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Introduction to Robotics

Book · January 1989

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-82997-0

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Miomir Vukobratovic

Introduction
to Robotics
In collaboration with
Milan Djurovic, Dragan Hristic, Branko Karan,
Manja Kireanski, N enad Kireanski,
Dragan Stokic, Dragoljub Vujic, Vesna Zivkovic

With 228 Figures

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg NewYork

London Paris Tokyo 1989 ..
Miomir Vukobratovic, Ph. D., D. Sc.
Milan Djurovic B. Sc.
Dragan Hristic Ph.D.
Branko Karan B. Sc.
Manja Kircanski Ph.D.
Nenad Kireanski Ph.D.
Dragan Stokic Ph.D.
Dragoljub Vujic Ph.D.
Vesna Zivkovic Ph.D.
Institute Mibajlo Pupin
YU-llOOO Beograd

Based on the original Uvod u Robotiku published by

Institute Mibajlo Pupin, Beograd, Yugoslavia, 1986.

ISBN-13: 978-3-642-82999-4 e-ISBN -13: 978-3-642-82997-0

DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-82997-0

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Vukobratovic, Miomir. Introduction to robotics. Translation of: Uvod u robotiku.
Includes index. 1. Robotics. 1. Title.
TJ211.V86131988 629.8'92 88-10307
ISBN-i3:978-3-642-82999-4 (U.S.)

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, re-use of
illustration, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in other ways.
and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is only
permitted under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9,1965,
in its version of June 24, 1985, and a copyright fee must always be paid. Violations fall
under the prosecution act of the German Copyright Law.
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1989
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1989
The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even
in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

216113020-543210 - Printed on acid-free paper

Preface

The publication of Introduction to Robotics is one among the results of many

years' work by the authors of this book in the study of robotics. During the
first stage of this work, devoted to locomotion robots and anthropomorphic
mechanisms in particular, a number of papers were published in the period
1974-76. The most prominent of them is M. VukobratoviC's Legged Locomotion
Systems and Anthropomorphic Mechanisms, published in English, Russian,
Japanese and Chinese.
The contributions by the associates of the Mibajlo Pupin Institute's Robotics
Department in the second stage of their work in the field of robotics are
included in Scientific Fundamentals of Robotics - a series of monograpbs
covering the study of manipulation robots. Six volumes of this series were
published in English by Springer-Verlag during 1982-85. Some of these volumes
were translated into other languages. Volume 1 was translated into Japanese
and published by Springer-Verlag, Volume 2 was published by Nauka in
Russian (the translation of Volume 5 into Russian is finished and will be
published by Mir in 1988), and all six volumes of the series were translated
into Chinese. The work on writing the series for Springer-Verlag continues.
The topics treated in the books that have been published by Springer-Verlag
are as follows. The first in the series provides a study of dynamics and the
application of dynamic models to the dynamic calculations of robot mechanisms,
and the second book studies the problems of synthesizing control laws for
manipulation robots on the basis of their complete dynamic models. Volume 3
describes efficient methods for forming the kinematic models of manipulation
robots and the synthesis of robot trajectories in unobstacled and obstacled
operating environments. Volume 4 deals with the algorithms for efficient
construction of the mathematical models of robot dynamics, that are suitable
for use in nonadaptive and adaptive control of robot mechanisms as well as
the analysis of the numerical complexity of various control laws intended to
permit their microcomputer implementation. Volume 5 treats the synthesis
of nonadaptive and adaptive control and the analysis of the numerical com-
plexity of various control laws. Volume 6 outlines the convenience of using
the mathematical models of manipulation robot dynamics in choosing different
types of robot actuators, and the results concerning some specific manipulation
tasks in which dynamic reactions occur on a robot gripper.
VI Preface

