NÚMERO 230

ROSARIO AGUILAR
Social and Political Consequences of Stereotypes
Related to Racial Phenotypes in Mexico

AGOSTO 2011

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 Acknowledgements

This research was funded by the Political Science Department

and the Rackham Graduate School at the University of
Michigan.
The author wishes to thank the people in Mexico City who
helped recruiting subjects for these experiments. For
institutional support the author thanks CIDE, ITAM, and the
US-Mexican Studies Center at UCSD. For their expert advice
the author thanks Don Kinder, Nancy Burns, Vince Hutchings,
John Jackson, Joy Langston, Daniel Levine, Denise
Sekaquaptewa, and the attendants to the US-Mexican Studies
Speaker Seminar Series at UCSD.
 Abstract

In this paper I study the social and political consequences of Mexicans’

different racial appearances. Common wisdom in Mexico claims that
discrimination among Mexicans occurs along socioeconomic lines but that
people’s racial appearance does not matter. In this paper I take issue with
this position by designing two laboratory experiments that test the effect of
people’s different phenotypes on how others evaluate them or decide to
vote for them in elections. I differentiate between European-looking,
Indigenous-looking and Mixed-looking Mexicans. The pictures used in the
study are created using a morphing software package so I could combine
both skin tone and features of European and Indigenous-looking individuals.
The findings in this paper show that phenotypic appearance among
Mexicans matter. Mexicans tend to socially evaluate more positively
European-looking Mexicans and they also tend to vote more for a European-
looking candidate over a Mixed or Indigenous-looking ones. The results also
show that people are cognizant of more negative traits attached to
indigenous-looking individuals than to mestizo or European-looking persons,
while attaching more positive traits to the latter. This research shows the
social and political consequences, as well as existence, of stereotypes
associated to phenotypes among Mexicans.

Resumen

En este documento analizo las consecuencias políticas y sociales de la

apariencia racial de los mexicanos. En México se acepta la existencia de
discriminación basada en clase social, pero no en la apariencia fenotípica o
racial. En este estudio diseño dos experimentos de laboratorio para explorar
el efecto de los fenotipos en cómo las personas son evaluadas o votadas en
elecciones por otros. Diferencio entre mexicanos con apariencia europea,
indígena y mezclada. Para crear las fotografías utilizo un programa de
computación que mezcla tanto los rasgos faciales como el color de piel de
las personas de apariencia europea e indígena. Los resultados del estudio
demuestran que la apariencia fenotípica es relevante en el contexto
mexicano. Los mexicanos tienden a dar evaluaciones sociales más positivas
a individuos de apariencia europea que a individuos de apariencia indígena
o mezclada. Los resultados también demuestran la existencia de más
características negativas asociadas a personas de apariencia indígena, que a
personas de apariencia mezclada o europea. Mientas tanto, se asocian
características más positivas a estos últimos. Este estudio demuestra la
existencia de estereotipos y los efectos que éstos tienen en la vida social y
política de los mexicanos de acuerdo a su apariencia racial o fenotípica.
 Social and Political Consequences of Stereotypes Related to Racial
Phenotypes in Mexico

Introduction

The study of racial politics has been mostly centered in the U.S., and to a
lesser extent, in countries with large black populations. Some authors have
considered Mexico, along with the rest of Latin America, to be a case of the
racial democracy thesis at work as they argue its society is not divided by
race, but by social class (Degler, 1971; Freyre, 1946; Pierson, 1942;
Tannenbaum, 1947). Other authors argue that discrimination still exists and
affects indigenous and black populations in these countries (Bonfil Batalla,
2000; Gall, 2004; Knight, 1990; Machuca, 1998; Sawyer, 2006; Sidanius et al.,
2001; Telles, 2004; Telles and Sue, 2009; Urías Horcasitas, 2007). This paper
adds to the latter position by developing a theory and showing evidence of
mestizo Mexicans differentiating among themselves according to their racial
appearance, and attaching different stereotypical traits to people according
to that appearance, even though they are considered members of the same
racial group. I show that these stereotypes translate into prejudicial behavior,
which, in turn, affects the way Mexicans behave politically. The empirical
evidence supporting this argument comes from two experiments: the
stereotype and candidate experiments. The stereotype experiment measures
the existence of socially-held stereotypes associated with people’s racial
characteristics; while the candidate experiment tests for the effect of
electoral candidates’ racial appearance on voters’ evaluation and decision to
vote for such a candidate.
The paper consists of three different sections. The first section outlines
the theoretical argument that motivated this research. The second section
discusses the experiments conducted as well as the results obtained. Finally,
the last section discusses the implications of these findings.

A Theory of Phenotypic Prejudice

Race as a concept is a product of European expansion in the 15th century

(Stevens, 1999: 186). As Europeans conquered new lands in Africa and the
Americas, they developed a hierarchical system linking perceived biological
and behavioral differences with diverse racial labels that would allow them to
maintain power as a superior race (Anderson and E. Fienberg, 1999: 174). The
idea of race as a meaningful genetic or biological term has lost its previous
support. As early as 1944, when studying the U.S., Myrdal wrote that “the
definition of the ‘Negro race’ is thus a social and conventional, not a
biological concept” and this social concept “determines the status of an
individual and his place in interracial relations” (115). Further research
demonstrated and sustained that race is a subjective and social construct
(Lewontin, 1995). In spite of these findings, social psychologists and political

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scientists show that people continue to rely on negative/positive stereotypes

associated with racial appearance in their daily lives (Devine, 1989; Kinder
and Sanders, 1996; Mendelberg, 2001; Sears and Kinder, 1985; Sears and
Henry, 2005; Sigelman et al., 1995; Sniderman and Piazza, 1993; Valentino et
al., 2002, among others ).
Researchers studying race in Mexico have focused on relations between
indigenous and non-indigenous groups (Bonfil Batalla, 1980; Stavenhagen,
1992). In the field of political science specifically, scholars have primarily
looked at indigenous social movements (Trejo, 2004). The purpose of this
study is to broaden the scope of the research on social and political
consequences of discrimination related to racial markers or phenotypes in
contexts where such conflict seems to be absent. Phenotypes are the
observable characteristics of a person produced by the interaction of the
person’s genotype with the environment. Thus, researchers use relevant
phenotypic characteristics as racial markers (skin color, height, facial
features, etc.) when differentiating among racial groups. As it does not make
sense to talk about racism among members of the same racial group (mestizo)
the term phenotypic prejudice is proposed as it refers to prejudice based on
people’s phenotypes. In order to understand the sources of phenotypic
stereotypes among mestizo Mexicans, it is useful to discuss Mexico’s racial
ideology.

