One Dimensional Compressible Flow

COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

‰ Ideal Gas Relation

‰ Characteristics of Compressible Flow

‰ Isentropic Gas Flow

‰ Normal Shock Wave

‰ Non-isentropic Gas Flow

‰ Oblique Shock Wave

‰ Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Wave

Appendices (A-D)

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

4.1 IDEAL GAS RELATION

• Compressible flow analysis requires:

1. Conservation of mass,
2. Conservation of linear momentum,
3. Conservation of energy,
4. Equation of state for an ideal gas.

• The equation of state for an ideal gas is

p = ρRT (4.1)

where p is pressure, ρ is density, R is the gas constant (286.9 J/kg⋅K

for air) and T is the absolute temperature (in K).

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• Gas constant R could be obtained from the universal gas constant ℜ

(8.314 J/mol⋅K) and the gas molecular weight ℵ (28.97 g/mol for air):

ℜ
R= (4.2)
ℵ
(
• For ideal gas, internal energy u is a function of temperature T and its
gradient defines the specific heat at constant volume cv:
( (
∂u du
cv = =
∂T V dT

Wiht cv almost constant, integrating the above relation yields

2 ( 2
∫1
du = ∫ cv dT
1
( (
u2 − u1 = cv (T2 − T1 ) (4.3)

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

(
• In thermodynamic texts, enthalpy h is defined as

( ( p (
h = u + = u + RT (4.4)
ρ
(
• For ideal gas, enthalpy h is also a function of temperature T and the
gradient defines the specific heat at constant pressure cp:
( (
∂h dh
cp = =
∂T p
dT

With cp almost constant, integrating the above relation yields

2 ( 2
∫1
dh = ∫ c p dT
1
( (
h2 − h1 = c p (T2 − T1 ) (4.5)

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• The relationship between cp and cv could obtained from Eq. 4.4:

( (
( ( dh du
dh = du + R dT ⇒ = +R
dT dT
c p = cv + R (4.6)

and, the specific heat ratio k is (also constant — for air, k = 1.4)

cp
k= (4.7)
cv

Combining eqn. (4.6) and eqn. (4.7) yields

kR
cp = (4.8)
k −1
R
cv = (4.9)
k −1
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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

(
• In thermodynamic texts, with v = 1 ρ being the specific volume, the
relationship for entropy s could be written as
( ( (
T ds = du + p dv = du + p d (1 ρ ) (4.10)

From the definition of enthalpy:

( ( ⎛ p⎞ (
dh = du + d ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = du + p d (1 ρ ) +
dp
⎝ρ⎠ ρ
( dp
dh = T ds + (4.11)
ρ

From eqn. (4.10) and eqn. (4.11), the change in entropy ds is

dT d (1 ρ ) dT dp
ds = cv +R = cp −R
T (1 ρ ) T p

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Integration of both equations above yield

T2 ρ
s2 − s1 = cv ln + R ln 1 (4.12)
T1 ρ2
T2 p
s2 − s1 = c p ln − R ln 2 (4.13)
T1 p1

• From the Second Law of Thermodynamics, for an adiabatic and

frictionless flow, ds = s 2 − s1 = 0 and is known as isentropic flow,
where relationships among variables T, p and ρ could be derived as:

T2 ρ T p
cv ln + R ln 1 = 0 = c p ln 2 − R ln 2
T1 ρ2 T1 p1
R T ρ kR T p
ln 2 + R ln 1 = 0 = ln 2 − R ln 2
k − 1 T1 ρ2 k − 1 T1 p1

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Hence, for an isentropic flow,

k ( k −1) k
⎛ T2 ⎞ ⎛ρ ⎞ p
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = 2 (4.14)
⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎝ ρ1 ⎠ p1

p
= constant (4.15)
ρk

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

• Compressible flow behaviour could be characterised by the Mach
Number (Ma or M) which is defined as

V
Ma ≡ M = (4.16)
c

where V is the flow velocity and c is the speed of sound.

• Compressible flow could be classified to three categories:

1. Nearly-Incompressible flow — M ≤ 0.3

> Nearly symmetrical pressure wave,
> Change in density is negligible (< 5%),
> Hence, the Bernoulli equation could be used.

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

2. Subsonic flow — 0.3 < M < 1.0

> Assymetrical pressure wave,
> Change in density becomes more significant (> 5%),
> When M → 1.0, there exists a plane that separates zone of
silence and zone of action and is called Mach wave.

3. Supersonic flow — M ≥ 1.0

> Mach wave transforms to Mach cone with angle:
c 1
μ = sin −1 = sin −1
V M
> Change in density is very significant,
> Shock wave phenomena could develop when flow is
obstructed by a solid body.

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• Condition when M = 1.0 is called sonic condition.

Figure 4.1 Sound waves from a fixed and moving source

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Figure 4.1 (continued)

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Figure 4.1 (continued)

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• In aerodynamic texts, two more flow regimes are commonly added:

1. Transonic flow — 0.9 ≤ M ≤ 1.2

> A state of partial subsonic/supersonic condition causing
analysis to be more complicated.

