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Tunnels-types and importance

Technical Report · March 2014

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 TUNNELS, TYPES & IMPORTANCE
by
Prof A. BALSUBRAMANIAN
CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDIES IN EARTH SCIENCE
UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE
MYSORE-6

Objectives:

Tunnels are underground passages used for transportation. They could be used for carrying freights
and passengers, water, sewage, etc Tunnels are more economical than open cuts beyond certain
depths. Tunnels avoid disturbing or interfering with surface life and traffic during construction.
Tunnels prove to be cheaper than bridges or open cuts to carry public utility services like water, sewer
and gas. Feasibility of these constructions in natural materials, such as rock and soil, causes the
geological conditions to play a major role in their stability. Aspects of major importance and that is
decisive for the feasibility of a tunnel project is geological conditions, construction time and costs.
The objective of this lesson is to provide the general aspects of importance in tunnels, their types and
methods of tunnelling.

1. Introduction:

Tunnel construction for transport routes is becoming increasingly important worldwide. Transport is
accelerated and optimum protection is provided for the environment and the landscape. Many tunnels
are considered technological masterpieces and governments have honored tunnel engineers as
heroes. Constructing a tunnel, however, is one of the most complex challenges in the field of civil
engineering. Tunnels are attractive solutions for railways, roadways, public utilities and
telecommunications.

2. Basics of Tunnels:

Tunnel is an artificially constructed underground passage to by- pass obstacles safely without
disturbing the over burden. Tunnels are created by the process of excavation.

Open Cut is an "open to sky" passage excavated through huge soil mass of obstacle, in the required
directions to connect two roads or railways. Bridge is an over-ground construction to cross over
obstacles without disturbing the natural way below it. Tunnels are underground passages for Road or
rail traffic, Pedestrians, Utilities, Fresh water or sewer lines. A tunnel must be completely enclosed on
all sides along the length.

Ratio of length to width, in a tunnel, should always be at least in 2: 1.

Tunnelling is desirable when rapid transport facilities are required which need to avoid acquisition of
land for roads. Tunnels are also erected when shortest route connection is needed in cities. Tunnels
permit easy gradient & encourage high speed on strategic routes.

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Some structures may require excavation similar to tunnel excavation, but are not actually tunnels.
Shafts, for example, are often hand-dug or dug with boring equipment. But unlike tunnels, shafts are
vertical and shorter.
Often, shafts are built either as part of a tunnel project to analyze the rock or soil, or in tunnel
construction to provide headings, or locations, from which a tunnel can be excavated.
The diagram shows the relationship between these underground structures in a typical mountain
tunnel.
The opening of the tunnel is a portal.
The "roof" of the tunnel, or the top half of the tube, is the crown.
The bottom half is the invert.
The basic geometry of the tunnel is a continuous arch.
Because tunnels must withstand tremendous pressure from all sides, the arch is an ideal shape. In the
case of a tunnel, the arch simply goes all the way around.
3. Physics of tunnelling:

Tunnel engineers, like bridge engineers, must be concerned with an area of physics known as statics.
Statics describes how the following forces interact to produce equilibrium on structures such as
tunnels and bridges:
 Tension, which expands, or pulls on, material
 Compression, which shortens, or squeezes material
 Shearing, which causes parts of a material to slide past one another in opposite directions
 Torsion, which twists a material
4. Economics of Tunnelling depend on:
Nature of Soil/ rock,
Requirements of fill,
Depth of cut > 18m –tunnelling.

5. Tunnel Design Criteria

Tunnelling requires proper design.

Every tunnel will have its own geometry, design, alignment, and construction methods.
The tunnel design criteria include the following aspects:
1. Spatial Requirements;
2. Alignment;
3. Underground Stations;
4. Fire Life Safety; and Tunnel Systems and Operation.

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Every tunnel should have its own Horizontal and Vertical Alignment, Tunnel Ventilation, Tunnel
Lighting, Electrical and Safety Equipment, Tunnel Drainage, Fire Life Safety, and Security.

6. Factors to be considered in tunnelling:

The following factors should be taken into consideration when selecting the method:
- Tunnel dimensions,
- Tunnel geometry
- Length of tunnel,
- Total volume to be excavated
- Geological and rock mechanical conditions
- Ground water level and expected water inflow
- Vibration restrictions &
- Allowed ground settlements.

7. Tunnel alignment

Tunnel alignment is an important aspect in engineering constructions.

The primary objectives of the tunnel alignments are to:
1. Reduce transit trip times;
2. Increase quality and reliability of service; and
3. Minimize impacts of surface transit operations in sensitive locations.

8. Selection of Tunnel alignment depends on

1. Topography of area & points of entrance and exit,

2. Selection of site of tunnel to be made considering two points.
3. Alignment Restraints
4. Environmental Considerations.

