P-Block Elements

The nitrogen family is element group 15 of the periodic table. The nitrogen
family consists of nitrogen phosphorus, arsenic, antimony and bismuth. Nitrogen
family elements consists of atoms having 5 electrons in their outer energy level.
A pnictogen is one of the chemical elements in group 15 of the periodic table. This
group is also known as the nitrogen family.

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

7 nitrogen 2, 5
15 phosphorus 2, 8, 5
33 arsenic 2, 8, 18, 5
51 antimony 2, 8, 18, 18, 5
83 bismuth 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 5

Like other groups, the members of this family show similar patterns in electron
configuration, especially in the outermost shells.

This group has the defining characteristic that all the component elements have 5
electrons in their outermost shell, that is 2 electrons in the s subshell and 3 unpaired
electrons in the p subshell. They are therefore 3 electrons short of filling their outermost
electron shell in their non-ionized state. The most important elements of this group are
nitrogen (N), which in its diatomic form is the principal component of air, and
phosphorus (P), which, like nitrogen, is essential to all known forms of life.

The pnictogens consist of two nonmetals (one gas, one solid), two metalloids,
one metal, and one element with unknown chemical properties. All the elements in the
group are solids at room temperature, except for nitrogen which is gaseous at room
temperature. Nitrogen and bismuth, despite both being pnictogens, are very different in

1
their physical properties. For instance, at STP nitrogen is a transparent nonmetallic gas,
while bismuth is a silvery-white metal.

Nitrogen

Nitrogen can be produced by fractional distillation of air. Nitrogen can also be produced
in a large scale by burning hydrocarbons or hydrogen in air. On a smaller scale, it is
also possible to make nitrogen by heating barium azide. Additionally, the following
reactions produce nitrogen:

NH4+ + NO2− → N2 + 2H2O

8NH3 + 3Br2 → N2 + 6NH4+ + 6Br−

2NH3 + 3CuO → N2 + 3H2O + 2Cu

Phosphorus

The principal method for producing phosphorus is to reduce phosphates with carbon in
an electric arc furnace.

Arsenic

Most arsenic is prepared by heating the mineral arsenopyrite in the presence of air. This
forms As4O6, from which arsenic can be extracted via carbon reduction. However, it is
also possible to make metallic arsenic by heating arsenopyrite at 650 to 700 °C without
oxygen.

Antimony

With sulfide ores, the method by which antimony is produced depends on the amount of
antimony in the raw ore. If the ore contains 25% to 45% antimony by weight, then crude
antimony is produced by smelting the ore in a blast furnace. If the ore contains 45% to
60% antimony by weight, antimony is obtained by heating the ore, also known as
liquidation. Ores with more than 60% antimony by weight are chemically displaced with
iron shavings from the molten ore, resulting in impure metal.

2
If an oxide ore of antimony contains less than 30% antimony by weight, the ore is
reduced in a blast furnace. If the ore contains closer to 50% antimony by weight, the ore
is instead reduced in a reverberatory furnace.

Antimony ores with mixed sulfides and oxides are smelted in a blast furnace

Bismuth

Bismuth minerals do occur, but it is more economic to produce bismuth as a by-product

of lead. In China, bismuth is also found in tungsten and zinc ores

The nitrogen family includes the following compounds: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P),
arsenic(As), antimony (Sb), and bismuth (Bi). All Group 15 elements have the electron
configuration ns2np3 in their outer shell, where n is equal to the principal quantum
number. The nitrogen family is located in the p-block in Group 15, as shown below.

Periodic Trends

All Group 15 elements tend to follow the general periodic trends:

• Electronegativity (the atom's ability of attracting electrons) decreases down the

group.

• Ionization energy (the amount of energy required to remove an electron from the
atom in its gas phase) decreases down the group.

• Atomic radii increase in size down the group.

• Electron affinity (the ability of the atom to accept an electron) decreases down
the group.

• Melting point (amount of energy required to break bonds to change a solid phase
substance to a liquid phase substance) increases down the group.

• Boiling point (amount of energy required to break bonds to change a liquid phase
substance to a gas) increases down the group.

• Metallic character increases down the group.

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 Properties of Group 15 Element

Element/Symbol Atomic Mass Electron Covalent Electronegativity First Common

Number Configuration Radius Ionizaton Physical
(pm) Energy Form(s)
(kJ/mol)
Nitrogen (N) 7 14.01 1s2 2s2 2p3 75 3 1402 Colorless
Gas
Phosphorus (P) 15 30.97 [Ne]3s2 3p3 110 2.1 1012 White
Solid /
Red Solid
Arsenic (As) 33 74.92 [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p3 121 2 947 Yellow
Solid /
Gray Solid
Antimony (Sb) 51 121.76 [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p3 140 1.9 834 Yellow
Solid /
Silver-
White
Metallic
Solid
Bismuth (Bi) 83 208.98 [Xe] 155 1.9 703 Pink-
4f14 5d10 6s2 6p3 White
Metallic
Solid

Group 15 Element

There are two allotropic elements in Group 15, phosphorus andarsenic .

Phosphorus exists in several allotropic forms. The main ones (and those from
which the others are derived) are white, red, and black (the
thermodynamically stable form at room temperatu re). Only white and red
phosphorus are of industrial importance. Phosphorus was first produced as
the common white phosphorus, which is the most volatile , most reactive, and
most toxic, but the least thermodynamically stable form of phosphorus, α -P
4 . White phosphorus is a waxy, nonconductor and reacts with air —the
phosphorescent reaction of oxygen with the vapour above the solid producing
the yellow-green chemiluminescent light, which gives phosphorus its name
(after the Greek god, Eosphoros, the mornin g star, the bringer of light). The
phosphorus in commercial use is amorphous red phosphorus, produced by
heating white phosphorus in the absence of air at about 300°C. It melts

4
around 600°C and was long thought to contain polymers formed b y breaking
a P-P bond of each P 4 tetrahedron of white phosphorus then linking th e
"opened" tetrahedral.

A variety of crystalline modifications (tetragonal red, triclinic red, cubic red),

possibly with similar polymeric structures can also be prepared by heating
amorphous red phosphorus at over 500°C.

The most thermodynamically stable, and least reactive, form of phosphorus

is black phosphorus, which exists as three crystalline (orthorhombic -,
rhombohedral- and metallic, or cubic) and one amorphous, allotrope. All are
polymeric solids and are practically nonflammable. Both orthorhombic and
rhombohedral phosphorus appear black and graphitic, consistent with their
layered structures.

Figure a.Linkage of P 4 units in red phosphorus.

A violet crystalline allotrope, monoclinic phosphorus, or Hittorf's phosphorus,

after its discoverer, can be produced by a complicated thermal electrolytic
procedure. The structure is very complex, consisting of tubes of

5
Figure (b). Linkage of P 4 units in red phosphorus.

pentagonal cross section joined in pairs to form double layers, which are
repeated through the crystal. The tubes are formed from cagelike P 8 and P 9

groups, linked by P 2 units.

At least six forms of solid arsenic have been reported, of which three are
amorphous. The most stable and most common form of arsenic at room
temperature is a brittle, steel-gray solid ( α -As) with a structure analogous to
that of rhombohedral black phosphorus. Arsenic vapor contains tetrahedral
As 4molecules, which are thought to be present in the yellow unstable
arsenic formed by condensation of the vapor. Arsenic occurs naturally as α -
As and also as the mineral arsenolamprite, which may have the same
structure as orthorhombic black phosphorus.

Reactions and Compounds of Nitrog en

Like carbon, nitrogen has four valence orbitals (one 2s and three 2p), so it
can participate in at most four electron -pair bonds by using sp 3 hybrid
orbitals. Unlike carbon, however, nitrogen does not form long chains because
of repulsive interactions between lone pairs of electrons on adjacent atoms
.Nitrogen is the only pnicogen that normally forms multiple bonds with itself
and other second-period elements, using π overlap of adjacent np orbitals.
Thus the stable form of elemental nitrogen is N 2 , whose N≡N bond is so
strong (DN≡N = 942 kJ/mol) compared with the N –N and N=N bonds (DN–N
= 167 kJ/mol; DN=N = 418 kJ/mol) that all compounds containing N –N and
N=N bonds are thermodynamically unstable with respect to the formation of
N 2 . In fact, the formation of the N≡N bond is so thermodynamically favored
that virtually all compounds containing N –N bonds are potentially explosive.
Again in contrast to carbon, nitrogen undergoes only two important chemical
reactions at room temperature: it reacts with metall ic lithium to form lithium

6
nitride, and it is reduced to ammonia by certain microorganisms .Few binary
molecular compounds of nitrogen are formed by direct reaction of the
elements. At elevated temperatures, N 2 reacts with H 2 to form ammonia, with
O 2 to form a mixture of NO and NO 2 , and with carbon to form cyanogen
(N≡C–C≡N); elemental nitrogen does not react with the halogens or the other
chalcogens. Nonetheless, all the binary nitrogen halides (NX 3 ) are known.
Except for NF 3 , all are toxic, thermodynamically unstable, and potentially
explosive, and all are prepared by reacting the halogen with NH 3 rather than
N2. Both nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) are
thermodynamically unstable, with positive free energies of formation. Unlike
NO, NO 2 reacts readily with excess water, forming a 1:1 mixture of nitrous
acid (HNO 2 ) and nitric acid (HNO 3 )

2NO 2 (g) + H 2 O(l) → HNO 2 (aq) + HNO 3 (aq)

Nitrogen also forms N 2 O (dinitrogen monoxide, or nitrous oxide), a linear

molecule that is isoelectronic with CO 2 and can be represented as −N=N+=O.
Like the other two oxides of nitrogen, nitrous oxide is thermodynamically
unstable. The structures of the three common oxides of nitrogen are as
follows:

Physical Properties And Oxidation States

Physical properties include physical state, metallic character, melting and

boiling points, density, and allotropy. Nitrogen is a diatomic gas, while the
remaining elements are solids. As we move down a group, metallic character
increases & the ionisation enthalpy of the elements dec rease with an
increase in their atomic size.

7
Trends in melting and boiling points:

The melting point increases from nitrogen to arsenic due to the gradual
increase in atomic size. The very low melting point of nitrogen is due to its
discrete diatomic molecules. On the other hand, the high melting point of
arsenic is attributed to its giant layered structure in which the layers are
closely packed.

Although the atomic size increases from arsenic to antimony, there is a

decrease in their melting points. Alth ough antimony has a layered structure,
it has a low melting point than arsenic because of the relatively loose
packing of atoms. Furthermore, the melting point of bismuth is less than
antimony due to the loose packing of atoms by metallic bonding. On the other
hand, the boiling point gradually increases from nitrogen to bismuth.

Allotropy: All the elements in group fifteen, except for bismuth, show
allotropy. Nitrogen exists in two allotropic forms, that is, alpha nitrogen and
beta nitrogen. Phosphorus exists in many allotropic forms. Of these, the two
important allotropic forms are white phosphorus and red phosphorus. Arsenic
exists in three important allotropic forms - yellow, grey and black. Antimony
also has three important allotropic forms, namely, yellow, explosive and
metallic.

Oxidation states: All the elements of group 15 have 5 electrons in their

outermost orbit. They need only 3 electrons to complete their octet
configuration. The octet can be achieved either by gaining 3 electrons or by
sharing 3 electrons by means of covalent bonds. As a result, the common
negative oxidation state of these elements is -3. As we move down the
group, the tendency to exhibit -3 oxidation state decreases. This is due to
the increase in atomic size and metallic c haracter.

Group 15 elements also show positive oxidation states of +3 & +5 by forming

covalent bonds. Due to the inert pair affect the stability of +5 oxidation state
decreases down the group, while that of +3 oxidation state increases.
Nitrogen has only s- and p-orbitals, but no d-orbitals in its valance shell.

8
Therefore, nitrogen can show a maximum covalency of 4.A covalency of four
is obtained by sharing its lone pair of electron with another atom or ion.

Phosphorus and the remaining elements can exh ibit a covalency of five and
a maximum covalency, also called expanded covalency of six. This is
possible because of the presence of vacant d -orbitals in the valence shell.
All the compounds of group fifteen elements, which exhibit a +5 oxidation
state, are covalent.

In group fifteen elements, the covalent character decreases from nitrogen to

bismuth. Nitrogen, because of its smaller size, high electro -negativity and
strong tendency to form p pi – p pi multiple bonds, it exhibits various
oxidation states from -3 to +5.

Oxidation State and Chemical Properties

The elements of group 15 generally exhibit -3, +3 and +5 oxidation states.

The tendency to exhibit -3 oxidation state decreases as we move down the
group due to increase in the size of the atom and the m etallic character.
Bismuth hardly forms any compound in oxidation state -3. In fact the stability
of +5 state also decreases as we move down the group. BiF 5 is the only well
characterized Bi (V) compound.

Due to inert pair effect, the stability of +5 state decreases and +3 state
increases as we move down the group in the periodic table. Nitrogen reacts
with oxygen and also exhibits +1, +2, +4 oxidation states. On the other hand
phosphorus shows +1 and +4 states in some oxoacids.

In nitrogen, the oxidation states from +1 to +4 tend to disproportionate in

acidic solution. In case of phosphorus the intermediate oxidation states
disproportionate into +5 and -3 in both acids and alkalis. Whereas

9
considering the case of arsenic, antimon y and bismuth, the +3 state is stable
with respect to disproportionation.

Nitrogen has only 4 electrons in its outermost shell (one in s orbital and 3 in
p) which is available for bonding, hence it exhibits a maximum covalency of
4. The heavier elements have a vacant d orbital in the valence shell which is
used for bonding.

Anamolous properties of Nitrogen- The bond enthalpy of nitrogen molecule

is very high due to the presence of triple bond between the two atoms. Other
elements form only single bonds with their own atoms and other atoms too.
The N-N is weaker than P-P because of high interelectronic repulsions of the
non-bonding electrons in N-N due to the small size of N-atom .

Reactivity towards hydrogen:- All the elements of Group 15 form hydrides

of the type E H 3 where E = N, P, As, Sb or Bi. The stability of hydrides
decreases from NH3 to BiH3 due to decrease in their bonddissociation
enthalpy. Consequently, the reducing character of the hydrides incre ases.
Ammonia is only a mild reducing agent while BiH 3 is the strongest reducing
agent amongst all the hydrides. Basicity also decreases in the order Facts of
the hydrides NH 3 > PH 3 > AsH 3 > SbH 3 > BiH 3 . Basicity decreases because
electron density around the central atom decreases.