2. Hypersonic — M > 5
> Fluid molecules begin to experience chemical reactions such
as air ionization, causing analysis to be too complex.

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Figure 4.2 Moving and static control volume of a pressure pulse

• The relationship for speed of sound c is derived by considering the

propagation of a pressure pulse.

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• To derive it, let’s start from the continuity equation (neglecting higher
order terms):

ρcA = ( ρ + δρ )(c − δV )A
ρc = ρc − ρ δV + c δρ − δρ δV
ρ δV = c δρ

From the linear momentum equation:

− cρcA + (c − δV )(ρ + δρ )(c − δV )A = pA − ( p + δp )A

2cρ δV − c(c δρ ) = δp
cρ δV = δp

Combining both relations above yields:

δp δp
c2 = ⇒ c= (4.17)
δρ δρ

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• For isentropic flow, Eq. 4.17 could be written as

∂p
c=
∂ρ s

From Eq. 4.15, its derivative yields

⎛ p ⎞
d ⎜⎜ k ⎟⎟ = 0
⎝ρ ⎠
dp kp dρ
− k +1 = 0
ρ k
ρ
∂p dp kp
= = = kRT
∂ρ s dρ ρ

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Hence, the speed of sound for an isentropic flow is

kp
c= = kRT (4.18)
ρ

• For air in standard condition:

T = 288.15 K (15°C )
R = 286.9 J/kg ⋅ K
k = 1.401

Hence,

c = 340 .3 m/s = 1225 km/hr

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

EXAMPLE 4.1

An aircraft flying at an altitude of 1000 m, passes directly above an

observer. If the aircraft is moving at Mach 1.5 with surrounding
ambient temperature of 20°C, obtain the time after which the observer
is able to hear the sound of the aircraft. Use gas constant
R = 287 J/kg⋅K and specific heat ratio k = 1.4.

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

¾ Since Ma > 1.0, a Mach cone is formed. From the equation for Mach
cone angle:
1 1
μ = sin −1 = sin −1 = 41.8°
M 1.5
From the diagram above:
z z
tan μ = =
x Vt
z z z
t= = =
V tan μ M ⋅ c tan μ M kRT tan μ
1000
=
1.5 1.4(287 )(20 + 273.15) tan 41.8°
= 2.17 s

21
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

4.3 ISENTROPIC GAS FLOW

• Main characteristics of an isentropic flow are:

1. No heat transfer across CS — adiabatic,

2. No friction between fluid molecules in CV — inviscid.

• For conservation of mass in one-dimensional flow, the general

continuity equation is used:

m& = ρAV = constant

dm& = d (ρAV ) = 0
AV dρ + ρV dA + ρA dV = 0

Dividing by ρAV gives:

dρ dA dV
+ + =0 (4.19)
ρ A V
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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• For conservation of momentum, the general Bernoulli equation is used

(assuming steady flow and effect of elevation difference g dz is
negligible):

dp
+ V dV = 0
ρ
Dividing by V2:

dp dV
+ =0 (4.20)
ρV 2 V

• Combining Eq. 4.19 and Eq. 4.20 yields:

dρ dA dp
+ − =0
ρ A ρV 2
dA dp dρ dp ⎛ V2 ⎞
= − = ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟
A ρV 2
ρ ρV 2 ⎝ dp dρ ⎠

23
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

For isentropic flow, c = dp dρ :

⎛ V2 ⎞
dA
=−
dV
⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ = − (
dV
1− M 2 ) (4.21)
A V ⎝ c ⎠ V

Subsonic flow Supersonic flow

(Ma < 1) (Ma > 1)

dA > 0 dA > 0
dp > 0 dp < 0
dV < 0 dV > 0

dA < 0 dA < 0
dp < 0 dp > 0
dV > 0 dV < 0

Figure 4.3 Flow through diverging and converging ducts

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• Relation between ρ and M could be derived from Eq. 4.19-21:

dρ
ρ
=−
dA dV dV
− = (
1 − M 2 )−
dV ⎛V ⎞ ⎛V
= −⎜ ⎟ d ⎜
⎞
⎟ = − M dM
A V V V ⎝c⎠ ⎝c ⎠
dρ dρ
= − d (12 M 2 ) ⇒ = − ∫ d (12 M 2 )
ρ M

ρ ∫ρ 0 ρ 0

ρ
ln
ρ0
= − 12 M 2 ⇒ ρ = ρ 0 exp − 12 M 2 ( )

For density change ( ρ 0 − ρ ) ρ 0 < 5% (which is justified to be

neglected for incompressible flow assumption):

