Heat and Energy: 4.1 Thermal Equilibrium

Hoo Sze Yen Physics SPM 2010
CHAPTER 4:
HEAT AND ENERGY
4.1 Thermal Equilibrium
Heat
Object 1 Object 2
Heat
Thermal equilibrium is reached between two objects in contact when:

• The net transfer of heat is zero (rate of exchange of heat are equal)
• The two objects have the same temperature
4.1.1 Calibration of a thermometer
To calibrate a thermometer, two extreme points must be chosen to mark its scale. These
points must be able to be reproduced accurately.
In the Celsius scale, the two fixed points of temperature are:

(i) ice point (0°C) – temperature of pure ice melting under standard atmospheric
pressure
(ii) steam point (100°C) – temperature of pure water boiling under standard
atmospheric pressure
To calculate the scale of a thermometer, given the two fixed points:
l x − l0
θ x − θ0 = × (θ100 −θ 0 )
l100 − l 0
where l1 = length on scale based on lower fixed point (typically 0°C)

l2 = length on scale based on higher fixed point (typically 100°C)
lx = length on scale based on temperature of object to be measured
θ1 = temperature of lower fixed point (typically 0°C)
θ2 = temperature of higher fixed point (typically 100°C)
θx = temperature to be calculated
Chapter 4: Heat and Energy Page 1 of 7

4.2 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity

Heat capacity: An object that has a large heat capacity requires a bigger quantity of heat
to raise the temperature to 1°C
Specific heat capacity: The amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 1
kg of a material by 1°C
Q = mcθ
where Q = heat energy [J]

m = mass [kg]
c = specific heat capacity of the material [J kg-1 °C-1]
θ = change in temperature [°C]
4.2.1 Applications
• Water is used as a coolant in car

engines because
Specific heat capacity is large,
Easily obtained and cheap,
Does not chemically react with
the materials in the engine.
• Cooking utensils (woks, pots) are usually made of material with low specific heat
capacity to ensure temperature increases quickly when heated.
• Handles are made of material with high specific heat capacity and are poor
conductors.
• Clay pots are made of clay with high specific heat capacity and are poor conductors.
When removed from heat, the soup inside the pot will continue to boil as heat is still
being received from the pot.

4.3 Latent Heat and Specific Latent Heat

Latent heat: Heat that is absorbed during the change of state of the material (solid ↔
liquid ↔ gas)
Specific latent heat: The amount of heat needed to change the state of 1 kg of a material
Latent heat of
vapourization
Latent heat of fusion
Q = mL
where Q = heat energy [J]

m = mass [kg]
L = specific latent heat of the material [J kg-1]*
* Specific latent heat of fusion – for melting/freezing

Specific latent heat of vapourization – for boiling/condensation
4.3.1 Applications
• Cooling drinks with ice

• Ice packages to keep cooled food cold
• Cooking by steaming
• Heating drinks using steam

4.3.2 Specific Heat Capacity and Specific Latent Heat

Temperature
Q = mcθ
Q = mcθ
Q = mcθ
Q = mL
Q = mL
SOLID + LIQUID
SOLID LIQUID GAS
LIQUID + GAS
Time
Heating graph of a material from solid to gas

When calculating the amount of heat needed to change the state and temperature of an
object, remember to take into account the different stages of heating as shown in the
graph above.
Example:
To calculate the amount of heat needed to heat ice at 0 ºC to water at 25 ºC:
Amount of heat needed = mL + mcθ
Heat needed to Heat needed to

change ice at 0 ºC to change water at 0 ºC
water at 0 ºC to water at 25 ºC
When calculating the exchange of heat, remember to take into account the different
stages of heating for each side of the equation.
Example:
Ice 0 ºC is added to hot water 90 ºC. To calculate the final temperature, x ºC:
Amount of heat absorbed by ice = Amount of heat released by hot water

mL + mcθ = mcθ
Heat needed to Heat needed to Heat needed to change

change ice at 0 ºC change water at 0 ºC hot water at 90 ºC to
to water at 0 ºC to water at x ºC water at x ºC
ASSUMPTION: No heat lost to surrounding.

