Assignment 2

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of

Subject Code – DEZG525

Subject Name – Mechanical System Design

(Assignment)
By
Name: T.Rajasubramanian
(ID NO: 2017HT30004)

BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE, PILANI

CAMPUS
Third Semester 2018-19
Example 2 : Design for life prediction
Transmission shaft of a machine is made of steel whose bending fatigue data & stress history
are given below. Calculate after how many numbers of cycles the shaft would fail?

Fatigue data of Steel Stress History

Stress, Si (MPa) Median Life Cycles, Operating Cycles,

Ni ni

450 1.6x105 100

420 5.6x105 100

400 01 x106 1000

Solution:
Nref = 160000 cycles

N1,f = 160000 ; N2,f = 560000; N3,f = 1000000

n1 = 100; n2 = 100, n3 = 1000
S1 = 450 Mpa ; S2 = 420 Mpa; S3 = 400 Mpa

Nref is 100 cycles for the reference life because it has the shortest life of the three life
levels and so the linear damage rule applies for this life level. For the first block of loading,
proceed along the straight line curve until D1=0.000625. Then stop and reverse the damage
curve for N2,f = 100 cycles at D1=0.000625. The equivalent damage cycle for N2,f = 100 cycles and
n2eq=6411 cycles. With the additional n2=100 cycles applied in the second block of loading, the
accumulated damage value becomes D1+2= 0.000641.

Proceed horizontally to the next damage curve for N3,f=1000 cycles at D1+2= 0.000641.
The corresponding number of cycles are n3eq= 30236 cycles. By adding the n3=1000 in the third
block of loading , the damage accumulation so far is D1+2+3 = 0.000687.
This completes the calculation of the three level step loading. Then traverse horizontally back
to the first curve where you move up along the linear line from the damage value of 0.000687
to 0.00625 before going back horizontally to the second curve etc., Advance alternately up
these curves until a total damage value of D =1 is eventually reached.
The complete iterations are illustrated and mentioned in the below table. It takes 11 blocks to
reach the failure point.
No.of. Blocks neq+n1 D1 neq+n2 D1+2 neq+n3 D1+2+3
1 100 0.00063 6511 0.000641172 30236 0.000687664
2 1000 0.00625 25970 0.006289926 88571 0.006440348
3 5000 0.03125 68693 0.031325233 190388 0.031670481
4 10000 0.06250 104490 0.062598852 265126 0.063093158
5 20000 0.12500 158970 0.125129893 369407 0.125837876
6 50000 0.31250 276882 0.312686376 573038 0.313825173
7 75000 0.46875 353954 0.468968667 696026 0.470374173
8 100000 0.62500 421330 0.625244918 799017 0.626876782
9 125000 0.78125 482307 0.781517432 889306 0.783349715
10 150000 0.93750 538626 0.937787355 970611 0.939801547
11 159950 0.99969 559994 0.999982221 1000991 1.00206471

The shaft would fail after the 1,000,991 cycles

Example 3- Discuss on Design for Indian standard with suitable examples
AIS 140 - Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) - Requirements for Public Transport Vehicle
Operation

Intent : In order to Optimize the utilization of Public Transport Infrastructure & improve the
efficiency, Safety & comfort for passengers using Public transport. Government of India wants
to use Intelligent Tracking devices to track the vehicles and provide emergency assistance to
Passengers in time of distress.
Ø All Public transport vehicles will have ITS units installed which will transmit the exact
location, speed and direction of travel to 2 Govt provided IPs (Transport Information &
Management System & Emergency Response Center).
Ø Each Vehicle will be provided Emergency buttons so that every passenger including
driver shall be able to access the Emergency button(s).
Applicability: All Public Transport Vehicles like Buses & Vehicles registered to carry passengers
for commercial use (Yellow Plate registered Taxis, Fleet cars (Uber/Ola etc). The Standard does
not cover 2-Wheelers, 3-Wheelers & Load Carriers.
Timeline: All Vehicles going to RTO for commercial registration on or after April 1st, 2018 must
have ITS unit installed.
System Requirements for PVBU
(Current – 1st Apr-2018):
1) ITS GPS/GPRS compatible Device with Embedded SIM.