ρ0 − ρ
= 1 − exp(− 12 M 2 ) < 0.05
ρ0
M < 0.320 ≈ 0.3

25
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• In the isentropic flow relationships, static quantities could be related

to the stagnation quantities through Eq. 4.15:
1k
p p0 ⎛ p⎞
= = constant ⇒ ρ = ρ ⎜ ⎟⎟
0⎜
ρ k ρ 0k ⎝ p0 ⎠

From the Bernoulli equation:

dp
ρ
(
+d V 1
2
2
) =
p 10 k dp
ρ0 p 1k
(
+ d 12 V 2 = 0 )
p 01 k
ρ0 ∫
p0
p dp
p 1k
+ ∫
V

0
( )
d 12 V 2 = 0
p
p 01 k ⎡ p −1 k +1 ⎤
⎢
ρ 0 ⎣1 − 1 k ⎦ p ⎥ + 2V
1 2
[ ]
V
0
=0
0

26
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

k ⎛ p0 p ⎞ 1 2
⎜ − ⎟ − 2V = 0
k − 1 ⎜⎝ ρ 0 ρ ⎟⎠
(4.22)

Using the ideal gas equation (Eq. 4.1):

kR
(T0 − T ) − 12 V 2 = c p (T0 − T ) − 12 V 2 = 0 (4.23)
k −1
(
From the relationship above, total/stagnation enthalpy h0 could be
defined:
(
h0 = c pT0 = c pT + 12 V 2 = pemalar (4.24)

Eq. 4.23 is divided by c 2 = kRT to yield the relationship for T:

kR ⎛ T0 − T ⎞ V 2 1 ⎛ T0 ⎞ M2
⎜ ⎟− = ⎜ − 1⎟ − =0
k − 1 ⎝ kRT ⎠ 2c 2 k − 1 ⎝ T ⎠ 2

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

T0
=1+ 1
2
(k − 1)M 2 (4.25)
T

Through Eq. 4.14:

k ( k −1) k
⎛ T0 ⎞ ⎛ρ ⎞ p
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ = 0
⎝T ⎠ ⎝ ρ ⎠ p

Thus, relationships for p and ρ are obtained:

p0
p
= 1+ [ 1
2
(k − 1)M 2 ]k (k −1) (4.26)

ρ0
= [1 + 1
(k − 1)M 2 ]1 (k −1) (4.27)
ρ 2

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• For sonic condition (M = 1.0):

k ( k −1) 1 ( k −1)
T∗ 2 p∗ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ρ∗ ⎛ 2 ⎞
= , =⎜ ⎟ , =⎜ ⎟ (4.28)
T0 1 + k p0 ⎝ 1 + k ⎠ ρ0 ⎝ 1 + k ⎠

For air, taking k = 1.4:

T ∗ T0 = 0.8333 , p ∗ p0 = 0.5283 , ρ ∗ ρ 0 = 0.6339

• Cross sectional area where sonic condition occurs is known as the

critical area A*, where the flow is in a state of choked. From
continuity equation:

A ρ∗ V ∗
ρAV = ρ A V∗ ∗ ∗
⇒ = ⋅
A∗ ρ V

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

∗ ∗
where V = kRT is the velocity of the flow at sonic condition.
With V = Ma⋅ c = Ma kRT , hence,

A ρ∗
= ⋅
kRT ∗
=
(
1 ρ ∗ ρ0 ) (T T0∗
)
A∗ ρ Ma kRT Ma (ρ ρ 0 ) (T T0 )
k +1
A 1 ⎧1 + (k − 1) Ma ⎫
1 2 2 ( k −1)
= ⎨
2
⎬
A∗ Ma ⎩ 1 + 12 (k − 1) ⎭
(4.29)

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Figure 4.4 Relation between the critical area ratio and Ma

• At choked flow condition, maximum mass flow rate (M > 1.0):

m& ma x = ρ ∗ A∗V ∗ = ρ ∗ A∗ kRT ∗

• For air (k = 1.4), values from Eq. 4.25-29 are easier to be extracted
from the Isentropic Air Flow Table (Appendix A).

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• Eq. 4.29 can be used in the design of nozzles and diffusers for
supersonic flows.

Ma < 1 Ma = 1 Ma > 1 Ma > 1 Ma = 1 Ma < 1

Supersonic nozzle Supersonic diffuser

Figure 4.5 Nozzle and diffuser for supersonic flow

• The subsonic-supersonic flow transition in a nozzle or diffuser could

occur at the throat where M = 1.0.

32
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Figure 4.6 Effect of sonic condition to operation of converging nozzle

33
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Figure 4.7 Effect of sonic condition to operation of

converging-diverging nozzle

34
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

EXAMPLE 4.2

An air flow with a Mach 3.5 velocity has a static pressure of

304 kPa (abs) and static temperature of 180 K. Calculate:
(a) Stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature,
(b) Pressure, temperature and the speed of sound for critical
condition,
(c) Flow velocity.
Use gas constant R = 287 J/kg⋅K and specific heat ratio k = 1.4.