Mexico’s Racial Ideology

Mexico’s current racial ideology groups the majority of Mexicans under the
same racial group: mestizo. This racial ideology has been on the making since
Mexico gained its independence from Spain. Race became a relevant factor in
Mexico’s society and politics after the European conquest.1 The Spanish elites
established a caste system to differentiate among people according to their
ancestry.2 After Mexico’s independence in 1821, the new Mexican political
elites abolished slavery and the caste system, promoting the construction of a
national identity that overlapped with a racial identity (Mexicans would
generally belong to the mestizo racial group). By creating this broad racial
group that includes most people in the society, Mexico gave the impression of
overcoming the problem of racism. The implication was that if everybody
belongs to the same racial group, no one can be a racist.
According to mestizo ideology, indigenous value resides in the past. That
is, indigenous people are valued for the greatness of their historic civilizations
but devalued for maintaining the purity of their indigenous race and culture
rather than assimilating into the rest of Mexican society (Gall, 2004). The
1 Indigenous people differentiated among themselves as they belonged to different tribes, but those differences were
related more to culture and religion than racial variation.
2 For a list of those categories, look at Appendix 2, Table A2.1.

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mestizo race, in contrast, was seen as superior because it took the best from
the native and European cultures and races.3
The mestizaje (intermixing), more than a biological process, is a social
and cultural process. One becomes mestizo by adapting to society and leaving
behind one’s ancestral traditions. From the mestizo perspective, it is better
to be mestizo than indigenous, and it is better to be more European-looking
than indigenous-looking.4 Far from eradicating racism in Mexico, the mestizo
ideology exchanged the European vs. indigenous dichotomy for the mestizo vs.
indigenous dichotomy (Machuca, 1998: 47). This conflict between mestizos
and indigenous people affects relationships among mestizos as well, for
mestizos will discriminate against other mestizos who are more indigenous-
looking than they.
After the Mexican Revolution (1920), “being a Mexican became
synonymous with being a Mestizo” (Massey and Denton, 1992: 238). Since
then, the Mexican state has sought the construction of a homogeneous
society, a mestizo society (Bonfil Batalla, 2000: 91). After the revolution,
social mobility created an optical illusion in Mexico (Knight, 1990). As in other
Latin American countries, people believed that indigenous and African people
could become mestizos through education, by leaving their communities,
educating themselves, and adopting Western habits of dress (Knight, 1990).
Therefore, “upwardly mobile individuals were whitened,” but they will never
be completely White.
More than a racial category, being mestizo is a social fact, an ascribed and
achieved status (Knight, 1990: 73). As Knight argues, independent Mexico did
not eliminate race in favor of socioeconomic cleavages; rather, both coexist
together. Hayes-Bautista argues that income and phenotypic appearance are
highly correlated in Mexico as “Indians [are] at the lower end of the [income]
scale, [and] Europeans at the top” (1983: 275). Currently, Mexicans “take
account of social class as well as appearance in determining degrees of
whiteness” (National Research Council, 2004: 29).
Mexicans also continue to hold dearly to negative stereotypes of
indigenous people. Spanish in Mexico is rife with pejorative nouns related to
race. For example, a documented definition of the concept of indio in Mexico
is “Indian, often implying a dim-witted, surly type” (Stephens, 1989: 126).
Another slang word, commonly used among non-indigenous Mexicans as an
insult, is naco, which means a “stupid, indigenous person with innate inferior

3 José Vasconcelos, a Mexican intellectual and minister of Education in the early 20th century, developed the
theoretical framework to support the idea of the superiority of the mestizo race that, in his words, would dominate
the world. His most important work in relation to this topic is La Raza Cósmica: Misión de la Raza Iberamericana;
Argentina y Brasil (1925).
4 For purposes of brevity, I omit the “looking” word when referring to different appearances. For example, I use

interchangeably the words, European and European-looking, doing the same for the other two categories, mestizo
and indigenous. Every time I talk about these categories, I refer to the way people think about the way they and
others look, or are perceived. I never assume any genetic or essential differences among them.

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qualities, ignorant indigenous person” (Stephens, 1989: 175). As such, a well

educated, upper-class indigenous-looking individual faces discrimination
because of her appearance that a European-looking person with the same
characteristics (social class and education) does not face. As Knight puts it,
this discrimination opposes the state’s ideology: “[A] whole range of
prejudices and discriminations therefore exists, but exists in defiance of
official ideology. Indian languages are officially endorsed, while unofficially
frowned upon” (Knight, 1990: 100).
One of the main arguments in this research is that discrimination
according to one’s phenotype is not only present between indigenous and non-
indigenous people, but also among that broad group of people who identify as
mestizo, and between European-looking persons and mestizos as well. In a
sense, official ideology has failed to eradicate racism from Mexico’s society;
rather, it has simply made it more difficult to measure. A review of the
relationship between stereotypes and race follows to clarify the mechanisms
underlying the study of discrimination among Mexicans.

