Heat and Mass Transfer

Heat and Mass Transfer
Introduction
Sudheer Siddapuredddy
sudheer@iitp.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Indian Institution of Technology Patna
Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 1 / 537

Course: Heat and Mass Transfer
Prerequisites
Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics
References
Incropera FP and Dewitt DP, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass
Transfer, Fifth edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2010.
Cengel YA, Heat and Mass Transfer - A Practical Approach,
Third edition, McGraw-Hill, 2010.
Holman JP, Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, 1997.
Class Timings: ME305

Tue: 9 AM to 10 AM, Room-107
Wed, Thu, Fri: 11 AM to 12 AM, Room-107 Weblinks
www.iitp.ac.in/∼sudheer/teaching.html

Course Content: Heat and Mass Transfer
Convection:
Introduction:
Introduction
What, How, and Where?
External and internal flows
Thermodynamics and Heat
Free convection
transfer
Boiling and condensation
Application
Heat exchangers
Physical mechanism of heat
Radiation:
transfer
Introduction
Conduction:
View factors
Introduction
Mass Transfer:
1D, steady-state
Introduction
2D, steady-state
Mass diffusion equation
Transient
Transient diffusion

Heat Transfer - What?
The science that deals with the determination of the rates of

energy transfer due to temperature difference.
Driving force
Temperature difference
as the voltage difference in electric current
as the pressure difference in fluid flow
Rate depends on magnitude of dT

Heat Transfer - How?

Heat Transfer - Where?

Heat Transfer - Where else?

Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Thermodynamics
Deals with the amount of energy (heat or work) during a process
Only considers the end states in equilibrium
Why?
Heat Transfer
Deals with the rate of energy transfer
Transient and non-equilibrium
How long?

Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Laws of Thermodynamics
Zeroth law - Temperature
First law Energy conserved
Second law Entropy
Third law S → constant as T → 0
Laws of Heat Transfer

Fouriers law - Conduction
Newtons law of cooling - Convection
Stephan-Boltzmann law - Radiation

Heat Transfer - History
Caloric theory (18th Century)

Heat is a fluid like substance, ‘caloric’ poured from one body
into another.
Caloric: Massless, colorless, odorless, tasteless

Heat Transfer - History
Kinetic theory (19th Century)

Molecules - tiny balls - are in motion possessing kinetic energy
Heat: The energy associated with the random motion of atoms
and molecules

Heat, Rate, Flux
Heat
The amount of heat transferred during a process, Q
Heat transfer rate
The amount of heat transferred per unit time, Q̇ or simply q
Z ∆t
Q= qdt
0
Q = q∆t, if q is constant
Heat flux
The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to the direction
of heat transfer:
q
q 00 =
A

Heat, Rate, Flux
24 W
q 00 = 2
= 4 W/m2
6m

Conduction - Macroscopic View
Viewed as
The transfer of energy from the more energetic to the less
energetic particles of a substance due to interactions between
the particles.
Net transfer by random molecules motion - diffusion of energy

Conduction: Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction
T1 − T2 dT
qcond = −kA = −kA
∆x dx

Problem: Conduction
The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15 m thick

fireclay brick having a thermal conductivity of 1.7 W/m K.
Measurements made during steady-state operation reveal
temperatures of 1400 and 1150 K at the inner and outer surfaces,
respectively. What is the rate of heat loss through a wall that is
0.5 × 1.2 m2 on a side?
Ans: 1.7 kW

Convection
Comprised of two mechanisms

Energy transfer due to random molecular motion - diffusion
Energy transfer by the bulk motion of the fluid - advection
Boundary layer development in convection heat transfer

Convection - Classification
Forced and Free/Natural Convection
Boiling and Condensation

Convection: Newton’s Law of Cooling
qconv = hAs (Ts − T∞ )
Process h (W/m2 K)
Free convection
Gases 2-25
Liquids 50-1000
Convection with phase change
Boiling and Condensation 2500-100,000

Thermal Radiation
Radiation
Energy emitted by matter that is at a nonzero temperature
Transported by electromagnetic waves (or photons)
Medium?
Surface Emissive Power
The rate at which energy is released per unit area (W/m2 )
Eb = σTs4

Radiation: Stefan-Boltzmann Law
For a real surface:
E = εσTs4
00
= εσ Ts4 − Tsur
4

qrad

First Law of Thermodynamics
Ein − Eout = ∆Est

In rate form:
dEst
Ėin − Ėout = = Ėst
dt

The inflow and outflow terms are surface phenomena.

The energy generation term is a volumetric phenomenon.
chemical, electrical
The energy storage is also a volumetric phenomenon.
∆U + ∆KE + ∆P E
∆U : sensible/thermal, latent, and chemical components

Steady state with no heat generation

Surface Energy Balance
Ein − Eout =0
qcond − qconv − qrad =0

Problem Solving: Methodology
Analysis of different problems will give a deeper appreciation for

the fundamentals of the subject, and you will gain confidence in
your ability to apply these fundamentals to the solution of
engineering problems.
Be consistent in following these steps:
1 known
2 Find
3 Schematic
4 Assumptions
5 Properties
6 Analysis
7 Comments

Problem: Conduction
The hot combustion gases of a furnace are separated from the

ambient air and its surrounding, which are at 25◦ C, by a brick wall
0.15 m thick. The brick has a thermal conductivity of 1.2 W/m K
and a surface emissivity of 0.8. Under steady-state conditions an
outer surface temperature of 100◦ C is measured. Free convection
heat transfer to the air adjoining the surface is characterized by a
convection coefficient of 20 W/m2 K. What is the brick inner
surface temperature.
Ans: 625 K

Problem: Convection
An experiment to determine the convection coefficient associated

with airflow over the surface of a thick stainless steel casting
involves the insertion of thermocouples into the casting at
distances of 10 and 20 mm from the surface along a hypothetical
line normal to the surface. The steel has a thermal conductivity of
15 W/m K. If the thermocouples measure temperatures of 50 and
40◦ C in the steel when the air temperature is 100◦ C, what is the
convection coefficient?
Ans: 375 W/m2 K

Problem: Radiation
The roof of a car in a parking lot absorbs a solar radiant flux of

800 W/m2 , and the underside is perfectly insulated. The
convection coefficient between the roof and the ambient air is
12 W/m2 K.
a) Neglecting radiation exchange with the surroundings, calculate
the temperature of the roof under steady-state conditions if the
ambient air temperature is 20◦ C.
b) For the same ambient air temperature, calculate the
temperature of the roof if its surface emissivity is 0.8.
c) The convection coefficient depends on air flow conditions over
the roof, increasing with increasing air speed. Compute and
plot the roof temperature as a function of h for
2 ≤ h ≤ 200 W/m2 K.
Ans: 86.7◦ C

Heat Diffusion Equation
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Heat and Mass Transfer Heat Diffusion Equation 30 / 537
Steady-state vs Transient
Fourier’s law of heat conduction

qcond = −kA dT
dx
transient
multidimensional - complex geometries
Steady-state heat transfer Transient heat transfer

No change with time at any Time dependence
point within the medium T = T (x, y, z, t)
T and q 00
remains Special case - lumped - T
unchanged with time changes with time but not
T = T (x, y, z) with location:
Usually no but assumed T = T (t)

Coordinate System

Multidimensional Heat Transfer

Heat Flux Direction
The direction of heat flow will always be
normal to a surface of constant
temperature, called an isothermal surface.
∂T 00 ∂T 00 ∂T
qx00 = −k ; q = −k ; q = −k
∂x y ∂y z ∂z
qn00 = qx00~i + qy00~j + qz00~k

∂T ~ ∂T ~ ∂T ~
= −k i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
= −k∇T
where n is the normal of the isothermal

surface and
∂T
qn00 = −k
∂n
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity
q 00
k=
(∂T /∂x)
The rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of the material

per unit area per unit temperature difference.
Specific heat, Cp Thermal conductivity, k

Ability to store thermal energy. Material’s ability to conduct heat
At room temperature, At room temperature,
Cp = 4.18 kJ/kg K, water k = 0.607 W/m K, water

= 0.45 kJ/kg K, iron = 80.2 W/m K, iron

Thermal Conductivity
Transport property
Indication of the rate at which energy is transferred by the
diffusion process
Depends on the physical structure of matter, atomic and
molecular, related to the state of the matter
Isotropic material - k is independent of the direction of
transfer, kx = ky = kz
Laminated composite materials and wood
k across grain is different than that parallel to grain

k for Different Materials at T∞ and P∞
Kinetic theory of gases:
q
vrms = 3RT M
T ↑ k↑
M↑ k↓
He(4), Air(29)
Liquids: Strong
intermolecular forces
Most liquids: T ↑ k↓
M↑ k↓
Except water: Not a linear

trend
k - Temp. Dependency
Temp. dependency
causes considerable
complexity in
conduction analysis
kaverage

k for Solids
k = kl + ke
High k for pure metals is due to ke

kl depends on the way the molecules
are arranged
Diamond - highly ordered crystalline solid
Highest known k
However a poor electric conductor (even semiconductors like
silicon)
Diamond heat sinks - cooling electronic components

k for Alloys
Pure metals have high k
kiron = 83 W/m K
kchromium = 95 W/m K
Steel is iron + 1% chrome
ksteel = 62 W/m K
Alloy of two metals k1 and k2 < k1 and k2

Thermal Diffusivity α
Thermophysical properties
k Transport property
ρ, Cp Thermodynamic properties
ρCp is volumetric heat capacity (J/m3 K)
High α: faster propagation of heat into the medium

Small α: heat is mostly absorbed by the material and a small
amount of heat is conducted further

Heat Diffusion Equation: Application
Problem and application

Determine temperature distribution in a medium resulting
from conditions imposed on its boundaries
The conduction heat flux at any point in the medium or on
the surface may be computed from Fourier’s law
This information could be used to determine thermal stresses,
expansions, deflections
Temperature distribution may also be used to optimize the
thickness of an insulating material or to determine the
compatibility of special coatings or adhesives used with the
material

Control Volume
Assumptions
Homogeneous medium No bulk motion (advection)
Schematic
Consider an infinitesimally small (differential) CV, dx.dy.dz
∂qx
qx+dx = qx + dx
∂x
∂qy
qy+dy = qy + dy
∂y
∂qz
qz+dz = qz + dz
∂z

Volumetric Properties
Generation
Ėg = ėg dxdydz
ėg is in W/m3
Storage
∂T
Ėst = ρCp dxdydz
| {z∂t}
↓
Rate of change of the sensible/thermal energy of the
medium/volume

Heat Diffusion Equation
Governing Equation
Ėin − Ėout + Ėg = Ėst
∂T
qx + qy + qz − qx+dx − qy+dy − dz+dz + ėg dxdydz = ρCp dxdydz
∂t
∂qx ∂qy ∂qz ∂T
− dx − dy − dz + ėg dxdydz = ρCp dxdydz
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
However,
∂T ∂T ∂T
qx = −kdydz ; qy = −kdxdz ; qz = −kdxdy
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂T
k + k + k + ėg = ρCp
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t

Special Cases
Fourier-Biot equation - Isotropic

∂2T ∂2T ∂2T ėg 1 ∂T
2
+ 2
+ 2
+ =
∂x ∂x ∂x k α ∂t
Diffusion equation - Transient, no heat generation

∂2T ∂2T ∂2T 1 ∂T
2
+ 2
+ 2
=
∂x ∂x ∂x α ∂t
Poisson equation - Steady-state

∂2T ∂2T ∂2T ėg
2
+ 2
+ + =0
∂x ∂x ∂x2 k
Laplace equation - Steady-state, no heat generation

∂2T ∂2T ∂2T
+ + =0
∂x2 ∂x2 ∂x2
Coordinate Systems
Cartesian coordinates T (x, y, z)

∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂T
k + k + k + ėg = ρCp
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t
Cylindrical coordinates T (r, φ, z)

1 ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂T
kr + 2 k + k + ėg = ρCp
r ∂r r ∂φ ∂φ ∂z ∂z ∂t
Spherical coordinates T (r, φ, θ)

1 ∂ 2 ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T
kr + 2 2 k
r2 ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂φ ∂φ

1 ∂ ∂T ∂T
+ 2 k sin θ + ėg = ρCp
r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ ∂t
Boundary and Initial Conditions
Necessary to solve the appropriate form of the heat equation

Depends on the physical conditions at boundaries
On time
Boundary conditions can be simply expressed in mathematical
form
Second order in space, two boundary conditions for each
coordinate needed to describe the system
First order in time, only one condition, initial condition
must be specified

Boundary Conditions at x = 0

Problem: Diffusion Equation
A long copper bar of rectangular cross section, whose width w is

much greater than its thickness L, is maintained in contact with a
heat sink at its lower surface, and the temperature throughout the
bar is approximately equal to that of the sink, To . Suddenly, an
electric current is passed through the bar and an airstream of
temperature T∞ is passed over the top surface, while the bottom
surface continues to be maintained at To . Obtain the differential
equation and the boundary and initial conditions that could be
solved to determine the temperature as a function of position and
time in the bar.

Solution: Diffusion Equation
Known
Copper bar initial temperature, To
Suddenly heated up by electric current, ėg
Airstream, h, T∞
Find Schematic
Differential equation;
Boundary conditions;
Initial condition

Assumptions
w L - side effects are neglected. Thus heat transfer is
primarily one dimensional (x)
Uniform volumetric heat generation, ėg
Constant properties
Analysis
∂2T ėg 1 ∂T
2
+ =
∂x k α ∂t
Boundary conditions Initial condition
T (0, t) = To T (x, 0) = To
∂T
−k |x=L = h [T (L, t) − T∞ ]
∂x
Comments
1 If T , T , ė , and h are known, then the equations can be
o ∞ g
solved to obtain the T (x, t)
2 Top surface, T (L, t) will change with time. This is unknown
and may be obtained after finding T (x, t)


One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
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Heat and Mass Transfer 1D, Steady-State Conduction 55 / 537
One-Dimensional, Steady-State
Temp. gradients exist along only a single coordinate direction

Heat transfer occurs exclusively in that direction
Temp. at each point is independent of time
We will see:
Temp. distribution & heat transfer rate in common (planar,
cylindrical and spherical) geometries
Thermal resistance
Thermal circuits to model heat flow
Electrical circuits to current flow

Cartesian Coordinates: T (x)

d dT
k =0
dx dx
For 1-D, steady-state conduction

in a plane wall with no heat
generation, heat flux is a
constant, independent of x.

Plane Wall
If k is constant then, T (x) = C1 x + C2
T (0) = Ts,1 and

T (L) = Ts,2
x
T (x) = (Ts,2 − Ts,1 ) + Ts,1
L
dT kA
qx = −kA = (Ts,2 − Ts,1 )
dx L
k
qx00 = (Ts,2 − Ts,1 )
L

Thermal Resistance
Ratio of driving potential to the corresponding transfer rate
(Ts,1 − Ts,2 ) L
Rt,cond = =
qx kA
Es,1 − Es,2
Re =
I
(Ts − T∞ ) 1
Rt,conv = =
q hA
Under steady state condi-
Convection rate = Conduction rate = Convection rate
tions:
into the wall through the wall from the wall
T∞,1 − Ts,1 Ts,1 − Ts,2 Ts,2 − T∞,2
qx = = =
1/h1 A L/kA 1/h2 A
T∞,1 − T∞,2 1 L 1
qx = Rtot = + +
Rtot h1 A kA h2 A
Thermal Resistance: Radiation
The thermal resistance for radiation - radiation exchange

between the surface and its surroundings:
Ts − Tsur 1
Rt,rad = =
qrad hr A
qrad = hr A (Ts − Tsur )

The radiation heat transfer coefficient, hr :
2
hr = εσ (Ts + Tsur ) Ts2 + Tsur


The Composite Wall

The Composite Wall
T∞,1 − T∞,4
qx =
P
Rt
1 LA LB LC 1
Rtot = + + + +
h1 A kA A kB A kC A h4 A
If U is the overall heat transfer coefficient
qx = U A∆T
1
U=
Rtot A

Series-Parallel Composite Wall

Contact Resistance
00 TA − TB
Rt,c =
qx00

Thermal Resistance of Solid/Solid Interfaces

Porous Medium
For a porous medium, an effective conductivity is considered.

Assuming, there is no fluid bulk motion and if T1 > T2
kef f A
qx = (T1 − T2 )
L

The Cylinder

The Cylinder
The governing equation for 1D, steady state conduction in

cylindrical coordinates:

1 d dT
kr =0
r dr dr
The heat flux by Fourier’s law of conduction,

dT dT
qr = −kA = −k(2πrL)
dr dr
Here, A = 2πrL is the area normal to the direction of heat

transfer.
d
kr dT

The quantity dr dr is independent of r
The conduction heat transfer rate qr (not the heat flux, qr00 ) is
a constant in the radial direction
The Cylinder
Temperature distribution and heat transfer rate

Ts,1 − Ts,2 r
T (r) = ln + Ts,2
ln(r1 /r2 ) r2
Note that the temperature distribution associated with radial

conduction through a cylindrical wall is logarithmic, not linear, as
it is for the plane wall.
2πLk (Ts,1 − Ts,2 )

qr =
ln(r2 /r1 )
Note that qr is independent of r.
ln(r2 /r1 )
Rt,cond =
2πLk
The Cylinder

The Cylinder
(T∞,1 − T∞,2 )
qr = ln(r2 /r1 ) ln(r3 /r2 ) ln(r4 /r3 )
1 1
2πr1 Lh1 + 2πkA L + 2πkB L + 2πkC L + 2πr4 Lh4
(T∞,1 − T∞,2 )
qr = = U A (T∞,1 − T∞,2 )
Rtot
If U is defined in terms of the inside area, A1 = 2πr1 L, then:
1
U= r1
1
h1 + kA ln( rr21 ) + r1
kB ln( rr23 ) + r1
kC ln( rr43 ) + r1 1
r4 h4
U A is constant, while U is not

In radial systems, q is constant, while q 00 is not

The Sphere
Consider a hollow sphere, whose inner and outer surfaces are
exposed to fluids at different temperatures.

1 d 2 dT
kr =0
r2 dr dr
dT
qr = −k(4πr2 )
dr
The Sphere
Temperature distribution and heat transfer rate

Ts,1 − Ts,2 1 1
T (r) = Ts,1 + −
1
− 1 r1 r
r2 r1
4πk (Ts,1 − Ts,2 )
qr =
1 1
r1 − r2

1 1 1
Rt,cond = −
4πk r1 r2

Problem: Sphere
A spherical thin walled metallic container is used to store liquid

nitrogen at 80 K. The container has a diameter of 0.5 m and is
covered with an evacuated, reflective insulation composed of silica
powder. The insulation is 25 mm thick, and its outer surface is
exposed to ambient air at 310 K. The convection coefficient is
known to be 20 W/m2 K. The latent heat of vaporization and the
density of the liquid nitrogen are 2 × 105 J/kg and 804 kg/m3 ,
respectively. Thermal conductivity of evacuated silica powder
(300 K) is 0.0017 W/m K.
1 What is the rate of heat transfer to the liquid nitrogen?
2 What is the rate of liquid boil-off?

Solution: Sphere
known
Liquid nitrogen is stored in a spherical container that is insulated
and exposed to ambient air.
Find
The rate of heat transfer to the nitrogen.
The mass rate of nitrogen boil-off.
Schematic

Solution: Sphere
Assumptions
1 Steady state conditions
2 One-dimensional transfer in the radial direction
3 Negligible resistance to heat transfer through the container
wall and from the container to the nitrogen
4 Constant properties
5 Negligible radiation exchange between outer surface of
insulation and surroundings
Analysis
Rt,cond Rt,conv
qr

Solution: Analysis

1 1 1
Rt,cond = −
4πk r1 r2
1 (T∞,2 − T∞,1 )
Rt,conv = 2
qr = = 12.88W
h 4πr2 Rt,cond + Rt,conv
Energy balance for a control surface about the nitrogen:
Ėin − Ėout = 0
q − ṁhf g = 0
=⇒ ṁ = 6.44 × 10−5 kg/W
= 5.56 kg/day
ṁ
= = 0.00692 m3 /day
ρ
= 6.92 liters/day

The Critical Radius of Insulation
We know that by adding more insulation to a wall always

decreases heat transfer.
This is expected, since the heat transfer area A is constant,
and adding insulation will always increase the thermal
resistance of the wall without affecting the convection
resistance.
However, adding insulation to a cylindrical piece or a spherical
shell, is a different matter.
The additional insulation increases the conduction resistance
of the insulation layer but it also decreases the convection
resistance of the surface because of the increase in the outer
surface area for convection.
Therefore, the heat transfer from a pipe may increase or
decrease, depending on which effect dominates.