35
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

¾ (a) From App. A, for M = 3.5: p0 p = 76.27 , T0 T = 3.45 . Hence,

p0
p0 = p = 76.27(304 )
p
= 23186 kPa (abs) = 23.2 MPa (abs)
T0
T0 = T = 3.45(180 )
T
= 621 K
(b) At critical condition, for M = 1.0. From App. A:
p0 p = p0 p = 1.893 , T0 T = T0 T * = 1.2
*

Hence,
p*
p =
*
p0 =
1
(23.2)
p0 1.893
= 12.2 MPa (abs)

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

T*
T =
*
T0 =
1
(621)
T0 1.2
= 518 K
c * = kRT = 1.4(287 )(518)
= 456 m/s
(c) Flow velocity:
V = M ⋅ c = M kRT
= 3.5 1.4(287 )(180 )
= 941 m/s

37
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

EXAMPLE 4.3

In a subsonic-supersonic flow through a converging-diverging nozzle,

the reservoir pressure and temperature respectively are 10 atm (abs)
and 300 K. In the nozzle, there are two positions where A A = 6 ;
*

one in the converging section and the other in the diverging section.
Calculate the Mach number, pressure, temperature and flow velocity
at those two positions. Use gas constant R = 287 J/kg⋅K and specific
heat ratio k = 1.4.

38
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

¾ In the reservoir, the fluid is in stagnation:

p0 = 10 atm (abs) = 1013 kPa (abs) , T0 = 300 K

From App. A, for A A = 6 :

*

M = 0.097 (subsonic) , M = 3.368 (supersoni c)

For converging section, M = 0.097 (subsonic). From App. A:
p0 p = 1.006 , T0 T = 1.002
Hence,

p=
p
p0 =
1
(1013) = 1007 kPa (abs)
p0 1.006

T=
T
T0 =
1
(300) = 299 K
T0 1.002
V = M ⋅ c = M kRT = 0.097 1.4(287 )(299)
= 33.6 m/s

39
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

For diverging section, M = 3.368 (supersonic). From App. A:

p0 p = 63.13 , T0 T = 3.269
Hence,

p=
p
p0 =
1
(1013) = 16.0 kPa (abs)
p0 63.13

T=
T
T0 =
1
(300) = 91.8 K
T0 3.269
V = M ⋅ c = M kRT = 3.368 1.4(287 )(91.8)
= 647 m/s

40
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

4.4 NORMAL SHOCK WAVE

• When a supersonic flow is resisted by a body or an obstruction, shock
waves will form.

M < 1.0 M > 1.0

V<c V>c

Subsonic Supersonic
Figure 4.8 Formation of shock wave

• Shock waves are thin (∼10−7 m) regions in a supersonic flow where

the fluid properties changes abruptly.

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• Crossing the shock wave:

p, ρ , T , s increases
M ,V , p0 decreases
(
h0 no change

M>1
M>1 M<1

M>1 M<1

Normal shock Oblique shock Bow shock

Figure 4.9 Typical types of shock waves

42
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Figure 4.10 Normal shock wave

43
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• List of relationships/equations used are (taking A constant):

1. Continuity equation
ρ1V1 = ρ 2V2
2. Momentum equation
( p1 − p2 )A = m& (V2 − V1 ) ⇒ p1 + ρ1V12 = p2 + ρ 2V22
3. Energy equation
( ( (
h0 = h1 + 12 V12 = h2 + 12 V22 ⇒ c pT1 + 12 V12 = c pT2 + 12 V22

4. Speed of sound
c 2 = kRT = k p ρ

44
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

From the energy equation relationship above:

kRT1 V12 kRT2 V22

+ = +
k −1 2 k −1 2
c12 V12 c22 V22
+ = +
k −1 2 k −1 2

(
∗
Taking the transition condition as sonic V = c : )
2 2
c12 V12 c∗ c∗ c22 V22
+ = + = +
k −1 2 k −1 2 k −1 2
c12 V12 k + 1 ∗2 c22 V22
+ = c = +
k −1 2 2(k − 1) k −1 2

c12 = 1
2(k + 1)c∗ 2 − 12 (k − 1)V12
c22 = 12 (k + 1)c ∗ − 12 (k − 1)V22
2

45
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Dividing the momentum equation with continuity equation yields:

p1 p
+ V1 = 2 + V2
ρ1V1 ρ 2V2
p1 p
− 2 = V2 − V1
ρ1V1 ρ 2V2
c12 c22
− = V2 − V1
kV1 kV2

Combining with the relationship from the energy equation above:

2 2
k + 1 c* k −1 k + 1 c* k −1
⋅ − V1 − ⋅ + V2 = V2 − V1
2 kV1 2 2 kV2 2
2
k +1 c* k −1
(V2 − V1 ) + (V2 − V1 ) = V2 − V1
2k V1V2 2k

46
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

2
k + 1 c* k −1
⋅ + =1
2k V1V2 2k
2
c * = V1V2 (4.30)

