Uses and Functions of Music in Congenital Amusia 345

U SES AND F UNCTIONS OF M USIC IN C ONGENITAL A MUSIA

C LAIRE M C D ONALD & L AUREN S TEWART whether music perceptual deficits, such as in those seen in
Goldsmiths, University of London, London, amusia, limit the extent to which music can be appreciated.
United Kingdom Individuals with congenital amusia have a true per-
ceptual agnosia. These individuals cannot recognize
THE GOAL OF THIS STUDY WAS TO ASCERTAIN whether familiar tunes or tell two tunes apart (Peretz, Champod,
deficits in music perception impact upon music appre- & Hyde, 2003). They should be distinguished from those
ciation. Likert ratings were gathered from congenital individuals who self label as tone deaf yet have no
amusics and matched controls concerning the degree to demonstrable perceptual deficits (Cuddy, Balkwill,
which individuals incorporate music in their everyday Peretz, & Holden, 2005). While much amusia research
lives, are able to achieve certain psychological states has focused on the perception of music and its compo-
through music, and feel positively about music imposed nents (Foxton, Dean, Gee, Peretz, & Griffiths, 2004; Hyde
upon them. Those with amusia reported incorporating & Peretz, 2004; Peretz et al., 2002), the question of how
music into everyday activities to a lesser degree than these perceptual impairments impact upon the apprecia-
controls. They also reported experiencing fewer changes tion of music has not been systematically addressed.
in psychological states when listening to music and felt While one may predict that faulty perception of
more negatively about imposed music compared to music will limit its appreciation, degraded perceptual
controls. However, the scores of some amusic individ- input is not always a bar to appreciation, as in the case
uals fell within the control range on these question- of some deaf individuals (Chorost, 2005). Music is a
naires, providing some evidence for a developmental multidimensional stimulus and even if amusic individ-
dissociation between music perception (impaired) and uals are relatively insensitive to pitch, the perception of
music appreciation (normal). Potential reasons for this other aspects of music, such as rhythm or timbre, may
dissociation are discussed. allow them to generate expectancies that are crucial for
mediating the affective dimension of music listening
Received July 7, 2007, accepted December 4, 2007.
(Huron, 2006).
Key words: music, congenital amusia, appreciation, Indeed, congenitally amusic individuals are able to
everyday listening, perception differentiate between excerpts of music that normal lis-
teners identify as happy or sad, suggesting that they
have preserved sensitivity to at least one of the struc-
tural features (tempo) that is conventionally used to
convey affective tone (Ayotte, Peretz, & Hyde, 2002).

M
USIC IS ENJOYED IN THE ‘stream of everyday
life’ (Konecni, 1982) and it is within this con- However, the identification of an emotion within a
text that we can learn how and why the non- piece of music should be distinguished from the actual
specialist listener uses music. Studies of everyday music experience of an emotional state evoked or mediated
listening have emphasized the active role of the listener, through musical listening (Sloboda, 1991). In the pres-
who consciously and deliberately uses music to achieve ent paper, we address the experiential aspects of music
or enhance certain, predominantly affective, psycholog- listening, asking whether individuals with congenital
ical states (DeNora, 1999, 2000; Sloboda, 1999). The amusia report employing and experiencing music in a
extent to which music can mediate these psychological similar way to non-amusic individuals of a similar age
changes will depend on an interaction between the lis- and music training background.
tener, the music, and the music listening situation Three questionnaires were developed. Questionnaire 1
(North & Hargreaves, 1997). However, within this triad (‘Uses of Music’) investigated the ‘how’ of music listen-
of factors, the ability to discern physical and structural ing in amusics and matched controls. Research on
characteristics of music is incontrovertibly important everyday music listening has shown that people use
(Scherer & Zentner, 2001). The question therefore arises music purposely and deliberately in many everyday