Reactivity towards oxygen

All these elements form two types of oxides: E 2 O 3 and E 2 O 5 . The oxide in
the higher oxidation state of the element is more acidic than that of lower
oxidation state. Their acidic character decreases down the group. The
oxides of the type E 2 O 3 of nitrogen and phosphorus are purely acidic, that of
arsenic and antimony amphoteric and those of bismuth is predominantly
basic.

10
Reactivity towards halogens

• These elements react to form two series of halides : EX 3 and EX 5 .

• Nitrogen does not form pentahalide due to non -availability of the d orbitals
in its valence shell.

• Pentahalides are more covalent than trihalides.

• In case of nitrogen, only NF 3 is known to be stable due to high polarizing

nature of F-atom

• Trihalides except BiF 3 are predominantly covalent in nature. BiF 3 is ionic

due to high matallic character of Bismuth.

Reactivity towards metals-

All these elements react with metals to form their binary compounds
exhibiting –3 oxidation state 1.PH 3 has lower boiling point than NH 3
becausePH 3 molecules do not form intermolecular hydrogen bonding in liquid
state. That is why the boiling point of PH 3 is lower than NH 3 .

2. NH 3 is soluble in water whereas PH 3 is insoluble.

Preparation, Properties and Uses – Dinitrogen

Dinitrogen makes up to 78% of the earth’s atmosphere and it is the most

abundant element present in the air and the seventh most abundant
uncombined element found in the universe.This element was first discovered

11
in the year 1772 by a Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford.The symbol of this
chemical element is N and 7 is itsatomic number.

Preparation of dinitrogen:

Nitrogen is obtained commercially by liquefaction and fractional distillation of

air. This process mainly involves two step s:

Step 1: Air is reduced to liquid air by applying high pressure ranging between
100 to 200 atmospheres.This compressed air is then passed through fine jet
where it undergoes expansion.This method is repeated several times which
results in the formation of liquid air.

Step 2: The liquid formed undergoes fractional distillation.The boiling point of

dinitrogen is lower than that of the liquid oxygen and hence it distils out,
leaving behind liquid oxygen.Nitrogen is obtained from the impure liquid.

12
In laboratory, dinitrogen is obtained by reacting aqueous solution of
ammonium chloride with sodium nitrite.

NH 4 Cl(aq) + NaNO 2 (aq) → N 2 (g)+ 2H 2 O(l) + NaCl(aq)

The products obtained consists of impurities such as NO and HNO3 which

can be removed by thermal decomposition of ammonium dichromate. Another
method to remove the impurities is to pass the gaseous mixture through
sulphuric acid containing potassium dichromate.

(NH 4 ) 2 Cr 2 O 7 → N 2 + 4H 2 O+ Cr 2 O 3

Decomposition of sodium or barium azide in the presence of high

temperature also results in the formation of pure nitrogen.

Physical properties of Dinitrogen:

• Nitrogen is a colourless, odourless and diamagnetic in nature.It is a

non-toxic gas.

• It is sparingly soluble in water.

• Nitrogen undergoes condensation to form a colourless liquid which on

solidification results in the formation of snow like mass.

Chemical properties of Dinitrogen:

• Dinitrogen has a high bond enthalpy due to the N = N bond. Due to this
it is inert at room temperature. However the reactivity increases as the
temperature increases. Athigh temperatures, nitrogen molecules react with

13
metals to form respective ionic nitrides and with non -metals to form covalent
nitrides.

6Li +N 2 heat → 2Li 3 N At about 773 K it reacts wi th

hydrogen to form ammonia in Haber’s Process.

N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) 773k ↔ 2NH 3 (g)

• Nitric oxide is formed when nitrogen molecule reacts with oxygen

molecule at a temperature of 2000 K.

N 2 (g) + O 2 (g)↔heat 2NO(g)

Uses of Dinitrogen:

• It is mainly used in the industrial manufacturing of compounds such as

ammonia, calcium cynamide etc.

• It is used in the manufacturing industries such as iron and steel to

obtain an inert atmosphere.

• Liquid nitrogen is used in food industries as a preservativ e and as a

refrigerant.

Ostwald process

The Ostwald process is a chemical process for making nitric acid (HNO 3 ).
Wilhelm Ostwald developed the process, and he patented it in 1902 The
Ostwald process is a mainstay of the modern chemical industry, and it
provides the main raw material for the most common type of fertilizer

14
production. Historically and practically, the Ostwald process is closely
associated with the Haber process, which provides the requisite raw material,
ammonia (NH 3 ).

Ammonia is converted to nitric acid in 2 stages. It is oxidized by heating with

oxygen in the presence of a catalyst such asplatinum with 10% rhodium, to
form nitric oxide and water. This step is strongly exothermic, making it a
useful heat source once initiated:

4 NH 3 (g) + 5 O 2 (g) → 4 NO (g) + 6 H 2 O (g) (ΔH = −905.2 kJ)

Stage two encompasses two reactions and is carried out in an absorption

apparatus containing water. Initially nitric oxide is oxidized again to yiel d
nitrogen dioxide. This gas is then readily absorbed by the water, yielding the
desired product (nitric acid, albeit in a dilute form), while reducing a portion
of it back to nitric oxide:

2 NO (g) + O 2 (g) → 2 NO 2 (g) (ΔH = −114 kJ/mol)

3 NO 2 (g) + H 2 O (l) → 2 HNO 3 (aq) + NO (g) (ΔH = −117 kJ/mol)

The NO is recycled, and the acid is concentrated to the required strength by

distillation.

Alternatively, if the last step is carried out in air:

4 NO 2 (g) + O 2 (g) + 2 H 2 O (l) → 4 HNO 3 (aq)

Typical conditions for the first stage, which contribute to an overall yield of
about 98%, are:

15
• pressure between 4 and 10 atmospheres (approx. 400 -1010 kPa or 60-
145 psig) and

• temperature is about 500 K (approx. 217 °C or 422.6 °F.).

Compounds of nitrogen

Red phosphorus

Red phosphorus structure

Red phosphorus may be formed by heating white phosphorus to 300 °C (572

°F) in the absence of air or by exposing white phosphorus to sunlight. Red
phosphorus exists as an amorphous network. Upon further heating, the
amorphous red phosphorus crystallizes. Red phosphorus does not ignite in
air at temperatures below 240 °C (464 °F), whereas pieces of white
phosphorus ignite at about 30 °C (86 °F). Ignition is spontaneous at room
temperature with finely divided material. Heating red phosphorus in the
presence of moisture creates phosphine gas, which is both highly flammable
and toxic.

Applications

Red phosphorus can be used as a very effective flame retardant, especially

in thermoplastics (e.g. polyamide) and thermosets (e.g. epoxy resins or

16
polyurethanes). The flame retarding effect is based on the formation of
polyphosphoric acid. Together with the organic polymer material, this acid
creates a char which prevents the propagation of the flames. The safety risks
associated with phosphine generation and friction sensitivity of red
phosphorus can be effectively reduced by stabilization and micro -
encapsulation. For easier handling, red phosphorus is often used in form of
dispersions or masterbatches in various carrier systems.

Reactions of violet phosphorus

It does not ignite in air until heated to 300 °C and is insoluble in all solvents.
It is not attacked by alkali and only slowly reacts with halogens. It can be
oxidised by nitric acid to phosphoric acid.

If it is heated in an atmosphere of inert gas, for example nitrogen or carbon

dioxide, it sublimes and the vapour condenses as white phosphorus. If it is
heated in a vacuum and the vapour condensed rapidly, violet phosphorus is
obtained. It would appear that violet phosphorus is a polymer of high relative
molecular mass, which on heating breaks down into P2molecules. On
cooling, these would normally dimerize to give P4 molecules (i.e. white
phosphorus) but, in vacuo, they link up again to form the polymeric violet
allotrope.

17
Black phosphorus

Black phosphorus structure

Black phosphorus is the thermodynamically stable form of phosphorus at

room temperature and pressure. It is obtained by heating white phosphorus
under high pressures (12,000 atmospheres). In appearance, properties, and
structure, black phosphorus is very m uch like graphite with both being black
and flaky, a conductor of electricity, and having puckered sheets of linked
atoms.

Black phosphorus has an orthorhombic structure and is the least reactive

allotrope, a result of its lattice of interlinked six -membered rings where each

18
atom is bonded to three other atoms. Black and red phosphorus can also
take a cubic crystal lattice structure. A recent synthesis of black phosphorus
using metal salts ascatalysts has been reported.

Diphosphorus molecule

The diphosphorus allotrope (P 2 ) can normally be obtained only under

extreme conditions (for example, from P 4 at 1100 kelvin). In 2006, the
diatomic molecule was generated in homogenous solution under normal
conditions with the use of transition

Diphosphorus is the gaseous form ofphosphorus, and the thermodynamically

stable form between 1200 °C and 2000 °C. The dissociation of
tetraphosphorus (P 4 ) begins at lower temperature: the percentage of P

2 at 800 °C is ≈ 1%. At temperatures above about 2000 °C, the diphosphorus

molecule begins to dissociate into atomic phosphorus.

Phosphine.

Phosphine (IUPAC name: phosphane) is the compound with the chemical

formula PH 3 . It is a colorless, flammable, toxic gas. Pure phosphine is
odorless, but technical grade samples have a highly unpleasant odor like
garlic or rotting fish, due to the presence of substituted phosphine and
diphosphane (P 2 H 4 ). W ith traces of P 2 H 4 present, PH 3 is spontaneously
flammable in air, burning with a luminous flame. Phosphines are also a group
of organophosphoruscompounds with the formula R 3P (R = organic
derivative). Organophosphines are important in catalysts where they complex
to various metal ions; complexes derived from a chiral phosphine can
catalyze reactions to give chiral,enantioenriched products.

19
Structure and properties

PH 3 is a trigonal pyramidal molecule with C 3 v molecular symmetry. The

lengthof the P-H bond is 1.42 Å, the H-P-H bond angles are 93.5°. The dipole
moment is 0.58 D, which increases with substitution of methyl groups .The
aqueous solubility of PH3 is slight; 0.22 mL of gas dissolve in 1 mL of water.
Phosphine dissolves more readily in non -polar solvents than in water
because of the non-polar P-H bonds. It is technically amphoteric in water, but
acid and base activity is poor. Proton exchange proceeds via a
phosphonium(PH 4 + ) ion in acidic solutions and via PH 2 − at high pH, with
equilibrium constants Kb = 4 × 10−28 and Kz = 41.6 × 10−29.

Phosphine burns producing a dense white cloud of phosphorus pentoxide:

2 PH 3 + 4 O 2 → P 2 O 5 + 3 H 2 O

Preparation

Phosphine may be prepared in a variety of ways. Industrially it can be made

by the reaction of white phosphorus with sodium or potassium hydroxide,
producing sodium or potassium hypophosphite as a by -product.

3 KOH + P 4 + 3 H 2 O → 3 KH 2 PO 2 + PH 3

Alternatively the acid-catalyzed disproportioning of white phosphorus

yieldsphosphoric acid and phosphine. Both routes have industrial
significance; the acid route is preferred method if further reaction of the
phosphine to substituted phosphines is needed. The acid route requires
purification and pressurizing. It can also be made (as described above) by
the hydrolysis of a metal phosphide, such as a luminium phosphide or calcium

20
phosphide. Pure samples of phosphine, free from P 2 H 4 , may be prepared
using the action ofpotassium hydroxide on phosphonium iodide (PH 4 I).

Laboratory routes

It is prepared in the laboratory by disproport ionation of phosphorous acid

4 H 3 PO 3 → PH 3 + 3 H 3 PO 4

Phosphine evolution occurs around 200 °C. Alternative methods involve the
hydrolysis of aluminium and calcium phosphides.

Phosphorus tri chloride

Phosphorus trichloride is a chemical compound of phosphorus andchlorine,

having the chemical formula PCl 3 . It has a trigonal pyramidal shape. It is the
most important of the three phosphorus chlorides. It is an
importantindustrialchemical, being used for the manufacture of
organophosphorus compounds for a wide variety of applications.

Chemical Properties

The phosphorus in PCl 3 is often considered to have the +3 oxidation

stateand the chlorine atoms are considered to be in the −1 oxidation state.
Most of its reactivity is consistent with this description.

Redox reactions PCl 3 is a precursor to other phosphorus compounds,

undergoing oxidationto phosphorus pentachloride (PCl 5 ), thiophosphoryl
chloride (PSCl 3 ), orphosphorusoxychloride (POCl 3 ).

21
If an electric discharge is passed through a mixture of PCl 3
vapourandhydrogen gas, a rare chloride of phosphorus is formed,
diphosphorus tetrachloride (P 2 Cl 4 ).

PCl 3 as an electrophile

Phosphorus trichloride is the precursor to organophosphoruscompoundsthat

contain one or more P(III) atoms, most notably phosphites and
phosphonates. These compounds do not usually contain the chlorine atoms
found in PCl 3 .

PCl 3 reacts rapidly and exothermically with water to form phosphorous acid,
H 3 PO 3 and HCl:

PCl 3 + 3 H 2 O → H 3 PO 3 + 3 HCl

A large number of similar substitution reactions are known, the most

important of which is the formation of phosphite esters by reaction
withalcohols or phenols. For example, with phenol, triphenylphosphite is
formed:

3 PhOH + PCl 3 → P(OPh) 3 + 3 HCl

where "Ph" stands for phenyl group, -C6H5. Alcohols such as ethanol react
similarly in the presence of a base such as a tertiary amine

PCl 3 + 3 EtOH + 3 R 3 N → P(OEt) 3 + 3 R 3 NH+Cl −

Of the many related compounds can be prepared similarly,

triisopropylphosphite is an example.

22
In the absence of base, however, the reaction produces phosphonicacidand
an alkyl chloride, according to the following stoichiometry:

PCl 3 + 3 C 2 H 5 OH → 3 C 2 H 5 Cl + H 3 PO 3

Aminophosphonates are widely used as sequestring and antiscale agents in

water treatment. The large volume herbicide glyphosate is also produc ed this
way. The reaction of PCl 3 with Grignard reagents and organolithium reagents
is a useful method for the preparation oforganicphosphines with the formula
R 3 P (sometimes called phosphanes) such astriphenylphosphine, Ph 3 P.

