Textile Testing

IMPERIAL AGRICULTURAL
RESEARCH INSTITUTE. NEW DELHI.
13841
Textile Testing
PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL
and MICROSCOPICAL
BY
JOHN H. SKINKLE
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF TEXTILE CHEIIUSTJl.Y
LOWELL TEXTILE INSTITUTE
......... ,....
1940
CHEMICAL PUBLISHING co., Inc.
:'I!EW YORK, N. Y.
U. S. A.
138ot1
IARt
Copyright
by
Chemical Publishing Co., Illc.
194 0
MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
DORAY PRESS
NEW YORK. N. Y.
INTRODUCTION
. TEXTILE testing is carried out for one of several reasons and

at several stages in the production of the goods. In general,
we may say that testing is carried out in order to answer one or
more questions:-Are the goods satisfactory? Are the goods better
or poorer than another ;ot? What has been the effect of a certain
process on the goods? If the goods are unsatisfactory or unusual,
what is the cause of the abnormality. It will be seen to answer all of
these questions except the first involves a comparison of two
samples, so that only to answer the first question are absolut~stand
ards and tolerances necessary. The answer to the first two·ciuestions
is of interest primarily to the consumer; the answer to the last two
questions is of interest to the manufacturer.
Where several methods are available the one considered best will
be given in detail, and the other methods will be mentioned or
considered in less detail. Very often approximate results may be
obtained which are satisfactory for plant use or in a comparison
and which require little or no special apparatus; these are especially
valuable since many small plants cannot afford expensive ap-
paratus, and even larger plants wish to make an occasional test of
some sort, not usually performed because unnecessary, and which
does not warrant the outlay of any great sum of money.
At the end of each test, a bibliography of references will be given
where further information may be obtained.
CONTENTS
PART I - PHYSICAL TESTING
CHAPTER PAGE
1. Statistical Analysis .......................................... .
2. Moisture Determinations
Relative Humidity ........................................ 5
Regain ................................................... 12
3. Fiber Testing
Staple ................................................... 23
Hair Weight ............................................. 29
Resilience ................................................ 31
4. Yarn Testing
Counts and Denier........................................ 34
Plies and Filaments ....................................... 41
Twist .................................................... 44
Seriplane and Regularity................................... 54
5. Fabric Testing
Introduction .............................................. 56
Yarn Count .............................................. 58
Weight .................................................. 59
Crimp ................................................... 61
Thickness .......... ..................................... 68
6. Fabric Testing (continued)
Porosity. Permeability, Waterproofing ...................... 71
Absorbability and Wetting-out............................. 79
Shrinkage ................................................ 83
7. Fabric Testing (continued)
Thermal Properties ....................................... 87
Handle or Draping Quality ............................... 91
Serviceability, Wear, Abrasion ............................. 97
8. Strength and Stretch Testing of Fibers, Yarns,
and Fabrics
Introduction and Definitions ............................... 104
Manually Loaded Strength Testers............ . .......... 106
Pendulum Strength Testers ................................ 107
Constant Rate-of-Load Machine ............................ 126
Ballistic Strength Machine ................................. 129
Bursting Strength Machines ............................... 130
Effect of Moisture ......................................... 133
Other Determinations with Strength Testers .... , ........... 136
Repeated Stress Tests ...........•......................... 138
PART II - CHEMICAL TESTING
9. Introduction and General Considerations ...................... 142
10. Inorganic Extraneous Matter
Ash ...................................................... 14.1
Ash Alkalinity ........................................... 148
Silk Weighting ........................................... 149
Acids and Alkalies ........................................ 151
CHAPTER PAGB
11. Organic Extraneous Matter

Scouring Loss ..........................................•. 156
Extrac tion ............................... '................. 158
Sizing and Finishing Materials ..................•.......... 170
12. Fiber Mixtures
Qualitative Analysis ...................................... 179
Quantitative Analysis ..................................... 184
13. Swelling and Damage in Cellulose Fibers
Introduction .............................•............... 192
Qualitative Tests ..............................•.......... 197
Barium Activity Number .................................. 199
Ash Alkalinity ........................................... 200
Solubility in Sodium Hydroxide ............................ 201
Methylene Blue Absorption ................................ 201
Copper Number .......................................... 204
Fluidity .................................................. 206
14. Damage to Wool
Introduction .............................................. 214
Lead Acetate Test, ....................................... 218
Thiocyanate Test ......................................... 219
Pauly Test ....................................•.......... 220
Methylene Blue Test ...................................... 221
Sulfur Content ..........................•................ 222
Total Nitrogen Content ..................................•. 223
Soluble Nitrogen ......................................... 223
Ammonia Nitrogen .................................. , .... 224
Solubility in Dilute Alkali ................................. 224
15. Damage to Silk
Introduction .............................................• 226
Zimmermann Test ........................................ 227
Total Nitrogen Content .................................... 228
Ammonia Nitrogen ....................................... 228
Viscosity in Zinc Chloride ......................•.......... 228
PART III - MICROSCOPICAL TESTING

16. Identifications
Introduction .............................................. 232
Identification of Starches ............................. , .... 233
Identification of Fibers ... , ........................... , .... 233
17. Determination of Quality, Damage, and
Quantitative Analysis
Wool Grading ............................................ 237
Maturity of Cotton ........................................ 238
Mercerization of Cotton ................................... 239
Damage to Cotton ........................................ 240
Damage to Wool. ......................................... 241
Analysis of Fiber Blends .................................. 242
Index •.........................•.........•••..•.........•.••• 269
LIST- OF TABLES
TABLE PACE
Maximum Vapor Pressure and Absolute

Humidities ............................................. 245
II Relative Humidities by Sling Psychrometer ................. 246
III Relative Humidities above Sulfuric Acid Solutions ........... 246
IV Standard Regains of Textile Materials ....................... 247
V Standard Grades of Fibers .................................. 247
VI Hair Weights of Fibers ..................................... 248
VII Standard Hanks of Yarn ................................... 248
VIII English and Metric Equivalents ............................. 249
IX Yarn and Fabric Tolerances ................................. 249
X Specific Gravities of Fibers ................................. 250
XI Strength Correction Factors ................................ 251
XII Natural Ash Content of Fibers .............................. 252
X I II Extracted Material in Cotton and Wool. .................... 253
XIV Loss on Desizing of Various Cotton Goods ................ 254
XV Qualitative Analysis of Fibers .............................. 255
XVI Quantitative Analysis of Fiber Mixtures .................... 256
XVII Comparison of Tests on Cellulose Derivatives ............... 257
XVIII Quantitative Data on Cellulose Derivatives .................. 258
XIX Results of Tests for Damage to Wool. ...................... 259
XX Microscopical Appearance of Starches ....................... 260
XXI Microscopical Appearance of Hairs ......................... 260
" XXII Microscopical Appearance of Bast Fibers ................... 262
XXIII Microscopical Appearance of Artificial Fibers ................ 263
XXIV Microscopical Recognition of Fibers.......... . ........... 264
XXV Average Diameters of Various Fibers ....................... 265
XXVI Diameter Distribution Requirements for Wool Top .......... 266
XXVII Constants for Calculation of Hair Weight from
Diameter .............................................. 267
ILLUSTRATIONS
FlCURE PACE
1. Hygrodeik Hygrometer ....................................... 7

2. Sling Psychrometer .......................................... 8
3. Effect of Temperature of Water on Wet Bulb Reading........... 9
4. Drying Curve ................................................ 14
5. Separate Oven and Balance.................................... 15
6. Oven and Balance Combined .................................. 16
7. Oven and Analytical Balance .................................. 17
8. Effect of Relative Humidity on Regain ......................... 18
9. Hysteresis Effect ............................................. 19
10. Effect of Temperature on Regain .............................. 19
11. Cotton Staple - Hand Method................................ 25
12. Wool Staple - Hand Method ................................. 26
13. Cotton Staple - Baer Sorter ................................... 28
14. Yarn Reel ................................................... 36
15. Skein Holder and Yarn Reel ................................... 37
16. Grain Yarn Scales ............................................ 38
17. Simple Twist Counter ......................................... 45
18. Accurate Twist Counter ....................................... 47
19. "s" and "z" Twist ............................................ 50
20. Balanced and Unbalanced Yarn ................................ 51
21. Regular and Corkscrew Twist...................... . . . . . . . . . .. 52
22. Relation between Strength and Twist of Yarns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
23. Seriplane or Yarn Inspection Board ........................... 55
24. Load-Elongation Curve for Crimp Determination ............... 64
25. Crimp Determination Apparatus (Chainomatic Type) ........... 65
26. Thickness Gauge ............................................. 69
27. Densometer .................................................. 74
28. Apparatus for Measuring Waterproofness by
Box Method ............................................... 78
29. Apparatus for Determination of Thermal Insulating
Value ..................................................... 90
30. Principle pf Determination of Stiffness of a Fabric .............. 92
31. Heart Loop Method for Stiffness of Fabric ..................... 93
32. Typical Thickness-Load Curves for Fabrics.................... 94
33. Abrasion Tester - M. I. T. Model ............................. 101
34. Principle of Pendulum Strength Tester ......................... 101!
35. Pendulum Strength Tester with Autographic Recorder ........ : .. 109
36. Pendulum Strength Tester - Horizontal Type ................. 110
37. Pendulum Single Str"nd Tester ................................ 111
38. Ravelled Strip Sample and Grab Sample in Jaws ................. 115
39. Sampling of Fabric for Strength Tests ......................... 116
VIn
..IGUlU! PAGE
40. Skein on Spools of Strength Testing Machine ................... 118

41. Serigraph Sample in Jaws of Strength Testing
Machine ................................................... 118
42. Stretch-Load Diagrams, Motion of Upper Jaw ............. , .... 124
43. Stretch-Load Diagrams. Slack of Specimen ..................... 125
44. Typical Stretch-Load Diagrams of Yarns ...................... 125
45. Stretch-Load Diagram of Cotton Cloth ......................... 127
46. Principle of Inclined Plane Strength Tester .................... 128
47. Constant Rate-of-Load Strength Machine ....................... 129
48. Ball-Burst Attachment for Strength Testing Machines ........... 131
49. Mullen Hydraulic Bursting Tester ............................. 132
50. Typical Strength-Regain Curves ............................... 134
51. Stretch-Load Diagrams for Wet and Dry Rayons ............... 135
52. Stretch-Load Diagram of Cotton Yarn with Repeated
Stress Applications ......................................... 139
53. Soxhlet Extraction Apparatus .................................. 159
54. Battery or Soxhlets ........................................... 160
55. Rubber Extraction Apparatus ................................. 161
56. Structural Formula of Cellulose ................................ 193
57. Formation of Hydrocellulose .................................. 194
58. Oxycellulose Obtained by Oxidation in Acid Solution ........... 195
59. Oxycellulose Obtained by Oxidation in Alkaline
Solution ................................................... 196
60. Cuprammonia Viscometer .................................... 209
61. Principal Amino Acids in Wool. ............................... 215
62. Structure of Wool. ......................... " ............. , ... 216
63. Structure of Silk Fibrolll.... .. . ....... _. . ...... _. . .......... 227
lX
PART '-PHYSICAl. TESTING
CHAPTER 1
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
I an very
making physical tests on a textile sample, we are dealing with
variable substance. If
we make several determinations of
strength, for example, on a piece of cloth we may find that no two
tests give the same result. We may average the results, but how
accurate is the average? Formulae have been developed based on
the theories of probability which enable us to calculate not only
the result desired but other very valuable information. The de-
velopment of these formulae is too complex to follow but it is
possible to use the formulae with comparatively little trouble.
The following symbols will be used:
n = number of tests made
m = result of anyone test
M = arithmetical mean of all the tests
d = deviation of anyone test from the mean, regardless of
whether it is plus or minus
sd = standard deviation of the tests from the mean
SE = standard error of the mean; the chances are 2 to 1 that
the error involved in calling the mean the true value is
less than this standard error
The formulae are as follows:
~m
M= - _
n
d= M-m or m-M
sd = i ~ (d 2) (square root of the mean square)
~-n-
sd
SE= - - - -
'\I'n-1
2 TEXTILE TESTING
True value = M ± SE
The standard error should never have more than two significant
figures, and the mean should have as many decimal places as the
standard error.
The use of the formulae can best be shown by a simple example.
Let us suppose that we have made five strength tests on a piece of
cloth and the results are:
ml =
30.5 Ibs.
m2 =
31.2 lbs.
m3 =
29.3Ibs.
m4 30.8Ibs.
ms 32.21bs.
-----
1:m = 154.01bs.
n = 5 tests made
1: m 154.0
Then, M = - - = - - = 30.8 Ibs.
n 5
Calculating values of d and d 2
2
d 1 = 30.8 -30.5 = 0.3 d 1 = 0.09
2
d 2 = 31.2 -30.8 = 0.4 d 2 = 0.16
2
d3 = 30.8 -29.3 = I.S d s = 2.25
2
d" = 30.8 -30.8 == 0.0 d, = 0.00
2
d a = 32.2 -30.8 = 1.4 d a = 1.96
1: d 2 = 4.46
Then, sd = ~1:d2 = ~4.46 = V 0.892 = .946
n 5
sd .946
Then, SE - = = .47
V n-l V 5-1
TEXTILE TESTING s
The strength of the cloth then is 30.80 ± 0.47 or, in other words,
the chances are very great that the true strength of the cloth is be-
tween 30.33 and 31.27.
The formulae may also be used to find out how many tests would
be necessary to give a certain standard error.
The standard deviation expressed as percentage of the mean
(sd x 100)
- - - - i s often used to express the variation of a piece of goods.
M
.946
In the example given the variation would be - - x 100
30.8
= 3.1 per cent variation.
Another use of standard error is to determine whether there is a
real difference between two samples. The rule is: if the differenCf>
between two mean values is equal to, or greater than, twice the
larger standard error, there is a real difference between the samples.
Suppose that a sample of the cloth already tested was boiled out
in water and the strength determined as 29.90 ± 0.50
Then 30.80 - 29.90 = 0.90
which is less than twice the larger standard error (0.50), therefore
there is no difference in the strength and the treatment cannot be
said to have injured the strength.
If on boiling with another liquid the strength had become 29.00 ±
0.40, then 30.80 - 29.00 = 1.80 which is more than twice the
larger standard error (0.47). In this case there is a real difference
and the strength has been affected.
The following is a complete statistical analysis of an experiment
where a sample of cotton cloth was tested for strength before and
after a certain treatment. It also illustrates the simplest form (or
calculating and tabulating results:
Before After
m d d~ m d d2
47.0 2.4 5.76 38.6 1.7 2.89
41.1 1.5 2.25 41.2 0.9 0.81
44.4 0.2 0.04 34.6 5.7 32.49
44.8 0.2 0.04 41.4 1.1 1.21
46.2 1.6 2.56 41.2 0.9 0.81
4 TEXTILE TESTING
45.8 1.2 1.44 39.8 0.5 0.25

42.2 2.4 5.76 42.0 1.7 2.89
43.5 1.1 1.21 42.7 2.4 5.76
47.4 2.8 7.84 42.8 2.5 6.25
42.0 2.6 6.76 38.6 1.7 2.89
101446.4 10133.66 101402.9 10156.25

44.6 3.37 40.3 5.63
sd = ...; 3.37 = 1.84 sd = ...; 5.63 2.38
1.84 2.38
SE = --=
= 0.61 SE = -- = 0.79
...;9 ...;9
Value = 44.64 ± 0.61 Value = 40.29 ± 0.79
1.84 x 100 2.38 x 100
Variation = = 4.1% Variation =
44.6 40.3
5.9%
44.63 - 40.29 = 4.35
4.35
-- = 5.5 therefore a real difference
0.79
CONCLUSION: There is a real difference between the strengths
of the two samples. The variation in the sample after treatment
is greater than before treatment. The treatment decreased the
strength of the cloth and made it more uneven.
REnIitENCES
1Ezekial, M. Method. of Correlation Analysis. John Wiley & SoDl, Inc.,
New York (1930).
CHAPTER 2
MOISTURE DETERMINATIONS
Relative Humidity
P erhaps the most important single factor in the physical test-

ing of textiles is the amount of moisture in the air; affecting
as it does the amount of moisture in the textile material, it thereby
affects nearly every physical property of the goods.
The amount of moisture in the air may be expressed in one of
three ways; (1) partial pressure, the actual pressure in inches
of mercury due to the water vapor alone; (2) absolute humidity, the
weight of the water vapor in a unit volume of air, usually in grains
per cubic foot; (3) relative humidity, the percent saturation of the
air, either one of the above compared to its maximum possible
value at the temperature in question. It is with relative humidity
that we are principally interested, since it seems to be relative
humidity rather than actual moisture which affects the moisture
in the textile sample.
Relative humidity may be defined by either of two equations:
RH = 100 e/E
or RH = 100 h/H
Where RH = relative humidity in %
e = actual vapor pressure in inches of mercury
E = maximum vapor pressure in inches of mercury
h = actual absolute humidity in grains per cub;c foot
H = maximum absolute humidity in grains per cubic
foot
The values of E and H may be obtained from Table I either
directly or by interpolation, but the values of e or h must be de-
termined experimentally.
The following methods may be used in determining relative
humidity:
5
6 TEXTILE TESTING
1. Chemical method
2. Dew point method
3. Hair hygrometer
4. Wet and dry bulb hygrometer
a. Stationary type
b. Sling psychrometer
The chemical method involves passing a measured volume of air
through a drying agent such as phosphorus pentoxide or calcium
chloride, the drying bulb being weighed before and alter the ex-
periment. The increase in weight converted to grains and divided
by the number of cubic feet of air passed through gives the actual
absolute humidity (h), from which RH == 100 h/H, where H is
determined from Table I. This method is the most accurate of
any, more accurate than is necessary for textile purposes; it in-
volves, however, the use of an analytical balance for weighing the
moisture and an accurate meter for measuring the air, both of
which are expensive and delicate, requiring a specially trained man
to operate. Chemical methods. therefore. are seldom used in textile
testing.
The dew point method is the next most accurate method. It
consists in cooling a polished metal container of water down
slowly until moisture just condenses upon its outer surface, this
temperature being the dew point. The dew point is, then, the
temperature at which the air would be saturated if cooled without
loss of water vapor. An example will show best how relative humid-
ity is calculated from dew points. Using Table I, assume that the
temperature of the air in a room is 70° F. and its dew point, deter-
mined as above, is 50° F. The air would be saturated at 50° and
would therefore have an absolute humidity of 4.11 grains per cubic
foot (h); at 70°, the maximum possible absolute humidity is 8.07
grains per cubic foot (H).
Then RH == 100 h/H = 100 x 4.11/8.07 = 51%
As stated before, the dew point method is next in accuracy to the
chemical method but since it requires considerable care to operate
accurately and requires the use of a cooling medium, it is not very
convenient for use in a plant.
The hair hygrometer is very frequently met with now, in the form
of small table top or wall hygrometers; they operate by the change
TEXTILE TESTING 7
in length of a hair or band of hair acting through a link motion on
a pointer. The stretch of a hair with change in relative humidity is
approximately a straight line only over the middle portion of the
scale, the response of the hair to changes in relative humidity is very
slow, the link motion always has some play in it. For these reasons
the hair hygrometer is the least accurate of the methods for
determining relative humidity and requires frequent calibration if
UBed at all. It is useful only for rough indications of rather large
changes in relative humidity and should not be used for laboratory
work.
Fig. I-Hydrodeik Hygrometer

The wet and dry bulb hygrometer operates on the principle that
if we have a thermometer surrounded by a film of water and the
air around it is not saturated, water will evaporate from the film at
a rate proportional to the difference between saturation and the
actual relative humidity. This evaporation requires heat which is
taken from the bulb of the thermometer, so that the wet bulb
thermometer will read less than the dry bulb thermometer by an
amount inversely proportional to the relative humidity. It should
be noted that the wet bulb reading is not the same as dew point.
8 TEXTILE TESTING
The wet and dry bulb hygrometer is convenient and easy to

manipulate, it is accurate to 1% relative humidity (fractions of a
percent are not given), and so is much the most common type of
hygrometer used. There are two main types: the stationary and
the sling psychrometer.
The stationary type has the thermometers fixed in position, the
wet bulb moistened by a wick which dips into a container holding
water, preferably distilled water. Since the air surrounding the
wet bulb tends to be of higher relative humidity than the air of the
rest of the room, it is desirable to fan hygrometers of this type
before reading the thermometers. The Hygrodeik (Figure 1) is
the most convenient instrument of this type, since a diagram and
pointer for calculating the relative humidity is incorporated in the
apparatus. Other forms of apparatus have a fan in the instrument
for drawing air past the thermometers. These are desirable if so
arranged that the heat of the motor does not affect the thermom-
eters.
An instrument which is free of the stationary air film objection
and yet uses the simple wet and dry bulb principle is the sling
psychrometer (Figure 2). This instrument consists of a pair of
Fig. 2-Sling Psychrometer

matched thermometers fastened to a rigid frame which can be
whirled through the air. One of the thermometers is covered with
a fine wick of silk rayon, or mercerized cotton which is wet with
distilled water before use. This instrument gives quick and ac-
curate readings of the relative humidity but is not continuously
recording. In wetting the wick, distilled water at a temperature
just above the wet bulb temperature (room temperature is satis-
TEXTILE TESTING 9
factory) should be used for reasons illustrated in (Figure 3). If water

colder than wet bulb ,is used, the temperature rises with only a
point of inflexion at the wet bulb temperature; if too warm water
is used, it is all evaporated and the temperature starts to rise again
before wet bulb temperature is reached; if water only a few
D
.... D
:l"
.,co
....
~
--------
~
3
.0
3
V_
.,"
.
D
~
.,co"
D
.. .....
.Q
till'
• at..r 18 balo"
".t. l>\llb te .... ratl1r.
t1M
.at.... Ill.lCb aboY.
".t. bulb tamp.rat.urw ..t tla•
.ata r 811gbtJ.,J abbv.
bul b tellpe ra t I1r.
Fig. 3-Effect of Temperature of Water on Wet Bulb Reading
degrees warmer than wet bulb is used, however, the temperature

drops rapidly to a long constant-reading minimum before rising
again. The thermometers should be capable of being read to
1/40 F. if the full accuracy of the instrument (the nearest 1% rela-
tive humidity) is to be realized; for plant use, however, thermom-
eters accurate to 1/20 F. are satisfactory. The sling should be
whirled at such a rate that the wet bulb has a linear velocity of
10·20 feet per second. After moistening the wet bulb with distilled
water at room temperature, the instrument is whirled for 30 seconds
and the thermometers read (wet bulb first, instrument held away
from body); the instrument is then whirled for 20 seconds and read
again; this is repeated until constant readings are obtained. The
relative humidity may then be obtained roughly by Table II or
more exactly by the data of Table I and the following formula:
e = el -0.000367 P(t-t l ) (1 32)) + (tl -

1571
where, in addition to the symbols already used,
t = dry bulb temperature in 0 F.
t 1 = wet bulb temperature in 0 F.
P = barometric pressure inches of mercury.
e 1 = maximum vapor presure at tl (Table I).
As an example, suppose that the barometer is 30.0 inches of mercury,
10 TEXTILE TESTING
dry bulb temperature is 80° F. and wet bulb temperature is 70° F

Then .
e = 0.74 - .000367 x 30.0 (80-70) ( 1 + 70-32)

1571
= 0.74 - .000367 x 30.0 x 10 x 1.024
= 0.74 - .11 = 0.63
RH == 100 e/E = 100 x 0.63/1.03 = 61%
From Table II, also, the value of the relative humidity is 61 %.
Since temperature and relative humidity have such great effects
on the physical properties of textiles, it is necessary that the condi-
tions at which samples are tested be rigidly controlled. The effect
of temperature is so small compared to the effect of relative humidi-
ty that it is usually neglected or, as will be seen later, compensated
for by a small change in relative humidity. The usually accepted
standard conditions are 70° F. and 65% relative humidity, the
humidity being set at this comparatively high value because it is
much easier to humidify air than to dehumidify it.
The crudest way of obtaining a given humidity is to wet the floor
and walls of a small room or set out open pans of water. This gives
very little control and tests must be made very quickly while the
air is at the desired humidity; since, as we shall see later, most tex-
tile material requires several hours to come to equilibrium with the
atmosphere, this method is very unsatisfactory.
A method of obtaining constant relative humidity in a com-
paratively small space is to make use of the vapor pressure of
various salts or saturated solutions of salts. More convenient still
is the use of solutions of acids or salts which can be conveniently
analyzed for composition, such as solutions of sulfuric acid, phos-
phoric acid, or calcium chloride. The writer has used solutions of
sulfuric acid for this purpose, since the concentration of the acid
can be easily determined by a simple titration. Table III gives the
relative humidities corresponding to various concentrations of sul-
furic acid.
Best of all, if the amount of testing done warrants the expense is
the use of hygrostats or psychrostats which control the wet and dry
bulb temperatures automatically, by adding moisture to the air in
quantities just sufficient to keep the room at the desired humidity.
TEXTILE TESTING 11
The moisture is added to the air by means of sprays directly into the
room (high up, at the ceiling) or by drawing air from the room
through a compartment or cabinet where it is humidified by sprays
and blown out into the room again; this last method is preferable
because it givE'S a circulation of air which tends to eliminate dry
or over-moist pockets.
The controlling element of the psychrostat or hygrostat may be
one of two types. An older type which is still in use makes use of a
filament of hair, viscose, or gut which lengthens with increasing
humidity and so regulates a compressed air valve which in turn con-
trols the sprays; this type of control is open to the same criticism
as hair hygrometers, i.e., slow response to changes of humidity and
frequent recalibration. A more recent type of control depends upon
the use of two thermometer bellows, an atomizer spraying over one
(wet bulb) draws air over the other (dry bulb); the dry bulb is con-
nected by a link motion to the seat of a slide valve, and the wet bulb
to the slide valve itself; the two act together to regulate the flow of
compressed air which in turn operates the sprays of the humidifier.
The control of temperature is usually unnecessary although de-
sirable if the volume of work done warrants it. Many types of
thermostat are available and one should be selected which is appli-
cable to the system of heating or cooling used. If the temperature
does not vary more than 10° F., no regulation is necessary; if the
variation is more than this, it may be compensated for by the fol-
lowing rules:
To maintain a constant amount of moisture in cotton goods in-
crease the relative humidity 1% for every 10° F. above standard
temperature.
To maintain a constant amount of moisture in woolen goods
increase the relative humidity 2% for every 10° F. above standard
temperature.
REFERENCES
1 Parks-Cramer Company_ Fundamental Laws of Humidity (1924).
2A.S.T.M. Standards on Textile'Materials, Philadelphia (1936).
3Haven, G. B. Mechanical Fabrics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
(1932).
4Walker, W. H., Lewis, W. K. McAdams, W. H. Principles of Chemical
Engineering. McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc., New York (1927).
5Chace, W. G. Maintenance of Relative Humidities on a Laboratory Scale.
American Dyestuff Reporter, 20, 615 (1931).
6Urquhart, A. R. Effect of Humidity and Temperature on the Strength of
Cotton Yarns and Fabrics. Journal of the Textile Institute, 14, T183 (1923).
12 TEXTILE TESTING
Regain
In expressing the amount of moisture present in a textile material,
two methods of expression have been used: per cent moisture and
per cent regain. Per cent moisture is used in the same way as any
expression of percentage, that is, the weight of the component
divided by the total weight of the sample and multiplied by 100.
Per cent regain has been defined as the weight of moisture picked
up (or regained) by 100 parts of dry material; this definition is mis-
leading, however, in that this process is never carried out in the
direction stated but always in the reverse direction. \Ve shall define
regain, therefore, as the weight of moisture in a sample divided by
the dry weight of the sample and multiplied by 100.. Per cent mois-
ture is used mostly by chemists, per cent regain is used mostly by
textile technicians. To express the results in formula form:
Let a = weight of sample with moisture
b = weight of sample after drying
M = % moisture
R = regain
Then
100 (a-b) 100 (a-b)
M = R =
a b
The interrelationships of M and R are shown by the following:
100M 100R
R = M =
10O-M 100+R
Obviously, then if we know either M or R, we may find the other.
Also, of three quantities a, b, and R; if we know any two we may
find the third:
a = b (1 + R/I00) b (
lOO+R
100
)
a
b = =a ( 100 )
l+R/lOO 100+R
There are four principal methods which have been used for the
determination of regain:
TEXTILE TESTING 13
1. Xylol method
2. Relative humidity in equilibrium with sample
3. Vacuum desiccator with drying agent
4. Drying ovens
a. Low temperature, using dry air
b. High temperature, using air from room
The first three of these methods are comparatively unimportant.
The xylol method depends upon distilling from a flask containing
the sample and a large volume of xylol; the moisture distills over
with the xylol and may be collected in a measuring tube or graduate;
this method requires a large sample, bulky apparatus, and recovery
of the xylol used. The determination of relative humidity in equi-
librium with a sample as a measure of the regain of the sample has
been used for quick but rather inaccurate determinations. One
method is to place the sample in a sealed vessel with a hygrometer
attached. Another method is to place the sample in a closed circuit
through which air is circulated, a hygrometer reading the relative
humidity. The third method was used by Urquhart in making the
most accurate regain determinations yet made; a desiccator con-
taining phosphorus pentoxide held the sample and the whole was
then evacuated; at the end of a week the moisture had been com-
pletely removed from the sample. This is the most accurate method
but the time required makes its use impractical for industrial pur-
poses.
The oven method is the best method to use, considering both
factors of accuracy and speed of determination. Using the oven
method at temperatures of 220-230° F. (105-110 0 C.) air from the
room may be used to dry the samples. This is preferable in most
cases to the low temperature method of using dried air at 1400 F.
(600 C.) because it avoids the use of air drying apparatus which must
be constantly renewed, it is quicker, and it is as accurate as the low
temperature method when only the textile material is present with
or without the usual additional substances. In a few cases, where
certain substances are present on the material, such as certain more
volatile oils or substances which might react with the fiber at high
temperatures, the low temperature method is desirable; on the
whole however, the high temperature oven may be considered as the
standard method of obtaining regain.
14 TEXTILB TESTING
Using the high temperature oven, the time required to reach dry-
ness varies with the type of fiber and weight of fabric. All fabrics
have a drying curve similar in shape to Figure 4, which shows that
most of the moisture is lost very rapidly but that the last portions
are held rather tenaciously by the fiber. In all ordinary cases, dry-
ing is complete in one hour, but 172 hours should be allowed for
safety; better still, fabrics should be dried to constant weight, that
is, until two weighings 10-1S minutes apart show no further loss in
weight, in the case of some heavy fabrics or felts, this may be a very
time
Fig. 4--Drying Curve
long time. If we compare regains obtained in this way with regains
obtained by the more accurate but very slow vacuum desiccator
method we find that, in the oven, wool does not lose quite all of its
moisture whereas cotton loses a little more weight than there is
moisture present; this excess loss is not due to decomposition of the
cotton however but is due to volatilization of some of the impurities
present-in cotton which has been boiled out or bleached thoroughly
this loss of weight is insignificant. In view of the fact that exactly
the true regains are not given by the oven method (although the
error is very small), there is a growing tendency to refer to samples
dried in the oven as "oven-dry" rather than the old term
"bone-dry. "
There are two general procedures used in determining tbe dry
weight of a sample:-
TEXTILE TESTING 15
1. Dry in the oven, transfer to weighing bottle, weigh on balance

outside oven.
2. Dry in oven and weigh while still in oven.
The method to be used will depend upon what apparatus is available.
The ordinary chemical drying oven (Figure 5) is to be found in
nearly all chemical laboratories and is very cheap and easy to use;
the analytical balance is also to be found in any well equipped chem-
icallaboratory. The weighing bottle (a glass capsule with a ground
glass stopper) is dried, cooled in a desiccator, and weighed; this
Fig. S-Separate Oven and Balance
weight is a constant and may be recorded in the laboratory log-book

opposite the number of the weighing bottle. The sample is placed
in the weighing bottle, and the whole placed in the oven with the
cover of the weighing bottle off (usually tipped over at right angles);
after drying the required length of time, the cover of the weighing
bottle is placed in position, the weighing bottle and contents are
cooled in a desiccator and then weighed on a balance. On subtract-
ing the weight of the bottle, the dry weight of the sample is ob-
tained. This method does not readily lend itself to progressive
weighings to determine when constant weight is reached and also
16 TEXTILE TESTING
there is a possibility of picking up moisture during the weighing,

but it has the advantage of using apparatus which is ordinarily
present in a laboratory.
A better procedure when the apparatus is available is to weigh
the samples while still in the oven. The apparatus ordinarily sold
Fig. 6-0ven and Balance Combined
and used for this purpose is a combination oven and balance ac-
curate to one centigram or to one-eighth of a grain (Figure 6); but
where chemical testing is also to be done, or where it will be neces-
sary to work with small weights of sample, or where small differ-
ences in weight will be measured, it is much better to have a com-
bination ov€n and analytical balance (Figure 7). In this type of
apparatus, the balance is mounted on top of the oven, a rod attached
to the left hand pan of the balance passes down through an opening
in the top of the oven and ends in a hook on which may be hung one
of a number of baskets of the same weight. A counterpoise equal
TEXTILE TESTING 17
in weight to the rod and basket is placed on the right hand pan of
the balance. The sample is placed in a basket, dried in the oven,
and weighed by the balance at the end of an hour. The weighing is
then repeated at 10 or 15 minute intervals until constant weight
Fig. 7-0ven and Analytical Balance

18 TEXTILE TESTING
is reached-this is the oven dry weight. If an analytical balance is

used, one of the chainomatic type is very desirable for quicker
weighing and the absence of small weights.
The effect of relative humidity upon regain may be best shown by
.a graph (Figure 8). This shows for anyone material, starting with
relative humidity
Fig. 8-Effect of Relative Humidity on Regain
dry air, the addition of only a small amount of moisture to the air
results in considerable increase in regain; then follows a period,
which is almost a straight line, in which the regain is proportional
to the relative humidity; finally, when the air is nearly saturated,
further additions of moisture to the air re!'mlt in large increases in
regain. A colloid chemist would immediately recognize the shape of
this curve as typical of the process of adsorption of a vapor by a
rigid porous gel such as silica gel, stannoic oxide gel, or charcoal.
Since the moisture is being adsorbed from a mixture of air and water
vapor, a colloid chemist would also expect the phenomenon of
hysteresis, and accurate determinations have shown that it occurs
(Figure 9). Hysteresis is a general term applying to many branches
of science and refers to the phenomenon of obtaining different re-
sults in a process according to the direction from which we approach
equilibrium. In this particular case hysteresis manifests itself as
two different values of regain for a material in contact with air of a
certain relative humidity depending whether we start with the
fabric drier or moister than equilbrium. If we are testing a sample
TEXTILE TESTING 19
relative humidity
Fig. 9-Hysteresis Effect
of wool at standard conditions (70 0 F, 65%RH) and start with dry
wool, we will find that the wool will not pick up more than 14.5%
regain. The same sample of wool, if moistened and allowed to come
to equilibrium will not have less than 16.5% regain. This difference
in regain would cause considerable difference in the physical proper-
ties, so that it is not enough to say what standard conditions are-
we must also say how we reach standard condition. The generally
accepted method is the one specified by the A.S.T.M.-"moisture
equilibrium shall be approached from the dry side.
As shown in Figure 10, the effect of temperature on regain is
re la ti va humidl ty
Fig. IO-Effect of Temperature on Regain
20 TEXTILE TESTING
comparatively small when the temperature is around room ('ondi-

tion. As indicated in the discussion of relative humidity, tempera-
tu·re changes of 10° F. or more are generaIIy compensated for by a
small change in relative humidity; temperature changes of less than
10° F. are negligible.
Textile materials exposed to standard conditions of temperature
and relative humidity will require varying periods of time to come
to equilibrium. If the material is loose fiber, loosely twisted yarn,
or a light porous fabric two hours is sufficient; heavy duck may re-
quire up to six hours; samples of hard felt have taken weeks and
even months. In order to be certain that equilibrium is reached, it
is wise to weigh a small piece of material at intervals until no further
increase in weight occurs, after which the material is in equilibrium.
The previous treatment of the sample and its mechanical form
also affect the regain. Cotton taken from the interior of a bale, or
wool from the interior of a hard felt, have considerably less mois-
ture than samples not under pressure. Cleansing treatments also
alter the regain; for example, at 60% relative humidity and 25° C.
raw wool had a regain of 10.9%, the same wool after washing had a
regain of 13.7%. after combing of 13.0%; a raw silk had a regain
of 7.7%. after degumming the same silk was 10.5%; a sample of
cotton had a regain of 7.3%. after bleaching it had 6.3% regain.
Conversely, oiling wool which is to be combed decreases the amount
of moisture which the wool can hold at any given set of humidity
conditions. Whether the material is in the form of loose fiber,
yarn. or cloth also affects the regain; for example. at standard con-
ditions loose cotton will hold 8.5% regain. cotton yarn 7.0 to 7.5%,
and cotton cloth about 6.5% regain.
Table IV gives the standard regains for various fibers in various
mechanical forms. These standard regains are approximately the
regains of the fibers at standard conditions of iO° F. and 65% rel-
ative humidity. The values are those which have been officially
adopted where this is possible. in a few cases the values which are
generally accepted but which are not official are given.
Since the regain is affected by so many variables. it is obvious
that its effect must be eliminated in some way during the testing.
This has been done in the following manners:
1. Testing "bone-dry."
TEXTILE TESTING 21
2. Testing wet.
3. Testing at standard conditions (or standard regain).
4. Testing at room conditions, measuring the regain, and cor-
recting to standard regain or to a bone dry condition.
Testing "bone-dry" is impracticable for such determinations as
strength or twist because of the instant rapid adsorption of moisture
that occurs as soon as a sample is exposed to the air. \Veighings,
however, are most accurate when made "bone dry"; all chemical
tests are based on oven-dry weighings and such determinations as
counts of yarn or weight per unit area of cloth are most accurately
made if the weighings are made when the sample is oven-dry.
Testing in the wet condition, especially strength and stretch
testing, was very common in the early days of textile testing when
the effect of relative humidity was known but nothing had been
done to allow for it. The results obtained, however, were not always
comparable with the results obtained under normal conditions,
so that the practice is obsolete now except for the case of rayons
which are tested for strength both wet and at standard conditions.
Testing at standard conditions or at standard regain is by all
means the most accurate and convenient except for weighings,
which are better done in the oven dry condition. Expensive ap-
paratus for the control of humidity is necessary, however, and small
plants or laboratories where textile testing is not done in large
amounts may get along very well by testing at whatever conditions
prevail and correcting to standard conditions. In many chemical
processes, especially, the effect of a certain treatment is shown by
testing a sample before and after the process; since a comparison is
all that is necessary, standard conditions are not necessary. Test-
ing can also be carried out at conditions other than standard by
testing a standard sample at the same time and referring all other
tests to this sample. In chemical testing, very often two samples
are weighed out at once; on one sample the test is carried out, on the
other sample a moisture determination is made; the test sample is
then corrected for the regain found in the second sample. This is
done, for example, in the case of copper number determinations be-
cause heating a sample to get the dry weight might cause more
oxycellulose or hydrocellulose formation than is really present at·
room conditions.
22 TEXTILE TESTING
REFERENCES
IMatthews, J. M. Textile Fibers. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1924).
(1932).
sA.S.T.M. Standards on Textile Materials. A.S.T.M., Philadelphia (1936).
"Saxl, I. J. Rayon and Synthetic Yarn Handbook. Rayon Publishing Corp.,
New York (1936).
5Davidson, G. F. and Shorter, S. A. Dry Weight of Cotton. Journal of the
Textile Institute, Zl, Tl65 (1930).
6Spencer-Smith, J. L. and Matthew, J. A. Rapid Method of Determining the
Moisture Content of Textiles. Journal of the Textile Institute, 27, T219 (1936).
7Stenard, C. O. M. Estimation of Water in Wool by Distillation. Journal of
the Textile Institute, Z4, T98 (1933).
8Kline, G. M. Absorption of Moisture by Aeronautical Textiles. American
Dyestuff Reporter, Z4, 4 (1935)
9Urquhart, A. R. and Williams, A. M. Moisture Relations of Cotton. Journal
of the Textile Institute, 15, Tl38, T433, T559 (1924); 16, Tl55 (1925).
lOUrquhart, A. R. Moisture Relations of Cotton. Journal of the Textile
Institute 18, T55 (1927); 21, T499 (1930); 24, Tl35 (1932).
llUrquhart, A. R. and Eckersall, N. Adsorption of Water by Rayon, Journal
of the Textile Institute, 23, Tl63 (1932).
12 Hedges, J. J. Moisture Relations of Colloidal Fibers, Journal of the Tex·
tile Institute, 18, T350 (1927).
1 BShorter, S. A. and Hall, W. J. Hygroscopic Capacity of Wool. Journal
of the Textile Institute, 15, T305 (1924).
14Goodings, A. C. Effect of Temperature on the Moisture Regain of Wool.
American Dyestuff Reporter, 24, 109 (1935).
CHAPTER 3
FIBER TESTING
Staple
Staple is the length of a textile fiber, but as commonly used

means the average length of a sample of fiber. Staple is usually
associated with the grade of the fiber, because the same person
usually determines both qualities; there is, however, a distinction
between staple and grade which is important in testing because one
is measurable and the other is the expression of opinion of an expert
and not measurable by a non-expert. "Grade" as used to describe
a textile fiber is a summation in the mind of the person examining
the material of the color, handle, evenness, staining and fineness of
the fiber; this summation can be learned only by long experience
and comparison with standards, the result however seems to be
quite definite because expert graders working independently will
nearly always arrive at the same result.
Table V gives the standard grades for cotton, wool, and silk.
Cotton has nine grades ranging from Middling Fair which is the
best grade to Good Ordinary which is the poorest grade. Wool has
seven grades ranging from Fine (the best) to Braid (the poorest) in
the American system. In England the practice of grading recog-
nizes a greater number of divisions, originally based on the finest
yarn to be spun from the fiber but now more or less formalized. The
fineness of the fiber is the most important factor in grading wool;
a microscopic projection method of measuring this fineness has been
devised and is in more or less general use. The grading of silk
varies with the locality from which the silk comes. The system in
use on Japanese silk is given in Table V and consists of seven grades
ranging from "Crack Double Extra," which is the best, to " No.1
to 131," which is the poorest. The grading of fibers should not be
attempted by the ordinary tester but should be left to an expert;
the tables are given so that the meaning of the terms reported may
be understood.
23
24 TEXTILE TESTING
Stapling, on the other hand, is an art which may be fairly easily

learned, the following methods being in general use:
1. Hand stapling
a. Cotton
b. Wool
2. Machine stapling
a. Ball
b. Baer
c. Suter-Webb
Hand stapling of cotton can be readily learned by observation, or
from the following directions as given by the U. S. Department of
Agriculture:
1. Grasp in the two hands a tuft of cotton of a size convenient for
the p\lrpose (about %' of an ounce), holding it firmly between the
thumb and forefinger of each hand, with the thumbs placed to-
gether, the fingers being turned in towards the palms of the har: '1,;,
and the middle joints of the second, third, and fourth fingers of each
hand touching the corresponding joints of the fingers of the other
hand, so as to give a good leverage for "breaking" the cotton.
2. Pull the cotton slowly apart with about the same leverage of
each hand on the joints of the fingers, separating the tuft of cotton
into two parts. Discard the part remaining in the right hand.
3. Grasp with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, the
end of the tuft of the cotton retained in the left. The point of
pressure on the cotton in the left hand is just below the joint of the
thumb and at the nail joint of the forefinger. With the right hand
draw a layer of fibers from the cotton held in the left hand. Retain
in the right hand the layer so drawn.
4. Repeat this operation four or five times, placing each success-
ive layer directly over the fibers previously drawn, using care to see
that the ends of all the layers are even with each other between the
thumb and forefinger of the right hand.
s. After discarding the cotton in the left hand, hold the fibers thus
obtained between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand and
smooth them with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand. Place
these fibers on a flat horizontal surface with a black background.
6. Block off the ends of the fibers with a cotton stapling rule so as
TEXTILE TESTING 25
to indicate the length of the bulk, or body, of the fibers. Then

measure the distance between the blocked-off ends.
Fig. ll-Cotton Staple-Hand Method

Figure 11 shows the results obtained by this method on two sam-
ples of cotton. The result is, of course, the average staple of the
cotton and does not give any idea as to the number of fibers of each
length.
In the stapling of woo\, it is necessary to get some idea of the dis-
tribution of fiber lengths as well as the average staple; in the case
of wool, also, we have longer fibers which are easier to handle singly
or in small numbers. Wool stapling therefore consists of laying out
all the fibers from a sample on a proper background in order of their
lengths. The steps in stapling a sample of top are as follows:
1. On a piece of black velvet, mounted rigidly on a board, draw a
chalk line for a base.
2. Square up the end of the top by pulling out the loose fibers.
3. Grip the square end of the top between the thumb and fore-
finger of the left hand and pull out a tuft of fibers free from the rest
of the top, being careful not to break fibers. This new end will be
long and tapering.
4. Transfer the square end to the right hand and very slightly
twist together the longest fibers in the tapering end.
5. Place the top of the longest fibers on the chalk line, hold with
one finger of the left hand and slowly pull the main tuft away with
the right hand, at right angles to the base line. The fibers should
cling to the black velvet.
6. Repeat with the next longest fibers, alongside the first set, and
continue until all the fibers are on the velvet. Try and get a uni-
26 TEXTILE TESTING
form density of fibers throughout. Figure 12 shows a sample of 72

blood wool which has been stapled in this manner.
Fig. 12-Wool Staple-Hand Method
For ordinary mill routine, the average length of staple is deter-

mined by placing a rule parallel to the base line and in such a posi-
tion that there is as much long fiber above as short fiber below.
This average length is read, also the longest length. For a some-
what more accurate determination of average staple, a tracing of
the fiber layout may be made; the area measured with a planimeter
and divided by the length of the base would then be the average
staple. A still more accurate method would be to take all fibers
between certain length measurements and weigh them, repeating
this operation for the same length interval all down the array. The
average length of each group times the weight of the group would
then be determined, these products added up and divided by the
total weight of the sample would give the average staple.
The wool stapling method gives much more information than the
cotton stapling method but it is difficult to carry out the process by
hand on cotton, therefore machines have been devised which will
considerably assist in the process; these machines do not, however,
completely eliminate the human factor. The three types of machine
staplers are the Ball (or sledge) machine, the Baer, and the Suter-
Webb. The Ball apparatus is applicable only to sliver and requires
a large sample, it is not used to any great extent in this country.
The Suter-Webb is simply an elaboration of the Baer; in fact two
Baer instruments may be used instead of the Suter-Webb. The
TEXTILE TESTING 27
Baer is the most common instrument and the one whose operation
will be described.
The Baer apparatus consists essentially of a metal frame holding
nine bottom combs, pointing upward, hinged at one end and held by
a pin at the other so that they may be dropped one at a time; in
slots at the top are three top combs, pointing downward, which are
removable. Accessories with the apparatus are a pair of wide nose
tweezers, a wooden rake for pressing fibers into the combs, a needle
for straightening fibers, and a transparent scale for reading the fiber
diagram. The method of use on a sample of cotton is as follows:
1. From the sample pull fibers as in hand stapling until a good
sized tuft about 2~ inches long is obtained. Straighten the fibers
as much as possible but do not discard any. If fibers are very dry,
moisten by breathing on them.
2. With the top combs removed and the sorter with back toward
tlte operator, place the sample on the combs at the right side so that
the fibers project about an inch from the needles. The end of the
projecting tuft should look like the end of a water color brush;
i,e., bluntly tapering.
3. Using the tweezers, grasp the ends of the outermost fibers and
draw them from the combs. Draw through the back comb to re-
move dirt or straighten.
4. Place these fibers on the combs at the opposite end of the
sorter, with the tweezers against the nearest comb. Release the
tweezers carefully and press the fibers into the pins with the wooden
rake. The fibers should be in a narrow band.
5. Repeat this drawing, placing the fibers on this band. until all
the projecting fibers from the first tuft are gone.
6. Put in the top combs, turn sorter around so that it now faces
the operator, draw a straight chalk line on the velvet covered plate
as a base line. If no fibers project from the nearest comb, lower the
combs one at a time until fibers do project.
7. With the tweezers, grasp the longest fibers near the ends and
draw from the combs. Keep these fibers straight.
8. Place the lower front edge of the tweezers on the left end of the
chalk line. If any fibers are dot straight, use the needle to straight-
en them. Release the tweezers and withdraw them carefully,
holding the fibers with the needle.
28 TEXTILE TESTING
9. Repeat these operations, dropping the lower combs and re-

moving the top combs as necessary. Place each new tuft 'of fibers
at the right of those already drawn so that a uniform thickness of
fibers is obtained.
10. Place the transparent scale on the array and read off the
values desired, or make a tracing of the array, or weigh groups of
fibers as described in the stapling of wool. As an approximation,
the average staple is the staple about ~ of the way along the
array.
Figure 13 shows a Baer diagram of comber sliver and comber
waste. Diagrams such as these are very valuable in analyzing the
efficiency of textile machinery.
Fig. 13-Cotton Staple-Baer Sorter

Comber Sliver and Comber Waste
REFERENCES:
J. M. Textile Fibers. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1924).
1 Matthews,
(1932).
TEXTILE TESTING 29
3A.S.T.M. Standards on Textile Materials. A.S.T.M., Philadelphia, (1936).

4Kreugel, F.. O. Commerical Top Appraisal and Standardization. Textile
Research, 6, 115 (1936). Wool Top Standards. Textile Research, 6, 465 (1936).
5 Moore, K. R. Classification of Raw Silk by Means of Mechanical Tests.
American Dyestuff Reporter, N. 551, 579. 619 (1925).
6 Clegg, G. G. Stapling of Cottons, Journal of the Textile Institute, 23, T35
(1932).
Hair Weight
Hair weight, or more correctly hair weight per unit length, is a

means of expressing the fineness of a fiber. Various units have been
used, such as ounces xlO- 6 per inch, milligrams per inch, milligrams
per 10 meters, and milligrams xlO- 5 per centimeter; this last method
of expression seems to be the most commonly used and the one to
which reference will be made in this discussion.
Two methods may be used for determining fineness of fibers-
measurement of diameter or measurement of hair weight. The
measurement of diameter is done by a microscope and graduated
wedge; this is considerably used of late years in the determination
of the quality or grade of wool, but in the case of cotton is not of
much value because of the fact that cotton is a hollow fiber, so that
the properties of cotton depend not only on its width but also on the
proportion of that width which is solid fiber and not air space. The
hair weight method, on the other hand, gives an accurate estimate
of the amount of material in a fiber which is much more nearly
correlated to other fiber properties than diameter measurements of
cotton; the disadvantages of the hair weight method are the facts
that the method is time consuming, requires considerable skill on
the part of the operators, requires a microbalance, and gives an
average result with no information as to the distribution of differ-
ent sizes of fibers. Diameter measurements, then, are used princi-
pally on wool, and occasionally on cotton; hair weights are deter-
mined principally on cotton, occasionally on wool. As a matter of
fact, hair weights are seldom obtained for routine work, even on
cotton, but only in research work or in trouble-shooting.
There are three methods of determining hair weights: Clegg's
method for use on cotton, Winson's method for use on wool, and the
A.S.T.M. method used principally on cotton but which could be
used on any type of fiber.
30 TEXTILE TESTING
Clegg's method consists of taking cotton which has had the fibers
more or less parallelized either by a machine sorter or by hand
stapling, and cutting from the middle of the bundle of fibers with a
special cutter consisting of a holder with two safety razor blades
exactly one centimeter apart. About 200 pieces of hair are then
weighed on a quartz fiber torsion microbalance; the zero of the bal-
lance must be checked often or the fibers weighed by the null method,
that is, a one milligram weight is placed on the balance, the deflec-
tion read, and enough fibers put on the balance to give the same
deflection. The cutter should be tested at intervals by marking on a
glass slide covered with wax and measuring between the marks.
No special care is necessary to obtain average lengths of fiber as
there is apparently very little correlation between fiber length and
hair weight. Groups of fibers from the Baer diagram may be used
for samples and the results averaged. Table VI gives Morton's re-
sults on various types of cotton.
Winson's method, used on wool, consists in sampling the top as for
staple, parallelizing the fibers by hand and cutting a section out of
the bundle of 3 or 4 centimeters in length, using jl rule or better a
metal gauge. From this bundle is counted out 500 to 700 fibers
which are rolled together in a small bundle, washed in two changes
of benzene, rinsed in two changes of water, dried, and weighed. A
small sample (about one gram) of the original wool is put through
the same treatments and the moisture determined on this sample.
There is considerable correlation between the staple and the hair
weight of wool, so that an average sample should be cut. The re-
sulting hair weight is calculated to standard regain. Table VI
gives Winson's values for the standard wool tops, recalculated to
13.6% regain and converted to milligrams xl0- 11 per centimeter.
The A.S.T.M. method consists in taking a number of fibers from
an eighth inch group of the Baer diagram, weighing, and calculating
the hair weight. For example, if 100 fibers from l-IYs inches in
length (average length = 17/16 inches) weighed 0.54 milligrams,
then the hair weight would be
0.54
200 mgms x 10- 5 per cm
17
x 2.45 x 100
16
TEXTILE TESTING 31
where 2.54 is the number of centimeters in an inch.