The rate of heat transfer from the insulated pipe to the

surrounding air can be expressed as:
(T1 − T∞ )
qr =
r2

ln r1 1
2πLk + h(2πr2 L)
The value of r2 at which heat transfer

rate reaches max. is determined from
the requirement that dq r
dr (zero slope):
k
rcr,cylinder =
h

Problem: Critical Radius
A 3 mm diameter and 6 m long electric wire is tightly wrapped

with a 2 mm thick plastic cover whose thermal conductivity is
k = 0.15 W/m K. Electrical measurements indicate that a current
of 10 A passes through the wire and there is a voltage drop of 8 V
along the wire. If the insulated wire is exposed to a medium at
27◦ C with a heat transfer coefficient of h = 12 W/m2 K,
determine the temperature at the interface of the wire and the
plastic cover in steady operation. Also determine whether doubling
the thickness of the plastic cover will increase or decrease this
interface temperature. Ans: 89.5◦ C, 77.5◦ C
Hint: qr = V I



Overall

Conduction with Thermal Energy Generation
A very common thermal energy generation process involves the

conversion from electrical to thermal energy in a current carrying
medium (resistance heating). The rate at which energy is
generated by passing a current through a medium of electrical
resistance Re is:
Ėg = I 2 Re
If this power generation occurs uniformly throughout the medium

of volume V , the volumetric generation rate (W/m3 ) is:
Ėg I 2 Re
q̇ = =
V V

Conduction with Ėg in a Plane Wall
Consider a plane wall, in which there is uniform energy generation

per unit volume (q̇ is constant) and the surfaces are maintained at
Ts,1 and Ts,2 . The appropriate form of the heat equation:

2
T (−L) = Ts,1
d T q̇
2
+ =0
dx k
T (L) = Ts,2

q̇L2 x2

Ts,2 − Ts,1 x Ts,1 + Ts,2
T (x) = 1− 2 + +
2k L 2 L 2
The heat flux at any point in the wall may be determined by
Fourier’s Law. The heat flux is not independent of x.
Special case: Ts,1 = Ts,2 = Ts

The temperature distribution is then symmetrical about the central
plane:
q̇L2 x2

T (x) = 1 − 2 + Ts
2k L
The maximum temperature exists at the central plane:
q̇L2
T (0) = T0 = + Ts
2k

T (x) − T0 x 2
=
Ts − T0 L
It is important to note that the temperature gradient

dT
dx |x=0 = 0 at the plane of symmetry.
No heat transfer across this plane - adiabatic surface.
The above equation can also be applied to plane walls that
are perfectly insulated on one side (x = 0) and a fixed Ts on
the other side (x = L).
However, in most of the cases, Ts is an unknown. It is computed
from the energy balance at the surface to the adjoining fluid:

dT
−k = h(Ts − T∞ )
dx x=L
q̇L
=⇒ Ts = T∞ +
h
Conduction with Ėg in Radial Systems
Consider a long, solid cylinder (may be a current carrying wire).
For steady state conditions: Ėg = qconv .

Conduction with Ėg in Radial Systems

1 d dT q̇
r + =0
r dr dr k
Boundary conditions:

dT
= 0, T (R) = Ts and T (r = 0) = T0
dr r=0
q̇R2 r2

=⇒ T (r) = Ts + 1− 2
4k R
T (r) − Ts r 2
or =1−
T0 − Ts R
Ts can be obtained from the energy balance at the surface:
q̇ πR2 L = h 2πRL (Ts − T∞ )
q̇R
Ts = T∞ +
2h
Problem
Consider one-dimensional conduction in a plane composite wall.

The outer surfaces are exposed to a fluid at 25◦ C and a convection
heat transfer coefficient of 1000 W/m2 K. The middle wall B
experiences uniform heat generation q̇B , while there is no
generation in walls A and C. The temperatures at the interfaces
are T1 = 261◦ C and T2 = 211◦ C. Assuming negligible contact
resistance at the interfaces, determine q̇B and kB .
Ans: 4 × 106 W/m3 , 15.3 W/m K.

Solution
From an energy balance on wall B,
Ėi n − Ėo ut + Ėg = Ėst
−qA − qC + q˙B V = 0
00 00
=⇒ −qA − qC + q˙B 2LB = 0
qA + qC
q̇B =
2LB
Heat flow across ambient and wall A:
T1 − T∞ 261 − 25
00
qA = =
1 30×10−3
= 107272.7 W/m2
1 LA
h + kA 1000 + 25

Solution
Heat flow across ambient and wall C:

T1 − T∞ 211 − 25
00
qC = =
1 20×10−3
= 132857.1 W/m2
1 LC +
h + kC 1000 50
qA + qC 107272.7 + 132857.1
q̇B = = = 4 × 106 W/m3
2LB 60 × 10−3

Solution
q̇B L2B x2

T2 − T1 x T1 + T2
T (x) = 1− 2 + +
2kB LB 2 LB 2

00 q̇B T2 − T1
qB (x) = −kB (−2x) +
2kB 2LB
00
T2 − T1
qB x=−LB
= −q̇B LB − kB
2LB
−qA00 + q̇ L
B B
kB = = 15.35 W/m K
(T1 − T2 )/2LB

Problem
A plane wall is a composite of two materials, A and B. The wall of

material A has uniform heat generation q̇ = 1.5 × 106 W/m3 ,
kA = 75 W/m K, and thickness LA = 50 mm. The wall material B
has no generation with kB = 150 W/m K, and thickness
LB = 20 mm. The inner surface of material A is well insulated,
while the outer surface of material B is cooled by a water stream
with T∞ = 30◦ C and = 1000 W/m2 K.
Sketch the temperature distribution that exists in the
composite under steady state conditions.
Determine the temperature T0 of the insulated surface and
the temperature T2 of the cooled surface.

1D Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces - Fins
sudheer@iitp.ac.in

Heat and Mass Transfer Fins 96 / 537

Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces
Extended surface: solid that experiences energy transfer by

conduction within its boundaries, as well as energy transfer by
convection and/or radiation between its boundaries and the
surround-
ings. A
strut is used to provide mechanical support to two walls at
different T . A temperature gradient in the x-direction sustains
heat transfer by conduction internally, at the same time there is
energy transfer by convection from the surface.
The most frequent application is one in which an extended surface

is used specifically to enhance the heat transfer rate between a
solid and an adjoining fluid - called as fin
Consider a plane wall:
qconv = hA(Ts − T∞ )

For fixed Ts , 2 ways to enhance the rate of heat transfer:

Increase the fluid velocity: cost of blower or pump power
T∞ could be reduced: impractical
Limitations: Many situations would be encountered in which
increasing h to the max. possible value is either insufficient to
obtain the desired heat transfer rate or the associated costs are
prohibitively high.
How about increasing surface area for

convection?
By providing fins that extend from the wall
into the surrounding fluid.

Fin Material
k of the fin material has a strong effect on the temperature

distribution along the fin and therefore influences the degree
to which the heat transfer rate is enhanced.
Ideally, the fin material should have a large k to minimize
temperature variations from its base to its tip.
In the limit of infinite thermal conductivity, the entire fin
would be at the temperature of the base surface, thereby
providing the maximum possible heat transfer enhancement.

Application of Fins
The arrangement for cooling engine heads on motorcycles and

lawn-mowers
For cooling electric power transformers
The tubes with attached fins used to promote heat exchange
between air and the working fluid of an air conditioner

Typical Finned Tube Heat Exchangers

Fin Configurations
For an extended surface, the direction of heat transfer from the

boundaries is perpendicular to the principal direction of heat
transfer in the solid.

General Conduction Analysis
To determine the heat transfer rate associated with a fin, we must

first obtain the temperature distribution along the fin.

Assumptions
1-D heat transfer (longitudinal x direction). In practice the

fine is thin and the temperature changes in the longitudinal
direction are much larger than those in the transverse
direction.
Steady state
k is constant
No heat generation
Negligible radiation from the surface
The rate at which the energy is convected to the fluid from
any point on the fin surface must be balanced by the rate at
which the energy reaches that point due to conduction in the
transverse (y, z) direction.
h is uniform over the surface

Derivation for fin
qx = qx+dx + dqconv
However,
dT
qx = −kAc
dx
Ac may vary with x.
dqx
qx+dx = qx + dx
dx
qconv = hdAs (T − T∞ )
dAs is the surface area of dx

d dT
=⇒ k Ac dx − hdAs (T − T∞ )
dx dx
d2 T

1 dAc dT 1 h dAs
+ − (T − T∞ )
dx2 Ac dx dx Ac k dx
Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area
T (0) = Tb
Ac is constant, dAc /dx = 0
As = P x where x is measured from base, P is fin perimeter
dAs /dx = P
d2 T hP
− (T − T∞ ) = 0
dx2 kAc
Excess temperature, θ
θ(x) = T (x) − T∞
dθ/dx = dT /dx
d2 θ
− m2 θ = 0
dx2
hP
where m2 = kA c
The above equation is a linear, homogeneous, second-order
differential equation with constant coefficients. The general
solution is of the form:
θ(x) = C1 emx + C2 e−mx
It is necessary to specify appropriate BCs for C1 and C2 .

One such condition may be specified in terms of the temperature

at the base of the fin (x = 0):
θ(0) = Tb − T∞ = θb
The second condition, specified at the fin tip (x = L), may

correspond to any one of the four different physical conditions:
A. h at the fin tip
B. Adiabatic condition at the fin tip
C. Prescribed temperature maintained at the fin tip
D. Infinite fin (very long fin)

A. Infinite fin (very long fin): As L → ∞, θL → 0

B. Adiabatic condition at the fin tip

dθ
=0
dx x=L
C. h at the fin tip

dT dθ
hAc [T (L)−T∞ ] = −kAc =⇒ hθ(L) = −k
dx x=L dx x=L
D. Prescribed temperature maintained at the fin tip: θ(L) = θL

Case A: Infinite fin (very long fin)
As L → ∞, θL → 0 and e−mL → 0
θ|x=0 = θb ; θ|x=L =0
−mx
θb = C1 e mx
+ C2 e ; C1 e mL
+ C2 e−mL = 0
Equation for infinite fin

θ
= e−mx
θb

dθ p
qf = −kAc = hP kAc θb
dx x=0


Case B: Adiabatic Condition at the Fin Tip

dθ
θ|x=0 = θb ; =0
dx x=L
θb = C1 emx + C2 e−mx ; C1 emx − C2 e−mx = 0
θ emx e−mx
= +
θb 1 + e2mL 1 + e−2mL
Equation for adiabatic condition

θ cosh[m(L − x)]
=
θb cosh mL
eA + e−A
Note: cosh A =
2
Case B: Adiabatic Condition at the Fin Tip

dT dθ
qf = −kAc = −kAc
dx x=0 dx x=0

1 1
= −kAc mθb −
1 + e2mL 1 + e−2mL
e − e−mL
p mL
= hP kAc θb mL
e + e−mL
Rate of heat transfer: Adiabatic Condition

p
qf = hP kAc θb tanh mL

Case C: h from the Fin Tip
A practical way is to account for the heat loss from the fin tip is to
replace the fin length L in the relation for the adiabatic tip case by
a corrected length.
Ac
Lc = L +
P
θ cosh[m(Lc − x)]
=
θb cosh mLc
p
qf = hP kAc θb tanh mLc
t
Lc,rectanular f in =L+
2
D
Lc,cylindrical f in =L+
4

Uniform Cross-Sectional Fin: Summary
Temperature distribution & heat loss for fins of uniform cross-section
θ
Tip Cond. at x = L θb
qf
Infinite fin θ(L) = 0 e−mx M
dθ
cosh[m(L−x)]
Adiabatic dx x=L =0 cosh mL M tanh mL
dθ
cosh[m(Lc −x)]
Convection hθL = −k dx x=Lc cosh mLc M tanh mL
r
hP p Ac
m= ; M= hP kAc θb ; Lc = L +
kAc P
Problem
A very long rod 5 mm in diameter has one end maintained at
100◦ C. The surface of the rod is exposed to ambient air at 25◦ C
with a convection heat transfer coefficient of 100 W/m2 K.
Determine the temperature distributions along rods
constructed from pure copper, 2024 aluminium alloy and type
AISI 316 stainless steel. What are the corresponding heat
losses from the rods? Ans: 8.3 W, 5.6 W and 1.6 W
Estimate how long the rods must be for the assumption of
infinite length to yield an accurate estimate of the heat loss.
At T = (Tb + T∞ )/2 = 62.5◦ C = 335 K :

kcopper = 398 W/m K
kaluminium = 180 W/m K
kstainless steel = 14 W/m K
Hint: For an infinitely long fin: θ/θb = e−mx

Solution
Find
T (x) and heat loss when rod is Cu, Al, SS.
How long rods must be to assume infinite length.
Assumptions
Steady state conditions, 1-D along the rod
Constant properties and uniform h
Negligible radiation exchange with surroundings

Solution: Analysis - Part 1
T = T∞ + (Tb − T∞ )e−mx
There
is little additional heat transfer associated with lengths more than
50 mm (SS), 200 mm (Al), and 300 mm (Cu).
p
qf = hP kAc θb

Solution: Analysis - Part 2
Since there is no heat loss from the tip of an infinitely long rod, an
estimate of the validity of the approximation may be made by
comparing qf for infinitely long fin and adiabatic fin tip.
p p
hP kAc θb = hP kAc θb tanh mL
tanh 4 = 0.999 and tanh 2.5 = 0.987
=⇒ mL ≥ 2.5
r
2.65 kAc
L≥ = 2.5
m hP
LCu = 0.18 m; LAl = 0.12 m; and LSS = 0.033 m

Solution: Comments
Comments
The above results suggest that the fin heat transfer rate may
accurately be predicted from the infinite fin approximation if
mL ≥ 2.5
For more accuracy, if mL ≥ 4.6:
L∞ = 0.33 m (Cu), 0.23 m (Al) and 0.07 m (SS)

Proper Length of a Fin
qf in
= tanh mL
qlong f in
mL tanh mL
0.1 0.100
0.2 0.197
0.5 0.462
1.0 0.762
1.5 0.905
2.0 0.964
2.5 0.987
3.0 0.995
4.0 0.999
5.0 1.000

Fin Efficiency
No fin: qconv = hAb (Tb − T∞ )

Fin Efficiency
The temperature of the fin will be Tb at the fin base and

gradually decrease towards the fin tip.
Convection from the fin surface causes the temperature at any
cross-section to drop somewhat from the midsection toward
the outer surfaces.
However, the cross-sectional area of the fins is usually very
small, and thus the temperature at any cross-section can be
considered to be uniform.
Also, the fin tip can be assumed for convenience and
simplicity to be adiabatic by using the corrected length for the
fin instead of the actual length.
In the limiting case of zero thermal resistance or infinite k, the
temperature of fin will be uniform at the value of Tb . The heat
transfer from the fin will be maximum in this case (k → ∞):
qf in,max = hAf in (Tb − T∞ )
Fin Efficiency
In reality, however, the temperature of the fin will drop along the
fin and thus the heat transfer from the fin will be less because of
the decreasing [T (x) − T∞ ] toward the fin tip.
To account for the effect of this decrease in temperature on heat

transfer, we define fin efficiency as:
qf in Actual heat transfer rate from the fin
ηf in = =
qf in,max Ideal heat transfer rate from the fin
if the entire fin were at base temperature

Fin Efficiency

Fin Efficiency: Uniform Cross-Sectional Area
Case A: Infinitely long fins

qf in 1
ηlong fin = =
qf in,max mL
∵ Af in = pL
Case B: Adiabatic tip
qf in tanh mL
ηadiabatic = =
qf in,max mL
Case C: Convection at tip

qf in tanh mLc
ηh at tip = =
qf in,max mLc

Fin Efficiency: Proper Length of a Fin
An important consideration in the design of finned surace is

the selection of the proper fin length, L.
Normally the longer the fin, the larger the heat transfer and
thus the higher the rate of heat transfer from the fin.
But also the larger the fin, the bigger the mass, the higher the
price, and the larger the fluid friction.
Therefore, increasing the length of the fin beyond a certain
value cannot be justified unless the added benefits outweigh
the added cost.
Also, ηf in decreases with increasing fin length because of the
decrease in fin temperature with length.
Fin lengths that cause the fin efficiency to drop below 60%
usually cannot be justified economically and should be
avoided.
η of most fins used in practice is > 90%.
η of Rectangular, Triangular, Parabolic Profiles

η of Annular fins of constant thickness, t

Fin Effectiveness
The performance of the fins is judged on the basis of enhancement

of heat transfer relative to the no fin case.
qf in qf
εf in = =
qno f in hAb (Tb − T∞ )
where Ab is the fin cross-sectional area at the base.

Fin Effectiveness: Physical Significance
εf in = 1 indicates that the addition of fins to the surface

does not affect heat transfer at all. That is, heat conducted
to the fin through the base area Ab is equal to the heat
transferred from the same area Ab to the surrounding medium.
εf in < 1 indicates that the fin actually acts as insulation,
slowing down the heat transfer from the surface. This
situation can occur when fins made of low k are used.
εf in > 1 indicates that the fins are enhancing heat transfer
from the surface. However, the use of fins cannot be justified
unless εf in is sufficiently larger than 1 (≥ 2). Finned surfaces
are designed on the basis of maximizing effectiveness of a
specified cost or minimizing cost for a desired effectiveness.

Efficiency and Effectiveness
ηf in and εf in are related to performance of the fin, but they are

different quantities.
qf in
εf in =
qno f in
qf in
=
hAb (Tb − T∞ )
ηf in hAf in (Tb − T∞ )
=
hAb (Tb − T∞ )
ηf in Af in
=⇒ εf in =
Ab
Therefore, ηf in can be determined easily when εf in is known, or

vice versa.

ε for a Long Uniform Cross-Section Fin
√ r
qf in hP kAc θb kP
εf in = = =
qno f in hAb (Tb − T∞ ) hAc
∵ Ac = Ab and θb = Tb − T∞
k of fin should be high. Ex: Cu, Al, Fe. Aluminium is low

cost, weight, and resistant to corrosion.
P/Ac should be high. Thin plates or slender pin fins
h should be low. Gas instead of liquid; Natural convection
instead of forced convection. Therefore, in liquid-to-gas heat
exchangers (car radiators), fins are placed on the gas side.

Multiple Fins
Heat transfer rate for a surface

containing n fins:
qtot,f in = qunf in + qf in
= hAunf in (Tb − T∞ )
+ ηf in Af in (Tb − T∞ )
qtot,f in = h(Aunf in + ηf in Af in )(Tb − T∞ )

Overall Effectiveness
We can also define an overall effectiveness for a finned surface as
the ratio of the total q from the finned surface to the q from the
same surface if there were no fins:
qf in
εf in,overall =
qnof in
h(Aunf in + ηf in Af in )(Tb − T∞ )
=
hAnof in (Tb − T∞ )
Anof in is the area of the surface when there are no fins

Af in is the total surface area of all the fins on the surface
Aunf in is the area of the unfinned portion of the surface.
εf in,overall depends on number of fins per unit length as well as

εf in of individual fins.
εf in,overall is a better measure of the performance than εf in of
individual fins.
Problem
Steam in a heating system flows through tubes: outer diameter is
D1 = 3 cm and whose walls are maintained at 125◦ C. Circular
aluminium fins (k = 180 W/m K) of D2 = 6 cm, t = 2 mm are
attached. The space between the fins is 3 mm, and thus there are
200 fins per meter length of the tube. Surrounded air: T∞ = 27◦ C,
h = 60 W/m2 K. Determine the increase in heat transfer from the
tube per meter of its length as a result of adding fins.

Solution
Known
Properties of the fin, ambient conditions, heat transfer coefficient,
dimensions of the fin.
Find
Increase in heat transfer from the tube per meter of its length as a
result of adding fins.
Assumptions
Steady state conditions, 1-D along the rod
Constant properties and uniform h
Negligible radiation exchange with surroundings

Solution: Analysis
In case of no fins (per unit length, l = 1 m:
Anof in = πD1 l = 0.0942 m2
qnof in = hAnof in (Tb − T∞ ) = 554 W
r1 = D1 /2 = 0.015 m
r2 = D2 /2 = 0.03 m
r2 + 2t
= 2.07
r1
L = r2 − r1 = 0.015 m
r
t h
ξ = L+ = 0.207
2 kt
=⇒ ηf in = 0.95

Solution: Analysis
q from finned portion q from unfinned portion of tube
Af in = 2π r22 − r12 + 2πr2 t

Aunf in = 2πr1 S
2
= 0.00462 m = 0.000283 m3
qf in = ηf in qf in,max qunf in = hAunf in (Tb − T∞ )
= ηf in hAf in (Tb − T∞ )
= 27.81 W = 1.67 W
There are 200 fins per meter length of the tube. The total heat
transfer from the finned tube:
qtot,f in = n(qf in + qunf in ) = 5896 W
∴ the increase in heat transfer from the tube per meter of its
length as a result of the addition of fins is:
qincrease = qtot,f in − qnof in = 5342 W per meter tube length
Solution: Comments
Effectiveness
The overall effectiveness of the finned tube is:
qtot,f in
εf in,overall = = 10.6
qtot,nof in
That is, the rate of heat transfer from the steam tube increases by
a factor of 10 as a result of adding fins.

