Topic: Outside Plant Fiber Table of Contents: The FOA

Optic Splicing and Reference Guide To Fiber

Termination Optics

Fiber Optic Splicing and Termination

Jump To:
Performance Specifications/Loss
Performance Specifications/Reflectance
Splicing
Fusion Splices
Mechanical Splicing
Protecting Splices
Connectors
Termination Procedures
Prefabricated Cabling Systems
Fiber Optic Connectors (L) and Splices in Splice Tray (R)

Fiber optic joints or terminations are made two ways: 1) splices which
create a permanent joint between the two fibers or 2) connectors that
mate two fibers to create a temporary joint and/or connect the fiber to a
piece of network gear. Either joining method must have three primary
characteristics for good optical performance: low loss, minimal
reflectance and high mechanical strength. Terminations must also be
of the right style to be compatible to the equipment involved and be
protected against the environment in which they are installed.
Splices are considered permanent joints and are used for joining most
outside plant cables. Fusion splicing is most widely used as it provides
for the lowest loss and least reflectance, as well as providing the most
reliable joint. Virtually all singlemode splices are fusion. Mechanical
splicing is used for temporary restoration and for most multimode
splicing.
Connectors are used for terminations, that is the ends of the fibers
where they connect to equipment or to patch panels where fiber routing
can be changed by patching different fibers together. Different
connectors and termination procedures are used for multimode and
singlemode fibers. Multimode fibers are relatively easy to terminate, so
field termination is generally done by installing connectors directly on
tight buffered fibers using the procedures outlined below. Most field
singlemode terminations are made by splicing a factory-made pigtail
onto the installed cable rather than terminating the fiber directly as is
commonly done with multimode fiber. Singlemode terminations require
extreme care in assembly, especially polishing, to get good
performance (low loss and reflectance), so they are usually done in a
clean manufacturing facility using heat-cured epoxy and machine
polishing.

Probably no fiber optic component has been given greater attention

than connectors. Manufacturers have come up with over 80 styles of
connectors and about a dozen different ways to install them. There are
only two types of splices but numerous ways of implementing them.
Fortunately for both manufacturers and installers, only a few types of
either are the ones used for most applications.

Performance Specifications

Connector and Splice Loss

The primary specification for connectors or splices is loss or the

amount of light lost in the connection.

When we say connector loss, we really mean "connection" loss - the

loss of a mated pair of connectors, expressed in
"dB." Thus, testing connectors requires mating
them to reference connectors which must be high
quality connectors themselves to not adversely
affect the measured loss when mated to an
unknown connector. This is an important point often
not fully explained. In order to measure the loss of
the connectors you must mate them to a similar,
known good, connector. When a connector being
tested is mated to several different connectors, it
may have different losses, because those losses
are dependent on the reference connector it is
mated to.

Connection and splice loss is caused by a number

of factors. Loss is minimized when the two fiber
cores are identical and perfectly aligned (more on
the effects of fiber geometry and alignment), the
connectors or splices are properly finished and no
dirt is present. Only the light that is coupled into
the receiving fiber's core will propagate, so all the
rest of the light becomes the connector or splice loss.

End gaps cause two problems, insertion loss and reflectance. The
emerging cone of light from the connector will spill over the core of the
receiving fiber and be lost. In addition, the air gap in the joint between
the fibers causes a reflection when the light encounters the change n
refractive index from the glass fiber to the air in the gap. This reflection
(called fresnel reflection) amounts to about 5% in typical flat polished
connectors, and means that no connector with an air gap will have less
than about 0.3 dB loss. This reflection is called to as reflectance or
optical return loss, which can be a problem in laser based systems.
Connectors use a number of polishing techniques to create convex fiber
ends that ensure physical contact of the fiber ends to minimize
reflectance. On mechanical splices, it is possible to reduce back
reflection by using non-perpendicular cleaves, which cause back
reflections to be absorbed in the cladding of the fiber.

The end of the fiber must be properly polished and clean to minimize
loss. A rough surface will scatter light and dirt can scatter and absorb
light. Since the optical fiber is so small, typical airborne dirt can be a
major source of loss. Whenever connectors are not terminated, they
should be covered with dust caps provided by the manufacturer to
protect the end of the ferrule from dirt. One should never touch the end
of the ferrule, since the oils on one's skin causes the fiber to attract
dirt. Before connection and testing, it is advisable to clean connectors
with lint-free wipes moistened with isopropyl alcohol or special dry fiber
cleaners.

Two sources of loss caused by mismatched fibers are directional;

numerical aperture (NA) and core diameter differences inherent in the
fibers being joined. Differences in these two will create connections
that have different losses depending on the direction of light
propagation. Light from a fiber with a larger NA will overfill the core of
the receiving fiber be more sensitive to angularity and end gap, so
transmission from a fiber of larger NA to one of smaller NA will be
higher loss than the reverse direction. Likewise, light from a larger core
fiber will have high loss coupled to a fiber of smaller diameter, while
one can couple a small diameter fiber to a large diameter fiber with
minimal loss, since it is much less sensitive to end gap or lateral offset.

