revised 29 January 2018

GUIDELINES for CZECH and SLOVAK EFL STUDENTS

No one expects you to remember all of these guidelines by heart right now. This list is primarily a
tool for self-study and self-correction for long-term improvement in English. So use these
comments to improve your own language production (writing, speaking) and reception (reading,
listening).

A great strategy for quicker improvement is to get used to different types of register (e.g. more or less
formal) and learn to carefully control the tone of your language. READING experience with many
different types of registers is the only way to do this.

1) The rules for orthography in English are not the same as in other languages – don’t assume that they
are. For example, in writing a letter or an email in English, the first word of the first sentence after
“Dear X” is capitalized. Do not begin with “Hello” either, or otherwise translate directly from your
native language.
1a. The pronoun you is not capitalized, no matter how polite you are trying to be. There are different
ways of showing respect in English. (e.g. "Mr. Teacher" is ridiculous)
1b. Another example of a difference is the use of first person pronouns (I, we) in formal or academic
texts, which is common in Czech but quite strange in English.
1c. In English the passive voice, which connotes a sense of objectivity, is used more often.
Bad examples: First of all, we should mention the structure of this book.
In this seminar paper I would like to focus on …
Better: First of all, the structure of the book should be mentioned.
This seminar paper will focus on …
1d. A subject (podmět / podmet) is necessary in an English sentence. (Commands / imperatives are
an exception.) Bad examples:
From these quotations is obvious that …
Important is which part of the …
2) In lists, the use of conjunctions is different in English than in Czech. In all lists a conjunction must
be used before the last item. Further, in positive sentences in English, the conjunction and is used. In
most negative sentences or is used.
Bad examples: He likes Greek, Chinese, Italian food. My hobbies are cycling, painting or jogging.
3) Don’t join full sentences with a comma (čárka). This is called a comma splice. If you feel that two
a clauses must be connected in some way, use a conjunction (spojka – in English for, and, nor, but, or,
yet, so). A dash (pomlčka) may also be used (The problem could not be solid – it was too complicated.)
See WN 17 for more punctuation notes.
4) Some verbs like have, recommend and need must have a direct object (přímý předmět) or indirect
object. These are called transitive verbs (přechodná slovesa) as opposed to intransitive (nepřechodná
slovesa). Some verbs are transitive in English and the similar verb in Czech is intransitive and vice
versa. Don’t guess – USE YOUR DICTIONARY!
remind sb of st, influence sb, have st, recommend st, need st/sb, discuss st, demonstrate st
Transitive verbs can never stand alone:
‘Do you have a car?’ ‘I have.’ is classic Činglish. (instead of ‘I have one.’ or ‘Yes, I do.’)
Why? Because have is transitive and mít je nepřechodné sloveso. Other examples:
She helps you when you need it. He recommended that restaurant to us.
I already have that version. The teacher showed us his new book.
Please be careful with tenses. For example, don’t use present perfect if you are using a past fixed
(finished) time expression. Bad examples: I have known him two years ago. She has played golf in
1990.