4.4 Gas Laws
• A closed container containing gas has:

Fixed number of molecules
Constant mass
• The gas behaviour is dependant on three variables:
Pressure
Volume
Temperature
Note: For all gas law equations, the temperature involved must be absolute, i.e. in Kelvin
T = θ + 273
where T = temperature [Kelvin]

θ = temperature [°C]
4.4.1 Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s Law: For a gas of fixed mass, the pressure is inversely

proportional to its volume if the temperature is constant.
PV = k
P1V1 = P2V2
where P = pressure of the gas [Pa]

V = volume of the gas [m3]
Examples of typical Boyle’s Law questions: Capillary tube with a mercury column
trapping some air in it. Given that the atmospheric pressure is 76 cm Hg, to calculate the
pressure of the air in the tube:
Pressure of the gas = Pressure of the gas = Pressure of the gas = 76 cm Hg

(76+h) cm Hg (76-h) cm Hg

4.4.2 Charles’ Law
Charles’ Law: For a gas of fixed mass, the volume is

directly proportional to its temperature if the pressure is
constant.
V
=k
T
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
where V = volume of the gas [m3]

T = temperature of the gas [K]
4.4.3 Pressure Law
Pressure Law: For a gas of fixed mass, the pressure is

directly proportional to its temperature if the volume is
constant.
P
=k
T
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
where V = volume of the gas [m3]

T = temperature of the gas [K]
4.4.4 Universal Gas Law
Combining all three gas laws:
PV
=k
T
P1V1 P2V2
=
T1 T2
4.4.5 Applications of gas laws

• Bicycle pump
Gauge is pushed inwards – air is compressed, so pressure increases in cylinder
Air pressure in cylinder is greater than in bicycle tyre, so air flows into the tyre
• Car tyre
Car tyre manufacturers recommend cold air pressure in tyres as 220 kPa although
the tyre functions optimally at 280 kPa
This is because as the car moves, friction heats up the air within the tyres
As the temperature increases, the pressure increases
• Sponge cake
When placed in an oven, a cake expands to twice its original size
There are plenty of air bubbles in the cake
As the temperature in the oven increases, the air bubbles expand
• Bubble wrap
Bubble wrap is full of pockets of air bubbles
As the air bubbles are compressed by the packaged items, the pressure increases
The additional pressure is able to support and protect the fragile items

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Hoo Sze Yen Physics SPM 2010

Thermal equilibrium is reached between two objects in contact when:

4.1.1 Calibration of a thermometer

In the Celsius scale, the two fixed points of temperature are:

To calculate the scale of a thermometer, given the two fixed points:

where l1 = length on scale based on lower fixed point (typically 0°C)

Chapter 4: Heat and Energy Page 1 of 7

4.2 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity

where Q = heat energy [J]

• Water is used as a coolant in car

Chapter 4: Heat and Energy Page 2 of 7

4.3 Latent Heat and Specific Latent Heat

Latent heat of fusion

where Q = heat energy [J]

* Specific latent heat of fusion – for melting/freezing

• Cooling drinks with ice

Chapter 4: Heat and Energy Page 3 of 7

4.3.2 Specific Heat Capacity and Specific Latent Heat

Heating graph of a material from solid to gas

Amount of heat needed = mL + mcθ

Heat needed to Heat needed to

Amount of heat absorbed by ice = Amount of heat released by hot water

Heat needed to Heat needed to Heat needed to change

ASSUMPTION: No heat lost to surrounding.

Chapter 4: Heat and Energy Page 4 of 7

4.4 Gas Laws

• A closed container containing gas has:

where T = temperature [Kelvin]

4.4.1 Boyle’s Law

Boyle’s Law: For a gas of fixed mass, the pressure is inversely

where P = pressure of the gas [Pa]

Pressure of the gas = Pressure of the gas = Pressure of the gas = 76 cm Hg

Chapter 4: Heat and Energy Page 5 of 7

4.4.2 Charles’ Law

Charles’ Law: For a gas of fixed mass, the volume is

where V = volume of the gas [m3]

4.4.3 Pressure Law

Pressure Law: For a gas of fixed mass, the pressure is

where V = volume of the gas [m3]

4.4.4 Universal Gas Law

Combining all three gas laws:

4.4.5 Applications of gas laws

Chapter 4: Heat and Energy Page 7 of 7

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