The Odyssey & Iliad

Homer
Context
Nearly three thousand years after they were composed, the Iliad and the
Odyssey remain two of the most celebrated and widely read stories ever
told, yet next to nothing is known about their author. He was certainly an
accomplished Greek bard, and he probably lived in the late eighth and
early seventh centuries b.c.e. Authorship is traditionally ascribed to a blind
poet named Homer, and it is under this name that the works are still
published. Greeks of the third and second centuries b.c.e., however,
already questioned whether Homer existed and whether the two epics
were even written by a single individual.
Most modern scholars believe that even if a single person wrote the epics,
his work owed a tremendous debt to a long tradition of unwritten, oral
poetry. Stories of a glorious expedition to the East and of its leaders’
fateful journeys home had been circulating in Greece for hundreds of
years before the Iliad and Odyssey were composed. Casual storytellers
and semiprofessional minstrels passed these stories down through
generations, with each artist developing and polishing the story as he told
it. According to this theory, one poet, multiple poets working in
collaboration, or perhaps even a series of poets handing down their work
in succession finally turned these stories into written works, again with
each adding his own touch and expanding or con- tracting certain
episodes in the overall narrative to fit his taste.
Although historical, archaeological, and linguistic evidence suggests that
the epics were composed between 750 and 650 b.c.e., they are set in
Mycenaean Greece in about the twelfth century b.c.e., during the Bronze
Age. This earlier period, the Greeks believed, was a more glorious and
sublime age, when gods still frequented the earth and heroic, godlike
mortals with superhuman attributes populated Greece. Because the two
epics strive to evoke this pristine age, they are written in a high style and
generally depict life as it was believed to have been led in the great
kingdoms of the Bronze Age. The Greeks are often referred to as
“Achaeans,” the name of a large tribe occupying Greece during the
Bronze Age.
But Homer’s reconstruction often yields to the realities of eighth- and
seventh-century b.c.e. Greece. The feudal social structure apparent in
the background of the Odyssey seems more akin to Homer’s Greece than
to Odysseus’s, and Homer substitutes the pantheon of deities of his own
day for the related but different gods whom Mycenaean Greeks
worshipped. Many other minor but obvious anachronisms—such as
references to iron tools and to tribes that had not yet migrated to Greece
by the Bronze Age—betray the poem’s later, Iron Age origins.
Of the two epics, the Odyssey is the later both in setting and, probably,
date of composition. The Iliad tells the story of the Greek struggle to
rescue Helen, a Greek queen, from her Trojan captors. The Odyssey takes
the fall of the city of Troy as its starting point and crafts a new epic around
the struggle of one of those Greek warriors, the hero Odysseus. It tells the
story of his nostos (Epic hero), or journey home, to northwest Greece
during the ten-year period after the Greek victory over the Trojans. A tale
of wandering, it takes place not on a field of battle but on fantastic