Music Perception VOLUME 25, ISSUE 4, PP. 345–355, ISSN 0730-7829, ELECTRONIC ISSN 1533-8312 © 2008 BY THE REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA . ALL
RIGHTS RESERVED. PLEASE DIRECT ALL REQUESTS FOR PERMISSION TO PHOTOCOPY OR REPRODUCE ARTICLE CONTENT THROUGH THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS ’ S
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346 Claire McDonald & Lauren Stewart

situations; while performing household chores, driving, same or different. An online version of one of these six
cycling or running, working or reading, or having a subtests (scale) was used to screen for potential amusics
bath (Juslin & Laukka, 2004; North & Hargreaves, 2004; (www.delosis.com/listening/home.html).
Sloboda, O’Neill, & Ivaldi, 2001). Questionnaire 1 Participants who had taken the online scale test at
therefore asked individuals to report how likely they least twice and achieved a mean score that was two stan-
were to employ music in some of these common every- dard deviations below the mean score of a normative
day situations. We hypothesized that those with amusia sample of 160 adults (Peretz et al., 2003) were invited to
would report incorporating music into these everyday the laboratory for face to face testing on four of the six
activities to a lesser extent than controls. subtests: scale, contour, interval, and rhythm. Previous
Questionnaire 2 (‘Functions of Music’) investigated studies of amusia have demonstrated consistent findings
the ‘why’ of music listening in the two groups. Previous of pitch-related deficits in amusia, while the presence of
literature has shown that music is often used in order to rhythmic deficits appears to be more varied (Ayotte et
consciously and deliberately achieve psychological al., 2002; Peretz et al., 2003). We therefore calculated, for
(mainly affective) goals: to motivate, excite, or calm, to each individual, a score that was a composite of all three
match or induce particular moods, to trigger memories pitch subtest scores. Individuals were classified as amu-
of past events, to help release strong emotions, and as a sic if their composite score fell below 65 out of 90, plac-
source of comfort or healing (DeNora, 1999; 2000; Juslin ing them two standard deviations below the composite
& Laukka, 2004; Sloboda, 1999). Questionnaire 2 there- mean score of the normative sample (Peretz et al., 2003).
fore asked individuals to report whether they had expe- Seventy percent of the participants who were invited
rienced various commonly reported psychological states to the laboratory based on their score on the online
through music. We hypothesized that those with amusia scale subtest achieved a composite score below 65 dur-
would report experiencing fewer psychological states in ing face to face testing on the scale, contour, and inter-
response to music listening, compared with controls. val subtests combined. Within the group of those
In contrast to the positive reactions listeners experi- individuals classified as amusic, a comparison of the
ence to music of their own choice, reactions to imposed scores obtained during the online and subsequent face
music, such as music experienced in bars, restaurants, to face testing of the scale subtest revealed a significant
and shops are often negative, or at best ambivalent (Slo- positive relationship, r (19) = .71, p = .001.
boda, 1999). Such reactions are often evoked because All participants classified as amusic additionally
this ‘imposed’ music may not be deemed a good fit to reported lifelong difficulties with music during a screen-
the context in which it is played and/or is incongruent ing interview. For instance, participants variously men-
with the listener’s identity and personal preferences tioned their difficulties with singing in tune (as remarked
(North & Hargreaves, 1997). Questionnaire 3, (‘Attitudes upon by friends/family), their inability to recognize
to Imposed Music’) was therefore designed to investi- familiar tunes or summon them from memory, and
gate how amusic individuals feel about music that is their difficulty in spotting notes that are ‘out of key.’
outside of their control. We hypothesized that both Several also remarked upon additional problems with
amusic and control groups would feel negatively clapping or dancing in time.
towards imposed music but for different reasons— Each amusic individual was matched to a control par-
predominantly due to a degraded perceptual input for ticipant of the same gender and of similar age and
the amusics and primarily due to a lack of control or music training background, who scored in the normal
contextual fit for the controls. range across the scale, contour, interval, and rhythm
subtests of the MBEA. Both groups comprised 7 males
Method and 14 females, ranging in age from 31 to 69 years (M =
50.6, SD = 9.4). Table 1 details the demographic details
Participant Characterization and performance on the four MBEA subtests of the
amusic sample. Table 2 summarizes the characteristics
Participants were identified as amusic on the basis of of the amusic and control groups.
their scores on a standard music perception battery, the
Montreal Battery of Evaluation of Amusia (MBEA, General Feeling about Music and Hours of Listening
Peretz et al., 2003). This battery comprises six subtests
designed to assess distinct aspects of music perception. As a simple gauge of the extent to which participants
Each subtest requires participants to listen to 30 pairs of liked or disliked music, participants were asked, ‘How
novel musical phrases and report whether they are the do you feel about music in general?’ with the following
TABLE 1. Amusic Participants’ Demographic Details and Individual MBEA Subtest Scores.

