V10 N2 Shirane Marceau

EARLY MODERN JAPAN FALL, 2002
Early Modern Literature tional history. This is not to say that the recent
scholarship is out of touch with contemporary
© Haruo Shirane (HS), Columbia University
scholarship. On the contrary, the best scholarship
and Lawrence E. Marceau (LEM), Univer- and criticism in early modern literary studies is
sity of Delaware closely tied to recent trends in Japanese scholar-
ship and contemporary Western literary and cul-
General Comments tural theory and is best understood in a context
Generally speaking, the history of Japanese that transcends Western historiography, which is
literary studies in English can be divided into two still too thinly dispersed to provide a critical
stages. The first stage is usually that of transla- frame.
tion; the second is that of scholarship. In some A number of Western literary studies in the
cases, translation is preceded by literary histories 1950s-1980s consisted of a translation or transla-
or more general studies that take up texts that tions preceded by an extended introduction. Typi-
have not been translated. Such is the case of Wil- cal examples include Howard Hibbett’s The
liam Aston, A History of Japanese Literature Floating World in Japanese Fiction3, which in-
(1899), the earliest history of Japanese literature, clude translations of ukiyo-zoshi by Saikaku and
and Donald Keene’s World Within Walls.1 These Ejima Kiseki in the latter half of the book. In
literary histories have served the function of the 1990s, this format has given way to mono-
arousing the interest of readers and potential graphs that are almost entirely concentrated on
translators in yet untranslated works. Generally criticism and scholarship. Nevertheless, the need
speaking, however, it is the appearance of a trans- for much more translation remains, for without
lation that sets the stage for scholarship and criti- translations, the criticism in English has limited
cism, particularly in the case of major literary meaning. It is analogous to writing art history
texts such as The Tale of Genji, The Tale of the without access to the art. Unlike the readers of
Heike, or Noh drama. The translation of The Tale histories, the reader of literary studies needs to
of Genji by Edward Seidensticker, for example, see the literary texts to be able to fully appreciate
provided the foundation for a series of ground- the analysis. One reason that I edited Early Mod-
breaking studies on Heian literature (Norma Field, ern Japanese Literature, Anthology: 1600-19004
Richard Okada, Haruo Shirane).2 (Columbia University Press, 2002) is that the life
Early modern literary studies have not yet of the field depends very much on the ability of
reached the stage found, for example, in Heian the reader to have some sense of the texts in
literary studies, where almost all the texts are question. That said, it should be noted that early
already available and where scholarship spawns modern texts are notoriously difficult to translate,
scholarship. Instead, we find a situation where and frequently do not stand up in translation or
translation spawns scholarship or vice versa. make sense in isolation. As a consequence, there
Thus, it is almost impossible to speak of histori- remains a need for monographs to appear along-
cal development or trends in scholarship of the side translations.
kind found, for example, in political or institu- The period that has drawn the most interest has
been the Genroku period. In the 1950s-60s Don-
ald Keene, Ivan Morris, Howard Hibbett, and
1
Aston, W. G., A History of Japanese Literature. other Western scholars translated what are gener-
Rutland, Vt. & Tokyo: Tuttle, 1972 (rept.; 1st pub. 1899); ally considered to be the “big three” of the Gen-
and Keene, Donald, World Within Walls: Japanese roku period: Matsuo Basho, Ihara Saikaku, and
Literature of the Pre-Modern Era 1600-1868. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976.
Chikamatsu Monzaemon, who have come to rep-
2
Norma Field, The Splendor of Longing in the Tale of
Genji (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987);
3
Richard Okada, Figures of Resistance: Language, Poetry, Hibbett, Howard S. The Floating World in Japanese
and Narrating in The Tale of Genji and Other Mid-Heian Fiction. New York: Oxford University Press, 1959.
4
Texts (Durham: Duke University Press, 1991); Haruo Shirane, Haruo, ed. Early Modern Japanese
Shirane, The Bridge of Dreams: A Poetics of The Tale of Literature: An Anthology 1600-1900. New York:
Genji (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987). Columbia University Press, 2002.
22
resent the major genres of poetry, prose fiction, Japanese specialist.9

and drama respectively.5 The emphasis on Gen- By contrast, other important genres--
roku literature and drama has been so great that I particularly waka, kyoka (comic waka), senryu
would venture to guess that it surpasses in vol- (comic haiku), kanshi, and kyoshi (comic Chinese
ume all the work done on texts in the rest of the poetry), all of which flourished in the early mod-
early modern period. Not only have many of ern period—remain largely neglected. These gen-
the texts of the “big three” been translated, major res flourished in the eighteenth century, after the
monographs have been written on Basho (Makoto Genroku period. The peak of kyoka, senryu, and
Ueda, Haruo Shirane),6 Saikaku (Ivan Morris),7 kyoshi was in the mid- to late-eighteenth century.
and Chikamatsu (Drew Gerstle).8 These texts need both to be translated and studied.
Related to this interest in Genroku literature is One recent and welcome exception here is a sen-
the general interest by both scholars and non- ryu anthology edited and translated by Makoto
specialists in haiku, with enormous attention be- Ueda.10
ing paid to a related “big three”: Matsuo Basho, Another area that has drawn much interest in
Yosa Buson, and Kobayashi Issa, from the late the West is kabuki, which begins in Genroku and
seventeenth, late eighteenth, and early nineteenth spans the entire early modern period, and bun-
century respectively. This interest in haiku has raku, puppet theater. In contrast to kabuki, which
been driven by the English haiku movement, and came to the foreground in the Genroku period
as a consequence much of the material, both and continued to flourish well into the mid-
translations and scholarship, has been published nineteenth century, joruri (chanting to the ac-
by non-specialists, English haiku poets, whose companiment of the samisen and puppets) came
work is not always very reliable. Nevertheless, it to a peak in the mid-eighteenth century and then
remains a lively area of interest, with direct links declined. Furthermore, kabuki continues to be an
to the English-language world. Robert Hass, for active genre. The nature of drama studies differs
example, who was the Poet Laureate of the U.S., considerably from that of poetry and prose fiction
wrote and edited a book on Basho, Buson, and in that most of the scholars are specialists in thea-
Issa for public consumption though he was not a ter, with an interest in kabuki or joruri as it exists
today, as performance. In many cases, the focus
has been on the present, on the “living tradition,”
rather than on reconstructions of the past. Never-
theless, the relationship between kabuki and
5
Donald Keene, tr. Major Plays of Chikamatsu (Co-
popular culture and literature is such that this
lumbia University Press, 1961), on Chikamatsu; Ivan field should become a major focus of socio-
Morris, tr. The Life of an Amorous Woman (NY: New historical studies.
Directions, 1963) and Howard Hibbett, The Floating Kokugaku (also wagaku, nativist studies),
World in Japanese Fiction (New York: Oxford University which provided commentary on classical Japa-
Press, 1959) on Saikaku; and Donald Keene, tr., “The nese texts and espoused a nativist philosophy, and
Narrow Road of Oku,” in his Anthology of Japanese Lit-
erature: From the Earliest Era to the Mid-Nineteenth
Motoori Norinaga (1730-1801), the most notable
Century (New York: Grove Press, 1955), on Basho. kokugaku leader, have been the object of consid-
6
Makoto Ueda, Matsuo Basho: The Master Haiku erable study, but this field has been dominated by
Poet (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1982); Ueda, Makoto. Basho and intellectual or political historians, who view ko-
his Interpreters: Selected Hokku with Commentary (Stan- kugaku teleologically, in terms of the rise of
ford: Stanford U. Press, 1992). Haruo Shirane, Traces of modern nationalism, or strictly in relationship to
Dreams: Landscape, Cultural Memory, and the Poetry of
Basho (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997).
7
Ivan Morris, The Life of an Amorous Woman (NY:
9
New Directions, 1963) Robert Hass, The Essential Haiku : Versions of
8
Donald Keene, Bunraku, The Art of the Japanese Basho, Buson, and Issa (Hopewell, N. J., Ecco Press,
Puppet Theatre (Tokyo & New York: Kodansha Interna- 1994).
10
tional, 1965); Andrew Gerstle, Circles of Fantasy: Con- Ueda, Makoto. Light Verse From the Floating
vention in the Plays of Chikamatsu (Cambridge, Mass.: World : An Anthology of Premodern Japanese Senryu.
Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1986). New York: Columbia University Press, 1999.
23
Neo-Confucianism or the ancient studies school, body of literature include dangibon (comic ser-
that is to say, in terms of political, religious, or mons), which followed the ukiyo-zoshi, and pre-
philosophical issues.11 By contrast, there are ceded the yomihon in the mid-eighteenth century,
almost no studies of the early modern waka, sharebon (fiction of the pleasure quarters) in the
which lies at the heart of this movement (Kamo late-eighteenth century, and gokan ("combined"
no Mabuchi, one of the founders of kokugaku, picture books), in the early-nineteenth century.
was first and foremost a major waka poet), or of No major works from these genres have been
the philology and literary commentaries, which translated, and little has been written in English.
were the basis for what came to be called Hanashi-bon (books of humor), which derive
“thought.” In the early modern period, as in the from public oral storytelling, and which differ
medieval period, commentary was a major genre from kokkeibon (comic fiction), have also been
of writing and scholarship. Nor has much atten- completely neglected.
tion been paid to the innovative work of these Another major genre that remains unexplored
scholars (such as Fujitani Mitsue) on language. is the zuihitsu, meditative writings, which became
The kokugaku scholars were the first linguists of a major genre in the early modern period, actively
Japan, but this has been largely overlooked by carried out by scholars, poets, and artists of all
Western scholars. persuasions (Neo-Confucian scholars, kanshi po-
There are some anomalous areas, which can ets, kokugaku scholars, waka poets, historians,
not easily be categorized. One of those is Ueda etc.). Even a noted zuihitsu such as Matsudaira
Akinari, the late-eighteenth century yomihon (fic- Sadanobu’s Kagetsu zoshi (Book of Moon and
tion in neo-classical style, drawing heavily on Blossoms), canonized in Japan from the Meiji
Chinese and classical Japanese sources) writer period, has not been translated.
and kokugaku scholar, who has attracted attention While it is difficult to discern recurrent trends
for Ugetsu monogatari, which has been made in all these different subfields in the postwar era,
into a famous film by Mizoguchi Kenji. Mean- one could say that post-war scholarship generally
time, other noted writers such as Hiraga Gennai began, in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, with the
have been almost completely neglected, particu- study of authors and major texts (generally speak-
larly when it comes to published translations. ing, biographical or genre studies), while moving
The great frontiers of scholarship and transla- increasingly, in the 1980s and 1990s, to more
tion, particularly for prose fiction and poetry, lie interdisciplinary studies which eschew more tra-
in the period from early and middle eighteenth ditional notions of literature in favor of focusing
century through the mid-nineteenth century. Of on texts in a broader cultural, economic, social,
particular interest here is gesaku, popular prose political, or geographical context. An example of
fiction from mid-to-late eighteenth century a recent trend is Joshua Mostow's study of the
through the early nineteenth century, which has relationship between text and image focusing on
been the object of study by a handful of scholars the reception of the Ogura hyakunin isshu (One
(James Araki, Sumie Jones, Leon Zolbrod, and Hundred Poems by One Hundred Poets) collec-
others) but which has so far produced very few tion.13 Hopefully, we shall see studies that take
monographs.12 Some of the vast holes in this up issues such as the relationship among print
culture, publishing, commodity exchange, and
literature, or cross-genre studies such as the study
11
Maruyama Masao, Studies in the Intellectual His- of the relationship between kabuki and prose fic-
tory of Tokugawa Japan (Princeton: Princeton University tion. These are just some of the possibilities for
Press, 1974). H.D. Harootunian, Things Seen and Unseen:
Discourse and Ideology in Tokugawa Nativism (Chicago:
the future. At the same time, we still continue to
University of Chicago Press, 1988).
12
For example, see Araki, James T. "Sharebon: Books
for Men of Mode." Monumenta Nipponica 24. 1-2 (1969): Illustrations by Kitao Shigemasa, and an Introduction."
31-45, Jones, Sumie Amikura. "Comic Fiction in Japan Monumenta Nipponica 20.1-2 (1965): 121-134.