2) Emergency Switches (4 no's in 5 Seater cars & 6 no's in 7 Seaters & above).
3) Wiring Harness:
a) Dedicated Connector for After Market.
b) Architectural changes in Wiring Harness to power up the device with OEM
Solution.
(Future – Implementation Plan not known):

CCTV System, 2) Fare Collection System, 3) PIS, 4) Camera etc

System Architecture (As per AIS-140):

System Architecture in Vehicle (Integrating Cloud):

VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM (VTS):
Vehicle Tracking System (VTS) is an Electronic device fitted inside every Passenger vehicle (with
Yellow plate registration used for commercial purpose), which operates as a Taxi / Fleet for
carrying passengers. As per Govt. of India regulations (AIS: 140), it is mandatory to fit VTS in all
above-mentioned vehicles registered on or after 1st April 2018.
Purpose:
a) Efficient management of Transport System in the country.
b) To provide quick response & help in case of emergencies like accidents.
c) To provide a safety switch to driver / passengers to send message for help in case of crimes /
emergencies.
Note:
a) Please ensure that the VTS system is functional in the vehicle at all times otherwise, it
will lead to violation of regulation.
b) Any tempering, disconnection or bypassing of VTS system will send the alerts to
Government servers. Customers may be liable for legal action for any such incidents.
c) Government servers may also monitor driver’s rash / negligent driving behavior.

Emergency (SOS) switch:

The emergency switches are provided inside the vehicles. It shall be press by
the driver or any occupant in emergency like accidents, medical emergencies &
or Law & order situations. If the occupant feels threatened or unsafe, then also
this can be used.
Note:
Please note that after pressing the Emergency Switch, Police or Law enforcing
agencies may track and intercept the vehicle. The occupants should be able to
justify the usage of Emergency Switch to them.
After pressing switch, SOS symbol is not blinking; there is some fault in the system
that needs to be rectified. Please contact your nearest Authorized Service Center for
rectification.
Operation:
a) Ignition ON & switch not pressed: During normal Ignition ON, the ‘SOS’ symbol on switch
will flash continuously as
0.1 Seconds ON ----4 Seconds OFF - 0.1 Seconds ON- 4 Seconds OFF - --
When Ignition is turn OFF, it will switch OFF after some time.
b) Switch pressed: In emergency, lift the flap and gently press the SOS symbol on switch for
0.5 seconds. The ‘SOS’ symbol on switch will flash continuously as
 Note:
The flashing will continue until the authorized emergency services attend to the request and
re-set the VTS system. If the Ignition is turn OFF, then also the SOS symbol will keep on
Flashing.
Please note that Emergency Switches also work when Ignition is Turned OFF. After pressing
the switch, SOS symbol will start flashing in above frequency.
If the SOS symbol inside Switch is not blinking even when Ignition is ON, please check if your
data plan is expired. If data plan is active and still the SOS symbol is not blinking, contact
your nearest Tata Motors Authorised Service Center immediately to get this fixed.

c) Un-intended Pressing of Emergency Switch:

To avoid un-intentional pressing of Emergency Switch, the flap is provide on switch.
However, if any occupant presses the emergency switch by mistake, the emergency
switch will keep on flashing until it is re-set by emergency response server. The
Government agencies like Traffic Management & Police after verifying the incident with
the owner/driver of the vehicle will re-set the switch.
OEM or its dealers will not be able to re-set the system if Emergency Switch is press un-
intentionally.
Example 4- Explain Design Philosophy for design against corrosion and creep

Design for Creep:

Creep occurs when a metal is subjected to a constant tensile load at an elevated

temperature. Undergo a time-dependent increase in length. Under high temperature
progressive deformation of a material at constant stress is called creep. Creep is the tendency
of a solid material to move slowly or deform permanently under the influence of mechanical
stresses. The rate of deformation is a function of the material properties, exposure time,
exposure temperature and the applied structural load.