islands and foreign lands. After the unrelenting tragedy and carnage of
the Iliad, the Odyssey often strikes readers as comic or surreal at times. This
quality has led some scholars to conclude that Homer wrote the Odyssey
at a later time of his life, when he showed less interest in struggles at arms
and was more receptive to a storyline that focused on the fortunes and
misadventures of a single man. Others argue that someone else must
have composed the Odyssey, one who wished to provide a companion
work to the Iliad but had different interests from those of the earlier epic’s
author.
Like the Iliad, the Odyssey was composed primarily in the Ionic dialect of
Ancient Greek, which was spo- ken on the Aegean islands and in the
coastal settlements of Asia Minor, now modern Turkey. Some scholars thus
conclude that the poet hailed from somewhere in the eastern Greek
world. More likely, however, the poet chose the Ionic dialect because he
felt it to be more appropriate for the high style and grand scope of his
work. Slightly later Greek literature suggests that poets varied the dialects
of their poems according to the themes that they were treating and
might write in dialects that they didn’t actually speak. Homer’s epics,
moreover, are Panhellenic (encompassing all of Greece) in spirit and, in
fact, use forms from several other dia- lects, suggesting that Homer didn’t
simply fall back on his native tongue but rather suited his poems to the
dialect that would best complement his ideas.
 Character Odyssey Lists
Odysseus The protagonist of the Odyssey. Odysseus fought among the
other Greek heroes at Troy and now struggles to return to his kingdom in
Ithaca. Odysseus is the husband of Queen Penelope and the father of
Prince Telemachus. Though a strong and courageous warrior, he is most
renowned for his cunning. He is a favorite of the goddess Athena, who
often sends him divine aid, but a bitter enemy of Poseidon, who frustrates
his journey at every turn.
Telemachus Odysseus’s son. An infant when Odysseus left for Troy,
Telemachus is about twenty at the beginning of the story. He is a natural
obstacle to the suitors desperately courting his mother, but despite his
courage and good heart, he initially lacks the poise and confidence to
oppose them. His maturation, especially during his trip to Pylos and Sparta
in Books 3 and 4, provides a subplot to the epic. Athena often assists him.
Penelope Wife of Odysseus and mother of Telemachus. Penelope spends
her days in the palace pining for the husband who left for Troy twenty years
earlier and never returned. Homer portrays her as sometimes flighty and
excitable but also clever and steadfastly true to her husband.
Athena Daughter of Zeus and goddess of wisdom, purposeful battle, and
the womanly arts.
Athena assists Odysseus and Telemachus with divine powers throughout
the epic, and she speaks up for them in the councils of the gods on Mount
Olympus. She often appears in disguise as Mentor, an old friend of
Odysseus.
Poseidon God of the sea. As the suitors are Odysseus’s mortal antagonists,
Poseidon is his divine antagonist. He despises Odysseus for blinding his son,
the Cyclops Polyphemus, and constantly hampers his journey home.
Ironically, Poseidon is the patron of the seafaring Phaeacians, who
ultimately help to return Odysseus to Ithaca.

