not always be
dependable. The history was moving towards human perfectibility through the steady
accumulation of knowledge and the triumph of reason. History obliges people to think and be
responsible.
Historical forces are considered to be linear by some and cyclical by others. Those
who hold the linear view of history think it to be a straight line from an unknown past passing
through the known present to the unknown future. From this point of view there is close
continuity in history, forward thrust in its movement, never reversing its course, and making
progress as it goes. The idea of progress links up the past with the present, and gives unity to
history, making it a solid piece, from one end to the other. Those who hold the cyclical view of
history think that history moves in a circle. There is a starting point, and then the upward
movement until it reaches the peak.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I

Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. History derived from which Word?
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2. Who is the Father of History?
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1.5 SCOPE OF HISTORY

In the early days, history was considered to be nothing but a store house of legends,
heroic accounts and folk-tales. But as days passed by, the scope of history underwent significant
changes. The scope of history has been variously viewed by historians."The central purpose
of a history, must, therefore be to investigate and unfold the values which are after age having
inspired the inhabitants of a country to develop their collective will and to express it through
the manifold activities of their life."
Necessarily history has to exclude from its purview, the study of natural objects and
animals, birds, reptiles etc., since it confines its attention to the story of man's evolution from
humble beginnings to complex achievements. The Arabs used to say, "History for kings and
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warriors, poetry for men and arithmetic for the shop-keeper". But history is supposed to give
a complete picture of everything that has influenced man directly or indirectly.
In short, history centres round the people inhabiting a country. It is the record of their
life coming from series of centuries, their fortunes, achievements and pitfalls.
The scope of history is to enquire into the origins of the past and to determine relationship
and comparisons. It will try to discover the shapes and contours of the forces which are
dynamic in society. He knows that "social forces are human energies which 'originating in
individual motivations' coalesce into a collective "manifestation of power" and is interested in
discovering source of these powers.
Generally, it is believes that history is concerned with man's past achievements, where
the idea or the event in question occurred one minute ago or a thousand years ago. The past
is of different kinds. It looks good for some people; and for others it is incredible. Some are
proud about the past and talk about golden ages. Some scholars assume that history has a
very good start but by the time passes, it reached once into hands of historian for treatment it
gets deteriorated. For others, it is more hopeful and supposes that the historical process
resembles the growth of a person from innocent childhood to knowledgeable and mature
adulthood. In spite of his occasional pitfalls and repressions, man has been generally progressing.
In this connection it is better and fitter to explain the dictum that 'one man's flesh is
another man's poison'. A history that had been eulogised by its admires for its signal and
significant service having done to humanity as a whole, now came in for severe criticism at the
hands of historians like Voltaire and Gibbon. So they began to say that, "history is just the
portrayal of crimes and misfortunes". Equally Gibbon retorted by saying that, "History is
indeed little more than the register of the crimes, follies and misfortunes". Moreover the wide
horizon of knowledge includes man's achievements in his scientific, technological, political,
economic, social and cultural spheres of life in which he has, mastered. Thus the main scope
of history will be the social life of man, his achievements, his constitutional arrangements and
his economic endeavours. Indeed they intimately affect the welfare of man in his day to day
life.
In shaping the destiny of the world many great men rendered remarkable service.
History never failed to include their names. This takes us to the 'Great man Theory' in history.
Thomas Carlyle was the great exponent of this theory. He believed that, "the universal history
at its bottom was the work of great man". Lord Buddha, Alexander the Great. Akbar the
Great, Abraham Lincoln and Napoleon Bonaparte fall under the above said category.
History is one of the most important and precious subject in both science and social
science. History we understand the breadth, comprehensiveness, variety and extent of learning
experience, provided by the study of a special subject. The growth of history has accompanied
with the growth of human race. Thus history discusses the human race form stating up to the
present day. History is gradually assuming all three dimensions, as its main job is to narrate
what happened, to discuss how it was happened and to analyse why it was happened. History
at present is no more restricted to the study of political activities of man but it also comprises
a study of his achievements in the physical, social, economic, religious, philosophical, literary,
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artistic, cultural, industrial, technological and scientific fields, starting from ancient times up to
the modern age. History is no longer a branch of literature or politics or philosophy or any
other discipline. It has independent status of its own whose main function is now to study
society in its aspect of promoting a culture, which constitutes knowledge, gaith, belief, art,
morals customs and any other capabilities or habits acquired by man as a member of society.
In this way its scope is very wide and many- in fact as wide as the world and as long as the
existence of man on earths.
In modern times there is a general feeling among the people that history has failed to
include the role played by the common man in the society. History should not ignore the
importance of common man in the society. It should be mentioned in the history. In the Neolithic
age man used to be picking the stone from the earth, but now in the fag end of the 20th
century, man is capable of landing on the Moon and Mars, penetrating his eyes through the
glass of his scientific advancement and he is reminded of Shakespeare's famous dictum, "what
a piece of work man is". It cannot be denied that "man has played a considerable role in the
total history of mankind.
Thus, the scope of history, in its restricted sense is nothing but a political history, economic
history, social history, and so on. In its broad sense, it is history of the entire world touching all
its facets. On the whole history mainly centres round the great events that have had indelible
and indestructible mark upon mankind. In short history is concerned with the origin and
development of all kinds.
History links the present mankind with his past. We cannot say that future is outside the
scope of history. Experiences of history will form the history of tomorrow and in this way
history is connected with future as well. History has expanded both vertically and horizontally.
It was close like with the allied fields of human sciences, has given new effects to historical
studies. In the words of E. Lewis Hasluck, "knowledge of History illumines the whole of
human life. It adds to our knowledge of the existing state of world, a knowledge in which the
human society and institution has grown up, a knowledge for future.
In the words of Lord Action, "If the past has been an obstacle and a burden, a knowledge
of past is the safest and surest emancipation".
History analyse about the tribals, Negros, Black man, White man, Aryans, Dravidians,
Europeans, African and Mongols etc. it never bound a particular race, caste, varna, rich and
poor. It discuss about all the human beings in the universe.
History discuss about the river valley culture, forest culture, plains culture, costal area
culture, mountain culture and plateau culture in the world. History also explain about the
Christianity, Hinduism, Zoroastrians, Confucianism, Taoism, Mencius, Shintoism, Jainism,
Buddhism, Islam, Sikh, Persi, Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Bakti, and Sufi movements etc. history
also discuss the religious reform movements and counter religious reform movements.
History explains about the different revolutionary movements such as the Religious
Movement, Women Movement, Dalit Movement, Tribal Movement, Working class Movement,
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Peasant Movement, Students Movement, separate State Movements, National Movements,
anti Caste Movements, Reservation Movement, Dandora Movement, The Glorious Revolution,
American War of Independence, French Revolution, Russian Revolution, China Revolution,
Vietnam Revolution, Industrial Revolution, Green Revolution, Scientific Revolution and digital
Revolution etc.
From the above discussion at becomes clear that the subject of history has no frontiers
and that it is limitless and fathomless ocean, with no ends in view. History discusses about all
the seven continents progressive development and all countries resources, technology and
growth. It is also examine the several countries socio-economic and cultural issues and
development.
For deriving fullest benefit of historical studies, we should place before our students the
broad out-lines of development down the ages on one hand and the detailed study of a short
period of history, on the other. The former will provide the whole sweep of the story of the life
of the past while the later will give the varied aspects of the life of a people for a chosen
period. In this way both the vertical and horizontal aspects of History, will be studied together
and provide full benefit to the education of our rising generation.
History is the story of what men and women have done of what they have left for
others to enjoy and suffer. People have made fantastic blunders and noble contributions, but
regardless of the quality of human activity, it has given us a legacy of civilisation, not always
fine and noble but on the whole it has led to progress both material and moral. History is the
story of irrespective of the gender. Continuity and coherence are the necessary requisites of
history. No event is an isolated event in the universe. No human event is born out of vacuum;
it arises out of the foundation of previous events. In turn, the event so sustained by previous
happenings gives rise along with other interconnected and interdependent events, to new
events and the progressive process continues. History carries the burden of human progress
as it is passed down from generation to generation, from society to society, and in this continuity
lies the essence of history.
History is the only subject which describes the origin and growth of civilisation; it is the
drama of the ascent of man... from the drab level of animals to the richly coloured world into
which we are born. It shows how the great stream of modern civilisation has been fed by small
streams coming from diverse races and times, and how the complex civilisation of today is the
result of the cooperation the several nations. It makes us feel that we have developed this
present civilisation from our ancestors and that our present life in the world is like the stem
branches and leaves of a big tree whose roots are hidden underground. History shows us the
roots without uprooting the tree; it sends mind rays longest into a country's past can see
farthest into its future." Here in lies the greatness of history as a subject.
History is a voice forever sounding, across the centuries, the moral laws of right and
wrong. Not only does history show the meaning of great moral qualities such as heroism, self-
sacrifice, love of country and devotion to duty, in a concrete and most impressive way, but it
also furnishing compelling examples of conduct for the pupil's emulation. Not only does history
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illustrate the nobility of action, but also, infects the pupils with the contagion of noble ideas. A
variety of moral situations are presented by history and if the teacher makes a good use of
them he will have limitless possibilities of informing the moral understanding and shaping the
moral judgement of his pupils.
History is not a subject at all but a house in which all subjects dwell. History is the
central subject round which all other subjects can revolve. History with or without the name,
inevitably has been and is a background as the only field in which all other subjects meet.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF HISTORY

History offers a storehouse of information about how people and societies behave.
Understanding the operations of people and societies is difficult, though a number of disciplines
make the attempt. An exclusive reliance on current data would needlessly handicap our efforts.
Some social scientists attempt to formulate laws or theories about human behaviour. But even
these recourses depend on historical information, except for in limited, often artificial cases in
which experiments can be devised to determine how people act. Major aspects of a society's
operation, like mass elections, missionary activities, or military alliances, cannot be set up as
precise experiments. Consequently, history must serve, however imperfectly, as our laboratory,
and data from the past must serve as our most vital evidence in the unavoidable quest to figure
out why our complex species behaves as it does in societal settings. The past is fixed-no one
can change what happened-but as the values of society change, the historians' depiction of the
past changes also. It has been argued that history tells us more about the time in which it is
written than the time about which it is written.
History is the memory of human group experience. If forgotten or ignored, we cease in
that measure to be human. Without history, we have no knowledge of who we are or how we
came to be, like victims of collective amnesia groping in the dark for our identity. It is the
events recorded in history that have generated all the emotions, the values, the ideals, that
make life meaningful, that have given men something to live for, struggle over, die for.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II
1. Who says the “Great Man” Theory?
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2. History explains which Movement?
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1.7 SUMMARY
In new era history is a science no less and no more. It is discuss all the issues in a
systematic way. History is social memory; this is the memory of the collectively. But it may not
always be dependable. The history was moving towards human perfectibility through the
steady accumulation of knowledge and the triumph of reason. History obliges people to think
and be responsible. History is an interpretation of the past with the intention of predicting the
future. History in this sense becomes a prophecy in reserve, demonstrating the past as a
meaningful preparation for the future. Since historical occurrences take place in time and
space, the nature of which being one of causal connection and as its motivating force is the
same human nature, it should be possible to make a fair guess of what is in the womb of
history.
1.8 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Check your progress Answers-I
1. History derived from the Greek word Istopia (Istoria).
2. Father of History is Herodotous.
II. Check your progress Answers-II
1. Carlyle
2. History explain Dalit, Women, Tribal and Peasant Movements.
1.9 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

I. Answer the following Questions in about 30 lines each.
1. Write a essay on nature of history?
2. Explain the Scope of History?
3. Discuss the Significance of History?
II. Answer the following Questions in about 15 lines each.
1. Write about the Meaning of History?
2. Define about the History?
3. What is History?
1.10 FURTHER READINGS

1. Black, J.B. : The Art of History.
2. Carr, E. H. : What is History.
3. Colling Wood, R.G. : The Idea of History.
4. Elton, G.R. : The Practice of History.
5. Gordon Childe, V : What Happened in History.
6. Majumdar, R.K. & Srivasta, A.N. : Historiography.
7. Sheik Ali : History: Its Theory and Method.
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UNIT -2: HISTORY - RELATION WITH OTHER
DISCIPLINES
Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 History and Political Science
2.3 History and Economics
2.4 History and Sociology
2.5 History and Geography
2.6 History and Anthropology
2.7 History and Theology
2.8 History and Mathematics
2.9 History and Statistics
2.10 History and Literature
2.11 History and Biology.
2.12 History and Philosophy
2.13 History and Psychology
2.14 History and Science
2.15 Summary
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Know the relation between History and Political Science.
Understand the relation between the History and Economics.
Describe the relation between the History and Sociology.
Discuss the relation between History and Anthropology.
Analyse the relation between History and Science.

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2.1 INTRODUCTION
"History is not a subject at all but a house in which all subjects dwell" says by Trevelyan.
History provides a rich ground for correlation with different subjects. History has expanded
both vertically and horizontally. Its close link with the allied fields of human sciences, has given
new efforts to historical studies. The social education is nothing but a short course of history,
depicting social, economic, industrial, scientific and cultural aspects of man's life. It throws
light on the inter-dependence of man and man, nation and nation and country and country.
According Koerner says, "Occupying as it does an intermediate position between the

humanities and social sciences and employing both the qualitative approach of the humanist
and the quantitative data of the behaviourist, it serves as a medium through which student can
learn something of literature and arts on the one hand, and politics, economics and social
behaviour on the other". "History is Mother of Social Sciences. It had good relation not only
social sciences and also had relation with other subjects.
2.2 HISTORY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE

Political Science is closely related with history. According to Sir John Seeley "History
is past politics and politics is present History". We know that this is but a half-truth, for the
stream of history runs right is through and politics is but an aspect of history. Knowledge of
history is essential for any one in understanding the evolution of political institutions. The great
philosophers like Plato, Aristotle and Machiavelli were able to derive their political ideas by
mastering the history of political institutions of great world. They in turn, gave a new outlook
to history. Aristotle was the Father of Political Science and written the book "Politics". He
contributed a lot for the development of the subject. In this connection it is better and fitter to
cite the idea of Jean Jacques Rousseau. In his monumental work, 'Social Contract' he
emphasised the importance of man in the society: "Man is born free and everywhere he is in
chains." Thereby, Rousseau kindled the feelings and sentiments of the French people in
establishment a classless society.
There is close affinity between history and political science. According to Sir John
Seeley the "History without Political Science has no fruit and Political Science without History
has no root". Action has said that " the science of political is the one science that is deposited
by the stream of history like grains of gold in the sands of a river." The river itself is history. But
politics deals with but a part of it.
In short the two subjects are the two sides of the same coin, "for all politics is not
history as all history is not politics”.
2.3 HISTORY AND ECONOMICS

Economics is one of the most fascinating adjuncts of the study of man's heritage- his
history. Economics is the study of wealth which deals primarily with production, distribution,
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consumption and exchange. All these activities and processes have to be studied in relation to
man; history describes the story of man, economics describes the activities of production and
consumption. Adam Smith was the father of Economics. He had written "the Wealth of
Nations". History describes the social nature of all economic activities. It enlightens us as to
how man adapted himself to occupations and social situations in different parts of the world,
in different period of history. Analysis of the growth can be a substantial part of almost any
second school history course. The history of past economic events throws an important light
on the present economic policies and helps in the formulation and verification of various.
All the major economic institutions have been historically significant. For example,
two great upheavals in human organisation took place one is the tool using revolution and
other is the agriculture which revolution had far-reaching repercussions. These made possible
and necessary the specialisation significant impact on living. In fact, modern industrialisation
could not exist at all without specialisation and the present standards of living would not be
possible without industrialisation.
Again, joint stock investment for procuring large capitals, insuring for sharing single
risks with a number of similar investor's the stock exchange all are historical growths from the
end of the middle Ages into the period of modern history. Each presents a bit of history in itself
and each in highly illuminating of the rest of man's story. They all add up to the development of
what has been called capitalism, the profit system, by which men invest capital in the hope of
economic gains and enhancement of living standards.
History tells us how different nations, adopting different economic policies, achieved
and aims of economic development and that provided guiding lines for economic growth of
undeveloped countries like India.
History, today, is considered not merely a story of wars or kings. It is also a study of
the economic condition of a country at a particular time. It is, in fact, incomplete without
economics. Economists tell us how in the past, basic economic factors were responsible for
many a great war. It is also a fact that economic advancement is a measure of the prosperity
of a country. Economic factors also determine the course of historical events. The economic
prosperity of India had been attracting invaders and these have determined the course of her
history. Economic revolutions in many lands have changed the course of history. It is obvious
that economics and history are inter-related. The study of one reinforces the other.

1. What are the issues Economics Explain
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2.4 HISTORY AND SOCIOLOGY
Sociology has a wide scope of study. It studies the development of the human society
at large. Really speaking, the subject-matter of history, geography, civics, political science
etc., could very safely be included within the broad scope of the study of sociology. Max
Weber (1864-1920) exercised significant influence on historical studies. Weber coined
concepts and produced basic studies of certain institutions which have dominated sociology
and history since then. Weber was a pioneer in studying the importance of bureaucracy in
growth of modern state. Auguste Comte (1798-1857) was the father of Sociology.
In fact, sociology gives us knowledge of the development of the society. It aims at

development man into an ideal social being History is very helpful in receiving the knowledge
of the development of society under various periods and under many conditions. History and
sociology are intimately related and a number of sociologists like Auguste Comte are also
important figures in the development of historical studies. Similarly Karl Marx, a great historian,
was also a great sociologist.
The teaching of history should invariably be guided by the knowledge of sociology.

Briefly, study and teaching of sociology can draw a lot of from the knowledge of history. Prof.
Barnes points out that even "history can be of utmost value to sociology in furnishing it with
concrete data concerning both a cross-section of any given society at a particular time, and
the dynamic aspects of social and institutional change".
2.5 HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY

Histories in intimately correlated to Geography and in sometime the two subjects
were taught together. Knowledge of geography is also of great help in deciphering the earlier
period of history which no authentic documents are available. In fact they are twins, one
emphasises time and the other space. History studies people of different times and geography
deals with the people of different places. The two subjects are now studied separately for
convenience of study but we cannot entirely separate the two subjects. In the words of Prof.
Immanuel Kant, "Geography and history fill up the entire circumference of our perceptions,
geography, that of space and history that of time. "No history can be complete without some
reference to space. Likewise no geographical account can be intelligible without reference to
development in time. So both history and geography are concerned with the inter-play of
human and physical factors.
Geography is the stage on which drama of history is enacted and it is the geography
which determines the historical events and can offer explanation for historical actions of mankind.
Likewise historical facts can serve as a good ground for arousing interest in geographical
factors are taken into view. Many factors taken into consideration are physical condition of
the life of man, climate, means of communication etc. The father of Geography was Hecataeus,
he written the book “Miletus”.
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All these factors determine the direction of human life and history increased by human
life and his activities. History of each and every country is governed by their factors. Truly
speaking historical studies desired of geographical background would be inaccurate and
unscientific. The story of man's evolution since primitive stage, cannot be told without the
several geographical settings of the world. Man's mode of living, dieting and dressing etc., are
all determined by his physical environment. If England grew into a powerful nation and received
a rich history, it was very much due to its geographical conditions.
Geographical factors were the sole cause of the down fall of many empires. The
growth of Delhi, Lahore or London can be better understood by considering various
geographical factors. The history of enmity between France and Germany can be explained
on the ground of existence of river Rhine and Lorrain coal-fields.
The correlation between history and geography becomes quite evident if we look at
the equipment/apparatus used for teaching of these subjects. For teaching these subjects we
make use of maps, pictures and atlases. J.R. Green in his book "the Making of England"
describes landscape as "the fullest and most certain of all documents".
2.6 HISTORY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

Anthropology is the study of people throughout the world, their evolutionary history,
how they behave, adapt to different environments, communicate and socialise with one another.
Anthropology and history are closely related to each other. The subject deals about the physical
and mental constitutions of human beings. Perhaps understanding the affinity that exists between
the two disciplines one inclines to say that man is a social animal. Anthropology also helps
history in tracing the origin of the vanishing tribes.
The principle that anthropology draws its originality from the unconscious nature of
collective phenomena stems (though in a still obscure and ambiguous manner) from a statement
made by Taylor. Having defined anthropology as the study of "Culture or Civilization," he
described culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law,
custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."
We know that among most primitive peoples it is very difficult to obtain a moral
justification or a rational explanation for any custom or institution. When he is questioned, the
native merely answers that things have always been this way, that such was the command of
the gods or the teaching of the ancestors. Even when interpretations are offered, they always
have the character of rationalizations or secondary elaborations. There is rarely any doubt
that the unconscious reasons for practicing a custom or sharing a belief are remote from the
reasons given to justify them. Even in our own society, table manners, social etiquette, fashions
of dress, and many of our moral, political, and religious attitudes are scrupulously observed
by everyone.
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History and Anthropology function are not often critically examined. We act and think
according to habit, and the extraordinary resistance offered to even minimal departures from
custom is due more to inertia than to any conscious desire to maintain usages which have a
clear function. There is no question that the development of modern thought has favoured the
critical examination of custom. But this phenomenon is not something extraneous to
anthropological study. It is, rather, its direct result, in as much as its main origin lies in the
tremendous ethnographic self-consciousness which the discovery of the New World aroused
in Western thought. And even today, secondary elaborations tend to acquire the same
unconscious quality as soon as they are formulated. With Surprising rapidity- which shows
that one is dealing with an intrinsic property of certain modes of thinking and action- collective
thought assimilates what would seem the most daring concepts, such as the priority of mother-
right, animism, or, more recently, psychoanalysis, in order to resolve automatically problems
which by their nature seem forever to elude action as well as thought. History also discusses
the people's customs, tradition, social divisions and the nature of the state etc. These two
subjects had close relation and study the society in different times.
2.7 HISTORY AND THEOLOGY

History and theology are intimately related. Religion has influenced the course of history
to a very great-extent. In older times, it was the religion that guided people to make conquests
and fight some battles that have now become a part of history.
Several of the wars and political upheavals were caused by religious feelings. Therefore,
the knowledge of theology is very helpful for a historian. Without the knowledge of theology,
it is difficult to have a thorough knowledge of history.
Likewise the knowledge of history is also be helpful for the knowledge of theology.
The birth and growth or the establishment and foundation of many religions and sects are
studied under history.
The causes of failure and success of various religions form the subject matter of history.
It is the history that gives us the knowledge about the spread and importance of religion in a
certain period or particular periods.
Briefly, it may be said that both the subjects are intimately related.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS -II

1. What is the relationship between History and Geography?
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2. What is Anthropology?
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2.8 HISTORY AND MATHEMATICS

The relationship between history and Mathematics is reciprocal. History helps
mathematics to know about various mathematicians who were pioneers in their field and
enriched mathematics by their contribution. History also provided the information about the
origin and development of mathematics. Mathematics helps history regarding to calculation of
dates and days etc. of various historical events. Acquisition of time sense in history is based on
the knowledge of mathematics. These two subjects are complementary to each other. Indeed,
speaking, there is a vast difference between the two subjects. Mathematics is generally called
a dry subject, while history is supposed to be an interesting subject. But the knowledge of
history can make reaching of mathematics quite interesting.
2.9 HISTORY AND STATISTICS

It goes without saying that modern economic theory depends largely on statistical
data. Now a days the historians are no longer using more or less correct terms like majority of
the people, popular support etc., instead they have started using the actual percentage of
people and so on.
The historian and scholars have got ample official records which contain valuable data
like information regarding movement of people, births and deaths, immigration. This is due to
the valuable service rendered by statistics. In this connection Lawrence Stone has beautifully
remarked in the following manner. "Statistical measurements are the only means of extracting
coherent pattern from the chaos of personal behaviour and of discovering what a typical
specimen is and what a spout. Failure to apply such controls has led to much wild and implausible
generalisations about social phenomena based upon a handful of striking and well documented
examples".
2.10 HISTORY AND LITERATURE

G.M. Trevelyan treated history as a branch of literature. But Barnes and Ranke criticised
Trevelyan's approach. To them, history was a distinct field of study by itself. According to
them history is full of dates, events and evidences. So it cannot become a branch of literature.
From the time of the ancient historians Herodotus and Thucydides to Trevelyan we have a
number of historians whose literary art has enhanced the beauty of their historical writing. In
the hands of Gibbon History attained an unprecedented and unparalleled literary grab.
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In history we get an account of the development of literature and in histories of literature
we have an account of historiography. Literary men choose historical themes. The best example
is Shakespeare. Historians like Macaulay wrote on literary matters in an exemplary way. His
matters on Milton and Addison are very fine literary pieces.
Literature has close affinity with history in respect of historical novels. For instance the
great historical novelist Sir Walter Scott's contributions clearly vindicate and indicate those
aspects.
There are other historical novelists who have written historical novels in their own
languages. Alexander Dumas and Victor Hugo among the French and Tolstoy the Russian
who wrote the illustration 'War and Peace' are the great examples.
Generally the historical novelist is to be very cautious and watchful. Because the historical
novel is a combination of the fact and fiction. G.M. Trevelyan opines, "Historical fiction is not
history but it springs from history and reacts upon it. Historical fiction writers make the past
alive. But it is not to make the events alive and therefore it is not history.
2.11 HISTORY AND BIOLOGY

History is related to biology for many reasons. Evolution is the most common principles
for both disciplines. R.G. Collingwood thinks that the evolutionary ideas in science were
developed under the impact of history.
Newman's Essay on the development of 'Christian doctrine' published in 1845,

Darwin's 'Origin of Species' appeared in 1859 and Marx's Das Capital written in 1867 is
concerned with evolution. From the above chronology it is clear that even before Darwin,
historians knew of the principle of evolution, not necessarily of the species but of institutions
and ideas. Bury also has endorsed this view.
The most notable attempt to work out evolutionary ideas in the realm of social science
was that of Marxism. Evolution in science reacted on and confirmed and contributed to the
idea of progress in history.
According to Will Durant the struggle for existence and the survival of the fittest go on
even today. Another important thing is biological reproduction. Biological reproduction
according to the classical warning of Malthus will overtake food creation. This warming led to
man's struggle against nature to attain parity between available food and number of mouths to
be fed.
Thus History and Biology are closely linked.
2.12 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy influences historical writing. Philosophy is nothing but the pursuit of practical
wisdom. It has helped a number of historians like R.G. Collingwood, Hegel, Kant and Toynbee.
Philosophy has an extended meaning also. In this way there can be philosophy of history. Two_
types of questions are possible in relation to history. One is questions asked within history and
20
the other is questions asked about history. When was the first battle of Panipat fought? This is
the former type of question. The ready answer of 1526 is a chronicle's answer it does not
require a historian to do it. But the second types of questions are answered by philosophical
historians who are historians proper.
2.13 HISTORY AND PSYCHOLOGY

History and Psychology are connected with each other. Psychology is essential for the
understanding of particular turning point in history. A historian while making an analysis of the
motive and actions of men and societies has to show some psychological insights. During
Muhammad Bin Tughlak rule the officials to follow the Sultan orders and act his ordinance.
The great Mughal ruler Jalaluddin Muhammad Akber was followed the Rajput policy due to
their psychology. England studied the Indians psychology and slowly captured India. They
played dual role between the Indian rulers during that time. Several British officials run their
administration as for the Indian psychology and introduced several reforms in the country. An
understanding of the group psychology can enable a historian to determine the role of the
masses in the various revolutions. The great men theory in history is based on psychology.
Abraham Lincoln, Gandhi, Ambedkar and others have been psycho-analytically studied and
strange result achieved. Thus individual psychology is often approached from the psycho-
analytical angel. Similarly "History may derive from psychology most important information
relating to the nature of the motivation, patterns and controls in human actions and beliefs".
The History and psychology had good relation.
2.14 HISTORY AND SCIENCE

History, as we have discussed earlier, is man's story on this earth. How can this story
be intelligible without considering the long chain of discoveries, explorations and inventions
man has achieved since the beginning of the universe. Gerald Hollen has aptly said. "It is
Science that gives us some of the vocabulary, and the methods, the questions, the themes or
myths, that to a large extent rule what we do and what we think... Science as thought allows
us to understand the world and ourselves; and the practical results of science allows us to
control and change that world. These two functions have been realised, in the earliest days.
Most important of all, the necessary conceptual foundations of all private and public
philosophies share with science such basic ideas as space, time, quantity, motion, force, order,
law causality, reality and many others.
Since the dawn of civilisation man has been taking interest in tools, weapons, agriculture,
water, fire and natural phenomena such as rain, thunder, day, night and seasonal changes.
Primitive man was compelled to find ways of discovering and investing materials and processes
in order to obtain and use his food and clothing. Perhaps, he observed how a sand wasp
(Ammophila) uses a pebble as a hammer to pound the soil over its eggs. It is possible that
some early observations of animals served as a basis for inventions the use of wood, stone
and metal.
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For many years man observed, experienced, discovered, gained knowledge, and
invented machines and all these have been steps forward in man's story.
Aristotle is frequently referred to as "the father of biology" because of the keen interest
and ability he displayed in observing natural objects. This may have been a major factor in
reaching nature-study and biology at the beginning of the twentieth century for the purpose of
developing "power of observation".
Socrates and other philosophers speculated on the nature of matter such as sand,
water and other objects which were considered by some historians in science as the origin of
the nature of matter-atomic structure. A few Greek philosophers considered a drop of water
to contain numerous tiny particles. Efforts were made by scientists like Thomson, Rutherford,
Sookly, etc., to refine the structure of atom.
One may assume that the beginnings of science date back to those times when man
was curious enough to explore natural phenomena, the behaviour of living things and their
relationships to their surroundings. Forbes writes:
"It is often little realised that the fundamental discoveries and inventions on which our
modern civilisation is based were made before the dawn of history. History is usually said to
begin with the advent of written documents, and writing was first conceived in the ancient
Near East in the latter half of the fourth millennium B.C. We can trace man's activities before
that time only by the remains found by the archaeologist. We can only try to reconstruct his
beliefs, theories and reasoning's from those remains, for we posses none of his documents,
assuming that there were any. Hence, we can only state that he employed this or that tool or
method at such a period and are left to guess at the steps that led to the discovery or invention.
Singer states, "Scientific knowledge begins with the people who came to call themselves
the Hellenes, but whom we know as the Greeks.
The subjects traditionally known as the pure sciences have a basic contribution to
make to the study of topics such as the universe, the origin of the earth, and the evolution of
man. Work on these and on many other topics requires or leads to the development of skills
and methods common to the physical and life sciences and history. For example, the collection
of evidence and the measurement and recording of data can be carried out according to
scientific methods. Moreover, history depends on the basis of scientific method- the creation
of hypotheses after data has been processed and interested, on the one hand, and the creation
of an hypothesis that can be substantiated or disproved by data on the other. Once arrived at
, it may have to be revised in the further after consideration of further evidence.
It will have to be admitted that all the activities of science have social contexts an
repercussions. As the processes of science affect society, so society influences the nature and
expression of science.
The biological sciences provide a basis for work emphasising social aspects of life,
and they may gain better understanding from its application to specific situations. History
benefits enormously from biology. This is particularly true when children are investigating
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evolution of different races. Biology is also the basis of the study of heredity and environment,
which in turn forms the only theory of living system.
Anthropology, too, can bring several benefits to a study of history. It can help the
historian to feel the unfamiliarity of the familiar by distancing him from himself and make the
obvious seem stranger, thus motivating him to new areas of research, it can also make the
unfamiliar more familiar. Anthropologists meet with a wide range of societies, and to see a so-
called strange belief in practice can remove much of its apparent irrationality. Thus a whole
arrange of enquiries, particularly relating to the period before about 1500, previously beyond
the range of man, conditioned to modern urban industrial society, are now open to him.
Anthropology is living history.The relationship between history and science becomes rather
more reinforcing when project method of teaching is used.
Science, as we know, is not just a bunch of scientific principles and facts, but is the
work of scores of motivated and dedicated scientists who burnt the midnight oil to help man
in the process of development. Man's development from the cave to his landing on the moon
has been made possible by science and this has changed his home and earth, his ways of
thinking and doing, his work and leisure, in fact his entire life. Different discoveries, inventions
and explorations have been steps forward in man's story of development.
No scientist can function without an intensive knowledge of the history of science. For
understanding the progress made by that country in the field of science, and for understanding
science, it is essential to understand the historical development of a country. One progresses
in the light of the other.

1. How does Travelyan define History?
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2. Who was the Father of Biology?
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2.15 SUMMARY
History is mother of social Sciences and also Laboratory of all sciences. It is vast and
useful subject in among all the subjects. It had a great relationship with all social sciences and
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science discipline. History provides scientific information to all the subjects. It had a vast
scope. Most of the writer and scientists were study the subject for their research and
experimental purpose. The writes compare the past events with the contemporary issues and
gave the best solution. "The history is science no less and no more". It provides the information
in a systematic way. History is like oxygen for all the disciplines.

I. Check Your Progress Answers-I
1. Economics explains Production, Distribution, Consumption and Exchange.
2. Anthropology.
II. Check Your Progress Answers-II
1. History as a branch of literature.
2. Aristotile.

I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each.
1. Explain the relationship between the history and sociology?
2. Discuss the relationship between the history and Economics?
3. Write a note on relationship between history and Anthropology?
4. Analyse the relationship between history and Science?
II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each.
1. Write main feature of psychology?
2. Explain the principles of political science?
3. Discuss how useful the statistical data in historical study?

1. Carr, E.H. : What is History?
2. Jayapalan, N : Historiography.
3. Kochhar, S.K : Teaching of History.
4. Walsh, W.H. : Philosophy of History.
*****
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UNIT-3: SOURCES OF HISTORY
Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Archaeological Sources
3.2.1 Archaeological remains and Monuments
3.2.2 Numismatic Sources
3.2.2.1 Types of Coins
3.2.2.2 The Earliest Indian Coins
3.2.2.3 Indian Coins after the Greek Invasion
3.2.3 Epigraphic Sources
3.2.3.1 Ashokan Inscriptions
3.2.3.2 Firoz Shah Tughlaq
3.2.3.3 James Prinsep
3.2.3.4 Sanskrit Inscriptions
3.2.3.5 Understanding Inscriptions
3.2.3.6 Eulogies
3.2.3.7 Mixed Types
3.2.3.8 Votive or Dedicative Inscriptions
3.3 Literary Sources
3.3.1 Native Literature
3.3.2 Foreign Literature
3.3.2.1 Greek and Roman accounts
3.3.2.2 Chinese Accounts
3.3.2.3 Tibetan Historian Taranath
3.3.2.4 Muslim Accounts
3.3.2.5 Italian and Portuguese Accounts
3.4 Summary
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3.0 OBJECTIVES
l To Know about Sources of History
l Understand the importance of archaeological and literary sources for writing History
l Analyze the differences between archaeological and literary sources
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The material used for writing history are known as sources of History. The study and
use of original material and original sources will give a much better understanding of subject,
like history, as compared to any other method. Writing about the past is a difficult task. One
can never get an exact picture of what actually happened in the past, because the past like the
present is complex and can be looked at from different perspectives. Interpreting the historical
data in a creative and analytical way requires a careful study of sources of information. It is
based on the evidence derived from sources that ultimately histories are written. These sources
are divided into two main groups. They are Archaeological and Literary.
3.2 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES

The Archaeological Source can again be divided into three groups, namely, Archaeological
remains in excavations, Monuments, Inscriptions and Coins.
3.2.1 Archaeological remains and Monuments
Ancient ruins, remains and monuments recovered as a result of excavation and
exploration are archaeological sources of history. Archaeological sources give us some
knowledge of the life of the ancient people. India is rich with ancient ruins, remains, and
monuments. The archaeological evidence is obtained by the systematic and skilled examination
of building monuments, and work of art. Up to the 1920s, it was believed that Indian civilization
was considered to have begun about sixth century B.C. But with the excavations at
Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan and Harappa the antiquity of Indian civilization has gone back to
about 5000 B.C. The finds of pre-historic artifacts has shown that human activities had started
here as early as about two million years ago.
The subsequent discovery of sites of Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi etc.
show the extent of this civilization up to Gujarat, Maharashtra, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan
and Uttar Pradesh. The period between 1500 and 600 B.C. was known as the dark period
of Indian history because not much was known about this period. But the archaeological
discoveries of such cultures as Black-and-Red Ware, Painted Grey Ware, Malwa and Jorwe
cultures since 1950s have filled these chronological gap. It is through archaeological discoveries
that we know now that Indians domesticated sheep and goat and started agriculture about
eight thousand years ago. Also iron came in regular use about 1600 B.C. Archaeological
excavations also brought to light the townships of Taxila, Kausambi, Kasi (Rajghat), Ayodhya,
Vaisali, Bodhigaya, etc. belonging to Buddha's time. All of these places except Taxila are said
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to have been visited by Buddha in the 6th Century.B.C. Human activities started in the
subcontinent as early as two million years ago. But the archaeological remains are subjected
to scientific examination of radio-carbon method for its dates.
The credit for excavating the pre-Aryan past goes to Sir William Jones of Asiatic Society
of Bengal(established on 1st January 1784). General Sir Alexander Cunningham, one of its
Royal Engineers, dogged out the ruins of ancient site of pre-Aryan culture. From his arrival in
India in 1831, Cunningham, the Father of Indian Archaeology devoted every minute he could
spare from his military duties to the study of material remains of ancient India, until in 1862,
the Indian government established the post of Archaeological Surveyor, to which he was
appointed. Until his retirement in 1885, he devoted himself to the unraveling of India's past
with complete single-heartedness. In 1901, Lord Curzon revived and enlarged the
Archaeological Survey and appoint John Marshall its Director General.
The discovery of India's oldest cities dating back to the second Inter-Glacial period
between 400,000 and 200,000 BC in 1921 by Daya Ram Shahni was the biggest achievement
of Archaeological Survey of India under Marshall, the first relics of which were noticed by
Cunningham. The cities discovered were named Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro and the
civilization as the Indus Valley Civilization. In 1922, an Indian officer of the Archaeological
Survey, R.D.Banerjee, founded further seals at Mohenjo-Daro in Sindh, and recognized that
they were remains of a pre-Aryan civilization of great antiquity. Under Sir John Marshall's
direction, the sites were systematically excavated from 1924 until his retirement in 1931.
Archaeologists are primarily concerned with discovering the material relating to early
man before he knew the art of writing. The tools made by him and his food habits and the
environment in which he lived are studied by them. The Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic
cultures, which succeeded each other, show the evolution in the techniques adopted by man
to meet his changing needs. Excavations at various archaeological sites have revealed proto-
historic and early historic material relating to India. The excavations conducted at Mohenjo-
Daro and Harappa (Now in Pakisthan), Lothal (Gujarath) and Kalibangan (Rajasthan), have
revealed the culture of a people who proceeded the Aryans. During the last decades, excavations
were conducted at various places like Ahichchatra, Hasthinapur, Kausambi, Ujjaini, Sravasti,
Vaisali and many more, which find mention in the literary texts. Archaeological material,
interpreted in conjunction with the literary texts, provides a clue to the understanding of the
major social and economic transformation at least in some part of India. Similarly, that were
conducted at places like Dwaraka, enable us to understand the cultural details of the remote
past. Excavations that were conducted at places like Rangapur(1953), Lothal(1955-63,
Prabhas Patan (1956-57),Rojdi (1957-58),Desalpur(1963-64), Surkotda(1972-75) and
Dholavira (1990-91) focus new light on the subject. The Aryan, whose culture is known from
Vedic literature are archaeologically associated with the painted-Grey ware which comes in
succession to the city with streets and well-built houses. They have also indicated the
succession of the Parthian and the Kushan rule in that area.
Different types of big stone tombs are excavated in South India. Excavations at south
Indian sites such as Adichanallur, Chandravalli, Brahmagiri highlights the pre-historic periods.
27
The most important site which reveals megalithic culture is Brahmagiri in the Chitaldurga district
of Karnataka. Arikamedu near Pondicherry yielded Roman coins and pottery, and is believed
to be a trading station of the Romans. Kaveripattanam is another important excavated site
which yielded Roman pottery, and confirmed the commercial contact of South India with the
Romans which is known from the Sangam literature. Many an important Buddhist site has
been excavated and exposed to view like Sanchi, Sarnath and Nalanda. And a large number
of Buddhist sites in Andhrapradesh and Telangana like Amaravathi and Nagarjunakonda,
with their vast epigraphical and sculptural wealth, have been brought to light through excavations.
The excavations at Sannathi in Gulburga district of Karnataka have revealed Asokan edicts as
well as a number of inscriptions of the Satavahana period.
Similarity in monuments excavated in India and abroad establish a relations between
various areas of the globe, besides this it express the Indian migration beyond India. The fine
example of this is the temple of Angkorvat in Cambodia. The rock cut temples of Ajanta and
Ellora with its sculptures and paintings express the artistic finery of that period. Besides all
these pots, pottery, seals, skeletal remains all are inseparable parts of the reconstructing history.
3.2.2 Numismatic Sources
Numismatics is the study of coins. We could not have known about most of the Indo-
Greek, Saka-Parthian and Kushana kings without numismatic sources. This is considered as
the second most important source for reconstructing the history of India, the first being
inscriptions. Coins yield information on the condition of country. The coins made of gold,
silver and copper speak of the economic situation of that place in the period. Coins gives us
chronological information. It also gives us knowledge about the extent of influence of that a
particular ruler or kingdom and its relation with the distant areas. Roman coins discovered in
India gives us an idea about the existence of contacts with the Roman empire. Coins are the
only source of idea knowledge of the Bactarian; Indo-Greeks and Indo-Parthian dynasty.
The coins of this period brings to light an improvement in the coin artistry of India. Portraits
and figures, Hellenistic art and dates on the coins of the western straps of Saurashtra are
remarkable sources for reconstructing this period. The Puranic accounts of the Satavahanas
is ascertained from the Jogalthambi hoard of coins. The circulation of coins in gold and silver
during the Gupta empire imparts an idea of the healthy economic condition during the rule of
the Guptas.
Thousands of ancient Indian coins have been discovered from which idea about the
contemporary economic condition, currency system, development of the metallurgical art has
been obtained. The image of Samudragupta playing on a lyre gives us an idea of his love of
music. From the dates on the coins, it has been possible to understand the contemporary
political history. Samudragupta's Aswamedha coins and Lion-slayer coins gives us an idea of
his ambition and love of hunting.
Some coins were issued by merchants and guilds with permission of rulers prove that
commerce had became important in later history of Ancient India. Largest number of coins
found in Post-Maurya period, indicates trade had increased. Few coins from Post-Gupta
28
period indicates trade had declined. Coins found in systematic excavations are less in number
but are very valuable because their chronology and cultural context can be fixed precisely.
3.2.2.1 Types of Coins
Punch-Marked
According to V.A. Smith and Rapson, the punch-marked coins represent a private
coinage. The view of Smith is that they were issued by guilds and goldsmiths with the permission
of the ruling power. The reverse marks were the signs
of approval by the controlling authority.
According to Rapson, the obverse marks were
the private marks of the money-changers and the
reverse marks denoted locality in which the coins
were issued. However, recent researches have
proved that the punch- marked coins were issued 3.1: Punch-Marked Coins
by a regular public authority. A few of them found at
Pataliputra have been ascribed by Dr. K.P Jayaswal to the age of Chandragupta Maurya. A
large number of coins are to be found in the Government museums and municipal museums
and the private collectors. A critical study of all of them is bound to give a lot of additional
information regarding..
 Coins are the earliest coins of India and they bear only symbols on them.
 Each symbol is punched separately, which sometimes overlap the another.
 They do not bear and inscription, or legend on them.
 These have been found throughout the country. from Taxila to Magadha to Mysore or
even further south.
 Made from silver and copper. Some gold punch-marked coins are also reported to
have been found, but they are very rare and their authenticity is doubtful.
Indo-Greek
 Silver and copper and rarely in gold. The Indo-
Greek coins show beautiful artistic features on
them.
 The portrait or bust of the king on the observe
side appear to be real portraits.
 On the reverse some deity is depicted. 3.2: Indo-Greek Coins
 From these coins we know that than forty indo-Greek rulers who ruled in a small
north-western region of India.
Kushanas
 Kushanas issued mostly gold coins and numerous copper coins which are found in
most parts of north India up to Bihar.
29
 Indian influence can be seen on them from the
very beginning.
 The coins of Vima Kadphises bear the figure
of Siva standing beside a bull.
 In the legend on these coins the king calls
himself Maheshwara, i.e. devote Siva. 3.3: Kushanas Coins
 Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva etc. all have this depiction on their coins.
 We find many Indian Gods and Goddesses depicted on Kushana coins besides many
Persian and Greek deities.
Guptas
 Issued largest number of Gold coins.
 Guptas appear to have succeeded Kushanas in the tradition of minting coins. They
completely Indianised their coinage.
 Kings are depicted engaged in activities like hunting a lion or rhinoceros, holding a bow
or battle-axes, playing musical instrument or performing Ashwamedh yagna.
3.2.2.2 The Earliest Indian Coins
Coins were issued from about 6th or 5th century B.C. Even though they were intended
to be media of exchange, they are eminently useful for the reconstruction of History. The
earliest coins of India have only figures, devices or symbols and no legends. Sometimes, the
coins were cast in dies but very often symbols were punched on pieces of metals. The symbols
varied from time to time and were punched with a view to guarantee their genuineness and
value. On account of the absence of legends on them, much information is not available.
3.2.2.3 Indian Coins after the Greek Invasion
After the Greek invasion of India, the practice of writing the names of the kings on the
coins was started. A large number of coins were issued by the Indo-Bactrian rulers who had
under their control the Punjab and the North-Western Frontier. These coins possess a high
degree of artistic excellence and ultimately had a tremendous influence on Indian coinage.
The thing borrowed in the Indian coinage was
the name and the portrait of the ruler. The coins of
the Scythians and Parthians are of inferior quality
but they also give us a lot of historical information.
Their coins have enabled us to have an outline of
the history of their rulers and without them even the
outlines would have been missing. A branch of the 3.4: Samudra Gupta Coins
Scythians settled in Gujarat and Kathiawar and they
issued coins in which the names of the ruling kings and their fathers were mentioned in the
Saka era. These coins have helped us to reconstruct the history of the Western Satraps for
more than three centuries. The Kushans also issued a large number of coins. The existence of
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the Malavas, Yaudheyas and the Mitra rulers of Panchala is known only from the coins. The
coins of the Satavahanas supplement, correct and corroborate the accounts of the Puranas.
The Gupta coins also give us a lot of useful information. Guptha coins are very important
in so far as they depict the pastimes of the Kings, viz., the lion-slayer type, the tiger-slayer
type, the elephant-rider type, Samudraguptha is depicted as playing on a lyre and this confirms
his skill in music which finds mention in his Allahabad pillar inscription. The peacock -type
was issued by Kumara Guptha I. He was named after God Kumara or Kartikeya whose
vahana was the peacock. So, he must have shown his devotion by engraving his vahana in his
coins. The Indian coins after the Gupta period do not give us much historical information.
3.2.3 Epigraphic Sources
Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions. Epigraphic evidences form the most reliable source
of ancient history. Inscriptions represent various languages at different places and period of
time. Some inscriptions give details about the political and religious activities of that time.
Others are official, commemorative and historical.
Inscriptions are the most reliable evidence. These are mostly carved on gold, silver,
iron, copper, bronze plates or stone pillars, rocks temple walls and bricks and are free from
interpolations. Inscriptions again are mainly of three types:- royal eulogy, official documents,
boundary marks, deeds, gift, etc. and private records of votive, donatives or dedicative type.
Inscriptions in Prakrit, Pali, Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and other languages have been discovered.
But most of the inscriptions are in Brahmi and Kharosti scripts. James Prinsep, the Secretary
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal succeeded for the first time in deciphering the Brahmi script.
Among the inscriptions of ancient past, those of emperor Ashoka are by far the best historical
evidence about his reign. Inscriptions of Kharavela, king of Kalinga, Saka rular Rudradamana,
Allahabad Prasasti by Harisena, the court poet of Samudragupta, are important evidences for
the reconstruction of the history of India.
Sanskrit plays at Dhar and Ajmer
and musical rules found in the Pudukottai.
Treaties on architecture inscribed on a
tower at Chittor are examples of
inscriptions. Inscriptions on metal plates
also cast light on the period during the
Mauryans. The Mandasor copper plates,
the Sohgaura plate from Gorakpur
district, the Uttaramerur inscriptions of
Parantaka Chola I cast light on trade,
taxes, currency. Some of these are dated
3.5: Harappan Seals
in the Saka and Vikrama era reflects the
condition of India. It gives knowledge about the boundaries of kingdoms and empire.
One of the most important and reliable sources of history writing are inscriptions. An
inscription, being a contemporary document, is free from later interpolations. It comes in the
form it was composed in and engraved for the first time. It is almost impossible to add something
to it at a later stage. The earliest system of writings is found in the Harappan seals. (2500BC)
However, there has been no success in deciphering it.
31
They are pictographic script- ideas/objects expressed in form of picture. Thus, the
writing system of the Ashokan inscriptions (in Brahmi script) are considered to be the
earliest (3rd AD). Ashoka's views on dhamma and conquests of Samudragupta, and
several others would have remained unknown without their epigraphs. Limitation of
inscription is they never speak of defeats/ weaknesses.
3.2.3.1 Ashokan Inscriptions
These were recorded in different years of his reign and are called edicts because
they are in the form of the king's order or desire. They also give a glimpse of Ashoka's
image and personality as a benevolent king concerned with the welfare of not only his
subjects but also of the whole humanity. These are found written in four scripts.
3.6: Edicts of Ashoka
Language used in Ashokan inscriptions

Empire Script used in Ashokan Edicts
Afghanistan 1. Aramaic
2. Greek scripts
Pakistan 3. Kharoshthi. Kharoshthi evolved on the Varnantata
system of the Indian languages is written from right to
left.
4. Brahmi.
written from left to right.
its individual letters were modified century after century
Kalsi in the north in
and through this process all the scripts of India, including
Uttaranchal up to Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam in the south and
Mysore in the south. Nagari, Gujarati, Bangla., etc. in the north have developed
from it.
This modification in the form of individual letters gave
another advantage. It has made it roughly possible to
ascertain the time or the century in which the inscription _
was written
32
3.2.3.2 Firoz Shah Tughlaq
 He found an Ashokan Pilar inscription from Topra, Haryana, brought it to Delhi
and asked Pandits to decipher it. They failed.
 Later, British started epigraphic studies in the late eighteenth century and deciphered
it.
3.2.3.3 James Prinsep
 Made a complete chart of Ashokan Alphabets in 1837. After this the study of
epigraphs became a subject in itself. India is particularly rich in epigraphic material.
 Inscriptions of the Indo-Greeks, Saka-kshatrapas and Kushanas adopt Indian names
within two or three generations. These inscriptions show them engaged in social
and religious welfare activities like any other Indian.
3.2.3.4 Sanskrit Inscriptions
 Most of the Gupta epigraphs give genealogy. This became the practice of the
subsequent dynasties. They took the opportunity to give an account of their conquests
and achievements of their predecessor including mythology of their origins.
 Sanskrit came to occupy a prune place since the Gupta period.
Junagarh Rock inscription Early example of chaste Sanskrit, written in mid second
of Rudradaman century A.D.
Allahabad Pillar Enumerates the achievements of Samudragupta
Aihole inscription. Chalukya king Pulkeshin II gives a dynastic genealogy
Gwalior inscription gives full account of his predecessors and their
achievements.
of Bhoja From the inscriptions we also came to know that Learned
Brahmans (called Agraharas) were given grant of land,
free from all taxes.
The difficulty of deciphering inscriptions has been overcome in most of the cases
although the script of the Indus Valley still remains a mystery.
3.2.3.5 Understanding Inscriptions
Religious and didactic inscriptions deal with religious and moral matters. Possibly,
some of the seals and tablets of the Indus Valley were objects of worship and were not
used as amulets. The inscriptions of Asoka are the best specimen of the religious and
didactic inscriptions. Ashoka's edicts are also a specimen of the administrative
inscriptions. An extract from one of his inscriptions reads thus: "Everywhere in my
dominions, the Yuktas, the Rajjukas and the Pradesikas shall proceed on circuit every
five years as well for this purpose (for the instruction of Dhamma) as for other business."
The Sohgaura copper plate inscription of the third century B.C. is an example of
pure administrative inscription. The Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman I also
33
contains administrative material. A large number of copper plate inscriptions have been
found both in the north and south and they contain many useful administrative details.
Reference may be made in this connection to the Banskhera copper plate inscription of
Harsha.
3.2.3.6 Eulogies
As regards the eulogistic inscriptions (Prasastis), they are very important from the
political point of view. Generally, they contain the name and genealogy of the ruler
concerned, the earlier career of the King, his military, political and administrative
achievements, the existence of contemporary States coming into conflict with him and
the inter-state relations, the administrative system, the political ideals, the personal
accomplishments of the King, his patronage, munificence and charity and mythological
or Puranic allusions by way of comparison and similes. The one great difficulty in these
inscriptions is that there is a tendency on the part of the authors to exaggerate the
achievements of their patrons.
Eulogistic inscriptions can be sub-divided into two parts: pure eulogy and eulogy
mixed with other types. The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga belongs
to the category of pure eulogy. It describes in detail the achievements of Kharavela in a
chronological order. To the same category belongs the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of
Samudragupta. The number of inscriptions which contain eulogy mixed with other matter
is very large. In practically every document of a permanent nature, reference is made to
the glories of the ruling sovereign and his ancestors.
3.2.3.7 Mixed Types
Important specimens of the mixed type are to be found in the Nasik Cave Inscription
of Usavadata, the Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman I, the Nasik Cave Inscription
of Gautami Balasri, the Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription of Chandra, Junagadh Rock
Inscription of Skandgupta, the Bhitari Stone Pillar Inscription of Skandgupta, the Mandasor
Stone Pillar Inscription of Yasodharman, the Stone Inscription of Isanvarman, the Aihole
Stone Inscription of the time of Pulakesin II, the Talagunda Stone Pillar Inscription of the
time of Santivarman, the Nagarjunikonda Inscriptions of Virapurusdatta, Mandasor Stone
Inscription of the time of Kumargupta and Bandhuvarman, etc.
3.2.3.8 Votive or Dedicative Inscriptions
We have a large number of votive or dedicative inscriptions. It is possible that
some of the tablets found in the Indus Valley contain votive inscriptions. The Piprahwa
Vase Inscription records the dedication of the relic casket of Lord Buddha. The Besnagar
Garuda Pillar Inscription of Helidoros also belongs to this category. Many of the
dedicative inscriptions deal with the installation of images and the construction of temples.
Reference may be made in this connection to the Mandasor Inscription of the time of
Kumargupta II and Bandhuvarman and the Bhitari Pillar Inscription of Skandgupta and
the Aihole Inscription of the time of Pulakesin II. The number of donative inscriptions is
very large as many occasions offered themselves for this purpose to the ruler and the
subjects. Some of the inscriptions refer to the donations of caves or other buildings for
the residence of monks and ascetics. Some refer to the donation of money in the form of
a permanent endowment. Out of these funds, the Brahmans and the needy were fed,
lamps were lighted in the temples, etc. In some inscriptions, there is a reference to the
donation of lands and villages to the monasteries, educational institutions and the
Brahmanas. Commemorative inscriptions record such events as birth, death or other
important events.
34
Copper plates inscriptions of many of the dynasties like the Early Chalukyas, the
Rashtrakutas, the Eastern Chalukyas and Vijayanagara Rulers, invariably gave a long succession
of rulers of their respective families, and sometimes also the individual achievements of the
Kings and these have been put to use by historians.
For promoting economic well-being, Kings have either dug new tanks and canals or
maintained the old ones in proper condition. There is long history of the Sudarshana lake that
was mentioned in the Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman. And the Kakatiya and Vijayanagara
inscriptions mention the construction of big sized tanks for irrigation and drinking purposes.
The same two dynasties were responsible for encouraging foreign trade. The inscriptions of
Motupalli in Andhrapradesh that were issued by Kakati Ganapathi Deva and Sangama Devaraya
I indicate the tolls that are to be collected on various goods of export and import. The inscription
of Ganapatideva is described as a charter of security (Abhaya Sasana) to foreign merchants.
Inscriptions also help us in tracing the evolution of languages like Telugu and Kannada.
From the 6th or 7th century AD till 10th or 11th century AD it is from the inscriptions in
Andhra and Karnataka that we get to know the state of the Telugu or Kannada language. The
Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman and the Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II are of high
literary value. Ravikeerthi, the composer of the Aihole inscription, himself to Kalidas and
Bharavi.
The temples at Tanjore, Tirupathi and other religious centers yield hundreds of inscriptions
regarding constructions and various types of offerings to the temples. The Malkapuram
inscription of Rudramadevi of the Kakatiya family is important in the sense that it mentions the
activities of the Golaki Matha belonging to Saivism.
However, there are some limitations of inscriptional evidence. For example some times,
letters are very faintly engraved, and thus reconstructions are uncertain. Also, inscriptions may
be damaged or letters missing. Besides, it is always easy to be sure about the exact meaning
of the words used in inscriptions, some of which may be specific to a particular place or time.
1. How do monuments help the writings of Indian History?