The books described above and work published by an increasing number

of other authors represent adequate introduction for postgraduate robotics
courses. However, it has also been necessary to create textbook material
suitable for the basic robotics courses of undergraduate studies at engineering
faculties. Such literature on robotics is lacking both in quantity and appropriate
presentation. In addition to textbooks, books on robotics that introduce readers
in a more easily understandable way to this important and propulsive field
of technical science appear to be lacking as well.
In writing a book intended to introduce a technically qualified reader to the
field of robotics, the authors are always faced with the risk of either over-
simplifying the subject matter or providing just a condensed version of the text
of a previously published monograph.
The authors of this book have attempted to present the relatively wide scope
of robotics subject matter in a different way. Their intention has been to
discuss all the details of robotics in such a manner as to arouse interest to
this research area without facing the reader with serious difficulties in following
the text, from the standpoints of classical mechanics, systems theory and
computer engineering. We think that we have attained this aim which makes
the whole text easy to follow by final-year students in mechanical and electrical
engineering faculties as well as by students of science and mathematics spe-
cializing in mechanics, mathematics and physics, with some basic knowledge
of automatic control theory.
The authors of this text, and of the chapter on robot dynamics in particular,
were in a dilemma as to how to present this subject because of its exceptional
importance in robotics and its role in the control and modern dynamic analysis
of robot mechanisms. It is well known that more than fifteen years ago, within the
Belgrade school of robotics some of the authors of this book were among the first
in the world to lay the foundations of computer-oriented methods for con-
structing the dynamic equations of active spatial mechanisms. But, because of the
character of this book and space limitations, there was some fear, that the
automated algorithm for forming dynamic robot models could be presented in
a way understandable to readers who are making their first steps in robotic
studies. However, consistent with our opinion that the "manual" construction of
robot models is now an anachronism and accepting a certain amount of risk, we
decided to take this contemporary approach to the study of robot dynamics.
This book is organized into nine chapters.
Chapter 1 presents general robot characteristics concerning the classification
of robot systems, the general specification of robot mechanisms and the
specification of manipulation robots.
Chapter 2 is devoted to manipulation robot kinematics. It treats the kinematic
structure of manipulation robots, the types of kinematic configurations, the
kinematic model of manipulation robots, based on the Denavit-Hartenberg
(homogeneous) coordinates. The inverse problem of kinematics is formulated
and the basic principles of robot trajectory synthesis are given.
 Preface VII

Chapter 3 contains the fundamentals of studying robot dynamics. It presents

the automated construction of the dynamic equations of motion, the modelling
of actuator dynamics and the effect of fundamental vibration on the robot
dynamics. The class of tasks involving constrained gripper motion is also
presented.
The problems of manipulation robot control are discussed in Chapter 4.
Particular attention is given to the synthesis of programmed control based
on the complete or partial dynamic models of robots and to the synthesis
of local controllers. Some results relating to load feedback are presented
and the control problem of automated mechanical assembly is considered.
Chapter 5 is devoted to the microcomputer implementation of control
algorithms. It presents the basic elements of today's robot control systems as
well as software modules among which communication-command module,
kinematic module and dynamic (servosystem) module deserve to be especially
mentioned.
Manipulation robot programming is treated in Chapter 6. Apart from mani-
pulator motion programming, special attention is devoted to robot communi-
cation with the environment and to a short survey of programming methods.
Chapter 7 deals with the sensors used in robotics: position sensors (potentio-
meters, encoders, resolvers), environment sensors (force sensors, tactile
sensors, proximity sensors) and vision sensors (scene illumination, special
vision sensors, lasers).
The elements of industrial robot design and application are discussed in
Chapter 8. Some specificfeatures of industrial robots as mechanical constructions
are presented, design solutions for the basic modules are described and numerous
examples illustrating the practical application of industrial robots are given (spot
and arc welding, die-casting, forging, painting, machine tool serving, etc.).
Considerable research and development work has been performed on flexible
automation systems. In Chapter 9 we have tried to unify in a systematic way
major problems (and possible solutions) encountered with factory automation
by integrating one or more robots and several machine tools into work cell,
flexible manufacturing line and assembly systems.
The authors of this book have tried to present the text in such a way as will
arouse the interest of all those who wish to have a solid background for
systematic robotic studies.

