Position Paper on Communication

FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE AND ELEMENTS OF POETRY

Marius Narcis MANOLIU1

Univ. Assist. PhD Student, „Apollonia” University of Iaşi, Romania

1

Corresponding author: Marius Narcis Manoliu; e-mail: narcismanoliu@yahoo.com

Abstract verbal messages that would fulfill only one

Generally, art is said to be subjective and each person’s function. The diversity lies not in a monopoly of
approach to and perception of it is a valid one although it some of these several functions but in a different
may be different. Many poetic features belong not only to hierarchical order of functions. The verbal
the science of language but also to the whole theory of
signs, that is, to general semiotics. At the same time, poetry structure of a message depends primarily on its
has some distinctive features that differentiate it from predominant function.Each of these six factors:the
other forms of discourse. This statement, however, is valid addreser, the message, the addressee, the context, the
not only for verbal art but also for all varieties of language
contact and the code determines a different
since language shares many properties with some other
systems of signs or even with all of them. function of language.
Keywords: function, expressiveness, context, code, message, The denotative function, referential or cognitive
addresser/addressee. characterizes the relationship between the
Linguistics is likely to explore all possible linguistic context and the referential one. Such
problems of relation between discourse and the messages convey meanings in the broadest sense
universe of discourse: what of this universe is of the word. But even though an orientation
verbalized by in a given discourse and how it is toward the context called the referential, also
verbalized. Jakobson’s model of the functions of denotative/cognitive function is the main task of
language distinguishes six elements, or factors many messages, the accessory involvement of
of communication, that are necessary for the other functions in such messages must be
communication to occur: context, addresser taken into account.
(sender), addressee (receiver), contact, common code The emotional or expressive function is determined
and message. “Each factor is the focal point of a by the emotional or expressive relationship
relation, or function, that operates between the between the addressee and the content of the
message and the factor. The functions are: the message, updating the attitude of the speaker
referential (“The Earth is round”), emotive towards what he said, in different shades of
(“Yuck!”), conative (“Come here”), phatic meaning with a true or false emotion. More
(“Hello?”), metalingual (“What do you mean by pronounced expressive elements are the
‘krill’?”), and poetic (“Smurf”). When we analyze interjections, which keep the emphasis being on
the functions of language for a given unit (such intonation, and certain peculiarities in the
as a word, a text or an image), we specify to construction of the message, a certain selection in
which class or type it belongs (e.g., a textual or the inventory of synonyms, the of use the degrees
pictorial genre), which functions are present/ of intensity and of comparison. It can be said that
absent, and the characteristics of these functions, the expressive function is present in almost all
including the hierarchical relations and any other messages, because the very choice of a formula for
relations that may operate between them.” building messages in the simplest manner is also
(HERBERT, n.d.) a sign of a certain attitude of the speaker in
Language must be approached in the diversity connection with the content of the message
of its functions. Although we distinguish six (TRITSMANS, 1987). Certain peculiarities of
basic aspects of language, we could hardly find rhythm, of flow of words in the message, of mimics

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 FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE AND ELEMENTS OF POETRY

and gestures-that accompany certain sequences, relationship of communication, of control,

