SCHAFF-HERZOG ENCff^LOPEDIA

RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
KDITEr BY

SAMUEL MAOAULEY JACKSON, DJX, LLD.

(Editor-in-Chief)

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

CHARLES COLEBROOK SHERMAN

[VOLUMES I VI]
AND

GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.

(Associate Editors)

AND THE FOLLOWINO DEPARTMENT EDITORS

CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKW1TH, D.D. JAMES FREDERIC McCURDY, FED,, LL.D.

(Department of Systematic Theology ) (Department of the Old Tatament)

HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D. HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.

(Department of Minor Denominations) (Department of the New Testament)

JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D. ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.

(Department of IMurgict and Religiout Ordert) (Department of Church History)

FRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, LLD., F.S.A,

(Department of Pronunciation and Typography)

Complete in twelve IPolumea

FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY

NEW YORK AND LONDON
 THE NEW

SCHAFF-HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA
or

RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
EDITED BY

SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.

(E'ditor-in-OAt^f)

WITH THE BOLE ASSISTANCE, AFTER VOLUME VI., OP

GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.

(Associate Editor)

AND THE FOLLOWING DEPARTMENT EDITORS

CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D,D, JAMES FREDERIC McCURDT, PH.D,, LL.D.

(Department of Systematic Tfaology) (Department of the Old Tettament)

HENRY KING CAKROLL, LL.D, HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D,D,

(Department of Minor Denomination*) (Department of the New Testament)

JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D. ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D,

(Department of Liturgies and Religious Orders) (Department of Church Hittory)

PRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, LL.D., P.S.A,

(Department of Pronunciation and Typography)

VOLUME XI
SON OF MAN - TREMELLJUS

FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY

NEW YORK AND LONDON
 EDITORS
SAMUEL MAOAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LLJX
(EDITOR-IN-CHIEF. )
Professor of Cburcb History, New York University.

OEOBGE WILLIAM GILMOBE, M.A.

(ASSOCIATE EDITOR.)
New York,
Formerly Professor of Biblical History and Lecturer on Comparative Religion,
Bangor Theological Seminary.

DEPARTMENT EDITORS, VOLUME XI

OLA&BNOE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, JAMES FREDERICK McCUBDY, Ph.D.,
D.D., LL.D.,
(Department of Systematic Theology.) (Department of the Old Testament.)
Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological Professor of Oriental Languages, University College,
Seminary. Toronto.

HENRY KING CABBOLL, LL.D., HENRY SYLVESTEB NASH, D.D.,

(Department of the New Testament.)
(Department of Minor Denominations.)
Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New
Secretary of Executive Committee of the Western Section Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, MOBS.
for the Fourth Ecumenical Methodist Conference.
ALBEBT HENBY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.,
JAMES FBANCI8 DBISGOLL, D.D., (Department of Church History.)
(Department of Liturgies and Religious Orders.) Professor of Church History, Southwestern Baptist.
Rector of St. Gabriel's, New Rochellc, N. Y. Theological Seminary, Fort Worth, Tex.

FRANK HOBACE VIZETELLY, LL.D., F.S.A.,

(Department of Pronunciation and Typography.)
Managing Editor of the STANDARD DICTXONABY, etc.,
New York City.

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME XI

JUSTIN EDWABDS ABBOTT, D.D., HEBMANN GECRG JULIUS BECK,
Missionary in Bombay, India. Consistorial Councilor and First Preacher, Bayreuth.

HANS AOHELIS, Ph.D., Th.D., CLABENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH,

Professor of Church History, University of Halle. D.D.,
WILLIAM HENBY ALLISON, Ph.D., Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological
Seminary.
Dean of the Faculty and Professor of Ecclesiastical History,
Theological Seminary, Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y. WILLIS JUDSON BEECHER, D.D.,
FRANK DE GBAFF ALTMAN, D.D., Former Professor of Hebrew Language and Literature,
Auburn Theological Seminary, Auburn, N. Y.
%rmer President of the Lutheran Western Theological
Seminary, Atohison, Kan. GEOBG BEEB, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
BBAYMAN WILLIAM ANTHONY, Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of
D.D., LL.D., Heidelberg.
President of Adrian College, Adrian. Mich. JOHANNES BELSHEIM (t),
JTJSTAF EMANTJEL HILDEBBAND Late Pastor Emeritus in Christiania.
ATTL&N, Th.Lic., KARL BENRATH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Dooent in the University of Upeala, Sweden. Professor of Church History, University of Kdnigsberg.
HENBY AMANTITJ8 AYRINHAC, IMMANUXL GU8TAV ADOLF
S.S., D.D., LL.D., BENZINGEB, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
^resident of St. Patrick's Seminary, Menlo Park, Cal. German Orientalist and Vice-ConsuI for Holland in
JOHN WALTEB BEABDSLEE, Jerusalem.

D.D,, LL.D., OABL BEBTHEAU (t), Th.D.,

ident of Western Theological Seminary, Holland, Mich. Late Pastor of St. Michael's, Hamburg.
 CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME XI

AMY GA8TON CHARLES AUGUSTE GUSTAF HERMAN DALMAN, Ph.D.,

BONET-MAURY, D.D., LL.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, Independent School of Extraordinary Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Univer-
Divinity, Paris. sity of Letpsic, and President of the German Evangelical
Archeological Institute, Jerusalem.
GOTTLIEB NATHANAEL BONWETSOH,
Th.D., HERMANN DECHENT, Ph.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Gottingen. Pastor in Frankfort

FRIEDRIOH WXLHELM BERNHARD GABRIEL DOOITZES DE JONG, V.D.M.,

BORNEMANN, Th.D., Professor of Historical Theology, Theological School of the
Christian Reformed Church, Grand Rapids, Mich.
Senior of the Prediger-Ministeriura, Frankfort.

GUSTAV BOSSERT, Ph.D., Th.D., FRANCIS BRIGHAM DENIO, D.D.,

Retired Pastor, Stuttgart. Professor of Old Testament Language and Literature, Ban-
gor Theological Seminary, Bangor, Me.
EDWARD INCREASE BOSWORTH, D.D.,
FRANZ WILHELM DIBELIUS,
Dean of Oberlin Theological Seminary, Oberlin, Ohio.
Ph.D., Th.D.,
FRIEDRICH HEINRIOH BRANDE8, Supreme Consistorial Councilor. City Superintendent, and
Th.D., Pastor of the Kreuckirohe. Dresden.
Reformed Minister and Chaplain at Buckeburg, Schaum-
burg-Lippe.
WILLIAM DINWIDDIE, LL.D.,
Chancellor of the Southwestern Presbyterian University,
ARTHUR LOUIS BRESLICH, Ph.D., Clarksville, Tenn.
President of German Wallace College, Berea, Ohio.
ERNST ADOLF ALFRED OSKAR
MARSHALL BROOMHALL, B.A., ADALBERT VON DOBSOHUETZ, Th.D.,
Editorial Secretary for the China Inland Mission, London. Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Breslau.
WILLIAM ADAMS BROWN, Ph.D., D.D., JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, Union Theological Rector of St. Gabriel's, New Rochelle, N. Y.
Seminary, New York.

AUGUSTUS ROBERT BUOKLAND, M.A.,

JOSEPH HEATLY DULLES, M.A.,
London. Librarian, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton, N. J.
Secretary of the Religious Tract Society,
OSKAR GOTTLIEB RUDOLF HUGH LATIMER ELDEBDICE, D.D.,
BUDDEN8IEG (f), Ph.D., Th.D., President of Westminster Theological Seminary,
Late Author and Educator, Dresden. Westminster, Md.

FRANTS PEDER WILLIAM BUHL, Ph.D., JOHN OLUF EVJEN, Ph.D.,

Th.D., Professor of Thoology, Augsburg Seminary,
Minneapolis, Minn.
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Copenhagen.

KARL GEORGE ADOLF BU80H, B.A., B.8., PAUL KARL EDUARD FEINE,
Professor of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, and Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Halte.
Secretary, Luther Seminary, St. Paul, Minn.

JAMES A. BUSHNELL, JOHANNES FICXER, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Professor of Church History, Evangelical Theological
President of the Board of Trustees, Eugene Bible Univer-
. Faculty, University of Strasburg.
sity, Eugene, Oregon.
AUGUSTUS STILES CARRIER, D.D., LEWIS BEAL8 FISHER, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Hebrew and Cognate Languages, McCormick President of Lombard College and Ryder Divinity School,
Theological Seminary, Chicago. Galesburg, 111.

BENJAMIN STUART CHAMBERS, D.D., ALBERT FRETBE, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Assistant Rector of the Church of the Blessed Sacrament, Emeritus Gymnasia! Professor, Parchim, Mecklenburg.
New York.
OTTO CON8TANTIN CLEMEN,
EMIL ALBERT FRIEDBERG (f),
Th.D., Dr.Jur.,
Ph.D., Th.Lic., Late Professor of Ecclesiastical. Public, and German Law,
Gymnasial Professor at Zwickau. University of Leipsio.
EDWARD BENTON OOE, D.D., 8.T.D., GEORGE JOHN FRITSOHEL, A.M.,
LL.D., Professor of Church History, Wartburg Evangelical Lutheran
Senior Minister of the Collegiate Church, New York. Seminary* Dubuque, la.

FERDINAND EDUARD THEODOR OCTAVIU8 BROOKS FROTHINGHAM (f),

COHRS, Th.D.,
Consistorial Councilor, Ilfeld, Germany. Late Historian of Transcendentalism, Boston, Mass.
ALEXIS IR&N&E DU PONT COLEMAN, PAUL REVERE FROTHINGHAM, 8.T.B.,
M.A., Minister of Arlington St. Church (Unitarian), Boston, Matt.
Instructor in English, College of the City of New York.
JOSEPH HALL FUS8ELL,
CHARLES OORREVON, Secretary, Universal Brotherhood and Theotopbioal Society,
Pastor of the French Reformed Church, Frankfort.

SAMUEL CRAMER, Th.D., SOLOMON J. GAMERTSFELDER,

Professor of the History of Christianity, University of Ph.D., D.D.,
Amsterdam, and Professor of Practical Theology, Principal of the Evangelical Theological Seminary,
Mennonite Theological Seminary, Amsterdam. Naperville, 111.
 CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME XI vii

THOMAS JAKES GARLAND, B.D., ALBEBT HAUOK, Ph.D., Th.D., Dr.Jur.,

Secretary of the Divinity School of the Protestant Epis- Professor of Church History, University of Leipsic, Editor-
copal Church in Philadelphia. in-chief of the Hauok-Hercog ReaUncyktoptoKe.

OWEN HAMILTON GATES, Ph.D., JOHANNES HAUSSLEITER, Ph.D., Th.D.,

librarian, Andover Theological Seminary, Andover, Mass. Professor of the New Testament, University of Qreifswald.

GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A., CHARLES GIRVEN HEOKEBT, D.D.,

Former Professor of Biblical History and Lecturer on President of Hamzna Divinity School, Springfield, Ohio.
Comparative Religion, Bangor Theological
Seminary, Bangor, Me. MAX HEINZE (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
FRANZ GOERRES, Ph.D., Late Professor of Philosophy, University of Leipsic.
Assistant Librarian, University of Bonn.
CHARLES ROBERT HEMPHILL,
WILHELM GOETZ (f), Ph.D., D.D., LL.D.,
Late Honorary Professor of Geography, Technical High President of the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of
School, and Professor, Military Academy, Munich Kentucky, Louisville, Ky.

JUAN ORTS GONZALEZ, D.D., ERNST HENKE (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,

Richmond, Va. Late Professor of Theology, University of Marburg.

JAMES I8AAO GOOD, D.D., HEINBICH HEBMEUNX, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,

Professor of Reformed Church History and Liturgies, Cen- Privat-docent in Church History, University of Leipsic.
tral Theological Seminary, Dayton, Ohio.
ALFRED t, D.D.,
THOMAS WAKEFIELD GOODSPEED, Senior Professor of Theology, Hartwiok Seminary, near
D.D., Coopentown, N. Y.
Registrar, University of Chicago.
GEORGE HODGES, D.D., D.C.L.,
FRANK GRETHER, D.D., Dean of the Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass.
Professor of Exegetical Theology, Mission House,
Plymouth, Wis. HEINRIQH FRTEDRTOH
GEORG GBUETZMACHEB, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
HOFFMANN, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Privat-docent in Church History, University of Leipsic.
Extraordinary Professor of Church History, University of
Heidelberg. RUDOLF HUGO HOFMANN, Ph.D., Th.D.,
RICHARD HEINBICH GRUETZMACHER, Professor of Homiletics and Liturgies, University of Leipsic.

Th.D., HJALMER FREDRIK HOLMQUIST,

Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Rostock.
Th.D.,
EUG&NE GUilNIN, Professor of Church History, University of Lund, Sweden.
Chief of the Staff of Stenographers, Senate of France. EDMUND LTMAN HOOD, Ph.D.,
ALMON GUNNISON, D.D., LL.D.,
President of Atlanta Theological Seminary. Atlanta, Ga.

President of St. Lawrence University, Canton, N. Y. FRANKLIN EVANS HO SKINS, D.D.,

HERMANN GUTHE, Ph.D., Th.D., Missionary at Beirut, Syria.

Extraordinary Professor of Old Testament Exegesis,

University of Leipsio.
GEOBGE BICE HOVEY, D.D.,
President of Virginia Union University, Richmond, Va.
WILHELM HADORN, Th.Lic.,
HENRY EY8TEB
Pastor in Bern and Lecturer on New Testament Exegesis, JACOBS, D.D., LL.D.,
University of Bern. 8.T.D.,
Dean of the Lutheran Theological Seminary, Mount Airy,
ALFRED MARTIN HAGGARD, M.A., Philadelphia, Pa.
Dean of the Bible College, Drake University, Des Moines,
Iowa. JOSEPH JACOBS, Litt.D.,
Professor of English Literature and Rhetoric, Jewish Theo-
ARTHUR OBAWSHAT ALLISTON logical Seminary of America, New York.
HALL, D.D., LL.D.,
HENBY HARRIS JESSTJP
Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Vermont. (f), D.D.,
Late Missionary at Beirut, Syria.
JULIUS HAMBERGER (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Munich. EDMUND TALMA JILL8ON, B.A.,
Kansas City Baptist Theological Seminary.
FREDERICK WILLIAM HAMILTON, ARTHUR NEWTON JOHNSON,
D.D., LL.D., M.A.,
President of Tufts College, Man. Home Secretary of the London Missionary Society.

ADOLF HABNAOK, M.D., Ph.D., GU8TAV ADOLF JUELICHEB, Ph.D.,

Th.D., Dr. Jur., Professor of Church History and New Testament Exegesis,
University of Marburg.
General Director of the Royal Library, Berlin.

JAMBS BENDEL HrATrp.Tfl^

MABTIN XAEHLEB, Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics and New Testament Exegesis*
Litt.D., LL.D.,
University of Halle.
Director of Studies at the Friends' Settlement, Woodbrooke,
near Birmingham, England.
FEBDINAND FBIEDBICH WILHELM
SAMUEL HART, D.D., D.O.L., KATTBNBU80H, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Dean of Berkeley Divinity School, Middletown, Conn. Professor of Dogmatics, University of Halle.
viii CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME XI

EMIL FRIEDRICH KAUTZ8CH (t), WILHELM PHILIPP FRIEDRICH

Ph.D., Th.D., FERDINAND LOTZ, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Erlangen.
Halle.

PETER GUSTAV KAWERAU, FRANK ARTHUR McELWAIN, B.D.,

Ph.D., Warden, Seabury Divinity School, Fanbault, Minn.
Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Provost of St. Peter's, JOHN KNOX MCLEAN, D.D.,
Berlin, and Honorary Professor, University of Berlin.
President of Pacific Theological Seminary, Berkeley, Cal.
JAMES ANDERSON KELSO, Ph.D., D.D., WILLIAM MARCELLU8 McPHEETERS.
President of Western Theological Seminary, Pittsburg, Pa.
D.D., LL.D.,
OTTO KIRN (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Chairman of the Faculty, Columbia Theological Seminary,
Columbia, S. C.
Late Professor of Dogmatics, University of Leipsic.

RUDOLF KITTEL, Ph.D., Th.D.,

FRANKLIN PIERCE MANHART, D.D.,
Dean of the School of Theology and Vice-president of Sus-
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic. quehanna University, Selingagrove, Pa.
RUDOLF KOEGEL (t), Ph.D., Th.D., ERNEST CHRISTIAN MARGRANDEBT
Late Court Preacher, Berlin. D.O.,
FRIEDRICH EDUARD KOENIG, Chancellor to the Orthodox Catholic Archbishop of America.

Ph.D., Th.D., ALBERT BRAIMERD MARSHALL, D.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Bonn.
President of the Presbyterian Theological Seminary, Omaha,
HEINRICH ADOLF KOESTLIN (t), Neb.
Ph.D., Th.D., AYLMER MAUDE,
Late Privy Councilor in Cannstadt, formerly Professor of Author and lecturer, Great Baddow, Chelmsfcml, England.
Theology, University of Qiesscn.
KAUFMANN KOHLER, Ph.D.,
PAUL MEDER,
Pastor in Gr. Urleben near Ton us ted t.
President of Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio.

THEODOR FRIEDRICH HERMANN FRIEDRICH MEYER, Th.D.,

KOLDE, Ph.D., Th.D., Secretary of the Ecclesiastical Council, Zurich, Switzerland.
Professor of Church History, University of Erlangen. PHILIPP METER, Th.D.,
OTTO EDWARD KRIEGE, D.D., Supreme CoiiHiMtorial Councilor, Hanover.
President of the German Theological Seminary, Central
WeHleyan College, Warrenton, Mo.
GEROLD MEYER VON KNONAU,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
HERMANN GUSTAV EDUARD KRUEGER, Professor of History, University of Zurich.
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Giessen.
KONRAD CHRISTIAN ERNST
MICHEL8EN,
EUGEN LACHENMANN, Secretary of the Nordfriesischer Verein fur Heimatkunde
und Hcnnatliebe, Klanxbull in Hleswick.
City Pastor in Leonberg, WUrttcmberg.

WARREN HALL LANDON, D.D.,

CARL THEODOR MIRBT, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Marburg
President of San Francisco Theological Seminary, San
Ansel mo, Cal.
WALTER WILLIAM MOORE, D.D., LL.D.,
WILLIAM HENRY LARRABEE, LL.D., President of Union Theological Seminary, Richmond, Va
N. J.
Plainfield,
WILLIAM GALLOGLT MOOREHEAD,
GEORGE THATCHER LASCELLE, D.D., LL.D.,
Secretary to the Dean of Nashotah House, Nashotah, Wis. President of Xenia Theological Seminary, Xenia, Ohio.

WILHELM JOHANNES LEIPOLDT, ROBERT SWAIN MORISON, S.T.B.,

Ph.D., Th.D., Librarian Emeritus, Divinity School of Harvard Univcnuty,
Professor of New Testament Cambridge, Mans.
Exegesis, University of Kiel.

LUDWIG LEMME, Th.D.,

EDWARD DAFYDD MORRIS, D.D., LL.D.,
Former Professor of Theology, Lane Theological Seminary,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Heidelberg. Cincinnati, Ohio.
EDUARD LEMPP, Ph.D., WILLIAM CHARLES MORRO,
Chief Inspector of the Royal Orphan Asylum, Stuttgart. B.D., Ph.D.,
JAMES OTIS LINCOLN, Dean of the Faculty, College of the Bible, Lexington, Ky.
M.A.,
Secretary and Librarian of the Church Divinity School of
the Pacific, San Mateo, Cal.
ERNST FRIEDRICH KARL MUELLER,
Th.D.,
CONRAD EMIL LINDBERG, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Reformed Theology, University of Erlangen.

Vice-president and Professor of Theology, Augustana Theo-

logical Seminary, Rock Island, IlT
EDGAR YOUNG MULLINS, D.D., LL.D.,
President of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary,
GERHARD LOESOHCKE, Th.Lic., Louisville, Ky.
Privat-docent in Church History, University of Bonn. HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.,
Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New
FRIEDRIOH ARMIN LOOFS, Ph.D., Th.D., Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge,
Professor of Church History, University of Halle. MOM.
 CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME XI

HEINBIOH FRIEDRIOH WILHELM GEORGE WARREN RICHARDS, D.D.,

NELLE, Th.D., Professor of Church History, Theological Seminary of th
Hamm, Reformed Church, Lancaster, Pa.
Superintendent in Westphalia.
OHBISTOF EBERHARD NESTLE '
ROBERT WILLIAM ROGERS, M.A.,
Ph.D., Th.D., Ph.D., LL.D.,
Professor in the Theological Seminary, Maulbronn, Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, Drew
Wurttemberg. Theological Seminary, Madison, New Jersey.

ALBEBT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D., HENRY KALLOCH BOWE, Ph.D.,

Professor of Church History, Southwestern Baptist Theo- Assistant Professor of Church History, Newton Theological
logical Seminary, Fort Worth, Texas. Institution, Newton Center, Mass.

JOSEPH FORT NEWTON, M.A., Th.M., WILLIAM OTIS HUSTON, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of English, University of Iowa. Dean of the Faculty, Dubuque German College and Semi-
nary, Dubuque, la.
THEODOR JULIUS NET, Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Rpeyer, Bavaria. CARL VICTOR RYSSEL (f), Ph.D., Th.D..
Late Professor of Theology, University of Zurich.
FREDERIK KBISTIAN NIELSEN (f),
D.D., PHILIPP HEINRICH WILHELM
Late Bishop of Aarhus, Denmark. THEODOR SCHAEFER, Th.D.,
DAVID NYVALL, Head of the Deaconess Institute, Altona.

President of Walden College, McPheraon, Kan DAVID 8CHLET SCHAFF, D.D.,

GUSTAV FRIEDRICH VON OEHLER (f),
Professor of Church History, Western Theological Seminary,
Pittsburg, Pennsylvania.
D.D.,
Late Professor of Old Testament Theology, TUbingen. PHILIP SCHAFF (f), D.D., LL.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, Union Theological Semi-
CONRAD VON ORELLI, Ph.D., Th.D., nary, New York.
Professor of Old Testament Kxcgesis and History of
Religion, University of Basel. JOHN SCHALLER,
CHRISTIAN VON PALMER (f), Th.D., President of the Lutheran Theological Seminary,
Wauwatosa, Wis.
Late Professor of Theology, Tubingen.
CARL PFENDER, GEORGE HENRY SCHODDE ; Ph.D., D.D.,
Secretary of the Faculty, Capital University, Columbus, O.
Pastor of St Paul's Evangelical Lutheran Church, Paris.