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 Similarly, for and since are used most often with perfect and perfect continuous tenses. If you
understand perfect tenses (sequence of two or more different times) this will become clear. Learn these
types of keywords and reinforce them by identifying them and repeating them over and over in the
reading and listening activities that you are doing on your own to improve your English.
Careful with other verb forms – e.g. active and passive. “My brother names John.” What does this
mean? Bratr dá mu jméno John? You learned this in your first year of English – “My brother’s
name is John.”
Other bad examples: I born in 1992. He have a good job. She have not your book. We need.
5) COLLOCATIONS: Why don't EFL learners sound like native speakers? One important reason is
because certain nouns go only with specific verbs and certain adjectives may only be used with
specific adverbs. Any other words are quite strange to a native speaker. Bad examples: solve a
situation (resolve), a disconsolate situation (only people are disconsolate), make a suicide (commit,
with no article), do a party (give / throw), make a step (take), have a bad mood (be in), make a problem
(create)
Don't guess - use a quality dictionary correctly. Use internet search engines. Simply search the word
you wish to use and you will find many results featuring examples of how the word is used correctly.
6) a, some, any, much, many, none, neither:
a is used with all singular, countable nouns in positive and negative sentences as well as in
questions. Not some nor any.
She has a book. (not some book) She doesn’t have a book. (not any book)
Does she have a book? (not some book) Does she have a book? (not any book)
Some is not a universal substitute for all articles; some is used with plural only.
One is used only if you are speaking about one specific example out of many.
I have a lot of friends. I have had one friend, Jane, for 10 years.
Some can only be used with uncountable and plural nouns in positive sentences.
She has some apples. I need some fresh air.
Any is used with uncountable and plural nouns in questions and negatives.
She doesn’t have any apples. Do you have any apples?
Much is generally used (with uncountable nouns) in questions and negatives. A lot of is used in all
types of sentences, although it is quite informal (i.e. not used in academic prose).
Bad examples: I have much money. She wastes much time. There is much ice cream.
Many is used with countable nouns in questions and negatives. She doesn’t read many books.
This is also true for comparative forms of much and many. …much more information. … many more
letters.
Neither is used with two possibilities; none is used with more than two.
Neither of the twins were accepted at university. None of the students went to the party.
Most / Many / Some / (A) Few / + plural noun = general; Most / Many / Some / A Few of the = specific
Most dogs have fleas. Most of the dogs in the Czech Republic have English names.
Many people like beer. Many of the people in my town are silly.
Some schools have little money. Some of the schools in my region are funded by the EU.
Few citizens vote nowadays. (negative connotation)
A few citizens are beginning to understand the budget. (positive connotation)
A few of my neighbours went to Prague to protest.
A similar case: Some (people) + plural verb = general; Somebody (who / that) + singular verb = specific.
There are 30 people in my class. Some study hard. Somebody who doesn’t is Jim.
Bad Example: Someone doesn’t like to wake up early.
7) In English, C is not K. ecological, political, economical, control, collection, character. Don’t guess
at vocab: aerobics, gymnastics, athletics, stylistics.
8) There is one basic, easy to remember difference between English and Czech. In many types of
fundamental phrases, when the verb mít is used in Czech, the verb be is used in English. A simple
example: Jak se máš? A literal translation (doslovný překlad) would be “How do you have it?” For
many logical and grammatical reasons, this is ridiculous. “How are you?” is closer, but, despite what
language textbooks and those with little experience say, native speakers almost never greet each other
this way (similar to the way in Czech “Jak se máš?” isn’t really used every day.) “How have you
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 been?” after a long time between meetings or “How’re you doing?” every day are, for example, much
more common. When you are writing, don’t guess! Look it up – this is how you improve your
language skills while you are writing; first and second year language studies are the time to do this.
Here are some more basic examples of how be is used instead of have; what are the Czech equivalents
for these phrases: Today’s my birthday! She isn’t in a good mood. Where’s her car?
I’m / I’m not hungry / thirsty / afraid / right / sure / OK.
That wall is green. (Wall there has green colour. = Činglish, see WN 18)
9) In the nature is Činglish – the is NEVER used with nature. Better possibilities:
outdoor = venkovní / vzcházkový (adj) outdoors = venku / v přírodě (adv)
Natural habitat (countable) refers to a specific area in scientific, e.g. biological, environmental
terms. The jungles of southern India are the natural habitat of the Bengal tiger.
The term scenery (krajina) is used to refer a bit more closely to specific features, such as mountains,
rivers, etc. The scenery around my town is beautiful.
The general area around a town or village is the countryside.
The countryside around Dublin is delightful.
There are many other, more specific words and phrases – cross-reference vocabulary when writing.
10) Titles of historical events and documents, officials and other important persons, countries,
buildings, etc. in English are written differently than in Czech. (see also WN 29) All important
words in titles must have CAPITAL LETTERS at the beginning. Only prepositions and articles
have small letters. Don't guess at translations. Search the internet for the correct phrasing, e.g. the
Czechoslovak Socialist Republic Professor Smith The Battle of White Mountain
The Czech National Revival The Munich Pact The United Kingdom President Havel
Queen Elizabeth II (no period) The Cathedral of the Holy Spirit
Titles of books, films, music CDs/ albums, TV shows, long poems, etc. must be in italics.
The Unbearable Lightness of Being Closely Watched Trains Friends
The Faerie Queene The For the Benefit of Mr Kite An Important Event in My Life
Titles of short stories, chapter titles, magazine / journal articles, essays and individual songs and
short poems should be in "quotation marks": "The Literature of Exhaustion" "The Rondoli Sisters"
"Song of Myself" "The Broken Tower"
11) With habits, plural must be used if you are talking about using different things.
I enjoy riding horses. (not one horse, but many horses) (I enjoy riding my horse. = one horse)
Also, be aware of this pattern: One of + plural noun … e.g. One of my hobbies is golfing.
She likes reading books. They paint pictures. Bad examples: I like riding bike. She enjoys reading book.
12) Know usually only means znát or vědět. (not umět, which may mean can, be able to or know how
to do st, not poznat, which may mean recognize.) There are many other similar verbs in English like
be aware of, get to know, become accustomed to, be familiar with, understand, realize, appreciate, see,