• Eq. 4.30 is known as the Prandtl relation and could be manipulated

as follows:

⎛ c*2 ⎞⎛ c * 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ =1
⎜ V12 ⎟⎜ V22 ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
⎛ 2 c12 k − 1 ⎞⎛ 2 c 22 k − 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎜ k + 1 ⋅ V 2 + k + 1 ⎟⎜ k + 1 ⋅ V 2 + k + 1 ⎟ = 1
⎝ 1 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜ 2 + k − 1⎟⎜ 2 + k − 1⎟ = k + 1
⎜M ⎟⎜ M ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠

47
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

1+ 1
(k − 1)M 12
M =2 2

− 12 (k − 1)
2 2 (4.31)
kM 1

• The change in density across the normal shock wave could be

obtained from the continuity equation:

ρ 2 V1 V12 V12
= = = =
(k + 1)V12
ρ1 V2 V1V2 c ∗ 2 2c12 + (k − 1)V12
ρ2 (k + 1)M 12
=
ρ1 2 + (k − 1)M 12
(4.32)

• The change in pressure across the normal shock wave could be

obtained from the combination of continuity and momentum equation:

p 2 − p1 = ρ 1V12 − ρ 2V22 = ρ 1V1 (V1 − V2 )

48
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

p 2 − p1 ρ 1V12 ⎛ V2 ⎞ kV12 ⎛ V2 ⎞ ⎛ ρ ⎞
= ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ = 2 ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ = kM 12 ⎜⎜1 − 1 ⎟⎟
p1 p1 ⎝ V1 ⎠ c1 ⎝ V1 ⎠ ⎝ ρ2 ⎠
p2
p1
=1+
2k
k +1
( )
M 12 − 1 (4.33)

• The change in temperature across the normal shock wave could be

(
obtained from the ideal gas equation p = ρRT and = c pT :
h
(
T2 p2 ρ1 h2
= ⋅ = (
T1 p1 ρ 2 h1

⎤ 2 + (k − 1)M 1
T2 ⎡
( )
2
2k
= 1+ M1 −1 ⎥ ⋅
2

T1 ⎢⎣ k + 1 ⎦ (k + 1)M 1
2 (4.34)

49
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• The change in entropy across the normal shock could be obtained

from Eq. 4.12 or Eq. 4.13:

T2 ρ T p
s2 − s1 = cv ln + R ln 1 = c p ln 2 − R ln 2
T1 ρ2 T1 p1

If M1 = 1: s 2 − s1 = 0
M1 > 1: s2 − s1 > 0
M1 < 1: s2 − s1 < 0
For M1 < 1, this case violates the Second Law of Thermodynamics,
thus shock wave phenomena does not occur in subsonic flow.

• However, total/stagnation enthalpy across normal shock is always

constant:
( (
h01 = c pT01 = c pT0 2 = h0 2

T01 = T0 2 (4.35)
50
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

From the entropy equation, compare stagnation quantities between

locations (1) and (2):

T0 2 p p
s2 − s1 = c p ln − R ln 0 2 = − R ln 0 2
T01 p 01 p 01
p0 2 ⎛ s −s ⎞
= exp⎜ − 2 1 ⎟ (4.36)
p01 ⎝ R ⎠

• The loss in stagnation pressure compared to static pressure is given by

the Rayleigh Pitot-tube formula:

p0 2 p0 2 p01
= ⋅ (4.37)
p1 p01 p1

• For air (k = 1.4), Eq. 4.31-37 are easier obtained from the Normal
Shock Properties Table (Appendix B).

51
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Figure 4.11 Normal shock properties

52
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

EXAMPLE 4.4

Consider a normal shock wave in air, with velocity, temperature and

pressure of the flow before crossing the shock of 680 m/s, 288 K and
101.3 kPa (abs). Calculate velocity, temperature, pressure and change
in entropy after crossing the shock. Use gas constant R = 287 J/kg⋅K
and specific heat ratio k = 1.4.

¾ Let the upstream region be denoted as (1) and downstream region as

(2). Speed of sound at (1):
c1 = kRT = 1.4(287 )(288)
= 340.2 m/s
V 680
M1 = 1 = = 2.0
c1 340.2
From App. B, for M1 = 2.0:
p 2 p1 = 4.5 , T2 T1 = 1.687 , M 2 = 0.5774

53
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Hence,
p2
p2 = p1 = 4.5(101.3) = 456 kPa (abs)
p1
T2
T2 = T1 = 1.687(288) = 486 K
T1
V2 = M 2 ⋅ c 2 = M 2 kRT2 = 0.5774 1.4(287 )(486)
= 255 m/s
and, the change in entropy:
kR 1.4(287 )
cp = = = 1005 J/kg ⋅ K
k − 1 1.4 − 1
T2 p
∴ s 2 − s1 = c p ln − R ln 2 = 1005 ln(1.687 ) − 287 ln(4.5)
T1 p1
= 93.6 J/kg ⋅ K

54
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

EXAMPLE 4.5

A Pitot tube is stationed on the fuselage of an aircraft to measure its

speed. If the static pressure measured is 1 atm (abs), determine the
Mach numbers for pressure values on the Pitot tube as follows:
(a) 1.276 atm (abs),
(b) 2.714 atm (abs),
(c) 12.06 atm (abs).