the changes in intonation etc, demonstrate that extension, restoration and interruption of this
although the language is similar to a code, in contact. The specific elements of this function
reality it involves several codes. This emotive are, for example, protocol formulas, greeting, the
function, focused on the addresser/speaker, aims a interjection “hello!, let me finish,” which the
direct expression of the speaker’s attitude toward speaker uses or “of course”, “OK” used by the
what he is speaking about. It tends to produce an listener during the transmission of the message
impression of a certain emotion whether true or to confirm or to manifest his attitude towards
feigned; the term emotive, conceived and used by certain sequences of the message. There are
Marty proves to be preferable to emotional. The messages primarily serving to establish, to
purely emotive layer in language is presented by prolong, or to discontinue communication, to
the interjections. They differ from the means of check whether the channel works, to attract the
referential language both by their sound pattern attention of the interlocutor or to confirm his
- sound sequences and by their syntactic role being continued attention.
equivalents of sentences. The emotive function, is The metalingual function is illustrated by the
made clear in the interjections, on their phonic, message that sends to the code; unlike concrete
grammatical, and lexical level. If we analyze language, objective, referential, the metalanguage
language from the point of view of the information transmits the knowledge about the language,
it carries, we cannot restrict the notion of that is the referential context of the message is
information to the cognitive aspect of language just the code of the language. The clearest
(ALAN & ALAN 2007). expression of the metalinguistic function is the
The conative function is updated by those metalinguistics itself, the very language of
elements of the message that directly send to the grammar. But the metalingual function is
recipient, meaning that the speaker intendeds to currently present in ordinary conversation as a
influence, to some extent, the listener, engaging means of control on the use of the same linguistic
him in a certain way in receiving the message. code by the interlocutors. Learning the mother
The most common grammatical expression of tongue, a foreign language are processes for
this function is performed by direct forms of establishing the dictionary and the grammar of
addressing the listener with verbal forms in the the language code, the encoding and decoding
imperative. The conative function often finds its rules. The definition of words, nondefining
expression through spontaneous interventions of relative clauses, appositional constructions, refer
the receiver at certain times during the message back to the code, make the distinction between
transmission making use of formulas such as the metalingiustic and the referential function
“you know”, “no offense”,etc. The conative aspects less conclusive. A distinction has been made in
are specific to a particular current conversation modem logic between two levels of language,
but occur frequently in oratorical texts as a object language speaking of objects and
specific means to send the message to the metalanguage speaking of language. But
listener/addressee, to process behavior towards metalanguage is not only a necessary scientific
the message. In the orientation towards the tool utilized by logicians and linguists; it plays
addressee/receiver/listener, the conative function, also an important role in our everyday language.
finds its grammatical expression in the vocative A good example is Molières’ Jourdain who, while
and imperative, which syntactically, learning good pronounciation of words, used
morphologically deviate from other nominal and prose without knowing it, we practice
verbal categories. The imperative sentences metalanguage without realizing the metalingual
entirely differ from the declarative sentences as character of our actions. Whenever the addresser
they can not be analysed as true or false. and/or the addressee need to check up whether
The phatic function, somewhat linked to the they use the same code, the speech is focused on
conative, expresses the relationship between the the code, it performs a metalingual function. “I
message and the linguistic contact, between the can’t follow you”; “What do you mean?”- asked by
receiver and the means of establishing a the addressee, or “Do you know what I mean?

