What Is Corrosion?

Corrosion is a deterioration of a material caused by environmental interactions. It is a natural

phenomenon, requiring three conditions: moisture, a metallic surface, and an oxidizing agent
known as an electron acceptor. The process of corrosion converts the reactive metal surface into a
more stable form, namely its oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. A common form of corrosion is rust.

Corrosion can have a variety of negative effects on metal. When metal structures suffer from
corrosion, they become unsafe which can lead to accidents, such as collapses. Even minor
corrosion requires repairs and maintenance. In fact, the annual direct cost of metallic corrosion is
approximately $2.2 Trillion USD worldwide!

While all metals corrode, it is estimated that 25-30% of corrosion could be prevented using suitable
protection methods.

How to Prevent Corrosion

You can prevent corrosion by selecting the right:

 Metal type
 Protective coating
 Environmental measures
 Sacrificial coatings
 Corrosion inhibitors
 Design modification

Metal Type
One simple way to prevent corrosion is to use a corrosion resistant metal such
as aluminum or stainless steel. Depending on the application, these metals can be used to reduce
the need for additional corrosion protection.

Protective Coatings
The application of a paint coating is a cost-effective way of preventing corrosion. Paint coatings act
as a barrier to prevent the transfer of electrochemical charge from the corrosive solution to the
metal underneath.

Another possibility is applying a powder coating. In this process, a dry powder is applied to the
clean metal surface. The metal is then heated which fuses the powder into a smooth unbroken film.
A number of different powder compositions can be used, including acrylic, polyester, epoxy, nylon,
and urethane.

Environmental Measures
Corrosion is caused by a chemical reaction between the metal and gases in the surrounding
environment. By taking measures to control the environment, these unwanted reactions can be
minimized. This can be as simple as reducing exposure to rain or seawater, or more complex
measures, such as controlling the amounts of sulfur, chlorine, or oxygen in the surrounding
environment. An example of this would be would be treating the water in water boilers with
softeners to adjust hardness, alkalinity, or oxygen content.

Sacrificial Coatings
Sacrificial coating involves coating the metal with an additional metal type that is more likely to
oxidize; hence the term “sacrificial coating.” There are two main techniques for achieving sacrificial
coating: cathodic protection and anodic protection.

Cathodic Protection

The most common example of cathodic protection is the coating of iron alloy steel with zinc, a
process known as galvanizing. Zinc is a more active metal than steel, and when it starts to corrode
it oxides which inhibits the corrosion of the steel. This method is known as cathodic protection
because it works by making the steel the cathode of an electrochemical cell. Cathodic protection is
used for steel pipelines carrying water or fuel, water heater tanks, ship hulls, and offshore oil
platforms.

Anodic Protection

Anodic protection involves coating the iron alloy steel with a less active metal, such as tin. Tin will
not corrode, so the steel will be protected as long as the tin coating is in place. This method is
known as anodic protection because it makes the steel the anode of an electrochemical cell. Anodic
protection is often applied to carbon steel storage tanks used to store sulfuric acid and 50% caustic
soda. In these environments cathodic protection is not suitable due to extremely high current
requirements.

Corrosion Inhibitors
Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals that react with the surface of the metal or the surrounding gases
to suppress the electrochemical reactions leading to corrosion. They work by being applied to the
surface of a metal where they form a protective film. Inhibitors can be applied as a solution or as a
protective coating using dispersion techniques. Corrosion inhibitors are commonly applied via a
process known as passivation.

Passivation
In passivation, a light coat of a protective material, such as metal oxide, creates a protective layer
over the metal which acts as a barrier against corrosion. The formation of this layer is affected by
environmental pH, temperature, and surrounding chemical composition. A notable example of
passivation is the Statue of Liberty, where a blue-green patina has formed which actually protects
the copper underneath. Corrosion inhibitors are used in petroleum refining, chemical production,
and water treatment works.

Design Modification
Design modifications can help reduce corrosion and improve the durability of existing protective
anti-corrosive coatings. Ideally, designs should avoid trapping dust and water, encourage movement
of air, and avoid open crevices. Ensuring the metal is accessible for regular maintenance will also
increase longevity.

What is rust?
Rust is a form of iron oxide. It occurs when iron combines with the oxygen in the air causing it to
corrode. Rust can affect iron and its alloys, including steel. The main catalyst for rust to occur is
water. Although iron and steel structures seem solid to the eye, water molecules are able to
penetrate microscopic gaps in the metal. This starts the process of corrosion. If salt is present, for
example in seawater, the corrosion will be more rapid. Exposure to sulfur dioxide and carbon
dioxide will also hasten the corrosive process.