As shown in Table VI, hair weights might be used to determine
the quality or grade of wool provided that the fibers are not exces-
sively medullated; diameter measurements are more convenient,
however. Table VI also gives the hair weights for various types of
cotton, there is considerable overlap" however, so that the method
is not especially valuable for positively identifying a sample of
cotton; the method will, however, show a difference between two
cottons which might have the same staple. Hair weight will also
give information as to the maturity of the cotton, a high hair weight
indicating more mature cotton, a low hair weight of the same cotton
indicating immaturity. Here again, however, more convenient
microscopic methods are available for determining the maturity of
cotton-the swelling method, and the polarized light method. A
close correlation between the hair weight of cotton and the strength
of the yarn spun from the cotton has been observed.
REFERENCES:
lA.S.T.M. Standards on Textile Materials. A.S.T.M. Philadelphia (1936).
2Barker, S. G. and Winson, C. G. Relation of Fiber Fineness and \\'001 Qual-
ity in Combed Tops. Journal of the Textile Institute, 22, T314 (1931).
3Winson, C. G. Comparison of the Fineness of British and Continental Stand-
ards for Combed Tops. Journal of the Textile Institute, 22, T533 (1931).
"Roberts, J. A. F. Relation Between Fiber Length and Fiber Thickness in
Various Wools. Journal of the Textile Institute, 22, T441 (1931).
3C1egg, G. G. and Harland, S. C. Determination of Area of Cross-section and
Hair Weight per Centimeter. Journal of the Textile Institute, 14, T489 (1923)
6Morton, W. E. Importance of Hair Weight per Centimeter as a Measurable
Character of Cotton. Journal of the Textile Institute, 17, T537 (1926).
7Morton, W. E. Spinning Value of Raw Cotton. Journal of the Textile
Institute, 21, T305 (1930).
8Iyengar, R. L. N. and Turner, A. J. Weight per Inch of Fibers of Different
Lengths. Journal ofthe Textile Institute, 21, T417 (1930).
IIClegg, G. G. Stapling of Cotton. Journal of the Textile Institute, 23, T35
(1932).
lOGulati, A. N. and Ahmed, N. Fiber Maturity in Relation to Fiber and Yarn
Characteristics. Journal of the Textile Institute. 26, T261 (1935).
Resilience
Resilience is the springiness of a mass of fiber or the ability of the
fiber to come back to its original volume after being compressed.
This property is especially valuable in such fibers as cotton, kapok,
or hair which are used in mattresses; it is also an important factor
in the "feel," "handle," or "loftiness" of fabrics; it is also important
in such fabrics as necktie linings which are often crumpled. The
32 TEXTILE TESTING
resilience of fabrics will be taken up later when we consider the

stiffness and creasing properties of cloths, and at this time we will
consider the resilience of fiber masses.
The principle of resilience measurement is the hysteresis of the
load-volume curve; that is, if we apply a load to a mass of fiber and
measure the volume, increasing load will cause a decrease in volume;
if we then unload the mass, the volume will increase, but will not fol-
low the same curve as increasing loacf; the difference between the
two curves is a measure of the resilience, a small difference indica-
ting a high resilience and a large difference indicating a low resilience.
Two methods have been devised-the rubber balloon method of
Winson and the cylinder and plunger method described by Haven.
Winson's apparatus consists of a rubber balloon which holds the
fiber and which is enclosed in a glass vessel; both the glass vessel and
the balloon are connected to a mercury manometer and to a three-
way stop-cock by means of which either one or both may be connect-
ed to a filter pump or to the atmosphere. The apparatus is first
calibrated, then run with fiber in the balloon; the balloon and
vessel are both evacuated, then air is admitted to the vessel but not
to the balloon, this applies a load to the fiber mass which is measured
by one manometer, the result is a decrease in volume which is meas-
ured by the other manometer. Winson used this method to measure
the resilience of wools and found the results correlated well with ex-
pert judgment. Short fibers were found to be more resilient than
long ones. A planimeter was used to measure the area of the
hysteresis loops.
Haven has described a method in use by the United States Fed-
eral Specifications Board in which 500 grams of fiber is placed in a
hollow brass cylinder 7Y2 inches in diameter, the axis standing
vertically. A plunger is used to compress the material and a vernier
is arranged on the screw driving the plunger so that the depth of the
penetration may be measured. The screw is simply an inverted
jack and the apparatus is coupled to a platform scale to read the
load. The time element is important, since on application of a load
the volume will slowly change, therefore readings were taken two
minutes after application of the load. The resilience may be meas-
ured by the area of the hysteresis loop or more simply by observing
the displacement on loading and unloading at a given low load with a
TEXTILE TESTING 33
high loading in between. Haven uses SO lbs. and 800 lbs. as the two
loads. On loading to SO lbs. the reading is "b", on loading to 800
Ibs. the reading is "a", on unloading to SO lbs. again the reading
is "e".
a-c
Then Resiliency factor = - x 100
a-b
Cloth resiliency may be measured in this instrument by cutting out
discs of 7~ inches diameter, and separating them with discs of tin.
REFERENCES:
1 Haven, G. B. Mechanical Fabrics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
(1932).
2Haven, G. B. Future Textile Laboratory Practice. American Dyestuff
Reoorter, 19, 757 (1930).
4Winaon, C. G. Report on a Method for Measuring the Resiliency of Wool.
Journal of the Textile Institute, 23, T386 (1932).
CHAPTER 4
YARN TESTING
Counts and Denier
I lyn determining the relative sizes of yarns, two systems immediate-

suggest themselves-giving the diameter of the yarn, and "giv-
ing the weight-length ratio of the yarn. The diameter would be the
more direct method of measurement, but a little consideration will
show that it is impractical for several reasons; for one reason, the
~dge of the yarn is not always sharp but very often fuzzy and in-
distinct; for another reason, any instrument used would compre811
the yarn so that almost any value might result, depending upon the
force applied. Diameter of hard yarns may be measured by a
gauge similar to that discussed later for determining the thickness
of cloth but the results are of questionable value; the diameters may
be measured also by the microscope but even here the results vary
depending upon the tension used on the yarn. Proponents of the
yarn diameter measurement point out that it gives a better idea of
the uniformity of the yarn but the same results may be obtained
by weight-length ratios on short lengths of yarn. Diameter meas-
urements, then, are seldom carried out and weight-length ratios are
the usual methods of expressing the size of yarns.
Two systems of expressing weight-length ratios are in use:
1. Counts or number-the number of units of length in a unit
of weight (used on all spun yarns).
2. Denier-the number of units of weight in a unit of length
(used on all continuous filament yarns).
In the counts system, the unit of length is a "hank" or standard
skein, and the unit of weight is (in the United States and Great
Britain) the pound, in France is 500 grams, and in the rest of
Europe is the kilogram. For our purpose, we may define the counts
34
TEXTILE TESTING 35
then as the number of hanks in a pound. The hank varies with the
branch of the textile industry and also somewhat with geographical
location. In cotton mills, for example, the standard hank is 840
yards; in worsted mills, the standard hank is 560 yards. Metric
counts is the number of hanks of 1000 meters in one kilogram.
French counts is the number of hanks of 1000 meters in 500 grams.
Because of the confusion of using all these systems, it has recently
been proposed by the A.S.T.M. that a universal system called the
"Typp" system be used for all fibers. The Typp system is based on
a standard hank of 1000 yards as indicated by the name which con-
sists of the initial letters of the phrase ''Thousands of Yards Per
Pound." The length of the standard hank for various systems is
given in Table VII.
The denier system was once in considerable confusion because
different localities adopted different units of weight and length but,
in this country at any rate, the adoption of the so-called "legal
denier" has eliminated the confusion. The denier of a yarn is now
expressed as the number of 0.05 gram weights (deniers) of a standard
skein of 450 meters; another way of expressing it is the number of
grams in a skein of 9000 meters. In English units, this is equal to
the number of grains in 638 yards or the number of pounds in
4,464,528 yards.
The length of the yarn is obtained by use of a yarn reel as illustra-
ted in Figure 14. Thi~ consists essentially of six arms of such a
length that the perimeter of the hexagon formed by wrapping the
yarn around the arms is one yard, 172 yards, or 112.5 centimeters.
The reel is operated by a crank or in the most modern type is oper-
ated at constant speed by a motor. A revolution counter calibrated
in yards is attached to measure the total length of the yarn reeled
off and a bell is so connected as to give a warning ring just before a
complete revolution of the counter. The yarn may be reeled off a
cone, a spool, a bobbin, or a skein as shown in Figure 15, passing
over a pig-tail which is used to obtain an approximately constant
tension; the pig-tails are moved sideways to spread the yarn out
evenly on the reel. In order to obtain accurate results three condi-
tions are necessary:
1. The yarn must be spread out on the reel so that each revolu-
tion will reel off exactly the same length of yarn.
36 TEXTILE TESTING
2. The tension must be constant and neither too much nor too
little.
3. The speed of the reel must be constant.
In order that these conditions shall be met, the A.S.T.M. has pro-
posed the following standard conditions for use of the reel:
Fig. 14-Yarn Reel
1. A reel shall be used which spreads the yarn out on the reel,
and not more than 120 yards shall be reeled off in anyone
skein.
2. The tension shall consist of one full turn around the pigtail
(this may be modified for loosely-twisted yarns).
3. Standard speeds are specified for the reels as follows:
a. Cotton yarns taken from bobbins or cones
= 100 to 300 revolutions per minute
b. Cotton yarns taken from parallel tubes
TEXTILE TESTING 37
c. Rayon yarns taken from skeins

d. Rayon yarns taken from spools, cops, tubes, or cones
e. Woolen and worsted yarns
= no standard speed given
Fig. IS-Skein Holder and Yarn Reel

The 172 yard reel is now the most frequently used, the one yard
reel being largely displaced. For silk or rayon the 112.5 centimeter
reel is used because 200 turns will give a skein of 225 meters which
is an even subdivision 0/40) of 9000 meters, the standard hank.
The 1% yard reel may however be used to measure the denier of
silk or rayon by using the proper conversion factor. Shorter lengths
of yarn may be used for counts or denier determinations if measured
under standard tension, which is enough to straighten but not
stretch the yarn (this will be discussed later under crimp).
The reel may also be used to check the total length of yarn on.a
package by passing the yarn three times around the reel and wind-
ing it up on a drum until the whole package is unreeled. The total
yardage of the package is then indicated by the number of revolu-
tions of the reel.
Weighings of the yarn may be made by:
1. Grain scales at room conditions.
2. Analytical balance at room conditions.
3. Special quadrant scales at room conditions-usually direct
reading.
38 TEXTILE TESTING
4. Torsion balance and drying oven.

5. Analytical balance and drying oven.
Weighing oven-dry in the oven by means of a balance mounted
on the oven is the most accurate method of getting the true weight
but it is more convenient to weigh out in the room, provided that the
room is maintained at standard conditions of temperature and
relative humidity.
The grain scales (Figure 16) are in general use for determining
the weight of skeins of yarn at room conditions, these are calibrated
in grains and a simple calculation gives the counts of the yarn if the
standard skein is weighed. The analytical balance gives more ac-
curacy than is usually necessary and is valuable . principally in de-
Fig. 16--Grain Yarn Scales
termining counts or denier from small lengths of yarn, as unraveled

from a cloth for example. The special quadrant scales are usually
direct reading provided that a certain definite length of yarn is
taken; these are for plant use only, they are not accurate enough
for precise determinations.
A more accurate method is to weigh the skeins when oven-dry.
The so-called "conditioning ovens" usually supplied to the textile
TEXTILE TESTING 39
industry consist of an oven with a torsion balance accurate to a

centigram or to 1/10 grain mounted on it. These are sufficiently
accurate for counts determinations but a combined oven and analy-
tical balance is even more accurate besides being useful in getting
counts of small pieces of yarn and for various chemical textile
tests.
The formulae for calculating counts and denier from length and
weight determinations are as follows:
L 7000
N=-x--
W H
Where N = counts or number
L length in yards
W weight at standard regain in grains
H = length of standard hank in yards
(Table VII)
9000 638
D = x W or D xW
L' L
Where D legal denier
L = length in meters
W' = weight at standard regain in grams
The use of these formulae may best be shown by illustrative ex-
amples. Suppose that a 120 yard skein weighs 25 grains at standard
conditions, then
L 7000 120 7000
N x -- x 40
W H 25 840
The yarn counts is expressed as a figure with ('s) sign, and prefer-
ably with some phrase which will give the system used. The above
result would be expressed as 40's cotton count.
A dry spun worsted skein of 80 yards weighs 50 grains when
oven-dried, what is the worsted count? Here, W is not 50 grains
but 50 grains plus 15.0% (Table IV) or W = 50 x 1.15 = 57.5
grams.
80 7000
N x 17.4's worsted
57.5 560
40 TEXTILE TESTING
A woolen yarn skein of 100 yards weighs 3.25 grams when oven-
dried, what is the Typp number. Here, we must convert from
grams to grains (Table VIII) and then add the standard regain
(Table IV).
W 3.25 x 15.43 x 1.13' = 56.6 grains
100 7000
N = x - - = 12.3's Typp
56.6 1000
A viscose rayon skein of 225 meters weighs 2.30 grams when
oven-dry, what is the denier?
W' = 2.30 x 1.11 = 2.55 grams
9000
D = - x 2.55 = 102d
225
Here, the denier is shown by adding the (d) after the figure.
A silk skein of 120 yard:; weighs 2.75 grams when oven-dry, what
is the denier? Here we have one measurement in English units and
one in metric units; we must convert one to the other, so the cal-
culation may be done in one of two ways:
L' 120 x 0.914 = 109.5 meters (Table VIII)
W' = 2.75 x 1.11 3.05 grams
9000 9000
0 = - - X W' = - - x 3.05 = 250d
L 109.5
or L' 120 yards
W 2.75 x 15.4 x 1.11 47.0 grains
638 638
0 = -- x W - - x 47.0 250d
L 120
These examples are elementary ones, only; more complicated
examples will be given later when the effect of combining two or
more yarns will be taken up.
The A.S.T.M. has specified tolerances on counts and deniers.
Tolerances are the amounts above and below the specified value
which the average of a lot of yarn may vary and still be acceptable.
Thesl; tolerances are given in Table IX.
REFERENCES:
IHaven. G. B. Mechanical Fabrics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
!1932).
TEXTILE TESTING 41
2Saxl, I. J. Rayon and Synthetic Yarn Handbook. Rayon Publishing Corp ..

New York (1936).
3A.S.T.J\L Standards on Textile :\laterials. A.S.T.M., Philadelphia (1936).
Plies and Filaments
Under this heading, we will consider the number of units which

go to make up a yarn. When a rayon is spun, a liquid is forced
through a die containin'g a certain number of holes; similarly when
a real silk yarn is made, it is composed of a certain number of co-
coons which are unwrapped and combined to form the silk yarn.
It is obvious that if we have two yarns of the same denier but one
contains more filaments than the second, then the first yarn will be
more pliable and flexible and softer than the second. In rayon
yarns then, it is customary to give the number of filaments as well
as the denier; th us a 150 denier yarn composed of 40 filaments
would be given as 150d 40f or as 150/40. The usual number of fila-
ments in a rayon yarn are 16, 18, 24, 36, 40, 42, 60, 66, 88, 100 but
the two most common numbers are 40 and 60 filaments.
If the filaments are fairly coarse (3-4 denier per filament or more)
the easiest way to count the filaments is to cut a piece about an inch
long, untwist the yarn if any appreciable twist is present and with-
draw the filaments from the bundle one at a time by means of a
pair of tweezers, counting the filaments as they are withdrawn. If
the filaments are fine but not too numerous, a mount may be made
and the filaments counted through a binocular microscope. If the
filaments are fine and numerous, it is safest to stain the rayon, make
a wax candle, cut cross-sections and count the number of cross-
sections in the mount, using a miscrocope.
In the case of the spun yarns, the basis is the singles yarn which
is made up of a large number of individual fibers held together by a
certain amount of twist. If two or more singles yarns are twisted
together we have a ply yarn and the number of plies is indicated
when giving the counts, thus 40/2 or 2/40 means that two 40's
singles yarns have been twisted tog.ether to give a ply yarn; it is
spoken of as "forties two ply" or as "two ply forties," some localities
use one phrase and other localities use the other. When two or more
ply yarns are twisted together, the result is known as a cord, thus
23/5/3 is a tire cord composed of five 23's yarns plied together. and
42 TEXTILE TESTING
three of these plies twisted together to form the cord; it is referred

to as a "twenty-threes, five-ply, three-cord."
One other type of yarn should be mentioned at this time; it is
now fairly common in cheaper goods to obtain the strength of a
cotton yarn combined with the appearance and feel of a woolen
yarn by twisting woolen fibers about a cotton yarn in such a way as
to completely cover the yarn. This is known as a "core yarn" and
the counts is usually figured in the woolen or worsted system ac-
cording to the yarn which it is imitating and replacing. This is not
really a ply yarn, since the two types of fibers are not twisted about
each other but only the woolen twisted about the cotton.
If we had a two-ply cotton yarn of which 120 yards weighed 50
grains at standard conditions, then according to previous methods
of calculation the counts would be:
L 7000 120 7000
N = - x - - = _- x = 20's
W H 50 840
The yarn, however, is not really a 20's yarn but is roughly two
40's yarns twisted together. The figure (20's) obtained in the above
manner, in the case of a ply or cord yarn is referred to as the "equiv-
alent singles counts," or simply as the "equivalent counts", and
to obtain the true counts, it is necessary to know how much the yarn
shortened in length during the plying operation; this figure is known
as the "twist contraction" and its determination will be given later,
for now we will give only the formula by means of which it is cal-
culated:
F-L L
C x 100 or F =
F l-C/I00
where C twist contraction in percent
F original length of the singles yarn before piy-
mg
L length of the ply yarn
Then, in the example given above, if the twist contraction was 3%.
then:
120 120
F = 123.8 yards
1 - 3/100 .97
TEXTILE TESTING 43
Then, since the length of the original singles yarn was 123.8 yards
and the weight was half of 50 grains, or 25 grains:
L 7000 123.8 7000
N = - x - - = - - x - - = 41.2
W H 25 840
The yarn then is not a 20's yarn, but a 41.2/2 or 2/41.2's. This is
known as the "true accounts" as opposed to "equivalent counts"
and involves twist contraction as well as weight and length. The
following examples will show the methods of calculation in other
cases:
A worsted two-ply yarn of 80 yards length weighs 1.95 grams
when oven-dry, the twist contraction was 5%. What is the equi-
valent counts of the yarn and what is the true counts?
W = 1.95 x 15.4 x 1.13 = 34.0grains
80 7000
Equivalent counts x = 29.4's
34.0 560
80 80
F= - - - - 84.2 yards
1 - 5/100 .95
84.2 7000
True counts = - - x - - 62.0
17.0 560
The yarn is 62/2 or 2/62's worsted.
A cotton cord is composed of three ply yarns twisted together
with a twist contraction of 6 per cent. Each of the ply yarns is
composed of two singles yarns twisted together with a twist con-
traction of 2 per cent. On weighing 120 yards of the cord, it weighed
18.0 grams when oven-dry. What is the true counts of the cord?
1
W = - x 18.0 x 15.4 x 1.07 = 49.4 grains
6
Length of ply yarn before cording
120 120
= - - - - - = - - - = 127.7 yards
1 - 6/100 .94
Length of single yarn before plying
44 TEXTILE TESTING
127.7 127.7
= 130.2 yards
1 - 2/100 .98
L 7000 130.2
7000
Then N : : - x - - --_ X 22.0
W H 49.4 840
The cord is 22/2/3 cotton.
For many purposes, the twist contraction may be neglected and
an approximation is obtained which is satisfactory for the purpose;
an example follows:
Five-gram skeins of a 20/2 cotton yarn are desired for dyeing
tests. How much should be reeled off (at standard conditions)?
Neglecting twist contraction, a 20/2 yarn is equivalent to a 10's
single yarn. Five grams = 5 x 15.4 = 77.0 grc.ins. Then,
L 7000
N = - x
W H
L7000
10 = - - x - -
77.0 840
10 x 77.0 x 840
L = = 92.5 yards
7000
Then, 92.S yard skeins would give skeins which are close enough
to the desired weight for the purpose.
REFERENCES:
IHaven, G. B. Mechanical Fabrics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
(1932).
2Saxl, I. J. Rayon and Synthetic Yarn Handbook. Rayon Publishing Corp.,
New York (1936).
Twist
Twist is the spirality given to a yarn in order to hold the con-
stituent fibers or yarns together. Up to a certain point, an increase
in the twist tends to make a stronger yarn; but above this point, the
additional twist adds a strain to the fibers which results in a weaker
yarn. In general then, there is a certain limited range of twist
which is desirable; for certain effects however, less twist (soft
twist) or more twist (hard twist) may be necessary. According to
the kind and amount of twist, yarns may be classified as:
TEXTILE TESTING 45
1. Singles yarn-see preceding section.
2. Ply yarn---see preceding section
3. Cord-see preceding section
a. Hawser twist
b. Cable twist
4. Core yarn-see preceding section.
5. Crepe yarn-yarn with 2. large amount of twist, usually helJ
in place by a coating of gelatine size.
6. Novelty yarn-yarn of non-uniform twist where strength is
sacrificed for appearance.
Two general methods of measuring twist are available: (1) a
miscroscopic method depending upon the measurement of the
angle of spirality (helix angle), which will not be taken up at this
point; (2) a method using a "twist counter" which untwists .a
given length of yarn and measures the number of turns necessary.
Reduced to fundamentals, the twist counter consists of two
jaws, one non-rotating but movable on a rod, so that the distance
between the jaws may be varied, the other jaw fixed in position
but capable of rotation by means of a handle, and with a revolu·-
tion counter attached to read the number of turns.
In taking the yarn from the packages to test for twist, the yarn
should be drawn off from the side of the package and not over the
top, otherwise an additional twist would be added to or taken away
from the yarn. The yarn should be tested in successive lengths
with only an inch or less between samples, so that a record of the
variation of the yarn will be obtained. The yarn is untwisted by the
rotating jaw and the number of turns of the jaw divided by the
distance between the jaws (gauge length) gives the "turns per inch,"
usually abbreviated and referred to as TPI.
The simple twist counter (Figure 17) is used as follows:
Fig. 17-Simple Twist Counter

46 TEXTILE TESTING
1. The gauge length is set at ten inches and the ply yarn clamped
in the jaws; the yarn should be straight but not stretched. The
re-.rolution counter should be at zero.
2. The rotating jaw is revolved until all the ply twist is removed
and the strands are parallel, so that a needle may be passed be-
tween them from one jaw to the other.
3. The number of turns of the rotating jaw as shown by the
dial is recorded. This value divided by 10 (gauge length) is the
TPI of the ply yarn. Since the dial usually reads only up to 100
revolutions, a note should be made of the number of complete
revolutions of the dial.
4. With a sharp razor blade or scissors, all but one of the singles
yarns are cut from between the jaws.
5. Holding the left end of the single yarn so that it will neither
twist nor untwist, the non-rotating jaw is moved up to the correct
gauge length for. the singles yarn, which is then clamped in place.
The gauge length for singles yarns is one inch for cotton and four
inches for woolen and worsted yarns.
6. The singles yarn is untwisted by rotation of the revolving
jaw until the fibers are as nearly parallel as possible. A magnifying
glass helps to determine when the fibers are parallel in a cotton
yarn; in the case of woolen and worsted yarns, a needle may be
used as for ply yarns.
7. The number of turns registered on the dial is read again and
divided by the gauge length to obtain the TPI of the singles yarn.
A convenient method of recording and calculating results is shown
herewith:
Ply Twist Single Twist
Balance: (see later)
Direction of
twist: (see later) (see later)
Gauge length: 10 inches 4 inches
Twist: 110 turns 11.0 TPI 24 turns 6.0 TPI
114 11.4 25 6.3
96 9.6 22 5.5
106 10.6 24 6.0
110 11.0 27 6.8
Total 53.6 30.6
Average 10.7 TPI 6.1 TPI
TEXTILE TESTING 47
As shown above, at least five determinations should be made on

each sample and preferably ten determinations. In testing a ship-
ment of yarn, at least five samples and preferably more should
be taken. The results may be calculated according to the methods
of Chapter 1 to get true value and variation of the yarn.
The simple twist counter gives results accurate enough for all
ordinary purposes, but these points should be noted:
1. The tension on the yarn when placed between the jaws is a
variable quantity. Great tension would result in fewer TPI, less
tension would result in more TPI.
2. In the case of singles cotton yarns particularly, it is difficult
to decide just when the fibers are parallel, since opposite twist may
start to go into some fibers before others are wholly untwisted.
3. On untwisting a ply yarn, the yarn slackens between the
jaws due to the removal of the twist. This expansion of the yarn
is equal to the twist contraction (mentioned in the section on Plies)
and should be measured if the true counts of the yarn is to be
determined.
The more elaborate twist counter, shown in Figure 18, takes the
above points into consideration. This instrument is similar in
AI
Fig. IS-Accurate Twist Counter
principle (although usually larger in si~e) to the simple type with

the exception that the non-rotating jaw is capable of sliding in a
sleeve ~md has a constant tension device on which the tension may
be varied by means of weights; also the sliding arm is calibrated
so that twist contraction may be read. It is used as follows:
1. With the sliding arm clamped at zero, the revolution counter
at zero, and a gauge length of ten inches, place the ply yarn be-
tween the jaws.
48 TEXTILE TESTING
2. On the constant tension device place weights to give the follow-

ing tensions (in grams):
156
Cotton yarn tension
equivalent cotton counts
131
Type number
Woolen and worsted yarn tension = weight of 100 yards of yarn
Rayon yarn tension 10 grams (for 75d or finer)
20 grams (75d to 15Od)
30 grams (coarser than 15Od)
3. Release the clamp on the sliding arm and read the extension.
4. Remove the ply twist, read the extension and the revolution
counter; divide by the gauge-length.
5. Remove the tension weights except just enough to keep the
singles yarn straight without causing the fibers to slip. This value
should be determined by a preliminary experiment.
6. Reset the sliding arm, cut out all singles yarns but one, reset
to new gauge length (holding the twist in the singles yarn, mean-
while); release the sliding arm, note the extension.
7. Untwist the singles yarn, an extension will show on the sliding
arm, continue turning in the same direction until an equal twist in
the opposite direction is shown by the sliding arm coming back to
its first position. Read the dial and divide by twice the gauge
length.
An example of the data and calculations for the more accurate
twist counter follows:
Ply Twist Single Twist
Balance: (see later)
Direction: (see later) (see later)
Gauge length: 10 inches 1 inch
Exten-
Twist: Turns TPI sion Turns TPI
168 16.8 .20 18 9.0
170 17.0 .25 16 8.0
165 16.5 .23 20 10.0
166 16.6 .25 18 9.0
TEXTILE TESTING 49
Exten-
Twist Turns TPI sIOn Turns TPJ
172 17.2 .25 17 8.5
Total 84.1 1.18 44.5
Average 16.8 .235 8.9
The percent twist contraction is calculated from the formula pre-
viously given:
F-L
c = x 100
F
where C = % twist contraction
F original length of the singles yarn before plying
L length of the ply yarn
In the above case, the calculation is:
L = 10 inches
F = 10 + 0.235 = 10.235 inches
F-L = 0.235 inches
0.235
then, C = - - - x 100 = 2.30o/c
10.235 0
Note that the formula for twist contraction may be expressed as:
100 x extension
C = -
gauge length + extension
These more accurate twist counters may also be obtained with a
motor driven revolving jaw, a rather unnecessary refinement, since
the time required to untwist a sample is small compared to the
time required for adjusting tensions, setting gauge lengths, and
recording data.
Thc A.S.T.M. tolerances on twist are given in Table IX.
In describing the direction of twist, there was for years much
confusion since it was referred to as "right hand" or "left hand"
twist. Some branches of the industry described as "right hand"
yarn which was twisted by turning to the right, while other branches
described as "right hand" yarn which was untwisted by turning
to the right. The A.S.T.M. method of describing direction of twist
is to be preferred. This system describes the twist as "S" or "Z"
according to the following definition: "a yarn or cord has S twist
if, when held in a vertical position, the spirals conform in slope to
50 TEXTILE TESTING
the central portion of the letter'S', and Z twist if the spirals conform
in slope to the central portion of the letter 'Z'." Figure 19 illus-
strates both types of twist.
Fig. 19-"S" and "z" Twist

In plying yarns, the ply twist is usually, although not always,
opposite to the singles twist. Cords are of two types: hawser
twist and cable twist. Hawser twist has the singles twist and ply
twist in the same direction and the cord twist in the opposite
direction; tire cords, for example, have the singles yarns of Z
twist, ply yarns of Z twist, and cords of S twist. Cable twist has
the ply twist opposite to the singles twist, and cord twist opposite
to ply twist; a cabled cord, for example, might have singles yarns
of Z twist, ply yarns of S twist, and cords of Z twist.
A yarn is said to be in balance if the amount of twist is just
enough to keep the component yarns or fibers in position. If more
twist than this is put in, the yarn will kink and snarl; if less twist
is put in, the yarn will tend to untwist and again will kink. For
knitting machines and sewing machines especially, the question
of balance in the yarn used is very important. A yarn is tested
TEXTILE TESTING 51
Fig. 20-Balanced and Unbalanced Yarn
for balance by taking a one yard length in the hands, each end
held by thumb and forefinger of one hand, and bringing the ends
together. If the yarn hangs in a loop without twisting about it-
self, it is in perfect balance; if it twists about itself, it is not
balanced. A rough indication of unbalance is obtained by not-
ing the number of times the yarn twists about itself, but
usually a yarn is reported simply as "balanced" or "not balanced."
Figure 20 illustrates balanced and unbalanced yarns.
In making a ply yarn, all the singles yarns should twist about
each other equally, so that when a load is placed on the yarn each
strand will take its share of the load; if, however, one yarn is
straight and the others are twisted about it, applied load will all
be taken up by the straight yarn until it snaps, when the load will
then be applied to the others. This type of twist is known as
52 TEXTILE TESTING
"corkscrew twist" and is shown in Figure

21. Corkscrew, while generally undesir-
able, is somefmes obtained deliberately
for the manufacture of novelty yarns.
There are several causes of corkscrew.
If one yarn is under greater tension than
the others, it will tend to be straight while
the others corkscrew about it. If one yarn
is fed straight into the twister while others
come in at an angle, corkscrew will result.
The number of plies in a yarn may deter-
mine corkscrew; thus a five ply yarn has
little tendency to corkscrew, the five yarns
arranging themselves on the circumference
of a circle; a six ply yarn, however, will
nearly always corkscrew since one of the
plies is forced into the center of the circle of
yarns; it is for this reason that tire cords,
where a maximum of strength is required,
are made five ply. In general, three, five,
and eleven ply yarns seem to have the least
Fig. 21-Regular and
tendency to corkscrew. Size of yarns also
Corkscrew Twist is a cause of corkscrew, combining a thin
and a thick yarn nearly always resulting in a corkscrewed yarn.
Corkscrew is measured by taking a long length of yarn, attach-
ing a small weight to each ply (to give constant tension), and un-
twisting the yarns; the length of each ply is measured, the average
length obtained, and the deviation of each length from the average
is calculated. The sum of the deviations expressed as percentage
of the average length is the per cent corkscrew of the yarn. Obvi-
ously, if there were no corkscrew all the lengths would be the
same, the deviations and the per cent corkscrew would then be
equal to zero. Haven has described a convenient apparatus for
this determination, but for only occasional determinations a yard-
stick and a Ilumber of small spring paper clamps may be used,
the paper clamps acting as the tension weights.
As indicated in the introductory paragraph of this section on
Twist, the maximum strength of a given counts of yarn is obtained
TEXTILE TESTING S3
with a definite amount of twist; this relationship is shown gra-

phically in Figure 22. The usual method of expressing the rela-
tionship between counts and twist is by the formula:
TPI KyN
where TPI turns per inch
N counts of the singles yarn
K twist factor
It has been established by experiments and practice that the maxi-
mum strength of a yarn is obtained for a definite value of K; in
the case of ring-spun cotton yarns, for example, the following values
TPI
Fig. 22-Relation Between Stren,th and Twist of Yarns
of K have been found to give the best results.
Warp yarns, 35's and less ................ 4.75
Warp yarns, 35's to 80's ................. 4.50
Warp yarns, 80's to 110's ................ 4.25
Filling yarns, medium numbers. . . . . . . . . .. 3.50
Filling yarns usually have a lower twist factor because strength is
54 TEXTILE TESTING
not so important and appearance is more important. Ply yarns

frequently have twist factors of 4 to 6, while crepe yarns are often
twice or three times ordinary yarns.
REFEREXCES:
IHa\en, C. B. :\Iechanical Fabrics. John \\"iley & Sons, Inc., New York
{1 QJ2).
2Saxl, I. J. Rayon ;i.,d Synthetic \' am Handbook. Rayon Publishing Corp.,
]'I;e\\ York (1936).
:J A.S. T.:\1. Standards on Textile :\Iaterials. A.S. T.l\I., Philadelphia (1936).
Seriplane and Regularity

Methods for determining the regularity, uniformity, or evenness
of yarn samples may be classified as follows:
1. Statistical methods
a. Counts
b. Twist
c. Strength
d. Thickness
2. Visual inspection-seriplane or inspection boards.
The use of statistical methods depends upon making a large
number of physical tests of one kind, such as counts or twist, on a
large number of small samples; the results are then computed as
discussed in Chapter 1 so as to determine the per cent variation.
Thickness has also been used for this purpose, methods having been
developed for measuring- the thickness of yarns by recording feeler
g-auges of various types. The use of the microscope for measuring
the width of yarns has also been suggested. All of these methods,
however, simply give the uniformity of the yarn as regards one
variable. For example, the yarn might be very uniform as regards
counts but the twist might be very uneven. Strength tests are
better in this respect and will be discussed later.
The most common way of comparing yarns for uniformity is by
means of the inspection board or "seriplane." The seriplane
(Figure 23) was originally devised for use in the silk industry but
has been extended to other textile branches; it consists essentially
of a device for winding yarn at even intervals around a board of a
color contrasting with the yar'1. The seriplane, in its simplest form,
winds yarn fron one or two packages on a black board; machines
TEXTILE TESTING 55
Fig. 23-Seriplane or Yarn Inspection Board
are made, however, which wind a large number of boards at a time.

After winding, the board is viewed at a little distance for general
evenness or density of yarn, looking especially for streaks. The
boards are then examined more closely for:
1. Thick and thin places
2. Slubs-bunches of loose fiber caught in the yarn
3. Uneven twist
4. Corkscrew twist
5. Oil or rust spots
6. Hairiness--excessive number of protruding fibers
7. Broken filaments, in the case of silk or rayon.
The test is, in general, qualitative but it may be made roughly
quantitative by counting the number of imperfections per board.
Permanent records may be made by photographing the boards.
to be compared later with other photographs. Standard photo-
graphs of raw silk are obtained from the Silk Association of America
for grading silks numerically.
REFERENCES:
IHaven G. B. Mechanical Fabrics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New '{ork
(1932).
2Saxl, I. j. Rayon and Synthetic Yarn Handbook. Rayon Publishing Corp.,
New York (1936).
CHAPTER 5
FABRIC TESTING
Introduction
Before taking up the various tests usually given fabrics, it will

be necessary to discuss briefly the various types of fabrics
from the point of view of methods of manufacture, production of
pattern, general properties of the finished product, and some of
the terms used in referring to the fabric. These will be discussed
only in a very elementary way because we are concerned primarily
with the testing and not with production of the fabrics. Practical
experience and the study of other texts are necessary to supplement
this very elementary survey.
The textile fabrics may be classified as follows:
1. Felts-fabrics made by uniting loose fibers into a uniform
sheet.
2. Knit goods- fabrics made by looping one yarn about itself.
3. Braids and laces-fabrics made by twisting many yarns
about each other.
4. Woven goods-fabrics made by passing one set of yarns above
and below another set of yarns at right angles.
a. Tapes and ribbons-made very narrow and on special
looms.
b. Mechanical fabrics-ordinary wide goods of fairly simple
weave where appearance is secondary to strength or other
physical properties.
c. Dress goods, suitings, coatings, poplins, broadcloth,
etc.-of fairly simple weave but where appearance is more
important.
d. Print goods-of fairly simple weave but with a compli-
cated color pattern applied by a printing process.
e. Tapestries and other similar fabrics-of very complicated
weave produced by complex looms or Jacquard looms. Ap-
pearance is usually much the most important quality 10
these goods.
56
TEXTILE TESTING 57
f. Pile fabrics such as plushes, velvets, corduroys, and

carpets-fabrics in which some of the yarns are cut during
or after weavings so that the cut ends form the face of the
fabric.
Felts have no regular structure, consisting of masses of fiber
(usually hair fibers) united together by chemical treatments. Tests
made on felt are usually for content and are chemical and optical
tests; thickness is the most important physical test with porosity
sometimes determined.
Knit goods consist of a series of loops of a single yarn; other
yarns may be used to make stripes but usually only one strand at a
time. The loops extending lengthwise of the fabric are known as
wales, and those crosswise of the fabric as courses. Knit goods are
usually made in tubular form so that there are no edges. Hosiery
and underwear form the bulk of the knit goods; so that, in general,
appearance is the most important property. Physical tests, then,
are not as important on knit goods as they come on the market;
most of the testing of knit goods is done in the process of manu-
facture and are carried out on the yarn which goes into the goods.
Braids and laces, also, are used principally for ornamentation
and again the most im}>ortant tests are those made upon the con-
stituent yarns. This class of fabrics is, in point of quantity, rela-
tively unimportant.
The woven goods are much the most important group of fabrics.
They are made in a loom by arranging a number of yarns (the warp)
under tension and capable of being lifted and dropped by the harness
mechanism, each indidivual yarn of the warp (end) passing be-
tween a set of combs called the reed. With some of the ends lifted
and some dropped to form an angle (shed), a shuttle flies across
carrying one yarn (pick); these cross yarns are known as the
filling. Different patterns are made by putting in different yarns
in the warp and in the filling, also by lifting the warp yarns in
various combinations. The filling yarns change direction at each
edge of the fabric and to keep them firmly in position at the edges,
a special lot of warp yarns very close together (the selvedge) is
put in; obviously the cloth is firmer and in general different in
properties near the selvedge, so it is a general rule that no physical
tests shall be made nearer than one-tenth the width of the fabric
58 TEXTILE TESTING
to the selvedge. The use to which the fabric is to be put governs

the tests which are given it; in any case an analysis of the con-
stituent yarns and their arrangement in the fabric should be made,
preferably by an experienced designer; the tests which we are to
discuss assume that the design of the cloth has already been passed
upon and found correct.
Mechanical fabrics are fabrics to be used where appearance is
unimportant. Usually strength is of the most importance, but
sometimes other properties are equally or more desirable. In
aeroplane wing fabric or balloon cloth, the permeability is an im-
portant factor, which in turn is dependent upon the size and close-
ness of the yarns in the cloth. In bandage cloth or toweling, the
ability to absorb liquids is very important; in canvas and umbrella
cloth, waterproofness is most desirable.
In cloth to be used for clothing, both strength and wearing prop-
erties are important but must be combined with a good appearance,
good draping qualities, a pleasant "handle", and preferably a light
weight; other properties which may be desirable in special clothing
are waterproofness, coolness or warmth, or ability to resist creasing.
In pile fabrics, in addition to appearance and construction, the
most important physical property of the cloth is the ability of the
cut ends or pile to remain upright under a load, or if bent by the
load to regain its upright position when the load is removed. This
involves the study of the thickness of the fabric under varying
loads, also the resiliency of the fabric.
To study every physical property of every known fabric would
be out of the question. We will therefore take up only the more
important properties which should, however, suggest a method of
approach to the determination of other properties.
Yarn Count
This determination measures the number of warp yarns per

linear inch (ends per inch or sley) and the number of filling yarns
per linear inch (picks per inch or shot). In the case of knit goods,
the corresponding values are wales per inch and courses per inch.
There are four general methods of determining yarn count:
1. Unraveling the cloth.
TEXTILE TESTING S9
2. Use of the pick glass.

3. Mechanical pick counter.
4. Fabric projector.
Unraveling the cloth is used principally on dense fabrics with a
felted surface where the separate yarns are hard to distinguish; it
is also sometimes done where, in addition to yarn count, it is also
desired to know the relative weights of warp and filling. The pick
glass is a small magnifying glass in a stand over a square exactly
one inch each way (or sometimes one-half inch each way), so that if
all the yarns in the field are counted the number of yarns per inch is
directly determined; this is the usual method used. The mechani-
cal pick counter, such as the Suter, consists of a small miscroscope
arranged to travel horizontally on a calibrated track; in the field
of view is a needle point; it is placed on the cloth with the pointer
at zero and traversed across, counting the yarns as they pass under
the needle point, for a known distance, and the number of yarns
per inch cakulated. The projector is simply a slide projector in
which the cloth is placed between two plates with an opening of
known dimensions, the number of yarns may then be easily counted
on the screen; it is useful principally to avoid eyestrain.
If the pick glass is used, it is convenient to use a light table, a
box with a ground glass top and containing several electric bulbs.
The A.S.T.M. specifies that the number of ends per inch and picks
per inch shall be counted in five different places, not counting the
same threads twice, and of course not near the selvedge. If there
are fewer than 25 threads per inch, the number of threads in three
inches shall be counted each time and the result divided by three.
If the fabric is less than three inches wide, the total number of ends
shall be counted and divided by the width.
If the pattern of the cloth is very complicated, the number of
yarns per inch has little meaning and the number of yarns to a
pattern should be determined, this is really a job for a designer.
REFERENCES:
IHaven, G. B., Mechanical Fabrics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
(1932).
2A.S.T.M. Standards on Textile Materials, A.S.T.M., Philadelphia, (1936).
Weight
Two different weights are in use and may be determined In
60 TEXTILE TESTING
evaluating cloth; weight per unit area (ounces per square yard)
and weight per unit length (ounces per running yard). Obviously
if either one and also the width of the cloth is known, the other may
may be calculated (assuming the selvedge to have a negligible
effect) by the formula:
5 = 36R/B
and R = 5B/36
where 5 = weight per unit area (ouqces per square yard)
R = weight per unit length (ounces per running yard)
B = width of cloth in inches .
Both weight determinations are based on cutting out pieces of
cloth of known area and weighing. The value of S may then be
calculated from the formulae:
36x36 G
5 = - - x - - = 2,962G/A
A 437.5
36x36 G'
or 5 = - - x - - = 45.71G'/A
A 28.35
where A = area of sample in square inches
G = weight of sample at standard regain in grains
G' = weight of sample at standard regain in grams.
There are three general methods in use for determining the
weight:
1. Weighing a large number of small areas; e.g., five pieces
each two inches square.
2. Weighing one fairly large area; e.g., a piece 5" x 4".
3. Weighing a piece the full width of the cloth and one yard
long. This gives the value of R directly.
In either of the above methods enough sample must be taken to
give at least twenty square inches. The weighing should always be
done when oven-dry and the results calculated to standard regain.
The cutting-out of the samples may be done by marking off the
area with a ruler and cutting out with shears; but if many de-
terminations are to be made, it is better to use steel or glass tem-
plates, cutting around the templates with a sharp razor blade.
Where a large number of small samples are to be cut out, steel dies
may be used.
TEXTILE TESTING 61
Many cloths are bought and sold by a description which includes

the weight per running yard, this is possible only when a standard
width is agreed upon. Woolen and worsted cloths are based upon
a 54 inch width, so that a 16-ounce worsted fabric is one of which a
piece 54-inches wide and one yard long would weigh 16 ounces at
standard regain. Similarly, cotton duck is based on a width of 22
inches. and a 16-ounce duck would be one of which a piece 22 inches
wide and one yard long would weigh 16 ounces at standard regain.
Ducks are also given a number which is equal to 19-R so that the
above duck is 19-16 = No.3 duck, a 19-ounce duck is No. 0 or
1/0, a 20-ounce duck is No. 00 or 2/0, a 21-ounce duck is 3/0, and
soon.
The following examples will make clear the use of the formulae:
A piece ",f cotton cloth 4" x 5" weight 1.55 grams when oven-dry.
What is the weight per unit area?
G' 1.55x1.065 = 1.65 grams
A = 4x5 = 20 square inches
S = 45.71x1.65/20 = 3.77 oz/sq. yd.
A sample of woolen cloth is to be tested for weight. Five pieces
each 2"x2" are cut out and weighed together; when oven-dry they
weigh 112 grains.
A 5x2x2 = 20 square inches
G 112x1.13 = 126.7 grains.
S 2.962x126.7/20 = 18.70z/sq.yd.
R 18.7x54/36 = 28.1 ounces per running yard of
cloth 54 inches wide.
A sample of duck is 21 inches wide and a length of 12 inches weighs,
when oven-dry, 144 grams. What is the number of the duck?
A 21x12 = 252 square inches
G' 144x1.065 = 153.3 grams.
S 45.71x153.3/252 = 27.8 oz./sq. yd.
R 27.8x22/36 = 17 oz./running yd.
19 - 17 = No. 2 duck
REFERENCES:
IA.S.T.M. Standards on Textile Materials. A.S.T.M., Philadelphia (1936).
Crimp
Crimp may be defined as the deviation from straightness of yarns
62 T EXT I,L E T EST I N G
as they lie in the cloth, expressed as percentage of length in the

cloth. Take-up is the deviation from straightness of the yarns as
they lie in the cloth, expressed as percentage of the original length
of the yarn before weaving. The interrelationships of crimp and
take-up may be shown by the following formulae:
Let L length of yarn before weaving
L' length of yarn in the cloth
C ('"rimp in %
T take-up in %
L -- L'
Then C - - - - - x 100
L'
L - L'
T ---~
x 100
L
lOOC
T _---
C + 100
lOOT
C =
100 - T
Since the process is sometimes reversed and it is desired to know
the original length of the yarn, from the above formulae we obtain:
L'CC + 100)
L=
100
100L'
L ;=
100 - T
In a fabric just off the loom, the warp threads generally have the
most crimp because the filling yarns are drawn straight through the
shed and the warp yarns are folded over and under the filling
yarns by the up-and-down motion of the harnesses. Finishing
operations such as stretching, calendering, and tentering may
change the crimp. Crepes are different as regards crimp; in these
fabrics the filling yarns are excessively twisted and tend to kink.
the warp yarns take up some of this kink and rest in the cloth in a
fairly straight condition.
TEXTILE TESTING 63
A fabric which is to have all or most of the stress appiied in one

direction (such as duck belting) should have the minimum crimp
in that direction; but fabrics (such as balloon cloth) which are
subject to equal stress in all directions should have the same crimp
in both warp and filling. This last fabric is known as a "square"
fabric; in general the difference between warp and filling crimp is
known as "off-square"; for example, if the warp crimp is 6 per cent
and the filling crimp is 4 per cent, the cloth is 2 per cent off-square.
It will be noted that crimp and take-up are the same quantity
referred to different bases. The crimp is based on the length in the
cloth and is of interest to the tester and the finisher; the take-up is
based on the length before weaving and is of interest to the weaver
and yarn manufacturer.
The principle of the crimp determination is very simple: with a
fine pen and a rule, lines are drawn on a piece of cloth L' distance
apart, some of the yarns are raveled out, the yarns are straightened
without stretching, and the distance between the ink marks (L) is
noted; the crimp is then calculated from the formula. The diffi-
culty lies in the straightening of the yarn without stretching it;
to do this three methods are available:
1. Straighten by hand-this is inaccurate since we do not know
the force applied.
2. Straighten by a standard weight-this is satisfactory if we
know what weight to use, the determination of this weight will be
given later.
3. Determine the straight length from the load-elongation
curve-this is the most accurate method and the one which we shall
take up in detail.
The usual method of crimp determination by load-elongation
data is as follows: Make parallel ink lines on a piece of cloth L'
distance apart, unravel five yarns and test one at a time. Clamp
the yarn at one of the ink spots, allowing the yarn to hang vertically
in front of a scale; hang a small clamp of known weight on the yarn
at the other ink spot, read the elongation at this load. Apply suc-
cessively small loads, reading the elongation at each new load until
it is obvious that each additional load gives the same additional
elongation. Plot the elongation horizontally and the load verti-
cally to obtain a curve similar to Figure 24. In this curve, there is
64 TEXTILE TESTING
Fig. 24-Load-Elongation Curve for Crimp Determination
a curved portion (OB) and a straight line portion (Bq. The region
OB represents the removal of the crimp, the region BC represents
the stretch of the yarn; if there were no crimp, the curve would be
all the straight line DC, therefore the distance 00 represents the
elongation of the yarn due to the removal of the crimp; then the
original length L' plus the value 00 is the length of the yarn before
weaving (L) or
L= L' + 00
This method was originally devised by the Bureau of Standards
who loaded the yarn by attaching a light weight scale pan and add-
ing weights; this method has been improved by using the chain-
omatic principle, loading the yarn by lowering a chain so that an
increasing number of links of the chain are held by the yarn (Figure
25). A simple and inexpensive apparatus may be made as follows:
On a vertical board, fasten graph paper marked off in inches and
tenths, fasten a small clamp at the top to hold the yarn. Obtain a
TEXTILE TESTING 65
Fig. 25-Crimp Determination Apparatus (Chainomatic Type)
small paper clamp with jaws }iff wide and with a hook attached, such
as 2-:-e sold for use in schools to hang papers on a piece of cloth; obtain
also a number of paper clips. Weigh the small clamp, and a number
66 TEXTILE TESTING
of the paper clips. Hang the yarn in the clamps, read the extension;
add the paper clips, one at a time, reading the extension. A typical
determination is given:
Weight of small clamp = 0.35 grams
Weight of 5 paper clips =:: 3.90 grams
Weight per paper clip 0.78 grams
Weights Elongation Load
added ~nches -grams
o 0 o
clamp .21 .35
clamp + 1 clip .37 1.13
clamp + 2 clips .41 1.91
On plotting the above and extending the straight line portion,
it was found that OD = 0.31 inches. Therefore
L' = 10 inches L = 10.31 inches
0.31
c = _ - x 100 3.1% crimp
10
If the crimp is to be determined by the length with a standard
weight applied, it is necessary to have one weight for each type of
yarn and fabric; this is satisfactory in a mill where only one class
or a few classes of goods are being made. The standard weight to
be used is determined from the load-elongation curve by projecting
from D to the curve and from the curve over to the load axis, in
Figure 24 the distance OE represents the weight which would be
just sufficient to remove the crimp. Another way of determining
the standard weight is to use the A.S.T.M. formula:
If L' 8 inches then
131
OE =
Typp number
This formula is merely an approximation and is not as accurate or
desirable as the previous method.
It has been found that temperature and relative humidity have
TEXTILE TESTING 67
only a very slight effect on the crimp, so that standard conditions