LEANDER LYCTTRGUS PICKETT, MAXIMILIAN VICTOR SCHT7LTZE,

Field Secretary of Asbury College, Wilmore, Ky.
Th.D.,
Professor of Church History and Christian Archeology,
FRANZ AUGUST OTTO PIEPER, D.D., University of Greifswald.
President of Concordia Seminary, St. Louis, Mo. JOHANN KARL EDUARD SCHWAB.Z (|),
MARIE POUTZ, Th.D.,
Fellow of the Theosophical Society, Norfolk, Va. Late Professor of Theology, University of Jena.

WALDO SELDEN PRATT, Mus.D., WILLIAM NATHANIEL SCHWABZE,

Professor of Music and Hymnology, Hartford Theological Ph.D.,
Seminary, Hartford, Conn. Resident Professor, Moravian College and Theological
Seminary, Bethlehem, Pa.
ERWIN FRIEDRICH WILHELM PAUL SCHWEIZER,
FERDINAND PREUSCHEN, Ph.D., Th.D., Ph.D.,
Pastor at Hirschhorn-on-the-Neckar, Germany. Professor of History, University of Zurich.

HARRY HEFFNER PRICE, M.A., B.D., JOHN PRESTON SEARLE, D.D.,

President of Westminster College of Theology, Tehuacana, President of the Theological Seminary of the Reformed
Texas. Church, New Brunswick, N. J.

RALPH EARL PRIME, D.C.L., LL.D., REINHOLD SEEBERG, Ph.D., Th.D.,

Attorney, Yonkers, N. Y. Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Berlin.

TRAUGOTT OTTO RADLACH, EMIL SEHLING, Dr.Jur.,

Pastor at Gatersleben, Prussian Saxony. Professor of Ecclesiastical and Commercial Law,
University of Erlangen.
HERMANN RAHLENBECK,
Pastor in Cologne. FRANK SEWALL, S.T.D.,
President of the Swedenborg Scientific Association,
DELAVAN BLOODGOOD REED, D.D., Washington, D. C.
New Testament Language and Literature and
Professor of
of Ecclesiastical History. Hillsclale Baptist Seminary,
WILLIAM GREENOUGH THAYER
Hillsdale, Mich. 8HEDD (f), D.D., LL.D.,
RICHARD CLARK REED, D.D., LL.D., Late Professor of Systematic Theology, Union Theological
Seminary, New York.
Professor of Church History, Presbyterian Theological
Seminary, Columbia, 8. C. FRIEDRICH ANTON EMIL SIEFFEBT,
GERHARD REIOHEL, Th.Lic., Ph.D., Th.D.,
Instructor in the Theological Seminary at Gnadenfeld, Professor of Ntw Testament Exegesis, University of Bonn.
ERNEST GOTTLIEB SIHLER, Ph.D.,
JOHN BALLABD KENDALL, D.D., Professor of Latin, New York University.
President of Lincoln University, Pa.
EDUARD SIMONS, Th.D.,
EDWIN WILBUR BICE, D.D., Extraordinary Professor of Practical Theology, University
Editor, American Sunday-School Union, Philadelphia, Pa. of Berlin,
 CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME XI

JOHN ALDEN 8INGMA8TER, D.D., JOHN VTfiNOT, Th.D.,

President of the Lutheran Theological Seminary, Professor of Church History, Independent Scdool of
Gettysburg, Pa. Divinity, Paris.

FRANKLIN CHESTER 80 U TH W ORTH, BOBEBT ERNEST VINSON, D.D., LL.D.,

D.D., President of Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary,
President and Dean of the Faculty, Meadville Theological Austin, Texas.
School, Meadville, Pa. EDWARD HARMON VIRGIN, B.A.,
ERNST STAEHELIN, Ph.D., Librarian, General Theological Seminary, New York City.
Pastor in Basel.
ANDREW GEORGE VOIGT, D.D.,
ADOLF VON STAEHLIN (f), Th.D., Dean of Lutheran Theological Seminary, Columbia, 8. C.
Late Bavarian Royal Councilor.
JULIUS AUGUST WAGENMANN (t),
ANTHONY ANASTASIOU 8TAMOULI, Th.D.,
Formerly Member of the Editorial Staff of Atlantis, Late Consistorial Councilor, Gdttingen.
New York City,
X. F. STEIGEB (t),
\VTLLISTON WALKER, Ph.D., D.D.,
Late Pastor in Eglishuf .
Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Yale University, New
Haven, Conn.
GEORGE BLACK STEWART, D.D., LL.D., OARL GIDEON WALLENIU8, B.A.,
President of Auburn Theological Seminary, Auburn, N. Y. President of Swedish Theological Seminary, Evanston, 111.

HERMANN LEBERECHT 8TRACK, Ph.D., SAMUEL ALFRED WALLIS, D.D.,

Th.D., Secretary of the Faculty of the Protestant Episcopal Theo-
Honorary Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and logical Seminary in Virginia, near Alexandria, Va.
fcternitic Languages, University of Berlin.
ULRIOH STUTZ,
WILLIAM FAIBFIELD WARREN
Dr.Jur., 8.T.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical Law, University of Bonn. Dean of the School of Theology, Boston University.
GEORGE SVERDRUP, Jr., M.A., HENRY JACOB WEBER, Ph.D., D.D.,
President of Augsburg Seminary, Minneapolis, Minn.
Professor of Theology and Church History, German Theo-
JUDSON SWIFT, D.D., logical School, Bloomfield, N. J.

General Secretary of the American Tract Society, New York. REVERE FRANKLIN WEIDNER,
MILTON SPENSER TERRT, D.D., LL.D., S.T.D., D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Christian Doctrine, Carre tt Biblical Institute, President of the Chicago Lutheran Theological Seminary.
Evanston, 111.
LOUIS WE88EL, <

FBIEDBICH TEUTSCH (f), Th.D., Profeasor of Theology, Concordia College, Springfield, 111.

Late Consistorial Councilor, Hermannstadt, Hungary.

CARL MARCUS WE8WIG, B.D.,
FRIEDRIOH AUGUST THEODOB Professor of Church History and Homiletica, Seminary of
THOLUCK (f), Th.D., the United Norwegian Lutheran Church, St.
Late Professor of Theology, University of Halle.
Anthony Park, Minn.

JAMBS WESTFALL THOMPSON, A.B.,

EDWARD ELIHU WHIT7IELD, M.A.,
Retired Public Schoolmaster, London.
Associate Professor of History, University of Chicago.

FRIEDRICH WILHELM THUEMMEL, FRIEDRIOH LUDWIG LEONHARD

Th.D.,
WTEGAND, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Greifswald.
Professor of Homiletics and Catechetics, University of Jena.

WILBUR FISK TILLET,

TEA-RT. MORSE WILBUR, D.D.,
D.D., LL.D., Dean of the Pacific Unitarian School for the Ministry,
Dean of the Theological Faculty, Vanderbilt University, Berkeley, Cal.
Nashville, Tenn.

FBANCI8 EDWARD TOUR80HER, DAVID BURT WTLLSON, D.D.,

Irofessor of Biblical Literature, Reformed Presbyterian
O.S.A., D.D., Seminary, Pittsburg, Pa.
Regent of Studies, Monastery of
St. Thomas, Villanova, Pa.
PAUL WOLFF (f),
PAUL T80HACKERT (f), Ph.D., Th.D., Late Pastor at Friedersdorf, Brandenburg, and Editor of
Late Professor of Church History, University of Qottingen. the Evangdische KirchtrnzeUuny.

FENNELL PARRISH TURNER, B.A., WILLIAM LORING WORCESTER, B.A.,

General Secretary of the Student Volunteer Movement for President of New Church Theological School, Cambridge,
foreign Missions, New York. Mass.

JOHANN GERHARD WILHELM KARL AUGUST WUENSOHE,

UHLHORN (f), Th.D., Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Abbot of Lokkum, Germany. Retired Profeasor, Dresden.

MONBOE VATHINGER, D.D., RUDOLF ZEHNPFUND, Ph.D.,

President of Taylor University, Upland, Indiana. Pastor in Oranienbaum, Germany.

HENRY CLAY VEDDER, D.D., THEOBALD ZIEOLEB, Ph.D.,

Professor of Church History, Crozer Theological Seminary, Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy, University d
Chester, Pa. Strasburg.

8IET8E DOUWES VAN VEEN, Th.D., OTTO ZOECXLER (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History and Christian Archeology* Late Professor of Church History and Apotofl0tta%
University of Utrecht, University of GreifswalcJ.
 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDK-VOLS. I-XI

The following list of books is supplementary to the bibliographies given at the end of the articles
contained in vols. I.-XL, and brings the literature down to June 20, 1911. In this list each title entry
is printed in capital letters. It is to be noted that, throughout the work, in the articles as a rule only
first editions are given. In the bibliographies the aim is to give either the best or the latest edition,
and in case the book is published both in America and in some other country, the American place of

issue is usually given the preference.

ABBOTT, L.: The Problem of Human Destiny, as BABYLONIA: C. Frank, Studien zur babylonischen
Conditioned by Free Will. Discussion, Bos- Religion, vol. i., Strasburg, 1911.

ton, 1911. J. Krauss, Die Odtternamen in den babyloni-

schen Siegelcylinderlegenden, Leipsic, 1911.
AFRICA: G. B. A. Gerdener, Studies in the Evangel-
isation of South Africa, London, 1911. S. Langdon, A Sumerian Grammar and Chres-
A. R. Tucker, Eighteen Years in Uganda and with a Vocabulary of the
tomathy, Principal
East Africa, New York, 1911. Roots in Sumerian and a List of the most Im-
portant Syllabic and Vowel Transcriptions,
ALBERTUS MAGNUS: Albertus Magnus, Being the ap- New York, 1911.
proved, verified, sympathetic and natural Egyp-
tian Secrets, white and black Art for Man and BAMBERG: J. Looshorn, Die Geschichte des Bisthums

Beast, by that celebrated occult Student, new Bamberg. Nach den QueUen bearbeitet, vol.
and revised ed., cd. L. W. de Laurence, viii., Das Bisthum Bamberg von 1729-1808,

Chicago, 1910.
fasc. 2, Von 1747-1808, Bamberg, 1910,

ANTICHRIST: II. Prcuas, Die

Vorstettungen vom BAPTISM: D. E. Dortch, Bible Lights on Baptism,
Antichrist im spdtern Mittclalter, bei Tullahoma, 1911.
Luthfr
und in der konfessionellen Polemik, Leipsic,
1906.
BAPTISTS: W. J. McGlothlin, Baptist Confessions of
Faith, Philadelphia, 1911.
APOLOGETICS: W. H. Carslaw, The Early Christian
BEISSEL, S.: Geschichte der Verehrung Marias, vol.
Apologists, London, 1911.
W. Clert, Prolegomena der GeschichtsphUosophie. ii., Freiburg, 1910.
Studie zur (hundlage der Apologetik, Leipsic, BELGIUM: D. C. Boulger, Belgium of the Belgians,
1911.
New York, 1911.
A. E. Garnie, Christian Life and Belief. A De-
scription and Defence of the Gospel, London, BENEDICTION: A. Franz, Die kirchlichen Benedik-
1911. tionen im MittelaUer, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1909.
D. Macfadyen, Truth in Religion. Studies in
the Nature of Christian Certainty, London, BENNETT, W. H.: The Moabtte Stone, Edinburgh,
1911.
1911.
C. H. Robinson, Studies in the Character of BIBLE SOCIETIES: W. Canton, History of the British
Christ:an Argument for the Truth of Chris- and Foreign Bible Society, London, 1911.
New York, 1911.
tianity,
BIBLE TEXT: The Four Codex
the
BIBLICAL: See below, JEREMIAS, A. Gospels from
ARCHEOLOGY, Veronensis, with Introduction descriptive of
ARCHITECTURE: G. H. West, Gothic Architecture in the MS. by E. S. Buchanan. Old Latin Bib-

England and France, London, 1911. lical Texts (no. 6), London, 1911.

ATHAN ASIAN CREED: R. 0. P. Taylor, The Athana- BIBLE VERSIONS: J. Brown, The History of the Eng-
sian Creed in the Twentieth Century, Edin- lish Bible, London, 1911.
burgh and New York, 1911. Coptic Version of the New Testament in the South-
ATONEMENT: S. H. Langdon,
in Expository Times, ern Dialect, otherwise called Sahidic and The-

April, 1911, pp. 320-325, and C. F. Burney baic, with critical Apparatus, with literal Eng-
lish Translation, Register of
in the same, pp. 325-327 (important). Fragments and
Estimate of the Version, 3 vols, 1911.
London,
AUGUSTINE: H. Scholz, Olaube und Unglaube in der
Ein Kommentar zu Augus- W.Muir, Our Grand Old Bible.
Being the Story
WeUgeschichte.
of the Authorized Version of the English Bibk
tins De civitate Dei, Leipsic, 1911.
Celebration, New
told for the Tercentenary
BABYLONIA: A. Poebel, Die summschen Person- York, 1911.
namen zwr Zeit der Dynastic von Larsam und J. D. Payne, The
English Bible. An Historical
der ersten Dynastie von Babylonien, Breslau, Survey, from the Dawn of English History, to
1910, the Present Day, London, 1911.
xii BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX VOLUMES I-XI

BIBLE VERSIONS: Records of the English Bible. The CHURCH HISTORY: See above, BIBLICAL THEOLOGY,
Documents relating to the Translation and Wohlrab.
Publication of the Bible in English, 1526- T. S. Holmes, The Origin and Development of
1611, ed. with an introduction by A. W. the Christian Church in Gaul during the First
Pollard, London and New York, 1011. Six Centuries of the Christian Era, London,
The Hexaplar Psalter. Being the Book of Psalms 1011.
in Six English Versions, ed. W. A. Wright,
COMBNIUS: J. Kvaftala, Analecta Comeniana, Ber-
Cambridge, 1911. lin, 1010.
BIBLICAL CRITICISM: C. W. Emmet, The Eschato-
COMMON PRAYER, BOOK OF: W. H. Frerc, Some
logical Question in the Gospels, and Other
Studies in Recent New Testament Criticism, Principles of Liturgical Reform. A Contribu-
tion towards the Revision of the Book of Com-
Edinburgh, 1011. mon Prayer, London, 1011.
A. Freitag, Zerstort die historisch^kritische The-
ologie den Wert der neutestamentlichen Schrtf- COMPARATIVE RELIGION M. Bruckner, Der sterbende
:

ten als OeschichtsqueUenf Giessen, 1011. und auferstehcnde GottheiUind in den oriental-
E. A. Hutton, An
Atlas of Textual Criticism. ischen Religioncn und ihr Verhcillnis zum
Being an Attempt to show the Mutual Rela-
Christentum, Tubingen, 1008.
tionship of the Authorities for the Text of
the W. W. Fowler, The Religious Experience of the
New Testament up to about 1000 A.D., Lon- Roman People from the Earliest Times to the
don, 1011. Age of Augustus, London, 1011.
BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION: J. Moffatt, An Introduc- J. G. Fraser, The Magic Art and the Evolution
tion to the Literature of the New Testament, of Kings, 2 vols., London, 1011 (a part of
London and New York, 1011. the 3d cd. of The Golden Bough).
Also see below, LOISY.
BIBLICAL THEOLOGY: M. Wohlrab, Das neutesta-
mentliche Christentum, auf psychologischer DAVIES, T. W.: Sec below, MAGIC.
Grundlage dargestellt, Dresden, 1010, 1011.
M. Des Ephesier- und Kolosserbriefes DECIUS: P. M. Meyer, Die Libclli aus der dccian-
Slavifi,
ischen Christenvcrfolgung, Berlin, 1010.
Lehre uber die Person Christi und sein Heils-
werk, Vienna, 1011. DISEASES AND THE HKALING ATIT, HEBREW: J.
F. G. Smith, Evolution of Christianity; or, Preuss, Biblisch-talmudixche Mvdizin. Bei-
Origin, Nature, and Development of the Re- trage zur Gcschichte der Hettkunde, und der
ligion of the Bible, Anderson, Ind., 1011. KuUur uberhaitpt, Berlin, 1911.
Also see below, ROBINSON.
DIVORCE: H. Ringrosc, Marriage and Divorce Laws
BONAVENTURA: L. Costelloe, Saint Bonaventure, the of the World, London, 1011.
Seraphic Doctor, London and New York,
1011. DOCTRINE, HISTORY OF: J. P. Kirsch, The Doctrine
Communion of Saint* in the Ancient
of the
BROWNE, SIR THOMAS: W. Schonack, Thomas
Sir
Church, St. Louis, 1911.
Brownes Religio Medici [in German]. Bin
verschottenes Denkmal des englischen Theis- DOGMA, DOGMATICS: L. Labauche, Lecon* dc tht-
mus, Tubingen, 1011. ologie dogmatique. Dogmatique speciale, vol.
i., Paris, 1910.
BUDDHISM: T. W. Rhys Davids. Sacred Books of
the Buddhists, Translated oy various Orien- DREAMS: H. Ellis, The World of Dreams, London,
tal Scholars. Dialogues of the Buddha. Part 1911.
II. Translated by T. W. andC.A. F. Rhys-
DUHM, B. L. The Ever-coming Kingdom of God: a
:

Davids, London, 1011. Dissertation on religious Progress, New York,

G. A. Esengrini, Le visioni del Bouddha, Turin. 1911.
1011.
W. W. Hicks, The Sanctuary, Boston, 1011.
EGYPT: V. Ermoni, La Religion de I'figypte an-
cienne, Paris, 1911.
BULGARIA: W. Ruland, Geschichte der Bulgaren,
ELAGABALUS: J. S.
Hay, The Amazing Emperor
Berlin, 1011.
Heliogabalus, London, 1911.
CHETNE, T. K.: The Two Religions of Israel. With
a Re-examination of the Prophetic Narratives ENGLAND, CHURCH OF: Visitation Articles and In-
and Utterances, London, 1010, New York, junctions of the Period of the Reformation, ed.
1011. W. H. Frere, 3 vols., London, 1910.
G. A. Cobbold, This Church of England, Lon-
CHINA: W. E. Griffis, China's Story in Myth, Legend,
Art and Annals, Boston, 1010. don, 1911.
J. E. C. Welldon, The Religious Aspects of Dis-
A. E. Moule, Hal/ a Century in China. Recol-
establishment and Disendowment, London,
lections and Observations, London, 1011.
1911.
Lin Shao-Yang, A Chinese Appeal to Christen-
dom concerning Christian Missions, New EPICUREANISM: A. E. Taylor, Epicurus. London,
York, 1011. 1911.
CHRISTIAN SOCIALISM: T. Fallot, Christianisme so- ETHICS: S. W. Davis, Origin and Evolution of Ethics,
cial, Paris, 1010. Los Angeles, Gal., 1910.
CHRISTOLOGT: H. B. Swete, The Ascended Christ: EXEGESIS: D. Kunstlinger, AUjudische Bibeldeut*
a Study in the earliest Christian Teaching, ung Berlin, 1911.
t

London and New York, 1010.

W. J. Simpson, The Resurrection and Modern FAITH: A. Chandler, Faith and Experience: an
Thought, London, 1011. Analysis of the Factors of Religious Knowl-
K. Thieme, Von der Oottheit Christi. Gegen den edge, London, 1911.

rcliqifoen Ruckschritt
in Orutatmachers Dreiei- FEASTS AND FESTIVALS: F. Bttnger, Geschichte der
niakeUslehrc, Giessen, 1011, Neujahrsfeier in der Kirche f Gottingen, 1911
 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX VOLUMES I XI xiii

FRANCE: D. Lortsch, Histoire de la Bible en France, IDEALISM: C. Dunan, Les Deux Id6alismes, Paris,
Geneva, 1910. 1910.
Also sec CHURCH HISTORY, Holmes. P. Natorp, Philosophic. Ihr Problem und ihrc

FRANCIS, SAINT, OF AHNIKI: II. (Irimley, Raint

Problcmc. Einfuhrung in den kritixehcn
Francis and his Friends: rendered into Kny- Idealismus, Gottingen, 1911.
A. Wcrnicke, Die ttegrundung des deutschcn
lish from Franciscan Chronicler, Cambridge
Idealismus durch human Mil Kant. Ein Bei-
and New York, 1908.
N. Tamassia, Saint Francis of Assisi and If is trag zum Vcrstflndnitttte des gemritutamen
Wirkens von Goethe und Schiller, Brunswick,
Legerul, London, 1911. 1911.
GEORGE, SAINT: Saint George for England. The
IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA: D. Angeli, Rant' Ignazio de
Life, Legends and Lore of our Glorious Patron.
Compiled by II. 0. F., 2d ed., London, 1911. Loyola nella vita e neliartc, Lanciano, 1910.
GERHARD, J.: Add to the bibliography: R. Hup- IMMORTALITY: F. Blades, 7s the Life of Man eternal?
feld, Die Ethik Joh. Gerhard*, Berlin, 1908.
New York, 1911.
G. L. Dickinson, Religion and Immortality,
GERMANY: F. Uhlhorn, Geschichte der deutsch-lu-
Boston, 1911.
thcrischen Kirchc, 2 vols., Lcipsic, 1911.
INDIA: T. C. Hodson, The Naga Tribes of Manipur,
GOD: J. R. Illingworth, Divine Transcendence, and
New York, 1911.
its Reflection in Religious Authority: an Es-
say, London, 1911. INNERE MIHSION: J. F. Ohl, The Inner Mission: a
Also see below, POIILK, J. Handbook for Christian Workers, Philadel-
GOSPEL AND GOSPELS: G. Fulliquet, Sources des phia, 1911.
fvangiles, Paris, H/10, Geneva, 1911. ISAIAH: C. D. Ginsburg, Isaias. Diliycntcr revises
(J. Friedlander, The Jewish Sources of the Ser- juxta Massorah atque editiones principcs cum
mon on the Mount, London, 1911. variis lectwnibus emss. atuucantiquimririon'i-
E. Mangenot, Les Evanuilcs xynoptiqitcs. Con- bus collcctix, London, 1909.
ferences a ftoloqt Unites, Paris, 1911. R. II. Kennett, The Composition of the Book of
Studies in the Synoptic I'roblcw, by l\f embers of Isaiah in the Light of nixtftry and Archeology,
the University of Oxford, ed. W. Sunday, London, 1911 ; idem, The Servant of the Lord,
New York, 1911. New York, 1911.
Also see below, HARNACK; LOISY; LUKE. G. \V. Wade, The Book of the PropM Isaiah.
With Introduction and Notes, London, 1911.
GREGORY VII.: to sources: A Selection of
Add th<
Letters of Ilildcbnnid, Pope Gregory VII. . . . ISRAEL, HISTORY OF: R. Lescynsky, Die Judcn in
by (t. Finch, London, 1853. Arabien zur Zeii Muhammedx, Berlin, 1910.
M. Gemoll, Grundnlein.e zur Geschichle Israels.
HABAKKUK: G. N. Stonehouse, Introduction,
G.
Allletitamentliche titudicn, Leipsie, 1911.
Translation, and Notes on the Hebrew Text 0. F. Lehman-llaupt, Inrael. Seine Entwick-
of the Book of Habakkuk, London, 1911.
Inng irn Rahmcn der Weltgcschichte, Tu-
HAMMURABI AND HIS CODE: E. Wohlfromm. Un- bingen, 1911.
terstichungen zur Syntax des Codex Ham- M. Lohr, Israels Kulturentwickelung Rtrasburg,
,

murabis, Koiiigsberg, 1910. 1911.