3 PhMgBr + PCl 3 → Ph 3 P + 3 MgBrCl

Under controlled conditions PCl 3 can be used to prepare PhPCl 2 and Ph 2 PCl.

PCl 3 as a nucleophile

Phosphorus trichloride has a lone pair, and therefore can act as a Lewis
base, for example with the Lewis acids BBr 3 it forms a 1:1 adduct,
Br 3 B−−+PCl 3 . Metal complexes such as Ni(PCl 3 ) 4 are known. This Lewis
basicity is exploited in one useful route to organophosphorus compounds
using analkyl chloride and aluminium chloride:

Preparation

World production exceeds one-third of a million tonnes. Phosphorus

trichloride is prepared industrially by the reaction of chlorine with a
refluxingsolution of white phosphorus in phosphorus trichloride, with
continuous removal of PCl 3 as it is formed (in order to avoid the formation of
PCl 5 ).

23
P 4 + 6 Cl 2 → 4 PCl 3

Industrial production of phosphorus trichloride is controlled under the

Chemical Weapons Convention, where it is listed inschedule 3. In the
laboratory it may be more convenient to use the less toxic red phosphorus. It
is sufficiently inexpensive that it would not be synthesized for laboratory use.

Uses

PCl 3 is important indirectly as a precursor to PCl 5 , POCl 3 and PSCl 3 , which

are used in many applications, includingherbicides, insecticides, plasticisers,
oil additives, and flame retardants.

For example oxidation of PCl 3 gives POCl 3 , which is used for the
manufacture of triphenyl phosphate and tricresyl phosphate, which find
application as flame retardants and plasticisers for PVC. They are also used
to make insecticidessuch as diazinon. Phosphonates in clude the herbicide
glyphosate.

PCl 3 is the precursor to triphenylphosphine for the Wittig reaction, and

phosphite esters which may be used as industrial intermediates, or used in
the Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons reaction, both important methods for making
alkenes. It can be used to make trioctylphosphine oxide (TOPO), used as an
extraction agent, although TOPO is usually made via the corresponding
phosphine.

PCl 3 is also used directly as a reagent in organic synthesis. It is used to

convert primary and secondary alcohols into alkyl chlorides, or carboxylic
acids into acyl chlorides, although thionyl chloride generally gives better
yields than PCl 3 . Phosphorus pentachloride is the chemical compound with
the formula PCl 5 . It is one of the most important phosphorus chlorides, others

24
being PCl 3 andPOCl 3 . PCl 5 finds use as a chlorinating reagent. It is a
colourless, water- and moisture-sensitive solid, although commercial samples
can be yellowish and contaminated with hydrogen chloride.

Structure

The structures for the phosphorus chlorides are invariably consistent with
VSEPR theory. The structure of PCl 5 depends on its environment. Gaseous
and molten PCl 5 is a neutral molecule with trigonalbipyramidal (D 3 h)
symmetry. The hypervalent nature of this species can be explained with the
inclusion of non-bonding MOs (Molecular orbital theory) orresonance
(Valence bond theory). This trigonalbipyramidal structure persists in non -
polar solvents, such as CS 2 and CCl 4

Preparation

PCl 5 is prepared by the chlorination of PCl 3 . This reaction is used to produce

ca. 10,000,000 kg/y of PCl5 (as of 2000).

PCl 3 + Cl 2 ⇌ PCl 5 (ΔH = −124 kJ/mol)

PCl 5 exists in equilibrium with PCl 3 and chlorine, and at 180 °C the degree of
dissociation is ca. 40%. Because of this equilibrium, samples of PCl 5 often
contain chlorine, which imparts a greenish colouration.

In its most characteristic reaction, PCl 5 reacts upon contact with water to
release hydrogen chloride and give phosphorus oxides. The first hydrolysis
product is phosphorus oxychloride:

PCl 5 + H 2 O → POCl 3 + 2 HCl

25
In hot water, hydrolysis proceeds completely toortho -phosphoric acid:

PCl 5 + 4 H 2 O → H 3 PO 4 + 5 HCl

Chlorination of organic compounds

In synthetic chemistry, two classes of chlorination are usually of interest:

oxidative chlorinations and substitutive chlorinations. Oxidative chlorinations
entail the transfer of Cl 2 from the reagent to the substrate. Substitutive
chlorinations entail replacement of O or OH groups with chloride. PCl 5 can be
used for both processes.

PCl 5 will convert carboxylic acids to the corresponding acyl chloride through
the following mechanism:

It also converts alcohols to alkyl chloride. Thionyl chloride is more commonly

used in the laboratory because the SO 2 is more easily separated from the
organic products than is POCl 3 .

PCl 5 and PCl 3 bear some resemblance to SO 2 Cl 2 , as both serve often as

sources of Cl 2 . Again for oxidative chlorinations on the laboratory

26
scale,SO 2 Cl 2 is often preferred over PCl 5 since the gaseous SO 2 by-product
is readily separated.

PCl 5 reacts with a tertiary amides, such as DMF, to give dimethyl chloro
methylene ammonium chloride, which is called the Vilsmeier reagent,
[(CH 3 ) 2 NCClH]Cl. More typically, a related salt is generated from the reaction
of DMF and POCl 3 . Such reagents are useful in the preparation of derivatives
of benzaldehyde by formylation and for the conversion of C-OH groups into
C-Cl groups

In contrast to PCl 3 , the pentachloride replaces allylic and benzylic CH bonds

and is especially renowned for the conversion of C=O groups to CCl 2 groups.

The electrophilic character of PCl 5 is highlighted by its reaction with styrene

to give, after hydrolysis, phosphonic acid derivatives

Oxoacids of Phosphorus

Oxoacids are basically the acids that contain oxygen. Phosphorus forms a
number of oxoacids, for example: H 3 PO 4 , H 3 PO 3 , etc. In oxoacids of
phosphorus, phosphorus is tetrahedrally surrounded by other atoms.
Generally, all these acids are known to form at least one P=O bond and one
P–OH bond. P–P or P–H bonds are also found in addition to P=O bonds and
P–OH bonds in oxoacids of phosphorus where the oxidation st ate of
phosphorus is less than +5. These acids are generally seen to
disproportionate to higher and lower oxidation states. For example,
phosphorous acid on heating disproportionates to give phosphoric acid and
phosphine.

27
Oxoacids of Phosphorus

The P-H bonds in oxoacids are not ionisable to give H+ ions whereas the H
atoms which are attached with oxygen in P -OH form are ionisable. Hence we
can say that only the H atoms attached with oxygen cause basicity. As a
result phosphorous acid, H 3 PO 3 is dibasic due to the presence of two P -OH
bonds whereas phosphoric acid, H 3 PO 4 is tribasic due to the presence of
three P-OH bonds. Oxoacids of phosphorus having P -H bonds have strong
reducing properties. For example: hypophosphorous acid containing two P -H
bonds acts as a good reducing agent.

Phosphorus acid, H 3 PO 3 Phosphorous acid is a diprotic acid that is, it ionizes

two protons. It is better described with the structural formula HPO(OH) 2 .
Phosphorous acid is prepared by hydrolysis of phosphorus trichloride with
acid or steam.

28
Phosphoric acid, H 3 PO 4 : Phosphoric acid is a triprotic acid that is, it ionizes
three protons. It is a non-toxic acid, when pure and is a solid at room
temperature and pressure. Phosphoric acid is prepared by adding sulfuric
acid to tricalcium phosphate rock:

Group 16 Element The chalcogens are the chemical elements in group 16 of

the periodic table. This group is also known as the oxygen family. It consists
of the elements oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), and the
radioactive element polonium (Po). The chemically uncharacterized synthetic
elementlivermorium (Lv) is predicted to be a chalcogen as well All of the
chalcogens have six valence electrons, leaving them two electrons short of a
full outer shell. Their most common oxidation states are −2, +2, +4, and +6.
They have relatively low atomic radii, especially the lighter ones

Properties Atomic and physical

Chalcogens show similar patterns in electron configuration, especially in the

outermost shells, where they all have the same number of valence electrons,
resulting in similar trends in chemical behavior:

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

8 oxygen 2, 6
16 sulfur 2, 8, 6
34 selenium 2, 8, 18, 6
52 tellurium 2, 8, 18, 18, 6
84 polonium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6
116 livermorium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 6

Oxygen's most common allotrope is diatomic oxygen, or O 2 , a reactive

paramagnetic molecule that is ubiquitous to aerobic organisms and has a

29
blue color in its liquid state. Another allotrope is O 3 , or ozone, which is three
oxygen atoms bonded together in a bent formation. There is also an allotrope
called tetraoxygen, or O 4 and six allotropes of solid oxygen including "red
oxygen", which has the formula O 8 .

There are only three allotropic elements in Group 16, oxygen, sulfur, and
selenium. Only two oxygen allotropes are known —dinuclear "oxygen"
(dioxygen, O 2 ) and trinuclear ozone (O 3 ) (Figure 6). Both are gases at room
temperature and pressure. Dioxygen exists as a diradical (contains two
unpaired electrons) and is the only allotrope of any element with unpaired
electrons. Liquid and solid dioxygen are both pale blue because the
absorption of lightexcites the molecule to a higher energy (and much more
reactive) electronic state in which all electrons are paired ("singlet" oxygen).
Gaseous dioxygen is probably also blue, but the low concentration of the
species in the gas phase makes it difficult to observe.

Ozone is a V-shaped, triatomic dark blue gaseous molecule with a bond

order of 1½. It is usually prepared from dioxygen by electri c discharge (e.g.,
lightning) and can be detected by its characteristic "sharp" smell —from which
it gets its name (after the Greek ozein : to smell). Ozone is
thermodynamically unstable and reverts spontaneously to dioxygen.

The dark blue color of O 3 is important because it arises from the intense
absorption of red and ultraviolet (UV) light. This is the mechanism by which
ozone in the atmosphere (the ozone layer) protects Earth from the Sun's UV
radiation. After F 2 , ozone is the most powerful oxidant of all the elements.

30
Figure 6.Dioxygen and ozone, the allotropes of oxygen.

Figure a. Sulfur allotrope, S 8 .

Sulfur (S) is second only to carbon in the number of known allotropes

formed. The existence of at least twenty -two sulfur allotropes has been
demonstrated. The simplest allotrope of sulfur is the violet disulfur molecule,
S 2 , analogous to the dioxygen molecule. Unlike O 2 , however, S 2 does not
occur naturally at room temperature and pressure. It is commonly generated
in the vapor generated from sulfur at temperatures above 700°C. It has been
detected by the Hubble Space Telescope in volcanic erupt ions on Jupiter's
satellite,

The most thermodynamically stable of all of the sulfur allotropes and the
form in which sulfur ordinarily exists is orthorhombic sulfur, α -S 8 ,
cyclooctasulfur, which contains puckered eight -membered rings, in which
each sulfur atom is two-coordinate (Figure a).

The second allotrope of sulfur to be discovered was cyclohexasulfur

(sometimes called rhombohedral sulfur), first reported in 1891. It is the
densest of the sulfur allotropes and forms air -sensitive orange-red crystals
containing chair-shaped, six-membered rings. Sulfur forms an extensive
series of generally yellow crystalline allotropes, S n (where species with n up
to 30 have been identified). The color of liquid sulfur changes from pale
yellow to orange, then red and fina lly to black, near the boiling point (445°C).

31
At about 159°C, the viscosity increases as polymeric sulfur is formed. The
liquid is thought to contain chains of sulfur atoms, wound into helices.

Selenium (Se) also exists in several allotropic forms —gray (trigonal)

selenium (containing Se n helical chain polymers), rhombohedral selenium
(containing Se 6 molecules), three deep -red monoclinic forms— α -, β -, and
γ -selenium (containing Se 8 molecules), amorphous red selenium, and black
vitreous selenium, the form in industrial usage. The most thermodynamically
stable and the densest form is gray (trigonal) selenium, which contains
infinite helical chains of selenium atoms. All other forms revert to gray
selenium on warming. In keeping with its density, gray sel enium is regarded
as metallic, and it is the only form of selenium that conducts electricity. A
slight distortion of the helical structure would produce a cubic metallic lattice.

The trend from nonmetallic to metallic character upon going down the group
is exemplified by the conductivities of these elements. Sulfur is an insulator,
selenium and tellurium are semiconductors, while the conductivity of
polonium is typical of a true metal . In addition, the conductivities of sulfur,
selenium, and tellurium increase with increasing temperature, behavior
typical of nonmetals, whereas that of polonium increases at lower
temperatures, typical of metals.

Species Bond Order Number of Unpaired e− O–O Distance

(pm)*
O2+ 2.5 1 112
O2 2 2 121
O2− 1.5 1 133
O22− 1 0 149
density (g/cm 3) at 25°C 1.31 (g/L) 2.07

32
atomic radius (pm) 48 88
first ionization energy (kJ/mol) 1314 1000
normal oxidation state(s) −2 +6, +4, −2

Oxidation state of elements (Group 16): The chalcogens

The group 16 elements, also known as the chalcogens have 6 valence

electrons, and hence they can achieve noble gas configuration either by
gaining 2 electrons or by sharing two electrons i.e., by forming M 2- ions, or
forming two covalent bonds. Oxidation state of elements is defined as the
number of electrons gained or lost to form a bond and its sign is the
indication of ionic charge on the element. Oxygen is the most electronegative
element after fluorine. The difference in electronegativity between metals
and oxygen is generally very high. We k now that ionic bond is formed when
the difference in electronegativity of any two elements is very high. Thus,
metals and oxygen combine to form metal oxide with oxygen attaining O 2 -
form, so the oxidation state of oxygen is mostly ( -II). Electronegativity of
chalcogens decreases down the group in periodic table. Other chalcogen
elements like sulphur, selenium and tellurium reacts with more
electronegative element of group 1, 2 and lanthanides i.e., the uppermost
elements of group 1, 2 and lanthanides to fo rm sulphides, selenides and
tellurides. These compounds are the most stable compounds formed by
these elements. Compounds formed above can be denoted as S 2- , Se 2- , and
Te 2- . The electronegativity difference between the compounds (sulphides,
selenides and tellurides) shows that they are at the borderline of 50% ionic
and 50% covalent characters as in the case of PCl 5 .