Transient Heat Conduction
sudheer@iitp.ac.in

Heat and Mass Transfer Transient Conduction 141 / 537

Time dependent conduction - Temperature history inside a

conducting body that is immersed suddenly in a bath of fluid at a
different temperature.
Ex: Quenching of special alloys, heat treatment of bearings
The temperature of such a body varies with time as well as

position.
T (x, y, z, t)

A body is exposed to ambient
∂2T q̇ 1 ∂T
+ =
∂x2 k α ∂t
No heat generation
∂T ∂2T
=α 2
∂t ∂x
α → Thermal diffusivity (m2 /s) Tt=0 = Ti

∂T
It appears only in the transient =0
conduction ∂x x=0
qx=±L = h(T∞ − T )
T = f (x, t)

Lumped Capacitance Model
Lumped: Temperature is essentially uniform throughout the body.
T (x, y, z, t) = T (t)
Copper ball with uniform temperature Pot

Hot forging that is initially at uniform temperature, Ti and is

quenched by immersing it in a liquid of lower temperature T∞ < Ti
Ėin − Ėout + Ėgen = Ėst

dT
−hA(T − T∞ ) = ρV Cp
dt
ZT Zt
dT hA
=− dt
T − T∞ ρV Cp
T =Ti t=0
θ T − T∞ t ρV Cp
= = e− τ τ=
θi Ti − T∞ hA

1
τ= (ρV Cp ) = Rt Ct
hA
Rt - Resistance to convection heat transfer
Ct - Lumped thermal capacitance of the solid

Time Constant

θ
= 0.368
θi t=τ

Total Energy Transfer
The rate of convection heat transfer between the body and its
environment at any time: q = hA[T (t) − T∞ ]
Total energy transfer occurring up to sometime, t:
Zt
Q= qdt
t=0
Zt
= hA[T (t) − T∞ ]dt
t=0
Zt
t
= hA(Ti − T∞ ) e− τ
t=0
h t
i
Q = ρV Cp (Ti − T∞ ) 1 − e− τ

Criteria of the Lumped System Analysis
Consider a body exposed to

ambient
qconv = qcond
Ts,1 − Ts,2
h(Ts,2 − T∞ ) = k
Lc
Ts,1 − Ts,2 hLc
= = Bi
Ts,2 − T∞ k
V
Lc = A

Biot Number
hLc
Bi =
k
h∆T
=
k∆T /Lc
Conv. at the surface of the body
=
Conduction within the body
Lc /k
Bi =
1/h
Conduction resistance within the body
=
Conv. resistance at the surface
Generally accepted, Bi ≤ 0.1 for assuming lumped.

Biot Number

Biot Number
Small bodies with higher k and low h are most likely satisfy
Bi ≤ 0.1.
When k is low and h is high,

large temperature differences
occur between the inner and
outer regions of the body.

Professor Jean-Baptiste Biot
French physicist, astronomer, and

mathematician born in Paris, France.
Professor of mathematical physics at
Collège de France .
At the age of 29, he worked on the
analysis of heat conduction even
earlier than Fourier did (unsuccessful).
After 7 years, Fourier read Biot’s work.
Awarded the Rumford Medal of the
Royal Society in 1840 for his
contribution in the field of Polarization
of light.

Problem: Thermocouple Diameter
Determine the thermocouple junction diameter needed to have a

time constant of one second.
Ambient: T∞ = 200◦ C, h = 400 W/m2 K
Material
properties: k = 20 W/m K, Cp = 400 J/kg K, ρ = 8500 kg/m3 Ans:
0.706 mm

Problem: Solution
Known
Thermo-physical properties of the thermocouple junction used to
measure the temperature of a gas stream.
Thermal environmental conditions.
Find
Junction diameter needed for a time constant of 1 second.
Assumptions
Temperature of the junction is uniform at any instant.
Radiation exchange with the surroundings is negligible.
Losses by conduction through the leads is negligible.
Constant properties.

Problem: Analysis
V πD3 /6 D hLc
Lc = = 2
= Bi = = 2.35 × 10−3 < 0.1
A πD 6 k
ρCp V ρCp D Criterion for using the lumped
τ= =
hA 6h capacitance model is satisfied
and the lumped capacitance
D = 0.706 mm method may be used to an
excellent approximation.
Comments
Heat transfer due to radiation exchange between the junction and
the surroundings and conduction through the leads would affect
the time response of the junction and would, in fact, yield an
equilibrium temperature that differs from T∞ .

Problem: Predict the Time of Death
A person is found dead at 5 PM in a room. The temperature of

the body is measured to be 25◦ C when found. Estimate the time
of death of that person.
Known
T of the person at 5 PM.
Thermal environmental
conditions.
Find
The time of death of the person
is to be estimated.

Problem: Solution
Assumptions
The body can be modeled as a cylinder.
Radiation exchange with the surroundings is negligible.
The initial temperature of the person is 37◦ C.
Assuming properties of water.
V (πD2 /4)L
Lc = = = 0.069 m
A πDL + 2(πD2 /4)

Problem: Solution
hLc
Bi = = 0.9 > 0.1
k
Comment: Criterion for using the lumped capacitance model is
not satisfied. However, let us get a rough estimate.
ρCp V ρCp V
τ= = = 35891 s
hA hA
T − T∞ 25 − 20 t
= = e− τ
Ti − T∞ 37 − 20
t = 43923 s = 12.2 hours

Therefore, the person would have died around 5 AM.

Transient Conduction with Spatial Effects - 1D
A large plane wall A long cylinder A sphere
T (x, 0) = Ti Initial

∂T
= 0 Symmetry
∂2T 1 ∂T ∂x x=0
=
∂x2 α ∂t ∂T
−k = h [T (L, t) − T∞ ] Boundary
∂x x=L
Transient Conduction with Spatial Effects - 1D
In all these three cases posses geometric and thermal symmetry:

the plane wall is symmetric about its center plane (x = 0),
the cylinder is symmetric about its center line(r = 0), and
the sphere is symmetric about its center point (r = 0)
Neglect qrad or incorporate as hr .
The solution, however, involves infinite series, which are

inconvenient and time consuming to evaluate.

Transient Temperature Profiles

Reduction of Parameters
It involves the parameters, x, L, t, k, α, h, Ti , and T∞ which are too

many to make any graphical presentation of the results practical.
T (x, t) − T∞
Dimensionless temperature: θ(x, t) =
Ti − T∞
x
Dimensionless distance from center: X=
L
hL
Dimensionless h (Biot number): Bi =
k
αt
Dimensionless time (Fourier number): Fo = 2 = τ
L
The non-dimensionalization enables us to present the temperature
in terms of three parameters only: θ = f (X, Bi, Fo).
In case of lumped system analysis, θ = f (Bi, Fo).

Fourier Number: Physical Significance
kL2 ∆T

αt L
Fo = 2 =
ρL3 Cp ∆T

L t
Rate of heat conducted across L of a body of volume L3
=
Rate of heat stored in a body of volume L3
Qconducted
Fo =
Qstored

Exact Solution: One-Term Approximation
The exact solution involves infinite series. However, the terms in
terms in the solutions converge rapidly with increasing time, and
for τ > 0.2, keeping the first term and neglecting all the
remaining terms in the series results in an error under 2%.
T (x, t) − T∞ 2
Plane Wall: θ(x, t)wall = = A1 e−λ1 τ cos(λ1 x/L)
Ti − T∞
T (r, t) − T∞ 2
Cylinder: θ(r, t)cyl = = A1 e−λ1 τ J0 (λ1 r/r0 )
Ti − T∞
T (r, t) − T∞ 2 sin(λ1 r/r0 )
Sphere: θ(r, t)sph = = A1 e−λ1 τ
Ti − T∞ λ1 r/r0
A1 and λ1 are functions of the Bi number only.
Note: cos(0) = J0 (0) = 1 and the limit of (sin x)/x = 1.

T0 − T∞ 2
θ0 = = A1 e−λ1 τ
Ti − T∞
Exact Solution: One Term Approximation

Special Case
1 k
= = 0 corresponds to h → ∞,
Bi hL
which corresponds to specified surface temperature, T∞ , case.

Total Energy Transferred from the Wall
The maximum amount of heat that a body can gain (or lose if
Ti > T∞ ) is the change in the energy content of the body:
Qmax = mCp (T∞ − Ti ) = ρV Cp (T∞ − Ti )
Qmax represents the amount of heat transfer for t → ∞. The

amount of heat transfer, Q at a finite time t is obviously less than
this. It can be expressed as the sum of the internal energy changes
throughout the entire geometry as:
Z
Q= ρCp [T (x, t) − Ti ]dV
V
Assuming constant properties:

R
V ρCp [T (x, t) − Ti ]dV
Z
Q 1
= = (1 − θ)dV
Qmax ρV Cp (T∞ − Ti ) V V

Total Energy: One Term Approximation

Q sin λ1
Plane Wall: = 1 − θ0,wall
Qmax wall λ1

Q J1 (λ1 )
Cylinder: = 1 − θ0,cyl
Qmax cyl λ1

Q sin λ1 − λ1 cos λ1
Sphere: = 1 − θ0,wall
Qmax sph λ1

Fraction of Total Heat Transfer: Gröber Chart

Graphical Solution: Heisler Charts
Valid for τ > 0.2

Plane wall

Graphical Solution: Heisler Charts

Limitations
Limitations of One-term solution and Heisler/Gröber charts

Body is initially at an uniform temperature
T∞ and h are constant and uniform
No energy generation within the body
Infinitely Large or Long?

A plate whose thickness is small relative to the other
dimensions can be modeled as an infinitely large plate, except
very near the outer edges.
The edge effects on large bodies are usually negligible.
Ex: A large plane wall such as the wall of a house.
Similarly, a long cylinder whose diameter is small relative to
its length can be analyzed as an infinitely long cylinder.

Problem
An ordinary egg can be approximated as a 5 cm diameter sphere.

The egg is initially at a uniform temperature of 5◦ C and is dropped
into boiling water at 95◦ C. Taking the convection heat transfer
coefficient to be h = 1200 W/m2 K, determine how long it will
take for the center of the egg to reach 70◦ C.
The water content of eggs is about

74%, and thus k and α of eggs can be
approximated by those of water at the
average temperature
(5 + 70)/2 = 37.5◦ C.
k = 0.627 W/m K; α = k/ρcp = 0.151 × 10−6 m2 /s

Solution
Ti = 5◦ C; T∞ = 95◦ C T0 = 70◦ C h = 1200 W/m2 K
k = 0.627 W/m K; α = k/ρcp = 0.151 × 10−6 m2 /s
hLc hr0
BiLc = = 16 Bir0 = = 47.8
k k
One-term approximation
T0 − T∞ 2
θ0 = = A1 e−λ1 τ , τ > 0.2
Ti − T∞
αt
τ= r02
λ1 = 3.0754; A1 = 1.9958
τ = 0.209, Ans: 14.4 min

Semi-Infinite Solids
A single plane surface and extends to infinity in all directions.

Ex: Earth -temperature variation near its surface
Thick wall - temperature variation near one of its surfaces
For short periods of time, most bodies are semi-infinite solids.
The thickness of the body does not enter into the heat
transfer analysis.
∂2T 1 ∂T T (0, t) = Ts ; T (x → ∞, t) = Ti
2
=
∂x α ∂t
T (x, 0) = Ti
Convert PDE into ODE by combining the two independent

variables x and t into a single variable η:
x
η=√
4αt
Similarity variable, η
η = 0 at x = 0
η → ∞ at x → ∞
η → ∞ at t = 0

∂T dT dη x dT
= =− √
∂t dη dt 2t 4αt dη
∂T dT dη 1 dT
= =√
∂x dη dx 4αt dη
2 1 d2 T

∂ T d ∂T dη
= =
∂x2 dη ∂x dx 4αt dη 2

Convective Boundary Condition
The exact solution for a convective boundary condition:

Temperature distribution

T (x, t) − Ts x
1−θ = = efrc √
T∞ − Ts 2 αt
√
hx h2 αt

x h αt
− exp + 2 efrc √ +
k k 2 αt k
The complementary error function, erfc ξ is defined as

erfc ξ = 1 − erf ξ. The Gaussian error function, erf ξ, is a standard
mathematical function that is tabulated.

Multidimensional Steady-State Conduction
sudheer@iitp.ac.in

Heat and Mass Transfer Multidimensional Conduction 180 / 537
Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Governing equation
∂2T ∂2T
+ =0
∂x2 ∂y 2
Solve for T (x, y)

Determine qx00 and qy00 from the rate equations
Methodologies/Approaches
Analytical
Graphical
Numerical

Analytical Approach
Method of separation of variables:

∞
2 X (−1)n+1 + 1 nπx sinh(nπy/L)
θ(x, y) = sin
π n L sinh(nπW/l)
n=1

Graphical Approach
Conduction Shape Factor
q = kS∆T1−2
where ∆T1−2 is the temp. difference between boundaries.
S (m) depends on the geometry of the system only and R = 1/Sk.





Numerical Approach
(a) Nodal Network (b) Finite-difference approximation

Numerical Methods - FDS
sudheer@iitp.ac.in

Heat and Mass Transfer Numerical Methods - FDS 189 / 537

Numerical Technique
Advances in numerical computing now allow for complex heat

transfer problems to be solved rapidly on computers. Some
examples are:
Finite-difference method
Finite-element method
Boundary-element method
In general, these techniques are routinely used to solve problems in
heat transfer, fluid dynamics, stress analysis, electrostatics and
magnetics, etc. Finite-difference method is ease of application.
Numerical techniques result in an approximate solution.
Properties (e.g.,T , u) are determined at discrete points in the
region of interest - referred as nodal points or nodes.

Finite-Difference Analysis

Finite-Difference Analysis
∂2T ∂2T
+ =0 (1)
∂x2 ∂y 2
∂T ∂T

∂ 2 T ∂x m+1/2,n − ∂x m−1/2,n

≈
∂x2 m,n ∆x
Tm+1,n − 2Tm,n + Tm−1,n
≈ (2)
(∆x)2
∂ 2 T

Tm+1,n − 2Tm,n + Tm−1,n
≈ (3)
∂y 2 m,n (∆y)2
Using a network for which ∆x = ∆y and substituting Eqs. (2)
and (3) in Eq. (1):
Tm,n+1 + Tm,n−1 + Tm+1,n + Tm−1,n − 4Tm,n = 0

Energy Balance Method
Assuming that all the heat flow is into the node, Ėin + Ėg = 0:
4
X
q(i)→(m,n) + q̇(∆x · ∆y · 1) = 0
i=1

Tm−1,n − Tm,n
q(m−1,n)→(m,n) = k(∆y · 1)
∆x
Tm+1,n − Tm,n
q(m+1,n)→(m,n) = k(∆y · 1)
∆x
Tm,n+1 − Tm,n
q(m,n+1)→(m,n) = k(∆x · 1)
∆y
Tm,n−1 − Tm,n
q(m,n−1)→(m,n) = k(∆x · 1)
∆y
q̇(∆x)2
Tm,n+1 + Tm,n−1 + Tm+1,n + Tm−1,n + − 4Tm,n = 0
k

Tm−1,n − Tm,n
q(m−1,n)→(m,n) = k(∆y · 1)
∆x
Tm,n+1 − Tm,n
q(m,n+1)→(m,n) = k(∆x · 1)
∆y
∆y Tm+1,n − Tm,n
q(m+1,n)→(m,n) = k( · 1)
2 ∆x
∆x Tm,n−1 − Tm,n
q(m,n−1)→(m,n) = k( · 1)
2 ∆y

∆x ∆y
q(∞)→(m,,n) = h · 1 (T∞ − Tm,n ) + h · 1 (T∞ − Tm,n )
2 2

1 h∆x h∆x
Tm,n+1 +Tm,n−1 + (Tm+1,n +Tm−1,n )+ T∞ − 3 + Tm,n = 0
2 k k
Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
T1 − T0 ∆x
qsurface + kA + q̇A =0
δx 2
Problem
Consider a large uranium plate of thickness L = 4 cm and

k = 28 W/m K in which heat is generated uniformly at a constant
rate of q̇ = 5 × 106 W/m3 . One side of the plate is maintained at
0◦ C by iced water while the other side is subjected to convection
to an environment at T∞ = 30◦ C with h = 45 W/m2 K.
Considering a total of three equally spaced nodes in the medium,
two at the boundaries and one at the middle, estimate the exposed
surface temperature of the plate under steady conditions using the
finite difference approach.

Solution
For the interior node (1), the energy balance would result in:
T0 − 2T1 + T2 q̇
2
+ =0
(∆x) k
q̇(∆x)2
T0 − 2T1 + T2 = −
k
2T1 − T2 = 71.43 (1)

Let us write the governing equation for the corner Node (2):
T1 − T2 ∆x
h(T∞ − T2 ) + kA + q̇A =0
∆x 2
h∆x h∆x q̇(∆x)2
T1 − (1 + )T2 = − T∞ −
k k 2k
T1 − 1.032T2 = −36.68 (2)

Solution: Generalizing
q̇(∆x)2
T0 − 2T1 + T2 = −
k
q̇(∆x)2
Tm−1 − 2Tm + Tm+1 = −
k

T1 − (1 + )T2 = − T∞ −
k k 2k
TM −1 − (1 + )TM = − T∞ −
k k 2k

Problem
Consider an aluminum alloy fin (k = 180 W/m K) of triangular

cross section with length L = 5 cm, base thickness b = 1 cm, and
very large width w in the direction normal to the plane of paper.
The base of the fin is maintained at a temperature of T0 = 200◦ C.
The fin is losing heat to the surrounding medium at T∞ = 25◦ C
with a heat transfer coefficient of h = 15 W/m2 K. Using the finite
difference method with six equally spaced nodes along the fin in
the x-direction, determine (a) the temperatures at the nodes, (b)
the rate of heat transfer from the fin for w = 1 m, and (c) the fin
efficiency.

Problem
T0 = 200◦ C k = 180 W/m K

b = 1 cm w = 1 cm
T∞ = 25 C ◦
h = 15 W/m2 K

Solution
qleft + qright + qconv = 0
Tm−1 − Tm Tm+1 − Tm
kAleft + kAright + hAconv (T∞ − Tm ) = 0
∆x ∆x
Aleft = 2w[L − (m − 1/2)∆x] tan θ

Aright = 2w[L − (m + 1/2)∆x] tan θ
Aconv = 2w(∆x/ cos θ)
b/2
tan θ = = 0.1 =⇒ θ = 5.71◦
L
Solution
(5.5 − m)Tm−1 − (10.01 − 2m)Tm + (4.5 − m)Tm+1 = −0.209
Four equations for m = 1 → 4. Boundary condition at node (5):
T4 − T5
kAleft + hAconv (T∞ − T5 )
∆x
∆x/2
Aleft = 2w(∆x/2) tan θ Aconv = 2w
cos θ
Total 5 equations with 5 unknowns.

Solution
   −1  
T1 −8.01 3.5 0 0 0 −900.21

 T2   3.5
  −6.01 2.5 0 0 

 −0.21 


 T3 = 0
  2.5 −4.01 1.5 0  ×
 −0.21 

 T4   0 0 1.5 −2.01 0.5   −2.1 
T5 0 0 0 1 −1.01 −0.21
 
198.6
 197.1 
 ◦
 195.7
=  C

 194.3 
192.9

Direct/Iterative Methods
Direct Methods
Solve in a systematic manner following a series of well-defined
steps.
Iterative Methods
Start with an initial guess for the solution, and iterate until
solution converges.

Gauss-Seidel/Iterative Method
Application of the Gauss-Seidel iterative method to the finite
difference equations in the previous triangular fin example.