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2. Mention how coins and inscriptions are useful for writing Indian History.
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3.3 LITERARY SOURCES
Literature is also a potential source in yielding a lot of historical information. Like
numismatics, archaeology and epigraphy, literature throws a lot of light on the achievements
of Kings and the political, social or religious aspects of a period. Literature in the
ancient period was not fuelled by the urge to preserve history but was a complication of
experiences and rules of worship. The Literary Source can also be divided into two
groups, namely, Native Literature, Literature and Accounts of Foreigners.
3.3.1 Native Literature
The literary works produced within the country help us in the reconstruction of the
past. From the Vedic literature to Vijayanagara Period, there are many works which are
utilized for political, social and cultural history. The Ancient Indian literature were
mostly religious in nature and contains no definite date for events and kings eg. the
Puranas and the epics. The Rig Vedic and later Vedic literatures give us the names of the
tribal chiefs and information about the extension of the authority of the Aryans in India.
literature has no trace of political history but has a reliable glimpses of culture and
civilization of the age. The epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Jaina and Buddhist
religious texts supply us with some important historical material with doses of religious
messages.
The Buddhist and Jain literature gives knowledge of the traditions prevalent in
those periods. The literature of this period are in Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit. It gives us a
knowledge about music, dance, painting architecture and administration of various kings.
The Sangam literature in south is an elaborate record of life in South India. The Puranas
have religious themes, but they are also useful in providing the genealogies of various
dynasties of ancient India. The most systematic record of Indian historical tradition is
the preserved in the dynastic lists of the Puranas.
Upanishads: Main source of Indian philosophy, also called "Vedantas". Jaina
Parisistapravana, Buddhist Dwipavamsa and Mahavamsa contain traditions which supply
us some historical materials. Gargi Samhita , a book on astronomy, the grammer of
Panini and Patanjali also contain materials that help us in the reconstruction of the history
of the ancient period of India.
From the second half of the ancient period of Indian history, there are not only
panegyrics of kings and emperors but also political treatises dealing with the principles
of administration. Kautilya's Arthasastra and Manusmriti may be mentioned in this
connection. It was a work of the Maurya period. Vishakhadatta's Mudrarakshasa gives a
glimpse of Maurya society and culture. Similarly, events of the Pushyamitra Sunga's
reign are mentioned by Kalidasa in Malvikagnimitram. Among the personal accounts of
ancient period, Banabhatta's Harshacharita , dealing with the character and achievements
of Harshvardhana as also history of his times, Bakpatiraja's Gaudabaho describings
how Yasovarman conquered Gauda deserves special mention. Sandhyaakar Nandi's
Ramacharita is a description of the reign of Rampal, a king of the Pala dynasty of Bengal.
Likewise, Padmagupta's Nabasahasanka Charita, Hem Chandra's Dwasraya Kavya ,
Nyaya Chandra's Hammir Kavya , Ballal's Bhoja Prabandha contains important historical
materials.
36
The chronologies or connected dynastic accounts end with the Puranas. None of
the later supplies this type of information. However, a number of biographies of rulers
exist. Though those praise the kings sky-high, the historical material can be easily found
out. Harshacharita by Banabhatta, who was noted for his use of Sanskrit prose,
Vikramankadevacharita by Bilhana and Prithvirajaraso by Chand Bardai, might be cited as
examples. There are also a few local chronicles which describe the history of a region. Mention
must be made of the work Rajatarangini which was written by Kalhana in 1150 A.D., it deals
with the history of Kashmir.
Among the works which deal with subjects other than political history, mention should
be made of Kautilya's Arthasastra which guided the Mauryan administration and of other
kingdoms. The King's duties, the code of conduct of officers, agriculture and industry, taxation,
the inter-state relations etc., also all detailed in this work. Smritis like the Manusmriti,
Yajnavalkayasmriti, Naradasmriti etc., also deal with state and the legal system.
The earliest south Indian literature is called Sangam literature. It was written in Tamil
and is secular in nature. It was produced by poets who joined together in assemblies (Sangam)
patronized by chiefs and kings during the first four centuries in the Christian Era. The literature
consists of short and long poems in praise of various heroes, written probably to be recited in
the courts. It also constitutes the epics called Silapadikaram and Manimekali. The Sangam
literature is our major source for the study of south Indian society, economy and polity during
BC 300-AD 300. The descriptions given in the Sangam literature are confirmed by
archaeological finds and accounts of foreign travelers.
Another important sources of histories are Sthalapuranas and ballads. The ballad is
simple popular poem devoid of much poetic ambition. Some historical events have been cast
into that form of narration eminently fitted for oral circulation among the people. The Palnati
Vira Charitra and Katamaraju Gathalu belong to such category. Those ballads are not without
value in that they exhibit the popular reactions to the events they commemorate. In recent
days, oral histories, relating to the details of the actual happenings as witnessed by elders or
learned people, form an important source for understanding the past.
3.3.2 Foreign Literature
Foreign literature is useful for historical reconstruction because of its unbiased
character. But, it suffers from the ignorance of writers of the language and customs of the
people about whom they were writing. Indigenous literature can be supplemented by
foreign accounts. To this class belong the works of the Greeks, Romans, Chinese and
Muslims.
3.3.2.1 Greek and Roman Accounts
Scholars have divided Greek and Roman accounts into three categories.
(i) Prior to Alexander,
(ii) Contemporary of Alexander and
(iii) Later than Alexander.
37
In the first category the name of Herodotus (424-431 B.C.) is more important. He
has written much about India and the Indians. According to him 'The Indians are by far
the greatest multitude of all the people of men whom we know.'
The historians, who accompanied Alexander, were Nearchus, Aristobulus,
Onesciritus, Clitarchus, etc. They have also left an account of the people of India of
those days. The third category comprises the writings of the Ambassadors who came to
the courts of Indian rulers, such as Megasthenes, Dyonisis and Deimachos. Of them all
Megasthenes is the most important writer. Unfortunately the original version of his work
is not available, but it has played an important part in reconstructing Ancient Indian
history through its references contained in other works. This work tells us not only about
the Mauryan administration but also about social classes and economic life during the
Mauryan period. The 'Indika', as not free from credulity and exaggerations, but this is
true of many other ancient accounts. Last but not the least is the later Greek and Roman
writers like Strabo, Diodoras, Arrian, Pliny, Ptolemy etc. These writers were more
rational and highly critical and their accounts are of immense value for the early history
of India.
Greek and Roman accounts of the first and second centuries A.D. mention many
Indian ports and enumerate items of trade between India and the Roman Empire. The
Periplus of the Erythrean Sea and Ptolemy's Geography, both written in Greek, provide
valuable data for the study of ancient geography and commerce.
3.3.2.2 Chinese Accounts
The four notable Chinese travelers to India are Fa-Hien, Sungyun, Hiuen- Tsang
and I-tsing. Fa-Hien started from China in 399 A.D. He entered India from the north-
western side and left it in 413 A. D. at Tamralipti. From here he reached China via
Ceylon, Java and Sumatra. He also stayed in the Capital of Chandragupta Vikramdhitya.
His accounts throw a flood of light on the political, social, economic and religious
conditions of India under Chandra Gupta II.
In his accounts Fa-Hien also praises the administrative machinery under the Guptas.
As regards religion he says that the Guptas followed a policy of religious toleration and
Buddhism was in a prospering state. Sungyun had come to India around 518 A.D. His
accounts also throw light on contemporary Indian political, social and religious conditions.
Hiuen-Tsang came to India in 629 A.D. in the time of Harshavardhan. He enjoyed the
patronage of King Harshavardhan. He wrote a book called 'Si-Yu-Ki.' This work contains
a vivid description of the religious assemblies of Harsha, his liberality and contemporary
Indian socio-religious and political situation. His account is worth mentioning also from
the point of view of his reference to Ancient Indian educational system and ancient
Indian customs and practices.
I-Tsung came to India towards the end of the 7th century. He stayed for a long time
in the Universities of Vikrarmadhitya and Nalanda. His travel accounts throw light on
the decline of Nalanda and Vikramadhitya universities and contemporary situation.
There are two major drawbacks in the Chinese Travellers accounts. They are
written from a Buddhist point of view on account of their extreme faith in Buddhism and
secondly non- religious aspects have been specially neglected by Fa-Hien and I-Tsung.
38
3.3.2.3 Tibetan Historian Taranath
Tibetan scholar Taranath has written the work 'History of Buddhism'. This also
throws light on ancient Indian history. Actually his account is specially useful for the
history of post-Mauryan period. Without it our information about the Shakas, Parthians
and Kushanas would have been incomplete.
3.3.2.4 Muslim Accounts
The work of Alberuni, "Tehqiq-i-Hind"s very valuable for giving us an account of
Hindu manner, science and literature. He accompanied Mohammad of Ghazni, and gives
political conditions of India in the tenth and eleventh centuries A.D. Being himself well-
versed in Sanskrit language, Hindu social and religious customs, his book is of special
significance.
After Alberuni the other later Muslim writers which are worth mentioning, are
Ibn-Batuta, Al-Masudi, Nizamuddin and Hasan-Nizami. The Venetian traveler, Macro
Polo, passed through some parts of South India on his way from China to Persia between
A.D. 1292 and 1294, and has left a very interesting account of the social manners and
customs of South India. The loop holes in the indigenous literature is supported by the
numerous account by foreigners who were either pilgrims, travelers, traders or
ambassadors in the court of various kings.
Muslim accounts narrated the circumstances that led to the establishment of Turko-
Afghan power in India. The history of the Delhi Sultanate is reconstructed with the help
of these contemporary or later accounts. Minhajuddin's Tabaquat-i-Nasiri is very useful
source to narrates the conquest of India by Mohammad of Ghor, and the Turkish kingdom
in India, and its history up to 1260 A.D. Amir Khusru's Khazain-ul- Futuh belongs to the
reign of Alauddin Khilji and mentions his various conquests. Ziauddin Barani's Tarikh-
i- Firuz Shahi, written during the time of Firoj Shah Tughlak, deals with the history of the
period from the reign of Balban to the sixth year of the reign of Firoz Shah. Later works
like Gulshan-i-Ibrahimi by Ferishta and Burhan-i-Maasir by Syed Ali help us in
reconstructing the history of the Bahmanis of Gulbarga and of the subsequent families
like the Adil Shahis of Bijapur and the Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar. They also throw
light on the relations of these families with the contemporary Vijayanagara Kings.
3.3.2.5 Italian and Portuguese Accounts
In addition to the Muslim histories, there are a number of Italian and Portuguese
accounts which must also be consulted for writing on the medieval period. Marco Polo,
the Italian traveler, visited Andhra and South India, and made note of the important ports
and their trading activity. The Italian traveler, Niccolo de Conti, the Persian ambassador,
Abdul Razzak, and the Portuguese travelers, Paes and Nuniz, left their accounts which
glorify the Vijayanagara empire. These accounts describe graphically the capital city of
Vijayanagara, the palace and the court life, the society, the peculiar practice of immolation
of Sati and religious festivals of the time.
39
The existence of details in the literature of the Greeks, Chinese, Persians, Romans
and Europeans gives an account of the condition of the country then. It also speaks the
truth about the conditions under which they came in contact India. The presence of various
artifacts and materials of Indian origin has added to the study of Indian history. The
histories of the Chinese from 120BC to 400AD and 700AD, the accounts of Abul-Fazl in
his 'Ain - i - Akbari' are a few examples of the foreign sources to know about the Indian
history. In many cases where there was a need to fill in the vagueness caused by the lack
of evidence in the study of Indian history these foreign sources have proved handy.
The sources mentioned above are to be utilized for the reconstruction of Indian
History. As there is no connected history of a region or a dynasty barring very few, the
political as well as the cultural history has to be drawn from diverse sources. Though
these literature lacks historical sense yet they are the main sources to venture into the
facts of Indian history.

1. What are the important indigenous literary sources for writing Indian History?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
2. What are the important foreign literary sources for the reconstruction of Indian History?
...........................................................................................................................................
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3.4 SUMMARY
History is the study of past events. It helps us to understand those processes that
enabled the early humans to successfully conquer their environmental and develop the present
day civilization. It is not just a study of battles and kings as is normally understood by some. It
is analysis of society, economy and cultural trends over a long period as reflected in available
sources. In this chapter a variety of sources are available for writing Indian history, Monuments,
Coins and the inscriptions which are called the archaeological sources. And also the literary
sources, indigenous and some foreign. Some of the loop holes in indigenous literature is
supported by the numerous accounts of foreigners who were either pilgrims, travelers,
friends and ambassadors in the court of Kings. All the sources discussed are utilized and
still utilizing for the construction of Indian History.
40
I. (i) Monuments tell us the history of the period to which they belong. The temples of
different periods, the Buddhist monuments, like the stupas, the architecture of the
Mughals, the monuments of Vijayanagara period, the cave paintings of Ajantha, the
forts and other buildings help us to write the history of the country.
(ii) The Roman coins that were found in our country tell us about the trading contacts
between India and Rome in the ancient times. The Guptha coins tell us about the
Guptha Kings. Samudra Guptha's coins tell us about his accomplishments. Inscriptions
help us in writing the political, social and economic history of the country. The Allahabad
inscription gives information on Samudraguptha's conquests. The Aihole inscription tells
us that Pulakesin II defeated Harsha.
II (i) Indigenous literary sources for writing Indian History could be classified into two
categories. (1) Religious and the other (2) Secular. Buddhist and Jain works, the Vedas,
Puranas, the Ramayana and the Mahabharatha are the important religious sources.
Arthasastra, Rajatarangini, Bana's Harsha Charitha are the important secular sources.
(ii) For the early period, we have the Greaco-Roman works, of which the Indica of
Megasthanes is important. The Chinese works of Fahien provide useful information for
the Guptha period. Alberuni's works are valuable sources for the early medieval period.
The works of Italians, Portuguese and the Persians like Marcopolo, Nicolo Conti and
Abdul Razzak are valuable sources of history for the Vijayanagara Period.

I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines
1. What is Numismatic Sources? How it is useful for the reconstruction of Ancient Indian
History?
2. How do archaeological sources help us in the reconstruction of Indian History?
3. Discuss the contribution of native literary sources for the reconstruction of Indian
History.
3. Critically examine the contribution of foreign literary sources for the reconstruction
of Indian History.
II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each
1. What do you mean by 'Epigraphy'? How far can this be utilized as a source for the
study of economic and religious history of India?
2. How far the Ashokan edicts help in knowing about Ashoka and Mauryans?
3. Assess the type of information that is supplied by the Foreign accounts
41
4. Describe the historical value of inscriptions
5. State the information that is found in 'Indica' and 'Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'.
6. What valuable historical information was provided by Fahien, Hiuen-Tsang and
Itsing?
7. Estimate the contribution was made by the European Travelers for the study of
Indian History ?

1. Majumbdar.R.C. & : The Vedic Age, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
Puslakar A.D(Eds) Series, Volume I

2. Nilakanta Sastri K.A. : A History of South India
3. Nilakanta Sastri K.A. : History of India, Volume I
4. Sathianatha Aiyar .R. : History of India, Volume I
5. Smith, V.A. : Oxford History of India
***
42
UNIT- 4: INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHY AND
ENVIRONMENT
Contents
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Name
4.3 Boundaries.
4.4 Mountains
4.4.1 The Himalaya Range
4.4.2 The Aravalli
4.4.3 The Vindhya
4.4.4 The Satpura
4.5 The Ghats
4.5.1 The Western Ghats
4.5.2 The Eastern Ghats
4.6 The Plains of Hindustan
4.7 Rivers
4.8 The Deccan Plateau
4.9 Thar Desert
4.10 The Coast
4.11 Impact of Geography
4.12 Unity and Diversity
4.13 Summary
4.0 OBJECTIVES
l Konw the Name and Boundaries of India.
l Describe the Mountains and Plains of India.
l Discuss the Rivers and Plateaus of India.
43
l Discuss the Plains and Desert of India.
l Analyse the Unity and Diversity of India.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The Indian History cannot be understood without some knowledge of its geography.
In the words of Richard Hakluyt, "Geography and Chronology are Sun and Moon, the
right eye and the left eye of History". It follows that the evolution of Indian history and
culture cannot be properly understood without a proper appreciation of the geographical
factors involved in their development. Unlike the Arabs and the Chinese, the Indians
neglected the study of geography and cartography, or did not give them the attention they
deserved.
4.2 NAME
The sub-continent of India, stretching from the Himalayas to the sea, is known to
the Hindus as Bharatavarsha or the land of Bharata, a king famous in Puranic tradition. It
was said to form part of a Jargar unit called Jambudvipa. The early Buddhist sources
suggests that Jambudvipa was a territorial designation actually in use from the third
century C.E. at the latest, and was applied to that part of Asia, outside China, throughout
which the prowess of the great imperial family of the Mauryas made itself felt. Ancient
Greeks associated the term "Indoi" for the Indian people and territories with the Indus
river, adopted apparently form the Sindhu of the ancient Sanskrit text. The later Muslim
version became "Hindu" for the people, and "Hindustan" for the area, more specifically
for the territory of Muslim consolidation in North India. Later the British called the
country as India.
4.3 BOUNDARIES
The India is located between 8°4'N to 47°6' N latitudes and from 68°7' E to
97°25' E longitudes. Thus the latitudinal and longitudinal extent of India is of about 29
degrees. It measures about 3,214 km from north to south, and 2,944 km from east to
west., covering an area of 32,87,540 sq. kilometres. The boundaries of this vast country
are on the North the mighty Himalayas on the South India Ocean, West Arabian Sea and
East Bay of Bengal respectively. India had 1506.7 Km of land border running through
92 districts in 17 States. In India there are 29 States and 7 Union territories.
4.4 MOUNTAINS
In India Mountains occupied prominent place. The mountains protected from the
foreign invasion on the nation and also source for the important rivers. The mountains
such as Himalayas, Aravalli, Vindhya and Satpura are very important.
4.4.1 THE HIMALAYA RANGE
India has several mountain ranges, chief among them being the Himalayas, the
Vindhya, the Aravalli, the Satpura, the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats.
44
Himalaya (Him+Alya) means "abodes of snow" - is one of the youngest and highest
mountain ranges on the globe with many peaks as high as 7000 meters and above. It is
about 2400 km in length from Afghanistan- Pakistan in the west and Namcha Barwa in
the east. The Himalayan mountain spans in Bhutan, India, Nepal, China and Pakistan,
bounded at either end by the Indus and Brahmaputra rivers. It varies in width between
250 to 400 km along its length and cover about 5,00,000 Km. The Himalaya is amongst
the youngest mountain systems of the world. They are typically tectonic in origin, having
been uplifted during the Tertiary times from the bed of the great Mediterranean Sea, the
Tethys. The Himalayas took probably several million years to attain their present height.
The Himalayan Mountain can be divided into three parallel or longitudinal zones,
each with definite orographical features- the Great Himalaya (Himadri) in north, the
Lesser Himalaya (Himachal) in the middle, and the Outer Himalaya (Siwalik) in the
south.
4.1: The Himalayan Range

The Greater Himalayas comprises of the northern most ranges and peaks. It has an
average height of 6000 metres and width lies between 120 to 190 Kms .It is the most continuous
range. It is snow bound and many glaciers descend from this range. It has high peaks like
Mount Everest (8,848), K2 (8,611), Kanchenjunga (8,598), Dhaulagiri (8,172), Nanga Parbat
(8,126), Gesherbrum (8,045), Gosainthan(8,014) and Nanda Devi (7,817) etc. having a
height of more than 8000 metres. Mt. Everest (8,848 m) is the highest peak of the world and
Kanchenjunga is the highest peak of Himalaya in India. High Mountain passes also exist in this
range, namely, Bara Lacha-La, Shipki-La,Nathu-La, Zoji-La, Bomidi-La etc. The Ganga
and Yamuna rivers originate from this Himalayas.
The Lesser Himalayas or Himachal, is a massive mountainous tract, 75 Km wide. The
mountains and valleys are disposed in all directions, the mountains rising to 5,000 m, and the
valleys touching 1,000 m. The Prominent ranges in this are Pir Panjal, Dhaula Dhar and
Mahabharata ranges. It compresses of many famous hill stations like Shimla, Dalhousie
Darjeeling, Chakrata, Mussoorie, Nanital etc. It also comprises of famous valleys like Kashmir,
Kullu, Kangra etc.
The Outer Himalayas or the Siwaliks is the outer most range of the Himalayas. Their
width varies from 10 to 50 Km, and an average elevation is 600 to 1100 m. They have
low hills like Jammu Hills, etc. The valleys lying between Siwalik and Lesser Himalayas
(Himachal) are called 'Duns' like Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun which are intensively
cultivated and densely populated.
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4.4.2 THE ARAVALLI
The Aravalli Mountains cross Rajasthan
from southwest to northeast dividing the arid
semi-desert of the Bikaner, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer
area on the west from the more fertile region of
Udaipur and Jaipur on the east. They are the
remnants of former mountain ranges of tectonic
origin. Guru Sikhar (1,722 m) on the Abu hills is
the highest peak of the Aravalli. 4.2: The Aravalli
4.4.3 THE VINDHYA

The Vindhya Range stretches across nearly
the whole width of Peninsular India, a distance of
nearly 1,050 Km with an average elevation of
400 m. It forms an important watershed, and along
with the Satpura range, constitutes the northern
boundary of the Deccan.
4.4.4 THE SATPURA 4.3: The Vindhya
The Satpura range lies south of the Vindhya
and runs more or less parallel to it. Several of its
peaks are over 1,000 m high, the highest being
Dhupgarh (1,450m) near Pachmarhi hill station.
The Satpuras consists of a number of parallel
ranges which enclose between them extensive flat-
topped lava plateaus. The Satpura broaden
considerably in the central part and have a radial
drainage; this part is bordered on the north by
4.4: The Satpura
the Mahadeo hills, and on the south by the Gawilgarh hills.

1. What are the Important Mountains in India?
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...........................................................................................................................................
2. Where the Highest Peaks located?
...........................................................................................................................................
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4.5 THE GHATS
In India there are two important Ghats i.e. the Western Ghat and Eastern Ghat. The
Ghats height is nearly 1000 m above. There are several important peaks located in these
Ghats. The peaks occupied important place in the history of India.
4.5.1 THE WESTERN GHATS
The Western Ghats (Sahyadri) with an average height of 1,200 m runs almost parallel
to the coast for about the mouth of the Tapti River to Cape Comorin. Up to the 160 North
latitude from the Tapti, the ranges are composed of horizontal sheets of basaltic lava flows
which exhibit typical trap feature. The Ghats rise almost perpendicularly from the coastal plain
up to a height of 1,000 m in some places. The steep face looks like an ancient sea-cliff, but it
is probably a fault scrap the western part of which has drifted away westwards. This special
feature accounts for the fact that all the important rivers of Peninsular India, except the
Narmada and the Tapti, flow eastwards into the Bay of Bengal, though their sources are on
the crest of the Ghats which is only 50 to 80 Km from the Arabian Sea. The crest line runs in
broad curves forming two-re-entrants at Triambak and Tamhini, carved respectively by the
headwaters of the Godavari and Bhima rivers. Kalsubai (1,646 m), Salher (1,567 m), and
Mahabaleshwar (1,448 m), are among the highest peaks in this part of the Western Ghats.
4.5: The Western Ghats
From 160 North latitude to the Nilgiri Mountain, granite and gneiss take the place
of Deccan Trap. In this section, the Ghats run close to the coast until they join the Nilgiri
Mountain near Gudalur.
The Palghat gap trending east-west lies across the Ghats. The gap is 24 Km wide
at its narrowest part and lies at an elevation of 144 m, while the bordering hills rise to
highest of 1,500 m to 2,000 m. This gap is probably a rift valley caused by subsidence
between two parallel faults. The Western Ghats continue south of the Palghat Gap. Anai
Mudi (2,695 m) is a nodal point from which three ranges radiate- the Anamalai in the
north, the Palni Hills in the northeast, and the Cardamom Hills (Elamalai) in the south.
47
4.5.2 THE EASTERN GHATS
The northern section of the Eastern Ghats lies in Orissa State to Andhra Pradesh,
with an average width of 200 Km in the north and 100 Km in the south. Mahendragiri
(1,501 m) in Orissa is a conspicuous peak lying above the coastal plain. The general
trend of the ranges is northeast to southwest. The prevailing rock type is khondalite.
4.6: The Eastern Ghats

In the Deccan, the Eastern Ghats do not form a continuous range except in the
Cuddapah and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh. Between the Pennar and the Krishna
rivers, there are parallel ranges and valleys of the Eastern Ghats which trend north-
south. The most prominent of these ranges is the Nallamala which runs parallel to the
Coromandel Coast. The Cauvery cuts the range transversely near Sivasamudram in Mysore
State (Karnataka) and later leaps over the Hogenakal falls. Near the southern end of the
Ghats, the Biligirirangan Hills (highest peak, 1,750 m) forms a well-defined range.
To the east of the Eastern Ghats, there are two other groups of hills: the southern
group dominated by the Shevaroy Hills and the northern by the Javadi Hills.
The Nilgiri or Blue Mountain is the meeting ground of the Western Ghats and the
Eastern Ghats. The Nilgiri Mountain rises abruptly from the plains in a stupendous
precipice which is probably a faoult scrap. The general trend of the Nilgiri is northeast-
southwest, which corresponds to the trend of the Eastern Ghats. Two of the highest peaks
are Dodda Beta (2,647 m) and Makurti (2,554 m). The south-western part of the mountain
known as Kunda, is traversed by bold ranges and intersected by deep valleys. The
surface of the rest of the Nilgiri is extremely undulating with rounded grassy hills and
broad forest-clad valleys.
4.6 THE PLAINS OF HINDUSTAN

The vast plain of India, between the Himalayas to the north and the peninsular
plateau to the south is formed by the Indus-Ganga- Brahmaputra Rivers. The surface of
the plains has resulted by the works of Himalayan river, the infilling is not uniform, but
has the striking difference in depth of alluvial between the Indus and the Ganga basin.
The maximum depth of alluvial has been recorded to be about 2000 metres. The plain
has longitudinal diameter of about 3200 Km with varying width of 150-300 Km it is
narrow west in Assam with only 40-100 km width.
48
Among the three plains the Indian plain is more extensive, it covers a distance of
960 Km. The Ganga plain, on the other hand, extends for only 440 Km from Rajamahal
Hills to the Sunderban delta. As Ganga and its tributaries flow through the areas of
heavier rainfall, the amount of sediments carried by them is much more than that of the
Indus, which flows through the drier part of the country.
The Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain recognised as consisting of four distinct
divisions, they are
1. Bhabar Belt.
2. Tarai Belt.
3. Bhangar Belt.
4. Khandar Belt.
The Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra plain is the home of millions of Indians, it is the
centre of the Aryan civilization and was the administrative headquarters of many of the
kings, including the Mughals.
The basins of the rivers, the Ganges, the Jamuna, the Indus and the Brahmaputra
and their affluent and tributaries, form the great plains of Hindustan which are 2000
miles long, and 150 to 200 miles broad. Taking their rise from the Himalayas, the rivers
course through winding rocky-beds and reach the level plains, deposit the sediment and
make considerable deltas of fertile alluvial soil. They are perennial rivers provided
with inexhaustible supplies of water from the Himalayan glaciers and consequently
facilitate irrigation and provide highways of navigation and communication. Centres of
civilization and culture flourished on their banks.
4.7 RIVERS
In India many rivers flows through the different parts of the country. The major
rivers are such as Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, Narmada, Tapti, Mahanadi, Damodar,
Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri etc. these rivers supplied drinking water for lakhs of
people and also provides water for irrigational purpose to lakhs of acres in the country.
The River Indus rises from the Kailash range, Tibetan plateau near Mansarovar
Lake and coursing through the Himalayan and Karakoram mountains, joins the river
Gilgit and cuts its way to the plains. The Indus river flows southwards it was reaching
the Arabian Sea near east of Karachi. It was flowing west; it enters India in the Ladakh
district of Jammu and Kashmir. Indus tributaries, the Zaskar, the Nubra, the Shyokand
the Hunza, join it in the Kashmir region. The river Sutlej (Satadru), the Beas (Bipasha),
the Ravi (Iravati), the Chenab (Chandrabhaga), and the Jhelum (Vitasta), join together to
enter the Indus near Mithankot in Pakistan. The rivers Jeelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and
Sutlej combine in Punjab, making it fertile, and join the Indus, which flows through the
plains between Baluchistan and the Thar Desert, and descends into Sind. Indus total
length is 2900 km, the Indus is one of the longest rivers of the world.
49
The Ganga the most sacred of all Indian rivers originates from Gomukh glacier
near Gangotri Uttrakhand in the Kumaon Himalaya. It is named as Bhagirathi here. At
Devprayag, Alakananda joins Bhagirathi and becomes Ganga. In Allahabad it is joined
by Yamuna, the largest tributary of Ganga, rising from Yamunotri glacier. In its onward
journey it is joined by tributaries like Alakanada, Mandakni, Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghra,
Gandak, Kosi, Yamuna and Son. The total length of Ganga River is 2525 km. The Ganga
river traverses in Uttarakhand (450Km), Uttar Pradesh (1000Km), Bihar (405Km),
Jharkhand (40Km) and West Bengal (520Km). It flows past Bangladesh where it is
known as Padma. It then joins Jamuna (Brahmaputra) and the combined river is called
Meghna. The delta of river Ganga is the world's biggest and is a highly active zone with
new islands emerging in Bay of Bengal. The Ganges rushes on like a mountain torrent till
it reaches Haridwar, and then flows eastwards. It is fed by important tributaries like the
Gomati, the Gogra, the Gandak, and the Kosi rivers from the North. The Jamuna runs a
parallel course on the West, and joins the Ganges at Allahabad. The Ganges which is
regarded as the most sacred of rivers falls into the Bay of Bengal through several mouths,
the Hooghly being the westernmost and the Padma, the Easternmost. The River Ganga
was declared as India's National River by the government in 2008.
The Brahmaputra is a mighty river which runs East for nearly 700 miles before it
enters the Indian territory near Sadiya. The Brahmaputra River originating from the great
glacier mass of Chema-Yung-Dung in the Kailas range of Southern Tibet. Its total length
is 2900 Kms. Bordered by the Himalayas in the North and the Assam Hills in the south,
it flows through a narrow valley, 500 miles long and 50 miles wide, and then courses
through the plains of Bengal and joins the Padma, the easternmost mouth of the Ganges.
The Brahmaputra river travels in China (1625Km), India (918Km) and Bangladesh
(447Km). The Ganges-Jamuna Doab and the Ganges-Brahmaputra Doab and the deltas
formed by them, make the lands fertile. Brahmaputra is known as the Yarlung Zangbo in
China, Tsang Po in Tibet and Jamuna in Bangladesh. The Brahmaputra river Northern
tributaries are Aiel, Borgang, Boralia, Champamati, Manas, Gabharu and Subansiri etc.
The Southern tributaries are Buri Dihang, Dikhow, Disang, Jinari, Jhanji, Kapili and
Kulsi etc.
The Narmada and the Tapti, unlike the other rivers of the Peninsula, flow west.
The Narmada rises on the Amarkantak plateau from a spring at an elevation of 1,060 m.
The magnificent waterfall (Marble Falls) at Bheraghat is 15 m high. After the waterfall
it flows through a gorge which is 4 Km long. The river finally enters the Gulf of Cambay.
The Tapti rises on the Satpura range and reaches the Arabian Sea west of Surat.
The Damodar flows to the north of the Ranchi plateau in a faulted through containing
a number of Gondwana coal deposits. The three newly constructed reservoirs in the
Damodar valley-Konar, Panchet and Maithon-provide water for power generation and
irrigation.
The other important river that rises from the Central Highlands is the Mahanadi,
which flows through a basin 400 m high surrounded on all sides by hills 600 to 1, 000 m
high. It originates on the northern edge of the Dandakaranya and flow east. The river has
been dammed at Hirakud above Sambalpur, and it water, spread over 750 Km, is utilised
50
for irrigation and generation of power. Beyond Sambalpur the river flows through the
Eastern Ghats in a gorge 65 Km long. A delta has been formed before the waters reach
the Bay of Bengal.
The Godavari rises near Triambak in the Nasik district, and flows through deep
gorge in the Western Ghats for 20 Km before reaching Nasik town. It runs for 650 Km in
Maharashtra before it enter the Telangana Plateau in Telangana State. It cuts across the
Eastern Ghats in gorge, and flows through its own delta before draining into the Bay of
Bengal.
The Krishna River flows 400 Km before entering into the Telangana State. A
great dam the Nagarjuna Sagar, has been constructed across the river in Telangana State.
Near Jaggayyapeta, the river cuts across the Nallamala range and enter its delta at
Vijayawada in Andhra Pradesh.
The Cauvery is the master stream of the Mysore Plateau. It rises almost on the
western edge of the Western Ghats in Coorg, within sight of the Arabian Sea, but instead
of flowing west, it runs east crossing the Ghats. It has all the characteristics of an
antecedent's river. In its initial course, the river flows through an incised meandering
valley. It runs generally eastwards across the Mysore Plateau, and in its course there are
several rapids and waterfalls. Near Kannambadi, a dam has been constructed to form
the Krishna Sagara, famous for the Brindavan terrace garden with its well-laid flower
beds, numerous fountains and powerful searchlights and multicoloured lamps which
transform the whole garden into a fairyland at night. Beyond the dam, the river keeps to
an easterly course and branching into two arms enclose the island of Srirangapatnam.
4.8 THE DECCAN PLATEAU

The peninsular part of the subcontinent is mostly a raised tableland of old, stable
structure, known generally as the Deccan Plateau. The western and north-western parts
of the plateau extend up to Kutch in Gujarat and the Aravalli Range in Rajasthan. The
Deccan plateau is the largest plateau in India. It covers an area of 7,00,000 Km, and
slopes eastwards and northwards. The northern and eastern boundary may be defined by
the 400 metre contour line. The Western Ghats form the western boundary. The part of
the Deccan plateau in Maharashtra State is formed of plateau basalt. The valleys of the
4.7: The Deccan Plateau

51
Godavari, Bhima and Krishna rivers are flanked by flat-topped steep-sided hills. In
Andhra Pradesh, the plateau is formed mainly of Precambrian gneisses. The topography
is characterised by rounded hills and rolling plains. Most of the mineral wealth is found
in the Deccan Plateau. The richest area is in its northern section, the Chota Nagpur
region. Several coal fields lie in the down-faulted sedimentary rocks of Chota Nagapur
region in South Bihar. Other mineral-rich areas of the Deccan Plateau are in Mahanandi
Valley and north Andhra Pradesh. In addition, Mica, Iron-pore, Manganese and gold are
obtained in several parts of the Deccan in Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Karnataka and Eastern Maharashtra. Geologically, the Deccan is the oldest
part of the subcontinent, a "shield" of old, stable rocks. It was also centre for origin of
many rivers.
4.9 THAR DESERT

The Thar Desert also known as the Great Indian Desert. It is lying between the
Indus and the Aravalli range, a great sandy tract without any running water. The surface
water is virtually absent, except in the valleys of Ghaggar, Luni and Sukhani streams.
Water table is generally deeper than 100 m. Rainfall is highly variable. Generally without
a soil cap of agricultural importance, it is neither completely barren nor entirely
uninhabited, as shrubs and grass tufts are thinly scattered over the whole area. It has an
international border with Pakistan for about 1200 Km. The desert is a plain overlain by
sand dunes of various types, longitudinal, transverse and crescent. Relief has a range of
150 m in the west to 400 m in the east. An area of the desert is 2,08, 751 Km.
4.8: Thar Desert

It is of Pleistocene to recent age like the Indo-Gangetic alluvia. The desert owes
its origin from the accumulation of windblown sand from the Rann of Kutch and also
from the disintegration of local rocks caused by the great diurnal variation of temperatures.
These conditions became established during the Pleistocene glaciations when the
monsoons were deflected, with the complete withdrawal of the sea from Cambay-
Ahmadabad-Thar region, the final uplift of the Himalaya and the disappearance of the
Siwalik River. In the region to the west of the Aravalli there is no obstruction to catch
the monsoon until the Himalayan foothills are reached. This is the reason why the region
is so arid and barren. The desert conditions must have set in well after the advent of man
as there are many evidences of ancient civilization in the desert area.
52
Camel, the mount and pack animal of the desert, is raised additionally for the
camelry section of the defence services. Jodhpur, Bikaner and Jaisalmer are the major
desert cities. The white marble of the Taj Mahal at Agra was brought from the desert
areas.
4.10 THE COAST

Coastal zones in India assumes importance because of high productivity of its
ecosystems, concentration of population, exploitation of renewable and non- renewable
natural resources, discharge of waste effluents and municipal sewage, industrialization
and spurt in recreational activities. Coastal zones are continuously changing because of
the dynamic interactions between the ocean and land. The Coastal line of India is 7516
Km touching 14 States and Union Territories. But it is unbroken and hence unfavourable
for the growth of natural harbours. Therefore, India never earned reputation of being a
maritime power and the North Indians to whom the sea was far way developed in the
past an aversion to seafaring, which was even prohibited by the Hindu law-givers like
Manu. In spite of that it is wrong to suppose that India had no tradition of maritime
contacts. Especially, the South Indians carried on sea-borne trade even from primitive
times. Vincent Smith counts the neglect of navy as one of the cause for the downfall of the
Mughal Empire.
4.9: The Coast
4.11 IMPACT OF GEOGRAPHY

Geography influenced India in many aspects. In north the Himalayas protected the
country from the cold and dry winds of Tibet. They are the source of the great rivers
which provides fertility for the agriculture. The Himalayas also save the country form
the foreign invasions. The Sulaiman and Hindukush mountains are not very high. There
are a large number of passes which enabled many foreigners to enter India. The Khyber,
Tochi, Kurram and Gomal passes are very important. The Bolan Pass is a very wide and
it links India with Kandhar. The Khyber Pass connects with the Peshawar with Kabul.
Most of the foreign invaders came from the Khyber Pass. The Persians, Greeks, Kushans,
Huns, Turks, Nadir Shah, Ahmad Shah Abdali, and Mughals came to India through these
passes. The Kashmir, Simla and other Himalayan places provide fresh fruits and beautiful
shawls.
53
The Indo-Gangetic plains provide fertile lands for the people. Many rulers
concentrated for the Doab and Indo-Gangestic plain. the Ganga valley attracted many
invaders. The Indus valley was the centre of the Harappan civilization. The Krishna-
Tungabhadra Doab was the centre for the Deccan rulers. The Deccan rulers fight for the
Doab. It was very rich soil and fertile land Doab. The Vijayanagara and Bahamani
rulers fight for The Richur Doab.
The river Ganga, Brahmaputra and Indus provides water facilities for both the
drinking and agricultural purposes. The government had taken interest for providing
transport and communication facilities for the people.
The Godavari and the Krishna cut South India into three natural divisions and the
political history of south India centres round the struggles between the states which rose
to prominence in those areas. The Krishna- Tungabhadra Doab was the chief bone of the
contention between the several states in the Deccan. Particularly the Vijayanagaras and
Bahamanis were fought for the Raichur Doab.
The seas of the India were useful for external trade between India and Europe,
Asia and African countries. The Arabian and the Bay of Bengal are very rich in term of
the trade and commerce. The great desert of Rajasthan is providing fruits and dates for
Indians. Medicinal plants also were available in different parts of the country. Many
foreign rulers try to occupy India because of its rich geographical conditions and wealth.
4.12 UNITY AND DIVERSITY

The Geographical unity of India is patent as it is sharply separated from the rest of
the world by almost inviolable boundaries. India is well-known as a land of the varities.
In India has a varieties of races and that is the reason why V.A. Smith calls India an
"Ethnological Museum". Different races of people lived in India. Many foreigners came
to India and settled in different parts of the country. They were followed the customs and
traditions. the Arabs and Muslims invaded and settled in India belongs to various races
such as Arabs, Turks, Persians, Afghans and Mongols etc. later the Europeans such as
Portuguese, Dutch, English and the French came to India and settled in different parts of
the country. They married Indian women and created new section in Indian society.
Greeks, Persians, Huns and the Kushans came to India and merged into Indian society.
In India many varieties of languages were existed. But the India constitution was
recognises 14 languages. The languages and dialects used in India exceed 200 in number.
The languages such as Hindi, English, Urdu, Bengali, Marathi, Tamil, Kannada, Telugu
and Sanskrit etc spoke in diffident parts of the nation. There are several religions existed
in the country. India presents the largest variety in the religious field. Most prominent
were Hindu, Jainism, Buddhism, Muslim, Christian and Sikh etc.
In the country there is a clear difference among the castes and religions. In Hindu
society caste system disturbs the development. The upper caste played a vitol role in the
politics. They were dominant the society. There is inequality in the Indian society. In
54
culture also clear diversity is shows. The dances Manipuri, Odyssey, Kuchipudi and the
Kathakali are different. They formed in different parts of the states. The religious
discrimination also prevailed in the society. Religious system rituals, customs and
traditions are also different. There is regional differences are also prevailed in the
nation. However, all the section lived together and respects each and every one in the
society.

1. What are the major Rivers in Northern India?
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2. How many languages recognised in India?
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4.13 SUMMARY
In the history of India, geography played a prominent role. The Himalayas, Aravalli,
Vindya and Satpura mountains are played a vitol role. The Ganga, Brahmaputra, Godavari,
Krishna and Indus rivers provides water facilities for both the irrigation and drinking purpose.
The deltas, coasts and the desert also played an important role in India. In India many races
and religions were existed. They followed their traditions and customs. The most important
striking feature of Indian culture is its deep underlying unity inspite of its great diversity.

I. Check Your Progress - I
1. The Imporatant Mountains in India is The Himalayas, Vindhya, Aravalli and the
Satpura.
2. The Highest peaks such as the Everest, K2, Kanchenjunga and the Naga Prabhat
located in Himalayas.
II. Check Your Progress-II
1. In Northern India, the Ganga, Brahmaputra and Indus Rivers are major rivers.
2. According to Indian Constitution, there are 14 languages are recognised in India.
55
I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines.
1. Explain the Himalayan Mountain and its impact on India?
2. Write a brief note on Indian Rivers?
1. Write about the Thar Desert.
2. Write about the Indian Coast.

1. Panikkar, K.M. : Geographical Factors on Indian History.
2. Mahajan, V.D. : Ancient India.
3. Pichamuthu, C.S. : Physical Geography of India.
4. Dey, A.K : Geology of India.
5. Ranjit Tirtha : Geography of India.
6. Gananathan, V.S : Economic Geography of India.
7. Surjit Sinha : People of India.
*****
56
BLOCK-II: STONE AGE, HARAPPA AND VEDIC
CULTURES
Human beings appeared on the Indian sub-continent 500,000 years ago. The human
beings learns to use the stone tools and wood for their livelihood. Later they learns about the
cultivation and settled life. Various changes took place in the tools. The development clearly
visible the stages like the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic cultures. This period
is known as pre-historic, whose material is derived from archeological sources alone, until
Harappan time.
Civilization is the first civilization of the India. It was located in Indus valley and its
tributaries. The Indus people cultivated food grains and others and surplus production exported
various places. They constructed planned cities in the country. Women played an important
role in the civilization and had equal status in the society.
The Vedic culture spread across the Ganga valley and first time in India they used iron
tools. The four Vedas gives a vivid description about the Indian society and culture. People of
the Vedic Age cultivated the fields. In society a clear division came into existence. Religious
and cultural activities differed with the Indus valley civilization. The Varna system came into
existence in this period.
The block explains about the Stone Age, Harappa and Vedic cultures. The block had
three units such as
Unit-5: Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Chalcalithic Culture
Unit-6: Harappan Civilization
Unit-7: Vedic Culture
57
58
UNIT-5: PALEOLITHIC, MESOLITHIC,
NEOLITHIC AGES AND CHALCOLITHIC
CULTURE
Contents
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Paleolithic Age
5.3 Phases of the Paleolithic Age
5.3.1 Early Paleolithic Age
5.3.2 Middle Paleolithic Age
5.3.3 Upper Paleolithic Age
5.4 Pre Historic Art
5.5 Mesolithic Age
5.6 Neolithic Age
5.7 Chalcolithic Age
5.8 Summary
5.0 OBJECTIVES
l Know the Stone Age in India
l Explain the Paleolithic Age culture
l Discuss the Mesolithic culture
l Analyze the Neolithic culture
l Describe the Chalcolithic culture.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall study the patterns of earliest habitation of human beings in the
Indian Sub-Continent. This is called pre-historic study. The study of this period was possible
only through Archeological sources.
Pre-historic and proto-historic archaeology has been hitherto divided into the Stone
59
Age, copper age and Iron Age. Such divisions have stressed only one aspect of man's life
over a stretch of nearly 5,00,000 years, namely, the tools and weapons he commonly used.
While these suggest the various steps by which man acquired knowledge not only of the two
important metals, copper and iron, but of the manufacture of specialized stone tools and their
hafting, they do not, however, adequately indicate man's many-sided ways of life. Knowledge
of man's economic and social status and his environment deserves greater emphasis. This
objective calls for more data of the dim past than are available today. With the increasing aid
from the various scientific disciplines, it is possible to visualize, even if faintly, some of the main
milestones on man's march to civilization.
During the long stone age, estimated to cover over 5,00,000 years and farming parts of
the latest geological period, namely, Pleistocene, man was a savage, had no fixed habitation,
and could not produce his food, collected plants and fruits, caught fish and hunted wild animals.
Changes in environment and circumstances brought about changes in tools. From large, crude
and heavy tools there developed smaller, finer, and more specialized ones; a history of man's
development based mainly on the study of his tools is therefore possible. The stages in man's
progress are:
1. Paleolithic Age.
2. Mesolithic Age.
3. Neolithic Age.
4. Chalcolithic Age.
5.2 THE PALEOLITHIC AGE

The Earth is over 4000 million years old. The evolution of its crust shows four stages.
The fourth stage is called the Quaternary, which is dived into Pleistocene (most recent) and
Holocene (present); the former lasted between 2,000,000 and 10,000 years before the present
and the latter began about 10,000 years ago. Man is said to have appeared on the earth in the
early Pleistocene, when true horse also originated. But now this event seems to have occurred
in Africa about three million years back.
Much work has not been done on the pre-historic period of Indian history. The discovery
of Paleolithic at Pallavaram near Madras by R. Bruce Foote in 1863 was a great land mark.
The initial studies focused on the north-west, in terraces of the Soan River and in the Potwar
Plateau. Since then sites have been found scattered across the subcontinent. Habitations tended
to be in rock shelters, located in Madhya Pradesh was at Bhimbetka but also found in other
parts of India, or in caves such as at Sanghao (north-west Pakistan), or in Kurnool (Andhra
Pradesh), or even sometimes as camps in the open, although there is less evidence for the
latter type of settlement than for rock shelters. Shelters in the open were sometimes made of
foliage and would therefore not survive, but stone tools and signs of settlement provide clues
to such shelters. Sites are generally located near water sources and where plants are readily
60
available. Fossil remains are another source of information and fossil animals include some
that were eventually domesticated, such as cattle, sheep, goats and others that remained in the
wild, including the cat family and deer. In the earliest stage food was obtained by hunting
animals and gathering edible plants and rubbers. Settlements tended to be close to scrub
jungles and watering places as, for instance, at Hungis. The hunting of large animals would
have required the combined effort of a group of people, whereas smaller animals could be
more easily ensnared or hunted by individuals.
Stone tools, hand-sized and flaked-off large pebbles, are among the more obvious
characteristics of Paleolithic sites. Large pebbles are often found in river terraces, such as
those of the Soan Valley or the upper reaches of rivers as in the Siwalik Hills of the north. A
skull found in the Narmada Valley is likely to yield interesting evidence. Various techniques of
analyzing plant and animal remains help in the reconstruction of environment and climate.
Variations in climate were an additional challenge to the small bands of hunter-gatherers. Their
way of life moved gradually towards attempts to domesticate of the world around them is
race. We know little about how they communicated and next to nothing about the language
they spoke, nor much about what constituted their concerns beyond the obvious. A few
paintings on rock at Bhimbetka, discovered alongside other later paintings, are thought to be
of this period and reflect a concern with success in hunting and with fertility. At Baghor I
(Madhya Pradesh) a natural stone, shaped like a triangle, have been interpreted as a symbol
of female fertility. Parallel to it, is the worship of a similar stone as a goddess in neighboring,
villages today. Paleolithic remains have also found in Hyderabad (Telangana), Dharwar, Bijapur,
Belgaum, Gujarat, Rewa and Bhundhelkhand. Old Stone Age implements have also been
found in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh. The Paleolithic man in India was a
savage who lived in the "drifts of rivers or lakes and caves". He ate roots, fruits, nuts and the
flesh of wild beasts.
The fossils of the early men have not been found in India. A hint of the earliest human
presence is indicted by stone tools obtained from the deposits ascribable to the dated around
250,000 B.C. the Paleolithic man used various implements such as axes, arrow-heads, spears,
digging tools, circular stones, hurling choppers, knives, scrapers, hammer stones, etc. these
implements when they were sharp edged, were held in cleft bamboos, secured by strips of
hide or vegetable fibre. The early man in India used tools of stone roughly dressed by crude
chipping, which have been discovered throughout the country except the alluvial plains of
Indus, Ganga and Yamuna rivers. The chipped stone tools and chopped pebbles were used
for hunting, cutting and other purpose. In this period man barely managed to gather his food
and lived no hunting. He had no knowledge of cultivation and house building. Some of these
implements had thick but ends, which were used for digging edible roots or for hand to hand
fights. Implements of hard wood were also used. Those were clubs or sharp-edged spheres.
This phase generally continued till 10000 B.C.
61
Paleolithic tools, which could be as old as 100,000 B.C., have been found in the Chota
Nagpur Plateau. Such tools belonging to 20,000 B.C.-10,000 B.C. have been found in Kurnool
district in Andhra Pradesh. In association with them bone implements and animals remains
have also been discovered. Animal remains found the Belan Valley in Mirzapur district in Uttar
Pradesh show that goats, sheep and cattle were exploited. The Paleolithic man had to protect
himself from tigers, lions, panthers, wolves, wild dogs, hyaenas, elephants, wild buffaloes, etc.
However, in the earliest Paleolithic phase man lived on hunting and food gathering. Paintings
were discovered in 1910 in some caverns at Singanpur near Raigarh in Madhya Pradesh.
Paintings have also been found in Kaimur ranges and also in the Mirzapur district.
5.3 PHASES OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE

The Paleolithic Age in India is divided into three phases according to the nature of the
stone tools used by the people and also according to the nature of change in the climate. The
first phase is called Early or Lower Paleolithic the second Middle Paleolithic and the third
Upper Paleolithic. The first phase may be placed broadly, between 500,000 B.C. and 50,000
B.C.; the second between 50,000 B.C. and 40,000 B.C. and the third between 40,000 B.C.
and 10,000 B.C.
5.3.1 Early Paleolithic Age
The Lower Paleolithic or the Early Old Stone Age covers the greater part of the Ice
Age. Its characteristic feature is the use of hand-axes, cleavers and choppers. The axes found
in India are more or less similar to those of western Asia, Europe and Africa. Stone tools were
used mainly for chopping, digging and skinning. The Early Old Stone Age sites are fond in the
valley of river Soan or Sohan in Punjab, now in Pakistan. Several sites have been found in
Kashmir and the Thar Desert (in Rajasthan State). The Lower Paleolithic tools have also
been found in the Belan valley in Mirzapur District in Uttar Pradesh. Those found in the desert
area of Didwana in Rajasthan. In the valleys of the Belan and the Narmada, and in the caves
and rock shelters o f Bhimbetka near Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh roughly belong to 100,000
B.C. The rock shelters may have served as seasonal camps for human beings. Hand-axes
have been found in a deposit of the time of the second Himalayan inter-glaciations. In this
period climate became less humid.
62
Lower Palaeolithic tools: 1-4 Punjab, 1 and 2 Chopping tools, 3 hand-axe made from pebble, 4 cleaver
made from large flake, 5-8 Madras, 5 discoidal core, 6 chopping tools, 7 hand-axe, 8 cleaver
5.1: Lower palaeolithic tools
63
5.3.2 Middle Paleolithic Age
The Middle Paleolithic industries are mainly based upon flakes. These flakes are found
in different parts of India and show regional variations. The principal tools are varieties of
blades, points, borers and scrapers made of flakes. We also find a large number of borers and
blade-like tools. The geographical horizon of the Middle Paleolithic sites coincides roughly
with that of the Lower Paleolithic sites. Here we notice a crude pebble industry in strata
contemporary with the third Himalayan glaciations. The artifacts of this age are also found at
several places on the river Narmada, and also at several places, south of the Tungabhadra
River.
Sanghao: Middle and Upper Palaeolithic artefacts from the excavation. 1. unstruck discoidal core,
2. struck core: 3 and 4 burns, 5. flake struck from prepared core, 6. hand-axe, 7. hollow scraper made on
flake, 8. pointed flake struck from prepared core.
5.2: Sanghao: Middle and Upper Palaeolithic artefacts from the excavation
5.3.3 Upper Paleolithic Age

The Upper Paleolithic phase was less humid. It coincided with the last phase of the Ice
Age when climate became comparatively warm. In the world context it marks the appearance
of new flint industries and of men of the modern type (Homo sapiens) in India. We notice the
use of blades and burins, which have been found in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Central Madhya Pradesh, Southern Uttar Pradesh, South Bihar plateau and the adjoining
areas. Caves and rock shelters for use by human beings in the Upper Paleolithic phase have
been discovered at Bhimbetka, 45km South of Bhopal. An Upper Paleolithic assemblage,
characterized by comparatively large flakes, blades, burins and scrapers has also been found
in the upper levels of the Gujarat dunes.
64
It would thus appear that Paleolithic sites are found in many hilly slopes and river valleys
of the country; they are absent in the alluvial plains of the Indus and the Ganga.
5.4 PRE HISTORIC ART

The people of Paleolithic and Mesolithic ages practiced painting. Prehistoric art appears
at several places, but Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is a striking site. Situated in the Vindhya
Range, 45 km south of Bhopal, it has more than 500 painted rock shelters, distributed in an
area of 10 sq km. The rock painting extended from the Paleolithic to the Mesolithic period
and in some series even up to recent times. But a good many rock shelters are associated with
the Mesolithic occupation. Many birds, animals and human beings are painted. Obviously
most of the birds and animals that appear in paintings were hunted for the sake of subsistence.
Pershing birds, which live upon grain, are absent in the earliest group of paintings, which
evidently belongs to the hunting/gathering economy.
It is interesting to note that on the northern spurs of the Vindhyas in the Belan valley all
the three phases of the Paleolithic followed by the Mesolithic and then by the Neolithic have
been found in sequence, and so is the case with the middle part of the Narmada valley. But in
several areas the Neolithic culture succeeded the Mesolithic tradition, which continued right
to the beginning of the Iron Age, i.e. 1000 B.C.
5.3: Palaeolithic and Mesolithic sites in the Indian Sub-Continent
65
5.5 MESOLITHIC AGE
In 10,000 B.C. began an intermediate stage in Stone Age culture, which is called the
Mesolithic Age. It intervened as a transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and Neolithic
or New Stone Age. Climate changes brought about changes in fauna and flora and made it
possible for human beings to move to new areas.
Improved technologies of obtaining food would have enabled some hunter-gatherers
to settle. Sites of the Mesolithic- the middle stone age that succeeded the Paleolithic -show
the use of a different type of stone tools. These are tiny stone artifacts, often not more than five
centimeters in size and therefore called microliths, consisting of flakes. The technique of making
these was also through flaking off pieces by striking the larger stone at an appropriate angle.
The small microlith was used in a greater variety of ways than the bigger stone artifacts because
it could be hafted to many more functional tools, for instance to make knives and sickles. An
increase in small arrowheads points to the use of the bow and arrow. This meant that the close
stalking of animals was becoming less frequent than shooting an arrow from a distance. This
also reduced the fear of animals attacking the stalker. In order to make the small tools it was
necessary to change from using pebble-stones to a different kind of stone, such as quartz,
chert, agate, chalcedony and suchlike, which are easier to flake as small tools. This change
indicates a greater confidence in relation to the environment and in controlling technology, but
also points to a shift in habits closer to the new raw material. River pebbles were now less in
demand and the new kind of rock was more easily available in hills and forests. That the
transition was extremely gradual is evident from the many centuries between the earlier and
later patterns. The new technology introduced a change in living patterns, and hunting and
gathering were initially supplemented by the use of wild grains and then by domesticated
animals, horticulture and primitive cultivation. A tendency to settle for longer periods in an
area can be surmised. Hunting and gathering continued to a lesser degree into later times, but
dependence solely on these activities for food began to gradually decrease.
If the sites excavated so far are an induction, Mesolithic activities took place a way
from heavy monsoon forests and remained on the drier uplands. The characteristic tools of
the Mesolithic Age are microliths. The Mesolithic sites are found in good numbers in Rajasthan,
Southern Uttar Pradesh, Central and Eastern India and also south of the river Krishna, of
them Bagor in Rajasthan is very well excavated. It had a distinctive microlithic industry, and its
inhabitants subsisted on hunting and pastoralism. The site remained occupied for 5000 years
from the fifth millennium B.C. onwards. Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan
provide the earliest evidence for the domestication of animals; this could be around 5000
B.C. The cultivation of plants around 7000-6000 B.C. is suggested in Rajasthan from Salt
Lake, Sambhar.
Many settlements were in or near rock shelters, as in Madhya Pradesh, but, judging by
postholes in one case indicating circular huts and habitation areas, some were more daring in
66
Bagor: Mesolithic artefacts: 1-12 retouched blades, 13-29 truncated blades, 30-43 triangle, 44-48 and 52-
57 trapezes, 49-51 tranaverse arrowheads, 38-59 thomboids, 60-71 lunates, 72-79 trimmed points, 80-82
scrapers on flakes; 83 and 84 burins, 85 unstruck discoidal core (after V.N. Misra)
5.4: Bagor: Mesolithic artefacts
venturing beyond the caves and shelters. Mesolithic remains have also been found in Langhnaj
(Gijarat), Admagarh (Madhya Pradesh), Rajasthan, Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadada (Uttar
Pradesh), and in Bihar, Primitive querns and rubbing stones at some sites suggest a more
varied preparation of wild grains and plants as food. This is reinforced by the presence at one
site of what seem to be potsherds of crude handmade pottery, together with an object identified
67
as a storage bin. Animal bones in the habitation area become more frequent and include deer,
boar and the now extinct ostrich, and some are bones of what were to become domesticated
animals, such as bovines, sheep and goats.
Burials are occasionally within the habitation area and grave goods such as microliths,
shells and an ivory pendant are placed in the grave. Some ideas of an after-life seem evident
from the grave goods. The location may have developed from attachment to the person, but
could have been due to more functional considerations, such as protecting the grave from
animal predators. Very occasionally there are double burials, but not invariable of male and
female. The skeletons suggest they were people who died between the ages of fifteen and
forty, the average life expectancy being half-way. This would be usual for those times, but by
our standards life expectancy was short. Some skeletons show evidence of osteoarthritis.
Such early societies would have been organized as bands of people, with possibly
some demarcation of families. Constant migration in search of food limited the numbers in a
family, since children, tiring easily from walking long distance, could be an impediment to
movement. Given that the population sizes were small, a disease could wipe out an entire
settlement.
Rock shelters and caves in Madhya Pradesh and elsewhere that were habitation sites
with painting and engravings on the rock surface continue to be found after careful exploration.
Some are of the Mesolithic period, but at other more extensive sites such as Bhimbetka the
practice of painting continued into historical times. The latter can be dated from scenes depicting
horses and elephants in processions and in battle. The themes of the earlier art focused on the
life of hunters and gatherers. The hunting of animals particularly varieties of deer, was a major
enterprise. Both man and animal are represented in an abstract style, while the bodies of the
animals often have cross-hatching and other designs. Presumably this was part of the ritual of
the hunt, the assumption being that the representation would actually materialize. Such
representation is the expression of cognition in which sympathetic magic is thought to be
unfailing. Figures of men and women symbolizing fertility are also frequent. It would be interesting
to speculate whether these communities scattered across the hills of central India shared cults
and rituals.
The geographical extent prehistoric rock art is impressive. Rock engravings, believed
to be associated with the later stage of the Neolithic, occur in the Edakal cave in the Western
Ghats in Kerala and depict human activity in an unusual style of engraving. Recently, in the
exploration of the Gilgit and Baluchistan area in the far north, engravings of male figures and
depictions of masks have been found, but the largest in number are of ibexes and others with
highly stylized horns. It has been suggested that some of their engravings might link the upper
Indus to central Asia, going back to the third millennium BC.
68
1. Write the important sites of Paleolithic age in India.
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2. Explain the various Tools of Mesolithic Age in India.
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5.6 THE NEOLITHIC AGE