These fiber mismatches occur for two reasons, the occasional need to
interconnect two dissimilar fibers and production variances in fibers of
the same nominal dimensions. Production variances are only a few
microns and contribute only small amounts of loss, but the loss caused
by mismatches will be directional, causing larger losses when
transmitting from larger to smaller core fibers.

With two multimode fibers in common usage today (50/125 and 62.5/125)
and two others which have been used occasionally in the past (100/140
and 85/125) and several types of singlemode fiber in use, it is possible
to sometimes have to connect dissimilar fibers or use systems designed
for one fiber size on another. If you connect a smaller fiber to a larger
one, the coupling losses will be minimal, often only the fresnel loss
(about 0.3 dB). But connecting larger fibers to smaller ones results in
substantial losses, not only due to the smaller cores size, but also the
smaller NA of most small core fibers.

More on mismatched fiber losses.

Typical connector losses are generally less than 0.3 dB for factory-
polished singlemode or multimode connectors using adhesive/polish
techniques. Few installers tackle singlemode field termination,
generally fusion splicing factory-made pigtails onto the fibers, since SM
polishing is not so easy in the field, especially in terms of reflectance.
Multimode field terminations are common, since experienced installers
can get results comparable to factory-terminations with adhesive/polish
techniques. Field termination of prepolished/splice connectors using a
precision cleaver (those made for fusion splicing) can produce
consistent results around 0.5 dB, while the simple cleaver produces
losses more often in the 0.75 dB range. Few industry standards put
numbers on connector losses, but TIA 568 calls for connection losses of
less than 0.75 dB, a high number but one which will allow use of
prepolished/splice connectors.

Reflectance
Reflectance or optical return loss (which has also been called "back
reflection") of the connector is the amount of light that is reflected back
up the fiber toward the source by light reflections off the interface of
the polished end surface of the connector and air. It is called fresnel
reflection and is caused by the light going through the change in index
of refraction at the interface between the fiber (n=1.5) and air (n=1).
Reflectance is primarily a problem with connectors but may also affect
mechanical splices which contain an index matching gel to prevent
reflectance.

Reflectance one component of the connector's loss, representing about

0.3 dB loss for a non-contact or air-gap connector where the two fibers
do not make contact. Minimizing the reflectance is necessary to get
maximum performance out of high bit rate laser systems and especially
AM modulated CATV systems. In multimode systems, reflections are
less of a problem but can add to background noise in the fiber.

Since this is more a problem with singlemode systems, manufacturers

have concentrated on solving the problem for their singlemode
components but multimode connectors benefit also since any reduction
in reflectance also reduces loss. Several schemes have been used to
reduce reflectance, mainly using a convex physical contact (PC) polish
on the end of the connector ferrule, which reduces the fresnel
reflection. The technique involves polishing the end surface of the fiber
to a convex surface or even better at a slight angle (APC or angled
physical contact) to prevent reflectance.

See Connector Ferrule Shapes & Polishes below for more information on
connector ferrule endface polish to reduce reflectance.
See Measuring Reflectance to see the methods and issues of measuring
reflectance.
Splicing

Splices create a permanent joint between two fibers, so its use is

limited to places where cables are not expected to be available for
servicing in the future. The most common application for splicing is
concatenating (joining) cables in long outside plant cable runs where
the length of the run requires more than one cable. Splicing can be used
to mix a number of different types of cables such as connecting a 48
fiber cable to six 8 fiber cables going to various locations. Splicing is
generally used to terminate singlemode fibers by splicing preterminated
pigtails onto each fiber. And of course, splicing is used for OSP
restoration.

Splicing is more common in outside plant (OSP) applications than

premises cabling, where most cables are pulled in one piece and
directly terminated. Splicing is only needed if the cable runs are too
long for one straight pull or you need to mix a number of different types
of cables (like bringing a 48 fiber cable in and splicing it to six 8 fiber
cables.) And of course, we often use splices for OSP restoration, after
the number one problem of outside plant cables, a dig-up and cut of a
buried cable, usually referred to as "backhoe fade" for obvious reasons!

There are two types of splices, fusion and mechanical. Fusion splicing
is most widely used as it provides for the lowest loss and least
reflectance, as well as providing the strongest and most reliable joint.
Fusion splicing machines are available in two types that splice a single
fiber or a ribbon of 12 fibers at one time. Virtually all singlemode splices
are fusion. Mechanical splicing is mostly used for temporary restoration
and for multimode splicing. In the photo below, a fusion splice is on the
left and the rest are various types of mechanical splices.

Splices: fusion on the far left, other types of mechanical splices.