Transient: The Explicit Method
1 ∂T ∂2T ∂2T
= +
α ∂t ∂x2 ∂y 2
The problem must be discretized in time.
t = p∆t
p+1 p
∂T Tm,n − Tm,n
≈
∂t m,n ∆t
In explicit method of solution, the temperatures are evaluated at
the previous (p) time - forward-difference approximation to the
time derivative.
p+1 p p p p
1 Tm,n − Tm,n Tm+1,n + Tm−1,n − 2Tm,n
=
α ∆t (∆x)2
p p p
Tm,n+1 + Tm,n−1 − 2Tm,n
+
(∆y)2
Transient: The Explicit Method
Solving for the nodal temperature at the new (p + 1) time and

assuming that ∆x = ∆y, it follows that:
p+1 p p p p p
Tm,n = Fo(Tm+1,n + Tm−1,n + Tm,n+1 + Tm,n−1 ) + (1 − 4Fo)Tm,n
α∆t
where Fo =
(∆x)2
If the system is 1D in x, the explicit form of the finite-difference

equation for an interior node m reduces to:
p+1 p p p
Tm = Fo(Tm+1 + Tm−1 ) + (1 − 2Fo)Tm

Stability Criterion
Explicit method is not unconditionally stable.

The solution may be characterized by numerically induced
oscillations, which are physically impossible
Oscillations may become unstable, causing the solution to
diverge from the actual steady-state conditions.
Stability Criterion
The criterion is determined by requiring that the coefficient
associated with the node of interest at the previous time is greater
than or equal to zero.
p+1 p p p
Tm = Fo(Tm+1 + Tm−1 ) + (1 − 2Fo)Tm
1
1D :(1 − 2Fo) ≥ 0 =⇒ Fo ≤
2
1
2D :(1 − 4Fo) ≥ 0 =⇒ Fo ≤
4
Energy Balance at the Boundary
Ėin + Ėg = Ėst
kA p ∆x T0p+1 − T0p
hA(T∞ − T0p ) + (T1 − T0p ) = ρA Cp
∆x 2 ∆t
T0p+1 = 2 Fo (T1 + Bi T∞ ) + (1 − 2 Fo − 2 Bi Fo)T0p
p
h∆x
Bi = k
From the stability Criteria:
1 − 2 Fo − 2 Bi Fo ≥ 0
1
Fo(1 + Bi) ≤
2
Problem
A fuel element of a nuclear reactor is in the shape of a plane wall
of thickness 2L = 20 mm and is convectively cooled at both
surfaces, with h = 1100 W/m2 K and T∞ = 250◦ C. At normal
operating power, heat is generated uniformly within the element at
a volumetric rate of q̇1 = 107 W/m3 . A departure from the
steady-state conditions associated with normal operation will occur
if there is a change in the generation rate. Consider a sudden
change to q̇2 = 2 × 107 W/m3 , and determine the fuel element
temperature distribution after 1.5 s.
The fuel element

thermal properties are
k = 30 W/m K and
α = 5 × 10−6 m2 /s.

Solution
For m = 0 → 4:
p p p p p+1 p
Tm−1 − Tm Tm+1 − Tm Tm − Tm
kA + kA + q̇A∆x = ρA∆xCp
∆x ∆x ∆t
q̇(∆x)2

p+1 p p p
Tm = Fo Tm−1 + Tm+1 + + (1 − 2Fo)Tm
k
m=0→4
For m = 5:
T4p − T5p p ∆x ∆x T5p+1 − T5p
kA + hA(T∞ − T5 ) + q̇A = ρA Cp
∆x 2 2 ∆t
q̇(∆x)2

T5p+1 = 2Fo T4p + Bi T∞ + + (1 − 2Fo − 2Bi Fo)T5p
2k
m=5
1
Fo(1 + Bi) ≤
2
Bi = 0.0733 =⇒ Fo ≤ 0.466 =⇒ ∆t ≤ 0.373 s

Solution
Assuming ∆t = 0.3 s, Fo = 0.375,
T0p+1 = 0.375(2T1p + 2.67) + 0.250T0p
T1p+1 = 0.375(T0p + T2p + 2.67) + 0.250T0p
T2p+1 = 0.375(T1p + T3p + 2.67) + 0.250T0p
T3p+1 = 0.375(T2p + T4p + 2.67) + 0.250T0p
T4p+1 = 0.375(T3p + T5p + 2.67) + 0.250T0p
T5p+1 = 0.750(T4p + 19.67) + 0.195T0p
For 1D, steady state, q̇, symmetrical about the plane:
q̇L2 x2

T (x) = 1 − 2 + Ts p=0 107 × 0.01
2k L T 5 = 250+ = 340.9◦ C
1100
q̇L p=0
Tm = 16.67(1−10000x2 )+340.9
Ts = T∞ +
h
Solution

Transient: The Implicit Method
1 ∂T ∂2T ∂2T
= +
α ∂t ∂x2 ∂y 2
p+1 p
∂T Tm,n − Tm,n
≈
∂t m,n ∆t
In implicit method of solution, the temperatures are evaluated at
the new (p + 1) time - backward-difference approximation to the
time derivative.
p+1 p p+1 p+1 p+1
1 Tm,n − Tm,n Tm+1,n + Tm−1,n − 2Tm,n
=
α ∆t (∆x)2
p+1 p+1 p+1
Tm,n+1 + Tm,n−1 − 2Tm,n
+
(∆y)2

Problem
A fuel element of a nuclear reactor is in the shape of a plane wall
of thickness 2L = 20 mm and is convectively cooled at both
surfaces, with h = 1100 W/m2 K and T∞ = 250◦ C. At normal
operating power, heat is generated uniformly within the element at
a volumetric rate of q̇1 = 107 W/m3 . A departure from the
steady-state conditions associated with normal operation will occur
if there is a change in the generation rate. Consider a sudden
change to q̇2 = 2 × 107 W/m3 , and determine the fuel element
temperature distribution after 1.5 s.
The fuel element

thermal properties are
k = 30 W/m K and
α = 5 × 10−6 m2 /s.

Solution
For m = 0 → 4:
p+1 p+1
Tm−1 − Tm T p+1 − Tm
p+1 p+1
Tm p
− Tm
kA +kA m+1 +q̇A∆x = ρA∆xCp
∆x ∆x ∆t
p+1 p+1 p+1 p q̇(∆x)2

Fo Tm − (1 + 2Fo)Tm + FoTm+1 = −Tm − Fo
k m=0→4
For m = 5:
T4p+1 − T5p+1 ∆x ∆x T5p+1 − T5p

kA +hA(T∞ −T5p+1 )+q̇A = ρA Cp
∆x 2 2 ∆t
q̇(∆x)2
2FoT4p+1 − (1 + 2Fo + 2Bi Fo)T5p+1 = −T5p − F o
k m=5

Introduction to Convection
sudheer@iitp.ac.in

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction to Convection 218 / 537

Convective Heat Transfer
Convective heat transfer involves

fluid motion
heat conduction
The fluid motion enhances the heat
transfer, since it brings hotter and
cooler chunks of fluid into contact,
initiating higher rates of conduction at a
greater number of sites in fluid.
Therefore, the rate of heat transfer
through a fluid is much higher by
convection than it is by conduction.
Higher the fluid velocity, the higher the

rate of heat transfer.

Convective Heat Transfer
Convection heat transfer strongly depends on

fluid properties: µ, k, ρ, Cp
fluid velocity: V
geometry and the roughness of the solid surface
type of fluid flow (laminar or turbulent)
Newton’s law of cooling
qconv = hAs (Ts − T∞ )
T∞ is the temp. of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface

Total Heat Transfer Rate
Local heat flux

00
qconv = hl (Ts − T∞ )
hl is the local convection coefficient
Flow conditions vary on the surface: q 00 , h vary along the surface.
The total heat transfer rate q:

Z
qconv = q 00 dAs
As
Z
= (Ts − T∞ ) hdAs
As

Total Heat Transfer Rate
Defining an average convection coefficient h̄ for the entire surface,
qconv = h̄As (Ts − T∞ )

Z
1
h̄ = hdAs
As
As

No-Temperature-Jump
A fluid flowing over a stationary surface - no-slip condition
A fluid and a solid surface will have the same T at the point of
contact, known as no-temperature-jump condition.
No-slip, No-Temperature-Jump
With no-slip and the no-temperature-jump conditions: the heat
transfer from the solid surface to the fluid layer adjacent to the
surface is by pure conduction.

00 00 ∂T
qconv = qcond = −kf luid
∂y y=0
T represents the temperature distribution in the fluid (∂T /∂y)y=0

i.e., the temp. gradient at the surface.
00
qconv = h(Ts − T∞ )

∂T
−kf luid ∂y y=0
h=
Ts − T∞

Problem
Experimental results for the local heat transfer coefficient hx for
flow over a flat plate with an extremely rough surface were found
to fit the relation hx (x) = x−0.1 where x (m) is the distance from
the leading edge of the plate.
Develop an expression for the ration of the average heat
transfer coefficient h̄x for a path of length x to the local heat
transfer coefficient hx at x.
Plot the variation of hx and h̄x as a function of x.

Solution
The average value of h over the region from 0 to x is:

Zx
1
h̄x = = hx (x)dx
x
0
Zx
1
= x−0.1 dx
x
0
1 x0.9
= = 1.11x−0.1
x 0.9
h̄x = 1.11hx

Solution
Comments
Boundary layer development causes both hl and h̄ to decrease with
increasing distance from the leading edge. The average coefficient
up to x must therefore exceed the local value at x.
Nusselt Number
hLc
Nu =
kf luid
Heat transfer through the fluid layer will

be by convection when the fluid involves
some motion and by conduction when
the fluid layer is motionless.
∆T
qconv = h∆T qcond = k
L
qconv h∆T hL
= = = Nu
qcond k∆T /L k

Nusselt Number
qconv
Nu =
qcond
Nusselt number: enhancement of heat transfer through a fluid
layer as a result of convection relative to conduction across the
same fluid layer.
Nu >> 1 for a fluid layer - the more effective the convection
Nu = 1 for a fluid layer - heat transfer across the layer is by pure

conduction
Nu < 1 ???

Prof. Wilhem Nußelt
German engineer, born in Germany (1882)

Doctoral thesis - Conductivity of Insulating
Materials
Prof. - Heat and Momentum Transfer in
Tubes
1915 - pioneering work in basic laws of
transfer
Dimensionless groups - similarity theory of heat transfer
Film condensation of steam on vertical surfaces
Combustion of pulverized coal
Analogy of heat transfer and mass transfer in evaporation
Worked till 70 years. Lived for 75 years and died in München on
September 1, 1957.

External and Internal Flows
External - flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface
Internal - flow is completely bounded by solid surfaces

Laminar and Turbulent Flows
Laminar - smooth and orderly: flow of high-viscosity fluids such as

oils at low velocities
Internal - chaotic and highly disordered fluid motion: flow of
low-viscosity fluids such as air at high velocities
The flow regime greatly influences the heat transfer rates and the
required power for pumping.
Reynolds Number
Osborne Reynolds in 1880’s, discovered that the flow regime

depends mainly on the ratio of the inertia forces to viscous forces
in the fluid.
Re can be viewed as the ratio of the inertia forces to the viscous

forces acting on a fluid volume element.
Inertia forces V Lc ρV Lc
Re = = =
Viscous ν µ

The Effects of Turbulence
Taylor and Von Karman (1937)

Turbulence is an irregular motion which in general makes its
appearance in fluids, gaseous or liquids, when they flow past solid
surfaces or even when neighboring streams of same fluid past over
one another.
Turbulent fluid motion is an irregular condition of flow in which
various quantities show a random variation with time and space
coordinates, so that statistically distinct average values can be
discerned.

The Effects of Turbulence
Because of the motion of eddies, the transport of momentum,

energy, and species is enhanced.
The velocity gradient at the surface, and therefore the surface

shear stress, is much larger for δturb than for δlam . Similarly for
temp. & conc. gradients.
Turbulence is desirable. However, the increase in wall shear stress

will have the adverse effect of increasing pump or fan power.
1-, 2-, 3- Dimensional Flows
1-D flow in a circular pipe

Velocity Boundary Layer
Vx=δ = 0.99U∞

Wall Shear Stress
Friction force per unit area is called sheat stress
Surface shear stress

∂u
τw = µ
∂y y=0
The determination of τw is not practical as it requires a knowledge

of the flow velocity profile. A more practical approach in external
flow is to relate τw to the upstream velocity U∞ as:
Skin friction coefficient
ρU∞2
τw = Cf
2
Friction force over the entire surface

ρU∞2
F f = C f As
2
Thermal Boundary Layer
δt at any location along the surface at which

(T − Ts ) = 0.99(T∞ − Ts )

Prandtl Number
Shape of the temp. profile in the thermal boundary layer

dictates the convection heat transfer between a solid surface
and the fluid flowing over it.
In flow over a heated (or cooled) surface, both velocity and
thermal boundary layers will develop simultaneously.
Noting that the fluid velocity will have a strong influence on
the temp. profile, the development of the velocity boundary
layer relative to the thermal boundary layer will have a strong
effect on the convection heat transfer.
Molecular diffusivity of momentum ν µCp

Pr = = =
Molecular diffusivity of heat α k

Prandtl Number
Typical ranges of Pr for common fluids
Fluid Pr
Liquid metals 0.004-0.030
Gases 0.7-1.0
Water 1.7-13.7
Light organic fluids 5-50
Oils 50-100,000
Glycerin 2000-100,000

Prandtl Number
δ
≈ Prn
δt
n is positive exponent
∼
Pr = 1 for gases =⇒ both momentum and heat dissipate
through the fluid at about the same rate.
Heat diffuses very quickly in liquid metals (Pr < 1).
Heat diffuses very slowly in oils (Pr > 1) relative to
momentum.
Therefore, thermal boundary layer is much thicker for liquid
metals and much thinner for oils relative to the velocity
boundary layer.
δ = δt for Pr = 1
ν
δ > δt for Pr > 1 Pr =
α
δ < δt for Pr < 1
Prof. Ludwig Prandtl
German Physicist, born in Bavaria (1875 -

1953)
Father of aerodynamics
Prof. of Applied Mechanics at Göttingen for
49 years (until his death)
His work in fluid dynamics is still used today
in many areas of aerodynamics and chemical
engineering.
His discovery in 1904 of the Boundary Layer which adjoins the
surface of a body moving in a fluid led to an understanding of skin
friction drag and of the way in which streamlining reduces the drag
of airplane wings and other moving bodies.

Convection Equations
sudheer@iitp.ac.in

Heat and Mass Transfer Convection Equations 244 / 537
Assumptions
Assuming the flow/fluid to be:

2D, Steady
Newtonian
constant properties (ρ, µ, k, etc.)

Continuity Equation
Rate of mass flow into CV = Rate of mass flow out of CV
rate of fluid entering CVleft : rate of fluid leaving CVright :
∂u
ρu(dy · 1) ρ(u + dx)(dy · 1)
∂x
∂u ∂v
ρu(dy · 1) + ρv(dx · 1) = ρ(u + dx)(dy · 1) + ρ(v + dy)(dx · 1)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y

Momentum Equation
Expressing Newton’s second law of motion for the control volume:
(Mass) (Acceleration in x) = (Net body and surface forces in x)
δm · ax = Fsurface,x + Fbody,x (3)

δm = ρ(dx · dy · 1)
du ∂u dx ∂u dy
ax = = +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
∂u ∂u
=u +v (4)
∂x ∂y
Steady state doesn’t mean that acceleration is zero.

Ex: Garden hose nozzle

Momentum Equation
Body forces: gravity, electric and magnetic forces - ∝ volume.

Surface forces: pressure forces due to hydrostatic pressure and
shear stresses due to viscous effects - ∝ surface area.
Viscous forces has two components:

1 normal to the surface- normal stress
related to velocity gradients ∂u/∂x and ∂v/∂y
2 along the wall surface - shear stress
related to ∂u/∂y
For simplicity, the normal stresses are neglected.

Momentum Equation

∂τ ∂P
Fsurface,x = dy (dx · 1) − dx (dy · 1)
∂y ∂x

∂τ ∂P
= − (dx · dy · 1)
∂y ∂x

∂u
τ =µ ∂y
2
∂ u ∂P
= µ 2 − (dx · dy · 1) (5)
∂y ∂x
Momentum Equation
Combining Eqs. (3), (4) and (5):
∂ 2 u ∂P

∂u ∂u
ρ u +v =µ 2 −
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
x-momentum equation

Boundary layer approximations
∂P
=0
∂y
y-momentum equation
∂P dP
P = P (x) =⇒ =
∂x dx
Energy Equation: Balance
(Ėin − Ėout )by mass + (Ėin − Ėout )by heat + (Ėin − Ėout )by work = 0
(6)
Flowing fluid stream: is associated with enthalpy (internal energy
and flow energy), potential energy (PE) and kinetic energy (KE)
Energy Balance: by Mass
The total energy of a flowing stream is:
 0
u2 2
>

0 +v
ṁ(h + pe + ke) = ṁ h +
gz
>+  = ṁCp T


2
KE: [m2 /s2 ] ≈ J/kg. h is in kJ/kg. So, KE is expressed in kJ/kg

by dividing it by 1000. KE term at low velocities is negligible.
By similar argument, PE term is negligible.

∂(ṁCp T )x
(Ėin − Ėout )by mass,x = (ṁCp T )x − (ṁCp T )x + dx
∂x
∂[ρu(dy · 1)Cp T ]
=− dx
∂x

∂T ∂T
(Ėin − Ėout )by mass = −ρCp u +v dxdy (7)
∂x ∂y

Energy Balance: by Heat

∂qx
(Ėin − Ėout )by heat,x = qx − qx + dx
∂x

∂ ∂T
=− −k(dy · 1) dx
∂x ∂x
∂2T
= k 2 dxdy
∂x
2
∂2T

∂ T
(Ėin − Ėout )by heat =k + dxdy (8)
∂x2 ∂y 2

Energy Balance: by Work
Work done by body forces: considered only if significant

gravitational, electric, or magnetic effects exist.
Work done by surface faces: consists of forces due to fluid
pressure and viscous shear stresses.
Work done by pressure (the flow work) is accounted in enthalpy
Shear stresses that result from viscous effects are usually small
(low velocities)

Energy Equation
Combining Eqs. (6), (7), and (8):

2
∂2T

∂T ∂T ∂ T
ρCp u +v =k +
∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2
| {z } | {z }
convection conduction
Net energy convected by the fluid out of CV
Net energy transfered into CV by conduction

Energy Equation with Viscous Shear Stresses
When viscous shear stresses are not neglected, then:

2
∂2T

∂T ∂T ∂ T
ρCp u +v =k + + µΦ
∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2 |{z}
| {z } | {z } viscous dissipation
convection conduction
where the viscous dissipation term is given as:

" 2 #
∂u ∂v 2 ∂u 2

∂v
µΦ = µ + + 2µ +
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
This accounts for the rate at which mechanical work is irreversibly

converted to thermal energy due to viscous effects in the fluid.

Energy Equation with no Convection
∂2T ∂2T

∂T ∂T
u +v =α +
∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2
| {z } | {z }
advection diffusion
When the fluid is stationary, u = v = 0:

2
∂2T

∂ T
k + =0
∂x2 ∂y 2

Differential Convection Equations
Steady incompressible, laminar flow of a fluid with constant
properties:
∂u ∂v
Continuity: + =0
∂x ∂y
∂ 2 u dP

∂u ∂u
Momentum: ρ u +v =µ 2 −
∂x ∂y ∂y dx
2
∂2T

∂T ∂T ∂ T
Energy: ρCp u +v =k +
∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2
with the boundary conditions
At x = 0 : u(0, y) = u∞ , T (0, y) = T∞
At y = 0 : u(x, 0) = 0, v(x, 0) = 0, T (x, 0) = Ts
At y → ∞ : u(x, ∞) = u∞ , T (x, ∞) = T∞

Principle of Similarity
x ∗ y u v P T − Ts
x∗ = , y = , u∗ = , v∗ = ,P∗ = 2
,T∗ =
L L U∞ U∞ ρU∞ T∞ − Ts
∂u∗ ∂v ∗
Continuity: + =0
∂x∗ ∂y ∗
∂u∗ ∂u∗ 1 ∂ 2 u∗ dP ∗
Momentum: u∗ ∗ + v ∗ ∗ = −
∂x ∂y ReL ∂y ∗2 dx∗
∂T ∗ ∂T ∗ 1 ∂2T ∗
Energy: u∗ ∗ + v ∗ ∗ =
∂x ∂y ReL Pr ∂y ∗2
with the boundary conditions
At x∗ = 0 : u∗ (0, y ∗ ) = 1, T ∗ (0, y ∗ ) = 1
At y ∗ = 0 : u∗ (x∗ , 0) = 0, v ∗ (x∗ , 0) = 0, T (x∗ , 0) = 0
At y ∗ → ∞ : u∗ (x∗ , ∞) = 1, T ∗ (x∗ , ∞) = 1

Principle of Similarity
Parameters before nondimensionalizing: L, V, T∞ , v, α
Parameters after nondimensionalizing: Re, PrThe number of

parameters is reduced greatly by nondimensionalizing the
convection equations.