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12 A13 A14 A15 A16 A17 A18 A19 A20 A21

Demographics
Gender F M M F M M M F F F F F M F M F F F F F F
Age 54 34 46 55 54 36 65 55 45 45 51 69 55 59 31 50 56 61 54 44 49
Education 16 13 11 17.5 16 16 16 19 14 18 21 17 20 16 16 11 17 11 20 17 17
Music- 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 .5 3 0 6
Training
Music Battery
Scale 16 14 21 19 18 18 19 16 18 17 23 20 15 17 20 19 20 14 19 17 17
Contour 14 15 18 19 21 19 16 20 20 19 16 21 17 19 22 23 20 15 23 19 20
Interval 16 14 18 16 16 17 18 17 15 18 17 19 17 15 19 17 20 20 18 14 19
Composite 46 43 57 54 55 54 53 53 53 54 56 60 49 51 61 59 60 49 60 50 56
Rhythm 24 18 24 21 20 21 23 25 19 19 23 27 21 29 25 26 22 18 27 24 18
F = female; M = male. Age, education, and music training are expressed in years. MBEA = Montreal Battery of Evaluation of Amusia. Composite = aggregate of scores on pitch-related MBEA sub-tests (scale, contour, interval).
Uses and Functions of Music in Congenital Amusia
347
348 Claire McDonald & Lauren Stewart

TABLE 2. Participants’ Characteristics and Scores on the MBEA.

Amusics (SD) Controls (SD) U

Demographic Characteristics
Gender 7 M, 14 F 7 M, 14 F —
Age 51.0 (9.6) 50.2 (9.4) 220
Education 16.2 (2.9) 16.6 (2.6) 194
Music Training 0.7 (1.5) 0.9 (1.8) 209
Music Battery (MBEA)
Scale 18.0 (2.3) 26.6 (1.8) 0***
Contour 18.9 (2.6) 26.9 (1.5) 0***
Interval 17.1 (1.8) 26.4 (2.3) 0***
Composite 54.0 (4.8) 80.0 (4.7) 0***
Rhythm 22.6 (3.3) 27.1 (1.8) 51***
F = female; M = male; SD = standard deviation. MBEA = Montreal Battery of Evaluation of Amusia. Composite = aggregate score
on scale, contour and interval MBEA subtests.
U = computed value of Mann-Whitney tests comparing the two groups; ***p < .001 level, one-tailed.

response options: ‘I love music,’ ‘I like music,’ ‘I am ‘indifferently,’‘negatively,’ and ‘very negatively.’ Examples
indifferent to music,’ ‘I dislike music,’ and ‘I hate music.’ included the presence of piped music in elevators, in
In addition, they were asked how many hours per week shops, or while eating out with friends. Response
they spend listening to music of their own choice, options were reversed for different items and every
including instances where music was used as back- second item was reverse worded to guard against any
ground accompaniment to another activity. potential effects of response bias. All questionnaires had
an optional response box for participants to elaborate
Questionnaires on their response with written comments.

Three Likert scale questionnaires were developed, each Procedure

consisting of 10 items. Questionnaire 1 (‘Uses of Music’)
and Questionnaire 2 (‘Functions of Music’) both drew The three questionnaires were administered to partici-
on findings from previous studies of everyday music lis- pants. Written instructions for the questionnaires
tening (Sloboda, 1999; Sloboda et al., 2001) in untrained encouraged participants to conceptualize music in its
Western listeners. Questionnaire 1, ‘Uses of Music,’ broadest form and to refer to situations in general when
asked participants to indicate how likely they were to responding. The instructions also addressed the possi-
include music of their choice during a variety of every- bility that some participants may not have experienced
day situations, with the following response options: a given situation included in the questionnaires and
‘very likely,’‘likely,’‘unsure,’‘unlikely,’ and ‘very unlikely.’ asked participants to give a response corresponding to
Example situations included studying or working at how they imagine they would feel in such a situation.
home, exercising, or having a bath.
Questionnaire 2, ‘Functions of Music,’ asked partici- Data Recording
pants to indicate whether they had experienced certain
psychological changes while listening to music, using a For each questionnaire item, the response (e.g., very
scale of ‘strongly agree,’ ‘agree,’ ‘unsure,’ ‘disagree,’ and likely, likely, unsure, unlikely, very unlikely) was con-
‘strongly disagree.’ Examples included effects of music verted to a numerical score, from 1 to 5, where 1
on arousal or emotional state. reflected the most negative response (very unlikely) and
Questionnaire 3, ‘Attitudes to Imposed Music,’ investi- 5, the most positive response (very likely). Missing data
gated participants’ feelings concerning music over which (0.3% of the total) were substituted using the mean
they have no control (North & Hargreaves, 1997). Par- score for that item from the relevant participant
ticipants were asked to rate how the presence of imposed group (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Total scores were
music would affect their experience of certain situations, derived for each questionnaire by summing the scores for
from the following options: ‘very positively,’ ‘positively,’ each of the ten items, yielding a range of scores between
 Uses and Functions of Music in Congenital Amusia 349