9. Classification of Tunnels:

The types of tunnels are classified based on three aspects:

1. Based on purpose (road, rail, utilities),
2. Based on Alignment
3. Based on surrounding material (soft clay vs. hard rock ) &
4. Submerged tunnels.

Egyptians and Babylonians constructed tunnels about 4000 years ago with a length of 910 m , width
–of 3600 mm and a height of 4500mm.
The Channel Tunnel was constructed by linking Britain & France, way back in 1994.
The total length was about 50 km. The undersea component itself is about 39 km.

10. Classification of Tunnels :

The method of tunnel construction depends on such factors as the ground conditions, the ground water
conditions, the length and diameter of the tunnel drive, the depth of the tunnel, the logistics of
supporting the tunnel excavation, the final use and shape of the tunnel and appropriate risk
management.
There are three basic types of tunnel construction in common use:
Cut-and-cover tunnel,
constructed in a shallow trench and then covered over;
Bored tunnel, constructed in situ, without removing the ground above.
There are also Conveyance Tunnels and Traffic Tunnels.
Shallow tunnels are of a cut-and-cover type (if under water of the immersed-tube type).

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Deep tunnels are excavated, often using a tunnelling shield. For intermediate levels, both methods are
possible.

11. Based on Alignment

1. Off-Spur tunnels : Short length tunnels to negotiate minor obstacles.

2. Saddle or base tunnels : tunnels constructed in valleys along natural slope .
3. Slope tunnels : constructed in steep hills for economic and safe operation .
4. Spiral Tunnels : constructed in narrow valleys in form of loops in interior of mountains so as to
increase length of tunnel to avoid steep slopes.

12. Based on type of material met with in construction

1. Tunnels in Hard Rock

2. Tunnels in Soft materials
3. Tunnels in Water Bearing Soils

13. Investigations for tunnelling:

The major Investigations to be carried out prior to planning are:

A. Geological Investigations –relation between bed rock and top soil.
B. Morphology, Petrology, Stratigraphy
C. Electrical Resistivity Methods –positions of weak zones -faults, folds and shear zones.

Investigations made at time of planning are as follows:

1. Drilling holes by percussion, rotary percussion and rotary

2. Rotary or Rotary Percussion methods –loose soils
3. Rotary Drilling –rocky soils
4. Spacing –300-500m ; reduced to 50-100 m in geologically disturbed areas.
5. Lateral Spacing –10-15m from C/L of tunnel.
6. Depth –20-50 m deeper than proposed invert level of tunnel.
For detailed undisturbed observations, shafts can be excavated .
7. Shafts are vertical or inclined tunnel excavated to reach and to get information for the area
surrounding proposed tunnel and tunnel section.
8. Section of 3m x 1.5 m to 3 m x 2m is preferred.
9. Minimum depth of excavation is yet another factor in this selection.
10. Temporary and Permanent Shafts are made depending upon the circumstances.

14. Setting out of a tunnel

1. Setting Out refers to the making the centre line or alignment of any construction work on ground.
2. Setting out centre line of tunnel is made in 4 stages:

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 a. Setting out tunnel on ground surface
b. Transfer of Centre line from surface to underground
c. Underground setting out
d. Underground Leveling

Setting out of the tunnel on the ground surface:

Running an open traverse between two ends of proposed tunnel.
Curved alignment:
Heading consist of short tangent to curve alignment .
Offsets measured from these tangents.

15. Transfer of centre line from the surface to the underground:

1. Underground shafts –interval of 500 m along transverse lines

2. Rectangular Horizontal frame set at proposed location along AB
3. On two sides of the frame, iron plates are fixed and screwed down & holes are drilled along A and
B at X & Y
4. Plumb bobs are suspended to define vertical lines

16. Shape of tunnels

D or Segmental Roof Section

1. Suitable for sub-ways or navigation tunnels
2. Additional Floor Space and flat floor for moving equipment

Circular Section
1. To withstand heavy internal or external radial pressures
2. Best theoretical section for resisting forces
3. Greatest C/s Area for least perimeter
4. Sewers and water carrying purposes

Rectangular Section
Suitable for hard rocks, Adopted for pedestrian traffic
Costly & difficult to construct

Egg shaped Section= Carrying sewage

Effective in resisting external and internal pressures

Horse –shoe Section

1. Semi-circular roof with arched sides and curved invert
2. Best shape for traffic purposes
3. Most suitable for soft rocks and carrying water or sewage
4. Most widely used for highway and railway tunnels

17. Size of the Tunnel

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1. Determined from utility aspect,
2. Road tunnels –No. of traffic lanes.
3. Railway tunnels –Gauge & No. of tracks
4. Thickness of lining.
5. Provision for drainage facilities
6. Clear opening required for traffic.
7. Nature of traffic

18. Tunnelling methods:

Mechanical methods can be split further into partial face (e.g. road headers, hammers, excavators)
or full face (TBM, shield, pipe jacking, micro tunneling).