Metallic character decreases as you move across the periodic table from left
to right. This occurs as atoms more readily accept electrons to fill a valence
shell than lose them to remove the unfilled shell. Metallic to lose as the
atomic radius increases. The increase in atomic radius decreases attraction

33
between the positive nucleus and the negative electrons, causing the
electrons to be held more loosely character increases as you move down the
periodic table. This is due to the fact that the electrons be come easier.
Oxidation states: The elements of this group have a configuration of ns 2
np4 in their valence shell, they may attain noble gas configuration either by
gaining two electrons, forming M -2 , or by sharing two electrons, thus forming
two covalent bonds. Hence, these elements show both negative and positive
oxidation states. The common oxidation states exhibited by the elements of
group 16 include minus two, plus two, plus four and plus six.

Symbol Element Oxidation States

8O Oxygen -2,-1,+1,+2
16S Sulphur -2,+2,+4,+6
34Se Selenium -2,+2,+4,+6
52Te Tellurium -2,+2,+4,+6
84Po Polonium +2,+4

The electro-negativity of oxygen is very high. It exhibits a negative oxidation

state of -2 in all its metal oxides. In addition to -2 oxidation state, oxygen
shows -1 oxidation state in peroxides and -1/2 oxidation state in
superoxides.

Oxygen shows positive oxidation state only in its compounds with fluorine,
since fluorine is more electro -negative than oxygen. It shows +2 oxidat ion
state in OF 2 & +1 in O 2 F 2 .

The other elements of the group, apart from exhibiting +2 oxidation state,
also exhibit +4 and +6 oxidation states due to the availability of d -orbitals in
their atoms. Oxygen differs considerably from the rest of the elements in its
group. Due to it’s small size and high electro -negativity and the absence of
d-orbitals in the valence shell.

34
Atomicity:

Oxygen is diatomic and gaseous, while the other elements exist as solids.

Formation of M -2 ions:

Oxygen, due to its high electro-negativity, shows negative oxidation state

and does not show any positive oxidation state, except in OF 2 & O 2 F 2 .

Maximum covalency:

Oxygen covalency is limited to two, but the covalency exceeds four in the
other elements due to the availability of d-orbitals in them.

Hydrogen bond formation:

Because of its small size and high electro -negativity, oxygen forms strong
hydrogen bonds. The other elements in the group have comparatively low
electro-negativities, and do not form hydrogen bonds.

Chemical properties:

The elements of this group react with hydrogen to form hydrides of the type
H2E, where E could be oxygen, sulphur, selenium, tellurium or polonium.

H2 + E → H 2E

Hydrogen Group 16 Element

35
Physical states of hydrides: Water is a colourless and odourless liquid,
while the hydrides of all the other elements of the group are colourless,
poisonous gases with unpleasant odours. The boiling point of the hydrides
markedly decreases from water to hydrogen sulphide, and then increases.
Water has an abnormally high boiling point because its molecules are
associated with each other by means of hydrogen bonds in its solid as well
as liquid states.

Acidic character of hydrides:

Acidic nature of hydrides increases from H 2 O to H 2 Te. The increase in acidic

character is due to the decrease in the H -E bond dissociation enthalpy from
H 2 O to H 2 Te. Except for water, all the other hydrides act as reducing agents.
The reducing property of these hydrides increases from H 2 S to H 2 Te.

All the elements of this group react with oxygen to form dioxides and
trioxides. Both these types of oxides are acidic in nature. Sulphur trioxide is
the only important triode in this group. At room temperature, sulphur trioxide
is a solid and exists in three distinct forms - alpha, beta and gamma.

Group 16 elements form a large number of halides of the type EX 6 , EX 4 and

EX 2 , where E is a group 16 element and X is a halogen. Among hexahalides,
only hexafluoride are stable. They undergo sp 3 d 2 hybridisation, and hence,
have octahedral geometry. SF 6 is extremely inert. Among the tetra fluorides
SF 4 is a gas, SeF 4 is a liquid and TeF 4 is a solid. Except for selenium, all the
other elements of this group form dichlorides and dibromides.

The trends of their properties in this group are interesting. Knowing the trend
allows us to predict their reactions with other elements. Most trends are true
for all groups of elements, and the group trends are due mostly to the size of

36
the atoms and number of electrons per atom. The trends are described
below:

1. The metallic properties increase in the order oxygen, sulfur, selenium,

tellurium, or polonium. Polonium is essentially a metal. It was discovered by
M. Curie, who named it after her native count ry Poland.

2. Electronegativity, ionization energy (or ionization potential IP), and

electron affinity decrease for the group as atomic weight increases.

3. The atomic radii and melting point increase.

4. Oxygen differs from sulfur in chemical properties d ue to its small size.

The differences between O and S

are more than the differences between other members.

Metallic character increases down the group, with tellurium classified as a

metalloid and polonium as a metal. Melting point, boiling point, density,
atomic radius, and ionic radius all increase down the group. Ionization
energy decreases down the group. The most common oxidation state is -2;
however, sulfur can also exist at a +4 and +6 state, and +2, +4, and +6
oxidation states are possible for Se, T e, and Po.

Catenation

One of the most unusual properties of this family of elements is that of

catenation or the bonding of an atom to another identical atom. Although
oxygen shows this property only in the existence of ozone, sulfur is second
only to carbon in exhibiting this mode of combination; the chalcogens beyond

37
sulfur show it to diminishing degrees, polonium having no tendency to
catenate. This type of bonding is found in the many ring systems of sulfur
and selenium as well as in long zigzag chain s tructures. Catenation also
occurs in the sulfanes and the metal polysulfides, compounds that have the
formulas H 2 Sx and M 2 Sx, in which x may take the values of 2, 3, 4, or more,
and M represents a singly charged metal ion. In comparing the catenation of
sulfur atoms with that of carbon atoms, it may be noted that the number of
molecular species having (−S−)x structures is very large, as is that of the
analogous hydrocarbon compounds (−CH 2 −)x. The analogy between
molecules containing rings of sulfur atoms and cyclic hydrocarbons is limited
because only S 6 and S 8 have sufficient stability to permit proper comparison
to be made. The general similarity extends to molecules of the form
Z(−S−)xZ and Z(−CH2−)xZ, which are represented by compounds in which Z
is H, SO 3 H, and CF 3 .

Covalent links between sulfur atoms have some of the character of multiple
bonds—that is, more than one pair of electrons is shared, at least to some
extent. Such interactions may involve overlap of p orbitals of one sulfur atom
with d orbitals of another. Although not all investigators feel alike on the
subject of d-orbital participation in the bonding of sulfur compounds, partial
occupation of these orbitals is consistent with certain properties such as the
colours of S 8 and S 2 molecules, the rigidity of chains and rings of sulfur
atoms, and other features of the chemistry of sulfur compounds.

Similarities of sulfur and oxygen are exhibited in certain compounds in which

these elements interchange for one another. Examples include sulfates a nd
thiosulfates (such as Na 2 SO 4 and Na 2 S 2 O 3 ), phosphates and thiophosphates
(containing the ions PO 4 3− , PO 3 S 3 − , PO 2 S 2 3− , POS 3 3− , and PS 4 3− ), and a
similar series of arsenates and thioarsenates.

38
Ores of heavy metals often are found as sulfides, MS, and selenides, MSe,
or even with MSxSey structures. The similarity in structures as well as
properties accounts for the chalcogens’ being found together in nature.

The number of atoms to which an element of Group 16 can form covalent

bonds increases from oxygen to sulfur. An oxygen atom usually combines
with two other atoms, as in the compounds water (H 2 O), oxygen fluoride
(OF 2 ), or dimethyl ether (H 3 C−O−CH 3 ); the unshared pairs of electrons and
the partial negative charge on the oxygen atom in most of these co mpounds
allows bonding to another atom, as in the hydronium ion or trimethyloxonium
ion.

Heavier members of the group associate or coordinate with other atoms or

groups of atoms in numbers commensurate with the size of both the
chalcogen and the coordinating group. Thus, sulfur tetrafluoride (SF 4 ) and
sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6 ) are stable compounds, although sulfur hexaiodide
(SI 6 ) is not known because of the very large size of the iodine atom. A
closely related property is that of anionic complex formatio n: there is little
evidence for the ion SF 6 2− , but there are ions such as TeCl 6 2 − , TeF 6 2− , and

Sulfur oxoacid

The sulfur oxoacids are chemical compounds that contain sulfur, oxygen and
hydrogen. The best known and most important industrially is sulfuric acid.
Sulfur has a number of oxoacids; however, some of these are known only

39
from their salts (these are shown in italics in the table below). The acids that
have been characterised contain a variety of structural features, for example:

• tetrahedral sulfur when coordinated to oxygen

• terminal and bridging oxygen atoms

• terminalperoxo groups

• terminal S=S

• chains of (-S-)

Acid Formula Oxidati Structure Related anions Notes

on
state(s)
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 VI Sulfate, SO42− Best
and hydrogen known
sulfate and
commonly industriall
known as y
bisulfate, significant
HSO4− .
Polysulfuric H2SO4.nS VI Disulfate Pure
acids including O3 (commonly disulfuric
disulfuric acid known as acid melts
or pyrosulfuric pyrosulfate), at 36 °C.
acid S2O72− and
Present in
trisulfate,

40
 S3O102− fuming
sulfuric
acid,
oleum.
Examples
known for
n=1,2.
Peroxymonosul H2SO5 VI Peroxymonosulf "Caro's
furic acid ate, OOSO32− acid", a
solid
melting at
45 °C
Peroxydisulfuric H2S2O8 VI Peroxydisulfate, A solid
acid O3SOOSO32− melting at
65 °C.

Dithionic acid H2S2O6 V Dithionate, Not

O3SSO32− isolated in
pure form,
only
concentra
ted
solutions
have
been
prepared
Thiosulfuric H2S2O3 -II (for Thiosulfate, Aqueous
acid the S2O32− solutions
termina Hydrogenthiosu decompos
l sulfur) lfate HS2O3− e.

41
 , VI (for (ammonium salt
the prepared in
central anhydrous
atom) methanol at
−80 °C[1])
Disulfurous H2S2O5 V (of Disulfite Not
acid or the commonly known.
pyrosulfurous sulfur known as
acid atom metabisulfite,
bonded S2O52−
to 3
oxygen
atoms),
III (of
other
sulfur
atom)
Sulfurous acid H2SO3 IV Bisulfite, HSO3− Not
and sulfite, known.
SO32−
Dithionous acid H2S2O4 III Dithionite, Not
O2SSO22− known.

Polythionic H2SxO6 0 (for Polythionates, Examples

acids the O3S(Sx-2)SO32−. known
bridgin Example with x= 3,
g S trithionate, 4, 5, 6, 7,
atoms), tetrathionate, 8, 10, 12,
V (for pentathionate, 14.
the hexathionate,
termina heptathionate,

42
 l octathionate,
central nonathionate,
S decathionate,
atoms) undecathionate,
dodecathionate,
tridecathionate
and
tetradecathionat
e.
Thiosulfurous H2S2O2 -I (for Thiosulfites Not
acid the known
exterior
sulfur
atom ) ,
III (for
the
central
atom)

43
Group 17 Element

The halogens or halogen elementsare a group in the periodic table consisting

of five chemically related elements: fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br),
iodine (I), and astatine (At). The artificially created element 117
(ununseptium) may also be a halogen. In the modern IUPAC nomenclature,
this group is known as group 17.

The name 'halogen' means 'salt-producing'. When halogens react with metals
they produce a wide range of salts, includin g calcium fluoride, sodium
chloride (common salt), silver bromide and potassium iodide.

The group of halogens is the only periodic table group that contains elements
in three of the four main states of matter at standard temperature and
pressure. All of the halogens form acids when bonded to hydrogen. Most
halogens are typically produced from minerals or salts. The middle halogens,
that is chlorine, bromine and iodine, are often used as disinfectants.
Organobromides are the most important class of flame ret ardants. Elemental
halogens are lethally to dangerously toxic.

Characteristics

The halogens show trends in chemical bond energy moving from top to
bottom of the periodic table column with fluorine deviating slightly. (It follows
trend in having the highest bond energy in compounds with other atoms, but
it has very weak bonds within the diatomic F 2 molecule.) This means, as you
go down the periodic table, the reactivity of the element will decrease
because of the increasing size of the atoms.

Halogens are highly reactive, and as such can be harmful or lethal to

biological organisms in sufficient quantities. This high reactivity is due to the

44
high electronegativity of the atoms due to their high effective nuclear charge.
Because the halogens have seven valence electrons in their outermost
energy level, they can gain an electron by reacting with atoms of other
elements to satisfy the octet rule. Fluorine is one of the most reactive
elements, attacking otherwise -inert materials such as glass, and f orming
compounds with the usually inert noble gases. It is a corrosive and highly
toxic gas. The reactivity of fluorine is such that, if used or stored in
laboratory glassware, it can react with glass in the presence of small
amounts of water to form silicon tetrafluoride (SiF 4 ). Thus, fluorine must be
handled with substances such as Teflon (which is itself an organofluorine
compound), extremely dry glass, or metals such as copper or steel, which
form a protective layer of fluoride on their surface.

The high reactivity of fluorine allows paradoxically some of the strongest

bonds possible, especially to carbon. For example, Teflon is fluorine bonded
with carbon and is extremely resistant to thermal and chemical attack and
has a high melting point.

Diatomic halogen molecules

The halogens form homo nuclear diatomic molecules (not proven for
astatine). Due to relatively weak intermolecular forces, chlorine and fluorine
form part of the group known as "elemental gases". The elements become
less reactive and have higher melting points as the atomic number increases.
The higher melting points are caused by stronger London dispersion forces
resulting from more electrons.

Hydrogen halides All of the halogens have been observed to react with
hydrogen to form hydrogen halides. For fluorine, chlorine, and bromine, this
reaction is in the form of:

45
H 2 + X 2 → 2HX

However, hydrogen iodide and hydrogen astatide can split back into their
constituent elements

The hydrogen-halogen reactions get gradually less reactive toward the

heavier halogens. A fluorine-hydrogen reaction is explosive even when it is
dark and cold. A chlorine-hydrogen reaction is also explosive, but only in the
presence of light and heat. A bromine -hydrogen reaction is even less
explosive; it is explosive only when exposed to flames. Iodine and astatine
only partially react with hydrogen, forming equilibria.