Zeus King of gods and men, who mediates the disputes of the gods on
Mount Olympus. Zeus is occasionally depicted as weighing men’s fates in
his scales. He sometimes helps Odysseus or permits Athena to do the same.
Antinous The most arrogant of Penelope’s suitors. Antinous leads the
campaign to have Telemachus killed. Unlike the other suitors, he is never
portrayed sympathetically, and he is the first to die when Odysseus returns.

Eurymachus A manipulative, deceitful suitor. Eurymachus’s charisma and

duplicity allow him to exert some influence over the other suitors.

Amphinomus Among the dozens of suitors, the only decent man seeking
Penelope’s hand in marriage. Amphinomus sometimes speaks up for
Odysseus and Telemachus, but he is killed like the rest of the suitors in the
final fight.

The Iliad Major Characters

Achilles is considered the greatest of Greek warriors. Son of the nymph
Thetis and the hero Peleus, Achilles is renowned for his fighting prowess
and powerful emotions. Unable to contain his Menin (god-like anger),
Achilles takes out his wrath on the Greek forces by refusing to fight and
even asks for Zeus to favor the Trojans until the Greeks beg for his return to
battle. The swift runner refuses to fight until Hector kills Patroclus, Achilles'
best friend, thus motivating Achilles for revenge. Implacable in his desire
for combat and unstoppable on the battlefield, Achilles's fighting prowess
is feared so heavily by the Trojans that they refuse to fight outside their city
walls while he is on the battlefield. Achilles commands the Myrmidons, an
elite fighting force from Phithia, Achilles' homeland where he is also king.
Agamemnon Supreme commander of the Greek forces, Agamemnon is a
powerful man commanding the largest contingent of Greek forces from
his city state of Mycenae. King of Mycenae, Agamemnon helped
organize the effort to sail to Troy after his brother's wife was stolen by Paris.
Men look to Agamemnon because he has a commanding presence and
the ability to speak well in council. He lacks discretion and wisdom, as
evidenced by the fact that he sparks Achilles' rage by stealing Achilles'
timh' (a war prize symbolizing honor), a woman named Briseis.
Agamemnon pays for his folly by losing his best warrior for a few days in
battle. Agamemnon was the son of Atreus and is sometimes referred to
as Atrides in the poem.
Menelaus is the original husband of Helen and the King of Sparta. Brother
of the powerful warlord Agamemnon, Menelaus relies on his brother's
power in order to organize the war and win his bride back. Menelaus is
famous for his prowess in battle and his red hair. He nearly defeats his
mortal enemy Paris in a one-on-one duel in Book 3, but Aphrodite
intervenes before Menelaus can kill the outmatched Paris. Menelaus is
the son of Atreus and is sometimes referred to as Atrides in the poem.
Great Ajax The powerful Ajax is second in fighting strength to only Achilles.
Ajax is the son of Telamon and commands a contingent from Salamis
where he is king. Distinguished due to his large body shield made of
seven layers of ox-hide and one layer of bronze, Ajax is a force to be
reckoned with on the battlefield. He is more of a defensive fighter and
can hold any position for a great length of time based on virtue of his
strength and weaponry. Ajax is a man of few words, as evidenced by his
brief appeal to try and get Achilles to return to the battlefield in Book 9.
Diomedes, the youngest of Greek commanders at Troy, was well
renowned for his fighting ability and words in council. An extremely
popular Greek warrior, he even wounded the gods Aphrodite and Ares
during his Aristeia (moment of glory) in Book 5. Diomedes is the son of
Tydeus and is sometimes referred to as Tydides in the poem. Diomedes
commands the contingent from Argos where he is king.
Patroclus Best friend of Achilles and one of the commanders of the
Myrmidons (Achilles' army from Phthia), Patroclus is beloved by the Greek
army; even the women who have been taken as war prizes by the Greek
soldiers love Patroclus because of his kindness and gentle spirit. His
timidity is reserved for instances away from battle, though, because
Patroclus is one of the most fearsome warriors: he single-handedly saves
the Greek ships from destruction and almost conquers Troy. Apollo
intervenes and works with Hector to kill Patroclus. Patroclus' death inspires
Achilles to return to battle.
Trojan Characters
Hector is the supreme commander of the Trojan forces and the son of
King Priam, the king of Troy. Hector is Priam's favorite son and as such is
next in line to succeed Priam on the throne. Also the best warrior for the
Trojans, Hector is looked to as the fearless leader of the Trojans and is also
seen as the scourge of the Greek army. Though powerful in battle, his
courage wavers at times, and he is a lesser warrior than both Achilles and
Great Ajax. Nevertheless, Hector represents piety and nobility for the
Trojans; he is one of the few male characters seen treating women gently
in this poem, and his desire above all is to protect his home and family.
Hector ultimately dies by the spear of Achilles, and his body is defiled by
being dragged behind Achilles' chariot. Priam must recover Hector's
body for final burial. Hector is commonly seen as the final defense of Troy;
soon after his death the city of Troy falls to the Greeks.
Paris, also a prince of Troy and son of Priam, is the warrior who, according
to myth, started the Trojan war by stealing Helen. Known more for his
good looks than his fighting prowess, Paris prefers to use the bow in battle,
a weapon that was traditionally seen as cowardly. Paris is more
concerned with love than war, though at times he shows flashes of
brilliance in battle. He most notably wounds Diomedes in Book 11.
Priam is the king of Troy and father of more than fifty sons. The noble king
is greatly anguished over the war outside his city, though he harbors no
resentment for Helen or his son Paris. Priam heroically recovers Hector's
body from Achilles in Book 24 so that the Trojans may observe the proper
funeral rights for their fallen hero.

The End.