In the world context the New Stone Age began in 9000 B.C. The Neolithic settlement
in the Indian subcontinent attributed to 7000 B.C. in Mehrgarh. It is situated in Baluchistan
province of Pakistan. In the before 5000 B.C., the people of the place did not use any
pottery. Some Neolithic sites found on the northern spurs of the Vindhyas are considered as
old as 5000 B.C. but generally Neolithic settlements found in south India are not older than
2500 B.C., in some parts of Southern and Eastern India they are as late as 1000 B.C.
The change to a Neolithic pattern, where the beginnings of agriculture and the
domestication of animals become crucial, introduced what "Gordon Childe" once argued was
a revolution through the practice of agriculture. This was not a sudden, radical change, and
some activates of the earlier age had anticipated these developments. It may have been
accelerated in areas experiencing a change in the environment as also by the ingenuity of men
and women attempting improvements in their way of life. But its ultimate effect, inasmuch as it
changed the process of obtaining food and establishing new types of links between human,
animals and land, was revolutionary. A larger, and up to a point predictable, production of
food may perhaps have been required by a resulted in a growing population. Together with
this came the possibility of storing food at least for a short time which would have further
encouraged the making of posts for storage. A higher density of population in places where
agriculture was practiced might also have brought about a more sedentary population. It is
thought that gradually those practicing settled agriculture may, on occasion, have overwhelmed
hunter-gatherers and shifting cultivators. Habitats might have tended to encourage a
concentration of people. This would eventually have made urbanization possible, but after a
considerable experience of cultivation and sedentary occupation. _
69
5.5: Neolithic Cultures on the Indian Sub-Continent
Initially the cultivators are likely to have moved from place to place before more intensive
agriculture made them sedentary. There may well have been confrontation between hunter-
gatherers and shifting cultivators, some of the latter having only recently been hunter-gatherers
themselves, although now wishing to subordinate other activities to agriculture. Ultimately, the
dominance of the latter was established and the dependence on hunting and gathering would
have declined. The suggestion that the transition to agriculture was made by women, who
stayed home while the men hunted, is plausible. This gave women the opportunity to sow and
then to tend what they had sown. But the more extensive change came with plough agriculture
70
which was handled by men. Agriculture provided some predictability to the supply of food.
The extension of cultivation required a sedentary society, and with technological advances it
was in later times, for a variety of exchanges some for other items or some even for obtaining
labor. This use of the extra food gradually introduced stratification into a society where some
controlled the food and used it for exchange, while others were left to produce the extra food.
Technologically there was a substantial improving in tools, which were now polished.
The removal of rough edges increased their functional effectiveness, as in the case of polished
stone axes. The technological improvement of the polished axes as compared to the earlier
ones is quite striking. Gradually, at some sites grass huts gave way to wattle-and -daub huts
(constructed from branches of trees and foliage plastered with mud), and these in turn to
mud-brick-structures, small granaries and water storage. Hand- turned pottery later gave
way to wheel-thrown pottery, and the production of a few ornaments. Sites such as Mehrgarh,
because of the extensive horizontal excavations, show a well-demarcated transition from early
agriculture to the preliminaries of urbanization. The spread of agriculture has been explained
as moving from west Asia to north-west India, but the evidence from sites in the latter area
suggests that the transition to agriculture may have occurred more locally.
Wheat, barley, rice and millet began to be cultivated in different areas and at different
times. The provenance of rice cultivation appears to have been in eastern India. Gradually, the
domestication of sheep, goats and cattle was established. This provided dairy produce and
some meat when required, reducing the dependence on hunting. Pastoralism and agriculture
were interdependent at this stage, although the changes carried the potential of a bifurcation.
The cultivation of crops permitted some predictability and control over obtaining food, but
required permanent settlement to make a qualitative change. The domestication of animals
provided food more readily. Larger animals were used additionally for traction and for
transportation. The increasing use of pottery allowed for storage of food, which encouraged
cooking and the range in the size of the pots enabled their use in other ways. Where grave
goods were buried with bodies, pots were sometimes included as items of ritual value. Large
urns were also used as coffins for the burial of infants whose mortality is noticeable in these
earlier cultures.
The increasing emphasis on framing in Neolithic cultures draws attention to parallels
observed by anthropologist studying similar societies. Farming anticipates the potentiality for
chiefdoms where initially cultivation is carried out by family and clan labour. In many early
societies the family as a unit, or as a constituent part of a clan, herded animals and cultivated
crops. Younger members were expected to labour for the elders. This was labour performed
because of a kinship link and is prior to the induction of non-kin labour, which marks a
significant social departure but which probably becomes a resource in the more developed
farming associated with later, socially stratified cultures. When societies became more complex
and the system changed, non-kin labour was added or replaced kin-based labour. This was
71
the labour of those who were not kinsmen but were willing to labour for recompense, or,
possibly, if they were captives they could be forced to labour for those who had captured
them. The use of non-kin labour also ushers in the possibility of an increase in produce and
this would have raised the question of how the increase was to be distributed. Controlling and
organizing labour in such situations, whether kin-based or not, would become a major source
of authority and one of the functions of the chief.
The Neolithic settlers in Piklihal were cattle-herders. They domesticated cattle, sheep,
and goats. Etc. they set up seasonal camps surrounded by Cowpens made with posts and
stakes. In these enclosures they accumulated dung. Then the entire camping ground was put
to fire and cleared for camping in the next session. Both ash mounds and habitation sites have
been found in Piklihal. The Neolithic settlers were the earliest farming communities. They
broke the ground with stone hoes and digging sticks at the end of which ring stones weighing
one to half a kilogram were fixed. Besides polished tools of stone, they used microlithic
blades. They lived in circular houses owned property in common. In any case these Neolithic
people led a settled life. They produced ragi and horse gram (Kulathi). The Neolithic people
of Mehrgarh were more advanced. They produced wheat, cotton, and lived in mud-brick
houses.
The people of this period used tools, and implements of polished stones. They particularly
used stone axes. Which were found in large numbers in a good part of the hilly tracts of the
country. The cutting tool was put to various uses by the people, and in ancient legends
Parashurama became an important axe-wielding hero. Neolithic Celts, axes, adzes, chisels,
etc., have also been found in the Orissa and Chota Nagpur hill areas. But traces of Neolithic
settlements are generally few in parts of Madhya Pradesh and the tracts of the upper Deccan,
because of the lack of the types of stone which lend themselves easily to grinding and polishing.
Based on the types of axes used by Neolithic settlers, we notice three important areas
such as Neolithic settlements north-western, North-Eastern and Southern. The north-western
group of Neolithic tools represents rectangular axes with curved cutting edge. The north-
eastern group shows polished stone axes with rectangular hoes. The southern group is
distinguished by axes with oval sides and pointed butt.
Neolithic sites occur in diverse parts of the subcontinent: in Galighai in the Swat Valley,
Sarai Khola further to the south, and in the loess plateau of the Kashmir Valley that allowed pit
dwellings; in Chirand in Bihar and in sites in the Belan Valley of Uttar Pradesh, such as Chopani
Mando and Koldihva; eastwards to Pandu Rajar Dhibi, and further to Daojali Hading and
Sarutaru; and in a cluster of sites spreading out from the Raichur doab and the Godavari and
Krishna Valleys in the peninsula at Utnur, Piklihal, Maski, Tekkalakota, Brahmagiri, Hallur,
Paiyamapalli and T.Narsipur,. Some of these sites were active into the historical period when
a few had elements of urbanism.
72
Neolithic sites are scattered in various places and evolve at varying times. Among the early
sites is Mehrgarh near Quetta in Baluchistan, one amid a number of village sites. This is a more
impressive site than many others as it provides evidence of the continuity of the settlement
over a few millennia and the gradual evolution of the continuity of the settlement over a few
millennia and the gradual evolution of the settlement from agriculture towards urbanization.
Some parallels are evident at sites in the north-west, which can be attributed to a cross-
fertilization of ideas and activities in the region. Settlements were not isolated and the interaction
between them could have through an exchange of goods associated items, such as beads,
through pastoral circuits and migrations and through confrontations. These would have created
networks to channel exchange on a more regular basis, together with marriage circle and new
ritual practices.
The origins of Mehrgarh have been dated to c.7000 BC. The cultivation of wheat and
barley, the herding of cattle, sheep and goats, habitation in mud-brick huts with hearths, a
possible granary, pit burials with personal effects, beads of turquoise and lapis, and a scatter
of clay figurines are aspects of a cultural pattern that was established by the sixth millennium.
By the fourth millennia BC - also in the north-west at Kile Gul Mohammad, Rana Ghundai,
Sheri Khan Tarakai, Gumla and Rehman Dheri were similarly centers of pastoral and agricultural
activities as well as being located along routes crossing the area. The Nal culture in Baluchistan
and the Kulli culture to the south were also part of this scene. Some of these sites change from
agro-pastoralism to farming, then to the beginnings of towns, and are therefore precursors of
Harappan urbanization.
Close to the Indus River in the plains were the settlements at Koti Diji and Amir, with
features which were the forerunners of some of the characteristics of the Harappan culture.
The painted designs on the pottery at Koti Diji, for example, were based on the leaf of the
papal/ficus religious tree, and on fish and fish scales similar to those on Harappan pottery.
Koti Diji features are also evident in some of the pottery from what have been called the Sothi
sites in Rajasthan, such as the pre-Harappan settlement at Kalibangan. Further east, there are
some similarities in artifacts from Kunal and Banawali (Haryana). The Aravali Hills are rich in
copper, and places essentially involved in the production of copper, such as Ganeshwar, were
important. Practices in the alloying of metal were to become a legacy from the Harappan.
Further south in Gujarat there is evidence of pre-Harappan settlements, some at places that
were preludes to important Harappan towns such as Dholavira.
Some of the settlements in Rajasthan and Punjab also carried features associated with
the Hakra Plain, particularly present-day Bahawalpur and Cholistan. The Hakra River, which
gradually dried up, was once a substantial river although all that remains of its upper reaches
now is the Ghaggar in the Punjab. The question has been raised whether the Indus-Hakra
area was more pertinent to the rise of the Harappan cities, given the dense cluster of sites in
the area, than was Baluchistan and the north-west; and, if this was so, perhaps the civilization
73
should be called the Indus-Sarasvati civilization. However, the crucial factor is not the number
of sites but the nature of the sites. Judging the nature of a site does not lie in merely listing
artifacts, but assessing, in this case, the role of the site in encouraging the change from evidence
for the transition to urban centers lay, more likely, in the Indus plain and the north-west. In
terms of access to the raw materials used in crafts production and in controlling trade, which
provided the impetus to urbanization, the centers in the north-west and the Indus Plain were
certainly better situated than those in Cholistan. The former were more active, and with the
potential of having connections beyond the borderlands.
Although the evidence from the north-west provides some indicators of the emergence
of urbanism, in other areas, such as Gujarat, it has been described as a relatively sudden
mutation accompanied by a notable increase in the size of urban settlements. This could have
followed from the earlier Harappan reaching out into new areas and the latter adapting to the
demands of the former. This might account for the seeming uniformity combined with a
continuing presence of some regional features. It would also have allowed for the spread of
Harappan material culture, which makes it the most expansive civilization of its time.
The evolution of cities in north-western India has to be viewed not only in the local
context, but also in the context of archeological changes and the movement of peoples in the
borderlands and beyond, with whom there had been earlier contacts. This does not, however,
preclude the possibility of areas with a potential for urbanization, such as Kutch, coastal
Gujarat of Cholistan, developing this potential on the heels of the first urbanization. The large
urban site of Ganweriwala, in these parts has yet to be determined. It is more appropriate
therefore to continue referring to the civilization as the Indus civilization or the Harappan
culture, the latter name deriving from the initial site which was one of the earlier cities of the
civilization.
5.7 CHALCOLITHIC AGE

The innovation in the Chalcolithic cultures was the use of copper and bronze, which
forged the new technology of smelting metal ore and crafting metal artifacts. Obtaining raw
material could now necessitate long-distance travel, which was encouraged due to the high
value placed on the production of metal. The networks of Chalcolithic cultures therefore
widened. The use of stone tools was not abandoned and some of the microlithic forms, such
as the parallel-sided blades, continued as essential items. Copper and bronze introduced yet
another improved technology, which in turn encouraged a specialization in crafts in particular
areas, often where the raw material was easily available and craftsmen, would gather. The
inclusion of metal technology determining who was to control the new technology, since those
who were producing the artifacts was not necessarily the same as those in authority. Where
the use of a script accompanies Chalcolithic cultures, they are sometimes cultures which were
prior in form and are differentiated from prehistoric cultures which were prior in form and
74
5.6: Chalcolithic Age Bronze Tools
lacking both metal and a script. When the incidence of the use of bronze increases perceptibly,
some prefer to call in the Bronze Age.
The most extensive excavations have taken place in Western Maharashtra. Several
Chalcolithic sites such as Jorwe, Nevasa, Daimabad in Ahmadnagar district, Chandoli, Songaon
and Inamgaon in Pune district, Prakash and Nasik have been excavated. They all belonged to
the Jorwe culture named after Jorwe, the type-site situated on the left bank of the Pravara
River, a tributary of the Godavari, in Ahmadnagar district.
Several Chalcolithic sites have been found in the Vindhya region of Allahabad district.
In eastern India, besides Chirand on the Ganga, mention may be made of Pandu Rajar Dhibi
in Burdwan district and Mahishdal in Birbhum district in West Bengal. Some sites were
excavated at Senuar, Sonapur and Taradih in Bihar, Khaiadih and Narhan in eastern Uttar
Pradesh.
In Chalcolithic period certain copper objectives are found in various parts of India.
In Ahar and Gilund, people used flat axes, bangles, several sheets all made with copper.
Bronze sheets also found. Flat, rectangular copper axes, copper chisels appear in Jorwe and
Chandoli. In one house in Kayatha 29 copper bangles and two unique axes were found.
Ganeshwar, which is located close to the rich copper mines of the Sikar Jhunjhunu area of the
Khetri copper belt in Rajasthan best example for the copper articles. They also used different
types of pottery, one of which is called black-and -red. Black-and-Red-ware pottery from
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan was painted, but such painted pots were very
few in eastern India. The Chalcolithic people domesticated animals and practiced agriculture.
They kept cows, sheep, goats, pigs and buffaloes, and hunted deer. The camel also found.
75
They produced several pulses such as wheat, rice, bajra, lentil, black gram, green gram and
grass pea. All these food grains have been found at Navdatoli situated on the bank of the
Narmada River. The people also produced ber and linseed. Cotton was produced in the
black cotton soil of the Deccan. Ragi, bajra, and several millets were cultivated in the lower
Deccan. Their houses were made of mud bricks, but mostly these were constructed with
wattle and daub. But the people in Ahar lived in stone-built houses.
People know the art of spinning and weaving because spindle whorls have been
discovered in Malwa. Cotton, flax and silk threads made of cotton silk of semal/silk (cotton
tree) have been found in Maharashtra. Terracotta figures of women suggest that the Chalcolithic
people venerated the mother goddess. Some unbaked nude clay figurines were also used for
worship. A figure of the mother goddess similar to that found in western Asia has been found
in Inamgaon. In Malwa and Rajasthan stylized bull terracottas show that the bull was the
symbol of a religious cult.

1. Explain the important sites of Neolithic Age.
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...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
2. Analyze the important sites of Chalcolithic Age.
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...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
5.8 SUMMARY
Man first used the stone tools for collecting food. They depended on the nature. They
used rough stone tools during early Paleolithic age, and then slowly make tools very sharp. He
was hunter and migrate one place to another for food. During Mesolithic age, he used stone
and bone tools for collecting food. In Neolithic Age, the man was used very sharp and variety
of tools for their existence and collect food. Later he practiced agriculture and cultivated rice,
bajra, ragi green gram, red gram etc. from Paleolithic age to Neolithic age tools were change,
metals were came into picture. He used stone tools one side and copper other etc other side.
Pottery and other articles manufactured. Cotton was cultivated and used for weaving. Day to
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day more changes take place in ancient man life. He contributed stone, metal and other
technologies to Indian society. They domesticated animals. He could not know the horse.
They were practiced some kind of rituals. They worshiped nature and mother goddesses..

I. Check Your Progress-I
1. The Paleolithic sites were Hyderabad, Dharwar, Bijapur, Belgaum, Gujarat, Rewa and
Bhundhelkhand.
2. The Mesolithic tools are spoke shaves, arrows, lances hand axes, flakes, bows of
wood etc
1. The Neolithic sites were Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur, Kodekal, Sanganakallu, T. Narsipur,
Piklihal and Takkalakota, utnur, and Paiyampalli.
2. The Chaliolithic Age sites were Ahar, Gilund, Malwa, Kayatha, Jorwe, Nevasa,
Daimabad, Chandoli, Songaon and Inamgoan.

I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each
1. Write a note on Paleolithic Age culture in India
2. Explain the Mesolithic culture in India
3. Describe the Chalcolithic culture in India.
1. Explain the Early Palaeolithic tools.
2. Discuss the Neolithic sites in India
3. Discuss the Chalcolithic tools in India.
5.11 FUTHER READINGS

1. Jha, D.N. : Ancient India- An Introductory Outline
2. Romila Thapar : History of India, Vol-I
3. Romila Thapar : Studies in Ancient Indian Social History
4. Sharma, R.S. : Ancient India
5. Sankalia, H.D. : An Introduction to Indian Archaeology
6. Allchin, B & R : The Birth of Indian Civilization
77
7. Basham, A.L. : The Wonder that was India
8. Kosambi, D.D. : The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India: An Historical
Outline
9. Majumdar, R.C., : An Advanced History of India
Raychaudhuri, H.C. and Datta, K.
10. Binford S.R., L.R (1968): New perspectives in Archeology
11. Wheeler . R.E.M (1954): Archaeology from the Earth
12. Kevin Green (1983) : Archeology New Horizons
13. Rawan K.V (1991) : Principle and Methods of Archeology.
*****
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UNIT-6: HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
Contents
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Origin, Extent and Chronology
6.3 Cultural Uniformity of the Harappan Sites
6.4 Indus Script
6.5 Town Planning and Structures
6.5.1 The Great Bath & Granaries
6.6 Political System
6.7 Economical Conditions
6.7.1 Agriculture
6.7.2 Technology and Crafts
6.7.3 Trade
6.8 Society and Religious Practices
6.9 Art
6.10 Decline of Civilization
6.11 Other Chalcolithic Cultures in India
6.12 Summary
6.0 OBJECTIVES
To know the origin, extent and period of the Harappan Culture
To explain the political organizations of those days
To understand the structural remains of the Civilization
To describe the social and economic conditions then prevailing
To define religion and art in that culture
To analyse the causes for the decline of the civilizations
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6.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit, we shall study that period of Indian pre-history which is marked by the first
extensive use of metals, and the first evidence of writing. Harappan Civilization was discovered
in 1920-22 when two of its most important sites were excavated. These were Harappa on the
banks of the river Ravi and Mohenjodaro on the banks of the Indus. The first was excavated
by D.R. Sahani and the second by R.D. Bannerji. On the basis of the archaeological findings
the Harappan Civilization is one of the oldest civilizations of the world. It is the first urban
culture of India and is contemporaneous with other ancient civilizations of the world such as
those of Mesopotamia and Egypt. Our knowledge of the life and culture of the Harappan
people is based only on the archaeological excavations as the script of that period has not
been deciphered so far.
6.2 ORIGIN, EXTENT AND CHRONOLOGY

Harappan Civilization is an urban civilization. The whole period of Harappan culture is
in fact divided into three phases. First one early Harappan phase (3500-2600 BC)- it was
marked by some town-planning in the form of mud structures, elementary trade, arts and
crafts etc., second one called mature Harappan phase (2600 BC-1900 BC)-it was the period
in which we notice well developed towns with burnt brick structures, inland and foreign trade,
crafts of various types etc. And third one is late Harappan phase (1900 BC-1400BC)- it was
the phase of decline during which many cities were abandoned and the trade disappeared
leading to the gradual decay of the significant urban traits.
This civilization was clearly marked by an urban character, and by the use of not only
copper, but also bronze. This civilization is not only confined to Punjab but also some
prominent places like Sindh, Beluchistan, Gujarat and Rajasthan and some parts of Western
Uttar Pradesh. And one of the most prominent Harappan Civilization site by the archaeologists
is Mohenjo-Daro. This is 480 km away from Harappa. In 1947, after the partition of India, all
the well-known Harappan sites, Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Chanhudaro and Jhukar (Near
Larkana, Sind, Pakistan), went to Pakistan, leaving only two outposts, Kotla Nihang Khan
near Ropar on the Sutlej in Punjab and Rangapur on the Bhadar in Kathiawar, Gujarat within
the territory of India.
After that a famous archaeologist named A. Ghosh explorations on the Ghaggar
(Saraswathi) riverside in 1951 & 52 declared that there are 25 Harappan sites. Among them
Kalibangan (Ganganagar district in Rajastan) is most important site. After that Ropar and
Bara (1952-55), Bhagwanpura (1956-76), Mithal (1968) Banwali (1975-77) Manda (1976-
77) and Hulas (1978-80). Simultaneously, Dr.S.R. Rao explored a large area in Gujarath
including Kutch and Kathiawar, bringing the total number of Harappan sites in Gujarath to
over 190. Most noteworthy sites which have been excavated in Gujarath are : Rangapur
(1953), Lothal (1955-63), Prabhas Patan (1956-57), Rojdi (1957-58), Desalpur (1963-
64), Surkotda (1972-75) and Dholavira (1990-91). The last mentioned site located in Kutch
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district, is one of the four largest Harappan settlements in the Indo-Pak sub-continent. Prior
to it, the excavations at Diamabad (1974-79) on the Pravara, a tributary of the Godavari,
extended the distribution limit of the Indus Civilization further South in the Ahmadnagar district
of Maharashtra.
Some prominent scholars discovered many unknown facts regarding the Indus Valley
civilization by their valuable research. Recent excavations in Sind, Punjab and Baluchistan
gives the details of Harappan Civilization which was indigenous. Indus Valley Civilization,
people had a trade relationship with the Sumerians and Mesopotamians that means the trade
and the cultural relations had been highly evolved between the two civilizations.
The ancient agricultural tools were discovered in South Baluchistan and Sind in B.C.
4300-3000 were mostly belongs to the pre-Harappan civilization. The artefacts are like Kulli
and Rana Ghundai in Beluchistan, Mundigak and Quetta in Afghanistan, Amri and Kot Diji in
Sindh Valley and Kalibangan in Rajasthan were belongs to the pre-Harappan layer of
settlements. There are different opinions among the archaeologists about the chronological
6.1: Extent of the Harappa Culture
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extent of Harappan civilization, when the cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were first
discovered . It was stated by scholars that the civilization extended from 3,250 B.C. to 2,750
B.C. However, in recent times, since many more Harappan sites have been discovered, and
new methods of dating have been adopted, the Harappan civilization is now firmly placed
between 2,300 B.C. and 1750 B.C.
6.3 CULTURAL UNIFORMITY OF THE HARAPPAN SITES

An outstanding feature that distinguished the pre-Harappan phase from the Harappan
phase is the striking cultural uniformity over the vast area that the latter occupied. This overall
similarity of life style is apparent to us from the material and structural remains from the
various cities. It is clearly seen in such aspects as town-planning, the use of standardized
brick sizes, in many of the technological aspects like pottery types, the use of a standard range
of copper and bronze tools, seal- cutting, bead-making, in a single writing system and in a
uniform system of weight and measures. The excavated material is not identical in every city,
nor is the basic lay-out of each of them exactly alike. All the same, it can be asserted that the
Harappans had achieved a certain pattern of technical uniformity. Thus, the process that made
the urban culture of the Harappan possible, caused the various little village communities and
small towns to come under a single powerful economic system. This system determined the
character of the complex and mature Harappan phase.
6.4 INDUS SCRIPT

The Harappans were literate people. Harappan seals are engraved with various signs
or characters. Recent studies suggest that the Harappan script consists of about 400 signs
and that it was written from right to left. The Harappan script is not alphabetical, but mainly
pictographic. Attempts have been made to compare it with the contemporary scripts of
Mesopotamia and Egypt. But it is the native product of the Indus region and does not show
any connection with the scripts of Western Asia. It is believed that they used ideograms i.e., a
graphic symbol or character to convey the idea directly. We do not know the language they
spoke, though scholars believe that they spoke 'Brahui', a dialect used by Baluchi people in
Pakistan today. However, the script has not been deciphered as yet. So, further research
alone can unveil the mystery and enable us to know more about the Harappan script.
6.5 TOWN PLANNING AND STRUCTURES

The most interesting urban feature of Harappan civilization is its town-planning. It is
marked by considerable uniformity, though one can notice some regional variations as well.
The uniformity is noticed in the lay-out of the towns, streets, structures, brick size, drains etc.
Almost all the major sites (Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan) are divided into two parts-
a citadel on higher mound on the western side and a lower town on the eastern side of the
settlement. The citadel contain large structures which might have functioned as administrative
or ritual centres. The residential buildings are built in the lower town. The streets interest each
82
other at right angles in a criss-cross pattern. It divides the city in several residential blocks.
The main street is connected by narrow lanes. The doors of the houses opened in these lanes
and not the main streets.
The houses of common people, however, differed in size from a single-room house in
Harappa to bigger structures. The houses were largely built of burnt bricks. The bigger houses
had many rooms surroundings a square courtyard. These houses were provided with private
wells, kitchens and bathing platforms. The difference in the size of the houses suggests that the
rich lived in the larger houses whereas the one-room buildings or barracks might have been
intended for the poorer section of the society. The drainage system of the Harappans was
elaborate and well laid out. Every house had drains, which opened into the street drains.
These drains were covered with manholes bricks or stone slabs (which could be removed for
cleaning) were constructed at regular intervals by the side of the streets for cleaning. This
shows that the people were well acquainted with the science of sanitation.
6.5.1 The Great Bath & Granaries
At Mohenjodaro, the Great Bath, a rectangular tank, 39 feet by 23 feet (11.88 by 7.01
metres) and 8 feet deep (2.43 metres), constructed of bricks, is the most striking structure.
This was perhaps used for some ritual purpose. To its West lay a large granary, 150 feet
(45.71 metres) long from East to West and 75 feet (15.23 metres) wide. At Harappa, on the
other hand, we find as many as six granaries, each 50 feet by 20 feet (15.23 by 6.09 metres).
To the south of the granaries lay working floors (probably for threshing the grain) in rows of
circular brick platforms. Nearby were also found two-roomed barracks where probably the
labours lived. At Kalibangan too, some brick platforms were excavated which may have been
used as granaries. At Lothal, besides the dockyard, the raised brick platform representing the
6.2: The Great Bath
83
foundation of some sort of a granary, is found. The large size of these granaries reflect the
importance of storing grains, the distribution of which was probably in the hands of an
administrative authority.

1. What is the meaning of Chalcolithic?
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...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
2. Where did the Harappan Civilization originate?
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6.6 POLITICAL SYSTEM

Although a total excavations of many of the cities have not been done, we can draw
broad conclusions about the type of life that must have prevailed. For instance, people living
in the citadel area must definitely have been an elite group. They must have been people who
were vested with some authority, Secondly, from the excavation as a whole, the methodical
manner in which aspects of town planning were carried out, indicates that the Harappan
people had developed some type of Municipal Administration which was under an overall
state organization. Any idea about the Harappan state as such as based on guess work since
there is no written evidence to tell us about who controlled the economy, the civil Government
and the religious life of the state. Though archaeologists have recovered about 2500 Harappan
inscriptions engraved on seals, they have not been able to decipher the script. Thus, we can
only speculate the mechanism of this Government and how it was able to control the various
aspects of life in the individual cities that we have described above. Next, we turn to examine
the ways in which the economic and social organization made it possible for the cities to
survive for at least a thousand years.
6.7 ECONOMICAL CONDITIONS

6.7.1 Agriculture
Besides structural buildings, there are other material objects found at the various
Harappan sites. With regard to outlining the agrarian base, we have evidence to indicate that
84
wheat and barley were the main food crops. Two varieties of wheat were produced. Other
items that were grown were sesame, mustard, dates, peas : and evidence for rice is only from
Lothal, where rice husks imprinted in clay and pottery have been discovered. The huge
granaries found at these cities indicate clearly that there was enough surplus produced, and
probably taxes must have been received in cereals. Since a major part of the area where the
Harappan sites are situated is regarded as a low rainfall area, agriculture must have been
dependent on irrigation. This was largely determined by the floods that inundated the banks of
river Indus.
Unlike Mesopotamia, no evidence of irrigation channels have been found around the
Harappan sites. On the other hand, walls of burnt bricks at most of the cities situated on the
bend of the river, were in all probability, built to protect the cities from the floods that took
place annually. No hoes or ploughs have been found. However, recently at Kalibangan, furrows
were discovered in the pre-Harappan phase, indicating that fields were ploughed. One may
postulate that ploughs similar to modern ones were used by Harappan villagers. For harvesting,
stone sickles may have been used. Most of these food-producing areas had village settlements
on the flood plains. It was these villages that met the demand for food from the cities where
the merchants, artisans, politicians, priests and so on resided. We cannot conclude that the
Harappans were dependent only on agriculture. Enough evidence has also been found to
show that they must have domesticated animals to supplement their largely agrarian economy.
Undoubtedly, they must have had a pastoral economy in the hilly regions. Depiction of oxen,
buffaloes, goats, sheep, and humped bulls on a large number of terracotta's indicates the
familiarity of the Harappan with these animals. Other animals known to them were dogs,
elephants and to some extent, camels and horses. The evidence for the later is still uncertain,
indicating that they were still not in regular use. Wild animals too, have been depicted on seals
and one can imagine that they were also hunted for food.
6.7.2 Technology and Crafts
Without highly developed technological skills, they
would have been unable to carry on agriculture and
trade. The people of these Bronze Age cities were still
familiar with many tools and implements made of stone.
However, the main techniques developed by them were
in the sphere of metal-working. Copper was in plentiful
supply during this period, and a large variety of copper
tools like flat axes, knives, saws and spears have been
found at the excavated sites. Brick kilns associated with
copper working have also been discovered. The
manufacture of bronze needed tin, which was then mixed
with copper to produce bronze. The bronze tools
discovered from Harappan sites contained a small
percentage of tin which indicates that it was probably 6.3: Statuette of a Bearded Man,
Mohenjo Daro
not very easily available.
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6.4: Bronze Statuette of a Girl, Mohenjo Daro
Numerous other arts and crafts flourished in the Harappan towns. Seal-cutting seems
to have been a very common occupation. But significant in that these were probably used for
both religious and commercial purposes. Another very popular craft must have been bead
making. The Harappans were experts in bead-making. Chanhudaro and Lothal were probably
the important centres for their manufacture, at large numbers of them have been found in
certain structures situated at these sites. The materials used to make them were gold, silver
faience, steatite, shells, pottery and semi-precious stones. The long carnelian beads stand out
as one of the technical skills of the Harappans. Textile impressions on several objects have
been found reflecting the weaver's craft. The most common yarns used were wool and cotton.
Among the major crafts, in terms of quantity, brick-laying and making of burnt bricks were
significant, simply because of the large amount of such structures found all these sites. Stone
was indeed used, but only for sculptures, of which eleven have been found at Mohenjodaro
and two from Harappa. The statue of the 'dancing girl' has become famous as an indication of
the fine quality in which bronze could be worked. The crafts of making terracotta and pottery
flourished on a large scale. The popularity and utilitarian nature of these objects for ritual
purpose and daily use suggests the immense familiarity of the Harappans with these two
crafts.
6.7.3 Trade
Indians had the trade relationship with foreigners from the time of Indus Valley Civilization.
Indus people were encouraged foreign trade and commerce. They imported Silver from
Afghanistan, Copper from Baluchistan. In Harappan cities there are some seals available
were belongs to Mesopotamia. The Harappans had not developed the use of metallic money
and therefore, these goods were probably exchanged for either the finished goods they produced
or with food grains. Harappan people has been followed Barter System in the trade. Plentiful
evidence from terra-cotta models of bullock carts indicates that this was a common mode of
road transport. Communication was also carried on by boats along the river.
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6.8 SOCIETY AND RELIGIOUS PRACTICES
The main character of the Indus Civilization is the urban life. The rural areas not only
supported, but often contributed to the socio-cultural development at the urban-rural level.
The Indus Civilization reflects a highly developed civic life. City settlements are spread over
an area of five to seven kilometres in circumference. In the social and political life, there is a
uniformity of pattern. The extension of the houses were in a proper way. The existence of
religious-cum-political leadership of the priestly class is more likely than any secular political
authority. The society mainly consisted of middle class urban people. The Indus Civilization
was highly disciplined and intellectual dominated society. The Indus society, class-ridden as it
was, included administrators, officials, priests, traders, merchants, craftsmen, landlords,
peasants, herdsmen and labourers.
The rich and the influential people lived in big and palatial buildings, others in smaller
houses, while the labourers etc,. lived in barrack-like residences., wheat, rice, milk, fruits and
vegetables are part of the Harappan people food. They were interested in eating non-vegetarian.
Remains of stag, buffalo, pig, tortoise, goat, ox and fish have been found. Animal sacrifice
was in practice. Cock-fighting is seen on one seal. Fishing was a regular occupation. A number
of fish hooks have been traced. Traps were used for catching mice.
Harappan people were maintained proper dress. They used cotton regularly. Men and
Women had a special hair style. They were used bronze mirrors generally. They were used
different types of ornaments, chains, rings and some others which gives the evidence of minute
technical skills of Harappan people. Mohenjo-Daro women were interested in the beauty.
They used some cosmetics for their face. Harappan people had some association with pets,
birds for the passing time. Toilet jars were made of ivory, metal, earthenware, and stone.
Small decorated or glazed earthenware or porcelain vessels having four compartments were
used for keeping expensive perfumes or cosmetics. The large number of toys and objects
used in games have been unearthed from all the important sites. The favourite toy was the
baked clay cart. Singing birds were kept in cages. Dice were used in gambling. Chess Men of
stone have been found. A drum hangs from the neck of a figure in pottery. Some of the signs
of script look like harps (harmonium) and lyres (Violin or Veena). Music and dance were both
secular and religious.
Except for the discovery of the fire platforms and small other objects at Kalibangan, we
have not found any religious objects, temple or place of worship at any of the Harappan sites.
On the basis of our meagre knowledge, we can say that the Harappan people had many
features of later Hinduism, such as worship of the Mother Goddess, Pashupati Shiva, sacred
animals, trees, etc. here we can refer to a few leading religious beliefs of the Harappan people.
Worship of mother goddess is the prominent religious practice in Harappan society. The large
number of naked female idols are available. Among the Male Gods, the most remarkable is a
three-faced God wearing a horned head-dress, seated cross-legged on a throne, and
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65: Mother Goddess
surrounded by elephant, tiger, buffalo and rhinoceros,

with deer appearing under the seat. It wears a number of
bangles and an inscription of seven letters appears at the
top. This representation has at least three concepts which
are usually associated with Shiva viz., that he is 1.
Thrimukha (Three-faced), 2. Pashupati ( Lord of animals)
3. Yogisvara or Maha Yogi. The first two aspects are
apparent from the seal itself. The God is sitting cross-
legged in a Padmasana posture with eyes turned towards
the tip of the nose which evidences the Yogisvara aspect 6.6: Seal of the Harappa Culture
of the God.
When the excavations were started under Sir John Marshal in Mohenjadaro, there is
some evidence on Phallic (Lingam). The evidences on the idols gives the details of Harappan
people worshipped Agni, water and trees. There is a dance posture inscribed on the seal
which gives the importance of dance. The famous historian Dayaram Sahani opined that, this
dance leads to the Devadasi system in the temples after some days. Animal sacrifice is also
highly evolved in Harappan society. The Kalibangan and Mohenjodaro are evidences for
animal sacrifices.
Although definitive evidence about the religion of the Harappan Civilization still escapes
us, it would appear that the religious beliefs and practices of the Harappan people varied from
region to region. Like religion, different practices are present in burial practices as well. From
the discovery of a grave yard containing at least 67 graves at Harappa by Martimer Wheeler,
it appears that burial was the usual rite. But, the burial practices differed from site to site.
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6.9 ART
Harappan people had a great involvement in the art and architecture. The art on the
stone, iron, pottery and seals available which gives the details of Harappan people's lifestyle.
For instance, the seals of this civilization can be understood in terms of their economic importance
or in terms of their religious significance. But to us, these are the most impressive examples of
Harappan Art. Animals were particularly portrayed with great sensitivity, while the examples
of human figures like the sculptures of the dancing girls and the bearded man characterize a
tendency that mark a high level of refinement.
6.10 DECLINE OF CIVILIZATION

Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and some other cities were destroyed in 1750 B.C. and
some other extinct as Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh. Mohenjo-Daro people were migrated
to other places due to the frequent floods of Sindhu River. Due to the floods the agricultural,
irrigation system were declined. At Mohenjodaro, it was opined that constant floods destroyed
the city and the people were forced to migrate from there. At Harappa, on the other hand, it
is believed that barbarians attacked it and destroyed the city. Human skeletons hurriedly
buried at Mohenjadaro and Harappa indicate that there was some sort of invasion that
destroyed these sites. But this was not the case with the other Harappan sites. Kot Digi,
Kalibangan, Lothal do not show signs of sudden end. Here, floods caused violent changes in
the lower Indus region and obstructed the usual system of irrigation, thereby bringing about
economic decline of the cities. This too affected the economic order of many of the Harappan
sites. Thus, we find that in case of some of the cities, particularly the Northern ones, there was
total disruption. In others, although the Harappan culture continued, signs of its decline were
clearly visible. And also some scholars opined that the Harappan Civilization was declined
due to the Aryan invasion from the north-east frontier of the country. The causes of the end of
Harappan civilization were thus many.
6.11 OTHER CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES IN INDIA

There were many cultures which we have described above as Chalcolithic that co-
existed with the later phase of the Harappan Civilization. The important non-Harappan
chalcolithic cultures lay mainly in western India and Deccan. There must be viewed along with
the Harappan civilization, since they tell us about the cultural diversity of Indian pre-history.
There are 40 Chalcolithic sites available in Gange Valley and Chota Nagpur Plateau. The
similar quality of the culture is black and red pottery was used.
The importance of these chalcolithic cultures is that, they evolved in a region which
essentially was dry, away from alluvial plains and thick forested areas. This culture was
characterised by the use of tools made of copper as well as stone. The major tools used were
long parallel-sided blades, pen knives, lunettes, triangles and trapezes. Some of the blade
tools were used in agriculture. The people of these settlements subsisted on agriculture and
89
cattle rearing. However , they also practised hunting and fishing. The main crops of the period
include, rice, barley, lentils, wheat, jawar, coarse gram, pea, green gram etc. Skeletal remains
from the sites suggest the presence of domesticated and wild animals in these cultures. And
the Chalcolithic cultures were characterised by rural settlements. The people lived in rectangular
and circular houses with mud walls and thatched roofs.

1. Describe the religion and art of the Harappan people.
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
2. What were the causes for the disintegration of the Harappan Civilization?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
6.12 SUMMARY
The Harappan Civilization was the first urban civilization of the Indian Subcontinent.
Archaeological discoveries show that this culture evolved from the earlier rural communities.
Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Chanhudaro, Kalibangan, Lothal, Banawali, Rakhigarhi and Dholavira
were some of the important sites of the Harappan civilization. Well-planned towns can be
observed at some Harappan centres. These towns were characterised by two broad divisions-
a citadel on a higher mound and the lower town. Burnt bricks were used for building houses.
The towns had good drainage system. Some major buildings at the Harappan towns were the
Great bath at Mohenjodaro, a granary at Harappa, and a dockyard at Lothal. The Harappans
practised agriculture along with pastoralism. Though there were skilled craftsmen who worked
in copper and other metals, the stone tools were still in common use. They produced beads,
terracotta figurines, potteries and seals of various kinds. The Harappans carried out trade,
both internal and external. They had commercial links with Mesopotamian cities through Oman
and Bahrain in the Persian Gulf. The Harappan society seems to have been matriarchal in
nature. The people followed different professions such as priests, physicians, warriors, peasants,
traders and artisans. The Harappans worshipped the Mother Goddess , Pashupathi, trees
and animals. They also followed different kinds of burial practices and rituals associated with
them. The Harappans were literate and their script is in the form of ideograms. However, the
script has not been deciphered so far.
90
The Archaeological sources reflect that the non-Harappan chalcolithic cultures were
characterized by regional variations. The use of stone and copper tools was the distinct feature
of these cultures. The Chalcolithic cultures outside the orbit of the Harappan Culture did not
possess Harappan traits of urbanity and prosperity. These were non-urban cultures with certain
elements of their own such as the housing pattern, pottery types, religious practices etc., They
still subsisted on agriculture and hunting- gathering economy combined with pastoralism.

I. i. Chalcolithic
ii. Some scholars have expressed the view that the Harappan civilization was brought to
India by the Sumerians who inhabited the Tigris-Euphrates Vally in modern Iran. But,
the excavations in a number of places have proved that the Harappan Civilization
originated in India.
II. i. Worship of Mother Goddess was the most important feature of the Harappan civilization.
Siva was also worshipped. Nature worship and worship of animals also seems to have
existed.
The sculptures of dancing girl and the bearded man are the most impressive specimens
of the Harappan art. The paintings on pottery are a testimony to their artistic nature.
ii. Constant floods might have destroyed the civilization. Foreign invasions also might have
been a cause for the destruction of the civilization. Remains of human skeletons which
seem to have been hurriedly buried, indicate that some invasion destroyed that civilization.

1. Bring out the main features of the Harappan Civilization
2. Describe the structural remains of the Harappan sites
3. State the chief characteristics of the economic life of the Indus people
1. Examine the origin and chronology of the Harappan Civilization
2. Write about the cultural uniformity of the Harappan sites
3. What could be the possible political organizations of the Harappan Civilization
4. State the religious practices of the Indus people
5. How do you account for the decline of the Harappan Civilization?
6. What were the characteristics of the chalcolithic cultures in Central India, Ganges vally,
SouthEastern Rajasthan and the Deccan
91
1. Alkhin, B&R : The Birth of Indian Civilization
2. Jha.D.N. : Ancient India- An Introductory Outline
3. Romila Thaper : History of India, Volume I
4. Romila Thaper : Studies in Ancient Indian Social History
5. Sharma. R.S : Ancient India
6. Wheeler, R.F.M : The Indus Civilization and beyond
7. Bhasham A.L : The wonder that was India.
*****
92
UNIT-7 VEDIC CULTURE
Contents
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Linguistic Affiliation of the Aryans
7.3 Theories on the original home
7.4 Common Elements of Indo-European Culture
7.5 Early Aryan Settlements in India
7.6 Vedic Literature: The Four Vedas
7.6.1 Other Vedic Texts
7.6.2 Archaeological data for dating of Vedic tradition
7.7 Contribution of the Aryans to Indian culture
7.8 Early Vedic period
7.8.1 Economy
7.8.2 Political Organization
7.8.3 Society
7.8.4 Religious Practices
7.9 Later Vedic period: Expansion of the Aryans
7.9.1 Use of Iron
7.9.2 . Tribes in the Ganges Valley
7.9.3 Economy
7.9.4 Society
7.9.5 Polity
7.9.6 Religious ideas
7.10 Epic Age
7.11 Summary
93
7.0 OBJECTIVES
Know the theories relating to the original home of the Aryans;
Describe the Nature and contents of Vedic literature, covering Early and Later periods;
Describe the theories regarding the dating of the Vedic literature;
Analyse the Aryan Settlements;
Understand the political, social, economic and religious conditions of the Early Vedic
period;
Discuss the political, social, economic and religious conditions of the Later Vedic period.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the evolution of the Indian society, the Vedic culture age is an important landmark.
The Unit covers the span of time from 1500 B.C to 600 B.C. This period is divided for
convenience into Early and Later Vedic periods for understanding the society,
administration,economy and religious conditions. The Early Vedic period or Rigvedic period
is assigned from 1500 B.C. to 1000 B.C., and the later Vedic period assigned to 1000 B.C.
from 600 B.C.The sources to understand the Vedic age are prilimarily Vedic texts and other
literature that were composed by the Aryans for a long time. In recent years, archaeological
discoveries are analysed to corroborate the literacy evidences, so as to arrive at a
comprehensive picture of the Vedic age.
7.2 LINGUISTIC AFFILIATION OF THE ARYANS

As this age happens to be the mostly accepted basis for the formation of the early
culture civilization of India, a debate is going on about the time span, the original home of the
authors of this stage of Indian culture, and whether its authors are natives or foreigners who
migrated to India, and also about the meaning of the word Aryan itself. The opinion is so
sharply divided between historians who believe it to be purely native and those who believe it
to be the culmination of intermingling of native and foreign elements.
As already stated, there is a strong view that the Aryans were one of the Indo European
Speaking people who migrated to India around 2000 BC. Vedic literarute refers to them as
'Aryans'. The literal meaning of this term was 'respected'. The Aryans called themselves as
respected, but they didnot have the knowledge of agriculture gangetic plain, they were just
no-mads and their subsistence was cattle-rearing. This view made the historians to regard
'Aryan' as a term referring to a linguistic group, but not to a race, and as such, the view of
Aryan and Dravidian divide on the basis of racial features, is also not true. It is also established
now that there was no single Aryan invasion which is attributed to the destruction of Harappan
culture, but there were several waves of migrations of Aryans into India.
94
The debate about the original home of the Aryans began with the statement of Sir
William Jones in 1786 that the languages such as Greek, Latin, Goethic, Celtic, Sanskrit and
Persian have a common origin, and the ancestors of the people who spoke these languages
had a common language and home. They were called Indo-Europeans, and their language
was called Indo-European. Max Muller's statement that : "Aryan is utterly inapplicable to
race. It means language and nothing but language" strengthened the belief that the Indo-European
communities had the same cultural background before they migrated in waves to different
parts of the world.
Based upon these phycological, archeological, authropological studies historians came

across to a notion that, the term 'Arya' denotes to linguistical race but not to the ethnical race.
Different types of the ethnical races became united and started speaking the same language
i.e., Indo-Europeon language.
7.3 THEORIES ON THE ORIGINAL HOME

Many theories have been put forward by scholars regarding the original home of the
Aryans. The reasons for the proposition of various theories was the urge to establish their
national pride, and antiquity of their culture. Tilak was of the view that the original home of the
Aryans was the Arctic region, and that they migrated to India around 6000 BC. Sir Leonard
Wooley proposed that North European plains could be the homeland of the Aryans. There is
also a view that Eurasia i.e., the region which stretches from Poland to Central Asia could be
the original home of the Aryans. Various theories were also put forward to explain why migration
took place. Though much of the evidence regarding the migrations is very scanty, a picture of
migrations has been recorded on the basis of literary, inscriptional and archaeological data
which indicate the existence of elements of Indo-Europeans that have been found in Europe,
Asia Minor, Iran, Iraq and India. The Indo-Europeans who migrated to India made Sapta
Sindhu valley their first home and then moved Eastwards towards the Ganges Valley.
According to the most of the historians the Aryans had migrated from steppe of Southern
Russia (or) Central Asia to different parts of world during 2000 BC. Some of them started
their march towards the eastern side, and reached upto area of seven rivers (Sapta Sindu -
mentioned in Rigveda) near 1500 BC. They did not migrate as a single wave but their migrations
started like currents. The zoographical area mentioned in Rigveda completely matches with
the area between Oxus river in Afghanisthan and the Indus Valleys area. The Oxus river in
Afghanisthan was mentioned as Kubha and Indua and its five tributaries were also mentioned
in Rigveda. River Indus was referred to as Sindhu, it is the river for excellence of the Aryans.
They lived in this area upto 900 B.C. This period is called as early vedic period and only the
Rigveda was codified during this period.
95
1. When did the Aryans migrate to India?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
2. Who declared the theory of a common origin to several Indo-European Languages?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
3. How did Max muller define the term 'Aryan'?
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4. Which became the first home of Indo- Aryans? When did they migrate to India?
...........................................................................................................................................
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7.4 COMMON ELEMENTS OF INDO-EUROPEAN CULTURE

On the basis of literary evidences available, it can be stated that the lndo-European
tribes shared certain common elements of culture and had a common mythology and spoke
closely related languages within the lndo-European framework. This must have been the result
of their common home before they migrated and settled in India. The lndo-European tribes
appear to have started their migrations around 2000 B.C. in small waves to India and established
themselves firmly by 1500 B.C. in the Punjab region. The Aryans who spoke Sanskrit language
are regarded as the descendants of Indo-Europeans.
7.5 EARLY ARYAN SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA

It is suggested that before they landed in India, the Aryans remained for some time in
Bactria and Northern Iranian plateau, and by l500 B.C. reached Northern Indra through the
passes of the Hindukush. They inhabited first in Punjab,and probably it was here that the
hymns of the Rigveda were memorised and collected. It is also to be noted that all the tribes
96
were not one and the same and there were considerable differences between them. This can
be understood from the references to inter-tribal warfare in the early Vedic texts.
7.6 VEDIC LITERATURE: THE FOUR VEDAS

Vedic literature which happens to be the earliest literature that was produced in lndia
was the known primary source for the study of the Vedic age. First among the Vedic literature
was the Rigveda and the three other Vedas, the Sama Veda, the Yajurveda and the Atharva
Veda belong to later times. These are believed to be revealed texts, and as such, they are
classified as Shruti (that which is heard) texts. Rigveda contains 1028 hymns and ten mandalas.
These hymns are mainly concerned with prayers to nature Gods. These were to be recited at
the time of sacrifice. The Yajur Veda contains verses on sacrifices that were to be recited
when the manual part of the sacrifice was performed. The Same Veda is a collection of verses
from the Rigveda on literacy. The Atharva Veda consists mainly of magic spells and charms.
Of this Vedic literature, Rigveda occupies a primary place because it was not only the earliest
of the four Vedas, but also reflects conditions of life in the present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan
and Punjab in India. It is believed that all these could have been composed between 1500
B.C. to 900 B.C. It is very difficult to fix the dating of these texts, as none of them were
completed at a given point of time. From a critical examination of the Rigveda, it is suggested
that Books-II and VII were of earlier times, whereas the Books-I and X are of a later period.
From this evidence, it is presumed that they belonged to distant periods. We can establish that
they were not composed homogenously because of different geographical location and repetition
of the same ideas and terminologies in various texts.
7.6.1 Other Vedic Texts
Samhitas are part of the shruti tradition. These Samhitas were attached to a particular
Vedic school, and were intended to serve as guides conducting rituals. Besides Samhitas, we
have Brahmanas,Aranyakas, and the Upanishads. This entire Vedic literature constitutes the
Vedic tradition. The Brahmanas were the prose manuals of the Vedas. Aranyakas were the,
concluding portion of the Brahmanas. As they contain magical powers, these were taught in
the forests. The Upanishads which are attached to the Aranyakas were of philosophical nature.
Though they are assigned to the age of 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. it is very difficult to fix up the
exact date of the composition of this literature, or to fix up the phase when they were
composed. We also notice overlapping of them as in the case of Samhitas overlapping with
early Brahmanas. Satapatha and Aitareya are important Brahmanas. It is now accepted that
the Aranyakas and Upanishads as a class belong to later times. According to Max Muller,
Vedic hymns were composed between 1200 - 1000 B.C., the early Brahmanas and Samhitas
between 1000 B.C. to 800 B.C., and the later Brahmanas, Aranyakas and early Upanishads
between 800 B.C. to 600 B.C. These dates are contested, and many dates are suggested,
but it is accepted by many that the early limits of the Vedas are placed between 2500 B.C.,
and 1000 B.C.
97
7.6.2 Archaeological Data for Dating of the Vedic Tradition
Till 1960, what we know of Vedic period is only based on the knowledge from a critical
and appreciative study of the Vedic literature. But, after 1960, the discoveries by the
Archaeological Survey of India and State Departments of Archaeology provided a new
evidence to examine and corroborate the available literary data to arrive at a comprehensive
view of the Vedic age. Archaeologists discovered the Gandhara grave, the Grey Ware and the
Painted Grey Ware cultures in Pakistan and Northern India. R.S. Sharma is of the opinion
that these cultures correspond to the Early and Later Vedic civilizations. He also found
connection between the Rigveda and Gandhara Grave cultures, and the Grey Ware culture
pottery is found concentrated in Punjab, and the date given to it is between 1700-1000 B.C.
This painted Grey Ware settlements become common in the Ganga-Yamuna doab region
around 1000 B.C. Iron is also associated with this culture. The dating of the Vedic texts and
the above culture known from archaeological discoveries is assigned to 1500-500 B.C. In
this way, archaeological discoveries not only enrich our knowledge, but also prove the
truthfulness of the Vedic texts.

1. Write briefly about Vedic literature.
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
2. What is the important contribution of the Indo-Aryans to Indian culture?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
7.7 CONTRIBUTION OF THE ARYANS TO INDIAN CULTURE

Aryans who are believed to be foreigners, after deciding to settle in the Punjab region,
developed contacts, sometimes friendly and sometimes hostile with the native population, and
as a result, there developed a new pattern of Aryan civilization. Sanskrit, the language of the
Vedas, provided a stable base for the literary and religious traditions of India for many centuries
to come. But, we should remember that in the formation of Indian culture, though the Aryans
played a vital role, there were may other divergent factors which contributed to the creation of
the totality of Indian culture.
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7.8 EARLY VEDIC PERIOD
Rigveda describes that the early Aryans led a very simple life. From Rigveda, we come
to know that their geographical knowledge did not extend beyond the river Yamuna in the
East, and, as already mentioned, they lived in the region of the Land of Seven Rivers i.e. the
present-day Eastern Afghanistan, Punjab and Western parts of Uttar Pradesh. Another dominant
factor mentioned in the Rigveda is the constant intra-tribal warfare among the different tribes,
and the Aryans and non-Aryans. Of such battles, the best example is the battle of Ten Kings
or the famous Dasaraja battle. The battle that was fought between the Bharathas on the one
hand, and the hosts of ten chiefs on the other is known as the Bottle of ten Kings. This battle
was fought on the banks of river 'Parushini', identical with the river 'Ravi', and it gave victory
to gudas and established the supremacy of Bharathas. Of the defeated tribes, the most important
was that of the purus. Subsequently, the 'Bharathas' joined hands with the Purus and formed
a new ruling tribe called the Kurus. The Kurus combined with the Panchalas, and they together
established their kingdom in the upper Gangetic basin where they played an important part in
later vedic times.
Rigveda has many hymns through which the prayers are made to Indra, the god of war
to destroy the non-Aryan settlements. The non-Aryans are referred to as Dasyas in the Rigveda.
The result of the intra-warfare among the Aryan tribes, and the hostilities between the Aryan
and Non-Aryan groups is the emergence of new political affiliations and a mingling of Aryan
and non-Aryan elements. The emergence of Kurus as a strong political force by joining of the
Purus and Bharatas, is the result of such intra-tribal warfare. This Kuru tribe, as we all know,
played a crucial role in the Later Vedic period.
7.8.1 Economy
Aryans of the Rigvedic age led the life of semi-nomads. Their economy was a mixture
of cattle-rearing and elementary agriculture. The early Aryans appear to be more engaged in
cattle rearing by innumerable references to cow and the acquisition of the cattle as the cause
for many battles. The term for war used by Rigveda was 'gavishti' and it means search for
cows. As the priests were paid in cows for offerings, and property was estimated on the basis
of the number of cows, we cannot say that cow was the medium of exchange. Besides cows,
they domesticated goats, sheep and horses. By using chariots drawn by horses, they could
secure victories in battles. We can say that the early Aryans knew agriculture, as there are
references to, five seasons and techniques of sowing, reaping and harvesting. It is suggested
that while cattle was owned individually, the land was the property of the tribe. As Rigveda
refers to artisans such as the carpenter, chariot maker, weaver, leather worker, potter etc.,
We may put forward a theory that craft occupations also began to take place in the society to
cater to the needs of the semi-nomadic communities. There is a reference to a term 'ayas'
which means metal, and it is suggested that the metals known to early Aryans are copper and
bronze. Thus, the economy was mainly based on cattle-rearing with rudimentary agriculture.
99
7.8.2 Political Organisation
Polity or administrative mechanism and political structure of the early Aryans appears
to be essentially tribal in nature. The chief of the tribe was called Rajan and he exercised
supreme authority over his tribe, but not on specific area of land. We may suggest that every
tribe had its chief. By the end of this period, the idea of hereditary kingship was taken shape,
but his authority appears to have been limited by the Sabha, Samithi and Vidhata Gana which
are referred to in the Rig Veda. It is suggested that these assemblies exercised military and
religious functions. The Sabha appears to be the house of the elders of the tribe, and Samithi
was the general assembly of all the members of the tribe. As women were not yet looked
down, they attended the Sabha and Samithi deliberations. The Sabha and Samithi performed
both judicial and political functions. In day-to-day administration, the Rajan was helped by
functionaries like Purohit, Senapati and other officers like Vrajapati, Gramani etc., As the
Rajan was considered to be the head of the tribe and protected them, the members of the tibe
voluntarily offered for the maintenance of Rajan. It is called 'Bali' '. We do not have any
specific information about the quantity of offerings in the shape of Bali. The spoils of war
were equally distributed among the members of the tribe. As there was semi-nomadic living,
no reference is made to the need for standing army or to a permanent structure like fort.
Bhaga, also a type of the tax from Rigveda, was levied on the people at that time.
Rigveda refers at several places to jana but never to janapada. The jana was divided
into vish or clan. We do not have any direct evidence to the creation of villages or gramas. The
character of the family was patriarchal, but yet, women enjoyed a better social status in father
- headed society. Women mastered ritual offerings and participated equally with men in
performing sacrifices. Begetting male children was favoured, as their society was engaged in
constant wars, intra and inter- tribal.
7.8.3 Society
We notice the assimilation of non-Aryan native groups into the Aryan society.It is
suggested that sages like Angirasa, and priests like Viswamitra belonged to the non-Aryan
tribes. But, by the end of this phase, we notice that the visible distinction between higher and
lower classes was becoming rigid. The 10th book of Rigveda refers to the four-fold division
of society into Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The division was based on varna
or colour of the skin. But, there is a view that it was an addition and the Chaturvarna system
did not originate in this phase of Rigvedic civilisation. The social organisation can be said to be
flexible because it was of a simple kind.
During the late early vedic periods the Varna System gradually shaped out. But in the
later vedic period the fourfold Varna System was solidified. The namad and semi-nomadic life
of Aryans, became sedentary and developed as the agnarian society after they were settled
over into the Gangetic plain.
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Later on, the villages came into being and the rural culture flourished for sometime.
During this period, the occupations in the rural economies divided between the people. The
Heterogeneous nature of the society caused for the development of Varna System, later the
mode of production, and agnarian economy paved way for the development of occupational
castes in India.
7.8.4 Religious Practises
Religious practises of the early Aryans were also simple. They worshipped nature Gods
who were predominantly male. We find them to be praying to Indra, Varuna, Agni, Surya,
Soma,Pushan, and Savitri. We notice a graded position of the nature gods. Agni occupied a
unique place in this gradation as he got nurtured in the homes of the ordinary people, and
acted as an intermediary between Gods and men. Agni's importance increased, as performance
of sacrifices became very common. We can say that they were primarily nature worshippers,
and we also notice the assimilation of post-Aryan practices like worshipping of Rudra, Tvashtri
and others.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-III

1. In the Rigveda, the non-Aryans are referred to as
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
2. The Rigvedic economy centred around the animal:
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
3. The important officials who assisted the king were:
a) ...............................................................................................................................
b) ......................................................................................................................... and
c) ...............................................................................................................................
4. Name two Gods of the early Vedic period who were very popular
a) ...............................................................................................................................
b) ...........................................................................................................................
....
7.9 LATER VEDIC PERIOD: EXPANSION OF THE ARYANS

In this phase of the Vedic age, chronologically assigned to 1000 BC. to 500 BC, we
witness remarkable change in every aspect of the life of the Aryans. The sources to understand
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the above said changes are the literary texts and archaeological tools or weapons discovered
in recent times. During this phase, the Ganga-Yamuna doab became the centre of activity. The
expansion of the Aryan inhabitation into the Ganges valley took place Eastwards along the
Himalayan foot-hills, North of the river Ganga. They appear to have resorted to this expansion
by burning forests and by using iron. This phase appears to be contemporary with the Painted
Grey Ware culture of the archaeological excavations.
7.9.1 Use of Iron
Archaeologist's spade has brought to light Copper Hoard Cultures, which are assigned
to 1700-1000 BC. It is suggested that the Aryans might have imposed themselves on the
people of this culture. Archaeologists are of the opinion that the use of iron began in 800 BC.
as the Hastinapur excavations testify. By clearing forests and by using iron implements such as
arrow heads and spear heads, the Aryans appear to have gained an upper hand in this region
and started a settled life around 600 BC. Thus, superior technological knowledge enabled the
Aryans to gain upper hand, and become a dominant group politically and economically.
7.9.2 Tribes of the Ganges valley
The literary texts of this period refer to the tribes of Purus, Bharatas as the major ones,
and by combining themselves, they formed the Kuru tribe. The Kurus occupied the region
around Delhi and the upper portion of the Doab. They were the people who participated in
the famous battle, which is the theme of the Mahabharata. The Panchalas are another important
tribe, which practised Vedic life with utmost care. Their region is well-known for its philosophers.
The kingdoms of Kosala and Vidarbha also became prominent. The story of the Ramayana is
associated with Kosala which has no reference in Vedic literature.
7.9.3 Economy
During this phase, the economy was based on settled agriculture, along with cattle-
rearing ploughing of land with oxen had become very common during this phase. The Sarapath
Brahmana graphically and vividly describes rites connected with ploughing and other agricultural
activities. Besides barley, wheat, beans and sesame were grown by them. Cattle did not lose
its importance as cattle was needed to carry on agricultural operations The idea of private
property of land began to take shape.
We also notice that with the surplus produced from agricultural operations, people
began to better their material base encouraging a number of occupations needed for their
survival. Occupations such as that of the smelter, the smith, the carpenter, the weaver, the
jeweller and the potter became common. Undoubtedly, this phase witnessed more and more
of commodity production. Though no actual specimens of coins are available, in the excavations
references to money-lending occur in the Sarapatha Brahmana. We can reasonably assume
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that there existed some sort of elementary trade. The evidence of the urbanisation or the
growth of the towns is not supported by archaeological discoveries. It is believed that what is
gained as surplus through agriculture was used to support the necessary political and religious
authority i.e. the kings and the priests.
7.9.4 Society
Simple society of the early Aryan phase appears to have become complex during this
phase. There is a view that social gradation based on birth and varna appears to have taken
shape, and rigidity in practice was visible now: There is a view that the Brahmins have become
socially and economically powerful because of large-scale practice of sacrifices, and offering
fee to the priests. It is also said that there appears to have prevailed close understanding
between the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas (the ruling community). The Vaishyas engaged
themselves in agriculture and cattle-breeding. They paid tribute to the king. All the three varnas
-Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya were entitled for having sacred thread ceremony which
entitled them to be considered twice-born. The Shudras formed the bulk of the population
and they were employed as domestic servants and agricultural labourers. Varnasrama dharma
was maintained rigidly by Dharmasastra literature. The institution of gotra was introduced
during this period. The patriarchal system continued, and the birth of sons was favoured, and
the birth of a daughter was discouraged. Monogamy was generally the accepted norm, but
Princes could marry more than one women. Polyandry was unknown More and more
restrictions were imposed on women Though there were women scholars like Gargi, the
position of women deteriorated.
7.9.5 Polity
As a result of the changes brought about by the introduction of settled agricultural
operations and the introduction of iron technology, kingship no longer was tribal in character.
Assemblies like the Sabha and the Samithi lost their power and that power was grabbed by
the royalty. While Vidhata and Gana totally went into darkness, the other Sabha and Samithi
remained only in theory. Women were no longer allowed to attend them. Nobles and the
Brahmanas began to exercise more power in the assemblies. One important development of
far reaching influence was the formation of territorial kingdoms. It means that people exhibit
loyalty now to the territory rather than to the tribe. Atharva Veda openly describes the territorial
aspects of kingship. We come across different forms of government prevalent in different
parts of the country. The kingdoms were named after their tribes. The increase in the power of
the ring and the rise of territorial kingship decided the nature of political organization.
The duties of the king dominated the organization of the government. The king was not
only a military leader, but also the protector of peoples’ lives and one who would look after
their well-being. Performance of Rajasuya, Vajapeya and Aswametha had become symbolic
103
expressions of royal ability and power. Further his power was strengthened by the authority
of imposing and collecting taxes. He was also paid a number of tributes and offerings by his
subjects. The beginning of bureaucratic apparatus can be seen in this phase. We hear of
twelve ratnins who performed the duties of the priest, the commander, the chief queen and so
on. Of these 12 ratnins, the Sangrahiti collected taxes. These officers not only assisted him,
but increased his power. During this period the Kshatriyas and the Brahmans controlled the
state and society.
7.9.6 Religious ideas
Religious ideas of this phase were dominated by the sacrifice which was accompanied
by innumerable rituals and mantras. The priests that were skilled in the performance of the
sacrifices, conducted them, where animals were killed for offerings. The prominent gods like
Indra and Agni lost their importance, and minor gods of early Aryan age like Prajapati, Rudra
and Vishnu became prominent. Further, every caste began to have a god for it. Instead of
prayers, performing of sacrifice assumed significance. Consequently,the position of the
Brahmanas became very strong and powerful. Towards the end of this phase, the theory of
karma and transmigration of soul became the dominant aspect of philosophy of life. In one
way, the Upanishads may be regarded as opposed to sacrifices, and killing of animals as
offerings. The Upanishads also preached the need for understanding 'atma" and its relation
with 'Paramatma'. In this period, asceticism and leading the life of a Sanyasi also became
popular. Corresponding to these developments, the Dharma Shastra literature also prescribes
asramas such as Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa as four stages in the life
of man.
Thus, an attempt is made to give a comprehensive picture of the society, and the changes
that took place from one phase to another with the available literary and archaeological sources.
The Vedic age was definitely a formative stage in the evolution of Indian culture wherein we
find both the Aryan and non-Aryan beliefs and practices being integrated to evolve a culture
of significance.
7.10 EPIC AGE

Next to Vedic literature are the Epics. Ramayana and the Mahabharata are the two
known Epics of the Aryans. There is a view that the Epics cannot be considered historical
because they are full of mythological information. One controversy was that the Epics are said
to be composed before the date of Buddha, and it is said that they belonged to the age of the
Sutras. There is also a controversy regarding the date of the writing of the Epics. The importance
of the historical value of the Epics is that, while the Ramayana illustrates the story of the
beginning of Aryanisation of the country, the Mahabharata illustrates how the whole Deccan
104
was Aryanised. We also notice a change in the political, economic, social and religious views
of the people by the analysis of the two Epics.
The Mahabharata draws the picture of war between good and evil in which the good
wins. Thus, the rule of Dharma is established. This is the essence of Mahabharata, the soul of
Indian people. Encyclopedic in character, together the Epics form the contents of our collective
consciousness wherein is breathed the united soul of India and the individual souls of her
people. The two Epics represent, modes of our Aryan civilization, viz., moral and intellectual,
and it is indeed impossible to grasp the true spirit and meaning behind the moving drama of
Indian life without a thorough and intelligent understanding of the Epics. And to trace the
influence of the Indian Epics on the life and civilization of the nation, on the development of
modern languages, literature and religious reforms, in the words of R.C. Dutt, is to comprehend
the real history of the people during the last three thousand years.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-IV

1. Which area was the centre of activity in the Later Vedic period?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
2. What is the main distinguishing factor between the Early Vedic period and the Later
Vedic period?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
3. Name a woman of the Vedic period known for her knowledge.
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
4. Name two sacrifices performed by the Later Vedic Kings.
a) ...............................................................................................................................
b) ...............................................................................................................................
105
5. Mention the names of three Gods who were popular in the Later Vedic Period.
a) ...............................................................................................................................
b) ...............................................................................................................................
c) ...............................................................................................................................
7.11 SUMMARY
The Vedic age broadly corresponds to 1500 600 BC. The early Aryans lived in the
regions of Eastern Afghanistan, Punjab and parts of Western Uttar Pradesh. Cow was an
important form of wealth and the economy was primarily based on cattle-rearing with elementary
knowledge of agriculture. Political organization was tribal in nature. Rajan was the head of the
tribe, and was assisted by Sabha and Samiti. Caste system was taking shape at the end of the
Vedic period. Vedic people worshipped nature gods, particularly male gods. The Gangetic
valley was the centre of the Later Vedic age. The Later Vedic people knew the use of iron.
The economy was based on settled agriculture during the Later Vedic period. Division of
society into castes became more rigid in the Later Vedic period. Kingship became territory
oriented in the Later Vedic period. Sacrifices increased, and Rudra and Vishnu became popular
during the Later Vedic period. The Epics Ramayana and Mahabharata comprehend the history
of model of Aryan civilization.