find out, experience, and identify. All have a slightly different meaning. Cross-reference.
13) Punctuation in direct quotes for dialogue: Two different systems - one formal, one informal.
Informal, for example in a novel or quoting a friend in a letter: She said, “I’ll go, too.”
Formal, for example in an academic paper: The report reads as follows: “The amount must be
specified …”
For rules on the usage of commas, see the document “Correct Use of Commas in English.”
Also see WN24 below.
14) Sometimes these are no easy rules and you must use set phrases. You must simply know these.
in the pub, in the city, at the cinema, in the world, in the rain, yesterday / this (not today) evening,
last night (not yesterday night), tonight (not today night), the next day, in detail, the human body, in
heaven / hell, etc.
15) Just because it is countable in Czech does not mean that it is in English (and vice versa). For
example advice, information, news, money and hair (usually) are uncountable in English. Use some,
any or nothing.
My brother gave me (some) advice.
Is there (any) new information?
I’m waiting for (some) good news.
Money is important. Having it can help you in many situations. (not them)
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 My girlfriend has long red hair. (not some)
Also, many basic nouns like cake, marriage, pain, beer, love can be either countable or uncountable.
16) Don’t use Czech punctuation marks when writing in English, for example accent marks (´)
instead of an apostrophe (’) or Czech quotation marks instead of English ones. Multi-word
adjectives and compounds combining several words to make one idea) must have a hyphen
(spojovník, not a dash [pomlčka] which is a longer line between clauses of a sentence. If a dash is
used to set off a phrase within a sentence, two are needed – one at the beginning and one at the
end – as in this sentence.). There are huge differences in the rules for Czech and English
punctuation. (see WN 24) Numbers in compound adjectives are written without ‘s’ and there are
no spaces between words.
seven-year-old brother nine-month-old son five-year plan sky-blue eyes blue-
green car two-car crash self-confident fact-finding screwed-up (zmatený)
17) There: If you can see it, there is usually the first word. If you can’t, there is the last word. (Over
there is an exception: it is always at the end of the sentence.) In standard English, there is almost never
in the middle of the sentence. (This is not always true for literary English.)
There is my car. (We see it.) My car is there. (We can’t see it. Maybe it is in the city?)
My car is over there. (We see it, but it's far away.)
I have there new car. (terrible literal translation [doslovný překlad])
18) Idioms are strange animals in any language. If you don’t treat them with the utmost care, they will
bite you in the ass. If you misplace even one little word, you sound quite strange. For example, if you
comment that, ‘It’s raining dogs and cats.’ (instead of ‘cats and dogs’) you may not be understood. At
the very least you will find yourself receiving an odd look from the person you are speaking to. Idioms
are valuable tools. Use them with precision. (Slang is different – useless to learn because it is always
changing and is usually specific to a particular subculture or region. By the time you hear a slang
expression in a film, in music or on television, it is usually several years old and outdated. If you try to
use these expressions you will usually sound foolish because the expression has already changed. Non-
native speakers won't understand you; native speakers will laugh at you.)
19) Pronouns (and words like everything, everyone, which, that, anybody, somebody, etc.) – Check
carefully to make sure your reader knows what your pronoun or possessive refers to. The same goes
of course for words like one (…the same as the last one). There is one simple rule: in almost all cases
a pronoun (especially relative pronouns, e.g. which, that) should refer to the last noun or noun
phrase that has just preceded it. If there is any doubt at all that your reader will be even momentarily
confused, use the noun again instead, or better yet, if possible, use a synonym; this will increase clarity
as well as maintain interest. Remember, if the reader has to stop, go back and reread because he is not
sure what you are trying to say, you have lost her / him. See also WN 25 regarding number use of
pronouns.
20) One of the + plural noun. Bad examples: One of the thing I like is … English is one of my favourite
subject.
21) Unlike in Czech, in English, it can never refer to a person.
Bad example: My boss? It is a great guy!
For animals, if you have a personal relationship with the animal, for example a pet, use he or she.
If there is no personal connection, use it.
Also, unlike in Czech, in English where refers to physical location only.
Bad examples: … in the case where she doesn’t want to. … the scene where Hamlet dies.
Use in which instead for these types of sentences.
22) the whole / another – with singular nouns
the entire / all (the, of the) / other – with plural and uncountable nouns
a bit + adjective (e.g. a bit strange), a bit of a + singular, countable noun (e.g. a bit of a strange
situation)
23) In contemporary, non-academic English short, simple sentences and exact, clear clauses within
complex sentences are usually better. Don’t join complete sentences with commas. (see WN 3)
Also small defining relative clauses and short prepositional phrases don’t need commas. Too many
of these interrupt the flow of the sentence.
24) Commas are not necessary in English after I think, She knows, We believe, etc. Neither are they
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 used with defining relative clauses (containing vital, not extra information) beginning with that, who,
which, when, where, etc. Please realize these types of differences between Czech and English.
Bad examples: She is a person, who I respect. Prague is a place, that I love.
Learn the difference between English and Czech usage.
The captain said that we were leaving. (no comma before that)
She believes she will see him again. (no comma after believe)
Another rule: Commas are necessary before “as” clauses (similar in meaning to “because,” which
doesn’t need a comma), for example.
I have always enjoyed adventure stories, as I find them exciting.
If you have a choice, pay with cash, as it is always accepted.
Correct punctuation, for example in emails, letters and outlines, can also be looked up for accuracy,
e.g.in an email a comma is needed after the greeting (Dear John,) and closing (Sincerely yours,) and
the first word after the greeting is CAPITALIZED, unlike in Czech – learn the differences. See also
WN 1.
25) Related to WN 19, make sure your pronouns agree in number with their antecedents. (Clarity with
antecedents is vital.) Bad examples: If my three sisters lose her job… I love horror films. It is my
favourite.
26) Correct prepositions and verb patterns: like many verbs and adjectives in Czech, in English many
verbs and adjectives can only take certain prepositions, or no preposition at all. Don’t assume that you
can simply translate word for word from one language to another. Make sure you have the correct
preposition, or that one is even necessary. (dictionary!) You will not learn by guessing.
Classic examples: listen to the radio (no preposition in Czech), but watch TV (no preposition in