Beograd, Yugoslavia M. Vukobratovic

September 1987
Contents

1 General Introduction to Robots (Miomir Vukobratovic) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Dedication and Classification of Robotic Systems ............... 1

1.2 General Features of Robotic Mechanisms and their Classification . .. 11

References ............................................... 18

2 Manipulator Kinematic Model (Manja Kircanski) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19

2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19

2.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19
2.2.1 Mechanical Structure ................................ 20
2.2.2 Link ............................................. 21
2.2.3 Kinematic Pair ..................................... 21
2.2.4 Kinematic Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21
2.2.5 Joint Coordinates ................................... 22
2.2.6 External Coordinates ................................ 22
2.2.7 Direct Kinematic Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23
2.2.8 Inverse Kinematic Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24
2.2.9 Redundancy ....................................... 24

2.3 Direct Kinematic Problem ................................ , 25

2.3.1 Manipulator Hand Position. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25
2.3.1.1 Homogeneous Transfonnation Matrices ............ 25
2.3.2 Manipulator Hand Orientation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 32

2.4 Inverse Kinematic Problem ................................ 35

2.4.1 Analytical Solutions 36
2.4.2 Numerical Solutions 38
2.4.3 The Jacobian Matrix 40
X Contents

2.5 Manipulator Path Generation .............................. 44

2.6 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 48

References ............................................... 48

3 Dynamics and Dynamic Analysis of Manipulation Robots

(Miomir Vukobratovic and Dragoljub Vujic) ............. .. . . . . .. 50

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50

3.2 Mathematical Model of Manipulation Robot Dynamics . . . . . . . . . .. 50

3.2.1 Mathematical Models of Actuators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 62
3.2.2 Trajectories Synthesis and Dynamic Analysis of
Manipulation Robots ................................ 65
3.2.2.1 Transfer of Manipulator Tip Along Prescribed
Trajectory ................................... 68
3.2.2.2 Transfer of Working Object with Desired Orientation
along Prescribed Trajectory ..................., . .. 70
3.2.3 Calculation of Other Dynamic Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75
3.2.3.1 Diagrams of Torque vs. r.p.m. ................... 75
3.2.3.2 Calculation of the Power Needed and the Energy
Consumed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76
3.2.4 Testing of Dynamic Characteristics ...................... 77
3.2.4.1 Tests of a D.C. Electromotor .................... 77
3.2.4.2 Choice of Optimal Design Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81

3.3 Dynamics of Manipulation Robots in Conditions of Mechanical

Vibrations Impact ....................................... 84
3.3.1 Basis Vibrations .................................... 85
3.3.2 Forming Differential Equations of Motion ................ 86

3.4 Dynamics of Robots Under Action of External Reaction Forces. . .. 90

3.4.1 Practical Cases of Constrained Gripper Motion. . . . . . . . . . . .. 90
3.4.2 Mathematical Model of Manipulator with Constraints of
Gripper Motion .................................... 92
3.4.3 Gripper Moving Along a Surface ....................... 95

Appendix ................................................ 104

A.3.1 Connection Between the Moving and Fixed System ......... 104
A.3.2 Determining Velocities and Accelerations ................ 108
 Contents XI

A.3.3 Momentum of Rigid Body with Respect to a Fixed Pole ..... 110
A.3.4 Example of Mathematical Model Derivation .............. 113

References ............................................... 117

4 Control of Robots (Dragan Stokie) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

4.1 Hierarchical Control of Robots ............................. 120

4.2 Control of a Single Joint of a Robot ......................... 122

4.2.1 Model of Actuator and Joint Dynamics ................... 123
4.2.2 Synthesis of Servosystem ............................. 125
4.2.3 The Influence of the Variable Moment of Inertia of the
Mechanism ........................................ 131
4.2.4 Influence of Gravity Moment and Friction ................ 136
4.2.5 Synthesis of the Servosystem for Trajectory Tracking ........ 138

4.3 Control of Simultaneous Motion of Several Robot Joints .......... 143

4.3.1 Analysis of the Influence of Dynamic Forces in Simultaneous
Motion of Several Joints .............................. 144
4.3.2 Dynamic Control of Robots ........................... 147
4.3.3 Computer-aided Synthesis of Robot Control ............... 154

4.4 Effects of Payload Variation and Notion of Adaptive Control

of Robots ............................................. 157

4.5 Control of Robots in Assembly Tasks ........................ 159

References ............................................... 161

5 Microprocessor ImplepIentation of Control Algorithms

(Nenad Kireanski) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

5.2 Basic Subsystems of Modem Robot Controllers ................ 164

5.3 Program Modules ....................................... 168

5.3.1 User-interface ...................................... 168
5.3.2 Kinematic Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.3.3 Dynamic Module ................................... 172
XII Contents