. are not necessary for crimp testing.
Crimp may also be determined from the strength-stretch curve
which will be taken up later, but the results are not as accurate as
the methods just described due to the small scale of the curve.
A typical problem involving crimp follows: A sample of cotton
doth 6" square is picked apart and there is obtained 360 warp
yarns which weigh 0.955 grams when oven-dry and 320 filling yarns
which weigh 1.150 grams when oven-dry. A crimp determination
gave 4.2 per cent crimp in the warp and 3.6 per cent crimp in the
filling. What is the yarn count, the weight of the cloth, and the
counts of the warp and filling?
Yarn count:
Warp 360/6 60 ends per inch
Filling 320/6 53.3 picks per inch
Weight:
Warp 0.955 grams
Filling 1.150 grams
Total 2.105 grams

2.105 x 15.43 x 1.065 = 34.6 grains at standard conditions.
S = 2.962G/A 2.962 x 34.6/36 = 2.84 ounces per square
yard
Counts:
Warp
L' 360x6 = 2160 inches = 60 yards
L'(100+C) 60x104.2
L = 62.6 yards
100 100
W 0.955x15.43xl.07 = 15.8 grains
L 7000 62.6 7000
N - x - - x - - = 33.0's
W H 15.8 840
Filling
L' 320x6 = 1920 inches = 53.3 yards
53.3xl03.6
L = = 55.2 yards
100
68 TEXTILE TESTING
W = 1.150x15.43x1.07 = 19.0 grains

55.2 7000
N = - - x - - = 24.2's
19.0 840
REFERENCES:
IA.S.T.M. Standards on Textile Materials. A.S.T.l\I., Philadelphia (1936).
2Haven, G. B., Mechanical Fabrics, John \\'iley and Sons, Inc., New York,
1932,
Thickness
The determination of the thickness of a textile material is a
delicate operation because of the ease of compression of most fab-
rics; for this reason, it is seldom done except upon felts, ducks, or
other fairly rigid fabrics. If the thickness of a soft material must be
determined, it is better to do it miscroscopically on a cross-section
of the fabric. This is especially true of pile fabrics.
The usual type of thickness gauge (Figure 26) has a broad anvil
upon which a presser foot is pressed by a spring. The sample is
placed on the anvil and the presser foot is lowered onto the sample
by releasing the raising lever very slowly, the dial then indicates
the number of thousandths of an inch between the anvil and the
presser foot.
Haven has listed the variables which affect the result and has
attempted to standardize these variables in the following manner:
1. Size of presser foot-greater the size, the less it will sink
into the fabric; one inch suggested.
2. Form of presser foot-Haven suggests circular for cloth and
square for cords.
3. Weight on presser foot-greater the weight, the more it will
sink into the cloth; two ounces suggested.
4. Velocity of presser foot-faster the foot is allowed to drop
the more it will penetrate the fabric. Haven suggests a clock-work
mechanism which would lower the presser foot at the rate of twelve
inches per minute.
5, Time elapsing during measurement-presser foot does not
come to equilibrium immediately; five seconds suggested.
6. Stability of the machine-jarring will cause the foot to
penetrate deeper; a solid support is necessary.
TEXTILE TESTING 69
7. Condition of the specimen during measurement-fabric

should be free of wrinkles but not under tension.
The A.S.T.M. has standardized on the. following method of
using the thickness gauge: The presser foot shall be circular and
Fig. 26-Thickness Gauge

0.375 ± .001 inches; the presser foot and anvil shall be plane and
parallel to within .0001 inches; the total weight on the presser foot
shall be 6.0 ± 0.1 ounces (3.4 pounds per square inch). The fabric
70 TEXTILE TESTING
shall be placed on the anvil smooth and without tension; the presser
foot shall be lowered gradually (without impact) and allowed to
rest ten seconds before the dial is read. Not less than five measure-
ments shall be made on a sample and the results averaged.
The A.S.T.M. also modifies the above specifications in the case'
of pile fabrics and wool felts as follows:
Total thickness of pile floor coverings
Pressure = 0.100 ± .001 pounds per square inch
Diameter of foot = 3.00 ± .01 inches
Thickness of backing of pile floor coverings
Pressure = 0.750 ± .001 pounds per square inch
Diameter of foot = 1.00 ± .01 inches
Thickness of wool felt
Pressure = 1.0 pounds per square inch
Diameter of foot = 1.129 inches
Time before reading = 30 seconds.
In spite of all the above precautions, however, the values ob-
tained are of questionable accuracy, although they do have some
value in the comparison of different samples done on the same ap-
paratus, by the same person, and using the same technique.
REFERENCES:
lA.S.T.M. Standards on Textile Materials, A.S.T.M., Philadelphia, 1936

(1932).
CHAPTER 6
FABRIC TESTING (Continued)
Porosity, Permeability, Waterproofing
S ince these terms are variously understood, we shall start by

defining them, also several other terms which are at present
rather loosely used. Porosity is the amount of air space in a fabric
expressed as percentage of the total volume of the fabric. Perme-
ability is the ability of a fabric to allow a gas or vapor to pass
through the fabric. A fabric is waterproof when it will completely
resist the passage of liquid water through it; it is rainproof when it
will resist the passage of water to a considerable extent, but not
completely; it is showerproof if it offers only a moderate resistance
to the passage of water. It will be seen that "waterproof", "rain-
proof" and "showerproof" represent different amounts of resistance
to the passage of water or different degrees of waterproofness.
Porosity is determined by measuring the total volume of a fabric
and calculating the total volume of fiber in the sample. The
difference between these two values is air space and when calculated
as per cent of the total volume gives the porosity. If we let
S total volume of sample in cubic centimeters
F total volume of fiber in cubic centimeters
A = area of the sample in square centimeters
W weight of the sample at standard regain in grams
T thickness of sample in centimeters
D density of fiber in grams per cubic centimeter (Table X)
P porosity in per cent
100 (S-F)
By definition P =
S
Also, S AT and F = WID
100 (AT-WID)
Then P
AT
71
72 TEXTILE TESTING
An example will show the calculations necessary. A cotton fabric

6 inches square gives an average thickness on the gauge of 11.0
thousandths of an inch (0.0110 inches) and when oven dry weighs
3.65 grams. What is the porosity? The English units must first
be converted to metric units (Table VIII) :
6 inches = 6 x 2.54 = 15.2 centimeters
.0110 inches = .0110 x 2.54 = .0279 centimeters
Then using the formula,
A = 15.2x15.2 = 231 square centimeters
T .0279 centimeters
W = 3.65 x 1.065 = 3.88 grams
o 1.5J (from Table X)
100(231 x .0279-3.88/1.50) 100(6.45-2.59)
P
231 x .0279 6.45
P = 59.8%
Porosity is valuable in giving an idea as to the permeability,
warmth, and lightness of a fabric; although these qualities may be
measured separately, they require special apparatus whereas poros-
ity requires only a thickness gauge in addition to an oven and
balance. Permeability is only roughly proportional to the porosity,
the type of finish on a cloth having considerable effect on the per-
meability; for example, a cloth before and after felting might have
the same porosity but after felting would be less permeable. The
warmth of a fabric is due to dead air spaces in the fabric, so the most
porous fabric would be the warmest provided that it is not, at the
same time, too permeable; that is, that the air spaces are -not too
large. The lightness of the fabric is obviously proportional to the
porosity since both qualities involve the weight of a given area.
Two types of permeability are of interest:
1. Permeability to air-desirable in clothing; undesirable in
overcoating, sail cloth, balloon cloth, aeroplane fabric.
2. Permeability to water vapor-desirable in clothing, espe-
cially in underclothing; undesirable in materials to be used for
coverings, such as tarpaulins.
Permeability to air may be measured by one of several methods:
1. By forcing air through a fabric at a constant rate and mea-
suring the back pressure developed. Haven has described an ap-
TEXTILE TESTING 73
paratus for this purpose which, however, is rather complex and

expensive.
2. By forcing air through a fabric at constant pressure and
measuring the rate of flow of the air. Different forms of apparatus
are described by Crawshaw, Clayton, and Gregory but all of these
require rather elaborate apparatus and involve metering. the air
passed.
3. By forcing a known volume of air at a standard pressure
through a fabric and measuring the time required. This method
uses an apparatus called a Densometer which is simple to operate
and which gives sufficiently accurate comparative results. A de-
scription of this apparatus and its manipulation will therefore be
given.
The Densometer (Fig. 27) consists of a cylinder about 12 inches
high with an orifice of definite diameter at the bottom, against
which is pressed a companion orifice, the fabric being inserted
between the two orifices. The cylinder is open at the top and
contains an inverted cylinder slightly smaller in diameter than the
outside cylinder, a tube runs from the top orifice nearly to the top
of the cylinder. The annular space between the tube and the
cylinder contains water (or better an oil of known viscosity) up to
a definite level. To operate, the inside cylinder is raised, drawing
in air, the fabric is placed between the two orifices, the inner cylinder
is released, forcing the air out through the fabric. The time for the
cylinder to fall between two rings marked upon it is noted (using
a stopwatch) or an automatic timing attachment may be used.
The greater the permeability of the fabric to air, the less time is
required.
The permeability of a fabric to water vapor has been measured
by three different methods:
1. By covering a vessel containing concentrated sulfuric acid
with the fabric to be tested and exposing to a standard atmosphere
for a definite length of time, then measuring the increase in weight
of the sulfuric acid. This method requires considerable standard-
ization to give comparable results.
2. By covering a vessel containing water at 37.5 0 C. (body
temperature) with the fabric to be tested and exposing to a standard
74 TEXTILE TESTING
Fig. 27-Densometer
TEXTILE TESTING 75
atmosphere for a definite length df time, then measuring the decrease

in weight of the water. This requires even more standardization.
3. By covering,. ~I containing water at any temperature
with the fabric to be'tested and exposing to any atmosphere for any
convenient time but also exposing a similar vessel of water with no
covering to the same atmosphere and for the same time. The
permeability is then given as to the ratio (loss through
fabric)j(loss from open vessel). This method is much simpler than
either of the others and is the one used by Black and Matthews in
determining the permeability to water vapor of various under-
clothing materials.
Permeability to air has been suggested as a method of measuring
the progress of the fulling operation; commercially fulled fabrics
are 22 per cent to S9 per cent less permeable to air than the same
fabric when unfulled. The use of this determination, then, might
make a given degree of fulling more readily reproducible.
Before considering methods of measuring waterproofness we
must note the ways in which water can pass through a fabric.
These ways are:
1. By wetting the fabric, followed by capillary action which
brings the water to the other side.
2. By pressure of the water, forcing it through the openings of
the fabric.
3. By a combination of the above two actions.
If a fabric were made in which there were no openings between
the yarns, the cloth might still allow water to pass, if it wet the
fibers; this is what happens in closely woven duck or canvas. If
a fabric of ordinary weave were made of fibers which had been
chemically treated so that they would not be wet by water, the
cloth would allow much of the water to roll off without penetrating
but if the water gathered in a thick layer on it or if the water struck
the cloth with much force, it would pass through the openings;
this is the case of the so-called "showerproof" fabrics such as the
cravenettes. The only way to completely waterproof a fabric is to
fill the openings and coat the fabric with a substance which is not
wet with water; this means using rubber as in ordinary raincoats,
boiled oils as in oilskins, tars or bitumens as in tarpaulins, or waxes
as in some tent cloths. These fabrics are also impermeable to air,
76 TEXTILE TESTING
and so are unsuitable for wear except in extreme cases. For ordinary
wear, only a moderate degree of waterproofness is necessary ("rain-
proof" or "showerproof") combined with permeability to air and
water vapor. Strictly speaking then, we are not measuring water-
proofness but water resistance or water repellance.
The following are the methods which have been used for measur-
ing water resistance; each type has been used in many variations
but only one variation of each will be given.
1. Bag or funnel test.
2. Spray test.
3. Drop test.
4. Pressure test.
a. Hydrostatic pressure test of the A.AT.C.C.
b. Box test of the AAT.C.C.
The bag or funnel test in its simplest form consists of a funnel
placed in a graduate. A piece of the fabric is folded like a filter
paper and placed in the funnel, water is poured into the fabric to a
depth of four inches. If no leakage occurs in twenty-four hours,
the fabric is waterproof; this is used to test canvas and tarpaulins.
To test for water resistance of lighter fabrics, the amount passing
through into the graduate in a definite time is measured:
The spray test is an attempt to imitate rainfall more dosely;
the method of Cook and Zaparanick is perhaps the simplest. A
spray-head of 272 inches diameter is connected to a one gallon
reservoir of water in which a constant level is maintained; the
reservoir is so placed as to maintain a constant head of water of
5 feet. The spray-head is clamped horizontally and a piece of the
fabric 6 inches square which has been weighed to one milligram is
placed on hooks to hang vertically 15 inches from the spray-head.
The cloth is sprayed for one minute, the excess water scraped off
with a knife edge, and the fabric is then weighed; the per cent
increase in weight based on the dry weight is lIsed as a measure of
water resistance:
10% and under excellent
10% to 20% good
20% to 30% fair
30% to 50% partial
over 50% = poor
TEXTILE TESTING 77
The drop test measures the number of drops of a given size,

falling on one spot, necessary to penetrate a fabric. The method of
Cryer is given. The cloth is placed on a glass slide at an angle of
30° and with a piece of blotting paper beneath, a mirror is placed
beneath to more readily see when the blotting paper shows dampness
(paper containing water-soluble eosin may be used instead of blot-
ting paper). A water reservoir is connected to a capillary of such
size as to form drops of water of 0.06 cubic centimeters. These
drops are allowed to fall 4% feet, and at the rate of 60 drops per
minute, onto the cloth. The number of drops required to penetrate
the cloth and wet the blotting paper is counted. Six to eight drops
represent a medium degree of water resistance, 40 drops represents
a high degree of resistance.
Many types of apparatus for measuring the pressure required to
force water through a fabric have been devised, the two most
frequently used in this country are both standard tests of the
American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists-the hy-
drostatic pressure test and the box test. The hydrostatic test has
the specimen clamped under a vertical well and water passing into
a hydrostatic pressure reservoir to maintain a constant water level.
The pressure reservoir is raised at the rate of one centimeter per
second and stopped when the first drop appears on the top of the
fabric. The reading of the head of water is then taken, the level
is maintained at this pressure, and the amount of water collected in
a given time is measured. Barr has shown that the appearance of
the first drop is a poor criterion and that the appearance of the
second drop gives more consistent results. A pressure of 17 centi-
meters or more indicates a fabric is showerproof; a pressure of SO
centimeters, that it is rainproof; if it stands SO centimeters for one
hour, it is waterproof.
The box test (Fig. 28) requires less elaborate and expensive
apparatus. A box with an open side of 4~ x 20% inches is used.
A specimen 7 x 24 inches is cut out and clamped over the open side;
a graduated cylinder is placed below the- drain tube to collect the
water passing through the fabric. The box is filled with water in
one minute, a stop watch being started when the water level
reaches the overflow. The minimum pressure in inches of water
at which leakage occurs and the amount of water coming through
78 TEXTILE TESTING
are observed at intervals of time (1, 10, 20, 60, minutes). The
minimum pressure is the depth of water from the water level inside
Fig. 28-Apparatus for Measuring Waterproofness by Box Method
to the highest point on the cloth at which a drop appears on the

outer surface of the cloth, a linear scale on the clamping frame
being used to measure the depth.
In evaluating the water resistance of fabrics, the effect of launder-
ing and use should also be considered. Smith has devised an
apparatus which gives an accelerated ageing of the fabric and
enables one to predict how the cloth will behave after use. An
example of the effect of laundering on results obtained with a box
test on two fabrics is shown in the following table:
Minimum pressure in inches of water
Sample 1 min. 5 min. 10 min. 30 min.
A 12 10!/2 10~-2 10
B 12~-2 9!~ 9 1'2 8Yz
After first laundering
A lOYz 10 9!~ 9Yz
B 9 8~-2 8 J'2 8Yz
After second laundering
A 9 7'-2 7!'2 7Yz
B 9 8 8 7Yz
In this case, sample A was originally superior to sample B, but
after two launderings, the two samples were the same.
TEXTILE TESTING 79
REFERENCES:
1 Haven, G. B. Mechanical Fabrics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
(1932).
~
ear Book of the A.A.T.C.C. Volume XIII. Howes Publishing Co., Inc.,
N York (1936).
regory, J. Transfer of Moisture Through Fabrics. Journal of the Textile
hlstitute 21, T66 (1930) .
• Crawshaw, H. Some Notes on the Permeability of Fabrics to Air. Journal
oftheTextile Institute ZZ, T56 (1931).
6BIack, C. P. and Matthew, J. A. Physical Properties of Fabrics in Relation
to Clothing. Journal ofthe Textile Institute 25, T197, T225 (1934).
eClayton, F. H. Measurement of the Air Permeability of Fabrics. Journal
ofthe Textile Institute 26, T171 (1935).
7Weireck, E. S. Textile Testing Laboratory. American Dyestuff Reporter
21,154 (1932).
8Rolfe E. Testing and Quality of Waterproofed Textile Fabrics, American
Dyestuff Reporter 21,535 (1932).
'Smith, W. C. Accelerated Ageing Test for Waterproofed Ducks and Similar
Fabrics. American Dyestuff Reporter 22, 114 (1933).
lOWenzel, R. N. Evaluation of Textile Waterproofing Agents. American
Dyestuff Reporter 25, 505, 510, 598 (1936).
llCryer, N. Testing of Rainproofed Cloth. American Dyestuff Reporter 25,
615 (1936).
12 Cook, A. A. and Zaparanick, J. Spray Test for Evaluating Water Repel-
lency. American Dyestuff Reporter 26,323 (1937).
18 Barr, G. Second Report, British Dept. of Sci. and IncL Res. Fabrics Co-
ordinating Research Committee, 1930, page 113.
Absorbability and Wetting-out
Absorbability and wetting-out both refer to the entrance of

liquid into a yarn or fabric; absorbability is the ability of the
fabric to take up a liquid; wetting-out is a technical term applied
to the ability of a liquid to enter a fabric and displace the air from
the capillary spaces. Both terms refer to the same phenomenon
but absorbability refers to the fabric and wetting-out to the liquid.
Two factors are important in absorbency: the total amount of
liquid absorbed, and the rate of absorption of the liquid. Some-
times one factor is measured and sometimes the other.
The methods used in testing fabrics for absorbency and wetting-
out agents (or penetrants) are:
1. Surface tension-this does not take capillary action into ac-
count and so is not always comparable with practical results. For
the determination of surface tension see any text on physical
chemistry or colloid chemistry.
2. Sinking time of a tuft of fiber or yarn or a patch of c1oth-re-
80 TEXTILE TESTING
suits obtained by this method are likely to be erratic.

3. Draves' method-a standard method of the A.A.T.c.c.
4. Capillary travel method-measures the rate of absorption, not
always comparable to results obtained in practice.
a. Weireck method.
b. Haven method.
5. Absorption from a wet solid surface such as a wet brick or
tile-measures the total absorption.
6. Absorption on immersion in a liquid-measures the total
absorption. The excess water may be removed:
a. By allowing to drip for a standard length of time.
b. By blotting.
c. By centrifuging-method of Lenher and Smith.
These last five methods will be considered in more detail.
The sinking time of a patch of cloth is a test very often carried
out in the industry because it is simple to do, requires no special
apparatus, and is quick. The results, however, may be erratic and
are never comparable with tests carried out by another operator or
even with results by the same operator at different times. The
usual method of testing is to place the liquid in a series of beakers;
the fabric is then cut into a number of equal sized squares (1~ x
1 % inches). The test consists of dropping a square on the surface
of the liquid (preferably from a standard height) and measuring
with a stop watch the time required to sink. The watch is started
when the fabric strikes the surface and is stopped when the last
corner &inks below the surface.
Draves' method, which is a standard method of the A.A.T.c.c.
is an elaboration and improvement of the above; it measures the
time required for a standard skein to sink in a solution of wetting
agent when the skein carrying a standard weight is held below the
surface of the wetting solution by an anchor. The sinker consists
of a two-inch length of No. 12 copper wire bent into the form of a
hook; the weight of the sinker should be 1.5 grams. The sinker
is fastened by a fine strong thread at a distance of one inch from an
anchor which should weigh at least 20 grams. A S-gram skein of
gray two-ply cotton yarn is folded once to form a loop, the sinker
and anchor are attached, and the opposite end of the skein is cut
through with shears. The wetting solution in a 500 cc. graduated
TEXTILE TESTING 81
cylinder is brought to 25° C. and the skein dropped in. The time
elapsing between the entrance of the skein and the moment when
the weighted skein starts to sink (when the thread between the
sinker and anchor slackens) is measured with a stop watch; the
average of at least four tests should be taken. Wetting agents are
tested in concentrations of 1, '2, 5, 7, 10, 20 grams per liter and the
results plotted. Different wetting agents are compared by de-
termining the concentrations which will give a sinking time of 25
seconds. If the method is to be used for testing yarns or fabrics
for wetting-out, a 72-gram sinker should be used since the 1 72-gram
sinker is to heavy for samples which wet-out readily.
Two capillary travel methods have been used-Weireck's method
and Haven's method. The method described by Weireck for testing
towelling uses strips of fabric 8 inches long and one inch wide, cut
both warp-wise and filling-wise; water soluble eosin is applied to
the strips very sparingly to serve as an indicator. Each strip is
pinned over a horizontal rod supported at a convenient height above
a beaker of water so that the end is just above the surface, a steel
rule is clamped parallel with the vertical edge. The strips are
lowered so that the end just touches the water and the stop watch
is started. The height to which the water rises in 1, 5, 10 minutes
is recorded. The following table is given for rating the fabric as to
absorbency:
At end of 10 minutes
if water rises Rating
5-6 inches.. . ...... .._ ........ _._ .. __ Excellent
4-5 inches_ .......... _............ _......... _._ ... Very good
3-4 inches .. _..... ....................Good
2-3 inches .... _........ __ ...... ..... _....... _._ .. Fair
1-2 inches._ .. __ ........................ _........... _.Poor
0-1 inch_ ......... _..................... _._ .. __ ... _.Very poor
Haven's method also measures the rapidity of absorption. Strips
of cloth one inch wide are cut from selvage to selvage, these strips
are held horizontally over the ground glass top of a light box with a
scale alongside. The tension in the strips should be made uniform
by attaching standard weights at one end. The weighted end is
allowed to dip into a tray of water and the position of the water in
the strips is read at various time interval$. A plot of capillary
82 TEXTILE TESTING
travel against time is prepared and used in rating the fabrics for
absorbency. Hess and Reidheimer have shown that to get re-
producible results a constant relative humidity and temperature are
necessary in the Haven method.
The total absorption from a wet brick or tile surface may be
measured by weighing the fabric before and after the test. The
brick or tile should be kept wet by immersion in water and the
fabric should be in position long enough to come to equlibrium.
This test is said to be independent of relative humidity conditions.
The amount of liquid absorbed when the fabric is immersed in
the liquid may also be measured by weighing before and after.
Haven suggests a simple method which consists in cutting out a
sample three inches square with a template, conditioning and
weighing, immersing in the liquid to a depth of three inches by means
of tweezers, and holding the fabric immersed for two minutes. The
sample is then withdrawn, allowed to drip for 15 seconds and
weighed in a tared glass weighing bottle.
Len her and Smith's method is more elaborate than the above.
A five-gram skein (or sample of fabric) is weighed to the nearest
centigram and sunk as in the Draves' method for 15 seconds. It
is then dumped into a slowly revolving centrifuge with a basket
radius of 5.5 centimeters, the centrifuge is then rotated at a speed
of 2,160 revolutions per minute for 15 seconds, the sample is re-
weighed and the per cent increase in weight determined. An aver-
age of five determinations should be obtained.
If a centrifuge is available, Lenher and Smith's method is the best
one for total absorbency. Draves' method is probably the best one
for rate of absorption or rate of wetting. For rough but quick and
simple determinations the sinking time method, Weireck's method
and Haven 's total absorbency methods are available.
In testing wetting-out agents or penetrants, the rate of wetting is
all that is required; but in testing a fabric for absorbency both
rate of absorption and total absorption should be determined since
a towelling, for example, might absorb water very rapidly but not
hold very much or, on the other hand, might absorb a large amount
of water but take It up too slowly to be of value.
TEXTILE TESTING 83
REFERENCES:
IHaven G. B. Mechanical Fabrics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
(1932).
2Year Book of the A.A.T.C.C., Volume XIII. Howes Publishing Co., Inc.,
New York (1936). ..
3Black, C. P. and Matthew, J. A. Physical Properties of Fabrics in Relation
to Clothing. Journal of the Textile Institute 25, T197 (1934).
"Draves, C. Z. and Clarkson, R. G. New Method for the Evaluation of Wetting
Agents. American Dyestuff Reporter 20,201 (1931).
~Weireck, E. S. Textile Testing Laboratory. American Dyestuff Reporter
21, 154 (1932).
6Lenher, S. and Smith, J. E. Evahtftion of Textile Penetrants. American
Dyestuff Reporter 22, 689 (1933).
7 Hess, K. and Reidheimer, D. Determination of Absorption of W~r (sic)
by Fabrics. AmericalJ Dyestuff Reporter 23, 715 (1934).
Shrinkage
Shrinkage is the linear amount of fabric will contract warp-wise

or filling-wise when laundered. It is expressed either as per cent of
its original measurement or as inches per yard. All fibers have some
tendency to shrink but this tendency is greatly increased if the
fabric has been stretched in finishing; a stretched fabric will lose
all its stretch when laundered. Standard tests are available for
testing cotton, rayon, and silk fabrics for shrinkage, but wool fab-
rics, which shrink the most, have no standard test as yet; this is
probably because the shrinkage of wool is affected by so many
variables whereas the other fibers have a less complex action.
Johnson has shown that shrinkage in cotton goods is nearly totally
accounted for by the water; that is, that the detergents used have
little effect on the amount of shrinkage, but in spite of this fact the
standard tests imitate real laundering as far as chemicals used are
concerned. It should be borne in mind also that shrinkage is not
complete in one laundering; although most of the shrinkage occurs
in one treatment, a total of at least five launderings are necessary
to get the total shrinkage.
All the 'standard tests involve the preparation of a sample by cut-
ting a square of cloth and marking it either with indelible ink or
with fine threads sewn into the fabric. The marks are made a
measured distance apart both warp-wise and filling-wise, three
pair in each direction. The samples are then laundered by varying
methods which will be taken up later.
84 TEXTILE TESTING
After launder;ng and rinsing the fabrics are dried on a horizontal

surface and pressed while still damp by a flat-bed press or by a flat-
iron, used without sliding to imitate a flat-bed press. The distances
between marks are then measured and averaged and the resulting
shrinkage expressed as per cent of original measurement or as inches
per yard. Flat-bed presses suitable for use in these tests may be
obtained in this country from General Electric Company, Sche-
nectady, New York, or from Franklyn Press company, Syracuse,
New York.
The A.A.T.C.C. method for shrinkage of cotton fabrics, which is
also the accepted method of the A.S.T.M. and the U. S. Dept. of
Commerce, uses a sample at least 20 inches square, or better 20
inches long and the full width of the fabric, and a measured distance
of 18 inches. The washing machine is a reversing wash wheel of 20
inches diameter, a capacity of 3 pounds of dry cloth, and fitted with
a pipe for injecting live steam into the wheel for heating. Machines
which answer these specifications may be obtained from Robert
Ewing & Sons Company, Green Island, New York, or from Hurley
Machine Company, 22nd Street and 54th Avenue, Chicago, Illinois.
The machine is used with a full load and with solution equal to 50
times the weight of the load. The solution used is one of chip
laundry soap such as will give "good running suds" and is made up
from a stock solution of one pound of soap in a gallon of hot water.
The load is put in, the machine started, and water and soap at a
temperature not exceeding 100 0 F. is added; the temperature is
raised to 212 0 F. by injecting live steam, the steam is then shut off and
the machine is run for 40 minutes. The soap solution is drained off,
water is run in, the temperature is raised to 140 0 F. and run for 5
minutes. The water is drained off, more water is run in, raised to
140 0 F. and run for 10 minutes. The water is drained off again and
the load is run without further additions of any sort to complete
the full cycle of 60 minutes, during all of which time the machine
should not be stopped. This test duplicates very closely actual
laundry conditions but requires special and rather expensive ap-
paratus; it is suitable for laboratories doing a lot of shrinkage
testing but another method requiring no special apparatus would
be desirable for laboratories making only occasional tests.
The A.S.T.M. method for use on silk and rayon woven goods uses
TEXTILE TESTING 85
a sample 12 or 13 inches square and measured distances of 10 inches.

The soap solution used is 0.5 per cent neutral soap and the washing
and rinsings are all done at 100° F. The machine used is a Laundero-
meter, originally devised for obtaining the fastness of dyes to
laundering and which consists essentially of a number of one-pint
preserve jars held with their bases to a horizontal shaft 2 inches from
the center of revolution, the shaft revolving at 40 to 45 revolutions
per minute. The jars are maintained at the standard temperature
of 100 ± 2° F. by a water bath. Each sample is placed in a jar with
300 cc. of soap solution and run for 15 minutes. The sample is
removed from the jar, rinsed by dipping in three changes of water,
returned to the jar with 300 cc. of water and run for 5 minutes; it
is then dried, pressed, and measured. This test requires only a
Launderometer which can be used for other tests; the Laundero-
meter may be obtained from Atlas Electric Devices Company, 363
West Superior Street, Chicago, Illinois. The Launderometer might
be used for testing all fabrics for shrinkage, using the same treat-
ments as are specified for fastness to washing tests for dyes on the
same kind of fabrics.
Williams has suggested a method of testing for shrinkage which
requires no special apparatus. A sample 10 inches square with
measured distances of 8 inches is used; the sample is first washed
in warm water if any significant amounts of sizing are present.
The sample is then immersed in a beaker containing 0.3 per cent
solution of soap in water at 40° C. and the beaker and contents are
left in a warm place for at least two hours. The sample is removed,
rinsed, squeezed as dryas possible in towels, allowed to dry while
spread smooth on a pad of cotton sheeting, and ironed. Measurements
are taken and the results reported as "ironed dry." The sample is
rewet, wrung out, ironed until dry, conditioned several hours.
measured again, and the results reported as "ironed wet." The
ironed dry shrinkage is usually more than the ironed wet.
The permissable amount of shrinkage varies widely according to
the use to which the fabric is to be put and the labelling which goes
with it. A "guaranteed shrink-proof" or "100 per cent shrink-proof"
fabric and should have no appreciable shrinkage; a "pre-shrunk"
fabric should have only a small amount of shrinkage (1-2 per cent).
86 TEXTILE TESTING
In general, we may say that in any fabric a shrinkage of more than

5 per cent in either direction is excessive.
REFERENCES:
IYear Book of the A.A.T.C.C., Volume XIII. Howes Publishing Co., Inc.,
New York (1936).
2A.S.T.M. Standards on Textile Material. A.S.T.M., Philadelphia (1936).
3Johnson, G. H. Textile Fabrics. Harper & Bros., New York (1927).
4Harwood, F. C. Problem of Shrinkage. Journal of the Textile Institute, 27,
P333 (1936).
6Williams J. G. Testing and the Serviceability of Fabrics. Journal of the
Textile Institute 28, P22S (1937).
CHAPTER 7
FABRIC TESTING (Continued)
Thermal Properties
T the
he thermal property of a fabric is its ability to resist or permit
passage of heat. In winter clothing, of course, warmth is
desired; in summer clothing, coolness is necessary. Intimately
associated with thermal properties are porosity and permeability.
since the warmth of any fabric is due to the dead air space and not
actually to the fiber itself; also. to be comfortable. clothing must
allow evaporation of moisture from the body and so must have a
certain amount of permeability. We have already considered
porosity and permeability and will now concern ourselves with the
measurement of thermal properties alone.
There are three common methods of' measuring the thermal
insulating value of fabrics:
1. Disc or plate method.
2. Constant temperature method.
3. Cooling method.
In the disc or plate method. the fabric is held between two plates
at different temperatures and the rate of flow of the heat through
. the fabric is measured. If pressure is exerted on a fabric, its proper-
ties are altered-if the pressure is great enough to get good thermal
contact between the plates and the fabric the change in properties
is considerable; if the pressure is small the thermal contact is poor
and the surface resistance to the flow of heat may be large enough to
cause serious error in the determination. Results obtained by this
method therefore are the thermal conductivities of compressed
fabrics under a pressure which must be stated in order to be repro-
ducible. Speakman's modification of this method consists in using
two calorimeters with the fabric between supported at constant
thickness. The thermal conductivity of any material is given by
the formula;
87
88 TEXTILE TESTING
QL
k =
TA(tr t 2)
where Q heat transmitted in calories
L thickness of material in centimeters
A area of sample in square centimeters
T = time in seconds
t rt 2 = temperature difference between the two sides of the
material in degrees Centigrade
k = thermal conductivity
It is obvious that this method involves accurate heat measurements
as well as accurate thickness control.
In the constant temperature method, a body is wrapped with the
fabric to be tested and is maintained at a constant temperature by a
controlled source of energy (usually electric heaters); the amount of
energy required to maintain the body at the fixed temperature is
determined-an electrical measurement which is easier and more
accurate than the measurement of heat energy. This method has
been used by Haven, the Bureau of Standards, Marsh, and Angus
in making very accurate comparisons of thermal insulating values.
Absolute determinations cannot be made, so that comparisons of
results are possible only when the same instrument is used.
In the cooling method, we have a hot body wrapped in the fabric
to be tested and the rate of cooling is measured or, more usually,
the time required for the body to cool a given number of degrees.
The results apply only to the apparatus used and cannot oe com-
pared with another worker's, but for comparisons of different
fabrics in one laboratory the simplicity of the method and apparatus
makes it very valuable. Black and Matthew have used this method
in the form of a katathermometer-an alcohol thermometer with a
cylindrical bulb about 4 centimeters long, 2 centimeters in diameter,
and with a stem 20 centimeters in length with two graduations at
lOO°F and 95°F (temperatures just above and just below body
temperature). On this apparatus, it was found that relative humi-
dity had no effect, a further simplification. The cloth is made into
a cylinder by wrapping on a wooden form, marking, and sewing
Tabs are left at the bottom and top of the cylinder to fasten on
ebonite rings by means of shellac. The whole apparatus is placed
TEXTILE TESTING 10
in an enclosure at constant temperature (18.SoC was used by Black

and Matthews) and the time of cooling from 100° to 95° is noted
with the fabric and without the fabric. The thermal insulating
value is given as: time of cooling when clad/time of cooling unclad.
This ratio varies from 0.69 to 0.96 for the "comfort zone"; a ratio
greater than 0.96 would be too warm and less than 0.69 would be
too cold.
A crude variation of this method for comparing fabrics would be
to surround a beaker or small can with the fabric, place it inside a
larger beaker or can, pour in a definite weight of water at about
I05-HO°F and observe the lime required to cool between 100° and
95°F. The author has used an improved version of this rough
method using apparatus which can be easily made up. The ap-
paratus (Figure 29) consists of a large copper can (A) 3 inches in
diameter and 5~ inches high, with a sheet asbestos bottom (C)
and a sheet asbestos lid (0) into which is put a rubber stopper (F)
containing a thermometer (E). A smaller copper can (B) of 2 inches
diameter and such a height as to reach from the lid to a depression
in the bottom (in order to center the inner can) contains 200 cubic
centimeters of water when the level is nearly to the top. In use,
the fabric is placed around the inner can, and the whole is set into
place in the outer can. Two hundred cubic centimeters of water
are heated in a beaker to lOS-110°F and poured into the inner can,
the lid and thermometer put in place and the time for the water
to cool from 100° to 95°F is measured. The apparatus is not ac-
curate enough for absolute determinations, but is sufficiently so
for comparisons of various fabrics when made by one tester. The
results may be calculated to thermal insulating value as in the
katathermometer method. Loose fiber masses may be tested by
filling the annular space between the cans with equal weights or
equal volumes of fiber.
The use of these different methods of measuring thermal insulat-
ing value has shown several very important facts about the warmth
of fabrics. The fiber used has little importance in itself on the
warmth of the fabric, but only if it affects the porosity and perme-
ability of the fabric or as it affects the permanence of the warmth.
For example, cotton and woolen fabrics may be made identical in
warmth, but after use the cotton would mat down and be less porous
90 TEXTILE TESTING
Fig. 29
Apparatus for Determina-
tion of Thermal Insulat-
ing value.
B A
(have less dead air space), whereas the resilience of the wool fabric
would bring it back it its original porosity; the cotton fabric would
therefore be less warm after use, whereas the wool fabric would
retain its warmth. It has also been shown that napped fabrics are
warmer than un napped and loose garments are warmer than tight;
these effects again being due to the dead air space formed. Fulling
decreases the permeability to air but increases the warmth of a
woolen fabric, the porosity remaining about the same; in this case,
fulling has decreased the size of the individual air spaces but in-
creased the number of such spaces so that a greater warmth is
obtained.
TEXTILE TESTING 91
REFERENCES:
IHaven, G. B., Mec, :Mjcal Fabrics. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York,
1932.
2Speakman, J. B. and Chamberlain, N. H., Thermal Conductivity of Textile
Materials and Fabrics, Journal of the Textile Institute 21, T29 (1930).
3 Marsh, M. C., Thermal Insulating Properties of Fabrics, Journal of Textile
Institute 22, T245 (1931).
"Black, C. P. and Matthew, J. A., Physical Properties of Fabrics in Relation
to Clothing, Journal of the Textile Institute 25, T197, T249 (1934).
5 Angus, T. c., Heat Retaining Properties of Clothing, Computed on a Physi-
ological Basis. Journal of the Textile Institute 26. T83 (1935); 27. T273 (1936).
Handle or Draping Quality
This quality of a fabric is now expressed only by the qualitative

judgment of an expert who, on feeling, bending, and crushing a
fabric in his hands describes it as "soft", "harsh", "boardy",
"lofty" or in some other terms which mean little to a non-expert
and which do not allow accurate comparisons with other fabrics or
with comparisons of the feel to other experts. Handle is a very
complex mixture of properties which are unconsciously integrated
or summed-up in the mind of the expert. The main, but probably
not the only, factors in handle are:
1. Weight-this determination has already been given in
Chapter 5.
2. Stiffness or limpness-the resistance to or ease of bending
of a fabric.
3. Hardness or softness-the resistance to or ease of compression.
4. Smoothness-the friction of the fabric on the fingers.
5. Resilience-the ability of the fabric to resume its former
volume, thickness, or shape after compression or bending.
No one instrument will determine all of these but each one may be
determined separately.
Stiffness of a fabric may be measured in one of several ways. The
method of MacNicholas and Hedrich consists in folding a strip of
fabric 3:lJ9 inches in size back on itself and measuring the height of
the fold when compressed by various loads; this method requires
only a thickness gauge with a variable load attachment. The
method of Peterson and Dantzig is illustrated in Figure 30; the
strip of fabric is fed by rubber covered rolls horizontally across a
plane surface upon which is a metal bar at an angle B'BC of 45°,
92 TEXTILE TESTING
Fig. 30-Principle of Determination of Stiffness of a Fabric.
this bar is calibrated in millimeters and the point C at which the

fabric touches the bar is observed, the distance BC being a measure
of the stiffness of the cloth. A simpler method suggested by the
author is to have a horizontal plane AB and a plane BD at 45°, the
strip of fabric is placed on the horizontal plane with a metal rule
above it, the end of the rule coinciding with the end of the fabric;
the rule and strip are then moved to the right, the strip bending
over and eventually touching the angular plane at which time the
end of the rule is at B'; the distance BB' read from the rule is then
a measure of the stiffness. This apparatus might easily be made in
the laboratory and is simple to operate. Peirce has described a
more complicated method which III principle is the same as the
above except that a known length of cloth is allowed to bend over
and the angle B'BC is measured; he then calculates the bending
length:
C L
TEXTILE TESTING 93
/tabrlC
( J
olamps II
FiC. 31-Heart Loop Method for Stifrneu of Fabric.
when C = bending length

L = length of the overhanging fabric
a = the angle B/BC
Peirce suggests that the resistance to bending which would be felt
by the fingers is due to the flexural rigidity which may be calculated:
G = well
when G == flexural rigidity
W = weight per unit area of the fabric
To compare the stiffness of materials of different thicknesses, the
bending modulus may be calculated;
Q = KG/d 3
when Q = bending modulus
d thickness
K a constant
Peirce also suggests a method caI1ed the heart loop method for
use on very soft materials where the stiffness cannot be obtained by
. the previous methods. A strip of fabric of length L is folded back
94 TEXTILE TESTING
on itself and clamped so that it hangs in a heart-shaped· loop (Figure

31). If the fabric were very stiff the length of the loop (m) would be
O.1337L, but if the fabric were completely limp (and the clamps
were very thin) the loop would have a length (m) of O.5L. If the
length of the loop is measured, the stiffness is inversely proportional
to the length (m) or the limpness is directly proportional to the
length, between the above limits. Calculations may also be made
as in Peirce s other method :
Let n = O.1337L
and S = m - n
Then a = 32.85° x Sin
and C = n
( ~~~_) 113
tan a
Schiefer describes a "Flexometer" in which a pair of test specimens
of standard dimensions are mounted in the vertical angles formed
by two vertical intersecting plates, one fixed and the other movable
on a spindle. The work done in folding the specimens to various
angles between the plates is measured by the deflection of a cali-
brated spring. Saxl has devised a stiffness tester in which a strip
of cloth is held by clamps at one end, the other end resting on the
pan of a balance. The balance is set for a definite weight and the
clamp is rotated, a pointer indicating the number of degrees, until a
balance is reached. This instrument therefore measures the force
required to bend the fabric. For occasional use only, the simplest
methods of determining stiffness are the method of MacNicholas
and Hedrich, the method of Peterson and Dantzig (or the author's
modification) and the heart loop method of Peirce. Peirce has
shown that the stiffness of a fabric as a whole is the geometric mean
a b c
Ordinary Fabric Ordinary Fabric Pile Fabric
Increasing Load. Increasing and Increasing and
Decreasing Load. Decreasing Load.
Fig. 32-Typical Thickness-Load Curves for Fabrics
TEXTILE TESTING 9S
of the stiffness of the warp and the filling; that is, the stiffness
warp-wise and the stiffness filling-wise are measured, multiplied
together, and the square root of the product obtained.
The hardness of a fabric depends upon the measurement of the
thickness of the fabric under varying loads. If the thickness is
plotted against the load a curve similar to Figure 32a is obtained,
consisting of a small curved portion and then an approximately
straight line. Peirce suggests the measurement of the thickness
(T I and T 2) at two loads (LI and L 2) on the straight-line portion
of the curve; the hardness of the sample (H) is then given as:
H = (L 2-L I ) / (T I-T 2)
Schiefer 'describes the "Compressometer," a combination of two
thickness gauges mounted with a rack and pinion to move vertically
through a helical spring. The lower thickness gauge reads the
thickness of the fabric, the upper thickness gauge reads the deflection
of the spring which combined with the calibration of the spring
gives the load on the fabric. Schiefer defines the compressibility
of a fabric as rate of decrease of the thickness at one pound per
square inch pressure divided by the thickness at the same pressure,
using the straight line of Figure 32a to get the slope which is the
rate of decrease of thickness; or using the same symbols as before:
T I -T2
Compressibility =
T 1(L 2 - L 1)
If the Compressometer is used with a pile fabric, a curve similar
to the upper one of Figure 32c is obtained; in this AB represents
the thickness of the pile, L is the crushing load, and BC represents
the bending of the pile.
The most convenient method for measuring the smoothness of a
fabric is that of Mercier. A block covered with a sample of the
fabric to be tested is placed on an inclined plane covered with the
same material. The angle between the inclined plane and the
horizontal when the block just begins to slide is measured; owing
to a rearrangement of the fibers in the surface of the fabric, this
angle decreases with successive slides, therefore a number of slides
is made until a constant angle is found. It may be shown that the
96 TEXTILE TESTING
coefficient of friction of the fabric on itself is equal to the tangent

of the angle of slide. A low coefficient is desirable in the lining of
coat sleeves, shoe linings, and sleeping garments while it is unde-
sirable in the backing of rugs.
The resilience of a fabric is obtained by measuring the deformation
of the fabric on increasing load, then decreasing the load and
measuring the deformation. The two curves are plotted and the
area under each curve measured by a planimeter or by taking a
number of measurements:
area under curve of decreasing load
Resilience = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - x 100
area under curve of increasing load
A simpler method consists in measuring the deformation Dl under
a light load L I , then increasing the load to L2 and measuring the
deformation D 2; the excess load is then removed to obtain load L 1
again and the new deformation D 3 is measured. Then
Resilience = 100(0 2 - 0 3 ) / (0 2 - 0 1 )
This determination may be applied to many of the stiffness or
hardness determinations already described. The Haven method
or fiber resilience described in Chapter 3 may be used for fabrics
also. The MacNicholas and Hedrich method for stiffness may be
run with decreasing loads and the resilience measured. Schiefer's
Flexometer and Saxl's apparatus may also be used to determine
resilience. A variable load thickness gauge or Schiefer's Com-
pressometer will give curves as in Figures 32b and 32c and may be
used to measure resilience.
Amick has described a method of measuring the crease-resistance
of fabrics which really meeaures the resiliency of the fabric after
creasing. Strips of fabric are cut out 4 centimeters long and 1
centimeter wide, warp-wise and filling-wise, and are allowed to
condition, after which they are handled only with forceps. Each
strip is folded in half (2x! centimeters), placed on a glass plate,
and a 500 gram weight is placed on it for 2 minutes (by stopwatch).
The weight is removed, the strip is placed on a taut wire for 2
minutes, and then the distance between the ends of the strip is
measured. The distance in centimeters divided by 4 and multi-
plied by 100 is the per cent resilience of the sample.
TEXTILE TESTING 97
The handle or draping quality of cloth is of great importance in

the application of starch to fabrics in the calendering of cotton, in
woolen anq worsted finishing, and in the determination of the crease
resistance of fabrics. The introduction of the synthetic resins for
crease-proofing fabrics and the introduction of various softeners
for use in finishing fabrics also make it necessary to give a quanti-
tative value to the various factors which affect the handle of the
cloth. It may be noted that three of these factors--stiffness, hard-
ness, a.nd resilience-may all be measured by a variable load thick-
ness gauge (if the MacNicholas and Hedrich method is used for
stiffness); the other determinations-softness (by heart loop),
smoothness, and weight-are measurable by simple apparatus which
may be constructed in the laboratory.
REFERENCES:
IPeter60n, E. C. and Dantzig, T., Stiffness in Fabrics Produced by Different
Starches and Starch Mixtures and a Quantitative Method for Evaluating Stiff-
ness, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Tech. Bull. No. 108 (1929).
2MacNicholas, H.J. and Hedrich, A. F., Structure and Properties of Parachute
Cloths, Nat. Adv. Com. for Aeronautics Tech. Note, No. 335 (1930).
8Mercier, A. A., Coefficient of Friction of Fabrics, Bureau of Standards Journal
of Research 5,243 (1930).
~Schiefer, H. F., Flexometer, an Instrument for Evaluating the Flexual Pro-
perties of Cloth and Similar Materials, Bureau of Standards Journal of Research
10,647 (1933).
5Schiefer, H. F., Compressometer, an Instrument for Evaluating the Thick-
ness, Compressibility, and Compressional Resilience of Textiles and Similar
Materials, Bureau of Standards Journal of Research 10, 705 (1933).
epieree, F. F., "Handle" of Cloth as a Measurable Quantity, Journal of the
Textile Institute 21, T377 (1930).
7 Amick, C., Crease-Resisting Fabrics, American Dyestuff Reporter 24, 553,
622,645 (1935).
8Stiffness Tester (Saxl) , American Dyestuff Reporter 26, 620 (1937
9Schiefer, H. F., Evaluation of Crush Resistant Finishing Treatments for
Fabrics, American Dyestuff Reporter 26, P667 (1937).
Serviceability, Wear, Abrasion