English). We don’t study school / university. We study at a school / at university (British) or at the
university (US). take care about st/sb = Činglish care about st/sb or take care of st/sb - two
completely different meanings. Come to, but arrive at/in; apply to sb for st; thank sb for st; say st to
sb; recommend st to sb; welcome sb to sw; suggest st to sb; introduce sb to sb
Other examples: an exam / course / lecture in chemistry / German; a novel by Jack London (not from)
Also, using two verbs together requires the correct verb pattern, e.g. enjoy doing st, would like to do
sth. See “Verb Patterns” file on MOODLE. Examples of adjectives: applicable to st, interested in st,
easy to do st, compatible with st, afraid of st; to be famous for st, keen on st, etc.
27) Bad word order can confuse the reader about what you mean. This is another reason why leaving
your document for as long as you can, then coming back to it, reading it like an independent reader,
then doing your final revisions before submitting it is so important - perspective.
Bad example: You asked me when I’m going to England in your letter. (Are you going to England in
my letter?) In your letter you asked me when I’m going to England. is clearer.
Keep one idea together in a single clause:
(In your letter you asked me… or You asked me in your letter…)
28) Word order with adjectives: in English opinion adjectives come before factual adjectives
(the cheap red car; the charming German girl, etc.) This is the order with fact adjectives:
1st how big? 2nd how old? 3rd what colour? 4th where from? 5th what’s it made of?
a tall young girl, a small plastic table, big blue eyes, an old Russian song, a small black paper bag
And size and length come before shape and width: a large round table, a long narrow street
Adjectives always come after be, become, get, and seem: Be careful! He seems nice.
I’m tired and getting hungry. Bush became more and more arrogant.
29) The indefinite article: (also see C above) If a singular, countable noun is being mentioned for the
first time, use a. The definite article: One exception: if there is clearly ONLY ONE of something
in existence, use the. This means with words like first (and all ordinal numbers – the second,
eighteenth, five-thousandth), next, last, previous, following, best, worst, same, whole – all of these
usually have the, besides set phrases which need another determiner like “my best friend” and “my
worst day ever.” The "only one" rule below also applies to concrete objects like sun, moon, (also,
usually, for example if we are in a room) the floor, ceiling, door, etc. Begin learning common phrases
that fit this rule, for example:
the same (thing) the next (day) the first (time) the English / Czech language
the last (few weeks) the only (way) the right / wrong (person)
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 One way to begin to feel when to use the (or sometimes a possessive adjective like my, his, your) is to
remember that when there is only one or one group of something, the is usually used, as in some of the
above examples. Others: the top, the bottom, the front, the back, the right, the left, etc. Careful: examples
like these can be used as nouns or adjectives, for example, on the right (noun) or on the right side (adj.)
Still more examples: the roof, the fridge, the tenth of June, the twentieth century, the Middle Ages, the
Roman Empire, the Munich Pact, the kids in the hall, the neighbours’ dogs, the knight’s story
Another trick along similar lines: look for phrases (e.g. beginning with prepositions or relative
pronouns) following nouns that define the nouns (e.g. defining relative clauses or prepositional phrases),
and tell us there is only one specific thing we are talking about. Then use the in most of these cases, the
exceptions being when a possessive adjective is used when the noun is the only one belonging to
somebody, e.g. “my left foot,” “her wedding day,” “our last lesson.” Examples:
Animals in zoos should be protected. / The animals in the Prague Zoo should be protected.
Most of the text focuses on marriage. / Most of the text focuses on the marriage of Jane and Tom.
Open a window, please. / Open the window next to the fridge, please.
The play is a plea for tolerance. / The play is a plea for the tolerance of homosexual love.
She a classmate of mine. (One of many) / She is the classmate that I was telling you about.
He is just a guy I met. / He is the guy whose car broke down.
Even with this guideline, however, don’t forget that if the noun mentioned is still only one among many
the indefinite article or, even better, “one” should be used, e.g. on one website that is used by families
than need an au pair parents can find contact information for various countries.
Also regarding determiners, learn the basic rules for their use in English, e.g.:
1) Only one determiner per noun. Bad example: She lost her the one glove. Be specific, e.g. She lost one
glove.
2) Don’t use articles for personal nouns, e.g. body parts, one’s family members and one’s life. Use
possessive pronouns for concrete nouns. Bad examples: He broke the arm. Enjoy the life. She is a / the
soul mate.
Good examples: He broke her arm. Enjoy life! She is my / his soul mate. My mother is coming today.
30) In English, subject + verb + object + prepositional phrase (SVOP) is the basic formula. Yes, some
of you have seen other structures like cleft sentences, which are used for emphasis (see Unit 18 in
the CAE textbook). But in general, you should rely on and use the SVOP pattern. Bad examples of
Classic Činglish:
Unexpectedly have happened a lot of accidents.
It was under the hill a crowd of people.
In 2003 was repaired our house.
In general, nothing (except a few adverbs like never, always, sometimes, still, seldom, etc. and some
non-defining relative clauses) should come between a subject and a predicate, or between a predicate
and an object. Don't misunderstand – of course sentences like these are sometimes possible: What we
saw there we would never have expected. Ding-dong sounded the church bell.
This is a more literary type of usage, as is the use of non-defining relative clauses.
31) What is never a definite relative pronoun. Definite relative pronouns are which, whom, that, whose
and where. Here are some bad examples: I have everything what I want. She has a garden, what will
make her happy. What may be an indefinite relative pronoun. Good example: She will tell you what
you need to know.
33) Like many other languages, Czech has borrowed words from English – these are called loanwords.
But don’t assume that the meaning is the same in both languages - don’t guess, look it up! Most
loanwords are used in different ways in the donor and recipient languages, for example as a different
part of speech (slovní druh). The word relax is a verb in English; the noun form is relaxation. A relax
or a homeless in English is nonsense; homeless is either an adjective (a homeless person) or an
uncountable noun (the homeless). Similarly, horror is either an adjective (a horror story, a horror
film) or an abstract noun (hrůza, děs, zděšení). “A horror” is not standard English. Look it up.
34) You're learning to use conditionals, right? Here's a quick guideline that can help you. In
conditionals and other sentences like those describing the future, after words and phrases like if, when,
while, as soon as, until, unless, by the time, before and after, neither will nor would are used in almost