Fusion Splices

Fusion plices are made by "welding" the two fibers together usually by
an electric arc. To be safe, you should not do that in an enclosed space
like a manhole or an explosive atmosphere, and the equipment is too
bulky for most aerial applications, so fusion splicing is usually done
above ground in a truck or trailer set up for the purpose. (photo above)
Splicing on poles is obviously dangerous too. It’s easier to bring extra
cable length into a trailer on the ground and work in a clean
environment for splicing, placing splices in a closure and testing. The
final closure is then placed in location and the extra fiber carefully
looped and mounted in an appropriate place.
Today's singlemode fusion splicers are automated and you have a hard
time making a bad splice as long as you cleave the fiber properly. The
biggest application is singlemode fibers in outside plant installations.
Fusion splices are so good today that splice points may not be
detectable in OTDR traces. Some splicing machines can do one fiber at
a time but Mass Fusion Splicers can do all 12 fibers in a ribbon at once.
Fusion splicers cost $15,000 to $40,000, but the splices only cost a few
dollars each.

The Fusion Splicing Process

Preparing the Fibers

The fusion splicing process is basically the same for all automatic
splicing machines. The first step is to strip, clean & cleave the fibers to
be spliced. Strip the primary buffer coating to expose the proper length
of bare fiber. Clean the fiber with appropriate wipes. Cleave the fiber
using the directions appropriate to the cleaver being used. Place each
fiber into the guides in the fusion splicing machine and clamp it in
place.

Running the splicer program

First choose the proper program for the fiber types being spliced. The
splicer will show the fibers being spliced on a video screen. Fiber ends
will be inspected for proper cleaves and bad ones will be rejected. That
fiber must be cleaved again. The fibers will be moved into position,
prefused to remove any dirt on the fiber ends and preheat the fibers for
splicing. The fibers will be aligned using the core alignment method
used on that splicer. Then the fibers will be fused by an automatic arc
cycle that heats them in an electric arc and feeds the fibers together at
a controlled rate.
When fusion is completed, the splicing machine will inspect the splice
and estimate the optical loss of the splice. It will tell the operator if a
splice needs to be remade. The operator removes the fibers from the
guides and attach a permanent splice protector by heat-shrinking or
clamping clam shell protectors.

Mass (Ribbon) Fusion Splicing

Ribbon cables are fusion spliced one ribbon at a time, rather than one
fiber at a time. Thus each ribbon is stripped, cleaved and spliced as a
unit. Special tools are needed to strip the fiber ribbon, usually heating it
first, then cleave all fibers at once. Many tools place the ribbon in a
carrier that supports and aligns it through stripping, cleaving and
splicing. Consult both cable and splicer manufacturers to ensure you
have the proper directions.

More on fusion splicing.

Video on fusion splicing on the FOA Channel on

Mechanical Splicing

Mechanical splices are alignment fixtures that hold the ends of two
fibers together with some index matching gel or glue between them.
There are a number of types of mechanical splices, like little glass
tubes or V-shaped metal clamps. The tools to make mechanical splices
are cheap, but the splices themselves are more expensive. Many
mechanical splices are used for restoration, but they can work well with
both singlemode and multimode fiber, with practice - and using a quality
cleaver such as those used for fusion splicing.

Mechanical Splicing Process

Preparing the Fibers

The splicing process is basically the same for all types of mechanical
splices. The first step is to strip, clean & cleave the fibers to be spliced.
Strip the primary buffer coating to expose the proper length of bare
fiber. Clean the fiber with appropriate wipes. Cleave the fiber using the
directions appropriate to the cleaver being used. Using a high quality
cleaver such as those provided with fusion splicers will yield more
consistent and lower loss splices.

Making The Mechanical Splice

Insert the first fiber into the mechanical splice. Most splices are
designed to limit the depth of the fiber insertion by the stripped length
of buffer coating on the fiber. Clamp the fiber in place if fibers are held
separately. Some splices clamp both fibers at once. Repeat these steps
for the second fiber.
You can optimize the loss of a mechanical splice visually using a visual
fault locator, a visible laser test source if the fiber ends being spliced
are visible. Gently withdraw one of the fibers a slight amount, rotating it
slightly and reinserting it until the visible light is minimized, indicating
lowest loss.

More on mechanical splicing.

Video on mechanical splicing on the FOA Channel on

Color Codes for Splicing
Individual fibers and buffer tubes in loose tube cables are color coded
for identification. When splicing similar cables on long runs, fibers
should be spliced straight through according to color codes to continue
the same color coding for each joined fiber in the concatenated cables.
When connecting large fiber count cables to several smaller cables,
fibers should be spliced in order and records kept of the connections
made.

