NAME :- KUNAL LOHCHAB

ROLL NO :-2K16/ME/083
MT-II ASSIGNMENT
ULTRASONIC MACHINING

Ultrasonic machining, or strictly speaking the "Ultrasonic vibration machining", is a

subtraction manufacturing process that removes material from the surface of a part through
high frequency, low amplitude vibrations of a tool against the material surface in the presence
of fine abrasive particles. The tool travels vertically or orthogonal to the surface of the part at
amplitudes of 0.05 to 0.125 mm (0.002 to 0.005 in.). The fine abrasive grains are mixed with
water to form a slurry that is distributed across the part and the tip of the tool. Typical grain
sizes of the abrasive material range from 100 to 1000, where smaller grains (higher grain
number) produce smoother surface finishes.
Ultrasonic vibration machining is typically used on brittle materials as well as materials with
a high hardness due to the microcracking mechanics.

 PROCESS :-
An ultrasonically vibrating mill consists of two major components, an
electroacoustic transducer and a sonotrode, attached to an electronic control unit
with a cable. An electronic oscillator in the control unit produces an alternating
current oscillating at a high frequency, usually between 18 and 40 kHz in
 the ultrasonic range. The transducer converts the oscillating current to a mechanical
vibration. Two types of transducers have been used in ultrasonic machining; either
piezoelectric or magnetostrictive.

 Piezoelectric transducer: This consists of a piece of piezoelectric ceramic, such as barium

titanate, with two metal electrodes plated on its surface. The alternating voltage from the
control unit applied to the electrodes causes the piezoelectric element to bend back and
forth slightly, causing it to vibrate.
 Magnetostrictive transducer: This consists of a cylinder of ferromagnetic material such
as steel inside a coil of wire. Magnetostriction is an effect which causes a material to
change shape slightly when a magnetic field through it changes. The alternating current
from the control unit, applied to the coil, creates an alternating magnetic field in the
magnetostrictive cylinder which makes it change shape slightly with each oscillation,
causing it to vibrate.

The transducer vibrates the sonotrode at low amplitudes and high frequencies. The
sonotrode is usually made of low carbon steel. A constant stream of abrasive slurry flows
between the sonotrode and work piece. This flow of slurry allows debris to flow away from
the work cutting area. The slurry usually consists of abrasive boron carbide, aluminum oxide
or silicon carbide particles in a suspension of water (20 to 60% by volume).The sonotrode
removes material from the work piece by abrasion where it contacts it, so the result of
machining is to cut a perfect negative of the sonotrode's profile into the work piece.
Ultrasonic vibration machining allows extremely complex and non-uniform shapes to be cut
into the workpiece with extremely high precision.
Machining time depends on the workpiece's strength, hardness, porosity and fracture
toughness; the slurry's material and particle size; and the amplitude of the sonotrode's
vibration.The surface finish of materials after machining depends heavily on hardness
and strength, with softer and weaker materials exhibiting smoother surface finishes. The
inclusion of microcrack and microcavity features on the materials surface depend highly on
the crystallographic orientation of the work piece's grains and the materials fracture
toughness.

 APPLICATIONS:-
1. Since ultrasonic vibration machining does not use subtractive methods that may alter
the physical properties of a workpiece, such as thermal, chemical, or electrical
processes, it has many useful applications for materials that are more brittle and
sensitive than traditional machining metals. Materials that are commonly machined
using ultrasonic methods include ceramics, carbides, glass, precious stones and
hardened steels. These materials are used in optical and electrical applications where
more precise machining methods are required to ensure dimensional accuracy and
quality performance of hard and brittle materials. Ultrasonic machining is precise
 enough to be used in the creation of microelectromechanical system components
such as micro-structured glass wafers.
2. In addition to small-scale components, ultrasonic vibration machining is used for
structural components because of the required precision and surface quality provided
by the method. The process can safely and effectively create shapes out of high-quality
single crystal materials that are often necessary but difficult to generate during normal
crystal growth. As advanced ceramics become a greater part of the structural
engineering realm, ultrasonic machining will continue to provide precise and effective
methods of ensuring proper physical dimensions while maintaining crystallographic
properties.