13
during the Later Edo Period." Ph.D. dissertation, U. of Mostow, Joshua, Pictures of the Heart: The
Washington, 1979, and Zolbrod, Leon M., trans. "The Hyakunin isshu in Word and Image (Honolulu: University
Vendetta of Mr. Fleacatcher Managoro, the Fifth, with of Hawai'i Press, 1996).
24
need good translations to pave the way. Modern.14 A mere four pages are devoted to 16
(HS) examples of early modern waka (by six poets) in
Donald Keene's Anthology of Japanese Literature,
Poetry Hiroaki Sato and Burton Watson provide selec-
tions from Ryokan (1758-1831), 30 tanka by Ta-
chibana Akemi (1812-68), and nine kyoka
Waka, Choka, Kanshi, and Kyoshi
We can define haikai as a verse form consist- ("wild," or humorous waka) in their 1981 anthol-
ing of three lines with a 5/7/5 syllable count, or as ogy, From the Country of Eight Islands, while
a series of linked verses consisting of a first verse Steven Carter, in his 1991 anthology, Traditional
with a 5/7/5 syllable count, followed by a verse Japanese Poetry, includes just seven kyoka, 12
waka by Ryokan, and 23 waka by four poets, nine
with a 7/7 syllable count, and continuing over
several links, most often 36, which is called a verses of which are by Akemi.15 If it were not
kasen. Waka, in the form of tanka, or "short for Keene's 1976 history of "premodern era"
poems," is a verse form consisting of five lines (Keene's terminology) Japanese literature, World
with a 5/7/5/7/7 syllable count, and serves as the Within Walls, and its three chapters devoted to
representative poetic form of the Japanese literary early modern waka and kyoka, complete with
tradition, anthologized in twenty-one imperial example translations and discussions of several
and countless private collections. Choka, or poets, then Western students and non-specialist
"long poems," follow a sequence of several lines scholars would have almost nothing available in
alternating in a 5/7 syllable pattern, and ending English to which they could gain access. 16
with the final two lines in a 7/7 syllable pattern. Since the 1980s, Peter Nosco has published a
Choka represent an archaic poetic form, found study of the important mid-kinsei poet and
most often in the massive eighth-century anthol- scholar Kada no Arimaro (1706-51) and his poet-
ics, and Roger Thomas has published on the ba-
ogy, Man'yoshu, and choka composition proved
rare until a revival in the early modern period. kumatsu poet Okuma Kotomichi and others. 17
Kanshi, or "Chinese poetry," and kyoshi, "wild" There has yet to appear in English, however, a
or "deranged" poetry in Chinese, appear through- single study that treats the Japanese nativist
out Japanese literary history, especially as com- schools of wagaku (or kokugaku) as primarily a
positions by men (aristocratic women were ex- collection of schools of poetics and classical stud-
pected to be proficient in waka), but over the ies, much less a treatise that examines the distinc-
course of the early modern period, a combination
of factors led to an increase in both the numbers
14
of poets working in the Chinese idiom, and in the Miyamori Asataro. Masterpieces of Japanese Po-
quality of their production. etry, Ancient and Modern. Westport: Greenwood Press,
1970 (2 volumes, reprint of 1936 edition).
As we have seen above, a plethora of transla- 15
Keene, Donald, ed. Anthology of Japanese
tions, studies, and "appreciations" are available in Literature: From the Earliest Era to the Mid-Nineteenth
English for haikai, or its contemporary form, Century. New York: Grove Press, 1955; Sato, Hiroaki
haiku. However, haikai was originally consid- and Burton Watson, ed. and trans. From the Country of
ered to be a "zoku," or plebian, form of literary Eight Islands: An Anthology of Japanese Poetry.
production, while literary elites considered waka (Anchor Books) Garden City: Anchor Press, 1981;
Carter, Steven, tr. and intro. Traditional Japanese Poetry:
and kanshi as "ga," or refined, poetic forms. An Anthology. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991.
Waka and kanshi have not enjoyed the attention 16
Keene, Donald. World Within Walls: Japanese Lit-
given to haikai, both in terms of translations, as erature of the Pre-Modern Era 1600-1868. New York:
well as in terms of studies. Even today, most Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976.
17
early modern waka translations available are Nosco, Peter. “Nature, Invention, and National
found in a prewar anthology, Miyamori Asataro's Learning: The Kokka hachiron Controversy: 1742-46.”
Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 41.1 (1981): 75-91;
Masterpieces of Japanese Poetry, Ancient and Thomas, Roger K. "Okuma Kotomichi and the Re-
Visioning of Kokinshu Elegance." Proceedings of the
Midwest Association for Japanese Literary Studies 3
(1997): 160-81.
25
tions between the various schools of tosho (or kus have published essays on comic kanshi, or
dojo, court-sponsored) poetry, jige (officially rec- kyoshi, which provide something of a starting
ognized poetry schools), and other, unofficially point for future studies of this important genre.21
organized, movements, including the wagaku The next step now is to build on this groundwork
schools started by Shinto clergy, such as Kada no with a critical study of kanshi in the early modern
Azumamaro and Kamo no Mabuchi, or by chonin period, and in-depth studies of various circles and
urbanites, such as Murata Harumi in Edo, and individual poets.
Ozawa Roan in Kyoto. One kanshi poet has received inordinate atten-
Surprisingly, the situation for poetry in Chi- tion in English, the itinerant Zen monk, Ryokan
nese is somewhat better,. In addition to Keene's (1758-1831). Several volumes of his verse in
chapter in World Within Walls on ”Poetry and Chinese and Japanese have appeared, including
Prose in Chinese," there exist at least five book- those by John Stevens, Burton Watson, and, most
length translations of Chinese prose and/or poetry recently, Ryuichi Abe and Peter Haskell.22 Ryo-
composed by Japanese in the early modern period. kan lived a relatively isolated existence in rural
Premier among these in terms of volume is the Japan, however, and his work was not recognized
1997 collection by Timothy Bradstock and Judith even by Japanese scholars until the modern pe-
Rabinovitch, ed. An Anthology of Kanshi (Chi- riod. This falls in stark contrast to the case of
nese Verse) by Japanese Poets of the Edo Period Rai San'yo (1780-1832), who exerted enormous
(1603-1868). 18 This collection includes selec- influence both during his life and afterward, but
tions from 93 poets working in kanshi, and six who has not enjoyed similar recognition in the
poets composing in the humorous kyoshi form. West.
The compilers provide an introduction for each (LEM)
poet, describing his or her life and poetic activi-
Haikai and Haibun
ties. It is unfortunate, though, that this valuable
The Western history of poetry in the Tokugawa
anthology is priced beyond an affordable level for
period has basically been the history of haiku.
students or non-specialists to purchase. Burton
The Western reception of haiku has been deeply
Watson has published three volumes of early
influenced by the the Imagists, who appeared in
modern kanshi translations, Japanese Literatiure
the 1910s, and the North American haiku move-
in Chinese-Volume 2, Kanshi: The Poetry of Ishi-
ment, which emerged in the 1960s. The Imagists
kawa Jozan and Other Edo-Period Poets, and
were a small group of English and American po-
Grass Hill: Poems and Prose by the Japanese
ets—Ezra Pound, Amy Lowell, D. H. Lawrence,
Monk Gensei.19 Hiroaki Sato has recently com-
William Carlos Williams, H.D., John Gould
piled and translated Breeze through Bamboo:
Fletcher, F.S. Flint, and others—who worked to-
Kanshi of Ema Saiko, the first anthology of
gether in London in the early 20th century, espe-
Japanese poems in Chinese by a woman to appear
cially between 1912 and 1914, and whose poetry
in English.20 David Pollack and Andrew Mar-
was to have a profound influence on the devel-
18
Bradstock, Timothy and Judith Rabinovitch tr. and
21
ed. An Anthology of Kanshi (Chinese Verse) by Japanese Pollack, David. “Kyoshi: Japanese ‘Wild Poetry’'.”
Poets of the Edo Period (1603-1868). Lewiston: The Journal of Asian Studies 38 (1979): 499-517. Markus,
Edwin Mellen Press, 1997. Andrew. “Domyaku Sensei and ‘The Housemaid’s
19
Watson, Burton. Grass Hill: Poems and Prose by Ballad’ (1769).” HJAS 58.1 (1998): 5-58.
22
the Japanese Monk Gensei. New York: Columbia UP, Stephens, John tr. One Robe, One Bowl: The Zen
1983. Watson, Burton. Kanshi: The Poetry of Ishikawa Poetry of Ryokan. New York: John Weatherhill, Inc.,
Jozan and Other Edo Period Poets. San Francisco: North 1977. Watson, Burton. Ryokan: Zen Monk-Poet of
Point Press, 1990. Watson, Burton, trans. Japanese Japan. New York: Columbia University Press, 1977.
Literature in Chinese: Volume 2, Poetry and Prose in Yuasa, Nobuyuki. The Zen Poems of Ryokan. Princeton:
Chinese by Japanese Writers of the Later Period. New Princeton University Press, 1981. Abe, Ryuichi and
York and Guildford: Columbia University Press, 1976. Peter Haskel. Great Fool: Zen Master Ryokan - Poems,
20
Sato, Hiroaki, trans. Breeze through Bamboo: Letters, and Other Writings, Translated with Essays by
Kanshi of Ema Saiko. New York and Chichester: Ryuichi Abé and Peter Haskel. Honolulu: University of
Columbia University Press, 1998. Hawai’i Press, 1996.
26
opment of T.S. Eliot, Wallace Stevens, and other separated from other things, are indeed identical
major 20th-century poets. The Imagists stressed with them, and yet retain our own individuality. . .
concentration, directness, precision, and freedom Haiku is the apprehension of a thing by a
from metrical laws, and gravitated toward a sin- realization of our own original and essential unity
gle, usually visual, dominant image, or a succes- with it." This view of haiku as a spiritual
sion of related images. Pound also stressed the subject/object fusion had a profound impact on
notion of juxtaposition, especially sharp contrasts subsequent Western reception of haiku. In The
in texture and color. Japanese Haiku: Its Essential Nature, History,
During the 1950s, America suddenly took an and Possibilities in English, Kenneth Yasuda, like
avid interest in Japanese culture and religion, Blyth before him, stressed the "haiku moment"
especially Zen Buddhism and haiku. Alan Watts, when the poet reaches "an enlightened, Nirvana-
Daisetz T. Suzuki, the San Francisco poets, the like harmony" and the "poet's nature and
Beats (in New York)—especially Jack Kerouac's environment are unified." In Yasuda’s view, the
The Dharma Bums, a best-selling novel centered haiku poet also "eschews metaphor, simile, or
on a protagonist (modeled on Gary Snyder) who personification."
composes haiku—and American scholar- Harold Henderson's An Introduction to Haiku:
translators such as Donald Keene contributed to An Anthology of Poems and Poets from Basho to
the popular interest in haiku, but most of all it Shiki, an updated version of an earlier book called
was R. H. Blyth, Kenneth Yasuda, and Harold The Bamboo Room from the 1930s, provided a
Henderson, who wrote a series of books—a four- major stimulus to the North American haiku
volume work called Haiku by Blyth, Yasuda's movement, which emerged in the 1960s. In
The Japanese Haiku: Its Essential Nature, contrast to Blyth and Yasuda, Henderson did not
History, and Possibilities in English, and regard haiku as a spiritual or aesthetic experience
Henderson's An Introduction to Haiku: An and downplayed the notion of Zen illumination.
Anthology of Poems and Poets from Basho to Instead, he drew attention to the "overtones," the
Shiki—that generated widespread fascination highly suggestive quality of good haiku, the
with haiku and set the stage for a North American techniques of condensation and ellipsis, and
English haiku movement, which flourished in the stressed the importance of the reader, who works
1960s and continues to this day.23 by the process of association. Unlike Yasuda,
Following Pound and the Imagists, Blyth who believed that the haiku should have only one
focused on the "concrete thing," but without the focal point, Henderson drew attention to the role
"intellectual and emotional complex" that has of the cutting word (kireji), which divided the
interested Pound. For Blyth, haiku was the poetry haiku in half, creating two centers and often
of "meaningful touch, taste, sound, sight, and generating what he called the "principle of
smell," "the poetry of sensation"—as opposed to internal comparison," an implicit comparison,
that of thought and emotion. Furthermore, Blyth, equation, or contrast between two separate
coming under the spell of D.T. Suzuki's view of elements--a dynamic that he saw as a major
Zen, believed that reading and composing haiku characteristic of Basho's poetry.
was a spiritual experience in which poet and As this brief overview of Anglo-American
nature were united. Zen, which becomes reception suggests, haiku has been largely
indistinguishable from haiku in much of Blyth's conceived as the poetry of the object (particularly
writing, was "a state of mind in which we are not small things), of "sensation," and of the moment.