Protecting Splices

For protection against the outside plant environment and damage,

splices require placement in a protective case. They are generally
placed in a splice tray which is then placed inside a splice closure for
OSP installations or a patch panel box for premises applications.
Indoors, splice trays are often integrated into patch panels to provide
for connections to the fibers.
There are probably thousands of different types and options on splice
closures. Some are designed for concatenation of long distance cables
where two identical cables are spliced together. Some closures are
designed for connecting several smaller cables to a larger one for
breaking out the larger cable to several destinations. Closures can be
used for midspan entry also, where the cable jacket is stripped but
most of the buffer tubes are coiled inside without opening, while one or
more tubes will be opened and spliced to other cables. Some have
cables entering into one end, some have cable entries on both ends.
There are splice closures designed to be buried, mounted on walls,
hung from cables or poles. Some are small pedestals themselves. Each
type has a particular application and probably every application has a
special closure. Even special hardware may be necessary for handling
different cable or splice types, so make certain you have the right
hardware before using the closure. It is recommended that you work
with vendors to find the best closure for your applications then follow
their instructions.
Preparing cables for splice closures involves several steps that should
be followed in the exact sequence specified by the manufacturer to
ensure the cables are properly secured and the closure will seal. For
every splice closure, it is important to follow the manufacturer’s
instructions on stripping the cable to ensure proper lengths of strength
members to secure the cable to the closure and proper lengths of buffer
tubes to connect to the splice trays. The proper length of fiber is
needed to allow splicing and then neatly storing fiber in the splice tray.
Inside splice closures and at each end, cables with metallic shielding or
strength members must be properly grounded and bonded.
Care should be taken when arranging fibers and splices in splice trays
and buffer tubes in the splice closure to prevent stress on the fibers.
Arranging fibers inside splice trays may require twisting the fiber but
following the closure manufacturer’s instructions will minimize the
stress on the fiber. Often the fibers are broken as the trays and closure
are assembled or re-entered for troubleshooting and repair. Cables must
be secured to the splice closure and sealed properly. Generally loose
tube cables will have the tubes extending from the entrance of the
closure to the tray, where they are secured, then approximately 1 meter
of bare fibers are organized in the tray after splicing. Care must be
taken to properly bond electrical conductors such as the armor on some
cables or center metallic strength members to the closure and at each
end.
All closures must be sealed to prevent moisture entry. Closures must be
properly secured, with the location being determined by the installation
type, and excess cable properly coiled and stored. This may be in a
pedestal or vault, on a pole or tower or buried underground.
Which Splice ?

If cost is the issue, fusion requires expensive equipment and but makes
cheap splices, while mechanical splices require inexpensive equipment
and expensive splice hardware. So if you make a lot of splices (like
thousands in an big telco or CATV network) use fusion splices. If you
need just a few, use mechanical splices.
Fusion splices give very low back reflections and are preferred for
singlemode high speed digital or CATV networks. However, they may not
work well some multimode fibers, so mechanical splices may be
preferred for MM, unless it is an underwater or aerial application, where
the greater reliability of the fusion splice is preferred.

Making Good Splices

Making consistently low loss splices depends on proper techniques and

keeping equipment in good shape. Cleanliness is a big issue, of course.
Fiber strippers should be kept clean and in good condition and be
replaced when nicked or worn. Cleavers are most important, as the
secret to good splices - either fusion or mechanical - is having good
cleaves on both fibers. Keep cleavers clean and have the scribing
blades aligned and replaced regularly. Fusion splicers should be
properly maintained and fusing parameters set for the fibers being
spliced. For mechanical splices, light pressure on the fiber to keep the
ends together while crimping is important. Use a visual fault locator
(VFL) to optimize the splice before crimping if possible.

Verifying Splice Loss

Splices are permanent joints that cannot be accessed for individual

insertion loss testing with a source and power meter as connectors are
tested. Fusion splicers generally provide an estimate of connector loss
based on an analysis of data from the alignment system used by the
splicer, but it is only an estimate. An insertion loss test of the entire
finished cable will be done when installation is finished, but that only
allows comparison to the overall loss predicted by the loss budget
created during the design phase, not verification of any individual
splice.
For concatenations of cables, only an OTDR can see the splice and
confirm its loss, but for accurate loss measurements it requires testing
from both ends and averaging (see Chapter 8 on Testing.) The OTDR test
will also confirm that the splice is not reflective, an important issue in
many systems. The limited resolution of the OTDR means that it cannot
be used to verify the splices used to terminate fibers with pigtails, but a
visual fault locator can be used to check these splices near the ends of
the cable.

More on splices, including hands-on tutorials

Connectors

Most fiber optic connectors are plugs or so-called male connectors with
a protruding ferrule that holds the fibers and aligns two fibers for
mating. They use a mating adapter to mate the two connectors that fits
the securing mechanism of the connectors (bayonet, screw-on or snap-
in.) The ferrule design is also useful as it can be used to connect
directly to active devices like LEDs, VCSELs and detectors.

Different connectors and termination procedures are used for

singlemode and multimode connectors. Multimode fibers are relatively
easy to terminate, so field termination is generally done by installing
connectors directly on tight buffered fibers using the procedures
outlined below. Most field singlemode terminations are made by splicing
a factory-made pigtail onto the installed cable rather than terminating
the fiber directly as is commonly done with multimode fiber. Singlemode
terminations require extreme care in assembly, especially polishing, to
get good performance (low loss and reflectance), so they are usually
done in a clean manufacturing facility using heat-cured epoxy and
machine polishing.
Choosing a connector type for any installation should consider if the
connector is compatible with the systems planned to utilize the fiber
optic cable plant, if the termination process is familiar to the installer
and if the connector is acceptable to the customer. If the systems are
not yet specified, hybrid patchcords with different connectors on each
end may be necessary. If the installer is not familiar with connector
installation, training may be necessary. And sometimes, the user may
have been sold on a connector type that is not ideal for the installation,
so the installer should discuss the merits of other types before
committing to the project.