HARNACK, A.: Neue Untcrsuchungen zur AjMtstel- JAMKS, W.: E. Boutroux, William James, Paris,
geschichte und zur Abfassitngszeit der synop- 1911.
tischen Evangelien, Leipsic, 1911.
JEREMIAS, A.: The Old Testament in the Light of the
HEBREW LANGUAGE: C. E. Ilesselgrave, The lie- Ancient EaM: Manual oj Biblical Archwol-
brew Personification of Wisdom: its Origin, ogy, 2 vols., London, 1911.
Development and Influence, New York, 1911. JESUITS: 0. Coppcns, WJw arc the Jesuits'' St.
HEGEL: J. (). Knott, Seekers after Soul,
Boston, Louis, 1911.
1911 (the seekers considered are: Job, Plato,
JESUS CHRIST: K. Dunkmann, Der hixtoriftchc Jesus,
Kant, Hegel, and Browning). der mythologischc Christus und JCHUH der
HELLENISTIC GREEK: L. Radennacher, Neutesta- Christ, Leipsie, 1910.
mentliche, Grammatik, Tubingen, 1911. P. Jcnsen, II at der Jesus der Evangelien wirk-
lich gelebtt Frankfort, 1910.
HEXATEUCH: J. S. Griffiths, The Problem of Deute-
A. Drews, Die Christusmythe, part 2, Die Zeug-
ronomy, London, 1911.
F. P. Ramsay, An Interpretation of Genesis, nisse fur die Geschichtlichkeit Jesu, Jena,
1911.
Washington, D. C., 1911.
W. A. Grist, The Historic Christ in the Faith of
HITTITES: A. Gleye, Hittitischc Studicn, part 1,
To-day, London, 1911.
Leipsic, 1910. G. Jahn, Uebcr die Person Jesu und liber die
HOLLAND Gedenkstukken der algemeene Gcschiedenis
:
Entstehung des ChristerUums und Wert dm
van Nedcrland van 1795 tot 1840, vol. v., ed. desselben fur moderne Gebildctc, mit eincr
H. T. Colenbrander, The Hague, 1910. Kritik der Evangelien und der neuesten Schrif-
Ada der particuliere Synoden van Zuid-Holland, ten ilber Jesu, Leyden, 1911.
vol. 1646-66, ed. W. P. C. Knuttcl, The
iii.,
JESUS CHRIST, MONOGRAM OF: F. J. Diilgcr, 1*%
Hague, 1910. Das Fischsymbol in fruhchristlichcr Zeit, vol.
HULSEAN LECTURES: E. A. Edghill, The Revelation i., Rome, 1910.
of the Son of God: some Questions and Con-
siderations arising out f a Study of Second JEWS, MISSIONS TO THE: A. L. Williams, A Manual
of Christian Evidences for Jewish People,
Century Christianity. Being the Hulsean Lec-
tures for 1910-11, London and New York, Cambridge, 1911.
1911. JOB: See above, HEGEL.
ziv BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIXVOLUMES I XI

JOHN THE APOSTLE : J. Chapman, John the Presbyter MIRACLES: J. M. Thompson, Miracles in the New
and Fourth Gospel, London, 1910.
the Testament, New York, 1911.
J. T. Dean, Visions and Revelations. Discourses MISSIONS: J. M. Buckley, Theory and Practice of
on the, Apocalypse, London, 1911. Foreign Missions, New York, 1911.
A. Merx, Das Evangelium des Johannes nach S. M. Zwemer, The
der syrischcn im Sinaikloster gefundenen Pa- Unoccupied Mission Fields
of Africa and Asia, London and New York,
limpsisthandschrift erl&utert, Berlin, 1911. 1911.
JOHN, SAINT, OKDER or: J. Delaville Ic Rouix, Me- Also see above, LUTHERANS.
langes sur Vordre de S. Jean de Jerusalem, MITHRA, MITHRAISM: T. Kluge, Der Mithrakult.
Paris, 1910. Seine Anfdnge, Entwicklungsgeschichte und
KANT: See above, HEGEL. seine Denkmdler, Leipsic, 1911.
KINGDOM OF GOD: Sec above, DUHM. MOABITE STONE: See above, BENNETT.
Moberly, Dulce Domum:
KORKA: M. C. Fenwick, The Church of Christ in MOBERLY, G. : Miss C. A. E.
Corea,York, 1911. New George Moberly, his Family and Friends,
LAMAIHM: A. Cunningham, Ladak, London, 1854. London, 1911.
A. H. Franckc, History of Western Tibet, Lon- MODERNISM: The a Tale of Modernism in
Priest:
don, 1907. New England. Author of " Letters to
By the
His Holiness, Pope Pius X," Boston, 1911.
LOISY, A.: Jlpropos d'histoire des religions, Paris,
1911 ; idem, Jesus et la tradition evangelique, MOFFATT, J.: See above, BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION.
ib. 1911. MOHAMMED: D. B. Macdonald, Aspects of Islam,
LOLLARDS: J. Gairdner, Lollardyand the Reforma- New York, 1911.
tion in England, vol.iii., "London, 1911. E. Montet, DC I'itat present et de Vavenir de
LORD'S SUPPER: F. Graebke, Die Konstruktion der Vlslam, Paris, 1911.
Abcndmahhlehre Luthers in ihrer Entwicklung MORMONS: C. A. Shook, The True Origin of Mormon
dargestdlt, Leipsic, 1908. Polygamy, Mendota, 111., 1911.
LUKE : H. Koch, Die Abfassungszeit des lukanischen MORRISON, R.: J. F. Gouchcr, Growth of the Mis-
Geschichtswcrkes. Eine historisch-kritiscfw sionary Concept, chaps, i.-ii., New York,
und 1911.
exegetische Untersuchung, Leipsic, 1911.
Also sec above, HAHNACK. MYSTICISM: E. Underbill, Mysticism: a Study in
LUTHER: A the Nature and Development of Man's Spiritual
L. P. Winter, Life of Martin Luther,
the Great Reformer of the 16th Century, Nash- Consciousness, London, 1911.
ville, 1911. NIETZSCHK, F.: A. R. Orago, Fricdrich Nietzsche,
LUTHERANS: The Book of Concord; the Dionysian Spirit of the Age, Chicago, 1911.
or, the Symbol-
ical Books of the Evangelical Lutheran Church; NON-CONFORMISTS: G. L. Turner, Original Records
transl.from the original Languages, with of Early Nonconformity under Persecution and
Analyses and exhaustive, Index; ed. by H. Indulgence, London, 1911.
Eyster Jacobs, Philadelphia, 1911. NON-JURORS: H. Broxap, A Biography of Thomas
L. B. Wolf, Missionary Heroes of the Lutheran
Deacon, the Manchester Non-Juror, London,
Church, Philadelphia, 1911. 1911.
MrdiFFERT, A. Protestant Thought before Kant,
C. :
OCCAM, WILLIAM OF: F. Kropatscheck, Occam und
New York, 1911. Lutlier, GUtersloh, 1900.
MAGIC: T. W. Davies, " Magic " Black and White
OSWALD, SAINT: A. C. Champneys, Saint Oswald,
(2d ed. of Magic, Divination, and Demonology
London, 1911.
Among Ihf Hebrews and Their Neighbours,
London, 1897), Chicago, 1910. PALESTINE: Kate B. Scheuerman, The Holy Land
T. de Cauzons, La Magie, et la sorcetterie en as seen through Bible Eyes. Being a Record
France, vol. iii., La Sorcellerie de la Reforme of a Journey through Syria, Palestine and
d la Revolution. Les Convents posstdte. La Europe in the Years 1908-V9, Seattle, 1910.
Franc'Ma^onnerie. Le Magnttisme animal, L. L. Henson, Researches in Palestine, Boston,
Paris, 1911. 1911.
MARK: M. J. Lagrange, fivangile selon saint Marc,
E. Huntington, Palestine and Its Transforma-
Paris, 191 i (translation and commentary). tion, London and Boston, 1911.

MARRIAGE See above, DIVORCE.

: PATON, J. G.: A. K. Langridgc and F. H. L. Paton,
John G. Paton: Later Years and Farewell.
MARTINEAU, J. Prayers in the Congregation and
: in
A Sequel to John G. Paton, an Autobiography,
College, London, 1911. 2d ed., New York, 1910.
MARY, MOTHER OF JESUS CHRIST: See above,
BEISSEL. PAUL THE APOSTLE R. Bultmann, Der Stil der pau-
:

linischen Predigt und die kynisch-stoische Dia-

MENNONITES: D. Philipz, Enchiridion; or Hand
Book of the Christian Doctrine and Religion, tribe,Gottingen, 1910.
J. R. Cohu, St. Paul in the Light of Modern Re-
composed (by the Grace of God) from the Holy search, New York and London, 1911.
Scriptures for the Benefit of aU Lovers of the J. Der 1.
Weiss, Korintherbrief, Go'ttingen,
Truth, Elkhart, Ind., 1910. 1910.
MESSIAH: E. A. Gordon, Messiah: the Ancestral T. W. Drury, The Prison-Ministry of St. Paul,
of the Ages, London, 1911.
Hope London, 1911.
E. F. Scott, The Kingdom and the Messiah, C. H. Dudley, St. Paul's Friendships and his
Edinburgh, 1911. Friends, Boston, 1911.
METHODISTS: R. Gregory, A History of Method-
J. A. Robertson and A. Plummer, A Critical and
ism, chiefly for the Use of Students, 2 vols., Exegetical Commentary on the First Epistle cf
London, 1911. St. Paul to the Connmians, London, 1911.
 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX VOLUMES I-XI

PEACE MOVEMENTS: H. M. Chittendcn, War or SCOTLAND: J.

Dpwden, The Medieval Church in
Peace: a Present Duty and a Future Hope, Scotland: its Constitution, Organization and

Chicago, 1911. Law, New York, 1911.

PHARISEES AND SADDUCEES: W. Caspari, Die Pharv- SEVEN SLEEPERS OF EPHESUS: P. M. Huber, Die
sder bis an die Schwdle des Neuen Testaments, Wanderlegende von den sieben Schlafem,
Gross Lichterfelde, 1909. Leipsic, 1910.
PLATONISM. See above, HEGEL. Si AM: Mrs. L. Milne, Shans at Home, London, 1910
POHLE, J.: Dogmatic Theology, vol. i., God, St. (contains 2 chapters on Shan history and
Louis, 1911. literature by W. W. Cochrane).
POPE, PAPACY: Add to bibliography: II. Grisar, SIN: M. L. Burton, The Problem of Evil, Chicago,
Geschichte Roms und dcr Pdpstc im Mittdalhr, 1910.
Freiburg, 1898 sun. (to be in 6 vols.), Eng. SINAI: M. J. Kendall, Sinai in Spring, London,
transl., History of tiomc and the Popes in the 1911.
Middle Ages, i., London, 1911.
vol.
SOCIALISM: C. Noel, Socialism in Church History,
PRAGMATISM: L. B. Macdonald, Life in the
Making: Milwaukee, 1911.
an Approach to Religion through the Method
SORCERY: V. J. Mansikka, U fiber russische Zauber-
of Modern Pragmatis m Boston 1911.
formcln mit Berucksichtigung der Blul- und
, ,

PROPHECY: O. Procksch, Die kleincn prophetixchen

Vcrrcnkungssegen, Helsingfors, 1910.
Schriftvn vor dem Exit, Stuttgart, 1910. SOTERIOLOGY: E. Krobs, Der Logos als Heiland im
Mary A. Taylor, The Historic Meaning of Proph- ersten Jahrhundcrt. Bin und dog-
religions-
ecy, Cincinnati, 1911.
H. Waco, Prophecy: Jewish and Christian, mengeschichtlicher Beitrag zur Erlosungslehre,
London and Milwaukee, 1911. Freiburg, 1911.
PROTESTANT EPISCOPALIANS: Constitution and SOULE, J.: H. M. Du Bose, Life of Joshua Soule,
Canons for the Government of the Protestant Nashville, 1911.
SOUTH SKA ISLANDS: W. Churchill, The Polynesian
Episcopal Church in the United Stnlrx of Tracks of the Migration deduced
America Adopted in General Conventions, Wanderings.
1789-1U10, New York, 1910. from an Examination of thf Proto-Samoan
Content of the Efate ami other Languages Of
PSEUDEPIGRAPHA: J.Vitoau, Les Psainncx de Sal-
Melanesia, Washington, D. C., 1911.
07720??, Paris, 1910 (with introduction, Greek
SPAIN: G. II. B. Ward, The Truth about Spain t
text, translation, and notos).
Now York, 1911.
RED CKOSH SOCIETY: H. Hundlo, With the Red Cross
SPEAKING WITH TONGUES: E. Lombard, De la glos-
in theFranco-German War, A. D 1870-71. ,
solalic chez les des pht-
Home Reminiscences, London, 1911. premiers Chretiens et
nomcncs similaircs, Paris, 1911.
REFORMATION: Documents Illustrative of the Conti-
E. Mosiman, Das Zunycnrcdcn, Tubingen, 1911.
nental Reformation, ed. B. J. Kidd, London,
1911. SPIERA, F.: Add to bibliography: P. Schaf, Die
Swulc wider den hciligen Grist nebst . . .

RELIGION: J. M. Hodgson, Religion: the Quest of einen Anhangc ub<r das LvbensentJ* des
. . .

Edinburgh, 1911.
the Ideal,
Francesco Spicra, Halle, 1841.
RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY OF: J. J. Gourd, Philosophic STOICISM: V. Arnold, Roman Stoicism, Cambridge,
de la religion, Paris, 1910. 1911.
REVELATION G. A. Cooko, The Progress of Revela- SUNDAY-SCHOOLS: A. H. McKinney, Practical Peda-
tion, New York, 1911.
gogy in the Sunday School, New York and
REVIVALS: T. B. Kilpatrick, New Testament Evan- London, 1911.
gelism, New York, 1911. SYMBOLISM: F. E. Hulme, The History, Principles,
"
REWARD: V. Kirchner, Der " Lohn in der alien and Practice of Symbolism in Christian Art,
Philosophic, im bimjerlichcn Reeht, besondcrs Oth ed., London, 1911.
im Neucn Testament, Gutersloh, 1908. TALMUD: Add to bibliography: The most impor-
ROBINSON, J. A.: The Advent Hope in M. Paul's tant parts of the Mishnah are edited from
Epistles, New York, 1911. MSS., translated and explained by II. L.
ROSCELINUS: F. Pica vet, Roscelin, philosophc et Strack as follows, all at Leipsic Yoma, 1904
:
;

theologien, d'apres la legendc et d'apres I'his- Abhodha Zara, 1909; Sanhedrin Makkoth,
toire. Sa place danx Vlmtoirc gfnfrale et com- 1911; Pesahim, 1911; Berakhoth and the
paree des philosophies mi'dtevalex, Paris, 1911. three Babhoth will appear 1912 13. Add
ROUSSEAU: G. Valette, Jean Jacques Rousseau also: H. L. Strack, Jesus, die Haretiker und
die Christen nach den altesten judischen Anga-
Gentvois, Paris, 1910.
RUSSIA: M. Tamarati, L'figlisc giorgienne des ben, Leipsic, 1910.
origines jusqu'a nos jours, London, 1910. TERTULLIAN: R. Hcinze, TertuUians Apologeticum,
SAINTS: Hagiographica oricntalis. Btidwgraphie Leipsic, 1911.
des textes hagiographiques publies en arabe, en THEISM: G. Wobbermin, Monismus und Mono-
armcnien, en ethiopien, en copte et en syriatjue, theismus, Tubingen, 1911.
Brussels, 1910. THEODORET: Kirchengeschichte, ed. L. Parmentier
Vitce sanctorum Danorum, ed. M. C. Gertz, part for the Prussian Academy, Leipsic, 1911.
2, Copenhagen, 1910. THOMAS AQUINAS: P. Conway, Saint Thomas
SALVATION ARMY: A. M. Nicol, General Booth and Aquinas of the Order of Preachers, 1225-1'4,
The Salvation Army, London, 1911. London, 1911.
SANDAY, W. See GOSPEL AND GOSPELS.
:
TIME, BIBLICAL RECKONING OF: F. Westberc, Zur
SCHOPENHAUER: T. Ruyssen, Schopenhauer, Paris, neutestamentlichen Chronologic und Golgothas
1911. Ortlage, Leipsic, 1911.
SCOTLAND: G. Anderson, The Scottish Pastor, Edin- TRANSFIGURATION: E. Curling, The Transfiguration.
burgh, 1911. With other Sermons, London, 1911.
xvi BIOGRAPHICAL ADDENDA VOLUMES I-XI

BIOGBAPHICAL ADDENDA
ADLER, H. N.: d. in London July 18, 1911. KNIGHT, G. T.: d. at Medford, Mass., Sept. 10,
1911.
ATTERBUBY, W. W.: d. at Bennington, Vt., Aug.
6, 1911. MORAN, P. F.: d. at Sydney, New South Wales,
Aug. 16, 1911.
BERNARD, J. II.: Chosen bishop of Ossory, 1911. G. C.: Becomes
MORGAN, president of Cheshunt
CURTIS, E. L. d. near Rockland, Me., Aug. 26, 1911. in 1911, without resign-
College, Cambridge,
:

DARQAI* E. C.: Elected professor of homiletics in ing his pastoral work.

the Southwestern Baptist Theological Semi- PAGET, F.: d. in London, England, Aug. 2, 1911.
nary, Fort Worth, Tex., 1911. PARTRIDGE, S. C.: Enthroned bishop of Kansas

DEVINS, B,: d. in Brooklyn, N. Y., Aug. 26, 1911.

J. City June 27, 1911.
PIERSON, A. T. d. in Brooklyn, N. Y.> June 2, 1 91 1
: .

DUNNING, A. E.: Retired from the editorial staff of

The Congregationalist, 1911. POWER, F. I).: d. at Washington, D. C., June 14,
1911.
EWALD, H. A. P.: d. at Erlangen, Germany, May
27, 1911.
REVEL, A.: d. at Florence, Italy, Nov. 22, 1888 (see
vol. x., p. 3).
HUGHES, T. P.: d. at King's Park, Long Island, d. at Edinburgh
ROBSON, G.: Aug. 2, 1911.
Aug. 8, 1911. SIMONS, W.
Succeeded Achelis as professor of
E.:
INGE, W. R.: Became dean of St. Paul's, London, practical theology at Marburg, 1911.
1911.
STRONG, A. H.: Resigned presidency of Rochester
KIRN, O.: d. at Leipuic Aug. 18, 1911. Theological Seminary to take effect in 1912.

ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA
Vol. i., p. 173, col. 2, line 23 from bottom: Read tom: Read " Sparks " for " Spark "; p. 486,
44 " " " " 4t
Ohio for p. " 350, col. 2, line 2:
111."; col. 2, line 13: Read Cassel's for Cas-
Read " T. J. Crawford for " T. G. Craw- sels'."
ford "; p. 352, col. 1, line 37: Read Trum- ' 4

Read " Birks "

bull
"
for
"
Trumbell."
Vol. vii.,
44
p. 378, col. 1, line 5: for
Binks."
"
Vol. ii. t p. 68, col. 1, lines 44 and 47: Read Greek t4 "
Testament
"
for
4i
Bible." Vol. viii., p. 3, col. 1, line 4: Read passed for
44
based "; p. 143, col. 2, signature: Read
Vol. v., p. 162, col. 1, line 46: Read 44
Schultz John- 44 " 44

" 4i
Odhner for Odlmer."
son for Schultz, Johnson."
" " Vol 40: Read
x., p. 110, col. 1, line
"
Chamier " for
Vol. vi., p. 19, col. 1, line 45: Read Foster for
"Chanier"; p. Ill, col. 2, line 18: Read
44
" "
Forster," "and line 19 from bottom read G. R." for G. B."; p. 131, coJ. 1, line 29:
44
C. Elliott for
4<
E. Elliott ": p. 124, col. " " "
" '' '
Read Felix Filix "; p. 188, col. I,
for
"
2, line 16: Read
4
44
C. J. Ball for C. F. line 22: Read for
44
M. Bristol
T. Bris-
44
Ball "; p. 208, col. 1, line 25: Read H. R.
" 44 tol"; p. 302, col. 1, line 19 from bottom:
Reynolds for R. H. Reynolds t4
"; p. 225,
" Read "Balmes" for "Balme": "p. 370, col.
line 4 from bottom:
44
Read 1893 for
1, line 21 from bottom: Read 1887-88"
1894 "; p. 227, col. 1, line 13: Read for "1899"; p. 401, col. 2, line 16: Read
"Thomson" for "Thompson"; p. 254,
" r> "
W. R. Greg for R. W. Gregg "; p. 402,
col. 1, last line: Read " 410 " for K 140 "; col. 1, line 28 from bottom: Itead
"
New
" " " "
p. 267, col. 1, line 26: Read Albert for York for London."
44
Robert "; p. 345, col. 2, line 4 from bot-
tom: Read " homiletics " for " polemics," Vol. xi., p. 19, col. 2, signature: Read " G. E." for
and line 3 from bottom: Add " but did not "IX"; p. 130, col. 2, line "
17 from bottom:
accept"; p. 346, col. 1, line 28 from bot- Read " moaaische " for mosdiache."
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviations in common use or self-evident are not included here. For additional information con-
cerning the works listed, see vol. i., pp. viii.-xx., and the appropriate articles
in the body of the work.

no
ADB
A
......... Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, Leipsic,
j Corpus reformatorum, begun at Halle,
1875 sqq., vol. 63, 1907
1 CR. 1834, vol. Ixxjcix., Berlin and Leipsic,
Adv ............ adversus, tf " 1905 sqq.
against
\ American Journal of Philology, Balti- M. Creighton, A History of the Papacy
i more, 1880 sqq. Creighton, from the Great Schism to the Sack of
j American Journal of Theology, Chicago, Papacy . Rome, new ed., 6 vols., New York and
AJT. 1897 sqq. London, 1897
(
Archiv fur katholisches Kirchenrecht, Corpus scriptorum Christianorum onenta-
AKR. ' '
) Innsbruck, 1867-61, Mainz, 1872 sqq. CSCO < lium, ed. J B. Chabot, I. Guidi, and
(Archiv fur Litteratur- und Kirchenge- ( others, Paris and Leipsic, 1903 sqq
ALKG .. .* schichte des Mittdalters, Freiburg, 1886 {Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Lati-
^ norum, Vienna, 1867 sqq.
Am American 3 Corpus scriptorum histories Byzantince, 49
\ vols., Bonn, 1828-78
AMA Abhandlungen der Munchener Akademie, Currier, Religious j C. W. Currier, History of Reliffious Orders,
Munich, 1763 sqq. Orders ....... New 1896
Ante-Nicene Fathers, American edition York, 1

by A. Cleveland Coxe, 8 vols. and in-

D ........... Deuteronomiat
ANF. Dan ............. Daniel
dex, Buffalo, 1887; vol ed. Allan
ix., J. Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, 4
Menzins, Now York, 1897 DB. vols. and extra vol., Edinburgh and
Apoc Apocrypha, apocryphal New
York, 1898-1904
Apol Apologia, Apology W. Smith and 8. Cheetham, Dictionary
Arab Arabic DC A. of Christian Antiquities, 2 vols., London,
Aram Aramaic 1875-80
art.. . article W. Smith and H. Wace, Dictionary of
Art Schmal , Schmalkald Articles DCB. Christian Biography, 4 vols., Boston,
A tm
AS*a
J Ada sanctorum, ed. J. Holland and others, 1877-87
1 Antwerp, 1643 sqq. J. Hastings, J. A. Selbie, and J. C. Lambert,
ASM
A C1 j Acta sanctorum ordinis S. Benedicts ed.
DCG. A Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels, 2
\ J. Mabillon, 9 vols., Paris, 1668-1701 vols., Edinburgh and New York, 1906-
Assyr Assyrian " " 1908
A. T Alien Testament, Old Testament Deut . .Deuteronomy
Augs. Con .... Augsburg Confession Devir. ill De viris Ulustribus
A. V Authorized Version (of the English Bible)
A . .
DGQ See Wattenbach
(J. M Baldwin, Dictionary of Phuositphy L. Stephen and 8. Lee, Dictionary of
(
Baldwin,
Dictionary
1
and Psychology, 3 vols. 4, New York, m DNB < National Biography, 63 vols. and
-I' 1901-06 I supplement 3 vols., London, 1885 1901
JiO. Bardenhewer, Geschichte der alttirch- .-. r~t-~*..^ ( 8. R. Driver, Introduction to the Literature
Bardenhewer,
Geschichte } lichen Littcratur, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1902
.
i^
Driver, Introduc-}
iton
Q
*
Qld Teatameni lot h od., New
York, 1910
^
Bardenhewer, O. Bardenhewor, Patrolngie, 2d ed., Frei-
( /

Patrologie \ burg, 1901 E Elohist

( The Dictionary Historical and Critical of (T. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, Encydo-
Bayle, Mr. Peter Bayle, 2d ed., 5 vols., London, EB < patdia Biblica, 4 vols., London and
Dictionary
'-1 1734-38 I New York, 1899-1903
Eccl Ecdesia,
"
Church "; ccdesiasticus, " ec-
Benzinger, j I. Benzinger, Hebraische Archaologie, 2d clesiastical
"
Archaologie 1 ed., Freiburg, 1907
. .
Eocles Ecclesiastes
J. Bingham, Origines ecclesiastics, 10 Ecclus Ecclesiasticus
Bingham, vola., London, 1708-22; new ed., Ox-
"
ed edition; edidit, edited by "
Origines ford, 1866
des
Eph Epistle to the Ephesians
" " " "
M. Bouquet, Recueil des historiens
Kpist . ... Epistola, Epistolce, Epistle, Epistles
Bouquet, Recueil- Gaules de la France, continued by
et Ersch and Gru- Ersoh and J. G. Gruber, AUfjemeine
( J. S.
various hands, 23 vole.. Paris, 1738 her. Encyklo-l Encyklopadie der \Vissenschaften und
Archibald Bower, History of the Popes padie ( Kunste, Leipsic. 1818 sag.
Bower, Popes ... to 1768, continued by S. H. Cox, E. V English versions (of the Bible)
3 vols., Philadelphia, 1846-47 Ex Exodus
Baptist Quarterly Review, Philadelphia, Eaek Esekiel
BQR, 1867 sqq. fasc fasciculus
BRO See Jaflte Fr French
Cant. .......... Canticles, of Solomon
" Son* " Kn
Hr :_ h K.U (J. Friedrioh, Kirrhengeschichfe Deutsch-
-
'.

Fpnedricn,
*
tendf> 2 yolg B amberg, 1867-69
.
cap caput, chapter .
}
A H* Ceillier, Histoire des auteurs sacres et Gal Epistle to the Galatians
;
s
.
,****.*
Awtour
-
(
N
ecdesiastiques, 16 vols. in 17, Pans, n. m . <?-. P> B. Gams, Series episcoporum ecdesia
| 1868-69
"
Chronicle " ^Sc^,
(
1* "* 1 1873 - aua sup-
Chron
I Chron
Chronicon,
I Chronicles
. .
] gg^tMir
H. Gee and W._J. Hardy, Documents
II Chron '
II Chronicles
CIO. Corpus inscriptionum Grascarum, Berlin,
1826 sqq. Germ German
Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum, Berlin, Gottinoischc Gelehrte Amei0en, G6ttingen,
OIL. ifesqq. GGA 1824 sqq.
CIS. Corpus inscriptionum Semiticarum, Paris. E. Gibbon, History of the Decline and
1881 sqq. Gibbon, Decline
Fall of the Roman Empire, ed. J. B.
codex and Fall
cod Bury, 7 vols., London, 1896-1900
cod. Theod codex Theodottianus Gk. Greek
Col Epistle to the Colossians C G
Gross, The
- Sources and Literature of
col. f cols column, "
columns " Gross, Sources ..-{ Ei
English History . to I486, London,
. .

Con/ Confessiones, Confessions < 1900

10
I Cor First Epistle to the Corinthians Hab, Habakkuk
II Cor Second Epistle to the Corinthians f
A - W
and
Hadrian and W. Stubbs, Counciln
-

COT SeeSchrader fltuhhun-

Couf| Ecclesiastical Documents Relating
* Church Quarterly Review, London, SUDDS,
ca* -l to Great Britain and Ireland, 3 vols.,
1876 sqq. I Oxford, 1869-78
 iriii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

(Refers to patriotic works on heresies or Leg Leges. Legum

I heretics, Tertullian's De projscriptione, Lev Leviticus
Hat the Pros haireseis of trenssus, the F. Lichtenberger, Encyclopedia des sci-
J
Panarion of Epiphanius, etc. Liohtenberger ,
ence* relioieuaea, 13 vols., Paris, 1877-
I
ESR.. ......
1882
Hag . .
Haggai
Harduin, Con- "Harduin, Conciliorum cottectio regia
j J.
cilia... ] maxima, 12 vols.. Paris, 1716
.

i A. Harnack, History of Dogma from . . .

Harnaok, Dogma <1 the 3d German edition, 7 vole., Boston,

1896-1900 II Mace II Maccabees
A. Harnaok, Geschichte der altchristlichen Mai, Nova eol- jA. Mai, Scriptorum veterum nova cd-
Harnaok, LitMro- * Litteratur bis Eusebius, 2 vols. in 3, lectio I lectio. 10 vols., Rome, 1826-38
tur Mai Malaohi
Leipaic. 1893-1904
"'
A.
_. Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Deutsch- R. 0. Mann, Lives of the Popes in foe
Mann, Popes
Hauok, KD vol. i., Leipsic, 1904;
lands, vol. ii. t
. . .

^ Early Middle Ages, London, 1902 sqq.

Q. D. Mansi, Sanctorum conciliorum
1900; vol. in., 1906; vol. iv., 1903
Realenckylop&dif fur proteatantische The- Mansi, Concilia. cottectionova, 31 vols., Florence and
ologie und Kirche, founded by J. J. Venice, 1728
Hauok-Hersog, Matt Matthew
Herzog, 3d ed. by A. Hauck, Leipsic,
1896-I&09 Monumenta Germanics historica, ed. G. H.
Hebrews Ports and others, Hanover and Ber-
.
Epistle to the
.Hebrew lin, 1826 sqq. The following abbrevia-
J. von HeMo,ConcHiengeschichte l con- tions are used for the sections and
Hefele.Conctftei (C.
tinued by J. Hergenrother, vols. i.-vi., subsections of this work: Ant., Antiqui-
"
geschichte. "; Auct. ant., Auc-
.
. .

viii.-ix., Freiburg, 1883-93 tates, Antiquities "

M. Heimbucher, Die Orden und Kongre- tores antiquissimi, Oldest Writers ";
Heimbucher, Or- (
Chron. min., Chronica minora, " Lesser
den und Kon-< gatumen der katholischen Kirche, 2d ed. Chronicles "; "
3 Paderborn, 1907 Dip.. Diplomata, Di-
gregationen. .
f vols.,
plomas.; Documents "; Epit. Epis-
Helyot, Histoire des ordrea monoa-
t
P. '

Helyot, Ordrea '

| tote, Letters"; Gest. pont. Rom.,
< religieux et militairea, 8 vols.,
tiquea, Gesta pontiflcum Romanorum, " Deeds
monaatiques. ' .
Paris, 1714-19; new ed., 1839-42
I
of the Popes of Rome "; Leg., Leges,
Henderson, Doc- ( E. F. Henderson. Sdett Historical Docu- 11
Laws "; Lib de Ivte, Libetti de lite
uments ( ments of the Middle Ages, London, 1892 inter regnum et aacerdotium ecrculorum
Hist History, histoire, historia "
" xi. et xii. conarnpti, Books concerning
" -i Historta ecdesiastica, ecdesice, Church the Strife between the Civil and Eccle-
w.-.*
/ /- ecd J
1 History" MOH ,

siastical Authorities in the Eleventh

Horn " "
Homilia. homiliai, homily, homilies and Twelfth Centuries ": Nee., Ne-
HOB Hosea "
crologia Germanics, Necrology of
Isa Isaiah Germany "; Poet. Lat. cevi
" Car.,
. .

Ital Italian Poetce Latini cevi Carolini, Latin

J Jahvist (Yahwist) Poets of the Caroline Time "; Poet.
JA Journal Asiatigue, Paris, 1822 sqq.
A Standard Bible Dictionary, ed. M. W. Ja-
Jacobus,
Dictionary.
cobus, E E. Nourse, . and A. C.
. . . . . tJIfl fr/S*>, Jl. I
ItfJIAJI CO, TV 1 11*31 n , HJ17 //.
Zenos, New York and London, 1909
.
rer. <7crm
" , Scriptorea rerum Gcrmant-
BA0... P. Jaffe, Bibliothtca rerum Oermani- carum. Writers on German Sub-
Jaffe\
carum, 6 vols., Berlin, 1864-73 jects ; Script, rer. Langob., Scnptores
P. Jafle", Regesta pontiflcum Romanorum rerum Langobardirarum
"
et Italicarum,
Jaffe*, Regesta. . . . . . ad annum 1198. Berlin, 1861; Writers on Lombard and Italian
2d ed., Leipsic, 1881-88 Subjects"; Script rer. Merov., Scnp-
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society, torearerum erovingicarum,
"MWriters
New Haven, 1849 sqq. on Merovingian Subjects "
Journal of Biblical Literature and Exege- Mic Micah
sis, first appeared as Journal of the H. H. Milman, History of Latin Chna-
JBL.. Society of Biblical Literature and Exe- Milman, Latin tianitjj. Including that of the Popes to
gesis, Middletown, 1882-88, then Bos- Christianity . Nicholas K., 8 vols., London,
. .

ton, 1890 sqq. 1860-61

The Jewish Encyclopedia, 12 vols., New C. Mirbt, Quetten zur Geachichte dea Papat-
JB. York. 1901-06 Mirbt, Quetten. . tums und dea romischen Kotholiciamua,
The combined narrative of the Jahvist Tttbingen, 1901
JE.
(Yahwist) and Elohist J. P. Migne, Patrologice cursus completus,
Jer.. . Jeremiah series Gro3ca, 162 vols., Paris, 1867-66
Flavius of the
Josephus. Ant J
^Josephus, "Antiquities J. P. Migne, Patrologiac cursus completus.
" " series Xafino:, 1844-64 221 vols., Paris,
Josephus, Apion .Flavins Josephus, Against Apion MS., MSB Manuscript, Manuscripts
Joseph us, Life of Flavius Josephus
Jonepbus,
Life.
War.
.

. .Flavius Josephus,
"
The Jewish War " M uratori. Scrip- j L. A. Muratori, Rerum Italicarum scrip-
Josh tores 1 tores, 28 vols., 1723-61
Joshua
( Neues Archiv der Gesettschoft fUr oltere
Jahrbucher far protestantische Theologie,
JPT '

Leipaic, 1876 sqq.

NA { deutsche Geschichtskunde. Hanover,
The Jewish Quarterly Review, London, ( 1876 sqq.
JQR 1888 sqq. Nab .Nahum
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Lon- n.d . no date of publication
JRA8 don, 1834 sqq. A. Neander, General History of the Chris-
Journal of Theological Studies, London, tian Religion and Church, 6 vols., and
JT8 tian Church..
1899 sqq. index, Boston, 1872-81
Julian, Hym- J. Julian, A Dictionary of Hymnology, Neh Nehemiah
nology , revised edition, London, 1907 Niceron, M6- R. P. Niceron, Memoires pour servtr a
KA(T. .SeeSchrader moires I'histoire des hommes ittustres . . . , 43
SeeSchrader vols., Paris, 1729-46
.See Friedrich, Hauok, Rettberg
,
F. K. Nielsen, History of the Papacy in
(Wetter und Welte's Kirchenlexikon, 2d Nielsen, Papacy . the Nineteenth Century, 2 vols., New
KL. < ed., by J. Hergenrother and F. Kaulen,
12 voli.,
., Freiburg., 1882-1903 F. Nippold, The Papacy in the Nineteenth
Nippold, Papacy.
Q. Kruger. History of Early Christian Century. New York, 1900
Eruger, History* literature in the First Three Centuries, Neue kirchliche Zeitechnft, Leipsio, 1890
New York, 1897 NKZ
K. Krumbaoher, Qeschichte dw bytan- Nowaok, ArchA- Nowaok, Lehrbuch der Mbraischen
Krumbaoher, tinischen Litteratur. 2d ed., Munich,
Qeschichte.... dogie Archaologie, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1894
1897 no place of publication
P. Labbe, Sacrorum concuiorum nova et n.p
Labbe, Concilia 4 amplissima coUectio, 31 vols., Florence
i The Nicene and PosUNicene Fathers, 1st
anoTVenioe, 1769-98
NPNF ......... 14 vols., New York, 1887-92; 2d
series,
14 vols., New York, 1890-1900
(
Lam ............ Lamentations ! series,
( J. Lanigan. Ecclesiastical History of Ire- v m
N T New Testament, Novwn Tsetamtntum,
^"A* *" 1S Century, 4 voh., Dub- * '
Nouveau Testament, Neuss Testament
Num .Numbers
Lai Ob .Obadiah
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xix

r\ a -o
O.S.B jOrdo sancti Benedict, "Order of St.
OTJC. W.
R. Smith, The Old Testament in the
Benedict" Smith, . .
Jewish Church, London, 1892
1
.T .............. Old Tertmment W.
R. Smith, Prophets of Israel . to . .
Smith, Prophets.. the Eighth Century, London, 1895
TJC ............ gee Smith
................ Priestly document
1

Smith, Rel. of W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites,

( L. Pastor, Th Sem London, 1894
History of the Pop* from Society for the Promotion of Christian
Pwtor, Popat. < to . .

f
A 9**> S vols., yM'&PfM'
London, 1891-1908
S. P. C.K Knowledge
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
PE ........... 1 Patnt
PEA - eccUsi* Anglican*, ed. i J. A. Giles, S.P.G in Foreign Parts
34 vole., London, 1838-46 and following
PEF ............. Palestine Fund sqq " "
Exploration Strom Stromata, Miscellanies
I Pet ............. First Epistle of Peter s.v sub voce, or sub verbo
II Pet ............ Second Epistle of Peter Introduc- H. B. Swete, Introduction to the Old Tes-
Swete, j
( B. Platina, Lives of the Popes from . . .
tion tament in Greek, London, 1900
I

Platina, Pope* 4 Gregory VIJ. to ... Paul II. 2 vols.,

. .
,
Syr Syriao
( London, n.d. thatcher and (O. J. Thatcher and E. H. McNeal, A
Pliny, HiiL not...
.. Pliny, Historia naturalis McNeal,5ourc-{ Source Book for Mediatval History t
A. Potthast, Biblwtheca historica medii
( Book I New York, 1905
avi Wegweiser durch die Geschichts-
1 - I Thess First Epistle to the Thessalonians
werke, Berlin, 1896 I II Thess Second Epistle to the Thessalonians
Prov ............. Proverbs mim
ThT j Theologische Tijdschrift, Amsterdam and
Pa ............... Psalms \ Leyden, 1867 sqq.
PVR VAA .......... ), Proceedings of the Society of Biblical
M
i/.JL. 8. le Nain de Tillemont, Memoires
Archeology, London, 1880 sqq. Tillemont, ...
" " *--{ ecclesiastigues des six premiers
q.v., qq.v ......... quod (quoe) vide, which see " moires
( siedes, 16 vols., Paris, 1693-1712
. M L>. z>MM. jL. von Ranke, History of the Popes, I Tim First Epistle to Timothy
llanke, Popes. .
3 vo l., London, 1906
.

{ II Tim Second Epistle to Timothy

RDM .......... Revue des deux mondes, Paris, 1831 sqq. f Theologischer Jahresbericht, Leipsic, 1882-
RE ........... Bee Hauck-Herxog TJB { 1887, Freiburg, 1888, Brunswick, 1889-
Reich, Docu- E. Reich, Select Documents Illustrating Me-
\
f 1897, Berlin, 1898 sqq.
ments ......... diwal and Modem History, London, 1906
\
Tob. Tobit
REJ ........... Revue des etudes juives, Paris, 1880 sqq.
n.t+KAtv ten
Kettberg. K.V. J F -
- w
Rettberg, Kirchengeschichte Deutscli-- TQ..
Theologische
1819 sqq.
Quartalschrift, Tubingen,
Gottingen, 145-
. .

1 tond 2 vols.',
lands, volfl Qottinen 1846-48
m A. and
Rev Book of Revelation /dQ ;J. Robinson, Texts Studies,
1
(Revue de I'histoire des religions, Paris, Cambridge, 1891 sqq.
1880 sqq. 1

TSBA. Transactions of the of Biblical

Society
]
E. C. Richardson, Alphabetical Subject In- Archcsology, London, 1872 sqq.
En- dex and Index Encyclopaedia to Period- TSK.., Theologische Studien und Kntiken, Ham-
Richardson;
ical Articles on Religion, 189O-99, New burg, 1826 uqq
cyclopaedia Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte
York, 1907 der altchristlichen Litteratur, ed. O von
Richter, Kirchcn-
A. L. Kichter, Lehrbuch des katholischen TU . .
Gebhardt and A. Harnack, Leipsic,
recht.
und evangelischen Kirchenrechts, 8th 1882 sqq.
ed by W. Kahl, Leipsic, 1886
.

Ugolini, Thesau- B. UgolinuH, Thesaurus antiquitatum

Robinson, Re- E. Robinson, Biblical Researches in rut .. sacrarum, 34 vola Venice. 1744-69
searches, and) Palestine, Boston, 1841, and Later 1
,

Later 3d V. 7 .. Vetus Testamentum, Vieux Testament, "Old

Re-\ Biblical Researches in Palestine, ed.
Testament "
searches .... [ of the whole, 3 vols., 1867
Robinson, Euro- J. H. Robinson, Readings in European W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichts-
I
Wattenbach,
quetten, 5th ed., 2 voK, Berlin, 1885;
pean History 1 History^ 2 vols., Boston, 1904-06 DGQ . . .
6th ed., 1893-94; 7th ed., 1904 nqq.
Robinson and t J. H. Robinson, and C. A Beard, Develop-
Beard, Modem { ment of Modern Europe, 2 vols., Boston, Wellhausen, J.Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heiden-
Europe I 1907 Heidentum . . tums. Berlin, 1887
Rom Epistle to the Romans Wellhausen,
J. Wellhausen, Prolegomena zur Geschichte
*7 mn \Revue de thfologie et de philosophic, Israels, 6th ed., Berlin, 1905, Eng.
RTP 1 Lausanne, 1873
Prolegomena. transl.. Edinburgh, 1885
R. V Revised Version
" (of the English Bible)
" ZA \Zeitschnft fur Assyriologie, Leipsic,
80JC sceculum, century 1 1886-88, Berlin, 1889 sqq.
I Sam I Samuel T. Zahn, Einleitung in das Neue Testa-
II Sam II Samuel Zahn, Einlei- ment, 3d ed., Leipsic, 1907; Eng transl.,
Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie, tung Introduction to the New Testament, 3
SB A '
\

1 Berlin, 1882 sqq. vols., Edinburgh, 1909

(F. Max MUller and others. The Sacred j T. Zahn. Geschichte des neutestament-
SBE -<
Books^ of theJKast, Oxford, 1879 sqq.,
Zahn, Kanon... . { lichrn Kanons, 2 vols., Leipaic, 1888-92
vol. xlvui., 1904 (Zeitschnft fur die alttestamentliche Wis-
i Sacred Books of the Old Testament (" Rain- ZATW 1 senschaft, Giessen, 1881 sqq.
SBOT. . < bow
Bible ), Leipsic, London, and j Zeitschnft fur deuteehes AlUrthum unddeut-
/ Baltimore, 1894 sqq. I sche Literatur, Berlin, 1876 sqq.
P. Schaff, History of the Christian Church, j Zeitschrift der deutschen margenlandiichtn
vols. i.-iv., vi., vii.. New
York,1882-92, ZDMG 1 Gtsellschaft, Leipsic, 1847 sqq.
vol. v., 2 parts, by D. S. Schaff, 1907-10
(

?. The Creeds of Christendom,

7np
* ul j Zeitschrift fur deutsche Philologie, Halle,
1869 sqq.
SchaflF, |
3 vols., New
York, 1877-84 ZDPV j Zeitschnft des deutschen Palastina-Ver-
3. Schrader, Cuneiform Inscriptions and 1 eirw, Leipric, 1878 sqq.
Schrader. COT. . the Old Testament, 2 vols., London, Zeoh Zechariah
1886-88 Zeph Zephaniah
(Zeitschrift fur die historische Theologie,
KAT Schrader, Die Keilinschriften und das
Schrader. .