There has also been a strong tendency to treat the
23
Blyth, Reginald H. Haiku. 4v. Tokyo: Hokuseido
haiku in a spiritual context or in an auto-
Press, 1949-52, Henderson, Harold G. An Introduction to biographical, personal mode, especially as "haiku
Haiku: An Anthology of Poems and Poets from Basho to experience." By stressing the unity of the poet
Shiki. Garden City, New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, and the object, writers such as Blyth and Yasuda
1958, and Yasuda, Kenneth. The Japanese Haiku: Its transformed the "impersonality" that the Imagists
Essential Nature, History, and Possibilities in English, stressed into a highly subjective, personal
with Selected Examples. Rutland, Vt. and Tokyo: Tuttle,
1957.
moment, closely tied to the spiritual state of the
27
poet. Indeed, Western scholars have tended to which is subject to constant change.
regard Basho as an autobiographical, con- One of the most striking aspects of Basho
fessional poet, as a part of a larger literary and studies in the West has been the overwhelming
cultural tradition that gives priority to "truth," interest in Oku no hosomichi. There have been a
"fact," and "sincerity." number of translations, which range from the
The state of the field was significantly altered haiku poet Cid Corman’s experimental Back
by the work of Makoto Ueda who produced the Roads to Far Towns, to Dorothy Britton’s A
first modern scholarly study of Basho in English, Haiku Journey: Basho’s Narrow Road to a Far
Matsuo Basho: The Master Haiku Poet.24 Here Province, to Donald Keene’s translation, The
and in a number of related essays, Ueda not only Narrow Road to Oku, and Helen McCullough’s
provided a biographical context for Basho’s work, translation in her Classical Japanese Prose: An
he examined the different genres that Basho was Anthology. Most recently Hiroaki Sato has come
engaged in, going beyond the hokku (haiku) to out with another translation, using one-line
analyze linked verse (haikai), haibun (haikai translations of the hokku. Each of these has
prose), and hairon (haikai theory), thereby paving sought out a different aspect of the text.27
the way for future research. In 1992, Ueda made For example, in one section, Basho and his
yet another major contribution, in his book Basho companion Sora encounter a pair of courtesans
and his Interpreters: Selected Hokku with Com- (yujo) on a pilgrimage, but reject the women's
mentary, which was the first book to translate plea to serve as their traveling companions.
commentaries (modern and early modern) on Corman's translation, preserving the elipses and
specific poems, thus revealing the wide range of tense changes of the original Japanese, provides a
possibilities for reading Basho’s haiku.25 direct, stream-of-consciousness effect on the
In Traces of Dreams: Landscape, Cultural reader. "'Unfortunately we often like to take
Memory, and the Poetry of Basho (Stanford Uni- detours. Just follow anyone going your way.
versity Press, 1997), Haruo Shirane brings to- Surely the gods will protect you and see you
gether the issues of language, landscape, cultural safely through,' words lift them on leaving, but
memory, and social practice through a reassess- felt sorry for them for some time after" (section
ment of haikai, particularly that of Basho and his 41). McCullough desires to provide a transla-
disciples, which he sees as emerging from the tion that attempts to be both faithful to the origi-
engagement between the new commoner culture nal and at the same time readable in English.
and earlier literary texts, which haikai parodied, She translates, "'I sympathize with you, but we'll
transformed, and translated into the vernacular.26 be making frequent stops. Just follow others
Shirane explores the notion of “haikai imagina- going to the same place; I'm sure the gods will
tion,” the seemingly paradoxical co-existence of see you there safely.' We walked off without
different textual and perceptual planes— waiting for an answer, but it was some time be-
figurative and literal, monologic and dialogic, fore I could stop feeling sorrow for them" (p.
referential and parodic, objective and subjective, 545). Sato's translation attempts to remain as
personal and impersonal, metaphorical and meto- faithful as possible, while at the same time ex-
nymical, representation and collage—multiple
planes made possible in large part by the funda-
27
mental haikai assumption that the meaning of the Corman, Cid and Kamaike Susumu trans., Back
text is relative and dependent on its context, Roads to Far Towns. New York: Mushinsha/Grossman,
1968; Britton, Dorothy trans., A Haiku Journey: Basho's
Narrow Road to a Far Province. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1980;
24
Ueda, Makoto, Matsuo Basho: The Master Haiku Keene, Donald, trans., The Narrow Road to Oku. New
Poet. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1982. York: Kodansha International, 1996; McCullough, Helen,
25
Ueda, Basho and his Interpreters: Selected Hokku trans., "The Narrow Road of the Interior." In Helen
with Commentary. Stanford: Stanford University Press, McCullough comp. and ed., Classical Japanese Prose: An
1992. Anthology. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990:
26
Shirane, Haruo, Traces of Dreams: Landscape, 522-551; Sato, Hiroaki, Basho's Narrow Road. Berke-
Cultural Memory, and the Poetry of Basho. Stanford: ley: Stone Bridge Press, 1996; also, Hamill, Sam, trans.
Stanford University Press, 1997. Narrow Road to the Interior. Boston: Shambhala, 1991.
28
ploiting the lyricism of the original. "However, essays on Buson include Mark Morris, "Buson
I had to tell them: 'We sympathize with your and Shiki."31
plight, but we stop in many places. You should Of the three famous early modern haiku mas-
go along following the others as they go. With ters (Basho, Buson, and Issa), Kobayashi Issa
the Sun Goddess's protection, all should go well.' (1763-1827) is perhaps the most popular among
And so we left. Nevertheless, sadness did not English haiku poets. He is easily translated and
cease for quite some time" (p. 111). Each trans- his works are easily accessible. Basho and Bu-
lation, imagining a different potential readership, son, by contrast, rely heavily on Chinese or clas-
enhances one aspect of the text while downplay- sical Japanese allusions, which escape English
ing other possible readings. readers. His major prose works have also been
Buson’s haikai appears in all the major English translated, most notably Journal of My Father’s
anthologies of Japanese poetry. Some more Last Days (Chichi no shuen nikki) and The Year
focused examples include Nippon Gakujutsu of My Life (Oraga ga haru), and have proved to
Shinkokai ed., Haikai and Haiku, which includes be popular among North American audiences32.
hokku and his washi (Japanese-Chinese poetry) Lewis Mackenzie has also translated many of
and Sawa Yuki and Edith M. Shiffert’s Haiku Issa’s texts in The Autumn Wind.33
Master Buson.28 Some of the best translations A word should be said here about haibun, or
and explications appear in Makoto Ueda’s recent haikai prose, a major prose genre pioneered by
study The Path of Flowering Thorn: The Life and Matsuo Basho. Considerable work has been done
Poetry of Yosa Buson (Stanford: Stanford UP, on Oku no hosomichi, perhaps the most famous
1998).29 As in his book on Basho, Ueda takes a work of haibun. Haruo Shirane’s Traces of
biographical approach, while at the same time Dreams looks at Oku no hosomichi as a form of
exploring Buson’s interests in a variety of art haibun rather than, as many earlier scholars and
forms. (Ueda, however, does not deal with Buson translators have, as simply a form of travel diary.
as a visual artist, as the composer of haiga, or Much work, however, remains to be done with
haikai paintings, which were a critical part of his haibun after Oku no hosomichi. Basho’s disciples
career as a bunjin, or Chinese-styled literati.) compiled a number of haibun anthologies, and
Leon Zolbrod also wrote a series of articles on the genre prospered into the modern period. The
Buson and unfortunately passed away before only translation/study of post-Basho haibun is
publishing his book on Buson.30 Other important Lawrence Rogers’s work on Yokoi Yayu’s Uzur-
agoromo34.
28
Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai, ed., Haikai and Haiku.
(HS)
Tokyo: Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai, 1958; Sawa, Yuki
and Edith M. Shiffert, Haiku Master Buson. San Senryu and Kyoka
Francisco: Heian International, 1978. Almost all the attention to early modern poetry
29
Ueda, Makoto. The Path of Flowering Thorn: The has been focused on haiku. There has been, how-
Life and Poetry of Yosa Buson. Stanford: Stanford
University Press, 1998.
30
Zolbrod, Leon M., "Buson's Poetic Ideals: The The-
31
ory and Practice of Haikai in the Age of Revival, 1771- Morris, Mark, "Buson and Shiki." Harvard Journal
1784." Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japa- of Asiatic Studies , Vol. 44, No.2 (1984-5).
32
nese 9.1 (1974): 1-20; Zolbrod, "Death of a Poet-Painter: See Huey, Robert N., "Journal of My Father’s Last
Yosa Buson's Last Year, 1783-84." In Saburo Ota and Days: Issa’s Chichi no Shuen Nikki," Monumenta
Rikutaro Fukuda, Studies on Japanese Culture, Vols. I and Nipponica, 39.1, 1984, and Yuasa, Nobuyuki trans., The
II.. Tokyo: Japan P.E.N. Club, 1973: I:146-54; Zolbrod, Year of My Life: A Translation of Issa’s Oraga Haru
"Emblems of Aging and Immortality in the Poetry and (University of California Press, 1960; also Hamill, Sam,
Painting of Buson (1716-1784), " in Selecta: Journal of trans. The Spring of My Life and Selected Haiku.
the Pacific Northwest Council on Foreign Languages 7 Boston & London: Shambhala, 1997.
33
(1986): 26-31; Zolbrod, "Talking Poetry: Buson's View of Mackenzie, Lewis trans., The Autumn Wind.
the Art of Haiku." Literature East and West 15-16 (1971- London: John Murray, 1957.
34
1972): 719-34; Zolbrod, "The Busy Year: Buson's Life Rogers, Lawrence, "Rags and Tatters: The
and Work, 1777." The Transactions of the Asiatic Society Uzuragoromo of Yokoi Yayu." Monumenta Nipponica,
of Japan 3 (1988): 53-81. No. 34, 1979.
29
ever, some work on senryu, the seventeen sylla-

ble comic haiku, mainly as a result of the general Narrative Fiction
interest in haiku. In contrast to haiku, which gen-
erally requires a seasonal word and a cutting General Comments
word and tends to be serious poetry related to As mentioned in the General Comments
nature, senryu requires neither the seasonal word above, the state of the field for narrative
nor the cutting word and focuses instead on the fiction outside of Saikaku, for whom more
human condition and often provides satire of con- studies and translations exist than any
temporary society. R. H. Blyth, who was one of other author, is basically open for anyone
the pioneers of haiku, took a serious interest in
interested in doing some work. Currently,
senryu and wrote a series of books—including
Saikaku himself seems to be on a kind of
Edo Satirical Verse Anthologies and Japanese
island, neither preceded by any significant
Life and Characters in Senryu—and articles in
the 1950s and 1960s, in which he advocated the kana-zoshi writers (of whom Asai Ryoi
value of senryu as an alternative or complement stands out in particular), nor flanked by
to haiku.35 Though poets of English haiku have any contemporaries or followers, with the
taken a serious interest in senryu (often more exception of Ejima Kiseki, on whom work
suited to English haiku, which has a hard time was done a half century ago by Howard
with the seasonal word) and regularly use this Hibbett.38 In Japan, new editions of kana-
genre, relatively little has been done in English zoshi and ukiyo-zoshi by less-well-known
scholarship or translation until recently, with the authors have been appearing in recent
publication of Makoto Ueda’s recent anthology of years, both in the Shin Nihon koten bun-
senryu, which should do much to vitalize the gaku taikei compendium (for which fully
study of this genre.36 40 of the 100 total volumes features early
Kyoka, or comic waka, which came into modern texts), and in the unannotated but
prominence in the late-eighteenth century, has still valuable Sosho Edo bunko (50 vol-
benn by contrast almost entirely neglected. Ex- umes). 39 Aside from Hachimonjiya pub-
cept for a handful of translations in large poetry lishing house writers, Kiseki and Jisho,
anthologies, such as Watson and Sato’s Eight Is- the names of Miyako no Nishiki, Nishi-
lands, Geoffrey Bownas and Anthony Thwaite, zawa Ippu, and Tada Nanrei come to mind
The Penguin Book of Japanese Verse, and Steven as fertile ground for research and transla-
Carter’s Anthology of Japanese Poetry, there are tion that will place Saikaku in a context he
hardly any translations, not to mention serious
does not currently have. Nanrei, a Shinto
studies.37
intellectual figure, especially plays an im-
(HS)
portant role as a bridge to later writers,
such as Tsuga Teisho and Ueda Akinari.