These three terms are often used interchangeably but in reality
there is a distinction. "Serviceability" of a fabric is its length of
life up to its end of usefulness which is when one necessary property
becomes deficient. In clothing, for example, the end of service is
generally when due to color fading, shrinkage in laundering, or
bagging at knees or elbows, the garment no longer has a presentable
appearance; clothing seldom wears out, although some examples
of actual wear may be found. The serviceability of tent cloth is
98 TEXTILE TESTING
determined by its water-proof ness; the serviceability of canvas

belting or shoe lining on the other hand, is determined by actual
wear. "Serviceability," then, is an indeterminate quantity and
depends on the length of time or amount of use a fabric may endure
before its mo'st desirable property becomes insufficient to give it
the properties desired.
"Wear" is the amount of deterioration of a fabric due to breaking,
cutting, or removal of the fibers. In certain cases such as the
belting or shoe linings quoted above, "wear" and "serviceability"
are probably the same but in most cases they are distinct. Wear is
also an indeterminate quality because conditions of wear vary so
much and also because we do not know quantitatively the effect of
the different factors involved in wear. Qualitatively, we believe
the following to be the factors causing wear.
1. Direct force on the fabric-this never occurs in normal
wear but only under abnormal stress.
2. Impact effects-important only in floor coverings.
3. Flexing; or friction of fiber on fiber and yarn on yarn due to
bending of the fabric-this is ordinarily unimportant because
it results in very slow wear; in the case of sized or coated
fabrics, however, it is very important.
4. Abrasion
a. Friction of cloth on cloth-occurs only locally, such as the
rubbing of the sleeve on the coat.
b. Friction of the cloth on external objects-probably the
most important factor.
c. Friction of the fibers on the dust or grit in the fabric, re-
sulting in cutting of the fibers-the importance of this
factor depends upon the character or the use of the fabric
and the frequency and thoroughness of cleaning.
From the above, it will be seen that abrasion is the most important
factor in wear in most cases and that abrasion consists of friction
between the cloth and some other material. For purposes of testing,
this material must be quite rough so as to give a quick result, but
the selection of this rough abrasive may be contrary to the ordinary
conditions of use of the fabric. This should be borne in mind in
considering the results of abrasion tests.
The main factors in abrasion, in addition to the temperature and
TEXTILE TESTING 99
relative humidity of the atm9sphere which should always be at

standard conditions, and their general effects are:
1. Character of the motion.
a. Rotary.
b. Reciprocating.
In general, reciprocating motion is better because the effect of
abrasion may be studied on the warp and filling separately.
2. Nature of the abradant.
a. The sample itself.
b. A standard cloth, usually canvas.
c. A steel surface.
d. Silicon carbide, emery cloth, or emery paper.
If the sample itself is the abradant, a long period of abrasion is
required and different cloths are not comparable with each other.
If a standard cloth is used, variations are very apt to exist so that
results ·obtained at one time cannot be compared with results
obtained at another time. A steel surface is also very variable not
only from one machine to another but in the same machine after
different periods of wear. The use of silicon carbide or emery cloth
is now almost universal; although admittedly unlike real wear, it
gives rapid results and can be obtained quite uniform.
3. Presliiure of the abradant on the sample.
This effect is very great, usually a linear relationship exists be-
tween the pressure of the abradant and the amount of abrasion.
The pressure, therefore, must be standardized.
4. Tension on the sample.
This effect is also large and the tension must be standardized.
5. Removal of lint.
a. Bya vacuum attachment.
b. By running the machine at high speed so that the lint is
thrown out.
c. By rocking the abradant to brush out the lint.
Accumulation of lint in the abradant Or in the sample tends to
clog the machine and reduce the amount of abrasion.
6. Determination of end point or amount of abrasion.
a. Number of strokes required to wear a hole.
This appears the most logical but actually is affected by
100 TEXTILE TESTING
so many variables that it is rather indeterminate; it is,

however, considerably used.
b. Loss in strength after a definite number of rubs. This is
used in most cases and seems to give most satisfactory
results. A large enough area must be abraded, then, to
give sufficient strength tests to obtain a satisfactory
average.
c. Loss in thickness after a definite number of rubs. This is
used only on felts, carpets, and napped fabrics where
considerable abrasion may occur before any loss in strength
takes place. In general, thickness determinations are un-
sa tisfactory.
d. Loss of weight after a definite number of rubs. This
method is used on heavy plushes and deep pile goods where
thickness determinations are least satisfactory; it is not
used on ordinary woven goods because of the possibility of
the cloth picking up pieces of lint or abradant.
e. Change in porosity, compressibility, heat insulation, water
absorption, or other properties. These are used only in
very special cases.
Numerous abrasion machines have been described in the literature
and for most of these the reader is referred to the survey by Ball of
the machines commercially available; these include the following
machines together with the manufacturer or dealer: Amsler Wear
Tester sold by Herman A. Holz, New York; M.LT. Abrasion
Machine made bv Hamblett Machine Co., Lawrence, Mass.;
Perspirator by Industrial By-Products and Research Corp., Phila-
delphia, Pa.; Shawmut Wear-Testing Machine made by Shawmut
Engineering Co., Boston, Mass.; U. S. Testing Co., Inc., Abrasion
(Wear Test) Machine made by United States Testing Co., Inc.,
Hoboken, N. J.; Wyzenbeek Precision Wear Test Meter made by
Wyzenbeek and Staff, Inc., Chicago, III.; Schopper Abrasion
Tester sold by Testing Machines, Inc., New York. Perhaps the
most frequently used in this country and the least unsatisfactory in
the author's opinion is the M.LT. model described by Haven. In
considering this machine, we might first note how it compares with
the factors given above.
1. The sample is a strip of cloth 26 inches long and 672 inches
TEXTILE TESTING 101
wide which is abraded by a longitudinal reciprocating motion so as

to abrade 18 inches of sample; 1Y2 inches at each end is abraded
unevenly, the 15 inches in the middle is abraded at uniform speed.
Fig. 33-Abrasion Tester-M.I.T. Model.
2. The abradant for general use is No. 000 emery cloth; for
carpets and materials which are doped or coated, No. 00 garnet
paper is recommended.
3. The pressure of the abradant on the sample may be varied.
It is suggested that a pressure equal to the number of ounces per
square yard of the fabric be used.
4. The tension on the sample may be varied from one pound up.
It is suggested that tensions be as follows:
Light fabrics ................... up to 7 oz/sq yd 1Y2 lbs
Medium fabrics ................... 7 - 15 oz/sq yd 2 Ibs
Heavy and coated fabrics ........ above 15 oz/sq yd 2Y2 lbs
102 TEXTILE TESTING
S. Removal of lint is accomplished by having the abradant free

to rock. This rocking occurs with a snap at each reversal of direc-
tion of motion and throws off any lint formed by the previous
stroke.
6. The amount of abrasion is determined by giving the per cent
loss in strength after a definite number of rubs. A revolution
counter gives the number of double rubs and the size of the sample
is such that ten strip or four grab tests may be made on the abrad-
ed surface.
In addition to the above factors, this machine includes flexing
of the cloth over a roller moving in ball bearings. The diameter of
the roller controls the amount of flexing and the following sizes are
suggested:
Light fabrics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. up to 7 oz/sq/yd ~ inch dia.
Medium fabrics .................. 7 - 15 oz/sq yd % inch dia.
Heavy fabrics ................ above 15 oz/sq yd 1 inch dia.
A horizontal roller in ball bearings is mounted in the frame and
over this is draped the sample; one end of the sample is clamped to
a block which slides in vertical guides, the other is attached to a
dead weight tensioning device. The sliding block is driven by a
connecting rod and crank and by means of a heart-shaped cam is
given 18 inches of linear motion of which the first 1% inches is
accelerating, the last 1% inches is decelerating, and the middle 15
inches is uniform speed. The normal speed of operation is 55 to 60
r.p.m. of the cam, the source of power being a % horsepower motor
equipped with a rheostat and a speed reducing device. The abra-
dant is stretched flat on a rocking plate, and is fastened by screws;
in the rocking plate, at each end, are two posts loosely fitting the
top bars of the machine. In the machine, the yarns which are
perpendicular to the direction of motion receive the most wear, so
two tests are usually made-one each on warp and filling. To
measure the tendency of a cloth to "wear shiny," a glass
rod may be used instead of abradant and the increase in gloss
measured with a photometer.
The results obtained on an abrasion tester are comparative only.
In many cases, the order of resistance of fabrics to abrasion is also
the order of wear, as far as we can tell; but in many other cases the
order is different. The abrasion test must not be considered as
TEXTILE TESTING 103
imitating wear because wear is such a variable process and we have

no means to measure it; still less should the abrasion test be con-
sidered a measurement of serviceability; the abrasion test is simply
a test of the quality of the fabric as to its resistance to a combination
of flexing and cutting of the fibers and its results should be con-
sidered in connection with other tests and not as a single criterion
of the suitability of a fabric for a given use. The tester should con-
tinually keep in mind that abrasion is not the only factor in wear
and wear is not the only factor in serviceability.
REFERENCES:
IHaven, G. B., Mechanical Fabrics. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.
1932.
2Ball, H. ]., Abrasion and Wear Testing Machines for Textiles, A.S.TM.
Bulletin No. 89,11 (1937).
3Matthew, J. A, Cloth Wear Testing Machine, Journal of the Textile Insti-
tute 21, TS46 (1930).
"Crawshaw, H. Morton, W. E •. Brown. K. C. Experiments in Fabric Wear
Testing, Journal of the Textile Institute 22. T64 (1931).
5Davis, W. and Buckley, G. H., Abrasion Testing of Knitted Textiles, Journal
of the Textile I·nstitute, 25, T133, (1934).
6Conference on Serviceability of Fabrics. Journal of the Textile Institute 28,
P173 et seq. (1937).
7 Harvey, E. H., Wyzenbeek Precision Wear Tester Meter, American Dyestuff
Reporter 21, 177 (1932).
CHAPTER 8
STRENGTH AND STRETCH TESTING OF

FIBERS, YARNS AND FABRICS
Introdcution and Definitions
The determination of the strength of a textile material gives us

very useful information as to that material but a word of
warning as to the interpretation of the results might not be amiss.
Strength as an imitative test is of no value; that is, in actual use a
textile material is not subject to a slowly and steadily increasing
load as is used in the strength test but rather to abrasive action
and smaller repeated loads. Strength as a measure of uniformity is
a very useful test, since a change in any physical property or a
change in the chemical constitution of a textile material will nearly
always result in a change in strength; even here, however, a warn-
ing must be voiced-strength tends to give minimum rather than
average results. To explain this, consider the measurement of
twist in a yarn, we untwist ten inches of yarn and measure the total
number of turns-the average twist of the ten inches of yarn is
thereby obtained. If we break the same ten inches, the force
measured is not the average strength of that ten inches, but the
strength of the weakest spot in that length of yarn. The principal
value of the strength test is its use to measure the quality of the
textile material, which is dependent upon the qualities of the con-
stituents of the material and the quality of the work done upon it.
For example, the quality of a yarn is dependent upon the quality
of the fiber and the quality of the spinning operation; the quality
of a cloth is dependent upon the quality of the fiber, the spinning
operation, the weaving operation, and the finishing operation. It
follows, then, that strength is the determination of the result
of several variables and is a rather complex quantity; wherever
104
TEXTILE TESTING 105
possible then strengths should be measured in comparison with

other samples which differ only in one aspect from the unknown
sample.
Stretch is desirable in some cases, especially if it is of the elastic
type; knitted goods, for example, are meant to be tight fitting and
to yield readily to forces. In general, however, stretch is undesirable
because the fabric is meant to keep its shape and dimensions. The
combination of stretch and strength, the method of obtaining which
will be given later, gives the work necessary to break the sample
and is a measure of the toughness of the material, which is more
nearly related to wearing ability than either strength or stretch
alone. Consider as two extremes ramie which has a high strength
but low stretch, and wet rayon which has a high stretch but low
strength-the product of the two in both cases is low, both are
lacking in toughness. Other fabrics may have less strength than
ramie and less stretch than wet rayon, but the product of the two is
greater and consequently they wear longer and better.
Unfortunately, the nomenclature of strength and stretch testing
is not yet standardized, so we must first define the terms which we
are about to use. A stress is the force or load acting upon a sample.
a strain is the change in dimension resulting from the stress.
Stresses may be tensile stresses which result in an increased length
of sample, compressive stresses which result in a more compacted
sample, and torsional stresses which result in a twisted sample: in
this chapter we shall consider only tensile stresses. Breaking stress,
breaking tl'>ad, breaking strength, and tensile strength all refer to
the force acting upon a sample at the time of failure, this is usually
the maximum force applied. Bursting strength is the force applied
to break a fabric when applied at right angles to the fabric and
uniformly distributed over a given area. Tenacity is the breaking
strength of a sample expressed in units of force per unit of cross-
sectional area of the sample, in the case of rayon or silk it is the
breaking strength in grams per denier. Stretch or extension is a strain
resulting in a greater length; two types of stretch exist, either or
both of which may be present in a given test---elasticity and elonga-
tion. Elasticity is recoverable stretch, elongation is non-recoverable
stretch. If a sample 10 inches long is stretched until it is 13 inches
long, it has a stretch of 3 inches or 30 per cent; if we now release it
106 TEXTILE TESTING
and it returns to a length of 11 inches; it has an elasticity of 2 inches

or 20 per cent and an elongation of 1 inch or 10 per cent. Stretch,
elasticity, and elongation may be given in units of length but are
generally expressed as per cent of the length of sample broken,
i. e., the length of the sample between the gripping jaws of the test-
ing machine, called the gauge length. Elastic limit is the load below
which the sample shows elasticity and above which it shows elonga-
ation. Yield point is a wholly theoretical figure and is the load at
which elongation would begin provided the material had no elasti-
city; this value cannot be directly measured but may be obtained
from a stretch-load curve. Elastic limit and yield point are usually
determined only on rayons and silks and are expressed in grams
per denier.
Based on the method of loading, strength testing machines may
be classified as:
1. Manually loaded by weights, chains, electromagnet, or trick-
ling water.
2. Pendulum type.
3. Constant specimen-rate-of-load type.
4. Impact or ballistic tester.
S. Bursting tester.
Manually Loaded Strength Testers
The manually loaded type is obsolete except for a few types of

single fiber testers:
1. O'Neill tester.
2. Bowman tester and Matthews tester.
3. Barratt tester.
4. Krais (Deforden) tester.
The O'Neill single fiber tester con~ists essentially of a pair of
clamps for the fiber of which the top one is fixed and the lower
attached to a floating "bob" With the fiber in place, water is run
out of the cylinder in which the bob is floating until the fiber is
straightened, then a graduate is put in place. Water is run out of
the cylinder into the graduate until the fiber breaks, the amount of
water indicates the breaking strength of the fiber; if testing at a
constant humidity, calcium chloride solution of the same partial
TEXTILE TESTING 107
pressure as the atmosphere is used instead of water. The Bowman

and the Matthews fiber testers use an analytical balance in which
one pan is replaced by the jaws, loading is done by placing weights
on the other pan or using a chain for weighting the other arm of the
balance. Barratt's apparatus is also an equal-arm balance in which
the loading is done by an electromagnet. Krais' apparatus is an
equal-arm balance in which the loading is done by running water
into a cup on one !'ide of the balance.
Pendulum Strength Testers

The pendulum tester is the type in common use for all textile
materials. The specimen is strained by a uniform movement of a
pulling jaw or clamp to which one end of the specimen is attached;
the other end of the specimen is held by a jaw or clamp attached to a
pendulum; the pendulum is displaced from its normal vertical po-
sition by a pull on the specimen and the amount of displacement
indicates the load. The pendulum is lightly ratcheted to a notched
sector so that after the specimen breaks, the pendulum (and the
pointer geared to it) will remain stationary at the maximum load.
The pendulum tester consists of three main parts:
1. Straining mechanism
a. Constant speed motor, gear train, nut, and screw; or
b. Cylinder and piston, with hydraulic pressure
2. Jaws or clamps holding the specimen
3. Loading and recording mechanism
a. Chain
U. Drum
c. Pendulum arm and weight
d. Pointer and scale
e. Notched sector and ratchet
f. Autographic stretch-load recorder.
The tester may be operated by a motor or by hydraulic pressure.
Jaws are available for various tests on cloth or yarn. The pointer
may be attached to the drum and indicate on a circular scale or it
may be attached to the end of the pendulum and indicate on a
scale engraved on the notched sector. The autographic recorder
(not always present on a strength tester) consists of a flat plate
moved vertically by an attachment to the lower jaw and a pen which
108 TEXTILE TESTING
Col G of /1!rndllfllm
Qnd Arr.r
W(lqld ~I Ptmlu/u71 Fig. 34-Principle of

,"-'J At"'7'P
Pendulum Strength
I~ ~
Tester.
! 1,1l1r('m~,,' or Ita.! J"'" pi"'
J
pl I
I"_ J/,.fch 01 sprcur.,n .9"4/.#
mo.omen' oll...er i.",·
lo"'~r
Jaw·
Scrrw ..
I
Ii
Ifu/.· . I. ··G,ar
Tram
moves over a guide horizontally by attachment to the pendulum;

it therefore records stretch vertically and load horizontally. Figures
34 and 35 show the principle and the parts of a motor driven strength
tester with an autographic recorder as u'!>ed on cloth. This is the most
common type of tester of capacity up to 500 pounds used in this
country. Older forms were operated by hand turning but these
gave very variable results and have been abandoned. Machines
are often so made that removing one weight from the pendulum will
convert it to a machine of lower capacity, usually one-half the orig-
inal capacity.
Some of the variations in pendulum testers are:
1. Hydraulic type mentioned above.
2. Rubber testers-provided with a very long screw b:,cause of
the enormous stretch.
3. Serigraph testers-made especially for silk fiber, yarn, and
TEXTILE TESTING 109
cloth testing. Made a little more finely than the ordinary tester
and always provided with an autographic recorder.
Fig. 35-Pendulum
Strength T est e r
with Autographic
Recorder. Motor
Driven.
110 TEXTILE TESTING
4. Horizontal tester (Figure 36), the same in principle as the

ordinary tester but of high capacity-SOO, 1000, 2000 pounds.
5. Single strand testers (Figure 37), similar in principle to the
ordinary tester but of much lower capacity, never over 50 pounds,
and usually reading in grams or ounces.
6. Moscrop single strand tester--designed to carry out a number
of single strand tests at once, recording the resul ts on a chart; not
as accurate as the ordinary single strand tester but good for showing
variations in strength.
7. Fiber strength testers of the pendulum type are very low
capacity machines.
Before use, the strength tester should be zeroed and calibrated.
I t is zeroed by lifting the ratchet and letting the pendulum hang
vertically, the pointer is then set to zero on the scale. To calibrate,
a weight is rested on the lower jaw and attached by a wire or cord
to the upper jaw, the machine is started and the weight comes onto
the upper jaw at the same rate of speed as the stress on the specimen.
Fig. 36-Pendulum Strength Tester-Horizontal Type, with

A utographic Recorder.
TEXTILE TESTING III
Fig. 37 - Pendulum
Single Strand Test-
er with Autographic
Recorder.
112 TEXTILE TESTING
The scale should be calibrated at a number of points on its range

and a correction table or chart prepared.
Assuming the samples to be tested at a constant relative humid-
ity and temperature, the variables due to the machine itself which
affect the apparent strength of the specimen are:
1. Friction and inertia errors-these are a function of the con-
struction and care of the machine and have been shown by Haven
to be not over 272 per cent at the most. If the machine is well
made and kept cleaned and oiled this error is negligible and at any
rate would be a constant.
2. Form of the jaws-these should be so made as to avoid cutting
of the specimen. The standard types of jaws will be taken up
later.
3. Gauge length or distance between jaws-it has been shown that
breakage of textile materials is mostly due to slippage of the fibers.
If the gauge length is increased, more slippage can occur and the
breaking strength will be less. Another factor is the fact that in a
longer length of specimen there is more chance of a weak spot
occurring and giving a lower breaking strength. Still another
reason is that a longer gauge length means more stretch of the
specimen so that a longer time is required to reach the breaking
point; the rate of loading is therefore slower and a decrease in
strength results. The following table gives the relative breaking
strength for different materials at three gauge lengths; this table
is for illustration only, and not for correcting results from one gauge
length to another.
Gauge Lengths
1 Inch 3 Inches 6 Inches
Rayon yarn ............... 100 100 93
Silk yarn ................ 111 100 93
Worsted yarn ............ 12S 100 88
Cotton yarn .............. 111 100 92
4. Speed of the lower jaw-the slower the lower jaw moves, the
more time is given for the fibers to slip and the lower the strength
reading. Standard speeds will be given later. The following
table will illustrate the effect of jaw speed on the relative strengths
of some samples.
TEXTILE TESTING 113
Jaw Speeds
6 Inches/ 12 Inches 18-20 Inches/
Min. Min. Min.
Rayon yarn .............. 97 100 104
Silk yarn ................ 90 100 103
Worsted yarn ............ 97 100 103
Cotton yarn .............. 99 100 104
Cotton duck ............. 99 100 102
Wool felt ................ 97 100 101
5. Capacity of the strength testing machine-a fabric of low
strength on a high capacity machine gives a high breaking strength
because the time required to break the sample is short and therefore
less slippage of fibers can occur. The following illustrative table
gives the effect on a cotton cloth.
Machine Strength Time to Break Relative
Capacity -Pounds -Seconds Strength
1501bs. 65.8 5.25 100
3001bs. 67.8 3.85 103
4001bs. 69.5 3.10 106
8001bs. 75.4 2.55 114
It is generally specified that the maximum swing of the pendulum

shall not be over 45°, it is also specified that the lower 20 per cent
of the capacity (first 9° of swing) shall not be used; this often
limits the machine which may be used on a given sample to one
particular capacity but often also several machines might be used
and would give different results.
6. Stretch of the specimen-a specimen with a large amount of
stretch takes up the load slowly and gives a lower breaking strength.
It will be noted that numbers 4,5,6 and part of number 3 above
are all dependent upon the time of load application or rate of load-
ing and that these variables would be eliminated if the rate of
loading were constant, the method of doing this will be discussed
later under another heading.
The A.S.T.M. has laid down the following general rules in regard
to clamps or jaws of strength testing machines:
1. The jaws shall have metallic gripping surfaces which are
smooth, flat, and parallel.
114 TEXTILE TESTING
2. The dimension of the clamp parallel to the direction of

application of the load shall be one inch and in the direction per-
pendicular to the load shall be as specified for each test.
3. All edges which might cause a cutting action on the specimen
shall be rounded off to a radius of not over 1/64 of an inch.
4. One clamp of each pair shall be fixed in position, the other
shall be hinged or swivelled and the clamping action may be by
either screw or cam.
Cloth samples may be tested in one of three ways:
1. By strip samples
a. Cut strip
b. Ravelled strip
2. By grab samples
Cut strip samples are prepared very simply by cutting specimens
1 inch wide and 6 to 7 inches long. These samples have the disad-
vantage that the lengthwise yarns at the edge tend to spring away
from the center yarns and, having a large amount of crimp, do not
take up their share of the load; cut strip samples therefore are used
only on heavily sized or coated fabrics and not on ordinary fabrics.
Ravelled strip samples are cut out 6 to 7 inches long and 17.l" inches
wide if there are SO or more yarns per inch, or 1~ inches wide if
less than SO yarns per inch. After cutting out, the specimens are
ravelled down to 1 inch wide by removing approximately the same
number of lengthwise yarns from each side; this is done so that the
edge yarns may be supported and held in place by the cross yarns
almost as firmly as the middle lengthwise yarns. In the case of
both types of strip samples, the clamps used are 1~ inches or more
wide, the gauge length is 3 inches, and the speed of the lower jaw is
12 ± 72 inches per minute. The results of specimens which slip in
the jaws or break at the edge of the jaws should be discarded; for
this reason, it is a good idea to always prepare a few more samples
than are actually called for in the test specifications.
Grab test specimens are cut out 4 inches wide and 6 inches long,
with the longer dimension in the direction of the yarns to be tested.
The front clamps should be 1 inch wide and the back clamps 2 inches
wide, the gauge length should be 3 inches, and the speed of the lower
jaw should be 12 ± Y2 inches per minute. In this case also, the re-
TEXTILE TESTING 115
Fig. 38-Ravelled Strip Sample and Grab Sample in Jaws of

Strength Testing Machine
suits of specimens which slip or break at the jaws should be

discarded. An effort must be made to grip the same yarns by both
upper and lower jaws, to facilitate this a line may be drawn along
one thread and the sides of the jaws placed on this line
In cutting out samples of fabric for test, at least 5 tests must be
116 TEXTILE TESTING
, .. ;5 ., 5 I
l
I
'I
5
Fig. 39-Sampling of Fabric for Strength Tests
made on the warp and 5 on the filling; samples should be taken as

in Figure 39. If 10 samples are desired (much better than only 5
samples) the sampling is repeated on the other side of the center
line of the cloth and further along the piece.
Strip tests are more reliable and accurate than grab tests but
grab tests are much faster to carry out and are especially good on
fairly open fabrics. Strip test results are directly proportional to
the number of yarns in the width and therefore are a good test of
the component yarns; grab test results do not show as good a
relationship between strength and number of yarns gripped but are
satisfactory for ordinary testing. The A.S.T.M. uses grab tests on
all fabrics for control work, but the strip tests are better for re-
search work. An approximate relationship between strip and grab
tests for fabrics under 20 ounces per square yard is
grab strength 9
strip strength 8
TEXTI.LE TESTING 117
The higher results on the grab strength are due to the reinforcing
effect of the side yarns not directly gripped by the jaws.
Woven tapes are tested in futl width with the same gauge length
and jaw speed !is above; the filling is not generally tested.
Yarns are tested in one of the following ways:
1. Skein test
2. Single strand test
3. Serigraph test
a. Haven method
b. Multiple strand method of the Bureau of Standards
c. A.S.T.M. method
The selection of the method to use in any particular case depends
on the purpose of the test, each method having certain advantages
and disadvantages. The A.S.T.M. specifies the methods to be used
as follows:
Preferred method Alternate method
Cotton yarns Single strand Skein
Woolen and wor-
sted yarns Skein Single strand
Rayon yarns Serigraph Single strand
For the skein test, the yarn is wound on a lY2 yard reel; the yarn
is drawn from the top of a bobbin, cop, cone, or small flanged spool
and drawn from the side of a parallel tube or large flanged spool;
the ends of the skein are tied in a square-knot. In· the case of a
woolen or worsted yarn, a 120 yard skein is wound; in the case of
cotton yarns, the length of the skein depends upon the number of
ends in the package.
Number of ends Yards /0 Yards in
in package reel skein
1 120 120
2 60 120
3 45 135
4 and 5 30 120 and 150
6 and 7 20 120 and 140
8 and above 15 120 and above
The skein testing is done on a machine of 150 pounds and 300 pounds
capacity at a ~peed of 12 ± Y2 inches per minute. Instead of j2wS
118 TEXTILE TESTING
Fig. 40 (Left)-Skein on Spools of

Strength Testing Machine.
Fig. 41 (Below) - Serigraph Sample
in JfilWS of Strength Testing Machine.
TEXTILE TESTING 119
spools which are at least one inch in diameter and at least one
inch wide, of which at least one spool shall be free to turrt on its
axis are used. The skein is slipped over the spools, opened out
into a band, and the slack is held by the hand until the machine
tightens it and finally breaks the skein.
In the single strand test, the sample is drawn off from the side of
the package; if the yarn is cut into convenient lengths the ends
should be knotted to prevent loss of twist. The jaws of the machine
may be flat grip, capstan, drum, or any other device which does not
have more than 25 per cent of the specimens breaking within 72
inch of the jaw; specimens which break within 72 inch of the jaw
are discarded. The speed of the lower jaw is 12 ± 72 inches per
minute and the gauge length is 10 ± 1/16 inches except in the
A.S.T.M. test for rayon which uses an 18 inch gauge length. A
large number of tests are necessary for a good average-the A.S.T.M.
specifies SO tests which are free from breaks at the jaw. If the
stretch is to be determined, the specimen is put into the machine
with a standard initial tension applied by hanging a small weight
on the specimen.
The A.S.T.M. test for tire cords specifies single strand tests (at
least 6 tests) on a SO pound capacity machine with cam-clamp jaws
and spool of not less than 72 inch diameter, and an initial tension
of 4 ounces; otherwise tire cords are tested as in any single strand
test.
The Serigraph test is so called because of its early association
with the silk industry. Haven's method is the simplest and requires
no special apparatus. A skein is wound as for the skein test, the
yarn is spread out on the arms of the reel and stickers are pasted
across the yarn above and below it and 3 inches apart; this sample
is cut out of the skein and tested in a strength machine like a cloth
strip sample.
The multiple strand method of the Bureau of Standards consists
of winding the yarn on two arms united by a fixture (using a modi-
fied seriplane), placing the whole thing in the jaws oi a strength
tester, removing the fixture, and breaking the sample. The gauge
length in this case is 4 inches, and the speed of the lower jaw is 6
inches per minute.
120 TEXTILE TESTING
The A.S.T.M. serigraph test on rayons is carried out on skeins,

using ten skeins of the following number of turns:
Denier of rayon Number of turns
Finer than 51d 400
51 to 76d 200
76 to 121d 150
121 to 201d 100
201d and coarser 50
The machine specified is one with capacities of 25 and 50 kilograms
(55 and 110 pounds) and with an autographic recorder. The gauge
length is 10 centimeters (4 inches) and the jaw speed is 6 inches
per minute. The jaws are covered with one layer of rubber tire
tape. The skein is spread out so as to form a ribbon % to % inches
wide, clamped in the jaws, and broken. No stickers or special
winding devices are used, and only one break to a skein is made.
Each method of testing has its advantages and disadvantages.
The skein test was the earliest used and so .is more popular, and
much data is available for comparison when this test is used; it will
grade a series of yams in the same relative order as the other tests;
a fabric tester may be used by replacing the jaws with spools. In
this test, as soon as a few yarns break, the rest of the skein slips, so
that the test tends to give low results and not the true breaking
strength; the reeling of the skein also effects the result, unequal
tension on different circuits of the yarn will give low results by
breaking the shortest circuit first and then allowing slippage; in
the case of rayon and silk the skein flies all apart as soon as breaking
starts and the skein test cannot be successfully used on these fibers.
Then too, yarns are not used in the form of skeins, in actual use the
load comes onto the individual yarns. The skein test does not giye
any idea as to the uniformity of the yarn strength; it does not allow
of stretch measurements; and it cannot be used for ~omparing
yarns of different fibers.
The single strand test more nearly represents the actual loading
of the yarns in weaving; it gives a good idea as to the uniformity of
the yarn; it allows of stretch measurements; and smaller samples
may be used so that it is possible to remove short lengths of yarn
from knitted or woven goods and test them. On the other hand, a
large number of tests must be made if this method is used in order
TEXTILE TESTING 121
to get adequate sampling and so that the average result will be

accurate; a special strength testing machine must be used for this
test which is good for no other purpose.
The serigraph test uses a cloth testing machine and jaws; it most
nearly represents the strength that the yarns will show in the cloth;
it gives the most consistent results on fine yarns; it gives a good
average and adequate sampling if only one test is made to a skein;
stretch data may be determined. On the other hand, the test in the
A.S.T.M. modification uses a different gauge length and jaw speed
from all other tests and therefore the results are not comparable
with other tests; the Haven method in this respect is better than
the A.S.T.M. or multiple strand test. The serigraph test is the
youngest of all the yarn tests and is not well known except in the
silk and rayon branches of the textile industry; it combines the
good points of both the skein and single strand tests.
It is sometimes desirable to compare the strength of yarns of dif-
ferent counts or denier. The strength of spun yarns may be convert-
ed to any specified counts by the formula:
N 1 S1 = N2 S2
where N = counts and S = strength
The product NS, called the strength-count product, is sometimes
used, especially in the case of skein tests to compare different
yarns. Rayons and silks are compared by giving the tenacity in
grams per denier:
Tenacity = SID
where D = denier
If yarns composed of different fibers are to be compared by the
single strand method, the breaking length is calculated; this is the
number of yards of yarn having a weight equal to the single strand
breaking strength of the yarn, and is supposedly the length of yarn
which would break due to its own weight.
H
Breaking length of spun rayons = SN x
454
Breaking length of rayons and silks' =
S S
- x 15.4 x 638 = - x 9,850
D D
122 TEXTILE TESTING
where S single strand breaking strength in grams

N counts
H = number of yards in standard hank
D = denier
It will be noted that the formulae for breaking length contain the
quantities SN and SID which are methods of comparison already
given.
Fibers may be tested either singly or in bundles. Individual
fiber testers have already been described and classified; these tests
are slow and laborious and several hundred tests are necessary for a
satisfactory average. Bundle tests may be carried out by the Walen
method, Grimes method, or the Chandler method (A.S.T.M.
standard method). The Walen method consists of parallelizing the
fibers by pulling as for staple, brushing out all fibers less than %
inch long, cutting the bundles to % length, and adjusting the
bundles to weigh about .004 grams. The ends of the bundles are
cemented together with collodion and the bundles are broken in a
10 pound tester with Y2 inch gauge length. Five or more bundles
are tested and the results are calculated to strength in ounces of fiber
equal to a unit of No. 20 yarn by the following formula:
sum of strength in pounds 16x454x7
Strength = ------------- x ---------
sum of weights in grams 840x20x36x8
The Grimes method is similar to the Walen in that the fibers are
combed out and cut to"a definite length. The bundles are then ad-
justed to a weight of .025 ± .005 grams, the ends are taped together
with drafting tape and the bundles are broken in an ordinary fabric
testing machine. The results are calculated to pounds strength per
gram of fiber and are averaged. In the Chandler bundle method, a
bundle of fibers is combed out parallel and the bundle is wrapped
with No. 20 sewing thread on a special apparatus; the length of
thread for 10 revolutions is measured and the circumference of the
bundle is calculated and corrected for the thickness of the thread.
The samples are broken in a 300 pound capacity machine with
special jaws and each break is corrected to a standard circumference
of 0.125 inches; each corrected break is then calculated to pounds
per square inch by dividing by the cross-sectional area (0.0012434
square inches); the average of ten breaks is taken.
TEXTILE TESTING 123
The stretch of the textile specimen is most. accurately determined

by an autographic recorder mechanism as described in a previous
paragraph. This consists of a pen moved horizontally by attach-
ment to the pendulum and a platform holding the paper moved
vertically by the lower jaw of the strength machine. A little con-
sideration will show, however, that the vertical motion of the lower
jaw is not only the stretch of the specimen but also includes the
motion of the upper jaw, since the upper jaw moves downward a
small amount for any motion of the pendulum. In Figure 42a the
line OA represents the autographic record of a break on a cotton
yarn but ordinates of this yarn are not stretch alone but also include
the motion of the upper jaw. If a piece of rigid material such as
steel is clamped between the jaws, so that the motions of the upper
and lower jaws are the same, the line OB will be drawn which gives
us the motion of the upper jaw for various loads. The true stretch
of the cotton yarn, then, IS the difference between the ordinates of
OA and OB. In order to correct for this automatically, modern
stretch recorders are made so that the pen moves on a downward
sloping guide at the same angle downward as the angle BOX. The
same cotton yarn run in this manner is shown in Figure 42b in which
the horizontal line is now the motion of the upper jaw; the ordinates
of the line OA (above the horizontal) now represent stretch alone.
On stretch-load diagrams following this, it is assumed that this
correction is made and that the ordinates represent stretch value.
Where total stretch is the only quantity desired, it may be ob-
tained by fastening a spring tape to the bottom jaw of the machine
and having it unroll past an index on the top jaw. A snap reading
of the tape is taken just as the sample breaks and this gives us total
stretch or "stretch at the break." Stretch charts, however, are
much more preferable as giving more information about the sample;
stretch charts will tell us:
1. The total stretch of the sample.
2. The manner of breaking whether abrupt or prolonged.
3. The elastic limit, if any.
4. The area under the curve may be measured, this gives Us the
work necessary to break the sample, which in turn is a mea-
SUre of the toughness of the sample.
124 TEXTILE TESTING
'( '(
.
.co .c
~
..•
~
_-6
...r:•
x o
load
Fig. 42-Stretch-Load Diagrams, Motion of Upper Jaw
If any sample is put loosely into the jaws of the machine, there
will be a certain initial motion of the lower jaws, when the slack of
the specimen is taken up before any load is applied to the sample;
this reading should be deducted from any stretch readings (Figure
43a). If the sample is placed in the jaws under a small initial load
which is enough to straighten but not to stretch the sample, this
initial period is absent and the diagram gives stretch directly (Figure
43b). The initial tension in the case of fabrics is specified by the
A.S.T.M. as 6 ounces. Diagrams given after this will assume that
this slack has been corrected for or eliminated by this initial tension.
Figure 44 gives typical but somewhat idealized stretch-load
diagrams of the different types of yarns, idealized only in the sense
that small fluctations have been smoothed out on the curve. Figure
44a shows that yarns made up of the natural vegetable fibers
give a stretch which is directly proportional to th.e load applied up
to the breaking point (A, B, C). If we take the case of cotton, the
breaking strength is 01 and the total stretch is OH; the slope of
the curve (OH/OI) is the stretch per unit load and has been found
to be dependent principally on the material in the yarn and treat-
ments which change this material change the slope; thus it is
possible to use this slope to determine whether a given chemical
treatment which might not have affected the strength has altered
the material.
Figure 44b for rayons and silks shows a different type of diagram.
In this diagram, we have first a portion 00 which is a straight line
TEXTILE TESTING 125
..z:.
.s=
..z:
s::
u
• •
load 10a4
a. h.
Fig. 43-Stretch-Load Diagrams, Slack of Specimen
a. b. c.
Vegetable Rayons and Woolens and
Fibers Silks Worsteds
Fig. 44-Typical Stretch-Load Diagrams of Yarns
representing the elastic stretch; at D, elongation or plastic flow

begins; at point E the elastic stretch is completed and only elonga-
tion is left up to the point A where the yarn breaks. If the line AE is
continued to the point of zero stretch (F), we have the load (OF) at
which the yarn would begin to flow if it had no elasticity; this load
(the yield point) should theoretically be the same load as that at the
point D where the elongation begins (GD), this is usually true
but sometimes the two loads are not exactly the same. To sum up,
the following information may be determined from this diagram:
Loads (usually expressed in grams per denier)
Breaking strength 01
Yield point = OF
Elastic limit = GD
These last two should be equal.
Stretch measurements (usually expressed as per cent of the
gauge length)
126 TEXTILE TESTING
Total stretch OH
Elasticity OG
Elongation GH
Wet rayon does not give this type of curve but a single straight line
with a steep slope.
Figure 44c shows a typical curve for a woolen or worsted yarn.
This type of yarn has been less thoroughly studied so we cannot
draw as much information from it. It will be noted, however, that
this diagram starts off similar to the rayons and silk but that above
a certain load a further change in the curve appears. This second
change may be due to a change in the molecular structure of the
wool. I n the case of all the yarns, the area between the curve OA
and the load axis gives a meaure of the work done in breaking the
sample and hence the toughness of the yarn.
A cloth made of a certain type of yarn shows the stretch diagram
of that yarn with the addition of an initial curved portion which
represents the straightening of the vertical yarns due to removal
of crimp. Figure 45 shows a stretch-load diagram of cotton cloth
in which we have the straight line of cotton yarn superimposed on
this initial curve. In this curve,
Breaking strength 01
Total stretch OH
Crimp OJ
This diagram gives us, then, a rather rough determination of
crimp in addition to the strength and stretch data. This method
of determining crimp is not as accurate as the method described in
Chapter 5 because of the small size of the curve from which the
measurements must be taken. As in the case of yarn, the area
under the curve gives us the work required to break the sample;
and the slope of the straight line portion of the curve OH/OI)
gives us information as to changes in the material of the fabric.
Rayon and woolen cloths would give stretch-load diagrams similar
to the corresponding yarns but with the crimp curve added.
Constant Rate-of-Load Machine
We have seen in the preceding section that, on a pendulum type

type strength machine, the apparent strength of a sample varies
TEXTILE TESTING 127
ttl
~ H--------,A
IX! I
E-t I
CIl ,
I
I
J I
,I
o~------------~~--
LOAD
Fig. 45-Stretch-Load Diagram of Cotton Cloth
with the size of the machine, the amount of stretch of the sample,
the length of the specimen, and the speed of the lower jaw; all
these variables affect the final result by affecting the rate of loading
of the specimen. If a constant rate of load machine is used, it is
found that the following advantages result:
1. Rate of load on the specimen is uniform whether t he specimen.
is long or short, rigid or stretchy, strong or weak.
2. One machine may be used for a very great range of yarns and
fabrics, because the capacity of the machine has no effect on the
result.
3. I t makes little diff~rence what rate of load is used; a standard
rate may be used but other rates will give results within a few
percent of each other.
4. Variations in strength of a single fabric are less than on a
pendulum type machine; this means that the average result is
more accurate, or on the other hand that fewer tests may be used
to get an equally accurate average.
The A.S.T.M. specifies, for rayon yarns tested by the single
strand method on a constant rate-of-Ioad machine, 4 grams per
denier per minute.
The construction of a constant rate-of-Ioad machine is of the
inclined plane type illustrated in principle by Figure 46. As the
plane is tilted downward on the right side, the rolling carriage
128 TEXTILE TESTING
puts more and more load on the specimen in the clamps. In order
to get the constant rate of load, the tilting is done by a screw me-
chanism connected with a constant speed motor (Figure 47),
Stretch may be determined from a stretch-load diagram as in the
case of the pendulum machine.
At present, the use of the constant rate-of-Ioad machine is not
very general, due principally to the fact that so many machines of
the pendulum type were already in use. The advantages of this
type of tester have already been given, the disadvantages are:
1. At present a laboratory would have to have both pendulum
and inclined plane machine since most specifications and nearly
all of the accumulated data are in terms of the pendulum machine.
2. One of the most valuable uses of the strength tester is to
show the variation in a sample; the inclined plane type gives
less variation in results.
3. The advantage of having one machine to test a wide range
of textiles is largely offset by the fact that most plants do not use
or make textile yarns or fabrics having such a wide range of
strengths, so that a single pendulum machine of double range
(with and without the weight on the pendulum) will take care of
the whole range of anyone plant's products or purchases. .
4. More testing is comparative; that is, one sample is compared
Fig. 46-Principle of Inclined Plane Strength Tester

TEXTILE TESTING 129
with another, so that it does not really matter what type of machine
is used.
In view of these advantages and disadvantages, the future of
the inclined plane type of tester is still in the doubtful stage.
Ballistic Strength Machine

A strength testing machine developed abroad and which has
received little attention in this country is the ballistic or impact
Fig. 47-Constant-Rate-of-Load Strength Machine

130 TEXTILE TESTING
tester. In principle, this is a pendulum with most of its mass

concentrated in the weight, the pendulum is swung from a definite
height on one side of an arc and on swinging freely will swing to
nearly the same angle on the other side of the arc. The specimen
is attached at one end to the weight of the pendulum, and at the
other end to a fixed clamp. When the pendulum now swings, it
breaks the specimen but is slowed down so that it does not swing
so far up the arc. The difference in height of the arcs swung through
without a specimen and with a specimen attached is a measure of
the energy used in breaking the specimen. This energy is the work
of rupture obtained from the stretch-load charts of the pendulum
type strength tester.
The work of rupture is a good measure of chemical tendering
because, although tendering usually decreases both strength and
stretch, sometimes the strength is not affected although the stretch
is decreased. Work of rupture is directly proportional to the width
of cloth broken or the number of yarns broken, so that the same
size specimen is not always necessary but results on any size of
specimen may be compared with results on any other size. Work
of rupture is not exactly proportional to the length of specimen
but becomes so by subtracting a small constant amount, so here
too another variable is eliminated.
On the other hand, it has been shown that ballistic tests are more
sensitive to humidity variations; it has also been shown that
yarns ranked by ballistic test results show serious differences from
practical results; also, as stated before, the work of rupture may
be measured on a stretch-load diagram if it is desired.
Bursting Strength Machines

Bursting strength is used considerably in evaluating the strength
of knit goods since strength tests are very hard to carry out; it has
some use on woven fabrics which are to be stressed equally in all
directions when in use, because it selects the weakest yarns (warp
or filling) and breaks those, giving then the lowest pressure the cloth
will withstand. Two methods of determining bursting strength
are available:
1. Ball burst-special attachment for the strength tester.
2. Hydraulic burst-Mullen tester.
TEXTILE TESTING 131
The ball burst attachment for the strength tester (Figure 48)
consists of two stirrups which slide on each other; one stirrup,
which replaces the top jaw, supports a post with a hard steel ball
one inch in diameter held in a cup; the other stirrup, replacing the
Fig. 48-Ball-Burst Attachment for Strength Testing Machines
lower jaw, has two rings of 1. 75 inches internal diameter between

which the specimen (3 inches square) is clamped. On starting the
machine, the fabric is pulled down against the ball until bursting
occurs, the strength testing machine then indicates the bursting
strength. Haven has shown that the ratio of the ball burst strength
to the strip test strength in the weaker direction equals 4/3.
The Mullen tester (Figure 49) in its simplest form consists of a
pump operated by a hand wheel which pumps oil or glycerine against
132 TEXTILE TESTING
Fig. 49 - Mullen
Hydraulic Burst-
ing Tester
a thin, flexible rubber diaphragm. Above the rubber diaphragm

is the specimen, clamped between two rings of 1.2 inches inside
diameter. A pressure gauge built on the ratchet principle records
the maximum pressure when the specimen breaks. In use, the
specimen is clamped in place and the hand wheel is turned at an
even speed until rupture occurs; the number of turns of the hand
wheel and the reading of the pressure gauge are then noted; this
is repeated for all the specimens. To compensate for the pressure
used in stretching the rubber diaphragm, the hand wheel is given
the same number of turns with no specimen in place as was used
with the specimen and the pressure read on the dial; this pressure
subtracted from the pressure with the specimen gives the corrected
bursting pressure. A newer modification of the Mullen tester has
TEXTILE TESTING 133
the pressure applied by a constant speed motor and the bulge of

the diaphragm and specimen recorded by a tilting arm and recording
pen; in this case, the correction for the diaphragm is obtained from
a chart of diaphragm bulge against pressure made with no specimen
in place.
In theory, both methods of bursting strength measurements
suffer from the error of short lengths of fabric tested which may
be less than the fiber length. In practice this is not important
since only comparisons are needed and also because it is used
chiefly on knitted goods where the actual length of yarn between
the clamps is two or three times the inside diameter of the rings,
due to the bending of the yarn in the knitted fabric.
Effect of Moisture
The strength and stretch of all textiles is seriously affected by
the regain present in the sample, which as we have seen in Chapter 2
is in turn affected primarily by the relative humidity of the air
and to a small extent by the temperature. As generalizations we
may say that the stretch of all textiles is increased with an increase
in regain, and the strength of vegetable fibers is increased but the
strength of animal fibers and the rayons is decreased by an increase
in the regain; Figure SO shows the general relationship of strength
and regain. Since the regain has such an important effect on the
results and since it is impracticable to test samples when oven-dry,
one of the following methods must be resorted to in order to obtain
results which are comparable with results obtained by another
laboratory or with results obtained at any other time by the same
laboratory:
1. Test wet.
2. Test at standard temperature and relative humidity.
3. Test at prevailing room conditions, determine the regain,
and correct the results to standard regain.
Testing wet was once quite common but is now done only in the
case of rayons where one of the most desirable properties is a
comparatively small loss in strength on wetting; rayons therefore
are tested both wet and dry. The rayon should be soaked in tap
water at room temperature for two hours, put in the strength tester
and tested within a minute. Results on a rayon yarn are given in
134 TEXTILE TESTING
REGAIN
Fig. 50-Typical Strength-Regain Curves
grams per denier; if rayon cloth is tested (by the grab test) the
number of yarns per inch in the dry state and in the wet state are
counted and the wet strength is corrected to the same number of
yarns as are present in the dry sample. If the stretch-load diagram
of a wet rayon is obtained, it will be found that the elastic limit is
missing (Figure 51). This explains the production of rayon
"shiners" found when the rayon is stretched in the wet condition;
on drying, the rayon remains stretched.
Testing at standard conditions of temperature and relative
humidity (70 0 F. and 65 per cent relative humidity) requires a
special testing room (see Chapter 2) but is the most accurate, most
convenient, and quickest method of testing; if the volume of
testing done warrants it this method should be used.
If a conditioning room is not available we may test at whatever
conditions prevail, obtain the amount of regain present in the
broken specimens, and correct the strength to standard regain by
fairly accurate formulae. The stretch of samples cannot be so
corrected with any degree of accuracy. If the regain-strength
curve of practically any yarn or fabric is drawn, it will be found
that the middle portion of the curve, including the standard regain,
is a straight line or a close approximation to a straight line, so that
the equation of this straight line portion may be used to correct
the strength from one regain to another. This equation may be
given as:
TEXTILE TESTING 135
LOAD
Fig. 51-Stretch-Load Diagrams for Wet and Dry Rayons
100 + rR
S=Mx----
100 + rA
where S strength at standard regain
M strength from machine reading
R standard regain
A actual regain
r = rate of increase or decrease of the strength for 1 per
cent change in regain, expressed as per cent of the
dry strength.
"r" is independent of the form of the fabric or yarn and is dependent
only on the weight of the fabric (or counts of the yarn) and the
fiber of which it is composed. Values of "r" are given in Table XI
and standard regains have previously been referred to (Table IV).
An example of the correction method of obtaining strength is as
as follows:-
A sample of cotton cloth of 4.25 ounces per square yard is tested
for breaking strength by the grab method and gives an average of
41.5 pounds on the warp and 33.8 pounds on the filling. After
breaking, a specimen is placed in a weighing bottle (tare weight of
19.5560 grams) and weighed, the weight of bottle and sample being
21.9375 grams. On drying the sample in the oven, and weighing
136 TEXTILE TESTING
again, the dry weight is 21.8495 grams. What is the strength of

the cloth at standard regain?
gms.
Weight of bottle and sample 21.9375
Weight of bottle and dry sample 21.8495
Weight of moisture 0.0880

Weight of bottle and dry sample 21.8495
Weight of bottle alone 19.5560
Weight of dry sample 2.2935

Actual regain = A = 100xO.0880/2.2935 = 3.84%
Standard regain = R = 6.5% (Table IV)
Strength correction factor = r = 6.0 (Table XI)
Warp
100 + 6.0x6.5
S 41.5 x - - - - - -
100 + 6.0x3.84
100 + 39.0
41.5 x - - - - -
100 + 23.0
41.5x139/123 = 46.9 pounds
Filling
100 + 6.0x6.5
S 33.8 x - - - - -
100 + 6.0x3.84
100 + 39.0
33.8 x - - - - -
100 + 23.0
33.8x139/123 = 38.2 pounds
The strength of the cloth, then, at standard regain is 46.9 pounds
in the warp and 38.2 pounds in the filling.
Other Determinations with Strength

Testers
Many light and open fabrics such as gauzes, nettings, or marqui-
settes depend upon the friction of the yarns to hold together unless
TEXTILE TESTING 137
an expensive leno weave is used. To test the friction of the yarns,

ravelled strip samples may be prepared as usual, then the cross
threflds may be ravelled down to 3 inches. At one end of the
remaining cloth, alternate yarns are cut off; at the other end the
other yarns are cut; the sample is inserted in the strength tester
and run as a strip sample. In this case the force to pull half the
yarns longitudinally past the other half is measured.
Two tearing tests are described by the A.S.T.M. The simplest
method (tongue method) uses specimens 3 inches wide and 8 inches
long, five each of warp and filling. A cut 3 inches long is made
lengthwise in each specimen, starting in the center of one short
edge, the pawls of the ratchet are disengaged, the specimen is placed
in the machine with one tongue in the top jaws and one in the
lower jaws. The force to tear is read off the stretch-load chart
since it requires averaging a rather jerky load reading. The other
method (trapezoid method) uses specimens 3 inches wide and 6
inches long, with the warp samples having the long dimension
parallel with the filling. From these specimens, using a template,
isosceles trapezoids of height 3 inches and bases 4 inches and 1
inch are cut out, and a cut %' to % inches long is made in the
center of the one inch edge and perpendicular to it. Clamps 3 inches
or more wide are used and a gauge length of one inch, the pawls are
disengaged. The specimen is clamped in the machine along the
non-parallel sides of the trapezoid so that the cut is halfway between
the clamps, the short edge held taut and the long edge hanging in
folds. The force to tear is read from the stretch-load chart as
before.
The seam slippage of silk and rayon fabrics is another important
determination; the determination made is the force across the
seam per inch of width necessary to produce an elongation of %'
inch in excess of the normal stretch of the fabric under the same
load. A standard grab tester of SO pounds capacity is used. Two
specimens are cut out, one 4 inches by 10 inches, the other 4 by 4
inches; the smaller specimen is sewed to the longer by a standard
seam 72 inch from the end, using a needle of approximately .030
inches diameter, No. 00 white mercerized cotton thread, 14 stitches
to the inch, and a plain stitch. A stretch-load chart is made on
the long strip; then, using the same chart, on the seam. With a
138 TEXTILE TESTING
pair of dividers, the difference in the two curves at one pound

force in measured, the dividers are set for this distance plus ~ inch
and run along the curves until the force where the two curves are
separated by this distance is found; this force minus the one pound
is the resistance to slippage of the seam.
Felts may have two determinations made on them-breaking
strength and splitting resistance. For breaking strength, specimens
2 inches wide and 10 inches long are used, jaws are 2 inches wide,
gauge length is 3 inches, jaw speed is 12 ± ~ inches per minute ..
Results are given in pounds per 2-inch width. F; splitting resist-
ance the same machine, jaws, and specimen size are used. The
specimen is split in thickness by a knife cut in the middle third of
the thickness for 2 inches from one end, one lip is clamped in each
jaw, and the force to pull the two sections wholly apart is measured.
The splitting resistance is not determined on felts less than 3/16
inches thick.
Repeated Stress Tests
As we have seen early in this chapter, textile materials are not
ordinarily subjected to a single large load in actual use, but rather
to a large number of fluctuations in load or a number of repeated
small stresses; tire cords, for example, are continually being given
stresses much smaller than their breaking strength and finally
fail due to the accumulated effects of these numerous small stresses
rather than to a single large one. It would be much more like actu-
al conditions of use, then, to test the strength in this manner, and of
late years much more attention has been given to tests of this
sort. Some strength testing machines are now so built as to make
it possible to automatically apply and remove a definite load for
an infinite number of times.
The most significant way to measure this "fatigue" of textiles
would be to find that load which the speC'imen would bear indefinite-
ly (or for a fixed large number of applications) but this would be a
slow and laborious task. Peirce has suggested the measurement of
the number of applications of a load equal to 60 per cent of the
break-load which would cause rupture of the specimen. Figure 52
shows the first two cycles of load applied to a cotton yarn where
the load is brought to a certain value each time; further cycles do
TEXTILE TESTING 139
I
I
I
.... '1ft
" A_ .... ",
~ I,
I
I
I
I
I
LOAD
Fig. 52-Stretch-Load Diagram of Cotton Yarn with Repeated
Stress Applications
not differ very much from the second cycle, but it will be noted
that the second cycle is distinctly different from the first.
At present, tests of this nature are still in the research stage and
no standards of method or results have been set up as yet.
REFERENCES:
IHaven, G. B. Mechanical Fabrics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
(1932).
2Saxl, 1. J. Rayon and Synthetic Yarn Handbook. Rayon Publishing Corp.,
New Yorke 1936).
3A.S.T.M. Standards on Textile Materials. A.S.T.M., Philadelphia (1937).
"New, G. F. Stress-Strain Curves of Various Yarns. Journal of the Textile
Institute 13, T25 (1922).
5 Peirce, F. T. Measurement of the Mechanical Properties of Cotton Materials.
Journal of the Textile Institute 14, T161 (1923).
6Urquhart, A. R. Effect of Humidity and Temperature, Regarded as Condi-
tions of Testing, on the Strength of Cotton Yarns and Fabrics. Journal of the
7l\1idgley, E. Machines Commonly Used in the Cotton Industry for the
Testing of Materials. Journal of the Textile Institute 14, T189 (1923).
8New, G. F. and Gregson, A. L. Significance of Stress-Strain Curves of Yarns
and Their Application in Testing. Journal of Textile Institute 14, T447 (1923).
9Denham, W. S. and Brash, W. Instrument for Ballistic Measurement of
Tenacity. Journal of the Textile Institute 15, T291 (1924).
lOHall, W. J. Experimental Examination of the Hank Test and a Comparison
with the Single Thread Tensile Test for Worsted and Woolen Yarns. Journal
of the Textile Institute 16, T223 (1925).
IlMidgley, E. and Peirce, F. T. Tensile Tests for Cotton Yarns. Journal of
the Textile Institute 17, T305, T317, T330, T342, T355 (1926).
140 TEXTILE TESTING
12Mann. J. C. Influence of Humidity on the Elastic Properties of Cotton.