Functional Forms
For a given geometry, the solution for u∗ can be expressed as:
u∗ = f1 (x∗ , y ∗ , ReL )
The shear stress at the surface:

∂u
τw = µ
∂y y=0
µU∞ ∂u∗

=
L ∂y ∗ y∗ =0
µU∞
= f2 (x∗ , ReL )
L

Functional Forms
Now the local friction factor:

τw
Cf,x = 2 /2
ρU∞
µU∞ /L
= f (x∗ , ReL )
2 /2 2
ρU∞
2
= f2 (x∗ , ReL )
ReL
Cf,x = f3 (x∗ , ReL )
Friction coefficient for a given geometry can be expressed in terms

of the Re and the the dimensionless space variable x∗ alone,
instead of being expressed in terms of x, L, V, ρ and µ.
This is a very significant finding, and shows the value of

nondimensionalized equations.
Functional Forms
Similary,
T ∗ = g1 (x∗ , y ∗ , ReL , Pr)
The local convective heat coefficient becomes:
k(T∞ − Ts ) ∂T ∗ k ∂T ∗

k ∂T
hx = − =− =
Ts − T∞ ∂y y=0 L(Ts − T∞ ) ∂y ∗ y∗ =0 L ∂y ∗ y∗ =0
Nusselt number relation gives:
∂T ∗

hx L
Nux = = = g2 (x∗ , ReL , Pr)
k ∂y ∗ y∗ =0
The Nu is equivalent to the dimensionless temp. gradient at the

surface, and thus it is properly referred to as the dimensionless
heat transfer coefficient.

Nusselt Number
The Nu is equivalent to the

dimensionless temp. gradient at
the surface, and thus it is
properly referred to as the
dimensionless heat transfer
coefficient.
Local Nusselt number: Nux = f (x∗ , ReL , Pr)
Average Nusselt number: Nu = f (ReL , Pr)
A common form: Nu = CRem

L Pr
n

Momentum and Heat Transfer - Analogy
∗
When Pr = 1, and dP dx∗ = 0 ( =⇒ u = u∞ in the free stream, as
in flow over a flat plate), then
∂u∗ ∗ ∂u
∗ 1 ∂ 2 u∗
Momentum: u∗ + v =
∂x∗ ∂y ∗ ReL ∂y ∗2
∂T ∗ ∂T ∗ 1 ∂2T ∗
Energy: u∗ ∗ + v ∗ ∗ =
∂x ∂y ReL ∂y ∗2
Profile: u∗ = T ∗
∂u∗ ∂T ∗

Gradients: =
∂y ∗ y∗ =0 ∂y ∗ y∗ =0
ReL
Analogy: Cf,x = Nux
2 Reynolds analogy
h for fluid with Pr ≈ 1 from Cf which is easier to measure.

Stanton Number
h Nu
St = =
ρCp V ReL Pr
Cf,x
= Stx (Pr = 1)
2
Stanton number is also a dimensionless heat transfer coefficient. It

measures the ratio of heat transferred into a fluid to the thermal
capacity of fluid.
dP ∗
Reynolds analogy is limited to Pr = 1, and dx∗ = 0.
An analogy that is applicable over a wide range of Pr by adding a

Prandtl number correction.

Modified Reynolds or Chilton-Colburn Analogy
Laminar flow over a flat plate
Cf,x = 0.664Re−1/2
x
Nu = 0.332Pr1/3 Re1/2
x
ReL
Cf,x = Nux Pr−1/3
2
Cf,x
=⇒ = StPr2/3 ≡ jH
2 0.6 < Pr < 60
Here jH is called the Colburn j-factor.
Experiments show that it may be applied for turbulent flow over a

∗
surface, even in the presence of pressure gradients ( dP
dx∗ 6= 0).
However, the analogy is not applicable for laminar flow unless

dP ∗
dx∗ = 0. Therefore, it does not apply to laminar flow in a pipe.
External Flow
sudheer@iitp.ac.in

Heat and Mass Transfer External Flow 270 / 537

Heat Transfer
Local Nusselt number: Nux = f (x∗ , ReL , Pr)
Average Nusselt number: NuL = f (ReL , Pr)
A common form: NuL = CRem

L Pr
n
The Empirical Method

Heat Transfer
Ts + T∞
Tf ≡
2

Flat Plate in Parallel Flow
Assumptions
Steady, incompressible, laminar flow with constant fluid properties
and negligible viscous dissipation.

∂u ∂v
Continuity: + =0
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂2u
Momentum: u +v =ν 2
∂x ∂y ∂y
∂T ∂T ∂2T
Energy: u +v =α 2
∂x ∂y ∂y
First solved in 1908 by German engineer H. Blasius, a student of

L. Pradtl. The profile u/u∞ remains unchanged with y/δ. A
stream function ψ(x, y) is defined as,
∂ψ ∂ψ
u= and v = −
∂y ∂x
This takes care of continuity equation.
A dimensionless independent similarity variable and a dependent
variable such that u/u∞ = f 0 (η),
r
u∞ ψ
η=y and f (η) = p
νx u∞ νx/u∞
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂η df
u= = = u∞ = u∞ f 0
∂y ∂η ∂y dη
r
∂ψ 1 νu∞ df
v=− = η −f
∂x 2 x dη
(∵ −2x ∂f ∂f
∂x = η ∂η )
2f 000 + f f 00 = 0
The problem reduced to one of solving a nonlinear third-order

ordinary differential equation.
2f 000 + f f 00 = 0
A third-order nonlinear differential equation with boundary
conditions:
u(x, 0) = v(x, 0) = 0 and u(x, ∞) = u∞

df df
= f (0) = 0 and =1
η η=0 η η→∞
The problem was first solved by Blasius using a power series
expansion approach, and this original solution is known as the
Blasius solution.

f 0 = u/u∞ = 0.99, for η = 5.0

5.0 5x
yη=5.0 = δ = p =√
u∞ /νx Rex
As δ ↑ with x, ν ↑ but δ ↓ with u∞ ↑
u∞ d2 f
r
∂u
τw = µ = µu∞
∂y y=0 νx dη 2 η=0
p
=⇒ τw = 0.332u∞ u∞ /νx
τw
Cf,x = = 0.664Re−1/2
x
ρu2∞ /2
Unlike δ, τw and Cf,x decrease along the plate as x−1/2 .

The energy equation:
T (x, y) − Ts
θ(η) =
T∞ − Ts
d2 θ dθ
2 2
+ Prf =0
dη dη
θ(0) = 0, θ(∞) = 1
For Pr = 1: δ and δt coincide. u/u∞ and θ are identical for

steady, incompressible, laminar flow of a fluid with constant
properties over an isothermal flat plate.

d2 θ dθ
2 2
+ Prf =0
dη dη
For Pr > 0.6,
dθ
= 0.332 Pr1/3
dη η=0
r
dT 1/3 u∞
= 0.332 Pr (T∞ − Ts )
dy y=0
νx
r
1/3 u∞
hx = 0.332 Pr k Nux = 0.332 Rex1/2 Pr1/3
νx
δ 5x
δt = 1/3
= 1/3
√ (Tf = (Ts + T∞ )/2)
Pr Pr Rex

Turbulent Flow
ρu∞ x
Rex = Recr = 5 × 105
µ

Turbulent Flow
5x 0.664
Laminar: δv,x = 1/2
and Cf,x = 1/2
, Rex < 5 × 105
Rex Rex
0.382x 0.0592
Turbulent: δv,x = 1/5
and Cf,x = 1/5
, 5 × 105 ≤ Rex ≤ 107
Rex Rex
Average skin friction coefficient
ZL
1 1.328
Laminar : Cf = Cf,x dx = 1/2
, Rex < 5 × 105
L ReL
0
0.074
Turbulent : Cf = 1/5
, 5 × 105 ≤ Rex ≤ 107
ReL

Turbulent Flow
x
ZL

Z cr
1
Cf =  Cf,lam dx + Cf,turb dx
L
0 xcr
0.074 1742
Cf = 1/5
−
ReL ReL
(5 × 105 ≤ Rex ≤ 107 )
ε −2.5
Rough surface, turbulent: Cf = 1.89 − 1.62 log
L
(Re > 10 , ε/L > 10−4 )
6

Turbulent Flow
hx x
Laminar: Nux = = 0.332Re0.5
x Pr
1/3
(Pr > 0.6)
k
hx x
Turbulent: Nux = = 0.0296Re0.8
x Pr
1/3
(0.6 ≤Pr ≤ 60)
k
(5 × 105 ≤ Rex ≤ 107 )
Average values:
hL
Nulam = = 0.664Re0.5
x Pr
1/3
k
hL
Nuturb = = 0.037Re0.8
x Pr
1/3
k

Turbulent Flow
x
ZL

Z cr
1
h= hx,lam dx + hx,turb dx
L
0 xcr
0.8
− 871 Pr1/3

Nu = 0.037ReL
(0.6 ≤Pr ≤ 60)
(5 × 105 ≤ ReL ≤ 107 )

Other Configurations
Liquid metals
Such as mercury have high k, very small Pr. Thus, the δt develops
much faster than δ.
We can assume the velocity in δt to be constant at the free stream

value and solve the energy equation.
Nux = 0.565(Rex Pr)1/2 = 0.565Pe1/2

x (Pr < 0.05, Pex ≥ 100)
Churchill’s correlation for all Prandtl numbers
1/2
0.3387Rex Pr1/3
Nux = h i1/4 (Rex Pr ≥ 100)
1 + (0.0468/Pr)2/3

Flat Plate with Unheated Starting Length
Nux |ξ=0 0.332Re0.5

x Pr
1/3
Laminar: Nux = 1/3 = 1/3
1 − (ξ/x)3/4 1 − (ξ/x)3/4
Nux |ξ=0 0.0296Re0.8
x Pr
1/3
Turbulent: Nux = 1/9 = 1/9
1 − (ξ/x)9/10 1 − (ξ/x)9/10

Flat Plate with Uniform Heat Flux
Laminar: Nux = 0.453Re0.5

x Pr
1/3
Turbulent: Nux = 0.0308Re0.8

x Pr
1/3
Net heat transfer from the surface:
Q̇ = qs As
qs = hx [Ts (x) − T∞ ]
qs
=⇒ Ts (x) = T∞ +
hs

Problem
Engine oil at 60◦ C flows over the upper surface of a 5 m long flat
plate whose temperature is 20◦ C with a velocity of 2 m/s.
Determine the total drag force and the rate of heat transfer per
unit width of the entire plate.
Tf = 40◦ C
ρ = 876 kg/m3
Pr = 2870
k = 0.144 W/m K
ν = 242 × 10−6 m2 /s
Known: Engine oil flows over a flat plate.

Solution
Find: Total drag force, Q̇ per unit width of plate.
Assumptions: The flow is steady, incompressible
u∞ L
ReL = = 41322.3 (< Recr = 5 × 105 )
ν
−1/2
Cf = 1.328ReL = 6.533 × 10−0.3
ρu2∞
FD = Cf As = 57.23 N
2
1/2
Nu = 0.664ReL Pr1/3 = 1938.5
k
h= Nu = 55.98 W/m2 K
L
Q̇ = hAs (T∞ − Ts ) = 11.2 W

Flow Across Cylinder
Churchill and Bernstein correlation:
0.62Re1/2 Pr1/3
Nucyl = 0.3 + 1/4
1 + (0.4/Pr)2/3
" 5/8 #4/5
Re
× 1+
282, 000
Nu is relatively high at the

stagnation point. Decreases with
increasing θ as a result of
thethickening of the laminar
boundary layer.
Minimum at 80◦ , which is the
separation point in laminar flow.

Flow Across Cylinder
Increases with increasing as a result

of the intense mixing in the
separated flow region (the wake).
The sharp increase at about 90◦ is
due to the transition from laminar
to turbulent flow.
The later decrease is again due to
the thickening of the boundary
layer.
Nu reaches its second minimum at
about 140◦ , which is the flow
separation point in turbulent flow,
and increases with as a result of
the intense mixing in the turbulent
wake region.
Empirical Correlations
All properties are evaluated at

Tf

Flow Across Tube Banks
ST Transverse pitch
SL Longitudinal pitch
SD Diagonal pitch
hD
NuD =
k
= C Rem n
D Pr (Pr/Prs )
0.25
ReD is defined at umax

but not the u∞ .
All properties except Prs

are evaluated at
(Tinlet + Toutlet )/2 of fluid.
Prs is evaluated at Ts .

Flow Across Tube Banks
NuD,NL<16 = F NuD

Methodology for a Convection Calculation
Become immediately cognizant of the flow geometry.

Specify the appropriate reference temperature and evaluate
the pertinent fluid properties at that temperature.
Calculate the Reynolds number.
Decide whether a local or surface average coefficient is
required.
Select the appropriate correlation.

Problem: Cylinder
Experiments have been conducted on a metallic cylinder (D = 12.7 mm,
L = 94 mm). The cylinder is heated internally by an electrical heater and
is subjected to a cross flow of air in a low-speed wind tunnel
(V = 10 m/s, 26.2◦ C). The heater power dissipation was measured to be
P = 46 W, while Ts = 128.4◦ C. It is estimated that 15% of the power
dissipation is lost through conduction and radiation.
1 Determine h from experimental observations.
2 Compare the result with appropriate correlation(s).

Problem: Cylinder
0.6 0.37 1/2

NuD = 0.26 ReD Pr (Pr/Prs ) (Zhukauskasa relation)
Air (T∞ = 26.2◦ C):
ν = 15.89 × 10−6 m2 /s, k = 26.3 × 10−3 W/m K, Pr = 0.707
Air (Tf = 77.3◦ C):
ν = 20.92 × 10−6 m2 /s, k = 30 × 10−3 W/m K, Pr = 0.700
Air (Ts = 128.4◦ C): Pr = 0.690
1/2
" 5/8 #4/5
0.62ReD Pr1/3

ReD
NuD = 0.3 + 1/4 1 + 282, 000
1 + (0.4/Pr)2/3
(Churchill relation)
Problem: Cylinder

NuD = 0.193 Re0.618

D Pr1/3 (Hilpert correlation)
Air (T∞ = 26.2◦ C):

ν = 15.89 × 10−6 m2 /s, k = 26.3 × 10−3 W/m K, Pr = 0.707
Air (Tf = 77.3◦ C):
ν = 20.92 × 10−6 m2 /s, k = 30 × 10−3 W/m K, Pr = 0.700
Air (Ts = 128.4◦ C): Pr = 0.690

Problem: Sphere
The decorative plastic film on a copper sphere of 10 mm diameter

is cured in an oven at 75◦ C. Upon removal from the oven, the
sphere is subjected to an airstream at 1 atm and 23◦ C having a
velocity of 10 m/s. Estimate how long it will take to cool the
sphere to 35◦ C.
Copper (T = 55◦ C):
ρ = 8933 kg/m3 , k = 399 W/m K, Cp = 387 J/kg
Air (T∞ = 23◦ C):
µ = 181.6 × 10−7 Ns/m2 , ν = 15.36 × 10−6 m2 /s,
k = 0.0258 W/m K, Pr = 0.709
Air (Ts = 55◦ C): µ = 197.8 × 10−7 Ns/m2
1/4

1/2 2/3

0.4 µ
NuD = 2 + 0.4 ReD + 0.06 ReD Pr
µs
All properties except µs are evaluated at T∞ .

Problem: Sphere
The decorative plastic film on a copper sphere of 10 mm diameter

is cured in an oven at 75◦ C. Upon removal from the oven, the
sphere is subjected to an airstream at 1 atm and 23◦ C having a
velocity of 10 m/s. Estimate how long it will take to cool the
sphere to 35◦ C.
Copper (T = 55◦ C):
ρ = 8933 kg/m3 , k = 399 W/m K, Cp = 387 J/kg
Air (T∞ = 39◦ C):
ν = 17.15 × 10−6 m2 /s, Pr = 0.705
Air (Ts = 55◦ C): µ = 197.8 × 10−7 Ns/m2
All properties
are evaluated at
Tf

Quiz 4
A flat plate of 0.3 m long is maintained at a uniform surface
temperature, Ts = 230◦ C, by using two independently controlled
electrical strip heaters. The first heater 0.2 m long and the second
one is 0.1 m long. The ambient air temperature at T∞ = 25◦ C
flows over the plate at a velocity of 60 m/s. At what heater is the
electrical input a maximum? What is the value of this input.
Air (Tf = 400 K):
ν = 26.41 × 10−6 m2 /s, k = 0.0338 W/m K, Pr = 0.69
Relations
Laminar boundary layer ¯ x = h̄x x = 0.664 Re1/2 Pr1/3

Nu x
k
(Re < 5 × 105 )
¯ L = h̄L L = (0.037 Re4/5 − 871) Pr1/3
Mixed boundary layer Nu L
k
(Re > 5 × 105 )

Internal Flow
sudheer@iitp.ac.in

Heat and Mass Transfer Internal Flow 302 / 537

Internal Flows
External flow
Fluid has a free surface
δ is free to grow indefinitely
Internal flow
Fluid is completely confined by the inner surfaces of the tube
There is a limit on how much δ can grow
Circular pipes can withstand large

pressure difference between inside
and outside without distortion.
Provide the most heat transfer
for the least pressure drop.

Internal Flows
ρum D
ReD =
µ
Critical ReD,c ≈ 2300
x
fd,h
Laminar ≈ 0.05ReD
x D lam
fd,h
Turbulence ≈ 10
D turb
Mean Velocity
Z
ṁ = ρum Ac = ρu(r, x)dAc
Ac
Zro
2
um = 2 u(r, x)rdr
ro
0

Velocity Profile in Fully Developed Region
Assumptions: Laminar, incompressible, constant property fluid in
fully developed region, circular
tube.
" 2 #
1 dp r
u(r) = − ro2 1−
4µ dx ro
r2 dp
um = − o
8µ dx
" 2 #
u(r) r
=2 1−
um ro
Friction Factor
The Moody (or Darcy) friction factor:
−(dp/dx)D
f≡
ρu2m /2
Friction coefficient, Fanning friction factor,

τs f
Cf = 2
=
ρum /2 4
For laminar flow:

64
f=
Re
For turbulent flow:
−1/4
f = 0.316ReD ReD . 2 × 104
−1/5
f = 0.184ReD ReD & 2 × 104

Moody Diagram

Pump or Fan Power
Zp2 Zx2
ρu2 ρu2m
∆p = − dp = f m dx = f (x1 − x2 )
2D 2D
p1 x1
ṁ
Power, P = ∆p
ρ

Temperature
ρum D
ReD =
µ
Critical ReD,c ≈ 2300
x
fd,t
Laminar ≈ 0.05ReD Pr
x D lam
fd,t
Turbulence ≈ 10
D turb

Mean Temperature
Advection rate: integrating the product of mass flux (ρu) and the
thermal energy (or enthalpy) per unit mass, Cp T , over Ac .
Z
ṁCp Tm = ρuCp T dAc
Ac
For incompressible flow in a

circular tube with constant Cp :
Zro
2
Tm = uT rdr
um ro2
0
qs00 = h(Ts − Tm )
Dimensionless Temperature

∂ Ts (x) − T (r, x)
=0
∂x Ts (x) − Tm (x) fd,t

∂ Ts (x) − T (r, x) −∂T /∂r|r=ro
=⇒ = 6= f (x)
∂x Ts (x) − Tm (x) fd,t Ts − Tm

00 ∂T ∂T
qs = −k = −k
∂y y=0 ∂r r=ro
h
=⇒ 6= f (x)
k
In thermally fully developed flow of a fluid with constant
properties, hlocal is a constant, independent of x.

Heat Transfer Coefficient for Flow in a Tube

General Considerations
dqconv = ṁCp [(Tm + dTm ) − Tm ]

dqconv = ṁCp dTm

General Considerations: Const. q
qs00 P
Tm (x) = Tm,i + x
ṁCp

General Considerations: Const. T

Ts − Tm (x) Px
= exp − h
Ts − Tm,i ṁCp

Fully Developed Laminar Flow: Const. q

∂T α ∂ ∂T
u = r
∂x r ∂r ∂r
11 qs00 D
T (r, x) =⇒ Tm (x) − Ts (x) = −
48 k
11 k hD
h= =⇒ NuD = = 4.36
48 D k
Fully Developed Laminar Flow: Const. T
hD
NuD = = 3.66
k

The Entry Region

Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes
Dittus-Boelter equation
4/5
NuD = 0.023ReD Prn
where n = 0.4 for heating (Ts > Tm ) and 0.3 for cooling
(Ts < Tm ).