Among dangibon "sermonizers," not only is
Hiraga Gennai currently absent from the
35
Blyth, Reginald H., Edo Satirical Verse Anthologies.
field, his appearance makes little sense
Tokyo: Hokuseido Press, 1961, and Blyth, Japanese Life without study of the lives and works of
and Characters in Senryu. Tokyo: Hokuseido Press, 1961. such predessors as Masuho Zanko, Issai
36
Ueda, Makoto, Light Verse From the Floating Chozan, and Jokambo Koa. Gennai's pre-
World : An Anthology of Premodern Japanese Senryu,
Columbia University Press, 1999.
37 38
Sato, Hiroaki, and Burton Watson, ed. and trans., Hibbett, Howard. The Floating World in Japanese
From the Country of Eight Islands: An Anthology of Fiction. New York: Oxford University Press, 1959.
39
Japanese Poetry. Garden City: Anchor Press, 1981; Satake Akihiro, et al. Shin Nihon koten bungaku
Bownas, Geoffrey, and Anthony Thwaite, The Penguin taikei. 100 volumes + indices. Tokyo: Iwanami
Book of Japanese Verse. New York: Viking Penguin, Shoten, 1989- ; Takada Mamoru and Hara Michio, ed.
1986; Carter, Steven, Traditional Japanese Poetry: An Sosho Edo bunko. 50 volumes. Tokyo: Kokusho
Anthology. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991. Kankokai, 1987-2002.
30
mier disciple, Morishima Churyo (Shin-ra in the early 1960s by Ivan Morris, who published
Manzo) expanded Gennai's oeuvre even The Life of an Amorous Woman, which included
further, and deserves as much scholarly not only a translation of Life of an Amorous
attention as Gennai himself. Woman but selections from other major works
(LEM) including Five Women Who Chose Love, and
Reckonings That Carry Men Through the World
Kana-zoshi and Ukiyo-zoshi (Seken munesan'yo).44 Other noteworthy transla-
Kana-zoshi (literally, “books in kana”) was the tions include Caryl Ann Callahan’s translation of
prose fiction genre that flourished in the first half Bukegiri monogatari, Tales of Samurai Honor,
of the seventeenth century, prior to the rise of Wm. Theodore de Bary’s Five Women Who Loved
ukiyo-zoshi in the Genroku period. Some repre- Love, Robert Leutner’s “Saikaku’s Parting Gift—
sentative pieces have been translated. Two are Translations From Saikaku Okimiyage”, and G.
parodies of Heian classical texts (Makura no W. Sargent’s The Japanese Family Storehouse or
soshi and Ise monogatari): Inu makura, by Ed- the Millionaire’s Gospel Modernized, an excel-
ward Putzar ("'Inu makura': The Dog Pillow.") lent translation of Nippon eitaigura.45 Another
and Nise monogatari, by Jack Kucinski ("A Japa- noteworthy translation is Paul Schalow’s The
nese Burlesque: Nise Monogatari"). 40 Another Great Mirror of Male Love (Stanford UP, 1990), a
popular kana-zoshi that has been translated in translation of Nanshoku okagami.46 Christopher
part is Chikusai monogatari, by Edward Putzar Drake is completing a translation of Koshoku
("Chikusai monogatari: A Partial Translation").41
But there are almost no studies of this genre as a
whole. The only extended study are a 1957 article Renaissance." Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia U., 1957;
by Richard Lane (“The Beginnings of the Modern Lane, "Saikaku's Prose Works; A Bibliographical Study."
Monumenta Nipponica 14 (1958): 1-26; Lane, "Saikaku
Japanese Novel: Kana-zoshi, 1600-1682.” Har-
and Boccaccio; The Novella in Japan and Italy." Monu-
vard Journal of Asiatic Studies, No. 20, 1957) and menta Nipponica 15.1-2 (1959-60): 87-118; Lane, "Sai-
an entry in Keene’s World Within Walls.42 kaku and the Japanese Novel of Realism." Japan Quar-
The most extensive translation and research in terly 4 (1957): 178-188; Lane, "Saikaku and the Modern
early modern prose fiction has been with regard Japanese Novel." In Japan's Modern Century. Tokyo:
to Ihara Saikaku (1642-1693). With the exception Sophia U., 1968: 115-132; Lane, trans., "Three Stories
from Saikaku." Japan Quarterly 5 (1958): 71-82. ["How
of Koshoku ichidai otoko, his first work of prose
the flea escaped his cage"; "Wild violets may be plucked
fiction, which exists in a poor translation, almost free, but for a courtesan you need hard cash"; "They
all of Saikaku’s major works have been translated thought him no different from the grubs."]; Lane, trans.,
into English, and in many instances we have "Two Samurai Tales; Romance and Realism in Old Ja-
more than one good translation. In the 1950’s, pan." Atlantic 195 (1955): 126-27; Lane, trans., "The
Richard Lane, who did a dissertation on Saikaku Umbrella Oracle." in Donald Keene ed. Anthology of
Japanese Literature. NY: Grove Press, 1955: 354-356.
at Columbia University, did a series of articles 44
Morris, Ivan, trans., "The Eternal Storehouse of
and translations on Saikaku.43 This was followed Japan." "Five Women Who Chose Love," "Life of an
Amorous Woman," Reckonings That Carry Men Through
the World." In Ivan Morris trans., The Life of an Amorous
40
Putzar, Edward, "'Inu makura': The Dog Pillow." Woman and Other Writings. New York: New Directions,
Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 28 (1968): 98-113; 1963.
45
Rucinski, Jack. "A Japanese Burlesque: Nise Monoga- Callahan, Caryl Ann, Tales of Samurai Honor. To-
tari." Monumenta Nipponica 30.1 (1975): 39-62. kyo: Monumenta Nipponica, 1981; de Bary, Wm. Theo-
41
Putzar, Edward, trans., "Chikusai monogatari: A dore, trans., Five Women Who Loved Love. Rutland, Vt.
Partial Translation." Monumenta Nipponica 16 (1960-61): and Tokyo: Tuttle, 1956; Leutner, Robert. "Saikaku's
161-195. Parting Gift—Translations From Saikaku Okimiyage."
42
Lane, Richard, "The Beginnings of the Modern MN 30.4 (1975): 357-391; and Sargent, G.W., trans. The
Japanese Novel: Kana-zoshi, 1600-1682." Harvard Japanese Family Storehouse or the Millionaire's Gospel
Journal of Asiatic Studies 20 (1957): 644-701. Modernized. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
43
Lane, Richard, "Postwar Japanese Studies of the 1959.
46
Novelist Saikaku." Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 18 Schalow, Paul Gordon, The Great Mirror of Male
(1955): 181-99; Lane, "Saikaku: Novelist of the Japanese Love. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990.
31
ichidai otoko, Saikaku’s first work of prose fic- doken den (The Modern Life of Shidoken) and
tion and the first ukiyo-zoshi. Nenashigusa (Rootless Weeds), as well as the
Despite the large number of translations, the comic essay Hohiron (A Theory of Farting).
scholarship has tended to be limited to explica- There have been several Ph. D. dissertations on
tions of the socio-historical context of Saikaku’s the subject, but none of these has been pub-
works, with particular emphasis on his chonin lished. 49 Fortunately, Early Modern Japanese
background and the commercial world that he Literature, An Anthology includes major selec-
inhabited. One exceptional article, which was tions from Gennai, who is a writer on the order of
important in Japan and should draw more atten- Ihara Saikaku and Ueda Akinari, but still obscure
tion in the West, is that by Noma Koshin, "Sai- in Western scholarship.50
kaku’s Adoption of Shuko from Kabuki and (HS)
Joruri," which reveals the manner in which Sai-
kaku borrowed and parodied dramatic techniques Later Fiction
(such as the michiyuki) from kabuki and joruri
for his fiction.47 Saikaku awaits a major mono- Gesaku. Virtually all fictional prose narratives
graph in English. written after 1750 are categorized into one of
Little has been done in the area of post- several subgenres of "gesaku," sometimes trans-
Saikaku ukiyo-zoshi, commonly referred to as lated as "frivolous works" or "playful writings."
Hachimonjiya-bon. The only significant work are The term derives from the fact that narrative fic-
the translations of Ejima Kiseki (1667-1736) by tion was considered base and vulgar, and mem-
Howard Hibbett (The Floating World in Japanese bers of the bushi, or samurai class, were espe-
Fiction, 1959), whose 1950 Harvard University cially discouraged from reading such works,
dissertation was on Kiseki, and Charles Fox much less writing them. Nevertheless, many of
("Old Stories, New Modes: Ejima Kiseki’s Ukiyo the most active gesaku writers came from samu-
Oyaji Katagi". Hibbett translated selections rai ranks, and samurai, as well as other classes,
from Ejima’s Seken musuko katagi (Characters of appear prominently in the pages of these works.
Worldly Young Men, 1715) and Seken musume Gesaku is one of the areas in which World
katagi (Characters of Worldly Young Women, Within Walls provides little discussion, in spite of
1717), and Fox translated selections from Ukiyo the fact that more publishing of gesaku works
oyaji katagi (Characters of Worldly Fathers).48 occurred in the last century of the early modern
period than in any other field. Haruko Iwasaki's
Dangibon and Early Kokkeibon essay "The Literature of Wit and Humor in Late-
Another major lacuna in Edo prose fiction is Eighteenth-Century Edo," in Donald Jenkins' The
the dangibon (comic sermons) and early kokkei- Floating World Revisited (1993) provides one of
bon (comic fiction) written in Edo from the mid- the few extended discussions of gesaku available
eighteenth century, particularly the work of the in English. 51 Iwasaki's recognition of sekai
monumental figure of Hiraga Gennai (1728- ("world") and shuko ("trope") as factors making
1779), who wrote two masterworks, Furyu Shi-
49
Probably the best of these are Stanleigh Jones,
47
Noma, Koshin. "Saikaku's Adoption of Shuko from “Scholar, Scientist, Popular Author, Hiraga Gennai, 1728-
Kabuki and Joruri." Acta Asiatica 28. (1975): 62-83. 1780,” Ph.D. dissertation (Columbia University, 1971),
48
Hibbett, Howard S., Jr., The Floating World in Japa- and Sumie Jones, “Comic Fiction in Japan during the
nese Fiction. New York: Oxford University Press, 1959. Later Edo Period,” Ph.D. dissertation (University of
Includes translations of "A Prig", "A Rake", "A Spend- Washington, 1979).
50
thrift", "A Swaggerer", and "A Worthless Trio" from Shirane, Haruo, ed. Early Modern Japanese
Characters of Worldly Young Men. (Seken musuko katagi, Literature: An Anthology 1600-1900. New York:
1715), as well as "A Wayward Wife" from Characters of Columbia University Press, 2002.
51
Worldly Young Women. (Seken musume katagi, 1717). Iwasaki, Haruko. "The Literature of Wit and Humor
Fox, Charles E., "Old Stories, New Modes: Ejima Kiseki's in Late-Eighteenth-Century Edo." In Jenkins, Donald. The
Ukiyo Oyaji Katagi." Monumenta Nipponica 43.1 (1988): Floating World Revisited. Portland: Portland Art Museum,
63-93. 1993, distributed by University of Hawai'i Press: 47-61.