All halogens form binary compounds with hydrogen known as the hydrogen
halides: hydrogen fluoride (HF), hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen bromide
(HBr), hydrogen iodide (HI), and hydrogen astatide (HAt). All of these
compounds form acids when mixed with water. Hydrogen fluoride is the only
hydrogen halide that forms hydrogen bonds. Hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic
acid, hydroiodic acid, and hydroastatic acid are all strong acids, but
hydrofluoric acid is a weak acid.

All of the hydrogen halides are irritants. Hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen
chloride are highly acidic. Hydrogen fluoride is used as an industrial
chemical, and is highly toxic, causing pulmonary e dema and damaging cells.
Hydrogen chloride is also a dangerous chemical. Breathing in gas with more
than fifty parts per million of hydrogen chloride can cause death in humans.
Hydrogen bromide is even more toxic and irritating than hydrogen chloride.
Breathing in gas with more than thirty parts per million of hydrogen bromide
can be lethal to humans. Hydrogen iodide, like other hydrogen halides, is
toxic.

46
Metal halides

All the halogens are known to react with sodium to form sodium fluoride,
sodium chloride, sodium bromide, sodium iodide, and sodium astatide.
Heated sodium's reaction with halogens produces bright -orange flames.
Sodium's reaction with chlorine is in the form of:

2Na + Cl 2 → 2NaCl

Iron reacts with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine to form Iron( III) halides.
These reactions are in the form of:

2Fe + 3X 2 → 2FeX 3

However, when iron reacts with iodine, it forms only iron(II) iodide.

Iron wool can react rapidly with fluorine to form the white compound iron(III)
fluoride even in cold temperatures. When chlorine comes into contact with
heated iron, they react to form the black iron (III) chloride. However, if the
reaction conditions are moist, this reaction will instead result in a reddish -
brown product. Iron can also react with bromine to form iron( III) bromide.
This compound is reddish-brown in dry conditions. Iron's reaction with
bromine is less reactive than its reaction with fluorine or chlorine. Hot iron
can also react with iodine, but it forms iron(II) iodide. This compound may be
gray, but the reaction is always contaminated with excess iodine, so it is not
known for sure. Iron's reaction with iodine is less vigorous than its reaction
with the lighter halogens

47
Interhalogen compounds

Interhalogen compounds are in the form of XYn where X and Y are halogens
and n is one, three, five, or seven. Interhalogen compounds contain at most
two different halogens. Large interhalogens, such as ClF 3 can be produced
by a reaction of a pure halogen with a smaller interhalogen such as ClF. All
interhalogens except IF 7 can be produced by directly combining pure
halogens in various conditions.

Interhalogens are typically more reactive than all diatomic halogen molecules
except F 2 because interhalogen bonds are weaker. However, the chemical
properties of interhalogens are still roughly the same as those of diatomic
halogens. Many interhalogens consist of one or more atoms of fluorine
bonding to a heavier halogen. Chlorine can bond with up to 3 fluorine atoms,
bromine can bond with up to five fluorine atoms, and iod ine can bond with up
to seven fluorine atoms. Most interhalogen compounds are covalent gases.
However, there are some interhalogens that are liquids, such as BrF 3 , and
many iodine-containing interhalogens are solids.

Organohalogen compounds

Many synthetic organic compounds such as plasticpolymers, and a few

natural ones, contain halogen atoms; these are known as halogenated
compounds or organic halides. Chlorine is by far the most abundant of the
halogens in seawater, and the only one needed in relatively l arge amounts
(as chloride ions) by humans. For example, chloride ions play a key role in
brain function by mediating the action of the inhibitory transmitter GABA and
are also used by the body to produce stomach acid. Iodine is needed in trace
amounts for the production of thyroid hormones such as thyroxine.
Organohalogens are also synthesized through the nucleophilic abstraction
reaction.

48
Polyhalogenated compounds

Polyhalogenated compounds are industrially created compounds substituted

with multiple halogens. Many of them are very toxic and bioaccumulate in
humans, and have a very wide application range. They include PCBs,
PBDEs, and perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), as well as numerous other
compounds.

Reactions with water

Fluorine reacts vigorously with water to produce oxygen (O 2 ) and hydrogen

fluoride (HF):

2 F 2 (g) + 2 H 2 O(l) → O 2 (g) + 4 HF(aq)

Chlorine has maximum solubility of ca. 7.1 g Cl2 per kg of water at ambient
temperature (21 °C). Dissolved chlorine reacts to form hydrochloric acid
(HCl) and hypochlorous acid, a solution that can be used as a disinfectant or
bleach:

Cl 2 (g) + H 2 O(l) → HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)

Bromine has a solubility of 3.41 g per 100 g of water, but it slowly reacts to
form hydrogen bromide (HBr) and hypobromous acid (HBrO):

Br 2 (g) + H 2 O(l) → HBr(aq) + HBrO(aq)

Iodine, however, is minimally soluble in water (0.03 g/100 g water at 20 °C)

and does not react with it.However, iodine will form an aqueous solution in

49
the presence of iodide ion, such as by addition of potassium iodide (KI),
because the triiodide ion is formed.

Isotopes

Fluorine has one stable and naturally occurring isotope, fluorine -19.
However, there are trace amounts in nature of the radioactive isotope
fluorine-23, which occurs via cluster decay of protactinium -231. A total of
eighteen isotopes of fluorine have been discovered, with atomic masses
ranging from 14 to 31. Chlorine has two stable and naturally occurring
isotopes, chlorine-35 and chlorine-37. However, there are trace amounts in
nature of the isotope chlorine-36, which occurs via spallation of argon -36. A
total of 24 isotopes of chlorine have been discovered, with atomic masses
ranging from 28 to 51.

There are two stable and naturally occurring isotopes of bromine, bromine -79
and bromine-81. A total of 32 isotopes of bromine have been discovered,
with atomic masses ranging 67 to 98. There is one stable and naturally
occurring isotope of iodine, iodine -127. However, there are trace amounts in
nature of the radioactive isotope iodine -129, which occurs via spallation and
from the radioactive decay of uranium in ores. Several other radioactive
isotopes of iodine have also been created naturally via the decay of uranium.
A total of 38 isotopes of iodine have been discovered, with atomic masses
ranging from 108 to 145.

There are no stable isotopes of astatine. However, there are three naturally
occurring radioactive isotopes of astatine produced via radioactive decay of
uranium, neptunium, and plutonium. These isotopes are astatine -215,
astatine-217, and astatine-219. A total of 31 isotopes of astatine have been
discovered, with atomic masses ranging from 193 to 223.

50
Group 17: General Properties of Halogens

The halogens are located on the left of the noble gases on the periodic table.
These five toxic, non-metallic elements make up Group 17 of the periodic
table and consist of: fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and
astatine (At). Although astatine is radioactive and only has short -lived
isotopes, it behaves similar to iodine and is often included in the halogen
group. Because the halogen elements have seven valence electrons, they
only require one additional electron to form a full octet. This characteristic
makes them more reactive than other non -metal groups.

Introduction

Halogens form diatomic molecules (of the form X 2 , where X denotes a

halogen atom) in their elemental states. The bonds in these diatomic
molecules are non-polar covalent single bonds. However, halogens readily
combine with most elements and are never seen uncombined in nature. A s a
general rule, fluorine is the most reactive halogen and astatine is the least
reactive. All halogens form Group 1 salts with similar properties. In these
compounds, halogens are present as halide anions with charge of -1 (e.g. Cl-
, Br-, etc.). Replacing the -ine ending with an -ide ending indicates the
presence of halide anions; for example, Cl - is named "chloride." In addition,
halogens act as oxidizing agents—they exhibit the property to oxidize metals.
Therefore, most of the chemical reactions that i nvolve halogens are
oxidation-reduction reactions in aqueous solution. The halogens often form
single bonds, when in the -1 oxidation state, with carbon or nitrogen in
organic compounds. When a halogen atom is substituted for a covalently -
bonded hydrogen atom in an organic compound, the prefix halo - can be used
in a general sense, or the prefixes fluoro -, chloro-, bromo-, or iodo- can be
used for specific halogen substitutions. Halogen elements can cross -link to
form diatomic molecules with polar covalent s ingle bonds.

51
Chlorine (Cl 2 ) was the first halogen to be discovered in 1774, followed by
iodine (I 2 ), bromine (Br 2 ), fluorine (F 2 ), and astatine (At, discovered last in
1940). The name "halogen" is derived from the Greek roots hal - ("salt") and -
gen ("to form"). Together these words combine to mean "salt former",
referencing the fact that halogens form salts when they react with metals.
Halite is the mineral name for rock salt, a natural mineral consisting
essentially of sodium chloride (NaCl). Lastly, the h alogens are also relevant
in daily life, whether it be the fluoride that goes in toothpaste, the chlorine
that disinfects drinking water, or the iodine that facilitates the production of
thyroid hormones in one's body.

Elements

A. Fluorine - Fluorine has an atomic number of 9 and is denoted by the

symbol F. Elemental fluorine was first discovered in 1886 by isolating it from
hydrofluoric acid. Fluorine exists as a diatomic molecule in its free state (F 2 )
and is the most abundant halogen found in the Earth's crust. Fluorine is the
most electronegative element in the periodic table. It appears as a pale
yellow gas at room temperature. Fluorine also has a relatively small atomic
radius. Its oxidation state is always -1 except in its elemental, diatomic state
(in which its oxidation state is zero). Fluorine is extremely reactive and
reacts directly with all elements except helium (He), neon (Ne) and argon
(Ar). In H 2 O solution, hydrofluoric acid (HF) is a weak acid. Although fluorine
is highly electronegative, its electronegativity does not determine its acidity;
HF is a weak acid due to the fact that the fluoride ion is basic (pH>7). In
addition, fluorine produces very powerful oxidants. For example, fluorine can
react with the noble gas xenon and form the strong oxidizing agent Xenon
Difluoride (XeF 2 ). There are many uses for fluorine, which will be discussed
in Part VI of this article.

52
B. Chlorine - Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and the chemical
symbol Cl. Chlorine was discovered in 1774 by extracting it from hydrochloric
acid. In its elemental state, it forms the diatomic molecule Cl 2 . Chlorine
exhibits multiple oxidation states, such as -1, +1, 3, 5, and 7. At room
temperature it appears as a light green gas. Since the bond that forms
between the two chlorine atoms is weak, the Cl 2 molecule is very reactive.
Chlorine reacts with metals to produce salts called chlorides. Chloride ions
are the most abundant ions that dissolve in the ocean. Chlorine also has two
isotopes: 35Cl and 37Cl. Sodium chloride is the most prevalent compound of
the chlorides.

C. Bromine - Bromine has an atomic number of 35 with a symbol of Br. It

was first discovered in 1826. In its elemental form, it is the diatomic molecule
Br 2 . At room temperature, bromine is a reddish - brown liquid. Its oxidation
states vary from -1, +1, 3, 4 and 5. Bromine is more reactive than iodine, but
not as reactive as chlorine. Also, bromine ha s two isotopes: 79Br and 81Br.
Bromine consists of bromide salts, which have been found in the sea. The
world production of bromide has increased significantly over the years, due
to its access and longer existence. Like all of the other halogens, bromine is
an oxidizing agent, and is very toxic.

D. Iodine - Iodine has the atomic number 53 and symbol I. Iodine has
oxidation states -1, +1, 5 and 7. Iodine exists as a diatomic molecule, I2, in
its elemental state. At room temperature, it appears as a violet s olid. Iodine
has one stable isotope: 127I. It was first discovered in 1811 through the use
of seaweed and sulfuric acid. Currently, iodide ions can be isolated in
seawater. Although iodine is not very soluble in water, the solubility may
increase if particular iodides are mixed in the solution. Iodine has many
important roles in life, including thyroid hormone production. This will be
discussed in Part VI of the text.

53
E. Astatine - Astatine is a radioactive element with an atomic number of
85 and symbol At. Its possible oxidation states include: -1, +1, 3, 5 and 7. It
is the only halogen that is not a diatomic molecule and it appears as a black,
metallic solid at room temperature. Astatine is a very rare element, so there
is not that much known about this e lement. In addition, astatine has a very
short radioactive half-life, no longer than a couple of hours. It was
discovered in 1940 by synthesis. Also, it is thought that astatine is similar to
iodine. However, these two elements are assumed to differ by the ir metallic
character.

F.

Halogen Electronic Config -

uration
Fluorine 1s2 2s2 2p5
Chlorine [Ne]3s2 3p5
Bromine [Ar]3d10 4s2 4p5
Iodine [Kr]4d10 5s2 5p5
Astatine [Xe]4f14 5d10 6s2 6p5

Melting and Boiling Points: increases down the group

The melting and boiling points increase down the group because of the van
der Waals forces. The size of the molecules increases down the group. This
increase in size means an increase in the strength of the van der Waals
forces.

F <Cl< Br < I < At

54
Melting and Boiling Points of Halogens

Halogen Melting Point (˚C) Boiling Point (˚C)

Fluorine -220 -188
Chlorine -101 -35
Bromine -7.2 58.8
Iodine 114 184
Astatine 302 337

Atomic Radius: increases down the group

The size of the nucleus increases down a group (F <Cl< Br < I < At) because
the numbers of protons and neutrons increase. In addition, more energy
levels are added with each period. This results in a larger orbital, and
therefore a longer atomic radius.

Halogen Covalent Radius (pm) Ionic (X-) radius (pm)

Fluorine 71 133
Chlorine 99 181
Bromine 114 196
Iodine 133 220
Astatine 150

Ionization Energy: decreases down the group

If the outer valence electrons are not near the nucleus, it does not take as
much energy to remove them. Therefore, the energy required to pull off the
outermost electron is not as high for the elements at the bottom of the group
since there are more energy levels. Also, the high ionization energy makes

55
the element appear non-metallic. Iodine and astatine display metallic
properties, so ionization energy decreases down the group (At < I < Br <Cl<
F).

Halogen First Ionization Energy (kJ/mol)

Fluorine 1681
Chlorine 1251
Bromine 1140
Iodine 1008
Astatine 890±40

Electronegativity: decreases down the group

The number of valence electrons in an atom increases down the group due to
the increase in energy levels at progressively lower levels. The electrons are
progressively further from the nucleus; therefore, the nucleus and the
electrons are not as attracted to each other. An increase in shielding is
observed. Electronegativity therefore decreases down the group (At < I < Br
<Cl< F).