The Entry Region

Heat Transfer Enhacement

Free Convection
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Heat and Mass Transfer Free Convection 323 / 537
Physical Considerations
Buoyancy
Combined presence of a fluid density gradient and a body force
that is proportional to density.
Body Force
Gravitational
Centrifugal force in rotating fluid machinery
Coriolis force in atmospheric
Oceanic rotational motions

Free Convection: Examples

Conditions of Stable & Unstable T Gradient
Classification: bounded or unbounded

Free boundary flows
Bounded by a surface

Free Boundary Flows
May occur in the form of a plume or a buoyant jet. plume is

associated with fluid rising from a submerged heated object.
A heated wire immersed in an extensive, quiescent fluid.

Heated Vertical Plate
∂u ∂u 1 ∂P 1 ∂2u
Momentum: u +v =− + X +ν 2
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ρ ∂y

Buoyancy Force
Force by gravity per unit volume:
X = −ρg
∂u ∂u 1 ∂P ∂2u
=⇒ u +v =− −g+ν 2
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂y
From y-momentum equation: (∂p/∂y) = 0
∂P
= −ρ∞ g
∂x
∂u ∂u ∆ρ ∂2u
=⇒ u +v =g +ν 2
∂x ∂y ρ ∂y
where ∆ρ = ρ∞ − ρ

Boussinesq Approximation
Thermodynamic property, Volumetric thermal expansion coeff.,

1 ∂ρ
β=−
ρ ∂T p
Approximate form:
1 ∆ρ 1 ρ∞ − ρ
β≈− =−
ρ ∆T ρ T∞ − T
(ρ∞ − ρ) ≈ ρβ(T − T∞ )
∂u ∂u ∂2u
u +v = gβ(T − T∞ ) + ν 2
∂x ∂y ∂y

The Governing Equations
Steady incompressible, free convection, laminar flow of a fluid with

constant properties:
∂u ∂v
Continuity: + =0
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂2u
Momentum: u +v = gβ(T − T∞ ) + ν 2
∂x ∂y ∂y
∂T ∂T ∂2T
Energy: u +v =α 2
∂x ∂y ∂y
For an ideal gas (ρ = p/RT ),

1 ∂ρ 1
β=− =
ρ ∂T p T

Dimensionless Parameters
x ∗ y u ∗ v T − T∞
x∗ ≡ , y ≡ , u∗ ≡ ,v ≡ ,T∗ ≡
L L u0 u0 Ts − T∞
u0 is an arbitrary reference velocity.
∂u∗ ∗ ∂u
∗ gβ(Ts − T∞ )L ∗ 1 ∂ 2 u∗
Momentum: u∗ + v = T +
∂x∗ ∂y ∗ u20 ReL ∂y ∗2
∂T ∗ ∂T ∗ 1 ∂2T ∗
Energy: u∗ ∗ + v ∗ ∗ =
∂x ∂y ReL Pr ∂y ∗2
Coefficient of T ∗ is in terms of unknown reference velocity u0 .

Eliminate it to get a dimensionless parameter:
2
gβ(Ts − T∞ )L3

gβ(Ts − T∞ )L u0 L
GrL ≡ =
u20 ν ν2

Grashof number
gβ(Ts − T∞ )L3 Buoyancy force

GrL ≡ 2
=
ν Viscous force
GrL
1: Free convection is neglected
Re2L
NuL = f (ReL , Pr)
Gr
1: Forced convection is neglected
Re2
NuL = f (GrL , Pr)
Gr
≡1: Combination of free and forced
Re2

Similarity Solution
At y = 0 : u = v = 0, T = Ts
At y → ∞ : u → 0, T → T∞
Similarity parameter of the form:
y Grx 1/4

η≡
x 4
and representing the velocity components in terms of a stream
function defined as:
" #
Grx 1/4
ψ(x, y) ≡ f (η) 4ν
4
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂η 2ν 1/2 0
u= = = Gr f (η)
∂y ∂η ∂y x x
Similarity Solution
∂ψ T − T∞
v=− and T ∗ ≡
∂x Ts − T∞
The reduced partial differential equations:
f 000 + 3f f 00 − 2(f 0 )2 + T ∗ = 0
00 0
T ∗ + 3Prf T ∗ = 0
At η = 0 : f = f 0 = 0, T∗ = 1
At η → ∞ : f 0 → 0, T∗ → 0

Laminar, Free Convection
Laminar, free convection boundary layer conditions on a isothermal

vertical surface.
Newton’s law of cooling:
hx [q 00 /(Ts − T∞ )]x
Nux = = s
k k
Fourier’s law:
Grx 1/4 dT ∗

∂T k
qs00 = −k = − (Ts − T∞ )
∂y y=0 x 4 dη η=0
1/4
dT ∗ Grx 1/4

hx Grx
=⇒ Nux = =− = g(Pr)
k 4 dη η=0 4
0.75Pr1/2
g(Pr) =
(0.609 + 1.221Pr1/2 + 1.238Pr)1/4
0 ≤ Pr ≤ ∞
ZL ZL
k gβ(Ts − T∞ ) 1/4

1 dx
h= hdx = 2
g(Pr)
L L 4ν x1/4
0 0
1/4
hL 4 GrL
NuL = = g(Pr)
k 3 4
4
NuL = 3 NuL
These results apply irrespective of whether Ts > T∞ or Ts < T∞ .

Turbulence
Critical Rayleigh number:
gβ(Ts − T∞ )x3
Rax,c = Grx,c Pr = ≈ 109
να

Problem
Consider a 0.25 m long vertical plate that is at 70◦ C. The plate is
suspended in air that is at 25◦ C. Estimate the boundary layer
thickness at the trailing edge of the plate if the air is quiescent.
How does this thickness compare with that which would exist if the
air were flowing over the plate at a free stream velocity of 5 m/s?
Air properties at Tf = 47.5◦ C:

ν = 17.95 × 10−6 m2 /s, Pr = 0.7, β = 1
Tf = 3.12 × 10−3 K−1

Solution
ν = 17.95 × 10−6 m2 /s, Pr = 0.7, β = 1
Tf = 3.12 × 10−3 K−1
gβ(Ts − T∞ )L3
GrL = = 6.69 × 107
ν2
RaL = GrL Pr = 4.68 × 107
For Pr = 0.7, η ≈ 6.0 at the edge of the boundary layer.
y Grx 1/4

η≡ = 0.6 =⇒ δL = 0.37 m
x 4
Solution
ν = 17.95 × 10−6 m2 /s, Pr = 0.7, β = 1
Tf = 3.12 × 10−3 K−1
For airflow at u∞ = 5 m/s
u∞ L
ReL = = 6.97 × 104
ν
For laminar boundary layer:
5x δ
δ=√ = 0.0047 m ≈ Pr1/3
ReL δt

Solution
Comments
δ are typically larger for free convection than for forced
convection.
Gr / Re2 1, and the assumption of negligible buoyancy
effects for u∞ = 5 m/s is justified.

h
Nu = k = C(GrL Pr)n = C RanL
Lc
gβ(Ts − T∞ )L3
RaL = GrL Pr =
να
Properties of the fluid are calculated at the mean film temperature,
Tf ≡ (Ts + T∞ )/2.



Combined Free and Forced Convection
Nuncombined = (NunForced ± NunNatural )

Inclined Plate

Horizontal Plate

Boiling and Condensation
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Heat and Mass Transfer Boiling and Condensation 350 / 537

Physical Considerations
Free and Forced convection depends on

ρ, Cp , µ, kf luid
Boiling/Condensation Heat Transfer depends on

ρ, Cp , µ, kf luid
∆T = |Ts − Tsat |
Latent heat of vaporization, hf g
Surface tension at the liquid-vapor interface, σ
body force arising from the liquid-vapor density difference,
g(ρl − ρv )
h = h[∆T, g(ρl − ρv ), hf g , σ, L, ρ, Cp , k, µ]
10 variables in 5 dimensions =⇒ 5 pi-groups.

Dimensionless Parameters
ρg(ρl − ρv )L3 Cp ∆T µCp g(ρl − ρv )L2

hL
=f , , ,
k µ2 hf g k σ
ρg(ρl − ρv )L3

NuL = f , Ja, Pr, Bo
µ2
Jakob number
Ratio of max sensible energy absorbed by liquid (vapor) to latent
energy absorbed by liquid (vapor) during condensation (boiling).
Bond number
Ratio of the buoyancy force to the surface tension force.
Unnamed parameter
Represents the effect of buoyancy-induced fluid motion on heat
transfer.
Boiling and Evaporation
Boiling
The process of addition of heat to a liquid such
a way that generation of vapor occurs.
Solid-liquid interface
Characterized by the rapid formation of vapor
bubbles
Evaporation
Liquid-vapor interface
Pv < Psat of the liquid at a given temp
No bubble formation or bubble motion

Boiling
Boiling occurs
Solid-liquid interface
when a liquid is brought into contact with a surface at a
temperature above the saturation temperature of the liquid

Bubble
The boiling processes in practice do not occur under

equilibrium conditions.
Bubbles exist because of the surface tension at the liquid
vapor interface due to the attraction force on molecules at the
interface toward the liquid phase.
The temperature and pressure of the vapor in a bubble are
usually different than those of the liquid.
Surface tension ↓ ↑ Temperature
Surface tension = 0 at critical temperature
No bubbles at supercritical pressures and temperatures

Boiling - Classification
Pool boiling Flow boiling

Fluid is stationary Fluid is forced to move in a
Fluid motion is due to heated pipe or surface by
natural convection currents external means such as
Motion of bubbles under the pump
influence of buoyancy Always accompanied by
other convection effects

Boiling - Classification
Subcooled boiling Saturated boiling
Tbulk of liquid < Tsat Tbulk of liquid = Tsat

Boiling Regimes - Nukiyama, 1934
Boiling curve for saturated water at atmospheric pressure

Boiling Regimes - Nukiyama, 1934

Boiling Regimes
Methanol on horizontal 1 cm steam-heated copper tube

Boiling Regimes
Natural convection
Governed by natural convection currents
Heat transfer from the heating surface to the
fluid is by natural convection
Nucleate boiling
Stirring and agitation caused by the entrainment
of the liquid to the heater surface increases h, q 00
High heat transfer rates are achieved

Boiling Regimes
Transition boiling
Unstable film boiling
Governed by natural convection currents
Heat transfer from the heating surface to the
fluid is by natural convection
Film boiling
Presence of vapor film is responsible for the low
heat transfer rates
Heat transfer rate increases with increasing ∆Te
as a result of heat transfer from the heated
surface to the liquid through the vapor film by
radiation.

Boiling Nucleation - Boiling Inception
The process of bubble formation is called Nucleation
The cracks and crevices do not constitute nucleation sites for

the bubbles. Must contain pockets of gas/air trapped
It is from these pockets of trapped air that the vapor bubbles
begin to grow during nucleate boiling
These cavities are the sites at which bubble nucleation occurs

Heat Transfer in Nucleate Boiling
Rohsenow postulated:
Heat flows from the surface first to the adjacent liquid, as in
any single-phase convection process
High h is a result of local agitation due to liquid flowing
behind the wake of departing bubbles
g(ρl − ρv ) 1/2
3
00 Cp,l ∆Te
qs = µl hf g
σ Cs,f hf g Prnl
Nucleate boiling
When used to estimate q 00 , errors can amount to ±100%. The

errors for estimating ∆Te reduce by a factor of 3 ∵ ∆Te ∝ (qs00 )1/3

Heat Transfer in Nucleate Boiling

Critical Heat Flux
Zuber’s correlations for flat horizontal plate:

1/4
00 g(ρl − ρv )
qmax = 0.149hf g ρv
σ
Critical heat flux

Leidenfrost Temperature
Rewetting of hot surfaces: Liquid does not we hot surface.
1/4
00 gσ(ρl − ρv )
qmin = Chf g ρv
(ρl + ρv )2
C is a non-dimensional constant which lies between 0.09 and 0.18.
C = 0.09 provides a better fit.
C = 0.13 is sometimes taken as an intermediate value

Prof. Dr. Johann G. Leidenfrost (1715-1794)
Father - Minister
Started off with Theological studies
PhD thesis, ‘’On the Harmonious
Relationship of Movements in the
Human Body”
Professor at University of Duisburg
Areas of influences:
Theologian
Physician (Private Medical practice)
As a Prof. taught:
Medicine, Physics, and Chemistry

Film Boiling
" #1/4
hconv D g(ρl − ρv )h0f g D3
N uD = =C
kv νv kv (Ts − Tsat )
C = 0.62 for horizontal cylinders
C = 0.67 for spheres
The effective latent heat of vaporization allows for the inclusion of

sensible heating effects in the vapor film.
h0f g = hf g + 0.5Cp,v (Ts − Tsat )
Vapor properties are evaluated at the film temperature,

Tf = (Ts + Tsat )/2.

Radiation Effects in Film Boiling
3 εs σ(Ts4 − Tsat
4 )
htotal = hfilm conv + hrad hrad =
4 Ts − Tsat

Effect of Liquid Subcooling

Enhancement of Heat Transfer
Roughening or structuring or coating of the heating surface

Production of artificial nucleation sites by sintering and
Addition of gases or liquids or solids

Problem
The bottom of a copper pan, 0.3 m in diameter, is maintained at

118◦ C by an electric heater. Estimate the power required to boil
water in this pan. What is the evaporation rate? Estimate the
critical heat flux.
Saturated water, liquid at 100◦ C:

ρl = 1/vf = 957.9 kg/m3 , Cp,l = Cp,g = 4.217 kJ/kg K,
µl = µf = 279 × 10−6 N s/m2 , Prl = Prf = 1.76,
hf g = 2257 kJ/kg, σ = 58.9 × 10−3
Saturated water, vapor at 100◦ C:

ρv = 1/vg = 0.5955 kg/m3

Solution

µl = µf = 279 × 10−6 N s/m2 , Prl = Prf = 1.76,
hf g = 2257 kJ/kg, σ = 58.9 × 10−3

ρv = 1/vg = 0.5955 kg/m3

Solution

µl = µf = 279 × 10−6 N s/m2 , Prl = Prf = 1.76,
hf g = 2257 kJ/kg, σ = 58.9 × 10−3

ρv = 1/vg = 0.5955 kg/m3
1/2 3
g(ρl − ρv ) Cp,l ∆Te
qs00 = µl hf g
σ Cs,f hf g Prnl
qs00 = 55.8 kW
qs
ṁevap = 89 kg/h
hf g

Solution

µl = µf = 279 × 10−6 N s/m2 , Prl = Prf = 1.76,
hf g = 2257 kJ/kg, σ = 58.9 × 10−3

ρv = 1/vg = 0.5955 kg/m3
1/4
g(ρl − ρv )
00
qmax = 0.149hf g ρv = 1.26 MW/m2
σ
1/4
00 gσ(ρl − ρv )
qmin = Chf g ρv
(ρl + ρv )2

Condensation
Condensation is a process in which the removal of heat from a

system causes a vapor to convert into liquid.
Important role in nature:
Crucial component of the water cycle
Industry
The spectrum of flow processes associated with condensation
on a solid surface is almost a mirror image of those involved in
boiling.
Can also occur on a free surface of a liquid or even in a gas
Condensation processes are numerous, taking place in a
multitude of situations.

Condensation - Classification
1 Mode of condensation: homogeneous, dropwise, film or direct

contact.
2 Conditions of the vapor: single-component, multicomponent
with all components condensable, multicomponent including
non-condensable component(s), etc.
3 System geometry: plane surface, external, internal, etc.
There are overlaps among different classification
methods.Classification based on mode of condensation is the most
useful.

Condensation: Classification

Homogeneous Condensation
Can happen when vapor is sufficiently cooled < Tsat to induce

droplet nucleation.
It may be caused by:
Mixing of two vapor streams at different temperatures
Radiative cooling of vapor-noncondensable mixtures
Fog formation
Sudden depressurization of a vapor
Cloud formation - adiabatic expansion of warm, humid air
masses that rise and cool
Cloud - water or ice? -30◦ C
Although homogeneous nucleation in pure vapors is possible,
in practice dust, other particles act as droplet nucleation
embryos

Heterogeneous Condensation
Droplets form and grow on solid surfaces

Significant sub-cooling of vapor is required for condensation
to start when the surface is smooth and dry.
The rate of generation of embryo droplets in heterogeneous
condensation can be modeled by using kinetic theory
Heterogeneous condensation leads to:
film condensation
dropwise condensation

Film vs Dropwise
Dropwise condensation
Surface is coated with a
substance that inhibits
Film condensation wetting
The surface is blanketed by Drops form in cracks, pits,
a liquid film of increasing and cavities.
thickness. Typically, > 90% of the
‘’Liquid wall” offers surface is drops.
resistance. Droplets slide down at a
Characteristic of clean, certain size, clearing &
uncontaminated surfaces exposing surface.
No resistance to heat
transfer in dropwise. h is 10
times higher than in film.

Dropwise Condensation
Providing and maintaining the non-wetting surface

characteristics can be difficult.
The condensate liquid often gradually removes the promoters.
Furthermore, the accumulation of droplets on a surface can
eventually lead to the formation of a liquid film.
It has been postulated that heat transfer occurs at the smaller
droplets due to higher thermal resistance in larger drops.
hdc = 51, 104 + 2044Tsat 22◦ C < Tsat < 100◦ C

= 255, 510 100◦ C < Tsat

Laminar Film Condensation

Nusselt Integral Analysis
Assumptions:
1 Laminar flow and constant properties
2 Gas is assumed to be pure vapor and at an uniform Tsat .
With no temperature gradient in the vapor,
Heat transfer to the liquid-vapor interface can occur only by
condensation at the interface and not by conduction from the
vapor
3 Shear stress at the liquid-vapor interface is negligible
∂u/∂y|y=δ = 0
4 Momentum and energy transfer by advection in the
condensate film are assumed to be negligible.

∂2u 1 dp X
= −
∂y 2 µl dx µl
∂2u g
2
= (ρl − ρv )
∂y µl
u(0) = 0, ∂u/∂y|y=δ = 0
g(ρl − ρv )δ 2 y 1 y 2

u(y) = −
µl δ 2 δ
Mass flow rate per unit width,

δ(x)
gρl (ρl − ρv )δ 3
Z
ṁ(x)
Γ(x) = = ρl u(y)dy =
b 3µl
0

dq = hf g dṁ
dq = qs00 (bdx)
kl (Tsat − Ts )
qs00 =
δ
dΓ kl (Tsat − Ts )
=
dx hf g
4kl µl (Tsat − TS )x 1/4

δ(x) =
gρl (ρl − ρg )hf g

1/4
4kl µl (Tsat − TS )x
δ(x) =
gρl (ρl − ρg )hf g
The thermal advection effects may be accounted by:
Cp ∆T
h0f g = hf g (1 + 0.68Ja) Ja =
hf g
qx00 = hx (Tsat − Ts )
" #1/4
kl gρl (ρl − ρv )kl3 h0f g
hx = =
δ 4µl (Tsat − Ts )x
∵ hx ∝ x−1/4
ZL " #1/4
1 4 gρl (ρl − rhov )kl3 h0f g
hL = hx dx = hL = 0.943
L 3 4µl (Tsat − Ts )L
0

" #1/4
hL L gρl (ρl − rhov )L3 h0f g
NuL = =
kl 4µl kl (Tsat − Ts )
The total heat transfer to the surface may be obtained by:
q = hL A(Tsat − Ts )
q hL A(Tsat − Ts )
ṁ = =
h0f g h0f g

Turbulent Film Condensation
4Γ
Reδ ≡
µl
Condensate mass flow rate, ṁ = ρl um bδ,
4ṁ 4ρl um δ
Reδ ≡ =
µl b µl

Turbulent Film Condensation

Film Condensation on Radial Systems

Film Condensation on Radial Systems
" #1/4
hD D ρl g(ρl − ρv )h0f g D3
NuD = =C
kl µl kl (Tsat − Ts
C = 0.826 for sphere and 0.729 for the tube.
For N horizontal unfineed tubes, the average coeff.:
hD,N = hD N n
n = − 14

Heat Exchangers
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Heat and Mass Transfer Heat Exchangers 394 / 537

Heat Exchangers
Heat Exchangers
The process of heat exchange between two fluids that are at
different temperatures and separated by a solid wall.

Heat Exchanger Types

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
1 1 1 1 1
= = = + Rw +
UA Uh Ah U c Ac hh Ah hc Ac
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
! !
00
Rf,h 00
Rf,c
1 1 1
= + + Rw + +
UA hh Ah Ah hc Ac Ac

1 1 00 1 1 00
= + Rf,h + Rw + + Rf,c
Ah hh Ac hc

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient: Fins
The overall surface efficiency is expressed as:
q = ηo hA(Tb − T∞ )
A is the total (fin + exposed base) surface area.
Af
ηo = 1 − (1 − ηf )
A
Af is entire fin surface area, ηf is η of single fin.
For a straight fin with an adiabatic tip:
tanh(mL)
ηf =
mL
q
hP
m= kAc

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient: Fins

1 1 1 00 1 1 00
= + Rf,h +Rw + + Rf,c
UA ηo,h Ah hh ηo,c Ac hc
1 1
= +Rw +
(ηo Up A)h (ηo Up A)c
Up partial overall heat transfer coefficient.