32
up gesaku structure provides a starting point for subgenre of the Edo yomihon, which are lighter in
future research in gesaku across the lines of the style and smaller in size, and so were less expen-
various subgenres. Finally, a pair of essays by sive to produce, yet retained the relative stature of
the premier scholar of gesaku in Japan today, Na- their larger counterparts.54 No research is avail-
kano Mitsutoshi, attempts to generate interest in able in English on this subgenre, and, aside from
early modern literature, especially gesaku, from Leon Zolbrod's work on Bakin, including his
the perspective of its radical "dissimilarity" to the 1967 monograph, next to nothing has been pub-
literature of other periods, and from the perspec- lished on the Edo yomihon in general.55
tive of the interplay between word and image, Ueda Akinari and his works are a different
especially in the 1770s and 1780s.52 matter. Translations of Ugetsu monogatari
(1776) made up some of the first articles to ap-
Yomihon. Yomihon (literally, "reading books") pear in Monumenta Nipponica, and Akinari-
are distinct from other forms of gesaku in several related articles and translations have continued to
ways. For one thing, their illustrations were appear in that journal on a regular basis. 56
limited to frontispieces, or to one or two illustra- Ugetsu monogatari itself has been translated in
tions per volume, while the other gesaku subgen- whole or in part several times, starting with Koi-
res depended heavily on a sophisticated blend of zumi Yakumo's (Lafcadio Hearn's) "Of a Promise
image and text in their works. Furthermore, Kept" (Kikka no chigiri) and "The Story of Kogi
yomihon were generally historical in nature. the Priest" (Muo no rigyo) in A Japanese Miscel-
For this reason Leon Zolbrod, in a 1966 article, lany (1905) up to William F. Sibley's "The Blue
referred to the yomihon as "historical novels."53 Cowl" (Aozukin) in Partings at Dawn: An An-
Since Zolbrod's article, practically nothing has thology of Japanese Gay Literature (1996). 57
appeared in English on yomihon as a general The "standard" translation of Ugetsu monogatari
form, in spite of the fact that the two major writ- to date, though, is Leon Zolbrod's Ugetsu
ers of the final century of the early modern era, monogatari: Tales of Moonlight and Rain
Ueda Akinari and Kyokutei Bakin, are remem- (1974). 58 Perhaps inspired by Mizoguchi
bered today for their yomihon works. Kenji's 1953 film of the same name, and even a
Yomihon are not a monolithic form. Given
the fact that they originated in the Kamigata
54
(Kyoto-Osaka region) in the mid-eighteenth cen- Takagi, Gen. Edo yomihon no kenkyu: jukyu-seiki
tury, but developed in Edo from the 1790s shosetsu yoshiki ko. Tokyo: Perikan Sha, 1995.
55
Zolbrod, Leon M. Takizawa Bakin. New York:
through the 1840s, we cannot expect uniformity. Twayne, 1967.
Basically, yomihon are divided into the early yo- 56
Saunders, Dale tr. “Ugetsu Monogatari or Tales of
mihon, centered in the Kamigata region and rep- Moonlight and Rain.” MN 21 (1966): 171-202; Araki,
resented by Tsuga Teisho and Ueda Akinari, and James T. “A Critical Approach to the ‘Ugetsu Monoga-
the Edo yomihon, represented by Santo Kyoden tari’.” Monumenta Nipponica 22 (1967): 49-64; Cham-
and Kyokutei Bakin. Recently, the Japanese bers, Anthony tr.. “Hankai: A Translation from Harusame
Mongatari by Ueda Akinari.” MN 25.3-4 (1970): 371-
scholar Takagi Gen has conducted extensive work 406; Washburn, Dennis. “Ghostwriters and Literary
in a subgenre called the Chubongata yomihon, a Haunts: Subordinating Ethics to Art in Ugetsu Monoga-
tari.” Monumenta Nipponica 45.1 (1990): 39-74; Fessler,
Susanna. “The Nature of the Kami: Ueda Akinari and
52
Nakano, Mitsutoshi. "Revising Edo." The Japan Tandai Shoshin Roku.” MN 51.1 (1996): 1-16.
57
Foundation Newsletter 21-1 (1993): 1-8; Ibid. "Hard- Hearn, Lafcadio. A Japanese Miscellany: Strange
boiled Survivors of the Edo Studies Boom." Japanese Stories, Folklore Gleanings, Studies Here and There.
Book News (Japan Foundation) 18 (1997): 3-5. Rutland, Vt. and Tokyo: Tuttle, 1967 (reprint of 1905
(Reprinted as "The Edo Period as an Antidote to original); Sibley, William F., trans. "The Blue Cowl
Modernism: A Plea for Accepting the Tokugawa Age on [Aozukin]." In Steven D. Miller, ed. Partings at
Its Own Terms." The East 33-6 (1998): 20-22). Dawn: An Anthology of Japanese Gay Literature. San
53
Zolbrod, Leon. “Yomihon: The Appearance of the Francisco: Gay Sunshine Press, 1996: 125-33.
58
Historical Novel in Late Eighteenth Century and Early Zolbrod, Leon M., trans. Ugetsu Monogatari:
Nineteenth Century Japan.” Journal of Asian Studies 25 Tales of Moonlight and Rain. Vancouver: University of
(1966): 485-498. British Columbia Press, 1974.
33
jazz composition by Art Blakey, "Ugetsu" stories in Ugetsu monogatari with its Chinese
(Blakey believed that "ugetsu" was the Japanese source.64 Given Akinari's breadth, a compara-
translation for "fantasy"), recorded in concert in tive approach that also takes in the intellectual
Tokyo in 1961, Sasaki Takamasa created a lim- trends of the time seems most promising. The
ited-edition translation in 1981 that attempts to ongoing publication of Akinari's collected works
recreate Akinari's prose in a style attempting to in Japan provides scholars with accurately tran-
emulate Shakespeare's.59 While Sasaki's transla- scribed texts, and first-rate introductions to those
tion falls short of its goal, it provides an example texts, that promise to open up a new era of Aki-
of the range of possibilities available when trans- nari scholarship, both in Japan and abroad. 65
lating early modern literary texts. Akinari's This is especially important with regard to his
other major collection of historical narratives, many other untranslated works that demand care-
Harusame monogatari (1805-09; unpublished ful analysis.
until modern times), has also received quite a bit Akinari, like Hiraga Gennai and Buson, is
of attention, with translations of the longest story considered a representative bunjin, or bohemian
in the collection, "Hankai," by Anthony Cham- individualist, of the eighteenth century. Another
bers in 1970, Blake Morgan Young in 1972, and bunjin, Takebe Ayatari, was a contempory who
its inclusion in Barry Jackman's complete transla- associated with Akinari, and probably Gennai.
tion, Tales of the Spring Rain: Harusame Mono- Lawrence E. Marceau has completed a study of
gatari by Ueda Akinari in 1975. 60 Jackman's his life and many of his literary and artistic works
translation is especially helpful in that it provides from the bunjin perspective, due to appear from
an alternative translation of parts of "Hankai" the Center for Japanese Studies, University of
based on a variant manuscript. Michigan.66 One of Ayatari's important works
Several scholars have done critical studies on was translated from the perspective of the "star-
Akinari and his work. Young's 1982 biography crossed-lovers" motif by Blake Morgan Young in
is a detailed study of Akinari's life and major 1982.67 As a polymath, active in a number of
work, and provides a starting point for future genres, Ayatari attracts our scholarly interest,
studies.61 James T. Araki in 1967 provided the perhaps more for his literary, artistic, and schol-
first "critical approach" (in his words) to Ugetsu arly relationships during the eighteenth century
monogatari, identifying the relationship between than for the quality of his prose.
the text and Chinese vernacular sources.62 An- The first writer of later yomihon published in
other important study that links Ugetsu monoga- Edo is Santo Kyoden. Jane Devitt produced a
tari to Akinari's nativist scholarship is Dennis Harvard dissertation in 1976, and subsequently an
Washburn's 1990 "Ghostwriters and Literary article in HJAS in 1979, but other than these two
Haunts: Subordinating Ethics to Art in Ugetsu items, little else is available.68 Another yomihon
Monogatari."63 In 1999, Noriko R. Reider con-
ducted a useful comparative study of one of the 64
Reider, Noriko R. "'Chrysanthemum Tryst':
Remaking a Chinese Ghost Story in Japan." Sino-
Japanese Studies 12-1, November 1999: 33-46.
59 65
Sasaki Takamasa tr. Ueda Akinari’s Tales of a Nakamura Yukihiko, et al., ed. Ueda Akinari zenshu.
Rain’d Moon. Tokyo: Hokuseido Press, 1981. 13 vols., Bekkan, 1 v. Tokyo: Chuo Koron Shinsha, 1990-.
60 66
Chambers: 1970; Young, Blake M. “‘Hankai’: A Marceau, Lawrence Edward. “Literati
Tale from the Harusame monogatari by Ueda Akinari Consciousness in Early Modern Japan: Takebe Ayatari
(1734-1809).” HJAS 32 (1972): 150-207; Jackman, Barry, and the Bunjin.” Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University,
trans. Tales of the Spring Rain: Harusame Monogatari by 1990. The published study is entitled, Takebe Ayatari: A
Ueda Akinari. Tokyo: Japan Foundation, 1975. Bunjin Bohemian in Early Modern Japan. Ann Arbor:
61
Young, Blake Morgan. Ueda Akinari. Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan, in
Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1982. press.
62 67
Araki, James T. "A Critical Approach to the 'Ugetsu Young, Blake Morgan, trans. “A Tale of the
Monogatari'." Monumenta Nipponica 22 (1967): 49-64. Western Hills: Takebe Ayatari’s Nishiyama Monogatari.”
63
Washburn, Dennis. "Ghostwriters and Literary Monumenta Nipponica 37.1 (1982): 77-121.
68
Haunts: Subordinating Ethics to Art in Ugetsu Devitt, Jane Crawford. "Santo Kyoden and the
Monogatari." Monumenta Nipponica 45.1 (1990): 39-74. Yomihon: Mukashi-gatari inazuma byoshi." Ph.D.
34
author for whom more work is necessary is Ishi- valuable contribution to the field.72
kawa Masamochi, also famous in his youth as the
kyoka poet, Yadoya no Meshimori, and, in retire- Kusazoshi (Akahon, Kurohon/Aohon, Kibyoshi,
ment, as a scholar of the classics and classical Gokan), Sharebon, Ninjobon, and Kokkeibon.
language. Frederick Victor Dickens published Kusazoshi, sometimes referred to as "grass book-
in 1912 a translation of Masamochi's Hida no lets," represent popular fiction, in which illustra-
takumi monogatari (1808), which Tuttle reissued tions of the narrative are equal in importance to
under the title, The Magical Carpenter of Japan, the text itself. Akahon ("red books") and kuro-
but no other works or studies have been pub- hon/aohon ("black books/blue books") appeared
lished to provide a greater sense of this talented in the first half of the eighteenth century, with
and prolific Edo writer, poet, and scholar.69 children as the intended audience. The subject
The major figure of the Edo yomihon, matter for these works, identified by the color of
Takizawa Bakin, wrote under the sobri- their covers, tended to focus on legends, fairy
quet, Kyokutei Bakin. The scholar who tales, and similar stories that children and their
did the most work on Bakin is Leon Zol- mothers would have desired to read. On the
brod, not only completed a biography, but other hand, adults overwhelmingly made up the
also published three articles on Bakin's readership of kibyoshi ("yellow-covers") and go-
representative work, Nanso Satomi Hak- kan ("combined fascicles") . Kibyoshi consisted
ken den, as well as translation of a Bakin of short illustrated narratives that often parodied
kibyoshi.70 Zolbrod's 1967 biography pro- contemporary life in innovative ways. Some
1000 titles were published over the period be-
vides a good starting point for any number
tween 1775 and 1805, or over thirty titles annu-
of studies and translations of Bakin, his
ally. Gokan appeared after the decline of kibyo-
milieu in Edo, and his works.71 As a liter-
shi, and expanded the possibilities of the genre
ary critic, Bakin is extremely important, through publication in bundles of five booklets,
and a study with selective translations of instead of the two or three for kibyoshi, and
his series of critical comments on early through serialization, whereby a particular work
modern gesaku authors, Kinsei mono no might continue appearing in annual installments
hon Edo sakusha burui (1834), would be a over a period of years, and even decades in some
of the most successful cases. Sharebon ("fash-
ionable books"), while cast as fictional narratives,
through the wealth of detail they contained often
dissertation, Harvard University, 1976; Devitt, “Santo provided valuable information to people who
Kyoden and the yomihon.” HJAS 39.2 (1979): 253-74. wished to know details of life in the pleasure
69
Dickens, Frederick Victor, trans. The Magical quarters, including fashions, insider slang terms,
Carpenter of Japan, by Rokujiuyen (Ishikawa differences between various courtesans, and other
Masamochi). Rutland, Vt. &Tokyo: Tuttle, 1965 (reprint matters related to a successful experience as a
of 1912 ed. entitled, Story of a Hida Craftsman).