Phenotypes and Stereotypes

According to social psychology research, people group the things and living
beings that surround them into categories. Therefore, “categorizing
individuals on the basis of salient, observable characteristics such as race,
gender, age (…) is inevitable, occurs automatically, and activates biases
associated with these characteristics” (National Research Council, 2004: 23).
If people are composed of abstract and perceptual features, it can be said
that other people generally have secondary knowledge about the relationship
between the person’s abstract and perceptual features. People organize these
relationships in schemata, understood as structures in which people
automatically organize their ideas in their memory (Monroe et al., 2000).
Schemata are particularly interesting because recalling one element of a
schema can bring to mind all the concepts included in that schema. For
example, if Mexicans possess a schema related to indigenous people, one look
at an indigenous person will trigger all the ideas that are part of that schema.
This research argues that by showing Mexicans pictures of people with specific
phenotypes, a whole range of ideas associated with European, mestizo, and
indigenous people is stimulated. As Hilton and von Hippel (1996) explain,
stereotypes are beliefs people have about the behavior, characteristics, and
attributes of members of different groups. Stereotypes also explain the
relationships between these attributes and characteristics in both positive and
negative fashions. When people rely on stereotypes, they run the risk of
ignoring individual differences of the members of the evaluated group. While
stereotypes can be based on actual perceived differences among groups, it is
more often the case that stereotypes are erroneous generalizations about

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Phenotypes in Mexico

groups that lack empirical evidence. Finally, stereotypes provide a

rationalization for prejudiced behavior against people whom one perceives as
“different”.
In the specific case of Mexico, at the time of the Spanish conquest and
after Mexico’s independence, indigenous people were mainly working in the
rural sector, and when living in cities they were concentrated in manual
labor. Throughout Mexico’s economic development, the poor and excluded
sectors of society have been mainly indigenous people. Therefore, according
to Campbell and LeVine (1972), there are some stereotypes that should
overlap with the ethnic cleavage in Mexico:

A. Rural groups are seen as: country-bumpkin, unsophisticated, confused,

guileless and ill (156).

B. Manual workers are seen as: strong, stupid, pleasure-loving and

improvident (157).

As the relations between indigenous and non-indigenous people became

more institutionalized, the social stereotypes attached to indigenous people
acquired certain “social validity” (1972: 159). Indigenous people did not have
access to the same resources (education, technology, basic needs, job
training, etc.); therefore, the stereotypes became a sort of “self-fulfilling
prophecy.”
This work assumes that there is always a tension between indigenous and
European heritages for mestizos, who have a bias towards European heritage.
The Mexican intellectual and political elites developed a sort of assimilating
racism through which indigenous people were assimilated as long as they
mixed with Europeans, a process of progressive whiteness (Gall, 2004).
In terms of racial phenotypes, the persistence and expression of
stereotypes and prejudice depends on whether the person discriminated
against bears phenotypical traits that clearly identify him or her as a member
of the undesirable group (Maddox, 2004). These stereotypes affect people’s
political behavior. As an example, Terkildsen (1993) shows that non-Hispanic
White voters are less prejudiced towards, and tend to vote more for, an
African American candidate who depicts more European than African
phenotypes. Hochschild and her colleagues (2004) also show that non-Hispanic
White voters would rather vote for minority candidates who look more
European.

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The hypotheses I test in this paper are the following:

ƒ Stereotype hypothesis: Mexicans are generally cognizant that more

negative stereotypes are attached to indigenous phenotypes than to
European phenotypes.
ƒ Social class hypothesis: Mexicans, based solely on people’s phenotypic
appearance, will tend to identify indigenous people as poor while
identifying European individuals as wealthy.
ƒ Candidate hypothesis: All participants will tend to favor an electoral
candidate with certain racial phenotypes (i.e. European) over an
electoral candidate with other phenotypes (i.e. indigenous).
ƒ Ideology hypothesis: Subjects will tend to locate the European
candidate to the right of the indigenous candidate, who in turn will be
located to the left of the mestizo one. As European phenotypes are
associated with wealthy people, voters will think that a candidate with
such appearance would prefer more market-oriented policies. As
indigenous phenotypes are associated with low-income individuals, a
candidate with such appearance will tend prefer to prefer more
redistributive policies in voters’ eyes.

A good methodological approach to test this theory of phenotypic

prejudice is through experiments in controlled environments. Through
experiments, the researcher is able to isolate the factors influencing
participants’ reactions, so they have strong internal validity (McGraw et al.,
2003). The existence of phenotypic prejudice has not been tested among
Mexicans, so it is important to guarantee that participants’ answers in the
research are produced by the phenotypic stimuli.
In the following section, I discuss the experiments designed to test these
hypotheses, the analysis of the data, and the main findings.

Research Design and Results

Stereotype Experiment

The experiment consisted of three different sections. The first section of the
experiment mapped how Mexicans group other Mexicans solely based on their
phenotypic appearance. Subjects looked at a set of pictures and were asked
to group them. If phenotypes do not matter for Mexicans’ interactions, then
subjects should not categorize others according to the phenotypic
appearance. The second section was designed to test whether subjects’
evaluation of an individual varies depending on: a) the subject’s own
phenotypic appearance, and b) the individual’s phenotypic appearance, by
priming phenotypic stereotypes. The purpose of the third section was to

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explore the content of socially known stereotypes associated with different

phenotypes among Mexicans. In this last section, which is the section I discuss
in this paper, subjects are made aware of the person’s phenotypic appearance
so they can consciously list traits socially associated with that person’s
phenotypic characteristics.5
In the third section of the experiment, subjects looked at a picture
attached to a sheet of paper of a male individual with European, mestizo, or
indigenous phenotypes. The pictures used were selected from nine pictures.
Of the nine pictures, three depict European individuals, another three depict
mestizos, and the last set of three depicts indigenous individuals. All the
pictures are of fictitious people made from hybridized photographs of real
models to appear as European, mestizo, or indigenous.6 On the sheet of
paper, subjects were asked to write all the traits they could think other
Mexicans would attribute to that person. Subjects were told that the
researcher was not interested in their personal beliefs or whether they
approve of what other people would think. By using this strategy, the
researcher was forcing subjects to be conscious of stereotypes associated with
people’s phenotypic appearance. The instructions in this section are:
“In this part, I just want to ask you to think about the way people, in
general, think about other individuals depending on the way they look. I am
not interested in your personal beliefs.
Please, look at the picture of this person and write down the way other
people in Mexican society would think about him before talking to him:
What are his qualities, flaws, and characteristics? Please list any number
of characteristics you could think of that other people would think about
when looking at this person regardless of whether you agree or not with their
opinions.”