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 all cases in written English. (For formal, academic register examples like given that and provided, see
Unit 1 in the CAE textbook.)
a) According to Michael Swan in Practical English Usage, “will” may be used after “if” in polite
requests (again, usually spoken, not written). Here will means “to be willing to”; will in this case in
not a future auxiliary; these are not conditionals (in Czech or English).
If you will / would come this way, I’ll take you to the room. (Když budete tak laskav …)
Wait over there, if you will / would. (The use of would is even more polite than will.)
b) Also according to Swan, in spoken English if …will may be used when we are talking about later
results than conditions (when if means ‘if it is true that’).
I’ll give you the money if it will help you. (…jestli ti to pomůže …)
The help is a result – it follows the gift of money.
However, the “classic” real (1st) conditional is still accepted usage, especially in written English.
I’ll give you the money if it helps you.
Some other uses of if …will/ would are either:
1) in informal spoken mode only, e.g. parallel structures (American English)
It would be better if they would tell everybody in advance.
However, … if they told … remains accepted usage.
2) in reported speech – universally accepted usage.
I don’t know if I’ll be here tomorrow.
Another quick, similar paradigm: in “The more / less …, the more / less …” (čím … tím) types of
sentences have different forms. The čím clause is like the if / when part of the conditional: no will or
would; often simple tenses are used in these clauses for the idea of something repeated: perfect tenses
are almost never used with this form.
The more you help them, the more they (will) take advantage of you.
The more we worked, it seemed like the less money we had.
The less James travels, the more money he will save for a car.
35) Studying vs. learning: Studying is sometimes concrete, for example at a specific time or place.
Tonight I'm studying for my test. I study English at university.
Learning is almost never used for a specific time or place, and indicates an activity that is finished or
is in some way (beginning to be) complete. Learning can be concrete only with a very specific theme
or activity. Learn is almost never used in the present simple tense.
We've been learning to ice skate. She learned to play guitar when she was a little girl.
The idea of a regular activity can be communicated in English by using the noun "lessons."
Tonight I have a guitar lesson. She has French lessons on Tuesdays and Thursdays.
36) This vs. it (A difficult rule!) It is used basically for concrete objects or specific concepts.
We use the Headway textbook. It is quite informative.
Your health is very important. You should take care of it.
Our love will never die. You can always count on it. (our love)
She moved to Russia. It was very exciting. (Russia was)
This is usually used with abstract facts.
Our teacher is very patient. This makes us comfortable.
Brazil is a leading producer of coffee. This is good for the economy. (not coffee, but producing)
Our love will never die. You can always count on this. (on the fact that our love will never die)
She moved to Russia. This was very exciting. (moving to Russia) It is very exciting. (Russia is.)
This vs. that (A simple rule.) This is “nearby”; that is “far away.” If you have just mentioned
something, use This, e.g. Read a text, put it away, then write a summary. This is a good way to improve
your writing.
37) Find places to break-up your text into clear, logical paragraphs. One, long block of text is difficult
to concentrate on. Readers need a pause to "catch their breath," and a new paragraph helps. Also, make
sure the beginning of a paragraph is absolutely clear by indenting the first sentence or leaving a blank
line between paragraphs.
38) But – Don’t use one-sentence paragraphs unless absolutely necessary. They should be used for
emphasis, for an important idea or a key part of your story. Then when you finally use a one-sentence
paragraph or a very short paragraph, it will be a powerful device to call attention to a significant point.
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 ALSO: it must be made absolutely clear when new paragraph begins either by indenting the first
sentence or placing an extra space between paragraphs.
39) Basic adjectives like good, bad, big, small, nice, and beautiful are for basic school, not university.
These words are not used as often in English as their equivalents are used in Czech – learn the
difference between the languages. Don't use these boring adjectives, use more specific synonyms. Even
better – use CONCRETE EVENTS and DETAILS (NOUNS) instead. The reader can decide if what
you are describing is good, bad or beautiful, etc. Writing is nothing without specific details. Use the
five senses: can we see it, smell it, hear it, feel it or taste it? Undefined, abstract concepts like love,
peace, power, freedom, etc. can mean many different things for different people. These words can have
so many vague associations that they are in fact meaningless. Describe specific events and concrete
objects and comparisons and your writing will come alive.
Also all words in any part of speech connected to national, ethnic or regional cultures should be
capitalized.
For example: Czech beer, He is German. (adj), He is a German. (noun), a Victorian mansion,
Indian cuisine, She speaks Spanish., an Orwellian novel, a Scandinavian-style house
40) The English language is strange for many reasons. An important one is its use of prepositions at the
end of sentences (especially in questions):
I don't remember what we were talking about. It was a difficult situation to be in.
She has no one to speak to. We spent the whole day just looking around.
Who are you waiting for? What is the world coming to?
41) singular - once / twice / three times a day / week / month / year
plural - once / twice / three times every two days / weeks / months / years (not in)
42) happy = inside yourself. lucky = something happens outside yourself. Either can be permanent or
temporary. You can be happy without being lucky, or vice versa.
43) Adverbs describing how something is done generally come directly before or after the verb or
adjective they modify. Use your dictionary if you aren't 100% sure.
(exception: It was quite a big house. quite a + adjective + singular, countable noun)