Styles of Fiber Optic Connectors

Since fiber optic technology was introduced in the

late 70s, numerous connector styles have been
developed - probably over 100 designs. Each new
design was meant to offer better performance
(less light loss and reflectance) and easier, faster
and/or more inexpensive termination.

Of course, the marketplace eventually determines

which connectors are successful. However several
attempts to standardize connectors have been
attempted. Some were unique to systems or
networks. FDDI, the first fiber LAN, and ESCON, the
IBM mainframe peripheral network, required
unique connectors. TIA 568 originally called for SC
connectors as a standard, but when users
continued to use more STs than SCs and a whole new generation of
smaller connectors were introduced, TIA-568B was changed to say that
any connector standardized by a FOCIS standard document was
acceptable.

The four connectors shown at left show how fiber optic connectors have
evolved. The bottom connector is a Deutsch 1000, the first
commercially-available fiber optic connector. It was really a mechanical
splice, where fibers were held inside the connector with a tiny screw-
tightened chuck. The nose piece was spring-loaded, allowing exposing
the fiber for cleaving and mating with a small plastic lens in a mating
adapter. The mating adapter also had index-matching fluid to reduce
loss but it was a dirt problem.

The yellow connector is an AT&T Biconic. It was developed by Jack

Cook at Bell Labs in the late 1970s. The conical ferrule was molded
from glass-filled plastic. The first Biconics had ferrules molded around
the fiber, until a die with a tiny 125 micron pin in the exact center was
developed. When Biconics were adapted to singlemode fiber, the
ferrules were ground on a special grinding machine to center the fiber.

The SC, which was introduced in the mid-1980s, used a new invention,
the molded ceramic ferrule, that revolutionized fiber optic termination.
Ceramic was an ideal ferrule material. It could be made cheaply by
molding, much cheaper than machining metal for example. It was
extremely stable with temperature, having similar expansion
characteristics to glass which prevented "pistoning" when the ferrule
came unglued, a problem with metal or plastic ferrules. It's hardness
was similar to glass which made polishing much easier. And it readily
adhered to fibers using epoxies or anaerobic adhesives. Today, virtually
all connectors use the ceramic ferrule, usually 2.5 mm diameter (SC, ST,
FC) or 1.25 mm (LC, MU.)

The LC connector was introduced in the late 1990s to miniaturize

connectors for higher density in patch panels or equipment. It uses a
smaller ceramic ferrule, 1.25 mm diameter. The LC is the connector of
choice for telecom and high speed data (>1 Gb/s) networks.

Guide to Identifying Fiber Optic Connectors

Check out the "spotters guide" below and you will see the most common fiber optic connectors.
(All the photos are to the same scale except the MTP, so you can get an idea of the relative size of
these connectors.)
ST (an AT&T Trademark) is the
one of the most popular
connectors for multimode
networks, like most buildings
and campuses. It has a
bayonet mount and a long
cylindrical ferrule to hold the
fiber. Most ferrules are
ceramic, but some are metal
or plastic. And because they
are spring-loaded, you have to
make sure they are seated
properly. If you have high loss,
reconnect them to see if it
makes a difference.
FC/PC has been one of the
most popular singlemode
connectors for many years. It
screws on firmly, but make
sure you have the key aligned
in the slot properly before
tightening. It's being replaced
by SCs and LCs.
SC is a snap-in connector that
is widely used in singlemode
systems for it's excellent
performance and multimode
systems because it was the
first connector chosen as the
standard connector for TIA-
568 (now any connector with a
FOCIS standard is
acceptable.) It's a snap-in
connector that latches with a
simple push-pull motion. It is
also available in a duplex
configuration.
The ST/SC/FC/FDDI/ESON
connectors have the same
ferrule size - 2.5 mm or about
0.1 inch - so they can be
mixed and matched to each
other using hybrid mating
adapters. This makes it
convenient to test, since you
can have a set of multimode
reference test cables with ST
or SC connectors and adapt to
all these connectors.

From the top:

ST>FC
SC>FC
SC>ST
LC is a new connector that
uses a 1.25 mm ferrule, half
the size of the ST. Otherwise,
it's a standard ceramic ferrule
connector, easily terminated
with any adhesive. Good
performance, highly favored
for singlemode and the
connector of choice for
multimode transceivers for
gigabit speeds and above,
including multimode Ethernet
and Fibre Channel.
MT-RJ is a duplex connector
with both fibers in a single
polymer ferrule. It uses pins
for alignment and has male
and female versions.
Multimode only, field
terminated only by
prepolished/splice method.
Mostly obsolete.

Opti-Jack is a neat, rugged

duplex connector cleverly
designed around two ST-type
ferrules in a package the size
of a RJ-45. It has male and
female (plug and jack)
versions.

Volition is a simple,
inexpensive duplex connector
that uses no ferrule at all. It
aligns fibers in a V-groove like
a splice. Plug and jack
versions, but one can field
terminate jacks only.

MU looks a miniature SC with

a 1.25 mm ferrule. It's more
popular in Japan.
MPO (sometimes called by the
brand name MTP) is a 12 fiber
connector for ribbon cable. It's
main use is for preterminated
cable assemblies.