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Marius Narcis MANOLIU

inquired by the addresser to check understanding. of language; the lyric, oriented toward the first
All these sentences convey information about the person, is connected with the emotive function;
lexical code their function being metalingual. poetry of the second person is filled with the
Any process of language learning, in particu1ar conative function.
child acquisition of the mother tongue, makes In verbal behavior there are used two types
wide use of such metalingual operations. arrangements, of, selection and combination. The
The poetic function is defined by Jakobson as ,, selection is produced on the base of equivalence,
the attitude towards the message itself, centering on similarity and dissimilarity, synonymity and
the message itself. “ The poetic function can not be antonymity, while the combination, the build up
reduced only to poetry, the same as poetry can of the sequence, is based on contiguity. The poetic
not be reduced only to the poetic function of the function projects the principle of equivalence from the
message, and consists in that it emphasizes the axis of selection into the axis of combination.
concrete side sign of the language, deepening the Equivalence is promoted to the constitutive
fundamental opposition between what is device of the sequence. In poetry one syllable is
intelligible and what is perceptible, between the equalized with any other syllable of the same
linguistic sign as a means of intelligible knowledge sequence; word stress is assumed to equal word
and the objects of the reference reality. stress, as unstress equals unstress; prosodic long
In the message with a poetic function the is matched with long, and short with short; word
relationship between the paradigmatic and the boundary equals word boundary, no boundary
syntagmatic is achieved in a unique way , equals no boundary; syntactic pause equals
unrepeatable. The extent to which that a message syntactic pause, no pause equals no pause
has a poetic function predominates, it is a (EMPSON, 1981).
construction intentionally developed, as a Poetry and metalanguage are in diametrical
diversion created or invented, to add something opposition to each other as in metalanguage the
to the existing code. Also, the poetic function is sequence is used to build an equation, whereas
not proper to poetry only, the carrying out of its in poetry the equation is used to build a sequence.
message dominated by the referential function The poetic function, as Hébert states, is intensified
or metalingual one is very rare, if not incidental as a result of a significant and selective
(RASTIER, 1997) . We have brought up all the six strengthening or weakening of any other
factors involved in verbal communication except language function, but the reverse is not
the message itself. The focus on the message for necessarily true (e.g., the emotive function is not
its own sake, is the poetic function of language. necessarily strengthened by intensifying the
This function should be studied in connection poetic function). It is hard to imagine that a
with the general problems of language, the same marked emphasis or attenuation in one function
as language requires a thorough analysis of its would not draw attention to the message itself,
poetic function. Reducing the sphere of poetic at least in some cases
function to poetry or confining poetry to poetic Poetics in the wider sense of the word deals
function would mean to oversimplify the with the poetic function not only in poetry,
approach. The poetic function is the determining where this function is superimposed upon the
function of the verbal art. This function, by other functions of language, but also outside of
promoting the palpability of signs, deepens the poetry, when some other function is
fundamental dichotomy of signs and objects that superimposed upon the poetic function. For
is why, when dealing with poetic function, Jakobson, what characterizes poetry and
linguistics cannot limit itself to the field of poetry distinguishes it from other genres is not so
(ARCAND & BOURBEAU, 1995). much the presence of the poetic function as its
The particularities of diverse poetic genres dominance. Jakobson recognizes that epic
imply a differently ranked participation of the poetry – focused on the third person, as opposed
other verbal functions along with the dominant to lyric poetry - first-person or poetry of the
poetic function. Epic poetry, focused on the third second person – “strongly involves the referential
person, strongly involves the referential function function of language” (JAKOBSON, 1960)