Stages of Creep:

1. Primary/transient creep:
Primary creep is a period of transient creep. The creep resistance of the material
increases due to material deformation. Predominate at low temperature test such as in
the creep of lead at RT2. Secondary/steady-state creep: Rate of straining is constant:
balance of work-hardening and recovery.
2. Secondary creep:
Secondary creep provides a nearly constant creep rate. The average value of the creep
rate during this period is called the minimum creep rate
3. Tertiary creep:
Tertiary creeps shows a rapid increase in the creep rate due to effectively reduced cross-
sectional area of the specimen.
Structural changes during creep:
There are three principal deformation processes at elevated temperature.
1) Deformation by slip:
ü More slip systems operate at high temperature
ü Slip bands are coarser and widely spaced.
2) Subgrain Formation:
ü Creep deformation produces inhomogeneity especially around grain boundaries,
allowing dislocations to arrange themselves into a low-angle grain boundary.
Easy for metals with high stacking fault energy.
3) Grain Boundary Sliding:
ü Produced by shear process and promoted by increasing temperature/or
decreasing strain rate.
ü Results in grain boundary folding or grain boundary migration.
Different creep rates result from changes in internal structure of the materials with creep rate
and time.

Creep rate and total strain relationship

Mechanisms of creep deformation:
The chief creep deformation mechanisms can be grouped into;
1) Dislocation glide
Involves dislocation moving along slip planes and overcoming barriers by thermal
activation. Occurs at high stress.
2) Dislocation creep
Involves dislocation movement to overcome barriers by diffusion of vacancies or
interstitials.

3) Diffusion creep
Involves the flow of vacancies and interstitials through a crystal under the influence of
applied stress
4) Grain boundary sliding
Involves dislocation moving along slip planes and overcoming barriers by thermal
activation. Occurs at high stress. Involves dislocation movement to overcome barriers by
diffusion of vacancies or interstitials. Involves the flow of vacancies and interstitials
through a crystal under the influence of applied stress. Involves the sliding of grains past
each other.

Simplified deformation mechanism map

The various regions of the map indicate the dominant deformation mechanism for the
combination of stress and temperature. At the boundary, two mechanisms occur. G is the shear
modulus.
Design for Corrosion:
Failure of metal components by corrosion is as common as failure due to mechanical
causes, such as brittle fracture and fatigue. The National Institute of Standards and Technology
estimates that corrosion annually costs the United States $70 billion, of which at least $10
billion could be prevented by better selection of materials and design procedures. Although
corrosion failures are minimized by proper materials selection and careful attention to control
of metallurgical structure through heat treatment and processing, many corrosion-related
failures can be minimized by proper understanding of the interrelation of the fundamental
causes of corrosion and design details.
Corrosion of metals is driven by the basic thermodynamic force of a metal to return to the
oxide or sulphide form, but it is more related to the electrochemistry of the reactions of a metal
in an electrolytic solution (electrolyte). There are eight basic forms of corrosion.

Uniform attack: The most common form of corrosion is uniform attack. It is characterized by a
chemical or electrochemical reaction that proceeds uniformly over the entire exposed surface
area. The metal becomes thinner, leading to eventual failure.

Galvanic corrosion: The potential difference that exists when two dissimilar metals are
immersed in a corrosive or conductive solution is responsible for galvanic corrosion. The less-
resistant (anodic) metal is corroded relative to the cathodic metal.
Table below gives a brief galvanic series for some commercial alloys immersed in seawater.

In this table, for any two metals or alloys in contact in seawater, the metal that is more anodic
(lower in the series) will be corroded. Note that the relative position in a galvanic series
depends on the electrolytic environment as well as the metal’s surface chemistry (presence of
passive surface films). Use pairs of metals that are close together in the galvanic series to
minimize galvanic corrosion and avoid situations in which a small anodic area of metal is
connected to a larger surface area of more noble metal. If two metals far apart in the
series must be used in contact, they should be electrically insulated from each other.
Crevice corrosion:
An intense localized corrosion frequently occurs within crevices and other shielded
areas on metal surfaces exposed to corrosive attack. This type of corrosion usually is associated
with small volumes of stagnant liquid trapped in design features such as holes, gasket surfaces,
lap joints, and crevices under bolt and rivet heads.

Pitting:
Pitting is a form of extremely localized corrosive attack that produces holes in the metal.
It is an especially insidious form of corrosion because it causes equipment to fail after exposure
to only a small percentage of the designed-for weight loss.

Intergranular corrosion:
Localized attack along the grain boundaries with only slight attack of the grain faces is
called intergranular corrosion. It is especially common in austenitic stainless steel that has been
sensitized by heating to the range 950 to 1450°F. It can occur either during heat treatment for
stress relief or during welding. When it occurs during welding it is known as weld decay.