Here is an even more comprehensive guide to fiber optic connectors,

including obsolete ones.

The ST/SC/FC/FDDI/ESCON connectors have the same ferrule size - 2.5

mm or about 0.1 inch diameter- so they can be mixed and matched to
each other using hybrid mating adapters. This makes it convenient to
test, since you can have a set of multimode reference test cables with
ST connectors and adapt to all these connectors. Likewise, the LC and
MU use the same ferrule (1.25 mm diameter) so mating is possible.

Connector Popularity

The ST is still one of the most popular multimode connectors because it

is inexpensive and easy to install. The SC connector was specified as a
standard by the old EIA/TIA 568A specification, but its higher cost and
difficulty of installation (until recently) limited its popularity in premises
applications at first. However, newer SCs are much better in both cost
and installation ease, so it has been growing in use, but is now
challenged by the LC, which is the connector of choice for transceivers
for systems operating at gigabit speeds because of its small size and
high performance.

Singlemode networks have used FC or SC connectors in about the same

proportion as ST and SC in multimode installations. There are some D4s
out there too. But LCs have become the most popular, again for their
performance and small size.

EIA/TIA 568 now allows any fiber optic connector as long as it has
a FOCIS (Fiber Optic Connector Intermateability Standard) document
behind it. This opened the way to the development of several new
connectors, which we call the "Small Form Factor" (SFF) connectors,
including AT&T LC, the MT-RJ, the Panduit "Opti-Jack," 3M's Volition, the
E2000/LX-5 and MU. The LC has been particularly successful in the US.

Specialty Fiber Optic Connectors

There are a number of specialty fiber optic connectors available such

as this multifiber military connector, special underwater or aircraft
connectors, plastic optical fiber (POF) connectors, etc. Most have been
designed for very specific applications and require extremely rigorous
qualification testing. Some like the Mil-C-38999, are copper wiring
connectors adapted to hold fiber optic ferrules. Many of these
connectors require special cable types, termination procedures,
cleaning, handling and test procedures. Refer to manufacturer's
instructions whenever dealing with these types of connectors.

Connector Ferrule Shapes & Polishes

Fiber optic connectors can have several different ferrule shapes or
finishes, usually referred to as end finish or polish types.

Early connectors, which did not have keyed ferrules and could rotate in
mating adapters, always had an air gap between the connectors to
prevent them rotating and grinding scratches into the ends of the fibers.
The ends of the ferrules were polished on hard,flat surfaces. They are
sometimes referred to as NC or "Non-Fiber Contact" styles.

Beginning with the ST and FC which had keyed ferrules, the connectors
were designed to contact tightly, what we now call physical contact
(PC) connectors. These connectors were still polished flat on the end.
Reducing the air gap reduced the loss and reflectance (very important
to laser-based singlemode systems ), since light has a loss of about 5%
(~0.25 dB) at each air gap and light is reflected back up the fiber. While
air gap connectors usually had losses of 0.5 dB or more and a
reflectance of -20 dB, PC connectors had typical losses of 0.3 dB and
a reflectance of -30 to -40 dB. PC connectors required polishing on a flat
surface with a soft rubber pad to allow the end to be polished convex.

Soon thereafter, it was determined that polishing the connector ferrules

to a convex end face would produce an even better connection. The
convex ferrule guaranteed the fiber cores were in contact. Losses were
under 0.3dB and reflectance -40 dB or better.

The ultimate solution for singlemode systems extremely sensitive to

reflections, like CATV or high bitrate telco links, was to angle the end of
the ferrule 8 degrees to create what we call an APC or angled PC
connector. Then any reflected light is at an angle that is absorbed in the
cladding of the fiber, resulting in reflectance of >-60 dB.
Connector Color Codes:

Since the earliest days of fiber optics, orange, black or gray was
multimode and yellow singlemode. However, the advent of metallic
connectors like the FC and ST made color coding difficult, so colored
boots were often used.

The TIA 568 color code for connector bodies and/or boots has been
Beige for multimode fiber, Blue for singlemode fiber, and Green for APC
(angled) connectors. With the advent of new types of fiber, the choices
were widened as shown in the table below.

Strain
Connector Relief/
Fiber type
Body Mating
Adapter

62.5/125 Beige Beige

50/125 Black Black

50/125 laser
Aqua Aqua
optimized

Singlemode Blue Blue

Singlemode APC Green Green

Termination Procedures

Whatever you do, always follow the manufacturer's termination

instructions closely .

Multimode connectors are usually installed in the field on the cables

after pulling, while singlemode connectors are usually installed by
splicing a factory-made "pigtail" onto the fiber. The tolerances on
singlemode terminations are much tighter than multimode and the
polishing processes are more critical, so singlemode termination is
better done in a factory environment using polishing machines (left,
below). You can install singlemode connectors in the field for low speed
data networks, but you may not be able to get losses lower than 1 dB
and reflectance may be a problem! Multimode connectors are easier to
install and polish (below, right) so are often done in the field by trained
technicians.