I. 1. The Aryans came to India in several waves of migration. It is wrong to believe that there
was a single Aryan invasion of India. The Aryan migration to India took place in a
period of about 1000 years commencing from 2000 BC.
2. Sir William Jones

3. Max Muller regarded the term 'Aryan' as referring to language, but not race. This
strengthened the belief of the same cultural background of the Indo-European
communities before they migrated in waves to different parts of the world.
4. Indra, Varuna, Mitra.
II. 1. The four Vedas, the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and the Upanishads constitute
the Vedic literature. These Vedic texts are not homogeneous in character. Hence, it is
supposed that they were composed during different periods. The Rigveda is the earliest
of them. On the basis of literary and archaeological data, the period from 1500 B.C. is
suggested as the period of the Vedic literature .
2. The Vedic literature and the Sanskrit language of the Indo-Aryans have provided the
stable base for Indian culture. This is the important contribution of the Indio-Aryans to
Indian Culture.
106
III. 1. Dasyus
2. Cow
3. (a) Purohit (b) Senani (c) Gramani
4. (a) Indra (b) Varuna

IV. 1. Gangetic Valley
2. Use of iron in the Later Vedic period.

3. Gargi
4. (a) Asvamedha (b) Rajasuya.
5. (a) Prajapati (b) Rudra (c) Vishnu

1. Give an account of the political organization of the Early Vedic period.
2. State the main changes that took place in Aryan economic organization during the Later
Vedic period
3. Trace the evolution that took place in social organization during the Later Vedic period.
4. What are the significant developments in the Later Vedic political and administrative
organization?
5. Indicate the important changes that took place in the religious organization of Later
Vedic Aryans.
II. Answer the following in about 15 lines each.
1. State the features of the early Aryan economy as described by Rig Veda
2. Indicate the organization of society during the Early Vedic period.
3. Briefly state the Aryan religious beliefs during the Rig Vedic Period.
4. What do the archaeological cultures tell us about the material life of the Later Vedic
Aryans?
5. Give reasons as to why the caste system became rigid during the later Vedic Period
6. Bring out the essential features of Upanishadic philosophy.

1. Basham, AL. : The Wonder that was India.
2. Jha, D.N. : Ancient India An Introductory Outline
107
3. Kosambi,D.D. : The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India A Historical
Outline.
4. Majumdar, R.C. (ed) : The Vedic Age, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan Series, Vol. I
5. Majumdar, R.C., : An Advanced History of India
Raychaudari, H.C. & Datta, K
6. Nilakanta Sastry, K.A. : History of India, Vol. I
7. Romila Thapar : History of India Vol. I
8. Sathianatha Aiyar, R. : History of India, Vol. I
9. Sharma, RS. : Aspects of Political Ideas and I Institutions in Ancient India.
10. Wooley, Sir Leonord (ed) : History of Mankind Series, UNESCO, Vol. I.
*****
108
BLOCK-III: MAHAJANAPADAS AND RISE OF NEW
RELIGIONS IN 6 TH C.B.C.
The Buddhist texts mention the 16 Mahajanapadas for the first time. These were mostly
situated north of the Vindhyas, and many of them were concentrated in the Ganges valley. The
Malla and Vrijji had republican form of government and the remaining 14 were monarchical
character. In Mahajanapadas, Magadha, Kosala, Gandhara, Chedi, Avanti and Asmaka were
important. Magadha became the centre of political activity around the middle of the 6th century
C.B.C., when Bimbisara ascended the throne. He was the contemporary of Buddha, and
under his leadership, a policy of conquest and aggrandizement was started. The establishment
of this expansionist policy continued to dominate the political history of Magadha, culminating
in the establishment of the Mauryan Empire.
In sixth century Northeastern India the Ajivikas (Makhalli Gosala) and Charvakas
(Ajita Keshakambalin) preached a doctrine of total materialism. Each school laid emphasis
on one particular aspect of the nature of life and its relationship to the larger universe. After
these schools the Jainism and Buddhism played an important role in the Indian society.
Rushabanada, Parsvanada and Mahavira played an important role in the strengthen of the
Jainism.
Goutama Buddha was the founder of the Buddhism. He says four noble truths and eight
-fold -path for the Mukti. Buddhism and its Middle Path attracted several rulers and spread
across the Asia. They encouraged the Buddhism and conducted Buddhist councils in different
parts of the county. This block had two units such as
Unit-8: Mahajanapadas and Rise of Magadha
Unit-9: Jainism, Buddhism and other Heterodox Sects
109
110
UNIT - 8: MAHAJANAPADAS AND
RISE OF MAGADHA
Contents
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Sources
8.3 List of Mahajanapadas
8.4 Emergence of 16 Mahajanapadas - Some important Mahajanapadas.
8 .4.1 Vajji
8.4.2 Malla
8.4.3 Asmaka
8.4.4 Avanti
8.4.5 Vatsa
8.4.6 Kosala
8.4.7 Magadha
8.5 Rise of Magadha - Causes
8.6 Rise and Growth of Magadha
8.6.1 Brihadradha Dynasty
8.6.2 Haryanka Dynasty
8.6.3 Sisunaga Dynasty
8.6.4 Nanda Dynasty
8.7 Foreign Invasions
8.7.1 Persian Invasion
8.7.2 Results of Persian Invasion
8.7.3 Alexander's Invasion
8.7.4 Conditions of North India
8.7.5 Course of Invasion
8.7.6 Battle of Jhelum or Hydaspes (B.C. 326)
8.7.7 Further conquests of Alexander
8.7.8 Retreat of Alexander
8.7.9 Results of Alexander’s Invasion
8.8 Summary
111
8.0 OBJECTIVES
Know about the State formation and the emergence of 16 Mahajanapadas;
Understand about the causes for the rise of Magadha under various dynasties and
finally growth of Magadha into an empire; and
Analyse the causes, course, significance and results of foreign invasions on India.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Though the historians are accepting that the Indus people (B.C. 2,500 to B.C. 1,700)
followed and experienced a wonderful political system, there are different opinions among
them on the same. After the Indus Civilization, the Aryan territories were referred as Jana and
Janapada in Early Vedic (B.C. 1500 to B.C. 1000) and Later Vedic (B.C. 1000 to B.C. 600)
periods orderly. The post-Later Vedic period, 6th Century B.C. was called the period of
heterodox systems; the period of Second Urbanization (as numerous towns had grown in this
period); and the period of Mahajanapadas in the socio-cultural, economic and political
perspective orderly.
8.2 SOURCES
1. We know about this period from Archaeology as a shiny black pottery, which was
named northern black polished ware (NBPW), was found at many sites. Objects found
at excavated sites, include items made of bone, ivory, silver, copper, iron, topaz, crystal,
carnelian, glass and shell. Punch-marked coins, pieces of silver or copper marked with
a punch, began to be made around the 5th C.B.C.
2. The Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya provides a list of 16 Mahajanapadas and were
Anga, Asmaka, Avanti, Chedi, Gandhara, Kambhoja, Kasi, Kosala, Kuru, Magadha,
Malla, Matsya, Panchala, Surasena, Vajji, and Vatsa.
3. The Diga Nikaya provides some of them in pairs: Kasi-Kosala; Vajji-Malla; Chedi-
Vatsa; Kuru-Panchala and Matsya-Surasena.
4. Another Buddhist text, the Mahavastu, too gives a list of 16 but excludes Gandhara
and Kambhoja; substitutes them by Sibi and Dasarna in Punjab and Central India
respectively.
5. The Jain text Bhagavati Sutra includes Vanga and Malaya.
112
8.3 LIST OF MAHAJANAPADAS
Sl.No. Names of Present Area of Maha Capital City Modern name Other relevant
Mahajana janapada of Capital City information
Padas
1. Anga Districts of Monghyr and Champa/ Anga was occupied by

Bhagalpur in Bihar Champa Bimbisara and it formed
nagari Chandan as integral part of
Magadha.
2. Asmaka The area between the rivers Potana/ Bodhan in Telangana
Narmada and Godavari, Podhana/Potali
Telangana
3. Avanti Malwa in Madhya Pradesh Ujjaini (for North Finally Avanti become a
Ujjain Avanti) and part of Magadhan empire
Mahismati at the time of Sisunaga.
(for South Avanti)
4. Chedi Bundelkhand Area in Sotthivati/ Near Banda Branch of Chedis
Southern Uttara Pradesh Suktimati in U.P. founded a royal dynasty
in the kingdom of
Kalinga.
5. Gandhara Districts of Rawalpindi and Taxasila and Taxila Taxasila was both a centre
Peshawar in Western Pakistan Pushkalavati of it trade and learning;
and Afghanistan (Pakistan) finally was occupied by
the Persians.
6. Kambhoja Hazara district, Pakistan Rajapur/ South or South
Hataka -east of Punch.
7. Kasi District of Varanasi, Varanasi Banaras It was occupied by
Uttara Pradesh Kosala.
8. Kosala Districts of Faizabad, Saket/Ayodhya Ayodhya and It was annexed by
Gonda, Bahraich in Eastern (for North Kosala)Sahet-Mahet Magadha during
Uttara Pradesh and Sravasti/ Ajatasatru's reign.
Sahet-Mahet (for
South Kosala
9. Kuru Haryana, Delhi Asandivanth/ Near modern Earlier this was a

Hasthinapur Delhi monarchical territory
(Indraprastha) and finally it became a
republic one.
10. Magadha Patna, Gaya districts and Girivraj, Rajgriha Patna in The most powerful state
parts of Shahabad in Bihar and Pataliputra Bihar of ancient India.
11. Malla Districts of Deoria, Basti, Kushinara and Kushinara and After the death of
Gorakhpur and Siddartha Pawa Pava have been Buddha, this state was
nagar in Uttara Pradesh identified with absorbed in the
Kasia and Magadhan empire.
Padaraona
respectively
12. Matsya Alwar, Bharatpur and Viratanagar Bairat (near At one time formed a
Jaipur in Rajasthan Jaipur) part of the Chedi kingdom
and finally absorbed in
the Magadha empire.
13. Panchala Buduan, Farrukhabad and Ahichchatra (for Ahichchatra is
Bareilly districts of Uttara North Panchala) identified with
Pradesh and Kampilya Ramnagar in
113
(for South Bareilly district
Panchala) and Kampilya is
with Kampil in
Farrukhabad
district.
14. Surasena Brajmandal in Western Mathura on the Madhura The rulers were belonged
Uttara Pradesh bank of Yamuna to Yadava family. Finally
it became an integral part
of the Mouryan Empire.
15. Vajji Confe- North of the river Ganges Vaishali (Capital Modern Basarh The Vrijian/Vajji
deracy in Bihar of the Lichchavis in the Muzaffar- confederacy consisted of
and the head pur district of eight clans. Ajathasatru
quarter of the the bihar successfully destroyed
Vrijian the great confederacy.
confederacy)
16. Vatsa Districts of Allahabad, Kausambi Kosam, Finally, it was annexed
Mirjapur etc. in Uttara near Allahabad to the Avanti kingdom.
Pradesh
8.4 EMERGENCE OF 16 MAHAJANAPADAS - SOME

IMPORTANT MAHAJANAPADAS
Janapada means the land (padam) where people (Jana) settle. The incorporation or the
extension of some Janapadas resulted in the establishment of Mahajanapadas. These are in
number 16 and so are called Shodasa Mahajanapadas. These were mostly situated North of
the Vindhyas, and many of them were concentrated in the Ganges valley (2 were in North
West India; 13 were in North India and 1 was in South India). The majority of the
Mahajanapadas were monarchical in character and some of them like Vajji and Malla had a
republican form of government. Among the monarchical states Magadha, Kosala, Vastsa and
Avanti had importance. Finally, Magadha became the centre of power and grew into the
most important kingdom.
The political system in 6th CBC was characterized by the existence of two distinct
forms of government: Monarchical kingdoms (most of them occupied the Ganga-Yamuna
valley) and clan oligarchies or gana-sanghas (located nearer the foothills of the Himalayas).
The gana-sanghas were organized on the lineage principal with the entire clan participating in
the exercise of power. The Mallas and Vajjis were clan oligarchies or groups of tribes headed
by a council.
8.4.1 Vajji
North of the Ganga was situated the kingdom of the Vrijjis (Vajjis) which included eight
clans viz., the Videhans, Lichchavis, Jnatrikas, Vajjis, Ugras, Bhogas, Kauravas and the
Aikshvakas. Of whom the Videhans, the Lichchavis, the Jnatrikas and the Vrijjis were the
important and the most powerful of them were Lichchavis with their capital at Vaishali. Literally
vrijji/vajji means 'pastoral nomads'.
8.4.2 Malla
It was situated north of Vajji state. Though it had a monarchical constitution in pre-
buddhist times, it became an oligarchic state in 6th CBC. Jainism & Buddhism found many
adherents among the Mallas.
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8.1: The Mahajanpadas
8.4.3 Asmaka
Among the 16 Mahajanapadas, only 1 state was located in South India i.e. Asmaka/
Assaka. It was situated on the bank of Godavari and was in the south of Avanti. It was a
Telangana Janapada.
Among the 16 Mahajanapadas, only 4 states - Avanti, Vatsa, Kosala and Magadha
were powerful. Finally, Magadha emerged as the most powerful and succeeded in founding
an empire. There were struggles from 6th CBC onwards between these states for supremacy.
Many quarrels and conflicts are described in the Buddhist texts. Here is one story.
Pradyota, king of Avanti, wanted to capture Udayana, king of Vatsa. Pradyota built an
enormous hollow wooden elephant, which looked real. Inside it he hid 60 men, and put the
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elephant in the forest. Udayana liked elephants and when he heard about this huge elephant
in the forest, he came looking for it. And he was captured. But the story had a happy ending.
Udayana and Pradyota's daughter Vasavadatta, fell in love. She helped to him to escape and
they both returned to Vatsa. They married and she became his queen.
8.4.4 Avanti
Avanti state was divided into two parts i.e. North Avanti and South Avanti with their
capitals Ujjaini and Mahismati respectively. Mahismati is very fame for Iron industry. This
state was an important centre of Buddhism. During life time of Buddha it was ruled by
Pradyota. He was so powerful that even the contemporary Magadha rulers feared from him.
After Pradyota, Avanti saw its fall and its last ruler Nandivardhana was defeated by Sisunaga
in 4th CBC and annexed to the Magadha empire.
8.4.5 Vatsa
It is located at the bank of Yamuna. The Vatsas were a Kuru clan who had shifted from
Hastinapur and settled down at Kaushambi. King Udayana was important king who ruled in
6th CBC. Finally, it was during the reign of Pradyota's son, the kingdom was finally annexed
to Avanti.
8.4.6 Kosala
Kosala was very famous for its association with the epic hero, Rama and one of the
revolutionaries in 6th CBC, Buddha. Ayodhya, one of the important cities of Kosala, is
associated with the epic, Ramayana. Kapilavasthu, the tribal republican territory of Sakyas,
was also one of the integral parts of Kosala. Pipravaha in Basti district is identified as
Kapilavasthu. Lumbini is at a distance of 15 km from Pipravaha in Nepal. Prasenajit was the
ruler of Kosal in 6th CBC. He was educated at Taxila and as such as he was a very highly
educated ruler and loved education. Since his sister, Maha Kosala Devi, had been married to
Bimbisara therefore his prestige had considerably increased. It appears that under Prasenajit's
son Vidudabha Kosala kingdom saw a fall and it ultimately merged with Magadha.
8.4.7 Magadha
It prospered and rose very rapidly from the 6th CBC. But from the everlasting struggles
with the above 4 states for about a hundred years, Magadha emerged victorious and established
itself as the centre of politics in northern India by the 5th CBC.

1. Mention the names of important kingdoms among the 16 Mahajanapadas.
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2. What were the methods adopted by Bimbisara for the expansion of Magadha ?
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3. What were the important achievements of Ajatashatru ?
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4. Who was the first Nanda king of Magadha ?
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8.5 RISE OF MAGADHA - CAUSES

The causes for the rise of Magadha were as follows:
This kingdom had many resources.
Geographically ………………
 It was bound on the North, East and West by the rivers Ganges, Champa and Son
respectively and on the South by the spurs of the Vindhyas. In this way it was safe from
four sides.
 Rajagriha and Pataliputra, the two capitals of Magadha, were much strengthened as
those were Giri durga (surrounded by 5 hills) and Jala durga (located at the confluence
of the Ganga and the Son rivers) orderly had natural means of defense.
 Forest zone located here provided timber for forts and buildings.
Economically …………………
 Magadha was situated at the middle Gangetic plain and the soil here was fertile by
which enabled to yield varieties of grains. Therefore, land taxes could be collected high
which proved to be regular and substantial sources of income to the state.
 It had richest mineral deposits, both copper and iron which made possible to manufacture
weapons of good quality.
 All the main trade routes passed through it.
Politically …………..
 Magadha was a state which first used elephants on a large scale in its wars and by
which the rulers of it paved the way to success and enlarged their kingdom.
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 The kings of Brihadradha, Haryanka, Sisunaga and Nanda dynasties contributed
maximum in the rise of Magadha and thereby it became the centre of political activities.
Socially ………………
 Jainism and Buddhism both originated in this very region which changed the prevalent
social traditions.
 Utilization of above sources helped the rulers of Magadha to extend their power and so
Magadha rose as the first great empire in India by the time of Nandas.
8.6 RISE AND GROWTH OF MAGADHA

8.6.1 BRIHADRADHA DYNASTY
Magadha first owed its political importance to the dynasty founded by Brihadradha.
According to the Mahabharata, the earliest dynasty of Magadha was founded in the epic age
by Brihadradha, son of Vasu and the father of Jarasandh. This line is come to an end in the 6th
CBC when its last ruler, Nripunjaya, was killed by his minister.
8.6.2 HARYANKA DYNASTY
Bimbisara (546-494 BC): Bimbisara, son of a petty chieftain Bhattiya, was the real
founder of Magadha ascendancy. He followed the policies like annexation, matrimonies and
diplomacy.
 By aggressive policy, Bimbisara avenged his father's defeat by killing Brahmadatta, the
ruler of Anga, and annexed his kingdom to Magadha. The crown-prince Kunika
(Ajatasatru) was appointed as the governor with Champa as its capital.
 He strengthened his empire by contracting matrimonial alliances with the ruling families
of Kosala, Vaisali, Videha and Madra. He married Kosaladevi of Mahakosala and got
Kasi as dowry from which yielded rich revenue. He checked the Lichchavis by marrying
their princes, Challana. He also married Vasavi and Khema, the princesses of Videha
and Madra thereby strengthened his position.
 He maintained friendly relations with Gandhara (Bimbisara received an embassy from
Pukkusati, the king of Gandhara) and Avanti (Bimbisara, solved the long standing dispute
with his powerful western neighbour, Pradyota ofAvanti by sending the physician Jeevaka
to cure Pradyota from jaundice.)
Bimbisara had his capital at Girivraja (Rajgriha), a town which was planned and designed
by a skillful engineer, Mahagovinda. His kingdom contained prosperous villages numbering
about 80, 000. Both Jainism and Buddhim claim Bimbisara as their adherent. Anyway, he
made a donation of the park called Velu vana to the Buddha and the Sanga. According to
Buddhist traditions Bimbisara was assassinated by his son, Ajatasatru.
Ajatasatru (494-462 BC): He was the son of Bimbisara, another name was Kuheek/
Kunika. Apart from the diabolical patricidal act, he seems to have been a powerful king.
Haryanka dynasty reached the climax of its glory during the reign of Ajatasatru. His first
campaign was against Kosala.
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War with Kosala: Ajatasatru perhaps murdered his father, Bimbisara, and took over
the kingdom. This incident gave such a tremendous shock to Bimbisara's wife Kosaladevi that
she died of grief. In meantime the ruler of Kosala, Prasenajit had taken back Kasi. The sequel
was the outbreak of hostilities between Magadha and Kosala. But the war between the two
states ended with a treaty in which Ajatasatru regained Kasi from Prasenajit and married
Vajra, daughter of Prasenajit.
War against Lichchavis: For some time, Lichchavis had been harassing the traders on
Ganga, by forcibly collecting tariff from them. And so the traders used to give a complaint to
Magadha about this double payment to Magadha and Lichchavis. Due to this cause Ajatasatru
waged war against the Lichchavis of Vaisali. For this purpose he sent his trusted minister
Vassakara to Vaisali with the object of creating mutual jealousies among the Lichchavis. He
succeeded in his mission only after three years. Ajatasatru also constructed a new fort at a
village called Patali, at the confluence of the Ganges and Son rivers, under the supervision of
his chief ministers named Sunidha and Vassakara. This new fort gave Ajatasatru a convenient
base of operations against Lichchavi republic, situated on the other side of the Ganges. He
also equipped his army with latest war material like Maha Silakantaka (a large catapult that
could hurl huge stones) and Ratha musala (knife edged chariots). However, after a prolonged
war of 16 years, he finally defeated Lichchavis and annexed their kingdom to his empire. After
settling this issue, Ajatasatru decided to invade Avanti as it was known that the ruler of Avanti
had planned to invade Magadha. To meet this attack, the fortifications at Rajgir were
strengthened, but the invasion did not materialize as Ajatasatru passed away before taking
any action.
Both Jainism and Buddhism treat him a devotee of each. He paid frequent visits to
Mahavira both at Vaisali and Champa and expressed his faith in the teachings of Jainism. In
his later days he became a convert to Buddhism. However, he promoted the cause of Buddhism
by associating himself with its First Buddhist Council held at Rajagriha which was attended by
500 eminent Bhikkus and Theras. He was also assassinated by his son, Udayana. But according
to Jain literature Ajatasatru had committed suicide.
Udayana/Udai Bhadra and his successors (461 to 413 BC): He ruled for a period of
16 years. He was also as brave as his father and further extended the power of Magadha. He
shifted his capital from Rajagriha to Pataliputra. According to Ceylon Buddhist Texts (Deepa
Vamsh and Maha Vamsh), Anuruddha, Mund and Nagadasak were successors and all these
three rulers were also patricides. Nagadasak, the last ruler, was dethroned after a conspiracy
by his own ministers and nobility. Finally, in his place, they enthroned the Amatya named
Sisunaga.
8.6.3 SISUNAGA DYNASTY (413 to 362 BC)
Sisunaga (413-395 BC): Sisunaga, the founder of Sisunaga dynasty, had acted as the
Magadhan Viceroy at Banaras before he became king. The most significant achievement of
Sisunaga was the obliteration of the power of the Pradyota dynasty at Avanti and annexed it
to Magadha.
Kalasoka (395-367 BC): He was son and successor of Sisunaga. The important
events of his reign were the Second Buddhist Council held at Vaisali and the transfer of the
capital from Vaisali to Patiliputra. According to a Greek text Kalasoka and his sons were
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slain by a Nanda ruler and thus Sisunaga dynasty came to an end due to palace trickery
engineered by a faithless queen. According to Mahavamsa, the 10 sons of Kalasoka ruled for
some more years and finally the power of this dynasty reached to an end.
8.6.4 NANDA DYNASTY (362 - 322 BC)
Mahapadma Nanda: The Nandas took over around 360 BC. The Puranas and
Mahavamsa refer to 9 Nandas. According to the Puranas, the founder of the Nanda dynasty
Mahapadma, was a man of low origin i.e. a born of a sudra woman and he was the father of
other 8 Nandas. But the Buddhist texts referred that the Nandas were all brothers. Mahapadma
was described in Jain works as the son of courtesan by a barber while the Greeks say that he
was born of the union of barber with a courtesan. Anyway the Nanda dynasty was the
earliest one among the non-Kshatriya dynasties.
Puranas say that Ugrasena-Mahapadma up-rooted all the Kshatriyas, brought the whole
earth under one royal umbrella and established himself as Ekarat (sole sovereign). An inscription
found at Mysore of the early 13th CAD shows that first the Nandas and then the Mouryas
ruled over Kuntala which included the Western Deccan and Northern Mysore. The existence
on the Godavari of a city called 'Nau Nanda Dehra (Nander) also suggests that the Nanda
Empire included a large portion of the Deccan. Anyway Mahapadma defeated and annexed
the territories like Ikshvakus, Panchalas, Kasis, Kalingas, Asmakas, Kurus, Haihayas, Mithilas,
Surasenas etc., He was the premier king of Magadha, even before of Ashoka, annexed the
Kalinga territory to Magadha. The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela confirms Nanda's
sovereignty over Kainga. In this regard, the Nandas in general Mahapadma in particular,
however, succeeded in establishing the Magadhan power in greater part of northern India and
part of the south India. It was due to his conquests Dr. Radha Kumud Mukherjee described
Mahapadma as the first great emperor of north India
Diminutive is known about the Nandas after Mahapadma except the last ruler, Dhana
Nanda. At this time Alexander, the Greek ruler, had invaded north-west India. He wanted to
conquer the whole of India, but his soldiers heard about the strength of the Nanda army which
had 2, 00,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 6,000 war elephants and about 2,000 chariot and so
refused to go further. Though Dhana was a powerful king, he became unpopular with his
greedy, excessive taxation collected with cruelty. It was at that juncture; Chandra Gupta
Maurya took this an advantage and captured the throne of Magadha with the support of the
people. However, the Nandas' rule got socio-religious importance in the history of India. For
the first time the Sudras could rise to such a supreme position.
From the above information it becomes clear that republics and monarchies existed
side by side in ancient India. There was no unity among the states and so unending wars were
going on.
8.7 FOREIGN INVASIONS

8.7.1 Persian Invasion
After the Aryans invasion, it is believed, that the Persians had invaded and conquered
some parts of Indian territories. Though there is a contradiction among the historians regarding
the invasion conducted by Cyrus, the Great (558-530 BC), from the inscriptional evidences
it becomes clear that Sindhu, Punjab and west of the Indus were annexed by Darius I (522-
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486 BC) and united into one region and became a province of Persian Empire. Anyway, this
part gave good return to the Persian kings which was 1/3 of the total revenue of Iran from its
Asian provinces. What is important to say is according to Histories written by Herodotus,
Darius I maintained a special army force with Indians and used that in Greek-Persian wars.
Though the power of Darius III also continued over this Indian part as a province of Persia,
but it grew weak.
8.7.2 Results of Persian Invasion
India was much influenced in many ways by contact with Persia.
 Persian art and architecture significantly influenced our fine arts.
 We learnt Kharoshti script from the Persians which continued for centuries.
 Indo-Persian trade received sufficient encouragement and meanwhile international trade
also increased.
 Due to closer contacts among philosophers of both the countries, a sort of Indo-Persian
philosophy developed.
 Persian writings became an important source of Indian history.
Thus Persian invasions opened a new era in Indian socio, economic and political history.
8.7.3 Alexander’s Invasion (326 BC)
At the age of 19, in 336 BC Alexander became king of Macedonia after the death of
his father, Phillip II. He was a disciple of Aristotle. Before his invasion on Persia, Alexander
conducted expeditions and occupied Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt. Then, in 331 BC, Darius
III, the king of Persia was defeated in the battle of Arbela. Afterwards Alexander conquered
Bactria and Kabul on his way towards India from Iran. Thereby the power of Alexander had
puff up to the borders of India. Then he entered India through Khyber Pass and remained in
India only for 19 months.
8.7.4 Conditions of North India
It was at that juncture there were several small kingdoms as was no political unity.
Nandas were ruling from Magadha. Some of the small kingdoms were -Taxila was ruled by
Ambhi and which was lay between the rivers Indus and Jheelum; Abhisara state was just
above the kingdom of Taxila; Paurava kingdom was lay between the rivers Jhelum and Chenab
under the rule of Porus / Purushottama and some other states under tribes like Aspasio,
Kathas, Assakenoi, Mousakenos etc.
8.7.5 Course of Invasion
Alexander divided his army into two divisions to conquest India. One division was
placed under the command of his general and another one was under him. Though they had
given a gallant fight, the chiefs of Aspasio and Assakenoi tribes were defeated in the hands of
Alexander. Thereafter the Greek army crossed Indus at Ohind. King Ambhi of Taxila, without
giving any fight, he donated valuable presentations to Alexander and obtained his help in order
to defeat his rival Purushottama.
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8.7.6 Battle of Jhelum or Hydaspes (BC 326)
Due to not accepting the Greek supremacy, Alexander declared a war against Porus
and meanwhile Greek army was camped on the bank of Jhelum. The river was in spate as it
was a rainy season. Anyway after a few days on one dark night Alexander and his army
crossed the river where it was less wide. Finally a war had taken place and Porus gave a
heroic resistance but was unfortunately defeated and brought before Alexander. It is believed
that though Porus was defeated and he stood very imperviously before Alexander and asked
to be treated like a king when he faced a question by Alexander as to what sort of treatment
should meted out. Alexander was so much impressed with this reply and restored Porus'
kingdom to him.
8.7.7 Further conquests of Alexander
After the Jhelum war the king of Abhisara submitted to Alexander without fighting.
Then the Greek army proceeded towards East. In this regard they crossed the river Ravi and
attacked Sakala i.e. Sialkot in present Pakistan, where the Kathas lived. Though these Kathas
had given a brave resistance they were defeated by the Greeks.
8.7.8 Retreat of Alexander
Finally Alexander reached the river Beas, his army refused to proceed further i.e. to
cross Beas as they were homesick, depressed by the death of so many of their gallantry
friends and ill in the hands of Indian tribal folk. And they did not also wish to risk a battle with
the Nanda emperor of Magadha. Alexander wanted to go further; he made every effort to
encourage them, but he could not persuade his soldiers to go with him. So Alexander left
India in 325 BC. On the return journey, he was also opposed by Indian tribes like Sibi,
Malava, Kshudraka and Mousikanos. Due to a stiff resistance by these tribes, Alexander's
army lost all courage. Finally on his way back, Alexander died at Babylon in 323 BC at the
age of thirty-three.
8.7.9 Results of Alexander's Invasion
Before going to discuss about the results of invasion it is to be noted that the South
India did not feel the punch of his invasion as he did not go beyond North India.
1. It was the earliest European invasion or contact with India i.e. with ancient India.
2. Alexander's invasion helped in solving the problem of chronology of our history as the
Greek writers mentioned proper dates of the same event and the history of Alexander.
3. Indians learned new war equipments, techniques and methods by this invasion.
4. Due to Alexander's invasion the little kingdoms in north India were became very weak,
therefore, these conditions helped Chandra Gupta Mourya to consolidate his position
in the same region.
5. Land and sea routes came to light which helped in increasing our trade and commercial
contacts with western countries in general with Greeks particularly.
6. The art of minting beautiful coins was learned from the Greek.
7. The Greeks' invasion which resulted cultural exchange i.e. the influence of Hellenic art
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on Indian art resulted the development of a new type of sculpture which is quite visible
in Gandhara School of Art.
8. The Greeks also learned from us in fields of medicines, philosophy, mathematics, science
and art.
Thus, historically, politically, economically and culturally military activity of Alexander
was very important event in Indian history.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Briefly sketch about the important economical causes for the rise of Magadha in 6th
Century BC.
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2. What were the methods adopted by the rulers of Haryanka dynasty i.e. by Bimbisara
and Ajatasatru for the growth of Magadha?
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3. Who were the foreign rulers conducted invasions on ancient India?
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4. What is the significance of the Greek invasion?
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8.8 SUMMARY
The most important political features of the 6th Century B.C. was the emergence of 16
Mahajanapadas. The expansion of the kingdom of Magadha started with Bimbisara. Ajatashatru
explained the frontiers of Magadha and laid the foundation for the Magadha empire. The
Nandas were the most powerful rulers of Magadha. Alexander’s invasion of India in 327
B.C. is a landmark in Indian History. His invasion of Northwestern India paved the way for
the political unification of India under Chandragupta Maurya.
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1. The soil in Magadha was very fertile which the main source of income to the state was.
Magadha had richest mineral deposits, particularly iron by which war weapons were
manufactured in a huge.
2. Bimbisara followed the policies like annexation, matrimonies and diplomacy where as
Ajatasatru invented new weapons like Mahasilakantaka and Rathamusalam and were
used in the wars.
3. Darius I from Persia and Alexander the Great from Macedonia.
4. By the Alexander's invasion, the earliest European contact with India was initiated. And
by which the historians described the history of ancient India in a chronological order.

1. Briefly discuss political condition of India in 6th CBC.
2. Briefly discuss about the rise and fall of the Haryanka dynasty.
3. Discuss the causes and course of Alexander's invasion.
1. Give a short history of the growth of Magadha under Mahapadma Nanda.
2. Discuss the results of Persian invasion over India.
3. Discuss political conditions of India on the eve of Alexander's invasion.

1. Roshan Dalal : A History of India for Children
2. Romila Thapar : History of India
3. Sharma, R.S. : History of Ancient India
4. Shyamala M. Iyer (Ed) : Ancient India
5. Agnihotri, V.K. : Indian History and Cuture
6. Krishna Reddy, K : Indian History
7. Hanumantha Rao, B.S.L.,
& Basaveswara Rao, K. : Indian History and Culture
8. Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. :: History of South India
9. Sen, S.N. : Ancient Indian History and Civilization
10. Majumdar, R.K. &
Srivastava, A.N. : An easy approach to Indian history.
*****
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UNIT -9 : JAINISM, BUDDHISM AND OTHER
HETERODOX SECTS
Contents
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Conditions of the 6th Century B.C
9.3 Jainism
9.3.1 Vardhamana Mahavira
9.3.2 Doctrine of Jainism
9.3.3 Spread of Jainism
9.3.4 Contributions to Art
9.3.5 Status of Women
9.4. Buddhism
9.4.1 Gauthama Buddha
9.4.2 Doctrine of Buddhism
9.4.3 Spread of Buddhism
9.4.4 The Buddhist Councils
9.4.5 Contributions to Art and Architecture
9.5 Importance and Influence of Jainism and Buddhism
9.6 Other Heterodox Sects
9.7 Summary
9.0 OBJECTIVES
 Identify the factors that led to the rise of Jainism and Buddhism
 Recall the early life of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha
 Mention the major doctrines of Jainism and Buddhism
 Understand the principles and practices of other heterodox sects.
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9.1 INTRODUCTION
Numerous religious sects arose in the middle Gangetic plains in the second half of the
sixth century B.C. We hear as many as sixty two religious sects. Many of these sects were
based on regional customs and rituals practised by different people living in North-East India.
Of these sects Jainism and Buddhism were the most important, and they emerged as the most
potent religions and reform movements.
Towards the end of the Vedic period we notice a strong reaction against the complex
and expensive rituals, animal sacrifices, the supremacy of the Brahmans and the social distinctions
created by the Varna system. The time was ripe for religious reforms.
During the 6th century B C. many movements began as a reaction against the formal
and ritualistic practices of the Vedic religion. Jainism and Buddhism were two such movements.
Both appealed to the masses as they rejected costly rituals, gave equal treatment to all and
preached simplicity and brotherhood. They became tease even more attractive because they
offered explanations of human suffering and suggested ways of bringing it to an end.
The appearance of these religions within the country and in some cases outside, led to
the establishment of close cultural link between India and other countries. Our sources of
information about Jainism and Buddhism are the rich Jain and Buddhist scriptures and also
many relics and monuments found at different places within and outside India.
The main branches of Jain literature are the Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas, Chheda Sutra.
Malasutra and various other texts. The Jain temples at Rajgir, Mathura. Sravanbelgola. Mount
Abu. The Elephant Cave in Orissa and the Lion Cava in Udayagiri are the most notable
examples of Jain architecture. The most important texts of the Buddhist literature are the Tri-
pitakas (Three baskets)the Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Addhidhamma Pitaka, and the
Jatakas. The Jatakas are folk stories woven around the previous births of the Buddha
Monuments found at Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati and outside India as well are the important
sources of information on Buddhist art and architecture.
The accounts of the Chinese travellers Fahien (5th century AD.) and Huien Tsang (7th
century A.D;) also throw light on the religious as well as the political and social conditions at
the time of their travels.
9.2 CONDITIONS OF THE 6TH CENTURY B.C

In the Varna-divided society of the later Vedic period, the Brahmans acted as priests
and teachers. They enjoyed several privileges. They received many kinds of gifts, and were
exempted from paying taxes and even from receiving punishments. The Kshatriyas fought and
governed but held a lower position than the Brahmans. The Vaisyas had agriculture and animal
raring as their occupation. They were the highest tax-payers. Their involvement in trade and
commerce had made them very important but their position was lower than that of the
Kshatriyas. The hunters, fishermen, leather-workers, sweepers etc. were looked upon as
untouchables.
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Inequality due to caste distinctions caused resentment among the Sudras - the down-
trodden. The Kshatriyas too reacted against the ritualistic supremacy of the Brahmans. The
Vaisyas who depended on agriculture opposed the Vedic practice of killing cattle for meat.
A new agrarian economy slowly developed in the mid-Gangetic basin from about 600
BC onwards, as people started using agricultural tools-made of iron implements, such as,
axes made it possible to clear thick jungles on a large scale, thereby making more land available
for cultivation. The heavy ploughing made of iron required the use of bullocks. So the Vaisyas,
many of whom were cultivators, felt the need of banning the killing of animals. In this way,
nearly all sections of the people, including some of the Brahmans craved for reforming the old
religious practices.
9.3 JAINISM
According to the Jains, the origin of Jainism goes back to 'very ancient times'. They
believe in twenty-four Tirthankaras or great teachers or leaders of their religion. The first
Tirthankara is believed to be Rishabhanath who was born in Ayodhya. He is said to have laid
the foundations for orderly human society. The last, twenty-fourth, Tirthankara, was Vardhaman
Mahavira who was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha. His immediate predecessor was
Parshvanath or Parsva , who lived 250 years before Mahavira and preached the basic principles
of Jainism - non violence, honesty and non-possession of property.
9.3.1 Vardhamana Mahavira
The great preacher of Jainism, Vardhanm Mahavira was probably born in 540 B.C in a
village near Vaishali in north Bihar. His father was the chief of Kundagraha in Vaishali and his
mother, a Lichchavi princess. They were also connected with the royal family of Magadha.
The popular belief is that Vardhamana Mahavira was the founder of Jainism, but in actual fact
he revived and reorganised it.
9.1: Vardhamana Mahavira

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Mahavira spent thirty years of his life as a householder, but later left home and became an
ascetic in search of truth. It is said that he wondered in complete austerity for over twelve
years begging for his food, meditating and debating. He did not even change his clothes and
totally abandoned them when be attained 'Kaivalya' (perfect knowledge). Kaivalya helped
him to conquer both misery and happiness. He came to be known as 'Jina' -the conqueror
and his followers as Jains. Soon Mahavira gained a great reputation and taught in the Gangetic
kingdoms for thirty years, under the patronage of various kings. He took his mission to Kosala,
Magadha, Mithila. Champs and a few other places. He died at the age of 72 at a place called
Pavapuri, near Rajgir in Bihar.
The five major doctrines that were taught to the early followers of Jainism were non-
violence, not to speak a lie, not to steal, not to acquire property, and to lead a Brahmacharya
life. Many of these, particularly ideas on non-violence, were impressed upon with such an
extremity that, even an unconscious killing of small insects was considered a sin. Mahavira
asked his followers 'to discard their clothes completely. This practice indicated that the Jains
were supposed to follow a very austere life. During the later stages of its development, Jainism
was divided into two sects, the 'Svetambaras' or those that wore white dress, and the
'Digambaras' or those who kept themselves naked.
Jainism recognized the existence of Gods, but they were placed below the Jina i.e. the
conqueror who was Mahavira. Thus, the existence of God was irrelevant to its doctrine.
Every human being had the potentiality to become a prophet or Tirthankara, if he followed the
principle of the purification of the soul through a long course of fasting and rigorous practice of
non-violence. It was this purification which was the main purpose of living. The Jain principles
clearly stated that purification of the soul and its detachment from the body to achieve Bliss,
could not be gained through knowledge, since each man could only be part of true knowledge.
Since knowledge was relative, it would not ever be the right path for salvation. In this sense,
Mahavira disagreed with the thought of the Upanishadic teachers who taught that purification
could be achieved through knowledge. Jainism mainly concentrated on the attainment of
freedom from worldly bond. It rejected the use of any ritual to achieve this aim, and therefore,
antagonized the Brahmans. However, Jainism did not condemn the Varna system. Mahavira
postulated that a person is born into a higher or lower Varna because of the virtues or sins
committed by him in his previous life. Thus, only a pure and meritorious life could lead to
liberation for members of the lower orders too.
9.3.2 Doctrine of Jainism
Jainism has no prescribed rituals or Observances. Jain teaching denies the existence of
a supreme 'Deity' as creator of the universe, and holds that the universe functions according to
eternal laws of causes and consequences. The Jains believe that man is subject to the
consequences of his own acts or karma.
According to Jainism, every object has a soul. Not only the birds and beasts, but
plants, metals. minerals, stones and water too, have souls. They hold that it is possible to
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indict pain even on a stone. 'Jainism lays emphasis on good conduct and morality. It prescribes
five rules of conduct and these are abstention from killing, stealing, lying, and possession of
property and Brahmacharya. Jains believe in karma and rebirth. According to Jainism. moksha
or freedom from wordly bonds is the highest goal of life, and moksha can be attained through
Triratna or three jewels, namely 'Right Belief', "Right Knowledge' and 'Right Conduct'. Mahavira
asked his followers to lead an austere life.
9.3.3 Spread of Jainism
Mahavira organised a religious order of his followers. They were on tour "to southern
and western India to spread the teachings of Jainism. According to a late Jain tradition,
Chandragupta Maurya helped the spread of Jainism in Karnataka. He gave up his throne and
spent the last years of his life in Karnataka as a Jain ascetic. But this tradition is not confirmed
by any other source.
Another reason given for the spread of Jainism in South India is the great famine that
took place in Magadha two hundred years after Mahavira's death. The famine lasted for
twelve years and forced many Jains to move to the South. Many monastic establishments
called Basadis sprang up in Karnataka and immigrant Jain helped the spread of Jainism.
When the famine was over, many Jains came back to Magadha. However, they developed
certain differences with the local Jains. A joint meeting was called at Patliputra to sort out the
differences but southern Jains boycotted the council and refused to accept its decision. This
eventually led to the division of the Jains into two sects - Digambara (sky clad-Southerners)
and Svetambaras (those who dressed in white-the Magadhans).
Jainism spread in Kalinga, and later reached Tamil Nadu. It also gradually spread to
Rajasthan, Malwa and Gujarat. It became popular among the trading community. The emphasis
on strict non-violence discouraged agriculturalists from becoming Jains, since cultivation
involved some killing of insects and pests. Jainism made serious efforts to fight the evils of the
Varna system and the rigour of ritualistic Vedic religion. It spread the message of ahimsa-non-
injury and kindness towards all beings. living and non-living. It made significant contributions
to the growth of Indian literature and development of regional languages like Gujarati, Marathi
and Kannada.
The Jain literature is made up of three branches via religion: Texts, Philosophy and
Secular Writings. These mainly comprise of poetry, fables, grammar, drama etc. A large number
of these writings are still in manuscript form and are found in the shrines of Gujarat and
Rajasthan. In later periods they used Sanskrit in place of Prakrit to write legends and fables.
Their works on grammar and poetics richly contributed to the growth of Sanskrit. The Jain
literature has been an important source of information on the contemporary social and political
conditions of India.
9.3.4 Contributions to Art
The Jain temples at Rajgir, Girnar and Mount Abu and those located at Mathura,
Bundelkhand and in central and southern India are some of the finest examples in the field of
art and architecture. Some standing and seated Jina images in Khandagiri cavas near
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9.2: Khandagiri Temple
Bhubaneswar show highly developed art traditions. The carvings at Satghara and Satbakhra
(northern caves) and other medieval reliefs of Khandagiri caves also establish the high standard
of iconography attained under Jainism. Some of the caves have beautiful carvings representing
the Tirthankaras. Jainism also contributed to the development of art and architecture. Beautiful
carvings and statues in the Jain temple and caves exhibit great artistic talent.
Women in Jainism are treated within the same code of ethics as that is prescribed for
men. However, the status of women in Jainism differs between the two main sects, Digambara
sect and Swetambara sect. Jainism prohibits women from appearing naked. It is for this
reason that the Digambars, who consider renunciation of clothes necessary to Moksha; say
that the women can't achieve Moksha. They also believe that women must be reborn in male
form before they can achieve Moksha. On the other hand the Swetambars, who allow sadhus
to wear clothes, believe that women can achieve Moksha. Some Jains consider women to be
inherently inferior, but most do not. However, there are more Swetambara sadhvis than sadhus
and women have always been influential in the Jain religion. According to the Swetambara
Jains Lord Mallinath, the 19th Jain Tirthankara; was a female. However, according to
Digambara Jains Lord Mallinath was a male. As regards the status of women in the Jain
community, one needs to go back to the period of Lord Mahavira. He made a crucial revolt
against the existing tradition and extended his full support for the upliftment of women. He felt
that they were the most neglected organ of the household where they became least powerful
and most disregarded and controlled bitterly by men.
Considering all these immoral practices and alimentative attitude of men towards women,
Lord Mahavira stood against these pernicious social elements. He tried to free from indignation
and tried to improve their status in all walks of life. However, certain reservations had, naturally
to be observed because of the slight physical incapability of women. Hence, some special
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rules were prescribed for nuns. Although they used to be heads of their units as Pravartini and
Ganavacchedini, similar to Acharya and Upadhyaya, they were entirely responsible to the
Acharyas. There were many well-known nuns of ancient period like Candana, Puspacula,
Subrata. Even the patriarchal form of the society was developed and nuns were treated as
slightly inferior to monks in certain respects. The Jains believe that nothing holds women as
anything less than human beings who, like all souls, have the right and capability to achieve
redemption.
Although Jainism was not as popular as Buddhism, during the early years of its spread,
it has continued to survive in India even today, while Buddhism has practically disappeared
from India.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS- I

1. What are the conditions in 6th Century B.C.?
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2. Which Communities patronized Jains and which communities did not? Please state with
reasons briefly?
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9.4 BUDDHISM
Buddhism is one of the world's great religions, and has deeply influenced the character
and evolution of Asian civilization over the past 2,500 years. It is based on the teachings of a
historical figure, Siddhartha Gautama, who lived around the fifth century B.C.E. As it moved
across Asia, Buddhism absorbed indigenous beliefs and incorporated a wide range of imagery,
both local and foreign, into its art and religious practices. Buddhism continues to evolve as a
religion in many parts of the world.
9.4.1 Gauthama Buddha
Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha (born 563 B.C.). Before enlightenment,
he was called Siddartha, and belonged to Kshatriya family of Kapilavastu. He came from a
republican tradition of the Shakya tribe. Like Mahavira, he also led the life of a householder,
and only at the age of twenty nine, did he leave home in search of truth. Having been moved
by the misery that people suffered in the world, he took to asceticism as a means of salvation,
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but rejected it, and subsequently decided on meditation as a method for understanding the
cause of suffering in the world. He eventually achieved enlightenment, and delivered his first
sermon at Sarnath, where his first five disciples had gathered. This first sermon is called
dharmachakraparvartana or the Turning of the Wheel of Law. In it lies the essence of the
Buddhist teaching. The Four Noble Truths and the Eight-Fold-Path were incorporated in this.
It advocated that the way to salvation from the material world of suffering was through adopting
a middle way. These simple teachings did not require complicated metaphysical thinking.
The basis of Buddha's argument was rational, and he underlined the notion of causality
in understanding reality. Nothing was left to divine intervention. Therefore, Buddha did not
indulge in the various controversies regarding the nature of soul (atman) which the Brahmanical
texts concentrated on. He was concerned about worldly problems and answers for them.
Like 'Mahavira, Buddha too laid down a code of conduct for his followers. It emphasised
moral values, such as not to covet the property of others, to be non-violent, to speak the truth,
to avoid corrupt practices and so on. In the Buddhist view of things, the penultimate aim of all
things was to achieve nirvana or freedom from the wheel of rebirth. In this connection, the
doctrine of karma was important to Buddhist thought. The place of God in their way of
thinking was secondary, as the universe essentially saw natural cosmic rise and fall. In this
universe, the-main reason for man's suffering was desire, which in turn, stemmed from ignorance.
To eradicate ignorance, the Buddha way had to be adopted, what is called the Middle Path.
Buddhist views and values, thus, naturally rejected Brahmanical ritual and Sects. In fact,
during his wanderings to preach the doctrine, Buddha encountered many Brahmanas whom
he defeated in philosophical debates.
9.4.2 Doctrine of Buddhism
Buddha taught four noble truths, These are : Dukha (the world is full of suffering).
Samudaya (every suffering has a cause), Nirodha (the cause is desire, and if desire is removed,
the suffering can also be removed, and Marga (there is a path to remove desire).
According to the Buddha, the highest goal of life is to attain nirvana. Nirvana literally
means the 'blowing out' or extinction of human desire. In other words, the end of desire leads
to the end of all human sufferings ; it is also a state of 'peace and tranquillity' that man can
attain, by being free from desire. He suggested the Astangika Marg (Eight-fold Path) for the
elimination of human misery. It comprises Samyak Dristi (Right Understanding). Samyak-
Sankalpa (Right Thought). Samyak-Vak (Right Speech), Samyak-Karmanta (Right Action).
Samyak-Ajiva (Right Livlihood), Samyak-Vayama (Right effort), Samyak-Smriti (Right
Thinking) and Samyak-Samadhi (Right Concentration). Buddha. Like Mahavira, believed in
the theories of karma and re-birth. These signify that every individual pays for his own actions
and has to be born again and again to do. According to the teachings of the Buddha, nirvana
can only be achieved by leading a life free from Trishna or craving; and Pious, honest and
truthful conduct paves the way to nirvana. Buddha advocated the 'middle path'-avoiding both
strict asceticism and too much indulgence in pleasures.
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The Buddha also laid down a code of conduct. He asked his followers to abstain from
lying, coveting the property of others, committing violence. using intoxicants and indulging in
corrupt practices.
9.4.3 Spread of Buddhism
Buddhism gained numerous followers. The avoidance of complex religious practices,
the absence of caste distinctions the democratic organisation of Sangha and the use of Pali-
the language of the common people, instead of Sanskrit, were the main causes of the appeal
of the new religious thought. The principles of non-violence brought about many sympathisers
also. The personality of the Buddha, who offered goodness for evil and love for hatred, also
attracted a large number of people towards his doctrine. Buddha’s personality played an
important role. He tackled his opponents with a calmness and clarity of mind, and therefore,
he refused to be provoked by others. In comparison with Brahmanism, Buddhism emerged
as a more liberal and open system of thought. In the beginning. it particularly won the support
of the lower orders in society who were exploited under the Varna system. People were taken
into the Buddhist order irrespective of their castes. Women were also admitted to the Sangha.
This was a big change from the point of view of the status of women as Brahmanical orthodoxy
had started putting increasing restrictions on them. Buddhist monks and nuns wandered from
place to place preaching and asking for alms. It gave this religion a missionary character.
Monasteries and nunneries were democratic in nature and were based on the pattern of
republican assemblies.
They had to take three vows. that of continence poverty and faith. There are thus, three
main elements of Buddhism: Buddha, Sangha Dharma and Dhamma. During the life time of
the Buddha, the faith had become popular in both the monarchical and republican States of
North Eastern India, like Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi, the kingdom of the Lichchavis and
Shakyas etc.
With the support Of rulers like Bimbisar, Ajatashatru. Asoka, Buddhism expanded
rapidly throughout India and Sri Lanka. The people of kingdoms like Kosala and Vatsa and
many republics embraced Buddhism. Later on, the Kushan emperor, Kanishka, became one
of its greatest patrons. He convened a council in Kashmir; where the Buddhist teachings were
engraved on sheets of copper and preserved under a stupa. Buddhism eventually became the
major religion in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tibet, Cambodia, Laos and Burma. It travelled to many
countries of the Far East as well-Vietnam, Japan and China.
These countries profess this faith, though it has disappeared from the land of its birth. In
the present context, we cannot dwell upon the reasons for its decline. Suffice it to say that
during the later centuries, Buddhism too succumbed to ritualistic practices and idol worship.
On social issues also, it could not take a stand that opposed the caste system totally.
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9.4.4 The Buddhist Councils
The Buddha did not preach through written scriptures but only through sermons and
discussions. During the entire period of the growth of Buddhism in India, the Buddhists used
to meet in councils from time to time to lay down the rules and settle the religious disputes
amongst themselves. We know of four famous councils, the first of which met at Rajgir
immediately after the death of the Buddha around 483 BC. The Tripitakas which form the
basis of the Buddhist scriptures were the result of the Rajgir Council. A century later came the
Vaishali Council that ruled out all deviations from the strict code of the Tripitakas. The third
council met during Asoka's reign at Pataliputra. The Patliputra Council led by scholars like
Tissa, Moggaliputta and Upagupta confronted orthodox Brahmanism and asserted the
superiority of Buddhism. It also viewed Buddhism as the religion of all mankind that should be
taken to other lands. The fourth Council meeting under emperor Kanishka's patronage,
however, gave Buddhism an entirely new turn. It recognized an ideological difference within
Buddhism between the new Mahayana (the greater vehicle) School that looked upon the
Buddha as a God and the old Hinayana (the lesser vehicle) School that considered Buddha as
a guide and relied on his teachings as embodied in the Tripitakas. The Mahayana gave up Pali
for Sanskrit, and started worshipping idols of the Buddhas Avalokiteshwara. Nagarjuna,
Asvaghosha and Vasumitra were great authors of Mahayana Buddhism.
9.4.5 Contribution to Art and Architecture
Perhaps the greatest contribution of Buddhism was in the field of art and architecture.
Buddhism helped in the growth of native art traditions. The early human figures to be worshipped
in Indian include those of the Buddha. The practice of depicting
various events from Buddha’s life as at Bodh Gaya, Sanchi and
Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh) helped the growth of a fine school of
sculpture. Hundreds of stupas were built by the followers of a
Buddha. The stupas at Sanchi and Amaravati (Maharashtra) are
monuments of great artistic achievement. The carved panels on
Sanchi torana (gateway) depicts events from Buddha’s life and
details. Jataka stories, landscapes, floral designs, beautiful figures
of Yakshini and Yakshakas (door-keepers
of Kuber) and men and women are all
examples of great artistic talent.
The development of cave architecture was
an important phase in Indian art history. 9.3: Statue of Buddha
More than 1000 caves having elegant art works and belonging to the
periods between the 2nd Century B.C. and 10th Century A.D. have
been discovered. Most of them are Buddhists in character. Buddhism
encouraged both gandhara (Indo-Greek) and Mathura styles of art.
Gandhara art was the outcome of Greek influence and flourished
under the Kushan kings.
9.4: Statue of Buddha
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9.5: Buddha contribution to Art & Architecture
9.6: The Great Caitya Hall, Karli, Bombay