10 and 50. Higher total scores reflected an increased testing). Mann Whitney U exact significance values are
likelihood of including music during everyday activities reported in all cases (as opposed to asymptotic values),
(Questionnaire 1), an increased ability to employ music as recommended for smaller sample sizes (Field, 2005).
to achieve certain psychological states (Questionnaire 2), Higher descriptive scores indicate more frequent use of
and a more positive attitude towards imposed music music in everyday situations (Questionnaire 1),
(Questionnaire 3). Lower scores reflected the reverse. increased experience of changes in psychological states
For each questionnaire, total scores for each participant mediated via music (Questionnaire 2) and a higher tol-
were entered into SPSS (version 14) and were used as erance of imposed music (Questionnaire 3). One-tailed
the basis for the between group comparison. tests were used where we had a directional hypothesis
about group differences (Questionnaires 1 and 2) and a
two-tailed test was used where we did not (Question-
Results naire 3).

General Feelings about Music and Hours of Listening Questionnaire 1: ‘Uses of Music’

A Mann Whitney U one-tailed test revealed a signifi- Figure 1 shows the distribution of total scores on Ques-
cant difference between groups for the response to the tionnaire 1 for both groups. A Mann Whitney U one-
question: ‘How do you feel about music in general?’ tailed test revealed a significant difference between
While 100% of control participants reported liking or groups. Amusic participants, as a group, were less likely
loving music, only 43% of the amusic participants felt to incorporate music during a selection of everyday
similarly, U = 41, p < .001, r = −.73.1 A significant dif- activities compared with control participants, U = 99,
ference between groups was also found for the number p = .001, r = −.47. The effect size was medium.
of hours of listening to music. On average, control par- Table 3 shows the results for each of the ten items on
ticipants listened to 9 hours of music per week, com- this questionnaire. Overall, the amusic participants, as a
pared with amusic participants who listened to 3 hours group, report incorporating music less while reading as
of music per week, U = 91, p < .001, r = −.51. These a leisure activity, when studying or working at home,
between group differences represent large effect sizes while performing household chores, while driving or
(Field, 2005). traveling, at bedtime, and during a romantic evening.
The between group differences for these items represent
medium to large effect sizes.
Questionnaire Reliability
While both amusic and control participants reported
that they would include music during everyday activities
Each of the developed questionnaires was demon-
strated to have a high internal consistency. Cronbach’s
alpha values for the three questionnaires were: .88
(Questionnaire 1: ‘Uses of Music’), .93 (Questionnaire 2: 60
‘Functions of Music’), and .85 (Questionnaire 3: ‘Atti-
tudes to Imposed Music’). 50

Comparison of Questionnaire Scores Between Groups 40

Mean Score

Mann Whitney U tests were used to compare total 30

scores for the amusic and control groups for each ques-
tionnaire (alpha level of .05), and to compare scores for
20
each of the items within the three questionnaires (alpha
level of .005, following Bonferroni corrections for multiple
10

0
Amusics Controls
1
r represents an effect size estimate derived by converting test sta-
tistics into z-scores and dividing by the square root of the sample size FIGURE 1. Distribution of total scores for Questionnaire 1: ‘Uses of
(Rosenthal, 1991). Music.’
350 Claire McDonald & Lauren Stewart

TABLE 3. Questionnaire 1: Inclusion of Music in Certain Everyday Situations.