Connectors can be installed directly on most cable types, including

jacketed tight buffer types like simplex, zipcord and breakout cables,
where the where the aramid fiber strength members in the cable are
crimped or glued to the connector body to create a strong connector.
Connectors can be attached to the 900 micron buffered fibers in
distribution cables, but the termination is not as rugged as those made
to jacketed cables, so they should be placed in patch panels or boxes
for protection. The 250 micron buffered fibers in loose tube cables
cannot be easily terminated unless they have a reinforcement called a
breakout kit or furcation kit installed, where each fiber is covered by a
larger plastic tube. Generally loose tube and ribbon cables are
terminated by splicing on a terminated pigtail.

Cables can be pulled with connectors already on them if, and a big if,
you can deal with two issues: First, the length must be precise. Too
short and you have to pull another longer one (its not cost effective to
splice), too long and you waste money and have to store the extra cable
length. Secondly, the connectors must be protected. Some cable and
connector manufacturers offer protective sleeves to cover the
connectors, but you must still be much more careful in pulling cables.
You might consider terminating one end and pulling the unterminated
end to not risk the connectors. There is a growing movement to install
preterminated systems with the MTP 12 multifiber connector. It's tiny
not much bigger than a ST or SC, but has up to 12 fibers. Manufacturers
sell multifiber cables with MPOs on them that connect to preterminated
patch panels with STs or SCs. (See "Do You Have To Terminate In The
Field" below.)

Multimode Terminations: Several different types of terminations are

available for multimode fibers. Each version has its advantages and
disadvantages, so learning more about how each works helps decide
which one to use.

Singlemode Terminations: Singlemode fiber requires different

connectors and polishing techniques that are best done in a factory
environment. Consequently most SM fiber is field terminated by splicing
on a factory-terminated pigtail. Singlemode termination requires special
connectors with much tighter tolerances on the ferrule, especially the
hole for the fiber. Polishing requires special diamond polishing film on a
soft rubber pad and a polishing slurry to get low reflectance. But you
can put SM connectors on in the field if you know what you are doing.
Expect higher loss and high reflectance.

Termination Processes

Adhesive/Polish Terminations

Most connectors use epoxies or other adhesives to hold the fiber in the
connector ferrule and polish the end of the fiber to a smooth finish.
Follow termination procedures carefully, as they have been developed to
produce the lowest loss and most reliable terminations. Use only the
specified adhesives, as the fiber to ferrule bond is critical for low loss
and long term reliability! We've seen people use hardware store epoxies,
Crazy Glue, you name it! And they regretted doing it. Only adhesives
approved by manufacturers or other distributors of connectors should
be used. If the adhesive fails, not unusual when connector ferrules were
made of metal, the fiber will "piston" - sticking out or pulling back into
the ferrule - causing high loss and potential damage to a mated
connector.

The polishing process involves three steps which only takes a minute:
"air polishing" to grind down the protruding fiber, polishing on a soft pad
with the fiber held perpendicular to the polishing surface with a
polishing puck and a quick final fine polish.

Epoxy/Polish: Most connectors, including virtually all factory made

terminations, are the simple "epoxy/polish" type where the fiber is glued
into the connector with epoxy and the end polished with special
polishing film. These provide the most reliable connection, lowest
losses (less than 0.5 dB) and lowest costs, especially if you are doing a
lot of connectors. The small bead of hardened epoxy that surrounds the
fiber on the end of the ferrule even makes the cleaving and polishing
processes much easier - practically foolproof. The epoxy can be allowed
to set overnight or cured in an inexpensive oven. A "heat gun" should
never be used to try to cure the epoxy faster as the uneven heat may
not cure all the epoxy or may overheat some of it which will prevent it
ever curing. Don't use "Hot Melt" ovens either, as they use a much
higher temperature and will ruin the epoxy.
"Hot Melt" Adhesive/Polish: This is a 3M trade name for a connector that
already has the epoxy (actually a heat set glue) inside the connector.
You insert the connector in a special oven. In a few minutes, the glue is
melted, so you remove the connector, insert the stripped fiber, let it cool
and it is ready to polish. Fast and easy, low loss, but not as cheap as the
epoxy type, it has become the favorite of lots of contractors who install
relatively small quantities of connectors. Remember you need a special
Hot Melt oven, as it needs a much higher temperature than is used for
curing epoxy.

Anaerobic Adhesive/Polish: These connectors use a quick setting

"anaerobic" adhesive to replace the epoxy or Hot Melt adhesive that
cures faster than other types of adhesives. They work well if your
technique is good, but some do not have the wide temperature range of
epoxies. A lot of installers are using Loctite 648, with or without the
accelerator solution, that is neat and easy to use.

More on adhesive/polish connectors.

Videos on termination on the FOA Channel on

Crimp/Polish: Rather than glue the fiber in the connector, these

connectors use a crimp on the fiber to hold it in. Early types offered
"iffy" performance, but today they are pretty good, if you practice a lot.
Expect to trade higher losses for the faster termination speed. And they
are more costly than epoxy polish types. A good choice if you only
install small quantities and your customer will accept them.