44) make and do: make: something you create (a toy, a cake, clothes, etc.)
do: an activity (maths, the shopping, the dishes)
(exceptions: do your homework, make your bed, other phrases)
45) sports: do: an activity (aerobics, athletics, yoga) do sport = British usage
play: with a ball or puck (hockey, football, tennis, golf) play sports = American usage
go: always with -ing (skating, skiing, jogging, bowling)
46) such (a) with nouns: It had been such a nice holiday before the bad weather. (countable)
Czechs are such nice people. (countable plural)
We don't need such useless information. (uncountable)
so with adjectives (without nouns): London is so pleasant in the spring.
This lesson is so boring. Don't be so stubborn.
47) without how: a good opportunity to do st, an excellent chance to …, the right / wrong way to …
without why: a reason to do st (why should be used only for emphasis, otherwise it is just an
unnecessary word); without where: the place they live
48) The phrase according to me is Činglish, and may never be used. In my opinion or in my view should
be used in formal situations (i.e. academic essays). If you ask me, (with a comma) or I think (without a
comma) is used informally. If you are using according to with a personal pronoun, make sure your
reader knows who the pronoun refers to. (see WN 20)
49) introduce sb to sb: Let me introduce you to my girlfriend.
50) In my thirteenth year is Činglish. Correct: When I was 13 I played tennis every week.
Or: I've known her since I was thirteen. Formal: At the age of 13 I met her.
51) You can't look forward to sb, only to st. Correct: I am looking forward to seeing you.
Or: She was really looking forward to being with her boyfriend.
52) Don't use sentence fragments. All sentences (except commands / imperatives: Go away. Be quiet!)
should have a subject and a verb. A gerund form (-ing verb used as a noun) cannot act as a verb in a
sentence: Running away. and Having a good time. are not complete sentences and are not
grammatically correct alone.
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54) When put into words, compound cardinal numbers until 99 are written with a hyphen. (see WN 16)
And some numbers from 1-9 are written differently when in 10s, e.g. forty-three (not fourty), two
hundred fifty-seven (not fivety). In formal texts in English, numbers are usually written as words, not
as digits. (twenty-two, not 22)
But when writing numbers in digits, longer numbers with 5 digits or more have a comma with no
space in between before each group of hundreds. Examples: 30,000 52,574 2,000,000. When
said or written in word form, notice that hundred, thousand, etc. is NOT followed by an ‘s’.
Making basic mistakes like these is an easy to demonstrate your lack of experience in English,
especially in business documents.
Ordinal numbers (1st, 23rd, 157th) must have the correct endings and no period. The names of royalty
are written without endings (but still no period).
Examples: Charles IV not IVth. Bad example: Henry XIII.
In any formal writing in English, a numerical symbol (number) cannot be the first expression of a
sentence. Bad example: 3 countries in the European Union are having serious economic difficulties.
55) Dates in informal texts (like personal essays) may be presented like this: June 6 or June 6, 2007 –
comma after the day, one space before the year. In formal texts (for example academic writing) dates
may be shown this way: 6 June 2007 (no punctuation marks). This date is said or read like this: “(on)
June sixth two-thousand seven” (informal) or “(on) the sixth of June, two-thousand seven” (formal).
Decades must have the definite article and are written with no apostrophe: the 1960s, the 90s. The 50s
of the twentieth century = Činglish; the 1950s is simpler and clearer
56) Decimals are written with decimal points (the same mark as a period [American English] and a full
stop [British English]), not commas. Bad examples: 8,99, 133 000. Good example: 55.57, 120,000
Pronunciation: 8.5 – eight point five
137.982 – one hundred thirty-seven point nine eight two (not nine hundred eighty-two)
0.003 – (zero) point oh oh three, (zero) point zero zero three (US)
(nought) point zero zero three (UK)
Fractions: Read the top number as a cardinal number, followed by the ordinal number + ‘s’ (if plural)
3/8 = three eighths, 7/16 = seven sixteenths, 11/32 = eleven thirty-seconds
1/3 = one third, 2/3 = two thirds
Exceptions: ½ = one half, ¼ = one quarter (or one fourth), 3/4 = three quarters (or three fourths)
57) When mentioning a person’s name as a source for the first time in a formal essay, for example in a
seminar paper or academic article, both first name and surname should be used. In Czech sometimes
only the surname or maybe the first initial (iniciála) is used, but, please, write in English. Václav Havel,
not V. Havel
58) Write closer to spoken mode in informal essays. Use contractions, for example I'm, can't, they're,
she's, don't. Don't use e.g. in informal essays - use phrases like for example, such as and for instance.
Also, never use more than three adjectives in a list. If you have to write a list of adjectives (which I
do not recommend at all – this is weak writing), choose the three most important and most specific.
Long lists of adjectives are childish and cause sentences to lose all meaning whatsoever. Instead of these
silly lists, use specific events and other concrete examples instead. Bad example: “My mother is
sociable, reliable, kind, generous, honest, tolerant and hard-working.” These abstract concepts mean
absolutely nothing without specific examples of EXACTLY what she has done.
59) Familiarize yourself with the special specific circumstances only under which state verbs are used
with continuous and perfect tenses. In continuous forms a specific unfinished time period is being
emphasized and in perfect tenses 2 or more time periods in a sentence compared. (See QGTR below.)
State verbs describe:
a) thoughts and opinions (myšlenky a názory): think, believe, remember, know, forget, (dis)agree,
understand
b) emotions (city): like, love, hate, want, adore, detest
c) the five senses (pět smyslů): see, hear, taste, feel, smell
d.) others (ostatní): be, have (with concrete nouns), belong to
Bad examples: Only today the classroom is used for English. (temporarily - continuous needed)
By the time I am 35 I will have had three kids. (the state of “having st” is indicated,