Amusics (n = 21) Controls (n = 21) Statistics

Likely Unsure Unlikely Likely Unsure Unlikely U r

Bath 33% 10% 57% 48% 5% 48% 192 −.12

Exercising 33% 5% 62% 62% 0% 38% 146 −.30
Reading 10% 0% 91% 33% 10% 57% 117* −.43
Study/Work 24% 5% 71% 48% 19% 33% 102* −.47
Chores 33% 5% 62% 91% 5% 5% 86* −.54
Driving 43% 5% 52% 86% 5% 10% 110* −.46
Getting up 10% 5% 86% 33% 0% 67% 129 −.38
Bedtime 5% 0% 95% 24% 10% 67% 112* −.45
Romance 48% 14% 38% 81% 5% 14% 119* −.41
Walk 14% 0% 86% 29% 5% 67% 134 −.37
For presentation purposes, responses for ‘very likely’/‘likely’ and ‘very unlikely’/‘unlikely’ have been summated.
U = computed value of Mann-Whitney test; r = effect size estimate; *p < .005, one-tailed (Bonferroni-corrected).

if the task was relatively undemanding, such as while cultural associations present in the music, rather than
performing household chores or on a long journey, a to the music itself. This was especially true for the item
number of amusic participants ultimately preferred relating to nostalgia. For example, one amusic com-
complete absence of music. For example, one com- mented, ‘The lyrics of songs from my teens can sometimes
mented, ‘I often listen to radio 4 (a speech-based chan- do this [evoke nostalgic memories]. [However] I cannot
nel) whilst doing house work—no music programmes “hear” them but have to read them.’
though!’ The reported use of music to set the ambience The comments from some amusic participants con-
and mood for a romantic evening also differed greatly cerning effects of music on arousal are also revealing.
between controls and amusics (81% of controls were For example, in response to the item, ‘Certain music
likely to use music in this way compared with 48% of can sometimes motivate or excite me,’ one amusic
amusics). Of the amusics who did report using music in wrote, ‘Excite me to irritability and annoyance.’ In
this way, many reported that it was solely for the enjoy- response to the item, ‘I have never experienced tin-
ment of their partner, ‘I am thinking of the other person gles/goose pimples/shivers from any kind of music,’ the
and how to make it enjoyable for them.’ same amusic participant wrote, ‘[I have experienced]

Questionnaire 2: ‘Functions of Music’

60
Figure 2 shows the distribution of total scores on
Questionnaire 2 for both groups. A Mann Whitney U
one-tailed test revealed a significant difference between 50

groups. Amusic participants, as a group, reported fewer

psychological changes associated with listening to 40
music compared with control participants, U = 25, p <
Mean Score

.001, r = −.76. The effect size was large. 30

Table 4 shows the results for each of the ten items on
this questionnaire. Significant between group differ-
20
ences were found for all but one item, which concerned
the ability of music to evoke nostalgic memories of past
times. However, the between group comparison for this 10
item was close to significance, U = 131, p = .006, r = −.41.
Effect sizes were medium to large. 0
Amusics Controls
When amusic participants did report experiencing
psychological changes in response to music, this was FIGURE 2. Distribution of total scores for Questionnaire 2: ‘Functions
often specifically described in relation to the lyrics or of Music.’
 Uses and Functions of Music in Congenital Amusia 351

TABLE 4. Questionnaire 2: Ability of Music to Induce Certain Psychological Changes.

Amusics (n = 21) Controls (n = 21) Statistics

Agree Unsure Disagree Agree Unsure Disagree U r

Nostalgia 86% 10% 5% 100% 0% 0% 131 −.41

Shivers 43% 14% 43% 91% 0% 10% 78* −.61
Match mood 57% 14% 29% 100% 0% 0% 81* −.60
Catharsis 38% 14% 48% 100% 0% 0% 65* −.67
Relax 52% 0% 48% 100% 0% 0% 70* −.62
Uplift 33% 5% 62% 100% 0% 0% 49* −.69
Sadden 48% 10% 43% 95% 0% 5% 111* −.45
Comfort 29% 10% 62% 95% 0% 5% 89* −.54
Motivate 48% 10% 43% 100% 0% 0% 87* −.55
Spiritual 24% 24% 52% 72% 10% 19% 114* −.43
For presentation purposes, responses for ‘very likely’/‘likely’ and ‘very unlikely’/‘unlikely’ have been summated.
U = computed value of Mann-Whitney test; r = effect size estimate; *p < .005, one-tailed (Bonferroni-corrected).