 Advantages:-
Ultrasonic vibration machining is a unique non-traditional manufacturing process
because it can produce parts with high precision that are made of hard and brittle
materials which are often difficult to machine.Additionally, ultrasonic machining is
capable of manufacturing fragile materials such as glass and non-conductive metals
that can not be machined by alternative methods such as electrical discharge
machining and electrochemical machining. Ultrasonic machining is able to produce
high-tolerance parts because there is no distortion of the worked material. The
absence of distortion is due to no heat generation from the sonotrode against the
work piece and is beneficial because the physical properties of the part will remain
uniform throughout. Furthermore, no burrs are created in the process, thus fewer
operations are required to produce a finished part.

 Disadvantages:-
Because ultrasonic vibration machining is driven by microchipping or erosion
mechanisms, the material removal rate of metals can be slow and the sonotrode tip
can wear down quickly from the constant impact of abrasive particles on the tool.
Moreover, drilling deep holes in parts can prove difficult as the abrasive slurry will not
effectively reach the bottom of the hole. Note, rotary ultrasonic machining is efficient
at drilling deep holes in ceramics because the absence of a slurry cutting fluid and the
cutting tool is coated in harder diamond abrasives. In addition, ultrasonic vibration
machining can only be used on materials with a hardness value of at least 45 HRC.
ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING

Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a method of removing metal by

an electrochemical process. It is normally used for mass production and is used for working
extremely hard materials or materials that are difficult to machine using conventional
methods. Its use is limited to electrically conductive materials. ECM can cut small or odd-
shaped angles, intricate contours or cavities in hard and exotic metals, such as titanium
aluminides, Inconel, Waspaloy, and high nickel, cobalt, and rhenium alloys. Both external and
internal geometries can be machined.
ECM is often characterized as "reverse electroplating", in that it removes material instead of
adding it. It is similar in concept to electrical discharge machining (EDM) in that a high current
is passed between an electrode and the part, through an electrolytic material removal
process having a negatively charged electrode (cathode), a conductive fluid (electrolyte), and
a conductive workpiece (anode); however, in ECM there is no tool wear. The ECM cutting tool
is guided along the desired path close to the work but without touching the piece. Unlike
EDM, however, no sparks are created. High metal removal rates are possible with ECM, with
no thermal or mechanical stresses being transferred to the part, and mirror surface finishes
can be achieved.
In the ECM process, a cathode (tool) is advanced into an anode (workpiece). The pressurized
electrolyte is injected at a set temperature to the area being cut. The feed rate is the same as
the rate of "liquefication" of the material. The gap between the tool and the workpiece varies
within 80–800 micrometers (0.003–0.030 in.) As electrons cross the gap, material from the
workpiece is dissolved, as the tool forms the desired shape in the workpiece. The electrolytic
fluid carries away the metal hydroxide formed in the process.
As far back as 1929, an experimental ECM process was developed by W.Gussef, although it
was 1959 before a commercial process was established by the Anocut Engineering Company.
B.R. and J.I. Lazarenko are also credited with proposing the use of electrolysis for metal
removal.
Much research was done in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly in the gas turbine industry. The
rise of EDM in the same period slowed ECM research in the west, although work continued
behind the Iron Curtain. The original problems of poor dimensional accuracy and
environmentally polluting waste have largely been overcome, although the process remains
a niche technique.
The ECM process is most widely used to produce complicated shapes such as turbine blades
with good surface finish in difficult to machine materials. It is also widely and effectively used
as a deburring process.
In deburring, ECM removes metal projections left from the machining process, and so dulls
sharp edges. This process is fast and often more convenient than the conventional methods
of deburring by hand or nontraditional machining processes.
ECM process can be more economical if a conductive wire is used as a tool since it helps to
prevent tool profiling. Using wire-tool allows cutting complex shapes with no need for large
amount of power supplies. Using wire-tool in ECM is known as Wire Electrochemical
Machining (WECM).

 APPLICATIONS:-
1. Die-sinking operations.
2. Drilling jet engine turbine blades.
3. Multiple hole drilling.
4. Machining steam turbine blades within close limits.