Rust causes the metal to expand, which can place great stress on the structure as a whole. At the
same time, the metal will be weakened and become brittle and flaky. Rust is permeable to air and
water, so the metal beneath the rust layer will continue to corrode.

How to prevent rust?

Exposure to outdoor conditions will increase the risk of rust, especially if the climate is rainy or
humid. The best ways to prevent rust include:

 Rust resistant alloys

 Design
 Galvanization
 Bluing
 Organic coating
 Powder coating
 Regular maintenance

Rust resistant alloys

The most popular rust resistant alloys are stainless steel and weathering steel.
Stainless steel contains a minimum of 11% chromium. This allows the formation of a protective
film of chromium oxide which acts as a shield against rust. The protective film will re-form if
damaged. Corrosion resistance can be further enhanced with the addition of nickel.

Weathering steel, also known as “COR-TEN” steel, contains up to 21% of alloying elements such
as chromium, copper, nickel and phosphorous. The alloys form a protective rust patina which
reduces the corrosion rate with time. COR TEN steel tends to be cheaper than stainless steel.

Design
Proper planning during the design stage can minimize water penetration and reduce the risk of rust.
Cavities and crevices should be avoided. Joints should be welded not bolted. Drainage holes for
water should be considered if appropriate. The design should allow air to freely circulate. For large
structures, adequate access should be enabled to allow for regular maintenance.

Galvanization
The process of galvanization involves coating the surface with an external layer of metallic zinc.
This is accomplished through hot-dip galvanizing or electroplating. The zinc layer prevents
corrosive substances from penetrating further into the metal. In addition the zinc acts as
a sacrificial anode which means that the damaging oxidation process of rust will be transferred to
the zinc layer.

Bluing
Bluing is a useful technique which offers limited protection against rust for small steel items. The
term “bluing” comes from the blue-black appearance of the finish when using this technique.
Bluing is often used in firearms manufacture to provide a degree of corrosion resistance. It’s also
used in fine clocks and other metal work. Bluing is accomplished by immersing the steel parts into
a solution of potassium nitrate, sodium hydroxide and water.

Organic coating
Organic coatings such as paint are a cost effective way to protect against rust. Organic coatings
form a barrier against corrosive elements. Oil based coatings are ideal for preventing penetration of
water and oxygen. Typical organic coatings are 15 to 25 micrometers thick.

Powder coating
A dry powder is evenly applied to a clean surface. Next, the object is heated, turning the powder
into a thin film. There are a wide range of powders available including acrylic, polyester, nylon,
vinyl, epoxy and urethane. Powders are commonly applied using an electrostatic spray process. The
electrically conductive object is sprayed with a charged, non-conducting powder. The charged
particles are attracted the object and cling to its surface. The object is placed in a hot oven which
fuses the particles into a continuous film. The film is typically between 25 and 125 micrometers.

Regular maintenance
Regular maintenance is advised to stop rust forming and halt the progress of any rust that occurred.
It’s essential to remove any rust that has formed. A razor blade can be used for small areas. Next
any surface grime should be removed using warm water and soap. Lastly a rust resistant coating
should be applied to the surface.

What is white rust?

Galvanizing is a coating process that protects an underlying steel from rust using a protective layer
of zinc. However, it is possible for this zinc to form its own kind of “rust”, known as white rust.

What is White Rust?

White rust is a white, chalky substance that can form on the surface of zinc materials,
like galvanized steel. White rust can form when zinc is exposed to hydrogen and oxygen. This
combination creates a zinc hydroxide, as opposed to the iron oxide which is common form of rust.
While it can form on any zinc material or zinc-coated material, white rust is a frequent problem for
galvanized steel.

How Does White Rust Form?

White rust forms when zinc is in an environment with hydrogen and oxygen. Most frequently, it
occurs when a freshly galvanized material is placed into contact with water, or hydrogen dioxide.
White rust is especially likely to form on newly galvanized material. This is because the new zinc
coating has not yet had the chance to form the stable oxides, and the hydrogen and the oxygen
bond with the pure zinc which forms zinc hydroxide. White rust can be common on galvanized
sheet that is being stored, as condensation can become trapped between the individual sheets,
leading to the formation of white rust.