Data collection

Data were collected at three universities in Mexico City between February and
March of 2007. A total of 136 undergraduate students participated. The
students were mostly enrolled in social science majors (e.g. political science,
international relations, economics, sociology, etc.) One of the universities is
private, and the other two are public. Access to the students was granted
with prior approval of their professors, who told the students that their

5 As I will only discuss the findings from the third section of this experiment, I have omitted the experiment’s
chronology from the main paper. This information is available from the author at the reader’s request.
6 Most of the pictures used to create the stimuli are from the project “La Cara del Mexicano” (The Mexican Face),

whose authors collected pictures of 2890 Mexican people from different parts of the country. None of the originals
were used as the stimuli consist of only hybridized pictures. For information related to the project, please look at:
(Serrano et al., 1997). I am grateful to Dr. Serrano and Dr. Villanueva for making available a subset of the pictures.

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Rosario Aguilar

participation was necessary for the researcher to complete her graduate

degree.

Of the 136 students, 48% were male and 52% were female, with an average
age of 21. Most came from families with a monthly average income between
16,001 and 20,000 Mexican pesos (1,178-1,472 U.S. dollars).

Results

There were three missing cases in which participants expressed their

disagreement with the task, arguing that someone could not know someone
else just by looking at him. Of the 133 remaining cases, forty-seven subjects
saw the picture of a European person, forty-two of a mestizo individual, and
forty-four looked at an indigenous individual. The individuals in these
conditions were completely indistinguishable from each other in all socio-
demographic factors (income, age, gender and appearance).7

Coding
The open-ended data were coded by writing down all the words used to
describe the person in the picture. Following the stereotype literature, and
after looking at the data, twenty-five different categories were created
(Carver and Ganellen, 1983; Devine, 1989; Spencer-Rodgers, 2001; Hilton and
Von Hippel, 1996). Subjects’ responses were grouped under these categories.8
Multiple words relating to the same category were coded once. Only those
categories that received ten percent or more mentions were considered for
the analysis as relevant traits.9 Those traits were used to create three
different composites. The first composite includes traits describing
stereotypic characteristics related to a person’s skills.10 The second composite
contains traits related to a person’s bad or good personality.11 The third
composite includes information on social class.12 Finally, twenty-eight
subjects referred to the person’s phenotypes when describing him (e.g. “They
would think that he is poor because he is dark-skinned”, “He is a typical
Mexican because of the color of his skin”, etc.). A variable was used to

7 The results of the One-way ANOVA are in Appendix 1, Table A1.1

8 Of course, there were responses that did not fit these categories, such as: he likes to vacation, he is young, etc.
These responses were not coded as part of stereotypic traits.
9 The final composites’ descriptive statistics are in Appendix 1, Table A1.2.
10 For example: capable/incapable; enterprising/unenterprising; good student/bad student; good job
opportunities/unskilled job; advanced studies/low education; college/technical education, etc.
11 For example: good/bad person; pleasant/unpleasant; good influence on others/bad influence on others, etc.
12 The categories used are: Lower Social Class: Low social class; low-wage job; kid from the streets; public school;

lower class people would relate to him; low economic chances; etc. Middle Social Class: Middle class; office job;
economically stable; middle-income job; not upper class; not lower class. Upper Social Class: upper social class; high
social status; wealthy.

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Phenotypes in Mexico

identify those cases in which subjects made a direct reference to the person’s
phenotypes.

Analysis
I present the results of the analysis in two different tables: one includes traits
and composites related to personal characteristics, and the second data is on
perception of social class membership. As the tables show, there are some
interesting patterns in the categories between the experimental conditions.

TABLE 1. AVERAGE SCORE OF EACH TRAIT OR COMPOSITE PER EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION

VARIABLE EUROPEAN MESTIZO INDIGENOUS

SKILLS COMPOSITE 0.085 0.095 0.030

PERSONALITY COMPOSITE 0.133 0.143 0.082
RACE 0.170 0.095 0.364
TRADITIONAL 0.149 0.071 0.205
TYPICAL MEXICAN 0.043 0.071 0.273
N 47 42 44

TABLE 2. AVERAGE SCORE ON PERCEPTION OF SOCIAL CLASS

PER EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION

VARIABLE EUROPEAN MESTIZO INDIGENOUS

SOCIAL CLASS (COMPOSITE) 0.610 0.520 0.183

UPPER CLASS 0.212 0.095 0.000
MIDDLE CLASS 0.340 0.190 0.227
LOWER CLASS 0.043 0.095 0.386
N 47 42 44

In order to inquire into these relationships, an analysis of variance was

conducted for each trait or composite. The analysis of variance is a method
for analyzing the effect of one factor (in this case the experimental condition)
on the mean of a response variable (e.g. social class, skills scale, etc.) An
advantage of the analysis of variance over linear regression analysis is that
one can get coefficients for all the possible contrasts between the
experimental and control conditions clearly showing the effect of each
condition. (Young, 2005: C-11)

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 Rosario Aguilar

TABLE 3. DIFFERENCES IN TRAITS ASSOCIATED TO PEOPLE’S PHENOTYPIC APPEARANCE:

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

EUROPEAN- EUROPEAN-
VARIABLE MESTIZO-INDIGENOUS
MESTIZO INDIGENOUS
SKILLS COMPOSITE -0.010 0.055* 0.065**
PERSONALITY COMPOSITE -0.010 0.051+ 0.060*
RACE 0.075 -0.194** -0.269***
TRADITIONAL 0.078 -0.056 -0.134*
TYPICAL MEXICAN -0.028 -0.230*** -0.202***

TABLE 4. DIFFERENCES IN PERCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL CLASS ASSOCIATED TO PEOPLE’S

PHENOTYPIC APPEARANCE: ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

EUROPEAN- EUROPEAN-
VARIABLE MESTIZO-INDIGENOUS
MESTIZO INDIGENOUS
SOCIAL CLASS (COMPOSITE) 0.090 0.427*** 0.337***
UPPER CLASS 0.117* 0.212*** 0.095+
MIDDLE CLASS 0.150++ 0.113 -0.037
***
LOWER CLASS 0.052 -0.343 -0.291***
***p-value ≤ 0.01; **0.01< p-value ≤ 0.05; *0.05< p-value ≤ 0.10
++0.01< p-value ≤ 0.05; +0.05< p-value ≤ 0.10 (one-tail)