70
Zolbrod, Leon M. “Tigers, Boars, and Severed customer visiting the quarters. Kokkeibon, or
Heads: Parallel Series of Episodes in Eight “Dogs” and "humor books," consisted of humorous narratives
Men of the Marshes.” Chung Chi Journal 7 (1967): 30- and focused on the foibles of comic characters
39; Zolbrod, “The Autumn of the Epic Romance in Japan: and the earthy side of everyday life, both in the
Theme and Motif in Takizawa Bakin’s Historical metropolis of Edo, and in the provinces. Finally,
Novels.” Literature East and West 14.2 (1970): 172-184; ninjobon, or "books of human emotion," arose
Zolbrod, “The Allegory of Evil in Satomi and the Eight
‘Dogs’.” In Katushiko Takeda, Essays on Japanese
after the demise of the sharebon, and generally
Literature. Tokyo: Waseda University Press, 1977: 76-94; focused on the intricacies of the often complex
Zolbrod, trans. “The Vendetta of Mr. Fleacatcher relationships between courtesans and their cus-
Managoro, the Fifth, with Illustrations by Kitao tomers. These genres represent the most popu-
Shigemasa, and an Introduction.” Monumenta Nipponica
20.1-2 (1965): 121-134.
71 72
Zolbrod, Leon. Takizawa Bakin. New York: Kimura Miyogo, ed. Kinsei mono no hon Edo
Twayne, 1967. sakusha burui. Tokyo: Yagi Shoten, 1988.
35
lar forms of narrative fiction in the early modern idiosyncratic translation of Jippensha Ikku's To-
period, and, as such, are invaluable sources for kai dochu Hizakurige (reprinted) are available.77
understanding popular culture, especially the dy- Finally, ninjobon romances of the early-
namic lifestyles of the inhabitants of the Edo me- nineteenth century, based in the pleasure quarters,
tropolis itself. are represented by Alan S. Woodhull's 1978 Stan-
In spite of the plethora of subgenres, few arti- ford Ph.D. dissertation, "Romantic Edo Fiction: A
cles, and fewer books have appeared on these Study of the Ninjobon and Complete Translation
subjects. The only work on kusazoshi in general of 'Shunshoku Umegoyomi'."78 Tamenaga Shun-
is Leon Zolbrod's 1968 "Kusazoshi: Chapbooks sui, the author, is another major figure in his own
of Japan."73 The major work to date among any right, and his position in the world of ninjobon
book-length studies is Andrew Markus's master- writing in particular, and Tenpo-era (1830-43)
ful The Willow in Autumn: Ryutei Tanehiko, literary circles in general, demands our attention.
1783-1842, a 1993 biography of Ryutei Tanehiko, (LEM)
author of the massive episodic novel in fully il-
lustrated gokan form, Nise Murasaki inaka
Early Modern Drama
Genji.74 James Araki broke the ground in stud-
There are a number of general introductions
ies of sharebon with his 1969 MN article, "Share-
and surveys of Japanese theater that devote sig-
bon: Books for Men of Mode," while Peter Kor-
nificant space to kabuki and joruri. They should
nicki provided a study of the Kansei-era crack-
be noted here since some of these are often just as
down on satirical fiction, one that brought an end
useful as the more specialized studies or transla-
to sharebon and kibyoshi as they had existed in
tions. These include Karen Brazell, ed., Tradi-
the 1780s, with his 1977 MN article, "Nishiki no
tional Japanese Theater: An Anthology of Plays
ura: An Instance of Censorship and the Structure
(Columbia UP, 1998), an extremely well con-
of a sharebon."75 The best published study of
ceived anthology of which 259 pages are devoted
kibyoshi so far has been James Araki's highly
to kabuki and joruri.79 Other noteworthy general
entertaining study of a Chinese Taoist motif and
introductions include Peter Arnott’s The Theatres
its transformation in Japanese popular fiction,
of Japan (St. Martin's Press, 1969), Faubian
"The Dream Pillow in Edo Fiction: 1772-81" in
Bowers’s Japanese Theatre (Hill and Wang,
MN, 1970. 76 More specific studies along the
1959), Kawatake Toshio’s A History of Japanese
lines of Araki's would go far toward providing an
Theatre II: Bunraku and Kabuki (Kokusai bunka
appreciation of the quality and level of sophisti-
shinkokai, 1971), and Benito Ortolani’s The
cation of illustrated fiction, especially during the
Japanese Theatre: From Shamanistic Ritual to
An'ei and Temmei eras (1772-89). With regard
Contemporary Pluralism (Princeton University
to kokkeibon, only Robert Leutner's partial trans-
Press, 1995).
lation of and introduction to Shikitei Samba's
Ukiyo-buro, Shikitei Sanba and the Comic Tradi-
tion in Edo Fiction (1985), and Thomas Satchell's
77
Leutner, Robert. Shikitei Sanba and the Comic
73
Zolbrod, Leon M. “Kusazoshi: Chapbooks of Tradition in Edo Fiction. Cambridge, Mass. : Council on
Japan.” Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan 10 East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1985; Satchell,
(1968): 116-147. Thomas, trans. Shanks’ Mare: Being a Translation of the
74
Markus, Andrew Lawrence. The Willow in Autumn: Tokaido Volumes of Hizakurige, Japan’s Great Comic
Ryutei Tanehiko 1783-1842. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Novel of Travel & Ribaldry. Rutland, Vt. and Tokyo:
Council on East Asian Studies, 1993. Tuttle, 1960 (first pub., 1929).
75 78
Araki, James T. “Sharebon: Books for Men of Woodhull, Alan S. “Romantic Edo Fiction: A Study
Mode.” Monumenta Nipponica 24. 1-2 (1969): 31-45; of the Ninjobon and Complete Translation of ‘Shunshoku
Kornicki, Peter F. Nishiki no ura: An Instance of Umegoyomi’.” Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University,
Censorship and the Structure of a sharebon.” Monumenta 1978.
79
Nipponica 32.2 (1977): 153-188. Brazell, Karen, ed. Traditional Japanese Theater:
76
Araki, James T. “The Dream Pillow in Edo Fiction, An Anthology of Plays. New York: Columbia University
1772-81.” Monumenta Nipponica 25.1-2 (1970): 43-105. Press, 1998.
36
Puppet Theater Keene as Chushingura: The Treasury of Loyal

The field of joruri (present-day bunraku) or Retainers, Sugawara denju tenarai kagami, trans-
puppet theater was pioneered by Donald Keene, lated by Stanleigh Jones as Sugawara and the
whose 1952 Ph. D. dissertation was on Chika- Secrets of Calligraphy, and Yoshitsune senbonza-
matsu Monzaemon’s The Battles of Coxinga, the kura, translated by Stanleigh Jones as Yoshitsune
most famous of Chikamatsu Monzaemon’s his- and the Thousand Cherry Trees: A Masterpiece of
torical plays (jidaimono). 80 Donald Shively, in the Eighteenth-Century Japanese Puppet Thea-
The Love Suicide at Amijima, soon after wrote a ter.84 All three were written by Takeda Izumo II
study and translation of Chikamatsu’s most noted (1691-1756), who was ranked by some contem-
contemporary play (sewamono). 81 Eventually poraries as the equal of Chikamatsu, in collabora-
Keene went on to translate ten sewamono (con- tion with Namiki Senryu and others. With the
temporary or domestic plays) by Chikamatsu in exception of Chushingura, these plays are rarely
Major Plays of Chikamatsu, which introduced the performed in their entirety but key scenes from
diversity of Chikamatsu’s plays to the world and these plays are regularly performed in both bun-
laid the ground for all subsequent studies.82 A raku and kabuki. The English reader thus has full
major turning point in the state of the field oc- access to these plays, which are deserving of
curred in 1986 when Andrew Gerstle published more specialized study.
Circles of Fantasy: Convention in the Plays of One of the interests of bunraku, is of course
Chikamatsu, which looked for the first time in the puppets, their construction, their costumes,
English not only at the content and social and their wigs, their manipulation, and the training of
religious context but at the musical structure of the puppeteers. The roles of the shamisen and the
the joruri play. 83 Gerstle drew subtle parallels musicians is also extremely important. In Bun-
between the musical structure of the plays and the raku: The Art of the Japanese Puppet Theater,
larger narrative movement (such as the downward Donald Keene provides both commentary and
spiral toward hell). Gerstle went on to write a full-size photographs on these topics. 85 Two
series of articles on the notion of tragedy, murder, other beautifully illustrated books on this topic
and the role of the protagonist, particularly in the are Barbara Adachi’s Backstage at Bunraku and
later Chikamatsu history plays that Keene had not The Voices and Hands of Bunraku.86
translated, thereby opening up yet more ground
for understanding the breadth of Chikamatsu’s Kabuki
vast repertoire. Kabuki has attracted the attention of Western
What many consider to be the "golden age" of audiences from as early as the Meiji period, but it
the puppet theater occurred in the mid-eighteenth was understood almost entirely as performance,
century, after the death of Chikamatsu and the with little attempt to translate the texts. The
development of the three-person puppet. These
were longer, more elaborate multi-authored plays. 84
The "big three" of the "golden age" were Ka- Keene, Donald, trans., Chushingura: The Treasury
of Loyal Retainers. New York: Columbia University
nadehon Chushingura, translated by Donald Press, 1971; Jones, Stanleigh H., Jr., trans. Sugawara and
the Secrets of Calligraphy. New York: Columbia
University Press, 1985; Jones, trans. Yoshitsune and the
80
Keene, Donald L. "'The Battles of Coxinga': Thousand Cherry Trees: A Masterpiece of the Eighteenth-
Chikamatsu's Puppet Play, Its Background and Century Japanese Puppet Theater. New York: Columbia
Importance." Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, University Press, 1993.
85
1952. Keene, Donald. Bunraku, The Art of the Japanese
81
Shively, Donald H., trans. The Love Suicide at Puppet Theatre. Tokyo & New York: Kodansha
Amijima. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1953. International, 1965.
82 86
Keene, Donald, trans. Major Plays of Chikamatsu. Adachi, Barbara Curtis. The Voices and Hands of
Columbia University Press, 1961. Bunraku. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1978, also Tokyo: Mobil
83
Gerstle, C. Andrew. Circles of Fantasy: Convention Sekiyu Kabushiki-gaisha, 1978; and Adachi, Backstage
in the Plays of Chikamatsu. [Harvard East Asian at Bunraku: A Behind the Scenes Look at Japan's Tradi-
monographs, 116] Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East tional Puppet Theater. New York: Weatherhill, 1985.
Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1986. (revised version of Adachi 1978).
37
first major breakthroughs in the postwar period tury—Kanadehon Chushingura, Sugawara denju
came with the translations done by James Bran- tenarai kagami, and Yoshitsune senbonzakura—
don and Samuel Leiter, who each produced an became three of the foundations for the kabuki
anthology of noted kabuki plays. Brandon’s Ka- repertoire. Brandon and Leiter have translated a
buki: Five Classic Plays contains famous scenes number of noted scenes from the kabuki adapta-
from Sukeroku, Saint Narukami, Chronicle of tions of joruri (such as the noted "Temple
the Battle of Ichinotani, Love Letter From the School" scene from Sugawara denju tenarai ka-
Licensed Quarter, and The Scarlet Princess of gami) and famous scenes from Chronicle of the
Edo. 87 Leiter’s The Art of Kabuki: Famous Battle of Ichinotani and Shunkan.