¾ For each case, check whether flow is subsonic or supersonic. From

App. B, for M = 1.0: p0 p = 1.893 .

p0∗ ∗
∴ p = ∗ p = 1.893(1) = 1.893 atm (abs)
∗
0
p
∗
(a) Since p 0 < p 0 , flow is subsonic.
From App. A, for p0 p = 1.276 :
M = 0 .6
55
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

∗
(b) Since p0 > p0 , flow is supersonic.
From App. B, for p0 2 p1 = 2.714 :
M = 1.3
∗
(c) Since p0 > p0 , flow is supersonic.
From App. B, for p0 2 p1 = 12.06 :
M = 3 .0

56
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

4.5 NON-ISENTROPIC GAS FLOW

• In this topic, the nonisentropic flows that shall be discussed are:
1. Fanno flow — Adiabatic (no heat transfer) flow with friction in
constant cross-section duct,
2. Rayleigh flow — Non-adiabatic (with heat transfer) frictionless
flow in constant cross-section duct.

Figure 4.12 One-dimensional adiabatic gas flow with friction

57
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• For Fanno flows, consider the following one-dimensional flow:

List of relationships/equations used are:

1. Continuity equation
dρ dV
ρV = constant ⇒ + =0
ρ V
2. Momentum equation — x-direction
pA − ( p + dp )A − τ w (πD ) dx = m& (V + dV − V )
dp 4τ w dx
+ + V dV = 0
ρ ρD
3. Energy equation
( (
h + 12 V 2 = h0 = c pT0 = c pT + 12 V 2 ⇒ c p dT + V dV = 0

58
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

4. Ideal gas equation of state

dp dρ dT
p = ρRT ⇒ = +
p ρ T
5. Darcy friction factor relationship
8τ w
f = ⇒ τ w = 18 fρV 2 = 18 fkpM 2
ρV 2

Using the relationship for speed of sound c = kRT and Mach

number M = V c , these relationships could be derived:

2 1 + (k − 1)M
2
dp dx
= −k Ma
( )
f
p 21− M 2
D
dρ dV kM 2 dx
=− =
( )
f
ρ V 21− M 2 D

59
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

dp0 dρ 0 dx
= = − 12 kM 2 f
p0 ρ0 D
dT k (k − 1)M 4 dx
=
( )
f
T 2 1− M 2 D

2 1 + 2 (k − 1)M
2
dM 2 1
dx
= kM f
M 2
1− M 2
D

Integration of the above relation yields:

M ∗ =1 1− M 2 L∗ dx
∫ [ ] = ∫0 D
2
dM f
M 1 + 12 (k − 1)M 2 kM 4

1 − M 2 k + 1 ⎡ (k + 1)M 2 ⎤ L∗
+ ln ⎢ 2 ⎥
= f
kM 2 2k ⎣ 2 + (k − 1)M ⎦ D
(4.38)

60
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Other relationships could be derived in a similar manner:

T∗ dT M ∗ =1
1
(k − 1)
∫ =∫ dM 2
2
T T M 1+ 1
2
(k − 1)M 2
T k +1
=
T ∗ 2 + (k − 1)M 2
(4.39)

⎡ (k + 1)M 2 ⎤
12
V M kRT T
= =M =⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ 2 + (k − 1)M ⎦
(4.40)
V∗ kRT ∗ T ∗

ρ V ∗ ⎡ 2 + (k − 1)M 2 ⎤
12

= =⎢ ⎥
ρ ∗ V ⎣ (k + 1)M 2 ⎦
(4.41)

p ρ T
= ∗⋅ ∗
p ∗
ρ T

61
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

(k + 1) ⎤
12
p 1 ⎡
= ⎢ ⎥
p ∗ M ⎣ 2 + (k − 1)M 2 ⎦
(4.42)

p0 p0 p p ∗
= ⋅ ⋅
p0∗ p p ∗ p0∗
( k +1) 2 ( k −1)
p0 1 ⎧ 2 + (k − 1)M 2 ⎫
= ⎨ ⎬ (4.43)
p 0∗ M ⎩ k +1 ⎭

• From Eq. 4.38-43, changes in fluid properties with increasing values

in f could be summarised as in Table 4.1.