Alte Testament, 2 vols., Berlin, 1902-03 ZHT < published successively at Leipsic,
E. Sohrader, Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek, Hamburg, and Qotha, 1832-75
Sohrader, KB. .
Zeitschrift fur
ZKG Qotha,
.

!E. 6 vols., Berlin, 1889-1901 Kirchengeschichte,

fE. Schurer, Geschichte des judischen 1876 sqq.
Sohurer, Volke* im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, 4th ed.. ZKR Zeitschrift Mr
Kirchenrecht, Berlin, Ttt-
Geschichte 3 vols., Leipmc, 1902 sqq.; Eng. transl., 5 bingen, Freiburg, 1861 sqq.
. vols., New York, 1891 ZKT Zeitschrift fur katholische Theologie, Inns-
"
writers
" bruck, 1877 qq.
Script ScriptoreB,
Scrivener, < F. H. A . Scrivener, Introduction to New Tes- ZKW Zeitschnft fur kirchUche Wissenscha/t und
Introduction lament Criticism, 4th ed., London, 1894 kirch&he* Leben, Leipsic. 1880-89
. .
\
Sent Sentential,
"
Sentences
" 7KTW
* N * W ........ \ Zeitschrift fvr die neutestamentliche Wis-
" " ) senschaft. Qiessen, 1900 sqq
8. J Societas Jesu, Society of Jesus Zeitschrift fur Protestantismus und Kirche,
8MA j Sittungtberichte der Munchener Aka- Erlanwn. 1838-76
1 demie, Munich, 1860 sqq. Zeitschnft fur wissenschafUiche Theologie,
KV*K JW. R
KinsMp. .
Smith. Kinship and Marriage in
- ZWT Jena, 1858-60, HAlle,i861-67, Leipsic,
Ealiy Arab{ai London, 1903
,
} 1868 sqq.
 SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION
The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew :

K = '
or omitted at the =zT JJ
= '

beginning of a word. n =b B=p

3=b B=t D = ph or p
=
3 bh or b =y' =?
a=g 3= k p=fc
j = gh or g D = kh or k 1 =r
n = d = {> 1 t? = s

T = dh or d =
D m & = sh
n=h : = n n= t

1 =w D=B n=thort

The vowels are transcribed by a, e, i, o, u, without attempt to indicate quantity or quality. Arabic
and other Semitic languages are transliterated according to the same system as Hebrew. Greek is

written with Roman characters, the common equivalents being used.

KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
When the pronunciation is self-evident the titles are not respdlcd ; when by mere division and accen-
tuation it can be shown sufficiently clearly the titles have been divided into syllables, and the accented
syllables indicated.

1
In accented lylUbles only ; in unaccented syllables it approximates tbe sound of e in over. The letter n, with * dot
beneath it, indicates the sound of n as in ink. Nasal n (as in French words) is rendered n.
* In German and
French names U approximates the sound of u in dune.
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE

SON OF HAN: An expression occurring in the Messiah, yet he will interpret this consciousness by
four Gospels as referring to Jesus no less than eighty- a term which, instead of dissolving the tie between
one times, elsewhere in the New Testament in this him and other men, only discloses the deeper iden-
sense only once (Acts vii. 56). In addition to these tity of ideal ami which belongs to him and them
instances, it is found in Dan. vii. 13 and Enoch alike. C. A. BECKWITH.
xxxvii.-lxxi (cf. Job xxv. 6; Ps. viii. 4; Num. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The subject is discussed in the principal
xxiii. 19; Ezek. ii. 1 et passim; Rev. xiv. 14). In treatises in the life of Jesus Christ, e.g., Keim, and Weiss;
of course in the commentaries on Daniel and on the Gos-
the Gospels this title is associated with Jesus in
pels, some of which contain excursuses on the subject; in
three relations: his earthly life (Mark ii. 10; Luke the works on messianic prophecy (see under MESSIAH,
xix. 10), his sufferings (Mark viii. 31), and his sec- MESBIANIBM); in the commentaries on Enoch (see under
ond advent (Matt. xxv. 31, xxvi. 64). The obscur- PSEUDEPIGRAPHA); and in the discussions of Biblical the-
ology, especially H. J. Holtsmann's, i. 246-264, Freiburg,
ity which veils the origin of the term whether traced 1896. Consult further: C. H. Weisse, Die Evangelienfrage,
to the book of Enoch, or to Daniel, or to both, as pp. 22 sqq., Leipsic, 1856; F. C. Baur, in ZWT, I860,
well as the various and contrasting uses of it, has pp. 277 sqq. ; T. Colani, Jesus Christ et let croyances messian-
iquea, pp. 74 sqq., Strasburg, 1864; W. C. Van Manen,
given rise to wide diversity of interpretations. in ThT, 1800, p. 544, 1894, pp. 177 sqq.; H. H. Wendt,
Among these are: (1) he was man and nothing hu- Die Lehre Jeau, pp. 441 sqq., Odttingen, 1890; W. Balden-
man was foreign to him (F. C. Baur, ZWT, 1860, sperger, Selbstbewusstsein Jean, pp. 169 sqq., Strasburg,
1892; R. H. Charles, Book of Enoch, pp. 312-317,
pp. 274 sqq.); (2) he is the heavenly ideal man (W.
Oxford, 1893; J. Wellhausen, laraelitiache und judiache
Beyschlag, Die Christologie des Neuen Testaments, Geachichte, pp. 346 sqq., Berlin, 1895; idem, Skizzen und
pp. 9 sqq., Berlin, 1866); (3) he is head of the race Vorarbeiten, vi. 187 sqq., ib. 1899; H. Lietcmann, Der
in which type and ideal are realized (V. H. Stan ton, Menschensohn, Tubingen, 1896; idem, in Theologiache
Arbeiten aus dem rheiniachen Predigerverein, 1898, part 2,
Jewish and Christian Messiah, p. 246, New York,
pp. 1-14; N. Schmidt, JBL, 1896, pp. 36-53; A. Revffle,
1886); (4) it indicates a Messiah to whom suffering Jesus de Nazareth, ii. 190 sqq., Paris, 1897; G. Dalman,
and sympathy are natural, destined to glory through Die Worte Jeau, pp. 191 sqq., Leipsic, 1898, Eng. transl.,
The Words of Jesus, Edinburgh, 1902; Sohmiedel, in
suffering (A. B. Bruce, Kingdom of God, p. 176,
Protcstantiache Monatahefte, 1898, pp. 252-267, 291-308.
New York, 1889); (5) it calls attention first of all 1901, pp. 333 sqq.; J. F. H. Gunkel, in ZWT. 1899, pp.
to the lowliness of his appearance (H. H. Wendt, 581 sqq.; P. Fiebig, Der Menschensohn, Tubingen, 1901;
Die Lehre Jesu, p. 440, Gottingen, 1890; Eng. transl., J. Drummond, in JTS, Apr. and July, 1901; G. B.
Stevens, Teaching of Jesus, pp. 91 sqq., New York, 1901;
Teaching of Jesus, ii. 139, Edinburgh, 1892); (6) as W. Bousset, Jesus, New York, 1906; F. Bard. Der Sohn
man, his glory lies through suffering, as the servant dea Menachen. Bine Unterauchung uber Begriff und In-
of Yahweh (V. Bartlett, Expositor, Dec., 1892, pp. hoM und Absicht aolcher Jesubezeichnung, Wismar, 1908;
E. A. Abbott, The Message of the Son of Man, New York,
427-443), or as in the book of Daniel (R. H. Charles,
1909; DB, iv. 579-589; EB, iv. 4705-40; DCO, ii. 659-665.
Book of Enoch, Appendix B, Oxford, 1893); (7) a
contrast is set up between his lowliness and his SONBR, ERNST. See SOCINUB, FAUSTUS, So-
greatness (G. Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, Leipsic, CINIAN8, I., J 3.

1898; Eng. transl., The Words of Jesus, pp. 255 SONG OF SOLOMON
sqq., Edinburgh, 1902); (8) it contains a veiled
designation of messiahship (G. B. Stevens, Theol-
(SONG OF SONGS, CANTICLES).
The Interpretation; Dramatic Theory
ogy of the New Testament, p. 53, New York, 1899;
(| 1).
Narrative of the Drama (i 2).
cf. Otto Holtzmann, Life of Jesus, p. 168, London,
Objections to this Theory (| 3).
1904); (9) it signifies Jesus' human nature, i.e., Syrian Marriage-week Theory (| 4).
"
man " in general (N. Schmidt, Prophet of Naxareth, Objections to this Theory (| 5).

p. 120, New York, 1905).

The expression " son of Authorship and Date (i 6).

man " means that the kingdom of God, although The Song of Solomon (Song of Songs, Canticles)
13- the book which follows Eccleeiastes in the arrange-
originating in a supersensible world (Dan.
vii. is

14), is established among men by one

who is ex- ment of the English Bible. The title in Hebrew,
"
empted from no position or lot which belongs essen- Song of Songs which
is Solomon's," conveys the

tiallyto his fellow-men in the purpose of God. If idea that the noblest of songs, the author
it is

virtue of inner ethical unity with the Father of which is Solomon. It is clearly a love song, but
by
Jesus has become aware of his unique vocation as whether to be understood of earthly or spiritual love
XL 1
Bong of Solomon THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

isthe question. Its date is long after Solomon's time. The conflict intensifies in the course of the poem
Since the time of Herder its unity has been denied as the suit of the king becomes more eager and
by many, and it has been regarded as pressing. While he praises her, she answers with
i. The In- a collection of love the eulogies of her beloved. In this elevated state
songs. But com-
terpretationjmentators agree on the principal of feeling she hopes to see Him and to hear his voice
Dramatic characters as being King Solomon, his (ii. 8 sqq., iii. 5, cf . viii. 4) ; in her dreams she seeks

beloved (a peasant maiden), and

Theory, him in the streets of Jerusalem until she finds him.
the daughters [i.e., female residents] The contest reaches its climax when Solomon makes
of Jerusalem. Peculiarities of speech abound from her the offer of his throne. As his queen in due
beginning to end. And there are characteristic ex- right he carries her to his capital, but even this fails
pressions which repeat themselves with slight varia- of its purpose, since her vision returns to her be-
tions throughout (cf. ii. 7, iii. 5, viii. 4,and v. 8; loved. The king then makes a final attempt to win
iii. 6, vi. 10, and viii. 5; ii. 17, iv. 6, and viiii. 14; her by the influence of magical words (vi. 4 sqq.).
ii. 6, and
viiii. 3; i. 2 and iv. 10; ii. 6 and v. 8). But as her longing for home becomes still more irre-

Many parts are parallels (cf. ii. 8 sqq., iii. 1 sqq., sistiblehe renounces her and dismisses her in peace
and v. 2 sqq.). In view of the many unmistakable to her own possessions. In the last act she arrives
interrelationships and indications of unity which home with her friends where the bonds of love
bind the poem together (cf. i. 6 with viii. 12), it are sealed. The moral of the piece is in vii. 6; love
may be regarded as proved that the parts of the is unconquerable, inextinguishable, unpurchasable.
poem are well welded together. But since different True love wins the victory.
voices are heard in the song and since the scenes It can not be denied that this hypothesis is very
change, the piece can not be taken as purely lyric; attractive and avoids many difficulties, putting as
it is dramatic poetry, examples of which are found it does at the close a moral which is drawn from an
also in the Psalms (ii. and xxiv.). But it is neces- incident portrayed in dramatic colors,
sary for the understanding of the whole to mark 3. but perhaps not altogether fictitious,
Objec-
off the scenes, to determine the dramatis persona, tions to in the life of the splendor-loving king.
and to apportion the text among them although the this Theory. The moral verity harmoniously ex-
text contains no express directions for doing this. pressed at the close becomes not un-
Near to King Solomon stands a celebrated beauty worthy of the higher tone of the canonical books
who in vi. 13 is called the Shulamite (from the generally, even though allegory have almost nothing
village Shulam, modern Sulam, formerly Shu-
of to do with the poem. The firmly-true betrothed
nem; cf. I Kings i. 3), a maiden from the country may as well have her memorial in the Scriptures as
characterized by a noble grace and unaffected hu- the virtuous wife. Still on a closer examination

mility. According to the older view not only is this this understanding of the poem is not altogether un-
one honored by the king, but his enraptured pref- assailable. Decidedly against it is the following cir-
erence is prized and his affection tenderly returned; cumstance: iii. 6 to v. 1 describes precisely the royal
the newer and till recently dominant conception wedding-day, ending in the royal bridegroom's grat-
was that she affirms her love for a third person and ification in the assured obtaining of all his desires.
over against the homage of the king sets the praise If this wedding, according to the conception of the
of a simple shepherd of her native heath until finally rivalry of the shepherd, must become tragic, while
the king yields the field and fidelity conquers. Into not once in this passage does the required impotence
the mouth of this rival of Solomon's certain parts of love appear, through the last words cf the Shu-
are put, or at least the maiden speaks them as lamite (iv. 16) the whole finely conceived theory of
though they were the words which he would speak the unwillingness of the shepherd-betrothed to yield
were he present. It is evident how differently the to the king falls apart. In this section, where the re-
poem will be construed whether the viewpoint is lations of love find their most concrete form, the
that of a pouring-out of confession of love by two sponsors for the shepherd theory find no support.
united spirits or the contest of two rivals in which Decisive appears vii. 11 sqq., where the Shulamite,
the simple shepherd gains the victory over the king. in words impossible to misunderstand, promises
The last view is held by so weighty authorities herself, her person (her own vineyard), fully and
that it is in the main points to be followed. Ac- wholly to Solomon, but only a moderate reward to
cording to Ewald and others the following story is her guardians, her brothers, in which she refers to
gained from indications in the poem. the general custom followed by Solomon.
2. Narrative In one of his journeys to the north of Other reflections against the shepherd hypothe-
of the his kingdom the king had come to the sishave only recently been appreciated. The hy-
Drama, neighborhood of Shulam when some pothesis set forth by Herder and others of an un-
in his train found in a nut-garden (vi. connected anthology of marriage songs
11-12) an attractive maiden in a condition of de- 4. Syrian has been accepted, for example by
lighted ecstasy. Although somewhat hardly treated Marriage- Budde and others who find in Wets-
by her own people and put to guard a vineyard week stein's communications about the cele-
near, she displays so rare a grace that the king de- Theory. bration of marriage in modern Syria
sires her for his harem. With this encounter the the solution of the pucsle. The latter
(i. 1 sqq.), in which she states that
fast scene begins published in Bastion's ZeUsohrtft /Or Ethnologic,
" "
she has given her heart to a shepherd of her own 1873, an article on the Syrian Threshing 'floor "
"
home to whom she will be true in spite of all the in which the threflhing-floor in the king's week
allurements of the king and of his surroundings. comes in for discussion. The primitive threshing-
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Son* of Solomon

implement, consisting of two plain planks bent out- riage, the composer of which represented the groom
ward, is used in the marriage week to make the as Solomon and the bride as the Shulamite. The
throne upon which bride and groom take their seat union of these two were, according to our hypothe-
of honor, as they play for the week the part of king sis, set forth, as Delitzsch and Zockler rightly per-
and queen, watching the games produced in their ceived. So she loves in him not the king, nor does
honor and listening to the songs sung in competition. she require sensual pleasure nor riches; she seeks
Among these songs is always one which commends only to find in him real companionship as though he
the beauty of bride and groom, for the composition were her brother and friend and of the rank of shep-
of which they summon the best poet obtainable. herd as she is herself. Such love is strong as death
An especial part is the sword-dance song which the and unpurchasable. If the rural environment is
bride sings on the evening before the wedding (while looked on rather as poetic adornment than as trust-
with a sword she keeps at a distance the groom), worthy narrative, let iv. 8 have its weight and one
the singing of which gives the company an occasion need not have recourse to Budde's theory of a gloss.
to extol her charms; on the second day the praise How the Song is to be understood the last act
of the wedded queen is sung with more of reserve. teaches. It is the love of a bride with its longings
On this interpretation it follows that the poem has and hopes, its search and discovery, its disillusion-
to do with a marriage among peasants in town or ing and surprises, the pure love which as a divine
country in which the bridegroom plays the part of spark suffers nothing impure and through its might
king. Just so the Shulamite appears only once, is overcomes all earthly obstacles, set forth here in
so called with reference to Abigail of Shunem, the rare completeness in the two noblest exemplars the
most beautiful woman in Israel, and is herself the author could find. This object is in itself not un-
most beautiful of women. The sword dance of worthy of the Bible, all the more that the opposi-
the bride, and particularly the song in praise of the tion to a simply sensual or sham affection works out
betrothed, is discerned in vii. 2 sqq., though it in the poem. Were there not something lofty and
should stand at the beginning of the poem; the mysterious in the love of a bride for her husband,
more moderate song to the wedded bride is seen in it could not elsewhere be used as the picture of the
iv. 1-6,that to the spouse in chap. v. The entire holiest relations. The value of the canonical Song
poem isa collection of songs which have no other of Songs becomes noticeable first when one remarks
bond than that they sing of wedded love; more- the singular worth of the king whom it mentions.
over, they are not arranged in the order in which Solomon was to the consciousness of his times like
they are employed. Budde discovers not less than David the anointed of tho Lord, the Messiah, who
twenty-three such songs or fragments, while Siegfried stood to the people for the invisible King of kings.
discovers only ten. If now such a king, in the way the poet describes
But not even with this explanation has the last as he follows some tradition, seeking a purer and
word been spoken. That the unity of the whole is holier love than he found in the capital, determined
strongly evident was remarked at the first. The to elevate a simple daughter of the people to the
form is throughout delicate and refined highest honor, the while she offered him wifely love
5. Objec- and leaves the productions of the in complete purity, such a marriage would be like
tions to threshing-floor poet far in the rear, that of the Messiah sung in Ps. xlv., an achieve-
this Theory. With this delicacy is contrasted the ment in the visible kingdom of God, which would
simple rusticity of scene in many of find itself repeated the oftener among posterity
the parts. The contrast between the court dames the more they learned from the prophets.
and the shepherdess appears in chap. i. Different Without difficulty the notion might spring up
is the fact that the Shulamite extols her beloved that Solomon was himself the author of this poem
as white and ruddy (v. 10; cf. 14), which, accord- which deals with himself. Anew in favor of this
ing to Lam. iv. 7, describes his noble rank while she has been adduced the imagery of the
herself, according to i. 6-6, can not disavow the 6. Author- Song, built up out of the plant-world,
evidences of her country origin. She nowhere ap- ship and the geographical relations with the
pears as queen, a position which is demanded on Date. whole Solomonic kingdom from Leba-
the Budde hypothesis. That the Wetzstein data of non to Engedi, the connection with Ps.
the marriage-week usages and songs are very serv- Ixxii., attributed to Solomon, the poet of 1,005 songs
iceable in the explanation of the Song, Franz De- (I Kings v. 12). But the person pictured in the
litzsch long ago perceived. He saw hi vii. 2 sqq. poem with the brilliancy of Solomon is evidently a
the description of the dancer (but of the sword matter of poetic interest hi one who is removed from
there is here no word); while the Hebrew marriage the poet hi time. The vocabulary of the poem is
festival continued seven days, varied performances individual, the little piece having between fifty and
of a festal character found place without necessita- sixty hapaxlegomena; if it is pre-exilic, it must be-
ting a very complete unity, such as the playing of the long to the north. Grata has found little sympathy
maiden lover, her search on all sides, and her finding of with his idea that the poem displays a knowledge
happy companionship. Budde's remark may also be of Greek custom and is
dependent upon the Idyls of
noticed, to the effect that the Song is a textbook of Theocritus. Oettli argues for a pre-exilic date, Konig
the Palestinian-Israelitic wedding ceremony. But and Strack place it about 600 B.C. Under the shep-
this text-book is not a collection of shepherd- and herd hypothesis the piece would have been lost;
peasant-songs, though the most beautiful popular into the Judaic canon this anti-Solomonic tendency-
songs are found therein; it is an art-poem, perhaps writing could not have come nor Solomonic author-
composed for the celebration of some definite mar- ship been- attributed to it. Also on the threshing-
 Solomon
Boajr of THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Borbonne

floor hypothesis the lofty designation of the Song longs perhaps to the period between the sixth or
and the allegorical interpretation are hard to ex- seventh and the ninth century.
plain. How comes it that the scribes did not recog- 8. The sophist and patriarch of Jerusalem; b. at
nize this song which on the hypothesis was sung at Damascus; d. in 638, his day in the Greek Church
every Palestinian wedding, and that the playing at being March 11. He tells at the close of his pane-
being king was so grossly misunderstood, a custom gyric of St. Cyrus and St. John of his origin at
which has lasted until modern times? On the ex- Damascus of parents known as Plynthas and Myro.
planation given here the Song has higher claims on He was a monk. His birth year has been guessed
regard, and the time of its composition is entirely a as 550, hi which case he must have been eighty or
subordinate question. (C. VON ORELLI.) eighty-five when he became patriarch not impossi-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On mutton of introduction consult the ble, indeed, but unlikely, considering his activity.
works named in and under BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION, espe- His learning must have been noteworthy, his title
cially Driver, pp. 436-453; J. O. Herder, Lieder der Lube, " "
die aliesten und schonsten aus dem Morgenlande, Leipsic,
of sophist referring to his lectures on rhetoric.
1778; E. Cunitx. Hist, critique de r interpretation du can- He was in Egypt in 570, but was not then a monk,
tique des cantiques, Strasburg, 1834; A. L. Newton, The entering the cloister on his return in 580, making
Song of Solomon Compared with other Porte of Scripture, that his home for thirty years, though leaving it for
New York, 1807; Renan, Le Cantique des cantiquet,
.