Heat Exchanger Analysis
q = ṁh Cp,h (Th,i − Th,o )

q = ṁc Cp,c (Tc,o − Tc,i )
q = U A∆Tm
∆T ≡ Th − Tc

Parallel-Flow Heat Exchanger

Assumptions
1 Insulated from surroundings,
2 Axial conduction along the tubes is negligible
3 PE and KE changes are negligible
4 Constant fluid specific heats
5 U is constant
dq = −ṁh Cp,h dTh ≡ −Ch dTh
dq = ṁc hCp,c dTc ≡ −Cc dTc
C is fluid heat capacity rate.
dq = U ∆T dA
∆T = Th − Tc local temp. diff.


1 1
d(∆T ) = dTh − dTc = −dq +
Ch Cc

1 1
= −U ∆dA +
Ch Cc
Z2 Z2
d(∆T ) 1 1
= −U + dA
∆T Ch Cc
1 1

∆T2 Th,i − Th,o Tc,o − Tc,i
ln = −U A +
∆T1 q q
UA
=− [(Th,i − Tc,i ) − (Th,o q − Tc,o )]
q
UA
=− [∆T2 − ∆T1 ]
q

∆T2 − ∆T1
q = UA
ln(∆T2 /∆T1 )
= U A∆Tlm
Log mean temperature difference,
∆T2 − ∆T1 ∆T1 − ∆T2

∆Tlm = =
ln(∆T2 /∆T1 ) ln(∆T1 /∆T2 )
For parallel-flow exchanger,
∆T1 ≡ Th,1 − Tc,1 = Th,i − Tc,i
∆T1 ≡ Th,2 − Tc,2 = Th,o − Tc,o

Counter-Flow Heat Exchanger
∆T1 ≡ Th,1 − Tc,1 = Th,i − Tc,o

∆T1 ≡ Th,2 − Tc,2 = Th,o − Tc,i
Special Operating Conditions

Problem
A counterflow, concentric tube heat exchanger is used to cool the

lubricating oil for a large industrial gas turbine engine. The flow
rate of cooling water though the intter tube (Di = 25 mm) is
0.2 kg/s, while the flow rate of oil through the outer annulus
(Do = 45 mm) is 0.1 kg/s. The oil and water enter at
tempertaures of 100 and 30◦ C, respectively. How long must the
tube be made if the outlet temperature of the oil is to be 60◦ C?
Oil (T h = 80◦ C):

Cp = 2131 J/kg K, µ = 3.25 × 10−2 N s/m2 ,
k = 0.138 W/m K.Water (T h = 35◦ C):
Cp = 4178 J/kg K, µ = 725 × 10−6 N s/m2 , k = 0.625 W/m K,
Pr = 4.85.

Problem: Solution
Oil (T h = 80◦ C):

Cp = 2131 J/kg K, µ = 3.25 × 10−2 N s/m2 ,
k = 0.138 W/m K.Water (T h = 35◦ C):
Cp = 4178 J/kg K, µ = 725 × 10−6 N s/m2 , k = 0.625 W/m K,
Pr = 4.85.

Problem: Solution
q = ṁh Cp,h (Th,i − Th,o ) = ṁc Cp,c (Tc,o − Tc,i )
q = 8524 W, Tc,o = 40.2◦ C
q = U A∆Tlm
1
∆Tlm = 43.2◦ C U= 1 1
hi + ho
hi
4ṁc
ReD =
πDi µ
4/5 k
NuD = 0.023 ReD Pr0.4 hi = Nu
Di
ReD = 14050, NuD = 90, hi = 2250 W/m2 K

Problem: Solution
For flow in annulus, Dh = Do − Di = 0.02 m
ρum Dh
ReD =
µ
ṁh
um = ρπ(Do2 −Di2 )/4
4ṁh ho D h
ReD = NuD =
π(Do + Di )µ k
ReD = 56, NuD = 5.56, ho = 38.4 W/m2 K
U = 37.8 W/m2 K
q
L=
U πDi ∆Tlm
L = 66.5 m
Effectiveness - NTU Method
The max. possible heat transfer rate, qmax could, in principle, be
achieved in a counterflow heat exchanger of infinite length.
The max. possible temp. diff., Th,i − Tc,i
Cc < Ch : qmax = Cc (Th,i − Tc,i )
Ch < Cc : qmax = Ch (Th,i − Tc,i )
qmax = Cmin (Th,i − Tc,i )
Effectiveness,
q
ε=
qmax
Ch (Th,i − Th,o ) Cc (Tc,o − Tc,i )
ε= =
Cmin (Th,i − Tc,i ) Cmin (Th,i − Tc,i )

Effectiveness - NTU Method
q = εCmin (Th,i − Tc,i )
Typically,
Cmin
ε = f NTU,
Cmax
The number of transfer units (NTU) is a dimensionless parameter,
UA
NTU =
Cmin
NTU is defined as the ratio of the system’s ability to transfer heat
(U A) to the fluid’s minimum ability to absorb heat (Cmin ).
NTU indicates the size of the heat exchanger required for a given
U and Cmin .
Effectiveness - NTU Relations
Consider a parallel-flow with Cmin = Ch .

Th,i − Th,o
ε=
Th,i − Tc,i
Cmin Tc,o − Tc,i

Cr = =
Cmax Th,i − Th,o
1 − e− NTU(1+Cr )
ε=
1 + Cr

Heat Exchanger Effectiveness Relations

Heat Exchanger NTU Relations




Heat Exchanger Design Calculations
Prescribed
1 Fluid inlet temperatures
2 Flow rates
3 Desired hot or cold fluid outlet temperatures
Problem
Specify a specific heat exchanger type
Determine size, A to achieve the desired outlet temp.
Custom-built

Heat Exchanger Performance Calculations
An existing heat exchangeris analyzed to determine

1 Heat transfer rate
2 Fluid outlet temperatures for prescribed flow rates
3 Inlet temperatures
Associated with
Off-the-shelf heat exchanger types and sizes available from a
vendor

Heat Exchangers Problem Solving
For design problems

1 Calculate ε and Cr
2 Obtain NTU from appropriate eq. or chart
3 Determine A
For performance calculations
1 Calculate NTU and Cr
2 Obtain ε from appropriate eq. or chart
3 qmax = Cmin (Th,i − Tc,i )
4 q = εqmax

Problem
Hot exhaust gases, which enter a finned-tube, cross-flow heat

exchanger at 300◦ C and leave at 100◦ C, are used to heat
pressurized water at a flow rate of 1 kg/s from 35 to 125◦ C. The
exhaust gas specific heat is approximately 1000 J/kg K, and the
overall heat transfer coefficient based on the gas-side surface area
is Uh = 100 W/m2 K. Determine the required gas-side surface area
Ah using the NTU method.
Water (T c = 80◦ C): Cp,c = 4197 J/kg K Ah = 40 m2 .

Radiation
sudheer@iitp.ac.in

Heat and Mass Transfer Radiation 424 / 537

Radiation: Processes and Properties
Thermal radiation requires no matter

Applications: Industrial heating, cooling and drying processes,
energy conservation methods - fossil fuel combustion and solar
radiation
Objectives
Means by which thermal radiation is generated
Specific nature of radiation
Manner in which radiation interacts with matter

Heat Exchanger Types
Radiation can occur between two bodies, even when they are
separated by a medium colder than both.
Solar radiation reaches the earth after passing through cold air
layers at high altitudes.
Fundamental Concepts
Ts > Tsur
No conduction or convection - still solid will cool
Solid gets cooled - emission of thermal radiation from the
surface of the solid

Radiation - Propagation of electromagnetic waves
J.C. Maxwell - accelerated charges or changing electric currents

give rise to electric and magnetic fields. These moving fields are
called Electromagnetic Waves or Electromagnetic Radiation
Electro-magnetic Radiation - energy emitted by matter as a

result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms
or molecules.

Characteristics of Electro-magnetic Radiation
Frequency ν (Hz - 1/s)
Wavelength λ (m)
c co
λ= c=
ν n
8
In vacuum co = 2.998 × 10 m/s and n is the index of refraction
Material n
Air and most gases 1.0
Glass 1.5
Water 1.33
Observations
λ, c: depend on medium through which wave travels.
ν: independent of the medium depends only on the source.
Energy - Photons
Electro-magnetic Radiation Propogation of a discrete packets of
energy called photons or quanta
Each photon of frequency ν is considered to have an energy of

hc
e = hν =
λ
Planck’s constant, h = 6.625 × 10−34 J s
Energy of the photon is inversely proportional to its

wavelength
Shorter wavelength radiation possess larger photon energies
No wonder, we try to avoid very short wavelength radiation
such as gamma rays and X-rays since they are highly
destructive
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Wavelength Range
Color Wavelength band

Violet 0.40-0.44 µm
Blue 0.44-0.49 µm
Green 0.49-0.54 µm
Yellow 0.54-0.60 µm
Orange 0.60-0.67 µm
Red 0.63-0.76 µm
Solar radiation
Electromagnetic radiation emitted by sun, 0.3 - 3 µm
Some portion in visible range
Other portion in ultraviolet and infrared range

Thermal Radiation
In heat transfer, we are interested in energy emitted by bodies due

to their temperature only, Thermal radiation: 0.1 − 100µm.

Thermal Radiation
All bodies emit radiation - Radiation at absolute zero temp. is zero
Thermal radiation- Rate at which energy is emitted by matter as a

result of its finite temp.
Mechanism of emission - energy released as a result of oscillations

of many electrons that constitute matter
Radiation - Phenomena
Volumetric phenomenon for semitransparent solids, and gas

Surface phenomena in most solids and liquids
Radiation emitted from interior molecules is strongly absorbed
by adjoining molecules
Radiation emitted from a solid or a liquid originates from
molecules within a distance of 1 µm from the exposed surface

Radiation Heat Fluxes
Over all wavelengths and in all directions

Semitransparent Medium
Reflectivity, ρ is the fraction of the irradiation that is reflected.
Absorptivity, α is the fraction of the irradiation that is absorbed.
Transmissivity, τ is the fraction of the irradiation that is

transmitted.
ρ+α+τ =1
J = E + Gref = E + ρG
00
qrad = J − G = εσTs4 − αG

Description of Thermal Radiation
Spectral distribution and Directionality

Emitted radiation is continuous, non-uniform distribution of
mono-chromatic (single wavelength) components
Spectral distribution depends on
Nature of the emitting surface
Temperature of the emitting surface

Radiation Intensity
Radiation emitted by a surface propagates in all directions

Radiation incident on the surface may come from different
directions
Response of the surface to the radiation depends on the
direction
Directional effects - concept - Radiation Intensity

Solid Angle
Emission of radiation from

a differential area dA1 into
a solid angle dω subtended
by dAn at a point on dA1
dAn
dω ≡ steradian, sr
r2

Solid Angle
dAn
dω ≡ dAn = (rdθ)(r sin θdφ)
r2
∴ dω = sin θdθdφ

Solid Angle of a Sphere
Z Z2π Zπ
An = dAn = r2 sin θdθdφ
sphere φ=0 θ=0
Zπ
2
= 2πr sin θdθ = 2πr2 · − cos θ|πθ=0 = 4πr2
θ=0
An = 4πr2
For a sphere with unit radius, solid angle is 4π

Solid Angle
Differential solid angle dω subtended by a differential surface area

dA when viewed from a point at a distance r from dA1 is
expressed as
dAn dA cos α
dω = 2 =
r r2
where α is the angle between the normal to the surface and the
direction of viewing, and thus dAn = dA cos α is the normal (or
the projected) area to the direction of viewing.

Solid Angle
Small surfaces viewed from a relatively large distances can
approximately treated as differential areas in solid angle
calculations.
For example, the solid angle subtended by 6 cm2 plane surface

when viewed from a point at a distance of 90 cm along the normal
of the surface
An 6
ω= 2
= 2 = 7.41 × 10−4 sr
r 90
If the surface is tilted so that the normal of the surface makes an
angle of 60◦ with the line connecting the point of viewing to the
center of the surface, the projected area would be
dAn = dA cos α = 6cos60◦ = 3 cm2
and the solid angle in this case would be half of the value just
determined.
Intensity of Emitted Radiation
Radiation streaming through dAn is ∝ dω subtended by dAn

Radiation is also ∝ dA1 as seen by an observer on dAn , max.
at top (θ = 0◦ ) and min. at bottom (θ = 90◦ )

Intensity of Emitted Radiation
Radiation intensity for emitted radiation Ie (θ, φ) is defined as the

rate at which the radiation energy dq is emitted in the (θ, φ)
direction per unit area normal to this direction and per unit solid
angle about this direction.
dq dq
Ie (θ, φ) = = W/m2 sr
dA1 cos θ · dω dA1 cos θ · sin θdθdφ
Radiation flux for emitted radiation is the Emissive Power (E):

rate at which radiation energy is emitted per unit area of the
emitting surface which is expressed in the differential form
dq
dE = = Ie (θ, φ) cos θ sin θdθdφ
dA1

Emissive Power
Emissive power from the surface into hemisphere surrounding it,
Z Z2π Zπ/2
E= dE = Ie (θ, φ) cos θ sin θdθdφ W/m2
hemisphere φ=0 θ=0
Ie varies with direction (especially with zenith angle θ). Practically

approximated as Diffuse, i.e., Ie is constant.
Z2π Zπ/2 Zπ/2
cos θ sin θdθdφ = 2π cos θ sin θdθ
φ=0 θ=0 θ=0
Zπ/2
− cos 2θ π/2

2π
= sin 2θdθ = π =π
2 2
0
θ=0
E = πIe
Problem
A small surface of area A1 = 10−3 m2 is known to emit diffusely
and from measurements the total intensity associated with
emission in the normal direction is In = 7000 W/m2 sr. Radiation
emitted from the surface is intercepted by other surfaces of area
A2 = A3 = A4 = 10−3 m2 , which are 0.5 m from A1 . What is the
intensity associated with emission in each of the three directions?
What are the solid angles subtended by the three surfaces when
viewed from A1 ? What is the rate at which radiation emitted by
A1 is intercepted by the three surfaces?

Solution
Assumptions
Surface A1 emits diffusely
A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 may be approximated as differential surfaces,
Aj /rj2 1

Solution

Solution
Intensity is independent of direction, I = 7000 W/m2 sr
dAn A3
ω3−1 = ω4−1 = 2
= 2 = 4 × 10−3 sr
r r
A2 cos θ2
ω2−1 = = 3.46 × 10−3 sr
r2
q1−j = I × A1 cos θ1 × ωj−1

q1−2 = 12.1 × 10−3 W
q1−3 = 28.0 × 10−3 W
q1−4 = 19.8 × 10−3 W

Relation to Irradiation
The intensity of incident radiation, Ii (θ, φ) is the rate at which
radiation energy dG is incident from the (θ, φ) direction per unit
area of the receiving surface normal to this direction and per unit
solid angle about this direction.
Z2π Zπ/2
Gλ (λ) = Iλ,i (λ, θ, φ) cos θ sin θdθdφ
φ=0 θ=0
Z∞
G= Gλ (λ)dλ
0
If the incident radiation is diffuse,
Gλ = πIλ,i (λ); G = πIi

Problem
The spectral distribution of surface irradiation is given below.

What is the total irradiation?

Solution
Z∞
G= Gλ dλ
0
5Zµm 20
Z µm 25
Z µm Z∞
G= Gλ dλ + Gλ dλ + Gλ dλ + Gλ dλ
0 5 µm 20 µm 25 µm

Relation to Irradiation
Z2π Zπ/2
Jλ (λ) = Iλ,e+r (λ, θ, φ) cos θ sin θdθdφ
φ=0 θ=0
Z∞
J= Jλ (λ)dλ
0
If the surface is diffuse reflector and diffuse emitter,
Jλ = πIλ,e+r (λ); J = πIe+r

Black Body
1 Absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and

direction.
2 For a given T, λ, no surface can emit more energy than a
blackbody.
3 Ie ≡ f (λ, T ), independent of direction, Diffuse emitter.

Planck Distribution
The spectral distribution of blackbody emission,
2hc2o
Iλ,T = hco

λ5 exp( λkT )−1
Planck constant: h = 6.625 × 10−34 J s
Boltzmann constant: k = 1.3805 × 10−23 J/K
The spectral emissive power of a blackbody (diffuse emission)
C1
Eλ,T = πIλ,T = C2

λ5 exp( λkT )−1
The first and second radiation constants are:

C1 = 2πhc2o = 3.742 × 108 W µm4 /m2
C2 = (hco /k) = 1.439 × 104 µm K
Professor Max Planck (1858-1947)
German physicist.
Studied in Berlin with
H.L.F. von Helmholtz and G.R. Kirchhoff,
but obtained his doctorate at the
University of Munich before returning to
Berlin as Prof. in theoretical Physics.
Later became head of the Kaiser Wilhelm
Society (today the Max Planck Institute).
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918 for his
development of the quantum theory.

Spectral Blackbody Emissive Power
Important Features:
1 Emitted radiation varies
continuously with λ
2 At any λ, E increases with T
3 More radiation appearing at
shorter λ as T increases
4 Significant portion of solar
radiation (5800 K) is in visible
region
5 For T . 800 K, emission is
predominantly in the infrared
region of the spectrum and is
not visible to the eye.

Wien’s Displacement Law
λmax T = C3 = 2897.8 µm K
1 Maximum spectral power is displaced to shorter λ with

increasing T
2 Solar radiation - middle of the spectrum (λ = 0.5 µm), since
5800 K
3 Blackbody at 1000 K, peak emission - 2.9 µm
4 With increasing T , shorter λ become more prominent, until
eventually significant emission occurs over the entire visible
spectrum
5 Tungsten filament lamp - 2900 K (λmax = 1.0 µm) emits
white light, although most of the emission remains in infrared
region

Professor Wilhen Wien (1864-1928)
German physicist.
Prof. of Physics at the University of
Giessen and later at the University of
Munich.
Besides his research in the area of
electromagnetic waves, his interests
included other rays, such as electron
beams, X-rays, and α-particles.
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1911 for his
discovery of his displacement law.

Stephan-Boltzmann Law
Z∞
C1
Eb = C2
dλ = σT 4 W/m2
λ5 exp( λkT ) − 1
0
σ = 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 K4
This enables calculation of the amount of radiation emitted in all

directions and over all wavelengths simply from the knowledge of
the temperature of the blackbody.
The total intensity associated with blackbody emission is:

Eb
Ib = W/m2 sr
π

Historical Perspective of Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Joseph Stefan (1835-1893)

Gymnastics, Poet, Austrian Physicist.
Prof. at the University of Vienna
Eb ∝ T 4 from experiments in 1879
Ludwig Erhard Boltzmann (1844-1906)
Austrian Physicist. Doctorate from the
University of Vienna. Prof. in Vienna, Graz,
Munich and Leipzig (Germany).
His greatest contributions were in the field of
statistical mechanics (Boltzmann statistics).
Derived from thermodynamics in 1889.
John Crepeau, Josef Stefan: His Life and Legacy in the Thermal
Sciences, Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, 31 (2007) 795-803.

Band Emission
Rλ Rλ
Eλ,b dλ Eλ,b dλ
0 0
F(0−λ) ≡ =
R∞ σT 4
Eλ,b dλ
0
λT = m; dλT = dm; dλ = dm/T
λ = 0; m = 0
ZλT ZλT
Eλ,b d(λT ) Eλ,b d(λT )
F(0−λ) ≡ =
σT 4 T σT 5
0 0
= f (λT )

Band Emission
Rλ2 Rλ1
Eλ,b dλ − Eλ,b dλ
0 0
F(λ1 −λ2 ) = = F(0−λ2 ) − F(0−λ1 )
σT 4
Since the integrand (Eλ,b /σT 5 ) is exclusively a function of

wavelength temperature product (λT ). The results are presented
in tabular form to obtain F0−λ as a function of λT .
Blackbody Radiation Functions

Emission from Real Surfaces

Surface Emission
E(T )
ε(T ) = =⇒ E(T ) = ε(T )σT 4
Eb (T )
Spectral, directional emissivity,

Iλ,e (λ, θ, φ, T )
ελ,θ (λ, θ, φ, T ) =
Iλ,b (λ, T )
Total, directional emissivity,

Ie (θ, φ, T )
εθ (θ, φ, T ) =
Ib (T )
Spectral, hemispherical emissivity,
Eλ (λ, T )
ελ (λ, T ) =
Eλ,b (λ, T )

R∞
ελ (λ, T )Eλ,b (λ, T )
0
ε(T ) =
Eb (T )


Absorptivity
α depends strongly on Tsource at which the incident radiation is

originating.
Perception of Color
Tsur < 1000 K - Emission is in IR region - not seen by eye.