Women were allowed to become members of the Sangha or Buddhist order of monks.
This was a revolutionary step with regard to the status of women, as their position was
traditionally not very good. Buddhism does not consider women as being inferior to men.
Buddhism, while accepting the biological and physical differences between the two sexes,
does consider men and women to be equally useful to the society. The Buddha emphasises
the fruitful role the women can play and should play as a wife, a good mother in making the
family life a success. In the family both husbands and wives are expected to share equal
responsibility and discharge their duties with equal dedication. The husband is admonished to
consider the wife a friend, a companion, a partner. In family affairs the wife was expected to
be a substitute for the husband when the husband happened to be indisposed. In fact, a wife
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was expected even to acquaint herself with the trade, business or industries in which the
husband engaged, so that she would be in a position to manage his affairs in his absence. This
shows that in the Buddhist society the wife occupied an equal position with the husband. The
Buddha's advice to the King Pasenadi of Kosala, who was a close devotee of his, clearly
shows that Buddhism does not consider the birth of a daughter as a cause for worry and
despair.
Buddhism does not restrict either the educational opportunities of women or their religious
freedom. The Buddha unhesitatingly accepted that women are capable of realizing the Truth,
just as men are. This is why he permitted the admission of women into the Order, though he
was not in favour of it at the beginning because he thought their admission would create
problems in the Sasana. Once women proved their capability of managing their affairs in the
Order, the Buddha recognised their abilities and talents, and gave them responsible positions
in the Bhikkhuni Sangha. The Buddhist texts record of eminent saintly Bhikkhunis, who were
very learned and who were experts in preaching the Dhamma. Dhammadinna was one such
Bhikkhuni, Khema and Uppalavanna are two others. The Theri-Gatha contains numerous
stanzas that clearly express the feelings of joy experienced by saintly Bhikkhunis at their ability
to enter the Order and realize the Truth.
9.5 IMPORTANCE AND INFLUENCE OF JAINISM AND

BUDDHISM
We next turn to evaluate the importance and influence of the principles and ideas of
Jainism and Buddhism i.e., the practice of animal sacrifices. No doubt, by denying the Vedas
as a source of knowledge, for the first time in the history of India, they posed a serious threat
to the authority of brahmanical orthodoxy, However, it is important to underline that, both
Buddhism and Jainism focussed on society as well.
The founders of these two ideologies answered some of the questions related to their
historical milieu. It is well accepted that they appeared in response to an essentially urban
civilization which had been the result of the introduction of a new iron technology and extension
of plough agriculture. These technological changes gave way to significant developments in
the break-up of the tribal way of life, and led to the establishment of kingdoms. The complexity
of the new socio-economic order and political structure disturbed the existing social relations,
and people felt alienated and displaced in the changed circumstances. Particularly, both Buddha
and Mahavira after gaining enlightenment, travelled through innumerable towns and villages to
spread their respective messages. They appealed to people to reject the evils that had resulted
from the emergence of new material conditions. Though only a small percentage of people
opted to join the monastic order, the social message of their teachings had wider implications.
Though this was a period when a considerable amount of new wealth was being generated,
especially in towns, Buddha as well as Mahavira preached against the accumulation of wealth
as that would create sharp social distinctions, wherein some people would be very poor and
others very rich. Several times advice was given by Buddha to eradicate poverty as that was
the cause of hatred, cruelty and violence. Buddhism also taught that if the poor gave alms to
monks, they would be born wealthy in the next world. To the monks, strict instructions were
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given for being frugal and restricting the food, dress and sexual habits. These measures were
totally in opposition to, and a reaction against the new prosperous and material life of the 6th
and'5th centuries BC. The code of conduct for monks reflects a way of life that was egalitarian,
barking back to a kind of tribal life in which the evils of social stratification and sharp economic
distinction did not exist. The above aspect of Buddhist view point could not bear for the
society as a whole .Therefore, we also see in Buddhist and Jain principles many ideas which
aim to consolidate the social and economic changes resulting from the new material life of the
6th century B.C.
Buddha particularly advocated a Middle Path devoid of all excesses so as to deal with
the real problems of social life. For instance, with the increasing development of plough
cultivation. cattle had become indispensable. The sacrificial religion of the Later Vedic period
legitimized unnecessary killing, which went in conflict with the new economy. In this context,
the doctrine of ahimsa or non-injury to life has direct implications for saving the animal wealth
which could be used for agricultural purposes. The Jains indulged in an extreme form of non-
violence and this went against the agriculturists, and that is why Jainism could not have a large
following even during the period of its early growth. The ethics of ahimsa also appealed to
those who were discouraging inter-tribal wars and supporting the establishment of stable
kingdoms. In this regard, the kshatriya kings and nobles, as also gahapatis, traders and
landowners stood to gain. Particularly, these two groups also gained in social status in the
Buddhist view of things. The kshatriyas were placed above the brahmanas in the Buddhist
texts. The vaishyas patronized Buddhism and Jainism with money and land, thereby encouraging
the spread of their respective faiths. The rule of the Sangha that people in debt and slaves
could not join the monastic Order, naturally helped the money-lenders and the richer sections
of the society. Both these religious movements rebelled against the old hierarchy of the varna
system, but did not reject the caste system as such.
The individual within a caste group was allowed the freedom to join the monastic Order,
but the inequalities inherent in the social system were not abolished. In fact, the karma theory
became a useful way in which the origin of social inequality was explained. Though untouchability
was not eradicated, Buddha and Mahavira emphatically announced that Chandalas and other
low caste people could attain knowledge and ultimate nirvana or enlightenment. Further, monks
and nuns were not debarred from approaching members of all the four varnas for food or mix
with them. One can only guess to what extent the practices and norms of life adopted by
monks, (i.e., the Buddhist or Jain way of life par excellence) in fact influenced the lay or
ordinary followers of these faiths. As far as town life is concerned, the Buddhists accepted
many of the new changes that affected social relations in this context. For instance, they
patronized eating houses that had emerged in the cities. Prostitute houses also flourished
under urban conditions, and both Jainism and Buddhism did not debar prostitutes from joining
the Order. Ambapali, a famous courtesan was converted to Buddhism. Both also adopted an
identical attitude towards trade. Whereas the brahmanical law books looked down upon this
activity, the former received generous gifts from traders. Ultimately, they both made attempts
to appeal to the non-brahmana sections of the society. Intellectual ideas on life and culture
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were for the first time made accessible to all social groups. The lack of expenses in performing
worship attracted many people to follow the principles of Jainism and Buddhism.
Gautama Buddha and Vardhamana Mahavira essentially set out to seek answers to a
philosophical quest about the position and nature of man in the universe. Their answers in the
form of their teachings generated immense moral authority. The old social and religious order
which they sought to question and protest against, ultimately stood to gain by the challenge
this reformist spirit posed for it. The ideas on non-violence and vegetarianism in subsequent
Indian thought were apparently derived from Buddhist teachings. The first images of human
worship in India were probably those of Buddha. Buddhist monasteries became great seats
of learning in education during the later centuries. Though the monastic organization of the
Buddhists and Jains involved egalitarian and so-called democratic principles, they were unable
to bring about a radical change in either the social or political organization. The hierarchical
principle continued to dominate the social and political structure of those times. It is often said
that Buddhism and Jainism in fact offered a justification for the newly rising mercantile class to
establish their social status in a changed economic milieu. Despite all this, one cannot fail to
recognize the contribution. These religious movements had contributed to the intellectual and
cultural traditions of India.
9.6 OTHER HETERODOX SECTS

The conflict between the Vedic religious practices and the aspirations of the rising social,
groups led to the search for new religious and philosophical ideas which would fit in with the
basic changes in the material life of the people. During the sixth century BC. in the Gangetic
valley, there emerged many new religious teachers who preached against Vedic religion. Not
surprisingly, the Buddhist sources speak of as many as sixty two religious sects and the Jain
texts refer to three hundred and sixty three sects in the sixth century BC. Many of these were
based on regional customs and rituals. But, some of them might have formed the basis of later
philosophical ideas. Thus, Ajita Kesakambala propagated a thorough-going materialist doctrine
from which the Lokayata or Charvaka school of philosophy is believed to have derived a
great deal. Pakudha Katyayana, another religious leader, held that, just as the earth, water, air
and light are primary indestructible elements, so are sorrow, happiness and life; it has been
suggested that the later Vaiseshika school originated from his ideas. Purana Kassapa, still
another contemporary preacher, regarded the soul as distinct from the body, and laid the
foundation of the Sankhya system of philosophy. His immediate follower was Makkhali Gosala
the exponent of the Ajivika sect. Born a slave himself, Makkhali was a radical teacher "he
denied even the basic doctrine of Hindu thought i.e., the theory on Karma. No less significant
is the large number of wandering teachers, mentioned as teaching their own doctrines, without
however, following any definite sect.
The materialists totally rejected the rituals that were performed by the Vedic Brahmans
as they regarded them to be meaningless. It is impossible for us to judge how popular these
schools of thought were, since most of our source material hardly gives any direct information
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on them.. Each school laid emphasis on one particular aspect of the nature of life and its
relationship to the larger universe. Of all these sects, two that had a greater impact on Indian
life through the ages, as also on the world, were the puritanical sects of Jainism and Buddhism.

1. Enumerate the reasons for the appeal of Buddhism to the common people
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2. Write briefly about the contribution of Buddhism to Indian Culture?
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9.7 SUMMARY
Increase in the land cultivated, and increased agricultural production due to improved
implements and techniques resulted in increased wealth. In the society, there was a reaction
to the domination of the Brahmins, particularly from the Kshatriyas, due to economic and
social changes in the society. The sixth century B.C. in the field of religion, was an age of
protest against orthodox and old beliefs and practices. Jainism is one of the religious sects
which became prominent in the 6th century B.C. Vardhamana Mahavira laid emphasis on the
principles of non-violence. Buddhism is another religion which arose in the sixth century B.C.
Buddha advocated the middle path. Buddhism and Jainism contributed richly to the intellectual
and cultural traditions of India. Several other heterodox Sects arose, some of which laid
emphasis on materialist philosophy.

I. 1. New material conditions arose as a result of the diffusion of iron technology in Eastern
Gangetic vally. This meant that, not only were new agricultural tools and implements
introduced, but also the dense forests of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar could be cleared
easily with the above tools. The increased agricultural surplus as well as the increase in
trade were responsible for the growth of Urbanization.
2. The trading community especially patronised Jainism, because frugality and non-violence,
the important principles of Jainism, appealed to them. Agriculturists did not take to
Jainism probably because of the excessive emphasis laid by that religion on non-violence.
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II. 1. The simple ideas of Buddhism appealed to the common people. The personality of
Buddha also played an important part in the appeal of Buddhism to the common people.
Admission of women and the lower castes to the Buddhist Sangha also attracted the
common people. The use of Pali, the language of the people, by the Buddhists also
attracted many common people towards Buddhism.
2. Buddhism's contribution to Indian culture is varied and remarkable. Due to Buddhism,
art developed in the country. Probably, the first images of human worship in India are
those of Buddha. The Buddhist stupas, and their paintings have enriched Indian culture.
The Buddhist monasteries were great centres of learning and Indian literature progressed
due to Buddhist contribution.

1. What are the principles of Mahavira and how did he try to propagate them?
2. Examine the teachings of Buddha and state the reasons for their appeal to the common
people.
3. Evaluate the importance and the influence of the principles of Jainism and Buddhism.
II. Answer for following questions in about 15 lines each
1. What are the conditions that favoured the rise of Jainism and Buddhism?
2. What do you know about the Middle Path?
3. What did heterodox Sects other than Jainism and Buddhism preach?

1. Basham, A.L : The wonder that was India
2. Jha, D.N. : Ancient India - An introductory Outline
3. Kosambi.D.D : The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India -A Historical Outline
4. Majumdar.R.C : The Classical Age, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan Series,Vol.II
5. Majumdar, R.C.Rayachaudhari, H.C. and Datta. K : Advanced History of India, Vol.I
6. Neelakantha Sasthri.K.A.: History of India Vol.I
7. Romila Thapar : History of India Vol.I
8. Sathianatha Aiyar, R : History of India Vol.I
9. Sharma, R.S. : Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India
10. Wooley, Sir Leonard (ed) : History of Mankind Series, UNESCO, Vol.I.
***
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BLOCK-IV: RISE OF EMPIRES IN NORTHERN INDIA
In Northern India the first kingdom was the Maurya. They ruled from the capital
city Pataliputra and extend their kingdom to south. Asoka was the great ruler in the
kingdom. He embraced Buddhism and spread to Sri Lanka and China. They were
contributed different art and architecture to Indian society. After the Mauryas, Indo-
Greeks, Sakas, Pahlavas and Kushans ruled the Northern India. Kanishka was the most
important ruler in Kushana dynasty. He embraced Buddhism and spread to all over the
country.
The Gupta dynasty was one of the big dynasty in India. They ruled the state from
Magadha. During this period the caste system was strengthened. Guptas encouraged Hinduism
and constructed many temples in the State. They contributed a lot for the development of
literature and Science & Technology.
Harsha ruled from Kanauj capital city. He maintained religious tolerance. He encouraged
Buddhism and given valuable gifts for Buddhist monuments. The Chinese traveler Hiuen-
Tsang visited the capital city of the Harsha. Harsha endowed 100 villages revenue for
development of Nalanda University. The entire block describes the above dynasties in a
systematic manner. This block consists four units such as;
Unit-10: Mauryas
Unit-11: Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Parthianas, Kshatrapas and Kushanas
Unit-12: Guptas
Unit-13: Pushyabhuties-Harshavardana
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142
UNIT - 10: MAURYAS
Contents
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Chandraguptha Maurya
10.3 Bindusara
10.4 Asoka
10.4.1 The Kalinga War
10.4.2 Asoka's Dhamma
10.4.3 Asoka's Religious Policy
10.5 Administration
10.5.1 The King
10.5.2 Mantriparishad and Bureaucracy
10.5.3 Provincial Administration
10.5.4 Municipal Administration
10.5.5 Revenue and Welfare Measures
10.5.6 The Army
10.5.7 Administration of Justice
10.5.8 Espionage System
10.6 Socio, Economic and Cultural Conditions
10.6.1 Social Conditions
10.6.2 Religious Life
10.6.3 Economic Conditions
10.6.4 Spread of Material Culture
10.7 Cultural Conditions
10.7.1 Literature
10.7.2 Art and Architecture
10.8 Disintegration of Mauryan Empire
10.9 Sungas
10.9.1 Origin
10.9.2 Pushyamithra Sunga
10.9.3 Agnimithra and the later rulers
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10.10 Kanvas
10.11 Summary
10.14 Further Reading
10.0 OBJECTIVES
 Understand the Mauryan Kings Chandragupth, Bindusara and Asoka Empire
 Describe the Salient features of Mauryan Administration
 Analyse the Socio, Economic and Religious Conditions in the Mauryan Period
 Discuss the Causes for the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire
10.1 INTRODUCTION
After invasion of Alexander, the North western region in India faced various foreign
attacks which caused unrest in these Indian States. Whereas, the Nandas who were ruling at
that time were not popular due to their severe taxation regimes imposed on agriculture by
Dhanananda. The conditions like these gave opportunities to other authorities to take over the
rule. It was one of the greatest empires recorded in India history. The rule of Mauryas lasted
from 322 - 185 B.C. where majority of India was united as a single state by the great founder
emperor Chandragupta Maurya. With the help of Kautilya or Chanakya, Chandragupta
Maurya laid the foundation of this vast empire.
After Chandragupta, his son Bindusara further extended the kingdom over entire sub-
continent almost succeeded. It should be noted that the Mauryan Empire had the most powerful
military in ancient India. After Bindusara, came the greatest emperor of the Maurya dynasty,
Ashoka. He was a skillful warrior and an able administrator. After the Kalinga war, Ashoka
became a follower of Buddhism and caused its spread across the Indian sub-continent by
sending missionaries. The Administration in the Mauryan empire was highly organized.
According to V.A.Smith, the Mauryan Administration was better organized than even that of
the Mughals. From the literary and archaeological sources, we have information about the
social and economic conditions during the Mauryan age. The Buddhist and Jain works like
the Mahavamsa and the Dipavamsa, the writings of the Greeks like Justin, Strabo and Plutarch,
Indica of Megasthanes, Kautilya's Arthasastra and the edicts of Asoka, are the most valuable
sources of information for this period. These Ashoka edicts not only serve as boundary markers
for his empire but also tell us a great deal about his life and Philosophy. The edicts, written on
rocks and pillars, are in the form of 44 royal orders. They are composed in Prakrit language
and written largely in Brahmi Script. In the North Western parts Kharoshti and Greek script
144
is used. Another sources of information are the punch marked coins. These coins, that
are mostly of silver, have symbols punched on them.
10.2 CHANDRAGUPTHA MAURYA (321-297 B.C)

Chandraguptha Maurya, who has been described by R.K.Mukerjee as the first
historical emperor of India, was the founder of the Mauryan empire. He defeated
Dhanananda, the last Nanda king of Magadha, and laid the foundation of the Mauryan
empire in 324 B.C. In his efforts to overthrow the Nanda king, he was ably guided and
supported by Chanakya, who was also known as Kautilya. There are conflicting opinions
regarding the ancestry of Chandraguptha Maurya. The Puranas and the Greek accounts
have described him as Sudra. The Buddhist works like the Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa,
however, have recorded that he belonged to the Kshatriya Caste. The word Mauryan,
according to some scholars, is derived from Mura, the name of the mother of
Chandraguptha. According to some others, it is derived from the word Moria, which
was the name of a tribe inhabiting the region of Pippalivana.
According to Justin, Chandraguptha overran and obtained possession of the whole
of India. Chandraguptha moved towards the north-west to conquer the Greek Kingdoms
that had established by Alexander. In 305 B.C, he defeated Seleucus Nikator, who ruled
areas west of the Indus. He acquired (modern) East Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Kandhahar
and Herat. On the basis of evidence such as the Junagarh Rock inscription of Rudradaman
(which mentions the construction of a dam in Saurashtra by Chandraguptha) and writers
of Tamil and Jain writers (who refer to Chandragupta's invasion of the South and
Chandraguptha's death at Sravan Bela Gola), It appears that Chandraguptha had indeed
established a vast empire - the first of its kind in India.
10.3 BINDUSARA (297-272 B.C)

Chandraguptha was succeeded by his son Bindusara. Not much is known about
Bindusara's reign. However the fact that he preserved his father's vast empire indicates that he
must have been capable. Bindusara continued to maintain friendly relations with the Greek
kings ruling in the west. Evidence shows that, during Bindusara's reign, there was a political
revolt at Taxila. Bindusara sent his son Asoka from Ujjain to Taxila who successfully put this
down.
10.4 ASOKA (273-232 B.C)

Asoka has been called the greatest of the Mauryas. According to H.G.Wells, amidst
the tens and thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history…the names
of Asoka shines almost alone like a star. Yet, till about a century ago, not much was known
about Asoka. After scholars were able to decipher the contents of the edicts of Asoka, we
have a wealth of information about the activities of that great king. According to one source,
Asoka's mother was Subhadrangi, who was Brahmin, according to another opinion, he was
the son of a Kshatriya lady Dhamma, the chief queen of Bindusara
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10.1: The Empire of Asoka
(The Pillars originally at Mirath and Topra are now at Delhi)
10.4.1 The Kalinga War

The Kalinga war was a turning point in the reign of Asoka. The aftermath of this
war was such that it changed the course of history. You will recall that Chandraguptha
had founded a huge empire. However Kalinga lay outside its boundaries. Asoka in his
Rock Edict XIII (RE-XIII) says that his only conquest was that of Kalinga, which was
conducted when he had been consecrated for eight years(262-61 B.C). The war was so
major that 'one hundred and fifty thousand persons were deported, one hundred thousand
were slain and many times that number perished'.(RE-XIII). The realization of the
senselessness of war and suffering caused by it was responsible for changing the character
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of the King. After that war, he decided not to wage any wars in future, and was determined
to adhere to the path of non-violence or ahimsa.
The King emphatically declared that he would not henceforth undertake conquest
by arms, but would follow the policy of Dharma Vijaya. From victory by war, Asoka
turned to victory by Dhamma (Dhammavijaya). The Bherighosha (war drum) was replaced
by the Dhammaghosha (drum of dhamma). Asoka's attitude towards his subjects also
changed. He no longer considered himself a king who had to rule his subjects, but called
himself a father who desired the welfare of his children. As H.C.Raychaudari remarks,
'The conquest of Kalinga…marks the close of the career of conquest and aggrandizement.
Asoka probably is the only king in the entire history of the world to give up the policy of
conquests after gaining a great victory in war. Further, the Kalinga war brought Asoka
nearer to Buddhism.
After the conquest of Kalinga, Asoka's empire extended practically over the whole
of India, with the exception of the extreme South, which according to Edict II was occupied
by the independent states of Chola, Pandyya, Satyapura and Keralaputra. In the Northwest,
his empire consisted of a considerable portion of Afghanistan and Beluchistan, Kashmir
was also a part of his empire. In the East, the discovery of Asokan edicts and Stupas in
Samatata and Pundravardhana proves the inclusion of Bengal in the Empire. However,
there is no evidence for the inclusion of Kamarupa (Assam). In the South, his empire
probably extended up to Kanchipuram in Tamilnadu. Thus, the empire of Asoka was
extensive, and was bigger than the British empire in India. The Mauryan empire was
probably the most extensive empire known to Indian History.
10.4.2 Asoka's Dhamma
Asoka's strove very hard for the welfare of his subjects. In fact, the principal
object which he had invariably before his mind was the spiritual good of man, the
dissemination of what he loved to call 'Dhamma'. In Piller Edicts II and VII, Asoka
specifies virtues such as kindness (daya), liberality(dana), truthfulness(satya), purity
(sachayi), gentleness(mardva) at his Dharma. In Piller Edict II, Asoka appeals to the
people to get rid of the harmful feelings such as violence, cruelty, anger, conceit and
envy. His Dhrama may be described as the common property of all religions. His Dharma
was not just Buddhist Dharma. His Dharma was essentially as ethical code of conduct.
Respect to parents, elders and teachers: speaking the truth, not committing sins, being
generous to others and toleration of others are some of the important principles of Asoka's
Dharma.
In the Dhauli Edict, he says 'all persons are my children'. The welfare of his
people became his primary concern. According to his edicts, he undertook
tours,(Dhammayatras) to further the principles of Dhamma instead of hunting expeditions.
These tours also helped him make further contacts with his own people. He also appointed
officers (Dhamma Mahamatras) to look after his subjects.
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10.4.3 Asoka's Religious policy
Before he became a Buddhist, Asoka was an orthodox Hindu. According to Kalhana,
the author of Rajatarangini, Siva was the favorite god of Asoka before he became a Buddhist.
The Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa state that Asoka became a Buddhist due to the influence of
Nigrodha, who was the son of the eldest brother (Sumana) of Asoka. We learnt from the
above-mentioned works that Asoka became a Buddhist in the fourth year of his coronation,
i.e,. before the Kalinga war itself. In the past, it was believed that Asoka, filled with remorse
after the Kalinga war, became a Buddhist immediately after the war.
Asoka raised Buddhism from the state of a local sect to that of an international religion.
He propagated Buddhism in several ways. He undertook dharmayathras or religious tours.
During one of his religious tours, he visited Bodh Gaya. In his Rock Edict VII, Asoka states
that he visited Sambodhi (the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya), ten years after his coronation.
According to the Ceylonese Chronicles, Asoka convened the third Buddhist Council at
Pataliputra, the capital of his empire. According to the Mahavamsa, it was convened in the
17th year of Asoka's reign. The council was presided over by the great Buddhist scholar,
Moggaliputta Tissa. Asoka made efforts to prevent divisions in Buddhism. But, in spite of his
efforts, the Buddhist Sangha came to be divided in to two sects, Hinayana and Mahayana.
Asoka sent missionaries to several countries to spread Buddhism. Mahendra and Sanghamitra
were sent to Ceylon. Missionaries were also sent to Burma, Sumatra, Syria, Egypt, Macedonia
and Cyrene or Epirus.

1. What are the important achievements of Chandraguptha Mourya?
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2. Write about the importance of Kalinga War?
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10.5 ADMINISTRATION
Mauryan administration has been paternal in nature. It is the first well-organized
system that was put in to operation in Ancient India. Chandraguptha Maurya organized
an elaborate system of Administration.
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10.5.1 The King
The King stood at the head of this system and all powers were vested in him. He
issued orders, planned and led wars, controlled finances, acted as a court of justice and
received foreign envoys. The power and prestige of the King was immense. He appointed
ministers and most important officers. Regulation were framed, and laws were enacted
by the King. Even though the powers of the King were extensive, he was not a dictator.
According to Ramachandra Dikshitar, the Mauryan King was a constitutional monarch.
The king was expected to perform certain duties too. The Arthashastra states that
an important responsibility of the king is the welfare of his people, for which purpose
the king should be accessible to his officials and subjects at all times. The king was also
expected to protect society, facilitate administration and maintain social order. Chanakya
wrote 'The happiness of the subject is the happiness of the king : their well-being is his.
The king's welfare lies not in his own pleasure, but in that of his subjects'.
10.5.2 Manthriparishad and Bureaucracy
From the accounts of Arthasastra, Indica and the Edicts of Asoka, it is clear that an
elaborate machinery of officials functioned in the Mauryan empire. As the king had a
heavy load of responsibilities, a Manthri Parishad or Council of Ministers existed to
assist the King. This advisory body was made up of men of high birth, integrity and
intelligence, who were called Manthris. According to Rock Edict III and Rock Edict VI,
the Manthriparishad had the power to supervise the Yuktas, who were officers dealing
with accounts. The Manthri Parishad also had the power to discuss and even differ from
the orders of the King, which had to be transmitted to the officers working in various
parts of the empire. Other high officials were Amatyas, Mahamatras and Adhyakshas. A
list of 18 tirthas or officers are also given wherein the Mantri (Minister), Purohit (Priest),
Senapathi (Commander in Chief) and Yuvaraja (Crown Prince) are accorded the highest
places. Officers such as Dandapala(Police Chief) and Samaharta (Collector-General),
Sannidhata (Treasury In-charge) were also present in the elaborate bureaucracy.
The Samaharta was in charge of supervising the collection of revenue from the
whole kingdom. He had also the responsibility of controlling the expenditure of the
Government. The Arthasasthra mentions Adyakshasas or superintendents, who were the
heads of the departments. The description of the elaborate duties of the Adhyakshas in
the Arthasastra proves that the Mauryan Government was a highly complex system. The
officials mentioned in the Edicts of Asoka are Yuktas, Pradesikas, Rajukas, Mahamatras,
Dharmamahamatras, Prativedikas and others. The Pradesikas were officials in-charge
of a unit of territory, known as Pradesa. The Rajukas looked after the welfare of the
people, and were also judges. Mahamatras, who are frequently mentioned in the Edicts,
were officers of the highest rank. The prativedikas were informants. The officials were
paid salaries.
Ramachandra Dikshitar in his book The Mauryan Polity states that two assemblies
known as Pura and Janapada existed at Pataliputhra during the Mauryan period. He
mentions that Piller Edict IV and Rock Edict VIII of Asoka make references to the Pura
and Janapada. The important men of the kingdom were probably the members of these
bodies. They seem to have exercised important functions like discussing and approving
the policies of the king.
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The empire was divided into provinces that were placed under a prince of royal
blood. Asoka is said to have been Governor of Ujjain and later Taxila when he was a
crown prince. The provinces were further divided in to district units like Ahara, Vishaya
and Pradesha.The Rajuka was probably the head of the Ahara. The Sthanika was an
official who looked after the administration in one of the local units. The Gopa looked
after five to ten villages. The Gramani was the village official. He carried on the
administration of the village with the help of Gramavriddhas (Village elders). King was
kept well informed of the happenings in the province, and districts by his spies and
overseers.
10.5.4 Municipal Administration
Special arrangements for urban administration was a unique feature of the Mauryan
administration. The detailed account of the municipal administration of Patiliputra has
been given by Megasthenes in his Indica. Probably other towns were also administered
on similar lines. Each city had a Nagaraka or City superintendent to maintain law and
order in the city and for other purposes. According to Megasthanis, the city was
administered by thirty officials divided in to six committees. The boards consisting of
five members each and these looked after : i. Development of crafts ii) Comforts of
Foreigners iii) Registration of birth and deaths iv) Trade and Commerce v) Manufacture
and Sale of goods vi) Collection of taxes.
10.5.5 Revenue and Welfare Measures
The Mauryan administration of the vast empire was based upon a sound financial
foundation. Land revenue was the main source of income. Although it varied between
one fourth to one sixth, yet in times of war or need, the peasants were forced to grow
more. Large tracts of land, brought under cultivation by the state, also became rich
sources of income. Another reason for financial stability was that the state controlled
almost all economic activity. It had a monopoly over mines, salt, liquor, forests, customs.
Crafts were encouraged. In fact, the penal code was such that injury to an artisan or
evasion of taxes on sales led to capital punishment. The state also received income from
tolls and fines.
Under expenditure, maintenance of the palace and the royal family was an important
item. Salaries of officials also constituted a considerable portion of the Government
expenditure. Expenditure on public works was also heavy. Establishment and
maintenance of hospitals, grants to religious organizations, construction of irrigation
facilities, laying of roads and gardens, and such other works of public utility, resulted in
considerable expenditure for the Government. The army also accounted for a large portion
of the Government's expenditure.
Chandraguptha also ordered the building of canals and other irrigation systems.
Although the state charged a tax on these yet these waterways greatly helped farmers.
The Junagarh Rock Inscription tells us that the famous Sudarshan Lake was built there by
damming a mountain stream during Chandraguptha's reign.
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10.5.6 Army
The most striking feature of Chandraguptha's administration was the maintenance
of a huge army. According to the Greek writer Justin, Chandraguptha had six lack foot
soldiers, thirty thousand cavalry and nine thousand elephants. He is believed to have
maintained eight thousand chariots and maintained a navy too. According to Megasthenes,
the administration of the army was carried out through six boards of five members each
to supervise the following matters. 1. Transport and commissariat 2. Infantry 3. Cavalry
4. Charriots 5. Elephants 6. Navy. The head of the army was the Senapathi. The separation
of the military and civil services was one of the modern features of the Mauryan
administration.
10.5.7 Administration of Justice
The king was the fountain of justice. From the village to the cities, there was a
gradation of courts. Two sets of courts known as Dharmasthanas and Kantaka Sodhana
courts existed. It is presumed that the Dharmasthanas dealt with civil cases, and the
Kantaka Sodhana courts with criminal cases. It is believed that the punishments were
severe. Fines, imprisonment, whipping and execution were some of the punishments that
were awarded by the courts.
10.5.8 Espionage System
An important feature of the Mauryan administration was the espionage system.
The Arthasastra advocates the frequent use of the spies by the kings to keep themselves
informed about all the activities in the kingdom. It is suggested that the spies should
disguise themselves as beggars, merchants, ascetics, students, women, prostitutes and so
on, in order to gather the necessary information.

1. What is the role of Mantriparishad in Mauryan Administration?
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2. How was administration of Army?
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10.6 SOCIO, ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL CONDITIONS
The age of the Mauryas is an extremely significant period of early Indian history.
The Greeks have written that the Indians during the Mauryan period lived frugally, and
were mild and gentle. According to them, theft was a rare occurrence, and people did
not tell lies. Written agreements or contracts were not common, as people did not feel
the necessity for such things. We are further informed that the houses and property were
generally left unguarded. Though the above account is an exaggerated version, it indicates
that the people in general were cultured.
Megasthanese in his Indica writes that the Mauryan society was divided into
seven castes. Obviously, he mistook occupation as a caste. In the Mauryan period also,
as in ancient times, the Varna system existed. But, the seven castes mentioned by
Megasthanese were the chief occupations of those days. The seven castes mentioned by
Megasthanese were: 1. Philosophers 2. Farmers 3. Soldiers 4. Herdsmen 5. Artisans
6. Magistrates 7. Councilors. The philosophers included Brahmins : Soldiers, Magistrates
and Councilors were probably Kshatriyas. Farmers, herdsmen and artisans probably
belonged to the sudra caste. The first three castes were more privileged than the sudras.
The vaishyas who controlled commerce, tried to gain supremacy in the society along
with the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas. But, they could not become equal in status with
the first two castes. Greek writers inform us that inter-caste marriages were not allowed,
and that occupations could not be changed. However, the influx of foreigners and the
influence of Buddhism and Jainism must have, to some extent, reduced the rigidity of the
caste system. Slaves existed in the society. Asoka's inscription and Kautilya's Arthasastra
refer to the existence of slaves. But, Megasthanese states that 'all the Indians are free and
not one of them is slave'. But, slaves were treated kindly. Probably due to the good
treatment enjoyed by the slaves, Megasthanese, might have come to the conclusion that
there were no slaves in India.
Women were respected in the society. But, they were denied equal rights with
men. Polygamy was practiced by the rulers and nobles. There were superintendents to
look after the welfare of women in the Mauryan society. Women seem to have taken to
many professions. From the accounts of the Greek writers, we have information that
there were women philosophers and also women bodyguards. Asoka's Edicts refer to
Utsava and Samaja, which were occasions for the social gathering of a large number of
people. Samajas were generally organized in honor of Gods like Shiva, Brahma and
Saraswathi. At the time of the Samajas, wrestling, chariot races, fighting between men
and animals and such other competitions were organized. Sometimes, such competitions
resulted in violence and bloodshed. Probably, because of such evil effects of those
festivals, Asoka declared in an Edict that certain types of Samajas should not be organized.
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10.6.2 Religious life
Religion had an all-pervasive influence on the people during this period. Buddhism,
Jainism and Brahmanism were the important religions of the Mauryan period. The priests
played an important part in the religious life of the people. The ascetics, who were
known as Sramanas, were also an influential group of people in the society. They worked
as philosophers, astrologers and physicians. Sacrifices were very much in evidence
during this age. Sacrifices of human beings and animals were performed on certain
occasions. Asoka tried to put an end to these sacrifices. Asoka's Edicts refer to the
existence of the Ajivikas and Nirgranthas. The Ajivikas were ascetics. They had among
them both Brahman and Non-brahman traditions. The Nirgranthas were also ascetics.
They believed in the principles of Buddhism. As they went about naked, they were
described as naked ascetics.
Due to Asoka's conversion to Buddhism, that religion became popular in the Mauryan
period. Although Asoka took several steps for the propagation Buddhism, Hinduism
continued to have large number of followers. Indra, Varuna, Siva, Skanda, Vasudeva
were some of the important Hindu deities, worshipped during the Mauryan period.
Jainism also had a firm hold on some sections of the people during this period. During
Chandraguptha's days, Jainism seems to have gained royal support.
You have already read about the elaborate state machinery and the huge standing
army of the Mauryas in an earlier pages. The maintenance of this structure involved
heavy expenditure. Therefore the Mauryan state was constantly seeking new sources of
income to meet this expense. The Mauryan state exercised a strict control over economic
activity. The state appointed Adhyaksha (superintendent, who controlled and regulated
agriculture and commercial activities. During this period, large tracts of land were brought
under the control of the state. Such land was called Sita. There were also references to
big farms where hired labor was employed. These farms were placed under the
supervision of a sitadhyaksha (superintendent of agriculture) and were a source of royal
income. Land was also cultivated by private individuals, who had to pay taxes on it.
The economy during this period was predominantly agrarian in nature. The majority
of the people were agriculturists and lived in villages. Besides agriculture, industry
also provided livelihood to the people. Manufacture of cloth, wooden articles including
ships, production of agricultural, household and military implements, provided jobs to
many people. A tax was levied on all manufactured articles, and the date was stamped
on them to enable the consumers to distinguish between old and new articles. Sale of
articles was supervised by the Government officials. Banking system was not known.
But, the practice of money-lending prevailed.
In order to further increase its income, the state collected a number of taxes from
the people. These included the land tax, the water cess, customs and ferry charges,
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village taxes, taxes on temples. The peasants were also required to supply food to the
royal army if it was passing through their village. Strict fiscal measures were introduced
during days of emergency.
Though, all sources of information indicate that both inland and foreign trade
increased during the Mauryan period. The efficient Mauryan administration helped the
growth of trade. India had direct commercial contacts with Syria, Egypt and other
Hellenistic countries. Fine cloth was one of our important exports in those days. Luxury
goods and wine were imported. The Government exercised considerable control both
over internal and external trade. Pliny wrote that there was a heavy drain of Roman
coins into our country due to the import of many Indian goods by the Greek countries.
The copper coin known as Karshapana was in circulation. Similar copper coins known
as Kakani, were also used as a medium of exchange. Srenis or guilds existed in the
Mauryan period. Many professions had their own guilds. Guilds of weavers, Oil-Millers,
Bamboo-workers, etc,. existed. Thus, we find that the economy of India during the
Mauryan age was highly developed and well-organised.
10.6.4 Spread of Material Culture
The political unity established by the Mauryan kings had an immense impact upon
the growth of material culture. During this period, we find the spread of a new culture
that was based upon the wide use of iron, punch-marked coins, a new kind of pottery
called Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), use of burnt bricks, ring wells and most
significant the rise of town in north-eastern India. This culture spread from the central
heartland of the gangetec basin to the out laying regions of the empire, administrators,
traders and the Jain and Buddhist monks were largely responsible for carrying it to
different parts of the empire. Another feature of the Mauryan period was that burnt
bricks began to be used for making structures. The popular usage of such bricks was
probably because of climate conditions.
10.7 CULTURAL CONDITIONS

The political unity, material prosperity and comparative freedom from foreign
menace might have provided the country an opportunity to divert its attention and energy
to intellectual activity and cultural pursuits.
10.7.1 Literature
Learning and literature received great attention. The Arthasastra, a treasure on
Government and economics, is assigned to this period. Its author, Koutilya, is believed
to be the chief adviser of Chandraguptha. Taxila became a famous centre of learning.
There, the courses of study included philosophy, economics, politics and Ithihasas. The
Buddhist philosophy also got remarkably expanded. The third Buddhist Council held
during the reign of Asoka added Abhidammapitaka to the existing law texts. Mogaliputta
Tissa compiled the Kathavattu, a treatise rejecting the heretical doctrines of those times.
The Jain literature also was revised and enlarged. Bhadrabahu's Kalpasutra was produced
154
during the same period. Prakrit was the state language, and the large number of Asokan
Edicts show that the Brahmi script and the art of writing attained a high level of
development.
The Mauryan contribution to art and architecture was significant. Asokan pillars,
glossy Mauryan figures, rock cut caves are examples of high workmanship of this period.
Asoka is known to have built 84,000 stupas to commemorate various events of Budha's
life. According to Megasthenes, Patliputra was more grand than the cities of Persia. The
art specimens executed under the inspiration of the Mauryan monarchs include the remains
of the royal palace and city of Pataliputra, a single stone -cut fencing at Saranath, the
excavated chaitya halls or cave dwellings in the Barabar and Nagarjuna hills of Gaya,
including the Sudama cave, dated in the twelfth year of Asoka's rule, the pillars, the
animal sculptures crowning the pillars, and front hall of the representation of an elephant
carved out in the round from a live rock at Dhauli in Orissa. Most of them were made of
hard grey sandstone. They were nicely chiseled and beautifully polished. They also
exhibit high engineering and technical skill of the Mauryan artists. The capital of the
Saranath piller with the figures of four lions, stands as a specimen of the artistic
excellence of the Mauryans at its best. Some scholars trace Iranian and Hellenistic
influence on the Mauryan art, probably, ornamentation might have been borrowed from
foreign sources. Many minor arts, especially the jeweller's art, also received great
attention.
Besides pillars, few Mauryan figures have also come to light. The most well
known these are those of the Yakshi from Didarganj and the Yaksha from Patna. The
beauty of these figures lies in the exactness of their workmanship and in the fact that they
appear to be made from one single stone. Like the pillars, they are polished with a
unique surface gloss (now called Mauryan polish)
Another noteworthy aspect of Mauryan architecture are the rock cut caves. The
Lomas Rishi (with its impressive entrance) and the Sudama cave are examples of such
architecture. These caves cut from solid rock were provided by king Asoka for non-
Buddhist monks. These caves marked the beginning of the rock cut architecture which
was patronized by later rulers too.
10.8 DISINTEGRATION OF MAURYAN EMPIRE

The decline of the Mauryas began with the death of Asoka. While the first three
Mauryas had ruled for a span of 85 years, their successors could hold their throne for
only 52 years. One of the most obvious reason for this was the weak successor of Asoka.
None of the successors proved capable and the empire was quickly divided into two
halves. Further taking advantage of this, the Governors in the outlying provinces, such as
Taxila, began to rule independently. Some scholars have placed the blame for the Mauryan
disintegration upon Asoka. According to H,P,Sastry and others, Asoka's policy of
propagating Buddhism affected the interests of Brahmins who felt aggrieved, and
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engineered a coup against the Mauryan king Brihadrtha under the leadership of
Pushyamitra Sunga, who was a Brahmin. It is argued by some scholars that the fall of the
Mauryan empire was the result of the brahmanical reactions against the pro-Buddhist
policy of Asoka. The economic consequences of Asoka's policies have been attacked.
According to D.D. Kosambi, the Mauryan empire collapsed due to financial bankruptcy
. His conclusion is based on the debasement of the Mauryan coins in the later years. He
further argues that the strain of severe taxation also weakened the empire.According to
some scholars, the greatest cause of expenditure was the huge royal army. After Kalinga,
this army fought no wars. It became weak as it and was only used for parades. The
maintenance costs of this army drained the royal treasury. In addition to this, Asoka
appointed many new cadres of officers who did not contribute to any production. The
charitable public works of the king also strained the treasury.
10.2: Sarnath Lion Capital
156
Lack of Nationalism both among the rulers and the people also contributed for the
downfall of the empire. The caste, linguistic, regional and other parochial feelings prevented
the growth of a feeling of unity and finally weakened the Mauryan empire.
However there was another factor that contributed to the Mauryan downfall. The
empire was greatly shaken by the foreign invasions on its north western frontier. The prevailing
conditions in Central Asia forced the Bactrian Greeks to push eastwards towards India. This
series of attacks, which began in 200 B.C. weakened the central authority and thus gave an
opportunity to a dissident general, Pushyamithra Sunga, to give a final blow to the Mauryan
dynasty.
10.9 SUNGAS
10.9.1 Origin
In North India, the immediate successors of the Mauryas were the Sungas, a Brahmin
familyof obscure origin. Pushyamitra Sunga, a general of the last Maurya king Brihadradha,
slew his master, and succeeded to the throne in 184 B.C.
10.9.2 Pushyamitra Sunga
Pushyamitra is well known as an enthusiastic supporter of the orthodox Brahmanical
faith, and is said to have performed two Asvamedha sacrifices. Buddhist literature portrays
him as a persecutor of Buddhists and destroyer of their monasteries and places of worship.
The Sunga dominions comprised the entire Gangetic vally and extended to the river Narmada.
The cities of Pataliputra, Ayodhya, Vidsa, Jullundhar and Sakala (Sailkot) were included in
the Sunga kingdom. Pushyamitra ruled for 36 years, and was succeeded by his son,
Agnimitra in 148 B.C.
10.9.3 Agnimitra and the later rulers
Agnimitra's rule in the areas of Eastern Malwa even during the period of
Pushyamitra in known from Kalidas's drama 'Malavikagnimitra'. He was succeeded by
Sujyenshtha and Sumithra respectively. Puranas assign a total duration of one hundred
and twelve years to the Sunga dynasty. Some of the noblest Buddhist monuments- the
Stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut continued to receive both private and royal support under
the Sungas. A number of additions to the beautifully sculptured railings of those monuments
were made under them; and there is a definite mentions of a donation to the Stupa at
Bharhut during the Sunga rule. One of the last rulers, Brigabhadra, had a relation with
the Indo-Greek ruler, Antialkidas. The ambassador of the Greek ruler, Heliodorus erected
the Garuda pillar at Besnagar during the reign of Bhagabhadra. This shows how foreigners
adopted the Hindu religion.
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10.10 KANVAS
The Kanvas or Kanvayanas who succeeded he Sungas, were also Brahmanas, and
figure among the ancient priestly families of Vedic times. The kingdom to which the founder of
the dynasty, Kanva Vasudeva succeeded, was much diminished in extent. Its jurisdiction was
probably confined to Magadha alone. Vasudeva, Bhumimitra, Narayana and Susarman were
the successive rulers of this family, and this dynasty came to an end after 45 years of existence.
According to the Puranas, the Andhra Monarch, Pulomavi overthrew Kanva Susarman.
10.11 SUMMARY
The Mauryan rule brought political unity to India. The Mauryan king organized a sound
state organization, in which the state had tremendous powers. An efficient administrative system
that involved an elaborate bureaucracy was characteristic of this period. The Mauryan system
of administration was well-organized and contained many modern features of administration.
The vast structure of the Mauryan state was maintained by a sound financial basis. State farms
were present and agriculture was a source of income. Gold, Silver, Mines were also monopoly
of the state. Economic activity was supervised by the state. Taxes were collected from
peasants, traders and artisans.
As regards art and architecture, the contribution of King Asoka is most significant.
Asokan pillars with their fine designs and surface gloss are also evidence of high quality
workmanship. The practice of rock cut caves, begun by the Mauryas was followed by
later kings too. The Mauryan period saw the development and spread of a new material
culture. The NBP wire, iron tools, ring wells, burnt brick houses are all evidence of this
culture. This culture spread to the north eastern and southern parts of the empire. The
efforts of the Mauryan Kings themselves, traders, and monks were largely responsible
for this spread. The most significant aspect of Mauryan rule is the policies advocated by
king Asoka. He gave up war and devoted his life to the welfare of his subjects.
Dhammavijay was his aim. He asked his people to adopt Dhamma and live in harmony.
Through his Dhamma, he bought further unity to the Mauryan empire.
However, there were some weak points also in that system. One important weakness
of the Mauryan administration was over-centralization. Appointment and control of many
officials, including those who functioned far away from the seat of the Government, was in the
hands of the emperor. Such a system proved to be efficient when the king was strong, but
failed when he was weak.

I. (i) Founding the Mauryan Empire by defeating Dhanananda was one of the greatest
achievements of Chandraguptha Maurya. Liberation of the people in the Northwestern
region of India from the foreign rule of Greeks was also one of his great achievements.
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Another important achievement of Chandraguptha Maurya was the defeat of Selukos
Nikator. Chandraguptha Maurya was a great administrator also.
(ii) The Kalinga war is a turning point in the life of Asoka and in the history of India.
Asoka gave up wars and adopted a policy of peace after the Kalinga War. He
devoted his life after the war for the propagation of Dharma.
II..(i) As the king had a heavy load of responsibilities, a Mantriparishad or Council of
Ministers existed to assist the King. According to Rock Edict III and Rock Edict
IV, the Mantriparishad had the power to supervise the Yuktas, who were officers
dealing with accounts. The Mantriparishad also had the power to discuss and
even differ from the orders of the King, which has to be transmitted to the officers
working in various parts of the empire.
(ii) The Mauryan emperors maintained a huge standing army. The head of the army
was the Senapathi. There existed 30 members grouped into six boards to supervise
the following matters pertaining to the administration of the army. 1. Transport and
Commissariat 2. Infantry 3. Cavalry 4. Charriots. 5. Elephants 6. Navy. The separation
of the military and civil services was one of the modern features of the Mauryan
Administration.

1. Give an account of the life and achievements of Chandragupta Maurya
2. Explain why Asoka can be considered as a great monarch
3. Evaluate the significance and the effects of Asoka's religious policy
4. Critically examine the causes that led to the fall of the Mauryan Empire
5. Bring out the salient features of Mauryan administration and point out its merits
and defects.
6. Describe social and economic conditions of the Mauryan Periood
1. Explain the achievements of Bindusara
2. Examine the importance of Kalinga War in Asoka's reign
3. Describe Asoka's Dhamma.
4. What was the conditions of trade under the Mauryans?
5. How was religious life under the Mauryans?
6. Trace the cultural conditions under the Mauryans?
159
1. Basham, A.L. : The Wonder that was India
2. Bhandarkar, Dr. : Asoka
3. Dikshitar, V.R. : Mauryan Polity
4. Kosambi, D.D. : The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India : A Historical
Outline
5. Majumdar, R.C.(ed) : The Age of Imperial Unity, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan Series
Vol.II
6. Majumdar R.C., Raychaudhari, H.C and Datta, K : An Advanced History of India
7. Mookerjee, R.K.: Chandraguptha Maurya and his times
8. Nilakanta Sastri, K.A.(ed) : The age of Nandas and the Mauryas
9. Rapson (ed) : Cambridge History of India, Vol,I
10. Romila Thapar : History of India, Vol,I
11. Romila Thapar : Asoka and the decline of the Mauryas
12. Raychaudhari H.C. : Political History of Ancient India
13. Sircar, D.C. : Inscriptions of Asoka
14. Smith , Vincent : Asoka
***
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UNIT-11: INDO-GREEKS, SAKAS, PARTHIANS,
KSHATRAPAS AND KUSHANAS
Contents
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Sources
11.3 Indo-Greeks
11.3.1 Menander
11.4 Sakas
11.4.1 Moues
11.4.2 Azas
11.4.3 Azilisa
11.5 Parthians
11.5.1 Gondophernas
11.6 Saka Kshatrapas
11.6.1 Nahapana
11.6.2 Rudradamana
11.7 Kushanas
11.7.1 Kadphises-I (15-65 A.D.)
11.7.2 Kadhises-II (65-75 A.D.)
11.7.3 Kanishka
11.7.3.1 Peshawar
11.7.3.2 Administration
11.7.3.3 Economic Conditions
11.7.3.4 Coin Age
11.7.3.5 Religion
11.7.3.6 Patron of Art and Learning
11.7.3.7 Gandhara Art
11.7.3.8 Madhura Art
11.7.4 Huvishka
11.7.5 Vasudeva
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11.8 Fall of the Kushana Empire
11.9 Summary
11.0 OBJECTIVES
Know the Indo-Greek rule.
Explain the Parthian contribution.
Discuss the Kshatrapas political development.
Analyse the Kushana contribution for Indian society.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
During the period between the downfall of the Mauryas and the foundation of the
Gupta Empire, various parts of India were ruled by Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, Kshatrapas
and Kushanas. They were contributed different forms in art and architecture. They were
encouraged Gandhara and Mathura art in Northern India. They were patronised Buddhism in
North India and also cause for spread of Buddhism to different countries. Valuable literature
came into existence during the period.
11.2 SOURCES
The inscriptions, coins, monuments and literature were the important sources for
reconstruction of the history of Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, Saka Kshatrapas and Kushanas.
The Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradamana and Allahabad Inscription of Samudragupta
are very much useful to study the Kshatrapa and Kushanas dynasties. Nahapana Jogelthombi
coins, Wima Kadpheses and Kanishka coins, Milindapanah, Periplus of the Eritrean Sea,
Strabo writings, Pan-ku's history of the First Han dynasty, Kalhanas Rajatharangini,
Madhyamika Sutra of Nagarjuna, Buddhacharita of Asvaghosha and Si-Yu-Ki of Hiuen-
Tsang etc., were useful for re-write the history of Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, Kshatrapas
and Kushanas.
11.3 INDO-GREEKS
Bactria and Parthia were the two districts of the Empire of Seleucus. Both Bactria and
Parthia revolted against Antiochus-II, the grandson of Seleucus and declared independence.
The leader of the revolt of the Bactrians was Diodotos-I and that of the Parthians was Arsakes.
Bactria was the district round Balkh in Northern Afghanistan beyond the Hindu Kush. Strabo
mentioned about the fertile plains of Bactria as "the pride of Arriana".
162
Iran conquered Bactria. A large number of Iranians had settled in Bactria. After its
conquest by Iran, Bactria was put under a Satrap on account of its strategic importance.
Alexander defeated Iran and captured
both Iran and Bactria. He did not make
any change in the method of administration
of Bactria. Large number of Alexander
followers settled in Bactria for its
strengthening. After the death of Alexander
in 323 B.C., a struggle for supremacy
started among his Generals. Ultimately 11.1 Indo-Greek Coin
Seleucus and Antigonus emerged in Western Asia.
These two generals worked together for some time but struggle for supremacy started even
between the two. Ultimately, Seleucus overpowered Antigonus in 301 B.C., in the battle of
Ipsus. Seleucus extended and strengthened his empire in 282 B.C from Aegean to India.
Antiochus-I, Antiochus-II, Diodotos-I, Diodotos-II and Euthydemus-I ruled the region. During
Antiochus-II rule both the Bactria and Parthia revolted and became independent. Antiochus -
II called by his people as Theos or "the god". In 206 B. C. Antiochus-III led an expedition to
India. He crossed Hindu Kush, marched to Kabul Valley and encountered Sophagasenus or
Subhagasena was connected with Virasena, King of Gandhara, who was the grandson of
Asoka.
Euthydemus was succeeded by his son, Demetrius. He played a prominent part in the
history of Bactria and India. He was the person who was responsible after Alexander for
carrying Greek arms into the interior of India. His Indian expedition became the first of a
series of subsequent Bactrian invasions of India. India's intimate contact with the Greeks
began with the career of Demetrius. The political condition in the extreme north of India was
also favourable to him. Taking advantage Demetrius crossed the Hindu Kush Mountain with
large force. He conquered portions of the Punjab and Sind. After Demetrius, Apollodotus
and Eucratides came to throne and ruled the Bactria for some time. Later Menander came to
the throne.
11.3.1 MENANDER
He has a great conqueror. Strabo tells us that the Bactrian chiefs, particularly Menander,
conquered more nations than Alexander and those conquests were achieved partly by
Menander. According to Milindapanha a Pali work, Menander was born in the village of
Kalasi in the Dvipa of Alasanda which was 200 yojanas from Sakala which was the capital of
Menander. Sakala is the modern Sialkot in Pakistan. According to Milindapanha "in the
Yonakas" region, a great centre of trade, a city is called Sagala. It is situated in a delightful
region well watered and hilly, abounding in parks, gardens, groves and lakes and tanks, a
paradise of rivers and mountains and woods. Brave is its defence, with many and various
strong towers and ramparts, with superb gates and entrance archways, and with the royal
citadel in its midst, white walled and deeply moated. Sagala streets are filled with elephants,
horses, carriages and foot-passengers, and crowded by men of all sorts and conditions-
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Brahmans, nobles, artificers and servants. Shops are there for the sale of Banaras muslin,
of Kotumbara stuffs, and of other cloths of various kinds and sweets odours are exhaled
from the bazaars, where all sorts of flowers and perfumes are tastefully set out. Jewels
are there in plenty, and guilds of traders in all sorts of finery display their goods in the
bazaars which face all smorters of the sky".
According to Prof. Rapson is that Menander married Agathocleia, the daughter of
Demetrius. His son was Strato-I who was a minor at the time of the death of Menander. His
queen Agathocleia was the royal regent during the minority of her son. The conclusion was the
based on a study of certain types of the coins of Menander.
Menander followed an expansionist policy from his house towards the south-east. A
large number of Menander coins were found in the western districts of Uttar Pradesh. His
coins also found in Kathiawar. Menander crossed the Beas River and Kalinandi River which
was running through the Kumaun, Rohilkhand and the Kanauj region.
Some Kharoshti inscription has been discovered in the Bajaur tribal territory about 20
miles to the west of the confluence of the Panjkora and the Swat. One of these inscriptions
refers about the Menander reign. Some relics of Sakyamuni Buddha are said to have been
installed in the casket for worship first by a prince named Viyakamitra, apparently a feudatory
of Menander and afterwards by his son or grandson. According to the inscriptions Menander
hold the power on the Peshawar region and also on the upper Kabul Valley. According to
D.C. Sircar , Menander dominion consists of the Central parts of Afghanistan, North-West
Frontiers Provinces, the Punjab, Sind, Rajputana and Kathiawar and probably also a portion
of Western Uttar Pradesh.
The Milindapanha gives us a dialogue between Milinda or Menander and Nagasena,
the learned Buddhist Monk. Very searching questions concerned with Buddhist metaphysics
and philosophy were put by Menander to Nagasena and all of them were answered to his
satisfaction. The result was that Menander was converted into Buddhism.
As far the Prof. A.K. Narain view "The greatness and popularity of Menander are
attested not only by the overwhelming predominance of his coins over those of other Indo-
Greek kings, but also by the survival of his name in tradition. Surely he was the greatest of the
Indo-Greek kings of India".
After the rule of Menander, the Indo-Greek power slowly declined due to the weak
ruler and declared independence by the several feudatories in different parts of the Indo-
Greek dominion.
11.4 SAKAS
The Sakas were nomadic tribes who originally belonged to the Central Asia. In the year
165 B.C., they were turned out of their original home by the Yueh-chi. The Sakas migrated to
the South- West and fought against the Greek kingdom of Bactria. Most of the Sakas settle
down in the Hilmand Valley and established small states there. Most of the Sakas came from
Central Asia and consequently those who had settled in the North_West crossed the Hindu
164
Kush and Sulaiman ranges to settle in Northern
India. They fought with the Parthians. Some were
joined in the Parthian services, and appointed as
Satraps (Governors) in various provinces.
11.4.1 Maues
Maues ruled from 20 B.C. to 22 A.D., he
extended Saka Power to large parts of North-
Western India. He had the title "Great King of Kings".
By his conquest, Maues drove a wedge between 11.2: The Sakas
the two Indo-Greek kingdoms. The Sakas extended
their power up to Mathura during his reign. He cut his relations with the Great kings of kings
of east Iran. After Maues, Azes, Azilise were ruled the Northern India respectively.
11.4.2 Azes
The coins of Maues were the source for the Azes succession. He ruled from 5 B.C. to
30A.D. Azes was the son of Spalirises. He was son-in-law of Maues. He ruled the Maues
territory. He protected his state from the internal and external attacks. He maintained law and
order in the State.
11.4.3 Azilise
Azilises ruled the state from 28 A.D to 40 A.D. some coins were issued by Azes jointly
with Azilises. Both the kings are called "Great King of Kings". He was son of Azes. For some
time he ruled jointly with the father and after his death became the sole ruler. He also protects
his state from the external and internal attacks.
After Azilise, Azes-I came to the throne. He was son and successor of Azilises. He
ruled jointly for some time and later on became the sole king. He ruled from 35 A.D to 79
A.D. later Azes-II, the kingdom slowly declined. The Parthians played a prominent role in the
history.
11.5 PARTHIANS
In the beginning of the 1st century A.D., the Parthian Empire was controlled by Aria or
Herat. Anahoi, Drangiana, Sakastan and Arachosia territories formed a separate kingdom
about the middle of the first century B.C. The Periplus of Eritrean Sea refers to the Parthian
occupation of Minnagara, the capital of Indo-Scythia. The prominent king of the Parthian
Kingdom was Gondophernes.
11.5.1 GONDOPHERNES
Azes-II was succeeded by Gondophernes. He was a Parthian by race. As far coin
sources, Gondophernes with one Gudda was ruling, probably some-where in Arachosia, as
the vice regal associate of Orthagnes, before he became king himself. Gondophernes gradually
extended his power in different directions and became an emperor. The success of
Gondophernes against the Sakas in India was more conspicuous. A record of his reign found
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at Takht-i-Bahi in the Yusuf-zai territory near Mardan in Peshawar district. That proves
the Parthian occupation of Gandhara. Gondophernes ruled from 21 A.D. to 46 A.D. two
types of coins of Gondophernes have been found in Taxila. Some bear the portrait and
symbol of Gondophernes with the names of his viceroys, such as Sapedana and Satavastra.
Gondophernes name was associated with St. Thomas, the apostle of the Parthians.
There is a tradition that the Parthians were allotted as the peculiar sphere of the missionary
activities of St. Thomas. He came to India during Gondophernes reign and conducted Christian
missionary activities in Southern India, died at Mylopore buried in Chennai.
Abdagases was immediate successor of Gondophernes. Some time he was subordinate
ruler under his uncle. He ruled as independent and few years. He was succeeded by Pacores,
then Sanabares etc. The end of the Parthian rule in India is marked by several groups of small
silver coins which were found at Sirkap of Taxila. However, the foreign domination on northern
India did not end with the Parthian rule. After Parthians, the Kushanas were controlled the
northern India.
11.6 SAKA KSHATRAPAS

The Indian Governors of the Saka rulers were called as Kshatrapas. Kshatrapas means
a provincial governor. In India many Saka Kshatrapa houses was existed in different parts. In
this, the Northern Kshatrapas of Taxila and Mathura and the Western Kshatrapas of
Maharashtra and Ujjain were prominent. Liaka Kusulaka was the ruler of the Kshatrapas of
Taxila and Hagamasha was the ruler of the Kshatrapas of Mathura. In Maharashtra Khatrapa
ruler was Bhumaka and Ujjain Kshatrapa ruler was the Yasamatika. In both Maharashtra and
11.3: The Kshatrapas Coins
Ujjain, two rulers occupied prominent place in the history of India. They were Nahapana
and Rudradamana.
11.6.1 NAHAPANA
Nahapana was a great ruler of the Bhumaka line. He conquered Maharashtra. He
was extended his power to Broach, Kathiawar, Ajmer and Pushkara. Nahapana was
helped by his son-in-law Ushavadata who was really his right hand man, Ushavadata
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played an important role in the Nahapana administration. He was commander-in-chief.
he constructed Ghats for ferry boats, cave dwellings for Buddhist monks with the orders
of Nahapana. A large number of Nahapana silver coins found at Jogalthambi near Nasik
in Maharashtra. Nahapana and Ushavadata both were patronised Buddhism and provided
shelters for large number of Buddhist monks in nook corner of the state.
11.6.2 RUDRADAMANA
Rudradamana was the grand son and successor of Chastana. His father was
Jayadamana. The Junagadh Rock Inscription gives vivid description about the
Rudradamana reign. He had a title of Mahakshatrapa. He was defeated Satakarni, Lord
of the South, twice and then he became son-in-law. Rudradamana fought against the
Yaudheyas and defeated. Yaudheyas profession is fighting. They were lived in Eastern
Punjab. Rudradamana called the Yaudheyas as a brave race.
Rudradamana extended his territory to Akara (East Malwa), Avanti (West Malwa),
Anupa, Anarta (north Kathiawar), Saurashtra (South Kathiawar), Svabhra (the region on the
Sabarmati), Maru (Marwar), Kachha (Cutch), Sindhu (Indus), Sauvira (east of the Lower
Sindhu) Kukura (North Kathiawar), Aparanta (North Konkan) and Nisbada (West Vindhya
and Aravali).
Rudradamana reconstructed Sudarsana lake and spent money required for lake from
his own pocket. Rudradamana did not spent a single pie of the people for the reconstruction
of lake. He did not impose any special tax of forced labour or benevolences from the people
for the lake purpose. He carried on his government with the advice and consent of his Council
of Ministers (Sachivaih). Before becoming the ruler, Rudradamana had learnt grammer, polity,
finance, music, logic, etc. After Rudradamana, the Ujjain Kshatrapa ruled was slowly declined
due to weak rulers.