Overall, participants gave a more positive assessment to the European and

mestizo persons compared to the indigenous one. Subjects evaluated both the
European and mestizo persons as individuals with higher skills, better
personality, and not as “typical Mexicans” as the indigenous person. It is
important to underscore that even if some differences are not large; some of
them are highly significant, showing their relevance. In the case of the
mention of terms related to racial phenotypes, the analysis shows subjects’
propensity to use these terms more often when referring to an indigenous-
looking individual. Participants also thought that the indigenous individual
would be perceived as more traditional than his mestizo counterpart. Finally,
indigenous individuals are always located below the European and mestizo
counterparts in the social class hierarchy. Looking at disaggregated social
classes, the European people are also located above the mestizo people.
These findings show support for the stereotype hypothesis. Indigenous
people are seen as traditional, less skilled, and as members of a lower class.
European individuals are seen as more skilled and as members of middle and
upper social classes. It is also worth noting that participants in the indigenous
conditions mentioned at least one phenotypic characteristic of the individual

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significantly more often compared to the individuals in the European and

mestizo conditions. If phenotypic appearance did not matter in Mexican
society, one would expect that subjects would not have mentioned
individuals’ phenotypic appearance at all.
The evidence supports this study’s argument in that there are stereotypes
associated with different phenotypes, and that they are socially transmitted.
Finally, these findings speak directly to the type of discrimination that people
in Mexico accept as common in their society, supporting the social class
hypothesis. Some Mexicans argue that racism does not exist in their society
because almost everyone is a member of the same racial group. However,
most Mexicans accept that, if discrimination occurs, it is found along the lines
of social class. Thus, one could argue that there is no racism in Mexico; there
is classism. These findings suggest that Mexicans categorize people in
different social classes according to their phenotypic appearance. If someone
belongs to a lower class (i.e. an indigenous person), he would also be an
unskilled worker, unpleasant, and a less sophisticated person than a member
of an upper social class who happens to look European. This evidence suggests
that what Mexicans label as “classism” could be masking discrimination based
on phenotypes.
The next study explores the effect of phenotypic prejudice on Mexican
voters’ evaluation of electoral candidates. The research will examine whether
voters think that candidates are more/less capable, intelligent, etc. based on
candidates’ phenotypes, as the findings in this experiment suggest.

Candidate Experiment

Data collection
Data were collected in Mexico during two trips to Mexico City in 2007. Each
participant was approached and asked to participate in an academic survey
examining the way voters evaluate independent candidates. Subjects received
monetary compensation ($50 Mexican pesos) for their participation.
The sample in Mexico City consists of 250 Mexicans. Participants were
recruited at shopping malls, coffee shops, downtown plazas, and office
buildings. The characteristics of the sample were as follows: men comprised a
slight majority of subjects (55%); the average annual income was in the
middle of the scale, 0.49 ($72,000-$96,000 Mexican pesos); the participants’
average educational level was high school completion; and the average age
was 34 years. In spite of conducting a random assignment of the subjects to
each experimental condition, there are some statistical significant differences
on subjects’ income (F3, 246=2.79, p-value=0.04) and gender (F3, 246=2.36, p-
value=0.07) across conditions. Therefore, the analysis of the data includes the

DIVISIÓN DE ESTUDIOS POLÍTICOS 11

Rosario Aguilar

usual socio-demographic variables to control for any effect that they might
have on the variable of interest.

Instructions
After the participants read and signed a consent form, they were given a
questionnaire and a sheet of paper that included the information about three
male candidates who were supposedly running for governor independently in
the state of Yucatan.
After finishing the questionnaire, subjects were debriefed and learned the
true purpose of the research.

Information exposure
The participants read the candidate information on a sheet of paper that
included a picture of each candidate; the control condition omitted
candidates’ pictures. The information in the handout included personal
information about the candidates (birth place, college attended, professional
career, names of wives and children), as well as their political positions on
four less-controversial issues at that time: health insurance, the environment,
social spending, and state-federal relations. The candidates’ positions varied
slightly so that the first candidate could be placed at the center-left of the
ideological spectrum, the second candidate at the center, and the third
candidate at the center-right of the spectrum.
The pictures were manipulated using the same morphing software that
had been employed for the stereotype experiment. The picture of the
candidate ideologically positioned in the center depicts the target candidate
whose appearance varies in each condition. All pictures morphed two pictures
of “real” people. For example, for the European condition, two European
individuals were morphed to create the target candidate. The same procedure
was followed for the target candidate in the indigenous condition. The
mestizo candidate was created by morphing the pictures of the European and
indigenous candidates. The candidates located to the left and right of the
target candidate, whose pictures do not vary, were created using three
pictures of European individuals. The purpose of using three pictures was to
maintain some physical similarity between these images, as each of them
shares one picture. There were two sets of experimental pictures.

Evaluation of the candidate and willingness to vote for him

The first set of questions in the questionnaire dealt with participants’ voting
choice and their evaluation of the three candidates on nine different traits.
The voting question read: “If you lived in Yucatan and these were all the

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 Social and Political Consequences of Stereotypes Related to Racial
Phenotypes in Mexico

candidates competing for the election, for whom would you vote?”13
Participants evaluated each candidate on nine different traits: intelligence;
competence; industriousness; trustworthiness; empathy; likeability; honesty;
capacity to keep campaign promises if elected; and good leadership. They
also located the candidate on an ideological scale from left to right.

Measures

Dependent variables
ƒ Individual evaluative traits: All the traits were measured on a 7-point
scale ranging from 0-1, where 0 means “Disagree Strongly” and 1 means
“Agree Strongly”.
ƒ Evaluative scale: Participants’ evaluations of the traits of the target
candidate were averaged to create an evaluative scale. The scale had a
mean of 0.580 and a Cronbach α of 0.901.14
ƒ Vote intention: This variable took the value of 1 when participants
opted to vote for the target candidate and a value of 0 otherwise.
ƒ Ideology: This is a 7-point scale coded from 0 to 1, where 0 means
extremely to the left and 1 extremely to the right of the political
spectrum.