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 not the activity of giving birth, a phrase which is not commonly used in informal
English, another example of how translating directly from one language to another
causes inaccuracy. The difference between the different meanings of “to have
children” are perfect examples of a state (similar to possess st) and an activity (give
birth).
60) “The car of my brother” is a direct translation of “auto mého bratra,” which is the 2nd case in Czech
(genitive – koho - čeho). But in English “The car of my brother” is much too formal and literary for
normal situations. In English the possessive is commonly used: “my brother’s car,” Be careful, however,
to distinguish between when names or other nouns are used as adjectives, not as possessives, for example
often in place names or historical landmarks: Masaryk Square (not Masaryk’s), Freedom Bridge (Most
svobody – “The Bridge of Freedom” is usually too formal for a place name, although The Statue of Liberty
is correct.) Why guess when you can find the correct form in 5 seconds on Google?
This means that the information in the Quick General Tense Review on following page does not
apply to state verbs like these, only to action verbs. An easy way of establishing exactly what are
and aren't state verbs is to remember the abstractness of state verbs as compared to action verbs.
Can you see it happening? If not, it is a state verb. You can't see belonging to someone, liking
something, understanding someone or having a car (state) in the way you can see going somewhere,
doing something, raining or washing a car (action).

To repeat the most important idea of these lists: DON'T GUESS at VOCABULARY when
writing. If you guess, you learn nothing; you are only repeating mistakes. Look up
MEANINGS, SPELLING and PRONUNCIATION, so you can use your new language
chunks correctly when speaking and writing. A first-rate dictionary can be a valuable tool to
help with all of these. When we have time to write something, we should take advantage of
all the tools we have.