18 Wykes, A. L. Quantitative Determination of the Physical Properties of
Artificial Silk and Their Relationship to Textile Manufacture. Journal of the
14Turner A. J. Relationship Between Atmospheric Humidity and the Break-
ing Strengths and Extensibilities of Textile Fabrics Before and After Weathering.
Journal of the Textile Institute 19, TI0l (1928).
15Turner. A. J. Foundations of Yarn Strength and Yarn Extension. Journal
16Navkal, H. and Sen, K. R. Comparison of Some Methods of Testing the
Breaking Strength of Single Cotton Fibers. Journal of the Textile Institute Zl,
T267 (1930).
17Gurney, H. P. and Davis, E. H. Elastic Properties of Yarns, with Special
Reference to Tire Cords. Journal of the Textile Institute Zl. T463 (1930).
18Smith, H. D. and Eisenschitz, R. Flow and Relaxation of Rayon Filaments.
Journal of the Textile Institute ZZ, T170 (1931).
19Turner, A. J. and Venkataraman, V. Study of Comparative Results for Lea,
Single Thread, and Ballistic Tests on Yarns from Standard Indian Cottons.
Journal of the Textile Institute ZZ, T197 (1931).
20Matthew. J. A. Comparison of Some Fabric Testing Methods. Journal of
the Textile Institute ZZ, T497 (1931).
21Green, H. Study of the Stress-Strain Curve on Rayon. American Dye-
stuff Reporter Zl. 83 (1932).
22 Preston, J. M. Significance of Tensile Tests on Viscose Rayon. American
Dyestuff Reporter ZZ, 677 (1933).
23Goldthwait, C. F. Choice of a Strength Test for Yarn. American Dye-
stuff Reporter ZZ, 773 (1933).
24Sellars, W. B. Testing of Rayon. American Dyestuff Reporter Z3, 164
(1934).
25Scott, D. C. Recent Developments in Tensile Testing Machines. American
Dyestuff Reporter Z4, 120 (1935).
26Steinberger, R. L. Elastic and Plastic Properties of Textile Fibers. Tex-
tile Research i' 207, 271, (1934).
27Grimes, M. A. Comparison of Three Methods for Determining the Break
ing Strength of Cotton Fibers. Textile Research 7, 145 (1937).
PART "-CHEMICAL TESTING
141
CHAPTER 9
INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Before discussing individual chemical tests, it is necessary to

consider some of the generalizations which apply to all chemical
tests. In the first place, it will be observed as the tests are taken up
that there are two general types of determinations-direct and
indirect. In a direct determination the constituent is determined
by a direct weighing or titration; in an indirect determination,
the constituent is determined by the loss in weight of the sample
or by a change in some property of the sample. It is generally
considered better to make a direct determination if it is at all
possible, although if carefully done, an indirect determination may
be as accurate or sometimes more accurate.
All chemical tests are based on a dry weight of sample, so that
if possible the sample is oven-dried and weighed before the test is
carried out. If this is not possible, due to possible chemical effects
of heating, two samples are weighed out, at the same time, on one of
which the chemical test is carried out and on the other of which a
regain determination is made; the sample used for the chemical
test is then calculated to its dry weight from the results of the
regain determination. The formulae have already been given but
are restated here:
Let A weight of weighing bottle + sample
B weight of weighing bottle + dry sample
C weight of weighing bottle alone
R regain in per. cent
W weight of sample weighed out for the chemical test
D weight of dry sample for the chemical test
A-B
Then R = -_ X 100
B-C
W
and D
1 + R/IOO
142
TEXTILE TESTING 143
As an example; we consider a copper number determination In

which the following data were obtained:
Weight of bottle and sample 23.9765 grams
Weight of bottle and dry sample 23.8785 grams
Weight of bottle alone 21.6830 grams
Weight of sample for test 2.59 grams
23.9765-23.8785 .0980
R X 100 X 100 = 4.47%
23.8785-21.6830 2.1955
2.59 2.59
Dry weight = 2.48 grams
1 + 4.47/100 1.0447
Although determinations are generally made in the laboratory
on the dry weight of the sample and results expressed in terms of
a dry basis, the non-chemist may sometimes want the results in
terms of the "normal" material, by which is meant in terms of a
sample with its standard regain. This may be figured easily from
the dry basis results; two cases are possible which are best illustrated
by concrete examples.
A sample of cotton cloth contains 2.56 per cent ash (dry basis),
what is the per cent ash at standard regain? Here we have 2.56
parts of ash which does not pick up any regain together with
100-2.56 = 97.44 parts of cotton cloth which picks up 6.S per cent
regain.
At standard regain,
1.065 x 97.44 = 103.85 parts of cotton
2.56 parts of ash
106.41 parts total

2.56
% ash (standard regain) = - - X 100 = 2.40%
106.41
A sample of cloth containing silk and cotton, on analysis, gives
21.5 per cent silk and 78.5 per cent cotton (dry basis). What are
the amounts of silk and cotton at standard regain? Here we have
two substances, both of which pick up regain but in different
amounts.
144 TEXT\ILE TESTING
At standard regain
1.065 X 78.5 = 83.7 parts of cotton
1.11 X 21.5 = 23.9 parts of silk
107.6 parts total

83.7
% cotton (stal1dard regain) = X 100 77.8%
107.6
23.9
% silk (standard regain) = X 100 = 22.2%
107.6
Since it is impossible to do much chemical textile testing without
previous training in chemistry, it is assumed throughout this
section that the reader is familiar with the usual qualitative tests
and also with the technique of quantitative analysis. Where the
expression "run a blank" is used, it means that the procedure
(usually a titration) should be carried out on the chemicals used but
without any ·sample present, the results are then used to correct
a direct determination for impurities present in the reagents or to
furnish necessary data for an indirect determination. Unless
otherwise indicated, temperatures are given in degrees Centigrade;
weights in grams; and volumes in cubic centimeters (or millimeters.)
In addition to the usual classification of tests as qualitative or
quantitative, we may further classify chemical textile tests into
three main groups as follows:
1. Extraneous matter present-inorganic and organic.
2. Fibers present.
3. Condition or state of the fibrous material.
In general, standard methods have not been adopted for chemical
testing and it is necessary to choose between several methods, all
in more or less general use.
CHAPTER 10
INORGANIC EXTRANEOUS MATTER
Ash
The object of this test is to determine the amount and often the
qualitative composition of all of the mineral matter present in
a textile sample. Two procedures may be used according to whether
a burner or a muffle furnace is used. A sample is dried and weighed
and is then placed in a tared porcelain or silica crucible. If a
burner is used, the sample is ignited gently until the sample is all
carbonized (no more fumes coming off) and is then ignited strongly
until all carbon is hurned off. The crucible and contents are cooled
in a desiccator and weighed. When two weighings with a half
hour's ignition between are substantially identical, the ashing is
complete. If a muffle furnace is available, the crucible (and
sample) is placed in front of the open muffle until the carbonization
is carried out and the ignition is completed inside the muffle at a
temperature of about 800 0 C. If we let
a=weight of dry sample
b = weight of empty crucible
c=weight of crucible and ash
cob
Then % ash = - - X 100
a
The above determination may be in error because:
1. Carbon dioxide may be lost from carbonates.
2. Water may be lost from inorganic matter containing water
of crystallization or from hydroxides.
3. Ammonium salts are volatilized and lost.
4. A few inorganic materials sublime, these are comparatively
few and unlikely to be present in textiles
The mineral matter present in textiles may be derived from one
or more of the following sources:
1. The natural ash of the fiber.
2. Mineral matter applied in connection with dyeing-.
145
146 TEXTILE TESTING
a. Mordants.
b. Part of the dye molecule.
c.· Aftertreatments of the dye.
3. Weighting materials.
4. Pfoofing treatments.
a. Waterproofing.
b. Fireproofing.
c. Mothproofing.
d. Mildew-proofing.
5. Delustering.
6. Accidental spots or stains.
The natural ash content of textile fibers is given in Table XII.
It will be observed that the raw fibers vary considerably but that
scouring or bleaching not only decreases the amount of ash but
also makes it more nearly constant from one sample to another.
It is usually possible to decide from an ash determination and
Table XII whether there is present any additional mineral matter.
Thus a sample of scoured and dyed cotton with an ash content of
0.65 per cent will almost certainly contain mineral matter in addition
to its natural ash content of 0.25 per cent (average). If additional
mineral matter be found present, the ash should be analyzed
qualitatively for the constituents; the last part of Table XII gives
the qualitative analysis of cotton, wool, and silk so that allowance
may be made for these constituents in considering the results of
the qualitative tests on the ash. The source of these additional
mineral constituents will be considered in the following paragraphs.
The customary mordants consist of the hydroxides of antimony,
iron, copper, al uminum, chromium, and tin; these wIll be found in
the ash in the form of oxides and if present at all are usually in
fairly large quantity. Tannin mordant is usually fixed with tartar
emetic which would leave a small residue of antimony oxide. The
acid and direct cotton dyes are mostly the sodium and calcium
salts of color acids and these elements may be found in rather small
amounts in the ash. Occasionally, dyes are encountered which
contain zinc, chromium, or copper as part of the dye molecule.
Cotton dyeings are sometimes aftertreated with copper sulfate or
sodium or potassium dichromate to improve the fastness; these
substances would be left in very small quantities if at all. Wool
TEXTILE TESTING 147
may be dyed by an after-chrome process which would leave an

ash of chromium oxide or of chromate.
Weighting, if present, will usually be present in large amounts.
Wool is seldom if ever weighted. Light cottons may be weighted
with calcium sulfate, magnesium sulfate, or more likely with China
clay or talc (magnesium aluminum silicates). Silk goods are quite
frequently weighted with iron tannate, or Prussian Blue (ferric
ferrocyanide) in dark colors. Light colored silks are usually weight-
ed with tin or aluminum combined with silicate and/or phosphate.
There is some weighting of silk done with zinc or lead salts and some
which use tungstates of various metals.
Waterproofing may be carried out using aluminum acetate or
sometimes aluminum or copper soaps; other methods use organic
compounds which would leave no trace in the ash. Fireproofing
may be carried out with ammonium salts (volatile) or by means
of alum, sodium silicate, borax, sodium phosphate, or sodium
stannate. Mothproofing is usually done by means of chincona
alkaloids (organic) or by means of various fluorides of sodium,
calcium, and aluminum. Mildew-proofing may be by means
of various organic substances which leave no ash or by zinc
chloride, copper soaps, or copper-cutch mixture.
Delustering of rayon is generaly carried out by means of titanium
dioxide, or barium sulfate. Very seldom are metallic soaps or zinc
compounds found nowadays.
Accidental stains or spots may, of course, be of any origin. Usually
these spots are quite small so that an ordinary analysis cannot be
carried out. In these cases, microchemical tests are valuable;
the spectroscope may be used; or tests may be carried out under
the microscope to identify the constituents present. Rust stains
are perhaps the most common and these may be determined by the
common tests for iron.
REFERENCES:
ITrotman, S. R. and Trotman, E. R. Textile Analysis. J. B. Lippincott Co.,

Philadelphia, (1932).
2 Doree, C. Methods of Cellulose Chemistry. D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc.,
New York, (1933).
3A.S.T.M. Standards on Textile Materials, A.S.T.M., Philadelphia, (1937).
4Matthews, J. M. Textile Fibers, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York,(1924).
5Walker, A. C. and Quell, M. H. Naturally-Occurring Ash Constituents of
Cotton. Journal of the Textile Institute Z4, T131 (1933).
148 TEXTILE TESTING
6Trotman, S. R. Detection and Determination of Small Quantities of Metals
in Textile Materials. American Dyestuff Reporter 21, 415 (1932).
7Chase, H. M. Detection of Heavy Metals and Traces of Impurities in Cotton
Fabrics. American Dyestuff Reporter 22, (1933).
8Herstein, K. M. Tables for the Micro-Chemical Detection and Estimation
of the Metals. American Dyestuff Reporter 22, 442 (1933).
9Clayton, E. Detection of Metals in Fibrous Materials, Dyes, and Organic
Pigments. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists 53,380 (1937).
Ash Alkalinity
This may be determined separately or the ash from the previous

test may be used for this test also. The tesl is as follows: Dry a
5-gram sample at 110 0 C. and weigh. Place in an ignited silica
(or Sillimanite) dish and ash. Treat the ash with lOcc. of N /100
sulfuric acid (pipetted in), cover with a watch glass and warm for
one hour on the steam bath. Wash the contents into a 125ce.
conical flask, add 60cc. of distilled water and one drop of 0.2 per
cent solution of Methyl Red indicator. Titrate with N/100 sodium
hydroxide, using one drop of Methyl Red indicator in 70cc. of
distilled water for a comparison end point. Run a blank on lOcc.
of the N /100 acid. Calculate the results as milli-equivalents of
alkali per 100 grams of dry sample. If we let
a weight of dry sample
b volume of alkali used for blank
c = volume of alkali used in test
n = normality of the standard alkali
Then
(b-c)n
Ash alkalinity X 100
a
The advantage of ash alkalinity over the ash determination is
that it is more accurate to titrate than to attempt to weigh a few
milligrams of ash. As we shall see later, ash alkalinity may also be
used to detect damage in celulose, and is also connected with the
ability of cellulose to absorb Methylene Blue
As an example of what may be expected for values of the ash
alkalinity, a series of tests on raw cottons with ash contents of
1.07-1.58 per cent gave ash alkalinities of 14.5-21.5 The same
cottons after a thorough water wash gave ash contents of 0.15-0.26
per cent and ash alkalinities of 4.1-6.0.
TEXTILE TESTING 149
REFERE],;CES:
I Doree, C. Methods of Cellulose Chemistry. D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc.,

New York (1933).
Silk Weighting
The determination of the amount of weighting present on silk

has always been of great commercial importance because of the
high value of the fiber weighted. The weighting material may be
iron as Prussian Blue or as iron tannate; tin as silicate, phosphate,
tungstate, or hydroxide; occasionally zinc or lead compounds are
used for weighting; sometimes logwood is applied in such large
quantities as to be considered as weighting. In addition to these
weighting materials sugar, glucose, glycerine, gelatine, tannin, and
sulfates of sodium or magnesium may have been used on the silk
as finishing compounds.
A qualitative analysis of the silk may be made if the processes to
which it has been exposed are unknown. The identification of the
finishing materials will be taken up in a later chapter; the identi-
fication of the weighting may be done by ashing a sample of the
silk and testing the ash for the above-mentioned metals and acid
radicals, making allowance for the decomposition of the Prussian
Blue (ferric ferrocyanide) and iron tannate to ferric oxide during
the ignition. Tin phosphate or tin silicate weighting is by far the
most extensively used at present.
Four important methods have been suggested for the quantitative
determination of weigh ting:
1. Determination of nitrogen by the Kjeldahl method and
calculation of the fibroin present. This requires a preliminary
removal of all dyes and any Prussian Blue present; this is generally
impracticable.
2. Determination of the ash. This is the quickest method if
tin weighting is present; there is some loss of water of hydration
from the tin compound which makes it somewhat inaccurate,
however. It has been suggested that a correction factor of 1.12 be
applied to the ash to give the tin weighting present.
3. Alternate treatments with sodium carbonate and acid, the
acid being hydrofluoric acid if silicate is present or hydrochloric
acid if silicate is not present. This was a standard method at one
150 TEXTILE TESTING
time but has been found to be inefficient in the removal of weighting

so that different analysts had difficulty in checking each other
4. Treatment with a mixture of hydrochloric and hydrofluoric
acids. This method has been found to be more efficient than the
use of either acid singly and to give more reproducible results. The
standard method of the A.A.T.c.c., which does not differ materially
from the original method of Mease will therefore be given in detail.
a. Solutions used:
Acid reagent: 2 per cent by weight of hydrofluoric acid and 2
per cent by weight of hydrochloric acid in distilled water.
Sodium carbonate reagent: 2 per cent by weight of anhydrous
sodium carbonate in distilled water.
b. Take a sample of the silk of 3 to 5 grams and preferably
across the whole width of the cloth, dry at 105-110 0 C. for 172 hours,
place in a tared weighing bottle, cool in a desiccator, and weigh.
Let the weight of this sample = A.
c. Digest in 90-100 times its weight of distilled water at
65 ± 10 C. for 20 minutes. Squeeze out the sample, place in 40-50
times its weight of distilled water and heat to 65° C. Repeat this
rinsing twice more, squeeze, rinse with two 30cc. portions of warm
alcohol, rinse with two portions of ethyl ether at room temperature,
squeeze, air-dry. Drop the sample into a beaker of boiling water,
let it stand for 5 minutes, squeeze, dry, and weigh as before. Let
this weight = B.
d. Place the sample in 90-100 times its weight of acid reagent,
heat to 55 ± 1° c., and hold at this temperature for 20 minutes.
Pour off the acid reagent, treat with 200 cc. of distilled water at 55°
C. for 5 minutes, repeat the water treatment, remove the sample
and squeeze.
e. Repeat treatment (d).
f. Repeat treatment (d) but use sodium carbonate reagent
in place of the acid reagent.
g. Repeat treatment (d) twice more, using acid reagent.
h. Squeeze, rinse with alcohol, then with ether, then with
boiling water, dry and weigh. Let this weight = C.
i. Ash the residue and determine the weight of the ash.
Let this weight = D. (This treatment should give a negligible
TEXTILE TESTING 151
ash and step (i) is performed merely as a check on the previous

treatments, it may be omitted in routine work.)
j. Calculations:
A-B
% finishing materials X 100
A
A-C + D
% total weighting ---~ ---- X 100
A
REFERENCES:
1 Matthews, J. M. Textile Fibers, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York
(1924).
'Yearbook of the A.A.T.C.C.-\'olume XIV. Howes Publishing Co., Inc"
New York (1937).
3Anonymous. To Find Silk Weighting Content. Textile World 76, 1454
(1929).
4Mease, R. T. Analysis of Weighted Silk. Bureau of Standards Journal of
Research 9, 669 (1932).
Acids and Alkalies
The problem of the determination of acid or alkali i 1 textile
goods is complicated by the fact that small quantities of acid or
base are adsorbed by the fiber and held rather tenaciously. We
cannot simply extract the goods with water and test the extract,
even for qualitative results; nor can we suspend the goods in water
and titrate with the proper reagent because the reagent would then
he adsorbed by the fiber. For qualitative tests, we must apply the
indicator directly to the fiber and for quantitative results we must
neutralize the adsorbed acid or base with a base or acid which is
not itself appreciably adsorbed and titrate the excess of the reagent,
In the case of cotton goods, the difTiculty is not so great because
adsorption is much less in quantity and the acid or base is less
firmly held. Litmus paper pressed between layers of moistened
cotton goods for a few minutes or moist litmus paper pressed on the
fabric will give a slight color change with .01 per cent acid or alkali.
A more sensitive test is to use a saturated solution of Methyl Red
in water as an indicator, when spotted directly onto the fiber this
turns red with .005 per cent acid and yellow with .005 per cent
alkali. Kolsky and Jones have shown that small amounts of acid
or alkali may be detected by a heating test; this will be giwn in
more detail later.
152 TEXTILE TESTING
There is no satisfactory qualitative test for acids in wool which

will work on traces of acid but Clayton's Methyl Green test is
available for traces of alkali. A 0.25 gram sample of the wool is
boiled in 200 cc. of water containing 1 cc. of a 0.1 per cent solution of
Methyl Green (Colour Index No. 684) in a white silica dish. If
alkali is present to the extent of .04 per cent in the wool, complete
decolorizing of the dye will result.
In the quantitative determination, regain is determined on a
separate sample, as described in Chapter 9, while the chemical test
is being carried out on the other samples. The Nj50 sodium hy-
droxide method which is accurate to .02 per cent acid or alkali is
satisfactory on cotton goods: Boil 100 cc. of distilled water in a
conical flask, add 1 cc. of 0.5 per cent phenolphthalein and add N /50
sodium hydroxide until a very faint pink color is obtained against
a white background. Add a 3 gram sample of the cotton goods
and boil for·a few minutes. If the pink color is discharged, titrate
with N/SO sodium hydroxide until the same pink color is obtained
again. The blank on a perfectly neutral cotton fabric is equal to
0.10 cc. of N/SO sodium hydroxide. If the addition of the sample
causes a deepening of the color instead of discharging it, add an
excess of N/SO sulfuric acid to discharge the color and then titrate
with N/SO sodium hydroxide as before. A sample set of data and
calculations is given below:
Determination of Sulfuric Acid in Cotton
a. Weight of bottle and sample 44.3450 gms.
b. Weight of bottle + dry sample 44.2535
c. Weight of bottle alone 40.7546
d. Weight of moisture (a-b) 0.0915
e. Weight of dry sample (b-c) 3.4989
f. % regain (10Od/e) 2.62%
g. Weight of sample for test 3.2429 gm. 3.1077 gm.
h. Dry weight of
sample
( 1+;/100) 3.1962 3.0284
1. Volume of NaOH 2.10 cc. 1.60 cc.

l· Blank on neutral fabric 0.10 0.10
TEXTILE TESTING 153
k. Corrected volume of
NaOH (i-j) 2.00 1.50
m. Normality of NaOH .0197 .0197
n. Milliequivalent weight of
sulfuric acid .049 .049
o. % sulfuric acid 100
kXmXn/h .062% .064%
p. % sulfuric acid (average) 0.063%
In the determination of acid in wool, several methods are avail-
able all of which may be classified under one of four general methods:
1. Neutralize the acid with a weak base which is itself not ad-
sorbed, titrate the excess of the base.
a. Ammonia method.
b. Sodium bicarbonate method.
c. Triethanolamine method.
2. Treat with a soluble salt which will liberate an insoluble
acid, remove the acid, titrate the excess of the salt.
a. Sodium terephthalate method.
3. Treat with a soluble salt which will liberate a volatile acid,
distill over the acid and titrate it.
a. Sodium acetate method.
4. Extract the acid with a base and titrate it directly in the base
with phenolphthalein indicator.
a. Pyridine method.
The ammonia and sodium bicarbonate methods are less
satisfactory than the triethanolamine method; the sodium tere-
phthalate method has not proved satisfactory in the author's ex-
perience. The sodium acetate method is slow and tedious but
gives satisfactory results and is especially valuable when the wool
is dyed with a color which bleeds easily; the triethanolamine
method and the pyridine method are recommended for most cases.
The triethanolamine method and a sample calculation are as
follows: Soak 2.5 gram samples overnight in SO cc. of N/10 triethano-
lamine and SO ce. of water. Filter, wash with four washings of
75 cc. each of hot water. Titrate the combined filtrate and wash-
ings with standard N/tO acid, using Methyl Red indicator. Run
a blank on SO cc. of triethanolamine and the same amount of water
as was used for washing above.
154 TEXTILE TESTING
Determination of Sulfuric Acid in Wool
a. Weight of bottle and sample 51.1408 gms.
b. Weight of bottle and dry sample 50.9646
d. Weight of moisture (a-b) 0.1762
£. % regain (100 die) 7.47%
g. Weight of sample for test 2.7680 gm. 2.5330 gm.
h. Dry weight of
sample ( g ) 2.576 2.357

1+f/100
1. Volume of acid for blank 59.67 cc. 59.67 cc.
j. Volume of acid for sample 55.58 56.04
k. Volume of acid cor-
responding to acid
present in the wool
(i-j) 4.09 3.63
m. Normality of acid used .0926 .0926
n. Milliequivalent weight of
sulfuric acid .049 .049
o. % sulfuric acid
(100kXmXn/h) .72% .70%
p. % sulfuric acid
(average) 0.71%
The sodium acetate method is carried out as follows: Place a
2 gram sample of wool and .5 to 1.0 grams of sodium acetate in a
500 cc. distilling flask with water and steam distill until 50 CC.
have distilled over. Titrate the distillate with N 110 sodium hy-
droxide, using phenolphthalein as an inuicator. This method is
useful on dyed fiber where the dye is apt to bleed.
The pyridine method of Barritt as modified by Eavenson and
Creely is as follows: A 5 gram sample of wool is placed in a 500 CC.
flask and 300 cc. of 0.5 per cent pyridine solution as near the boiling
point as possible is added. Shake for 5 minutes, take off an aliquot
of 150 cc. and titrate with N 120 sodium hydroxide, using phe-
nolphthalein as an indicator. If the sample is dyed and the color
bleeds, use pyridine at room temperature and allow it to stand
for an hour
TEXTILE TESTING lSS
If the alkali in wool is to be determined, it is found that soaps are

included with the alkali. Two general methods are available:
1. Treat with an insoluble acid which combines with the alkali
to form a soluble salt, filter, and titrate the salt.
. a. Terephthalic acid method.
b. Boric acid method.
2. Add a known amount of acid to the sample, then determine
the excess acid by one of the methods previously given.
The boric acid method is as follows: Soak a sample of the wool
in 1 per cent boric acid for several hours, filter, wash eight or ten
times, titrate the combined filtrate and washings with N /10 hy-
drochloric acid using Methyl Red or Methyl Orange indicator.
If dyes are present, use boric acid saturated with sodium chloride
to reduce the bleeding of the dye.
The triethanolamine or pyridine methods may be applied to the
determination of alkalies in wool by first adding a known amount
of acid to the sample and then treating as in the determination of
acid present. The difference between the acid added and the acid
found will be equivalent to the alkali present.
REFERENCES:
Philadelphia (1932).
2Doree, C. Methods of Cellulose Chemistry. D. Van Nostrand Co., New York
(1933).
3Coward, H. F. and Wigley, G. M. Detection and Estimation of Acidity and
Alkalinity in Cotton Fabrics. Journal of the Textile Institute 13, Tl21 (1922).
4Hirst, H. R. and King, A. T. New Method for the Estimation of Alkali with
Special Application to Wool. Journal of the Textile Institute 17, T94 (1926).
Estimation of Sulfuric Acid in Wool. Journal of the Textile Institute 17,
TlOl(1926).
5Barritt,]. Determination of Sulfuric Acid in Wool: Journal of the Textile
Institute 26, T87 (1935).
6Trotman, S. R. and Gee, G. N. Determination of Acids in Wool, with Par-
ticular Reference to Dyed Goods. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists
48,321 (1932); 49,132 (1933).
7Clayton, E. Note on the Use of Methyl Green for Detecting Traces of Alkali
in Fibrous Materials. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists 51, 387
(1935).
8Stocker, D. E. Determination of Alkali in Wool. Journal of the Society of
Dyers and Colourists 53,348 (1937).
9Kolsky, S. I. and Jones, B. M. Determination of pH of Cotton Cloth and
Study of Its Relation to Tensile Strength. American Dyestuff Reporter 20, 133
(1931).
1 oEavenson , A. and Creely, J. W. Studies on the Determination of Sulfate
and Sulfuric Acid on Wool. American Dyestuff Reporter 25,719 (1936).
CHAPTER 11
ORGANIC EXTRANEOUS MATTER
Scouring Loss
THoutIS how
determination is carried out for the purpose of finding
much product will be obtained from a given weight
of raw material. The process is imitative since it treats the fiber
in the same way as it will be treated in processing. The result, it
must be emphasized, is not an analytical result; it does not give
us the amount of pure fiber but rather the amount of fiber of com-
mercial quality which will be obtained on processing the raw
material. No standard methods are available; a procedure may be
carried out the same as the mill routine but on a smaller scale, or
the following procedures may be used:
Cotton-a 20 gram sample is dried and weighed and is then
placed in a 2 liter flask, 1 liter of 2 per cent sodium hydroxide is
added and boiled gently for 2 hours under a reflux. The liquor is
decanted off and the cotton is washed several times with hot water.
The cotton is then placed in a solution of sodium hypochlorite of
about 10 Twaddle strength; when thoroughly bleached it is re-
moved, washed well with water, soaked in one-half per cent hydro-
chloric acid solution for one hour, washed free of acid, dried, and
weighed. The loss in weight is "loss on scouring and bleaching"
and will amount to 5-7 per cent on raw cotton, running higher if
sizing is present.
Silk-a skein or piece of cloth is dried and weighed, then placed
in a beaker and boiled gently with a 5 per cent solution of olive oil
soap. After 45 minutes, the skein is removed, squeezed, and boiled
in a fresh solution of soap. The sample is then washed repeatedly
with water, dried, and weighed. The loss in weight of the sample
is called the "boil-off" and will generally range from 18-23 per cent;
white silks tend to be in the lower part of the range and yellow
silks in the upper part. Tussah silk will qm about 8-14 per cent.
156
T EXT I. L E T EST I N G 157
\Vool--due to the variable composition of wool, as large a

sample as possible should be used. The A.S.T.M. recommends a
500 pound sample to be scoured in a commercial machine and this
:;hould be done wherever possible. If it is necessary to do it by
hand, four 2-liter beakers should be used and 50-100 grams of sam-
ple. The sample is dried and weighed and is then treated success-
ively in the four beakers by working it up and down gently (to
avoid felting) in the beaker and squeezing it gently only once
before passing to the next beaker. The first beaker should contain
water and a little soda-ash at 115° F.; the second beaker should
contain water, soda-ash, and enough soap to make a good clean
suds at 115° F.; the third beaker should contain the same ma-
terials as the second in somew:hat less quantity and should be at
120° F.; the fourth beaker contains only water at 110° F. Tem-
peratures, times, and amounts of soap and soda-ash should be
varied to correspond with the treatment the wool is to receive in
.the plant. The scouring loss of wools may be expected to vary
from 20 per cent to 55 per cent; mohair and alpaca will be around
15 per cent.
A washing test for testing the ability of an oil to be removed
from wool has been suggested by von Bergen. An 8-gram skein
of loose-twisted worsted yarn is soaked in 40 cc. of ether which has
had 0.4 gram of oil dissolved in it. The ether is allowed to evaporate
from the skein which is then divided into two 4-gram portions, one
of which is saved for a control and the other is washed. The wash-
ing done in a Launder-Ometer (see Chapter 6) at 40° C. for 5
minutes in 400 cc. of soap solution of concentration 1 gram per
liter. Five small steel balls of approximately 1 gram each are
placed in the jar with the sample and soap solution. After washing,
the amounts of oil on the oiled sample and on the washed sample
are determined by extraction with carbon tetrachloride. A good
worsted oil should be at least 90 per cent removed by this washing.
REFERENCES:
1 Matthews, J. 1\1. Textile Fibers. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1924).
2von Bergen, W. New Ways of Testing Woolen and Worsted Lubricants.
American Dyestuff Reporter 26, 246,312 (1937).
158 TEXTILE TESTING
Extraction
The extraction method of analysis depends upon separating a

mixture of two substances by means of a volatile solvent in which
one component of the mixture is soluble and in which the other
component is insoluble. Three general methods are available in
the case of textile materials which are to be analyzed, for example,
for oil content:
1. Soak the sample in the solvent to remove the bulk of the oil,
dump on a filter, rinse with several volumes of the sovent, dry
and weigh the sample, the loss in weight is oil. This method is
quick and requires little apparatus but uses enormous quantities
of rather expensive solvent, the dissolved material is dispersed in
a large bulk of solvent so that it cannot easily or quickly be re-
covered and analyzed, and there is considerable fire hazard in the
case of combustible solvents.
2. Soak the sample in a known amount of solvent, take an
aliquot (fractional) part of the solvent, evaporate to dryness and
weigh. Hirst uses a form of this method for determining oil in
textiles: a 10 to 20 gram·sample of the material is cut up into small
pieces and is placed in a wide-mouthed, 8-ounce bottle with a
ground-in stopper. Acetone (200 cc.) is added and allowed to stand
with occasional shaking for 24 hours; 100 cc. of acetone is then
withdrawn, filtered if necessary, evaporated to dryness in a tared
dish, cooled in a desiccator, and weighed. The weight of the
extract multiplied by 2 gives the total oil. A number of oils tested
gave 99 per cent recovery in this manner, including oxidized oils,
while the amount of soap dissolved was negligible.
3. Fse of a special extraction apparatus, either the Soxhlet
apparatus or the rubber extraction apparatus. This is the usual
method and will be discussed in more detail.
The Soxhlet apparatus (Figures 53 and 54) consists of three
parts connected by ground glass joints: the flask, the extraction
tube, and the condenser; the material to be tested is placed in the
extraction tube and the solvent to be use~ is placed in the flask;
the flask is heated, preferably with an electric hot plate. On
heating, the vaporized solvent passes up through the vapor tube
(shown on the left hand side of the extraction tube in Figure 53)
TEXTILE TESTING 159
Fig. 53-Soxhlet Extraction Apparatus

160 TEXTILE TESTING
and is condensed to a liquid in the condenser, from where it drips

down onto the sample in the extraction tube. \Vhen enough solvent
has condensed and fallen onto the sample to fill the extraction tube
up to the top of the siphon (shown on the right hand side of the
extraction tube in Figure 53), it siphons over into the flask and the
cycle starts over again. While the solvent was in contact with the
sample, it has dissolved much of the impurity which then passes
down into the flask. Another lot of pure solvent then condenses
and removes more impurity. The Soxhlet apparatus, then, finally
Fig. 54-Battery of Soxhlets

gives us the sample free of the impurity and the dissolved material
is finally all concentrated in the relatively small amount of solvent
in the flask, from which it may be recovered by evaporation for
weighing and analyzing, if required.
TEXTILE TESTING 161
The rubber extraction apparatus (Figure 55) is less frequently

used. It works on the same principle, but the extraction tube is
suspended in the flask from a coil of metal tubing which acts as a
condenser. The rubber apparatus is less expensive than the Soxhlet
but it is not so safe for use with combustible solvents. The Soxhlet
apparatus may be considered as the standard apparatus for textile
purposes; the rubber extraction apparatus is specified by the
A.S.T.M. for determining oil and grease in knit goods with carbon
tetrachloride, but ail other determinations specify the Soxhlet.
Fig. 55-Rubber Extraction Apparatus
If the sample to be tested is in a finely divided state Or if it con-

tains a large amount of mechanical dirt or short, loose fibers (as in
some shoddies) an extraction thimble should be used to hold the
sample. This may be a tube made of porous paper, an alundum
tube, or a glass tube with a coarse fritted glass bottom. The sides
162 TEXTILE TESTING
of the thimble obviously must be higher than the siphon tube,

otherwise the small particles might tIoat out into the extraction
tube and ultimately into the flask.
The actual routine of carrying out an extraction varies according
to equipment available-whether the oven and analytical balance
are separate units or are combined (see Chapter 2); it also varies
as to whether the chemist considers weighing the extract or weigh-
ing the loss of the sample as the most accurate method.
If a separate oven and analytical balance are used, it is necessary
to use a weighing bottle which adds another weighing to the process
with another possible source of error. If the extract is weighed,
time is required to evaporate off the solvent and of course the
flask must have been previously dried and weighed; some time may
be saved by not weighing the sample before extraction but drying
and weighing the extracted sample afterward (at the same time that
the extract is being dried and weighed) and adding the weight of
the extract to the weight of extracted sample to obtain the sample
weight. The following cases, therefore, may exist and the formula
for each case is given:
Let A = weight of weighing bottle
8 = weight of weighing bottle + sample.
C = weight of weighing botde + extracted sample.
S = weight of sample.
E = weight of extracted sample.
a = weight of flask alone.
b = weight of flask + extract.
A. Using separate oven and analytical balance .
. 1. Weighing extract.
a. Weighing sample before extraction.
boa
% loss on extraction = - - X 100
(4 weighings) B-A
h. Weighing extracted sample and adding extract.
b-a
% loss on extraction = X 100
(4 weighings) (C-A) + (b-a)
2. Weighing loss of weight of sample.
8-C
TEXTILE TESTING 163
c. % loss on extraction = _- X 100

(3 weighings) B-A
B. Using combined oven and analytical balance.
1. Weighing extract.
d. Weighing sample before extraction.
b-a
% loss on extraction = - - X 100
(3 weighings) S
e. Weighing extracted sample and adding extract.
b-a
% loss on extraction = X 100
(3 weighings) E + (b-a)
2. Weighing loss of weight of sample.
S-E
f. % loss on extraction = - - X 100
(2 weighings) S
It will be noted that a combined oven and balance requires
fewer weighings which makes for greater accuracy and speed. The
question as to whether the weight of extract in the flask or the
loss in weight of the sample should be used is largely a ~atter of
prejudice. If the extract is to be analyzed or given qualitative tests,
of course the extract should be separated out and weighed but if
simply the amount of extracted matter is to be determined either
method might be used. It is sometimes stated that weighing the
extracted matter is more direct but this is a fallacy since in one
case we are measuring an increase in weight of a flask and in the
other case we are measuring a decrease in weight of a sample. One
difference might show up in the case of an easily oxidized oil; if
we heat the sample before extraction, we might oxidize the oil and
make it less soluble in the solvent so that the loss in weight of the
sample by methods (c) or (f) would be too small, this would not
apply to weighing the extract if we use methods (b) or (e). How-
ever, the same oil must be heated in the flask in methods (b) or (e)
to drive off the last traces of solvent, this may now oxidize and in-
crease the weight of extract. In the case of an oxidizable oil,
therefore, one method tends to be too low and the other method
tends to be too high. The usual method is to weigh the extract
but there is no reason for it except custom and the author has
164 TEXTILE TESTING
always obtained better checks and more consistent results by mea-

suring the loss in weight of the sample. Whichever method is
used, as large a sample as the apparatus will hold without too
tight packing should be used, because in either method we are
measuring a small amount of extract by the change in weight of a
relatively heavy sample or flask.
The solvent to be used in an extraction depends upon what we are
trying to determine. Oils, fats, and waxes are usually determined
with ethyl ether, petroleum ether, or carbon tetrachloride; ethyl
ether may be considered the standard for this work but carbon
tetrachloride is more used than ether in plant work because of less
fire hazard and less loss by evaporation; carbon tetrachloride
gives a larger amount of extract, in the case of wool, than ether
because of some solvent action on soaps which may be present;
petroleum ether, on the other hand, gives a lower value than ethyl
ether because oxidized fatty acids are much more soluble in ethyl,
ether than in petroleum ether. In the case of raw cotton, the wax
may be determined with one of the above solvents, but if the com-
bined cotton wax and resin are to be determined then chloroform,
benzene, or trichlorethylene should be used. Soaps of sodium or
potassium are determined, after the oil removal, by an extraction
with ethyl alcohol; the absolute ethyl alcohol has been suggested
by some workers, but the 95 per cent ethyl alcohol gives sufficiently
accurate results and may be considered the standard. If the extract
is determined by weighing the loss in weight of the textile sample
and an alcohol extraction is made, the sample after being extracted
should be immersed in water a few minutes, then squeezed, dried,
and weighed; if this water treatment is not given, some of the alco-
hol will be retained by the sample even in the drying oven and will
increase the apparent weight of the extracted sample. The alcohol
extract may also contain oxidized oils which are not very soluble
in ether, glycerine, and traces of zinc chloride or magnesium chloride
if present in large amounts in the sample. The insoluble soaps,
such as calcium or magnesium soaps, are not appreciably removed
by alcohol and may be determined by soaking the sample (after
the ether and alcohol extractions) for one hour in dilute hydro-
chloric acid, washing, drying, and extracting again with ether;
the loss in weight of the samples is then soaps of the heavy metals
TEXTILE TESTING 165
and alkaline earth metals. Gilmore has suggested a complete

removal of all these constituents--oils, fats, waxes, resins, soaps,
and calcium or magnesium soaps-by extraction with a benzene-
alcohol mixture (9 parts benzene, 1 part alcohol) followed by a
regular chemical analysis of the extract.
The time required for an extraction has been stated by various
workers as anywhere from 1 hour to 24 hours. A better method
is to extract for a given number of siphonings and for ether or
alcohol the author has always found 12 siphonings to be sufficient,
20 siphonings is sometimes recommended but there is an insignif-
icant difference in the results and in the case of alcohol, at least,
there is evidence to indicate that too great a number of siphonings
is more in error than too few.
Table XIII gives the range of extractable matter in various
types of cotton. Table XIII a'iso gives the A.S.T.M. maximum
permissible extracted matter for certain textile materials.
The natural cotton wax is composed of a large number of sub-
stances of which gossypyl alcohols are the most important; the
cotton wax has a melting point of 75-80° c., an iodine value of
22-32, and contains 54-64 per cent of unsaponifiable matter. These
constants may be used to distinguish it from the substances which
may be applied to cotton in sizing and finishing; the most common
of these are tallow, spermaceti, castor oil, mineral oil, paraffin wax,
Japan wax, and sometimes other waxes or some of the more recent
fatty alcohol products or sulfonated oils.
In discussing the analysis of the ether extract, we may consider
the ether extract of wool as the most common as well as the most
complex example. The ether extract should theoretically contain:
1. All the free fattyacids.
2. All the oils, fats, and waxes; including any residual wool
grease.
3. No soaps.
The ether extract actually obtained will differ from the above in
the following manner:
1. All the free fatty acids will be present if the wool is a normal
soap-a~d-soda scoured specimen and ethyl ether is used; if pe-
troleum ether is used, the oxidized fatty acids will not all be present.
166 TEXTILE TESTING
In addition, free acids of equivalent weight 327 may be present

from the wool grease.
2. Oxidized oils will not all be present, nor will all of the residual
wool grease.
3. A small amount of soap may be present, probably in the
form of an "acid soap."
Tests which may be carried out on the ether extract include
the following:
1. Test for rancidity (Kreis test.)
One drop of the oil is placed on a porcelaio plate, one drop of
concentrated hydrochloric acid (sp.gr.1.19) is added and mixed
with a fine glass rod, and one drop of a 0.1 per cent solution of
phloroglucinol in ether is added. A red color indicates rancidity.
2. Test for mineral oil.
This is best tested for by the refractometer or by ultra-violet.
3. Test for rosin or rosin oil (Liebermann-Storch test).
A small amount of sample is warmed with acetic anhydride in a
small test tube until a clear solution is obtained, a drop or two is
then placed on a porcelain plate and allowed to cool. A drop of
concentrated sulfuric acid is then placed on the plate near the other
drop and the two drops are allowed to coalesce A violet color
indicates rosin or rosin oil.
4. Test for cottonseed oil (Halphen test).
Two cubic centimeters of oil in a small test tube are dissolved
with 2 cc. of amyl alcohol and 2 cc. of 1 per cent solution of sulfur
in carbon bisulfide. The test tube is immersed in a boiling water
bath for about 10 minutes. An orange or crimson color indicates
cottonseed oil.
5. Test for sesame oil (Baudouin test.).
Two cubic centimeters of oil are placed in a small test tube,1 drop
of 1 per cent alcoholic solution of furfural and 2 cc. of concentrated
hydrochloric acid are added and shaken well. A rose to crimson
color in the aqueous liquid indicates sesame oil.
6. Test for peanut oil (Bellier test).
Two solutions are necessary: alcoholic potash, 8.5 grams of
potassium hydroxide in 70 per cent ethyl alcohol made up to
100 cc.; acetic acid, 120 cc. of 36 per cent acetic acid diluted to
150 cc. (1.5 cc. of this acid should exactly neutralize 5 cc. of alcoholic
TEXTILE TESTING 167
potash). To 1 gram of oil in a test tube is added 5 ce. of alcoholic

potash, it is boiled gently over a small flame until saponification is
complete (about 2 minutes) avoiding evaporation as much as possi-
ble. One cubic centimeter of acetic acid is added, mixed well, and
the whole is cooled 30 minutes in tap water, shaking occasionally.
Fifty cubic centimeters of 70 per cent alcohol containing 1 per cent
by volume of concentrated hydrochloric acid is added, shaken well,
and placed in tap water for one hour. A clear opalescent liquid is
obtained if peanut oil is not present, a precipitate is obtained if
peanut oil is present:
7. Test for teaseed oil.
Seven drops of oil are added to a previously cooled mixture of
0.8 cc. of acetic anhydride, 15 cc. of chloroform, and 0.2 cc. of con-
centrated sulfuric acid. After allowing to stand 2 or 3 minutes,
10 cc. of anhydrous ether is added and mixed well. A pink colora-
tion indicates teaseed oil.·
8. Test for unsaponifiable matter and animal and vegetable
olis.
The oil is saponified with alcoholic potash and is then shaken with
elher to dissolve the unsaponifiable matter which may be recovered
by evaporating the ether extract. This unsaponifiable matter will
contain cholesterol if animal oils are' present or phytosterol if
vegetable oils are present, these may be identified by the melting
points of their acetates. The unsaponifiable matter is boiled with
acetic anhydride (an oily layer on the surface at this point indicates
hydrocarbons), the excess acetic anhydride is evaporated off on the
water' bath, the residue is dissolved in hot alcohol, crystallized,
washed with 95 per cent alcohol, recrystallized from alcohol, and
the melting point determined.
Cholesterol acetate = 114-115° C.
Phytosterol acetate = 125-137° C.
9. Test for oxidized fatty acids.
Any ether extract which is not soluble in petroleum ether may
be considered as oxidized fatty acids.
The alcohol extract obtained after an ether extraction should
theoretically contain:
1. No fatty acids.
168 TEXTILE TESTING
2. No oils, fats, or residual wool grease (except potassium soaps

from the suint.).
3. All of the soaps.
Actually the normal soap-and-soda scoured wool will con tain:

1. An appreciable amount of a water-soluble acid of equivalent
weight = 254.
2. A fairly large amount of residual wool grease which is ether-
soluble after removal from the wool but which 'is not removed
from the wool by ether extraction; also any oxidized oils.
3. Practically all of the soap.
4. Traces of salts such as potassium chloride and potassium
sulfate from the wool, also some zinc chloride or magnesium chloride
if these have been present in the sample in fairly large amounts.
5. Glycerine, if present on the original sample.
If a true picture of what is present in the extract is to be obtained,
the following determination, at least, should be made on the extract.
Add an excess of N /10 sulfuric acid, boil under reflux, cool, shake
out with ether, wash the ether layer with water, evaporate off the
ether. Take up the residue in neutral 95 per cent alcohol and
titrate with NI10 alcoholic potash with phenolphthalein indicator.
These total fatty acids may be calculated to soap (usually sodium
oleate).
Von Bergen has recently formulated a standard test and standards
for judging the suitability of oils for the lubrication of wool. The
scouring test has been given earlier in this chapter, the remainder of
the test depends upon the artificial ageing of cloth which has been
oiled with the oil in question and exposed to the light of the Fade-
Ometer (a carbon arc light source used for testing the fastness
of dyes to light) for various lengths of time. Twenty hours on the
Fade-Ometer have been found to equal 90 days of natural ageing,
and 40 hours on the Fade-Ometer to equal one year of natural ageing.
It is found that on artificial or natural ageing, the ether extractable
material decreases in amount while the alcohol extractable material
increases a corresponding amount, probably due to oxidation of the
oil. In the case of mineral oils, there is a decrease of the ether
extractable with no change in the alcohol extractable, indicating
volatilization of the oil. The amount of free fatty acid in the ether
TEXTILE TESTING 169
extract also increases. Von Bergen has formulated the following

tentative standards for wool oils:
1. The loss in ether extractable matter in the first 10 hours
should be less than 10 per cent and in 40 hours not above 20 per
cent.
2. The fatty acid content of the ether extract should not exceed
3S per cent in 40 hours.
3. No strong discoloration or stiffening of the wool should occur.
In conclusion, it may be easily seen that the matter extracted
by any solvent is not in general composed of anyone substance or
group of substances and that it is incorrect and often misleading
to refer to ether extract as "oil" or "wax." There is a growing
tendency to report resuits as "ether extract" or "alcohol extract"
or as "loss on extraction"; this method of nomenclature is very
desirable, to avoid an erroneous impression in the mind of the
non-technical person.
REFERENCES:
1 Matthews, J. M. Textile Fibers. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1924).
New York (1933).
3Trotman, S. R. a J Trotman, E. R. Textile Analysis. J. B. Lippincott Co.,
4Year Book of the A.A.T.C.C.-Volume XIV. Howes Publishing Co., Inc.,
New York (1937). .
6Standard Method for the Estimation of Soap in Wool. Journal of the Textile
Institute 13, T143 (1922).
7Fargher, R. G. and Probert, M. E. Constituents of the Benzene Extract of
American Cotton. Journal of the Textile Institute 14, T49 (1923).
8Clifford, P. H., Higginbotham, L. and Fargher, R. G. Chemical Analysis of
Cotton-Determination of Fat, Wax, and Resin. Journal of the Textile Institute
15, T120 (1924).
9Lecomber, L. V. and Probert, M. E. Chemical Analysis of Cotton-Waxes
of Cottons of Different Origin and Their Characteristics. Journal of the Textile
Institute 16, T338 (1925).
1 oLecomber, L. V. and Probert, M. E. Chemical Analysis of Cotton-Iden-
tification of the Fatty Ingredients on Sized Goods. Journal of the Textile In-
stitute 16, T345 (1925).
IlHirst, H. R. Simplified Method for Estimating Oil in Textiles. Journal of
the Textile Institute 18, T606 (1927).
12Hirst, H. R. Some Analytical Methods Used for the Identification of Dyeing
Faults. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists 53,45 (1937).
13Gilmore, B. H. Determination of Calcium Soap on Textile Fibers. Amer-
ican Dyestuff Reporter 23,642 (1934).
14 yon Bergen, W. New Ways of Testing Woolen and Worsted Lubricants.
American Dyestuff Reporter 26,246,312 (1937).
15Ryberg, B. A. Methods of Determining Extraneous Matter in Textile
Materials. American Dyestuff Reporter 26, 461 (1937): 27, 8, 180 (1938).
170 TEXTILE TESTING
Sizing and Finishing Materials