Plays in Performance contains noted scenes from Western scholars have produced a number of
Benten kozo, Sugawara’s Secrets of Calligraphy, fine historical studies that examine the contempo-
Shunkan, and Naozamurai. 88 Both anthologies, rary socio-political milieu of the theater, the life
which have established a kind of canon for West- of the actors, the conventions of kabuki, the na-
ern readers, take representative plays ranging ture of the audience, and the structure of the thea-
from the early-eighteenth century to the late- ters. Particularly noteworthy are James Brandon,
nineteenth century and provide highly detailed William Malm, and Donald Shively’s Studies in
stage instructions and photographs. Kabuki: Its Acting, Music, and Historical Context
One important group of kabuki plays are the and Laurence Kominz’s The Stars Who Created
Kabuki juhachiban (Eighteen Plays of Kabuki), a Kabuki, an outstanding study of early kabuki,
canon established by Ichikawa Danjuro VII, of especially Ichikawa Danjuro and Sakata Tojuro.91
Edo kabuki, in the 1830s. Though some of these Earle Ernst’s The Kabuki Theatre remains per-
eighteen plays have been translated—such as haps the best all-around study of the historical
Sukeroku (Brandon), Narukami (Brandon) and milieu of kabuki.92 Also recommended is An-
Kanjincho (Adolphe Scott), and Ya no ne (Laur- drew Gerstle, "Flowers of Edo: Eighteenth-
ence Kominz)—most of these plays are not yet Century Kabuki and Its Patrons."93
available in English89 . Brandon and Leiter are Of the two forms, kabuki and joruri, kabuki
now editing a multi-volume series of translations has been more active and continues to grow. New
of kabuki that include many of the eighteen plays plays continue to be written for kabuki, which is
and that should dramatically alter the state of the performed regularly at a number of venues. Ka-
field as a whole.90 buki actors are major stars, and can appear in
It is well known that there is a close relation- television, film, and theater. By contrast, the
ship between kabuki and joruri. Many of the number of performances of joruri remains limited,
plays in the kabuki repertoire, particularly in the the troupes are government supported, and there
mid-eighteenth century, when kabuki was in de- are very few new joruri plays. One consequence
cline, were derived from joruri. Indeed, the is that the interest in kabuki is more extensive
three great joruri plays of the mid-eighteenth cen- both in Japan and in the West. Not surprisingly,
the primary interest of Western research on ka-
buki remains with contemporary kabuki, on the
87
Brandon, James R., ed. & tr. Kabuki: Five Classic plays as they are performed today. The transla-
Plays. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1992.
Reprint of Harvard University Press edition. (1975).
88 91
Leiter, Samuel L.. The Art of Kabuki: Famous Plays Brandon, James R., William P.Malm, and Donald H.
in Performance. Berkeley: University of California Press, Shively. Studies in Kabuki: Its Acting, Music, and
1979. Historical Context. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press,
89
Scott, Adolphe. Gen'yadana: A Japanese Kabuki 1978; and Kominz, Laurence. The Stars Who Created
Play and Kanjincho: A Japanese Kabuki Play, Tokyo: Kabuki. Tokyo & New York: Kodansha International,
Hokuseido, 1953; and Kominz, Laurence. “Ya no Ne: The 1997.
92
Genesis of a Kabuki Aragoto Classic.” Monumenta Ernst, Earle. The Kabuki Theatre. New York: Grove
Nipponica, 38.4, 1983: 387-407. Press, 1956.
90 93
Brandon, James R., and Samuel L. Leiter. Kabuki Gerstle, C. Andrew. "Flowers of Edo: Eighteenth-
Plays on Stage. 5 volumes. Honolulu: University of Century Kabuki and Its Patrons." Asian Theatre Journal
Hawai'i Press, 2002- . 4.1 (1987): 52-75.
38
tions of kabuki, particularly those by Brandon Literary Thought (Excluding Hairon and
and Leiter, are consequently filled with minute Drama Theory): Confucian and Nativist
stage instructions based on modern performances, Studies
enough to allow for a director to perform the play Literary thought in the early modern period
in English. However, this rarely makes for good underwent a course of development in conjunc-
reading as literature. The teacher instead must tion with developments in socio-political and
teach kabuki strictly as performance, with the aid religious thought in general. From the narrowly
of video or film, which remain scarce and diffi- didactic views of literature proposed by Confu-
cult to obtain. In short, this is an area that needs cian scholars such as Hayashi Razan and Yama-
to be developed: a video library of kabuki with zaki Ansai and their schools in the seventeenth
English subtitles.
century through the reinterpretations of the Chi-
Two major nineteenth century kabuki play- nese and Japanese classics by Ito Jinsai and Ogyu
wrights to receive attention from Western schol- Sorai, and, later, by Kamo no Mabuchi and Mo-
ars are Tsuruya Nanboku IV (1755-1829), known toori Norinaga in the eighteenth century, to the
for his drama of thieves, murderers, pimps, and use of literature as a means of indirectly criticiz-
swindlers, and Kawatake Mokuami (1816-93). ing the political status quo by Takizawa (Kyoku-
Brandon includes Nanboku’s The Scarlet Prin- tei) Bakin, Hagiwara Hiromichi, and Hirose
cess of Edo (1817) in his anthology. Karen Tanso in the nineteenth century, we can discern a
Brazell’s anthology includes a fine translation by range of trends and strategies for legitimizing
Mark Oshima of Nanboku’s Tokaido Yotsuya kai- literary activity.
dan. Famous scenes from Mokuami’s most fa- From this perspective, it is of course essential
mous play, Benten kozo, are also included in Le- to have a familiarity with Confucian thought,
iter’s anthology. Other plays by Mokuami include especially as it was reformulated in the Southern
The Love of Izayoi and Seishin, translated by
Sung dynasty by Chu Hsi and the Ch'eng brothers,
Frank Motofuji. 94 Both of these major play- and how these teachings were interpreted by Yi
wrights deserve to have full-length studies in Toegye in sixteenth-century Korea. It is also
English. necessary to be aware of the thought of the Ming
A helpful sourcebook in English is Samuel Le- philosopher Wang Yang-ming, and its relation-
iter’s Kabuki Encyclopedia, which has been ex- ship to Yomeigaku and Shingaku in Japan. Fi-
tensively revised and expanded, and published as nally, one should be aware of the teachings of the
New Kabuki Encyclopedia.95 We are also fortu- disparate schools, later identified as sharing ko-
nate to have an English translation of the most gaku, or "ancient learning," tendencies, promoted
important treatise on kabuki acting, Yakusha ba- by Yamaga Soko in Edo, Ito Jinsai in Kyoto, and
nashi, which has been translated by Charles Dunn Ogyu Sorai, also in Edo.
and Bunzo Torigoe as The Actors’ Analects (Co- Several major studies of early modern Japa-
lumbia UP, 1969).96 nese thought, by Wm. Theodore de Bary and
(HS)
Irene Bloom, H. D. Harootunian, Tetsuo Najita,
Naoki Sakai, Victor Koschmann, Herman Ooms,
Janine Sawada, and others, have appeared over
the past quarter century. 97 They have, with
97
For example, Najita, Tetsuo and Irwin Scheiner eds.
94
Motofuji, Frank T., trans. The Love of Izayoi and Japanese Thought in the Tokugawa Period, 1600-1868:
Seishin: A Kabuki Play by Kawatake Mokuami. Rutland, Methods and Metaphors. Chicago: University of Chicago
VT: Tuttle, 1966. (Kosode Soga azami no ironui) Press, 1978; Ooms, Herman. Tokugawa Ideology: Early
95
Leiter, Samuel L. New Kabuki Encyclopedia. Constructs, 1570-1680. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1997. University Press, 1985; Harootunian, H.D. Things Seen
96
Dunn, Charles and Bunzo Torigoe. The Actors' and Unseen: Discourse and Ideology in Tokugawa Nativ-
Analects. New York: Columbia University Press, 1969 ism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988; Sakai,
[trans. of Yakusha banashi]. Naoki. Voices of the Past: The Status of Language in
39
varying degrees of success, provided readers with Kamo no Mabuchi).101 Study of such "debates"
some tools for understanding intellectual trends, can prove fruitful toward understanding poetic
and, to a lesser extent, for comprehending the preferences from within a culture, and Roger
literary thought that served as a pillar of the vari- Thomas successfully broke new ground in 1994
ous ideological systems promoted over this pe- with an article on the "ga/zoku" controversy that
riod. waged between followers of Kagawa Kageki in
With regard to translations of theoretical texts, Kyoto, and the "Edo faction" (Edo-ha) led by
little work has been done to date. Sources of Murata Harumi and Kato Chikage in the first
Japanese Tradition, Volume II provide brief trans- decade of the nineteenth century.102 Other dis-
lations of works by various thinkers of the period, putes exist, most notably the heated argument
but these are typically not directly related to liter- that waged between Ueda Akinari in Osaka and
ary thought per se. 98 Donald Keene's World Motoori Norinaga in Matsusaka in the late 1780s,
Within Walls in many cases provides the only known as the Kagaika Controversy. While both
discussion of the thought promoted by various Peter Nosco and Blake Morgan Young, Akinari's
writers. 99 Keene's observations require exten- biographer, have discussed this controversy, a full
sive amplification, reinterpretation, and critical examination has yet to appear.103
examination based on a close reading, both of Nosco's book-length study of nativist studies,
primary sources, and of the growing body of re- Remembering Paradise, approached the move-
search on early modern Japanese poetics that con- ment from a perspective of "nostalgia" and ar-
tinues to appear in Japan (such as the excellent chaic utopianism.104 Nosco surveys the move-
series of essays found in the kinsei volumes ment from Keichu in Osaka in the 1690s through
[1996] of the Iwanami koza Nihon bungaku shi Kada no Azumamaro in Kyoto, Mabuchi, and
series).100 finally Norinaga until the latter's death in 1801.
One intellectual historian who has examined Given the fact that all five of the main nativist
some of the literary issues involved is Peter No- scholars were known for their poetry, each leav-
sco, who, in 1981, analyzed the important Kokka ing at least one published anthology of his poems
hachiron, or "Eight Treatises on (Japanese) Na- (kashu) behind, many of the issues Nosco raises
tional Poetry," controversy between Kada no in his study might profitably be re-examined from
Arimaro and Tayasu Munetake (joined later by a perspective that focuses on such literary issues
as the development of alternative schools of po-
etry composition and their relationships with the
publishing industry at that time.
Nosco, and Naoki Sakai, in his Voices of the
Eighteenth-Century Japanese Discourse. Ithaca: Cornell Past (1991), identified the Man'yoshu and
University Press, 1991; De Bary, Wm. Theodore, and Man'yo studies in the early modern period as a
Irene Bloom, ed. Principle and Practicality: Essays in convenient angle for examining the literary
Neo-Confucianism and Practical Learning. New York:
Columbia University Press, 1979; Sawada, Janine Ander-
son. Confucian Values and Popular Zen: Sekimon
Shingaku in Eighteenth-Century Japan. Honolulu: Uni-
versity of Hawai'i Press, 1993; and Koschmann, J. Victor.
101
The Mito Ideology: Discourse, Reform, and Insurrection Nosco, Peter. “Nature, Invention, and National
in Late Tokugawa Japan, 1790-1864. Berkeley, Los Learning: The Kokka hachiron Controversy: 1742-46.”
Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1987. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 41.1 (1981): 75-91.
98 102
Tsunoda, Ryusaku, Wm. Theodore de Bary, and Thomas, Roger K. "'High' versus 'Low': The Fude
Donald Keene, comp. Sources of Japanese Tradition, no Saga Controversy and Bakumatsu Poetics."
Volume II. NewYork and London: Columbia University Monumenta Nipponica 49 (1994): 455-69.
103
Press, 1958, 1964 (paper). Young, Blake Morgan. Ueda Akinari. Vancouver:
99
Keene, Donald. World Within Walls: Japanese University of British Columbia Press, 1982.
104
Literature of the Pre-Modern Era 1600-1868. New York: Nosco, Peter. Remembering Paradise: Nativism
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976. and Nostalgia in Eighteenth-Century Japan. Harvard
100
Kubota Jun, et al., ed. (Iwanami koza) Nihon bun- Yenching Monograph series 31. Cambridge, Mass.:
gaku shi. Volumes 7-11. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1996. Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1990.