. . avec une etude sur le plan, Vdge et le caractere du

. journeys through Palestine in company with John
poAme, 4th ed., Paris, 1879; 8. Salfeld, Da* Hohe Lied Moschus. During the lifetime of the Patriarch
Salomons bei den judischen Erklarer des Mittelalters, Ber- Eulogius (d. 607) the two friends visited Alexandria
lin, 1870; G. Bickell, Carmina Veteris Testament*, Inns-
bruck, 1882; j; Q. Stickel, Das Hohelied in seiner Einheit again, coming into close relations with Eulogius and
und dramatischen Oliederung, Berlin, 1888; R. Martineau, with his successor, Johannes Eleemon (q.v.). There
in American Journal of Philology, 1892, pp. 307-328; W. Sophronius was attacked with a disease of the eyes,
Riedel, Die Ausleguno des Hohen Lieds in der judischen the cure of which he attributed to the saints Cyrua
Gemeinde und der griechischen Kirche, Leipsic, 1898; DB,
iv. 589-597; EB, i. 681-095; JE, xi. 465-467. and John. During the stay there, lasting ten years,
Commentaries are: H. Ewald, Gottingen, 1826; J. C. news came of the capture of Jerusalem by the Per-
Ddpke, Leipsic, 1829; B. Hinel. Zurich, 1840; E. J. sians in 614, which led Sophronius to compose an
Magnus. Halle, 1842; F. BOttcher, Leipsic, 1850; F. ode of lamentation. Soon after the friends went to
Delitssch, Leipsic. 1851; H. A. Hahn, Breslau, 1852;
G. Burrowes, Philadelphia, 1853; E. W. Hengstenberg, Rome, where Moschus wrote the Pratum tpiritudle,
Berlin, 1853; J. Gill. London. 1854; F. Hitsig, Leipsio, which he dedicated to his companion. There MOB-
1855; C. D. Ginsburg, London, 1857; L. Withington, chus died, and Sophronius carried his body back
Boston, 1861; J. F. Thnipp, London. 1862; R. F. Little-
to Palestine probably in 610 (not 634), after which
dale. London, 1869; A. M, Stuart, Philadelphia, 1869;
H. Cowles. New York. 1870; H. Grats, Vienna, 1871; he reentered the monastery. In 633 he was again
F. C. Cook, in Bible Commentary, London, 1874; O. in Alexandria to treat with the Patriarch Cyrus
Zockler, in Lange's Commentary, New York, 1875; B.
Sehfifer, Munster, 1876; T. Gessner, Quakenbruck, 1881; against union with the Apollinarians (see MONO-
8. J. KArnpf, 3d ed., Prague, 1884; P. Schegg, Munich, THELTTES) failing in his mission there he went to
;

1885; W. C. Daland, Leonardsville, N. Y., 1888; J. G. Constantinople, where he fared no better; in 634 he
Stickel, Berlin, 1888; W. E. Griffis, The Lily among Thorns, was made patriarch of Jerusalem, a reward for hi*
Boston, 1889; 8. Oettli, Nordlingen, 1889; Le Hir, Paris,
activities against monothelitism and monergism
1890; D. Costelli, Florence, 1892; M. Rainsford, London,
1892; R. A. Redford, in Pulpit Commentary, New York, In his inaugural, he dealt with the doctrinal con-
1893; J. W. Rothstein, Halle, 1893; M. 8. Terry, Cincin- test, and called attention to the danger from the
nati, 1893; C. Bruston, 2d ed., Paris, 1894; E. Reveil-
Saracens. He lived to see the assault on Jerusalem
laud. Paris, 1895; K. Budde. Freiburg, 1898; C. Siegfried,
Gdttingen, 1898; P. Baarts. Nuremberg, 1901 ; A. Harper, and fell into the hands of Omar, probably at the
in Cambridge Bible, Cambridge, 1902; V. Zapletal, Frei-
beginning of 638, and soon after died, probably an
burg, 1907; G. C. Martin, in Century Bible, London, 1908;
P. Haupt, I*ipsic, 1908; J. Hontheim, Freiburg. 1908; exceedingly aged man.
P. JoQon, Paris, 1909. The uncertainty whether Sophronius the sophist
and Sophronius the patriarch are the same person
SONG OF SONGS. See SONG OF SOLOMON.
appears also in considering his writings, though they
SOPHRONIUS, Bo-fro'nl-us: The name of two furnish strong arguments for the identity, especially
men of note in the early Church. in the rhythmic law of the double dactylic close
1.' A contemporary of Jerome, whom the latter which appears in the writings. Yet this was a com-
describes (De vir. M., cxxxiv., NPNF, 2 ser., iii. mon practise and the argument is not conclusive.
"
384) as a man of superlative learning " who wrote So the Anacreontic odes appear to belong to the
while a lad a Laudes Bethlehem, and later a book on sophist, and one from the time of the patriarchate
l ' "
The Overthrow of Serapis (i.e., the destruction is not yet known. Of the prose works may be named
of the Serapeum in Alexandria in 302). But per- such hagiographic writings as (1) the Laudes in SS.
haps his best title to distinction in Jerome's eyes Cyrum et Johannem (MPG, Ixxxvii. 3, cols. 3379-
was his translation into Greek of certain works by 3676), the saints to whom Sophronius attributed
the latter, viz., De virginitate, Vita Hilarwn, and of relief from the trouble with his eyes; it falls into
Jerome's rendering of the Psalter and the Prophets. two parts, the encomium and a narrative of seventy
Tbe translation of the Vita was published by A. miracles by the saints, and was written before 615.
Papadopulofl-Kerameus in Analekta Hierosolymtiikes (2) The Johannes Eleemon, probably a joint
life of
strachuologias, v. 82-136 (St. Petersburg, 1808). composition of Sophronius and Moschus, completed
Recently Sophronius has been held to be the author by the former after the death of the latter; it is no
of the Greek translation of Jerome's De vir. itt., this longer extant, but probably Simeon Metaphrastes
upon the authority of Erasmus, for which further copied it in the first chapters of his Vila. (3) Vita
authority fails. The translation in question be- Mori* &wfrm (MPG, ut sup., ooU. 3697-3726)
 of Solomon
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

is attributed to him on account of a notice in the Gator, in Hutoriscta ZeiUchrift, hri (1880), 4; idem,
Munich manuscript, but John of Damascus does Zm0t' von Ntapolit Leben det heilioen Johanna* des
Barmherrioen, pp. 117-120, Freiburg, 1803; W. Meyer. Der
not name the author and its authorship is disputed ofcMntuwrfe SatuchluM in der griechitchen Prom vom 4. bit
also on internal grounds. (4) Ada martyrii Anas- sum 16. Jahrhundert, GAttingen, 1801; Johannes Zonaras,
tatic* Persia is ascribed in a Florentine manuscript Vita Sophronii, in A. Papadopuloe-Kerameua, Analecta,
v. 137-151, Bt. Petersburg, 1808; 8. Vailhe. in Revue de
to George of Pisidia and printed in his works (MPG, forfeit* Chretien, vii (1002), 360-385, viii (1003), 32-60,
xcii. 1680-1829), but by Usener is attributed to 356-387 (gives list of earlier literature); DCS, iv. 710-
Sophronius on the basis of the Berlin manuscript 721; KL, xi. 516-610.
Phffl. 1458. (5) According to Papadopulos-Ker-
ameus (Hierosolymitikt BibliothSkl, iv. 162-163, St. SORBONNB, ser'bon: A school at Paris, founded
Petersburg, 1899) a life of the Four Evangelists is to
in 1254 by Robert de Sorbon (1201-70), canon of
be ascribed to Sophronius. (6) The Pratum Spir- Notre Dame and confessor and counselor of Louis
ituale of Moschus was possibly revised or edited by IX., for poor theological students, and later domi-
Sophronius, to whom tradition ascribed it. In nating not only the theological faculty, but also
MPG the entire University of Paris. Primarily designed
(ut sup.), cols.
3201-3364, appear eight (or
for those who were unable to pay the high prices
nine) orations, to which A. Papadopulos-Kerameus
demanded for board and lodging, and
(in Analecta, ut sup., v. 151-168) adds a tenth. Of
Foundation to instruct those who were not in sym-
dogmatic works may be noted the Epistola synodica and pathy with the scholastic subtleties
(MPG, ut sup., cols. 3147-3200), two fragments on
confession of sins and the baptism of the apostles Organiza- propounded in the other schools, as
tion. well as with the added design of having
(cols. 3365-72) and one on a decision of Basil of
the teachers reside in the same house
Ccesarea (cols. 4011-12); and possibly a collection
" as their pupils, the Sorbonne was established in the
of about 600 sayings of the Fathers; a Dogmatic
Discourse on Faith
" Rue Coupe-Gorge, opposite the baths of the Em-
(cf. Papadopulos-Kerameus,
Biblioth&ke, ii. 403, ut sup.). The prayer still re- peror Julian. Robert himself made a small endow-
cited on Epiphany in the Greek Church (MPG, ut
ment for his foundation, which later received many
augmentations, although he earnestly desired that
sup., 4001-04) is carried back to Sophronius.
In the history of Greek church poetry the Ana- the institution might never become rich. The mem-
bers of the Sorbonne were not bound by monastic
creontic odes ascribed to Sophronius are very cele-
rules, and its regulations, formulated by Robert
brated; many critics, indeed, compare them with
after eighteen years of testing, remained almost un-
the products of the golden age of Greek literature.
With this valuation Krumbacher totally disagrees, changed until the Revolution. According to these
but his harshly unfavorable decision (Geschichte, p. regulations, published at Paris in 1740 under the
title Disciplina Sorbonce domus, there were three
672) is not well supported. Many of the poems have
classes of members of the Sorbonne: socii (" fel-
a warm, appealing, and personal note, together with
lows "), who were not bound to residence within
a certain independence in the choice of poetic
its precincts; hospites (" guests "), chiefly priests liv-
figures. Twenty-two odes are to be found in MPG 1

ing in the house; and beneficiarii (" beneficiaries' ))

3725-3838), and some of them appear
(ut sup., cols.
in various reprints and anthologies. The first thir-
who were either poor French aspirants for the min-
teen arose in the period of his first stay in the mon- istry receiving free maintenance while preparing for
the priesthood, or well-to-do foreign students who,
astery, the rest either during his wanderings or dur-
on payment, might reside there for several months.
ing his second monastic period. Sophronius also and hospites formed the majority. The
wrote occasional poems.
The aocii
latter were admitted only after a rigid examination
The foregoing discussion assumes the identity of
in character and theology, and no one could become
Sophronius the patriarch and Sophronius the soph-
a socius unless he had been a hospes for several
ist. This identity has been disputed. The problems
years, the new socius likewise pledging himself in
are better settled by assuming the identity than by
the chapel of the Sorbonne to obey all the regula-
assuming two personalities, and tradition supports
tions and never to enter a monastic order. The
this, especially as represented by John of Damascus
and Johannes Zonaras hospites and socii, both those who enjoyed free resi-
(MPG, xci v. 1280, 1316, 1336)
dence and those who paid (the charge originally
(" Life of Sophronius," in Papadopulos-Kerameus,
Analecta, ut sup., v. 137-151). A
final decision being three sous weekly, later increased to six), ate
at the same table and had the same rights, the house
must be awaited until a final critical edition of the
works appears. providing bread and wine, although other food had
(G. KROGER.) to be purchased. When a hospes received his licen-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On 1: Q. Wentsel, in TV, xili. 3 (1805); tiate in theology, he gave place to another. No one
O. von Gebhardt, in TU< adv. 1 (1896); M. Sonant, G- was permitted to remain longer than ten years, al-
tchichte der riimiachtn Litteratur, iv. 407-408, 448-440,
Munich. 1004; DCS, iv. 718; Ceiffler, Avtewt M**, though the title of socius Sorbonce was inalienable.
vi. 278-270, vii. 553, 505; KL, id. 510-420. The officers were elected by the members, the term
On 2 consult: John of Damascus, MPQ, xoiv. 1280, being for one year, except hi the case of the presi-
1810, 1336; Photius, in MPO, ciil. 668; Eustatfaius, in
dent (proviaor), who had control of discipline. The
Manii, Concilia, xiii. 60; Krumbaoher, G***icht*t pp.
188 iqq. et pauim; Fabridus-HaiiM, Bibliotf^ca Grow, prior kept the keys and directed the studies and
is. 162-160, Hamburg, 1804; A. Mai, SpicO^ium o- examinations, the librarian had charge of the books,
manum, iii., pp. v.-xx.,10 voIs.,Rame, 1830-44; B. Bouvy, and the censor drew up the reports of the council.
PotUt * mtiodu, pp. 160-182, 105 iqq., Ntmss, 1886 (on
the literary characteristic*); H. Usener, lUfrfcfMtfs-
There waa also a standing committee, composed of
Khichaicht tfntortucAuwn, i. 326-830, Bonn, 1880; H. the oldest aocii elected from each " nation " (cf*
Sorbonne THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 6
Sorcery and Soothsaying-

UNIVERSITIES) which supervised the moral condi- of Deputies in 1885. Since that year the Sorbonne
tions of tho Sorbonne, as well as a finance commit- has been entirely rebuilt (1889), and by reorganiza-
tee and a committee to supervise the clergy. The tion it now forms part of the University of Paris.
eocii met in general assembly four times annually. (G. BONET-MAURY.)
Robert de Sorbon sought not only to furnish BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. E. Butous, Hist. Universitatis Pariacnsis,
shelter for poor clerks, but also to provide thorough 6 Paris, 1665-73, Continuation (by C. Jourdain),
vols.,
ib. 1862-64; T. I. Duvernet, Hist, de la Sorbonne, Paris,
theological instruction for them, the mornings being 1790; A. Morellet, Mtmoires, 2d ed., Paris, 1822; C.
devoted to Old-Testament exegesis and the after- Jourdain, Index chartarum pertinentium ad hist. Univer-
noons to the interpretation of the New Testament. sitatis Parisensis, Paris, 1862; A. Franklin, La Sorbonne,
See origines et aa bibliothtque, 2d ed., Paris, 1875; M.
For two centuries the teachers were chosen from
Jadart, Robert de Sorbon, Reims, 1880; H. Denifle, Docu-
the former aocii or ho spites, nor was it ments relatifs h la fondation et aux premiere temps de I'uni-
Courses of until 1532 that a legacy rendered pos- versiU, Paris, 1883; G. Bonet-Maury, in Vie chretienne,

Study. sible the foundation of a paid lecture- Ntmes, 1884; E. Meric, La Sorbonne et son fondateur,
Reims, 1888; O. Gr6ard, Nos adieux it la vieille Sorbonne,
ship. Between 1577 and 1625 six other Paris, 1893; P. F6ret, La FacuM de theologie de Paris,
chairs were established, and later still teachers were 8 vols., Paris, 1894-1905; H. Raahdall, The Universities
drawn from other colleges of the university, while of Europe in the Middle Ages, 2 vols., Oxford, 1895; H.
as early as 1270 Robert dc Sorbon, recognizing that Calhiat, Lee Grandee Figures chretiennes de la Sorbonne au
xix. sitcle, Paris, 1896; L. Delude, in Journal des savants,
students of divinity should first have a good liter- Paris, 1898; Claudin, in Bulletin des bibliophiles, 1898;
ary and philosophical training, established, as an P. Alary, L'Imprimerie au xvi. ai&cle, fitienne Dolet et ses
annex to the Sorbonne, the College de Calvi for this luttes contre la Sorbonne, Paris, 1898; G. Compayr6, Abe-
lard and the Origin and Early Hist, of Universities, pp. 156,
purpose. In the Sorbonne itself the course was
205, 300, Now York, 1899; H. P. N6not, Monographic de
threefold: reading and interpretation of the Bible la nouveUe Sorbonne, Paris, 1903; Schaff, Christian Church,
and of the maxims of the Church Fathers, disputa- v. 1, p. 572.

tions, and preaching. The exegetical exercises were SORCERY AND SOOTHSAYING.
held twice daily, each student being required to write
Description and Extent ( 1).
a summary of the main points presented; the dis-
Among Primitive Races (5 2).
putations, upon some theme previously announced, Among Civilized Peoples ( 3).
took place between two students each Sunday, a Among Hebrews ( 4).
aocius being the presiding officer; but preaching In the Christian Church ( 5).

seems to have received little attention. A

most im- By by Christians is meant an
sorcery as viewed
portant part of the Sorbonne was its library, founded employment of demonic power in the service of men,
by Robert and enriched with manuscripts by Guiard and it is therefore regarded as a gross sin against
d'Abbeville, while in 1469 the prior of the Sorbonne, God because the Christian should trust in God alone.
acting in harmony with the rector of the university, Christian conceptions thus square with
established the first printing-press in France, whence i. Descrip- those of the Old and the New Testa-
the Bible of 1478 was issued. tion and ment. Among polytheistic religions the
The Sorbonne furnished the leaders of the Uni- Extent phases of sorcery are many and varied,
versity of Paris who, in the fifteenth century, de- and a definition sufficiently comprehen-
manded the reform of the Church by a general coun- si ve is difficult to gi ve Its operations neither depend
.

cil; but in the following century the institution upon competent physical experiences nor do they
became hostile to the new spirit, cen- rest upon ethical mediation; it is arbitrary meddling
History. suring the writings of Erasmus and of men withsupernatural or at least secret powers.
Faber Stapulensis, and condemning the As a rule sorcery deals with spirits personal powers
works of Luther and Melanchthon. In the seven- of the unseen world, whence is the connection with
teenth century it was the leader of Roman Cathol- religion. The sorcerer works through word, look,
icism in France, and such prelates as Richelieu, gesture, and varied operations such as the tying of
Mazarin, De Retz, and De Noailles considered it a knots, the giving of drinks and concoctions, behind
distinction to be elected pravisor of the Sorbonne. which a profounder meaning and connection lie
Richelieu in particular manifested affection for the hidden. One precondition for the rise of belief in
institution, taking one of its hoapites for his confes- sorcery is the existence of a realm of unexplained
sor, completely rebuilding it, and desiring to be and inexplicable phenomena; the larger this is, the
buried in its chapel. A century later the Sorbonne more room there is for sorcery, so that the latter
defended the new spirit of the times, but in 1791 reigns in the lowest culture. Moreover, there must
the Convention decreed the suppression of the be a trust in man's ability to accomplish such works
"
priests of the Sorbonne," although tho 160 socii in unison with higher powers. Animism and poly-
were unmolested, and even Revolutionary vandal- demonism are the native homes of sorcery, mono-
ism spared the chapel with its tomb of Richelieu. theism and ethics make against it. The relation to
When, after the concordat, Napoleon organized the religion depends upon the conception of religion;
University of France (1808), he established at the some regard sorcery as an evidence of religion and
Sorbonne a faculty of Roman Catholic theology, to a tendency of religious life, others as a conscious
which the Bourbons added the faculties of letters alienation from deity. Some members of the an-
and sciences, the whole organization bearing the thropological school regard it as the first stage hi
name of Sorbonne. Since, however, Leo XIII. re- religious development, deriving prayer from sorcery
fused the institution canonical recognition, it be- or avertive exercises. The lowest races show, how-
came useless for the education of the higher clergy, ever, a sense of dependence upon the unseen; their
and it was accordingly suppressed by the Chamber attitude is not one of command entirely. Sorcery
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Sorbonne
Sorcery and Soothsaying

is a later phenomenon in development, is allied to cine man. One of the means employed by this class
Magic (q.v.), is found alongside of religion, but in it is the word of power, which binds to or looses from
religion itself is not to be found. Indeed, sorcery evil, and this word only the sorcerer knows and can
tends to drown out religion or to drive it into the turn to a hundred uses. The formula is usually an
background; the more meager religion is, the more unintelligible or irrational expression, the names
luxuriant are the parasitic growths of sorcery. Yet of divine and demonic powers being included and
it is a fact that the sorcerer or Shaman (q.v.) often their assistance invoked. At times the effigy of the
seeks power through a loftily conceived divinity re- person to whom evil is to be done is treated as the
garded as good, aiming to subject lower and ill-dis- person himself is expected to suffer [after the man-
posed spirits. Magic is sorcery technically developed. ner of sympathetic magic; see COMPARATIVE RE-
Among races of the lower order there is pften a LIGION, VI., 1, a, 5; other methods of usinR magic
science of secrets to which only the consecrated are are described in that place]. The formula used has
admitted. Sorcery also has relations with Divination often a similarity to prayer, but it is utterly with-
(q.v.), and the professions of sorcerer and diviner out ethical relations and has in mind the arbitrary
are often plied by the same person, who claims to will of the sorcerer, not submission to deity. A sim-
have insight into the unseen and to be able to con- ilar difference exists between prophecy and sooth-
trol more or less the course of events. saying; prophecy depends upon the will of God,
Among primitive peoples, then, sorcery is espe- soothsaying contemplates man's self-chosen pur-
cially at home. Ignorance of nature leads to the poses and employs not inspiration but certain means
belief in the possibility of supernatural operations of attaining its ends, such as the Lot (q.v.), the in-
in the sphere of man. The sorcerer covers himself terpretation of various natural phenomena, and the
with a veil of secrecy, speaks in dark figures, per- like, a set of rules being formulated to this purpose.
outre", thus giving
forms acts that are The spirits of the dead are also evoked. See also
2. Amongthe impression of secret power and in- DREAM.
Primitive scrutable doings. The results expected Sorcery appears also as a custom of the civilized
Races. from the exercise of thege activities peoples of antiquity, and shows a great tenacity of
cover the field of man's needs and de- persistence even in connection with a grade of cul-
sires; moreover, evil spirits are warded off or con- ture with which it is not in harmony. In course of
ciliated, the cooperation of good spirits is gained. time sorcery becomes a complicated art, and its
There are sorcerers and counter-sorcerers; the dan- bonds are dissolved only by the ad-
porous exerciser of these powers must be mastered 3. Among vance of thought, as when magic in

by a more powerful one. The method is not to sub- Civilized illness gives way to medicine, astrol-
ject oneself to the will of God, as in true religion, Peoples. ogy to astronomy, and the like, though
but magic works as a concurrent with religion, and superstitious practises persist with real
is thus irreligious and irrational. It is regarded in advance in knowledge (see SUPERSTITION). There
two ways as a serious crime, when it produces seems to remain a feeling that external and cor-
damage; and as a high art when it averts injury and poreal affairs are governed by the unseen, and irra-
brings a blessing. To the user it seems not at all tional elements and practises abide, even in partial
wrong to injure an enemy by sorcery, though it is connection with religion. This is especially true of
a crime to use it against a friend or blood brother. peoples like the Chinese, among whom a certain
Among the vicious means of sorcery, as regarded by stage of civilization has been reached with a result-
the most varied peoples, is the evil eye, wliich is be- ing stagnation. The religion of early people had
lieved by many to be able to affect with illness and magical elements and therein showed their heathen
death those on whom it is cast, while the possessors character. The relation to deity is not purely re-
are supposed, as in Africa, to meet in the desert to ligious, but is influenced by external factors. Thus,
counsel how they shall effect their purposes. So the in Babylonia (q.v.) while such literature as the
" "
suspicion regarding vampires as the cause of death penitential psalms shows lu'gh ethical conscious-
and illness is a concomitant of sorcery. From this ness and a realization of sin and of repentance, the
" "
illegitimate use of these means is distinguished usages reveal magic practises, burning of spices, and
"
a " legitimate " method, which takes especially the the like. So in Egypt (q.v.), the Book of the
"
form of protecting from evil powers and the increase Dead contains a chapter dealing with purity of
of the natural good of man in life well-being, fruit- heart and conscience as the essential condition of
fulness, and possessions having the ability to ward happiness after death, yet the most of the book is
off evil spirits. Charms and potions are employed, taken up with directions of magical character di-
which, however, require for their proper use the ad- recting the soul in its course. Similarly Zoroas-
vice of the expert. In pestilences and epidemics trianism (see ZOROASTER, ZOROABTRIANISM) is full
the counsel of these experts is needed to define the of ethical truths, yet magical conceptions abound
causes, and in case of guilt to determine the blame. and Ahura Mazda comes to earth to act as priest of
Thus a connection is made with soothsaying and sorcery. Similar facts meet one in India. As among
the deliverance of oracles, while the Ordeal (q.v.) primitive peoples, so among the more advanced
is under the guardianship of this branch in the exists the idea of an illegitimate sorcery, which is a

preparation of potions. Through these means the crime. Thus the Twelve Tables of the Roman law
sorcerers insome regions, as in Africa, wield enor- contained enactments against these practises, as
mous power and influence, especially as sickness is did the Cornelian law against assassins and poison-
regarded as the work of demons, whose work must ers; the possession of books on magic was a crime
be undone through the counter-sorcerer or the medi- [cf for a strong passage the sixth satire of Juvenal].
.
 wry and Soothtayinff THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 8