Sizing materials are materials added to a yarn for the purpose
of holding down the loose fibers, holding the twist in place, stiffening,
and strengthening the yarn before weaving. Finishing materials
are materials added to the cloth after weavmg for the purpose of
improving the appearance or handle, increasing the stiffness or
resilience, and sometimes to increase the weight or opacity. Yarns
are generally sized by means of starch, to which an antiseptic may
have been added; crepe yarns may have their large amount of
twist held in place by a coating of gelatine. Finishing materials
are much greater in number and include the following groups
and specific materials:
A. Adhesives.
1. Starches--corn, potato, wheat, sago, tapioca.
2. Dextrins-usually corn dextrin.
3. Gums-tragacanth, arabic, carob (tragasol).
4. Glue, gelatine, casein, or albumen.
5. Agar, Irish moss, Iceland moss, algi nates.
B. Weighting.
1. Epsom salts or Glauber salts.
2. China clay, talc, or gypsum.
3. Sugars-cane sugar, glucose.
C. Softeners and lubricants.
1. Glycerol or glycols.
2. Oils or waxes.
3. Soaps, sulfonated oils, or sulfated alcohols.
D. Deliquescents.
1. Glycerol or glycols.
2. Magnesium, calcium, or zinc chlorides.
E. Antiseptics.
1. Zinc chloride, sodium silicofluoride, boric acid, ('opper
sulfate.
2. Salicylic acid, turpentine, phenols, cresols.
F. Crease resisting materials.
1. Casein hardened by formaldehyde.
2. Casein and latex mixtures.
3. Synthetic resins.
TEXTILE TESTING 171
a. Phenol-formaldehyde condensates.
b. Urea-formaldehyde condensates.
c. Acrylic ester polymers.
d. Alkyd or glycerol-phthallic anhydride condensates.
e. Vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate co-polymers.
G. Permanent finishes.
1. Cellulose ethers.
2. Ethyl cellulose.
Since the sizing materials are also included as finishing materials,
it is obvious that any analytical methods which apply to finishing
materials will also apply to sizing materials, therefore we will dis-
cuss only finishing materials.
For convenience in discussion, we may divide the various kinds
of finish into the follo~groups:
1. Pure finish-this depends wholly upon mechanical treatment
and not upon the addition of any finishing material.
2. Coated fabric-this is the addition of a visible coating on
the surface of the cloth of wax or linseed oil for a waterproof cloth;
rubber for a water and air tight cloth; or collodion for an artificial
leather. These types of material are obvious in their composition
and method of analysis.
3. Crease-proof finish-this depends upon the application of
one of the materials under (F) above; of these, the urea-formalde-
hyde synthetic resin is the most common at the present time.
At least 8 per cent of the resin is necessary to obtain any appreciable
crease-resistance and about 12 per cent is the usual amount used.
4. Permanent finish-this depends upon the deposition on the
cloth of some material which will not wash off in laundering. The
compounds most often u'sed for this still quite new type of finish
are cellulose ethers; 372 to 5 per cent of cellulose ether will give a
linen-like appearance, while 6 to 8 per cent will give a distinct
stiffening effect. The cellulose ether is applied from an alkaline
solution and is coagulated by dilute acid or concentrated salt solu-
tions. Varying amounts of mineral fillers (B2 above) may be in-
corporated in the finish.
S. Weighting without appreciable change in appearance -this
requires the addition of soluble salts or sugars (B1 or B3 above)
together with a small amount of a protective colloid such as dextrin
172 TEXTILE TESTING
or gum (A2, A3, A4, or AS above) to prevent crystallization of the

weighting material.
6. Various starch finishes as follows:
a. If improved appearance with no loss in pliability is desired,
starch (AI) and a softener (C) are used.
b. If stiffening alone is required, starch or dextrin (AI or A2)
is used alone.
c. If the cloth is to be made dense and opaque by filling up the
spaces between the yarns, a starch (AI) together with a binder of
dextrin or gum (A2, A3, A4, or AS), a softener (C), and a mineral
weighting (B2) might be used.
Any of the starch finishes may also have an antiseptic (E) added
to prevent mildew or bacterial damage; zinc chloride is most
common of these antiseptics.
According to chemical composition, we may classify the finishIng
materials as follows:
1. Substances removed by previous extraction with ether (or
carbon tetrachloride) and alcohol.
a. Oils and waxes.
b. Soaps, sulfonated oils, sulfated alcohols.
c. Glycerol and glycols.
rl. Salicylic acid, turpentine, phenol, cresols.
II. Carbohydrates and derivatives (all water soluble except
[aj).
a. Cellulose derivatives-cellulose ethers, ethyl cellulose.
b. Starches and flours.
c. Dextrins.
d. Gums-tragacanth, arabic, carob.
e. Agar, Irish moss, Iceland moss, algi nates.
f. Sugars-cane sugar, glucose.
III. Proteins (water soluble unless after-treated.)
a. Glue or gelatine.
b. Casein.
c. Albumen.
IV. Polymerized resins (insoluble in water).
a. Latex (rubber).
b. Duprene (synthetic rubber).
TEXTILE TESTING 173
c. Phenol-formaldehyde condensate.
d. Urea-formaldehyde condensates.
e. Acrylic ester polymers.
f. Glycerol-phthallic anhydride condensates.
g. Vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate co-palmers.
V. Inorganic substances.
a. Soluble salts-MgS0 4, Na2S04, ZnCl 2, MgCl 2, CaCI 2 •
b. Insoluble mineral matter-China clay, talc, gypsum.
The qualitative tests for specific finishing materials are not en-
tirely satisfactory due to the chemical similarity of many of the
substances used. A sample of the material may be ashed and the
ash tested as in Chapter 10 for the inorganic constituents given in
Group V above, or a water extract may be tested for the soluble
salts (Va). Zinc chloride is much used in small amounts as an
antiseptic, so a special test will be given for it.
If the specimen is previously given an extraction with ether
(or carbon tetrachloride) and then an alcohol extraction, the oils
and waxes may be separately identified (Group Ia) and the soaps,
etc. (Group Ib) may be determined as in the previous section.
Glycerol will also be found in the alcohol extract and may be best
identified by the formation of glyceryl dibenzoate: the alcohol
extract is cooled and filtered, evaporated to about 2 cc., and shaken
with 20 cc. of warm dilute hydrochloric acid. The fatty matter
is filtered off (or extracted with ether) and a slight excess of sodium
carbonate and a few drops of 10 per cent sodium hydroxide are added
to precipitate zinc and magnesium. The solution is filtered, neu-
tralized with hydrochloric acid, and evaporated to 5 cc.; it is
then shaken with 1 cc. of benzoyl chloride, 5 cc. of 10 per cent
sodium hydroxide, and one drop of Methyl Red indicator solution.
As soon as the precipitated glyceryl benzoate turns red, more
sodium hydroxide is added until the odor of benzoyl chloride
disappears. The somewhat oily product is filtered off, washed
with water, dissolved by pouring 2 cc. of boiling alcohol through
the filter, and allowed to crystallize. The melting point of the
needles of glyceryl dibenzoates is 72-73° C.
The phenols and cresols may be tested for by boiling a sample
of the textile material in dilute sodium hydroxide, then acidifying
174 T EXT I L E T EST I N' G
the solution. A little dilute ferric chloride will give characteristic

colors with the various phenols and cresols as follows:
Phenol, m-cresol, tricresol violet
o-Cresol = blue, changing to green
p-Cresol = blue
A finish which is insoluble in water but dissolves in hot sodium
hydroxide is probably a cellulose ether or ethyl cellulose finish.
A burning test is often helpful: on burning a textile sample the
characteristic odor of burning rubber indicates Latex or Duprene;
the odor of burning hair (protein) indicates glue, gelatine, casein,
or albumen. An odor of formaldehyde would indicate phenol-
formaldehyde or urea-formaldehyde resin.
Spotting the cloth with a dilute (0.1 per cent) iodine solution
will show the presence of starch (blue) or dextrin (red to brown).
Spotting with hot Millon's reagent will show the presence of pro-
tein-glue, gelatine, casein, or albumen. Millon's reagent is prepared
by dissolving 1 cc. of mercury in 10 cc. of concentrated nitric acid,
and then adding 10 cc. of water; the reagent should not be kept
over a month; a red color with Millon's reagent indicates the
presence of protein.
Casein may be tested for by boiling a small piece of the sample
in water which has been made slightly acid with sulfuric acid;
5 cc. of the acid extract is then placed in a test tube, cooled, and
1 drop of 3 per cent formaldehyde is added. In another test tube
is placed 2 cc. of concentrated sulfuric acid and 1 drop of 10 per
cent ferric chloride solution. The water solution is flowed gently
onto the top of the sulfuric acid without mixing with it. A violet
ring at the junction of the liquids indicates casein.
Urea-formaldehyde resin, by far the most common of the synthetic
anti-crease resins in use now, may be tested for by extracf ing the
cloth with warm one-half per cent hydrochloric acid and adding to
the extract a few crystals of phloroglucinol; on neutralizing with
sodium hydroxide, a deep red color develops if urea-formaldehyde
resin is present.
A spot test for zinc, sensitive to 0.25 per cent uses the two solu-
tions following:
A 1.0 gram of diphenylamine, 2 cc. of glacial acetic acid, 18 cc.
of water, 80 cc. of 95 per cent ethyl alcohol.
TEXTILE TESTING 175
B. 0.5 per cent solution of potassium ferricyanide in water.

One drop of (A) is placed on the doth, followed by one drop of (B).
In the presence of zinc'a violet-black to green coloration is obtained
with a violet ring around the drop. Iron gives a blue-green ring
instead of violet.
Dextrin may be tested for in the presence of starch by soaking
in cold water, followed by testing in the water extract with dilute
iodine.
The remaining possible constituents should be tested for in a
hot water extract of the cloth. The cloth is boiled in water for
some time and the extract is then concentrated by evaporation,
after which the following tests may be performed:
1. Starch and dextrin may be tested for here if not already
tested for (Iodine reagent).
2. Proteins may be tested for if not already determined (Millon's
reagent).
3. Soluble salts may be tested for.
4. Phenols, cresols, etc., may be tested for.
5. Soaps, etc., may be determined here if no preliminary ex-
traction has been made.
6. Glycerol and glycols may be tested for by evaporating down
some r of the hot water: extract after the addition of potassium
bisulfate, followed by ignition of the residue. If glycerol is present,
the characteristic odor of acrolein will be obtained; if ethylene or
di-ethylene glycol is present, the odor of acetaldehyde will be ob-
tained.
7. Sugars are tested for by Fehling's Solution. Solution A
contains 69.28 grams of crystalline copper sulfate per liter: Solution
B contains 346 grams of Rochelle salts (sodium potassium tartrate)
and 100 grams of sodium hydroxide per liter; equal volumes of
Solutions A and B are mixed just before use. A portion of the hot
water extract is evaporated almost to dryness on a water bath and
a portion of the concentrated solution is warmed with mixed
Fehling's Solution. A red or yellow precipitate indicates glucose.
An"other portion of the concentrated solution is made acid with
dilute sulfuric acid and boiled for 10 minutes, after which it is
neutralized with sodium hydroxide and tested with Fehling's
176 TEXTILE TESTING
Solution. A red or yellow precipitate (in the absence of glucose,

above) indicates the presence of cane sugar.
S. The gums, the mosses and albumen (but not starch, dextrin,
glue, or gelatine) are precipitated by basic lead acetate. The reagent
is prepared from 30 grams of lead acetate, 10 grams of lead oxide
(litharge), and 5 cc. of water, stirred on a water bath until the solu-
tion is white, then 100 cc. of water is stirred in; the reagent is then
allowed to settle and is filtered.
The above group tests and specific tests are usually sufficient to
identify the finishing materials present. Additional tests may be
found in the literature if a more detailed knowledge of the con-
stituents present is required. In general it is safer to carry out
tests on known samples of the gums, mosses, and gelatines along
with the unknown sample if positive identification is required.
For the quantitative determination of the total sizing or finishing
materials (after extraction with the proper solvents) we have
four methods available:
1. The alkali-acid or scouring method.
2. The acid-alkali method.
3. The enzyme or malting method.
4. The ammonium persulfate method.
The scouring method is as follows: a 5 gram sample is dried and
weighed and is then treated for 1 hour at 80° C. with 200 cc. of 1
per cent sodium hydroxide, after which it is wen rinsed and wrung
out in hot water. It is then heated for 1 hour at SOo C. in 200 cc.
of one-half per cent hydrochloric acid, after which it is rinsed,
boiled one-half hour in distilled water, dried and weighed.
The acid-alkali method is given :with many small variations, the
AS.T.M. method is as follows: a sample of fabric of one square
foot is dried and weighed. It is then boiled 30 minutes in one-half
per cent hydrochloric acid (the acid to be boiling when the sample
is put in), removed and rinsed thoroughly, boiled 30 minutes in
1 per cent sodium carbonate, removed, rinsed, dried and weighed.
The enzyme method is also used in many slightly different forms,
the AS.T.M. and AAT.C.C. methods being practically identical.
The AAT.C.C. method is as follows: a 10 gram sample is dried
and weighed, rinsed in hot distilled water and is then immersed in
20 times its weight of a 3 per cent solution of a starch-solubilizing
TEXTILE TESTING 177
enzyme (such as Diastafor) at 60° c., squeezing 3 times with the

solution to insure proper wetting-out. It is digested for 1 hour in
this solution at 60° C. (temperature must not be allowed over
60° C. or the enzyme action will be destroyed), after which it is
rinsed well in hot water, all loose fibers being collected on a 100-mesh
sieve or a Gooch crucible. The sample is then boiled for 1 hour in
distilled water and is rinsed again, after which it is squeezed, dried,
and weighed.
The ammonium persulfate method is as follows: the cloth is
cut up into one-inch squares and a 10 gram sample is dried and
weighed. The sample is placed in a 250 cc. beaker, 150 cc. of
boiling distilled water is added and it is boiled on a steam bath for
10 minutes. Then, 25 cc. of a 4 per cent ammonium persulfate
solution is added, the beaker is covered with a watch glass, and it is
boiled for 30 minutes. The sample is dumped out onto a l00~mesh
sieve (or Gooch crucible), washed throughly under the tap, squeezed,
dried, and weighed.
If the cotton sample has been through any sort of a scouring
process (boil-out, bleaching, dyeing, or mercerizing) there is no
correction fa~tor to be applied, but if raw cotton has been used
there is a correction factor necessary. Correction factors for the
various de-sizing methods obtained by various authorities are
given in Table XIV but these averages are those of a considerable
range of values and anyone specimen might be far away from the
average, it is therefore safer to report the "loss on de-sizing" and
state the method used, unless a sample of the cloth before finishing
or sizing is available as a blank.
If the sizing or finishing material is a permanent finish (cellulose
ether) the scouring method must be used. If the material has an
anti-crease finish (synthetic resin) the acid-alkali method should be
used, although the scouring method would probably be satisfactory
also; the enzyme method, however, would be useless on the synthetic
resins. If the finishing material contains starch, anyone of the
methods may be used although the standard methods of the
AS.T.M. and the AAT.C.C. both specify the enzyme method.
The AS.T.M. does specify the acid-alkali method for materials
which are to be rubber or pyroxylin coated and sets standards for
the maximum "loss on de-sizing" which are given in Table XIV.
178 TEXTILE TESTING
The ammonium persulfate method has not been In general use but
is worthy of more consideration; it is quicker and simpler than any
of the other methods and if investigation shows that it will de-
size thoroughly it should be a valuable method, especially for
routine work.
REFERENCES:
1Matthews, J. M. Textile Fibers. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1924).
2Doree, C. Methods of Cellulose Chemistry. D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc.,
New York (1933).
3Trotman, S. R. and Trotman, E. R. Textile Analysis. J. B. Lippencott Co.,
sYear Book of the A.A.T.C.C.-Volume XIV. Howes Publishing Co., Inc.,
New York (1937).
6Farrow, F. D. Sizing: A Review of the Literature. Journal of the Textile
Institute 14, T254 (1923).
7Smith, G. Detection and Estimation of Glycerol in Cotton Cloths and Sized
Yarns. Journal of the Textile Institute 17, T187 (1926).
BNeale, S. M. Determination of Deliquescent Substances in Sized Cotton
Materials. Journal of the Textile Institute 17, T511 (1926).
9Smith, G. Estimation of China Clay in Sized Cotton Goods. Journal of the
10Derrett-Smith, D. A. Estimation of Starch on Finished Goods and Yarns.
11Clibbens, D. A. and Geake, A Determination of Total Size or Filling in
Cotton Goods. Journal of the Textile Institute 22, T465 (1931).
12Fargher, R. G. and Lecomber, L. V. Determination of Starch in Sized and
Finished Cotton Goods. Journal of the Textile Institute 22, T475 (1931).
13Geake, A. Analysis of Sized Cotton: Determination of Zinc and Magnesium
and Some Qualitative Tests. Journal of the Textile Institute 23, T279 (1932).
, HOehn, W. M., Jackson, K. E. and Ballard, D. A. Identification of Common'
Carbohydrates. I ndustrial and Engineering Chemistry Analytical Edition 4,
413 (1932).
lsHerman, B. X. Quantitative Determination of Starch as Sizing. American
16Anonymous. American Dyestuff Reporter 24,325 (1935).
,17 Harold, B. A. Textiles and the Newer Synthetic Organic Chemicals. Amer-
1BAmick, C. Crease-Resisting Fabrics. American Dyestuff Reporter 24, 553,.
622,645 (1935).
19La Piana, F. G. Finishing of Textile Fabrics. American Dyestuff Reporter
25,416 (1936).
20Howell, R. E. Laboratory Methods for Desizing Cotton Materials. Amer-
21Cohoe, W. P. Permanent Sizing with Alkali Soluble Cellulose Ethers.
American Dyestuff Reporter 26,375 (1937).
22 Powers, D. H. Progress in the Resin Finishing of Textile Fabrics. American
Dyestuff Reporter 26, 783 (1937).
CHAPTER 12
FIBER MIXTURES
Qualitative Analysis
T HE identification of fibers by purely chemical means is so

complex as to be almost an impossibility, although in a great
many cases a strong degree of probability may be established.
The principal difficulties to which this uncertainty is due are:
1. Many times a test indicates a group of fibers rather than a
single fiber; for example, a chemical test might show that a certain
fiber was an animal hair but there would be no chemical method of
determining which hair.
2. Finishing materials may affect the tests and give false results;
for example, gelatine will give the same test as animal fibers and
starch may give the same test as swollen cellulose fibers.
3. Dyes interfere with most of the color reactions and even the
trace of dye left after stripping may do the same; for example, the
test for nitro rayon is a test for traces of nitro groups, which are
present in many dyes.
4. If a solubility test is used, a small amount of one constituent
of a mixture may be dissolved with no noticeable effect; for example,
if a mixture was 5 per cent silk and 95 per cent wool, the silk might
be dissolved in concentrated hydrochloric acid with no noticeable
change in the mixture.
5. Degraded or modified fibers may give the reactions of another
fiber; for example, a wool shoddy containing a small amount of
carbonized cotton might completely dissolve in 5 per cent potassium
hydroxide.
6. New fibers are continually bemg introduced which have some
properties of older fibers; for example, Lanital gives most of the
reactions of wool and would not normally be differentiated from
it in a chemical test.
In view of the above, the only safe way to analyze a mixture of
fibers is by using the microscope in conjunction with the tests to be
179
180 TEXTILE TESTING
described and to confirm every reaction by other reactions or by

the microscope.
The tests usually carried out may be classified as follows:
1. Burning tests.
2. Color tests.
3. Solubility tests.
These will be discussed in more detail.
4. Dyeing or staining tests-these are too uncertain because
they are too likely to be affected by traces of impurities and slight
variations in the method of procedure.
S. Microscopic examination-this will be omitted for now and
will be taken up in another section.
Since we are are to attempt to identify the fibers by chemical
means, we should classify the fibers according to chemical compo-
sition:
A. Mineral fibers-asbestos, glass
B. Cellulose derivatives
1. Lignocellulose-kapok, jute, hemp
2. Cellulose--cotton, flax, ramie
3. Swollen cellulose-mercerized cotton, rayons
4. Cellulose ester-acetate rayon
C. Protein fibers and protein-like fibers
1. Protein and mineral matter-weighted silk
2. Silks-true silk, tussah
3. Casein derivatives-casein wool
4. Hairs-wool, mohair, camel hair, etc.
S. Nylon
The simplest and the first test to be applied is the burning test.
This is carried out by pulling out single fibers and applying a flame
to the end; if the fiber is not burned it indicates a mineral fiber;
an odor of burned feathers or hair with the formation of a knob on
the end indicates a protein fiber; an odor of burning feathers but
with the ash retaining the original shape indicates weighted silk;
an aromatic odor with melting and formation of a knob indicates
acetate rayon; little or no odor and a shapeless ash which falls off
indicates a cellulose fiber, litlle odor and a round ball indicates
nylon. This test then, shows definitely whether the fiber is a
TEXTILE TESTING 181
mineral fiber or a weighted silk; it also gives a strong indication of

whether it is an animal or vegetable fiber or acetate rayon. To
distinguish between asbestos and glass, heat in a Bunsen flame;
glass will melt and asbestos will not.
The next step, if the fiber is not mineral or weighted silk, is to
determine whether the fiber is animal or vegetable. It is boiled
for 5 to 10 minutes in 5 per cent potassium hydroxide; protein
fibers except nylon dissolve, cellulose fibers remain undissolved.
If the fiber is found to be protein, another sample is treated with
cold concentrated hydrochloric acid for 15 to 20 minutes; the
hairs and casein wool do not dissolve; the silks dissolve, true silk very
rapidly and tussah silk more slowly. If the fiber is now determined
as a hair or casein wool it may be tested by treating with 20%
NaOH at 30° C. for 3 hours; the hairs dissolve, casein wool does
not.
If the fiber is found to be a cellulose derivative or nylon, a sample
is treated with warm acetone for 10 to 15 minutes; if it dissolves it
is cellulose acetate or vinyl resin rayon; if it is insoluble it is one
of the other cellulose derivatives or nylon. To distinguish between
acetate and vinyl rayons, test with glacial acetic acid, acetate
dissolves, vinyl does not. A sample is now treated with melted
phenol, if it dissolves it is nylon. Another sample is then stripped
of dye, if necessary, and is then tested for swollen cellulose by
the zinc chloride-iodine test. The solution and test is as follows;
Solution A is 280 grams of zinc chloride in 300 cc. of water; Solution
B is 1 gram of iodine and 20 grams of potassium iodide in 100 cc.
of water. The reagent is prepared by adding 6 drops (0.2 cc.)
of Solution B to 20 cc. of Solution A. The previously wet-out
and squeezed sample is immersed in the mixture at room tempera-
ture for 3 minutes and is then removed and rinsed; unswollen
cellulose is decolorized almost immediately, swollen cellulose remains
a dark blue for some time, but eventually becomes decolorized.
If the sample is undyed and is a cellulose derivative but neither
swollen nor cellulose acetate, it may be tested for lignocellulose by
immersing a few fibers on a watch glass in 2 per cent aniline sulfate
solution at room temperature; lignocelluloses turn yellow, cellulose
fibers are not colored.
If undyed. the sample may also be tested with Millon's reagent
182 TEXTILE TESTING
for rayons of the Cisalfa type (viscose with casein added) by warm-
ing in a few drops of the reagent on a watch glass.
Table XV gives a summary of the tests made so far and shows
that we have identified the mineral fibers, weighted silk, casein
wool, acetate rayon, vinyl rayon, and nylon. There now remain
the following groups to be broken down by further tests:
1. Silks-true silk, tussah.
2. Hairs-wool, mohair, etc.
3. Swollen cellulose-mercerized cotton, viscose rayon, cupra
rayon .
.t. Lignocellulose-kapok, jute, hemp.
5. Cellulose--cotton, flax, ramie.
At this time, the microscope should be used, but if one is not
available the following tests may be employed.
The silks, if undyed, may be differentiated by color; tussah
silk is a brown color, while degummed true silk is white. If the
fiber is dyed or undyed a fair idea may be obtained from its behavior
in cold concentrated hydrochloric acid; silk dissolves rapidly,
tussah much more slowly. In the same way, boiling 1 per cent
sodium hydroxide dissolves true silk very rapidly whereas tussah
silk requires at least 30 minutes to dissolve.
The hairs cannot be differentiated by any chemical tests. If
undyed, camel hair can be distinguished from wool by its brown
color and an expert can often distinguish one hair from another
by the appearance. The new fiber, casein wool, is used in mixtures
with wool and may be distinguished in the mixture by its greater
affinity for Methylene Blue: immerse the sample for a few minutes
in 10 per cent sodium hydroxide at room temperature, wash, im-
merse in cold 1 per cent Methylene Blue for 5 to 10 minutes, wash
thoroughly; casein wool is stained blue, wool is not colored or is only ,
slightly colored. Whittaker's dyt'ing test may be uspd on dyed or
undyed wool-casein blends: immerse one minute in a cold solution
of 0.5 grams of Xylene Light Yellow 2G, Azo Geranine 2GS, or
Erio Fast Cyanine Sand 0.5 cc. of 80 per cent sulfuric acid per
100 cc. of water and then rinse; the casein wool is dyed a full
shade while the wool is only slightly stained. If the mixture is dyed,
one of the above dyes having a contrasting color should be used.
Of the swollen cell uloses, three are rayons and the other is mercer-
TEXTILE TESTING 183
ized cotton; if the specimen is continuous filament, of course, It IS

one of the rayons. The lustrous appearance of the rayons, also, is
usually enough to distinguish it, from the mercerized cotton. The
differentiation of cupra and viscose rayons by any other means than
the microscope is uncertain but the two following may be tried.
Wilson's method consists of treating about 0.2 gram of sample with
10 cc. of concentrated sulfuric acid in a test tube; both cupra and
viscose dissolve, cupra with a yellow or brownish color immediately
and a brownish yellow after 40 minutes, viscose with a reddish-
brown color which is a rusty brown after 40 minutes. The sulfide
test of the A.S.T.M. may also be used: 5 grams of sample are placed
in a 250 cc. conical flask together with 100 cc. of water and 3 cc. of
concentrated sulfuric acid; the mouth of the flask is covered with
a piece of lead ac~tate paper and the flask is allowed to stand at
90° to 95° C. for 4 hours; viscose stains the paper yellowish to
brown or possibly black, cupra does not stain the paper.
Of the lignocelluloses, kapok is never found in the form of yarn or
cloth but only in bulk, it may be recognized by the silky feel, the
resistance to wetting by water, and by its relatively short staple.
By immersion in chlorine water for one minute, spreading on a
white porcelain dish, and the addition of several drops of ammonia
solution jute and kapok are given a red or violet color while hemp
is given at most a brown color.
The cellulose fibers (cotton, flax, and ramie) cannot be chemically
differentiated. The staple of the cotton is usually much shorter
than either flax or ramie. The A.S.T.M. method of distinguishing
cotton from linen consists in drawing out a fiber and moistening the
end of the fiber between the thumb and finger; if the fiber tip curls
clockwise it is linen; if counterclockwise it is cotton. Ramie is
usually somewhat stiffer than either cotton or linen. For complete
verification of the identity, the microscope should be used.
The continual introduction of new synthetic fibers should be
borne in mind and the above tests must be modified whenever
necessary. It must be emphasized again that for a definite and
certain knowledge of what fibers are present, especially in a rather
complex mixture, the microscope must be used.
REFERENCES:
IMatthews, J. M. Textile Fibers. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1924).
184 TEXTILE TESTING
3Trotman, S. R. and Trotman, E. R. Textile Analysis. ]. B. Lippencott
Co., Philadelphia (1932).
4Schio, D. Lanital Fiber: Identification and Determination. Rusta 12,
157 (1937).
5Whittaker, C. Test to Distinguish Between Wool and Casein Fiber. Journal
of the Society of Dyers and Colourists 53,468 (1937).
6Von Bergen, W. Casein Wool. American Dyestuff Reporter 25,146 (1936).
Quantitative Analysis
The quantitative methods for analyzing mixtures of fibers may
be grouped into the following four cases:
1. Mechanical analysis-picking out all of one fiber from the
mixture of two or more fibers and weighing all of each fiber separate-
ly; an example would be when the warp threads were cotton and
the filling threads wool, in this case each set of yarns may be weighed
and its percentage calculated. This method is not applicable to
blends of fibers, however.
2. Miscroscopic analysis-counting the number of each kind of
fiber in a mixture. To be accurate, the number of fibers should be
multiplied by their average weight to get the percentage by weight.
This method therefore gives only approximate results and is used
only in cases where no other method is available; an example of a
case where this method would be used is in the case of a wool-mohair
blend.
3. Proximate analysis-the determination of some chemical or
physical constant of the mixture and the calculation from this of
the composition of the mixture. Examples of this type of analysis
which have been used are:
a. Determination of specific gravity of a mixture and cal-
culation from it of the composition-suggested for cotton-wool
mixtures (see Table X).
b. Determination of the fluidity of a mixture of cotton and
viscose and calculating the percentage composition knowing that
the fluidity of cotton in one-half per cent solution is 1 to 2 and of
viscose is 36 to 40. For the determination of fluidity, see Chapter
13.
c. Determination of the nitrogen content (by the Kjeldahl
method) of a mixture of animal and vegetable fiber and calculation
of the composition. This is rather inaccurate because of the vari-
TEXTILE TESTING 185
able nitrogen content of the animal fibers, also because of the

presence of nitrogen-containing dyes, finishing compounds, or
weighting.
d. Determination of the P 2 0 S content of a mixture of wool
and Lanital and calculation of its composition (Lanital = 1.80 per
cent P 2 0 S ). This is more tedious and no more accurate than other
methods.
Proximate analyses tend to be inaccurate, in general, because of
the variation in the constant determined in one or more of the
constituents of the mixture.
4. Chemical analysis-this consists in weighing a sample, dissolv-
ing out one component, weighing the residue, and continuing the
process until the composition is known. Nearly always a reagent
which removes one fiber has some effect on another, so that in
general correction factors are necessary. This method of analysis
is in most common use and will be considered in more detail.
The reagents used for chemical methods of analysis for the
common fiber mixtures are as follows:
1. Acetate rayon and any other fiber mixtures.
*a. Acetone.
*b. Glacial acetic acid.
2. Cotton-wool or rayon-wool mixtures.
*a. Potassium hydroxide.
b. Aluminum chloride.
*c. Sulfuric acid.
3. Silk-cotton or silk-wool mixtures.
*a. Hydrochloric acid.
b. Ammoniacal nickel oxide.
*c. Concentrated calcium thiocyanate.
d. Basic zinc chloride.
4. Silk-rayon mixtures.
a. Dilute calcium thiocyanate.
b. Copper glycerol hydroxide.
b. Ammoniacal nickel oxide.
*d. Potassium hydroxide.
s. Cotton-rayon mixtures.
*a. Concentrated calcium thiocyanate.
186 TEXTILE TESTING
b. Semi-saturated chromic acid.

c. Sodium zincate.
Of the above, many, in the author's experience, give very erratic
results. The methods marked by an asterisk (*) are the most
satisfactory and are sufficient to take care of any mixture of the
common fibers. These methods will be given in detail.
Acetone method----dry and weigh the sample (about 5 grams),
warm in a beaker with 250 cc .. of acetone for 30 minutes, filter
through a Gooch filter (or 100-mesh screen), wash twice with
acetone, then with water, dry and weigh. Acetone rayons with a
few exceptions are completely soluble, other fibers are insoluble.
If the acetate rayon is found by a previous test to be not completely
soluble in acetone, use the glacial acetic acid method.
Glacial acetic acid method-dry and weigh the sample (about
5 grams), drop into 250 cc. of boiling glacial acetic acid and boil
for 20 minutes, filter through a Gooch filter (or 100-mesh screen),
wash with glacial acetic acid, wash with water, wash with dilute
ammonia, wash with water, dry and we~gh. This treatment dis-
solves all acetate rayons but somewhat affects other fibers (see
Table XVI).
Potassium hydroxide method-dry and weigh the sample (about
5 grams), drop into 250 cc. of boiling 5 per cent potassium hydroxide
and boil for 15 minutes, filter through a Gooch filter (or 100-mesh
screen), wash with potassium hydroxide solution, wash with water,
wash with dilute acetic acid, wash with water, dry and weigh.
This dissolves wool and s;lk, the residue is cotton or rayon. Acetate
rayon is partly soluble to such a variable extent that no correction
factor can be given; it should, however, have been already removed
by acetone or glacial acetic acid. In routine work, where the
expense of the reagent is a consideration, sodium hydroxide may
be used instead of potassium hydroxide; for important work or
referee work, the potassium hydroxide should be used.
Hydrochloric acid method-dry and weigh the sample (about
5 grams), drop into 250 cc. of concentrated hydrochloric acid at room
temperature for 15 minutes, filter through a Gooch filter (or 100-
mesh screen), wash with concentrated hydrochloric acid, wash
with water, wash with dilute ammonia, wash with water, dry and
weigh. This treatment dissolves silk but not cotton or wool;
TEXTILE TESTING 187
rayons and acetate rayons are partially dissolved and no correction

factor can be given.
Calcium thiocyanate method-the official method of the A.S.T.M.
and the Bureau of Standards is too critical and requires special
apparatus; the following method is simpler and as accurate. Dry
and weigh the sample (about 2 grams). Prepare a solution of
calcium thiocyanate of specific gravity = 1.36 and place 200 cc. of
the solution, in a flask, in a boiling water bath or steam bath so
that the temperature i15 100 0 c., do not boil the solution. Drop
the sample into the solution and leave for one hour, stirring it well
every 15 minutes. Filter through a Gooch filter, wash with calcium
thiocyanate solution, ther, wash well with water, dry and weigh.
The calcium thiocyanate may be recovered by diluting with v.ater
until the dissolved fiber is precipitated, filtering, and concentrating
again to 1.36 specific gravity. This treatment dissolves silk, rayon,
and acetate rayon but not wool or cotton.
Sulfuric acid method-older methods were very unsatisfactory,
but the recently developed method of the A. A. T. C. C. is very
satisfactory. Dry and weigh the sample (about 2 grams), immerse
the sample in 200 cc. of a boiling 1 per cent solution of sulfuric acid
for 7 to 10 minutes, transfer to a Gooch filter and remove the excess
acid by suction. Place the sample in 200 cc. of a 70 per cent solution
(by weight) of sulfuric acid at 100 0 F. (38 0 C.) and work it for 15
minutes. Filter on a Gooch filter (or tOO-mesh screen) and wash
well with cold water, then place the sample in a beaker of 2 per
cent sodium bicarbonate at room temperature for 5 minutes.
Filter again, wash well on the filter, dry and weigh. This methocl
dissolves all the ordinary fibers except wool which is left as a residue;
no correction factor is necessary for a normal wool.
Table XVI gives the solubility of the various fibers by the above
six methods. If we remember that the glacial acetic acid methocl is
only an emergency method for use on a few cellulose acetates, we may
say, then, that the five methocls remaining will take care of any case
which may arise. It will be noted that in several cases in Table XVI
are the words "partly soluble"; in these cases the method cannot be
used if the fibers in question are present because the fibers dissolve
to a considerable extent but cannot be corrected for due to their
extreme variation. Thus if silk, viscose, and cotton are prf"sent, we
188 TEXTILE TESTING
cannot first dissolve the silk with cold concentrated hydrochloric

acid because the viscose dissolves an unknown extent; in this
case the potassium hydroxide method would be used for silk, fol-
lowed by the calcium thiocyanate method for viscose. The fibers
given in capitals are the principal fibers met with, those beneath
in small letters are the less common fibers to which the correction
factors will probably apply.
The methods to use will depend upon what fiber mixture we have;
in some cases there will be a choice of methods, in thIS case the choice
will be governed by the accuracy desired or the convenience or speed
of the method. The following mixtures of two fibers may arise:
1. Acetate rayon and any other fiber--use the acetone method.
2. Cotton and wool--use the sulfuric aCid method for the most
accuracy, or the potassium hydroxide for less critical work.
3. Cotton and silk-use the potassium hydroxide method, the
hydrochloric acid method (less accurate), or the calcium thio-
cyanate method (expensive reagent, longer time).
4. Cotton and viscose-use the calcium thiocyanate method.
S. Viscose and wool-u!>e the potassium hydroxide method (less
accurate), the calcium thiocyanate method, or the sulfuric acid
method (best).
6. Viscose and silk-use the potassium hydroxide method.
7. Silk and wool-use the hydrochloric acid method (most con-
venient), the calcium thiocyanate method, or the sulfuric acid
method.
In analyzing mixtures of three or four fibers, we may remove one
fiber, weigh, remove another fiber and weigh again; another and
more accurate method is to take two samples and make a different
determination on each; this last method avoids the use of more
than one reagent on any residue and thus does not create an unknown
correction factor; the second method is also quicker since only two
dryings are necessary instead of three or four. For example, a
mixture of cotton, wool, and silk could be analyzed on one sample
by treating with hydrochloric acid and weighing, then treating with
potassium hydroxide and weighing again, but the acid treatment
might alter the cotton so that the correction factor for the potassium
hydroxide residue was not 3 per cent but some higher figure. A
more accurate way would be to determine wool on one sample
TEXTILE TESTING 189
(by the sulfuric acid method) and cotton on another sample (by
the potassium hydroxide method) and determine the silk by differ-
ence. By the use of Table XVI, the various combinations of
methods to use for various combinations of fibers may be deter-
mined. Of course, acetone does not affect any of the fibers except
acetate rayon, so a mixture of acetate and any other number of
fibers is first treated with acetone to determine the acetate rayon
and is then treated with further reagents.
The correction factor is the figure by which a weight of a given
residue must be multiplied to give the true weight of the residue
before the chemical treatment took place. If we let
S solubility given in Table XVI
C correction factor
100
Then C _-- or C =
100-S 1 - S/100
Thus the correction factor for cotton, after the potassium hydroxide
treatment is 100/100-3 = 100/97 or 1/.97. Wool after the sulfuric
acid treatment requires no correction, and none of the fibers require
correction after the acetone process. The use of the correction
factors may best be shown by examples:
1. Mixture = cotton and wool.
Method used = potassium hydroxide.
Residue = cotton.
Correction factor = 100/100-3 = 100/97.
Weight of sample = 5.14 grams.
Weight of residue = 2.39 grams.
True weight of cotton = 2.39xl00j97 2.46 grams.
% cotton = 2.46x100jS.14 = 47.9%.
% wool = 100 - 47.9 = 52.1%.
2. Mixture = cotton, wool, silk.
Method used = hydrochloric acid method followed by potassium
hydroxide method.
Weight of sample 4.98 grams.
Weight residue after HCl 3.05 grams.
Weight residue after KOH 2.13 grams.
Weight of cotton before KOH = 2.13x100/97 = 2.20 grams.
Weight of wool before KOH = 3.05 - 2.20 = 0.85 grams.
190 TEXTILE TESTING
Weight of cotton before Hel = 2.20xlOO/96 = 2.29 grams.

Weight of wool before Hel = .85x100/99.5 0.85 grams.
Weight of silk before Hel = 4.98-2.29-.85 = 1.84 grams.
% cotton 2.29x100/4.98 46.0%.
% wool = 0.85x100/4.98 = 17.1%.
% silk = 1.84x100/4.98 = 36.9%.
3. Mixture = silk, wool, viscose.
Methods used = sulfuric acid (sample A) and potassium hy-
droxide (sample B).
A
Weight of sample 2.0575 gms.
Weight residue 0.5500 gms.
True weight of wool 0.5500 gm".
0.5500
% wool = - - - x 100 = 26.8%
2.0575
B
Weight of sample = 4.9590 gms.
Weight residue 2.4865 gms.
True weight of viscose = 2.4865x100/95 2.62 gms.
2.62
% viscose = - _ x 100 = 52.8%
4.96
% silk 100 - (26.8 + 52.8)
100 - 79.6
20.4%
In addition to the cases discussed, there are certain special
cases which deserve mention:
1. Mixtures of fibers in the same group of Table XVI-for ex-
ample, mixtures of wool and mohair or cotton and linen. These
mixtures cannot be analyzed by chemical means but must be picked
apart mechanically if possible or analyzed by means of the micro-
scope; this will be given in a later section.
2. Mixtures of fibers of which one fiber is not normal but has been
degenerated by some previous treatment-for example, mixtures
of shoddy (somewhat degraded wool) and cotton. These are best
analyzed by a method which dissolves the degenerated fiber and
leaves the normal fiber as a residue.
TEXTILE TESTING 191
3. Felts-these are so compactly packed that certain removal

of relatively small amounts of cotton is nearly impossible, on the
other hand, if the larger amount of wool is removed the cotton
does not hinder the operation so much. The A.S.T.M. standard
method for felts is the same as the potassium hydroxide method
except that 5 per cent sodium hydroxide is used and the solubility
of the cotton is then 5 per cent (correction factor = 100/95).
4. Mixtures of asbestos and organic fibers. These are analyzed
by taking a 5 gram sample which is ignited in an electric furnace
at 800° to 810° C, after which the residue (asbestos) is weighed.
The asbestos loses about 14 per cent in weight due to water of
crystallization, so that the correction factor of 100/86 is used.
5. Mixtures of wool and casein wool. A 2 gram sample is
placed in 100 cc. of 20 per cent sodium hydroxide at 30° C for 3
hours during which time it is frequently stirred. The residue is
filtered out, washed, treated with dilute acetic acid, washed again,
dried and weighed. The casein which is the residue, loses a variable
amount of weight by this process, so if possible a blank should be
run on a sample of casein. If the blank is not available, a 10 per
cent loss may be assumed (correction factor = 100/90) although
this loss will probably vary considerably and the result must not
be dependeq upon too much.
The A.S.T.M. suggests the separation of wool-casein mixtures
by use ofa liquid of 1.310 ± .005 specific gravity. In this liquid,
the casein would float and the wool would sink. The liquid may
be prepared by mixing 5 volumes of carbon tetrachloride and 3
volumes of toluene.
REFERENCES:
IMatthews, J. M. Textile Fibers. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1924.)
2Trotman, S. R. and Trotman, E. R. Textile Analysis. J. B. Lippencott
Co., Philadelphia (1932).
3A.S.T.M. Standards. on Textile Materials. A.S.T.M., Philadelphia (1938).
4Year Book of the.A.A.T.C.C.-Volume XIV. Howes Publishing Co., Inc.,
New York (1937).
5 Krais, P. and Markert, H. Quantitative Determination of Cotton, Wool,
Silk, and Artificial Silks in Mixed Textiles. Journal of the Textile Institute 23,
P213 (1932).
6Mease, R. and Jessup, D. Analysis of Textiles. American Dyestuff Re·
porter 24,613 (1935).
7 Ryberg, B. Determination of Wool in Wool-Cotton Textile Materials.
American Dyestuff Reporter 25, 296 (1936).
BLaRose, P. Wool-Lanital Blends. American Dyestuff Reporter 26, 584
(1937).
CHAPTER 13
SWELLING AND DAMAGE IN CELLULOSE FIBERS
Introduction
BEFORE studying the specific tests for the condition of a

cellulose fiber, it would be well to consider briefly the structure
and the chemistry of cellulose and its,derivatives. Cellulose itself,
as shown in Figure 56a, consists of a long chain of glucose anhydride
units held together lengthwise by an oxygen linkage and sideways
by partial valence. The cellulose chain terminates in a glucose
residue which contains an aldehyde group (Figure 56b) and gives
cellulose a very slight reducing action. The chemical activity of
cellulose centers around the hydroxyl groups and the oxygen
linkages.
Swollen cellulose may be produced by one or more of several
methods:
1. Strong acids--concentrated sulfuric acid.
Examples: amyloid, artificial parchment, Swiss finish,
Heberlein finish.
2. Strong alkalies-sodium hydroxide, cuprammonia hydroxide.
Examples: mercerized cotton, cupra rayon.
3. Certain salts-calcium thiocyanate, zinc chloride.
4. Esterification followed by solution in a solvent and reprecipi-
tation of the cellulose.
Examples: acetate rayon, viscose rayon.
The swollen cellulose has the same structural formula as ordinary
cellulose, the only difference (apart from incidental degradation)
being that the partial valence foeces are destroyed or decreased so
that the chains are not as well oriented and the hydroxyl groups are
more available for reaction. We find then that swollen cellulose
has the same reactions as cellulose but that the reactions proceed
further or proceed more rapidly. This may be shown in several
ways:
192
TEXTILE TESTING 193
'-./
CH
I
o
I
CH CH
./' '-... /~
~O-CH 0 HO-CIf 0
I I I ~H
H O-CH CH-C.HzOH HO-C.H CH-CHtOH
'-..../' '-... ./'
CH Cil
I I
o o
I I
CN eM
/''-...
0/ '-...CI+-OH o C~OI4
I I I I
HOl-IlC.-CH eH-OH H OH,.c.-c.1f eH-OH
-'-... / '
CH
"-
CH
/
I I
o o
I I
CH
'"
Cif
./''-...
HO-CH 0 Ho-eH./' 0
I I I I
H 0- C H CH-CH,.O Ii HO-CH CN-CH,Off
'-.../
CH
"-/'
eH
I I
o o
I I
CH CN
./ " ./ '-
a. b.
Middle of Cellulose End of Cellulose
Molecule Molecule
Fig. 56-Structural Formula of Cellulose
1. Faster chemical reactions

a. Hydrolysis-by acids
b. Oxidation---e.g., by sodium hypobromite
c. Esterification---e.g., acetylation
2. Increased absorption
a. Moisture-see Table IV for regains
b. Direct dyes---e.g., Benzopurpurin
c. Iodine-e.g., zinc chloride-iodine reagent
d. Alkalies---e.g., barium hydroxide
Of these last two phenomena, the absorption of iodine from zinc
chloride-iodine furnishes us with a qualitative test for swelling and
the absorption of barium hydroxide furnishes us with a quantitative
test for mercerization.
194 TEXTILE TESTING
....... /' ,/
CH CH
I I
o o
I I
GH CH
/~ /~
HO-CH 0 HO-CH 0
I I I I
""'/
HO-CH CH-CH.OH HO-CH CH-CH,OH
......... /
CH CH
I I
o o
I I
CH CH
/~ / ~
o CN-OH o CH-OH
I I I I
HOH,C- C.H CH-OH HOHLC- CH CH-OH
......... / ~/
CH CH
I I
o H OH
---~--- -----;--
CH OH CH
/ ......... /~
HO-CH 0 HO-CH 0
I I I pH
HO-CH CH-C~OH HO-CH C.H-CH.OH
......... / ~/
CH CH
I I
o o
I I
CH CH
/' ....... /' '-
a. b.
Cellulose Hydrocellulose
Fig. 57-Formation of Hydrocellulose
The degradation of cellulose is accomplished by hydrolysis of

the oxygen linkage which results in shorter molecules and is in-
dicated by a higher fluidity (or lower viscosity) and an increased
solubility in dilute alkali. The degradation is also accomplished
by an oxidation of the hydroxyl groups to aldehyde groups, indi-
cated by an increased ability to reduce alkaline copper salts; and
further oxidation to carboxyl groups, indicated by an increased
ability to absorb basic dyes such as Methylene Blue or to form
ferrous salts as in the Turnbull's Blue test. Degradation by oxida-
tion is usually, also, accompanied by hydrolysis.
Hydrocellulose is produced by the action of acids on cellulose.
as shown in Figure 57, to give molecules similar to cellulose but
shorter; and since more ends of the chains now exist, the red uci ng
power (due to the aldehyde groups) is larger. Two forms of hydro-
TEXTILE TESTING 195
'-/ ...... ./
eH CH
I I
o o
I I
HO-CH
/,
eN
0 HO-CH
./, Ciol
0
I I I I
HO-CH CI-I-CHaOH HO-CH CI+CHtOH
,/ ,./
eH GH
I I
o o
I I
0/
CH
'CHO H 1-10
./', eN
CUO
-~- - --------f-
HOHtC-CH CHO OH H0H,.C,-CH-OH C,HO
,/ .......... . /
eH eu
I I
o o
HO-CH
/
I
CM
, 0 HO-CH
/
CH
I
..........
0
I I I
HO-CH
,/ eH
CH-CHaOH HO-C ~ ./' CH-C",OH
C.H
I I
o o
I I
CH eM......
/'- /
a. b.
Oxycellulose Formed Oxycellulose from
by Acid Acid Oxidation, after
Oxidation Alkali Treatment
Fig. 58-0xycellulose Obtained by Oxidation in Acid Solution
cellulose may be obtained: one from the treatment of cellulose by

hot dilute acids (acid solution type); and one from the impregnation
of cellulose with sulfuric or phosphoric acid, followed by drying of
the material with consequent concentration of the acid (acid
dried-in type). The general chemical properties of these two
types of hydrocellulose are shown in Table XVII.
Oxycellulose is produced by the action of oxidizing agents on
cellulose. If the oxidation is carried out in acid solution the product
differs from cellulose in containing a large number of aldehyde
groups (Figufe 58a) and a relatively small number of carboxyl
groups; the chain is not broken until a treatment with alkali is
given (Figure 58b) as in boiling out and laundering; the strong
alkali used in the fluidity test also breaks the chain and causes high
196 TEXTILE TESTING
,/ ,/ ,/
eH eM CH
I I I
o o o
I I I
eH eH CH
/ ".. /"" 0 /"..0
Ho-eH 0 H~CH HO-CH
I I I I I I
HO-CH Clf-CH,OH HO-CH CH<H.OH HO-C~ /CJr'HaOil
'\./ '\. /
eH CH CH
I 1 I
o o o
I I I
eH CM CM
/".. /"'-COOH /"..COON
o CHO: + 0 o II HO
I
H~e-CH CHO: + 0
' -+ -- - -COOH
HO~C.-CH
----..OH HO~C-CH-OH COOH
'\./
eH
"../ '\./
(.H elf
1 1 I
o o 0
1 I I
/e~ CH
/'\.
CH
/".. 0
HO-CH 0 HO·CH 0 HO-CH
I I I 1 I I
HO-CH C.ItCH,OH Ho-tH C.H-CH~OH HO-CH CH-C.HaOH
"../
CH
"../ "../
CH CH
I 1 I
o o 0
1 1 1
eH CH Cit
/' /' /,
a. b. c.
First Stage Second Stage Third Stage
Fig. S9-0xycellulose Obtained by Oxidaiton in Alkaline
Solution
fluidities. If the oxidation is carried out in alkaline solution the

number of aldehyde groups is reduced and the number of carboxyl
groups increased by oxidation, and the alkaline medium also causes
breaking of the molecular chain (Figures 59a, 59b, 59c). The
general chemical properties of these two types of oxycellulose are
shown in Table XVI I.
The tests which will be considered in this chapter may be classi-
fied as follows.
A. Qualitative tests
1. For swollen cellulose
a. Zinc chloride-iodine test (See Chapter 12).
2. For chemical damage
TEXTILE TESTING 197
a. Fehling's Solution-hydrocellulose or oxycellulose

b. Turnbull's Blue-oxycellulose
B. Quantitative tests
1. For swollen cellulose
a. Barium activity number-merc~rized cotton
2. For degraded cellulose
a. Ash alkalinity-carboxyl groups
b. Loss of weight in hot dilute NaOH-molecule length
c. Methylene Blue absorption-carboxyl groups
d. Copper number-aldehyde groups
e. Fluidity-molecule length
The first part of Table XVIII gives the results of the above
quantitative determinations for purified cellulose and for the
various rayons. The last part of Table XVIII gives the approxi-
mate copper numbers and fluidities which may be expected in
cotton goods whiS;h have been damaged in various ways so as to
produce losses in strength of 10 per cent, 30 per cent, and 50 per
cent. In commercial practice, a damage resulting in not over 10 per
loss in strength is permissible if done to produce·a certain result;
for example, in bleaching a loss in strength is almost inevitable
but should not exceed 10 per cent. The 30 per cent and 50 per cent·
values are included to give an idea of what values are obtained in
the case of excessively damaged materials.
Qualitative Tests
The zinc chloride-iodine test for swollen cellulose is given in