 ADVANTAGES:-

1. Complex, concave curvature components can be produced easily by using convex

and concave tools.
2. Tool wear is zero, same tool can be used for producing infinite number of
components.
3. No direct contact between tool and work material so there are no forces and
residual stresses.
4. The surface finish produced is excellent.
5. Less heat is generated.
 DISADVANTAGES:-
1. The saline (or acidic) electrolyte poses the risk of corrosion to tool, workpiece and
equipment.
2. Only electrically conductive materials can be machined. High Specific Energy
consumption.
 PLASMA ARC MACHINING

Whenever we heard the word Plasma Arc Machining we firstly think about what is
plasma? So, let’s have a close look at what is plasma?

When a gas or air heated at high temperatures, the number of collisions between atoms
increases. When you heat the gas above 5500ºC, it partially ionises into positive ions,
negative ions and neutral ions. When you further heat the gas above 11000ºC then, it
completely ionises. Such a completely ionised gas is called as Plasma. Plasma State lies in
between temperatures 11,000ºC to 28,000ºC.

Basically, Plasma Arc Machining (PAM) is a metal cutting process where metals are cut with
plasma arc, tungsten-inert-gas arc or a torch. It is mostly used for the metals that cannot be
cut by an oxyacetylene torch. Do you know when the PAM was introduced? Well, PAM was
introduced in the industries in 1964 as a method that would help in the arc welding and that
would require less current supply. Plasma Arc machining is also referred as PAM. In PAM,
different gases are used according to different material. Different material means a
workpiece. Your workpiece may be made up of aluminium, iron or steel. For example, for
aluminium nitrogen is used, for argon hydrogen is used. In most of the cases, nitrogen and
hydrogen are used. Plasma Arc Welding employs a high-velocity jet of high-temperature gas
to melt and displace material in its path.
 Working:-
As we give the power supply to the system, an electric arc develops between the
cathodic tungsten electrode and an anodic nozzle. As the gas comes in contact with
the plasma, there is a collision between the atoms of a gas and electrons of an
electric arc and as a result, we get an ionised gas. That, means we get the plasma
state that we wanted for Plasma Arc machining. Now, this plasma is targeted
towards the workpiece with a high velocity and the machining process starts. One
thing to note down is that a high potential difference is applied in order to get the
plasma state.
In the whole process, high temperature conditions are required. As hot gases come
out of nozzle there are chances of overheating. In order to prevent this overheating,
a water jacket is used.

 Following are some of the parameters involved in PAM that you must consider
are:-
 Current: Up to 500A.
 Voltage: 30-250V.
 Cutting speed: 0.1-7.5 m/min.
 Plate thickness: Up to 200mm.
 Power require: 2 to 200 KW.
 Material removal rate: 150 cm3/min.
 Velocity of Plasma: 500m/sec.
 Material of workpiece: As previously stated, you can use any metal as material of
workpiece. For instance, aluminium and stainless steel are highly recommended for
this process.

 Advantages:-
 In Plasma Arc Machining, hard as well as brittle metals can be easily machined.
 It can be applied to almost all types of metals.
 The best part of this process is that we get high cutting rate.
 We get a better dimensional accuracy in case of machining small cavities.
 It is a simple process to carry out and a very efficient process.
 It takes a big part in automatic repair of jet engine blades.

 Disadvantages:-
 PAM involves various equipment but the cost of this equipment is very high.
 This entire machining process consumes high amount of inert gases.
 Production of narrower surfaces takes place which is unnecessary.
 The most harmful part of PAM is that metallurgical changes takes place on the
surface.
 The operator or person handling whole process must take proper precautions. This
process can affect human eyes so a proper googles or helmet must be wear by an
operator.
 Applications:-
 It is mostly used for cryogenic, high temperature corrosion resistant alloys.
 It is also used in case of titanium plate up to 8mm thickness.
 PAM is used in nuclear submarine pipe system and for welding steel rocket motor
case.
 PAM is prominent for the applications related to stainless tube and tube mills.