Apuleius stood trial for witchcraft about 150 A.D., plied by showing that this would be dividing the
and Constantinian and Justinian legislation dealt kingdom of evil against itself. The exorcists of
with it. Ephesus used the name of Jesus in their
The Hebrew religion took strong ground against 5. In the work. The episode of Simon (Acts
sorcery from the beginning, though residuary traces Christian viii. 9 sqq.) is instructive, while not
from the former heathenism or reintroduction from Church, less illustrative of the common estima-
surrounding sources occurred and had tion is the episode of Elymas in Cyprus
4* Among to be combated. The Hebrew word (Acts xiii.), who received the rebuke of Paul and
Hebrews, keseph, which forms the basis of the severe punishment. A center of heathen sorcery
common terms for sorcery, etc., in at that time was Ephesus, where amulets with an
Hebrew has its Assyrian cognate, and its occurrence ambiguous inscription and a representation of
in the feminine indicates that women were the chief Diana were sold, and one of the triumphs of Chris-
practisers ef the art. Death was the penalty for tianity was the burning of costly books dealing with
the crime (Lev. xx. 27; I Sam. xxviii. 9, cf. xv. the art (Acts xix. 19). Distinction was made then
23), it being a sin which ranks with idolatry. Pas- between the wonder-working of the apostles and or-
sages like Isa. ii. 6 show the reimportation of the dinary magic (II Cor. xii. 12), though that might be
practise from the East and from Philistia; but the misunderstood as simple magic (Acts v. 15, xix. 12)
prophets inveigh against the degradation of the and the real connection lost, the conception passing
worship of Yahweh into a spirit cult. The height to the shadow and the napkins, etc., from the per-
of prophetic religion was not maintained among the sons of the apostles. So on the confines of Chris-
people, especially under Assyrian influence sorcery tianity belief in magic showed itself in the material-
resumed an unwonted sway; and after monothe- izing of the means of grace after heathen-magical
ism had come to its own, magical remainders and methods of thought, in the magical use of " the
superstition furnished a background of demonic word of power " and like ceremonies. Of course, a
powers among which the imagination worked. more spiritual and more nearly religious conception
Especially was belief in demons rife in the post- inheres in Christian surroundings, the divine power?
exilic period, though their place was that of sub- being supposed to work under ethical conditions.
jection, not of equality with C?od, and did not affect The Christian ritual and cultus were affected by the
the doctrine of his unity; the name of God was in- magical remains which inhered in the life of the
voked as an avertive power. Yet this very fact peoples converted to this faith or which came in
was employed magically, the name of God and of through contact with heathen peoples, though such
the archangels, particularly the tetragrammaton, ideas were always attacked by the Church. In the
being used both orally and written and regarded early Church, Gnosticism was a breeding-point for
as a powerful charm. So people fell into sorcery these conceptions and practises. In the Middle Ages
almost unconsciously, these means being used as a the belief in witches had its rise in the old German
sort of holy magic to oppose the unholy magic of faith in spirits. Even those who combated the
other kinds of sorcery. The Talmud treats often of effects of this heathen heritage showed themselves
the sorcerers referred to in the Old Testament, in- under the spell of surviving superstitions, and the
terpreting their names generally arbitrarily; its inquisitors manifested more of gruesome zeal than
of wisdom in their measures. These errors were
general spirit is that of condemnation; though the
methods of sorcery were to be studied, the better due, however, rather to the condition of the natural,
to combat them. Some of the great rabbis received mental, and juristic sciences than to theology. New
instruction in the art, while men generally accepted forms constantly arise, an example of which is Spirit-
sorcery as a fact; still the true Israelite was re- ism (q.v.), in which direct opposition to Biblical
garded as so under the protection of God that the commands is discernible. Another example of this
art was powerless against him. The Cabala (q.v.) same class of novelties is the so-called crystal-ga-
contributed to the degradation of religion from this zing, while the various phenomena of spiritualism,
source, as is so often the case with mystic Supersti- hypnotism, somnambulism, and the like illustrate
tion (q.v.). The Haggada and Midrashic references the older sorcery in its connection with soothsaying
to the superstition of the people are numerous, and (see MAGIC). Hardly less dangerous are the phe-
around the person of Solomon stories gathered with nomena of suggestion, even in its relation to the
reference to his mastery of the demons, whose help medical profession, though it is brought into con-
he compelled. These legends were
in building, e.g., nection with the Bible and prayer. These illustra-
taken over by Islam, where the same general posi- tions show that danger of lapse into sorcery is not
tion with regard to sorcery obtained as in Judaism. altogether a thing of the past. See SUPERSTITION.
Mohammedan missionaries often sell sentences from (C. VON ORELLJ.)
the Koran as amulets, and indeed the entire book
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Much of the literature under COMPABATIVB
serves such a purpose to those who can not read it, RELIGION; MAGIC; SHAMANISM; SUPERSTITION; and
being regarded as an avertive of evil and a means WITCHCRAFT will be found pertinent. Consult further:
to insure good fortune. W. Mannhart, Zavberglaube und Qeheimwwen im Spiegel
der JahrhunderU, Leipsic, 1890; J. Dieaenbaoh, Beeeeeen-
Christianity from its beginning has been no less heit,Zaubtrei und Hexcnfabcln, Frankfort, 1893; F. Dela-
uncompromisingly opposed to sorcery than Juda- croix, Lee Prodi de torcetterie au xviii. n*cZ, Paris, 1894;
ism; it has regarded these practises as a turning J. Regnault, La Sorcdlerie, Paris, 1897; T. Witton Davies,
Magic, Divination, and Demonology among the Hebrew*
away from God and as dealing with ungodly powers. and their Nagfibourt, Edinburgh, 1898; E. Pauls, Zau-
Jesus was himself suspected of using sorcery (Mark bcrweeen und Hexenwahn am Niedtrrhein, Dusseldorf,
iii. 22; Luke xi. 15, etc.), to which aspersion he re- 1898; I. Bertrand, La SorctUerie, Paris, 1899; E. Gilbert,
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Let Plant* magique* * to aonuttme, Moulini, 1890; J. N. pate reach from the ninth to the seventeenth year
Sepp, Orient und Occident: Kapitel Vber der Nacheeite der of Marcus Aurelius; the " Liberian Catalogue "
Natur Zauberwerk und Hexenweten in afar und never Zeit,
Berlin, 1003; . Orawley, The Tree of Lift, pp. 50. 79, gives him a pontificate of nine years, three months,
263-264, London, 1006; L. R. Famell, Evolution of Re- and two days; Lipsius assigns as his dates 166 (167)-
fyton, London, 1006; H. A. Junod, The Theory of Witch- 174 (175). A fragment of a letter from the Corin-
craft amongst South African Native*, Cape Town, 1007;
thian Dionysius (in Eusebius, Hist, ecd., IV., xxiii.)
A. Abt, Die Apologie dee Apulejut von Madaura und die
antike Zauberei, Giesaen, 1008; A. Bertholet, Religiont- makes Soter revive an old custom and send a
geechichtlichee Letebuch, pp. 160 sqq., Tubingen, 1008; hortatory letter to the Corinthians which Harnack
W. Caland. Altindieche Zauberei. Daretettung der altindi- identifies with the so-called II Clement. A late
achen Wunechopfer, Amsterdam, 1008; K. Frank, Baby
lonieche Betchwtirungereliefe, Leipsic, 1008; J. Harrison,
.
tradition makes Soter one of the earliest writing
Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, 2d ed., Cam- opponents of Montanism. (A. HAUCK.)
bridge, 1008 (contains much on avertive procedure); T. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liber pontifical, ed. Mommsen in MGH,
Schermann, Oriechieche Zauberpapyri und das Gemeinde- Geet. pont. Rom., i (1898), 16; Jaffe, Regesta, i. 9; R. A.
und Dankgebet im I. Klemenabriefe, Leipsic, 1000; I. King,
Lipsius, Chronologic der romiechen Biechbfe, p. 86, Kiel,
The Development of Religion. A Study in Anthropology
1869; J. Langen, Geechichte der romiechen Kirche, i. 152
and Social Psychology, New York, 1010.
sqq.; T. Zahn, in Forechungen zur Geechichte dee neutee-
tamentlichen Kanone, v. 51 sqq., Leipsic, 1892; Harnack,
SORTES APOSTOLORUM or SANCTORUM Litteratur, i. 589, ii. 1, pp. 440 sqq.; idem, in TV, xiii
(Lat., "Lots of the apostles" or "saints"): A (1895), 48-49; Bower, Popes, i. 14; Platina, Pope*, i. 31-
means of foretelling the future by opening the Bible 32; DCB. iv. 721-722.
at random, the passage on which the eye first lights
SOTERIOLOGY.
being taken as an admonition of the deity in regard
Definition (J 1).
to the problem prompting such means of divination.
Relation to Mediation (ft 2).
The term is probably derived from the Vulgate of Relation to Christ's Prophetical Work ( 3).
Acts i. 26 and Col. i. 12, and the usage is wide- Relation to the Atonement ( 4).
Relation to Justification (5 6).
spread, pagan Home thus consulting Vergil, Islam Relation to Christ's Kingly Office (| 6).
the Koran, and China the sayings of Confucius. Summary (J 7).
While rejecting divination with pagan writings, the
Soteriology that branch of Christian theology
is
Christians employed the Bible for this purpose (cf.
which treats work of the Savior ; it is the doc-
of the
Augustine's account of his conversion, Confessiones, trine of salvation, so far as such salvation has been
VIII., xii. 29-30, Eng. transl. in NPNF, 1 ser., i.
wrought out by the second person in the Trinity.
127-128), despite the disapproval of Church Fathers It is to be carefully distinguished from Christology
(cf Augustine, Epist., Iv. 37, Eng. transl. in NPNF,
.

1 scr., i. 315; Jerome on Jonah i.). It became espe- (q.v.), which treats solely of the per-
z. Redeemer his incarnation,
Defini- son of the
cially prevalent in the days of Gregory of Tours
tion. and his humanity, and
his divinity,
(Hist. Francorum, iv. 16, v. 14, 49), although it was
the combination of these two elements
forbidden by the synods of Vannes (465), Agde (506),
in his single and perfect personality. Yet it should
Orleans (511), and Auxerre (between 570 and 590),
be borne in mind always, that any adequate con-
as well as by Gregory the Great (Epist., ix. 204, xi.
ception of his soteriological work must be based on
33). The Carolingian legislation against the series
right views, antecedently obtained and established,
apostolorum (cf. MGH, Leg., sectio iii., part 1, p.
was reenforccd, partly on the basis of Lev. xix. respecting the Christ as he is in himself the ap-
64)
pointed and qualified savior of men. Soteriology
26, by the prohibitions of the Church, yet the sys-
does not include the concurrent work of the Son of
tem had official sanction in determining the charac-
God in other spheres, such as creation, or providence,
ter of bishops elect (cf e.g., William of Malmesbury,
.

or moral administration. Nor does it include those

Gesta pontificum Anglorum, i. 214, 219, etc.). Greek
monks made a similar use of
"
The Sayings of the aspects of salvation which involve, on the one side,
" the elective purpose and love of the Father, or, on
Fathers while the humanists returned to Vergil.
the other, the interior ministry of the Spirit in the
There were a number of minor ways of consulting
application of saving grace. While the Son is con-
the sortes apostolorum, and in the later Middle Ages
cerned with the Father in the original plan of re-
lot-books circulated throughout Christendom. In
more recent times Pietism especially affected di- demption and in the selection of those in whom that
vination by the Bible; and it is still practised in
plan becomes effectual (see PREDESTINATION), his
specific work lies rather in the execution of that
many places. (Cf. also DIVINATION, III.; LOTS,
plan, and in the actual securing of redemption to
HEBREW USE OF.) (E. VON DoBSCHtirz.)
allwho believe. While, again, the Son is concerned
BIBLIOGRAPHY Besides the literature under DIVINATION,
:

consult. H. Wlnnefeld, Sortee Sangatteneee, Bonn, 1887;

with the Holy Spirit in the conviction of sinners,
P. Camel, Weihnachten; Ureprunge, Brduchc, und Aber- and in bringing them, through regeneration and
glauben, Berlin, 1862; F. Rooquain, Let Sorts de taint* ou sanctification, into the full enjoyment of the salva-
dee apdtree, pp. 457 sqq., Paris, 1880; R. Hcim. Incanta-
tion provided (see HOLT SPIRIT), his primary work
menta inagica Grctca-Latina, Leipsio, 1893; J. R. Harris,
in American Journal of Philology, ix. 68; idem, in Journal is rather the provision itself on which, as a divine

of Theological Studiet. ii. 1. pp. 7-8; idem, The Annotatore foundation, this subsequent work of spiritual resto-
of Codex Betas, pp. 45 sqq., London, 1901. ration must be based. The Father creates, pre-
SOTER, so'ter:Pope c. 166-174. According to serves, governs, plans, elects, as introductory; the
Hegesippus Eusebius, Hist, ecd., IV., xzii.) and
(in Spirit enlightens, educates, sanctifies,and completes
Irenaeus (Hear., III., iii. 3) Soter was successor of the saving process in the individual soul; the Son,
Anicetus, but the papal lists make him follow Pius. acting as intermediate, represents, reveals, instructs,
Eusebius (Hist, ecd., IV., xix.) makes his episco- atones for sin, placates law, and lays a foundation
Boterloloey THE NEW SCHAFF-HER2OG 10

In justice, whereby, under an economy of grace, through the formal enunciation of saving truths,
every one who believes in him, the Father and the and indirect teaching through the superadded power
Spirit concurring, may be saved. of example and personality. Christ, as teacher and
The most general conception of this specific work prophet, becomes an enduring pattern also. In
of the Son of God is expressed in the term media- himself, as well as in his message, was light; and
tion (see MEDIATOR). His peculiar mission is to the light was the life of men. It may be queried,
interpose, in the temper of grace and whether, in consequence of the strong inclination
2. Relation for the purpose of both forensic and of Evangelical Protestantism to exalt the priestly
to Media- spiritual reconciliation, between man work of our Lord as central, this prophetical mis-
tion. as a sinner, and the Deity against whom sion has not been relatively too much ignored, and,
man has offended, with whom he is more specifically, whether the Biblical view of him
morally at variance. As a mediator, the Son of as the true norm and example of our humanity has
God, who was also the Son of Man (qq. v.), was amply not been surrendered too much to the uses of those
qualified, both by inherent endowment and through who altogether reject his priestly character and
official appointment; and in his work of mediation, mission.
he isactually successful in removing alienation, Concerning this priestly function, it is needless
in restoring the lost harmony between God and the to repeat what has been said elsewhere (see ATONE-
sinner, and in securing to man a complete and blessed MENT; CALVINISM, 5; JESUS CHRIST, THREEFOLD
and eternal at-one-ment with his heavenly Father. OFFICE OF; PRIEST, PRIESTHOOD; SACRIFICE).
This generic work of mediation is generally de- The essential fact in the case is the voluntary and
scribed by Calvinistic theologians under the three vicarious surrender of himself by our Ix>rd as a sac-
specific forms indicated in the terms prophet, priest, rifice before God for sinners, on account of their sin,
and king (see JESUS CHRIST, THREEFOLD OFFICE OF). and in order to expiate sin, and to secure the recon-
It has been questioned whether this distribution is ciliation and restoration of man as sinful to God.
in all respects desirable; whether, by the division As a sacrifice, Christ was inherently and judicially
of the one work into these three parts or offices, perfect, a lamb without blemish and without spot;
our sense of the essential unity of that work is not as a priest, he was in every way qualified for the
impaired; and whether the underlying idea of me- sacrificial work in which he was thus engaged; and
diation is not weakened by such multiplicity of was volun-
his administration of the priestly office
particular functions and relations (J. J. van Oos- tary, and acceptable. In him both the
official,
terzee, Christian Dogmatics, cviii., New
York, 1874). Aaronic priesthood and the peculiar priesthood of
Is this central idea adequately expressed in these Melchisedec were singularly blended. He was, in
three forms? Do they contain neither more nor less his own person, the absolute culmination of the
than the underlying conception? And, where the priestly as well as the prophetic order and idea. As
distribution is made, arc these three offices always priest and as sacrifice he was perfect.
kept in their proportionate place, and severally in- That this vicarious intervention and offering of
vested with their proper dignity and value in the himself in behalf of sinners and for sin was an essen-
one mediatorial work? Whatever answer may be tial part of the mediatorial work of the Savior, is

given to these questions on exegetical or specula- too clearly revealed in Scripture to be

tive grounds, there is no adequate reason for reject- 4. Relation qupstioned by any who receive its tes-
ing an analytic presentation which has gained such to the timony in the case as conclusive. The
definite expression in current evangelical creeds Atonement exigencies of that moral government
(Heidelberg Catechism, Ans. 31 Westminister Con-
; against which the sinner hod rebelled,
fession, chap, viii.) and has been so extensively the requisitions of justice as an eternal principle in
adopted as a regulative guide in modern theology. the Deity, and the needs of the soul itself in order
Studying soteriology in this triple aspect, there to its spiritual recovery, alike required as the Bible
appears first the prophetic function of the Savior, in multiplied ways asserts such a sacrifice of him-
as including that entire revelation of saving truth self,even unto death, on the part of the Redeemer.
which he, as the divine Logos, came Without this, mediation would have been both in-
3. Relation among men to make. All religious, admissible and ineffectual (see SATISFACTION. For
to Christ's and especially all inspired, teachers differing views on the nature and the extent of the
Prophetical who were prior to him as revealers of atonement see ATONEMENT). Whatever may be the
Work. sacred doctrine or duty, were only views of believers as to cither the nature or the
messengers to prepare the way before extent and scope of this sacrificial work of Christ,
him; and all who followed after had it as their mis- all are agreed in regarding the fact itself as both
sion simply to elucidate and expand what he taught. unquestionable and vital. That the Lord suffered
Christ was the one perfect Logos, in virtue both of as well as taught, and that he suffered on account
his eternal relationship within the Trinity (see TRIN- of sin and in order to save men from it, and that
ITY) and of his specific appointment as the Word through his suffering men are actually saved from
of the Godhead to man. In him resided all the qual- both the condemnation and the power of evil, and
ifications requisite to the complete fulfilment of this that this salvation is immediate and certain, and
prophetical work, and from him came in highest will be complete at last these are the great facts
form, and with most commanding power, all the of grace which lie at the basis of the Evangelical
truth which man needs to know in order to his sal- system, and which constitute the foundation of all
vation. This prophetical function may be subdi- Evangelical hope.
vided into direct and indirect direct teaching Justification (q.v.) is the divine act of pardoning
11 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Soteriolofty
Boto

Bin, and accepting sinners as if they were righteous, BIBLIOGRAPHY: The place of the topic in systematic theo 1 -
on the ground genetically of all that Christ has done ogy is discussed in O. R. Crooks and J. F. Hunt, Theo-
logical Encyclopadia and Methodolow, pp. 456-457, New
in the munua triplex of mediation, and York, 1894; and in A. Cave, Introduction to Theology, con-
"
5. Relation specifically on the ground of what he sult Index under Salvation, Doctrine of," Edinburgh,
to Juitifi- has suffered as well as done in our be- 1896. The subject hardly needs a separate bibliography,
being a topic treated in practically all works on systematic
cation, half as our great high priest and sacri-
theology (see DOGMA., DOGMATICS; e.g., Shedd, ii. 353-
fice. To accept the sinner as if he were 587, iii. 400-470; Hodge, ii. 455-608), which usually pro-
righteous, and to adopt him (see ADOPTION) into
vide abundant references to literature. Moreover, relevant
literature is noted under the articles to which reference
the family of God, and make him an heir of spiritual
is made in the text, especially under ATONEMENT, and
privileges and blessings, without requiring from SATISFACTION.
him repentance, and return to loyalty, as conditions,
and with no provision for his deliverance from the SOTO, sS'to, DOMINGO DE : Spanish Dominican ;

legal penalties incurred by his sin, would be an un- b. at Segovia (45 m. n.w. of Madrid) 1494; d. at
worthy transaction. The only adequate warrant Salamanca Nov. 15, 1560. Educated, after a youth
for such acceptance and adoption must be found, of poverty which obliged him to begin as a sacristan
not in any worthiness inherent in the nature of in the village of Ochando, at Alcala and Paris, he
man or any merit seen in his life, nor even in his became, in 1520, professor of philosophy at the
faith and repentance viewed as concomitants or former university, gaining a reputation as an op-
consequences, but in the mediatorial, and especially ponent of nominalism. At this same period he also
in the sacrificial, work of Christ. " "
began his commentaries on Aristotle's Dialectics
The kingly office of the Savior is a necessary ele- " " "
(Salamanca, 1544), Physics (1545), and Cate-
ment in his broad work of mediation. He is king "
gories (Venice, 1583), as well as the preparation
because he has been prophet and priest; he is also of his own Summulcs (Salamanca, 152 J, abridged ed.,
king inherently, as divine. His king- 1539 and often). Determining to embrace the mo-
6. Relation dom commences in the believing heart, nastic life, he entered the Dominican order at Burgos
to Christ's and is essentially spiritual: it is an in 1524, being professed in the following year and
Kingly authority exercised in love, and for taking the name Domingo instead of his baptismal
Office. the purpose of salvation. His church, Francisco. He now taught philosophy and theology
as composed of those who have thus at Burgos until 1532, when he returned to Sala-
submitted to him personally, is his gracious empire; manca as professor of scholastic philosophy. He
and over that empire he is the supreme head, every- was an important figure at the Council of Trent,
where and always. This kingdom was founded by where he maintained that the Roman Catholic
him before his earthly advent; it has been extended Church did not teach assurance of grace, likewise
through many lands and centuries by his grace and defending Thomistic teachings regarding the doc-
power; it will continue to increase, through the trines of original sin, justification, predestination,
agency of the forces now incorporated in it, until it good works, etc., these controversies also bearing
has filled the earth. The notion, that, as a kingdom fruit in hisDe natura et gratia libri tres (Venice,
of love, it will ere long be supplanted by a kingdom 1547) and Apologia de certitudine gratia (1 547).
. . .