Is White Rust Bad?

While not always the case, white rust on a zinc or zinc-coated material can render the coating
useless. Unlike stable zinc oxides, zinc hydroxides do not adhere to other materials well. This
means it can flake off and leave the base material exposed. White rust is also generally considered
less appealing from a visual standpoint.

How to Prevent White Rust?

There are several ways to prevent the formation of white rust:

1. Eliminate exposure to water

2. Eliminate the formation of condensation
3. Allowing the zinc to form stable oxides
4. Using passivating chemicals or oils

A method that can be used to prevent white rust involves eliminating or greatly reducing the
exposure of the zinc or zinc-coated material to water. This can be achieved by increasing the
airflow around the zinc material, increasing the temperature of the zinc, or by controlling the
humidity in the room where the zinc is placed.
Another way to prevent white rust is to avoid bringing cold zinc material into a warm environment
as this can cause water to condense and rest on the zinc. This water can then lead to the formation
of white rust.

Another technique to stop white rust from forming is by ensuring that stable oxides have formed
on the surface of the zinc prior to exposing it to wet or other hydrogen-rich environments. When
stable zinc oxides have formed, the zinc is far less likely to become zinc hydroxide. To do this,
simply let the zinc age for a while in an environment without too much humidity. Increasing the
amount of carbon dioxide in contact with the zinc also speeds the formation of stable zinc oxides.

One more procedure that can be used to prevent white rust consists of coating the zinc or zinc-
coated material with a passivating chemical or oil. A passivating chemical will prevent the oxidation
of the zinc, although typically only for a short time. The oil creates a barrier between the zinc and
the water, thus lowering the chances of zinc hydroxide creation. However, these oils often
evaporate after a short period and typically do not provide long term protection. Hexavalent
chromium was widely used to protect galvanized steel that could not have passivating oil applied,
but is far less common now as it is extremely toxic.

Metals That Don’t Rust

Rust compromises the mechanical characteristics of metal, alters the chemical properties, and is
(usually) not considered aesthetically pleasing. It is for these reasons that many people in charge of
design and material selection try to avoid having to deal with rust and the negative effects that
come with it. One way to eliminate the threat of rust is to use metals that don’t rust.

Common metals that don’t rust include:

 Aluminum
 Stainless Steel (some grades)
 Galvanized Steel
 Red Metals (Copper, Brass & Bronze)

Aluminum
Aluminum cannot rust. This is because of the fact that rust is iron oxide, and most aluminum has
virtually no iron in its composition. However, aluminum does oxidize, but it actually protects the
underlying unoxidized aluminum. This is because the aluminum oxide is more corrosion resistant
than the aluminum alloy it rests on. This is different than rust, because rust will flake away from an
iron alloy thus allowing the rusting process to continue until material failure.

Stainless Steels
Stainless steel is another example of a metal that does not rust. Through it is important to note that
some grades are more resistant to rust than others. Austenitic stainless steels such
as 304 or 316 have high amounts of nickel and chromium. The chromium combines with the
oxygen before the iron is able to which forms a chromium oxide layer. This layer is very corrosion
resistant which prevents rust formation and protects the underlying metal. On the other hand,
ferritic or martensitic stainless steels may be susceptible to rust because they contain less
chromium.

Galvanized Steel
Galvanized steel is technically a coated material, but it is worth mentioning here. Galvanized steel is
a carbon steel that would most likely rust if it did not have one or more layers of zinc applied to it.
The zinc layer acts as a sacrificial metal for the steel. This means that the zinc layer will combine
with the oxygen more readily than the iron in the steel will. This creates a zinc oxide layer that
prevents the formation of iron oxide, thus eliminating the possibility of rust forming. However, if
the zinc coating is damaged, or if the galvanized steel is placed in extreme environments, the zinc
coating may be rendered ineffective and the steel will rust. Galvanized steel is also susceptible to
“white rust” which is a type of corrosion that forms under specific conditions, typically involving
water or condensation. The formation of white rust does not necessarily damage the material or the
zinc coating.

Copper, Brass, and Bronze

Copper, brass, and bronze do not rust for the same reason as aluminum. All three have a negligible
amount of iron in them. Therefore no iron oxide, or rust, can form. However, copper can form a
blue-green patina on its surface when exposed to oxygen over time.