just a sort of irritable rage. Now I wonder what others feel Table 5 shows the results for each of the ten items on
and think I may be missing out on something.’ this questionnaire. Significant between group differences
were found for one item only—an item asking how the
presence of imposed music would be regarded in a com-
Questionnaire 3: ‘Attitudes to Imposed Music’ munal area within the home. Half of the control group,
in contrast to none of the amusic group, rated the pres-
Figure 3 shows the distribution of total scores on ence of imposed music within the home positively.
Questionnaire 3 for both groups. A Mann Whitney U As expected, comments from participants of both
two-tailed test revealed a significant difference between groups often revealed a dislike of music in public places.
groups. Amusic participants, as a group, regarded However, responses from the amusic participants were,
imposed music more negatively compared with control in general, particularly negative, even for social situa-
participants, U = 134, p = < .05, r = −.34. The effect size tions where music is frequently acknowledged to have an
was medium. important role. For instance, in response to the item,
‘You are at a party or occasion (e.g., wedding). How
would the presence of music which is outside your con-
trol, affect your enjoyment of the occasion?’ only a third
60 as many amusic individuals as controls rated the pres-
ence of music positively. One amusic commented, ‘I
50 would find it very hard to stay in the room . . . I find it
makes my ears and head hurt and so avoid these situations
40 at all cost. In fact if I have to go to such an event I get very
anxious weeks beforehand and try to work out coping
Mean Score

strategies which all usually involve can I avoid the event or

30
how soon can I leave. I am not a social mixing type of per-
son probably because of this.’
20 One situation in which imposed music was judged
positively by both amusic and control participants was
10 listening to the street musician or ‘busker.’ Although no
significant between group differences were found with
0
regard to this item, 48% of amusics compared with 67%
Amusics Controls
of control participants, rated street music positively,
FIGURE 3. Distribution of total scores for Questionnaire 3: ‘Attitudes representing the item with the most positive rating for
to Imposed Music.’ the amusic group.
352 Claire McDonald & Lauren Stewart

TABLE 5. Questionnaire 3: Impact of Imposed Music on Enjoyment of Certain Situations.

Amusics (n = 21) Controls (n = 21) Statistics

Positive Indifferent Negative Positive Indifferent Negative U r

Party 19% 52% 29% 62% 10% 29% 148 −.29

Eating Out 19% 48% 33% 33% 43% 24% 176 −.18
Cinema 38% 52% 10% 76% 24% 0% 120 −.42
Elevator 5% 52% 43% 5% 38% 57% 207 −.06
Doctors 14% 38% 48% 33% 43% 24% 146 −.30
Shopping 10% 38% 52% 10% 43% 48% 202 −.08
Living area 0% 29% 71% 48% 24% 29% 92* −.52
Buskers 48% 24% 29% 67% 33% 0% 167 −.23
Phone 14% 29% 57% 10% 24% 67% 193 −.11
Transport 10% 14% 76% 5% 29% 67% 193 −.12
For presentation purposes, responses for ‘very likely’/‘likely’ and ‘very unlikely’/‘unlikely’ have been summated.
U = computed value of Mann-Whitney test; r = effect size estimate; * p < .005, one-tailed (Bonferroni-corrected).