Halogen Electronegativity
Fluorine 4.0
Chlorine 3.0
Bromine 2.8
Iodine 2.5
Astatine 2.2

Electron Affinity: decreases down the group

Since the atomic size increases down the group, electron affinity generally
decreases (At < I < Br < F <Cl). An electron will not be as attracted to the
nucleus, resulting in a low electron affinity. However, fluorine has a lower

56
electron affinity than chlorine. This can be explained by the small size of
fluorine, compared to chlorine.

Halogen Electron Affinity (kJ/mol)

Fluorine -328.0
Chlorine -349.0
Bromine -324.6
Iodine -295.2

Reactivity of Elements: decreases down the group

The reactivities of the halogens decrease down the group ( At< I < Br <Cl<
F). This is due to the fact that atomic radius increases in size with an
increase of electronic energy levels. This lessens the attraction for valence
electrons of other atoms, decreasing reactivity. This decrease also occurs
because electronegativity decreases down a group; therefore, there is less
electron "pulling." In addition, there is a decrease in oxidizing ability down
the group.

Hydrogen Halides and Halogen Oxoacids

Hydrogen Halides

A halide is formed when a halogen reacts with another, less electronegative

element to form a binary compound. Hydrogen, for example, reacts with
halogens to form halides of the form HX:

• Hydrogen Fluoride: HF

• Hydrogen Chloride: HCl

57
• Hydrogen Bromide: HBr

• Hydrogen Iodide: HI

Hydrogen halides readily dissolve in water to form hydrohalic (hydrofluoric,

hydrochloric, hydrobromic, hydroiodic) acids. The properties of these acids
are given below:

• The acids are formed by the following reaction: HX (aq) + H2O (l) → X -
(aq) + H3O+ (aq)

• All hydrogen halides form strong acids, except HF

• The acidity of the hydrohalic acids increases as follows: HF <HCl<HBr<

HI

Hydrofluoric acid can etch glass and certain inorganic fluorides over a long
period of time.

It may seem counterintuitive to say that HF is the weakest hydrohalic acid

because fluorine has the highest electronegativity. However, the H -F bond is
very strong; if the H-X bond is strong, the resulting acid is weak. A strong
bond is determined by a short bond length and a large bond dissociation
energy. Of all the hydrogen halides, HF has the shortest bond length and
largest bond dissociation energy.

Halogen Oxoacids A halogen oxoacidis an acid with hydrogen, oxygen, and

halogen atoms. The acidity of an oxoacid can be de termined through analysis
of the compound's structure. The halogen oxoacids are given below:

58
• Hypochlorous Acid: HOCl

• Chlorous Acid: HClO 2

• Chloric Acid: HClO 3

• Perchloric Acid: HClO 4

• Hypobromous Acid: HOBr

• Bromic Acid: HBrO 3

• Perbromic Acid: HBrO 4

• Hypoiodous Acid: HOI

• Iodic Acid: HIO 3

• Metaperiodic Acid: HIO 4 ; H5IO 6

In each of these acids, the proton is bonded to an oxygen atom; therefore,

comparing proton bond lengths is not useful in this case. Instead,
electronegativity is the dominant factor in the oxoacid's acidity. Acidic
strength increases with more oxygen atoms bound to the central atom.

V. Oxidation States of Halogens in Compounds

As a general rule, halogens usually have an oxidation state of -1. However, if

the halogen is bonded to oxygen or to another halogen, it can adopt different
states: the -2 rule for oxygen takes precedence over this rule; in the case of

59
two different halogens bonded together, the more electronegative atom takes
precedence and adopts the -1 oxidation state.

Example 1.1: Iodine Chloride (ICl)

Chlorine has an oxidation state of -1, and iodine will have an oxidation of +1.
Chlorine is more electronegative than iodine, therefore giving it the -1
oxidation state.

Example 1.2: Perbromic Acid (HBrO 4 )

Oxygen has a total oxidation state of -8 (-2 charge x 4 atoms= -8 total

charge). Hydrogen has a total oxidation state of +1. Adding both of these
values together, the total oxidation state of the compound so far is -7. Since
the final oxidation state of the compound mu st be 0, bromine's oxidation
state is +7.

One third exception to the rule is this: if a halogen exists in its elemental
form (X 2 ), its oxidation state is zero.

Oxidation States of Halogens

Halogen Oxidation States in Compounds
Fluorine (always) -1*
Chlorine -1, +1, +3, +5, +7
Bromine -1, +1, +3, +4, +5
Iodine -1, +1,+5, +7
Astatine -1, +1, +3, +5, +7

Applications of Halogens : Fluorine: Although fluorine is very reactive, it

serves many industrial purposes. For example, it is a key component of the
plastic

60
ticpolytetrafluoroethylene (called Teflon -TFE by the DuPont company) and
certain other polymers, often referred to as fluoropolymers.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are organic chemicals that were used as
refrigerants and propellants in aerosols before growing concerns about their
possible environmental impact led to their discontinued use.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HFCs) are now used inste ad. Fluoride is also
added to toothpaste and drinking water to help reduce tooth decay. Fluorine
also exists in the clay used in some ceramics. Fluorine is associated with
generating nuclear power as well. In addition, it is used to produce
fluoroquinolones, which are antibiotics. Below is a list of some of fluorine's
important inorganic compounds.

Compound Uses
Na3AlF6 Manufacture of aluminum
BF3 Catalyst
CaF2 Optical components, manufacture of HF, metallurgical
flux
ClF3 Fluorinating agent, reprocessing nuclear fuels
HF Manufacture of F2, AlF3, Na3AlF6, and fluorocarbons
LiF Ceramics manufacture, welding, and soldering
NaF Fluoridating water, dental prophylaxis, insecticide
SF6 Insulating gas for high-voltage electrical equipment
SnF2 Manufacture of toothpaste
UF6 Manufacture of uranium fuel for nuclear reactors

Chlorine: Chlorine has many industrial uses. It is used to disinfect drinking

water and swimming pools. Sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) is the main
component of bleach. Hydrochloric acid, sometimes called muriatic acid, is a
commonly used acid in industry and laborato ries. Chlorine is also present in
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and several other polymers. PVC is used in wire
insulation, pipes, and electronics. In addition, chlorine is very useful in the
pharmaceutical industry. Medicinal products containing chlorine are used to
61
treat infections, allergies, and diabetes. The neutralized form of
hydrochloride is a component of many medications. Chlorine is also used to
sterilize hospital machinery and limit infection growth. In agriculture, chlorine
is a component of many commercial pesticides: DDT
(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) was used as an agricultural insecticide, but
its use was discontinued.

Bromine: Bromine is used in flame retardants because of its fire -resistant

properties. It also found in the pesticide methyl bromide, which facilitates the
storage of crops and eliminates the spread of bacteria. However, the
excessive use of methyl bromide has been discontinued due to its impact on
the ozone layer. Bromine is involved in gasoline production as well. Other
uses of bromine include the production of photography film, the content in
fire extinguishers, and drugs treating pneumonia and Alzheimer's disease.

Iodine: Iodine is important in the proper functioning of the thyroid gland of

the body. If the body does not rece ive adequate iodine, a goiter (enlarged
thyroid gland) will form. Table salt now contains iodine to help promote
proper functioning of the thyroid hormones. Iodine is also used as an
antiseptic. Solutions used to clean open wounds likely contain iodine, an d it
is commonly found in disinfectant sprays. In addition, silver iodide is
important for photography development.

Astatine: Because astatine is radioactive and rare, there are no proven uses
for this halogen element. However, there is speculation that th is element
could aid iodine in regulating the thyroid hormones. Also, 211At has been
used in mice to aid the study of cancer.

Chemical Properties Group -17 elements are more reactive than all other
elements in the periodic table. They react with metals and non-metals to form
halides. The reactivity of these elements decreases down the group.

62
All these elements are ready to accept an electron from other elements.
Hence, they are all good oxidising agents. The oxidising capacity of these
elements decreases down the group. So fluorine is the strongest oxidising
agent among them.

Fluorine oxidises other halide ions. In general, a halogen oxidises higher

halides to their respective halogens.

F2 + 2Br - → 2F - + Br 2

Bromide Bromine

Cl 2 + 2Br - → 2Cl - + Br 2

Bromide Bromine

Br 2 + 2I - → 2Br - + I2

Iodide Iodine

When these elements react with hydrogen gives hydrogen halides.

X 2 (g) + H 2 (g) → 2HX(g)

Halogen Hydrogen Hydrogen halide

63
2HX(g) + H 2 O(I) → 2HX(Aq)

Hydrogen Water Hydrogen acid X = F,Cl, Br, I

These hydrogen halides react with water to give hydrohalic acids.

The acidic strength and bond lengths of these halides increases and bond
dissociation energy decrease from top to bottom.

The melting and boiling points of these halides gradually increase from top to
bottom except for hydrogen fluoride due to the high electro -negativity and
small atomic size of fluorine.

Halogens form many oxides with oxygen. The stability of these oxides
increases down the group.

Fluorine forms only two oxides - OF 2 and O 2 F 2 . These two are thermally
stable at room temperature, and both are fluorinating agents due to the high
electro-negativity of fluorine. Chlorine forms the oxides Cl 2 O, ClO 2 , Cl 2 O 6 and
Cl 2 O 7 . All these are powerful bleaching agents. ClO 2 is used as a bleaching
agent in the wood pulp, water purification and paper industries.

Bromine forms the oxides Br 2 O, and BrO 2 . All these are less stable, exist at
very low temperatures and act as powerful oxidising agents.

Iodine forms I 2 O 4 , I 2 O 5 and I 2 O 7 . All these are solids and are insoluble in
water. Among these, I 2 O 5 is a good oxidising agent.

64
Halogens react with metals to give metal halides.

Ex: Chlorine reacts with Calcium to give calcium chloride. All these metal
halides are ionic in nature. The ionic nature of monovalent metal halides
decreases from fluorine to iodine.

Due to electro-negative difference and atomic size variations, these halogens

combine amongst themselves to form complexes known as inter -halogen
compounds of the type AX, AX 3 , AX 5 and AX 7 .

Inter halogen Compounds

AX AX3 AX5 AX7
ClF ClF3 ClF5 -
BrF,BrCl BrF3 BrF5 -
ICl ICl3 ICl5 ICl7

Anomalous behaviour of fluorine:

The anomalous behaviour in properties like ionisation energy, electro -

negativity, bond dissociation energy, electrode potentials, electron -gaining
enthalpy, ionic and covalent radii, melting point, and boiling point is due to
the high electro-negativity, small atomic size, low bond dissociation energy
and no availability of d-orbitals in the valence shell of Flu orine.

Trends in Properties of Group 17 (VIIA) Elements

• All Group 17 (VIIA) elements have 7 valence electrons (7 electrons in

the highest energy level).

• Atomic radius increases down the Group as successive 'electron shells'

(energy levels) are filled.

65
• Electronegativity (the relative tendency shown by a bonded atom to
attract electrons to itself) decreases down the group as the elements become
more metallic in nature. (Typically, metals have low electronegativity, little
ability to attract electrons, while non-metals have high electronegativity,
greater ability to attract electrons). The reactivity of Group 17 (VIIA)
elements is related to the element's ability to attract electrons, so the greater
the electronegativity, the more reactive the Halogen. So, chemical reactivity
of Group 17 (VIIA) elements decreases down the Group, from the most
reactive (Fluorine) to the least reactive (Iodine).

• Down the Group, first ionization energy (the energy required to remove
1 electron from the gaseous atom) decr eases. As the atomic radius increases
and the electron is further from the nucleus it is less attracted to the nucleus
(electron is said to be 'shielded').

• Melting point and boiling point increase down the Group as the
elements become more metallic in nature.

• There is a gradation in color going down the group, the elements

become darker in colour as they become more metallic in nature. Similarly
there is a gradation in physical appearance at STP, from gas to liquid to
solid, as the elements become more metallic in nature.

Interhalogen Compounds

Interhalogen compounds are compounds formed when halogen group

elements react with each other. In other words it is a molecule which
consists of two or more different elements of group 17. There are four types
of interhalogen compounds:

• Diatomic interhalogens (AX)

66
• Tetratomic interhalogens (AX 3 )

• Hexatomicinterhalogens( AX 5 )

• Octatomicinterhalogens (AX 7 )

A halogen with large size and high electropositivity reacts with an element of
group 17 with small size and lower electropositivity. As the ratio of radius of
larger and smaller halogen increases, the number of atoms in a molecule
also increases.

Preparation of Interhalogen compounds :

These molecules are formed due to the direct combination or by the action of
a group 17 element with a lower interhalogen compound under specific
conditions. For example: At 437K, chlorine reacts with fluorine of equal
volume to form ClF. This method is widely used in the production of group 17
fluorides.

Interhalogen Compounds

67
Cl 2 +F 2 → 2ClF (473K)

I 2 + Cl 2 → 2ICl

Properties of Interhalogen Compounds:

• These molecules are covalent and diamagnetic in nature.

• The bonds formed between these compounds are more reactive than
diatomic halogen bonds.

• The physical properties of these molecules are transitional between its

constituents.

• The molecular structure of AX 3 molecules is bent T shaped, an AX 5

molecule is square or pyramidal and the structure of AX 7 is bipyramidal or
pentagonal.

• The bond length depends upon the size of the constituent halogens.

• The molecule which consists of lighter group 17 elements is fairly

colourless but one which is made up of higher halogens is deeper in colour
which is due to the rise in the molecular weight.

Uses of Interhalogen Compounds:

• These are used as non-aqueous solvents.

• They are used as a catalyst in few reactions.

68
• UF6 which is used in the enrichment of 235 U is produced by using
ClF3 and BrF3.

U (s) + 3ClF 3 (l) → UF 6 (g) + 3ClF (g)

• These are used as fluorinating compounds.

Valence-shell electron-pair repulsion theory, VSEPR

The premise of the VSEPR is that the valence electron pairs surrounding an
atom mutually repel each other, and will therefore adopt an arrangement that
minimizes this repulsion, thus determining the molecular geometry. The
number of electron pairs surrounding an atom, both bonding and nonbonding,
is called its steric number. The VSEPR theory thus provides a simple model
for predicting the shapes of such species, in particular for main group
compounds. The model combines original ideas of Sidgwick and Powell
(1940's) with extensions developed by Nyholm and Gillespie (1950's).

• Each valence shell electron pair of the central atom E in a molecule

EXn containing E-X single bonds is stereochemically significant, and
repulsions between them determine the molecular shape.