The drill & blast method is still the most typical method for medium to hard rock conditions. It can
be applied to a wide range of rock conditions.
Hard-rock TBMs can be used in relatively soft to hard rock conditions, and best when rock fracturing
& weakness zones are predictable.
The TBM is most economical method for longer tunnel lengths.

Drilling and blasting:

Drilling Pattern Design:

The drilling pattern ensures the distribution of the explosive in the rock and desired blasting result.
Several factors must be taken into account when designing the drilling pattern: rock drillability and
blastability, the type of explosives, blast vibration restrictions and accuracy requirements of the
blasted wall etc.

Excavation of Tunnel:
1. Percussion drills (penetrate rock by impact action alone)
2. Rotary drills (cut by turning a bit under pressure against the rock face)
3. Rotary-Percussion drills (combine rotary and percussion action)
4. Abrasion Drills –Shot, Diamond
5. Fusion Piercing
6. Special Drills –Implosion, Explosion

Blasting:
Primary blasting vs Secondary blasting.

Types of Explosives:
Straight Dynamites,
Ammonia Dynamites,
Ammonia -Gelatine.
Semi –Gelatine.
Blasting Agents,

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Slurries (mixture of explosives, gel and water)

Theory of Blasting:
Impact, Abrasion, Thermally Induced Spalling, Fusion and Vaporization, Chemical Reaction.

19. Nature of substratum:

A. Hard Rock or fully self-supporting

B. Soft Soils –requiring temporary supports during and after construction.

Tunnelling in soft soils:

Challenges,
Preventing soil movements:
Soil pressure,
Water seepage.

20. Tunnelling Techniques:

A. Cut and Cover( Supporting Beams, Roof lining)

B. Tunnel Shields

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Tunnelling in Hard rocks:
Influencing Factors
Type of rock, Igneous, Sedimentary, Metamorphic
Rock Hardness ,
Rock Brittleness.
Extent of existing fractures and planes of weakness.

Tunnelling Methods in Hard Rocks:

Heating and quenching (old technique).

Immersed Tube :A body of water such as a canal, channel, bay, or river can be crossed using
immersed tube tunnel technology.

20. Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM)

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Other Considerations:
• Protection of Structural Elements
• Fire Detection,

Fire Protection (i.e., standpipe, fire hydrants, water supply, portable fire extinguisher, fixed waterbase,
fire-fighting systems, etc.),
• Communication Systems,
• Traffic Control ,
• Tunnel Drainage System
• Emergency Egress,
• Electric, and Emergency response plan.

21. Tunnel Drainage:

During the construction of underground concrete lined structures like tunnels, it is necessary to
prevent water from coming into contact with the completed tunnel lining that can cause both safety
problems and increased maintenance costs.

A drainage system will include all the components needed to ensure that the substructure is properly
drained, and may be formed of components such as open ditches, closed ditches with pipe drains and
drainage through stormwater drainage pipes, channels and culverts.

Permanently functional tunnel drainage must maintain the operation and keep operating costs low.
This includes a primary drainage system to capture the hill water and a secondary drainage system to
channel this mountain water in the tunnel cross section.

The secondary drainage systems include:

- Pipes for floor / base course drainage
- Side drainage
- Floor drainage
- Cross-collectors and mountain water collecting main
- Conveyor pipes.

22. Tunnel Portals:

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 Tunnel portal is the interface point of the open cut and the cut and cover tunnel. Portals and
ventilation shafts should satisfy environmental and air quality.
Tunnel should be hazard free.

23. Causes for Tunnel collapse:

Tunnel collapse can happen for a number of reasons such as: inadequate ground investigation, shallow
ground conditions, inadequate support measures, cost optimization, inexperienced contractors,
inadequate supervision, delays of excavation and support erection.
• Construction failure
 Ground and Groundwater Conditions
 Preliminary investigation carried out without any drilling
 Probe drilling was not performed during tunnelling
 No stabilization measures to support a large swelling clay section before blasting.

24. Conclusion:

In addition to bring a certain risk to tunnel projects, geological conditions are highly influencing
construction time and costs. Basically, constructing a long tunnel is a time consuming and very
expensive project. Adverse tunnelling conditions will increase the costs and construction time due to
increased need for rock support. The major part lies in the geology and structure of the area in which
we are planning to align the tunnel. In Engineering geology, a lot more things are to be understood
like this.

Thank you.

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