Correlations Between Variables a subgroup of amusic individuals who are able to use
music in similar contexts and for similar psychological
Spearman Rho correlations were employed to assess the functions as non-amusic listeners despite abnormal
relationships between variables. For the control group, performance on the MBEA. In order to explore whether
there was a significant correlation between ‘hours spent any demographic or performance variables might
listening to music’ and scores on Questionnaire 1 (‘Uses account for these differences in self-reported music
of Music’), rs(19) = .57, p < .01 and between ‘hours spent appreciation, we divided the amusic group into two
listening to music’ and gender, with women listening to subgroups, according to how they scored on Question-
more music than men, rs(19) = .45, p < .05. There was also naires 1 and 2. Subgroup 1 comprised those amusics
a significant correlation between scores on the MBEA who scored within the control range on both question-
rhythm subtest and Questionnaire 1, rs(19) = .53, p < .05. naires (n = 5) and subgroup 2 comprised those amusics
For the amusic group, several variables correlated sig- who scored outside the control range on both question-
nificantly with age: ‘Hours spent listening to music,’ naires (n = 11). Table 6 summarizes the demographic
rs(19) = −.69, p < .001, scores on Questionnaire 1, rs(19) = characteristics and MBEA scores of the two subgroups.
−.72, p < .001, and scores on Questionnaire 2 (‘Func- A statistical comparison revealed that the subgroups
tions of Music’), rs(19) = −.70, p < .001. The variable differed significantly in age and in the number of hours
‘hours spent listening to music’ correlated significantly reported voluntary music listening per week. Those in
with scores on Questionnaire 1, rs(19) = .63, p < .005 subgroup 2 were significantly older and listened to sig-
and Questionnaire 2, rs(19) = .49, p < .05. The extent to nificantly less music per week than the individuals in
which participants reported liking music correlated sig- subgroup 1. No other variables differed significantly
nificantly with scores on Questionnaire 1, rs(19) = .74, between the two subgroups.
p < .001, scores on Questionnaire 2, rs(19) = .69, p < .001,
and scores on Questionnaire 3 (‘Attitudes to Imposed Discussion
Music’), rs(19) = .61, p < .005. Scores on Questionnaire
1 and Questionnaire 2 correlated significantly, rs(19) = The results were consistent with prior research demon-
.85, p < .001, as did scores on Questionnaire 2 and Ques- strating that, for non-amusic listeners at least, music is
tionnaire 3, rs(19) = .59, p = .005. often used as an accompaniment to other activities
(Juslin & Laukka, 2004; North & Hargreaves, 2004; Slo-
Subgroups Within the Amusia Group boda et al., 2001). In line with these previous studies,
activities such as performing household chores, driving
On the basis of the preceding analysis, it is evident that (91% and 86%, respectively), romantic occasions
while the amusics scored lower as a group on all three (81%), and exercise (64%) were reported to be the most
questionnaires, some amusics scored in the same range likely activities to be accompanied by music. The
as the control participants. This suggests the presence of reported functions of music for non-amusic listeners
 Uses and Functions of Music in Congenital Amusia 353

TABLE 6. Demographic Characteristics and Scores on MBEA Subtests of Amusic Subgroups.

Subgroup 1 (SD) Subgroup 2 (SD) U

Demographic Characteristics
Gender 2 M, 3 F 3 M, 8 F 24
Age (years) 41.2 (7.6) 57.6 (5.4) 0***
Education (years) 16.8 (0.8) 17.1 (2.8) 26
Music Training (years) 1.2 (2.7) 0.4 (0.8) 27
Hours Music Listening 8.1 (10.1) 0.6 (1.2) 10*
Reported Liking of Music 40 % 18% 13
Music Battery (MBEA)
Composite 55.0 (4.0) 54.1 (4.8) 24
Rhythm test 21.4 (3.0) 23.2 (3.3) 20
SD = standard deviation. F = female; M = male; Hours listening to music is reported as the amount of voluntary listening per
week. MBEA = Montreal Battery of Evaluation of Amusia. U = computed value of Mann-Whitney test; * p < .05, *** p < .0001
(both two-tailed).