1. Who was Responsible for Menander convert into Buddhism?
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2. Who was responsible for spread of Christianity during Parthian rule in India?
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11.7 KUSHANAS
The Chinese historians say that the Kushanas were a section of the Yueh-chi race. The
Yueh-chi was nomadic hordes who inhabited the borders of Modern China. In the middle of
the second century B.C., they came into conflict with a neighbouring barbarian tribe known as
Hiung-nu.
11.7.1 KADPHISES-I (15-65A.D)
Khadphises-I or Kujala Khadphises was the first Kushana king about whom we know
something definite. Kujala Khadphises, united the five tribes of the Yueh-chih (such as Hieu-
mi, Chaung-mo, Kuesi-Shaung, Hi-thum and Kao-fu) and led them over the northern mountains
north-western India, establishing himself in Bactria and extending his control to Kabul and
Kashmir, thus initiating the Kushana Kingdom. His empire extended from the frontiers of
Persia to the Indus or perhaps to the Jhelum. The indo-Greek and Indo-Parthians rulers were
completely defeated during the time of Kadphises-I. He died at the age of 80.
11.7.2 KADPHISES-II (65-75. A.D)
Kadphises-I was succeeded by his son Kadphises-II who is also known as Wima
Kadphises in the coins. Kadphises-II completed the conquest of northern India which was
started by his predecessor. Wima Kadphises conquered the Punjab and a considerable part
of the Gangestic Valley. It is probable that he extended his power to the mouths of the Indus
and swept away the petty Parthian princes.
According to Dr. Smith the General Pan-chao led an army from victory to victory up to
the boundaries of the Roman Empire. The king of Khotan made a submission and his example
was followed by many others, including the king of Kashgar. Kadphises-II was alarmed at the
advance of the Chinese. He asserted his equality with the Chinese emperor by demanding a
Chinese princess for marriage. The envoy that had been sent by Kadphises-II was arrested
by General Pan-chao. Kadphises-II accepted the challenge of General Viceroy named Sic.
Probably the army of Sic advanced by the Tashkurghar Pass. It had to meet innumerable
difficulties and no wonder was totally defeated. Kadphises-II was to pay tribute to China.
The above view not accepted by some historians.
The conquests of both the Kadphises-I and Kadphises-II opened up the path of
commerce between China, Rome and India. Roman gold began to pour into India as India
enjoyed a favourable balance of trade. Kadphises coins bear a figure of Siva standing by the
side of a bull. From this the conclusion is that Kadphises-II embraced Hinduism and become
a votary of Siva. Kadphises-II issued both gold and copper coins. His titles mentioned in
those coins are the Maharaja Rajatiraja (king of Kings), Sarvalokesvara (lord of all spheres),
Mahisvara (lord of the Earth), etc. the gold currency of Kadphises was continued not only by
the Kushana successors but also bby the Gupta rulers. A large number of coins found "all over
the Punjab as well as in Kandhar and the Kabul Valley" bear particular symbol and legend
which refers to him as " the king of kings, the great savior".
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The Kushana empire under Wima Kadphises seems to have extended from Banaras
(Varanasi) in the east, to the frontiers of Parthia and included Afghanistan, Turkestan, Bukhara
and parts of Russian Turkistan.
11.7.3 KANISHKA
Kanishka came to the throne in 78.A.D. his empire consisted of Afghanistan, a large
part of Sindh, portion of Parthia, Bactria and the Punjab. His predecessor had suffered a
defeat at the hands of the Chinese. Kanishka was confident of his military strength and he
would like to have revenge for the same. No wonder, he fought many wars during his reign.
Kanishka conquered on Magadha. After capture of Pataliputra, Asvaghosha, the great Buddhist
philosopher, fell into the hands of Kanishka and he brought that sage with him.
Kanishka fought against the Western Satraps of Ujjain. Chashtan was the Saka ruler
who was defeated by the Kushana ruler. The Sakas acknowledged the supremacy of Kanishka
and also surrendered a portion of Malwa to him. Kanishka was engaged in a successful war
with the Parthians. He attacked the king of that region and defeated Parthian ruler Chosroes.
Kanishka was responsible for the conquest of Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan. He also
fought against Chinese emperor. After the death of Pan-chao, the Chinese General, China
became weak. Kanishka not only defeated the Chinese but also demanded the surrender of
hostage. It is stated that one of the hostages was the son of the emperor of China. However,
this view is not accepted by some historians.
Kanishka completed the Kushana conquest of Upper India and ruled over a wide
realm which extended from Kapisa, Gandhara and Kashmir to Banaras. Kanishka was the
founder of the Saka era which started in 78A.D. According to Romila Thapar (Early India,
P.221) Kanishka was died in 144A.D. but most of the historians says that Kanishka was died
in 102 A.D.
11.7.3.1 PESHAWAR
Kanishka established his capital at Purushapura or modern Peshawar. This was the
most central place for his empire which extended up to Central Asia. Kanishka adorned his
capital with many noble edifices, public buildings and Buddhist monasteries. Kanishka erected
a great relic tower which seems to have deserved to rank among the wonders of the world.
The super-structure of carved wood rose in thirteen storeys to height of at least 400ft. it was
surmounted by a mighty iron pinnacle. There was a monastery along with the tower. The
ancient site of Kanishka capital recently discovered near the modern city of Peshawar.
11.7.3.2 ADMINISTRATION
The administrative system of the Kushanas had certain foreign elements in it and certain
Indian elements. The important foreign elements were the government by Satraps. The latter
were Viceroys or Governors of the Provinces. There were some functionaries who had foreign
names. The name Meridach stood for District Magistrate. The officers called Amatyas and
Mahasenapati were officers of Indian origin. The officers having foreign names were stationed
in the North-West, while officers having Indian names were stationed in the interior.
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11.4: The Kanishka Empire
Kanishka ruled his empire from his capital at Purushapura. He established a systematic
administration and appointed officers on different parts of the state. The eastern part of his
empire was governed by Mahakshatrapa Kharapallana and Kshatrapa Vanashpara. The
Northern portion of his empire was governed by General Lala and Satrapa Vaspasi and
Liaka. The Sarnath inscription says that Kanishka maintained a Satrapal system of government.
Kingship was the prevailing type of policy, although there are references to republic also. The
Kushana rulers took up such titles as Mahisvara, Devaputra, Kaiser and Shahi-Sahanushahi.
There was a tendency to deity ancestral kings. The Mathura inscription of Huvishka refers to
a Devakula or a shrine where the statue "the grand-father of Kanishka" was installed. There
was a strange system of two kings ruling at the same time during the Kushana period. Kushana
kings possessed unfettered powers. Although there is a reference to an advisory body to
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assist the king in Buddhist literature, it is not safe to assert that such council existed in
the Kushana period as there is no reference to such a body in the Kushana records.
The names of all the Kshatrapas, Mahakshatrapas and Mahadandanayakas appear
in the Kushana administration. Mahakshatrapas had powers to issue their coins.
Dandanayaka is the leader of four forces of the army or commander of the force.
Mahadandanayaka was the Magistrate. Gramika was head of the village and Padrapala
was a local head.
The Kushana administration must have ensured safety as there are references to
people coming to Mathura from Abhisar, Nagara, Odayana and even Wokhana or
Badakshan. Whatever might have been the detailed set up, safety and security were
responsible for progress and prosperity which would be evident from the life of the
people in general and a large number of donations and dedications for all religions.
11.7.3.3 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
India had a brisk trade with foreign countries. Commodities were sent from different
parts of the empire to foreign countries. There was a land route through the North-West and
there were sea-routes from the West coast. India had a favourable balance of trade with the
Roman Empire. Pliny referred to the heavy drain of gold from Rome into India in payment of
her imports from India. India exported large quantity of textiles to Rome. The trade with
Rome was done from the ports in Western and Southern India. A large number of Roman
gold coins found in Southern India.
Agriculture was the back-bone of the economy of the country. The reference to crops,
nature of land and its improvement and irrigation, suggest that the agriculturists knew the
importance and also the ways and means of improving and increasing the produce. A cattle
rearing was also encouraged. Surplus production was exported to different parts of the India
and broad. The Broach was occupied prominent place in trade. Workers in metal included
blacksmiths, needle makers, goldsmiths, coppersmiths, workers in glass and lead, workers in
tin, brass, ivory and iron etc. the people engaged in the wild life were not aboriginals but those
of the low class. These professional groups included hunters, snake charmers, dealers in bark
of trees, bamboo workers, bird catchers, pig dealers etc. Kanishka recognized all groups and
all sections in the society. These groups engaged in the state development.
11.7.3.4 COIN AGE
Large numbers of Kushana coins were found in India. Kanishka-I, Huvishka and
Vasudeva issued by the gold and copper coins. They did not issue any silver coin. The figures
of the various deities worshipped by the different peoples living in the Kushana Empire as its
subjects in its different parts were represented on the Kushana Empire. It is interesting to find
that images of the deities from countries like Iran, Bactria and other neighbouring religions are
found on the Kushana coins. The names of the deities on the coins of Kushanas were Salene,
Orlagno, Mazdonano, Boddo, Saka-Mana-Bouda Miiro, Mao, Manaobago, Ardoksho,
Mithro, Ride, Zero, Horon and Ommo etc. The figures of Siva appears on the coins of
Kadphises-II and the figures of Heracles appears on the coins of Kadphises-I.
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11.7.3.5 RELIGION
Most probably, Asvaghosha won the heart of Kanishka to such an extent that he
gave up is old religion and become a Buddhist. Kanishka before conversion to Buddhism,
he believed large number of gods. This is proved by the fact that Kanishka's earlier
coins bear the figures of a large number of gods. Asvaghosha influence Kanishka converted
into Buddhism. He venerates the gods of other religions in the same way as he cared for
the Buddhist faith.
Kanishka called the fourth Buddhist Council which was attended by about 500
monks, including Vasumitra, Asvaghosha, Nagarjuna and Parswa. This Council held
under the president ship of Vasumitra and Asvaghosha was appointed the Vice-President.
The Council was held at Kundanvana near Srinagar in Kashmir. In this Council the
whole of Buddhist literature was thoroughly examined. Voluminous commentaries on the
three Pitakas were also prepared. Most of the comments were collected in a book known
as Mahavibhasha. It is greatest work on Buddhist philosophy. It is described as an
encyclopedia of Buddhism. The decisions of the Council were written on sheets of
copper and were placed in stone chests and deposited in a stupa built specially for that
purpose. Taranath, the Tibetan historian, says that the Buddhist Council settled the dispute
between 18 schools of Buddhism which were all recognized as orthodox.
There was a transformation of Buddhism in the time of Kanishka. The old Hinayana
form of Buddhism was replaced by a new form of religion. Formerly the Buddha was
worshiped by symbols, but under Mahayanism, he came to be worshipped in the form of
a statue. Formerly, emphasis was put on good actions and now emphasis was put on
worship of the Buddha and the Bodhisattvas. The new cult of Bodhisatvas was introduced
under Mahayanism and the Bodhisatvas were to act as the intermediaries between the
Buddha on one side and worshippers on the other. Formerly, Pali was used for religious
books of Buddhism and now its place was taken by Sanskrit. The vast empire of Kanishka
in Central Asia must have helped the growth of Mahayanism.
Kanishka was repaired many old monasteries and new monasteries were built. A
lot of money was distributed among the Buddhist monks for their maintenance. A large
number of stupas were set up in the memory of the Buddha. Missionaries were also sent
to foreign countries. It was with the help of those missionaries that Buddhism spread to
China, Japan, Tibet and Central Asia. Kanishka became a great patron of the Gandhara
School of Art.
An attempt has been made to compare Kanishka with Asoka. Both of them were
completely transformed under the influence of Buddhism. Asoka called the Buddhist
Council at Pataliputra and Kanishka called the Buddhist \'council in Kashmir. Both of
them devoted themselves whole- heartedly to the spread of Buddhism. If Asoka spread
Buddhism in India, Ceylon and the neighbouring countries, Kanishka spread the same to
Tibet, China and Japan. What was left unfinished by Asoka was completed by Kanishka.
For this reason, Kanishka is called as Second Asoka.
11.7.3.6 PATRON OF ART AND LEARNING
Kanishka was a great patron of art and learning. No wonder, large quantities of
Sanskrit literature of high standard, both religious and secular, were produced during the
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reign of Kanishka. The greatest literary figure of Kanishka's court was Asvaghosha whose
works have been compared to those of Milton, Goethe, Kant and Voltaire in richness and
variety. Asvaghosha was a poet, philosopher, playwright and musician. He was a versatile
genius. He was the author of Buddhacharita, Saundarananda and Sutralankar. The
Buddhacharita is the life-story of Buddha in Sanskrit poetry. This is considered to be the
epic of the Buddhists and is compared to the Ramayana of Valmiki. Asvaghosha was
also the author of Sariputraprakarna. It was a nine-Act play dealing with the story of
conversion of Sariputra and Mandgalyana.
Another great figure of the court of Kanishka was Nagarjuna. He is compared to
Martin Luther. Hiuen-Tsang called him "one of the four lights of the world". He was not
only a philosopher but also a scientist. Nagarjuna enunciated the theory of relativity in
his great work called Madhyamika Sutra. He is rightly called the "Indian Einstein". He
was also written "Suhruleka". Another great figure of the court of Kanishka was Vasumitra
who was presided over the deliberations of the Fourth Buddhist Council. He was the
author of Mahavibhasha Sastra which was a commentary on the Tripitika of the Buddhists.
It has rightly been called an Encyclopedia of Buddhism. The important figure in the court
of Kanishka was Charak. He was author of the great book called Charaka Samhita.
Charak was "father of Indian Medicine".
Mathara, a politician of unknown intelligence, was a minister of Kanishka. These
and other worthies like the Greek engineer Agesilaus "played a leading part in the religious,
literary, scientific, philosophical and artistic activities of the reign.
Kanishka was a great builder. He constructed a city in Kashmir called as
Kanishkapura which is now represented by the village of Kanispor. His important building
and works of art are found in Peshawar, Mathura, Kanishkapura and Taxila. The Sirsukh
city of Taxila with its hall, monasteries and buildings was founded by him. Mathura
became a great centre of art in the time of Kanishka. The city was made beautiful by
Kanishka with a large number of Monasteries, statues and sculptures. An important relic
of this period is a statue of Kanishka which is headless. Reference has already been
made to Shah-ji-ki-dheri of Kanishka at Peshawar.
11.7.3.7 GANDHARA ART
In the Kushana period Gandhara art is very famous. Number of specimens of this
art in the region known as Gandhara of which the capital city of Kanishka, Peshawar
was the centre. A large number of Greco-Roman craftsmen seem to have been employed
in the execution of the works of the Gandhara art and it is suggested that they found their
way to Gandhara through the Parthian Empire. The most important centres of the Gandhara
School were at Jalalabad, Hadda and Bamiyan in Afghanistan, the Swat Valley and the
Peshawar District. The Gandhara style is Greece-Roman based on the composition art
of Asia Minor and the Roman Empire as practiced in the first three centuries of the
Christian era. Much of the best work in the style was executed during the second century
A.D. in the regions of Kanishka and Huvishka. The Gandhara art is more Greek than
Indian. The principal sphere of Gandhara art influence was Central Asia, but it also in
filtered into India proper as far as Saurashtra and Gujarat and the Great Mercantile town
of Mathura on the Yamuna.
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The Gandhara art is not free from controversy. Indian iconography dominates, but
foreign elements are conspicuous. In fact the Hellenistic-Roman elements are supposed to
form the basis for the artists' conceptions and design. The extent of foreign influence is noticed
in the Appollo-faced figure of the Buddha, in the dress-chiton and himation, in the Corinthian
orders, and floral decorations; and, in fact, some foreign divinities also figure in this art. The
Buddhist strictures of Central Asia were all decorated with sculptures, painting and terracotta
which proved the very deep hold which this school of art had. The style introduced by Gandhara
art, depicting scenes from the life of Buddha, persisted in Northern India till the twelfth century
A.D.
11.7.3.8 MATHURA ART
The Mathura School of art flourished during the Kushana period. In this school, the
figures of Buddha, the Bodhisatvas and Jain Tirthankaras became the most important elements
and the sculptures were, to some extent, influenced by the contemporary Gandhara School.
The Mathura art found at Mathura, Saranath, Saheth Maheth and Kosam (Kausambi). Those
have also been found at Begram in the Gandhara region. The standing Bodhisatva image in the
Saranath Museum is one of the finest specimens of Mathura art. The image of the Bodhisatva
grom Kosam has same characteristics. In Mathura School images are made with red stand-
stone of Sikri. Pillers, pillar-bars and cross-bars belonging to the Kushana period have been
found at Mathura. The stupa and monastery constructed by Vasishka and Huvishka respectively.
Statues of Kanishka, Wima Kadphises and Chashtana have been excavated Mat near Mathura.
A large numbers of Jain images belonging to the Kushana period have been found in Mathura.
There are four faced images of Jain also found in Mathura. The images of Rishabha,
Sambhavanath, Nandiavarta and Nandivisala have also been found.
There are certain features of the Bodhisatvas of the Mathura School. They are generally
in the round. Their heads are shaven and not covered with curls. There are no moustaches
and no urna. The right hand raised in the Abhayamudra and the left rests on the thigh. The
breasts are prominent. The shoulders are broad. There is a suggestion of power and enormous
energy. Auspicious signs such as wheels are shown on the soles of the feet.
11.7.4 HUVISHKA
Kanishka was succeeded by Huvishka and latter is stated to have recovered the fortunes
of the Kushanas during his long and prosperous rule lasting for more than 30 years. Huvishka
inscriptions not only found in the Mathura region but also in North-West Frontiers of India
and also in Eastern Afghanistan. It is contended that the region lying about 30 miles to the west
of Kabul was included in the empire of Huvishka who is described as Maharajadhiraja
Huvishka. Kanishka II is also stated to have ruled at the same time as a contemporary of
Huvishka.
11.7.5 VASUDEVA
Almost all the Brahmi inscriptions have been found in Mathura and its
neighbourhood. It appears that the imperial Kushanas of India had by this time lost their
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hold over the extreme Northern and North-Western parts of India. It is possible that the
local Kushanas and other chiefs took advantage of the weakness of the central power
and made themselves independent. The last known date of Vasudeva is about 176-77
A.D and soon after his death the mighty Kushana empire melted away.
11.8 FALL OF THE KUSHANA EMPIRE

The final break-up of the Kushana Empire seems to have been completed during
the reigns of the successors of Vasudeva-II. Most of the territories in the interior of India
were lost to the Indian chiefs. Most important of them were the Nagas, the Yaudheyas,
Malavas and the Kunindas. The evidence from the inscriptions tells us that the Nagas
came into prominence more than a century before the reign of Chnadrgupta-II. The early
Nagas held control over Padmavati and Mathura which was formerly included in the
Kushana Empire. According to Altekar, the Yaudheyas, a martial tribe, had also hand in
the destruction of the Kushana Empire. Their rule over the territory lying on the banks of
the Sutlej as far as the borders of Bahawalpur State, lasted for more than a century. The
Malavas and the Kunindas also got their independent and became prominent after
successfully revolting against the authority of the Kushanas.

1. Who was the founder of the Saka era?
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2. Who was the President of 4th Buddhist Council?
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11.9 SUMMARY
The Indo-Greeks, Sakas and Parthians contributed a lot for the development of Northern
India. The rulers, Seleucus, Menander, Azilises and Gondophernes were contributed for
development of religion, literature and architecture in Northern India. Menander converts into
Buddhism and also he was responsible for spread of Buddhism. Nahapana and Rudradamana
played an important role in Marathwada region. They were great rulers and conquered
many territories in Southern and Western India. Kanishka was the prominent ruler in
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Kushana kingdom. He was conducted 4th Buddhist council in Kundanvana in Kashmir.
Kansihka build the city of Kanishkapuram. He was patronized Asvaghosha, Nagarjuna
and Vasumitra. He encouraged Gandhara and Mathura art. These kingdoms occupied a
prominent place in the history of India.

I. Check Your Progress Answers -I
1. Nagasena
2. St. Thomas.
Ii. Check Your Progress Answers-II
1. Kanishka
2. Vasumitra.

1. Write a essay on political conditions in Northern India during indo-Greeks reign.
2. Describe the Kushanas administration.
3. Explain the political developments in Southern India during Kshatrapas reign.
1. Discuss the Parthians achievements in India.
2. Write a note on Menander.
3. Examine the Religious policy of Kanishka.

1. Baldev Kumar: The Early Kusanas.
2. Jayaswal, K.P.: History of India (150-350 A.D.)
3. Mahajan, V.D.: Ancient India.
4. Majumdar, R.C.: Ancient India.
5. McGovern, W.M.: The Early Empire of Central Asia.
6. Rapson, E.J.: Ancient India.
7. Smith, V.A.: Early History of India.
*****
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UNIT-12: GUPTAS
Contents
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Sources
12.3 Political History
12.3.1 Origin
12.3.2 Early Rulers
12.3.3 Chandra Gupta-I (320-335 A.D.)
12.3.4 Samudra Gupta (340-380 A.D.)
12.3.5 Chandra Gupta-II (380-415 A.D.)
12.3.6 Kumara Gupta (415-455 A.D.)
12.3.7 Skanda Gupta (455-467 A.D.)
12.3.8 Decline of the Gupta Empire
12.3.9 Causes for the downfall of Guptas
12.4 Administration.
12.4.1 Central Government
12.5 Agrarian structure and Revenue system
12.6 Economic Conditions
12.7 Social Conditions
12.8 Religion
12.9 Literature and Education
12.10 Science, Art and Technology
12.10.1 Architecture
12.10.2 Sculpture
12.10.3 Painting
12.10.4 Music and Dance
12.11 Summary
12.12 Model Answers to Check your progress
12.13 Model Examination Questions.
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12.0 OBJECTIVES
l Know the sources for the history of Guptas
l Analyse Political history of Guptas from the early ruler to the last ruler and their
Achievements.
l Describe the causes for the down fall of the Guptas dynasty.
l Examine Guptas administration and economic conditions
l Discuss Socio-Religious.
l Understand Cultural conditions of Gupta age.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The period of the rule of the Guptas has been regarded as one of the most glorious
periods of the Indian history. After the fall of the Maurya Empire, most part of Northern India
was divided into a number of small kingdoms and autonomous tribal states. The Guptas
established a big empire in North India which provided political unity for at least two centuries.
In this unit, history of Gupta rulers, their administration, economic prosperity and intellectual
progress and progress in science, arts, religion and literature under the Guptas is described.
12.2 SOURCES
Literature, both religious and secular, writings of foreign travelers, inscriptions (Alahabad
pillar inscription of Samudra Gupta, Mandsor and Udayagiri inscription) coins, monuments
etc. Constitute various sources of the history of the Guptas. Puranas such as the Vayu Purana,
Matsya-Purana, Visnu-Purana, Smrities such as Narada smriti, and Brahaspati-Smriti, dramas
such as Kaumudi-Mahostava and Devi-Chandra Gupta, literary works of Kalidasa as
Raghuvamsa, Abhigyana Shakuntalam etc.. Harshcharita of Bana bhatta, Kavya mimamsa of
Rajashekhara, Rajatarangani of Kalhana and many other are its literary sources. The writings
of Chinese traveller Fa-hien, and Hiuen-Tsang and I-tsing also provide us some useful
information. Besides coins, inscriptions, different monuments and piece of fine arts of the
Gupta-age are other valuable sources of the history of this period.
12.3 POLITICAL HISTORY

12.3.1 ORIGIN
Historians have different opinions on the origin of the Guptas. According to Dr. Romila
Thapar the family probably was one of the wealthy land owners who gradually gained political
control in the region of Magadha. Dr. J.P. Jayaswal has maintained that it was a Jat-family of
Punjab. Dr. H.C. Rayachoudhary says that it was a Brahmin-family related to Dharani, wife
of Agnimitra Sunga, and Dr. S. Chattopadhyaya has expressed the view that it was a Kshetriyas
family. Historians have differed with regard to their place of origin as well. According to
Jayaswal they were the original inhabitants of some place near Allahabad. Some others have
178
observed that they lived somewhere in the Magadha near Pataliputra Dr. R.C Majumdar
and Dr. S. Chattopadhyaya have opined that their original place was somewhere near
Bengal. Therefore, it is assumed that the family originally lived near the boundaries of
Magadha and Bengal.
12.3.2 Early Rulers
The first ruler of the dynasty was Sri Gupta (240-280A.D), who ruled over a
pretty kingdom though he had assumed the title of Maharaja. He was succeeded by his
son Ghatotkacha Gupta (280-320 A.D.) who was also titled as Maharaja. But these first
two rulers made no significant contribution towards the extension of empire. The
foundation of the greatness of this family was laid by its third ruler, Chandra- Gupta I
12.3.3 Chandra Gupta I (320-335 A.D.)
Chandra Gupta was the first eminent ruler of the Gupta dynasty. He assumed the
title of Maharajadhiraja. During his brief rule he succeeded in raising the power and
prestige of his dynasty and thus he laid the foundation of its greatness. The one important
event of his period was his marriage with a Lichchhavi princess, Kumara Devi. His
successor Samudra Gupta was his son from this princess. The territories of the kingdom
of Lichchhavis and that of Chandra Gupta were closer to each other and this marriage
united these kingdoms which certainly strengthened the power and resources of Chandra
Gupta and helped him in his further conquests. After this Chandra Gupta conquered
Kosala and Kausambi. Thus Chandra Gupta's empire included Bihar and a part of Bengal
and Uttar Pradesh as far as Allahabad. The Gupta Era was founded by Chandra Gupta to
commemorate his accession or coronation to the throne in 319 or 320 A.D. Chandra
Gupta was succeeded by his son Samudra Gupta.
12.3.4 Samudra Gupta (340-380A.D)
The primary source of information about the career and personality of Samudra
Gupta is the record prepared by one of his officers Harishena and engraved on the Asoka
pillar at Allahabad. Information is also available from the inscriptions (Eran Mahdya
Pradesh) and also from the coins of Samudra Gupta. Samudra Gupta was a military
genius, a great conqueror. Samudra Gupta conquered the territories of the rulers of the
Ganges-Yamuna Doab. The campaign included west Bengal. In all in he defeated nine
rulers of North India and annexed their territories. In the West, he advanced as far as the
river Chambal of Central India and Bengal. More daring than the campaigns in the North,
was his expedition to the South. Some writers have expressed the view that he marched
to the South along the coast of the Bay of Bengal. R.C. Majumdar says that this march
along the coast was a joint operation by the Navy, although there is no definite proof of
this. In his southern campaign, Samudra Gupta defeated no less than twelve rulers and
reached as far as the kingdom of the Pallavas up to Kanchi. However Samudra Gupta
showed the political diplomacy in his southern conquests and did not occupy their
territories. Once they agreed to accept his sovereignty he restored their kingdoms to
them. Samudra Gupta defeated eighteen tribal chiefs whose kingdom lay in the forests
between the district of Ghazipur in Uttar Pradesh and the district of Jabalpur in Madhya
Pradesh.
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In the North and North-East the kingdoms at the sea coast of East Bengal, two
kingdoms of Assam (Kamarupa and Devaka) and probably, the districts of Kumaon,
Garhwal and Rohilkhand) and Nepal accepted his sovereignty.
In the north-west, nine states accepted is suzerainty. These were the kingdoms of
the Malavas, the Arjunayanas, the Yaudheyas, the Madrakas, the Sanakanikas, the Abhiras,
the Prarjunas, the Kakas and the Kheraharikas. Besides, Samudra Gupta commanded
respect among independent rulers of many neighboring kingdoms. The Kushana rulers of
the North-West, The Saka rulers of west India, the rulers of Sri-Lanka and those of the
countries of South-East Asia had cordial relations with him.
Samudra Gupta was a great general and conqueror. He created a big empire,
assumed the titles of Maharajahiraja and Vikramanka, and performed one or even more
Asvamedha sacrifices. His empire included almost the whole of northern India, with the
exclusion of Kashmir, Western Punjab, Western Rajputana, Sindh North West Frontier
Province and Gujarat. It also included the high-lands of Madhya Pradesh and Orissa
with a long stretch of territory along the eastern coast extending as far South as Madras.
Samudra Gupta was a cultured man, an efficient ruler and patron of art and
architecture. Harisena described him as a hero of hundred battles, poet and musician. He
was titled Kaviraja as is engraved on the type of coins. On some other coins he has been
represented as playing on a Vina. Samudra Gupta proved successful as a ruler as well.
He not only protected his empire from foreign foes and maintained peace within its
frontiers but also helped in its progress. Art and literature progressed during his time,
the great scholar of the age Vasubandhu lived during him time and got his patronage. He
patronized Vedic religion, yet he was tolerant to other religions. Meghavarma, king of
Ceylon was granted permission to build a monastery at Bodha Gaya for the Buddhist
pilgrims.
Samudra Gupta occupies a distinguished place amongst the great rulers of India
and more particularly so amongst the Gupta rulers. The age of Samudra Gupta was an
age of progress in almost all fields. The all-round progress which ultimately gave the
Gupta age the title of golden age of Ancient India really began with the period of Samudra
Gupta.
Samudra Gupta was succeeded by his son Rama-Gupta, while fighting against the
Sakas Rama Gupta was defeated and he agreed to surrender his wife Dhruva devi, but
his younger brother Chandra Gupta-II opposed this and went himself to the Saka Camp
in the disguise of Dhruva devi and murdered the Saka king ultimately Chandra Gupta
killed Rama Gupta and succeeded to the throne and also married Dhruva devi. The
episode is found mentioned in the dramatic work Devi-Chandra Gupta by Vishaka dutta,
Harsh Charita by Bana bhatta and Kavyamimansa by Rajashekara, but for this story the
contemporary records of the Gupta period contain no reference.
12.3.5 Chandra Gupta II (380-415 A.D)
Chandra Gupta was the son of Samudra Gupta born of his chief queen Dattadevi.
Some scholars have identified him with the Chandragupta Vikramaditya of Ujjayani of Indian
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legend whose court is said to be adorned by Kalidasa, famous scholar of Sanskrit, and
of course Chandra Gupta defeated the Saka ruler. Yet it is not correct to identify him with
the legendary Chandragupta Vikramaditya.
Chandra Gupta proved an ambitious and capable ruler and a conqueror. He had
inherited a fairly large empire from his father. He extended it further both by diplomacy
and wars of conquest. Chandra Gupta's chief opponent was the Saka ruler of Gujarat and
Kathiawar. Chandra Gupta invaded the kingdoms of Sakas and killed Saka chief
Rudrasimha III and annexed his entire kingdom. Chandra Gupta engaged himself in other
wars of conquest also. An inscription engraved on the iron pillar near Qutb Minar at
Delhi states the achievements of a king titled Chandra. It is suggested that in all probability
it stands for Chandra Gupta II. Chandra Gupta II led military expedition in the East as
well as in the North West and advanced up to Bactria. Chandra Gupta II succeeded in
destroying the Saka and Kushana kingdom in India and providing political and
administrative unity to practically entire North India except Kashmir and North West
frontier of India.
Chandra Gupta II strengthened his position by a policy of matrimonial alliances
with certain other rulers in India. He himself married a princess of Naga family named
Kuveranaga and married his daughter, Prabhavati to Vakataka king RudrasenaII. Both the
Nagas and the Vakatakas held strategic positions on his frontiers and therefore marriage
alliances with them certainly brought him political advantages and must have rendered
him useful service while he pursued his policy of expansion in the West and the North-
West.
Chandra Gupta was successful as a ruler and an administrator. His was a period
of all round achievements, Religion, literature, sciences, fine arts, Economic prosperity
and the rest developed in his age. The empire of Samudra Gupta was further extended
and consolidated. The administration was more efficiently organized and the people, in
spite of numerous wars, enjoyed peace and prosperity. This led to further progress in the
literature, Sciences (specially Astronomy), fine arts etc.. Various coins of Chandra Gupta
II's reign provide useful information about his personality.
12.3.6 Kumara Gupta (415 - 455A.D)
Chandra Gupta II was succeeded by his son Kumara Gupta born of his chief queen
Dhruva devi. Kumara Gupta was a successful ruler who kept intact the vast empire
inherited from his father and also maintained peace and prosperity within its frontiers.
During the later part of his rule the empire was menaced by the invasion of the Hunas,
however he with the help of his son Skanda Gupta succeeded in defeating the Hunas.
Kumara Gupta was succeeded to the throne by his son Skanda Gupta.
12.3.7 Skanda Gupta (455 - 467 A.D)
Skanda Gupta was engaged in hostilities against his enemies almost from the
beginning of his reign. He defeated the hostile Pushyamitras, Vakatakas and the Hunas,
and kept his territories intact. His greatest achievement was to save the empire from the
invasion of the white Hunas. The Hunas who largely participated in the downfall of the
Roman Empire and had threatened the integrity of Persia were trying to penetrate deep
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into the Indian territories. Skanda Gupta valiantly fought them and defeated them so
severely about 460 A.D, that they could not dare to attack the empire for nearly next fifty
years. Skanda Gupta saved India from their barbarous atrocities when they were at the
height of their power. Skanda Gupta was regarded as the last great Gupta king. The
empire began to decline after his death and the family could not produce a single ruler
who could successfully check this decline.
12.3.8 Decline of the Gupta Empire
The Gupta Empire moved towards its disintegration after the death of Skand-
Gupta. We find no illustrious king among the Guptas after him. Puru-Gupta succeeded
Skanda Gupta, but died only after two years. After that, the history of the Guptas is not
clear till the accession of Buddha Gupta in 477A.D. Buddha Gupta ruled till 500 A.D.
and after him, the empire was divided among the members of the royal family. The
Hunas also attacked the empire at that time and succeeded in capturing a part of its north-
West frontier. The last Gupta rulers were Kumara Gupta III and Vishnu Gupta, but they
were the rulers of small principalities. And after them we find no name of any Gupta
ruler thus by 570 A.D. even the name of the empire vanished away.
CHECK YOUR PRPGRESS - I

1. What do you know about the Samudra Gupta's campaigns.
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2. Describe the greatness of Chandra Gupta II .
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12.3.9 Causes for the down fall of Guptas
1. Financial strain: after Skanda Gupta the foreign invasions specially the Hunas,
These Campaigns heavily taxed the financial and military Resources.
2. Internal dissentions: the rulers were busy in fighting the external Enemies Taking
the Advantage of this the provincial governors began to assert independence.
3. Incompetent successors: after Skanda Gupta the Gupta rulers proved Incompetent
and their incompetence failed to face external enemies Like the Vakatakas and the
Hunas.
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12.1 The Gupta Empire
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4. The incompetence of the later Guptas rulers and their internal conflicts Weakened
the Central authority encouraged external and internal. Enemies, the While the
Vakatakas and Hunas endangered the imperial Territories From outside, by
asserting their Independence. The provincial Governors broke up the unity of the
Empire.
12.4 ADMINISTRATION
Guptas established not only an extensive empire, but also created good
administration. They did not create any new administrative structure. They continued the
traditional bureaucratic administration with nomenclature mostly borrowed from or
adopted from the earlier times, and it was organized more elaborately.
12.4.1 Central Government
King was the head of the state as well as that of administration; emphasis was
laid on the divine powers of the king. Kingship is hereditary. King was succeeded by his
eldest son, if eldest one is incapable, the king declared the ablest among his sons as his
successor. The Gupta rulers assumed the titles such as Maharajadhiraja, Parambhattaraka.
Harisena described Samudra Gupta as a God dwelling on earth. The king had to rule
according to the Rajya Dharma, was advised by the ministers. The ministers were
appointed by the king on merit and one of their important qualifications was their capability
to lead the army. In practice the king respected the advice of his ministers. Among the
ministers of the central government were Mahamantri, the Mahabaladhikrita,
Mahadandanayaka, and the Sandhivigrahika. The officials appointed to look after the
district administrations were called Kumaramatyas. The sub-ordinate officials were
known as Ayuktas.
The novelty of the Gupta administration was its decentralization. The important
parts of the army were the infantry, the cavalry and the war- elephants. The army of the
Guptas was well organized. The Gupta rulers also kept an efficient spy-system. There is
no evidence that Guptas maintained standing army.
The Guptas maintained the traditional system of managing the provinces. The
empire was divided into provinces called Bhuktis or Desas. The head of the administration
of Bhukti was called Uparika, while that of Desa, Goyatri. When princes of royal blood
were appointed to these posts, they were called Maha-Rajapurtra or Devabhattaraka.
The provinces were divided into Vishayas, Mandalas and Bhogas. The smallest unit of
the administration was Grama (Village). The Vishayas were administered by Vishayapati,
with the help of sub-ordinate officers called Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas. The district
officers were helped by junior officers called Dandikas, Dandapasikas, and Kulikas.
The important officers of the village were Gramikas and Bhojakas.
12.5 AGRARIAN STRUCTURE AND REVENUE SYSTEM

Land revenue was one of the primary sources of the income of the state and Guptas
put all efforts in increasing agricultural production. Waste land was brought under cultivation
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with the help of the state. The central government increased the man- made means of
irrigation by building canals and dams and other means of irrigation. All this helped in
the growth of agriculture and animal husbandry.
Land was divided into three categories: 1.fallow or waste land owned by the
state; 2. cultivated land owned by state and treated as crown land and finally, 3. privately
owned land. The state demanded one -half to one third of the produce from the cultivators.
The Guptas gave land grants to Brahmins free of tax, and also sometimes to the officials
in lieu of Salary. The land grants given to Brahmins were called Agraharas. The practice
of granting land began from the period of Guptas, and led to the weakening of the authority
of the kings. The administrative model of the Guptas was accepted by contemporary
Vakatakas rulers and the Kalachuris, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas after them.
12.6 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

The Gupta age was the age of economic prosperity. The increased agricultural
production, growth of handicrafts and industries and expansion of trade and commerce,
both external and internal, had enriched India which, primarily helped to progress in
other fields of life. In Bengal and Madhya Pradesh villages were donated to Brahmins,
Temples and monasteries. However there was no Zamindari system, as donors acquired
only the right to receive the revenue and not that of dispossessing any tenant. Waste lands
were brought under cultivation with the help of the State. Pasture land was protected and
increased. There were different indigenous professions such as those, of garlanders,
washer men, carpenters, blacksmiths, jewelers, goldsmiths, potters, weavers, tailors,
shoe-makers, architects, sculptors etc. India produced fine quality of cotton, silk and
woolen clothes. Mathura was well-known for the production of cotton cloth, Banaras
was known for its silk production. Both internal and foreign trade flourished during this
period, it was carried on both by sea and land.
Traders and different professional people formed into an association. These
associations were called Guilds. Each guild elected its own head, who was called
Shrestha, and this Shrestha became Shresthi and later Shetty. These guilds became
professional centers, supervised and acted as bankers to their professions. For external
trade, on the east Tamralipti, in the west Chaul, Broach, Cambay are the important ports.
Precious stones, perfumes, cloths, indigo, drugs and spices are the important items of
export. Gold, Silver, Tin, lead and horses were imported. The prices of daily necessities
were quite low. Fa-hein described that even the kauris (sea-shell) were used as medium
of exchange. Economic progress, growth of trade both external and internal resulted in
the urbanization. In those days important cities like, Ujjain, Prayaga, Banaras, Gaya,
Pataliputra, Kausambi, Mathura, Peshawar were developed as important trade centers.
These cities were well connected by public highways of both land and rivers, mainly
Ganga, Yamuna, Brahmaputra, Krishna, Godavari and Kaveri.
Unlike the Mauryan who kept trade and industry under state control, Guptas
emphasized the autonomy and independence of economic and administrative units and
organizations. Therefore the guilds during Gupta period enjoyed sufficient autonomy
and managed their own affairs. The guilds had their own property and trusts and worked
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as bankers, settled disputes of their members, even minted coins. Probably this was the
reason why the Gupta rulers did not issue copper coins. Dr. R.S. Sharma has pointed out
that the basic feature of economic life of Guptas age is that of Zamindari or feudal
system was started partially during this age. He writes "The main interest of the economic
history of the Gupta age lays not so much in its foreign trade and money economy as in
the partial feudalization of the land system and the rise of local units of production".
12.7 SOCIAL CONDITIONS

Three important factors affected the society during the Gupta age. Firstly, the period
marked the revival of Hinduism under the patronage of the Gupta rulers. Secondly the foreigners
like Sakas, Kushanas and Parthians who had entered and established themselves in India
were absorbed into the Hindu society. Thirdly the increased trade and commerce brought
about prosperity, and raised the living standards and created a rich commercial and trading
class which helped in the growth of a city culture. Though emphasis was placed on the four
fold division of the society, it was interpreted liberally. The supremacy of the Brahmins was
asserted, but the Kshetriyas were given a status practically equal to the Brahmins. The status
of the Vaishyas and Sudras also improved. Except the Brahmins, people of other castes were
free to choose their own professions. The Sudras too could choose the profession to trade or
agriculture if they so liked. It definitely marked an improvement in the conditions to the Sudras
since Mauryan times. Except the Chandalas, theoretically every caste witnessed improvement
in its social status and members of each caste could choose professions of their choice. The
Chandalas never had a place in society and lived outside cities. Thus the caste system was
liberalized during the Gupta period, and it helped in the absorption of foreigners into Hindu
society. There were no restriction on inter-dining, and no restriction on inter caste marriages
between different castes. The Vakataka ruler Rudrasena who was a Brahmin married the
Kshetriyas Gupta princes Prabhavati.
The inferior status of Women continued as it was previously during the Guptas period
also. The patriarchal society became the norm and that was primarily responsible for lowering
the status of women. It was advocated that girls should be married before attaining puberty.
Education was limited only to upper class women. There was no purdah system, but
intimate contact between men and women were not appreciated. The practice of sati
was practically restricted to the upper class families and that too some places. Because
of increased property and city-life the institution of prostitution and Nagara Vadhu (city-
bride) had become popular. Devadasi were kept at the temples. Thus woman was certainly
accorded a subordinate position to men in society. There were no restrictions on the re-
marriage of the widow but if they did not marry they have to observe perfect celibacy.
The different Smriti, Samhitas, the Kama Sutra of Vatsayana, Amarakosa etc. provide us
valuable information regarding the position of Women during the Gupta age. Public and
personal morality was high during this period. Most of the human virtues such as truth,
courage, simplicity, honesty, generosity, faithfulness were practiced by the people in
their personal and social lives. Particularly the Brahmins and Kshetriyas were expected
to observe and mostly observed, high morality.
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The people mostly observed simplicity in their food and clothing. Meat and wine
were generally avoided. Only Kshetriyas and low-caste people included them in their
diet. The staple diet of the people was wheat, rice, pulses, vegetables, fruits, milk and
milk products. The dress of the common man was Dhoti and shawl. However because of
the influence of the Sakas and Kushanas coats and trousers were adopted by the members
of the ruling classes. Women used Dhoti, bodies and petty-coats. The Saka women used
jackets as well. The garments were made of silk, cotton or woolen clothes. Varied types
of ornaments were used, necklaces, anklets, bangles, armlets, ear-rings, finger-rings.
Girdles and ornaments for forehead were all used. Ornaments were prepared of gold,
silver, pearls, diamonds, ivory etc. Cosmetics were used by both sexes.
12.8 RELIGION
Transformation of Vedic religion from the nature worship and performance of
sacrifices, to belief in one god and trinity of gods are his forms, worshipping of his idols
in the temples, by offerings of various items. Vishnu had taken ten incarnations for the
protection of Dharma, devotion or Bhakti is important are the ideas developed in this
age. Many of the rituals and faiths practiced by today's Hindus developed during this
age. For easy understanding of the Vedic knowledge by the common people, Puranas and
Itihasas have been written during this period. Hence some scholars call this as Puranic
religion. The spirit of liberalism, its absorption of foreigners within its fold and the
practice of tolerance of every religion are regarded as the distinguishing features of the
religious life of the Gupta age.
Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism remained popular religions in India during the
Gupta age. The primary place was taken over by Hinduism during this period, yet Buddhism
remained popular in many parts of India. Renowned Buddhist scholars like Asanga,
Vasubandhu, Kumarjiva and Dignaga wrote their best scholarly works during this time.
Besides, the artistic creations of Ajanta and Ellora caves and the Stupas, monasteries
and images of the Buddha of this time justify the fact that Buddhism was quite popular.
Jainism also remained popular during this period and fresh commentaries were written
on Jaina texts, which enriched Jaina literature.

1. The Vakata Ruler Rudrasena Married to.
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2. The Trade associations called as
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3. Renowned Buddhish Scholars in Gupta Rule.
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12.9 LITERATURE AND EDUCATION

Literature, science and fine arts progressed tremendously during the Gupta age
because of the existence of a strong and sound system of education. Pataliputra, Vallabhi,
Ujjain, Padmavati, Avarapura, Vatsagulma, Kasi, Mathura, Nasik and Kanchi, were the
centers of learning, where universities were established. These universities were
autonomous in their functioning. The rulers and the rich people gave large donations in
cash, land or materials. The admission to a university was done on the past merit and
performance of the student. Once a student is admitted to a university, he was provided
with not only free education but also free boarding and lodging. In sixth century Nalanda
university became renowned all over the world. The universities provided both religious
and secular education to students according to their choice or capability. The existence
12.2: Nalanda University
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of many universities in many parts of India suggests that education was quite widespread
during that period.
The age of Guptas has been regarded as the age of Periclean and Augustan or the
Classical age in India, because of its progress in the field of literature, both religious
and secular. Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina scholars produced the best literature by their
writings. Sanskrit language has become virtually a national language of India during this
period. The beautiful Sanskrit in Kavya style reached its maturity. The epics Ramayana
and Mahabharata received their present form during this age. The process of writing of
various Puranas was completed during this period. Many Smriti like Narada Smriti,
Brihaspati Smriti and different Dharma sutras were written in this age. Ishwara Krishna
wrote Sankhyakarika, Vishnu Sharma wrote Panchatantra which was translated into 50
languages, were compiled during this period. Asanga, Vasubandhu, Diganaga, and
Dharmapala (Vice-Chancellor of Nalanda University) were the famous Buddhist scholars
of this age. Amongst the Jaina scholars Siddha sena, Bhadrabhahu II and Umapati became
very famous. All of them enriched literature by their scholarly writings.
Secular literature also progressed during this period. Amongst prominent works
of this age the most notable are Vasavadata by Subandu, Ravanavadha by Bhattin,
Kiratarjuniya by Bharavi, Mudrarakshasa by Vishakadatta, Mrichakatika Sudraka and
Daskumara Charitra by Dandina. Amarasingha wrote Amarakosha, Vatsayana wrote Kama
sutra, and the author of the Prasasti of Allahabad pillar Harisena was also great scholar
of Sanskrit. Greatest of all these scholars in Sanskrit was Kalidasa, who wrote many
works like Ritu Samhara, Meghduta, and Kumara Sambhava. Raghuvansa,
Vikramorvasiyam, Malavikagnimitram and Abhijnana Sakuntalam.
12.10 SCIENCE, ART AND TECHNOLOGY

Different sciences like astronomy, mathematics, medicine grammar and other fields
of knowledge flourished during Gupta age and contributed to learning. Arya bhatta has
been accepted as the greatest scientist and mathematician of this age. He written
Aryabhatiyam in which he found solutions to many problems of Algebra, Geometry and
Trigonometry. The decimal system was discovered by the Hindus. Aryabhatta and
Varahamihira have described it in their works. Varahamihira was another famous
astrologer of his age. He wrote Brhat-Samhita. Brahma Gupta wrote Brahma Siddhanta.
Not only these other scholarly works like Shatpanchasika and Vaishista siddhanta were
also prepared during this age. The science of medicine also progressed during this age.
Navanitakam is the famous book of this age on medicine. We also find treatises like
Hastyaayurveda and Asvasastra on the diseases of Elphants and Horses. Which prove
that veterinary science was not neglected in this age. The science of metallurgy also
made good progress during this period. The famous Iron pillar near Qutb-Minar belongs
to this age and is the best proof of the striking metallurgical progress of this period. In
medicine Dhanvantari Susruta and Vagbhata belongs to this period.
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12.10.1 Architecture
The construction of Stupas, Chaitya Halls, and monasteries caves, temples and
cave dwellings continued during Gupta period. Contemporary literature refers to
magnificent palaces and other buildings, which justifies that the art of architecture had
flourished. Ajanta caves 16 and 17 were constructed in this period. The stupa at Rajagriha
and Dhameka, stupa at Sanchi are the most prominent.
The construction of Hindu temple began in this period. The remnants of these
temples are found at Jabalpur, Bhumra and Udayagiri. In Deogarh, they built dasavatara
temple, Vishnu temple at Tigawa, Siva temple at Bhumra and Parvati temple at
9.3: Udayagiri Temple
Nachanakutara. Most of these temples were built of stone but some were constructed
with bricks also.
12.10.2 Sculpture
Guptas sculpture may be regarded as typically Indian and classic in every sense of
the term. Mathura, Sarnath and Pataliputra are the important centers. In these centers
images of Buddha and different Hindu gods and goddesses were prepared. The best
specimens of images of Buddha of this period are the seated Buddha image from Sarnath,
and the standing Buddha image in the Mathura museum. The images of different Hindu
gods and goddesses have been found at different places. Important among them are the
scene of Gajendra moksha, Vishnu reclining on Sheshasayi, the image of Naranarayana,
in the penance. The Varaha and Mahishasura mardini sculptures from Bhitargaon, Udayagiri
and Eran, and the images of Durga, Mahishasura mardini from Bhumra are important.
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9.3: Sculpture of Varaha
12.10.3 Painting
The art of painting is well developed during this age. The paintings of this age are
preserved in the wall frescoes of Ajanta and Bagh caves. No 16 and 17 frescoes of
943: Ajanta Paintings No. 16 & 17 Frescoes
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Ajanta are certainly belonging to Gupta age. In cave no 16 the scene known as the 'dying
princess' and in cave no 17 'the mother and the child' are regarded as the most beautiful
ones. On the wall frescoes of Ajanta, describing the life events of Buddha and the lives
of different Bodhisattvas, different gods and goddesses Yaksha and Yakshi, flowers,
birds and animals are found.
12.10.4 Music and Dance
Music and dance and the art of acting and Drama were patronized by the Gupta
emperors. The coins of Samudra Gupta justify it. Women were trained in these fine arts
particularly the prostitutes, Devadasi and Nagaravadhus. Besides we find innumerable
references of these arts in literary texts of this age.
Thus the Gupta age marked the progress of India; particularly that of North India in
every field of life. The political unity of large part of India, its economic prosperity, the
spirit of religious toleration, the revivalism of Hindu religion and Sanskrit literature, the
acceptance of foreigners within the Hindu society and religion, progress in the field of
fine arts, the spreading of Indian culture in foreign countries particularly those of South
East Asia were such achievements that have provided this period a unique place in
Ancient Indian History and it deserves to be ranked as the golden age of ancient India.
Dr. Romila Thapar did not accept this golden age of Guptas. She contends that the
living standards which reached peak were limited to upper classes alone, further the
classicism of the Gupta period was restricted to northern India alone. By scientific
analyzing of above opinions, in the field of Polity, literature, Science, art and architecture,
the age of Guptas undoubtedly can be considered as Golden age.
12.11 SUMMARY
Chandra Gupta I was the real founder of the Gupta ruler. Samudra Gupta established
a big empire by conquering whole of North India, and defeating the many south Indian
rulers. Chandra Gupta II was the greatest of all Gupta rulers. The Gupta Empire
disintegrated due to the weak successors, foreign invasions and attack of the Hunas.
Land donations led to the beginning of feudal system in India. Economic prosperity was
great , due to foreign trade and commerce. Brahmins enjoyed high position in the society.
Women's position started deteriorating slowly from this period onwards. Society was
not rigid and accommodated foreigners into Indian society liberally. Vedic religion
transformed into a Puranic religion of modern Hinduism. Sanskrit language reached its
maturity during Gupta period, many great poet and scholars wrote their scholarly works
during Gupta period. Science and Technology, especially Astronomy and Mathematics
progressed greatly in Gupta period. Varaha Mihira, Aryabhatta belong to this period.
Science subjects like metallurgy (the Iron Pillar at Meharauli,) and Ayurveda (Susruta
was a great physician) made great progress during Gupta period. Construction of
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Hindu temples began during the Gupta period. Best examples of this period are found at
The Bhumara, Bhitargaon, and Deogarh.

I. Check Your Progress - I
1. Allahabad Inscription
2. Kuveranaga
1. Prabhavati
2. Guilds
3. Asanga, Vasubamdhu, Kumarjiva and Dignaga.

1. Describe the achievements of Samudra Gupta.
2. explain the agrarian and revenue system under the Guptas
3. Write about the economic conditions of the Gupta period.
4. Elucidate the important features of the society during the Guptas.
5. Explain growth of language and literature during the Guptas age
6. State the growth of Science and Technology during the Gupta times.
7. Describe the growth of temple architecture under the Guptas.
II Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each.
1. What are the important sources for the study of Guptas History?
2. Explain the greatness of Chandra Gupta II?
3. Write about the administration under the Guptas?
4. Describe the social conditions during the Gupta age?
5. Estimate the growth of Sanskrit language under the patronage of Guptas?
6. What was the religious condition during the Gupta period?

1. Goyal, S.R. : A History of Imperial Guptas.
2. Jha, D.N. : Ancient India, An Introductory Outline
3. Krishna Deva : Temples of North India
193
4. Majumdar R.C. : The Age of Imperial Unity, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
Series, Vols I & II.
5. Majumdar R.C. : An Advanced History of India.
Rayachaudari H.C.
And Datta, K
6. Majumdar R.C. : The Classical Age,Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan Series Vols
III
7. Mukherji R.K. : The Comprehensive History of India.
8. Nilakanta Sastri K.A. : The Comprehensive History of India
9. Nilakanta Sastri K.A. : A History of South India from Prehistory times to the
fall of Vijayanagara.
10. Romila Thapar. : A History of India Vol I.
***
194
13. PUSHYABHATIES - HARSHAVARDHANA
Contents
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Sources
13.3.1 Early Rulers
13.3.2 Conditions leading Harshavardhana's accession to the throne.
13.3.3 Harshavardhana's conquests
13.3.4 Harshavardhana' War with Pulakeshi II
13.3.5 Extent of his Kingdom
13.4 Administration
13.5 Economic Conditions
13.5.1 Agriculture
13.5.2 Industry
13.5.3 Trade
13.7 Religion
13.8 Maha Moksha Parishad
13.9 Literature
13.10 Heung Tsang
13.11. Harshavardhana's Personality
13.12 Summary
13.14 Model Examination Questions.
13.0 OBJECTIVES
l Know Harshavardhana and his family background.
l Understand Harshavardhana's conquests and extent of his kingdom
l Analyse Administration, Socio- Economic conditions during the period of
Harshavardhana.
195
l Discuss Harshavardhana's patronage to Religion and literature.
l Description of Heung Tsang about Harshavardhana.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Harshavardhana belonged to Pushyabhuti dynasty, ruled from Thaneshvar as capital.
Harsha was a great warrior, capable commander of the army and an able administrator.
An account of his administration, socio, economic and religious conditions during his period
and his patronage to literature, the description of India, by Chinese traveler Heung Tsang
especially of Harshavardhana is given in this unit.
13.2 SOURCES
The main sources for the History of Harshavardhana are Harsha Charitaa, a biography
of Harshavardhana, written by Bana bhatta, his court poet, Chinese traveler Heung Tsang's
Si-Yu-Ki, The Record of the Western World, Aihole inscription of PulakesinII, contemporary
inscriptions belonging to the Maukharis, Maitrakas and coins issued by Harshavardhana and
the remains of Nalanda University are important sources.