Selective leaching:
The removal of one element from a solid-solution alloy by corrosion processes is called
selective leaching. The most common example of it is the selective removal of zinc from brass
(dezincification), but aluminium, iron, cobalt, and chromium also can be removed. When
selective leaching occurs, the alloy is left in a weakened, porous condition.

Erosion-corrosion:
Deterioration at an accelerated rate is caused by relative movement between a
corrosive fluid and a metal surface; it is called erosion- corrosion. Generally the fluid velocity is
high and mechanical wear and abrasion may be involved, especially when the fluid contains
suspended solids. Erosion destroys protective surface films and exacerbates chemical attack.
Design plays an important role in erosion control by creating form alterations to reduce fluid
velocity, eliminating situations in which direct impingement occurs, and minimizing abrupt
changes in the direction of flow. Some erosion situations are so aggressive that neither
selection of a suitable material nor design can ameliorate the problem. Here the role of design
is to provide for easy detection of damage and for quick replacement of damaged components.
A special kind of erosion-corrosion is cavitation, which arises from the formation and collapse
of vapour bubbles near the metal surface. Rapid bubble collapse can produce shock waves that
cause local deformation of the metal surface. Another special form of erosion-corrosion is
fretting corrosion. It occurs between two surfaces under load that are subjected to cycles of
relative motion. Fretting produces breakdown of the surface into an oxide debris and results in
surface pits and cracks that usually lead to fatigue cracks.
Stress-corrosion cracking:
Cracking caused by the simultaneous action of a tensile stress and contact with a specific
corrosive medium is called stress-corrosion cracking (SCC). The stress may be a result of applied
loads or “locked-in” residual stress. Only specific combinations of alloys and chemical
environments lead to stress corrosion cracking. However, many occur commonly, such as
aluminium alloys and seawater, copper alloys and ammonia, mild steel and caustic soda, and
austenitic steel and salt water.

Corrosion Prevention:
Material Selection.
ü Selecting a material with a low rate of corrosion in the environment of concern is the
obvious first step to preventing corrosion.
ü In general, the more noble the metal the slower it will corrode.
ü Metals are the most susceptible to corrosion, while plastics in general have much corrosion
resistance.
ü Some polymers absorb moisture, which causes swelling and degradation of mechanical
properties.
ü While some aspects of material selection for corrosion are straightforward—for example,
avoiding materials that are attacked in the corrosive environment of interest or are subject
to SCC in the environment—other aspects of corrosion can be quite subtle.
ü Microscopic galvanic cells can be created in metallic alloys due to such things as micro
segregation of alloying elements (especially at grain boundaries), local cold worked regions,
or differences in galvanic potential between phases in multiphase alloys.
ü The behavior of a material in a corrosive environment can be significantly changed by
seemingly small changes in the corrosive environment. Such change factors are
temperature, the amount of dissolved oxygen, or impurities in the liquid.
Cathodic Protection:
ü Cathodic protection reduces galvanic corrosion by supplying electrons to the anodic metal
that needs to be protected.
ü This can be done by connecting the anodic metal to a sacrificial anode of an even more
anodic potential, such as Mg or Zn.
ü The sacrificial anode must be in close proximity to the protected metal.
ü It will be gradually corroded away, so it must be replaced periodically.
ü Alternatively, cathodic protection can be achieved by applying a DC voltage to the corrosion
site that will oppose the one caused by the electrochemical reaction of galvanic corrosion.
Corrosion Inhibitors.
ü Specific chemical compounds can be added to the corrosive solution to reduce the diffusion
of ions to the metal-electrolyte interface.
ü In many cases the inhibitor forms an impervious, insulating film covering either the anode or
cathode.
ü The chromate salts added as inhibitors to radiator antifreeze are good examples. Other
inhibitors act as scavengers to reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen in the electrolyte.
Protective Coatings.
ü A common way to minimize corrosion is to provide a protective coating to the metal to
provide a barrier to the corrosive environment.
ü Common examples are porcelain enamel, paint, and polymer coating.
ü Electroplated metal coatings such as chromium are used both for corrosion protection
and for decorative purposes. Grease, oil, and wax are used as temporary coatings during
shipment or storage.