5.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

References ............................................... 178

6 Industrial Robot Programming Systems (Branko Karan) ........... 180

6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

6.2 Describing the Motion .................................... 182

6.3 Sensory Data Processing .................................. 187

6.4 Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

6.5 Implementations of Robot Programming Systems ............... 192

6.6 Robot Programming Examples ............................. 197

6.7 Additional Reading ...................................... 206

References ............................................... 207

7 Sensors in Robotics (Milan Djurovic) .......................... 208

7.1 Positional Sensors ....................................... 208

7.1.1 Resolvers ......................................... 209
7.1.2 Encoders .......................................... 210
7.1.3 Potentiometers ..................................... 211
7.1.4 Performance Comparison ............................. 211
7.1.4.1 Mechanical Characteristics ....................... 211
7.1.4.2 Environmental Conditions ....................... 212
7.1.4.3 Installation .................................. 212
7.1.4.4 Accuracy .................................... 212
7.1.4.5 Reliability ................................... 213

7.2 Environment Sensors ..................................... 213

7.2.1 Force Sensors ...................................... 213
7.2.2 Tactile Sensors ..................................... 219
7.2.3 Ultrasonic Sensors .................................. 222

7.3 Robot Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

 Contents XIII

7.3.1 Illuminating the Scene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . 224

7.3.2 Special Vision Sensors ................................ 225
7.3.3 Lasers ................................. '........... 227

References ............................................... 229

8 Elements, Structures and AppUcation of Industrial Robots

(Dragan Hristic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

8.1 Basic Postulates of Industrial Robot Design ................... 230

8.1.1 Specifications of Industrial Robots as Mechanical Structures ... 231

8.2 Design Solutions of Main Robot Sub-assemblies ................ 233

8.2.1 Pedestals of Robots .................................. 233
8.2.2 Angular Drives ..................................... 236
8.2.3 Linear Drives ...................................... 241
8.2.4 Industrial Robot Grippers ............................. 244

8.3 Examples of Industrial Robot Applications .................... 249

8.3.1 Electrical Spot-Welding ............................... 250
8.3.2 Electrical Seam Welding .............................. 253
8.3.3 Pressure Die-Casting ................................. 255
8.3.4 Spray Painting ...................................... 257
8.3.5 Machine Tool Serving ................................ 259
8.3.6 Materials Handling and Palletization ..................... 262
8.3.7 Processing Castings and Stampings ...................... 263
8.3.8 Applying Glue and Leakproofing ....................... 265
8.3.9 Assembly by Robots ................................. 266
8.3.10 Special Applications of Robots ........................ 268

References ............................................... 269

9 Robotics and Flexible Automation Systems (Vesna Zivkovic) . . . . . . . . 270

9.1 Introduction ............................................ 270

9.2 Functional Structure of Flexible Automation Systems ............ 271

9.2.1 Computerized Numerical Control ....................... 274
9.2.1.1 CNC System ................................. 274
9.2.1.2 NC Programming ............................. 276
XIV Contents

9.2.1.3 Adaptive Control ............................. 277

9.2.2 Computerized Transport Systems and Mobile Robots ........ 278

9.3 Control of Flexible Automation Systems ...................... 280

9.3.1 Control of Flexible Manufacturing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
9.3.2 Control of Multirobot Systems ......................... 286
9.3.2.1 Off-line Multirobot Trajectory Planning ............ 286
9.3.2.2 On-line Multirobot Trajectory Planning ............. 287

9.4. Hardware and Software Requirements for FAS ................ 288

9.4.1 An Example of the Information Flow in FAS .............. 290

References ............................................... 291

Appendix A.9 Coloured Petri Nets ............................. 292

A.9.1 General Notions on Petri Nets ......................... 292

A.9.2 Execution Rules of Petri Nets ..................... ,.... 292
A.9.3 Non-primitive Coloured Petri Nets ..................... 293
A. 9.4 Normalized Coloured Petri Nets ....................... 294

References ............................................... 295

Subject Index ............................................. 297

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