Independent variables
ƒ Experimental conditions: There were three experimental conditions:
European candidate, mestizo candidate, and indigenous candidate, as
well as the control group. Three dummy variables were created for the
experimental conditions. The control group was the excluded category
in the model.
ƒ Control variables: Participant’s phenotypes,15 age, education, gender,
and income were included as control variables. Education is a 10-point
scale coded from 0 (no education) to 1 (graduate degree); gender takes
the value of 0 (male) and 1 (female); income is an 8-point scale coded
from 0-1; and age is a continuous variable. Subjects’ ideology was
introduced when looking at candidate’s ideological positioning.16

13 The question in Spanish reads: “Si usted viviera en Yucatán y éstos fueran todos los candidatos para gobernador,

¿por cuál de los tres votaría usted?”

14 The traits statistics are in Appendix 1, Table A1.4.
15 A Mexican national and the researcher independently judged the participants’ phenotypic appearances. Their eyes,

nose, mouth, skin color, and hair were evaluated on a 5-point scale from 0-1, where 0 indicated White and 1
indicated indigenous. The final phenotypic measure was calculated by averaging both judges’ final scores. The graph
with the distribution of the phenotypic measure is located in Appendix 1, Graph A1.1.
16 There was not a statistically significant difference in subjects’ ideological positioning across conditions. Therefore,

this variable was only used in the analysis of voters’ evaluation of the candidate’s ideological positioning.

DIVISIÓN DE ESTUDIOS POLÍTICOS 13

Rosario Aguilar

ƒ Influence of Phenotypes on Subjects Voting Behavior. In general, the

candidate hypothesis predicts that all participants will tend to vote for
an electoral candidate with certain racial phenotypes over an electoral
candidate with other phenotypes. Following the Mestizo ideology and
the findings from the stereotype study, the expectation is that
participants will prefer to vote for the European candidate over the
indigenous candidate.

TABLE 5. VOTE FOR TARGET CANDIDATE

VARIABLE COEFF. STD. ERROR

EUROPEAN CONDITION
0.959** 0.390
MESTIZO CONDITION
-0.791 0.625
INDIGENOUS CONDITION
-0.199 0.456
PHENOTYPES
-1.899* 1.117
AGE
1.830*** 0.693
GENDER
-0.282 0.348
INCOME
0.840 0.752
EDUCATION
-1.016 0.953
CONSTANT
-0.529 0.940
2
COX & SNELL- R 0.10
2
NAGELKERKE R
0.15
N
229
***
p-value ≤ 0.01; **0.01< p-value ≤ 0.05; *0.05< p-value ≤ 0.10

As one can see, the logistic regression supports the candidate hypothesis. The
model shows a clear positive effect for the European candidate over the
Control condition, regardless of participants’ phenotypes (p-value=0.01). The
European condition has a positive and statistically significant effect over the
mestizo (z=8.49; p-value=0.00), and the indigenous (z=6.60; p-value=0.01)
conditions.
Finally, participants’ phenotypic appearance has a slightly significant and
negative effect on the probability of voting for the target candidate (p-
value=0.09).
The predicted probabilities of voting for the candidates show the large
and positive effect of European phenotypes in Mexico City

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 Social and Political Consequences of Stereotypes Related to Racial
Phenotypes in Mexico

GRAPH 1.17 PREDICTED VOTING PREFERENCES FOR THE TARGET CANDIDATE

Influence of Phenotypes on Subjects’ Candidate Evaluation

The influence of stereotypes on subjects’ candidate evaluation was analyzed
by looking at their effect on each evaluative trait, and on an overall
evaluative scale built from all the individual traits. The findings show a weak
effect of phenotypes on people’s overall evaluation of the candidate, with a
stronger effect on people’s perception of the candidate’s leadership abilities.
As in the case of the voting variables, the main hypothesis predicts that all
participants, regardless of their phenotypes, will tend to evaluate more
positively an electoral candidate with certain racial phenotypes over an
electoral candidate with other phenotypes. The expectation is that
participants will evaluate more positively the European candidate, followed
by the mestizo candidate, coming in last place the indigenous candidate.
The effect of the target candidate’s phenotypes on subjects’ evaluation of
his abilities was assessed by conducting an analysis of variance that allowed
contrasting the effect that phenotypes had on every trait. There were
significant results in two variables: the overall evaluative scale and the
stronger effects for the leadership trait.

17 The control variables are set to their average when calculating the predicted values. These values are: income,

0.493; education, 0.626; age, 34; phenotypes, 0.554.

DIVISIÓN DE ESTUDIOS POLÍTICOS 15

Rosario Aguilar

TABLE 6. DIFFERENCES ON OVERALL EVALUATION AND LEADERSHIP ASSESSMENT OF THE

18
TARGET CANDIDATE BY EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION: ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

CONTROL- CONTROL- CONTROL- EUROPEAN- EUROPEAN- MESTIZO-

VARIABLE
EUROPEAN MESTIZO INDIGENOUS MESTIZO INDIGENOUS INDIGENOUS

EVALUATION -0.200 0.021 0.017 0.041+ 0.037+ -0.005

LEADERSHIP -0.066* 0.005 0.013 0.071** 0.079** 0.008

p-value ≤ 0.01; **0.01< p-value ≤ 0.05; *0.05< p-value ≤ 0.10

++
0.01< p-value ≤ 0.05; +0.05< p-value ≤ 0.10 (one-tail)

These results show that overall, the European candidate receives a more
favorable evaluation than the mestizo and indigenous candidates under a one-
tail test. The candidates’ phenotypes matter more for people’s assessment of
his leadership abilities. In this trait, as expected, the European candidate is
significantly perceived as a better leader than the other three conditions,
including the control condition.

Influence of Phenotypes on Candidate’s Ideological Positioning

Even though the target candidate was located in the middle of the political
spectrum, subjects assessed his ideological leaning. They answered the
question:
“We hear a lot of talk these days about left and right. Here is a 7-point
scale on which the political views that people might hold are arranged from
“extremely left” to “extremely right”.