• Electron-electron repulsions decrease in the sequence: lone pair -lone

pair>lone pair-bonding pair>bonding pair-bonding pair.

• Where the central atom E is involved in multiple bond formation to

atoms X, electron-electron repulsions decrease in the order: triple bond -
single bond>double bond-single bond>single bond-single bond.

69
• Repulsions between the bonding pairs in EXn depend on the difference
between the electronegativities of E and X; electron -electron repulsions are
less the more the E.X bonding electron density is drawn away from the
central atom E.

The VSEPR theory works best for simple halides of the p -block elements, but
may also be applied to species with other substituents. However, the model
does not take steric factors (i.e. the relative sizes of substituents) into
account

Steric Basic Geometry 1 lone pair 2 lone 3 lone

No. 0 lone pair pairs pairs
2 linear
3 trigonal planar bent
4 tetrahedral trigonal bent
pyramid
5 trigonalbipyramid seesaw T- linear
shaped
6 octahedral square square
pyramid planar
7 pentagonal pentagonl
bipyramid pyramid

Structure of the Interhalogens

The structures found for the various interhalogens conform to what would be
expected based on the VSEPR model. For XY 3 the shape can be described
as T-shaped with 2 lone pairs sitting in equatorial positions of a
trigonalbipyramid. For XY 5 the shape is a square pyramid with the unpaired
electrons sitting in an axial position of an octahedral and XY 7 is a pentagonal
bipyramid.

70
XY diatomic interhalogens

The interhalogens with formula XY have physical properties intermediate

between those of the two parent halogens. The covalent bond between the
two atoms has some ionic character, the larger element, X, becoming
oxidised and having a partial positive charge. Most combinations of F, Cl, Br
and I are known, but not all are stable.

•Chlorine monofluoride (ClF), the lightest interhalogen, is a colorless gas

with a boiling point of 173 °K.

•Bromine monofluoride (BrF) has not been obtained pure - it dissociates into
the trifluoride and free bromine. Similarly, iodine monofluoride is unstable -
iodine reacts with fluorine to form a pentafluoride.

•Iodine monofluoride (IF) is unstable and disproportionates rapidly and

irreversibly at room temperature: 5IF → 2I 2 + IF 5 . However, its molecular
properties have been determined by spectroscopy: the iodine -fluorine
distance is 190.9 pm and the I-F bond dissociation energy is around 277 kJ
mol-1. ΔHf° = -95.4 kJ mol-1 and ΔGf° = -117.6 kJ mol-1, both at 298 K.

71
IF can be generated, by the following reactions:

I 2 + F 2 → 2IF at -45 °C in CCl3F;

I 2 + IF 3 → 3IF at -78 °C in CCl3F;

I 2 + AgF → IF + AgI at 0 °C.

•Bromine monochloride (BrCl) is an unstable red-brown gas with a boiling

point of 5 °C.

•Iodine monochloride (ICl) consists of red transparent crystals which melt at

27.2 °C to form a choking brownish liquid (similar in appearance and weight
to bromine). It reacts with HCl to form the strong acid HICl 2 . The crystal
structure of iodine monochloride consists of puckered zig -zag chains, with
strong interactions between the chains.

•Iodine monobromide (IBr) is made by direct combination of the elements to

form a dark red crystalline solid. It melts at 42 °C and boils at 116 °C to form
a partially dissociated vapor.

XY 3 interhalogens

•Chlorine trifluoride (ClF 3 ) is a Colorless gas that condenses to a green

liquid, and freezes to a white solid. It is made by reacting chlorine with an
excess of fluorine at 250° C in a nickel tube. It reacts more violently than
fluorine, often explosively. The molecule is planar and T -shaped.

•Bromine trifluoride (BrF 3 ) is a yellow green liquid that conducts electricity - it

ionises to form [BrF 2 + ] + [BrF 4 - ]. It reacts with many metals and metal oxides

72
to form similar ionised entities; with some others it forms the metal fluoride
plus free bromine and oxygen. It is used in organic chemistry as a
fluorinating agent. It has the same molecular shape as chlorine trifluoride.

•Iodine trifluoride (IF 3 ) is a yellow solid which decomposes above -28 °C. It
can be synthesised from the elements, but care must be taken to avoid the
formation of IF 5 . F 2 attacks I 2 to yield IF 3 at -45 °C in CCl3F. Alternatively, at
low temperatures, the fluorination reaction I 2 + 3XeF 2 → 2IF 3 + 3Xe can be
used. Not much is known about iodine trifluoride as it is so unstable.

•Iodine trichloride (ICl 3 ) forms lemon yellow crystals which can be melted
under pressure to a brown liquid. It can b e made from the elements at low
temperature, or from iodine pentoxide and hydrogen chloride. It reacts with
many metal chlorides to form tetrachloriodides, and hydrolyses in water. The
molecule is a planar dimer, with each iodine atom surrounded by four
chlorine atoms.

Chlorine trifluoride, ClF 3 was first reported in 1931 and it is primarily used for
the manufacture of uranium hexafluoride, UF6 as part of nuclear fuel
processing and reprocessing, by the reaction:

U+3ClF 3 →UF 6 +3ClF

U isotope separation is difficult because the two isotopes have very nearly
identical chemical properties, and can only be separated gradually using
small mass differences. (235U is only 1.26% lighter than 238U.) A cascade of
identical stages produces successively higher concentrat ions of 235U. Each
stage passes a slightly more concentrated product to the next stage and
returns a slightly less concentrated residue to the previous stage.

73
There are currently two generic commercial methods employed
internationally for enrichment: gaseo us diffusion (referred to as first
generation) and gas centrifuge (second generation) which consumes only 6%
as much energy as gaseous diffusion. These both make use of the volatility
of UF 6 . ClF 3 has been investigated as a high-performance storable oxidizer
in rocket propellant systems. Handling concerns, however, prevented its use.

XY 5 interhalogens

•Chlorine pentafluoride (ClF 5 ) is a Colorless gas, made by reacting chlorine

trifluoride with fluorine at high temperatures and high pressures. It reacts
violently with water and most metals and nonmetals.

•Bromine pentafluoride (BrF 5 ) is a Colorless fuming liquid, made by reacting

bromine trifluoride with fluorine at 200° C. It is physically stable, b ut reacts
violently with water and most metals and nonmetals.

•Iodine pentafluoride (IF 5 ) is a Colorless liquid, made by reacting iodine

pentoxide with fluorine, or iodine with silver fluoride. It is highly reactive,
even slowly with glass. It reacts with elements, oxides and carbon halides.
The molecule has the form of a tetragonal pyramid.

XY 7 interhalogens

•Iodine heptafluoride (IF 7 ) is a Colorless gas. It is made by reacting the

pentafluoride with fluorine. IF 7 is chemically inert, having no lone pair of
electrons in the valency shell; in this it resembles sulfur hexafluoride. The
molecule is a pentagonal bipyramid. This compound is the only interhalogen
compound possible where the larger atom is carrying seven of the smaller
atoms.

74
•All attempts to form bromine heptafluoride have met with failure; instead,
bromine pentafluoride and fluorine gas are produced.

Diatomic Interhalogens (AX)

The interhalogens of form XY have physical properties intermediate between

those of the two parent halogens. The covalent bond between the two atoms
has some ionic character, the less electronegative element, X, being oxidised
and having a partial positive charge. Most combinations of F, Cl, Br and I are
known, but not all are stable.

•Chlorine monofluoride (ClF): The lightest interhalogen compound, ClF is a

colorless gas with a normal boiling point of -100 °C.

•Bromine monofluoride (BrF): BrF has not been obtained pure and
dissociates into the trifluoride and free bromine.

•Iodine monofluoride (IF): IF is unstable and decomposes at 0 C,

disproportionating into elemental iodine and iodine pentafluoride.

•Bromine monochloride (BrCl): A red -brown gas with a boiling point of 5 °C.

•Iodine monochloride (ICl): Red transparent crystals which melt at 27.2 °C to

form a choking brownish liquid (similar in appearance and weight to
bromine). It reacts with HCl to form the strong acid HICl 2 . The crystal
structure of iodine monochloride consists of puckered zig -zag chains, with
strong interactions between the chains.

75
•Iodine monobromide (IBr): Made by direct combination of the elements to
form a dark red crystalline solid. It melts at 42 °C and boils at 116 °C to form
a partially dissociated vapor.

Tetra-atomic Interhalogens (AX 3 )

•Chlorine trifluoride (ClF 3 ) is a colorless gas which condenses to a green

liquid, and freezes to a white solid. It is made by reacting chlorine with an
excess of fluorine at 250 °C in a nickel tube. It reacts more violently than
fluorine, often explosively. The molecul e is planar and T-shaped. It is used in
the manufacture of uranium hexafluoride.

•Bromine trifluoride (BrF 3 ) is a yellow green liquid which conducts electricity

and ionizes to form [BrF 2 + ] + [BrF 4 - ]. It reacts with many metals and metal
oxides to form similar ionized entities; with some others it forms the metal
fluoride plus free bromine and oxygen . It is used in organic chemistry as a
fluorinating agent. It has the same molecular shape as chlorine trifluoride.

•Iodine trifluoride (IF 3 ) is a yellow solid which decomposes above -28 °C. It
can be synthesized from the elements, but care must be taken to avoid the
formation of IF 5 . F 2 attacks I 2 to yield IF 3 at -45 °C in CCl 3 F. Alternatively, at
low temperatures, the fluorination reaction I 2 + 3XeF 2 --> 2IF 3 + 3Xe can be
used. Not much is known about iodine trifluoride as it is so unstable.

•Iodine trichloride (ICl 3 ) forms lemon yellow crystals which can be melted
under pressure to a brown liquid. It can be made from the elements at low
temperature, or from iodine pentoxide and hydrogen chloride. It reacts with
many metal chlorides to form tetrachloriodides, and hydrolyses in water. The
molecule is a planar dimer, with each iodine atom surrounded by four
chlorine atoms.

76
Hexa-atomic Interhalogens (AX 5 )

•Chlorine pentafluoride (ClF 5 ) is a colorless gas, made by reacting chlorine

trifluoride with fluorine at high temperatures and high pressures. It reacts
violently with water and most metals and nonmetals.

•Bromine pentafluoride (BrF 5 ) is a colorless fuming liquid, m ade by reacting

bromine trifluoride with fluorine at 200Å C. It is physically stable, but reacts
violently with water and most metals and nonmetals.

•Iodine pentafluoride (IF 5 ) is a colorless liquid, made by reacting iodine

pentoxide with fluorine, or iodine with silver fluoride. It is highly reactive,
even slowly with glass. It reacts with elements, oxides and carbon
halides.The molecule has the form of a tetragonal pyramid.

Octa-atomic interhalogens (AX 7 )

•Iodine heptafluoride (IF 7 ) is a colourless gas. It is made by reacting the

pentafluoride with fluorine. IF 7 is chemically inert, having no lone pair of
electrons in the valency shell; in this it resembles sulfur hexafluoride. The
molecule is a pentagonal bipyramid. This compound is the only interhalogen
compound possible where the larger atom is carrying seven of the smaller
atoms

•All attempts to form bromine heptafluoride (BrF 7 ) have failed and instead
produce bromine pentafluoride (BrF 5 ) gas.

Group 18: Properties of Nobel Gases The noble gases (Group 18) are
located in the far right of the periodic table and were previously referred to
as the "inert gases" due to the fact that their filled valence shells (octets)

77
make them extremely nonreactive. The noble gases were characterized
relatively late compared to other element groups.

The History

The first person to discover the noble gases was Henry Cavendish in the late
180th century. Cavendish distinguished these elements by chemically
removing all oxygen and nitrogen from a container of air. The nitrogen was
oxidized to NO 2

by electric discharges and absorbed by a sodium hydroxide solution. The

remaining oxygen was then removed from the mixture with an absorber. The
experiment revealed that 1/120 of the gas volume remained un -reacted in the
receptacle. The second person to isolate, but not typify, them was W illiam
Francis (1855-1925). Francis noted the formation of gas while dissolving
uranium minerals in acid.

Argon

In 1894, John William Strutt discovered that chemically -obtained pure

nitrogen was less dense than the nitrogen isolated from air samples. From
this breakthrough, he concluded that another, unknown gas was present in
the air. W ith the aid of William Ramsay, Strutt managed to replicate and
modify Cavendish's experiment to better understand the inert component of
air in his original experiment. The researchers' procedure differed from the
Cavendish procedure: they removed the oxygen by reacting it with copper,
and removed the nitrogen in a reaction with magnesium. The remaining gas
was properly characterized and the new element was named "argon," which
originates from the Greek word for "inert."

78
Helium

Helium was first discovered in 1868, manifesting itself in the solar spectrum
as a bright yellow line with a wavelength of 587.49 nanometers. Thi s
discovery was made by Pierre Jansen. Jansen initially assumed it was a
sodium line. However, later studies by Sir W illiam Ramsay (who isolated
helium on Earth by treating a variety of rare elements with acids) confirmed
that the bright yellow line from his experiment matched up with that in the
spectrum of the sun. From this, British physicist William Crookes identified
the element as helium.

Neon, Krypton, Xenon

These three noble gases were discovered by Morris W. Travers and Sir
William Ramsay in 1898. Ramsay discovered neon by chilling a sample of the
air to a liquid phase, warming the liquid, and capturing the gases as they
boiled off. Krypton and xenon were also discovered through this process.

Radon

In 1900, while studying the decay chain of radium, Friedrich Earns Dorn
discovered the last gas in Group 18: radon. In his experiments, Dorn noticed
that radium compounds emanated radioactive gas. This gas was or iginally
named niton after the Latin word for shining, "nitens". In 1923, the
International Committee for Chemical Elements and International Union of
Pure Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) decided to name the element radon. All
isotopes of radon are radioactive. Radon-222 has the longest half-life at less
than 4 days, and is an alpha-decay product of Radium-226 (part of the U-238
to Pb-206 radioactive decay chain).