also echoed previous findings, demonstrating that music Although previous research has demonstrated that
is frequently used to achieve psychological goals: to evoke those with congenital amusia are able to recognize
memories, to match or modulate subjective moods, to affective content present in music excerpts (Ayotte et
increase arousal levels, and to aid relaxation (Juslin & al., 2002), the majority of our amusic group reported an
Laukka, 2004; Sloboda et al., 2001). Indeed, participants impoverished experience of affective states when listen-
in the control group identified so strongly with these sug- ing to music. This finding underlines the distinction
gested functions of music that for eight of the ten items, between recognizing and experiencing emotion in
95% or more participants rated them positively. music (Kivy, 1989). Nevertheless, a subgroup of amusic
Amusic participants were, in general, less positive individuals (n = 5) scored within the control range on
about music compared with controls. While all control Questionnaires 1 and 2, suggesting that they employ
participants reported ‘liking’ or ‘loving’ music, this was music in similar contexts and for similar reasons as do
true for less than half the amusics. This was also non-amusic listeners, in spite of their evident music
reflected in a significant difference in the number of perceptual impairments. This dissociation between per-
hours per week spent listening to music, with control ception (impaired) and appreciation (normal) has been
participants listening, on average, to more than three previously shown in clinical cases (Lechevalier, Rossa,
times as much music as the amusic listeners. The scores Eustache, Schupp, Boner, & Bazin, 1984; Peretz &
on the three questionnaires largely supported our pre- Gagnon, 1999; Peretz, Gagnon, & Bouchard, 1998) but,
dictions: amusic participants, as a group, reported to our knowledge, has not before been demonstrated in
employing music considerably less in everyday situa- congenital cases of amusia.
tions and experiencing fewer psychological changes in An examination of the characteristics of those amusic
response to music. In addition, amusic participants individuals scoring in the same range as the controls for
reported feeling more negatively about imposed music Questionnaires 1 and 2 versus those amusics scoring
than control participants. The effect size for this differ- below the range of the controls on both questionnaires
ence was smaller than for the other two questionnaires, revealed that neither performance on the MBEA pitch-
reflecting the fact that, as predicted, many control par- related or rhythm tests, nor music training background
ticipants also felt negatively about the presence of music could account for this difference. The only variables
in public places. With regard to imposed music, only that were significantly different between the two sub-
one item—referring to the presence of music in a com- groups were age and number of hours of voluntary
munal area within the home—revealed a significant dif- music listening per week. Those amusics scoring below
ference between groups. It may be that the presence of the range of controls’ scores on Questionnaire 1 (‘Uses
another’s choice of music within the home is particularly of Music’) and Questionnaire 2 (‘Functions of Music’)
difficult for some amusic individuals because, even if they were significantly older and listened to significantly
are relatively used to encountering music in public places, less music per week compared to those scoring within
the home is one place where they might expect to be able the same range as the controls. Indeed, across the amu-
to exercise control over their listening environment. sic group as a whole, there was a significant negative
354 Claire McDonald & Lauren Stewart

correlation between age and number of hours of volun- that may influence music appreciation, such an
tary music listening per week that was not evident in account emphasizes the need to investigate experiential
the control group. effects of contextualized music listening as a comple-
The reason why older amusic individuals spend less ment to laboratory based studies of music perception.
time listening to music and report fewer psychologi-
cal changes in response to music listening is not clear. Conclusion
One possibility is that the younger amusics may be
less inclined to admit to an indifference towards The current study documents the reported uses and
music for reasons of social desirability and impres- functions of music in a group of congenitally amusic
sion management. However, this is not supported by adults. The findings suggest that music perceptual
previous research suggesting that social desirability deficits can, but do not always, limit music apprecia-
and impression management increase with age tion. A subgroup of amusics reported levels of musical
(Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975; Ray, 1988). One plausible engagement and appreciation that were within the
explanation for the effect of age in the amusic group same range as the control participants. The suggestion
may be that the younger amusics score in the normal of a dissociation between perception (impaired) and
range on Questionnaires 1 and 2 because of factors appreciation (normal) found in the current study pro-
that are extrinsic to their appreciation of the music vides a clear motivation for future research that will
per se. Music listening is crucial for the formation of combine the self-report method with additional objec-
self identity in early adulthood (Green, 1999). The tive empirical approaches such as the measurement of
inextricable link between music and social identity physiological responses. These future research objec-
allows for the possibility that, in young adulthood, tives will further explore the interdependence—or
music may be employed partly on the basis of factors otherwise—of what we hear and how we feel.
that are not intrinsic to the music per se, but rather
the social and cultural associations that music carries. Author Note
With increasing age, when the role of music in estab-
lishing or maintaining social identity is likely to be This study was supported by a grant to Lauren Stewart
reduced, individuals may employ music in everyday from the Economic and Social Research Council
situations based upon their evaluation of the music in (ESRC).
its own right. By this reasoning, amusic individuals
may have a lower self-reported appreciation for music Correspondence concerning this article should be
than non-amusics throughout the life span, but a addressed to Lauren Stewart, Department of Psychology,
potential indifference to music may be masked in the Whitehead Building, Goldsmiths, University of London
younger amusics due to the influence of sociocultural New Cross, London, SE14 6NW United Kingdom. E-MAIL:
factors. In underlining the myriad of potential factors l.stewart@gold.ac.uk

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