IN THIS SCALE, WHERE WOULD YOU LOCATE PEDRO SEGURA?

EXTREMELY CENTER- CENTER- EXTREMELY

LEFT CENTER RIGHT
LEFT LEFT RIGHT RIGHT”

An analysis of variance was conducted to check whether phenotypes affected

where subjects located the ideological positioning of the candidate.

18 This model includes income, age, education, phenotypes, and ideology as covariates.

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 Social and Political Consequences of Stereotypes Related to Racial
Phenotypes in Mexico

TABLE 7. DIFFERENCES ON TARGET CANDIDATE’S IDEOLOGICAL POSITIONING BY

19
EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION: ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

CONTROL- CONTROL- CONTROL- EUROPEAN- EUROPEAN- MESTIZO-

VARIABLE EUROPEAN MESTIZO INDIGENOUS MESTIZO INDIGENOUS INDIGENOUS
-
IDEOLOGY 0.104** 0.035 -0.001 0.139*** 0.103** -0.036
***
p-value ≤ 0.01; **0.01< p-value ≤ 0.05; *0.05< p-value ≤ 0.10

The results show partial support for the ideology hypothesis as subjects
tend to locate the European candidate to the right of the political spectrum
of all the other candidates. There are not significant differences on the
ideological positioning of the mestizo and indigenous candidates when
compared to each other or to the control condition.

Discussion

This paper theorized, based on the study of the mestizo ideology, that people
of Mexican origin would assign positive stereotypical traits to European
individuals, and negative ones to indigenous individuals. The stereotype
experiment tested this hypothesis. In a free-response task, subjects listed all
the traits that other people would ascribe to an individual whose picture was
included in the task. The results of this study show that people are cognizant
of more negative traits attached to indigenous-looking individuals than to
mestizo or European-looking persons.
In general, participants gave higher scores to the European person on the
level of skills mastered and economic status when compared to the indigenous
person. The mestizo individual also scored higher than the indigenous person
on the level of skills mastered, as well as on the quality of his character.
Participants characterized the indigenous individual as poor, with low skills
and an unpleasant personality, who represented the “typical Mexican
individual” and who was more conservative or traditional in terms of beliefs
and lifestyle. In contrast to the participants in the European and mestizo
conditions, participants in the indigenous one tended to mention a racial
characteristic of the person when describing other people’s reactions towards
him. The sole mention of phenotypic characteristics shows their relevance
among Mexicans’ evaluation of others.
These findings support the stereotype hypothesis as subjects listed
significantly more negative traits when evaluating the indigenous person than
when evaluating the others. These results speak directly to the idea that
discrimination in Mexico occurs only along the lines of social class (Degler,

19 This model includes income, age, education, phenotypes, and ideology as covariates.

DIVISIÓN DE ESTUDIOS POLÍTICOS 17

Rosario Aguilar

1971; Freyre, 1946; Pierson, 1942; Tannenbaum, 1947). Participants’

responses demonstrate that when Mexicans think of a poor individual, they
picture an indigenous-looking individual; when they think of a wealthy person,
they picture a European-looking individual. As Mexico’s racial discourse does
not employ the formal language often used to talk about different groups,
social class might cover that gap by providing people with a language with
which they can differentiate “us” from “them”.
As this experiment showed more negative socially-held stereotypes
associated to indigenous-looking people, it could be expected that when
people evaluate a candidate and the only thing that varies among candidates
is their racial appearance, indigenous-looking candidates will do poorly when
compared to European-looking candidates. The findings from the candidate
experiment show just that. Subjects tend to vote more for a European
candidate, who they consider to be a better leader, leaning more towards the
right of the political spectrum than an indigenous candidate.
One of the possible criticisms to this research is that the stereotype
experiment relies on a convenient sample composed of undergraduate
students that, independently of being a diverse sample of them, is limited by
their social standing, age, etc. The fact that the findings from this experiment
are in agreement with the findings from the candidate experiment which
sample is more diverse, should assure the reader about the results obtained.
Finally, undergraduate students tend to be more educated than the average
citizen so the expression of prejudice on their part might underestimate, not
overestimate, the mean value of such prejudice among the population at
large.
Finally, this research shows the political consequences of phenotypic
prejudice among mestizo Mexicans, but one would be mistaken to think that
these stereotypes affect only people’s political behavior. This research should
motivate more studies that look at the economic, social, and cultural
consequences of such stereotypes, as well as at people’s identity. If we are
aware that such discrimination occurs, we can start educating people to
overcome such stereotypes in their daily lives.

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 Social and Political Consequences of Stereotypes Related to Racial
Phenotypes in Mexico

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DIVISIÓN DE ESTUDIOS POLÍTICOS 21

 Novedades

DIVISIÓN DE ADMINISTRACIÓN PÚBLICA

Ernesto Flores-Roux y Judith Mariscal, The Development of Mobile Money Systems,
DTAP-256
David Arellano et al., Control de los conflictos de interés, DTAP-255
David Arellano, Víctor Figueras y Walter Lepore, Política de tránsito en el DF de
México: una introducción a su estudio empírico, DTAP-254
Sergio Cárdenas y Maximiliano Cárdenas, La participación del poder legislativo en la
definición de la política educativa en México, DTAP-253
Sergio Cárdenas, Administración centrada en la escuela, DTAP-252
Joanna D. Lucio, Edgar Ramírez y Sergio Cárdenas, ¿Libertad para quién? El efecto de
comunidades cerradas en el espacio urbano, DTAP-251
Edgar E. Ramírez, Land Development Permitting, DTAP-250
Rodrigo Sandoval-Almazán, Luis F. Luna-Reyes y J. Ramón Gil-García, Índice de
Gobierno Electrónico Estatal: La medición 2009, DTAP-249
J. Ramón Gil García y Armando Aldama, Gobierno electrónico en Canadá:
Antecedentes, objetivos, estrategias y resultados, DTAP-248
J. Ramón Gil García y Luis F. Luna Reyes, Teoría institucional y simulación dinámica
para una mejor comprensión del gobierno electrónico, DTAP-247