62
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Table 4.1 Characteristics of Fanno flows

Property Subsonic Supersonic
M, V ↑ ↓
p, ρ ↓ ↑
p0, ρ0 ↓ ↓
T ↓ ↑
s ↑ ↑

63
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Figure 4.13 One-dimensional non-adiabatic frictionless gas flows

64
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• For Rayleigh flows, consider the following one-dimensional flow:

List of relationships/equations used are:

1. Continuity equation
ρ1V1 = ρ 2V2 = constant
2. Momentum equation — x-direction
( p1 − p2 )A = m& (V2 − V1 )
3. Energy equation

& (
( 1 2 ( 1 2
Q = m h2 + 2 V2 − h1 − 2 V1
& ) Q& δQ (
⇒ q= =
m& δm
(
= h0 2 − h01

4. Ideal gas equation of state

( (
, h0 2 − h01 = c p (T0 2 − T01 )
p1 p
= 2
ρ1T1 ρ 2T2

65
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Using the relationship for speed of sound c = kRT and Mach

number M = V c , the following relationships could be derived:

[
T0 2(k + 1)M 2 1 + 12 (k − 1)M 2
=
]
T0∗ (
1 + kM 2
2
) (4.44)

p k +1
∗
= (4.45)
p 1 + kM 2

⎡ (1 + k )M ⎤
2
T
=
T ∗ ⎢⎣ 1 + kM 2 ⎥⎦
(4.46)

ρ V∗ 1 + kM 2
= =
ρ∗ V (1 + k )M 2 (4.47)

k ( k −1)
p0 1+ k ⎡ 2 + (k − 1)M 2 ⎤
∗
= ⎢ ⎥ (4.48)
p 0 1 + kM 2 ⎣ k +1 ⎦

66
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• From Eq. 4.44-48, changes in fluid properties with respect to

increasing values of q could be summarised as in Table 4.2:

Table 4.2 Characteristics of Rayleigh flows

Heating Cooling
Property
Subsonic Supersonic Subsonic Supersonic
Ma, V ↑ ↓ ↓ ↑
T0 ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓
T (
↑ 0 ≤ Ma ≤ 1 k ) ↓ (
↓ 0 ≤ Ma ≤ 1 k ) ↓
↓ ( 1 k ≤ Ma ≤ 1) ↑ ( 1 k ≤ Ma ≤ 1)
p, ρ ↓ ↑ ↑ ↓
p0, ρ0 ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑
s ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓

67
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

4.6 OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVE

• Shock wave in two dimensions is known as oblique shock.

Figure 4.14 Oblique shock wave

68
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• If a body is (or could be approximated as) a particle, oblique shock

angle β is equivalent to Mach cone angle μ (see Fig. 4.1):

c 1
sin μ = = (4.49)
V M

• Consider a wedge-shaped body with deflection angle θ that produces

oblique shock of angle β. List of relationship/equations used:

1. Continuity equation
ρ1Vn1 = ρ 2Vn 2
2. Momentum equation — normal component
p1 − p2 = ρ 2Vn22 − ρ1Vn21
3. Momentum equation — tangential component
0 = ρ1Vn1 (Vt 2 − Vt1 )

69
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

4. Energy equation
( (
h1 + 12 Vn21 + 12 Vt12 = h2 + 12 Vn22 + 12 Vt 22 = h0

From Fig. 4.14 (and relation 3 above), there is no change in the

tangential velocity component:

Vt1 = Vt 2 = Vt = constant

Thus, relations 1, 2 and 4 are similar to the case of normal shock, but
V and Ma need to be taken in its normal components:

V n1
M n1 = = M 1 sin β (4.50)
c1

Vn 2
M n2 = = M 2 sin (β − θ ) (4.51)
c2

70
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• The relationship θ-β-M1 could be obtained from Eq. 4.32 by replacing

M1 → Mn1 and V → Vn:

ρ2 (k + 1)M 12 sin 2 β tan β Vn1

= = =
ρ1 2 + (k − 1)M 12 sin 2 β tan(β − θ ) Vn 2

Solving for θ:

tan θ =
(
2 cot β M 12 sin 2 β − 1)
(
2 + M 12 k + cos 2 2β ) (4.52)

• Eq. 4.52 is plotted in Fig. 4.15 or in Appendix D, and it shows 2

solutions for β:

1. Weak shock — results in M > 1 downstream,

2. Strong shock — results in M < 1 downstream.

71
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Figure 4.15 θ-β-Ma diagram for oblique shock wave

72
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Figure 4.16 Supersonic flow past a wedge structure

73
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

EXAMPLE 4.6

Air at Mach 2 with 70 kPa (abs) pressure, flows through a 10° ramp
and forms a weak oblique shock as shown in the figure below.
Calculate:
(a) Shock angle β,
(b) Downstream Mach number M2,
(c) Downstream pressure p2,
(c) Total pressure downstream p02, measured by a Pitot tube.
M1 = 2.0

p1 = 70 kPa 10°

74
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

 (a) From App. D, for M1  2.0 and p1  70 kPa:

  39.3
(b) Normal component of M1:
M n1  M 1 sin   2.0 sin 39.3  1.267
From App. B:
M n 2  0.8031 , p 2 p1  1.707 , p 0 2 p1  2.609
Hence, the Mach number downstream:
M n2 0.8031
M2  
sin     sin 39.3  10
 1.64
(c) Pressure downstream:

p1  1.70770   119 kPa (abs)

p2
p2 
p1

75
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

(d) Total pressure downstream:

p0 2
p0 2  p1  2.60970   183 kPa (abs)
p1

76
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

4.7 PRANDTL-MEYER EXPANSION WAVE

Figure 4.15 Comparison between oblique shock and expansion wave

77
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• When supersonic flow is deflected from the adjacent flow, an

expansion wave is formed.