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The poetic language makes use of elements of split reference, as it is cogently exposed in the preambles
expressiveness which are characteristic to poetry, to fairy tales of various peoples, for instance, in the
relying upon figurative language, the opposite of usual exordium of the Majorca storytellers: ‘Axio era
literal language, figurative language is the y no era’ (‘It was and it was not’).” (JAKOBSON,
language of imagination, and which demands the 1960). It is an essential condition of poetic
reader to understand the meaning. The language, “designed to stimulate and guide the
expressiveness is the feature of the poetic text to imaginative capacity” (COTEANU, 1967)
convey forcefully the ideas and feelings of the The ambiguity means the double possibility
author. The original figures of speech really bear of equivalence of some elements belonging to
an expressive effect, so identifying and poetic language, resulting from the specificity of
commenting on them is correct when asked to its construction, so as to open for the reader a
illustrate the expressiveness of a poetic text. The number of alternative possible connotations to
expressiveness is a quasi-general feature of poetry. the same expression of the language- significances
The expressiveness is precisely the quality of a and associated meanings implied by the choice
communication to be expressive, to convey the of a certain word.
message not only accurately, but also suggestively. In his study “Seven Types of Ambiguity”,
With reference to a literary work in verse, poetic William Empson establishes these types of
style the expressiveness denotes an author’s ambiguity, as resulting from: lexical polysemy,
uniqueness of poetic style, the novelty and the alternative meanings, simultaneity of meanings;
resourcefulness of his poetic imagery, selecting the combination of inconsistent meanings;
a certain lyrical lexis able to support the poetic confusion of the author, who discovers the idea
idea and the artistic images in such a way as to while writing, creating confusion for the reader,
impress the reader and make him recognize from an irrelevant tautology, a total contradiction
specific manner belonging to a great writer of meanings. The ambiguity is the phenomenon
(KLlNKENBERG, 1996). with greatest variability and opening of ​​poetics,
Imagery is the use of language to represent generating the unlimited space of imagination
objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas or states (LAZAR, 2013).
of mind. Poetics deals with problems of verbal Through all these figures of speech poetry
structure, just as the analysis of painting is
detaches the readers from their usual frames of
concerned with pictorial structure. Since
reference by carrying them into a world rhymes,
linguistics is the global science of verbal structure,
rhythms and sounds. In doing so they become
poetics may be regarded as an integral part of
sensitive to the relationship between the”
linguistics.
referential and the expressive aspects of language,
Images are pictures in words, a common
as the linguists call it or what cognitive scientists
feature of poetry. Similes such as ‘the moon was
call content space – ideas, facts and beliefs – and
sailing across the night sky like a balloon’ and
retorical space ormental representation of actual
metaphors (‘the moon was a balloon sailing across
or intended text.”(KRAMSCH, 2015).
the night sky’) are typical of how images are
constructed.
The ambiguity results from the interpretable CONCLUSIONS
character of some poetic expressions, leading to
more ways of deciphering the poetic message, the The functions of language do not, all of them,
double meaning, often used deliberately by operate on the same level. A function may be the
authors, or as Jakobson states it: “Ambiguity is an main one operating in a certain context but while
intrinsic, inalienable character of any self-focused still being accompanied by others. The poetic
message, briefly a corollary feature of poetry [...] The function for example can be intensified as a result
supremacy of poetic function over referential function of some emphasis while others are weakening.
does not obliterate the reference but makes it ambiguous. In poetry the use of certain figures of speech may
The double-sensed message finds correspondence in a bring about a strengthening of the expressiveness
split addresser, in a split addressee, and besides in a intensified by emotional language expressing an

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Marius Narcis MANOLIU

emotional or subjective reaction rather than a COTEANU, I. (1967) Elemente de lingvistică structurală,
logical or rational one, or the emotive language Scientific Publishing House, Bucureşti.
meant to respond or inspire an emotional EMPSON, W. (1981) Şapte tipuri de ambiguitate, Editura
Univers, Bucureşti.
response. Even though one function may be
HERBERT, L. (n.d.) Les fonctions du langage. Available from:
emphasized in a context at the expense of another http://www.signosemio.com/jakobson/fonctions-du-
it does not work alone. As Jakobson states they langage.asp. [2 February 2017]
work in pairs such as the expressive function JAKOBSON, R. (1960) Linguistics and Poetics, in T.
with the conative one and the referential with the Sebeok, (ed), Style in Language, pp. 350-377, M.I.T. Press,
poetic one. Functions are in a dynamic interaction Cambridge.
the strength of one of them resulting from the KRAMSCH, C. (2015) Context and Culture in Language
Teaching, Oxford University Press, UK.
use of a metaphor, similie, personification or of
KLlNKENBERG, J.M. (1996) Précis de sémiotique générale,
syntactic parallelism by successive replay of Seuil Publishing House, Paris.
sequences identical to grammar structure, mainly LAZAR, G. (2013) Literature and Language Teaching,
used in poetry. Cambridge University Press, UK.
RASTIER, F. (1997)  Meaning and Textuality (trans. by
References Frank Collins & Paul Perron), University of Toronto
ALAN, D. & ALAN, M. (2007) Literature, Oxford Press, Toronto.
University Press, UK. TRITSMANS, B. (1987) Poétique, in M. Delcroix & F.
ARCAND, R. & BOURBEAU, N. (1995) La communication Hallyn (eds),  Méthodes du texte. Introduction aux études
efficace. De l’intention aux moyens d’expression, Edité par littéraires, pp. 11-28, Duculot Press, Paris.
Centre Educatif et Culturel inc., Anjou (Québec).

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