DIVISIÓN DE ECONOMÍA

David Mayer y Grodecz Ramírez, Ciclo de vida humano y ciclo de vida urbano:
Urbanización y desarrollo económico, DTE-503
Kaniska Dam y Daniel Ruiz Pérez, On the Existence of Sharecropping, DTE-502
David Mayer, Urbanization as a Fundamental Cause of Development, DTE-501
Arturo Antón y Alan Villegas, El papel de la tasa de interés real en el ciclo
económico de México, DTE-500
Víctor Carreón, La arquitectura de mercado del sector eléctrico mexicano, DTE-499
Sonia Di Giannatale et al., Confianza, redes sociales y hábitos financieros: un
estudio empírico, DTE-498
Antonio Jiménez, Coordination Incentives for Information Acquisition with a Finite
Set of Players, DTE-497
Rodolfo Cermeño et al., Trade Flows and Volatility of their Fundamentals: Some
Evidence from Mexico, DTE-496
Kaniska Dam, Principal-Agent Assignment, DTE-495
Luciana Moscoso, Who Runs Against the Incumbent? Candidate Entry Decisions, DTE-
494
 DIVISIÓN DE ESTUDIOS INTERNACIONALES

Farid Kahhat, Las industrias extractivas y sus implicaciones políticas y económicas,

DTEI-212
Mariana Magaldi de Sousa, Trade Openness and the Channels of its Impact on
Democracy, DTEI-211
Mariana Magaldi de Sousa, The Embedded-Agency Approach to Bank Regulation,
DTEI-210
Lorena Ruano, The Europeanization of National Foreign Policies Towards Latin
America…, DTEI-209
Álvaro Morcillo, Towards Europeanization?, DTEI-208
Kimberly A. Nolan García, Enforcement by Design: The Legalization of Labor Rights
Mechanisms in US Trade Policy, DTEI-207
Kimberly A. Nolan García, Norms Socialization and NAFTA’s Side Accord on Labor,
DTEI-206
Jorge Chabat, Combatting Drugs in Mexico Under Calderon, DTEI-205
David Crow, (Can’t Get No) Satisfaction: An Application of Dynamic Loglinear
Models…, DTEI-204
Ugo Pipitone, Los daños del rey sabio: Mao y China, DTEI-203

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María Solange Maqueo, Mecanismos de tutela de los derechos de los beneficiarios,

DTEJ-53
Rodolfo Sarsfield, The Mordida´s Game. How institutions incentive corruption,
DTEJ-52
Ángela Guerrero, Alejandro Madrazo, José Cruz y Tania Ramírez, Identificación de
las estrategias de la industria tabacalera en México, DTEJ-51
Estefanía Vela, Current Abortion Regulation in Mexico, DTEJ-50
Adriana García and Alejandro Tello, Salaries, Appelate Jurisdiction and Judges
Performance, DTEJ-49
Ana Elena Fierro and Adriana García, Design Matters: The Case of Mexican
Administrative Courts, DTEJ-48
Gustavo Fondevila, Estudio de percepción de magistrados del servicio de
administración de justicia familiar en el Distrito Federal, DTEJ-47
Jimena Moreno, Xiao Recio Blanco y Cynthia Michel, La conservación del acuario del
mundo, DTEJ-46
Gustavo Fondevila, “Madrinas” en el cine. Informantes y parapolicías en México,
DTEJ-45
María Mercedes Albornoz, Utilidad y problemas actuales del crédito documentario,
DTEJ-44
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Francisco Javier Aparicio and Covadonga Meseguer, Supply or Demand? Politics and
the 3x1 Program for Migrants, DTEP-228
Ana Carolina Garriga and Brian J. Phillips, Foreign Aid and Investment in Post-
Conflict Countries, DTEP-227
Allyson Benton, The Origins of Mexico's Municipal Usos y Costumbres Regimes, DTEP-
226
Ana Carolina Garriga, Objetivos, instrumentos y resultados de política monetaria.
México 1980-2010, DTEP-225
Andreas Schedler, The Limits to Bureaucratic Measurement. Observation and
Judgment in Comparative Political Data Development, DTEP-224
Andrea Pozas and Julio Ríos, Constituted Powers in Constitution-Making Processes.
Supreme Court Judges, Constitutional Reform and the Design of Judicial
Councils, DTEP-223
Andreas Schedler, Transitions from Electoral Authoritarianism, DTEP-222
María de la Luz Inclán, A Preliminar Study on Pro and Counter Zapatista Protests,
DTEP-221
José Antonio Crespo, México 2009: Abstención, voto nulo y triunfo del PRI, DTEP-220
Andreas Schedler, Concept Formation in Political Science, DTEP-219

DIVISIÓN DE HISTORIA

Michael Sauter, Human Space: The Rise of Euclidism and the Construction of an
Early-Modern World, 1400-1800, DTH-75
Michael Sauter, Strangers to the World: Astronomy and the Birth of Anthropology in
the Eighteenth Century, DTH-74
Jean Meyer, Una revista curial antisemita en el siglo XIX: Civiltá Cattolica, DTH-73
Jean Meyer, Dos siglos, dos naciones: México y Francia, 1810- 2010, DTH-72
Adriana Luna, La era legislativa en Nápoles: De soberanías y tradiciones, DTH-71
Adriana Luna, El surgimiento de la Escuela de Economía Política Napolitana, DTH-70
Pablo Mijangos, La historiografía jurídica mexicana durante los últimos veinte años,
DTH-69
Sergio Visacovsky, “Hasta la próxima crisis”. Historia cíclica, virtudes genealógicas y
la identidad de clase media entre los afectados por la debacle financiera en la
Argentina (2001-2002), DTH-68
Rafael Rojas, El debate de la Independencia. Opinión pública y guerra civil en
México (1808-1830), DTH-67
Michael Sauter, The Liminality of Man: Astronomy and the Birth of Anthropology in
the Eighteenth Century, DTH-66
 Ventas

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México, D.F.

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