13.3.1 Early Rulers
Harshavardhana belonged to Pushyabhuti dynasty, ruling from Thaneshvar as capital.
In Pushyabhuti dynasty four kings ruled, they were Naravardhana, Rajavardhana, Aditya
Vardhana and Prabhakara Vardhana. Prabhakara Vardhana married Malwa princess, and
had three children Raja Vardhana, Harsha Vardhana and Rajya sree (daughter). Rajyasree
was married to Maukhari ruler Grahavarma.
13.3.2 Conditions leading Harshavardhana's accession to the throne
Prabhakara Vardhana fought many battles against the Hunas and got the title 'Huna
Harina Kesari'. The Guptas of Malwa, Maukahris of Kanauj and Gauda Kamarupa kings did
not have good relations. While fighting against Hunas in A.D.604, Prabhakara Vardhana died,
so Raja Vardhana ascended the throne. At this time Deva gupta of Malwa attacked Kanauj
with the support of King Sasanka of Gauda, and killed Grahavarma and made Rajya sree
captive. Knowing this news Rajavardhana invaded Kanauj and defeated Deva Gupta and
occupied Kanauj. He further proceeded to punish Sasanka, but was killed in the ensuing war.
In this critical situation, in A.D.606, Harsha Vardhana assuming the title 'Rajaputra' ascended
the throne and ruled up to 647 A.D.
13.3.3 Harshavardhana's conquests
Harsha proved himself a great conqueror and an able administrator. After his accession
he united the two kingdoms of Thaneshar and Kannauj and transferred his capital from Thanesar
to Kannauj.
196
After making his position strong on the throne of Kanauj, Harsha set out to punish his
rival, Gauda Shashanka, the lord of Bengal. He formed and alliance with Bhaskaravarman,
king of Kamarupa and marched on Shashanka. Invaded first on Malwa and defeated Deva
Gupta and put his brother (Madhava Gupta) on the throne. Then he attacked Vallabhi (Gujarat)
and succeeded against Dhruva senaII, Dhruva SenaII agreed to accept Harsha's sovereignty.
Later he attacked Sasanka. According to A.T. Bannerjee, In 619 A.D. Harsha defeated
Sasanka. But the campaign was not very successful, as evidences (Ganjola inscription) prove
that Sasanka continued to rule over the greater parts of Bengal and Orissa till 637 A.D. It
was only after the death of Sasanka Harsha could occupy Bihar, Bengal and Orissa. According
to some historians, based on 'Harsha Saka' Harsha had conquered Kashmir, Nepal, but we
do not have any strong evidences of his conquest over these areas. Harsha charita mentions
that he conquered Sind region
13.3.4 Harshavardhana' War with Pulakeshi II
War with Chalukyas: in the south the Deccan was under the rule of Chalukyas of Badami.
Chalukya PulakesinII was the contemporary of Harsha. Harsha's ambition of extending his
power to the Deccan and southern India, were stopped by the great Chalukya emperor
Pulakeshi II. Harsha fought with PulakesinII. The battle took place on the bank of Narmada
River. In this battle PulakesinII defeated Harsha, as it is mentioned in the Pulakeshin's Aihole
inscription. This shows that Harsha remained sovereign ruler only in the north India.
13.3.5 Extent of his Kingdom
Harsha desired to create an extensive empire in the north, but he was not successful
completely. Heung Tsang and Bana bhatta referred him as the sovereign ruler of whole of
north India. This was accepted by some historians and contested by some of others. Dr.
K.M. Paniker described that the empire of Harsha extended from Kamarupa in the east to
Kashmir in the West and from Himalayas in the north to Vindhyas in the South. But R.C.
Majumdar has strongly refuted this view. According to him the empire of Harsha included
only eastern Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Western Bengal and Orissa. However Kashmir,
western Punjab, Sind, Rajaputana, Nepal and Kamarupa were certainly independent states
in his days. Yet Harsha had been regarded as a powerful emperor who certainly succeeded to
provide unity to a large part of Northern India after the fall of the Guptas.
13.4 ADMINISTRATION
Harsha was not only a great warrior but also, a capable ruler. Si-Yu-Ki, mentions that
he worked all the day without rest for the welfare of his subjects. King was the sovereign ruler
head of the state. All administrative, Legislative and Judicial powers were concentrated in his
hands. Subordinate rulers were called rajas, or bhupalas, but were mostly known as samantas.
They also used the title maharaja. The king was assisted by a council of ministers. Besides
ministers, there were many other important officials of the state, whom a detailed list was
given by Harsha charita. Among the high officers, Maharajadhi krita, Mahapratihara,
MahasandhiVigrahaka, adhhikrita(minister of peace and war), Mahadandanayaka was
concerned with the duties of the police. etc.. The empire was divided into Desa, Bhuktis,
197
Vishayas and Gramas. The Desa was governed by the king's relatives, called Rajasthaniya.
The official of the Bhukti was called Uparika, Vishayapati at Vishaya, head of the village was
called Gramaadhyaksha. Local administration was done by Bhogapati, Ayukta, and Pratipalaka.
Those who accepted Harsha's sovereignty were called Mahasamantha or Samantha Maharaja.
The military consisted of infantry, cavalry, elephants and boats.the chariot force was not in
use. Harsha's army consisted of 60,000 elephant soldiers and 1, 00,000 cavalry. The army
officer was known as Senapati and baladhyaksha. Main source of income to the state was
land revenue. 1/6 of the produce was collected as land revenue. Punishments were harsh.

1 a. Harsha belonged to the ........................................................ dynasty.
b. Harsha was defeated by ........................................... a South Indian ruler.
2. Harsha was author of the following books
(a) ..........................................................................................................................................
(b) ...................................................................................................................................and
(c) .......................................................................................................................................
3. What is the Maha Moksha Parishat?
.............................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
4. Who was Bana Bhatta?
.............................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
13.5 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

13.5.1 AGRICULTURE
Main occupation of the people at that time was Agriculture. During the period land
grants were made frequently to officials, Brahmins and religious centers. This led to the growing
fragmentation of land and feudal formations in society and economy. Because of fertile soils
the crop yield was high. Main crops of the period were Wheat, Paddy, Sugar cane, Mango,
Orange, Grapes etc... Different types of vegetables were also grown at that time. Si-Yu-Ki
mentioned that for lifting and supplying of water to the fields Pulley machine were also used.
Clothes were made of Cotton, Wool and Silk and Muslin. Heung Tsang wrote that he took,
198
13.1: Harsha Emoire
199
Buddha idols made up of gold, silver and ivory with him, from India to China. Guilds were
well developed. The internal and external trade was going on very high. Chief exports at that
time were spices, Saffron and imports were Horses, copper, rubies and other precious stones.
13.5.2 INDUSTRY
Textile industry occupied an important place during this period. Bana refers to linen,
cotton, bark silk, muslin and shot-silk garments worn by the princess. The weaving techniques,
gold and silver brocade, tie and dye work. Noted centers of the textile industry were located
at Varanasi, Mathura and Kamarupa.
The metal industry flourished. In the region between Beas and Sutlej, copper and silver
were abundant. The large sized copper image of Buddha and Brass temple at Nalanda, were
the attestation of this industry. The Jeweler's craft was extensively practiced.
13.5.3 TRADE
Both foreign and inland trade flourished. The important sea ports were Tamralipti,
Kongoda and Broach. Rivers were also used as inland trade routes. Spices and saffron were
the important items of export and ivory, horses, copper, sapphire and emerald etc.
According to Heung Tsang the towns, villages in the Gandhara region, and the foot
tracts of Himalayas, like Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Kusinagara and Ramagarama were deserted.
Even Pataliputra was mentioned as desolate.

Chaturvarna system got strengthened at that age. Along with the four Varnas, each
profession became a Caste. Brahmins had respectable position in the society, but the position
of the Panchamas was very poor. Women's freedom was reduced. Child marriages took
place. Women were confined to arts and education only. Devadasi system got strengthened.
Common people wore simple dress. Kings and their family members wore costly dress.
Heung Tsang wrote that women wore flowers and applied Kum kum, turmeric, and Sandal to
the body, as a makeup. People used Gold, Silver and Copper utensils.
13.7 RELIGION
During Harsha's period, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were prevalent. Buddhism
was on the decline. Heung Tsang wrote that the monasteries in the regions of Nagarkot,
Gandhara, Udayana and Takshasila were in ruins. Hindus worshipped Siva, Vishnu, and Surya
(Sun god). Si- Yu-Ki informs that Harsha used to worship idols of Buddha, Siva and Surya
during the Assemblies held once in five years at Gaya (Allahabad). Kasi was a great Saiva
center. In Saivism sects like Kalamukhas and Kapilikas were formed. Buddhism became a
popular religion in and around Kanauj under the patronage of Harsha. Jalandhar, Nalanda,
Kanchipuram, Dhanyakatakam, became the strong holds of Buddhism. In 7th c A.D. Vajrayana
Buddhism evolved in the eastern part of India during this age. Buddhist monasteries became
the Educational centers. During this period only, Nalanda University became famous one.
200
13.8 MAHA MOKSHA PARISHAT
Harsha organized religious assemblies known as Maha Moksha Parishat every five
years at Prayag (Allahabad). In these assemblies Harsha distributed all his wealth to the poor
people. Heung Tsang wrote that he had attended the sixth Maha Moksha parishat, and Harsha
had organized five such assemblies earlier. There is a difference of opinion among the historians
on the religion followed by Harsha. Some opined that he accepted Buddhism and some
others said that he was a Saiva. It is known and based on his coins Harsha was a Saiva.
Heung Tsang wrote that Harsha accepted Buddhism. Probably under the influence of his
sister RajyaSree and Heung Tsang, he might have accepted Buddhism. Harsha banned killing
of Animals in his kingdom. Heung Tsang wrote that, Harsha built stupas and Viharas, brought
Buddha Dhatuvu from Kashmir and consecrated it in a standing Buddha idol made of gold,.
In A.D.643, Harsha organized a Buddhist assembly (Parishat) at Kanauj, which was attended
by 3000 Buddhists bhikshus and 1000 Buddhists monks. Heung Tsang presided over the
Parishat. R. C. Majumdar has expressed that Harsha worshipped Siva, Surya and Buddha
equally.
13.9 LITERATURE
Harsha was not only a patron of literature but himself a great poet in Sanskrit language.
He wrote great dramas in Sanskrit like, Nagananda, Ratnavali, and Priyadarshika. His court
poets were, Bana, Mayura, Matanga, Diwakara, Bhartruhari, and Jayasena. Bana wrote
Kadambari and Harsha Charita. Bhartruhari wrote Niti, Shringara, Vairagya Shatakas. Mayura
wrote Surya shataka. Harsha allotted the income of one hundred villages for the maintenance
of Nalanda University. Harsha used to spend ¼ of the state income for the patronage of poets
and scholars.
13.10 HEUNG TSANG

Heung Tsang visited India in 629 A.D. and stayed for nearly 13 years, he was partial to
Buddhist kings and Buddhism, and his observations are balanced. Heung Tsang describes the
location of places, distances and size of the population. Heung Tsang gives an account of
Harshavardhana's conquests, administration, general conditions of the people, religion. He
records that the administration and the people lived together in harmony. Land tax was fixed
at 1/6th of the produce and the taxation was not heavy. People maintained high standards of
dress and food. The capital city Kanauj was described as great and affluent and had beautiful
gardens, high structures and tanks. He wrote that education was widely prevalent and the
intellectual climate was favorable to it. Important centers of learning were Kashmir, Banaras
Nalanda, Vallabhi, Kanauj, Prayag and Jalandhar. Heung Tsang praises Nalanda University
greatly for the high standards of education imparted there. Harsha was praised greatly for his
patronage of men of poets and great learning. He mentioned that he attended the sixth Maha
Moksha Parishat, earlier to this there were five Maha Moksha Parishat held at Prayag.
201
1. Explain the social conditions during the period of Harshavardhana?
.............................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
2. Write briefly about the religious conditions under Harshavardhana?
.............................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
3. Heung Tsang's description of India.
.............................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
13.11 HARSHAVARDHANA'S PERSONALITY

Harsha was a great warrior, capable commander of the army and an able administrator.
He was a Patron of poets. He established an extensive empire in North India. R.K. Bannerjee
said. Harsha was one among the few rulers of ancient India who had united large areas of
India "Harsha was one among the great emperors of ancient India" said Roy Choudary. Romilla
Thapar expressed that "due to the political and Economic conditions, Harsha could not unite
whole of India". "Harsha was the last great Hindu emperor of North India", expressed R. C.
Majumdar. R. K. Mukherjee wrote, "Like Asoka Harsha took all efforts for the well fare of
the people, like Asoka he patronized Buddhism, like Chandra Guptas II, Harsha was a patron
of poets and Scholars, and none are equal to him in charity. In Harsha we have an amalgamation
of good qualities of Asoka and Samudra Gupta.
13.12 SUMMARY
Harsha ascended the throne in A.D.606 and ruled up toA.D.647. After making his
position strong on the throne he led conquests against Gauda Shashanka, the lord of Bengal,
Defeated Deva Gupta and put Madhava Gupta, Deva Gupta's brother on the throne. Then he
attacked Vallabhi, Gujarat and succeeded Against Dhruva SenaII and he was defeated by
Chalukya Pulakeshi II. The kingdom Was divided into, desa, Bhukti, Vishayas and Grama.
Harsha was assisted by a Council of ministers and sub-ordinate officials, in administration.
Harshavardhana patronized Buddhism, and held Dharma Parishat once in five Years.
Harshavardhana patronized literature. He himself was a great poet and wrote three Books,
202
Nagananda, Ratnavalli, and Priyadarshika, Bana bhatta was his court poet, and He Wrote
Harsha Charita and Kadambari. His court was adorned with great poets Like Mayura, Matanga,
Diwakara and Bhartruhari. The Chinese traveler Heung Tsang who visited Harshavardhana's
court wrote about the general conditions prevailed at the time of Harshavardhana.
Harshavardhana built many monasteries and the famous Nalanda monastery. One Hundred
villages were donated for the maintenance of the Nalanda University. By Harshavardhana

1 (a) Pushyabhuti
(b) Chalukya Pulakeshi II.
2. Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarshika.I.
3. Harsha organized religious assemblies known as Maha Moksha Parishat every five
years at Prayag (Allahabad). In these assemblies Harsha distributed all his wealth to the
poor people.
4. His court poet was Bana, who wrote Kadambari and Harsha Charita.
1. Chaturvarna system got strengthened at that age. Along with the four Varnas, each
profession became a Caste. Brahmins had respectable position in the society, but the position
of the Panchamas was very poor. Women's freedom was reduced. Child marriages took
place. Women were confined to arts and education only. Devadasi system got strengthened.
2. During Harsha's period, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were prevalent. Buddhism
was on the decline. Heung Tsang wrote that the monasteries in the Regions of Nagarkot,
Gandhara, Udayana and Takshasila were in ruins. Hindus Worshipped, Siva, Vishnu, and
Surya (Sun god). Huantsan’s Si- Yu-Ki informs us that Harsha used to worship idols of
Buddha, Siva and Surya during the Assemblies held once
In five years at Gaya (Allahabad). Kasi was a great Saiva center. In Saivism sects like
Kalamukhas and Kapilikas were formed. Buddhism became a popular Religion, in and
around Kanauj under the patronage of Harsha. Jalandhar, Nalanda, Kanchipuram,
Dhanyakatakam, became the strong holds of Buddhism. In 7th c A.D. Vajrayana Buddhism
evolved in the eastern part of India during this Age. Buddhist monasteries became the
Educational centers. During this period only, Nalanda University became famous one.

I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines
1. Describe the economic conditions during the period of Harshavardhana?
_
2. Trace the administration under the Harshavardhana?
203
3. Evaluate the greatness of Harshavardhana?
4. Give an account of Heung Tsang's description of India?
II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines.
1. What are the important sources for the history of Harshavardhana?
2. Describe the political conditions during the reign of Harshavardhana?
3. Describe the conquests of Harshavardhana?
4. Estimate the personality of Harshavardhana?
5. Explain the patronage of literature by Harshavardhana?
6. Examine the religious conditions in the age of Harshavardhana?

1. Basham A.L. : The Wonder that was India
2. Kosambi D.D. : The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India-A
Historical Perspective
3 Goyal, S.R. : A History of Imperial Guptas.
4. Jha, D.N. : Ancient India, An Introductory Outline
5. Krishna Deva : Temples of North India
6. Majumdar R.C. : The Age of Imperial Unity, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
Series, Vols I & II.
7. Majumdar R.C. : An Advanced History of India.
Rayachaudari H.C.
And Datta, K
8. Majumdar R.C. : The Classical Age,Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan Series
Vols III
9. Mukherji R.K. : The Comprehensive History of India.
10. Nilakanta Sastri K.A. : The Comprehensive History of India
11. Nilakanta Sastri K.A. : A History of South India from Prehistory times to
the fall of Vijayanagara.
12. Romila Thapar. : A History of India Vol I.
***
204
BLOCK-V: POLITICAL CONDITIONS IN DECCAN AND
SOUTH INDIA
In South Indian history the Satavahanas occupies an important place. The Satavahanas
were the first empire-builders in the Deccan. They patronized Prakrit language. The rulers
also wrote and compiled literary works. They patronized both the Buddhism and the
Brahmanism. Acharya Nagarjuna, the famous Buddhist philosopher was patronized by Yajna
Sri Satakarni. The Satavahanas contributed a lot for the development of South Indian Culture.
In the history of South India, Sangam Age is prominent. The Chola, Chera and Pandya
kings ruled the Tamilnadu and Kerala. They encouraged agriculture, industry, trade etc. they
were also encouraged cultural development in South India. Number of foreigners visited Kerala
and Tamil ports. Sangam period witnessed a close and peaceful interaction between north
Indian and south Indian traditions. Sangam rulers patronized many poets and writers in their
court. They contributed for the development of literature and culture in the Deccan. This
block consists two units, which gives detailed information about the South Indian history and
culture. There are two units in the block such as;
Unit-14: Satavahanas
Unit-15: Sangam Age
205
206
UNIT-14: THE SATAVAHANAS
Contents
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Sources
14.2.1 Archaeological Sources
14.2.2 Literary Sources
14.3 Original home of the Satavahanas
14.4.1 The Early Satavahanas
14.4.2 The Later Satavahanas
14.5 General Conditions
14.5.1 Administration
14.5.4 Religious Conditions
14.5.5 Literature
14.6 Amaravathi School of Art
14.7 Summary
14.0 OBJECTIVES
l Know Sources and Political History of the Satavahanas;
l Understand Socio-Economic Conditions during Satavahana Region;
l Describe Religious and Cultural conditions during Satavahana rule.
207
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Due to disintegration of the Mouryan Empire several changes had taken place in
the history of political, socio-economic and cultural conditions of India. Politically the
Post Mouryan period is being called 'Age of the small kingdoms' as it was at that juncture
various dynasties like Sunga, Kanva, Satavahana, Chedi, Chera, Chola and Pandyas
ruled from South India. whereas the north western India was under the sway of foreign
dynasties like Indo-Greeks; Sakas; Pahllavas and Kushans. The Satavahanas ruled over
Dakshinapatha for about 450 years. It is clear to say that a chronological history of
Dakshinapatha is available only from the time of Sathavahanas and it is the earliest
historical dynasty in Deccan.
The Satavahanas are seems to be an aboriginal clan. The name Satakarni is a
combination of two Indo-Austric Munda words 'sada' and 'Kon'. Sada means horse and
Kon means son. The second element in the word 'Satavahana' is derived from 'han' or
'hapan', which means 'son'. Thus the root meanings of both Satavahana and Satakani are
the same i.e. 'Son of the Horse'.
14.2 SOURCES
To understand the Satavahanas history two types of sources are available, they are
Archaeological and literary Sources. Archaeological Sources consist of inscriptions and coins
whereas literary sources includes the works of Indian and foreign writers.
14.2.1 Archaeolgical Sources
Inscriptions
Satavahana inscriptions were explored at various places of nearly four states Maharastra,
Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. All these inscriptions are in the Prakrit
language and Brahmi script. The Satavahanas are mentioned by Puranas as Andhras or
Andhra- bhrityas. The inscriptions of the Satavahanas referred them as Satavahanas only.
Historians concluded that all these references denotes to Satavahanas who were ruled over
Deccan nearly about 450 years.
 The 13th Rock Edict of Ashoka, which found at Erragudi in Kurnool district, refers to
Andhras.
 There are about 25 inscriptions of the Satavahanas; a few were royal records and the
maximum were issued by private individuals. Among the royal inscriptions Nanaghat
inscription of Queen Naganika and Nasik Prasasti of Goutami Balasri are more significant.
 A few inscriptions of the contemporary ruler are also most useful to know the Satavahanas.
Among them the prominent are the Hathigumpha and Guntupalli inscriptions issued by
king Kharavela of Kalinga. These records state that a conflict had taken place in between
the rulers of Kalinga and the Satavahanas for the Godavari basin. One another important
208
inscription was the Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman, the Saka ruler. It also
records Saka-Satavahana conflict.
Coins
The Satavahana coins are largely in metals like copper, lead and tin but less in
silver. A number of coins were excavated at several places like Kondapur (Medak),
Peddabankur, Dhulikatta and Kondapur (Karimnagar) of Telangana state. The coins
found at Kotilingala have the term 'Siri Chimukha Sata' at its' top. Dr. P.V. Parabrahma
Sastry identified Chimukha with Simukha, the founder of the Satavahana dynasty. The
coins of Srimukha were the important source by which the historians are often confronted
with the baffling problem of the original settlement and capital of the Satavahanas. Anyway
the discovery of these coins strengthens the claim of Telangana as the original home of
the Satavahanas. The coins of the Saka king Nahapana re-struck by Gautamiputra Satakarni
prove the victory of Gautamiputra on Nahapana.
Other monuments
The walled town was traced out in the excavations conducted at Dhulikatta or
Dhulikota (means mud fort) way back to Satavahana period. V.V. Krishna Sastry believed
that this walled town might be one of the 30 fortified towns of Andhras mentioned by
Megasthanese.
14.2.2 Literary Source
Native Accounts
 Aitareya Brahmana, the earliest reference to the Andhras, which refers them as
tribals along with some other tribes namely Pulindas, Sabaras, Pundras and Mutibas.
 Mahabharata gives information that the Kouravas gained the support of Andhras.
 The Buddhist works like the Jatakas, Pitakas, Mahavasthu etc., are giving reference
to the Andhras.
 The different Puranas like Matsya, Vayu, Vishnu, Bhagavata, Brahmanda are main
sources of information on the Satavahanas.
 The Kathasaritsagara of Somadeva, Yugapurana of Gargi samhita, Early Jaina
Sutra literature, Lilavati of Kutuhala and the Harshacharitra of Bana contain several
traditions about the Satavahana kings.
 The Gathasaptasati of the 17th Satavahana ruler, Hala, Brihat Katha of Gunadya
and Kamasutra of Vatsyayana are very useful to know about the socio-religious
history of this period.
Foreign Accounts
 Indica of Megasthanese, a Greek ambassador at the court of Chandragupta Maurya
in the 4th C.B.C., referred the Andhras as a powerful people with 30 walled
towns and given particulars of their military might. He was followed by Pliny
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who repeated Megasthanese's account. Arrian, another Greek writer, referring
with Indica, noted in his book that the Andhras were divided into a number of
tribal kingdoms.
 The Periplus of Erythrean Sea of an anonymous Greek sailor notes the conflict
between the Sakas and the Satavahanas for the possession of the west coast port of
Bharukachcha and describes the vigorous maritime trade carried on by the Deccan.
He also mentioned of Masalia or Maisolia identified with Machilipatnam.
14.3 ORIGINAL HOME OF THE SATAVAHANAS

There are unending confronts and contradictions among the scholars regarding
identity and original home of the Satavahanas.
The historians like E.J. Rapson, Dr. Vincent Smith and Sir R.G. Bhandarkar as the
opined that the Satavahanas and the Andhras both are one as the Andhras of the puranic
list with the Satavahanas of the inscriptions are close correspondence. The historian
like Vincent Smith opined that Krishna-Godavari region of the Eastern Deccan in general;
the places either Srikakulam or Dhanyakataka was the early rise place of the Satavahanas.
After the death of Asoka, the Andhras asserted their independence and extended their
empire towards Western Deccan. This view was accepted by other historians like E.J.
Rapson, L.D. Barnett, R.G. Bhandarkar and Maremanda Rama Rao. It is important to
note that Satavahana-kota / Satanikota of Kurnool district is the only village in the present
Seemandhra/Andhra Pradesh State which resembles the nomenclature of the Satavahanas.
The above view was challenged by the historians like P.T. Srinivasa Iyyangar, and
H.C. Rayachaudhari who argued that Maharashtra was the original home of the
Satavahanas. For this they argue that the early capital of Satavahanas was Prathistana or
modern Paithan in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra; the earliest inscriptions led
by Satavahanas are found in Maharastra, meanwhile in no inscription Satavahanas were
called Andhras. And finally according to them the last Satavahana rulers who lost their
power in Maharashtra were moved eastwards and conquered Andhradesa.
These views were challenged by V.S. Sukthankar who argued that Bellary district
of Karnataka state was the original home of the Satavahanas. He based his argument
upon the names Satavahana-ahara and Satavahana-ratha used respectively in Myakadoni
inscription of Pulomavi III (the last Satavahana ruler) and Hiharadagalli plates of Pallava
Sivaskanda Varman, found in Bellary district. But this argument was questioned and
opposed by historians like M. Rama Rao. As like as Satavahanahara in Karnataka, there
is one village named Satavahana-kota in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh i.e.
Satavahana-kota of Nandikotkur taluk.
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14.1: Dhulikatta Buddhist Stupa
Telangana state as number of coins of Srimukha, the founder of the Satavahana

dynasty, were found in Kotilingala of Karimnagar district and some other historical
places namely Kondapur, Peddabankur and Dhulikatta, where several seals, coins,
terracotta objects the Satavahanas were discovered, are also in the Telangana state. On
the basis of the find of the Kondapur coin, Maremanda Rama Rao said that "We can
locate Telangana as the starting place of Satavahana rule." However, it is accepted that
the Satavahanas established their authority first in Telangana and then spread their empire
towards all sides.

1. What are the foreign sources for Satavahana history?
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2. Maharashtra was the original home of the Satavahanas.
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There is a wide divergence of opinions about the dates and the period during
which each of the kings ruled. So it is difficult one to give proper and apt dates to the
ruling period of the same. Anyway the 30 kings of Satavahana dynasty were ruled nearly
450 years i.e. approximately B.C. 221 to A.D.220.
14.4.1 THE EARLY SATAVAHANAS
Simukha (221-198 B.C.)
Simukha, the founder of the Satavahana dynasty, since his name had given at the
top of the list of Andhra kings in the Puranas. Though he was the founder of Satavahana
Empire, his dynasty was being come to be known after his ancestor or father 'Satavahana'.
In the recently discovered coins at Kotilingala, the king Srimukha was mentioned as 'Siri
Chimukha Sata'. Srimukha defeated the local tribe Rathikas and invaded the Western
Deccan. But he consolidated his position by entering into a matrimonial alliance with
Rathikas. Srimukha's son Satakarni I was married to Naganika, the daughter of Maharathi
Tranakairo. It is come to known that at his early days he followed Jainism.
Kanha (198-180 B.C.)
According to the Puranas, Srimukha was succeeded by his brother Kanha or Krishna
as at the time of Srimukha's death, his son Satakarni I was a minor and thereby Kanha acted
as his guardian to safeguard the kingdom.
Satakarni I (180-170 B.C.)
Satakarni, the 3rd ruler among the Satavahanas, married Naganika of the Maharathis
who were powerful in Southern Maharashtra. This alliance increased the advantage to Satakarni
in the expansion of the kingdom. He conquered western Malwa, Anupa or Narmada valley
and Southern part of Vidharbha. All these invasions of Satakarni I were recorded after his
death in the Nanaghat inscription issued by his wife Naganika. He was described in the same
inscription as Vina, Sura, Apratihatachakra, Dakshinapathapati whereas Puranas called him
Mahan. During his reign king Kharavela of Kalinga conducted three expeditions into the
territory of the Satavahanas, but he failed to subjugate the country. Satakarni I, as a follower
of Vedic religion, performed the two Aswamedha Sacrifices, one Rajasuya Yaga and some
other numerous sacrifices to celebrate his success on several regions. And on the occasion of
these sacrifices, Satakarni gifted away thousands of cows, Karshapanas and land to Brahmins.
Satakarni II (152 -96 B.C.)
After the death of Satakarni I, the history of the Satavahanas was somewhat
ambiguous. Anyway Satakarni II, the 6th king, his reign 56 years was the longest in the
annals of the dynasty. His coins are found in Telangana, Northern Maharashtra, Malwa
and Madhya Pradesh by which it is able to agree that Satakarni II ruled over an extensive
empire. According to Yugapurana, after drove the Sakas out of Kalinga he then advanced
to Pataliputra and annexed it.
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Pulomavi I
He was succeed by his father Satakarni I. He was continued the legacy of the
Satavahana kingdom. He was also a great warrior like his father, for the first time in the
history of India a south Indian king invaded on pataliputra the iconic capital of Ancient
India. He was defeated and killed kanva king susarma, the then ruler of Magadha kingdom.
He ruled over about for sometime from Patna. The Satavahana flag rised on North India.
Thus the puranas refers Andhras as poulomas.
Kuntala Satakarni (38-30 B.C.)
Though Kuntala Satakarni, the 13th king, ruled for a short period, his rule was
memorable as Sanskrit replaced Prakrit as the official language of the empire. His
dominions included Dakshinapatha and some parts of North India. Kavya Mimamsa of
Rajasekhara and Kamasutra of Vatsyayana were literary works in which Kuntala Satakarni
was mentioned. Gunadhya and Sarvavarma, who wrote Brihatkatha and Katantra
Vyakarana orderly, were also poets of Kuntala reign.
Hala (A.D.19-24)
Hala, the 17th ruler, was known as Kavivatsala (patron of the poets). He compiled
Gathasaptasti, an anthology of 700 gathas in Prakrit language. The Prakrit poetical work
Lilavati by Kuthuhala describes the love story of Hala and Lilavati, a princess from Sri Lanka.
He was a great poet, but incompetent ruler. This gave an ample opportunity to the enemies to
exploit the situation. Finally the Satavahanas might be confined to only Andhradesa.
Gautamiputra Satakarni (78-102)
Gautamiputra Satakarni, the 23rd king, was the son of Sivaswati and Gautami Balasri.
He was one of the ablest rulers in ancient India, who restored the power of Satavahana
dyansty. His victories and greatness were known by two of his Nasik records, the Nasik
Prasasti of his mother Gautami Balasri who was issued during the 19th regional year of his son
and successor, Pulomavi II. When a gloomy condition in the state, he was credited with the
first victories on the neighbouring kingdoms namely Assaka (Telangana), Asika (probably the
land between the rivers Godavari and Krishna, south of Assaka), Mulaka (Aurangabad district
of Maharastra) and Vidarbha (Berar area of Maharastra). The next unique victory was on the
Saka ruler Nahapana. It was being known from a large number of Copper and Silver coins
as many as 9270 of Nahapana found at Jogalthambi were re-struck by Gautamiputra
Satakarni. This victory was followed by the recovery of the erstwhile Satavahana
dominions up to Malwa i.e. Anupa, Aparantha, Saurashtra, Kukura and Avanti. The
Sakas were divided into two families viz. Kshaharatas and Kardamakas. The present
Saka ruler Nahapana belonged to Kshaharata dynasty.
213
These expeditions resulted that the state of Gautamiputra Satakarni included parts
of Maharastra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and the entire Telangana
and Andhra Pradesh. Hundreds of his coins were obtained from excavations at Kondapur
and Padabankur, both in Teangana. As he was mentioned in Nasik Prasasthi with a title
'Thrisamudra Toya Pitavahana' (one whose horses drunk the waters of the three oceans),
suggests the fact that his armies had touched the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea and the
Indian Ocean. It is also known from Nasik Prasasthi that having upheld the Vedic Dharma,
he stopped the contamination of the four varnas/castes and won recognition as
Ekabrahmana.
Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by sons Vashistaputra Pulomavi / Pulomavi
II (102-130) and Sivasri Satakarni (130-154) orderly. During the period of these both
rulers the Satavahana Empire began to disintegrate in the west and north. Rudradaman
(130-150), the Saka ruler of Saurashtra, defeated Sivasri Satakarni twice, but did not
destroy him an account of matrimonial relations. It was known from Junagarh inscription
of Rudradaman.
14.4.2 THE LATER SATAVAHANAS

Yajnasri Satakarni (174-203)
In inscriptions and coins he is mentioned a Gautamiputra Sri Yajna Satakarni. He
was the 26th king of Satavahanas. He took an advantage of a civil war in the Saka
(Kardamaka dynasty) kingdom between Jivadama and Rudradama and invaded Ujjain
and so the supremacy of the Satavahanas was established over a greater part of Western
and Central Deccan. It is known by the discovery of some of Yajnasri silver coins with
his bust on the obverse and his name in two languages have been found in Maharastra.
He also issued silver coins with a ship having two masts, found on the Coromandal
coast which indicating his love for navigation and flourishing international trade during
his times. Yajnasri is known from three inscriptions at Nashik, Kanheri and chinaganjam.
Yajnasri patronized Nagarjuna, the exponent of Madhyamika doctrine of Buddhist
philosophy, who resided in the Buddhist monastery at Sriparvata, known as
Nagarjunakonda. According to a story in Kathasaritsagara, Nagarjuna was murdered at
the behest of the crown prince.
The Satavahana kingdom was balkanized after the death of Yajnasri as a number of
independent principalities emerged in Deccan and Andhra also. By the Myakadoni (Bellary
district) inscription of Pulomavi III, the last ruler, it is come to known that he ruled in the
Satavahanahara for a few years which ended in A.D. 218. However, finally the Abhiras
became independent in Maharashtra i.e. around Nasik and the Ikshavakus established
their authority in some parts of Telangana and Krishna-Guntur region in Andhra,
particularly around Nagarjunakonda. The Pallavas emerged in the south-eastern tracts.
Thereby the Satavahana rule came to an end in the early times of the 3rd C.A.D.
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14.5 GENERAL CONDITIONS
The Satavahanas held sway over some parts of North and South India and entire
Deccan for nearly 450 years. In this connection we can agree that no other South Indian
dynasty could unite and ruled such extensive area.
The Satavahanas, just they followed the Mauryan administrative system as they
were being the feudatories of the Mauryans and they also introduced certain innovations.
In this regard as Prof. R.S. Sarma observes, the administration of the Satavahanas was a
link between the Maurya and Guptas and between the north and the south. Their government
was based upon hereditary monarchy. The king took the title either raja or maharaja. He
was the commander of the army and personally led them to the battlefield. The emperor
was assisted by a number of ministers of different grades and status. Among the ministers,
Visvasa amatya held the prominent position as he was consulted by the king on all
important matters. The Rajamatyas who ranked below the Visavasa Amatya constituted
the ministerial council. Officials of the higher echelons are included Mahamatras (Head
of the Departments), Bhandagarika (Supervisor of stores), Heranika (Treasurer),
Mahasenapati (Commander-in-chief), Mahataraka (Chamberlain); other officials are
Prathiharas and Dutas (messengers), Ganapaka (Accountant), Lekhaka (writer or clerk),
Nibandhanakara (Registrar of Documents) and Pattikapalaka (Director of Archives).
The empire was divided into a number of provinces called Aharas and these were
placed under governors called Amatyas. Govardhana (Nashik), Sopara and Mamala
(Pune) were some of the well known provinces or Aharas. The Grama (village) was the
basic unit of administration and was in charge by an official called Gramika or Gramani.
The trade and merchant corporations known as Nigamasabhas played an important part
in looking after the administration of towns and villages.
The Satavahana period was flourished with full of economic prosperity as the two
capital cities of the Satavahanas, Paithan and Amaravati are located on the left banks of
rivers Godavari and Krishna orderly. And so these two rivers became main source for
agriculture and trade and commerce. Gathasaptasati mentioned that the villages were
prosperous and grew a variety of crops like paddy, gingelly and sugarcane. Eastern-
Deccan (Telangana) covered by alluvial soil wa agriculturally more advanced and densely
populated. Anyway the main source of the state's income was land revenue. The royal
share of the agricultural produce was known as 'bhoga' and 'deyameya'. Besides this,
taxes called 'Karukara' were collected from artisan. Some of classes of workers were
mentioned in Nasik inscription viz., the Chammakaras (leather-workers), Kolika
(weavers), Kularas (poters), Tilapisakas (oil pressers), Odayantrikas (makers of hydraulic
machines), Kamaras (iron workers), Kasakaras (braziers), Suvannakaras (goldsmiths),
Manikaras (jewelers), Vaidhakis (carpenters) etc. Especially pottery, carpentry, mining,
215
metallurgy appear to have received special attention. Pieces of pottery with ornamental
designs, artistic shapes and fine polish have come to light in the excavations at Kondapur,
Amaravati and Paithan. Each of these professions or vocations organized itself into a
guild or sreni. Each guild had Sethin or sresthi and its office in the Town-halls or
Nigamasabhas. What is an interesting feature of these guilds was they served even as
banks by receiving cash deposits; endowments of property and giving loans with some
rate of interest.
In the Western Deccan there were a number of market towns such as Paithan,
Govardhana, Vaijaynati and Nasik where as in the case of Eastern Deccan Kondapur,
Vijayapuri, Kudura, Dhanyakataka and Narasala were the places of rich merchants. The
inland market towns of Telangana included Kotilingala, Peddabankur and Dhulikatta or
Dhulikota (mud fort). These market centers were connected with one another and with
important ports by roads. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea by an anonymous unknown
Greek sailor gives an interesting account of the ports on the coasts of India and the foreign
trade they were carrying on. Barukachcha, Sopara and Kalyana on the west and Ghantasala,
Kodura and Maisolia in the east were most important ports. The Periplus notes that
Barukachcha imported wines, silver vessels, fine cloth and ornaments while its exports included
ivory, agate, silk cloth and pepper. The ship-mast coins of Pulomavi II and Yajna Sri is proved
the encouragement of the rulers to the maritime trade and its development. The discovery of
a large number of Roman coins at several places like Pondicheri, Arikamidu, Kondapur,
Nagarjunakonda strengthens the above fact and were a proof for immense quantities of gold
flowed into the Deccan from Europe. Pliny observed that the Indian commodities were sold
in the Roman markets at hundred times their original prices.
The systems like joint family, chaturvarna and Caste system were in vogue.Emperors
like Gautamiputra Satakarni tried to stop the contamination of the castes. However, the
bonds of caste did not grow up rigid as it is come to known with foreigners like the
Sakas were admitted into the Hindu society.
The Brahmins occupied a high and honoured place and were gifted lands by the
rulers. Gifts to Brahmins were considered meritorious deeds. The people were being
called according their craft or profession such as mentioned above viz., the halaka
(cultivator), golika (herdsman), gadhika (druggist), vadhaki (carpenter), kolika (weaver),
tilapisaka (oil-presser) and kamara (iron-worker) which led to the formation of sub-
castes.
Women also occupied a prominent position in society. Royal ladies like Naganika
and Bala Sri took leading part even in the affairs of the state. The status of women in this
period is also to be understood by the names of the Satavahana kings which were prefixed
216
mothers' name like Gautamiputra and Vashisthiputra. Amaravati inscription show that
women were allowed to possess property of their own and they freely joined with men
in making donations. The royal ladies patronized Buddhism and made liberal grants to
the Chaityas and Viharas. It is come to known that some women occupied high positions
in the administration as the terms like Mahasenapatini, Mahabhoji and Maharathini
mentioned in the inscriptions. Polygamy was in practice but it was confined to the ruling
class only. Widow marriages were unknown.
It was at that time there was a movement for the revival of Brahmanism. The early
Satavahanas gave up Jainism and given staunch support to Vedic religion and protected
Brahmins. The Nanaghat inscription of Naganika mentions the numerous sacrifices besides
two asvamedhas and one rajasuya performed by Satakarni I. He named one of his sons
as Veda Siri (the glory of altar). Gautamiputra Satakarni hailed Eka-Brahmana as he
was identified with the defender of the Vedic faith and tried to prevent Varna Sankara.
In spite of their devout to Brahmanism, they extended their patronage to Buddhism
which shows their religious tolerance. They made occasional grants to Buddhism. Some
of the Satavahana queens were Buddhists and they actively patronized the Buddhist
institutions. As per inscriptional evidence it is come to known that the Mahasanghika
school of Buddhism flourished in the South. A large number of inscriptions of
Dhanyakataka speak about the Chaityakas and it is believed to be the local name for the
Mahasanghikas. The worship of Chaitya was the most important feature of the
Chaityakavada. The Chaityaka-Mahasanghika concepts paved the way for Mahayanism.
Acharya Nagarjuna received patronage from the Satavahana king Yajna Sri and from his
time Andhradesa became the stronghold of Mahayanism. Nagarjuna was the exponent of
the Madhyamika philosophy. The glorious monuments of the west at Karle, Nasik and
Kanheri and of the east at Bhattiprolu, Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda belong to the
Satavahana period. Anyway the Satavahana period was the heyday of Buddhism in the
Deccan and both the Eastern and the Western. The Jain religion did not receive much
patronage from the rulers even though some of the early Satavahana kings embraced
Jainism and some of the contemporary border kingdoms like Kalinga, Malwa and Mysore
were renowned centres of Jainism.

1. What are the well known provinces during Satavahana period
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217
2. The Kshatrapa was
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14.5.5 Literature
Each Buddhist Vihara was centre of learning. The Buddhists established Universities
at Dhanyakataka and Sriparvata. The Buddhist acharyas were interested not only in
their canonical works but also in several branches of secular learning such as astronomy,
astrology, logic and grammar. Acharya Nagarjuna wrote some Sanskrit works like
Suhrillekha, Prajnaparamita-sastratika, Rasa Ratnakaram and Madhyamika Karika.
Almost all the inscriptions of this period are in Prakrit language as it was the
official language. Kuntala Satakarni patronized two great scholars namely Gunadhya
and Sarvavarma. Grunadhya wrote Brihatkatha in the Paisachi Prakrit language.
Sarvavarma wrote a Sanskrit grammar book named Katantravyakarana for the use of his
king to learn Sanskrit easy. Hala, the 17th king was a poet and he compiled Gathasaptasati,
an anthology of 700 Prakrit verses composed by a number of poets and poetesses, and he
won a name Kavivatsala. Almost all the inscriptions of this period are in Prakrit language
and Brahmi script. Besides Sanskrit and Prakrit, there was another language in the
Deccan known as Desi, the language of common people. The term Desi may mean
'native language' or the language of the common man, and it is the parent of the South
Indian languages like Telugu and Kannada. Gathasaptasati contains many Desi terms
like Attha, Pilla, Natthi, Addam etc.
The Satavahana period witnessed great building activity for which Buddhism was
the inspiration. The Gathasaptasati mentions the temples of Gauri and Ganapati, but no
traces of them are found. Almost all the constructions were Buddhist viz., Stupas (a
14.2: Amarnath Stupa
218
monument built on the remains of either the Buddha or any other great Buddhist teacher),
Chaityas (a Buddhist temple with a Stupa) and Viharas (a Buddhist monastery where the
monks resided during the rainy season). They followed Rock-cut architectural style in
the constructions of Western Deccan and Brick-built structures in the Eastern Deccan.
The Buddhist Stupas in the Eastern Deccan at Bhattiprolu, Amaravathi and Jaggayyapeta
were built in this period and are the oldest in the South. The Chaityas in the Western
Deccan at Karle and Nasik and in the east at Chejerla and Nagarjunakonda are important
one. The Karle Chaitya is the most spacious and most imposing in regard to its architectural
design. The Viharas at Kanheri in the west; Amaravathi and Nagarjunakonda in the east
are famous in this period. Besides of these three structures there Sangaramas, a Buddhist
monastery with a school attached to it. There was a Mahasangarama at Nagarjunakonda.
14.6 AMARAVATI SCHOOL OF ART

The Buddhist Stupa constructed at Amaravati was the largest in South India. It is
believed that the construction of this magnificent monument had been continued from the
beginning to the end of the Satavahana period. Marble was used in the construction of
this Stupa. The engraved picture in the inner stupa depicts Buddha's life. It is important
to note that one of the schools of Indian art is named after Amaravati, the capital of the
later Satavahanas. Similarly the earliest paintings especially the renowned 'Black Princess'
in the Ajanta caves belong to this period.
14.7 SUMMARY
What is the important of the rule of the Satavahanas is the history of India before
the advent of the Satavahanas was mainly the history of North India. But due to the
Satavahanas the role of South India has began in Indian history. The Satavahana Empire
at its zenith included not only Telangana and Andhra Pradesh but also parts of Maharastra,
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Bihar. The Satavahana
rulers, in number 30, are identified with the Andhras of Puranas. Gautamiputra Satakarni
was the greatest among them.The Satavahanas followed the Mauryan policies in the
administration as they were the feudatories to the Mauryas.The period of the Satavahanas
witnessed the heyday of Buddhism. As the successors of Yajnasri were very weak, the
feudatories declared independence and established their dynasties.The period of the
Satavahanas witnessed freewill of women; development of agriculture; the growth of
trade and commerce; Buddhist art and architecture and heyday of Buddhism.

1. The foreign sources for Satavahana history is Megastamies ‘indica’, Arrian, Pliny
writings and the Greek unknown writer book “the periplus of Erythrian Sea”.
2. P.T. Srinivasa Iyyanger and H.C. Raychand Hari opioned that Maharastra was the
original home of Satavahanas.
219
1. Govardhanara, Sopara and Mamala are important provinces.
2. Barukacha, Sopara, Kalyana, Ghantasala, Kodura and Moisolia were important
parts during Satavahana period.

1. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each.
1. Briefly explain about the greatness of Gautamiputra Satakarni
2. Briefly discuss abouth the administration of the Satavahanas.
3. Discuss about the socio-economic conditions during the Satavahana period.
4. What was the contribution of the Satavahanas to the Indian Art and Architecture.
1. Satakarni I
2. Trade and Commerce under the Satavahanas.
3. Literary Development under the Satavahnas.
4. Amaravati School of Art.

1. Satyanarayana, K. : A Study of the History and Culture of the
Andhras
2. Hanumantha Rao, B.S.L., &
Basaveswara Rao, K. : Indian History and Culture
3. Sharma, R.S. : Ancient India.
4. Hanumantha Rao, B.S.L. : The Age of Satavahanas.
5. Raghunatha Rao, P.R. : History and Culture of Andhra Pradesh
6. Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. : History of South India
7. Gopala Reddy, Y. : A Comprehensive History of Andhra
9. Rosan Dalal : A History of India for Children
*****
220
BLOCK-V: POLITICAL CONDITIONS IN DECCAN AND
SOUTH INDIA
In South Indian history the Satavahanas occupies an important place. The Satavahanas
were the first empire-builders in the Deccan. They patronized Prakrit language. The rulers
also wrote and compiled literary works. They patronized both the Buddhism and the
Brahmanism. Acharya Nagarjuna, the famous Buddhist philosopher was patronized by Yajna
Sri Satakarni. The Satavahanas contributed a lot for the development of South Indian Culture.
In the history of South India, Sangam Age is prominent. The Chola, Chera and Pandya
kings ruled the Tamilnadu and Kerala. They encouraged agriculture, industry, trade etc. they
were also encouraged cultural development in South India. Number of foreigners visited Kerala
and Tamil ports. Sangam period witnessed a close and peaceful interaction between north
Indian and south Indian traditions. Sangam rulers patronized many poets and writers in their
court. They contributed for the development of literature and culture in the Deccan. This
block consists two units, which gives detailed information about the South Indian history and
culture. There are two units in the block such as;
Unit-14: Satavahanas
Unit-15: Sangam Age
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206
UNIT-14: THE SATAVAHANAS
Contents
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Sources
14.2.1 Archaeological Sources
14.2.2 Literary Sources
14.3 Original home of the Satavahanas
14.4.1 The Early Satavahanas
14.4.2 The Later Satavahanas
14.5 General Conditions
14.5.5 Literature
14.6 Amaravathi School of Art
14.7 Summary
14.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
14.0 OBJECTIVES
Know Sources and Political History of the Satavahanas;
Understand Socio-Economic Conditions during Satavahana Region;
Describe Religious and Cultural conditions during Satavahana rule.
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14.1 INTRODUCTION
Due to disintegration of the Mouryan Empire several changes had taken place in the
history of political, socio-economic and cultural conditions of India. Politically the Post Mouryan
period is being called 'Age of the small kingdoms' as it was at that juncture various dynasties
like Sunga, Kanva, Satavahana, Chedi, Chera, Chola and Pandyas ruled from South India.
whereas the north western India was under the sway of foreign dynasties like Indo-Greeks;
Sakas; Pahllavas and Kushans. The Satavahanas ruled over Dakshinapatha for about 450
years. It is clear to say that a chronological history of Dakshinapatha is available only from the
time of Sathavahanas and it is the earliest historical dynasty in Deccan.
The Satavahanas are seems to be an aboriginal clan. The name Satakarni is a combination
of two Indo-Austric Munda words 'sada' and 'Kon'. Sada means horse and Kon means son.
The second element in the word 'Satavahana' is derived from 'han' or 'hapan', which means
'son'. Thus the root meanings of both Satavahana and Satakani are the same i.e. 'Son of the
Horse'.
14.2 SOURCES
To understand the Satavahanas history two types of sources are available, they are
Archaeological and literary Sources. Archaeological Sources consist of inscriptions and coins
whereas literary sources includes the works of Indian and foreign writers.
14.2.1 Archaeolgical Sources
Inscriptions
Satavahana inscriptions were explored at various places of nearly four states Maharastra,
Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. All these inscriptions are in the Prakrit
language and Brahmi script. The Satavahanas are mentioned by Puranas as Andhras or
Andhra- bhrityas. The inscriptions of the Satavahanas referred them as Satavahanas only.
Historians concluded that all these references denotes to Satavahanas who were ruled over
Deccan nearly about 450 years.
 The 13th Rock Edict of Ashoka, which found at Erragudi in Kurnool district, refers to
Andhras.
 There are about 25 inscriptions of the Satavahanas; a few were royal records and the
maximum were issued by private individuals. Among the royal inscriptions Nanaghat
inscription of Queen Naganika and Nasik Prasasti of Goutami Balasri are more significant.
 A few inscriptions of the contemporary ruler are also most useful to know the Satavahanas.
Among them the prominent are the Hathigumpha and Guntupalli inscriptions issued by
king Kharavela of Kalinga. These records state that a conflict had taken place in between
the rulers of Kalinga and the Satavahanas for the Godavari basin. One another important
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inscription was the Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman, the Saka ruler. It also records
Saka-Satavahana conflict.
Coins
The Satavahana coins are largely in metals like copper, lead and tin but less in silver. A
number of coins were excavated at several places like Kondapur (Medak), Peddabankur,
Dhulikatta and Kondapur (Karimnagar) of Telangana state. The coins found at Kotilingala
have the term 'Siri Chimukha Sata' at its' top. Dr. P.V. Parabrahma Sastry identified Chimukha
with Simukha, the founder of the Satavahana dynasty. The coins of Srimukha were the important
source by which the historians are often confronted with the baffling problem of the original
settlement and capital of the Satavahanas. Anyway the discovery of these coins strengthens
the claim of Telangana as the original home of the Satavahanas. The coins of the Saka king
Nahapana re-struck by Gautamiputra Satakarni prove the victory of Gautamiputra on
Nahapana.
Other monuments
The walled town was traced out in the excavations conducted at Dhulikatta or Dhulikota
(means mud fort) way back to Satavahana period. V.V. Krishna Sastry believed that this
walled town might be one of the 30 fortified towns of Andhras mentioned by Megasthanese.
14.2.2 Literary Source
Native Accounts
 Aitareya Brahmana, the earliest reference to the Andhras, which refers them as tribals
along with some other tribes namely Pulindas, Sabaras, Pundras and Mutibas.
 Mahabharata gives information that the Kouravas gained the support of Andhras.
 The Buddhist works like the Jatakas, Pitakas, Mahavasthu etc., are giving reference to
the Andhras.
 The different Puranas like Matsya, Vayu, Vishnu, Bhagavata, Brahmanda are main
sources of information on the Satavahanas.
 The Kathasaritsagara of Somadeva, Yugapurana of Gargi samhita, Early Jaina Sutra
literature, Lilavati of Kutuhala and the Harshacharitra of Bana contain several traditions
about the Satavahana kings.
 The Gathasaptasati of the 17th Satavahana ruler, Hala, Brihat Katha of Gunadya and
Kamasutra of Vatsyayana are very useful to know about the socio-religious history of
this period.
Foreign Accounts
 Indica of Megasthanese, a Greek ambassador at the court of Chandragupta Maurya in
the 4th C.B.C., referred the Andhras as a powerful people with 30 walled towns and
given particulars of their military might. He was followed by Pliny who repeated
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Megasthanese's account. Arrian, another Greek writer, referring with Indica, noted in
his book that the Andhras were divided into a number of tribal kingdoms.
 The Periplus of Erythrean Sea of an anonymous Greek sailor notes the conflict between
the Sakas and the Satavahanas for the possession of the west coast port of Bharukachcha
and describes the vigorous maritime trade carried on by the Deccan. He also mentioned
of Masalia or Maisolia identified with Machilipatnam.
14.3 ORIGINAL HOME OF THE SATAVAHANAS

There are unending confronts and contradictions among the scholars regarding identity
and original home of the Satavahanas.
The historians like E.J. Rapson, Dr. Vincent Smith and Sir R.G. Bhandarkar as the
opined that the Satavahanas and the Andhras both are one as the Andhras of the puranic list
with the Satavahanas of the inscriptions are close correspondence. The historian like Vincent
Smith opined that Krishna-Godavari region of the Eastern Deccan in general; the places
either Srikakulam or Dhanyakataka was the early rise place of the Satavahanas. After the
death of Asoka, the Andhras asserted their independence and extended their empire towards
Western Deccan. This view was accepted by other historians like E.J. Rapson, L.D. Barnett,
R.G. Bhandarkar and Maremanda Rama Rao. It is important to note that Satavahana-kota /
Satanikota of Kurnool district is the only village in the present Seemandhra/Andhra Pradesh
State which resembles the nomenclature of the Satavahanas.
The above view was challenged by the historians like P.T. Srinivasa Iyyangar, and H.C.
Rayachaudhari who argued that Maharashtra was the original home of the Satavahanas. For
this they argue that the early capital of Satavahanas was Prathistana or modern Paithan in the
Aurangabad district of Maharashtra; the earliest inscriptions led by Satavahanas are found in
Maharastra, meanwhile in no inscription Satavahanas were called Andhras. And finally
according to them the last Satavahana rulers who lost their power in Maharashtra were moved
eastwards and conquered Andhradesa.
These views were challenged by V.S. Sukthankar who argued that Bellary district of
Karnataka state was the original home of the Satavahanas. He based his argument upon the
names Satavahana-ahara and Satavahana-ratha used respectively in Myakadoni inscription
of Pulomavi III (the last Satavahana ruler) and Hiharadagalli plates of Pallava Sivaskanda
Varman, found in Bellary district. But this argument was questioned and opposed by historians
like M. Rama Rao. As like as Satavahanahara in Karnataka, there is one village named
Satavahana-kota in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh i.e. Satavahana-kota of Nandikotkur
taluk.
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14.1: Dhulikatta Buddhist Stupa
Telangana state as number of coins of Srimukha, the founder of the Satavahana dynasty,
were found in Kotilingala of Karimnagar district and some other historical places namely
Kondapur, Peddabankur and Dhulikatta, where several seals, coins, terracotta objects the
Satavahanas were discovered, are also in the Telangana state. On the basis of the find of the
Kondapur coin, Maremanda Rama Rao said that "We can locate Telangana as the starting
place of Satavahana rule." However, it is accepted that the Satavahanas established their
authority first in Telangana and then spread their empire towards all sides.