Color is due to selective reflection and absorption of the
visible portion of the irradiation.
Leaf is grean - Chlorophyll - absorbs the blue, red and
preferential reflection in the green.
Color of the Surface - not an indicator of the overall capacity
of an absorber or reflector, since much of the irradiation may
be in the IR region.
Surface coated with lamp black/soot appears to be black to
the human eye. Also thermally black. Snow is ‘white’ to the
eye but black for the thermal radiation.

Kirchhoff’s Law
Consider a large, isothermal enclosure of Ts within which several
small bodies are confined.
Regarless of its orientation, the irradiation experienced by any

body in the cavity is diffuse and equal to emission from a
blackbody at Ts .
G = Eb (T
Heat and Mass Transfer s)
Radiation 473 / 537
Kirchhoff’s Law
Under steady state conditions, thermal equilibrium must exist,
T1 = T2 = T3 = . . . = Ts and the net rate of energy transfer to
each surface must be zero.
Applying energy balance to a control surface about body 1,
α1 GA1 − E1 (Ts )A1 = 0
α1 Eb (Ts ) − E1 (Ts ) = 0 ∵ G = Eb (Ts )

E1 (Ts ) E2 (Ts ) E3 (Ts )
= = = . . . = Eb (Ts )
α1 α2 α3
This relation is known as Kirchoff’s law . No real surface can have

an emissive power exceeding that of a black surface at the same
temperature, and the notion of the black body as an ideal emitter
is confirmed.
Kirchhoff’s Law
ε1 ε2 ε3
= = = ... = 1
α1 α2 α3
Hence, for any surface in the enclosure, ε = α.
Total hemispherical emissivity = total hemispherical absorptivity.
The restrictive conditions inherent in this derivation is:

the surface irradiation has been assumed to correspond to
emission from a blackbody at the same temperature as the
surface.

Kirchhoff’s Law
ελ (T ) = αλ (T ) , valid when G is independent of direction.
The form of the Kirchoff’s law that involves no restrictions is the

spectral directional form,
ελ,θ (T ) = αλ,θ (T )
It is very tempting to use Kirchoff’s law in radiation analysis

∵ the relation ε = α together with ρ = 1 − α enables us to
determine all three properties of a opaque surface from a
knowledge of only one property.
Although, ε = α gives acceptable results in most cases, in
practice, care should be exercised when there is considerable
difference between Tsurface and Tsource .

Professor Gustav Kirchhoff (1824-1887)
German physicist.
Formulated his circuit laws, ubiquitous in
electrical engineering in 1845, while still a
student.
He completed this study as a seminar
exercise, it later became his doctoral
dissertation.
Proposed his law of thermal radiation in
1859, and gave proof in 1861.
He was called to the University of
Heidelberg in 1854, where he collaborated
in Spectroscopic work with Robert
Bunsen. Together, they discovered
Caesium (z = 37) and Rubidium (z = 55)
in 1861.
Gray Surface
Properties are independent of λ.

Diffuse surface is a surface in which its properties are
independent of direction.
Emissivity of a gray, diffuse surface is total hemispherical
emissivity of that surface because of the independence of λ
and direction.

Solar Radiation
The irradiance at the earth’s surface due to atmospheric emission,

4
Gatm = σTsky
Tsky is the effective sky temperature

= 275 K, moderate temp.
= 230 K, cold, clear sky
= 285 K, warm, cloudy sky

Problem
A flat-plate solar collector with no cover plate has a selective

absorber surface of emissivity 0.1 and solar absorptivity 0.95. At a
given time of day the absorber surface temperature Ts is 120◦ C
when the solar irradiation is 750 W/m2 , the effective sky
temperature is -10◦ C, and the ambient air temperature T∞ is
30◦ C. Assume that the heat transfer coefficient for the calm day
conditions can be estimated from,
h = 0.22(Ts − T∞ )1/3 W/m2 K
Calculate the useful heat removal rate (W/m2 ) from the collector
for these conditions. What is the corresponding efficiency of the
collector?

Solution
00
αs Gs + αsky Gatm − qconv − E − qu00 = 0
4
αs Gs + εσTsky − h(Ts − T∞ ) − εσTs4 − qu00 = 0
qu00
qu00 = 516 W/m2 ; η= = 0.69
Gs
View Factor
sudheer@iitp.ac.in

Heat and Mass Transfer View Factor 482 / 537
Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces
Radiation heat transfer between surfaces depends on the

orientation of the surfaces relative to each other as well as
their radiation properties and temperatures.
This dependence is accounted for by the view factor.
By facing the fire from front or back - maximum radiation
By facing the fire from the side - minimum radiation
View/Shape/Configuration/Angle Factor
Fij - the fraction of the radiation leaving surface i that strikes the
surface j directly.

The rate at which radiation leaves dAi and is intercepted by dAj is,
dqi→j = Ie+r,i cos θi dAi dωj−i
Ie+r,i - intensity of radiation leaving surface i, and dωj−i - solid
cos θj dAj
angle subtended by dAj when viewed from dAi : dωj−i = R2
cos θi cos θj
dqi→j = Ie+r,i dAi dAj
R2
Assuming that surface i emits and reflects diffusely,
cos θi cos θj
dqi→j = Ji dAi dAj
πR2
The total rate of radiation leaving surface i towards j,
Z Z
cos θi cos θj
qi→j = Ji dAi dAj
πR2
Ai Aj

qi→j
Fij =
Ai Ji
Z Z
1 cos θi cos θj dAj
Fij = dAi dAj
Ai πR2
Ai Aj
Z Z
1 cos θi cos θj dAj
Fji = dAi dAj
Aj πR2
Ai Aj
These equations may be used to determine the view factor

associated with any two surfaces that are diffuse emitters and
reflectors and have uniform radiosity.

View Factor Relations
Ai Fij = Aj Fji
Reciprocity relation
For an enclosure,
N
X
Fij = 1
j=1
Summation rule
From the conservation
requirement that all radiation
leaving surface i must be
intercepted by the enclosure
surfaces.

View Factor Relations
To calculate radiation exchange in
an enclosure of N surfaces, a total
of N 2 view factors is needed.
 
F11 F12 F13 . . . F1N
 F21 F22 F23 . . . F2N 
 
 .. .. .. .. .. 
 . . . . . 
FN 1 FN 2 FN 3 . . . FN N
N eqs. from summation rule.

N (N − 1)/2 eqs. from reciprocity.
A total of
N 2 − (N + N (N − 1)/2) =
N (N − 1)/2 view factors need to be
determined directly.
View Factor Relations - Example
n2 = 4 view factors (F11 , F12 , F21 , F22 ).

N (N − 1)/2 = 1 to be determined directly.
F12 = 1
A1 A1
F21 = F12 =
A2 A2
F11 + F12 = 1 =⇒ F11 = 0
A1
F21 + F22 = 1 F22 = 1 −
A2

Tables

Tables

Tables

Charts

Charts

Charts

Subdivided Surface
n
X
Fi(j) = Fi,k
k=1
n
X
Aj F(j)i = Ak Fk,i
k=1
n
P
Ak Fk,i
k=1
F(j)i = n
P
Ak
k=1
This may be applied when the originating surface is composed of
several parts.
Problem
Determine the view factors F12 and F21 for the following
geometries:
1 Sphere of diameter D inside a cubical box of length L = D.

2 One side of a diagonal partition within a long square duct.
3 End and side of a circular tube of equal length and diameter.

Solution
Assumptions: Diffuse surfaces with uniform radiosities.
1 Sphere within a cube: F
12 = 1
A1 π
F21 = F12 =
A2 6
0
2 Partition within a square duct:
F11
*+ F + F = 1

12 13
F12 = F13 = 0.5 from symmetry

A1
F21 = F12 = 0.71
A2
3 Circular tube: Fij (L/ri , rj /L) = Fij (2, 0.5) ≈ 0.17
0
F11
*+
F12 + F13 = 1 =⇒ F12 = 0.83
A1
F21 = F12 = 0.21
A2

Blackbody Radiation Exchange
qi→j = (Ai Ji )Fij

For a blackbody, Ji = Ebi ,
qi→j = Ai Fij Ebi
Similarly, qj→i = Aj Fji Ebj

The net radiative exchange between the two surfaces,
qij = qi→j − qj→i = Ai Fij σ(Ti4 − Tj4 )
qij is the net rate at which radiation leaves i as a result of its

interaction with j = the net rate at which j gains radiation due to
its interaction with i.
N
Ai Fij σ(Ti4 − Tj4 )
P
For an enclosure of black surfaces, qi =
j=1

Problem
A furnace cavity, which is in the form of a cylinder of 75 mm

diameter and 150 mm length, is open at one end to large
surroundings that are at 27◦ C. The sides and bottom may be
approximated as blackbodies, are heated electrically, are well
insulated, and are maintained at temperatures of 1350 and
1650◦ C, respectively. How much power is required to maintain the
furnace conditions?

Solution

Solution
q = q13 + q23
= A1 F13 σ(T14 − T34 ) + A2 F23 σ(T24 − T34 )
Fij (L/ri , rj /L) = Fij (4, 0.25) ≈ 0.06

From summation rule, F21 = 1 − F23 = 0.94
A2
From reciprocity, F12 = A1 F21 = 0.118
From symmetry, F13 = F12
q = 1639 + 205 = 1844 W

Diffuse, Gray Surfaces in an Enclosure

Diffuse, Gray Surfaces in an Enclosure
qi = Ai (Ji − Gi )
Ji ≡ Ei + ρi Gi
For an opaque, diffuse, gray surface,
Ji = εi Ebi + (1 − εi )Gi
Ebi − Ji
qi =
(1 − εi )/εi Ai
(Ebi − Ji ) is the driving potential with a surface radiative
resistance of the form (1 − εi )/εi Ai .
Ji =?

Radiative Exchange Between Surfaces
N
X N
X
Ai G i = Fji Aj Jj = Fij Ai Jj
j=1 j=1
We have, qi = Ai (Ji − Gi )
 
N
X
=⇒ qi = Ai Ji − Fij Jj 
j=1
From summation rule,

 
XN N
X
qi = Ai  Fij Ji − Fij Jj 
j=1 j=1
N
X N
X
qi = Ai Fij (Ji − Jj ) = qij
j=1 j=1

If Ti is known,
N
X (Ji − Jj )
Ebi − Ji
=
(1 − εi )/εi Ai (Ai Fij )−1
j=1
If qi is known,
N
X (Ji − Jj )
qi =
(Ai Fij )−1
j=1
Solve N equations for N unknowns, J1 , J2 , J3 , . . . , JN .


Two-Surface Enclosure
σ(T14 − T24 )
q12 = q1 = −q2 = 1−ε1
ε1 A1 + A11F12 + 1−ε 2
ε2 A2
This can be used for any two diffuse, gray surfaces that form an
enclosure.
Two-Surface Enclosure

Radiation Shields
A1 σ(T14 − T24 )
q12,no shield = 1 1
ε1 + ε2 − 1
Eb,1 − Eb,2
q12 = 1−ε1 1 1−ε3,1 1−ε3,2 1 1−ε2
ε1 + A1 F1,2 + ε3,1 + ε3,2 + A3 F3,2 + ε2

Radiation Shields
F13 = F32 = 1
A1 σ(T14 − T24 )
q12 =
1 1 1 1
ε1 + ε2 − 1 + ε3,1 + ε3,2 −1
A1 σ(T14 − T24 )
(q12 )N =
1 1 1 1 1 1
ε1 + ε2 − 1 + ε3,1 + ε3,2 − 1 + . . . + εN,1 + εN,2 −1
If all emissivities are equal,

1
(q12 )N = (q12 )0
N +1
(q12 )0 is the radiation transfer rate with no shields (N = 0).
Problem
A thin aluminium sheet with an emissivity of 0.1 on both sides is

placed between two very large parallel plates that are maintained
at uniform temperatures T1 = 800 K and T2 = 500 K and have
emissivities ε1 = 0.2 and ε2 = 0.2, respectively. Determine the net
rate of radiation heat transfer between the two plates per unit
surface area of the plates and compare the result to that without
the shield.

Solution
Aσ(T14 − T24 )
(q12 )0 = 1 1 = 3.625 kW/m2
ε1 + ε2 − 1
A1 σ(T14 − T24 )
(q12 )1 = 1 1 1−ε3,1 1−ε3,2 = 0.806 kW/m2
ε1 + ε2 + ε3,1 + ε3,2
Comment: Radiation heat transfer rate reduces to about one

fourth of what it was as a result of placing a radiation shield
between the two parallel plates.

Reradiating Surface
qi = 0, well insulated on one side and for which convection effects
may be neglected on the opposite (radiating) side.
Eb1 − Eb2
q1 = −q2 = 1−ε1 1 1−ε2
ε 1 A1 + h
1 1
i−1 + ε 2 A2
A1 F12 + A1 F1R
+A F
2 2R

Mass Transfer
sudheer@iitp.ac.in

Heat and Mass Transfer Mass Transfer 515 / 537

Mass Transfer
Many significant HT problems in practice involve mass

transfer.
1/3rd of the heat loss from a resting person is due to
evaporation.
A close resemblance between heat and mass transfer relations.

Mass transfer - Bulk fluid motion
Mass transfer requires the presence of two regions at different

chemical compositions
Movement of a chemical species from a high concentration
region towards a lower concentration one relative to the other
chemical species present in the medium.
Fluid flow is due to pressure difference, whereas Mass transfer
is due to concentration difference.
No mass transfer in a homogeneous medium.

Diffusion Coefficient
Flow rate ∝ (N ormalarea)(Concentrationgradient)

dC
= −DA
dx
where D is the diffusion coefficient of the medium, a measure of
how fast the mass diffuses in the medium.
Diffusion Coefficient
Molecules in a gas mixture continually collide with each other.

The collision of unlike molecules influence the rate of
diffusion, as different masses have different movement.
The diffusion process is dominated by heavier molecules
The diffusion rates will be higher at higher temperatures.
Molecular spacing also influences diffusion process.
DGas Dliquids Dsolids

Analogy Between Heat and Mass Transfer

Conduction
Fourier’s law: Q = −kA dT

dx
Fick’s law of diffusion:

Rate of mass diffusion of species
A in a stationary medium in the
direction x:
dCA
ṁdiff = −DAB A
dx
DAB is mass diffusivity
CA is conc. of species A in
mixture at that location.

Mass Diffusion Equation
The differential equations for both heat conduction and mass

diffusion are of the same form.
Therefore, the solutions of mass diffusion equations can be
obtained from the solutions of corresponding heat conduction
equations for the same type of boundary conditions by simply
switching the corresponding coefficients and variables.

∂ ∂wA ∂ ∂wA ∂ ∂wA ∂ρA
ρDAB + ρDAB + ρDAB +ṁ000
A =
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t
Species generation is a volumetric phenomenon, homogeneous

reactions.

Convection
Qconv = hconv As (Ts − T∞ )

ṁconv = hmass As (Cs − C∞ )

Concentration Based on Mass, Mole

Ideal Gas Mixtures Transfer
At low pressures, a gas mixture can conveniently be approximated

as an ideal gas with negligible error. Ex.: A mixture of dry air and
water vapor at atmospheric conditions.
Dalton’s law of additive pressures:

X
P = Pi
Pi Ni Ru T /∨ Ni
= = = yi
P N Ru T /∨ N
The pressure fraction of species i of an ideal gas mixture is
equivalent to the mole fraction of that species and can be used in
place of it in mass transfer analysis.

Fick’s Law of Diffusion
Stationary Medium Consisting of Two Species

Mass basis:
ṁdif f,A d(ρA /ρ) d(wA )
jdif f,A = = −ρDA,B = −ρDA,B kg/s m2
A dx dx
Mole basis:
Ṅdif f,A d(CA /C) d(yA )

jdif f,A = = −CDA,B = −CDA,B mol/s m2
A dx dx
Relations:
ρi ρ
mi = Ni Mi =⇒ Ci = and C =
Mi M
m X ρi Mi
M= = yi Mi and wi = yi
N ρ M

Mass Diffusivity
T 3/2
DAB ∝
P
Diffusion of water vapor in air:
T 2.072
DH2 O,air = 1.87 × 10−10
P
(m2 /s), 280 K < T < 450 K

Mass Diffusivity

Diffusion Types
Ordinary diffusion mass diffusion due to the concentration gradient

Thermal diffusion mass diffusion due to the temperature gradient
Pressure diffusion mass diffusion due to the pressure gradient
Forced diffusion An external force field such as an electric or
magnetic field applied on a mixture or solution can
be used successfully to separate electrically charged
or magnetized molecules from the mixture
Knudsen and Surface diffusion Porous solid such as silica gel are
smaller than the mean free path of the gas
molecules; and when the size of the gas molecules is
comparable to the pore size, adsorbed molecules
move along the pore walls.
All the above phenomena causing mass diffusion are usually
neglected assuming the dominant driving potential is the species
concentration gradient.
Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer
Fourier’s law of conduction:
∂T
q 00 = −k (W/m2 )
∂x
Newton’s law of viscosity:
∂u
τ = −µ (N/m2 )
∂x
Fick’s law of diffusion:
dρA
ṁ00dif f,A = −DAB (kg/s m2 )
dx
00 dCA
ṁdif f,A = −DAB (kmol/s m2 )
dx
Diffusion (m2 ):
Momentum (ν); Thermal (α); Mass (DAB )

Non-Dimensional Numbers
ν Momentum diffusivity
Prandtl number : Pr = =
α Thermal diffusivity
ν Momentum diffusivity
Schmidt number : Sc = =
DAB Mass diffusivity
Sc α Thermal diffusivity
Lewis number : Le = = =
Pr DAB Mass diffusivity


ṁin − ṁout + ṁg = ṁst

∂ ∂wA ∂ ∂wA ∂ ∂wA ∂ρA
ρDAB + ρDAB + ρDAB +ṁ000
A =
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t

∂ ∂yA ∂ ∂yA ∂ ∂yA ∂CA
CDAB + CDAB + CDAB +ṄA000 =
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t

First condition:
yA (0, t) = yA,s
Second condition:

∂yA ∗
−CDAB = JA,s
∂x x=0

Impermeable surface:

∂yA
=0
∂x x=0

Steady Mass Diffusion Through a Wall
ṁdiff,A = jA A = constant (kg/s)
ṁdiff,A dwA
jA = = −ρDAB
A dx
= constant
wA,1 − wA,2
ṁdif f,A,wall =
L/ρDAB A

Steady Mass Diffusion Through a Wall
wA,1 − wA,2
ṁdiff,A, wall =
L/ρDAB A
ρA,1 − ρA,2
ṁdiff,A, cyl = 2πLDAB
ln(r2 /r1 )
ρA,1 − ρA,2
ṁdiff,A, sph = 4πr1 r2 DAB
r2 − r1 )

Heat and Mass Transfer

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Heat and Mass Transfer

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 1 / 537

Class Timings: ME305

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 2 / 537

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 3 / 537

The science that deals with the determination of the rates of

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 4 / 537

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 5 / 537

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 6 / 537

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 7 / 537

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 8 / 537

Laws of Heat Transfer

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 9 / 537

Caloric theory (18th Century)

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 10 / 537

Kinetic theory (19th Century)

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 11 / 537

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 12 / 537

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 13 / 537

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 14 / 537

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 15 / 537

The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15 m thick

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 16 / 537

Comprised of two mechanisms

Boundary layer development in convection heat transfer

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 17 / 537

Forced and Free/Natural Convection

Boiling and Condensation

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 18 / 537

qconv = hAs (Ts − T∞ )

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 19 / 537

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 20 / 537

For a real surface:

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 21 / 537

Ein − Eout = ∆Est

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 22 / 537

The inflow and outflow terms are surface phenomena.

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 23 / 537

Steady state with no heat generation

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 24 / 537

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 25 / 537

Analysis of different problems will give a deeper appreciation for

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 26 / 537

The hot combustion gases of a furnace are separated from the

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 27 / 537

An experiment to determine the convection coefficient associated

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 28 / 537

The roof of a car in a parking lot absorbs a solar radiant flux of

Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction 29 / 537

Heat Diffusion Equation

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fourier’s law of heat conduction

Steady-state heat transfer Transient heat transfer

Heat and Mass Transfer Heat Diffusion Equation 31 / 537

Heat and Mass Transfer Heat Diffusion Equation 32 / 537

Heat and Mass Transfer Heat Diffusion Equation 33 / 537

qn00 = qx00~i + qy00~j + qz00~k