• Crossing this expansion wave:

1. M 2 > M 1 but ⇒ p 2 < p1 , ρ 2 < ρ1 , T2 < T1 ,

2. It is a continuous expansion region with upstream Mach wave
angle μ1 and downstream angle μ2,
3. Since changes in parameters are continuous (i.e. gradual
infinitesimal change), flow is isentropic (ds = 0).

• Expansion wave formed by a sharp concave angle is known as

Prandtl-Meyer expansion wave.

78
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Figure 4.16 Formation of expansion wave

• If dθ is a small angle between two Mach waves, using sine rule:

V + dV sin (π 2 + μ ) cos μ
= =
V sin (π 2 − μ − dθ ) cos(μ + dθ )
dV cos μ
1+ =
V cos μ cos dθ − sin μ sin dθ

79
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

For small angle θ (cos dθ ≅ 1, sin dθ ≅ dθ ) ,

dV cos μ 1
1+ = =
V cos μ − dθ sin μ 1 − dθ tan μ

Using series expansion (for x < 1) and neglecting high order terms:

1
= 1 + x + x 2 + x3 + L
1− x
dV
1+ = 1 + dθ tan μ + L
V
dV V
dθ =
tan μ

80
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

From Eq. 4.49:

1 1
μ = sin −1 ⇒ tan μ =
M M 2 −1

Therefore, differential equation for the Prandtl-Meyer flow is

obtained:

dV
dθ = M 2 − 1 (4.53)
V

Integrating the above equation yields:

θ2 M2 dV
∫θ 1
dθ = ∫
M1
M 2 −1
V

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Combining with the relation M = V c and c = γRT :

dV dM dc
ln V = ln M + ln c ⇒ = +
V M c
2 −1 2
⎛ c0 ⎞ T k −1 2 ⎛ k −1 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0 =1+ M ⇒ c = c 0 ⎜1 + M ⎟
⎝ ⎠
c T 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ k − 1⎞
−⎜ ⎟M
= ⎝ ⎠ dM ⇒ dV =
dc 2 1 dM
c k −1 2 V k −1 2 M
1+ M 1+ M
2 2

Hence,
θ2 M2 M 2 − 1 dM
∫θ dθ = θ 2 − θ 1 = ∫
M1 k −1 2 M (4.54)
1+
1
M
2

82
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• The integration above is known as the Prandtl-Meyer function:

M 2 − 1 dM
ν (M ) ≡ ∫
M2

M1 k −1 2 M
1+ M
2

With θ1 = 0 , and ν (M ) = 0 at M 1 = 1 , this yields

k +1 k −1 2
ν (M ) =
k −1
tan −1
k +1
( )
M − 1 − tan −1 M 2 − 1 (4.55)

• Eq. 4.55 and Eq. 4.49 is given in Appendix C for air (k = 1.4 ) .

83
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

EXAMPLE 4.7

A supersonic air flow with properties M1 = 1.5, p1 = 81.5 kPa (abs)

and T1 = 256 K passes an expansion angle (see figure below) that
deflects the flow through angle θ2 = 20°. Calculate M2, p2, T2, p02, T02,
and the upstream and downstream angles of the Mach lines.
M1 = 1.5

20°

84
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

¾ From App. C, for M1 = 1.5:

ν 1 = 11.91°, μ1 = 41.81°
ν 2 = ν 1 + θ1 = 11.91° + 20° = 31.91°
From App. C, for ν2 = 31.91°:

μ 2 = 26.95° , M 2 = 2.207
From App. A, for M1 = 1.5:

p01 p1 = 3.671, T01 T1 = 1.45

From App. A, for M2 = 2.207:

p0 2 p2 = 10.81, T0 2 T2 = 1.974
Flow through an expansion wave is isentropic:

p01 = p0 2 , T01 = T0 2

85
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Therefore,

p 2 p 0 2 p 01
p2  p1 
1
13.67181.5  27.7 kPa (abs)
p0 2 p01 p1 10.81
T2 T0 2 T01
T2  T1 
1
11.45256  188 K
T0 2 T01 T1 1.975
p 01
p 0 2  p 01  p1  3.67181.5  299 kPa (abs)
p1
T01
T0 2  T01  T1  1.45256  371 K
T1

Mach line upstream angle, 1  41.81

Mach line downstream angle,  2   2  26.95  20  6.95

86