Chapter 12. The blue color obtained by this test is not permanent;
if it is desired to keep a record of the color, the sample after removal
from the reagent and rinsing is dropped into a boiling solution of
Indigosol Black IB or Indigosol 04B (the concentration is imma-
terial). The iodine causes an immediate dyeing of the sample which
is then washed first in cold water and then in boiling soap solution,
after which it may be kept for reference. If the sample to be tested
is dyed, the color may be stripped by any of the ordinary methods
without influencing this test.
Fehling's Solution (the formula of which is given in Chapter 11)
may be used as a test for damage since both hydrocellulose and
198 TEXTILE TESTING
oxycellulose contain aldehyde groups which cause a reduction of

alkaline copper salts to insoluble red cuprous oxide. The test is
carried out as follows: Mix 10 cc. of solution A with lOcc of solution
B and heat to boiling, add the sample and boil for several minutes,
remove and rinse well. The presence of red or pink spots shows
chemical damage (hydrocellulose or oxycellulose). This test, as
we shall see later, may be made quantitative (with some modifica-
tions) and gives us the "copper number."
The Turnbull's Blue test depends upon the fact that, when
im mersed in ferrous sulfate, oxycellulose because of its carboxyl
groups will form a ferrous salt which will not wash out, whereas cel-
lulose and hydrocellulose which do not contain carboxyl groups
will not hold the ferrous salt. If then the sample is placed in
potassium ferricyanide, the ferrous salt of oxycellulose will give a
blue color (Turnbull's Blue) whereas cellulose and hydrocellulose
will not give any color. The test is carried out as follows: Immerse
the sample in a 1 per cent solution of ferrous sulfate at room temper-
ature for 10 minutes, then wash thoroughly in running water;
immerse the sample in a 1 per cent solution of potassium ferri-
cyanide at room temperature for 5 minutes, remove and wash.
Cellulose will be tinted very faintly blue, hydrocellulose still more
faintly, but oxycellulose will be a deep blue. If the sample is dyed,
the color may be stripped by either of the following methods, which
do not affect the results of the test unduly:
1. Use a 0.5 per cent solution of hydrosulfite and a little ammonia
at 40° C. for 30 minutes.
2. Use a 0.1 per cent solution of titanous sulfate or chloride at
40° C. for 30 minutes.
Other qualitative tests given in the literature have been tried
by the author and found to be not as reliable or at any rate no
more reliable than the above and rather more complicated. These
tests include:
Methylene Blue test
Diamine Sky Blue test
Benzopurpurin test
Indanthrene Yellow test
Harrison's test (alkaline silver salt)
Heat test
TEXTILE TESTING 199
REFERENCES:
ITrotman, S. R. and Trotman, E. R. Textile Analysis. J. B. Lippencott
Co., Philadelphia, (1932).
2Doree, C. Methods of Cellulose Chemistry. D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc.,
New York, (1933).
3Ermen, W. F. A. Notes on the Iodine Mercerization Test. Journal of tbe
Society of Dyers and Colourists 47,161 (1931).
4Thomas, H. A. Oxycellulose and Hydrocellulose: Their Detection, Pro-
perties and Probable Differences in Constitution. Journal of the Society of
Chemical Industry 52, 79T (1933); American Dyestuff Reporter 22, 355 (1933).
Bariwn Activity Number
The increased absorption of swollen cellulose for various sub-

stances is most conveniently and accurately measured in the case
of barium hydroxide. The original method of Neale has been
greatly simplified by Edelstein who also found that the results are
unaffeCted by the presence of dye.
Solutions used:
Barium hydroxide solution approximately .2SN-may vary be-
tween .l6N and .30N.
Standardized N/lO hydrochloric acid.
The sample should be freed from oils, fats, waxes, etc. by ex-
traction and finishing materials should be removed by scouring.
A sample of unmercerized American cotton should be run at the
same time. The samples are weighed out at room conditions and
no regain correction is necessary. Exactly 2.00 gram samples are
weighed out (on a centigram balance) and placed in ·small conical
flasks. Using a lOcc. pipet, 30cc. of barium hydroxide solution is
pipetted into each flask, the flasks are stoppered and allowed to stand
at room temperature with frequent shaking for at least 2 hours.
After 2 hours, lOcc. of barium hydroxide is withdrawn from each
flask and titrated with the standard hydrochloric acid using phenol-.
phthalein indicator. A blank titration is also run on lOcc. of unused
barium hydroxide. The same pipet and buret should be used
throughout the test. The barium activity number is defined as:
Barium hydroxide absorbed by mercerized sample
- - - - - · - - - x 100
Barium hydroxide absorbed by un mercerized sample
and since the normality of the barium hydroxide is the same and
the weight of sample is the same,
200 TEXTILE TESTING
a,-b x 100
Barium activity number =
a-c
where a cubic centimeters of acid for blank
b = cubic centimeters of acid for mercerized sample
c = cubic centimeters of acid for unmercerized sample
Un mercerized American cotton, of course, is 100 on this scale
and a remarkable uniformity is obtained on all samples tested, so
that any American cotton may be used as the standard. A large
number of commercially mercerized cotton cloths gave values of
116-130 while a number of commercially mercerized cotton yarns
gave values of 150-160. If the above mercerized cloths are remer-
cerized in the laboratory, their barium activity numbers may be
raised to 150-160 also.
REFERENCES:
1 Yearbook of the A.A.T.C.C.-Volume VI. Howes Publishing Co., Inc.,

New York. (1938).
2Neale, S. M. Preferential Absorption of Barium Hydroxide as a Character-
istic Property of Cellulose and an Indication of Previous Mercerization or Other
Swelling Treatment. Journal of the Textle Institute 22, T349 (1931).
8Edelstein, S. M. Test for Mercerization in the Presence of Dyes. American
!lyestuff Reporter 25, 186 (1936).
Ash Alkalinity
The method of determining ash alkalinity has already been given

(Chapter 10). To use it as a measure of degradation, the sample
should first be given a standard acid wash which removes the
alkaline ash from cellulose but leaves it combined with the carboxyl
group in the case of oxycellulose.
The standard acid wash consists of steeping the sample for one
hour in NI10 sulfuric acid, washing twelve times in distilled water
and centrifuging after each wash, steeping in water for three hours,
rewashing, and air drying.
A close correlation has been found between ash alkalinity after
the standard acid wash and Methylene Blue Absorption.
REFERENCES:
lDoree, C. Methods of Cellulose Chemistry, D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc.,

New York, (1933).
TEXTILE TESTING 201
Solubility in Sodium Hydroxide
In the absence of any finishing compounds, this test is a very

useful one since it is simple to carry out and applicable to any type
of damage. Two methods have been suggested-the 10N-2N
method which is rather complex and the N/4 method which is the
simplest and most used method and which will be given here. The
origin~l metpod called for a 4 hour boil but this is almost univer-
sally reduced to one hour.
A 2 gram sample is dried and weighed and is then boiled for one
hour in 20Occ. of N/4 sodium hydroxide (1 per cent solution),
using a reflux. The liquor is decanted into a Gooch crucible,
the residue is washed with sodium hydroxide solution, then with
water, and finally with N/IO sulfuric acid. The residue is collected
in the crucible and washed with water until the washings are
neutral to litmus; the crucible and contents are dried for 3 hours
at 110° C. and weighed.
Using this method, the loss in weight of a normal cellulose is
1.S per cent and anything over this value is indicative of damage.
It has also been shown that, for any kind of damage, the loss in
sodium hydroxide = 6 x copper number up to a copper number of
2.5; beyond this point hydrocelluloses lose more and oxycelluloses
lose less than 6 x copper number.
REFERENCES:
1 Doree,C. Methods of Cellulose Chemistry. D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc.,

New York, (1933).
Methylene Blue Absorption
The absorption of Methylene Blue by cellulose derivatives is

generally due to the carboxyl groups present in oxycelluloses formed
by alkaline oxidation but it may also be due to mineral acids which
have been dried into the cellulose and are not easily washed out
(hydrocelluloses of the acid dried-in type). A distinction may be
made between these two however by previously boiling in dilute
sodium hydroxide which does not materially change the Methylene
Blue absorption of the oxycellulose but decreases it in the case of
the hydrocellulose.
202 TEXTILE TESTING
The method depends upon treating the sample with a Methylene

Blue solution of known strength and buffered to a known pH
(usually pH = 7) and determining the concentration of the Methy-
lene Blue in the solution either by titration with Naphthol Yellow
S or by the colorimetric method. A buffered solution is necessary
because the Methylene Blue is very sensitive to traces of acid and
alkali, even the alkali from the laboratory glassware affects the
results if unbuffered.
Purification of Methylene Blue: the ordinary Methylene Blue
Hydrochloride (molecular weight = 320) is recrystallized three
times from twelve times its weight of water, the moisture is then
determined on a small portion of the powder and the remainder is
used to make up the solution. In accurate work, the purity of the
Methylene Blue Hydrochloride may be determined by titanous
chloride.
Preparation of solutions: an M/250 solution of Methylene Blue
at pH 7 is prepared by mixing 6.81 grams of potassium dihydrogen
phosphate, 29.63cc. of I-normal sodium hydroxide, and 1.279 grams
of pure Methylene Blue Hydrochloride and making up to one liter
with water. An M /250 solution of Methylene Blue at pH 2.7 may
be prepared by taking 1.279 grams of pure Methylene Blue Hydro-
chloride and making up to one liter with N /5 acetic acid.
Naphthol Yellow S solution: prepare a solution containing 1.5 to
2.0 millimoles per liter and standardize against the Methylene Blue.
The addition of the Naphthol Yellow S to the Methylene Blue solu-
tion produces a brown precipitate and the solution becomes less and
less blue and finally changes to yellow. The end-point may best be
detected by observing a drop suspended on a glass rod, or by spot-
ting on filter paper, or better by centrifuging.
Procedure by titration method: a sample of 2.5 grams weight is
placed in a test tube or small conical flask and 15cc. of Methylene
Blue is added from a buret; the sample is well worked in the solu-
tion and is left for 18 hours at room temperature. With a pipet,
IOcc. of solution is withdrawn and titrated with the Naphthol
Yellow S. The Methylene Blue absorbed by the sample is calcu-
lated in millimoles per 100 grams of dry sample (moisture deter-
mined on a separate sample).
Procedure by colorimetric method: this procedure uses M/2500
TEXTILE TESTING 203
Methylene Blue solution obtained by diluting the M/2S0 solution

to one-tenth of its original strength. From 1.5 to 2.0 grams of
sample in small pieces are shaken with SOcc. of Methylene Blue
solution at room temperature for 18 hours. Some of the solution is
then removed and compared in a colorimeter with Methylene Blue
solution of MjSOOO concentration. The results are calculated as
in the titration method.
If the values at pH 7 and pH 2.7 are to be determined, the test
may be carried out at pH 7, the sample may then be washed with
water, then treated at the boil with Nj5 acetic acid until only a
slight blue color is left. It is then washed and used for a test at
pH 2.7.
Uses of the Methylene Blue Absorption include the following:
1. To distinguish various cottons- at pH 7 American cottons
have values of .8 to .9, Egyptian cottons 1. 0 to 1.1, and Sea Island
cottons about 1.0.
2. To distinguish between oxycelluloses due to acid oxidation
(low Methylene Blue Absorption) and alkaline oxidation (high
Methylene Blue Absorption). See Table XVII.
3. To distinguish the acid dried-in type of hydrocellulose. In
the case of cellulose or oxycellulose, the absorption at pH 7 is greater
than at pH 2.7, whereas in the case of hydrocellulose of the acid
dried-in type the absorption at pH 7 is less than at pH 2.7. This'
identification may also be made by a previous treatment with dilute
sodium hydroxide, as mentioned earlier in this section.
The disadvantages of the Methylene Blue Absorption are:
1. The colorimetric method requires a colorimeter, the titration
method requires a centrifuge for a clear end point; these pieces of
apparatus are expensive and not always availaole.
2. The test requires over 18 hours to carry out.
3. The results are of value chiefly for differentiation-other
tests give as good a measure of damage and require less time and
equipment.
REFERENCES:

New York, (1933).
2Clibbens, D. A. and Geake, A. Absorption of Methylene Blue from Buffered
Solutions, Journal of the Textile Institute 17, T127 (1926).
204 TEXTILE TESTING
Copper Number
Copper number may be defined as the number of grams of copper

reduced from the cupric to the cuprous state in alkaline solution by
one hundred grams of dry sample. The reduction, in the absence
of any sugars or other extraneous material, is due to the aldehyde
groups present and consequently approaches zero for pure cellulose
but is quite high for hydrocellulose and oxycellulose. The copper
number was originally carried out as a quantitative evaluation of
the Fehling's Solution test which has been described as a Qualitative
test for damage to cellulose, but it was found that the strong alkali
used in Fehling's Solution in the presence of the oxygen of the air
caused a progressive oxycellulose formation; for this reason a
modified solution is employed in the now universally accepted
Schwalbe-Braidy method which will be given in detail.
Solutions used
Solution A: 100 grams of crystalline copper sulfate per liter.
Solution B: 50 grams of sodium bicarbonate and 350 grams of
sodium carbonate (Na2CO 3. 10H 20) per liter.
Ferric alum: 100 grams of ferric alum and 140 cc. of concentrated
sulfuriC" acid per liter.
Dilute sodium carbonate: 5 grams of sodium carbonate (Na2CO 3)
per liter.
Dilute sulfuric acid: approximately 2N.
Standard permanganate: N/25 potassium permanganate (stan-
dardized).
Procedure: Determine regain on a separate sample. Over a
2.5 gram sample in a 100 cc. conical flask is poured a boiling mixture
of 5 cc. of Solution A and 95 cc. of Solution B. The mouth of the
flask-is covered and the flask is placed in (not on top of) a rapidly
boiling water bath or in a steam bath for exactly 3 hours. The
contents are then filtered by suction through a fritted glass filter
(or Gooch crucible with asbestos mat) and the residue is washed
first with dilute sodium carbonate and then with water; the filtrate
and washings are discarded. Over the residue on the filter is poured
50 CC'. of ferric alum solution divided into four lots, and the residue
is then washed with dilute sulfuric acid. The combined ferric alum
and acid washings are titrated with the standard permanganate;
TEXTILE TESTING 205
a blank is also run on 50 cc. of unused ferric alum. A sample

determination follows:
a. Weight of bottle and sam~le 41.3650 gms.
b. Weight of bottle and dry sample 41.2735
d. Weight of moisture (a-b) .0915
f. % regain (10Od/e) 2.60%
g. Weight of sample 2.52 gm. 2.49 gm.
h. ~ry wt. ( g ) 2.46
2.43
sample 1 + f/100
l. Volume of KMn04 used 9.55 cc. 9.30 cc.
J. Volume of KMn04 for
blank .15 .15
k. True volume of KMn04
(i-j) 9.40 9.15
m. Normality of KMn04 .0395N .0395N
n. Milliequivalent weight
of copper .0636 .0636
o. Copper number
(100XkXm~/h) 0.96 0.94
p. Copper number (average) 0.95
A blank of .01 may be obtained by running a test with no cellulose
present and theoretically this should be subtracted from any
value found, but actually it is generally neglected. The method
is fairly critical so that the time, temperature, and weight of sample
must be as specified. The amount of copper present in the solution
is enough to give a copper number of 5.2 as a maximum, so that
if a first determination shows a copper number of 4 or over, the
determination should be repeated, using a 1.0 gram sample instead
of a 2.5 gram sample; in which case copper numbers up to 10
may be determined.
A micro-method for use on very small samples is also available:
a 0.25 gram sample is taken in a 4x%' inch test tube (covered).
To 9.5 cc. of B is added 0.5 cc. of A; the mixture is heated to
boiling and poured over the sample; the test t~be is immersed in
boiling water for three hours, stirring after to minutes to remove
206 TEXTILE TESTING
carbon dioxide. The mixture is filtered on a fritted glass filter

(or Gooch crucible and asbestos mat) and washed with distilled
water three times. Then 5 cc. of ferric alum is added to the reaction
tube and poured over the sample on the filter in several lots; the
residue is washed with several lots of distilled water of 2 cc. each.
The ferric alum and washings are then titrated with standard per-
manganate, using 3. microburet reading to .005 cc. A blank is run
on 5 cc. of ferric alum solution.
Bleached cotton will range from .01 to 0.3; cottons which have
had a thorough scouring and a mild bleach having the lower range
of- values (.01 to 0.1) and cottons which have had a less thorough
scouring and a more vigorous bleach having the upper range (0.1
to 0.3); the maximum value compatible with good bleaching is 0.3
and preferably a good hleached cotton should be below 0.1. Oxy-
cell uloses formed by oxidation to the point of disintegration of the
fiber will range from 6 to 40 and hydrocellulose formed by hydro-
lysis to disintegration will range from 3.5 to 9.0. The values to be
expected for normal rayons and cotton damaged to various extents
are given in Table XVIII.
The copper number and the solubility in dilute sodium hydroxide
are related, as we have already seen in the discussion of the solubility
test.
Copper number is, in general, a useful test fox damage; it has
only two disadvantages:
1. It is not sensitive to incipient damage; as shown in Table
XVIII, up to 10 per cent damage may exist with very little change
in copper number.
2. A sample which has been given an alkaline boil-off (scouring
or laundering) after being damaged but before testing for copper
number will not show damage by the copper number test unless
the damage is very great.
REFERENCES:
New York, (1933).
ZClibbens, D. A. and Geake, A. Determination of Copper Number. Journal
Fluidity
Viscosity IS the internal friction of a liquid on itself, or its
TEXTILE TESTING 207
resistance to flow; its units are dynes per square centimeter

per centimeter per second or poises. Fluidity is the ease of flow
and is the reciprocal of viscosity; its units are reciprocal poises:
F = l/V
where V = viscosity in poises
and F = fluidity in reciprocal poises.
There are three general methods of measuring viscosity or fluidity:
1. Resistance to flow through a capillary tube.
2. Resistance to fall of a ball through the fluid.
3. Resistance to rotation of a disc or cylinder in the fluid.
An instrument which measures the viscosity is known as a
viscometer, so that we have three general types of viscometers
based on the three methods above, but the capillary flow type of
viscometer is best adapted to liquids of low viscosity (high fluidity)
and is the only one which we will consider at this time. In the
determination of the fluidity of cellulose and its derivatives, the
Clibbens and Geake method and viscometer is one the most used
and which we will consider. I
It has been shown that cuprammonium hydroxide solution (to
be referred to hereafter as "cuparammonia") will react with and
dissolve cellulose and its derivatives without breaking the molecular
chain except in the case of one oxycellulose, as mentioned in the
introduction of this chapter; cuprammonia therefore is used as
the solvent for the cellulose. Since the solution of the cellulose
presents some difficulties, a standard composition and method of
preparation of the solvent has been worked out; the solvent should
contain:
15 ± 0.1 gram of copper per liter
200 ± 5 grams of ammonia per liter
and should have the following physical properties at 20 0 c.:
d = 0.94 where d = density in grams per cubic centimeter
F = 72 where F = fluidity in reciprocal poises.
To prepare this solvent, the following procedure should be used:
Mix 2.6 liters of concentrated ammonia (density = 0.88), 0.4 liters
of water, and 3 grams of cane sugar. Stir the solution mechanically
at 400 r.p.m. with 180 grams of precipitated copper which has
passed a 60-mesh sieve. Blow through air at the rate of 10 litesr
per hour which has previously been bubbled through strong am-
208 TEXTILE TESTING
monia. This reaction is allowed to proceed for 5 hours, after which

the solution is analyzed for copper and ammonia content and
adjusted to the standard concentrations. The final solvent should
be stored in an inert atmosphere or kept in full containers which
are just large enough to hold one viscometer charge or a little over.
Copper is determined colorimetrically by comparison with solutions
of known copper content and the ammonia is determined by titra-
ting a portion of the solvent with standard acid and subtracting
the amount of acid corresponding to the already determined copper
content.
The Clibbens and Geake viscometer is shown in Figure 60 and
should be made as closely as possible to the dimensions given;
in this country the viscometer and its support may be obtained
from laboratory supply houses under the name of "pulp viscometer."
The time at 20° C. is measured for the level of liquid to fall from
the top ring to the bottom ring. The middle ring may be used to
check on the results since for a truly viscous liquid the time for the
level to fall from the top ring to the middle ring should equal the
time from the middle to the bottom ring. The viscometer should
be fitted at the bottom with a short piece of rubber tubing and a
clamp and at the top with a stopper and capillary tube with
rubber tubing and clamp attached.
The instrument should be calibrated by means of a liquid of
known fluidity and density which flows slowly enough to cause
very little error by kinetic energy effects; glycerine solutions are
of such a nature. If we let
F fluidity in reciprocal poises at 20° C.
d density in grams per cubic centimeter at 20° C.
t time of flow in seconds
K the constant of the instrument
Then F = K/dt or K = Fdt
and if we take a glycerine solution of such composition that
d = 1.1681
and F = 6.83
then K = 1.1681 X 6.83t = 7.98t.
Theoretically this should receive a small correction for kinetic
energy, but this is usually neglected. The value of K, if the
instrument is made according to specifications, should be
TEXTILE TESTING 209
Cqe",
_t: ________ ---
-r
50.0_
Tu.bt L.d. LD ~
-------1
IU.CII!
Fig. 60
Cuprammonia Viscometer
210 TEXTILE TESTING
roughly 2000. The total volume (V) of the viscometer in cubic

centimeters with the clamps in place should also be obtained by
weighing empty and then weigbing full of distilled water; this
volume will be roughly 20 cc. The values of K and V for each
instrument should be recorded in the laboratory log-book.
The cellulose sample is dissolved in the viscometer in which its
fluidity is to be determined, using a 0.5 per cent solution for cottons
and a 2 per cent solution for rayons. Since it is difficult to get
exact weights of dry sample we usually make the solutions approxi-
mately of this strength and afterward correct the results to the
correct concentration. The sample, then, about 0.1 gram of cotton
or 0.4 gram of rayon is weighed out and at the same time another
sample is weighed out for the regain determination. A small
amount of cuprammonia solution is placed in the viscometer, the
bottom clamp opened to fill the capillary, the sample (preferably
cut up into short lengths) is added, and 0.7 cc. of mercury run in
from a buret (to stir the solution). The viscometer is filled to the
top and the stopper added, the excess cuprammonia running out
the top capillary which is then closed with the clamp. The visco-
meter is then wrapped in a black cloth to prevent light damage
and placed on a wheel which revolves at 4 r.p.m. until the cellulose
dissolves -this is usually over nigh t.
When the cellulose is all dissolved, the bottom tubing and clamp
are removed, the viscometer is placed in its support which in turn
is in a constant temperature bath at 20° C. and allowed to come to
constant temperature. When constant temperature is arrived at,
the top clamp is opened and the mercury runs out, followed by the
cellulose solution. The time for the level to fall from the top ring
to the bottom one is measured with a stop watch. The fluidity is
then calculated from the formula:
F = K/dt
where d may be taken as 0.94 and K has already been determined,
so that
F = K/.94t
Theoretically this also should have a correction for kinetic energy
but this is not usually done because it is small. The concentration
of the solution in per cent is calculated from the dry weight of the
sample and the volume of the viscometer
TEXTILE TESTING 211
lOOW
e =
V-0.7
where e concentration in % (weight/volume)
W = dry weight of sample taken in grams
V = volume of viscometer in cubic centimeters
0.7 = volume of mercury in cubic centimeters
To correct the results to the standard concentration we use
the formula:
A B
1 +-
e log F .iF
where F. = fluidity of the pure cuprammonia solvent
72 poises
B = a constant = 11
and A = "concentration correction constant"
Then A e ( 11 - 1)
log 72/F
Substituting the value of A just found in the formula and letting
e = 0.5 Or 2.0, according to whether cotton or rayon is being
tested, the formula
A 11
1 + =
e log 72/F
11
or log F = log 72 - - - -
1 + A/e
gives us the value of the fluidity at the desired concentration.
A problem may make the calculations clearer: A certain viscometer
has a viscometer constant of 1970 and a volume of 19.8 ce. A sample
of cotton weighing .0985 gram and containing 3.85 per cent regain
was dissolved and tested. The time of flow was 270 seconds. What
IS the fluidity is of the sample in O.S per cent solution?
.0985
Dry weight of sample = = .0949 gram
1.0385
F = K/.94t = 1970/.94 X 270 = 7.76
212 TEXTILE TESTING
lOOW 100 X .049

C -- = 0.497
V-0.7 19.8-0.7
A = C ( 11
log 72/F
-1) = .497
( 11 -1 )
log 72/7.76
=5.15
Then
11 11
log F = log 72 - = 1.857
1 X A/C X S.15/0.S
= 0.883
or F = 7.6 = fluidity in 0.5 per cent solution. '
Pure cotton cellulose in 0.5 per cent solution will range in fluidity
from 1-5, averaging about 2, it should never exceed 10 during man-
ufacture; mechanically disintegrated cotton will be about 40
with the end of service at about 35. Rayons in 2 per cent solution
will be about 7.5 and rayons damaged to the point of mechanical
disintegration will be about 35. Rayon in 0.5 per cent solution
will be 36-40 and disintegrated rayons about 60. Silk and wool
show a fluidity of about 65 in 0.5 per cent solution, in case it is
necessary to test mixed fibers. Typical values of the fluidity of
rayons and cottons are shown in Table XVIII.
The advantages of the fluidity test over the copper number
determination are;
1. It shows incipient damage.
2. It shows damage even after an alkali boil or laundering.
3. There is a direct relationship between increase in fluidity and
loss in strength; an increase in fluidity of 10 reciprocal poises
corresponding to 20-25 per cent loss in strength.
The disadvantages are:
1. A constant temperature bath is necessary.
2. Cumbersome apparatus and a source of nitrogen gas are
necessary for storing the cuprammonia solution in an inert
atmosphere.
3. A long period of time is necessary to dissolve the samples.
In view of these advantages and disadvantages, the test is not
much used unless a large number of tests are to be made as a
TEXTILE TESTING 213
routine or in research work where a very precise method of damage

estimation is needed.
Other uses for viscosity or fluidity determinations in the textile
industry include:
1. Analysis of cotton-rayon mixtures. Assuming the fluidity of
cotton in 0.5 per cent solution to be 2 and viscose to be 36, the
determination of the fluidity of a mixture gives a measure of the
relative amounts of the two constituents. See Chapter 12.
2. Liability to damage. Clibbens and Little have shown that
a sample of cotton goods which has been heated in an oven at
110°C. for 18 hours and which has a rise in fluidity of less than 3
reciprocal poises contains no injurious chemicals; a rise of more
than 3 reciprocal poises indicates chemicals which may cause da~age
on storing.
~. Degree of ripening of viscose. The viscose solution before
spinning may be tested for "ripeness" by a viscosity determination;
the falling ball method is generally used.
4. Degree of esterification of cellulose. The degree of nitration
or acetylation may be determined by measuring the viscosity of
the ester in an appropriate solvent.
S. Suitability of starch pastes for printing. Recent work has
shown that a Stormer viscometer may be used for predicting the
suitability of a starch paste for printing.
REFERENCES:
ITrotman, S. R. and Trotman, E. R. Textile Analysis, J. B. Lippencott Co.,
New York, (1933).
3Farrow, F. D. and Neale, S. M. Measurement of the Viscosity of Solutions
of Cotton in Aqueous Cuprammonium Hydroxide and Its Significance as a Test
of Textile Quality. Journal of the Textile Institute 15, T157 (1924).
4Clibbens, D. A. and Geake, A. Measurement of the Fluidity of Cotton in
Cuprammonium Solution. Journal of the Textile Institute 19, T77 (1928).
~Clibbens, D. A. and Ridge, B. P. Tensile Strength and Fluidity of Chem-
ically Modified Cotton. Journal of the Textile Institute 19, T389 (1928).
6Tankard, J. and Graham, J. Determination of the Viscosity of Cupram-
monium Solutions of Cellulose. Journal of the Textile Institute 21, T260 (1930).
7Clibbens, D. A. and Little, A. H. Measurement of the Fluidity (or Viscosity)
of Cotton in Cuprammonium Solution. Journal of the Textile Institute 27, T285
(1936).
8Davidson, G. F. Effect bf Alkalies on Molecular Chain Length of Chemical-
ly Modified Cotton Cell uloses, as Shown by Fluidity Measurements on the
Derived Nitrocelluloses. Journal of the Textile Institute 29, T195 (1938).
9Guernsey, F. H. and Howells, L. T. Evaluation of Chemical Tendering of
Cellulose by Cellulose Viscosity Measurement. American Dyestuff Reporter
26,62 (1937).
CHAPTER 14
DAMAGE TO WOOL
Introduction
In the case of wool, we have a fiber which is much more complex
than cellulose and about whose structure and chemical reactions
we know much less than we do in the case of cellulose. A complete
hydrolysis of wool shows that it is a protein composed of a large
number of amino acids of which the principal ones are given in
Figure 61. Thesei' and other amino acids are combined in long
chains by peptide linkages and these chains are thought to be
folded in some such manner as shown in Figure 62 a. These folded
chains are further thought to be connected by side chains with a
salt linkage (Figure 62 b) and with cystine linkage (Figure 62 c);
of these side chains, the cystine linkage seems to be the most im-
portant. In cases of chemical dttack on the wool, the points affected
seem to be the peptide linkage, the disulfide linkage, and the amino
groups; the disulfide linkage is apparently the most sensitive to
chemical attack.
The types of chemical treatment to which wool is exposed and
which may cause damage are:
1. Acids-carbonizing, dyeing.
2. Alkalies-scouring, fulling, laundering.
3. Hot water or steam-crabbing, drying.
4. Reducing agents-reduction bleach.
5. Oxidizing agents-peroxide bleach.
6. Chlorination or bromination-non-shrinkage processes.
7. Light-on the sheep, in service.
8. Dry heat-drying, pressing.
The damage may manifest itself as uneven dyeing, tendering,
harshness, or as an abnormal susceptibility to some process which
normally would not affect the wool seriously, such as finishing
operations or laundering. The problem is complicated by the fact
214
I
TEXTILE TESTING 215
H,N-eH-GOOH H.N-p4-COOH
til.
I
~HL
CH ~H,
" ...CH,
CH, CHi
L.&u.e i n. NH
I
C=NH
H&N- GH-COOH I
N~
CHi At'"ginin&
C.H.,-OH
Tyroiinc. ~N-CH-COOH
C.I H.
H&N- ~H-COOH
5
I
CHI. 6
CHI. I
~Hl
C.OOH ~N-CH-COOH
Glu ta.mic ACid Cystine
Fig. 61-Principal Amino Acids in Wool.
that practically all wools are somewhat damaged by light and
alkali when they are sheared from the sheep; by the fact that the
damage very often does not show up until after dyeing, so that
color tests cannot be used; and by the fact that damage may occur
in a process with practically no change in strength or handle until
some other process is given the wool, for example, alkali damage
may occur which does not show up until after an acid treatment
(as in dyeing) or oxidation damage may occur but not show up
until after an alkaline treatment (as in scouring or laundering).
The tests which have been used in determining the presence
and the amount of damage are as follows:
1. Physical properties
a. Strength
b. Stretch
These have already been discussed; they require large areas
of damage and also require an undamaged sample for reference.
2. Microscopical examination
a. Appearance
b. Action with swelling agents
These are probably the best methods of test; they will be con-
sidered in a later chapter.
3. Dyeing or staining tests.
a. Benzopurpurin lOB
216 TEXTILE TESTING
b. Indigo Carmine
c. Kiton Red G
These are not, of course, suitable for use on dyed samples.
d. Methylene Blue
This test may be used on dyed samples and may be made quan-
titative. The test is complicated and requires special apparatus.
4. Chemical color reactions
a. Stannous chloride test
The author has not found this successful.
b. Lead acetate
c. Thiocyanate test
These are tests for bleached wool and are useful in such cases;
they are, of course, not applicable to dyed wool.
d. Pauly test
b. Glutal1ll1a Aold. - Arginlne Salt. Llnk&61

or 'i~ Cbai ...
•• 'old.d r,ptide c. C,..tln~ Linkagt ot Slde Chain •

Chain
Fig. 62-Structure of Wool.
This is the best of the color tests and may be made quantitative
if desired; it is not applicable to dyed wool.
s. Chemical content tests
a. Sulfur content
b. Total nitrogen content
These tests require very precise analytical work since only a
small difference is shown. An undamaged sample of tile same
wool is also required as a control.
TEXTILE TESTING 217
c. Amino nitrogen
This requires elaborate, special apparatus and the results are
not very reliable.
d. Ammonia nitrogen
This is a quite satisfactory determination for certain types of
damage which have not had any alkaline treatments subsequent
to damage.
6. Solubility tests
a. Soluble nitrogen
This requires a long time to obtain the results and two Kjeldahl
determinations are necessary.
b. Solubility in dilute akali
This is probably the simplest and best chemical test where the
sample has not had an alkaline treatment after damage.
In view of the above advantages and disadvantages, we will
consider in detail only the following:
1. Qualitative tests.
a. Lead acetate test
b. Thiocyanate test
c. Pauly test (may also be quantitative)
2. Quantitative tests
a. Methylene Blue test
b. Sulfur content
c. Total nitrogen content
d. Soluble nitrogen
e. Ammonia nitrogen
f. Solubility in dilute alkali
REFERENCES:
ISpeakman. J. B. Reactivity of the Sulfur Linkage in Animal Fibers. Journal
of the Society of Dyers and Colourists 52.335.380,428 (1936).
2Hirst, H. R. Some Analytical Methods Used for the Identification of Dyeing
Faults. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists 53, 45 (1937).
8Harris, M. Effect of Alkalies on Wool. American Dyestuff Reporter 24.
562 (1935).
4Smith, A. and Harris, M. Oxidation of Wool-Effect of Hydrogen Peroxide.
6Crowder, J. A. and Harris, M. Alkali Degradation of Wool Protein. Amer-
6Harris, M. and Smith, A. State of the Sulfur in Oxidized Wool. American
7Smith, A. L. and Harris, M. Bibliography on the Chemistry of Wool. Amer-
ican Dyestuff Reporter 27,183,363 (1938).
218 TEXTILE TESTING
8Harrison, W. Keratin Fibers. American Dyestuff Reporter 27,393 (1938).

9Ryberg, B. A. Bibliography on Methods for Determining the Causes of
Damage Appearing in Wool After Dyeing. American Dyestuff Reporter 27,
S71 (1938).
Lead Acetate Test

The lead acetate test of Smith and Harris is used as a test for
bleached wool. On oxidation with peroxides, it is believed that the
disulfide is oxidized to a series of compounds as follows :
(1) R - S - S - R (cystine)
(2) R - SO - S - R
(3) R - 50 2 - S - R
(4) R - SO - SO - R
(5) R - S02 - 50 -R
(6) R - S02 - S02 - R
Upon hydrolysis and treatment with lead acetate, compounds (1).
(2), and (3) can form lead sulfide (black) whereas compounds (4),
(5). and (6) cannot form sulfides and so remain white. The test
is sensitive to pH and the lead acetate solution must be buffered
to pH 5 for best resul ts.
Preparation of 0.5 per cent lead acetate buffered to pH 5:
200 cc. of I-normal sodium acetate solution
20 cc. of 2.5 per cent lead acetate solution
68 cc. of I-normal acetic acid
712 cc. of distilled water
The test is carried out by boiling approximately one gram of wool
in 80 cc. of the lead acetate solution for 40 minutes; the sample is
then rinsed and dried at room temperature. A black color indicates
unoxidized wool, a white color indicates oxidized wool. This test
is obviously not suitable for dyed wool.
In the case of light damage, oxidation occurs but not of the
same type as in the case of peroxides; light damaged wool therefore
does not show up in this test (i.e .• a dark color is obtained). The
equations are believed to be:
R-CH 2 --S-S-CH 2-R + HOH == R-CH2-SH
+ R-CH2-S0H
R-CH 2-S0H = H 2S + R-CHO
H 2S + 20 2 = H 2SO,
TEXTILE TESTING 219
since light damage has been shown to be due nearly entirely to a

combination of hydrolysis and oxidation.
Alkali damage, which is believed to occur according to the first
two of the above equations, also gives a black color and hence
cannot be distinguished by the test.
REFERENCES:
lSmith, A. and Harris, M. Oxidation of Wool-Lead Acetate Test for Hydro-
gen Peroxide-Bleached Wool. American Dyestuff Reporter 25, 183 (1936).
2S mith, A. and Harris, M. Oxidation of Wool-Phota-chemical Oxidation.
American Dyestuff Reporter 25,383 (1936).
Thiocyanate Test
This test for oxidation of wool shows oxidation by peroxides,
chlorination or bromination, or by light; being a color reaction,
it is not suitable for use on dyed samples. Three solutions are
required:
Solution A: Equal parts by volume of acetone and distilled
water, acidified by the addition of 1 per cent by volume of
6N sulfuric acid.
Solution B: 1 gram of potassium thiocyanate in 30 cc. of
Solution A.
Solution C: 1 gram of ferrous ammonium sulfate and 15 cc.
of 6N sulfuric acid in 50 cc. of Solution A. Solution C must
be prepared immediately before the test is carried out.
The test is carried out as follows: About 1 gram of wool is cut
into small pieces and placed in a 125 cc. conical flask. In another
flask is placed a similar sample of wool known to be unoxidized
and in a third flask the reagents are used without any sample. In
each flask is placed 40 cc. of Solution A and 5 cc. of Solution B; the
solution is boiled for several minutes to displace air; the heating
is discontinued, 5 cc. of Solution C is added and the flask is
stoppered. If a pink color develops in the flask containing no
sample, distilled water is added until the color disappears; an
equal volume of distilled water is then added to each of the other
flasks. Unoxidized wool gives no color. oxidized wool gives a pink
color.
If a pink color develops before the Solution C is added, iron is
present in the wool and should be removed by washing the wool
in a number of chang~ of dilute sulfuric acid.
2Z0 TEXTILE TESTING
REFERENCES:
1 Rutherford, H. A. and Harris, M. Detection of Oxidation in Wool. Amer-
ican Dyestuff Reporter 27, 179 (1938).
Pauly Test
This is the most generally useful of the color tests since any kind
of damage, whether mechanical or chemical, which will destroy,
loosen, or remove the scales on wool will give the test. The theory
of the test depends upon the fact that tyrosine, which is the only
amino acid in wool which is also a phenol, is not found in the scales
of the wool but only in the cortex. If we treat the wool, then,
with diazotized sulfanilic acid no color, or very httle color, will be
obtained except where the reagent can penetrate through the
scales and allow the diazotized base to couple with the tyrosine
and produce an orange color. The test may be made quantitative
by dissolving the colored sample and comparing with a standard
solution.
Reagents required:
10 per cent sodium sulfanilate-made by dissolving 88.7 grams
of sulfanilic acid in one liter of water containing 20.5 grams of
sodium hydroxide.
9 per cent sodium carbonate-made by dissolving 243 grams of
crystalline sodium carbonate in water and making up to one liter.
8 per cent sodium nitrite-80 grams per liter.
Concentrated hydrochloric acid.
The reagent is prepared immediately before use as follows:
Mix 10 cc. of 10 per cent sodium sulfanilate with 5 cc. of 8 per cent
sodium nitrite, then add 2 cc. of concentrated hydrochloric acid.
Allow the reagent to stand one minute before use.
The test is carried out by wetting a small sample of wool in 15 cc.
of 9 per cent sodium carbonate and then adding the prepared reagent
to the mixture. After 10 minutes, the wool is removed and rinsed
thoroughly. An orange-red color indicates damage.
To make the test quantitative, a 0.1 gram sample is used and the
test is carried out as above. The colored wool is then placed in a
test tube, 4 cc. of 10 per cent sodium hydroxide is added and it is
heated in a water bath for 5 minutes. The dissolved wool is then
transferred to a volumetric flask and made up to 25 cc. The colored
TEXTILE TESTING 221
solution is then compared either visually or by means of a colori-

meter with a .1 per cent solution of Napthalene Leather Brown BS
which is arbitrarily called "100 units" of damage. Edwards has
suggested that a better comparison color is obtained by the addition
of 292.5 cc. of .1 per cent Polar Brilliant Red to a liter of .1 per cent
Napthalene Leather Brown BS solution.
For most accurate results a control of wool which is undamaged
should be run along with the unknown sample since a certain
amount of coloring is obtained on practically any sample.
REFERENCES:
ITrotman, S. R. and Trotman, E. R. Textile Analysis. J. P. Lippincott Co.,.
2Rimington, C. Quantitative Method for the Determination of "Soundness"
in Wool and Cloth. Journal of the Textile Institute 21, T237 (1930).
3Edwards, C. H. Estimation of Damage on Chlorinated Knitted Wool Fabrics.
Journal of the Textile Institute 2-1. Tl (1933).
Methylene Blue Test

The test determines the amount of Methylene Blue absorbed
at pH 7 by a sample of wool according to a procedure similar to
that already described for damaged cellulose (Chapter 13). The
Methylene BIue at pH 7 is the same as that already given and the
wool is first given a standard acid wash as has already been described
for degraded cellulose. The wool is then divided, in a mill, into a
powdery material which will pass a one-millimeter sieve, allowed
to condition over night and 0.1 gram samples are weighed out
(also another sample for regain determination.)
Exactly 15 cc. portions of Methylene BIue solution are measured
into 40 cc. centrifuge tubes, the wool samples are added and allowed
to stand 24 hours; the tubes are then centrifuged, 10 cc. pipetted
out and titrated against Naphthol Yellow S. The Methylene BIue
absorption in millimoies per 100 grams of dry wool is calculated, as
in the case of cellulose. Undamaged wools have an absorption
value of about 10, wool damaged by laundering (alkali) has a higher
value, 16-18, and reworked wool fabrics (acid damage) a value of
around 40. The method is said to be applicable to dyed samples.
The above test is not very critical for samples which are only
slightly damaged but would be very useful to distinguish reworked
wool if it were not for the elaborate apparatus and long periods of
222 TEXTILE TESTING
time necessary for testing; these latter disadvantages make the

test useless for commercial purposes.
The increased absorption of Methylene Blue by acid damaged
wool is believed to be due to a new and active acid group added
by the wool on carbonizing:
In dilute sulfuric acid, R-NH2 +
H 2S0 4 = R-NH3-HS04
On concentration by heating, R-NH3-HS04 = H 2 0 R-- +
NH-HS0 3
REFERENCES:
lElmquist, R. E. and Hartley, O. P. Methylene Blue Absorption as a Quan-
titative Measure of Wool Damage. Textile Research 5, 149 (1934).
Sulfur Content
The sulfur content of the wool has long been used in research
work as a measure of the amount of damage to the wool, since any
form of chemical damage tends to decrease the amount of sulfur
in the sample. This is possible in research work where a sample of
the wool before damage is available for comparison, but on an
unknown sample the method is not useful since we do not know
how much sulfur was originally present, and the amount of sulfur
in the undamaged wool may vary from 3.1 per cent to 4.0 per cent.
Three methods of analysis are available for determining the sulfur
content: Carius method, oxygen bomb method, and the Benedict-
Denis method. The Carius is perhaps the most accurate, the
oxygen bomb is the simplest if the apparatus is available, the
Benedict-Denis method requires no special apparatus or precau-
tions. Since in any case a comparison with an undamaged sample
must be made, if the result is to have any significance, it makes
little difference which method is used; the Benedict-Denis method
will be described.
Reagent: Dissolve 25 grams of crystalline copper nitrate, 25
grams of sodium chloride, and 10 grams of ammonium nitrate in
100 cc. of water.
About 0.2 gram of wool is warmed with a little pure sodium
hydroxide solution until it just dissolves: a few drops of bromine
are added and after a few minutes the solution is neutralized with
nitric acid; 10 cc. of the reagent are then added and the mixture
is evaporated to dryness. The residue is heated to dull Tedness for
TEXTILE TESTING 223
10 minutes, cooled, dissolved in dilute hydrochloric atid and filtered.