These Metals Don’t Rust But

While these metals don’t rust, that does not mean that they do not corrode. They have their own
forms of corrosion, such as pitting that can occur in stainless steel or the blue-green tarnish found
on oxidized copper. Furthermore, if they are brought into contact with a carbon steel or other type
of steel that does rust, iron deposits can be made on the surface of these materials that will oxidize
and create rust.

What Is Abrasion Resistant Steel

Abrasion occurs when materials are rubbed across one another over a period of time. Some
abrasion is intentional, such as sanding, grinding, and blasting. However, unintentional abrasion can
lead to component failure so it is important to use the proper materials to ensure that surface wear
does not lead to unanticipated breakdown of structures or parts. While steel in general has excellent
resistance to abrasion, not all steels are equal. There are several types of steels that are made
particularly to prevent wear, known as abrasion resistant steels.

How Is It Made?
Abrasion resistant steel is made out of iron ore, carbon, and other alloying elements, similar to
other types of steel. The iron ore is melted in a blast furnace which removes undesirable substances
that may be in the ore. Carbon and other alloying elements are added during this time. Abrasion
resistant steels in particular have extra amounts of carbon and alloying elements such as chromium
and manganese. The increased amounts help to make the steel less susceptible to wear. Substances
that prevent oxidation are also added to the molten pool.
Following all of this, the molten abrasion resistant steel is shaped, heat treated and cut.

How Does It Work?

The chemical composition of abrasion resistant steel is one of the attributes that make it more
immune to wear than other types of steel. There are several alloys that can be used increase the
abrasion resistance. Carbon helps block dislocations, which increases the hardness and strength of
steel. The added carbon also allows the steel to form microstructures with increased hardness when
heated and quenched. There are other elements that can be added to abrasion resistant steel to
increase its hardness value too. Chromium and manganese are also added to abrasion resistant
steels to help reduce the negative effects caused by wear.

Heat treatment is another factor that helps the steel resist abrasion. Abrasion resistant steel must
have a microstructure that allows it to have a high hardness. This is accomplished, in part, by
adding the proper alloying elements. However, this alone is not enough to ensure the proper
microstructure is formed. The steel must also undergo a heating and a rapid quenching process to
form microstructures such as martensite and bainite which gives the steel the required high
hardness values. Care must be taken when welding or heating abrasion resistant steels. If they are
heated to a high enough temperature, it may have an annealing effect on the steel, causing it to lose
some of its hardness and, therefore, its abrasion resistance.

What Types Are Available?

There are several different abrasion resistant steel grades. Each grade is typically made to a
specific Brinell hardness value, as opposed to other steels that are made with tensile strength and
toughness in mind. This is because hardness is one of the most important factors when trying to
increase abrasion resistance.

One common grade of abrasion resistant steel is AR400. The “400” in its name indicates the Brinell
hardness value. AR450 and AR500 are similar to AR400, the difference being a higher Brinell
hardness value. While the higher although it has a lesser Brinell hardness value, AR400 will be more
formable. All of these three abrasion resistant steels are used in applications such as mining
equipment, cement pouring and forming equipment, excavation equipment, and conveyor systems.

There are also proprietary types of abrasion resistant steel. Tradenames such as Hardox 400 and
MAS500 AR are similar to the grades already mentioned. There are also grades such as Hardox 450
CR. The “CR” in the name means that it has been cold rolled. These proprietary grades are used
for similar applications previously mentioned.

Galvanized Steel

Hot-dip galvanizing is the process of coating iron or steel with a thin zinc layer, by passing the steel
through a molten bath of zinc at a temperature of around 860 °F (460 °C). When exposed to the
atmosphere, pure zinc reacts with oxygen to form zinc oxide, which further reacts with carbon
dioxide to form zinc carbonate, a dull grey, fairly strong material that stops further corrosion in
many circumstances, protecting the steel below from the elements. Galvanized steel is widely used
in applications where rust resistance is needed, and can be identified by the crystallization
patterning on the surface (often called a “spangle”).

The process of hot-dip galvanizing results in a metallurgical bond between zinc and steel with a
series of distinct iron-zinc alloys. The resulting coated steel can be used in much the same way as
uncoated. Galvanized steel can be welded; however, one must exercise caution around the resulting
zinc fumes. Galvanized steel is suitable for high-temperature applications of up to 392 °F (200 °C).
Use at temperatures above this level will result in peeling of the zinc at the intermetallic layer.
Galvanized sheet steel is commonly used in automotive manufacture to enhance corrosion
performance of exterior body panels of some models.