Prepolished/Splice Connectors (also called "cleave & crimp")

Some manufacturers offer connectors that have a short stub fiber
already epoxied into the ferrule and polished and a mechanical splice in
the back of the connector, so you just cleave a fiber and insert it like a
splice, a process which can be done very quickly. Several connectors
use a fusion splice instead of a mechanical splice to attach the
connector, a better process but requiring more expensive equipment - a
fusion splicer, sometimes a dedicated splicer for that connector.
This method has both good and bad points. The manufacturing process
is complex so these connectors are costly, as much as ten times as
much as an adhesive/polish type, since they require careful
manufacturing. Some of that extra cost can be recovered in lower labor
costs for installation. You must have a good cleave on the fiber you are
terminating to make them low loss, as the fiber cleave is a major factor
in the loss of a mechanical splice. Using a high quality cleaver like
those used for fusion splicing, available from some manufacturers as
part of their termination kits, is recommended. Even if you do
everything correctly, loss will be somewhat higher, because you have
a connection loss plus a splice loss in every connector. The best way to
terminate them is to verify the loss of the splice with a visual fault
locator and "tweak" them. (Photo: Corning, Unicam)

More on prepolished/splice connectors.

Read more about termination processes and view the actual processes
involved in termination with "Virtual Hands-On" tutorials and on the

FOA Channel on . See the Table of Contents for listings of

termination types under Components.

Hints for doing field terminations

Here are a few things to remember when you are terminating
connectors in the field. Following these guidelines will save you time,
money and frustration.

Choose the connector carefully and clear it with the customer if it is

anything other than an epoxy/polish type. Some customers have strong
opinions on the types or brands of connectors used in their job. Find out
first, not later!

Never, never, NEVER take a new connector in the field until you have
installed enough of them in the office that you can put them on in your
sleep. The field is no place to experiment or learn! It'll cost you big
time!

Have the right tools for the job. Make sure you have the proper tools and
they are in good shape before you head out for the job. This includes all
the termination tools, cable tools and test equipment. Do you know your
test cables are good? Without that, you will test good terminations as
bad every time. More and more installers are owning their own tools like
auto mechanics, saying that is the only way to make sure the tools are
properly cared for.

Dust and dirt are your enemies. It's very hard to terminate or splice in a
dusty place. Try to work in the cleanest possible location. Use lint-free
wipes (not cotton swaps or rags made from old T-shirts!) to clean every
connector before connecting or testing it. Don't work under heating
vents, as they are blowing dirt down on you continuously.

Don't overpolish. Contrary to common sense, too much polishing is just

as bad as too little. The ceramic ferrule in most of today's connector is
much harder than the glass fiber. Polish too much will cause
undercutting of the fiber and you create a concave fiber surface not
convex as it should be, increasing the loss. A few swipes is all it takes.

Change polishing film regularly. Polishing builds up residue and dirt on

the film that can cause problems after too many connectors and cause
poor end finish. Check the manufacturers' specs.

Put covers on connectors and patch panels when not in use. Keep them
covered to keep them clean.

Inspect and test, then document. It is very hard to troubleshoot cables

when you don't know how long they are, where they go or how they
tested originally! So keep good records, smart users require it and
expect to pay extra for good records.

Prefabricated Cabling Systems: Do You Have To Terminate In

The Field?

Not necessarily. Many manufacturers offer prefabricated fiber optic

cabling systems for both premises and outside plant systems. In fact,
the largest application for prefabricated systems is fiber to the home
(FTTH) where it saves a tremendous amount of time in installation and
cost. Using prefab systems requires knowing precisely where the cable
will be run so cable lengths can be specified. Using CAD systems and
design drawings, a complete fiber optic cabling system is designed to
the customer's specifications and built in a factory using standard
components. Early prefabricated systems (some are still available)
simply terminated cables with standard connectors like STs or SCs and
put them inside a plastic pulling boot with a pulling loop attached to the
fiber strength members. The cable would be placed with the boot in
place then removed to connect into patch panels.

Today, it's more common to use backbone cables terminated in small

multifiber MPO connectors that are pulled from room to room and
connected to rack-mounted modules that have MPO connectors on the
back and single fiber connectors on the front (see photo of Fiberware
system.) Like everything else, there are tradeoffs. The factory-
assembled connectors usually have lower loss than field terminations
but the MPO connectors, even factory assembled, are not low loss, so
the total loss may be more than field terminated systems. Costs also
involve tradeoffs, as factory systems are more expensive for the
components but installation time is much less.

In new facilities, considering prefabricated systems is always a good

idea, but all factors should be considered before making a decision.

More on prefab cable systems.

More on connectors and termination, including hands-on tutorials.

Test Your Comprehension

References
The FOA Reference Guide to Outside Plant Fiber Optics

The FOA Online Reference Guide to Fiber Optics

You can buy the printed version of the The FOA Reference Guide to
Outside Plant Fiber Optics from the FOA eStore or Amazon.

Table of Contents: The FOA Reference Guide To Fiber Optics

(C)2015, The Fiber Optic Association, Inc.