The sulfate in the filtrate is then determined by the usual quanti-
tative procedure with barium chloride.
REFERENCES:
2Barritt, J. and King, A. T. Sulfur Content of Wool. Journal of the Textile
Institute 17, T386 (1926); 20, T151, T159 (1929); 24, T119 (1933).
Total Nitrogen Content

This determination, like the sulfur content, is useful if a sample
of the wool before treatment is available, since only a slight change
in nitrogen content may occur and there is a large variation (16.16
per cent to 17.07 per cent) in the nitrogen content of various wools.
Table XIX shows the changes which may be expected in wool from
different types of damage.
The total nitrogen content is determined by one or another of
the various Kjeldahl determinations, the variation which has given
satisfactory results in the author's laboratory is as follows: Regain
is determined on a separate sample, another sample of 0.7 to 0.8
grams being used for digestion. The sample is placed in a Kjeldahl
digestion flask along with 20 cc. of concentrated sulfuric acid, 10
grams of powdered anhydrous potassium sulfate, 0.2 gram of copper
sulfate, 4 grams of powdered pumice, and a little broken glass.
The mixture is digested for one hour or until a clear melt is obtained;
it is then dissolved in distilled water and cooled. An excess of sodium
hydroxide solution is then added carefully, the flask is immediately
connected with a Kjeldahl distillation apparatus, and distilled for
30 minutes, the distillate being collected in 2S cc. of N/2 sulfuric
acid. The excess sulfuric acid is then titrated with standard N/10
sodium hydroxide, using Methyl Red indicator.
REFERENCES:
2Barritt, J. Nitrogen Content of Natural and Processed Wools. Journal of
the Society of Chemical Industry 47, 69T (1928).
Soluble Nitrogen
This determination is not much used in this country, having
224 TEXTILE TESTING
been developed in Europe. The determination seems to be quite

definite for alkali damage but involves two Kjeldahl determinations
and a three day treatment of the sample.
Two samples are taken, on one of which a Kjeldahl determination
for total nitrogen is run. The other sample (0.1 gram) is treated
for 3 days with a mixture of 8 cc. of water, 10 cc. of 1 per cent hy-
drogen peroxide, and 2 cc. of N /2 potassium hydroxide. At the end
of 3 days the sample is filtered and washed, the combined filtrate
and washings are made acid, and a Kjeldahl determination is run
on the acid solution. The results are expressed as per cent of the
nitrogen in the sample which dissolves on the above treatment.
For undamaged wool this is 4 to 5 per cent while for damaged wool
it may be 32 per cent or more.
REFERENCES:
ITrotman, S. R. and Trotman, E. R. Textile Analysis. ]. B. Lippincott Co.,
2Krais, P. Detection and Estimation of Chemical Damage in Wool. Amer-
ican Dyestuff Reporter 21, 541 (1932).
Ammonia Nitrogen
This determination is quite significant on samples which have
not been exposed to alkali treatments after the damage occurred;
it is especially valuable for identifying carbonized wool. The test
is not convenient for use on a large number of samples at a time.
A 5 gram sample of the wool is placed in a liter distilling flask
with 300 cc. of water and 5 grams of magnesium oxide (free from
carbonates). The flask is heated and 150 cc. of liquid is distilled
over into 25 cc. of standardized N /100 sulfuric acid. The excess
sulf uric acid is then ti trated with standardized N / 100 sodium
hydroxide, using Methyl Red indicator. The results are calculated
to milligrams of ammonia nitrogen per gram of dry wool. Normal
wool will give a value of .15 to .20, carbonized wool .20 to .70, and
damaged wool may be even higher.
REFERENCES:
ISmith, A. and Harris, M. Oxidation of Wool-Photo-chemical Oxidation.
Solubility in Dilute Alkali
This is perhaps the most generally useful test for certain types
TEXTILE TESTING 225
of damage (see Table XIX). The test is affected to a certain extent

by the form of the :>ample and the figures are given for loose wool,
samples of yarn or cloth should be unraveled or picked apart.
The test is simple to carry out, especially if a constant temperature
bath is available.
The wool is dried and weighed and is then treated with N/I0
sodium hydroxide at 65° C. for one hour, the ratio of wool to solution
being 1 :100. The sample is filtered on a Buchner funnel or Gooch
crucible, washed with about two liters of water, dried at 105 0 c.,
and weighed.> The per cent loss in weight on the dry weight of the
wool is calculated. This loss in weight will be normally 12-13 per
cent, above 18 per cent is definitely damaged, while between 13
per cent and 18 per cent is indefinite. The test, of course, is not
suitable for use on wool which has been given an alkaline treatment
after being damaged, or on wool which has been damaged by
alkali.
According to unpublished work by Ryberg, this test may be
simplified by using N /20 sodium carbonate and boiling for 30
minutes. The latter test is quicker and avoids the use of a constant
temperature bath. Normal wool will lose 10-11 per cent in weight.
Damage begins when the loss in weight exceeds 12 per cent.
REFERENCES:
(1) Smith, A. and Harris, M. Oxidation of Wool-Alkali Solubility Test for
Determining the Extent of Oxidation. American Dyestuff Reporter 25, 542
(1936).
CHAPTER 15
DAMAGE TO SILK
Introduction
T HE structure of completely degummed silk (fibroin) while

not completely cleared up is still much better known than that
of wool and it is apparently much less complicated. Upon complete
hydrolysis, the silk fibroin gives almost entirely three amino acids:
glycine (Figure 63a), alanine (Figure 63b), and tyrosine (Figure 61;)
of these three the glycine and alanine predominate. It will be seen
from the formulae of these amino acids that the side chains contain
no active groups and so the salt and cystine linkages found in wool
are lacking in silk. The fibroin, then, is considered as long chains
of alternating glycine and alanine molecules held together length-
wise by peptide linkages and sideways by partial valance forces
(Figure 63c). Silk is rather easily swollen and dissolved, therefore,
but the peptide chains themselves are susceptible only to hydrolysis.
Tussah silk is more resistant than cultivated silk to acids and
alkalies but less resistant to steam.
The forms of chemical damage which may occur to silk in pro-
cessing are:
1. Acid damage-consisting of hydrolysis followed by de-
composition.
2. Alkali damage-consisting of decomposition into a soluble
form followed by hydrolysis.
3. Salt damage-acid or alkaline damage according to the
hydrolysis of the salt.
4. Oxidation damage.
s. Light damage-apparently oxidation.
6. Steam damage-hydrolysis, but not like acid damage.
7. Dry heat damage.
Tests which have been used to detect and estimate damage on
silk are the following:
226
TEXTILE TESTING ZZ7
1. Physical tests--strength and stretch. Wet strength seems

particularly sensitive to damage.
2. Microscopic tests
3. Color reactions
a. Zimmermann test.
,I. Chemical content
a. Total nitrogen content.
a.
Glyc1n.
"
C,tIt
c.o
"
NH
,
....C,I-I-CH,
co
'NH
/
b. o.
Alanine S1111: F1bro1D
Fig. 6J-...;-Structure of Silk Fibroin.

b. Amino nitrogen content.
c. Ammonia nitrogen.
5. Viscosity in zinc chloride.
The amino nitrogen is difficult to determine and requires elaborate
apparatus, it will not be discussed further; the other tests will
be considered in detail.
REFERENCES:
lScott, W. M. Chemistry of Silk and of Silk Procesing. American Dyestuff
Reporter 23, 217 (1934); 25,451 (1936); 26, 756 (1937); 27, 710 (1938).
Zimmermann Test
Zimmermann's reagent consists of a solution of o-phthalaldehyde
made acid with hydrochloric acid. This reagent gives no color
with degummed and undamaged silk but gives a violet color with
damaged silk or with sericin (silk gum).
228 TEXTILE TESTING
REFERENCES:
1 Kaneko, H. Silk Fibroin: Properties. Journal of the Agricultural Chemical
Society of Japan 13, 208, 217 (1937).
Total Nitrogen Content

This determination is carried out by the Kjeldahl method in
the same way as for wool (Chapter 14) and suffers from the same
disadvantages as in the case of wool. Normal silk contains 18 per
cent to 19 per cent nitrogen (average 18.4 per cent) and tussah
contains somewhat less.
Ammonia Nitrogen
This determination is the same as was described for wool (Chapter
14). Normal silk will give a value of .07 to .12 milligrams per gram
of silk; damaged silk will give a value greater than .2 milligrams
per gram of silk.
REFERENCES:
1 Harris, M. Photochemical Decomposition of Silk. American Dyestuff

Reporter 23,403 (1934).
Viscosity in Zinc Chloride

This is the most satisfactory test for damage to silk, since it
determines whether damage has occurred and gives some idea as
to the amount of damage. The original method of Trotman and
Bell has been modified by Tweedie. Any pipet type viscometer
may be used, including the one described for cuprammonia viscosity
of cellulose (Chapter 13).
A solution of zinc chloride having a specific gravity of 1.67 at
20 0 C. should be prepared, this solution has a viscosity at 20 0 C.
of 9.5 centipoises. Using this solution as the solvent, a 2.5 per cent
(weight/volume) solution of silk is made up, using the weight of
silk at standard regain; that is, 2.50 grams of silk at standard
regain is placed in a flask and 100 cc. of zinc chloride solution is
added. The flask is stoppered and is placed in an oven at 45 0 C.
for 3 hours to dissolve the silk. The flask is then cooled in water
to 20 0 C. and the contents are placed in the viscometer; the time
of flow at 20 0 C. is noted for the silk solution and for th~ zinc chloride
without the silk. Since the addition of the silk does not materially
TEXTILE TESTING 229
alter the density of the solvent, the viscosity of the silk solution
is equal to:
V 9.5 Tit
where V viscosity of the silk solution in centipoises
T time of flow of the silk solution at 20 0 C.
t time of flow of the zinc chloride solution with no
silk dissolved, at 20 0 C.
Mechanical damage does not affect the viscosity of ; he silk but
chemical damage will decrease it. The test may be carried out
on dyed material and may also be carried out on weighted silk if
the weighting is first removed by the procedure given in Chapter 10.
Undamaged silk will give viscosities of 19 to 24 centipoises;
damaged silk will give values less than 19 centipoises, complete
disintegration of the silk corresponds to 10-12 centipoises.
In carrying out this test, it is essential that the specific gravity
of the zinc chloride solution be 1.67, a solution of 1.62 specific
gravity will not dissolve the silk.
REFERENCES:
(') Trotman, S. R. and Bell, H. S. Determination of Damage in Silk. Journal

of the Society of Chemical Industry 54, 141T (1935).
(2) Trotman, S. R. Determination of Damage in Silk. Journal of the Society of
Chemical Industry 55,.J25T (1936).
(3) Tweedie, A. S. Study of the Viscosity Method for the Determination of
Damage in Silk. Canadian Journal of Research 16B, 134 (1938).
PART "'-M'CROSCOP'CAL TESTING
231
CHAPTER 16
IDENTIFICATIONS
Introduction
Sconstruction
INCE it would be impracticable here to discuss fully the
and use of the microscope. and accessories, it
will be assumed that the reader is acquainted with the microscope
and has sufficient practice on methods so that detailed descriptions
of operations need not be given. Before any microscopical testing
is done, it is essential that a knowledge of fundamentals be obtained
from the references given here and that sufficient practice be
obtained on samples of known composition and properties so that
the technique of the art is familiar. No photomicrographs are given
for the recognition of the fibers because there is so much variation
in individual fibers that a false idea of what to look for might be
obtained; instead, it is strongly recommended that a collection
of known samples be made and kept available for comparison, so
that not only the ordinary appearance but any normal variations
in appearance may be known.
We have seen in chapter 12 that it is impossible to finally and
definitely recognize every fiber by chemical means alone, the
microscope alone will do this but a combination of chemical and
microscopical methods usually removes all doubt. An additional
advantage of microscopical testing is the fact that very small
samples may be used and that the samples are not destroyed.
REFERENCES:
ISkinkle, J. H. Elementary Textile Microscopy. Howes Publishing Co.,
New Yor!}, (1930).
2 Preston , J. M. Modern Textile Microscopy. Emmot & Co., Manchester,
(1933).
3Schwarz, E. R. Textiles and the Microscope. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, (1934).
"Hardy, J. Method for Studying the Scale Structure of Medullated and
Pigmented Animal Fibers. Journal of the Textile Institute 23, Tl (1932).
232
TEXTILE TESTING 233
5Manby, J .. Improved Method for Revealing the Scale Structure of Wool

and Hair. Journal of the Textile Institute Z3, TS (1932).
6 Preston, J. Section Cutting by a Modified Plate Method. Journal of the
Textile Institute Z7, T216 (1936).
70sborne, G. Micro-Analysis of Textile Fibers. Textile Research 4, 84 (1934);
5,75,275,307,351 (1935).
Identification of Starches
The identification of a starch depends upon three characteristics:

the size, the shape, and the presence Or absence as well as the
shape of a marking on the strach grain called the hilum. Table XX
gives the appearance of the more common types of starch when
freshly prepared. It will be noted that there are three sizes of
starch grains (small, medium, and large); three shapes (polygon,
circular, and oval) of which the circular and oval may be truncated
(cut off); and three types of hilum, dot, transverse (one line),
and stellate (two or more intersecting lines).
The identification is fairly easy on a freshly prepared starch but
is complicated on an old starch, a boiled starch, or a chemically
modified starch (dextrine) by the fact that on these treatments
the hila change from dot to transverse, transverse to stellate, and
stellate to ruptured grains; too much reliance, therefore, must
not be placed on the appearance of the hilum unless the history of
the starch is known. A magnification of 100x should be used for
most work, with a 400x magnification available for closer examina-
tion of individual grains. A comparison of the unknown with known
samples is always desirable. In the case of greatly decomposed
starches, identification must depend upon the examination of the
few grains that are left intact.
REFERENCES:
lSkinkle, J. H. Elementary Textile Microscopy. Howes Publishing Co.,
New York, (1930).
Identification of Fibers
In Chapter 12, in considering the qualitative tests for the various

fibers, it was strongly recommended that the microscope be used
to amplify and check the chemical tests and also to identify members
of groups which could not be differentiated by chemical means.
234 TEXTILE TESTING
In considering the microscopical analysis of fibers, we shall classify

the fibers according to origin, rather than according to chemical
constitution, into:
1. Hairs.
a. Sheep family-wool.
b. Goat family-mohair, cashmere, common goat hair.
c. Camel family-camel hair, llama, alpaca, vicuna.
2. Silks-true silk, tussah silk.
3. Vegetable seed hairs--cotton, mercerized cotton, kapok.
4. Vegetable stem fibers-flax, ramie, hemp, jute.
S. Rayons, of cellulose origin-acetate, cupra, viscose, stretch-
&pun viscose.
6. Artificial fibers, of other than cellulose origin--casein wool,
casein-viscose mixture, nylon, vinyl resin.
In identifying hairs, the chief points of interest are the size and
shape of the scales, presence or absence of color granules in the
cortex, presence and size of the medulla, and finally the diameter
of the fiber. It should be remembered, also, that both wool and
beard hairs exist and differ considerably in their properties. Known
samples should be available for comparison and amplification of
Table XXI which summarizes the properties of the hairs. Of all
of these wool, mohair, and camel hair are by far the most common;
and the hardest distinction to make is between certain wools and
mohairs. Skinkle's scale length method may be used for this: if
the visible scale length is below 17,,, it is wool; if above 18.5 ,,,
it is mohair; if between 17 and 18,. it is probably wool and between
18 and 18.5,. it is probably mohair, in this last case measure also
the diameter and calculate Sa /0, if this last value is below 140
it is wool and if above 160 it is mohair.
Hairs are best examined in a mount of glycerine or colorless
mineral oil and at a magnification of 100x; higher magnification
may be required -for individual fibers. The mounting technique of
Manby may be used and the method of Hardy for making casts of
the fibers is useful on dyed or heavily pigmented hairs to study
t he scale structure.
Lamb's wool and hogg wool may be identified by the presence
of natural tapering fiber ends. Pulled wool shows occasional root
TEXTILE TESTING 235
ends, some broken ends, and occasionally crystalline particles

which adhere to the fiber. Shoddy or reworked wool may be
recognized by the torn or broken ends, cracked and broken bends,
and usually by the large number of colors present.
The silks are easily distinguished from each other; true silk is
a narrow fiber with no markings; tussah silk is a broad fiber with
longitudal striations, particles of colored pigment, and frequently
with parallel pairs of diagonal lines. The cross-sections of true
silk are quarter circles or half circles (with sharp corners rounded
off), the cross-sections of tussah are very much flattened circles.
In the vegetable seed hairs, cotton is distinguished easily from
kapok by the fact that the cotton is a broad flat fiber with frequent
twists; a broad I umen is present but the walls of the fiber are quite
thick; kapok consists of a circular hollow tube with a broad lumen,
very thin walls and frequent bends but no twist. Mercerized
cotton is rounder, without twist, and the lumen has disappeared
or become very narrow. Incompletely mercerized cotton has fibers
of both types and should be given the "deconvolution count"
(see Chapter 17) for recognition.
Table XXII gives the characteristics of the vegetable stem fibers
or bast fibers. These fibers are found in bundles, cemented together,
and it is necessary to break up the bundles and obtain the individual
fibers before recognition may be made. It will be noted that jute
is distinguished from the others by the absence of joints and flax
is distinguished by the pointed end. If chemical tests can be used.
the longitu'dal appearance is all that is necessary but if recognition
must be done by the microscope. then cross-sections should be
prepared. Polarized light is useful in quickly deciding whether
joints are present, and Hardy's sectioning device for preparing
cross-sections. It will be noted that flax line and tow may be
distinguished by the width of the lumen. Bast fibers are best
mounted in water and examined at about 200x magnification.
Table XXIII gives the microscopical appearances of the artificial
fibers. both the cellulose type (rayons), and the non-cellulose type
(newer fibers). Both longitudinal and cross-sectional mounts must
be made and it is almost a necessity that chemical rests be used to
amplify the microscopical appearances. The appearances of the
newer fibers are given as they are now made but it is possible that
236 TEXTILE TESTING
changes in manufacture may alter these appearances, therefore

some known samples are necessary for comparison.
In first looking at a fiber, it is generally possible to assign it to
one of the several groups as shown in Table XXIV. After that,
the observing of further details will generally identify the fiber, but
it is better and safer to check results by preparing a cross-section
and making suitable chemical tests as given in Chapter 12.
REFERENCES:
ISkinkle, J. H. Elementary Textile Microscopy. Howes Publishing Co.,

New York, (1930).
2A.S.T.M. Standards on Textile Materials. A.S.T.M., Philadelphia, (1938).
3Von Bergen, W. and Mauersberger, H. R. American Wool Handbook.
American Wool Handbook Co., New York, (1938).
4Garner, W. Textile Analytical Microscopy. Journal of the Society of Dyers.
and Colourists 42,269 (1926).
5Skinkle, J. H. Determination of Wool and Mohair by Scale Size and
Diameter. American Dyestuff Reporter 25, 620 (1936).
6Von Bergen, W. Wool and Mohair. American Dyestuff Reporter 26, 271
(1937).
7Rayon Identification. American Dyestuff Reporter 23,457 (1934).
CHAPTER 17
DETERMINATION OF QUALITY, DAMAGE AND

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
Wool Grading
THE standard method of grading wool is now the determination

of its average diameter together with an idea as to the range of
hair sizes. Two general procedures are available:
1. Preparation of a cross-section and determination Qf the diam-
eter-this is too slow and complex and is usually not done.
2. Determination of the diameter from a longitudinal mount.
The apparatus used may be:
1. An ordinary microscope fitted with a disc or filar micrometer,
suitably calibrated.
2. The Bausch & Lomb projection apparatus and calibrated
wedge.
3. The Zeiss Lanameter with scale-this is the European method.
In the micrometer method, fibers are mounted on a slide in
glycerine and by means of a mechanical stage each fiber is brought
into the field and its diameter measured with the micrometer.
Usually 100 fibers are all that are necessary to give a good average
but if the sample is very variable, 200 or even 400 fibers may be
necessary. The standard error and variation should be calculated;
a variation of 20 per cent or more usually indicates a blend. Table
XXV gives the range of the average diameters of each quality of
wool and mohair, as well as the other common fibers. If the dis-
tribution of diameters is required as well as the average diameter,
this method is rather slow, since 400 to 1600 fibers must be measured,
and the wedge method is then used.
The wedge method is used primarily for the determination of
the quality of wool top where the specifications call for a certain
minimum number of fine fibers, a certain maximum number of
coarse fibers, as well as the average diameter for each grade of
237
238 TEXTILE TESTING
wool (Table XXVI). This is the official standard method of the

A.S.T.M. and the government and is now in use by all large concerns
who buy or sell large amounts of wool. The apparatus consists
of a projection microscope with a movable stage and an objective
and ocular which will give a magnification of 500x when projected
the proper distance. The measuring device is a sheet of white
cardboard with three wedges printed upon it covering the ranges
10-30", 30-50~, and 50-70 w Samples two inches long are cut from
the wool, the samples are opened out sO that each fiber is freed from
the others, mounted across a slide in glycerine, and covered with a
cover-glass. The slide is placed on the stage of the microscope,
the image projected on the wedge ruler, and the ruler turned until
the image of the fiber to be measured is projected between the two
lines of the wedge; the place where the wedge has exactly the
same width as the image of the fiber is marked; 100 fibers are
recorded on each wedge. Table XXVI gives the number of measure-
ments to be made; the measurements are then averaged and the
percentage in each range calculated: comparison with Table XXVI
then gives the quality.
REFERENCES:
lA.S.T.M. Standards on Textile Materials. A.S.T.l\I., Philadelphia, (1938).

2Von Bergen, W. and Mauersberger, H. R. American Wool Handbook.
American Wool Handbook Co., New York, (1938).
aVon Bergen, W. Wool and Mohair, American Dyestuff Reporter 26. 271
(1937).
4Franz, F. Measurement of the Fineness of Wool. Journal of the Textile
Institute 28, P368 (1937).
Maturity of Cotton
Two methods are available for this determination.

1. Swelling method-A.S.T.M. standard method, requires no
special apparatus.
2. Polarized light method-quicker, probably better, requires a
polarizing microscope and selenite plate.
In the swelling method, two groups of 100 fibers each are
examined; the fibers are straightened, placed parallel on a slide,
covered with a cover glass and flooded with 18 per cent sodium
hydroxide; the slides are then placed on the stage of a microscope
equipped with a disc or filar micrometer !ind examined at the
TEXTILE TESTING 239
mid-portion of the fibers. As successive fibers come into view.

they are counted and the number of thin-walled immature fibers
are also counted. Thin-walled fibers are defined as fibers which
on treatment with 18 per cent sodium hydroxide show a fiber wall
thickness of less than half the width of the adjacent lumen at the
widest part of the fiber ribbon; that is, the lumen is greater than
one-half of the total width; all other fibers are classed as mature
or thick-walled. Usually it is plain whether the fiber is immature
or mature, in doubtful cases the micrometer is used. The percentage
of immature fibers is calculated.
In the polarized light method, 50 fibers are taken for each test
and are mounted substantially parallel with each other between
two slides which are fastened with tape, no mounting medium is
necessary. A polarizing microscope is used with a selenite plate
placed between the crossed polarizer and analyzer (just above the
polarizer, or above the ocular and below the analyzer) with the
slow direction (indicated by the arrow or dot) at 45° to both the
polarizer and the analyzer; the background will then be First Order
Red or Red I. The slide is placed on the stage which is then rotated
until the fibers are parallel to the slow vibration of the selenite
plate. Each fiber which is clear purple or deep blue or a combination
of both is given 2 demerits (immature); fibers which are blue or
blue-green or both are given 1 demerit (partially immature); fibers
which are yellow or yellow-green are given 0 demerits (mature).
Since 50 fibers are examined, the total number of demerits is the
percentage of immaturity. Several tests may be necessary.
REFERENCES:
IA.S.T.M. Standards on Textile Materials. A.S.T.M., Philadelphia, (1938).
2 Pattee, C. L. Use of the Polarizing Microscope in Cotton Classing Textile
Research 5,72 (1935).
sSchwarz, E. R., and Hotte, G. H. Micro-Determination of Cotton Fiber
Maturity in Polarized Light Textile Research 5, 370 (1935).
4Koshal, R. S., and Ahmad, N. Determination of the Swollen Diameter of
Cotton Fibers. Journal of the Textile Institute 30, T63 (1939).
Mercerization of Cotton
The simplest microscopical determination of the degree of

mercerization is by the deconvolution count. In this test,
fragments of cotton 0.2 mm. long are cut, most conveniently by
240 TEXTILE TESTING
two razor blades set in a holder with the edges 0.2 mm. apart, the
fragments are teased apart, mounted in mineral oil, and covered
with a cover glass. A number of fields are then examined and the total
number of fibers as well as the numbers of fibers which are free
from twist or convolution are counted; a fiber is free of convolution
if there is less than 90° turn of the fiber. The percentage of de-
convoluted fibers is then calculated. Unmercerized fibers are
always below 16 per cent and usually below 13 per cent; greater
than 16 per cent indicates mercerization in varying degrees. This test
is useful in comparing different samples, in detecting mercerization
in doubtful cases, and in detecting uneven mercerization in streaky
dyeing.
REFERENCES;
lCalvert 1\1. A., and CIibbens, D. A. Deconvolution of Cotton Hairs as a Test

of the l\1ercerization Process. Joumal of the Textile Institute 24, T233 (1933)
Damage to Cotton
Two methods are available here:

1. Swelling test of Fleming and Thaysen.
2. Congo Red test of Bright.
In the swelling test, a small sample is shaken for 2 to 3 minutes
with a mixture of equal volumes of carbon disulfide and 15 per cent
(by weight) sodium hydroxide. Undamaged fibers show bead-like
swellings, damaged fibers are swollen uniformly and do not show
the beads. The number of damaged and undamaged fibers are
counted and the percentage of damaged fibers is calculated.
In the Congo Red test, about 0.1 gram of cotton is placed in a
filter flask with water and as much air as possible is withdrawn by
a filter pump. The cotton is gently squeezed to remove most of
the water, placed in 25 cc. of an 11 per cent (by weight) sodium
hydroxide solution, shaken, and allowed to stand 5 minutes. It
is then washed rapidly in water, placed in a saturated (2 per cent)
solution of Congo Red, and shaken at intervals for 6 minutes. The
cotton is then removed, shaken with changes of water until no
pink color shows in the water, placed in 18 per cent (by weight)
sodium hydroxide, teased out and mounted with the same liquid,
covered with a cover-glass, a:1d examined at 100x magnification.
In the case of mechanical damage the fiber is bruised or cut, the
TEXTILE TESTING 241
cellulose protrudes and is deeply stained. In the case of acid

damage, the fiber has irregular red patches. In the case of heat or
fungus damage, the fiber has red spiral bands.
REFERENCES:
IBright, T. B. Microscopical Examination of Damaged Cotton Hairs by the
Congo Red Test and the Swelling Test of Fleming and Thaysen. Journal of the
Damage to Wool
In detecting damage to wool and to a certain extent identifying
the type of damage three tests may be employed;
1. Allworden's reaction-using chlorine water or bromine water.
2. Von Bergen's swelling test -using °N/10 sodium hydroxide.
3. Krais and Viertel's reaction-using ammonia and potassium
hydroxide, or ammonia and sodium hydroxide.
In Allworden's reaction, the reagent used is saturated chlorine
water or saturated bromine water, the bromine water is more
convenient to prepare and keep. The fibers are placed on a slide
and mounted in the saturated bromine water; if the wool is un-
damaged, globules will appear on the surface in 5 to 30 minutes;
if the wool is damaged by alkali or light, swelling of the fiber may
occur but globules will not appear.
In Von Bergen's method, the reagent used is N /10 sodium
hydroxide. The fibers are mounted in water and the diameters are
measured with a disc or filar micrometer; two drops of the reagent
are placed at the rim of the cover-glass, the water is sucked out
with filter paper applied at the opposite side, this procedure is
repeated once more, and the diameter of the fibers is measured
again in a few minutes. The swelling is expressed as per cent of
the diameter in water; normal wools swell 10 to 13 per cent;
wools damaged by oxidation, chlorine, light, or acid swell more than
15 per cent; a swelling of greater than 20 per cent corresponds to
serious damage and a swelling of 100 per cent or more corresponds
to complete destruction of valuable properties.
In Krais and Viertel's reaction, the reagent is prepared by dis-
solving 20 grams of potassium hydroxide (or sodium hydroxide)
in 50 cc. of concentrated ammonia solution with cooling, some
ammonia will escape. The fibers are mounted in this reagent and
242 TEXTILE TESTING
examined at 200x to 300x magnification; swelling occurs and

bubbles are formed at varying intervals of time. Normal wool
swells in 8 to 10 minutes; alkali damaged wool takes longer;
oxidation, chlorine, and acid damaged wool swell faster, the acid
damaged wool requiring only 1 to 2 minutes. The test is somewhat
dependent upon the quality of the wool since coarse wools are
~lower than fine wools, so a previous test should be made on an
undamaged wool of about the same diameter as the sample being
tested.
REFERENCES:
1 Preston, J. M. Modern Textile Microscopy. Emmott & Co., Manchester

(1939).
2Von Bergen, W., and Mauersberger, H. R. American Wool Handbook,
American Wool Handbook Co., New York, (1938)
3 Ryberg, B. A. Bibliography on Methods for Determining the Causes of
Damage Appearing in Wool After Dyeing. American Dyestuff Reporter Z7.
571 (1938).
Analysis of Fiber Blends
In determining the quantitative composition of fiber blends,

chemical methods should be used if the sample is large enough
and the mixed fibers are chemically separable. If the conditions
make a chemical analysis impossible, then the microscopical method
may be used but only approximate results may be expected.
If we Jet
no number of fibers of A
nl! number of fibers of B
g. mean hair weight of A In milligrams X 10- 5 per
centimeter
gl! mean hair weight of B III milligrams X 10- 5 per
centimeter
then
100n.g.
% of A
n.g. + nbgb
and in order to obtain the composition of the mixture we need to
know the number of fibers of each kind as well as the average hair
weight of each; an approximate relationship between the hair
weight and the diameter (or width) of the fiber exists, as follows:
TEXTILE TESTING 243
1:
g = - S (KD)
4 4
where g =hair weight in milligrams X 10- 5 per
centimeter
S density of the fiber in grams per cubic centimeter
D mean observed diameter (or width) in microns
K a constant of form and is defined as K = diD
where d = true effective diameter of the fiber.
For certain fibers (wool, mohair, cupra, nylon), K is equal to 1.0
or close enough, in the other fibers K may have different values.
The combination of K,S, and the value 1:/4 is lumped together in
another constant (k). Table XXVII gives the value of S, K, and k
for the common fibers and by means of this table the hair weights
may be approximated.
The following case will show the procedure and calculations
involved: a yarn composed of a mixture of viscose and wool is to
be analyzed. The yarn is cut across with a razor blade and a section
about 74 inch in length is cut out and the fibers teased out on a
slide; a drop of mineral oil and a cover-glass are added. This is
done on several slides and the results are combined. On examin-
ation, 54 wool fibers were found with an average diameter uf 22.5 ~
and 47 viscose fibers with an average diameter of 20.5~.
a. \Vool:
na 54
Da 22.5 ..
ga 1.04D2 (Table XXVII) 527 mgms. X lO- _0 cm.
nag 3 54 X 527 = 28,400
b. Viscose:
nb 47
Db 20.5 ".
gb .80D2 (Table XXVII) = 336 mgms. X 10- 5 cm.
n bgb 47 X 336 = 15,800
100 X 28,400 100 X 28,400
% wool = 64%
28,400 + 15,800 44,200
The method is least accurate where cotton is one of the
components since the constant of form (K) may vary considerably
244 TEXTILE TESTING
from the recorded value; the method seems to be most accurate,

as well as of most value, in blends of animal hairs such as wool and
mohair or wool and camel hair. Here the constants S, K, and k
are the same and the formula may be written:
lOOn 8 0 8 2
% of A =
n aD a 2 + n bD b 2
and Table XXVII is not necessary. The individual hairs may be
identified as they are examined by use of the visible scale length
as described in Chapter 16. This case is especially important
since no method of chemical analysis is available.
REFERENCES:
(1) Skinkle, J. H. Quantitative Analysis of Blends of Animal Hairs. American
TEXTILE TESTING 245
APPENDIX
TABLE I
Maximum Vapor Pressure and Absolute Humidities
Absolute humidity
Temperature l'apor pressure grains per
oF. inches mercury cubic foot
-~- ~----------~
32 0.18 2.12
35 0.20 2.38
40 0.25 2.86
4-5 0.30 3.44
50 0.36 4.11
55 0.44 4.89
60 0.52 5.80
65 0.62 6.85
70 0.74 8.07
75 0.88 9.46
80 1.03 11.06
85 1.22 12.88
90 1.42 14.95
95 1.66 17.30
100 1.94 19.97
105 2.25 22.97
110 2.60 26.34
120 3.45 34.37
130 4.53 44.36
140 5.89 56.69
150 7.58 71.74
160 9.66 89.99
170 12.21 111.9
180 15.30 138.0
190 19.02 169.0
200 23.47 205.3
210 28.75 247.8
212 29.92 257.1
246 TEXTILE TESTING
TABLE II
Relative Humidities by Sling Psychrometer
~-~----~----~
Wet bulb
Depression Dry bulb temperatures-O F.
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
2 89 90 90 91 91 92 92 93 94
4 78 80 81 82 83 84 85 85 86
G 68 70 72 74 75 77 78 79 80
8 .53 61 64 66 68 69 71 72 73
10 48 52 55 58 61 63 65 66 67
12 39 44 48 51 54 57 58 60 62
14 30 35 40 44 47 50 52 54 56
16 21 27 33 37 41 44 4,' 49 51
18 13 20 25 30 35 38 41 43 46
20 12 19 24 29 33 36 38 41
22 12 18 23 27 31 34 37
24 12 18 22 26 29 32
TABLE III
Relative Humidities Above Sulfuric Acid Solutions
Relative Concentration of Relative Concentration oj

l1umidity Sulfuric Acid Humidity Sulfuric Acid
% % wt./vol. % % wt./vol.
----
5 69.0 55 41.5
10 64.0 60 38.6
15 61.0 65 35.9
20 57.7 70 33.7
25 55.2 75 30.8
30 52.5 80 27.1
35 50.3 85 22.S
40 48.0 90 16.4
45 46.0 95 9.8
50 43.9 100 0.0
---_._-
TEXTILE TESTING 247
TABLE IV
Standard Regains of Textile Materials
Cotton fiber ......................... 8.5%
Cotton yarn ......................... 7.0
Cotton cloth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6.5
Cotton tire cord ............... , . . . . . .. 6.5
Mercerized cotton yarn ............... 8.5
Acetate rayon ....................... 6.5
Viscose, cupra, nitro rayons. . . . . . . . . . . .. 11.0
Silk ....... . ....................... 11.0
Mohair .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10.0
Camel hair .......................... 13.0
Wool fiber, scoured ................... 13.6
Woolen yarn ......................... 13.0
Worsted, oil spun (Bradford) . . . . . . . . . . .. 13.0
Worsted, dry spun (French). . . . . . . . . . . .. 15.0
TABLE V
Standard Grades of Fibers
Standard Grades oj Cotton Standard{;rades oj Japanese
Raw Silk
Middling Fair Crack Double Extra
Double Extra
Strict Good Middling Extra
Best No.1 to Extra
Good Middling Best No.1
No.1
Strict Middling No.1 to 1~
Standard Grades oj Wool and
Middling Wool Top
American English
Strict Low Middling
Grades Grades
Fine 80's, 70's, 64's
Low Middling
~B100d 60's, 58's
Strict Good Ordinary
VB Blood 56's
~ Blood 56's, 48's
Low ~ 46's
Common 44's
Good Ordinary
Braid 40's, 36's
248 TEXTILE TESTING
TABLE VI
Hair Weights of Fibers
TYool Cotton
Hair weight per em. Hair weight
Quality at 13.6% regain Variety per em.
mgms. x 10-6 mgms. x 10-'
80's 447 Egyptian
70's 485 Sakel 113-151
64's 580 Assili 144-170
60's 690 Uppers 177-212
58's 771 American
56's 919 Sea Island 102-136
50's 1123 Texas 167-211
48's 1260 Miscell. 178-235
46's 1290 Sou th American 165-256
44's 1468 Indian 193-312
40's 1560 Indian-American 145-226
36's 1512 African-Amer. 135-180
American-Egypt 167-175
TABLE VII
Standard Hanks of Yarn
Standard \Veight = One Pound
Typp system ............. , , , .. " 1000 yards
Cotton, spun silk, spun rayon .... ,. 840 yards
Worsted. , . , , , ..... , . , , ... , . , , . , 560 yards
Woolen, cut system, , . , . , ... , . . . . 300 yards
Woolen, run system, , .. , , .. , , .. " 1600 yards
Flax, hemp, jute .... , , ...... , , , , " 300 yards
Standard Weight = One Kilogram
Metric system, , ..... , , , ... , , . , .. 1000 meters
Standard Weight = 500 Grams
French system, , , . , ... , ... , . . . .. 1000 meters
Denier deniers (0.05 gram) per 450 meters
grams per 9000 meters
grains per 638 yards
pounds per 4,464,528 yards
TEXTILE TESTING 249
TABLE VIiI
English and Metric Equivalents
1 yard 36 inches 0.9144 meters
1 meter 39.37 inches 1.094 yards
1 pound 7000 grains 453.6 grams
1 ounce 437.5 grains 28.35 grams
1 gram 15.43 grains
TABLE IX
Yarn and Fabric Tolerances
Counts and Denier of Yarns
Cotton ............................. . 3.0%
Spun rayon ................ , ........ . 5.0
Woolen, coarser than No.3 Typp ..... . 10.0
No.3 to No.6 Typp ............. . 7.5
No. 6 and finer .................. . 5.0
plied yarns ..................... . 5.0
Worsted, coarser than No. 12 Typp .. 5.0
No. 12 to No. 17 ...... , ......... . 3.5
No. 17 to No. 23 ................ . 3.0
No. 23 and finer ................. . 2.5
plied yarns ..................... . 2.5
Rayon, singles, 150d or coarser ........ . 4.0
singles, finer than 150d ........... . 5.0
plied, 150d or coarser ............ . 8.0
plied, finer than 150d ........... . 10.0
Twist of Yarns
Cotton ............................. . 5.0%
Woolen and worsted ................. . 7.5
Rayon, under 7~ TPI ................ 25
7~ to 10 TPI .................... 25
over 10 TPI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5
Knit Goods
Wales per inch, courses per inch ..... -5% to +5%
Cloth
Number of yarns per inch, warp ..... -3% to +4%
filling ..... -5% to +7%
Weight, ounces per square yard ..... -4% to +6%
250 TEXTILE TESTING
TABLE X
Specific Gravities of Fibers
Silk, raw .................... , ............ 1.30-1. 3 7
Silk, boiled-off. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.25
Wool, mohair. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.32
Cotton, linen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.50
Ramie ............................ " . . . . .. 1.52
Hemp, jute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.48
Viscose, cupra, rayons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.52
Acetate rayon ............................ 1.33
Casein wool .............................. 1. 30
Nylon ................................... 1.14
c
.~
*
NO~-OO~~~~OOOO~~~-~~~~~--OO~ C
~~~O~~~~~~C~~N~~~~NNNN~~~~
++++.+++++.+ +++! ! I' :' , ! i I I ! I ~j
·~I
~
vi
.,;
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251
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TABLE XII
Natural Ash Content of Fibers
.,
Usual range Average Maximum
o
Fiber Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent u
.,
Cotton, raw, mechanically o
iii
clean ....... . 0.9-1.2 1.0 1.3
Cotton, scoured .......... . 0.2-0.3 0.25 Z'"
Cotton, bleached .. . 0.1
Ramie, raw. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2-6 6.0
Ramie, purified .......... . 1.75
Flax ................... " 1-6 6.0
Jute .....................
Rayons, not delustered .....
0.9-2.0
0.1-0.5 0.2
. ....:
0<
Silk, raw ................ . 1.0· '" ... u_ +
Silk, boiled-off ........... . 0.5 00"'11)
UU"lU(I..
Tussah, raw ....... " .... . 5.0 cO ",- cO ",-
Tussah, purified ......... . 0.25 UZZU
Wool, scoured ........... . 1.0 ~~~~
Wool, fine and medium .... . 1.0
\V001, coarse. . . . . . . . . . . .. . 3.0
"A poor average, large amount of variation.
252
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264
TEXTILE TESTING 265
TABLE XXV
Average Diameters of Various Fibers
Fibu Quality Diamttt'r-microlls

Average
Wool ........ Fine-80's 18.5-19.5
Wool ........ Fine-70's 20.0-21.0
Wool ........ Fine--64's 21.5-22.5
Wool ..... '" 72 Blood-60's 24.5-25.5
WooI ........ 72 Blood-58's 26.0-27.0
Wool ........ Vs Blood-56's 27.5-29.0
WooI ........ 7j Blood-50's 30.0-31.5
WooI ........ 7j Blood-48's 32.0-33.0
Wool ........ Low 7j Blood-46's 34.0-35.0
Wool ........ Cornmon-44's 35.5-36.5
Wool ........ Braid-40's 37.5-38.5
Wool ........ Braid-36's 39.0-41.0
Mohair ...... Kid-40's, 36's, 32's 24.0-30.0
Mohair ...... First-28's 24's 30.0-40.0
Mohair ...... Second-20's 40.0-50.0
Mohair ...... Third-Low 50.0-60.0
CamelHair ... Fine 17.0-20.0
Alpaca ....... 25.0-29.0
Vicuna..... " 13.0-14.0
Cashmere .... 15.0-16.0
Silk ......... 9.0-11.0
Cotton ..... " 16.0-20.0
Rayon ....... 172 d/f 14.0-15.0
Rayon ....... 3 d/f 19.0-21.0
Rayon ....... 5 d/f 24.0-26.0
Rayon ....... 10 d/f 35.0-380
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266
TEXTILE TESTING 267
TABLE XXVII
Constants for Calculation of Hair Weight from
Diameter
S K k
Fibr, D~nsity Constant in th~
Equation
gnu.! u. 01 Form g=kD'
Wool, mohair, etc ..... 1.32 1.0 1.04

Silk ................. 1.25 .85 .71
Cotton .............. 1.50 .71 .60
Cupra Yarn .......... 1.52 1.0 1.19
Linen ................ 1.50 .70 .58
Viscose rayon ......... 1.52 .82 .80
Acetate rayon ........ 1.33 .90 .86
Casein wool ... . . . . . . . 1.30 .84 .71
Nylon ............... 1.14 1.0 .89
------
INDEX
Abrasion .................... 98 Bowman tester .............. 107

tester ................... 101 box test ..................... 76
abrasives .................... 99 burning test ................. 180
absorbability ................ 79 bursting strength ............ 105
absorption ....... . . . . . . . . . .. 80 tester .........' .......... 130
acetate rayon ................ 263 Cable twist ............ ,..... 50
accounts. true ............... 43 camel hair .............. 182 261
acids ........................ 151 carbohydrates ............. :. 172
adhesives ................... 170 casein ....................... 174
alanine ................. 226, 227 hwool ........... 182, 191, 263
albumen ................ 174, 176 cas mere ................... 261
alkalies ..................... 151 cellulose
alkalinity, ash ............... 148 degradation ............. 194
Allworden's reacti('~ ......... 241 derivatives, quantitive data
alpaca ...................... 261 on .................... 258
Amick method .............. 96 tests of ............. 257
amino acids ......... 214, 215, 226 ether ................... 174
ammonia nitrogen ....... 224, 228 fibers ................... 180
analysis ' oxidation of ............ 195
chemical ..........•..... 185 struc~ure of ......... 192, 193
mechanical .............. 184 swelhng ................ 192
microscopic ............. 184 Chandler method ............ 122
proximate ............... 184 chemical testing ............. 142
quantitative ............. 184 Cisalfa .................. 182 263
angle of spirality ............ 4S Clayton's test ............. .'.152
animal oils .................. 167 Clegg's method .............. 29
antiseptics ................... 170 coated fabrics ............... 171
artificial fibres, microscopical compressibility .............. 95
appearance of ............. 263 Compressometer ............ 95
asbestos .................... 191 conductivity thermal ......... 88
ash ......................... 145 Congo Red test ............. 240
alkalinity .............. 200 contraction, twist ............ 42
content, fiber ........... 252 Cook & Zaparanick method ... 76
qualitative analysis of. ... 252 copper number ......... 143, 204
A.S.T.M. n,ethod ............ 29 core-yarn ................... 42
Baer stapler ................. 26 corkscrew twist ............. 52
bag test ..................... 76 correction factor ............ 189
balance cotton ..... 20, 23, 24, 48, 61, 117,
-oven ................... 16 126, 127, 135, 137, 143, 14-7, 151,
yarn .................... 51 152, 156, 164, 183, 185, 200, 203,
. balances ..................... 38 206, 235, 243
ball burst tester ............. 131 damage to .............. 240
Ball stapler ................. 26 extracted material in .... 253
ballistic· strength tester ... , .. 129 maturity of ............. 238
balloon cloth ................ 63 mercerized ......... 235, 239
barium activity number ...... 199 -seed oil ................ 166
Barratt's tester .............. 107 wax .................... 165
bast fibers .................. 235 count ....................... 34
microscopical appearance yarn .................... 67
of .................... 262 counts ...................... 67
Baudouin test ............... 166 equivalent ............... 42
Bellier test .................. 166 French .................. 35
helting. duck ................ 63 metric .................. 35
Black & Matthews method ... 75 cravenettes .................. 75
braid .....................•. 56 crease
Bright test .............. , .. 240 -proof finish ............. 171
hone-dry ................. : .. 14 -resistants ............... 170
crepe ....................... 62 fil1ing ....................... 67
yarn .................... 45 finishing materials ........... 170
cresols ...................... 173 fireproofing ................. 147
crimp ....................... 61 Fleming & Thaysen test ..... 240
tester ................... 65 flexing ...................... 98
Cryer method ............... 77 ~-I~x~meter .................. 94
cupra rayon ................. 263 mdlty ...................... 206
cuprammonia ................ 207 friction ............. . . . . . . .. 9H
rayon ................... 183 fulled fabrics ................ 75
viscometer .............. 209 funnel test .................. 76
cuprammonium hydroxide ... 207 Gauge, thickness ......... 68, 69
Damaged wool, test for ...... 259 gelatine ..................... 174
deliquescents ................ 170 glue ........................ 174
delustering ..........•....... 147 glycerol ...............•. 173,175
denier .................... 34, 35 glycine ................. 226, 227
Densometer ............... 73, 74 glycols ...............•...... 175
desizing cotton, loss on ...... 254 goat hair .................... 261
dew point................... 6 grab tests ............... 11~ 116
dextrin ..................... 174 grade ....................... 23
draping quality .............. 91 Grimes method .............. 122
Drave's method .............. 79 gums ....................... 176
dress goods ................. 56 Hair weight ................. 29
drop test ................... 76 animal .................. 234
drying calculation .............. 267
agents .................. 6 microscopical appearance
curve ................... 14 of ................ 260,261
oven .................... 15 vegetable seed ........... 234
Duprene .................... 174 Halphen test ................ 166
Elastic limit ................. 106 handle .................... 31,91
elasticity .................... 105 hank ........................ 34
elongation ................... 106 hardness .................... 94
enzymes ............... 176, 177 Haven's method ........ 32,80,81
errors, testing .............. 1, 2 hawser twist ................ 50
extension ................... 105 heart loop method ............ 93
extraction ................... 158 humidity
fabric absolute ................. 5
testing .................. 56 constant ................ 10
tolerances ............... 249 -regain curve ........... . 18
relative ................ . 5
Fade-Ometer ............... 168 table
fatigue ...................... 138 absolute ............. 245
fats ........................ 164 relative ............. 246
fatty acids .............. 165, 167 hydrocellulose ........... 194,203
feel ......................... 31 hydrostatic test .............. 76
Fehling's solution ............ 175 hygrometers ............... 6,7,8
felt ..................... 138, 191 hygrostat ................. 10, 11
felts ........................ 56 hys.teresis ................. 18, 19
fiber Indicators ................... 151
blends .................. 242 inspection board ............. 54
grades, standard ......... 247 insulation, thermal .......... 87
mixtures ............ 178, 185 iron ........................ 175
testing .................. 23 Jute .................... 183, 235
fibers ....................... 233 Kapok .................. 183, 235
artificial ................. 234 katathermometer ........... , 88
diameters of ............. 265 Kjeldahl method ............ 223
hair weights of ......... 248 knit goods ................... S6
microscopical recognition Krais & Viertel's reaction ..... 241
of .................... 264 tester ................... 107
qualitative tests for .. 255, 256 Kreis test ................... 166
specific gravity of ....... 250 Lace ........................ 56
vegetable stem .......... 234 Lanital .................. 185, 263
fibroin .............. 149, 226, 227 latex ........................ 172
filaments .................... 41 laundering .................. 84
Launderometer .............. 85 p~enols ..................... 173
lead acetate test ............. 218 pICk ........................ 57
Lenher & Smith method .... 80,82 counter ................. S9
Liebermann-Storch test ...... 166 glass .................... S9
light table ................... 59 pi~e fabrics .................. S6
ligno cell uloses .............. 183 piles ........................ 41
linen ....................... 183 polari~ed light ....... 235.238,239
lint ........................ 99 poroSity ............ . . . . . . .. 71
liama hair ................... 261 pre-shrunk .................. 85
load-elongation curve ........ 64 pressure
load-volume ................. 32 partial .................. 5
loftiness ..................... 31 test ..................... 76
lubricants ................... 170 print goods .................. 56
Mac Nicholas projector, fabric ............. S9
& Hedrich method ......... 91 protein ...................... 174
Matthews' tester ............ 107 fibers ................... 180
mechanical fabrics ........... 56 proteins ..................... 172
Mercier method ............. 95 psychrometer, sling .......... 8
methylene blue .............. 202 psychrostat ........... '" .. 10, 11
absorption ............... 201 Rainproof ....... , ..... 71. 75, 76
test ..................... 221 ramie ....................... 183
metric-English tables ........ 249 rancidity, test for ............. 166
microscopical testing ......... 232 rayon .. . 37,40.41,48,84, lOS, 112,
mildcw-proofing ............. 147 117, 126, 133-135, 137, 147, 182,
~-lillon's reagent ............. 174 183, 185, 234. 235, 243, 263
mineral reagents, testing ............. 185
fibers ........... . .. 180 regain ...................... 12
matter .................. 145 equilibrium .............. 20
oil ...................... 166 testing .................. 21
mohair ...................... 260 regains, standard ............ 247
moisture .................... 133 regularity ................... 54
determinations ........... 5 relative humidity ............ 5
per cent .................. 12 resilience ................. 31, 96
mordants .................... 146 resins ...................... 172
:\[oscrop tester .............. 110 ribbon ...................... 56
mosses ...................... 176 rosin, test for ................ 166
mothproofing ................ 147 rubber
Mullen tester ............ 131. 132 extration ................ 161
Naphthol yellow S ............ 202 tester ................... 108
nitrogen , ................... 149 rupture ..................... 130
content ................. 223 5 twist ...................... 49
soluble .................. 223 sampling .................... 116
total .................... 228 salts, soluble ...... , ......... 173
normal material ............. 143 scales ............... ,....... 38
novelty yarn ................. 45 Schiefer method ............. 94
Nylon .................. 180.263 Schwalbe-Braid \' method ...... 204
Off-square .................. 6~ scouring loss ................. 156
oils ......................... 164 seam slippage ............... 137
O'Neill tester ............... 106 selvedge .................... 57
oven serigraph ............... 108,119
conditioning ......... ' ... 38 seriplane .................... 54
-dry ................... .14 serviceability ................ 97
oxycellulose ................. 195 sesame oil .................. 166
oxycelluloses ........ "203 shed ........................ 57
Pauly test ............. 216, 220 "shiners", rayon ............ . 134
peanut oil ................... 166 shoddy ...................... 235
Peirce method .......... , .... 93 shot ........................ 58
pendulum tester 107.108, 109. 111 shower-proof .......... 71, 75, 76
penctrants ................ .. 82 shrink-proof ................. 85
peptide chains ..........., .... 226 shrinkage ................... 83
permeability .......... '.' .... 71 silk ........ 20, 23, 37, 41, 84, 105,
Peterson & Dantzig methbd ... 91 112, 137, 143, 147, 149, 156, 182,
phenol· formaldehyde ......... 174 185, 226, 234
damage ................. 226 contraction .............. 42
sizings ...................... 170 counter ................. 45
skein, standard .............. 34 Typp system ................ 35
Skinkle's method ............ 234 tyrosine ............ 220, 226, 227
sley ........................ 58 unraveling .................. 59
smoothness .................. 95 unsaponiflable matter ........ 167
soap solution ................ 84 mea-formaldehyde ........... 174
soaps ....................... 164 vapor pressure table .......... 245
softeners .................... 170 vegetable oils. ................ 167
solven ts ..................... 164 vicuna ...................... 261
Soxhlet extractor .... 158, 159, 160 Vinyl resin .................. 263
spray test ................... 76 dscometer .................. 207
square fabric ................ 63 pulp .................... 208
stains ....................... 147 viscose .............. 40, 183, 263
standard grades ............. 23 viscositv .................... 206
staple ....................... 23 Von B~rgen's test ...... 169, 241
stapling ..................... 24 'Valen method ...... '" ...... 122
starch ...................... 174 warp ..................... 57, 67
finishes ................. 172 washing ..................... 84
starches ..................... 233 waterproof tester ............ 78
microscopical appearance waterproofing ............... 147
of .................... 260 waterproofness ......... 71, 75, 76
statistical analysis ........... 1 waxes ...................... 164
stiffness ..................... 91 wear ........................ 98
curve ................... 92 -shiny ................... 102
strain ....................... 105 weighings ................... 37
strength .................... 104 weight ...................... 59
correction factors ........ 251 -length ratio ............ 34
-regain curves .......... 134 standard ................ 66
tester, inclined plane ... " .128 yarn .................... 67
-twist curve ............. 53 weighting ............... 147, 149
stress ....................... 105 weightings .................. 170
tests, repeated ........... 138 Weireck method .......... 80, 81
stretch .................. lOS, 123 wet test ..................... 133
-load diagrams ...... 124, 125, wetting-out ................. 79
127, 135, 139 Whittaker's test ............. 182
strip tests ............... lIS, 116 William's method ............ 85
sugars ...................... 175 Winson's method ............ 29
sulfur ....................... 222 wool. '" .. 20, 23, 24,26, 37,40,48,
sulfuric acid ............. 152, 154 61, 112, 113. 117, 126, 152, 154,
surface tension .............. 79 156, 168, 185, 191, 214, 243, 260
Suter damage to .......... 214, 241
counter ................. 59 extracted material in ..... 253
-Webb stapler ........... 26 grading ................. 237
take-up ..................... 62 pulled ................... 234
tape ........................ 56 reworked ............... 235
tapestry ..................... 56 top, diameter distribution
tea seed oil .................. 167 requirements for worsted
tenacity .................... 105 37,' 48, 61, 112, 126
tension ...................... 36 woven goods ................ 56
yarn .................... 48 xylol method ................ 13
thermal yarn
insulation tester ......... 90 count ................... 58
properties ................ 87 spun ...................• 41
thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68 standard hanks of ........ 248
gauge ................... 69 testing .................. 34
-load curves ............. 94
thiocyanate test ............. 219 tolerances ............... 249
titration ..................... 148 yield point .................. 106
tQlerances ................... 40 Z twist ...................... 49
yarn & fabric ............ 249 Zimmerman test ............. 227
tussah silk .................. 182 zinc
Tweedie method ............ 228 chloride viscosity •....••. 228
twist ........................ 44 salts ...•................ 174

Textile Testing

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IMPERIAL AGRICULTURAL

RESEARCH INSTITUTE. NEW DELHI.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF TEXTILE CHEIIUSTJl.Y

LOWELL TEXTILE INSTITUTE

MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

. TEXTILE testing is carried out for one of several reasons and

11. Organic Extraneous Matter

PART III - MICROSCOPICAL TESTING

Maximum Vapor Pressure and Absolute

1. Hygrodeik Hygrometer ....................................... 7

40. Skein on Spools of Strength Testing Machine ................... 118

45.8 1.2 1.44 39.8 0.5 0.25

101446.4 10133.66 101402.9 10156.25

P erhaps the most important single factor in the physical test-

Fig. I-Hydrodeik Hygrometer

The wet and dry bulb hygrometer is convenient and easy to

Fig. 2-Sling Psychrometer

factory) should be used for reasons illustrated in (Figure 3). If water

Fig. 3-Effect of Temperature of Water on Wet Bulb Reading

degrees warmer than wet bulb is used, however, the temperature

e = el -0.000367 P(t-t l ) (1 32)) + (tl -

dry bulb temperature is 80° F. and wet bulb temperature is 70° F

e = 0.74 - .000367 x 30.0 (80-70) ( 1 + 70-32)

1. Dry in the oven, transfer to weighing bottle, weigh on balance

Fig. S-Separate Oven and Balance

weight is a constant and may be recorded in the laboratory log-book

there is a possibility of picking up moisture during the weighing,

Fig. 6-0ven and Balance Combined

Fig. 7-0ven and Analytical Balance

is reached-this is the oven dry weight. If an analytical balance is

comparatively small when the temperature is around room ('ondi-

Staple is the length of a textile fiber, but as commonly used

Stapling, on the other hand, is an art which may be fairly easily

to indicate the length of the bulk, or body, of the fibers. Then

Fig. ll-Cotton Staple-Hand Method

form density of fibers throughout. Figure 12 shows a sample of 72

Fig. 12-Wool Staple-Hand Method

For ordinary mill routine, the average length of staple is deter-

9. Repeat these operations, dropping the lower combs and re-

Fig. 13-Cotton Staple-Baer Sorter

3A.S.T.M. Standards on Textile Materials. A.S.T.M., Philadelphia, (1936).

Hair weight, or more correctly hair weight per unit length, is a

where 2.54 is the number of centimeters in an inch.

resilience of fabrics will be taken up later when we consider the

Counts and Denier

I lyn determining the relative sizes of yarns, two systems immediate-

Fig. 14-Yarn Reel

c. Rayon yarns taken from skeins

Fig. IS-Skein Holder and Yarn Reel

4. Torsion balance and drying oven.

Fig. 16--Grain Yarn Scales

termining counts or denier from small lengths of yarn, as unraveled

industry consist of an oven with a torsion balance accurate to a

2Saxl, I. J. Rayon and Synthetic Yarn Handbook. Rayon Publishing Corp ..

Plies and Filaments

Under this heading, we will consider the number of units which

three of these plies twisted together to form the cord; it is referred

Fig. 17-Simple Twist Counter

As shown above, at least five determinations should be made on

principle (although usually larger in si~e) to the simple type with