1. What are the foreign sources for Satavahana history?
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2. Maharashtra was the original home of the Satavahanas.
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There is a wide divergence of opinions about the dates and the period during which
each of the kings ruled. So it is difficult one to give proper and apt dates to the ruling period
of the same. Anyway the 30 kings of Satavahana dynasty were ruled nearly 450 years i.e.
approximately B.C. 221 to A.D.220.
14.4.1 THE EARLY SATAVAHANAS
Simukha (221-198 B.C.)
Simukha, the founder of the Satavahana dynasty, since his name had given at the top of
the list of Andhra kings in the Puranas. Though he was the founder of Satavahana Empire, his
dynasty was being come to be known after his ancestor or father 'Satavahana'. In the recently
discovered coins at Kotilingala, the king Srimukha was mentioned as 'Siri Chimukha Sata'.
Srimukha defeated the local tribe Rathikas and invaded the Western Deccan. But he
consolidated his position by entering into a matrimonial alliance with Rathikas. Srimukha's
son Satakarni I was married to Naganika, the daughter of Maharathi Tranakairo. It is come
to known that at his early days he followed Jainism.
Kanha (198-180 B.C.)
According to the Puranas, Srimukha was succeeded by his brother Kanha or Krishna
as at the time of Srimukha's death, his son Satakarni I was a minor and thereby Kanha acted
as his guardian to safeguard the kingdom.
Satakarni I (180-170 B.C.)
Satakarni, the 3rd ruler among the Satavahanas, married Naganika of the Maharathis
who were powerful in Southern Maharashtra. This alliance increased the advantage to Satakarni
in the expansion of the kingdom. He conquered western Malwa, Anupa or Narmada valley
and Southern part of Vidharbha. All these invasions of Satakarni I were recorded after his
death in the Nanaghat inscription issued by his wife Naganika. He was described in the same
inscription as Vina, Sura, Apratihatachakra, Dakshinapathapati whereas Puranas called him
Mahan. During his reign king Kharavela of Kalinga conducted three expeditions into the
territory of the Satavahanas, but he failed to subjugate the country. Satakarni I, as a follower
of Vedic religion, performed the two Aswamedha Sacrifices, one Rajasuya Yaga and some
other numerous sacrifices to celebrate his success on several regions. And on the occasion of
these sacrifices, Satakarni gifted away thousands of cows, Karshapanas and land to Brahmins.
Satakarni II (152 -96 B.C.)
After the death of Satakarni I, the history of the Satavahanas was somewhat ambiguous.
Anyway Satakarni II, the 6th king, his reign 56 years was the longest in the annals of the
dynasty. His coins are found in Telangana, Northern Maharashtra, Malwa and Madhya Pradesh
by which it is able to agree that Satakarni II ruled over an extensive empire. According to
Yugapurana, after drove the Sakas out of Kalinga he then advanced to Pataliputra and annexed
it.
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Pulomavi I
He was succeed by his father Satakarni I. He was continued the legacy of the Satavahana
kingdom. He was also a great warrior like his father, for the first time in the history of India a
south Indian king invaded on pataliputra the iconic capital of Ancient India. He was defeated
and killed kanva king susarma, the then ruler of Magadha kingdom. He ruled over about for
sometime from Patna. The Satavahana flag rised on North India. Thus the puranas refers
Andhras as poulomas.
Kuntala Satakarni (38-30 B.C.)
Though Kuntala Satakarni, the 13th king, ruled for a short period, his rule was memorable
as Sanskrit replaced Prakrit as the official language of the empire. His dominions included
Dakshinapatha and some parts of North India. Kavya Mimamsa of Rajasekhara and
Kamasutra of Vatsyayana were literary works in which Kuntala Satakarni was mentioned.
Gunadhya and Sarvavarma, who wrote Brihatkatha and Katantra Vyakarana orderly, were
also poets of Kuntala reign.
Hala (A.D.19-24)
Hala, the 17th ruler, was known as Kavivatsala (patron of the poets). He compiled
Gathasaptasti, an anthology of 700 gathas in Prakrit language. The Prakrit poetical work
Lilavati by Kuthuhala describes the love story of Hala and Lilavati, a princess from Sri Lanka.
He was a great poet, but incompetent ruler. This gave an ample opportunity to the enemies to
exploit the situation. Finally the Satavahanas might be confined to only Andhradesa.
Gautamiputra Satakarni (78-102)
Gautamiputra Satakarni, the 23rd king, was the son of Sivaswati and Gautami Balasri.
He was one of the ablest rulers in ancient India, who restored the power of Satavahana
dyansty. His victories and greatness were known by two of his Nasik records, the Nasik
Prasasti of his mother Gautami Balasri who was issued during the 19th regional year of his son
and successor, Pulomavi II. When a gloomy condition in the state, he was credited with the
first victories on the neighbouring kingdoms namely Assaka (Telangana), Asika (probably the
land between the rivers Godavari and Krishna, south of Assaka), Mulaka (Aurangabad district
of Maharastra) and Vidarbha (Berar area of Maharastra). The next unique victory was on the
Saka ruler Nahapana. It was being known from a large number of Copper and Silver coins
as many as 9270 of Nahapana found at Jogalthambi were re-struck by Gautamiputra Satakarni.
This victory was followed by the recovery of the erstwhile Satavahana dominions up to Malwa
i.e. Anupa, Aparantha, Saurashtra, Kukura and Avanti. The Sakas were divided into two
families viz. Kshaharatas and Kardamakas. The present Saka ruler Nahapana belonged to
Kshaharata dynasty.
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These expeditions resulted that the state of Gautamiputra Satakarni included parts of
Maharastra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and the entire Telangana and
Andhra Pradesh. Hundreds of his coins were obtained from excavations at Kondapur and
Padabankur, both in Teangana. As he was mentioned in Nasik Prasasthi with a title 'Thrisamudra
Toya Pitavahana' (one whose horses drunk the waters of the three oceans), suggests the fact
that his armies had touched the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean. It is
also known from Nasik Prasasthi that having upheld the Vedic Dharma, he stopped the
contamination of the four varnas/castes and won recognition as Ekabrahmana.
Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by sons Vashistaputra Pulomavi / Pulomavi II

(102-130) and Sivasri Satakarni (130-154) orderly. During the period of these both rulers
the Satavahana Empire began to disintegrate in the west and north. Rudradaman (130-150),
the Saka ruler of Saurashtra, defeated Sivasri Satakarni twice, but did not destroy him an
account of matrimonial relations. It was known from Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman.
14.4.2 THE LATER SATAVAHANAS
Yajnasri Satakarni (174-203)
In inscriptions and coins he is mentioned a Gautamiputra Sri Yajna Satakarni. He was

the 26th king of Satavahanas. He took an advantage of a civil war in the Saka (Kardamaka
dynasty) kingdom between Jivadama and Rudradama and invaded Ujjain and so the supremacy
of the Satavahanas was established over a greater part of Western and Central Deccan. It is
known by the discovery of some of Yajnasri silver coins with his bust on the obverse and his
name in two languages have been found in Maharastra. He also issued silver coins with a ship
having two masts, found on the Coromandal coast which indicating his love for navigation and
flourishing international trade during his times. Yajnasri is known from three inscriptions at
Nashik, Kanheri and chinaganjam.
Yajnasri patronized Nagarjuna, the exponent of Madhyamika doctrine of Buddhist
philosophy, who resided in the Buddhist monastery at Sriparvata, known as Nagarjunakonda.
According to a story in Kathasaritsagara, Nagarjuna was murdered at the behest of the crown
prince.
The Satavahana kingdom was balkanized after the death of Yajnasri as a number of
independent principalities emerged in Deccan and Andhra also. By the Myakadoni (Bellary
district) inscription of Pulomavi III, the last ruler, it is come to known that he ruled in the
Satavahanahara for a few years which ended in A.D. 218. However, finally the Abhiras
became independent in Maharashtra i.e. around Nasik and the Ikshavakus established their
authority in some parts of Telangana and Krishna-Guntur region in Andhra, particularly around
Nagarjunakonda. The Pallavas emerged in the south-eastern tracts. Thereby the Satavahana
rule came to an end in the early times of the 3rd C.A.D.
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14.5 GENERAL CONDITIONS
The Satavahanas held sway over some parts of North and South India and entire
Deccan for nearly 450 years. In this connection we can agree that no other South Indian
dynasty could unite and ruled such extensive area.
The Satavahanas, just they followed the Mauryan administrative system as they were
being the feudatories of the Mauryans and they also introduced certain innovations. In this
regard as Prof. R.S. Sarma observes, the administration of the Satavahanas was a link between
the Maurya and Guptas and between the north and the south. Their government was based
upon hereditary monarchy. The king took the title either raja or maharaja. He was the
commander of the army and personally led them to the battlefield. The emperor was assisted
by a number of ministers of different grades and status. Among the ministers, Visvasa amatya
held the prominent position as he was consulted by the king on all important matters. The
Rajamatyas who ranked below the Visavasa Amatya constituted the ministerial council. Officials
of the higher echelons are included Mahamatras (Head of the Departments), Bhandagarika
(Supervisor of stores), Heranika (Treasurer), Mahasenapati (Commander-in-chief),
Mahataraka (Chamberlain); other officials are Prathiharas and Dutas (messengers), Ganapaka
(Accountant), Lekhaka (writer or clerk), Nibandhanakara (Registrar of Documents) and
Pattikapalaka (Director of Archives).
The empire was divided into a number of provinces called Aharas and these were
placed under governors called Amatyas. Govardhana (Nashik), Sopara and Mamala (Pune)
were some of the well known provinces or Aharas. The Grama (village) was the basic unit of
administration and was in charge by an official called Gramika or Gramani. The trade and
merchant corporations known as Nigamasabhas played an important part in looking after the
administration of towns and villages.
The Satavahana period was flourished with full of economic prosperity as the two
capital cities of the Satavahanas, Paithan and Amaravati are located on the left banks of rivers
Godavari and Krishna orderly. And so these two rivers became main source for agriculture
and trade and commerce. Gathasaptasati mentioned that the villages were prosperous and
grew a variety of crops like paddy, gingelly and sugarcane. Eastern-Deccan (Telangana)
covered by alluvial soil wa agriculturally more advanced and densely populated. Anyway the
main source of the state's income was land revenue. The royal share of the agricultural produce
was known as 'bhoga' and 'deyameya'. Besides this, taxes called 'Karukara' were collected
from artisan. Some of classes of workers were mentioned in Nasik inscription viz., the
Chammakaras (leather-workers), Kolika (weavers), Kularas (poters), Tilapisakas (oil pressers),
Odayantrikas (makers of hydraulic machines), Kamaras (iron workers), Kasakaras (braziers),
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Suvannakaras (goldsmiths), Manikaras (jewelers), Vaidhakis (carpenters) etc. Especially
pottery, carpentry, mining, metallurgy appear to have received special attention. Pieces of
pottery with ornamental designs, artistic shapes and fine polish have come to light in the
excavations at Kondapur, Amaravati and Paithan. Each of these professions or vocations
organized itself into a guild or sreni. Each guild had Sethin or sresthi and its office in the Town-
halls or Nigamasabhas. What is an interesting feature of these guilds was they served even as
banks by receiving cash deposits; endowments of property and giving loans with some rate of
interest.
In the Western Deccan there were a number of market towns such as Paithan,
Govardhana, Vaijaynati and Nasik where as in the case of Eastern Deccan Kondapur,
Vijayapuri, Kudura, Dhanyakataka and Narasala were the places of rich merchants. The
inland market towns of Telangana included Kotilingala, Peddabankur and Dhulikatta or
Dhulikota (mud fort). These market centers were connected with one another and with
important ports by roads. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea by an anonymous unknown
Greek sailor gives an interesting account of the ports on the coasts of India and the foreign
trade they were carrying on. Barukachcha, Sopara and Kalyana on the west and Ghantasala,
Kodura and Maisolia in the east were most important ports. The Periplus notes that
Barukachcha imported wines, silver vessels, fine cloth and ornaments while its exports included
ivory, agate, silk cloth and pepper. The ship-mast coins of Pulomavi II and Yajna Sri is proved
the encouragement of the rulers to the maritime trade and its development. The discovery of
a large number of Roman coins at several places like Pondicheri, Arikamidu, Kondapur,
Nagarjunakonda strengthens the above fact and were a proof for immense quantities of gold
flowed into the Deccan from Europe. Pliny observed that the Indian commodities were sold
in the Roman markets at hundred times their original prices.
The systems like joint family, chaturvarna and Caste system were in vogue.Emperors
like Gautamiputra Satakarni tried to stop the contamination of the castes. However, the
bonds of caste did not grow up rigid as it is come to known with foreigners like the Sakas
were admitted into the Hindu society.
The Brahmins occupied a high and honoured place and were gifted lands by the rulers.
Gifts to Brahmins were considered meritorious deeds. The people were being called according
their craft or profession such as mentioned above viz., the halaka (cultivator), golika (herdsman),
gadhika (druggist), vadhaki (carpenter), kolika (weaver), tilapisaka (oil-presser) and kamara
(iron-worker) which led to the formation of sub-castes.
Women also occupied a prominent position in society. Royal ladies like Naganika and
Bala Sri took leading part even in the affairs of the state. The status of women in this period is
also to be understood by the names of the Satavahana kings which were prefixed mothers'
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name like Gautamiputra and Vashisthiputra. Amaravati inscription show that women were
allowed to possess property of their own and they freely joined with men in making donations.
The royal ladies patronized Buddhism and made liberal grants to the Chaityas and Viharas. It
is come to known that some women occupied high positions in the administration as the terms
like Mahasenapatini, Mahabhoji and Maharathini mentioned in the inscriptions. Polygamy
was in practice but it was confined to the ruling class only. Widow marriages were unknown.
It was at that time there was a movement for the revival of Brahmanism. The early
Satavahanas gave up Jainism and given staunch support to Vedic religion and protected
Brahmins. The Nanaghat inscription of Naganika mentions the numerous sacrifices besides
two asvamedhas and one rajasuya performed by Satakarni I. He named one of his sons as
Veda Siri (the glory of altar). Gautamiputra Satakarni hailed Eka-Brahmana as he was identified
with the defender of the Vedic faith and tried to prevent Varna Sankara.
In spite of their devout to Brahmanism, they extended their patronage to Buddhism
which shows their religious tolerance. They made occasional grants to Buddhism. Some of
the Satavahana queens were Buddhists and they actively patronized the Buddhist institutions.
As per inscriptional evidence it is come to known that the Mahasanghika school of Buddhism
flourished in the South. A large number of inscriptions of Dhanyakataka speak about the
Chaityakas and it is believed to be the local name for the Mahasanghikas. The worship of
Chaitya was the most important feature of the Chaityakavada. The Chaityaka-Mahasanghika
concepts paved the way for Mahayanism. Acharya Nagarjuna received patronage from the
Satavahana king Yajna Sri and from his time Andhradesa became the stronghold of Mahayanism.
Nagarjuna was the exponent of the Madhyamika philosophy. The glorious monuments of the
west at Karle, Nasik and Kanheri and of the east at Bhattiprolu, Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda
belong to the Satavahana period. Anyway the Satavahana period was the heyday of Buddhism
in the Deccan and both the Eastern and the Western. The Jain religion did not receive much
patronage from the rulers even though some of the early Satavahana kings embraced Jainism
and some of the contemporary border kingdoms like Kalinga, Malwa and Mysore were
renowned centres of Jainism.

1. What are the well known provinces during Satavahana period
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2. The Kshatrapa was
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14.5.5 Literature
Each Buddhist Vihara was centre of learning. The Buddhists established Universities at
Dhanyakataka and Sriparvata. The Buddhist acharyas were interested not only in their
canonical works but also in several branches of secular learning such as astronomy, astrology,
logic and grammar. Acharya Nagarjuna wrote some Sanskrit works like Suhrillekha,
Prajnaparamita-sastratika, Rasa Ratnakaram and Madhyamika Karika.
Almost all the inscriptions of this period are in Prakrit language as it was the official
language. Kuntala Satakarni patronized two great scholars namely Gunadhya and Sarvavarma.
Grunadhya wrote Brihatkatha in the Paisachi Prakrit language. Sarvavarma wrote a Sanskrit
grammar book named Katantravyakarana for the use of his king to learn Sanskrit easy. Hala,
the 17th king was a poet and he compiled Gathasaptasati, an anthology of 700 Prakrit verses
composed by a number of poets and poetesses, and he won a name Kavivatsala. Almost all
the inscriptions of this period are in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. Besides Sanskrit and
Prakrit, there was another language in the Deccan known as Desi, the language of common
people. The term Desi may mean 'native language' or the language of the common man, and
it is the parent of the South Indian languages like Telugu and Kannada. Gathasaptasati contains
many Desi terms like Attha, Pilla, Natthi, Addam etc.
The Satavahana period witnessed great building activity for which Buddhism was the
inspiration. The Gathasaptasati mentions the temples of Gauri and Ganapati, but no traces of
them are found. Almost all the constructions were Buddhist viz., Stupas (a monument built on
14.2: Amarnath Stupa
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the remains of either the Buddha or any other great Buddhist teacher), Chaityas (a Buddhist
temple with a Stupa) and Viharas (a Buddhist monastery where the monks resided during the
rainy season). They followed Rock-cut architectural style in the constructions of Western
Deccan and Brick-built structures in the Eastern Deccan. The Buddhist Stupas in the Eastern
Deccan at Bhattiprolu, Amaravathi and Jaggayyapeta were built in this period and are the
oldest in the South. The Chaityas in the Western Deccan at Karle and Nasik and in the east at
Chejerla and Nagarjunakonda are important one. The Karle Chaitya is the most spacious and
most imposing in regard to its architectural design. The Viharas at Kanheri in the west;
Amaravathi and Nagarjunakonda in the east are famous in this period. Besides of these three
structures there Sangaramas, a Buddhist monastery with a school attached to it. There was a
Mahasangarama at Nagarjunakonda.
14.6 AMARAVATI SCHOOL OF ART

The Buddhist Stupa constructed at Amaravati was the largest in South India. It is
believed that the construction of this magnificent monument had been continued from the
beginning to the end of the Satavahana period. Marble was used in the construction of this
Stupa. The engraved picture in the inner stupa depicts Buddha's life. It is important to note
that one of the schools of Indian art is named after Amaravati, the capital of the later Satavahanas.
Similarly the earliest paintings especially the renowned 'Black Princess' in the Ajanta caves
belong to this period.
14.7 SUMMARY
What is the important of the rule of the Satavahanas is the history of India before the
advent of the Satavahanas was mainly the history of North India. But due to the Satavahanas
the role of South India has began in Indian history. The Satavahana Empire at its zenith
included not only Telangana and Andhra Pradesh but also parts of Maharastra, Gujarat, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Bihar. The Satavahana rulers, in number 30,
are identified with the Andhras of Puranas. Gautamiputra Satakarni was the greatest among
them.The Satavahanas followed the Mauryan policies in the administration as they were the
feudatories to the Mauryas.The period of the Satavahanas witnessed the heyday of
Buddhism. As the successors of Yajnasri were very weak, the feudatories declared
independence and established their dynasties.The period of the Satavahanas witnessed freewill
of women; development of agriculture; the growth of trade and commerce; Buddhist art and
architecture and heyday of Buddhism.

1. The foreign sources for Satavahana history is Megastamies ‘indica’, Arrian, Pliny writings
and the Greek unknown writer book “the periplus of Erythrian Sea”.
219
2. P.T. Srinivasa Iyyanger and H.C. Raychand Hari opioned that Maharastra was the
original home of Satavahanas.
1. Govardhanara, Sopara and Mamala are important provinces.
2. Barukacha, Sopara, Kalyana, Ghantasala, Kodura and Moisolia were important parts
during Satavahana period.

1. Briefly explain about the greatness of Gautamiputra Satakarni
2. Briefly discuss abouth the administration of the Satavahanas.
3. Discuss about the socio-economic conditions during the Satavahana period.
4. What was the contribution of the Satavahanas to the Indian Art and Architecture.
1. Satakarni I
2. Trade and Commerce under the Satavahanas.
3. Literary Development under the Satavahnas.
4. Amaravati School of Art.

1. Satyanarayana, K. : A Study of the History and Culture of the
Andhras
3. Sharma, R.S. : Ancient India.
4. Hanumantha Rao, B.S.L. : The Age of Satavahanas.
5. Raghunatha Rao, P.R. : History and Culture of Andhra Pradesh
7. Gopala Reddy, Y. : A Comprehensive History of Andhra
9. Rosan Dalal : A History of India for Children
*****
220
UNIT-15: SANGAM AGE
Contents
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Sources and Chronology
15.3.1 Cheras
15.3.2 Cholas
15.3.3 Pandyas
15.4 Political Conditions
15.6 Economic Conditions - Trade
15.7 Religion
15.8 Sangam Literature
15.9 End of the Sangam Age
15.10 Summary
15.0 OBJECTIVES
l Know the sources of Sangam Age;
l Understand the political history of Sangam period;
l Describe the Socio-Economic and Cultural conditions of Sangam Age;
l Analyse the Sangam literature.
15.1 INTRODUCTION
On the basis of literary, archaeological and numismatic evidences, the probable
date of the Sangam age or Sangam literature has been fixed between 3rd C.B.C to 3rd
C.A.D. i.e., around from Post-Mouryan period to Pre-Gupta period.
221
15.2 SOURCES AND CHRONOLOGY
Historians and Indologists regard the Sangam period as the ‘Classical Age’ and
‘Golden Age’ of the Tamils, which marked a unique epoch in the history of the Tamilakam.
The archaeological sources found from different explored or excavated sites throw light
on the various aspects of the political, social, economic, religious and cultural life of the
Sangam age people. However, the precious literary finds of this period discovered
from various places in South India provide us with the significant information in this
regard. In other words, the Sangam literature is the major source for the study of the
Sangam age. The other sources being -
1. The Greek writings of Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy.
2. Inscriptions led by Asoka the Great and Kharavela of Kainga.
3. The reports of excavations conducted at Arikkamedu, Poompuhar, Kodumanal.
The term ‘Sangam’ literally means ‘confluence’. However, in the context of
early South Indian history this term can be rendered into English as an assembly, a
college or an academy of learned people, held under the patronage of the Pandyan kings,
who were great lovers of literature and the fine arts. The Sangam was a voluntary
origanisation of poets. Assembly of learned people including the Sangam poets produced
literary works of high quality.
There is controversy among the scholars regarding the chronology of the Sangam
age. On the basis of the composition of Sangam literature, K.A.N. Sastri traces the Sangam
age to the period A.D. 100-250. According to tradition, the Tolkappiyam is the oldest among
extant Tamil works. M. Arokiaswami holds that as Tolkappiar, the author of Tolkappiyam,
flourished sometime in the 4th or 3rd c.B.C., the same date can be assigned to this literary
work. The corroboration of the literary sources with archaeological data enables us to place
the Sangam age in the chronological span of roughly about 600 years from c. 300 B.C to A.D
300.

There were three dynasties namely the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas in the far South of
India i.e in Kerala and Tamil Nadu during this Sangam Age. The region of three kingdoms was
commonly known as Tamiakam and Vengadam as Tirupati marked its norther boundary.
15.3.1 Cheras
The Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala. Their capital was Vanji. Bow and
Arrow was the Royal Emblem for Cheras. The Pugalur inscription and Padirruppattu provides
information on Chera kings. Udaiyan Cheralathan (Udaiyanjeral Adan) was the first king and
Nedum Cheralathan (Nedumjeral Adan) and Senguttuvan (the Red or Good Chera) were the
222
greatest rulers. Senguttuvan belonged to 2nd century A.D. Elango Adigal, younger brother
of Senguttuvan, was the author of Silappathigaram. It is described in Silappathigaram
that Senguttuvan conducted military expedition on north India and got victory over many
kings. After this victory he brought a stone from the Himalayas for making the idol of
Kannagi. The consecration ceremony was attended by many princes including Gajabhagu
II from Sri Lanka.
Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife
in Tamil Nadu. However, the description of Silappathikaram on north Indian victories of
Senguttuvan is dismissed as mythical. The Chera country was known for its buffaloes,
jack-fruit, pepper and turmeric.
15.3.2 Cholas
The Chola kingdom extended from modern Tiruchi district to southern Andhra
Pradesh. Their capital was Uraiyur, a place famous for cotton trade. Tiger was the Royal
Emblem for the Cholas. Elara was the founder of this dynasty. It seems that in the middle
of the 2nd C.B.C., Elara conquered Srilanka and ruled over it for 50 years. Karikala was
a famous king of the Sangam Cholas. His name might mean either 'man with black leg' or
'destroyer of the elephants of the enemy'. In the Battle of Venni he defeated the mighty
confederacy consisting of the Cheras, Pandyas and eleven minor chieftains. He invaded
Ceylon (Srilanka) and brought nearly 12,000 war-prisoners with whose labour Karikala
built 160 km of embankment along the river Kaveri.
Karikala founded Puhar and it is identical with Kaveripattanam. Karikala also
constructed many irrigation tanks and brought forest lands under the cultivation. Many
Tamil poets received his patronage. According to one tradition he once gifted so many
(16, 00,000) gold pieces to a poet.
From the 4th C.A.D. to 9th C.A.D., the Cholas played only a marginal part in the
south Indian history as they were wiped out by the attacks of the Pallavas and became
feudatories of the same.
15.3.3 Pandyas
The Pandyas ruled over the present day southern Tamil Nadu. Their capital was
Madurai. Carp was the Royal Emblem for the Pandyas. Nediyon and Mudukudumi
Peruvaludhi were the earliest kings of this dynasty. Neduncheliyan II (Nedunjeliyan)
was the famous one. He was entitled Talaiyalanganattu after defeating his enemies at the
battle of Talaiyalanganam (Tanjore District).
Maduraikkanji written by Mangudi Maruthanar describes the military achievements
of Neduncheliyan and socio-economic condition of the Pandya country. The last famous
Pandyan king was Uggira Peruvaludhi. The Pandyas traded with Rome and they sent
ambassadors (B.C. 20) to the court of Augustus, the Roman emperor (B.C.27 to A.D.14).
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15.4 POLITICAL CONDITIONS
The Sangam poems present a sketch reflecting the evolution of the state system in
South India for the first time. These works indicate the process of historical evolution in which
we find the tribes decreasing in number but existing as well established units by the side of the
king. So, the evidences suggest that state as an organised political structure had come into
existence although it was not yet stable. Though the democratic conception of the state
government had not yet become established the administration of the times partook of the
character of the monarchy tempered by the best effects of the democratic principle.
The Sangam poems present a sketch reflecting the evolution of the state system in
South India for the first time. These works indicate the process of historical evolution in which
we find the tribes decreasing in number but existing as well established units by the side of the
king. So, the evidences suggest that state as an organised political structure had come into
existence. Though the democratic conception of the state government had not yet become
established the administration of the times partook of the character of the monarchy tempered
by the best effects of the democratic principle.
Sangam polity was influenced by the North Indian political ideas and institutions in
many aspects. Many rulers sought their origin and association with deities like Siva, Vishnu
and ancient sages. Many kings are said to have participated in the Mahabharta war like their
North Indian counterparts. The rulers of Sangam age were also the patrons of art, literature
and performed yajnas.
Pari, Kari, Ori, Nalli, Pegan, Ay and Adiyaman, the minor chieftains, were subordinate
to the Chera, Chola and Pandya kings. They were powerful in their respective areas and
played a significant role in the Sangam period. Hereditary monarchy was the form of government.
The king was assisted by officials who were divided into five councils viz., were ministers
(amaichar), priests (anthanar), military commanders (senapathi), envoys (thuthar) and spies
(orrar). Land revenue was the chief source of state's income. Roadsand highways were well
maintained and guarded night and day to prevent robbery and smuggling.

The earliest phase of Sangam society as described by Tolkappiyam was based on the
five-fold classification of the land — the hill, the pastoral, the agricultural, the desert and the
coastal. Different kinds of people inhabited these various classified lands and developed certain
fixed customs and ways of life as a result of their interaction with respective environment. The
ecological variations also determined their occupations such as hunting, cultivation, pastoralism,
plunder, fishing, diving, sailing, etc.
224
Tolkappiyam refers to four castes namely Arasar, Anthanar, Vanigar and Vellalar.
The ruling class was called Arasar. Anthanars played a significant role in the religion.
Vanigars carried on trade and commerce. The vellalas were agriculturists. Ancient
primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.
According to Sangam literature Women enjoyed freewill. They were allowed to
select their life partners. Love marriage was a common practice. Sati practice was
prevalent but in the higher sections. Life of widows was miserable. Women poets also
like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar contributed to Tamil literature.
Prostitution was a recognised institution. However, the prostitutes were taken to
be the intruders in peaceful family life. But they figure so prominently in the poems and
enjoy such a social standing that there could be no doubt that the harlots of the Sangam
age were not the degraded prostitutes of the modern times. Though texts like Kuruntogai
refer to the harlots challenging wives and their relations, seducing men, the harlots gave
their companions more of a cultural enjoyment than anything else.

1. Write in brief about the Political History of Sangam Age.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
2. What is the Economic condition of Sangam Age.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
15.6 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS - TRADE

Agriculture was the chief occupation. The most considerable source of revenue
was land tax (Karai). Jack fruit and pepper were famous in the Chera country. Paddy
was the chief crop in the Chola and Pandya country.
Spoils of war further added to royal income. But the real foundation of war and
polity lay in regular income from agriculture. The share of the agricultural produce,
claimed and collected by the king, is not specified. The tip of the peninsula and the
adjacent regions were extremely fertile. The land produced paddy,ragi and sugarcane. It
was said of the Kaveri delta that the space in which an elephant could lie down produced
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enough to feed seven persons. In addition to this, the Tamil region produced grains,
fruits, pepper and turmeric. It seems that the king had a share in all this produce.
Out of the taxes collected from pleasantry, the state maintained a rudimentary
army. It consisted of chariots drawn by oxen, of elephants, cavalry and infantry. Elephants
played an important part in war. Horses were imported by sea into the Pandyan kingdom.
The nobles and princes or captains of army rode on elephants, and the commanders
drove on chariots. The footmen and horsemen wore leather sandles for the protection of
their feet.
The handicrafts include weaving, carpentry, ship building, metal working beads
and ivory works. There was a great demand in the western world for the cotton clothes
woven at Uraiyur. External trade was carried between South India and the Greek, Roman
kingdoms and Malaya and Java in the east. The chief-port cities were Puhar (Chola)
Tondi, Musiri (Chera), and Korkai (Pandya). The discovery of plenty of gold and silver
coins issued by the Roman Emperors found at several places like Muziris (Kerala),
Puhar and Arikamedu (Tami Nadu) reveal the extent of trade and commerce to European
countries from South India in general Tamil Nadu in particular. The information regarding
these economical contacts was provided by anonymous author (AD 80-96) of Periplus
of the Erythrean Sea. The main exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics, spices
like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon and turmeric, ivory products, pearls and
precious stones. Gold, horses and sweet wine were the chief imports. Madurai was
famous for its Pearls.
Trade , local and long-distance, constituted a very important source of royal
revenue. We know how the customs officials functioned in Puhar. Transit duties were
also collected from merchants who moved with their goods from place to place. For the
safety of merchants and prevention of smuggling, soldiers maintained constant vigil on
the road.
15.7 RELIGION
Ideas from the north started to influence this area. Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists and
Ajivakas travelled here. It is said that the rishi Agastya took the Vedic religion to the
south, which means Aryanisation of South India. The literary evidence presents a picture
of elaborate religious development in the Sangam age. The faiths like Brahmanism,
Jainism and Buddhism coexisted in the Tamil region during this period. Buddhism and
Jainism entered the region in the first centuries of the Christian era. The sects of
Brahmanism such as Saivism and Vaishnavism were also well-known religions during
the period.
The advent of Vedic people and the interaction of their faith with that of the
Tamils is well reflected by the Sangam works. Silappadikaram mentions about the “triple
sacred fire” the “twice born nature” the “six duties” and other ideas associated with the
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Brahmanas. Tolkappiyam also refers to the six Brahmanic duties. Brahmanical rites and
ceremonies were very much in practice. For example, the Pandyan king is described as
“having various sacrificial halls” in many Sangam poems.
The primary deity of the Sangam period was Murugan. The worship of Murugan
was having an ancient origin and the festivals relating to God Murugan was mentioned in
the Sangam literature. Other gods worshipped during the Sangam period were Mayon
(Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Varunan etc. 'Devavranda' was a term used to describe a
group of five gods, viz., Murugan, Shiva, Krishna, Balram and Indra. The megalithic
practice of providing for the dead continued. People offered paddy to the dead. The
Hero Stone or Virarkal/Nadu Kal worship was significant in the Sangam period. The
Hero Stones were erected in memory of the bravery shown by the warriors in battle.
This reminds us that the megalithic burial practice may have led to the later practice of
raising hero stones.
15.8 SANGAM LITERATURE

It is to be noted that more than 75 short inscriptions in the Brahmi script belong to
the 2nd C.B.C. which provides specimens of the earliest form of Tamil mixed with
Prakrit words have been found in natural caves, mainly in the Madurai region.
We have learnt that Sangam means Academy or Assembly of Tamil poets. Long
ago, it is believed that three Sangams or literary meetings, popularly called Muchchangam,
were held in ancient Tamil Nadu under the royal patronage of the Pandyas. The first
Sangam (Talai Sangam), held at Then Madurai, was attended by gods and legendary
sages but no literary work of this Sangam was available. The second Sangam (Idai
Sangam) was held at Kapadapuram but the all the literary works had perished except
Tolkappiyam. The third Sangam (Kadai Sangam) at Madurai was founded by
Mudathirumaran. It was attended by a large number of poets who produced voluminous
literature but only a few had survived. These Tamil literary works remain useful sources
to reconstruct the history of the Sangam Age.
The corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Pathinenmelkanakku (18
Major works i.e. Ettutogai, Pattuppattu), Pathinenkilkanakku (18 Minor works), and the
two epics - Silappathigaram and Manimegalai. Tolkappiyam authored by Tolkappiyar
(one of the 12 disciples of saint Agastya) is the earliest of the Tamil literature. It is a
work on Tamil grammar but it provides information on the political and socio-economic
conditions of the Sangam period.
The narrative text Pathinenmelkanakku consist Ettutogai and Pattuppattu. Ettutogai
or Eight Anthologies consist of eight works - Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru,
227
Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai,Paripadal and Padirruppattu. The Pattuppattu or
Ten Idylls consist of ten works - Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai,
Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullai-ppattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji,
Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam. Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were
divided into two main groups - Aham (love) and Puram (valour). The didactic work
Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen minor works mostly dealing with ethics and morals.
The most important among them is Tirukkural (known as the 'Bible of Tamil land') authored
by Thiruvalluvar which dealt with philosophy and wise maxims. The twin Tamil epics,
Silappathigaram of Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar also provides
valuable information on the Sangam polity and society. Jeevaka Chintamani or Sivaga
Sindhamani of Thiruthakkadevara gives information about the Jainism and general
conditions in those days. The Sangam literature not only gives information on ruling
class, but also about the lifestyle of ordinary people also.

1. Who was the primary diety of Sangam Period.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
2. What was the corpus of Sangam Literature
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
15.9 END OF THE SANGAM AGE

Towards the end of the third century A.D., the Sangam period slowly witnessed its
decline, probably because of their mutual wars. The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country
for about two and a half centuries. We have little information about the Kalabhra rule. Jainism
and Buddhism became prominent during this period. The Pallavas in the northern Tamil Nadu
and Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu drove the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and
established their rule.
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15.10 SUMMARY
The probable date of Sangam literature is 300 B.C to 300 A.D. Three dynasties,
the Chera, Chola and the Pandyas ruled over the extreme South India. The period witnessed
the conception of state for the first time in South India. Sangam means an Assembly of
Poets. Three Sangams were held in the Pandyan state. Sangam literature, written in
Tamil language, is the main source to know this period. Senguttuvan, Karikala and
Nedunjeliyan were great conquerors in the Sangam Age. Tamil Nadu and Kerala were
had considerable economic prosperity as having a trade contacts with ancient European
Empires like Greek and Roman. The belief systems and many of the Sangam Age continued
and survived in the later periods, some exists even today.

1. Karikala was a famous king of the Sangam Cholas. He defeated the confederacy of
Cheras and Pandyas. He invaded Ceylon (Srilanka). Karikala founded Puhar
(Kaveripattanam). He built embankment for the river Kaveri.
2. Puhar, Tondi, Musiri and Korkai were chief-port cities. Madurai was famous for its
Pearls. Uraiyur was a famous centre for cotton clothes. International trade contacts
were carried between South India and the Greek, Roman kingdoms, Malaya and Java.
The main exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics, spices, ivory products, pearls
and precious stones. Gold, horses and sweet wine were the chief imports.
1. The Primary diety of the Sangam Period was Murugan.
2. The Corpus of Sangam Literature is Tolkapiyam, Ettutogai, Pattupattu and two epics
Silapradikaram and Manimegalai.

1. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each
1. Write a note on the Sangam Literature?
2. Discuss the Socio-economic condition of ancient Tamil Nadu?
1. Briefly explain about the achievements of Senguttuvan, the Chera king?
2. Give an account of the religious conditions of the Sangam period?
229
1. Roshan Dalal, : A History of India for Children
2. Sharma, R.S., : Ancient India
3. Agnihotri, V.K. : Indian History and Culture
4. Krishna Reddy, K. : Indian History
8. History Text book for the class XI, Tamil Nadu.
*****
230
COURSE-I: INDIAN HISTORY AND CULTURE
FROM EARLIEST TIMES TO 712 C.E.
SYLLABUS
Block-I : Introduction to History
Unit-1 : Definition, Scope and Significance
Unit-2 : History Relation with other Disciplines
Unit-3 : Sources of History
Unit-4 : Influence of Geography and Environment
Block-II : Stone Age, Harappa and Vedic Culture

Unit-5 : Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic Ages and
Chalcolithic Culture
Unit-6 : Harappan Civilization
Unit-7 : Vedic Culture
Block-III : Mahajanapadas and Rise of New Religions in 6th C.B.C.

Unit-8 : Mahajanapadas and Rise of Magadha
Unit-9 : Jainism, Buddhism and other Heterodox Sects
Block-IV : Rise of Empires in Northern India

Unit-10 : Mauryas
Unit-11 : Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Prathians, Kshatrapas and Kushanas
Unit-12 : Guptas
Unit-13 : Pushyabhuties-Harshavardana
Block-V : Political conditions in Deccan and South India

Unit-14 : Satavahanas
Unit-15 : Sangam Age
231
Dr. B.R. AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
B.A. I YEAR - SEMESTER - 1
MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTION PAPER
SUBJECT: HISTORY
COURSE - 1: INDIAN HISTORY AND CULTURE FROM EARLIEST TIMES
TO 712C.E.
Time: 3 Hours [Max. Marks: 100]
[Min. Marks: 40]
SECTION - A
[Marks: 5 x 4 = 20]
Instructions to the Candidates:
a) Answer any Five of the following questions in about 10 lines each.
b) Each question carries Four marks.
1. Explain the Nature of History.

2. Discuss the Epigraphical Sources.
3. Explain the different types of Neolithic Tools.
4. Write a note on the later Vedic Culture.
5. Describe the Eight-Fold-Paths of Buddhism.
6. Discuss the importance of Asoka Dhamma.
7. Explain the development of Science and Technology during Gupta Rule.
8. Describe Harsha’s Religious policy.
9. Discuss the contribution of Satavahanas to Literature.
10. Briefly describe the importance of Sangam Literature.
SECTION - B
[Marks: 5 x 12 = 60]
a) Answer all the following questions in about 30 lines each.
b) Each question carries 12 marks.
11. (a) Write a note on Nature and Scope of History.
Or
(b) Explain the Relationship between History and Economics.
232
12. (a) Discus the Economic Conditions during Harappa Civilization.
Or
(b) Explain the nature of Vedic Society.
13. (a)Write a note on the Political developments in Northern India during 6th century B.C.
Or
(b) Analyze the Socio-Religious conditions during Kanishka Rule.
14. (a) Describe the Socio-Economic conditions during Gupta Rule.
Or
(b) Explain the role of Harsha for spreading the Buddhism in India.
15. (a) Briefly describe the Cultural conditions during Sangam Age.
Or
(b) Describe the Religious conditions during Satavahana Rule
SECTION - C
[Marks: 20 x 1 = 20]
c) Answer all of the following questions.
d) Each question carries One mark.
A. Multiple Choice Questions. Choose the Correct Answer.
16. Father of History is
(a) Plato (b) Aristotle (c) Adams Smith (d) Herodotus
]17. "History is the Record of Moral Values" says by
(a) Ranke (b) E.H. Car (c) John Bury (d) Lecky
18. The Jargar Unit called as
(a) Bharat (b) Hindustan (c) India (d) Jambudvipa
19. The Highest Peak in Himalayas is
(a) Everest (b) Kanchenjunga (c) Dhaulagiri (d) Nanga Parbat
20. The Guru Sikhar is located in
(a) Aravalli (b) Satpura (c) Vindhya (d) Deccan Plateau
21. The most sacred River in India is
(a) Yamuna (b) Musi (c) Krishna (d) Ganga
233
22. The Founder of the Jainism is
(a) Parshava (b) Rushabha (c) Chndragupta (d) Mahavira
23. Indica written by
(a) Kautilya (b) Kalhana (c) Bana (d) Megasthenes
24. Who was Founder of the Saka Era?
(a) Kujula (b) Wima Kadphises (c) Kanishka (d) Huvishka.
25. Allahabad Inscription belongs to
(a) Harsha (b) Asoka (c) Kharavela (d) Samudragupta
B. Match the Following:

A B
26. Hiuen Tsang a. Pataliputra
27. Adams Smith b. Gatha Saptasati.
28. Bana c. Traveler
29. Hala d. Economics
30. Magadha e. Harsha Charitra
C. Fill in the Blanks:
31. The term History derived from the Greek word ...........................
32. ................................... was the Ptolemy's Work.
33. .................................... was the Sri Lankan chronicle.
34. Alexander entered into India in the year .......................................
35. ..................................... laid by Naganika.
*****
234
GLOSSARY
1. Abbot : Superior in a monastary.
2. Abhayamudra : Hand posture of a diety or saint as a gesture of protection
or reassurance to the devotees.
3. Advaita : A philosophical concept of the Hindus which preaches the
non-duality or identity of the Brahman with the universe of
spirit and matter, otherwise known as monism.
4. Agraharas : A royal donation of land or village to brahmanas.
5. Alluvial : Fertile soil that is formed due to the flowing of a river or
sea in a plain.
6. Amalaka : In Sanskrit, it refers to a fruit of Indian gooseberry. In
architecture, it is high flattened ribbed disc in the shape of
this fruit. It forms one of the crowning elements of the north
Indian temples.
7. Ambulatory : Passage adopted for walking.
8. Antiquities : Ancient things.
9. Antithetican : Constrasting; consisting of two opposites.
10. Arhat : A Buddhist monk who was reached the stage of Nirvana
or heavenly bliss.
11. Aryavartha : Northern India, or the land inhabited by the Aryans in the
Vedic period.
12. Artha : Material prosperity or wealth, whose acquiring formed one
of the four purposes of a man’s life according to Hindu
mythology.
13. Asvamedha : Horse sacrifice performed by ancient Hindu rulers to
proclaim their suzerainty over the land.
14. Avatara : An incornation, Vihnu is believed to have descended on
the earth in mortal from time to time, to save mankind from
evil forces or persons. So far, ten such incarnations are
known, the last being of or Kali Avatara.
15. Avestan : Pertaining to Avesta, the sacred workings of zoroastrain
religion of ancient persia.
16. Awl : A point of bone, flint or metal used for piercing holes.
17. Ayake : Five columnsm standing on the projecting platforms on
four sides of some Stupas. Example, Amaravathi Stupa
235
18. Bards : Poets who composed and recited verses on the legends
and history of the people
19. Barrel-vault : A simple vault or arch, with a continuous semi-circular
section
20. Bead-making : Making a neck ornaments with beads or pearls or semi-
precious stones
21. Beaker-pottery : Pottery used for drinking purposes
22. Bhagavata : A cult of devotion to Vishnu
23. Bhakti : Devotion
24. Blade : A long parallel-sided flake struck from a specially prepared
core
25. Bodhisatva : One who works for the welfare of the world and voluntarily
postpones his own release from rebirth; also regards as an
incarnation of the Buddha, prior to his own birth in the
world.
26. Brick-Kiln : The hot-oven like structure in which wet bricks are burnt
for gaining hardness or strength.
27. Brahmadeya : Revenue from a village or a land donated to a brahman.
28. Burin : A pointed tool made of chipped flint or stone and used for
engraving on bone antler, woor or ivory.
29. Causation : Causing; producing an effect; doctrine that things have
causes.
30. Campu : Writing in which both prose and verse forms are used.
31. Capital : Head or upper part of the column, wider than the shaft of
the column.
32. Canonical texts : Authoritative or officially approved works of religious faith.
33. Centaur : Greek mythological monster which is partly human and
partly horse.
34. Chaitya : A sacred enclosure, built of brick over the remains or the
relics of Buddha. These have come to be regarded as places
of worship by the Mahayana Buddhists.
35. Chalcolithic : Using both stone and copper simultaneously.
36. Chronicle : Registre or record that describes events of a period or
country in order to time.
37. Chronological : Date or year-wise.
236
38. Citadel : Fortress.
39. Cleaver : A hevy core of flake tool with dishaped outline and a
transverse cutting edge.
40. Clerestory : A way of lighting the interior of a building from above, by
raising the roof of some parts over the neighbouring parts
and cutting windows in the vertical walls between the two
levels of the ceiling.
41. Cloister : A covered passage, usually, aroung an open court, with
archades (a series of arches) on the side of the court, and
walled on the opposite side.
42. Corbel : Also called bracket is a projecting member from a wall or
column to support weight (corbelling is a method of
construction, where each successive block of stone projects
a little beyond the one below, resembling in inverted step.
43. Consciousness : Totality of persons thoughts and feelings.
44. Core : A lump of stone from which flake to blades are removed.
45. Corbelled-ceiling : Cerling or roof with wooden or stone supports such as
beams or rafts.
46. Coenelian: Semi-precious stone used in ornament making.
47. Cupola : Domed roof or ceiling.
48. Demographic : Vital statistics of communities.
49. Dhamma : Dharma or code of conduct.
50. Dialectical : Investigating truth of opinions in a logical manner.
51. Documentary : Record or writing that furnishes evidence for a fact or
statement.
52. Drum (of the Stupa) : A cylindrical block or section forming the shaft of a stone
pillar. It also refers to a circular or polygonal wall or
structure, such as that supporting a dome.
53. Dvija : The twice-born; referring to the three upper castes of Hindu
society Brahman, Kshatriya and Vaishya where the first
birth is the physical birth and the second is the initiation
into caste status.
54. Dvipada : Poems in two line stanzas.
55. Dvaita : The school of thought propounded by Madhva, stating
that invidivual sould and supreme soul are two different
things, and the former must strive by different methods,
for merger into the latter.
237
56. Ecclesisastical : Of the church or clergy.
57. Ecology : Study of plants, animals or of people and institutions in
relation to their environment.
58. Ecozone : Habitable area.
59. Empirical : Way of judging things by observations and experiment.
60. Entablature : In classical architecture, it is the collective name for the
horizontal parts of a building above the supporting columns.
61. Epicurianism : The philosophy advanced by Epicurus, a Greek thinker. It
is devoted to the pursuit of pleasure by being fond of good
food, comfort and case.
62. Erotic : Tending to arouse sexual love or desire.
63. Ethnographic data : Date that is available by a study of tribes or races.
64. Excavations : Digging of an ancient site for unearthing valuable remains
of by gone people and ages.
65. Faience : Decorated earthern ware or procelain.
66. Flake : A fragment removed from a large store or a core by
percussion of pressure out of which, more complex flake
tools are made.
67. Flora and Fauna : Vegetation, animals and birds.
68. Frieze : The central part of the entabulature between the architrave
and cornices.
69. Fructified : Bear fruit; give results.
70. Functionaries : Those who hold office or a trust.
71. Furrow : Narrow track made by a plough.
72. Gable : Any triangular architectural section, usually ornamental, as
over a door or window.
73. Ganas : Demi-Gold attendants of Shiva.
74. Ganas : Family tree or pedigree.
75. Ghat : Mountain range.
76. Gotra : Family affiliation that distinguishes one Hindu family from
the other or preserves its identity.
77. Grid plan : Arrangement of town plan in a rectangular pattern.
78. Hand axe : A large bifacially worked core tool, normally oval or bean-
shaped.
238
79. Harpoon : A throwing spear.
80. Historiography : Writing of History.
81. Horoscopy : The casting and reading of horoscopes, which is a diagram
of the signs of the Zodiac based on the configuration of the
planets and starts at a given moment, such as the moment
of a persons birth.
82. Iconography : A given set of symbolic forms bearing the meaning of a
stylised work of art. It also refers to the conventions defining
them and governing their relationships.
83. Idealists : Those scholars who, towards the end of the 19th Century,
came to believe that history as a discipline should have its
own methods of enquiring and regarded a process of
imaginative re-living as central to historical thinking.
84. Indology : Study of Indian history, languages and culture.
85. Inscriptions : Words recorded on monuments, stones, coins.
86. Intellectual history : Study of knowledge which is mainly derived from reason.
87. Interregnum : These refer to tales about the birth and life of Buddha.
88. Karma : Action or deed, and also the theory of conditioning one’s
birth by the deeds of the present or previous births.
89. Kharosthi : A script used in north-western India and derived from that
of Aramaic prevalent in Western Asia.
90. Kirthimukhas : Grotesque mask used commonly as a decorative feature.
91. Linga : The Phallic symbol worshipped largely by shaivites.
92. Linear : Involving measurement in one dimension long and narrow.
93. Liturgy : The rituals or established formulas of public worship.
94. Mandapa : An open or closed pillared assmebly hall, in front of the
shrine of a Hindu temple,
95. Madhyamika : A Buddhist school, of which Nagarjuna was the most
famous exponent, which believed that the life of the world
is the same as Nirvana...... and really there is no difference
between them at all”.
96. Doctorine of Maya : Illusion especially, the visible material world conceived of
as being purely illusionary.
97. Matha : A centre of education and religion attached to a temple.
98. Megalith : Large or big stone used as a monument.
239
99. Metre : Any form of poetic rhythm, determined by character and
number of feet.
100. Mithraic : Pertaining to Persion god, identified with sun.
101. Microlith : A very small tool made of a blade or flake. They served as
barbs and tips of arrows.
102. Millieu : State of life; social surrroundings.
103. Mlechchas : Impure or sullied. Term used to describe the foreigners
during the post Mauryan period.
104. Monastic : Religious, pertaining to monastrery or Matha.
105. Monistic Vedanta : Philosophy that denies the duality of matter and mind and
states that only one being exists.
106. Motif : A repeated figure or design in architecture of decoration.
107. Moulding : A strip of stone, wood or other material with a shaped
section, used as an embellishment on a building, wall or
other surface.
108. Murals : Large paintings or pictures, drawn on walls or ceilings.
109. Mukhalinga : Siva Idol, installed on a platform and in hypaetral (open to
the sky) temples, such as at Gudimallam.
110. Muslin : Any of various, fine, see-through cotton fabrics, used for
dresses or curtains.
111. Nagaram : Local council in urban areas.
112. Narrative : Tale, story or recital of facts.
113. Nidhi : Stored wealth.
114. Nikshepa : Treasures or minerals hidden under the earth.
115. Nirvana : The state of absolute blessedness, characterised by release
from the cycle of reincarnations and attained through the
extinction of the self.
116. Palmette : A stylished palm leaf used as a decorative element, notably
in Persian rugs and in classical mouldings, reliefs, frescoes
etc.
117. Panchabhuta Kshetras : Famous Saiva temple centres in South India.
118. Panchamas : The fifth caste or the untouchables.
119. Panchayatana : A Hindu temple with the main shrine surrounded by four
shrines at the corners.
120. Painted Grey Ware : Pottery of this type, consisting mainly of bowls and dishes,
has been found in as many as 500 sites in Punjab and
240
Ganga-Yamuna Doab, during the period 1000-600 B.C.
indicating Indo-Aryan settlements in a concentrated manner,
in these regions.
121. Paramatres : Within the scope or limit.
122. Par excellence : Above all others.
123. Pastoral economy : An economy in which cattle or sheep-breeding is the main
source of living.
124. Patriarchal : A form of social organisation in which father is the head of
the family, clan or tribe. Descent is recokoned on the male
line.
125. Pebble chopper tool : Pebble tool with cutting edge.
126. Peninsula : Area surrounded by water on three sides and by hill or
land features on the fourth side.
127. Perforators : Objects with holes.
128. Phenomena : Remarkable thing or development.
129. Philology : The scientific study or written records of literary, social
and cultural history in order to establish authenticity,
accuracy and meaning, especially historical and
comparative.
130. Pilastered wat : A rectangular column with a capital and base, set into a
wall to ornament it.
131. Plinth : A block or slab upon which a pedestal, column or statue is
placed; A continuous course of stones supporting a wall.
132. Plateau : An elevated and comparatively level expense of land; table-
land.
133. Polygamy : The practice of marrying more than one wife.
134. Porch : A projecting entrance, partly enclosed with a roof of its
own.
135. Pollen analysis : Study of the ramains of fossil pollen grains from the
excavatged area.
136. Puritanical : To effect great purity or strictness of life and religious
principle.
137. Purna Ghata : A full jar. It came to be adopted as an auspicious symbol
of plenty or fertility. It was carved on either side of the
gate-ways of shrines.
138. Radio-carbon dating : The organic matter from exacavations that is scientifically
241
dated, where the amount of carbon is detected. The less
the carbon, the older is the age of material.
139. Rock-briuising : Etching or engraving or rocks.
140. Sanctum : A sacred or holy place an inviolable private place.
141. Sankhya : A system of Hindu philosophy based on the distinction
between spirit and matter.
142. Sati : The practice of a woman immolating herself on the funeral
pyre of her husband.
143. Scrapers : An artifact of chipped stone or flint probably used in wood-
working or for scraping hides.
144. Seal : Animal or human figures made up of terracotta or red clay,
containing also an undeciphered script.
145. Sesterce : A silver or bronze coin of ancient Rome.
146. Shikhara : Tower surmounting the temple.
147. Shreni : Guild or organisation of merchants or artisans of different
trades for mutual aid.
148. Shruti : The literature which was transmitted orally as a sacred
revelation from one to the other.
149. Silecious rocks : Rocks containing silica, a hard white material, the varieties
of which are flint and quartz.
150. Smriti : A class of religious literature, comprising law, books, epics
and Puranas, especially the first.
151. Srenidharm : Rules and regulations governing the members of a Sreni or
guild.
152. Steatite : Kind of tale or soapstone.
153. Steppes : One of the vast, more or less level plains devoid of trees.
154. Stratigraphic : To deposit in layers.
155. Stupa : A round brick structure, built over the relics of the Buddha
or others revered by the Buddhists.
156. Sunyata : Noureality; void.
157. Synchronism : Going together or agreeing together in reckoning or
happenings.
158. Syntax : A branch of grammar which explains how the words are
put together to form phrases and sentences.
242
159. Tapering : To become gradually narrower or thinner towards one end
of an elongated object, for example a tower.
160. Tacit : Understand, existing without being stated.
161. Tantric : A religious cult relating to the worship of Goddess Kali,
representing the female personification of divine energy.
162. Temperature climate : Climate which is moderate in heat or cold.
163. Terracotta : Baked clay that is kept in safe place. It is fragile.
164. Threshing : To beat out the grain from the stalk of beating or thresing.
165. Tropical climate : Hot climate.
166. Triton : He is a sea-gold in Greek muthology, portrayed as having
the head and trunk of a man and the tail of a fish.
167. Ushnisha : A turban with frontal protuberance; India’s Characteristic
head-dress; protuberance on the head of the Buddha.
168. Varna : Colour-used more commonly for caste/
169. Varnasrama : The regulation that the traditional castes or Varnas have to
follow the professions or the practices prescribed for them
in the Holy Scriptures.
170. Vaiseshika : A school of Hindu philosophy which postulated a dualism
of matter and soul and declared that salvation depends on
fully recognizing the atomic nature of the universe and its
differences from the soul.
171. Vijnana-vada : It completely rejected the realism of the Lesser Vehicle
and maintained a through going idealism not even allowing,
the qualified realism or the Madhyamikas.
172. Vihara : Buddhist or Jain Monastery.
173. Water-Light : Rigit or staunch.
174. Warp and the woof : The Yakshas, specially associated with God Kubera, were
a sort of gnome of fairy, respected by country people.
Before the christian era, their cult was wide-spread but,
they lost their significance as the great gods of Hinduism
became more widely worshipped. They were generally
looked on as friendly to men, but their women-folk might
sometimes be malevolent, and ate little children.
175. Yavana : Used in Indian sources for Greeks.
*****
243
244
Subject Code - Medium
BA121HIS - E
B.A.
FIRST YEAR
HISTORY
SEMESTER - I
INDIAN HISTORY AND CULTURE
UPTO 712 C.E.
"We may forgo material benefits of civilization, but we

cannot forgo our right and opportunity to reap the benefits
of the highest education to the fullest extent…"
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
Dr. B.R. AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY

HYDERABAD
2017
i
C O U R S E TEAM
Course Development Team
Editor
Prof. Challapalli Swaroopa Rani
Associate Editor
Prof. E. Sudha Rani
Writers
Prof. E. Sudha Rani (Unit - 9)
Dr. Arvind Kumar (Unit 11, 12 & 13)
Dr. Srinivas Rao Vaddanam (Unit 3 & 10)
Dr. G. Dayakar (Unit 1, 2 & 4)
Dr. M. Srinivas (Unit 5, 6 & 7)
Dr. Y. Raghu (Unit 8, 14 & 15)
Cover Design
Venkata Swamy
First Edition : 2017
© 2017, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad, Telangana State.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without the permis-
sion in writing from the University.
The text forms part of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Open University Programme.
Further information on Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Open University courses may be obtained from
the Director (Academic), Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Open University, Road No. 46, Prof. G. Ram
Reddy Marg, Jubilee Hills, Hyderabad - 500033.
Web: www.braou.ac.in
E-mail: info@braou.ac.in
Printed on behalf of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad by the Registrar.
ii
INTRODUCTION
History is a systematic study of evolution of human society over time and space. It
enables us to understand the society of the past and to increase his mastery over the present.
As pointed out by E.H. Carr, History is indeed, an unending dialogue between the past and
present. The study of ancient history reveals the efforts of our ancestors to evolve from the
state of being nomadic, food-gathering tribals to that of becoming members of a settled society,
and ultimately, to that of present civilization.
From this academic year the University is adopting CBCS pattern where the learner
study History from first semester itself and the pattern of study will be semester wise instead
of year wise. Overall we have 12 courses in History for three years, this is going to be the first
course.
This course aims at bringing out the importance, meaning, scope and sources of history
and attempts to make a critical evaluation of the geographical influences on Indian History and
Culture, features of the Harappan and Vedic civilizations, the emergence and the impact of the
two reformist religions Jainism and Buddhism and finally, the rise and fall of different empires
starting from that of the Nandas and ending with that of the Sangam Age along with their
political, social, economic, religious and cultural contributions. It essentially focuses on the
changing trends of Political, Socio-economic and Cultural life. In a nutshell, the book tries to
capture Indian History and Culture from the pre-historic times 712 C.E. that was remarked
by the Invasion of Mohd. Bin Khasim.
This work deals with the topics in Indian History and culture till 712 C.E.that are
included in the syllabus for the First Semester of First year B.A. Course offered by Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar Open University. The syllabus is divided into five blocks and twenty five units. The
units are prepared by specialists in accordance with a format so designed as to enable the
students to read and understand them without much difficulty. Each unit begins with a statement
of its objectives and introduction of the topic. To enable the students to check their
understanding of the subject in each unit, questions under the heading ‘Check Your Progress’
are given as exercises. Students should write the answers for those questions in the space
provided in the book. At the end of each unit, the model answers for the questions are also
given under the heading ‘Check Your Progress :Answers'. Important points in each unit are
given at the end of each unit with the title 'Summary' .The list of books for further reading, the
objective type questions and the model examination paper for the entire syllabus are given at
the end of the book. Technical terms with which the student may not generally be familiar, are
given at the end of the book, under the head ‘Glossary’ .
The course material is now revised and made up-to-date. TheUniversity hopes that
the course material now presented in a revised form will serve as both an important source
book for our learners to have in depth understanding of Ancient Indian History.
iii
iv
CONTENTS
Block-I : Introduction to history
Unit-1 : Definition, scope and significance 1
Unit-2 : History Relation with other Disciplines 13
Unit-3 : Sources of History 25
Unit-4 : Influence of Geography and Environment 43
Block-II : Stone Age, Harappa and Vedic Cultures

Unit-5 : Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic Ages and
Chalcalithic Culture 57
Unit-6 : Harappan Civilization 78
Unit-7 : Vedic Culture 93
Block-III : Mahajanapadas and Rise of New Religions in 6th C.B.C.

Unit-8 : Mahajanapadas and Rise of Magadha 108
Unit-9 : Jainism, Buddhism and other Heterodox Sects 125
Block-IV : Rise of Empires in Northern India

Unit-10 : Mauryas 141
Unit-11 : Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Parthians,
Kshatrapas and Kushanas 161
Unit-12 : Guptas 177
Unit-13 : Pushyabhuties-Harshavardana 195
Block-V : Political conditions in Deccan and South India

Unit-14 : Satavahanas 205
Unit-15 : Sangam Age. 221
Syllabus 231
Model Examination Question Paper 232
Glossary 235

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BLOCK -I: INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY

1.2 MEANING OF HISTORY

1.3 DEFINATION OF HISTORY

1.4 NATURE OF HISTORY

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I

1.5 SCOPE OF HISTORY

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF HISTORY

1.8 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1.9 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1.10 FURTHER READINGS

2.18 Further Readings

Know the relation between History and Political Science.

Understand the relation between the History and Economics.

Describe the relation between the History and Sociology.

Discuss the relation between History and Anthropology.

Analyse the relation between History and Science.

According Koerner says, "Occupying as it does an intermediate position between the

2.2 HISTORY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE

2.3 HISTORY AND ECONOMICS

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I

In fact, sociology gives us knowledge of the development of the society. It aims at

The teaching of history should invariably be guided by the knowledge of sociology.

2.5 HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY

2.6 HISTORY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

2.7 HISTORY AND THEOLOGY

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS -II

2.8 HISTORY AND MATHEMATICS

2.9 HISTORY AND STATISTICS

2.10 HISTORY AND LITERATURE

2.11 HISTORY AND BIOLOGY

Newman's Essay on the development of 'Christian doctrine' published in 1845,

Thus History and Biology are closely linked.

2.12 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY

2.13 HISTORY AND PSYCHOLOGY

2.14 HISTORY AND SCIENCE

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II

2.16 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Economics explains Production, Distribution, Consumption and Exchange.

II. Check Your Progress Answers-II

1. History as a branch of literature.

2.17 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Explain the relationship between the history and sociology?

2. Discuss the relationship between the history and Economics?

3. Write a note on relationship between history and Anthropology?

4. Analyse the relationship between history and Science?

II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each.

1. Write main feature of psychology?

2. Explain the principles of political science?

3. Discuss how useful the statistical data in historical study?

2.18 FURTHER READINGS

3. Kochhar, S.K : Teaching of History.

4. Walsh, W.H. : Philosophy of History.

3.2 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES

3.6: Edicts of Ashoka

Language used in Ashokan inscriptions

1. How do monuments help the writings of Indian History?

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II

3.6 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS