ARABIC SYNTAX

CHIEFLY SELECTED FROM

THE HIDAYUT-OON-NUHVI,

A TREATISE ON SYNTAX
IN THE
ORIGINAL ARABIC.

BY H. B. BERESFORD, B.C.S.

LONDON:
JAMES MADDEN AND C°.
8 LEADENHALL STREET.

MDCCCXLIII.
 LONDON :
PKINTED BY RICHARD WATTS, CROWN COURT, TEMPLE BAR.
 TO

THE HONOURABLE

THE CHAIRMAN, DEPUTY CHAIRMAN,

AND

COURT OF DIRECTORS

OF THE

UNITED EAST-INDIA COMPANY,

THIS SMALL VOLUME

IS MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED,

BY THEIR VERY OBLIGED AND HUMBLE SERVANT,

THE AUTHOR.
 PREFACE.

Th e object of this Volume is, to furnish the Student with

such Rules of Arabic Syntax as have not yet appeared
in English.

Mr. Lockett's Translation of the "Miut Amil" and

" Shurhoo Miut Amil," two Elementary Treatises on
Arabic Syntax, has been long before the world ; and,
accompanied as it is throughout with philological and
explanatory annotations, contains a body of highly valuable
information : but it is avowedly incomplete, and embraces
only a particular portion of Arabic regimen. The purport
of this volume is, to supply such other requisite Rules of
Arabic Syntax as are not comprised in Mr. Lockett's book.

The present work was indeed suggested by some re

marks contained in the Preface to the Translation just
adverted to ; and has been undertaken in the hope that it
will be found, in conjunction with Mr. Lockett's volume,
to furnish a body of Arabic Syntax sufficiently compre
hensive for all practical purposes.

A work of this nature, in English, has long appeared

to me a desideratum ; and the various objects of peculiar
interest which the study of the Arabic Language may be
said to present would, naturally enough, seem to enhance
the desirableness of some such work as the one here
offered to the public.
A
ii PREFACE.

In whatever point of view we regard the Arabic Lan

guage, whether as the language of a people who in the
middle ages contributed so materially to the literature
and refinement of Europe, or as the language of a religion
which numbers upwards of 100,000,000 followers, and at
the present day affects greater numbers of mankind than
Christianity itself; or whether it be regarded as the me
dium for communicating sound European knowledge to the
whole body of the learned Mahommedans of India, and as
one of the inexhaustible fountains for enriching some of the
Indian vernaculars, so as to render them competent vehi
cles of European science and literature to the great mass
of the Mahommedan population throughout British India ;
under all the above, and various other points of view,
Arabic may be said to be an object of deep and peculiar
interest: and should my humble endeavours to facilitate
the study of this interesting language prove not altogether
unsuccessful, I shall be more than compensated for my
labours.

The different heads into which the Syntax is divided

and subdivided in the original treatise appearing to be
clear and intelligible, I have thought it desirable to abide
as much as possible by the arrangement laid down therein,
so as to make the work correspond, in some measure, with
Mr. Lockett's Translation.

With the original treatise as my guide, I am not

without hope that I have succeeded in preserving a happy
medium between treating the subject too extensively and
minutely on the one hand ; or, on the other, too shortly
 rREFACE. iii

and meagrely, so as to convey no clear and precise infor

mation ;—a desirable mean between the detail of Monsieur
De Sacy's elaborate work, and the futile brevity of (as Mr.
Lockett calls them) those Twopenny-halfpenny Guides to
the Eight Parts of Speech, which every Dyche and
Dilworth may deem it his duty to work up into what he
calls a new grammatical system.

Where the matter treated of under certain heads in the

original treatise appeared to appertain to the inflexion
portion of grammar, or had been previously handled by
Mr. Lockett, specific references have been given ; in the
first case, to Lumsden, or De Sacy's Grammar, or both ;
and in the second case, to the particular page, &c. of Mr.
Lockett's valuable Translation, and to the corresponding
matter in the last edition of Monsieur De Sacy's Gram-
maire Arabe.

It would be vain to suppose that no errors should have

crept into a work of this nature ; but should they be of a
more serious kind, or more numerous than I anticipate,
I trust that the rapidity with which the work (owing to
peculiar circumstances) has been executed, and hurried
through the press, will in some measure tend to disarm
the severity of criticism, and entitle me to more indul
gence than could otherwise have been justly awarded.
 CONTENTS.

PAGE
CHAP. I. INTRODUCTORY 1

CHAP. II. On NOMINATIVES, nAtfj* 3

Sect. I. On the Agent JcUM 3
Sect. II. On the Object of an Action, the agent of which is not
named, jlc'J ^yfcwJ |JL Jyifl^il 6
Supplement to Section I.
On the Rules to be observed when One Noun serves as agent to
more than One Verb ; or as agent to one verb, and object of
action to another; jLJuJl. J>claJ1 J j^jll*» fiL" - - - 7
Sect. III. On the Inchoative ^ljjLmJ1j and on the Enouncer^jA^ - 12
Sect. IV. On the Predicate of the Particle " Innu," and its Sister
Particles 1^5 ^jljjki- - --10
Sect. V. On the Noun of the Verb " Kanu" and its Sister Verbs
U^-ljd^ 17
Sect. VI. On the Noun of the Particles " Ma" and " La" resem
bling the verb " Luesu," jj«jOj lj*i|f^»J! UjU> £*J - 18
Sect. VII. On the Predicate of the Particle " La," when used to
deny the existence of a thing in general, ^jiil^ki-
^j-jJl "... 18

CHAP. III. On ACCUSATIVES, C^aJU 18

Sect. I. On the Object of Action Absolute, jikfcSl J^tsuJl - 19
Sect. II. On the Object of Action, <0 Jyta-Jl 20
 CONTENTS.
PAGE
Sect. III. On the Complement indicating the Time or Place of
Action, <U» Jj*<U!l 22
Sect. IV. On the Circumstantial Term expressing the Motive of
the Action, <«J JjusuJl 23
Sect. V. On the Circumstantial Term indicating the Person or
Thing which has taken part in the Action, &**c (Jj*iuJl, 23
Sect. VI. On the Circumstantial Term of State or Condition,
JW1l 25
Sect. VII. On the Specificative, or the Noun of Specification,
jjJ^JW 26
Sect. VIII. On the thing excepted, <j£w*!l 27
Sect. X. On the Predicate of the Imperfect Verb " Kanu," and
its Sister Verbs, L^l^lj Jtjo- 28
Sect. IX. On the Noun of the Particle " Innu," and its Sister
Particles, L$jlyJ^ ^,1 29
Sect. XI. On the Noun put in the Accusative Case, by the
Particle D, in its character of Universal Negation,
(^riar'l h u_jj-aJl 29
Sect. XII. On the Predicate of the Particles "Ma" and "La"
which resemble the verb " Luesu," ^jU Jjii-
^jAAyA^tJl 30

CHAP. IV. On GENITIVES, t^jstr* ---------- 31

CHAP. V. On APPOSITIVES, -Aj 33

Sect. I. On the Qualificative, 33
Sect. II. On the Corroborative, Jok^jill - -- -- --35
Sect. III. On the Conjunctive formed by a Particle; otherwise
called the "Conjunctive of Order," t—Jjyxllj c_oVtr
J^Jtfl u_sla£jl 37
Sect. IV. On the Permutative, or word substituted, (JjuJl - - 38
Sect. V. On the Explicative Conjunctive, jjUjJl i_akr - - - 39
 CONTENTS.
mm s PACK
CHAP. VI. On the INDECLINABLE NOUN, Jo, ^1 - - - - 40
Sect. I. On the Pronouns, LU\jaJia}\ 40
(*) Sect. II. On the Demonstrative Articles, S/^Sl A*«J - - - 41
Sect. III. On the Conjunctives, iZSiyayd\ 42
(17) Sect. IV. On Verbal Nouns, jUi31 SU-J 43
(*) Sect. V. On the Interjections, i^Jiyei\ - -- -- --43
(*)Sect.VI. On the Compound Words, cyL^*! l 43
(LT) Sect. VII. On the Substituted Expressions; i.e. certain words of
a vague signification which are substituted for more
definite expressions, ti?\jU$3l - -- -- --44
Sect. VIII. On certain Circumstantial Terms of Time and Place,
uJjjlall fjoto - -- -- -- -- --44
CHAP. VII. On the NUMERALS, ^iVjJlA^J 48
(*) CHAP. VIII. On the GENDER OF NOUNS, O^jjflo - - 60
(*) CHAP. IX. On the DUAL NUMBER, JjuJl 50
(*) CHAP. X. On the PLURAL, £y*sc*M 60
(LT) CHAP. XI. On the INFINITIVE, ^JumJl 61
(LT) CHAP. XII. On the ACTIVE PARTICIPLE, JclaJl ^ ... SI
(LT) CHAP. XIII. On the PASSIVE PARTICIPLE, JyiftJl ^1 - - 51
(LT) CHAP. XIV. On the ADJECTIVE, LyiUll iLall - - - - - 62

CHAP. XV. On the NOUN OF SUPERIORITY, J^illl ^1 - 62

(*)(LT) CHAP. XVI. On the VERB, Jxill «- - - 66
(LT) CHAP. XVII. On the VERBS OF THE MIND, t_j»j!iftil JUjl - - 66
(LT) CHAP. XVIII. On the IMPERFECT VERBS, Jusi'UJl jUiJl - - - 66
(LT) CHAP. XIX. On the VERBS OF PROPINQUITY, JUjl - 66
(LT) CHAP. XX. On the VERBS OF PRAISE AND CENSURE,

fXllj ^..xjl jUil 67

 CONTENTS.
PAUK
CHAP. XXI. On the VERB OF ADMIRATION, Iw^F*^l J*» - 57

CHAP. XXII. On the PARTICLE, i_jp. 58

(I/) Sect. I. On the Prepositions,js!^ <— 59

(L1) Sect.II. On Particles resembling Verbs, JjJJ!j*$A^luJi/».-59
Sect. III. On the Conjunctions, uJuawll <__s^r»- - - - - - 59
Sect. IV. On the Particles of rousing Attention, <y-*^ l "3
(L7) Sect. V. On the Vocative Particles, JtiJJl <— - - - 64
Sect. VI. On the Particles of Affirmation, •—'IssT/" <— - 64
Sect. VII. On the Redundant Particles, lo\iJ\ *-i$f- - - 65
Sect. VIII. On the Two Particles of Elucidation.^wui l lip- - 67
Sect. IX. On the Infinitive Particles, j&*aj&\ t^jjj*. - - - 6S
Sect. X. On the Particles of Excitement, ^lyvcjl uJ^p- - 68
Sect. XI. On the Particle of Expectation, j-^l - - 69
Sect. XII. On the Two Interrogative Particles, ^lyiuLSl Up- - 70
Sect. XIII. On the Conditional Particles, lo^lJ! t_iya- - - - 71
Sect. XIV. On the Particle of Indignation, 4-Jp- - - 73

(17) N.B. Each Chapter and Section to which this mark has been
prefixed, is treated in Mr. Lockett's " Shurhoo Miut Amil."

(*) Each Chapter and Section to which this mark has been prefixed,
appertains to the Etymology and Inflexion of Grammar.
 ARABIC SYNTAX.

CHAPTER I.

1. A phrase (^K) or proposition is a combina

tion of at least two words, the union of which enounces an
"attribute" as appertaining to a "subject." This connexion
between the attribute and the subject is termed t>UJ.

2. The word which expresses the u attribute " is named

that is, " attributed," that by which the predica

tion is made ; " and the word which expresses the " sub-
'L'
ject" is called <oll that is, "that to which an attri
bute is given," "that of which something is predicated."

3. A proposition (*U»0 may be "nominal" ^M-J, or

"verbal" hL>». In order to understand this distinction, be

it observed, that it is not necessary to employ a verb to
express the relation of subject and attribute : ex. gr.
'fSjsLj "Zued(is) standing;" JJlsM "God (is) merciful."
In these cases the proposition is nominal. If, on the
other hand, the attribute be expressed by a verb, ex. gr.
Jo; ii " Zued stood," ^\ cjU " My brother is dead," the
proposition is verbal.

4. There are also other kinds of propositions, viz. Con

ditional and Circumstantial Propositions. A Conditional
bm a
Proposition (ali^i is that which enounces the attri
2 ARABIC SYNTAX.

bute as appertaining to the subject under a certain con-

9 C c
dition ; ex. gr. s*>J\ ^A*- ^1 Sij " Zued, if he come to me,
I will honour him : " and the Circumstantial Proposition
Bm 9
(hijo is that which appears to have for an attribute
a circumstance of place, which is termed <*JJb " a vase, or
container ; " e*. gr. ja^J' J ±ij " Zued (is) in the mosque."

5. The Nine Parts of Speech are divided into the Three

following Classes ; viz.
Class 1. Noun (^»«0> comprises Noun, Pronoun, and Adjective.
Class 2. Verb(J*i).
Class 3. Particle (<—ip-), comprising the Article, Preposition, Adverb,
Conjunction, and Interjection.
6. Nouns (j*J) are divided into Two Classes; viz. De-

clinable (u^«), and Indeclinable and the Declinable

0—^**) Noun is again divided into Variable i-J^cx*, and
Invariable c-^ai^i .

* The Variable (t—^-aJu) Noun comprises all such nouns and adjec
tives as have three different inflexions, and admit the nasal vowels. The
Invariable (u-^Ju^xc) Noun comprises all such as do not admit the nasal
vowels, and have only two inflexions ; one peculiar to the nominative, and
the other common to the genitive and accusative.
N.B. In the original treatise, under the head of "Declinable Noun,"
the inflexions of the various nouns—Sound, Defective, Singular, Plural, &c,
are detailed ; as also the especial conditions which subject all nouns and
adjectives termed Invariable (<, *)^-0).1r) to a particular declension ; the
characteristics of which are, the non-admission of the nasal vowels, and the
admission of only two inflexions ; viz. the vowel — for the nominative, and
the vowel — for the genitive and accusative. As these details appertain to
the Inflexion Part of Grammar, the Reader is referred to Lumsden ; or De
Sacy, vol. I. ch. iii. § viii. pp. 397 et seq.
 ARABIC 8YNTAX. 3

CHAPTER II.
ON NOMINATIVES (oUji^t).

7. There are eight kinds of Nominatives, or words

that are governed in the nominative case ; as follows :
JclflJl 1. The agent.
*LcU |JU Jjy«L»Jl 2. The object of action, the agent of which is
not named.
.tli1ju-»J1 3. The "inchoative," or subject.
4. The "enouncer," or predicate.
Lfjlj/Mj iJ>J^*- '^'le predicate of the particle " innu," and
its sister particles.
1|J1j».1j J6 *»J 6. The noun of the verb kanu" and its
sister verbs.
^j»d*> (jJUfj^tJl 51jLc 7. The noun of the particles " ma " and " la,"
resembling the verb " luesa."
jjJl ^^ftii <J3l S^jki- 8. The predicate of the particle " la," when
used to deny the existence of a thing in
general.

SECTION I.
ON THE AGENT
8. The agent is that noun which is connected with
the verb that precedes it. The agent ought always be
placed after the verb, or the active participle which has
the function of a verb. Ex.
JoJ Jii " Zued arose."
t e s
iSjjl l_jfLc iX>j " Zued's father (is) the beater."
In these two sentences, the word in the first, and the
word *yl in the second, are respectively the agents of the
verb |»U>', and of the active participle jjli.
4 ARABIC SYNTAX.

9. Every verb necessarily requires an apparent or non-

apparent agent in the nominative case. Ex.

tyJfci) Zued went."

*U_-JU> Jo; " Zued (he) went."

10. If the verb be active, it must have an object of

action in the accusative case. Ex.

\fA£- Joj i-fijio " Zued beat Oomr."

11. If the agent be apparent, the verb will uniformly

be in the singular number, in order that there may not be
two agents for a single verb. Ex.

dJ) *-rlr* * Zued keat "

^ljojJl u-^e " The two Zueds beat."

JjjojSl ^iJo " All the Zueds beat."

12. If the agent be understood (^^u), and in the sin

gular number, the verb will be in the singular ; and if in
the dual, dual ; and if in the plural, plural. Ex.
' '' s
* t-rir» Jo; " Zued (he) beat."
+* " **
* \r° ttjli^l " The two Zueds (the two) beat."

* ^3b* " AU the Zueds (they) beat"

* In this sentence, i^Jbj Jo; " Zued (he) went," the word " Zued" Jo;
is no longer the agent : it is the Inchoative, and the verb <5 carries its
*9
own agent in itself; viz. the pronoun jfc " He " understood.
This remark also applies to the three examples in No. 12.
 ARABIC SYNTAX

13. If the agent be a real feminine noun (<_sSa*»- vi^iyo)

(i. e. of the feminine sex, as contra-distinguished from the
masculine), the verb will be uniformly feminine, provided
no word intervene between the verb and the agent. Ex.
so c * *
daft envois " Hind arose."
But if any word intervene, it becomes optional to make
the verb masculine or feminine. Ex.

or > Hind one day beat."

14. If the agent be a "Conventional Feminine " C-*jj«>

^Ju&o-jxt, which is purely "grammatical/' and the verb
precede the agent, the verb may be either masculine or
feminine. Ex.

'C. , /" The sun arose.'

But the verb, if it come after, must necessarily be femi

nine. Ex.
<tj~ffl\r> ^^.^mmSl " The sun (she) arose."

15. The same rule is to be observed in the broken or

imperfect plurals. Ex.

jV^1^isr'The1 men arose.

16. The agent ought always to precede the object of

 ■ ARABIC SYNTAX.

action, when both of them are defective nouns, and the

one might be confounded with the other. Ex.

Jjmjjl Jj*"^ S^r* " Moses beat Jesus."

But where there is no fear of confusion, the object of
action may not incorrectly be put before the agent. Ex.
J*a*. 4s/**^l J*l "John eat the pears.
}JA£ <-rir"« " Oomr beat Zued."

17. The verb may be correctly suppressed when the

meaning of the sentence is sufficiently evident from the
context. Ex.
Slj " Zued ;" in answer to the person asking <-rij& ^ " Who struck ?"

18. Sometimes both verb and agent are suppressed.

Ex.
"Yes ;" in answer to any one asking Sjj " Is Zued standing?"

19. In the case of a passive verb, the agent is omitted,

and the object of action is substituted for it.

SECTION II.
ON THE OBJECT OF AN ACTION, THE AGENT OF WHICH
IS NOT NAMED.

20. All that has been said above, in respect to the

agent, is equally applicable to the noun or pronoun
which serves as a subject to a verb passive, and which is

v
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 7

called " the object of an action, the agent of which is not

named " : this subject is regarded in the light of an agent,
and is otherwise named "the substitute of the agent,"
JcliJl pliU jjli' . Ex.

i-r>^ "Zued was beaten."

SUPPLEMENT TO SECTION I.
OF THE RULES TO BE OBSERVED WHEN ONE NOUN SERVES
AS AGENT TO MORE VERBS THAN ONE; OR AS AGENT
TO ONE VERB, AND OBJECT OF ACTION TO ANOTHER.

21. It sometimes happens that one and the same noun

is required to serve as agent to two verbs or more ; and,
again, that one and the same noun is required to serve
as agent to one verb, and as object of action to another.
This sort of contest between two parts of speech, for the
government of the same word, is called, by Arabian Gram
marians, Jk**Sl ^ji £p3 " Contention for government. "

22. When two verbs contend for the government of

the expressed noun coming after them, i.e. when each
of the verbs designs to govern such noun, such contest
may be of four kinds, as follows :
N. B. The essential members of a proposition, viz. the " subject " and
the " attribute," assume different names according to the place which they
occupy in the proposition. Each assumes two different names; ex.gr. the
" subject" is called, 1 st, " the inchoative" (JJjuu) ; 2dly, " the agent " (Jcls).
And the "attribute" is called, 1st, "the enouncer" when it cor
responds to an "inchoative"; 2dly, the verb ((J*i) when' it is in relation
with an agent ((J.e!i).
8 ARABIC SYNTAX.

(1) Both require the agent,

Ljjf* " Zued beat me, and honoured me."

(2) Both require the object of action,

c^*/lj C^r* "l beat, and I honoured Zued."

(3) The first verb requires an agent, and the second an

object of action,

liij; c^o^lj ,J^/* " ^e (*'■** Zued) struck me, and I honoured Zued."

(4) The first verb requires an object of action, and the

second an agent,
* ' c"'
,^o^lj " I beat him (i.e. Zued), and Zued respected me."

23. Be it observed, that in the four different species of

contest just above enumerated, either the first verb* or
the second may correctly have the governing power.

24. The two great Schools of Busruh and Koofuh are

divided on the above points. The School of Busruh gave
the governing power to the second verb, on account of
its proximity to the noun ; and the School of Koofuh
prefer the governing power to the first verb, by way of
preserving its precedence and rightful claim.

25. The rules of the Busruh School are as follow :

* According to De Sacy, it would appear that, in the case of two verbs

demanding an agent, the preferring the governing power to the first verb,
as the School of Koofuh do, is the more authorised mode of expression.
Gram. Arab. voL II. ch. xvii. pp. 246 ct seq.
 ARABIC SYNTAX.

(1) If both verbs require an agent :

iSif^ " He (Zued) beat me, and Zued honoured me."

,JJjjJl si'ir^ " The two (Zueds) beat me, and the two Zueds
honoured me."
c>rH^l Q>?J° "They (the Zueds) beat me, and the Zueds
honoured me."

(2) If one verb requires an agent, and the other an object

of action :
i*Z~^cji\y " He (Zued) beat me, and I honoujed Zued."
'-' ' c
^.JjjJl U^~*^tj iJ,[ifC " The two (Zueds) beat me, and I honoured the
two Zueds."
^ilo^ll c^wc^lj t^y>j^ " They (the Zueds) beat me, and I honoured the
Zueds."
(3) If both verbs require an object of action, and are not
of the description termed "Verbs of the mind " (s-^l J^*»l) :

'tiJj m»b«^s lj " I beat, and honoured Zued."

^\&yfi *^~afi\) " I beat, and honoured the two Zueds."

^lio^Jl ^^cS!j U^J^o " I beat, and honoured the Zueds."

(4) If one verb requires an object of action, and the

other an agent :
i\)J ^Jscflj c^o^o " I beat (Zued), and Zued honoured me."
U^"H} lS*V^^) *^-~lr^ " I beat (the two Zueds), and the two Zueds
honoured me."
Joj! l tJi^lj C -Jj-q " I beat (the Zueds), and the Zueds honoured me."

26. When the two verbs are of the description termed

" Verbs of the mind," c^^all JU»1 , the object of action of
10 ARABIC SYNTAX.

the first verb must be expressed ; for this reason, that the
object of action of " Verbs of the mind" cannot correctly
be suppressed, nor can the pronoun, having reference to
the object of action, be correctly introduced before the
object of action itself. Ex.
^j-, . t...^ j ISlUi^. ^ji...**. "He (Zued) thought me going, and I thought
"g^. | _ Zued going ;" i.e. " Zued thought I was de
af parting, and I thought Zued was departing."

27. The following are the rules of the Koofuh School,

who give the governing power to the first verb.

(1) If both verbs require an agent :

Sij ij-*/\} <-jif° " Zued beat me, aud he (Zued) honoured me."
uWj!l ^i^/lj LSjs^ " The tw0 Zueds beat me, and the two (Zueds)
honoured me."
uyH^l <^y°fl) <J>ir* " The Zueds beat me, and they (the Zueds)
honoured me."

(2) If one verb requires an object of action, and the

other an agent :

1joj j_j^o/1j C^o^e " I beat Zued, and he honoured me."

(fjd'H/^ <J>^ifi^ *-Z^{f° " ' ,3eat tne tw0 Zueds, and the two (Zueds)
honoured me."
uJiV^ll i^Ttr^i i—^ir* " ' beat tne Zueds, and they honoured me."

(3) If both verbs require an object of action, and are

not " Verbs of the mind/' then either of the following
rules obtain ; viz. either the object of action is suppressed,
 ARABIC SYNTAX. II

or a pronoun is introduced ; but the latter is the more

correct :

liio; t^/* " I beat Zued, and I honoured (Zued)."

^>A^1! ei^e^lj C^o^o " I beat the two Zueds, and I honoured (the two
Zueds)."
^i^Jl l«^,ir* " ' ^eat *^ tne Zueds, and I honoured (the
Zueds)."
Or with the pronoun :
&Lcj£ij OJ/i " I beat Zued, and I honoured him."
,^Ji>J|Jl U^JU^lj K^^ijC " I beat the two Zueds, and I honoured the two."
9t t o
(jJiJj^l ci-^-o " I beat the Zueds, and I honoured them."

(4) If one verb require an agent, and the other an

object of action :
At) i^~cj)\} s/ir* " Zued beat me, and I honoured (Zued)."
t c
ijjj^ The two Zueds beat me, and I honoured (the
two Zueds)."
t 9
^y^l k£^cj£\) ijij-a " The Zueds beat me, and I honoured (the
Zueds)."
Or with the pronoun :
S 99
Asj <0Lo^lj " Zued beat me, and I honoured him."
U^ie^lj^^i "The two Zueds beat me, and I honoured the
two."
yjjJj^J! j^Lcjii^ iStr° " '^le Zueds beat me, and I honoured them."

28. When both the verbs are of the kind termed

"Verbs of the mind," cjjlsll J*i\, the object of action

must be expressed.
12 ARABIC SYNTAX.

' The two Zueds thought me going, and I

f... . r thought the two (Zueds) going ;" i.e.
y the two Zueds fancied I was going,
and I fancied they were going."

SECTION III.
ON THE INCHOATIVE ^tXSo*}\,
AND THE ENOUNCER JjJ2..

29. The inchoative or subject, and the enouncer or

predicate, are two words construed independently of any
grammatical construction. The first is the *jJl jJu-^c, "that
of which something is predicated," and is called JljojuJl,
"the inchoative": the second is the aw,, "that by which

* The expressing the object of action in this example (No. 28) is neces-
sary, for this reason, that both the verbs (Juw»- and U^iws- demand
the object of action, laUaA* ; and the governing power has been given to
the first verb, viz. jjuw**-. If, therefore, you cut off" the word ^jilkulo ,
and say LaJ, taJU ^tiiJfll U^Un*>-j <_jjUk». " The two Zueds thought me
going, and I thought the two," then the elision of the second object of
action of the " Verbs of the mind" takes place, and this is incorrect : and
if you introduce a pronoun, it must be either a singular pronoun, as
lallaJU jjl^iJ^1 tl>) U(iw^. ,_jjui*=>- " The two Zueds thought me going,
and I thought the two this " ; and then the second object of action does
y
not correspond with the first object of action, viz. the word L»J& in the
''i
word l«q'i.w»-, and this is incorrect: or you must introduce a dual pro-
9 , 99 c
noun, as UiLJu ^jtJojil UjbUl l*$JUw*s»-j and then a dual pronoun
" * " "* o 9
, has reference to a word in the singular, viz. UJdaj^o, the word disputed by
the two verbs, and this is incorrect : therefore, whenever the elision of the
object of action, as well as the introduction of a pronoun, be incorrect, the
object of action must be expressed.
 ARABIC 8YNTAX. 13

this predication is made," and is termed " the

enouncer." Ex.

jtilj S>j " Zued (is) standing."

s
Here Sij "Zued" is the inchoative. The government of
them is logical.

30. Generally speaking, the inchoative is a definite

noun, and the enouncer an indefinite one.

31. The inchoative and enouncer ought to be in the

nominative case.

32. When an indefinite noun is qualified by an epithet,

it may correctly be the inchoative. Ex.

\^Jjj*t*> j^^y* The Orthodox slave is better than the Polytheist."

33. An indefinite noun, particularized in another way,

may correctly be the inchoative. Ex.

i\j*>\j^ol^ljJl (J**yl " Is there a man in the house, or a woman?"

Vi*,V*VtjJ&- U " There is not any one better than you."

i»_j!jii>^a>! " Evil causes to bark those having teeth," i.e. the
dogs.
s „
Jsy^Ul^ji "There is a man in the house.

34. If of two nouns or words one be definite and the

other indefinite, make the definite word the inchoative,
and the indefinite word the enouncer.
 14 ARABIC SYNTAX.

35. If both nouns be definite, either the one

or the other may be the inchoative. Ex.
ULfJ1 .sill " God (is) our God," or, " Our God (is) God."
liyl |»i>! " Adam is our father," or, "Our father is Adam."
ljux! Moohummud is our Prophet," or trici versd.

36. In certain cases, the inchoative, jljJLmJl,* is not

regarded as the subject of the proposition, but as the
attribute. Ex.
s * s
JjJ |»jl3 U ' Zued (is) not standing ?"

^lil " Is Zued standing ? "

In these examples, the inchoative is the attribute "LLe ,
coming after the negative particle U, and after the inter
rogative particle 1.

37. Sometimes the enouncerj*i>- is a nominal proposition,

£m«J Ex.
S 9
I»jl3 !Syl Jjj " Zued his father, i.e. Zued's father, (is) standing."

* There would appear to be some confusion and difference of opinion

amongst Grammarians in regard to these terms, jrliijuujl and jJ^l.
S v'
De Sacy states, that in the very sentence quoted in No. 36, viz. jj;
the word Jj| is the inchoative and subject, and the word the enouncer
and attribute, preceded by the negative particle Lc . Gram. Arab. vol. II.
No. 718. In the last edit. (1831) of De Saey's Gram. Arab., the example
given varies a little, inasmuch as the words are put in the dual instead
of the singular number : ^JLsyS1 ^UoUU " The two men are not standing."
Gram. Arab. vol. II. p. 515. No. 950. The point, according to De Sacy,
appears to turn on the circumstance of the agreement or non-agreement, in
gender and number, of the attribute with the subject, when preceded by a
negative or interrogative particle ; that is, if they so agree, the subject is
the inchoative ; and if not, the attribute becomes the inchoative governing
the subject, which is then regarded as the agent in the nominative case.
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 15

In this example, jj; is the subject and inchoative, and

ty>\ is a complete nominal proposition (No. 3.), which
here performs the function of the predicate or attribute.

38. Sometimes the enouncer jx»- is a verbal proposition,

itlo. (No. 3.) Ex.
Xy>\ Jjj " Zued his father stood," i.e. "Zued's father arose."

In this example, Joj is the subject and inchoative, having

for a predicate the complete verbal proposition ty)
" His father arose," composed of a verb and an agent.

39. Sometimes the enouncer is a conditional proposition,

*Jbj£■ (No. 4.) Ex.

S**Ji \ i^j>- jjl SJj ' Zued, if he come to me, I will honour him."

40. Sometimes the enouncer is a circumstantial propo-

sition, hijo XL*»- (No. 4). Ex.
^ljJl ^jijl iiXtili. Sij " Zued (is) behind you, or in the house."

41. There must necessarily be a pronoun, as in the

foregoing examples, having reference to the inchoative ;
but it may be omitted when the meaning is sufficiently
evident from the context. Ex.

jtAjJo <j)!yu tl^«>"*il " The oil, two lb. for a dirhum."

Uj^J uxxM>JS\jjJl " The wheat, 7100 lb. for sixty dirhums."

42. Sometimes the enouncer precedes the inchoative :

i>JjjldJl In the house (is) Zued."
ir, ARABIC SYNTAX.

43. There may correctly be several enouncers, Jj±-\ , for

a single inchoative. Ex.
s- f? &
Le (J«iU Jilc jjlc Sj} " Zued (is) learned, wise, excellent, honourable."

SECTION IV.
ON THE PREDICATE OF THE PARTICLE "INNU" AND ITS
SISTER PARTICLES.
C 9

44. This particle J\, and its sister particles ^1, JC, {jl,
c^jJ, and J-«J, are put before the subject and predicate of
a proposition, and govern the subject in the accusative
and the predicate in the nominative case ; and the predi
cate of J, is the attribute. Ex.
l Sij ^1 " Indeed, Zued (is) standing."

45. The rules enumerated in the foregoing section, in

regard to the enouncer or predicate, are also applica
ble to the predicate of these particles.

46. The predicate of ^1 cannot precede the noun of Ji ,

except it be a <-J£>, i-e. a circumstantial term of time or
place. Ex.
^-^ljJl y|t " Truly, Zued (is) in the house."
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 17

SECTION V.
ON THE NOUN OF THE DEFECTIVE VERB "KANU" AND ITS
SISTER VERBS.

**
47. The verb J6, and its defective sister verbs, viz.
* ' *""*G 'c ' g ****** s * ** * *
jle, ge\, Js-^ol, \s*°\> <J^, ejL, ^.jlo, JiU, j]jio, viUilU,
l»bU, ijvji govern the inchoativej or in the nomi
native case ; and it is called the noun of the verb and
the enouncer jJl=»- in the accusative ; and it is called the
predicate of the verb Jt, and the noun of the verb ji is
the subject jJL~o of the proposition. Ex.

UjIS Jo; J6 " Zued was standing.

48. The predicates of the verbs may correctly be made

to precede their nouns in the order of construction. Ex.
AJJ UolS ^ " Zued was standing."

49. The whole of the above imperfect verbs, with the

exception of and those verbs to which U> is prefixed,
may themselves be preceded by their predicate. Ex.

i\ij ^ Uols " Standing was Zued."

And so on of the rest.

i)
18 ARABIC SYNTAX.

SECTION VI.
ON THE NOUN OF THE TWO PARTICLES "MA" AND "LA,"
WHICH RESEMBLE THE VERB " LUESU."

50. These two particles govern their noun, which is

the subject t*3l of the proposition, in the nominative
case. Ex.
« s
UjlS >to}^° " Zued is not standing."
LlXx* (J-ail (J-?^ ' There is not any one better than you."

The particle 51 is Used with an indefinite \fi noun only.

SECTION VII.
ON THE PREDICATE OF THE PARTICLE " LA," WHEN USED
TO DENY THE EXISTENCE OF A THING IN GENERAL.

51- The particle X, of universal negation, governs its

predicate, which is the predicate of the proposition in the
nominative case. Ex.

JsyS "There is no one standing."

CHAPTER HI.
ON ACCUSATIVES 0\j^£0-«.
52. There are twelve kinds of Accusatives, or words
that are governed in the accusative follows :
^jllnJ1 JyiL*!! 1. The object of action absolute.
*j JytiJl Jj*i*Jl 2. The object of action.
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 19

<ui Jy«jL*Jl 3. The complement, indicating the time or

place of action.
<& (JjxiuJl 4. The circumstantial term, expressing the
motive of the action.
(J_j***N 5. The circumstantial term, indicating the
person or thing which has co-operated
in the action with the agent.
6. The circumstantial term of state or con
dition.
Jjorfjlll 7. The specificative, or noun of specification-
(JjuL-Jl 8. The thing excepted.
Lyjlji-lj jj&jJii- 9. The predicate of the verb " kanu " and
its sister verbs.
^1 10. The noun of the particle "innu " and
its sister particles.
j^j^JflJl t_S^ ^ <-5^j-ajUJl 11. The noun put in the accusative case by
the particle "la," in its character of
universal negation.
j^AXyJ^Jl 5ljU^»- 12. The predicate of the particles " ma " and
"la," which resemble the verb " luesu."

SECTION L
ON THE OBJECT OF ACTION ABSOLUTE.

53. The " object of action absolute " is the infinitive or

noun of action jXa*, joined to the verb itself, or to a verb
of equivalent signification. Ex.
*> 9 o •-
I)yb i^-JfO " I beat a beating," i.e. " I beat well."
L-jla- " I sat a sitting."
20 ARABIC SYNTAX.

54. It is introduced for various purposes : 1st, for giving

emphasis to proposition. Ex.
l>j-o c^oj£ " I beat severely."
Or 2dly, to explain a particular mode. Ex.
j^Viul &»Ar<- ci^ml^- " I sat the mode of sitting of the Qooran-reader,"
ie. "l sat the way the Qooran-reader sits."
Or 3dly, for the sake of enumeration. Ex.
' * i 9
tuL*L»-j! (^Tjx*kl&-jt duda- ^ "i sat one sitting, or two, or more."
Or 4thly, in order to specify, as the noun of specifi
cation jJ!*uj. Ex.
&j*io ijjfij 'sjyc I beat him with blows, and he beat me with
piercing or thrusting."

55. Sometimes, where the meaning is evident, the verb

may be suppressed ; as you would say to a traveller,
" Well of arriving," which stands for ^i- Ujjj>'
" You have arrived well," i.e. " Right welcome ! "

56. Sometimes the verb is prescriptively elided. Ex.

LkiU " Refreshingly ;" which stands for La* *lil iiJlS« " May
God drive thirst from you \" And again, \£ji " Thankfully,"
which stands for \Jji. viJjyCi. " I thanked you heartily."

SECTION II.
ON THE OBJECT OF ACTION.

57. This noun is the veritable objective complement of

the verb. Ex. *„ 9 o
\£^jyc "l beat Zued."
* 9 <-
\jA£. c^Xu ' I slew Oomr.
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 21

58. The noun which serves as object of action to a

transitive verb is put in the accusative case. Ex.

la3 \j*s>- t-r'f**! " He never drank wine."

59. Verbs doubly transitive, i.e. which have two objects

of action, put both in the accusative case. Ex.

Sm\ " I have given in marriage to Zued the

daughter of my brother."

60. The object of action of a transitive verb is some

times placed before the verb ; and this gives force to the
expression. ' Ex.
^Ujli! i <sUl "(it is) God we worship, and not idols."

61. The object of action sometimes precedes the agent.

Ex.
iJjJ <-rir* "Zued beat Oomr."

62. When the meaning of the sentence is evident, the

verb is sometimes elided; as, "Zued/' in answer to the
/ ✓ *
person who says t-yel ^ " Whom shall I strike 1"

63. An ellipsis of the verb sometimes takes place, either

(l) Agreeably to prescription ; as follows:

XuJoj |^cl (lit.) " The man and himself," i.e.

" Leave the man to himself."
This was originally,
tmMj liJ^l " Let go the man," i.e. "Leave him
to himself."
22 ARABIC 8YNTAX.

Again, f^jih I " Abstain from Trinitarianism, and

which is Originally, \ aim at that which is good for you,
C^iEJl^ l^lilf viz. the Unity."

Again h>\, originally h>\ C^Jj1, "You have come to your own," i.e.
Welcome !"
and l#u, Originally 1^ ^SV<} " You have put your foot on soft
level ground."
(2) Agreeably to analogy ; as follows :
.Xjll, cJUl "Beware of the lion!"
Originally, J^Hlj <jXJ6 Jjl "Save yourself from the lion."

Again, J^y1 jj^Ut "The road! the road!"

Originally, jj^kll jj^all jjj "Beware ofthe road." "Flytheroad."

SECTION III.
ON THE COMPLEMENT WHICH INDICATES THE TIME OR
PLACE OF ACTION.

64. This complement indicates the time or place at which

an action takes place : it is also called Ji^\j ^L^Jl >—
"The container of time and place." It is of two kinds,
viz. unlimited ; as for example, jt>^ "an age/' fi}*^. "time";
SC' St.' s
and limited, as ^ a day," JjJ "a night," ^1 "a month,"
iLi "a year." It is uniformly put in the accusative case,
the preposition ^ being understood. Ex.
*u 9 c>
jytii i«i^t*e " I fasted an age."
l^i. Cl^iL " I travelled for a month."

65. The foregoing examples have reference to "time."

 ARABIC SYNTAX. 23

The term of place, JLo is likewise limited and un

limited. 1st, When limited, it is governed in the accu
sative case. Ex.
tiXoUlj viAaii- vJ^~u»L>- ' I sat behind you and before you."
2dly, When unlimited, it is not* governed in the accusa
tive, but in the genitive case, because the preposition J
is expressed. Ex.
Oa*"^' i_s»J^y^l i_5^j^<& ^ C^vJbw "i sat in the house, in the market,
and in the mosque."

SECTION IV.
ON THE CIRCUMSTANTIAL TERM WHICH EXPRESSES THE
MOTIVE OF THE ACTION.

66. This term expresses the motive of the action ; and

is put in the accusative case in consequence of the prepo
sition J being understood. Ex.
l^-ojUD i.e. IjuOIj i&je "I beat him correctively," i.e. "for his correc
tion," i.e. " in order to correct him."
* ' e. m
i.e. Uw»- i—>jx ' ^ cia**» ' I abstained from battle through cow
ardice."

SECTION V.
ON THE CIRCUMSTANTIAL TERM INDICATING THE PERSON
OR THING WHICH HAS TAKEN PART IN THE ACTION.

67. This term indicates the person or thing which has

participated in the action with the agent. It is joined to

* Every noun of Itinerary measure, as (Juu " A mile," and

" A parasang," is put in the accusative case.
24 ARABIC SYNTAX.

the agent by the particle '3, which has the signification of

the preposition "with," and governs the accusative
case. Ex.

JLJLjlaJlj 4^*11 Jj>- "The cold came with the cloaks;" i.e. "When winter
came, the cloaks were required."
1Jjjj ei*jd*eU " What have you been doing with Zued ?"
t s
ljjjj lil " I came with Zued."

68. If the verb be expressed, and the introduction of

a simple conjunction be correct, the sentence may be ex
pressed in two ways. Ex.

ijjj or liioy Ul c^-**- " I came with Zued."

69. If the verb be not expressed, and the introduction

of the conjunction be correct, the particle j will only per
form the function of a simple conjunction. Ex.
-AC.daiU "What are Zued and Oomr doing ?"

70. If the introduction of a simple conjunction be in

correct, the noun coming after the } will always be in the
accusative. Ex.

\S)J} CJJ U " What are you doing with Zued ? "

l^Cj cXili U " What have you to do with Oomr ?"

 ARABIC SYNTAX. 25

SECTION VI.
ON THE CIRCUMSTANTIAL TERM OF STATE.
jut
71. This noun is used to explain some circumstance
relative to the state of the agent or object of action, or of
both. Ex.

LcJTp Sij " Zued came to me riding."

» " 9 c.
liXJ^o " I beat Zued when bound."
o* * ' o
tl)jjol^ c^J^J " ImetZued,both of us being mounted, i.e. riding.'

72. Sometimes there is no agent expressed. Ex.

UjI» itjil J 'Jjj " Zued (is) in the house standing."

73. Sometimes there is no object of action expressed :

m, . \ The person pointed out as standing,

The meaning of which is, / . ...
s f is Zued."
U»l» sji]jj[£^i\ J

74. The " Term of state," JI=e", is always an indefinite

noun i/i ; and the noun of which it expresses the state is
generally definite ij/w, as has been shewn in the above
examples.

75. If the noun, of which the " Term of state/' JlJ ,

expresses the condition, be indefinite, the " Term of state "
will precede it. Ex.
tj&y Uj; ^i-A*- " A man came to me riding."
And this is in order to prevent the " Term of state " from
26 AHABIC SYNTAX.

being confounded with the attributive or adjective in

the accusative case. Ex.

I saw a man riding, or a riding man."

76. Sometimes the " Term of state " is an

enunciative proposition. Ex.
t 9 c✓ * t s
H*lt l,_ L'{ Sij t^j-A?- "Zued came to me when his slave
was riding."

77. Sometimes, where the meaning is evident, the verb

is elided; as you would say to a traveller, Uilcj UJL
"Securely and profitably;" i.e. "May yqu travel with
safety and profit ! "

SECTION VII.
ON THE SPECIFICATIVE, OR THE NOUN OF SPECIFICATION.

78. The noun of specification is always indefinite, and

is placed after nouns of number, measure, weight, di
stance, &c. in which the signification is vague, in order
to render it specific. Ex.

^jjj^-c- i^SjiC "Near me (there are) twenty men."

1jJ ^j/JAs i^&ac "Near me (are) two measures (of) wheat."

li**u ^jj^o "Two pounds (of) fat."

4-
\JjeS ^jImj^- "Two measures (of) cotton."

\&ij Ljixc S^Sll ^^Ic "Upon the dates is the same quantity (of) cream."
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 27

79. It is sometimes used when "quantity" is not

intended. Ex.
ljjJo- "A ring (of) iron."
'J
btfcj^l^i "A bracelet (of) gold."

80. It sometimes is used in order to define the mean

ing of the proposition with greater precision. Ex.
Ujl Ulcj! LJLi &jj l_>11s "Zued was fortunate as to person, or as to
learning, or as to father." •

SECTION VIII.
ON THE THING EXCEPTED.

81. This particular term excepts a part from the mass

of persons or things primarily mentioned in a proposition.
It is of two kinds; viz., "conjunct" or "homogeneous,"
jJaJLo, and "disjunct" or "heterogeneous," jJaiU.

82. When "conjunct," it signifies that the thing ex

cepted JjoJu^ is homogeneous with the things or persons
from which the exception is made sx* JjJLw*, i.e. the word
preceding the exceptive particle. Ex.
ljjj 5S1 j»jflJ) ^i^U- "The tribe came to me, except Zued."

83. When "disjunct," it signifies that the thing ex

cepted JjJLwi, and the things or persons from which the
exception is made, are heterogeneous, or dissimilar in their
nature. Ex.
* m 9
1/**. i\ fy&\ <j,la- " The tribe came to me, save an ass."
28 ARABIC SYNTAX.
9
84. The thing excepted, J^juu^o, is uniformly governed
in the accusative case, under the following circumstances

(1) When found in an " assertive " sentence :

l^w; 1\ j»yiJl ^U- " The tribe came to me, save Zued."

(2) When the excepted thing, JjJLw«, precedes

the thing or things from which the exception is made
*i (j^b.t
sxt i .*»*-'
jui> < :
S * m
Si (jj-tW-* " No one came to me, except your brother."
c9
(3) When the thing excepted, follows
either of the particles or lj^U :
ls>- U j»jSJ1 i^J*- "The tribe came to me, except Zued."

(4) When the thing excepted, follows

either of the verbs jj-jJ or ^/jS.

SECTION IX.
ON THE PREDICATE OF THE IMPERFECT VERB"KANU,"
AND ITS SISTER VERBS.

85. The imperfect verb J6 and its sister verbs (No. 47)
govern their predicate, which is the predicate or attribute
of the proposition in the accusative case. The rules
relating to the " Enouncer " (No. 29—43) apply to the
predicate of these verbs ; except that the predicate of these
verbs may be correctly put before their nouns, notwith
standing the noun be "definite" and this is not the
case with the ordinary predicate. Ex.
S>j UjUll ^ "Zued was standing."
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 29

SECTION X.
ON THE NOUN OF THE PARTICLE "INNU" AND
ITS SISTER PARTICLES.

a 9
86. These particles govern their noun (called ^1
" the Noun of Innu"), which is the subject of the proposi
tion in the accusative case. Ex.
*j\5 1joj yjl " Indeed Zued (is) standing."

SECTION XI.
ON THE NOUN PUT IN THE ACCUSATIVE CASE, BY THE
PARTICLE "LA," IN ITS CHARACTER OF UNIVERSAL
NEGATION.

87. This word, which is the subject of the proposition,

comes immediately after the negative 3. It is an indefi
nite noun, either in the state of construction with another
word, or having connexion of a similar nature with a noun
in the state of construction. Ex.
j\ jJl i ujo (J*y " There is not any slave ofa witty man in this
house."
^-J^il U*;J ijijiLcl "There are not twenty dirhums in the purse."

88. If the noun coming after the negative J be an

indefinite noun in the singular number, it becomes inde
clinable, and assumes over its final letter the vowel
" Futha " (-). Ex.
^ljJl {J»-Ji " There is not a man in the house."
30 ARABIC SYNTAX.

89. If the noun which follows the negative i be a de

finite noun, or an indefinite noun with some word inter
vening between it and the negative, it will be in the
nominative case ; and in both these cases the negative
must be repeated before each noun. Ex.
s s
X jjl<2&\ ^ JkJji H " Nor Zued nor Oomr is in the house."
s
'i\j*o\ 3j (Jdy ^ "i " There is no man nor woman in the house."

90. In such sentences as the following, the nouns may

be both put in the nominative case or in the accusative
case, without the " Tanween " or nasal vowels ; or the one
in the nominative and the other in the accusative case, or,
vice versa, without the nasal vowels. Ex.
<0Jb H! Sji vJj (Jj*-^ " There is neither power nor virtue, but in God."

91. Sometimes the noun of the negative "La" is

elided, when the meaning is evident, viLlc X ; which
means CJak 51 "Nothing on you;" i.e. "You have
nothing to fear."

SECTION XII.
ON THE PREDICATE OF THE PARTICLES "MA" AND "LA"
WHICH RESEMBLE THE VERB "LUESU."

92. These two particles govern their predicate, which is

the attribute aw« in the accusative case. Ex.

UjLs iio|U " Zued (is) not standing."

" There is not any man present."

 ARABIC SYNTAX. 31

93. The particle *1 must not precede the predicate, nor

must the predicate precede the noun of these particles,
nor the expletive particle ^1 be introduced after the nega
tive particle, otherwise the government is destroyed. Ex.
l»jls ill Aj|Ui " Zued is not but standing."

Sij " Zued is not standing."

s so
Sij ^1 U " Zued is not standing."

CHAPTER IV.
ON GENITIVES (oVjj^aCP).

94. The term "Mujroor" signifies a noun put

in the genitive case. This noun is the " consequent "
<u!1 <—sLo* in a sentence. It serves,
(1) As a complement to a preposition j*- <—ij>- -
Ex. jjjj " i passed by Zued."

^liXil ^ c^s-^i- "l went out of the house."

This species of connexion is expressed by the term

j^jsro^jcf, "a preposition and its genitive noun."

(2) As a complement to a noun substantive,

or an adjective. Ex.
A»\ lie " Slave of Zued."
-» r
te-j!l {Jj^*j>- " Beautiful of countenance."
This species of connexion is termed iilel " con
nexion"; the antecedent is called uJLaJl "the
annex," and the consequent <_JLo*il "that which
receives the annex."
32 ARABIC SYNTAX.

95. The antecedent i_iLi« must always necessarily be

stripped of the nasal vowels, and the ^ of the dual
and plural. Ex.
jAjt Uicj Joj ,»llc A»~ " The slave of Zued, and the two slaves of
Oomr, came.
j&c y*L*M> ' The Mussulmen of Egypt came."

96. Annexion or relation is of two kinds : the one is

termed "Perfect" or "Logical" relation, LLs" «»U1, or
hj** iilel ; and the second, "Imperfect" or "Verbal"
relation, Liar^i S-ilel , or iuiaaJ SJli\ .

97. This relation, if "perfect," has, 1st, the force of

the preposition J understood ; provided the consequent
a»51 uJUU is neither of the same genus as the antecedent
i_JLi«, nor the i_J£> (i.e. "the circumstantial term of time
or place ") to it. Ex.
9 s
Sij JLc " Zued's boy or slave ; " i.e. <Sj} «Xc " The slave belonging to
Zued."
2dly, Is equivalent to the preposition ^ under
stood, when the consequent aJl i_JLi< is referrible to
the same genus as the antecedent i—iLo,. Ex.
sJa *j'U- " A ring of silver ; " i.e. "iLea *SlA- " A ring from silver."

3dly, Is equivalent to the preposition ^ , if the

consequent sA\ t_JLu. be the "circumstantial term of
time " uJ^ to it. Ex.
j»jjJl t-^-o "Beating of to-day;" i.e. ^\ ^ l-r>r^ ' Beating in the
day," i.e. " in the course of the day."
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 33

98. " Imperfect " or " verbal * relation is that in which

the antecedent uJLu is an active participle, or an adjec
tive expressive of an attribute or a quality ; and the con
sequent auil u'Lo* is the subject of which the antecedent is
the attribute. Ex.
±1) i-rJjlc " Beater of Zued."
<1»-jJ1 tl^*o» " Beautiful of countenance."

CHAPTER V.
ON APPOSITIVES £r>\y ■
99. The Appositive is a noun added to another noun
which has been previously expressed : its use is, to present
the same person or the same thing under different points
of view, or, otherwise, to modify and define the said person
or thing. Of the Appositives there are five species ; as

follows :
C^ma11 I. The Qualificative.
2. The Corroborative.
< 'j, } <3^""^ 3. The Conjunctive formed by a Particle, otherwise called
^-■r ill ■ _ a^r. the " Conjunctive of Order."
JjjJl 4. The Permutative, or word substituted.
yjLuJ1 i_ala»!l 5. The Explicative Conjunctive.

SECTION L
ON THE QUALIFICATIVE
100. This appositive demonstrates the meaning of the
noun to which it is apposed. Ex.
S 9
jjlc iJh»»j t^*" A wise maa came to me."
34 ABABIC SYNTAX.

101. It also demonstrates the meaning of the word

connected with the noun to which it is apposed. Ex.
9 s s
Syi\ jjlc i^J-s>- " A man, whose father is learned, came to me."

102. When the appositive qualifies the noun to which

it is apposed it must agree with it in number,
gender, and case ; and it must be definite or indefinite,
according to the noun. Ex.
8 0 G #
j &*!lc il^c'j |Jtc ^o-j tii'^- "(There) came to me a wise man and a
., . s., ii, wise woman, and two wise men and
JUL: JUs-,. iviUJlc
,J ^- 9 ' s „j2L»-. many wise men, and Zued the Wise
J0*JU!1 jjjftj JW1 dJjj and Hind the Wise."

103. When the appositive qualifies the word connected

with the noun to which it is apposed, it must agree with
its apposed noun, in case ; and it must be definite or in
definite accordingly. Ex.
ZdJt> Uft-jsJ lb. * O my God [ take me out of this village, the iuhabi-
i i tnSn ..ii tents (of which are) oppressive!"
LyJUbl J!la!l iujii)

104. Sometimes this appositive is only used for com

mendation. Ex.
In the name of God the Merciful the Compas
sionate.'

And sometimes only for blame. Ex.

fif-J\ yjUa^l ^ *JJb Ojfil "i take refuge with God from Satan the
execrable."
And sometimes only for emphasis. Ex.

»Jo-^ "A single blow."

 ARABIC SYNTAX. 35

105. Sometimes an indefinite noun may be qualified by

means ot an enunciative proposition 'i-ijxa. . Ex.
s 9 ' o
fy* t^yi <~!ir<> pissed by a man whose father (is) standing."

^> ^y^yf <~Uft passed by a man whose father was standing."

SECTION II.
ON THE CORROBORATIVE.

106. This appositive is used for the purpose of giving

expression to a sentence ; as the word " all/' in the sen
tences " They are all come," " I have seen them all ; "
or the word ** themselves," in the sentence " They are
come themselves." Ex.
t^A*- " The tribe, the whole of them, came to me."

107. This appositive is of two kinds; viz. verbal ,

and logical <^]***>- The verbal consists in the repetition
consecutively of the whole or part of a proposition. Ex.

lijj Jo| ^i'l*- " Zued, Zued came to me."

Joj f\s-A»- Came, came Zued."

& * s *
Aij j»IS S^J "Zued arose, Zued arose."

108. The logical consists in adding, after having spe

cified the name of a thing, some one of the following
words ; viz. yjJo or corresponding to our terms
36 ARABIC SYNTAX.

"self," "self-same," "himself/' "herself/' or "itself," and

JS, IS, ^1, gift, ^ij, all meaning " the whole/'
9 C s
yjljj^Jlj dU»fli jjj (ji^l*- "(There) came to me, Zued himself and the two
... ,. Zueds, their two selves and all the Zueds

'ft 9 c c g
And thus, in the same way, <oac and Lh*^l> and ^^JUcl. Ex.
^l^jLtl^j L^JUc. ly^Ju jJJft <j£*l»- " There came to me Hind herself, and
IjoLj! ' 1a_i_c1 Uklilli1 *'le *Wo ^m<^s 'heir *wo selves> an^
i£j j-vy j , all the Hinds themselves."

109. The words K and UJi' are used expressly for the
dual number; % for the masculine, and lilf for the
feminine. Ex.
9m
UftK JU.J\ U- "The two men, both of tbem, came."
Ujb'Jd^ ul^Aft vliJ>»- "The two Hinds (women), both of them, came."

110- To the appositive JS may sometimes be added

another appositive, agreeing in number, gender, and case
with the same noun which is already in apposition
with J?. Ex.
^jji^a-l Q>&&- "The tribe, the whole of them, all came to me."
<d£ ^j^? "The army, the whole of it, all came."
9* C
111. To the foregoing appositives, and some
times others of precisely the same meaning are added. Ex.
c r9m 9
\L>f^ Uf^^ uy**?-l f$ M^' *W- "The tribe, the whole of them, the
.°i entire, the full, the total came."
9 , r 9,9 9 , 9 9 * 9 a 9
^^^^^JLjJle^li "The women, the whole of them, the
full, the entire, the total arose."
 ABABIC SYNTAX.

SECTION III.
ON THE CONJUNCTIVE FORMED BY A PARTICLE ; OTHER
WISE CALLED THE CONJUNCTIVE OF ORDER.

112. This appositive is the word which is joined to

another by means of a conjunction*. Ex.
s s *
" Zued and Oomr arose."

113. Of the two nouns or words joined together by a

conjunction, the first is called aJ1 <-JJa**, " The word
bearing on the conjunct," i.e. "the co-conjunct"; and
the last is called i-Jjla**, " the conjunct."

114. If a noun be conjoined to a nominative-affix-

pronoun, a distinct pronoun must be introduced, for
emphasis' sake. Ex.
0ij jj\ Ci^i I beat, I and Zued."
Unless some other word intervene. Ex.
<toj) \^ire " I beat to-day and Zued."

115. If a word be conjoined to a pronoun in the geni

tive case, the genitive particle or preposition must be
repeated. Ex.
lio^Jj ^Xi ^jj*> "i passed by you and by Zued."

* The Particles performing this connexion between the <—»jla*« and

&A\ i-a^lam, are as follows: j " and," t-J "and," f "then," Jj^
"and even," j»l " or with," $ " or," ^ " but," I "no," ^"but";
but this is only in their capacity of Simple Conjunction*.
38 ARABIC SYNTAX.

SECTION rv.
ON THE PERMUTATIVE, OR WORD SUBSTITUTED.

116. This appositive is the word partially or wholly

substituted for the noun to which it is apposed, and with
which it ought to agree in case. It is of four kinds :

(1) Jfll^Jfl1jAi "The change of the whole

for the whole;" i.e. when any thing is enounced by
one or more words, another enunciation is added
to the same effect, but in a different point of view.
Ex.
LiJji-ljA£. ijtl»- "Oomr came to me, (I mean) thy brother."

(2) Jill ^ i/iodl Jsj " The change of a part

for the whole ; " i. e. when, after having expressed a
thing by means of a noun, which signifies that thing
entire, there be another added which restricts the
signification to a part. Ex.

SiJij 1Jj; ^^i/O " I struck Zued, (that is to say) his head."
c." * t
p+AM l»y»Jl "The tribe, (that is to say) some of them, came
to me."
9
(3) JUiiHl Jsj " The change of the contained
for the container," or vice versa. Ex.

4jy S)j l._ -K- "Zued was stripped, (that is to say) his garment."
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 39

(4) laU!1 Jjo " The change of error;" i. e. when,

after having said one word for another, the speaker
corrects himself. Ex.
yj-j* <»- *i£i ^jj* " I passed by a dog, (I mean to say) a horse."

jBjv>- 0>j| tjjji?- "Zued, (I would say) Jafir, came to me."

l^l**- lay C^o]/ "i saw a man, (i should say) an ass."

117. The appositive, if it be an indefinite noun, and the

apposed noun a definite one, requires a qualifying epithet.
Ex.
hii% ixoli <U-eliJb UfttwJj "l will certainly lay hold of the forelocks, the
false forelocks."

SECTION V.
ON THE EXPLICATIVE CONJUNCTIVE.

118. The use of this appositive is as follows : when to

a noun but little known is added another better known,
in order to make the meaning still clearer, or to remove
some ambiguity. Ex.
9
j*£. ^oAs-y)) JS "Aboo Hufs, (otherwise called) Oomr, stood."

j+c. «jd!l .iocy! "Aboo Ubdoollah, (called) Oomr, stood."

S)j i^J^ "Thy brother, (to wit) Zued, came to me."

119. This appositive differs but little from the first

kind of " permutative" appositive, (No. 116). Ex.
mG m C
jZ*i CJ;U!1 ^1 Ul "i (am) the son of the abandoner of Bukree, (by
* _ m name) Bishr, on whom the birds are waiting,
>». jt^ in expectancy of falling."
 -JO ARABIC SYNTAX.

CHAPTER VI.
ON THE INDECLINABLE NOUN.

120. There are eight kinds of indeclinable nouns, as

follows :

CJy«ui»ll 1. The Pronouns.

S,LiSl <L**wt 2. The Demonstrative Articles.
<jyH^*y*ll 3. The Conjunctives.
Jjai\ JUJ 4. Verbal Nouns.
5. The Interjections.
i^JjSj^\ 6. The Compound Nouns.
7. The Substituted Expressions, i.e. words of a vague sig
nification which are substituted for more definite
expressions.
(jau 8. Certain circumstantial terms of time and place, called
• "Containers."

SECTION I.
ON THE PRONOUNS.*

'SI,'
121. The detached or isolated pronoun JuaiJU ought

* For the detail of the "nominative-isolated pronouns" lil "I,"

Ci*ol " Thou," yk " He," &c. ; and of the " genitive and accusative-affix
pronouns " ^ and ii) and * , &c. ; and of the " accusative-eompound-
isolated pronouns " ^Ll " Me," cXl " Thee," *U " Him," &c ; the
Reader is referred to the Etymological Volume of Lumsden ; or De Sacy,
vol. I. chap. vi. p. 454.
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 41

not to be introduced, unless there be difficulty in using

the affix pronoun. Ex.
'' c * «
tiJjo "You we worship."

Li! ill \JLXij& U "Not (any one) has beaten, save L"

122. The pronoun is sometimes introduced at the

commencement of a sentence, for emphasis sake. Ex.
JoJ y> J» "Say he, God is one."
Asnlo Aia> ^ " She, Hind, is beautiful."

123. When the predicate in any sentence is a definite

noun or a noun of superiority, Jj-»o .*J , with the particle
if, an isolated pronoun may be introduced between the
subject and predicate : and this pronoun is called the
J-oijyj^o " pronoun of separation," because it distinguishes
the predicate from the epithet . Ex.
9 ,9 s
I^LaJ! yb Sij "Zued (he) is standing."

j*a ^ (J-<a_jl yb &jj jjO "Zued, he was better than Oomr."

^Ac \j^jS "You, were you, the watcher over them."

aUl "God, He, the Living, the Self-existing."

SECTION II.
ON THE DEMONSTRATIVE ARTICLES.*

124. See Lumsden ; or De Sacy, vol. I. chap. iv. p. 434.

Nos. 966—975.

* The matter under this head in the original treatise appertains to the
Etymology and Inflexion Part of Grammar, to which the Reader is referred.
(;
42 ABABIC SYNTAX.

SECTION III.
ON THE CONJUNCTIVES.
125. The conjunctions and conjunctive words, be they
nouns or be they adjectives, are all comprised by the
JT/C '
Arabian Grammarians under the denomination J^-*^*-
The conjunctions properly so called are named ^j>-
"particle-conjunctives"; and the conjunctive nouns and
adjectives, ^j^J J^yo " noun-conjunctives."

126. The conjunctive adjectives, otherwise more com

monly called " relative pronouns," necessarily require after
them a conjunctive proposition, termed iL» "adjunction";
and there is this character peculiar to these relative pro
nouns, that they ought to be followed by a personal pro
noun, either isolated or affixed, and agreeing with them in
gender and number. Ex.

jfci'j' ty\ ^jJl "There came to me he who his father is standing,"

' * i.e. "He, whose father is standing or stood, came
~- ~ ■? to me.

127. In the dialect of the j^<Jj, U "that which,"

^ " he who," " which," Ij " fem.," and have the
same meaning as the relative ^iJl. Ex.
lJ/A!) s/'^J <r>) '^** J^ yj^ "Truly this water is the water of my father
r c ^ ' c_ , and my grandfather ; and of my well,
\mm*jyoy)j UUjk>- yi which I dug and which I made."

128. Sometimes the definite article Jl is used in the

 AHABIC SYNTAX. 43

sense of the relative ^jJl ; and its conjunctive preposition

"^u> is the active or passive participle. Ex.

tj,}j>- i.e. \s>j i__^LaJ1 ^i^j?- The beater of Zued came to me," i.e.
* ' <■ ' He who is or was beating Zued came
v ■-> to me.
&o)Lc i—jj^aj l ij^ls- " Came to me the beaten, his slave," i.e. "He
whose slave is or was beaten came to me."

129. If the pronoun, having reference, jjU, to the

relative, be the object of action, it may be elided. Ex.
iij^i or L^o^i i_yiJl Ji "He whom I beat arose."

SECTION IV.
ON THE VERBAL NOUNS.

130. Vid. Lockett's Shurhoo Miut Amil. Class ix.

pp. 145 to 153 ; and De Sacy's Grammaire Arab. vol. II.
chap. xxx. Nos. 690—696. and vol. I. Nos. 1190 et seq.

SECTION V.
ON THE INTERJECTIONS.

131 . Vid. Etymology and Inflexion Volume of Lumsden ;

or De Sacy, vol. I. chap. vii. § v. p. 574.

SECTION VI.
ON THE COMPOUND WORDS.

132. Vid. Etymology and Inflexion Volume of Lumsden;

or De Sacy, vol. I. chap. iii. § viii. No. 912.
44 ARABIC SYNTAX.

SECTION VII.
ON THE SUBSTITUTED EXPRESSIONS*

133. Under this head are comprised certain words of

a vague signification, which take the place of other words
of a definite signification ; as, J How many ? " " How
much?" lii "So much"; eU? and vl^d "So," "In
such a manner." Vid. Lockett, Shurhoo Miut Amil.
Class viii. p. 142 ; and De Sacy, Grammaire Arab. vol. II.
chap. v. No. 135. p. 66. and chap. 32. Nos. 1121—1124.

pp. 573, 574.

SECTION VIII.
ON CERTAIN CIRCUMSTANTIAL TERMS OF TIME AND PLACE.

134. There are several "terms of time and place"

which are indeclinable ; such as Jju " before/' joo " after,"
jji "above," J^r" "below". Ex.

i\»J yj^j (Joj ^ " Of God, the command is before and after."

Here the terms Jju>' ^ and &*) ^ stand for ^ Ji" Ja» ^
" From before every thing," and \JS■ Jxo ^ " From after
every thing."

* The whole Section in the " Hidayut-on-Nuhvi " is taken up with

rules relative to the Particle S - which particular word is treated of in
Lockett, p. 142. Vid. Text, and Annotations.
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 45

135- The above terms are here used adverbially : when

used as prepositions, they are declinable.

136. The word " Where V is one of these terms.

Ex.
L/*"^ •H) i_r^?-l "Sit where Zued is sitting."

n)j^**i. ^ i^y* f4?-J " I will quickly consign them where they
will not know."
UILJ^C^^U "Do you not see where the star Canopus
is rising ?"
ljJoLi (_jl^iJl^ jiij [ass: " A bright star, it shines like the Sihab."

137. The word 13! has particular reference to future

time, and, if added to a verb in the past tense, gives it
a future signification. Ex.
*Ul -a> .tb-lil " When the assistance of God shall come."

138. It also has a conditional meaning, and ought to

have after it either a nominal or verbal sentence. Ex.
(^-«uiJl CA^Jjl "i will come to you when the sun is rising."
> C^ C "' , ' 9
^^«Jj! e^*lis CJ>jyjl " I shall come to you when the sun shall rise."

139. It is sometimes used to express the sudden appear

ance of any thing, in the sense of "Behold!" "Lo!"
and then the inchoative may be correctly used after it.

Ex.
i sulj £A*J l liit» c^»^=>- " I came out, and, lo ! a wild beast was standing."

140. The word «31 has particular reference to past time ;

46 ARABIC SYNTAX.

and either a nominal or verbal sentence may be used

after it. Ex.
9 s 9 c
(j-u^lJl ci-^xii' or i*SUo ^j^aJ1^\ j! cJJuJl "I will come to you when the
sun has risen."

141. The words "Where?" and £\ "Where?"

are used interrogatively. Ex.

<_S^*^ ui' " Where are you going?"

AniJ J^l "Where will you sit?"

142. They are also used in a conditional sense. Ex.

^jAse jjjil ' Where you sit, I will sit."

ft] ,ljl " Where you sit, I will stand?"

143. The word "When?" is used interrogatively

and conditionally. Ex.
9
JLJi Jj-L* "When shall you set out on your travels?"
£-ds jJjU "When you shall fast, I shall fast."

144. The word is used interrogatively. Ex.

^jJl pyi " When (is) the day of Judgment?"

145. The word i_jL«£ is used interrogatively with refe

rence to present time. Ex.

<Jl»- t^l i.e. c^Jl l_oj^ "How are you?" meaning, "in what
condition ?"

146. The words <x« and jju are used to indicate the
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 47

commencement of a certain period of time, past or pre

sent, if used in answer to the word t_jU>. Ex.

hiAs^' mJ iVc t< " I have not seen Zued since Friday."

In answer to the person who asks—

1jjj C^ol^ U (Jvo "Since when have you not seen Zued?"

147. They are used to indicate the whole time, if in

answer to the word ^ " How much ? " Ex.

^UjJ iVc Sm\j Lo "l have not seen him these two days."

In answer to the person who asks—

c^l; *J "How long have you not seen Zued?"

148. The words ^jJ and are used in the sense

c
of the preposition sic. " near," " with." Ex.

i«LJjjJ JU!1 "The property (is) with you."

°
And the difference between these words and sXc is this,
o
that by joc is not implied the actual presence which is by
* t. ' ' » <■ <
and ^jJ. The word ^ is written variously: WJ,
(■» <■> e,
jjJ, jJ, and jJ.

149. The word ki is used to give emphasis to the

negative past tense. Ex.
)a>\^j\j Lo "i saw not ever."

150. The word ^^c. is used to corroborate the future

negative. Ex.

\jcf&>jo\1 " I will not beat him ever."

4N ARABIC SYNTAX.

CHAPTER VII.
ON THE NUMERALS.

151. With all the Numerals, from Three and upwards,

a noun of specification must necessarily be used. With
the numerals from Three to Ten (3— 10) the specified noun
will be put in the genitive case plural ; except when the
numeral hlc happens to occupy the position of the speci
fied noun, and this numeral will be in the genitive case
singular. Ex.
JU-.UL* "Three men."

(J-s-i SflfcC ' Ten men."

c 9
iivuJ \^J& "Three women."
<- '
o_ t
1yJi jlLs. "Ten women."

*JU £*J ^1 £jL "Three hundred up to nine hundred."

152. The aforesaid, viz. 3 to 10, may be used as adjec

tives ; and in such case they must agree with the noun,
specifying the thing numbered, in gender and case. Ex.

^•Ai- ey'-AJ) ijJIj yj^AJ <i! yji " He had three sons and five daughters."

153. All the numerals from Eleven to Nineteen (11—19),

and the tens from Twenty to Ninety (20—90), and the
numerals composed of tens and units from Twenty-one to
Ninety-nine (21—99), all govern the noun of the thing
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 49

numbered in the accusative case singular, as a noun of

sa '
specification, j£*~>- Ex.
» ,, , , ,
%sy jtUc &o-\ "Eleven men."
sl^ol ZjJLz ^jj*-! " Eleven women."
^jXtuSj HJtiuS "Ninety-nine men."
*lr*l isif^S f" * "Ninety-nine women."

154. With all the numerals composed of tens and

units, above twenty, the units must always be placed
before the tens. Ex.

£«lc ^yUoj " Three-and-eighty years."

155. All the numerals from twenty to ninety-nine

(20—99) conform, with reference to the other parts of
speech, to the ordinary rules of Syntax. Ex.
XJU jj^Wjtj |>j***a£'- IZJjj«o " I passed by five and forty she-camels."

SLi ^jjJawJj Uu e^a» " I slaughtered six and ninety sheep."

156. After the numerals of hundreds and thousands,

as "one hundred," UjU "two hundred/' &c, ''one
thousand," and ^UJ1 two thousand," &c, the noun
specifying the thing numbered will uniformly be in the
genitive case singular. Ex.
9
(Jj»-j*jU "One hundred men."
liiU "Two hundred asses."
..- ' '
C_^JL/ hVo "Five hundred dogs."
iijJ^o i—iil "One thousand cities."
ujCtfUJl "Two thousand books."
*
H
50 ARABIC SYNTAX.

CHAPTER VIII.
ON THE GENDER OF NOUNS.

157. Vide Lumsden's Arabic Grammar, chap. xvii.

pp. 641 to 649 ; or De Sacy, Gram. Arab. vol. I. livre ii.
chap. iii. sect. 6. p. 343.

CHAPTER IX.
ON THE DUAL NUMBER.

158. Vide Lumsden, chap. xiii. pp. 502 to 511 ; or De

Sacy, vol. I. livre ii. chap. iii. sect. 7. p. 352. Nos. 815—821.

CHAPTER X.
ON THE PLURAL.

159. Vide Lumsden, chap. xiii. sect. 2. pp. 511 to 519. and
sect. 3. pp.519 to 529; and chap. xiv. sects. 1, 2, 3, 4.
pp. 529 to 609; or De Sacyi vol. I. liv. ii. chap. iii.
§ 7. p. 354. Nos. 822 et seq.
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 51

CHAPTER XI.
ON THE INFINITIVE.

160. Vide Lockett's Shurhoo Miut Amil. Second Ana

logous Governor, pp. 195 to 213 ; and De Sacy's Gram-
maire Arabe, vol. II. chap. xi. p. 161. Nos. 272 et seq.
and chap. xxii. p. 554. Nos. 1058—1063.

CHAPTER XII.
ON THE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.

161. Vide Lockett's Shurhoo Miut Amil. Third Ana

logous Governor, pp. 203 to 207 ; and De Sacy's Gram-
maire Arabe, vol. II. chap. xii. p. 179. Nos. 299 to 316.
and chap. xix. p. 546. Nos. 1039 to 1045.

CHAPTER XIII.
ON THE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.

162. Vide Lockett's Shurhoo Miut Amil. Fourth Ana

logous Governor, pp. 208 to 211 ; and De Sacy, Gram.
Arabe, vol. II. chap. xii. p. 191. Nos. 317 to 325. and
chap. xx. p. 549. Nos. 1046—1050.
52 ARABIC SYNTAX.

CHAPTER XIV.
ON THE ADJECTIVE, OR ATTRIBUTE.
9m ! 9-

163. Vide Lockett's Shurhoo Miut Amil. Fifth Analo

gous Governor, pp. 212 to 214 ; and De Sacy's Gram-
maire Arabe, vol. II. chap. xii. p. 194. Nos. 326 et seq. and
chap. xxii. p. 551. Nos. 1051—1057.

CHAPTER XV.
ON THE NOUN OF SUPERIORITY.

164. This noun corresponds with the comparative and

superlative degrees of comparison in other tongues. Ex.

(j-o jJlc! Ajj " Zued (is) more learned than Oomr."

^U!l |Jlc1 "Zued (is) the most learned of men."

165. The measure of this noun is invariably J*»l for

the masculine gender, and JjUi for the feminine. Accord
ing to general opinion, it can only be derived from verbs
of the triliteral radical class ; and these should, moreover,
be perfect verbs, jJJ, and not significant of colours or
personal defects.

166. In the case of all verbs from which the measure

cannot be derived, the sense of superiority must be
expressed by circumlocution. Some word significant of
 ARABIC 8YNTAX. 53

beauty or ugliness, strength or weakness, hardness or

softness, &c, must first be formed on the measure J*Sl, and
followed by the infinitive of the required verb, governed
as the noun of specification in the accusative case. Ex.
Sm\ ljJb "This is stronger as to whiteness," i.e. " whiter
than that."
Jjj "Zued is quicker as to going," i.e. "a faster
goer than Oomr.
Sij ^ jjS\ y& " lie is more frequent as to restlessness," i.e.
"more restless than Zued."

167. This noun is used in three different ways ; viz.

1st, as an antecedent i_»Li<> in a definite state of con
struction with another noun or adjective ; 2dly, in an
absolute manner with the definite article ; and, 3dly, free
of all construction, with the preposition " from." Ex.
^Ul1 jAil "The best of men.
' 9 ^c* s
J-aJSl Sij "Zued the best."
9' 9
(^•LiJl ^(J-aJl Jo; "Zued (is) the best from among men."

168. When this noun is the antecedent <—»Lu, it may

either be put in the singular number, masculine gender ;
or be made to agree in gender and number with the noun
with which it is connected. Ex.
j.yill J-aJl Sij " Zued (is) the best of the tribe!"
J^lsl <J^jJ\ "The two Zueds (are) the best of the tribe."
^yjJlJ-aj! ^ySjJ\ "The Zueds the best of the tribe."
pSjl IcJl ^,1^1 "The two Zueds the two best of the tribe."
l»yiJl \^JJ\ "The Zueds all the best of the tribe."
 54 ARABIC SYNTAX.

169. This noun, when used with the definite article,

ought to agree in gender and number with the noun or
pronoun which it qualifies. Ex.
J-oJ ill Joj "Zued the best."
^lj^Sl "The two Zueds the two best."
o '
^jb,*.^ 11 LtJb "Those are the two very smallest women."

^ c^"1" f* "Those are the most excellent among men."

170. This noun, when used, free of all construction,

with the preposition must always be in the masculine
singular. Ex.
9 8
tijjbj ^Jjplj ^ljojJtj Jo; "Zued and the two Zueds, and all the Zueds
(J J; jf iXi1jJijl . 1^jk^ll Hind, and the two Hinds and all the
^ Hinds, are better than Oomr."

(JiSJl (j-c iXil i)Jua!l "Sedition is worse than murder."

<&e CJJuJb ^!f>-l ^j*" " We have more right to the government
than he."

171. In all the foregoing examples, the agent of this

noun is the pronoun concealed in the noun itself: but
there are some very rare examples*, in which, after the
noun of superiority, the noun which serves as the subject
is considered as the agent, and put, as such, in the nomi
native case. Ex.
* c * '
^ji ^ m. r*-\ Lay U "i have not seen any man in whose eyes the
. '.^'(w . collvrium was more beautiful than in those
^C--VJ^^ of Ld."

* The Author of the " Hidayut-oon-Nuhvi " says there is much to be

said, and much difference of opinion, on this point.
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 55

CHAPTER XVI.
ON THE VERB.

172. The rules relative to the classification of verbs,

to the inflexions of the past and aorist tenses, and to the
inflexions of the imperative and prohibitive moods, and
to the conjugations of triliteral radical verbs, &c, are to be
found in Lumsden, chap. iii. iv. and v, pp. 92 to 162 ; or
in De Sacy, vol. I. liv. ii. chap. ii.

173. Such portion of the contents under this head as

relates to the particular particles which render the final
letter of the aorist tense " Nusub," t-^vaJ , is contained in
Mr. Lockett's Shurhoo Miut Amil. Class v. pp. 115 to 118.
And such portion as relates to the particular particles,
which, being prefixed to the aorist tense of verbs, render
the final letter ^j>- or quiescent—and to other particular
words, which, possessing a hypothetical signification, also
render the final letter of the aorist j»jo» or quiescent —
is comprised in Lockett's Shurhoo Miut Amil. Class vi.
pp. 121 to 126 ; and Class vii. pp. 128 to 135.
5G Arabic Syntax.

CHAPTER XVII.
ON THE VERBS OF THE MIND.

174. Vide Lockett's Shurhoo Miut Amil. Class xiii.

pp. 181 to 191 ; and De Sacy's Grammaire Arabe, vol. II.
chap. xxii. p. 296. Nos. 497 et seq.; and chap, xxxvii. p. 580.
Nos. 1145 to 1156.

CHAPTER XVIIL
ON THE IMPERFECT VERBS.

175. Vide Lockett's Shurhoo Miut Amil. Class x.

pp. 154 to 163 ; and De Sacy's Grammaire Arabe, vol. II.
chap.xxiii. p. 299. Nos. 503 et seq.; and chap, xxxiv. p. 575.
Nos. 1127 to 1134.

CHAPTER XIX.
ON THE VERBS OF PROPINQUITY.

176. Vide Lockett's Shurhoo Miut Amil. Class xi.

pp. 166 to 171 ; and De Sacy's Grammaire Arabe, vol. II.
chap. xiv. p. 213. Nos. 358 et seq.; and chap. xxxv. p. 577.
Nos. 1135 to 1139.
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 57

CHAPTER XX.
ON THE VERBS OF PRAISE AND CENSURE.

r^\j ^\ JM

177. Vide Lockett's Shurhoo Miut Amil. Class xii.

pp.173 to 179; and De Sacy's Grammaire Arabe, vol.11,
chap. xv. p. 221. Nos. 371 et seq., and chap, xxxvi. p. 578.
Nos. 1140 to 1144.

CHAPTER XXI.
ON THE VERB OF ADMIRATION.

178. This verb, which is used for the purpose of

expressing surprise and admiration, has two forms ; viz.
Jmil U> and <o J*»l . With the first of these forms, the noun
or pronoun designating the person or thing which is the
object of admiration is placed immediately after the verb,
and is put in the accusative case. Ex.

l &ij tj«*»-l U " How beautiful is Zued !"

179. Under the second form s> J*»! , the word which
expresses the object of admiration is put in the genitive
case, and is preceded by the preposition l_>. Ex.

&)j> lir**»-l ' How beautiful is Zued ! "

jO>\) |>-fJ How clearly they will hear and see!" or, 'They will
hear and see very clearly."
58 ARABIC SYNTAX.

180. It is a disputed point with Grammarians, whether,

in any sentence with the verb of admiration, any trans
position of words may be made, or any word introduced
between the verb and object of admiration. According
to some, a circumstantial term of time or place, «_ija,
or a preposition with its complement, may intervene. Ex.

1jJ| !»jjJl jj/mj>-l Lo "How beautiful is Zued to-day !"

UfcAiU lesri^l ^ ^w-.n-l U "How beautiful is its aspect in the day of
. ,, , r.-f . battle ! and how abundant are its gifts
" Sr J in time of scarcity !

CHAPTER XXII.
ON THE PARTICLE.

^>
181. There are fourteen kinds of Particles, as follows :

js^> , 1. The Particles of Attraction, or Prepositions

which govern the Noun in the Genitive Case.
(J.nt! . +|l 2. The Particles resembling Verbs.
i alawl 1 t—SjjO- 3. The Conjunctions.
iiuxiukil i^Jtyo. 4. The Particles of rousing the Attention.
iljJU' uJjj^ft- 5. The Vocative Particles.
cJsrS! i s^p- 6. The Particles of Affirmation.
«4>y1 t_»j^>. 7. The Redundant Particles.
^JUfcRjC t lip- 8. The two Particles of Elucidation.
j£*M>\ <-J^p- 9. The Infinitive Particles, i.e. Particles with the
functions of an Infinitive, or Noun of Action.
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 59

(^uisSl i—Sjyv- 10. The Particles of Excitement.

11. The Particle of Expectation, i.e. indicative of a

thing which is expected.
o
lip- 12. The two Particles of Interrogation.
L^iJl i__Jj^*. 13. The Conditional Particles.
u,> 14. The Particle of Indignation.

SECTION L
ON THE PREPOSITIONS.

182. Vide Lockett's Shurhoo Miut Amil. Class i.

pp. 18 to 82 ; and De Sacy's Grammaire Arabe, vol. II.
chap. xxx. p. 389. Nos. 677 et seq., and p. 561. Nos. 1075,
1076., and vol. I. chap. vii. p. 468. Nos. 1032 to 1106.

SECTION II.
ON THE PARTICLES RESEMBLING VERBS.

183. Vide Lockett's Shurhoo Miut Amil. Class ii.

pp. 83 to 99 ; and De Sacy's Grammaire Arabe, vol. II.
chap. v. p. 61. Nos. 125 et seq., and chap. xxvi. p. 561.
Nos. 1077 to 1083.

SECTION III.
ON THE CONJUNCTIONS.

184. The conjunctions are ten in number, viz. (I) j "and";

(2) uJ " and/' " but," " in that case/' " in consequence/'
60 ARABIC SYNTAX.

"for fear that " ; (3) J " then/' " afterwards/' " after that,"
" and then " ; (4) " and also," " even to * ; (5) J " or,"
"unless that," "except that"; (6) U "but," "now/'
"and"; (7) jj "or"; (8) * "not"; (9) Si "but";

(10) $ " but."

185. The conjunction }* indicates a simple junction.

Ex.
jA£.) ±)j tj^ls"- Zued and Oomr came to me."

* The conjunction j is used in various other senses, viz. in swearing, and

as synonymous with i—J, " many," " few, ' &c. ; but then it is regarded as
a preposition, and not as a simple conjunction.
N.B. The difference which Arabian Grammarians recognise between the
conjunctions t_s and . is this, that <__>, notwithstanding the simple function,
expresses the order of the things or of the events which the second ( j) does
not. Thus, when you say jj-**5 &ij ci'^ , it signifies that Zued and Oomr
are come to me, but that Oomr came after Zued : and if you say ^-s*-
S}j , it signifies simply that Zued and Oomr came to see me, without
indicating the order in which they came.
t The conjunction i_i has a variety of meanings in the following
sentence :

" A gazelle was once thirsty : she therefore, or consequently (<—»)• came
to a spring of water to drink; she then (<—i) saw her own image in the
water, and, by reason of G—j) that, was grieved at the leanness of her legs."
It also has the meaning of " For fear that," " In order that," in the
following sentences :
r t c" '*c. *
jjjUaLJ1 JX&u lyy-J S " Steal not, for fear that the Sultan kill you."
t^JJli CAaajl lS>-) '< " Give me your daughter in marriage, in order
^ i ~ ' that I may put your affairs in order."
 ARABIC SYNTAX. (il

186. The conjunction <-Jt serves ordinarily to join two

sentences together, and indicates a certain order of things
or events without the lapse of any interval. Ex.
jAjti S)j t^J*- "Zued came to me, and then Zued."

Here the <_J indicates that " Zued" came first, but that
" Oomr" came immediately after.

187. The conjunctions ^ and ijo- imply an order of

things or events with the lapse of a certain interval ; and
there is this difference between them, that the interval
implied by Jw- is shorter than that implied by ^. Ex.
jjli- ^ jj; (J*-t> "Zued entered, and afterwards Khalid."
The Pilgrim, and also the pedestrians, arrived."

The word sometimes implies that the "conjunct

word" <_Jjla>w> is included in the "co-conjunct word"
dudl i_JJaji«. Ex.
JLwuJl ,Ji». ^.Ul tuU "The men died, even to the Prophets."

188. The three conjunctions, }\, and U, and J, have all

much the same meaning, viz. the indefinite confirmation
of one of two acts, without reference more to the one
than the other. Ex.
(J,»^J Oy< ' I passed by a man or a woman."

189. The conjunction Ll ought correctly to precede

<--■ '
the conjunction }\ . Ex.
^ol C_^v;K Lol " Zued is either learned or stupid."

190. The conjunction j»l is of two kinds ; viz. "adjunct"

 b^ ARABIC SYNTAX.
m9 ' 9
J-oU, or "disjunct" jkaJu. There are three conditions
attending the use of the adjunct J : 1st, that a /mmza
(1) precede it. Ex.
j^tx |J LL).Xic Jjjl "is Zued with you, or Oomr?"
2dly, That the word next to the conjunction be
like the word next to the "humza" l, i.e. two
similar kinds of nouns, or two similar kinds of verbs.
s % s
}JA£ j»! ^JSMi Jojl "is Zued with you, or Oomr?"
ii*s j»! Joj |»Ul "is Zued standing, or is he sitting?"
3dly, That the interrogation be specific, so that
the answer of ^ be definite. Ex.
s s
j»l CJajic SiJ\ "is Zued with you, or Oomr ?"
It is evident that, in the answer to this question, either
the one or other personage must be specified.

191. The " Disjunct/' J, has the sense of the con-

junction Jj "but," accompanied with a "humza" l; as
if, on seeing an object indistinctly at a distance, you were
to say, with some degree of certainty, JJ Igil " It is indeed
a camel ! " and afterwards, on some doubt arising as to
whether it were a sheep or not, you were to say i'^i j»l " or
a sheep," with the intention of running away from your
first assertion, and commencing with a second question,
meaning Sli ^1 " Is it a sheep ? "

192. The conjunction i is used to negative in a second

word what has been affirmed in a previous one. Ex.
s s
Syj t,j*l»- " Zued came to me, not Ooinr."
 ARABIC' 8YNTAX. 63

193. The conjunction Jj indicates aversion from one

term in favour of a second, which it confirms, Ex.
jAS. Jj <^J*-U Zued did not come to me, but Oomr."

194. The conjunction ^£1 is used to explain some

uncertainty supposed to exist in the first branch of a
compound proposition : it can therefore only occur between
two sentences contrasted with each other by reason of
some opposition contained in them. Ex.
jA*e- Jj>- jj^J <iJj <^jh>- l<e " Zued did not come to me ; but Oomr came."
|J Alii- jL> " Bukr arose, but Khalid arose not."

SECTION IV.
ON THE PARTICLES OF ROUSING THE ATTENTION.

195. These particles are three in number; viz. 51l "Come

on," U and l» " Behold/' " Here is." They are used for
the purpose of attracting the attention of the person
addressed.

196. Sl and Ul are used either in nominal or verbal

propositions. Ex.
^yJwJuJl j»» j^il Sl "Know that, verily, they are the seditious ones."

CJls^'j Jj£j! W ' &now for sure I swear by Him who caused to
1 'c T weep and to laugh, and by Him who put to
^ *f 3 death and restored to life, and by Him whose
^Sl J^J ijS^lj mandate is fA« mandate."
J*aJ S Sl "Take care, do not do (this) !"
u^SU "Be sure do not strike ! "
 ARABIC SYNTAX.

197. The particle la is used either in a proposition or

with a single word. Ex.

SJj (a "Behold! Zued is standing."

ljjb "(Remember) this."

SECTION V.
ON THE VOCATIVE PARTICLES.

198. Vide Lockett's Shurhoo Miut Amil. Class iv.

pp.111 to 113; or De Sacy's Grammaire Arabe, vol. II.
chap. vi. p. 88. Nos. 167 et seq., and chap, xxviii. p. 568.
Nos. 1102 to 1108.

SECTION VI.
ON THE PARTICLES OF AFFIRMATION.

199. These particles are six in number ; viz. p*i ' Yes/''
Ji"Yea, indeed," ^1"Yes," jll " Yes," ^"Even
so," Jr'Yes."

200. The particle ^ expresses assent to a sentence

previously uttered, whether affirmative or negative ; as,
Jo; cJAb-\ " Is Zued come to you ?" Answer, " Yes."
s *
Or, ±ij cJJj>~\ U " Is Zued not come to you 1" Answer,
£ "Yes."
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 65

201. The particle t_sb is used, 1st, after a proposition

interrogatively negative, to affirm the contrary. Ex.
9 C
C^mJl "Am I not your supporter ?"

Answer,
j£i lyii "They said, 'Surely.' "

And, 2dly, after a proposition enunciatively negative ;

as, Jo; jjb |.J " Zued is not standing. " Answer, ^Jj " Yes,"
i.e. |»U jji " He is indeed standing."

202. The particle is used for affirmation, after an

interrogation ; and accompanied with a form of oath ; as,
Uf„,K J* "Was it so ?" Answer, ^1 " Yes, by God !"

203. The particles J^-l , and J, are used in acknow-

ledgment of an affirmation ; as, iW^V " Zued is come."
Answer, jll " Yes," or Jj. " Even so," or ^1 " Yes,"
t. e. " I acknowledge the truth of the affirmation."

SECTION VII.
ON THE REDUNDANT PARTICLES.

204. These particles are seven in number; viz. ^1, J\,

c
s, ^r*, V, and J.

o
205. The particle ^1 is redundant when used with the
negative U. Ex.

Jo; U " Zued is not standing."

K
B6 ARABIC SYNTAX.

Or when used with the infinitive, U. Ex.

c p G' G 'G
_/rycW (j-isr, ^ to ^iaiil " Wait until the Ameer sit," i.e. "until the
sitting of the Ameer."

Or when used with UJ. Ex.

^yul^ C^»**I>- U) "Wherever you shall sit, I shall sit."

200. The particle ^1 is redundant, 1st, when used with Ui.

Ex.
jyL&\ Aft- J Uli "When the messenger of happy tidings came."

2dly, When introduced between the particle ^ and

an oath. Ex.

C^*J e^j' "By God ! if you stand, I will stand."

And, 3dly, after the cJ of similitude. Ex.

jlaxi ^LxjAi ^IS " Like a doe, you lay hold of."

207. The particle U> is redundant when used with ljl

and <_sx« and and and the conditional wl . Ex.
9 G ' «- G »
e^*ȣ^-*Ubl "When you fast, I will fast. '

And so on of the rest : and, 2dly, when used after

certain prepositions. Ex.
M G^
till Sj^s-j L«jw "Through the mercy of God."

(JjJls Vac " Through, or by, a few."

208. The particle S is redundant when used, 1st, with

the conjunction }, after a negation. Ex.
jA£. i!j Jjj tJ^'j^-Le " Zued and Oomr came not to me.
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 61

And, 2dly, after the infinitive ^1, i.e. having the

force of a noun of action. Ex.
Ja!"^ i ^ CJoti* U " What has prevented you that you should make
prostration," i.e. "from making prostration?"
re 9t, 9 -
And, 3dly, before the word ^1 ; as> ^J>\ 2, the
meaning of which is " I swear."

209. The particles ^ and t_j and J, when redundant,

have been treated of in Mr. Lockett's Shurhoo Miut Amil.
Class i. pp. 31, 23, and 50.

SECTION VIII.
ON THE TWO PARTICLES OF ELUCIDATION.

210. The two particles of elucidation are, ^ " that is

to say," and ^1.* Ex.

J*l JLJj "And ask of the village, that is to say, of the

people of the village."

211. The particle ^,1 is used to elucidate the meaning

of any verb resembling in sense the word Jy. Ex.

Li ^ iLSuj'Jj " And I called him ; that is to say, or saying,

Oh, Abraham!"

* The sense in which ^ is here used, viz. as an explanatory particle, is

noticed in Lockett's Annotations to the Shurhoo Miut Amil. Class v. p. 1 1 5.
68 ARABIC SYNTAX.

SECTION IX.
ON THE INFINITIVE PARTICLES.

212. These particles are three in number, viz. U> "that,"

and ^1 ' that,"* and Ji ; and have the meaning and force
of an infinitive or noun of action.

213. The two first are used in verbal propositions. Ex.

LfcJ fjcjV\ \j^S[*aJ " And the earth became narrow," i.e. " oppressive
' ' to them, notwithstanding it was spacious,"
i.e. "its spaciousness."
^IUi!l U ijaW'ju^i "it pleases the man that the nights pass away;
* . and the passing away of them is his own
Uao <x5 ...
ly t* - ..,6.J
w . away.
passing
U! <tc^i ^ L*J "There was not an answer of his tribe, except
<S' . that they spoke," i.e. "they had no answer
J & to make but the one they made."

214. The particle ^,1 is only used in a nominal propo

sition. Ex.
CJuUi ,^1 C^il c^Ju£ "I knew that you were standing," i.e.
I knew of your standing."

SECTION X.
ON THE PARTICLES OF EXCITEMENT.

215. These particles are four in number, viz. 5L& " Come
along!" "Ho there!" and Y) " Come on!" and, % "Come

* For the particle ^1 in this sense, vide Lockett, Class v. p. 116.

 ARABIC SYNTAX. 69

on \" and U^J " Come away \" They are placed at the
commencement of a sentence ; and when used with a
verb in the future tense, they have the meaning of insti
gating to action ; as,

(Jit la> " Come along ! you will eat."

And when used with a verb in the past tense, they imply
accusation and reproach. Ex.
^ ✓ C <-" ' *et*
c^o^* 1s> " For shame ! you did not beat Zued."

216. These particles are all compounded of two words,

of which the first is a conditional, interrogative, or infi
nitive particle ; and the second a negative particle : they
are only used with verbs ; and if a noun should happen
to come after them, a verb is understood ; as you would
say to him who had beaten a tribe—
^^ijc lb i.e. hb " Why not Zued?" i.e. "Why did you not beat
Zued?" i.e. "For shame, not beating Zued."

SECTION XI.
ON THE PARTICLE OF EXPECTATION.

217. This particle is <is ; it is called the ^yi! <—»/»-, or

" particle of expectation," as being indicative of a thing
which is to be expected. When used with a verb in the
past tense, it approximates it to present time. Ex.

&ij CuU Si 'Zued is just dead," i.e. "He has breathed his last, just
as you have been expecting."
jjyo }l! ^—^j &i "The Ameer is just now mounted."
70 ARABIC SYNTAX.

218. It is sometimes used to give emphasis, as in

answer to the person who asks ±ij JS Ja> " Is Zued stand-
ing 1" you would say Sjj Si " Zued truly is standing."

219. It also has the sense of "sometimes" and " often,"

when used with the aorist tense. Ex.
9' C ' * * _ "
^-Juao &» yj! " Verily the liars sometimes speak truth."

jiic >Ss d "The munificent often make a slip."

220. It is sometimes used with the aorist tense in an

emphatic sense. Ex.

i^yjjj**!! *JJl |»Lo ji "in truth, God knows the averters."

221. Sometimes a form of oath may be permitted to

intervene between this particle and the verb. Ex.
* G * «* m C *
1 -xiilj "By God, you have indeed done well !

SECTION XII.
ON THE TWO INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES.

222. The two interrogative particles 1 and Ja> are always

put at the commencement of a proposition, and are used
either in nominal or verbal sentences. Ex.

Jojl " Is Zued standing ?"

*l» (Ja " Was Zued standing ?"

 ARABIC SYNTAX. 71
* c
223. The particle l is used in many places where Ja>
cannot be substituted. Ex.
l l " Have you beat Zued ?"

cJy»-! yb j liio^i l-J^ojl " Are yon beating Zued ; and he your brother ?"
e s s
|*1 cJaac iJojl "is Zued with you, or Oomr ?"
<* ' 1
^ "is he, who was?"

SECTION XIII.
ON THE CONDITIONAL PARTICLES.

224. These particles are three in number, viz. ^1 "If,

and y ' If/' and U1 " But." They are always put at the
beginning of a sentence : they are used before two sen
tences ; the first of which must be a verbal one, and the
second either verbal or nominal.
c
225. The particle J\ , even if used with the past tense,
denotes future time. Ex.

viXofili tJ^jj cil "if you will visit me, then I will honour you."

226. For these particles there must be a verb expressed

or understood. Ex.

<*ZX*£\ lili jjj! "if you will be my visiter, I will certainly

honour you."

227. The particle ^,1 is only applicable to doubtful

events, i.e. events that may or may not come to pass.
You could not say, Ex.
(j***^! d —^ ^ "l will come to you, if the sun rise."
72 ARABIC SYNTAX.

228. If there be an oath preceding the conditional

particle contained in the first sentence, the verb with
which the conditional particle is used will be either, bond
fide, in the past tense, or have the sense of the past tense.
Ex.
-* C "*
l£jJUf£j (_/JUil ^1 aDIj "By God, if you had come to me, I had cer
tainly honoured you !"
ClJ/s? t^JlS |J ^1 i)dJ!j " By God, if you had not come to me, I had
certainly abandoned you ! "

<-,■
229. The particle ^ denotes past time, even when used
with the aorist tense. Ex.

CJJLc^^t } " If you had visited me, I would certainly have ho

noured you.'

330. The particle y sometimes implies the non-existence

of the second member of a sentence, by reason of the
non-existence of the first. Ex.

ali1 S1 LmtP ttftl "If there had ^n in the two (viz. heaven and
OwiiJ earth) gods beside the God, they would cer
tainly have been corrupted."

231. The particle U is used to distinguish the several

parts of a general enunciation. Ex.

(j^iJl UU <^tu U*^-*-*' "Man is good and bad; but those who
-i1 i"i -. \\ ■ - \ ' have done pood (will go) to Para-
^" v '9 dise, and those who have done evil to
,UJ1 ^ 1^SA Hell."
 ARABIC SYNTAX. 73

SECTION XIV.
ON THE PARTICLE OF INDIGNATION.

232. This particle is 'U " No assuredly." It is used

for the purpose of reprimanding the speaker, and to deter
him from that which he is saying. Ex.

IS ^Jij (Jy*{* " He says, My Lord despised me never."

i.e. Do not say such words, for he is not such a one.

233. It is sometimes used after the imperative, as if it

were said to you " Beat Zued," and you were
to answer ti " Assuredly not," i.e. " I will certainly not
do that."

234. This particle is sometimes used in the sense of

\L. "verily." Ex.

L_Jy* IS " Verily you will soon know.''