Next page "Quick General Tense Review"

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Quick General Tense Review

Believe it or not, here you can study all tenses in the English language. For action (dynamic) verbs,
there are a total of 12. We have 4 types – simple, continuous, perfect and perfect continuous. These
4 types can be expressed in 3 times – past, present and future. 4 types multiplied by 3 times gives us
12 active (and, theoretically, 12 passive) tenses. The good news is that some of these are not used
very often, and then generally in writing, not speaking.

We already understand the difference between past, present and future, don't we? Let's forget about
"time" for now. If we look at tenses instead by type, we will see that each shares a common idea
which may be represented by keywords:

Simple = completion (dokončení)

All Simple tenses refer to actions that are repeatedly completed, were completed (at least once), or
will be completed in the future. It is not important how long, what happened before nor what will
happen after the action. Is it finished, one time or repeatedly? Then use a simple tense.
She plays tennis every Saturday morning.
I didn’t sleep well last week.
She won’t like that. / We’re going to leave at 10 pm.

Continuous tenses refer to extended activities or duration. The length of time is important. The
present continuous usually expresses something that is happening now or in the near future. Past and
future continuous forms are often used to describe 2 (or more) things that happened or will be
happening at the same time. The longer action must be expressed with the continuous. Not finished?
Two things at the same time? Then use a continuous tense.
It’s raining. / Tomorrow she's working all afternoon.
He was playing football yesterday when you called him. (play football, call)
Lunar farmers will be growing potatoes on the moon in 2025. (grow potatoes, 2025)

Perfect tenses indicate sequences of at least 2 moments in time. These forms describe things that
happened or will happen at different times. Whatever happened / will happen first must be expressed
with the perfect. At least two things at different times? Use a perfect tense.
Paul's been to England three times. (Maybe he’ll go again next year.)
She had finished her homework. (before she went to the pub)
We hope he will have graduated university by the year 2015. (First graduation, then 2015.)

Perfect continuous tenses combine both the idea of an extended activity (continuous aspect) with
the idea of a sequence of 2 (or more) specific moments in time (perfect aspect). Usually (not always)
the action described isn't / wasn't / won't be complete, unlike simple actions, which are finished. Long
time plus time sequence? Use a perfect continuous tense.
I’ve been studying English for 5 years. (I started studying at a specific time and I continue to study.)
She had been working in Peru for 5 years when she met her husband.
The newspaper said in 2016 the Americans will have been occupying Afghanistan for 15 years.

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