79
The Electron Configurations for Noble Gases

 Helium 1s2
 Neon [He] 2s2 2p6
 Argon [Ne] 3s2 3p6
 Krypton [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p6
 Xenon [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p6
 Radon [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p6

Table 1: Trends within Group 18

Atomic # Atomic Boiling Melting 1st Ionization Density Atomic
mass point (K) point (K) (E/kJ mol-1) (g/dm3) radius
(pm)
He 2 4.003 4.216 0.95 2372.3 0.1786 31
Ne 10 20.18 27.1 24.7 2080.6 0.9002 38
Ar 18 39.948 87.29 83.6 1520.4 1.7818 71
Kr 36 83.3 120.85 115.8 1350.7 3.708 88
Xe 54 131.29 166.1 161.7 1170.4 5.851 108
Rn 86 222.1 211.5 202.2 1037.1 9.97 120

The Atomic and Physical Properties

•Atomic mass, boiling point, and atomic radii INCREASE down a group in the
periodic table.

•The first ionization energy DECREASES down a group in the periodic table.

•The noble gases have the largest ionization energies, reflecting their
chemical inertness.

80
•Down Group 18, atomic radius and interatomic forces INCREASE resulting
in an INCREASED melting point, boiling point, enthalpy of vaporization, and
solubility.

•The INCREASE in density down the group is corre lated with the INCREASE
in atomic mass.

•Because the atoms INCREASE in atomic size down the group, the electron
clouds of these non polar atoms become increasingly polarized, which leads
to weak van Der Waals forces among the atoms. Thus, the formation of
liquids and solids is more easily attainable for these heavier elements
because of their melting and boiling points.

•Because noble gases’ outer shells are full, they are extremely stable,
tending not to form chemical bonds and having a small tendency to gain or
lose electrons.

•Under standard conditions all members of the noble gas group behave
similarly.

•All are monotomic gases under standard conditions.

•Noble gas atoms, like the atoms in other groups, INCREASE steadily in
atomic radius from one period to the next due to the INCREASING number of
electrons.

•The size of the atom is positively correlated to several properties of noble

gases. The ionization potential DECREASES with an INCREASING radius,
because the valence electrons in the larger noble ga ses are further away
from the nucleus; they are therefore held less tightly by the atom.

81
•The attractive force INCREASES with the size of the atom as a result of an
INCREASE in polarizability and thus a DECREASE in ionization potential.

•Overall, noble gases have weak interatomic forces, and therefore very low
boiling and melting points compared with elements of other groups.

For covalently-bonded diatomic and polyatomic gases, heat capacity arises

from possible translational, rotational, and vibrational motions. Because
monatomic gases have no bonds, they cannot absorb heat as bond
vibrations. Because the center of mass of monatomic gases is at the nucleus
of the atom, and the mass of the electrons is negligible compared to the
nucleus, the kinetic energy due to rotation is negligible compared to the
kinetic energy of translation (unlike in di - or polyatomic molecules where
rotation of nuclei around the center of mass of the molecule contributes
significantly to the heat capacity). Therefore, the internal energy per mole of
a monatomic noble gas equals its translational contribution, 32RT

, where R is the universal gas constant and T

is the absolute temperature.

For monatomic gases at a given temperature, the average kinetic energy due
to translation is practically equal regardless of the element. Therefore at a
given temperature, the heavier the atom, the more slowly its gaseous atoms
move. The mean velocity of a monatomic gas decreases with increasing
molecular mass, and given the simplified heat capacity situation, noble
gaseous thermal conductivity decreases with increasing molecular mass.

82
Applications of Noble Gases

Helium

Helium is used as a component of breathing gases due to its low solubility in

fluids or lipids. This is important because other gases are absorbed by the
blood and body tissues when under pressure during scuba diving. Because of
its reduced solubility, little helium is taken into cell membranes; when it
replaces part of the breathing mixture, helium causes a decrease in the
narcotic effect of the gas at far depths. The reduced amount of dissolved gas
in the body means fewer gas bubbles form, decreasing the pressure of the
ascent. Helium and Argon are used to shield welding arcs and the
surrounding base metal from the atmosphere.

Helium is used in very low temperature cryogenics, particularly for

maintaining superconductors (useful for creating strong magnet ic fields) at a
very low temperatures. Helium is also the most common carrier gas in gas
chromatography.

Neon

Neon has many common and familiar applications: neon lights, fog lights, TV
cine-scopes, lasers, voltage detectors, luminous warnings, and adver tising
signs. The most popular application of neon is the neon tubing used in
advertising and elaborate decorations. These tubes are filled with neon and
helium or argon under low pressure and submitted to electrical discharges.
The color of emitted light is depends on the composition of the gaseous
mixture and on the color of the glass of the tube. Pure Neon within a
colorless tube absorbs red light and reflects blue light, as shown in the figure
below. This reflected light is known as fluorescent light.

83
Argon

Argon has a large number of applications in electronics, lighting, glass, and

metal fabrications. Argon is used in electronics to provide a protective heat
transfer medium for ultra -pure silicon crystal semiconductors and for growing
germanium. Argon can also fill fluorescent and incandescent light bulbs,
creating the blue light found in "neon lamps." By utilizing argon's low thermal
conductivity, window manufacturers provide a gas barrier needed to produce
double-pane insulated windows. This insulatio n barrier improves the
windows' energy efficiencies. Argon also creates an inert gas shield during
welding, flushes out melted metals to eliminate porosity in casting, and
provides an oxygen- and nitrogen-free environment for annealing and rolling
metals and alloys.

Similarly to argon, krypton can be found in energy efficient windows.

Because of its superior thermal efficiency, krypton is sometimes chosen over
argon for insulation. It is estimated that 30% of energy efficient windows sold
in Germany and England are filled with krypton; approximately 1.8 liters of
krypton are used in these countries. Krypton is also found in fuel sources,
lasers and headlights. In lasers, krypton functions as a control for a desired
optic wavelength. It is usually mixed with a halogen (most likely fluorine) to
produce excimer lasers. Halogen sealed beam headlights containing krypton
produce up to double the light output of standard headlights. In addition,
Krypton is used for high performance light bulbs, which have higher col or
temperatures and efficiency because the krypton reduces the rate of
evaporation of the filament.

Xenon

Xenon has various applications in incandescent lighting, x -ray development,

plasma display panels (PDPs), and more. Incandescent lighting uses xenon

84
because less energy can be used to obtain the same light output as a normal
incandescent lamp. Xenon has also made it possible to obtain better x -rays
with reduced amounts of radiation. When mixed with oxygen, it can enhance
the contrast in CT imaging. These applications have had great impact on the
health care industries. Plasma display panels (PDPs) using xenon as one of
the fill gases may one day replace the large picture tubes in television and
computer screens.

Nuclear fission products may include sever al radioactive isotopes of xenon,

which absorb neutrons in nuclear reactor cores. The formation and
elimination of radioactive xenon decay products are factors in nuclear reactor
control.

Radon

Radon is reported as the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after
cigarette smoking. However, it also has beneficial applications in
radiotherapy, arthritis treatment, and bathing. In radiotherapy, radon has
been used in implantable seeds, made of glass or gold, primarily used to
treat cancers. It has been said that exposure to radon mitigates auto -immune
diseases such as arthritis. Some arthritis sufferers have sought limited
exposure to radioactive mine water and radon to relieve their pain. "Radon
Spas" such as Bad Gastern in Austria and Onsen in Japan of fer a therapy in
which people sit for minutes to hours in a high -radon atmosphere, believing
that low doses of radiation will boost up their energy.

Neon, like all noble gases, has a full valence shell. Noble gases have eight
electrons in their outermost shell, except in the case of helium, which has
two.

85
Configuration

Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron
configuration, especially the outermost shells resulting in trends in chemical
behavior:

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

2 helium 2
10 neon 2, 8
18 argon 2, 8, 8
36 krypton 2, 8, 18, 8
54 xenon 2, 8, 18, 18, 8
86 radon 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8

The noble gases have full valence electron shells. Valence electrons are the
outermost electrons of an atom and are normally the only electrons that
participate in chemical bonding. Atoms with full valence electron shells are
extremely stable and therefore do not tend to form chemical bonds and have
little tendency to gain or lose electrons.However, heavier noble gases such
as radon are held less firmly together by electromagnetic force than lighter
noble gases such as helium, making it easier t o remove outer electrons from
heavy noble gases.

As a result of a full shell, the noble gases can be used in conjunction with
the electron configuration notation to form the noble gas notation. To do this,
the nearest noble gas that precedes the element in question is written first,
and then the electron configuration is continued from that point forward. For
example, the electron notation of phosphorus is 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 3 , while
the noble gas notation is [Ne] 3s2 3p3. This more compact notation makes it
easier to identify elements, and is shorter than writing out the full notation of
atomic orbitals.

86
Structure of XeF

The noble gases show extremely low chemical reactivity; consequently, only
a few hundred noble gas compounds have been formed. Neutral compounds
in which helium and neon are involved in chemical bonds have not been
formed (although there is some theoretical evidence for a few helium
compounds), while xenon, krypton, and argon have shown only minor
reactivity. The reactivity follows the or der Ne < He <Ar< Kr
<Xe<Rn.andkinetically unstable.

Xenon compounds are the most numerous of the noble gas comp ounds that
have been formed. Most of them have the xenon atom in the oxidation state
of +2, +4, +6, or +8 bonded to highly electronegative atoms such as fluorine
or oxygen, as in xenon difluoride(XeF)

2), xenon tetrafluoride (XeF)

4), xenon hexafluoride (XeF)

6), xenon tetroxide (XeO)

4), and sodium perxenate (Na 4 XeO)

6). Xenon reacts with fluorine to form numerous xenon fluorides according to
the following equations:

Xe + F 2 → XeF 2

Xe + 2F 2 → XeF 4

87
Xe + 3F 2 → XeF 6

Some of these compounds have found use in chemical synthesis as oxidizing

agents; XeF

2, in particular, is commercially available and can be used as a fl uorinating

agent.As of 2007, about five hundred compounds of xenon bonded to other
elements have been identified, including organoxenon compounds
(containing xenon bonded to carbon), and xenon bonded to nitrogen,
chlorine, gold, mercury, and xenon its elf. Compounds of xenon bound to
boron, hydrogen, bromine, iodine, beryllium, sulphur, titanium, copper, and
silver have also been observed but only at low temperatures in noble gas
matrices, or in supersonic noble gas jets.

In theory, radon is more reactive than xenon, and therefore should form
chemical bonds more easily than xenon does. However, due to the high
radioactivity and short half -life of radon isotopes, only a fe w fluorides and
oxides of radon have been formed in practice.

Krypton is less reactive than xenon, but several compounds have been
reported with krypton in the oxidation state of +2.Krypton difluoride is the
most notable and easily characterized. Under ext reme conditions, krypton
reacts with fluorine to form KrF 2 according to the following equation:

Kr + F 2 → KrF 2

Compounds in which krypton forms a single bond to nitrogen and oxygen

have also been characterized, but are only stable below −60 °C (−76 °F) and
−90 °C (−130 °F) respectively.

88
Krypton atoms chemically bound to other nonmetals (hydrogen, chlorine,
carbon) as well as some late transition metals (copper, silver, gold) have
also been observed, but only either at low temperatures in noble gas
matrices, or in supersonic noble gas jets. Similar conditions were used to
obtain the first few compounds of argon in 2000, such as argon fluorohydride
(HArF), and some bound to the late transition meta ls copper, silver, and
gold. As of 2007, no stable neutral mole cules involving covalently bound
helium or neon are known.

The noble gases—including helium—can form stable molecular ions in the

gas phase. The simplest is the helium hydride molecular io n, HeH + ,
discovered in 1925. Because it is composed of the two most abundant
elements in the universe, hydrogen and helium, it is believed to occur
naturally in the interstellar medium, although i t has not been detected yet. In
addition to these ions, there are many known neutral exc imers of the noble
gases. These are compounds such as ArF and KrF that are stable only when
in an excited electronic state; some of them find application in excimer
lasers.

In addition to the compounds where a noble gas atom is involved in a

covalent bond, noble gases also form non-covalent compounds. The
clathrates, first described in 1949, consist of a noble gas atom trapped within
cavities of crystal lattices of certain organic and inorganic substances. The
essential condition for their formation is that the guest (noble gas) atoms
must be of appropriate size to fit in the cavities of the host crystal lattice. For
instance, argon, krypton, and xenon form clathrates with hydroquinone, but
helium and neon do not because they are too small or insufficiently
polarizable to be retained.Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon also form
clathrate hydrates, where the noble gas is trapped in ice.

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Applications

1)Noble gases have very low boiling and melting points, which makes them
useful as cryogenicrefrigerants.[63] In particular, liquid helium, which boils at
4.2 K (−268.95 °C; −452.11 °F), is used for superconducting magnets, such
as those needed in nuclear magnetic resonance imaging and nuclear
magnetic resonance. Liquid neon, although it does not reach temperatures a s
low as liquid helium, also finds use in cryogenics because it has over 40
times more refrigerating capacity than liquid helium and over three time s
more than liquid hydrogen.

Helium is used as a component of breathing gases to replace nitrogen, due

its low solubility in fluids, especially in lipids. Gases are absorbed by the
blood and body tissues when under pressure like in scuba diving, which
causes an anesthetic effect known as nitrogen narcosis. Due to its reduced
solubility, little helium is taken in to cell membranes, and when helium is used
to replace part of the breathing mixtures, such as in trimix or heliox, a
decrease in the narcotic effect of the gas at depth is obtained.Helium's
reduced solubility offers further advantages for the condition kno wn as
decompression sickness, or the bends. The reduced amount of dissolved gas
in the body means that fewer gas bubbles form during the decrease in
pressure of the ascent. Another noble gas, argon, is considered the best
option for use as a drysuit inf lation gas for scuba diving. Helium is also used
as filling gas in nuclear fuel rods for nuclear reactors.

2)In many applications, the noble gases are used to provide an inert
atmosphere. Argon is used in the synthesis of air -sensitive compounds that
are sensitive to nitrogen. Solid argon is also used for the study of very
unstable compounds, such as reactive intermediates, by trapping them in an
inert matrix at very low temperatures. Helium is used as the carrier medium in
gas chromatography, as a filler gas f or thermometers, and in devices for

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measuring radiation, such as the Geiger counter and the bubble chambe r.
Helium and argon are both commonly used to shield welding arcs and the
surrounding base metal from the atmosphere during welding and cutting, as
well as in other metallurgical processes and in the production of silicon for
the semiconductor industry.

3)Noble gases are commonly used in lighting because of their lack of

chemical reactivity. Argon, mixed with nitrogen, is used as a filler gas fo r
incandescent light bulbs.Krypton is used in high-performance light bulbs,
which have higher colour.

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