40
thought of various scholars.105 Much more de- alism, Protest, and the Tale of Genji, a masterful
tail is necessary, though, to provide a clear under- study of Genji in Kumazawa Banzan's thought.109
standing of what roles the Man'yoshu (or the McMullen's analysis is marked by clarity of
Kokinshu or the Shin-kokinshu, for that matter) thought, rigorous attention to factual detail, and
actually played, and how those roles changed clarity of argument. Scholarship such as this
over the course of the period. provides a standard of quality that future students
Early modern scholarly and critical interest in in the field can use when judging their own work.
the Heian classics, such as the Ise monogatari Many important Japanese Confucian scholars
and the Genji monogatari also serve as potential dealt with literary issues in their writings, and
subjects of fruitful research. The 1971 disserta- such treatises served both to enhance literary dis-
tion by Thomas Harper on Norinaga's Genji course among Confucians themselves, and also to
monogatari Tama no ogushi (pub. 1794), com- provide nativist-leaning scholars with new tools
plete with English translation of the "Omune" for developing their own poetics. Joseph J.
("General Theory") section, has for three decades Spae wrote a treatise on Ito Jinsai in the 1940s
now served as an important starting point for that appeared in reprinted form in 1967.110 John
many students, both of early modern literary Allen Tucker has recently published a translation
thought, and of Genji studies alike. 106 Hope- and study of one of Jinsai's most important works,
fully this study will be published, or perhaps a Go-Mo jigi ("Meanings of Words in the Analects
future study can take Norinaga's literary thought and the Mencius").111 However, the only article
to the next level, and examine its development, to date that examines the relationship between
its origins, and its reception. Jinsai's school, especially Jinsai's notion of hu-
In a 1985 essay translated by Bob Wakabaya- man emotions, and the Shih ching, or Book of
shi, Noguchi Takehiko examined the use of Genji Songs, is Lawrence Marceau's study found in the
monogatari by the nineteenth-century scholar journal Sino-Japanese Studies.112 As for Sorai
Hagiwara Hiromichi (1815-63). 107 More re- and his literary thought, Sumie Jones published
cently, Patrick Caddeau has produced a substan- an essay in Earl Miner's Principles of Classical
tial Ph. D. thesis on Hiromichi and his poetics.108 Japanese Literature (1985), in which she related
Publication of Caddeau's study will go far to help Sorai's literary thought with Hiraga Gennai's
fill in the gaps in our understanding on the rela- creative practice. 113 Sorai influenced many
tionships between Chinese and Japanese literary more writers than Gennai, though, and their in-
thought, and between nativist poetics and nine- debtedness to Sorai and his followers demands
teenth-century yomihon fiction. further examination. In this respect, Samuel
The major development in early-modern use of Yamashita has published a useful translation of
Genji monogatari by an intellectual figure, how- the Sorai sensei tomonsho, (Master Sorai's Re-
ever, is James McMullen's 1999 monograph, Ide-
105 109
Sakai, Naoki. Voices of the Past: The Status of McMullen, James. Idealism, Protest, and The
Language in Eighteenth-Century Japanese Discourse. Tale of Genji. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1999.
110
Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991. Spae, Joseph J. Ito Jinsai: A Philosopher,
106
Harper, Thomas James. "Motoori Norinaga's Educator and Sinologist of the Tokugawa Period. (rept.)
Criticism of the Genji monogatari: A Study of the New York: Paragon Book Reprint Corp., 1967.
111
Background and Critical Content of His Genji monogatari Tucker, John Allen. Ito Jinsai's Gomo Jigi & the
Tama no ogushi." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Philosophical Definition of Early Modern Japan.
Michigan, 1971. Leiden: Brill, 1998.
107 112
Noguchi, Takehiko; Bob T. Wakabayashi, trans. Marceau, Lawrence E. "Ninjo and the Affective
"The Substratum Constituting Monogatari: Prose Value of Literature at the Kogido Academy." Sino-
Structure and Narrative in the Genji Monogatari." Earl Japanese Studies 9/1 (November 1996): 47-55.
113
Miner, ed. Principles of Classical Japanese Literature. Jones, Sumie. “Language in Crisis: Ogyu Sorai’s
Princeton: Princeton UP, 1985. Pp. 130-50. Philological Thought and Hiraga Gennai’s Creative
108
Caddeau, Patrick W. "Hagiwara Hiromichi's 'Genji Practice.” In Earl Miner, ed., Principles of Classical
monogatari hyoshaku': Criticism and commentary on 'The Japanese Literature. Princeton: Princeton University
Tale of Genji'." Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, 1999. Press, 1985: 209-256.
41
sponsals).114 ades to come for future work in the field.119

(LEM)
Conclusion
Early Modern Books and Publishing Briefly, the current state of early modern Japa-
This is not only a field that raises important is- nese literature studies in Western languages is
sues in its own right, but it is one in which West- one of nearly unlimited opportunity. Not only
ern scholars can provide a unique contribution to does much basic identification of works, indi-
the field, given the strong collections of illus- viduals, and movements still need to be done, but
trated books (ehon) that survive outside of Japan. comparative studies of Japanese literature vis à
David Chibbett, with his 1977 survey, A History vis Chinese (and Korean) literature can help pro-
of Japanese Books and Printing, and Matthi For- vide a context from within the East Asian cultural
rer, with his 1985 study of an important publisher, sphere. The fact that many narratives, especially
Eirakuya Toshiro: Publisher at Nagoya, broke yomihon, owe a great deal to continental Asian
ground in this respect.115 Jack Hillier has pro- fiction makes it imperative that continued re-
vided a massive compendium of ehon with his search on literature and literary thought in early
1987 The Art of the Japanese Book, and has fol- modern Japan take continental Asian writings
lowed through with several other studies in book into account. Only a few scholars at Ph.D.-
illustration and woodblock picture books.116 C. granting programs are currently active in training
H. Mitchell's 1972 biobibliography of illustrated the next generation of scholars, so much respon-
books is an indispensable reference, and it is a sibility for active publication falls on the shoul-
great shame that this is out of print and difficult ders of scholars in smaller programs that do not
to find.117 Henry D. Smith II published a com- enjoy strong Japanese collections. Hopefully,
parison of the publishing worlds in Paris and Edo interdisciplinary collaboration among literature
respectively, that underscores the great diversity specialists and art historians, historians, and intel-
and momentum that publishing enjoyed in the lectual historians can generate more articles and
early modern period. 118 Finally, Peter Kor- books. Anthologies, such as that edited by Ha-
nicki's 1998 The Book in Japan serves as a cor- ruo Shirane (Columbia University Press, 2002),
nerstone that will continue to be valuable for dec- and another by Sumie Jones and Howard S. Hib-
bett to appear from the University of Hawai'i
Press, promise to generate greater interest in the
field from a broader range of students. Under-
114
Yamashita, Samuel Hideo, trans. Master Sorai’s graduates and M.A. students need an introduction
Responsals: An Annotated Translation of ‘Sorai Sensei to the field, and such anthologies are a powerful
Tomonsho’. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1994. enticement to further reading and research.
115
Chibbett, David. The History of Japanese From another perspective, close collaboration
Printing and Book Illustration. Tokyo, New York, & with Japanese scholars can provide for more pro-
San Francisco: Kodansha International, 1977; Forrer,
Matthi. Eirakuya Toshiro: Publisher at Nagoya: A
ductivity. Only a handful of essays by Japanese
Contribution to the History of Publishing in 19th Century scholars have been translated into English, while,
Japan. Amsterdam: Gieben, 1985. in the intellectual history field, for example, Ma-
116
Hillier, Jack. The Art of the Japanese Book. 2 ruyama Masao's study of Ogyu Sorai's thought
vols. London: Philip Wilson for Sotheby's, 1987; Hillier, transformed the field when it appeared in English
The Japanese Picture Book: A Selection from the Ravicz translation in 1974.120 Given the greater ease in
Collection. New York: Abrams, 1991.
117
Mitchell, C. H. The Illustrated Books of the Nanga,
Maruyama, Shijo, and Other Related Schools in Japan: A
Biobibliography. Los Angeles: Dawson's Book Shop,
119
1972. Kornicki, Peter. The Book in Japan: A Cultural
118
Smith, Henry D. II. "The History of the Book in History from the Beginnings to the Nineteenth Century.
Edo and Paris." In McClain, James L., John M. Merriman, Leiden: Brill, 1998; rept. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i
and Ugawa Kaoru, eds. Edo and Paris : Urban Life and Press, 2000.
120
the State in the Early Modern Era. Ithaca: Cornell UP, Maruyama, Masao; Mikiso Hane, trans. Studies
1994: 332-54. in the Intellectual History of Tokugawa Japan.
42
communication and sharing of ideas (not to men-

tion texts) provided by the Internet, it should be
possible to collaborate with Japanese scholars on
bilingual editions of works, multi-language stud-
ies of authors, or other such publications. Don-
ald Keene has published three books, on Taketori
monogatari, on Oku no hosomichi, and, most
recently, on Tsurezuregusa, that provide bilingual
texts, and beautiful illustrations.121 In the case
of Taketori, an unusual textual variant, the Ohide-
bon, is even provided as an appendix to Kawa-
bata Yasunari's modern Japanese and Keene's
English translations. The possibilities for such
collaboration with Japanese scholars, writers, and
illustrators seem almost endless.
(LEM)
Nakamura Nakazo I (actor) portraying a monk.

From Timothy T. Clark and Osamu Ueda with Donald Jenkins,
Naomi Noble Richard, ed., The Actor’s Image: Print Makers of
Princeton & Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press and the Katsukawa School. Chicago: The Art Institute of Chicago in
Princeton University Press, 1974. association with Princeton University Press, 1994, p. 146.
121
Keene, Donald, trans., The Narrow Road to Oku.
Tokyo & New York: Kodansha International, 1996;
Keene, trans. The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter: Taketori
monogatari. Tokyo & New York: Kodansha International,
1998; Keene, trans., Selections from Essays in Idleness
(Yorinuki Tsurezuregusa). Tokyo: Kodansha Intanasho-
naru, 1999.
43
ing the 17th and 18th Centuries." University of Takebe Ayatari (1719 - 1774)
Oxford. 1974. Sharebon
Stanbury, Nicholas. "Japanese Shakudo and Shi- Kibyoshi and Santo Kyoden (1761-1816)
buichi Alloys." Faculty of Art and Design, Kokkeibon: Shikitei Sanba (1776-1822)
Middlesex Polytechnic University, London. and Jippensha Ikku (1765-1831)
1986. Takizawa (Kyokutei) Bakin (1767 – 1848)
Trede, Melanie. "Image, Text and Audience: The Yomihon
Taishokan story in Visual Representations of Ryutei Tanehiko (1783-1842)
the Early Modern Period. Studies of Pictorial Tamenaga Shunsui (1790-1843)
Narrative in Japan.” University of Heidelberg. Kusazoshi
1999.
Trinh, Khanh. "Representation of Real Land- IV. Early Modern Books and Publishing
scapes in Pre-Modern Japan: The Shinkei-
paintings of Tani Buncho (1763-1840)." Uni- V. Drama
versity of Zurich. 2000. Early Modern Theatre in General
Puppet Theatre in General
Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653-1725)
Bibliography of Literature in Ear- Golden Age of Puppet Theatre
Kabuki in General
ly Modern Japan (English language, al- Kabuki Juhachiban
phabetical order by sub-fields) Kanadehon Chushingura
©Haruo Shirane with Lawrence E. Marceau Kawatake Mokuami (1816-1893)
Outline of Bibliography Structure VI. Philologists and Scholars of Chinese and

I. General Readings on Early Modern Cul- Japanese
ture and Literature Early Modern Literary Thought
Matsudaira Sadanobu (1758-1829)
II. Early Modern Poetry and Poetic Prose Song Confucian Thought and Ancient Learning
Early Haikai Nakae Toju (1604-1648)
Matsuo Basho (1644 - 1694) and his Hokku Ito Jinsai (1627-1705)
Basho's Linked Verse Ogyu Sorai (1666-1728)
Oku no hosomichi Arai Hakuseki (1657-1725)
Other Poetic Diaries by Basho Waka and Nativist Studies
Other Haikai Poets Motoori Norinaga (1730-1801)
Later Haibun
Yosa Buson (1716 - 1784) VII. Miscellaneous
Kobayashi Issa (1763 - 1827)
Senryu, Comic Haikai I. General Readings on Early Modern Cul-
Poetry in Chinese ture and Literature
Ryokan (1758 - 1831) Gerstle, Andrew C. ed. 18th Century Japan: Cul-
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III. Prose Fiction Itasaka, Gen. "Characteristics of the Literature of
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EARLY MODERN JAPAN FALL, 2002

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