of power, in which Christ will visibly appear as an When, in 1547, the council was transferred to Bo-
earthly monarch, subduing his enemies by irresisti- logna, de Soto returned to the court of Charles V.,
ble strength, and exalting his saints with him to a who made him his confessor, and in 1549 appointed
species of temporal domination (see MILLENNIUM, him to the bishopric of Segovia. Not only was the
MILLENAKIANISM), is at variance with the truth. latter honor declined, but in 1550 de Soto resigned
Beyond this earthly empire of the Lord as already his post of confessor and retired to the monastery
defined, may be discerned his princely exaltation at Salamanca, where he became prior. About this
even now, at the right hand of the Father, to be' ad- time he wrote his anti-Protestant Commentarii in
vocate and intercessor for his people. This advo- epistolam Paidi ad Romanes (Antwerp, 1550), and
cacy and intercession are to continue until all who he also sought to allay the controversy between
are his are finally brought together with him into Sepulveda and Las Casas regarding the treatment
what is literally the kingdom of heaven. of the American aborigines. In 1552 he resumed
Returning from this survey of the specific func- teaching at Salamanca, but in 1556 he returned to
tions or offices of Christ to the underlying idea of his monastery and was again chosen prior. His
mediation, in one view may be com- chief works, besides those already mentioned, were
7. Summary, prehended the full doctrine of salva- De ratione tegendi et detegendi secretum (Salamanca,
tion as wrought out by him in behalf 1551); De justitia et jure libri septem (1556); In
of man. There is indeed a subjective soteriology, quartum librum Sententiarum commentaria, sive de
which includes especially the work wrought within sacramentis (2 vols., 1557-60) and the still unedited
;

the soul of man by the Savior through his spirit, and De ratione promulgandi Evangelium and In primam
which is expressed in the terms regeneration and partem Sancti Thorn et in utramque secundam com-
sanctification. But objective soteriology, which is mentarii. (Q.
here under consideration, is summed up rather in the BIBLIOGRAPHY: N. Antraius, Bibliotheca Hitpania, i. 255-
triple phrase of Aquinas -Cftrttfug legislator, sacerdos, 258, Rome, 1672; J. Quetif and J. chard, ficriptores or-
rex. To the Protestant mind it is pictured forth es- dinia procUcotorum, ii. 171 sqq., Paris, 1721; N. Paulus,
D. Soto und die Beichte in NUrnberg, in Der Kotholik,
sentially in the term justification, which, equally with 1899, i. 282-288; Q. Hoffmann, Die Lehre von dcr Fides
regeneration and sanctification, shows wherein the implieita innerhalb der katholiachen Kirche, pp. 227-230,
divine salvation consists. E. D. MORRIS. Leipsic, 1903; KL, xi. 530-531.
 Land Spirit NEW SCHAFF-tiERZOG ift

SOTO, PETRUS DE: Spanish Dominican; b. are not seldom sharply distinguished not merely
at Cordova about 1500; d. at Trent Apr. 20, 1563. in point of view (Wendt). (1) Dying is a giving
He entered the Dominican order at Salamanca in up of the pneuma and of the psyche, but it is never
1518 and quickly attained a reputation as a rigid said that the spirit, but only that the soul, dies or
and learned Thomist. Charles V. made him his is killed (Judges xvi. 16; Matt. x. 28; Mark xiv.

confessor, but his order appointed him vicar for the 34). (2) Pneuma and psyche are often used inter-
Netherlands, and later he became professor of the- changeably with reference to sensation and impulse,
ology at the newly founded seminary of Dillingen, knowledge and self-consciousness (Matt. xi. 29;
where he wrote his catechetical Institutiones Chris- I Cor. xvi. 18; Luke i. 46, 47), but only the soul is
tiana (Augsburg, 1548), Methodus confessionis, sive the subject of willing and desire, inclination and
doctrina pietatisque Christiana epitome (Dillingen, aversion (Deut. xii. 20; I Sam. ii. 16; Job xxiii.
1553), Compendium doctrina Catholica (Antwerp, 13; Prov. xxi. 10; Isa. xxvi. 8; Micah vii. 1), and
1556), and Tractatus de institutions sacerdotum qui of redemption (Isa. xxx viii. 17; Matt. xvi. 26; cf.,
sub episcopis animarum curam gerunt, sive manuale however, I Cor. v. 5; I Pet. iv. 6). Consciousness,
clericorum (Dillingen, 1558), the latter his chief perception, and willing are indeed ordinarily re-
work. His Assertio Catholica fidei circa articulos ferred to the heart, but when the emphasis is to be
confessionis (Antwerp, 1552) involved him in a con- laid on the hidden state to which these feelings be-

troversy with Johann Brenz (q.v.), thus occasion- long, soul and spirit are used (see HEART, BIBLICAL
ing his Defensio Catholica confessionis et scholiorum USAGE). (3) The dead are designated as spirits
circa confessionem (1557). De Soto later accom- (Luke xxiv. 37, 39; Acts xxiii. 8-9; Heb. xii. 23;
panied Philip II. to England, where Mary appointed I Pet. iii. 19; cf.. however, Rev. vi. 9). (4) Most
him professor of theology at Oxford, but on the important of all, nephesh and psychl refer to the in-
queen's death in 1558 he returned to Dillingen. In dividual, the subject of life, while ruah and pneuma
1561 Pius IV. summoned him to Trent, where he are never used of the subject as individual.
bravely defended the sacramental nature of the As an independent subject, pneuma is always
priesthood and episcopal rights, but died before the something other than the human spirit. The dis-
council adjourned. (O. Z&CKLERf.) tinction depends on the original difference in terms:
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Qutif and J. fechard, Scriptore* ordinit spirit is the condition, soul the mani-
prodicatorum, ii. 183 sqq., Paris, 1721; KL, xi. 531-632. 2. Distinc- fcstation, of life. Whatever belongs
tionBetween to the spirit belongs to the soul also,
SOUL AND SPIRIT, BIBLICAL CONCEPTIONS OF. Soul and but not everything that belongs to the -

BiblicalTerms (i 1). Spirit. soul belongs to the spirit. It does not

Distinction Between Soul and Spirit (I 2). suffice to speak of the inner being of
Pauline Doctrine (f 3).
Spirit, Divine and Human (| 4). man, now as spirit, now as soul; one must regard
Origin of Soul and Spirit (f 5). the spirit as the principle of the soul, the divine
Consequences of Sin (( 6). principle of life, included in but not identical with
Bearing on Personality of Jesus (i 7). the individual. Spirit may be distinguished but
" "
Spirit in classical Greek, pneuma, like the not separated from the soul. Body and spirit are
Hebr. ruah denotes not merely the breath as sym- not two poles between which is the soul. Since the
bol of life but also life itself in distinction from soul includes the spirit as part of itself, it may be
soma. The
soul (Goth, saiwala, Hebr. nephesh f Gk. called spirit. The soul may sin and die, but the
psychl, Lat. anima) signifies in general the life as it spirit, as a divine principle having its source in God,
animates the individual material or- can neither sin nor die. The human soul is indeed
x. Biblical ganism which is the medium of its bound to corporeality, yet it survives death because
Terms, action. Both spirit and soul are applied it possesses the Spirit of God as its immanent prin-

to man (Job x. 12; Ps. xxxii. 2; ciple of life. The loss of the body caused by death
Eaek. xxxvii. 8; cf. with Gen. xlvi. 15, Ex. i. 5), will in those who share hi the consummation give
and also to animals (Eccl. iii. 19 sqq.; Gen. vi. 17, place to a redeemed corporeality (I Cor. xv. 42 sqq.;
vii. 15, 22; Ps. civ. 30; Gen. i. 20, 30; Job. xii. 10; Rev. vi. 9). The occasion for a distinction between
Rev. viii. 9). The animal nephesh is identical with soul and spirit lies in the religious consciousness of
" "
the animal body. Spirit indicates that the crea- the difference between the actual man and his di-
ture originates in and is bound to God (Ps. civ. 29; vine destination (cf Plato's distinction between a
.

Job. xxxiv. 14 sqq.; Ezek. xxxvii. 5, 9, 10; Rev. rational and an irrational, a mortal and an immor-
xi. 1 1) .The Old but not the New Testament speaks tal division (E. Zeller, Plato and the Older Academy,
of the nephesh of God (Lev. xxvi. 11; Judges x. 16; pp. 413 sqq., London, 1888). To understand this
Isa. xlii. 1). Soul and spirit are sometimes used one has but to see the meaning of the spirit for man,
synonymously (cf. Gen. xlv. 27 with Ps. cxix. 175; and the relation of the human spirit to the Spirit of
I Sam. xxx. 12 with I Kings xvii. 21, 22; Ps. cxlvi. God. The Spirit of God is indeed wherever life is,
4 with Gen. xxxv. 18). The Septuagint never trans- but man possesses this in a unique degree (Gen. i.
lates nephesh by pneuma, ruah very rarely by psyche 26-27, ii. 19-20; cf. Eccles. iii. 19-21), since he
(cf. Gen. xii. 8; Ex. xxxv. 21). Sdma and pneuma alone is conscious of dependence upon God. And
(cf I Cor* vii. 34) are opposed to each other as are
. it is the Spirit of God in himthe principle of his
sarx and pneuma; not sarx but s&ma is opposed to true life which gives him his special relation to
psyche, hence sarx and pneuma, soma and psyche other creatures and to God and provides the foun-
are the proper opposites; pneuma and psyche are dation for his consciousness and will.
interrelated as are sarx and s&ma. Soul and spirit Here then arises the question whether the Spirit
1* RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA and Spirit

ofGod is an immanence of God (cf. John xiv. 23; imperishable because divine power of life. The con-
Rom. viii. 9 sqq.; J. C. K. Hofmann, Weissagung nection of the human spirit, which is thus the ground
und Erfullung, i. 17 sqq., Nttrdlingen, 1841), or a of the human soul, with the Spirit of God is one of
created spirit (cf. Job xxxii. 8, xxxiii. essential fellowship of spirit with spirit. The dis-
3. Pauline 4). According to the New Testament, tinction between soul and spirit is the peculiar char-
Doctrine, the Holy Spirit which dwells in be- acteristic of the Biblical idea of the nature of man.
lievers is always distinguished from the The Scriptures do indeed contain trichotomy (not
spirit of the believer (cf. Rom. viii. 16). Two views that of Plato, however), resting on the experience
of the Pauline psychology are: (1) That Paul knows of sin and salvation (I Thess. v. 23; Heb. iv. 12),
no pneuma of the natural man (Holsten, Weiss, but this does not exclude a decisive dichotomy, as
Holtzmann) ; (2) that he knows such a pneuma, but I Pet. ii. 11 where the soul or spirit is regarded sim-
not as divine or related to God (Ludermann, Pflei- ply with reference to its spiritual destination as the
derer). The Scriptures, however, leave the question bearer of the divine principle of life (cf. Phil. i. 27).
of the relation of the human spirit to the Spirit of On the basis of the foregoing discussion one finds
God unanswered. Holsten's view rests on a dual- a solution of various debated questions. First, as
istic conception of the opposition of the flesh and to creationism and traducianism. If the soul bears
spirit (see FLESH), as the opposition of the finite the spirit, not as an indwelling of the
and infinite, where spirit is identical with the in- 5. Origin Spirit of God, but as spirit of God's
finite. But the Pauline doctrine of pneuma is that of Soul Spirit, and is so connected with cor-
of a divine principle of life, related to the human and Spirit poreality that this can only become
spirit. LUdennann and Pfleiderer abandon Hol- the body of the soul, then the trans-
sten's position and recognize a Pauline pneuma tou mission of the bodily life is at the same time the
anthrdpoUy but their theory is neither clearer nor transmission of the soul, and with the soul the spirit.
more acceptable. Ludermann conceives of the Life is from life, soul from soul. There is thus no
pneuma as a substantial subject for the nous, not room for a creative act in which spirit originates
to be interchanged with the psyche; no substance (cf. Ps. cxxxix. 13, 7; Isa. Ivii. 16; Zech. xii. 1;
however, supposable which is not identical with
is, Job xxxiii. 4), all life is from the Spirit of God (Ps.
some human power. Pfleiderer admits that Paul civ. 30; Acts xvii. 28). Traducianism and not gen-
knows of a pneuma alongside of the sarx (Paulinis- erationism is right. The preference of Scholasticism
mus, 3d ed., p. 215). He appears to regard the and Roman Catholic theology for creationism de-
pneuma as the general divine spirit of life the Old pends on their theory of sin, especially original sin
Testament nephesh, identical with the psyche. But and sensuousness; on the other hand, Lutheranism,
when he conceives it as the indifferent substratum on account of its deeper knowledge of sin, especially
both of the nous and of the sarx, without relation to of original sin, declared for traducianism. Although
God, he is at odds with the apostle. According to this view is without explicit Scriptural proof, yet it
Weiss, God recognizes no pneuma which belongs to is recommended by the doctrine of the world, by the
man by nature, for he always thinks of the psychs relation of God to the world and to creative po-
as in immediate unity with the sarx, hence the psyche tencies, as well as by the conception of soul and
can not be the bearer of a bodily life independent of spirit (cf F. H. R. Frank, System der christlichen
.

the higher spiritual life. H. J. Holtzmann (Lekr- Wahrheit, i. 382 sqq., Erlangen, 1878).
buch der neutestmaentlichen Theologie, ii. 15 sqq., The task of man lies in willing and determining
Leipsic, 1897) maintains that according to Paul his soul in accordance with the inner divine prin-
there is no natural pneuma in man; if Paul appears ciple of life. He has, however, through sin turned
to teach the contrary, this is due to use of popular from his spiritual divine destination,
instead of exact language. It may, however, be de- 6. Conse- so that now his own will strives against
dared that Paul knew of a pneuma tou anthrdpou, quences the impulse of the spirit, and the latter
that the pneuma hagion never takes the place of our of Sin. makes itself felt only in the conscience.
spirit, or fills in a cleft caused by sin. The psychi- The divine nature appears only as a
fcoa of Jude 10 is not hi contradiction to the human demand, a law awaking the consciousness to the
n, but to the Holy Spirit of redemption (cf . sense of its inner discord (cf. Rom. ii. 15) between
viii. 9, 11, 14, 16; I Cor. ii. 3-4). Regenera- the divine principle of life and the nous tea sarkos
" "
tion, due to the outpouring of the Spirit (Isa. (see FLESH). The side of man's nature turned from
xliv. 3-4; Joel ii. 28-29; John iii. 5-6; Titus iii. God and to the world apart from God gets the upper
6), is the self-appropriation of God's grace through hand and he becomes flesh sarkikos and sarkinos,
the Holy Spirit in relation to our spirits. Moreover, i.e., kola sorfca, and sarx. Thus the soul, in spite of
the Spirit assures our spirit that we are children of its immanent spirit, becomes sinful, and the entire
God. life of the spirit suffers. Hence the divided ego,
The man is God's Spirit spirit of God's
spirit of pictured by the apostle in Rom. vii., the half-
Spirit only so far as it is of like nature with this; hearted man, constantly wavering between God and
" out
it is not then strictly created himself, is a divided soul (Jas. i. 8, iv. 8; cf. Matt,
4. Spirit, of nothing," nor an emanation, nor an xx vi. 41). So far as the divine principle of life is
Divine and indusa in corpore Spiritus divini, ut not renewed by the Holy Spirit, the sinner is psy-
Human, ita dicam, particula (Oehler), yet chikos in opposition to pneumatikos. As a conse-
this last is nearest the truth. The quence of sin he no longer controls his life, but has
Spirit of God entering the human* organism begets become a victim of phthora, i.e., of death as the op-
the soul which therefore bears and propagates the position of eternal life. In the loss of his corporeal-
 THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG 14

ity his soul suffers; but since it bears the Spirit of oloffyof the N. T., 2 vols., ib. 1806; O. Pfleiderer, Pau/tntt-
God, it can not die; in this connection of death and mu0, pp. 60 sqq., Leipsio, 1800, Eng. transl., London, 1807;
T. Simon, Die Ptychologie de* Apottela Paulw, Gfittingen,
immortality lies the sharpest conceivable torment 1807; F. E. Brightman, in JTS, ii (1000), 273 sqq.; W. H.
(see HADES; IMMORTALITY). Had the natural and Schoemaker, in JBL, autiii (1804), 13 sqq.; E. W. Win-
just consequences of sin followed directly upon the Stanley, Spirit in the New Testament, London, 1008; P.
first sin, history would have ended where it began
Torge, Seelenglaube und UnstcrblichkeiUhoffnuno im AUen
Testament, Leipsic. 1000; DB, ii. 14-15, iv. 163-160; SB,
and the creative thought of God would have been ii. 1534-36, iv. 4751-54; DCG, ii. 668-670, 671-673.

annulled. But now the redemptive purpose has For the archeology and symbolism of the subject in
become the principle of conservation, and the pa- early art the reader should consult F. Cabrol, Dictionnaire
d'arcMobffie chretienne et de liturgie, i. 1470 sqq. (fasc. v.),
tience of God has postponed the judgment and the
Paris, 1004 (exceedingly rich, and with a wealth of
end, in order that man may once more by trustful literature).

acceptance of the promise share a renewing of his

John vii. 39; Acts
SOULE, sal, JOSHUA: Methodist Episcopal
spirit (Jer. xxxi. 31 sqq.; i. 4-6;
South; b. at Bristol, Me., Aug. 1, 1781; d. at Nash-
Rom. viii. 4). Yet the changed condition of his
He was converted 1797,
ville, Term., Mar. 6, 1867.
lifecaused by sin has not ceased. A constitution is licensed to preach 1798, and admitted into the New
transmitted which renders sin a natural necessity
England Conference, 1799; was presiding elder,
without its ceasing to be sin and subjecting to those with the exception of one year, 1804-16, when he
conditions which are involved in a wrong relation
was appointed book-agent in New York. He was
to God and our divine destination. Psychikos des- the author of the plan for a delegated general con-
ignates man not simply as sarkikos or harmatdlos ference of the church, which was accepted at Bal-
as interchangeable with these (cf. I Cor. iii. 1), but
timore in 1808; and was editor of the Methodist
according to his natural condition and because he He New York
Magazine, 1816-19. preached in
is at present sarkinos and hamartdlos, he does not
1820-22, and in Baltimore, 1822-24; was elected
share the divine principle of life.
bishop, 1824; and at the division of the church in
The true knowledge of the relation of the soul and
1844, he adhered to the Methodist Episcopal Church
the spirit is of great significance in relation to the
South, and thereupon moved to Nashville, Tenn.
person of Christ. The preexistence and incarna- He was a presiding officer of great executive ability,
tion of Christ do not imply the union of two per-
and in the graver and more important councils of
sons in him, but the*subject of the
the church had no superior for discreet judgment,
7. Bearing incarnation is identical with the man and prudence in counsel. As a preacher he was slow
on Person- Jesus, and accordingly the spirit of the and deliberate, but always sound in doctrine, strong
ality of Son of God is the personal principle in in argument, and vigorous in style. He was a man
Jesus. him. But this does not justify Apol- of remarkable strength, both of character and of
linaris' conception of a divine principle
intellect.
of life, with body and soul as the human aspect of BIBLIOGRAPHY: The subject is treated in the works on the
Christ, resting on the distinction between spirit, Methodist Episcopal Church North and South under
soul, and body. On the contrary, the Spirit of God, METHODISTS, such as those of A. Stevens, C Elliott, N.
as this belonged to the eternal Son, was the prin- Bangs, G. Alexander, and J. M. Buckley (for bibliograph-
ical data see vii. 356 of this work).
ciple of growth of the God-man in the womb of the
Virgin; the child of the mother along with his life SOULS, SLEEP OF. See INTERMEDIATE STATE.
from her received his human soul. The soul is the
SOUTER, sau'ter, ALEXANDER: Scotch-English
bearer of the spirit, hence Jesus is man according to
Presbyterian layman; b. at Perth, Scotland, Aug.
spirit, soul,and body human spirit, human soul, He was educated at the University of
14, 1873.
and human body, and yet divine-human; in the Aberdeen (M.A., 1893) and Gonville and Caius Col-
soul of Christ God's Spirit and man's spirit are so From 1897 to 1903
lege, Cambridge (B.A., 1896).
united that there is no duality of personal life. There he was assistant in humanity and lecturer in Latin
would be no person of Christ without the incarna- and in classical paleography in the University of
tion. He who is eternal God has in spirit, soul, and
Aberdeen, and since 1903 has been Yates professor
body become perfectly member of our race. But one of New-Testament Greek and exegesis in Mansfield
must hold that this fact is not dependent on our
College, Oxford. He was an examiner in the Uni-
capacity to think it, and the limits of its conceiva- versity of London in 1906 and in the University of
bittty arenot the limits of its truth, or of the neces- Aberdeen in 1906-10, and a representative of the
sary expressions of faith. See HEART, BIBLICAL Joint Board of the Scottish Universities for 1906-
USAGE. C. A. BECKWTTH.
1907. He has edited R. Ogilvie's Horce Latince (Lon-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Delitnoh, Biblical Psychology, Edin-
don, 1901) and the twenty-eighth book of Livy (in
burgh, 1867; J. T. Beck, Outline* of Biblical Psychology,
ib. 1877; H. H. Wendt, Die Beyriffs Fleitch und Geiit im collaboration with G. Middleton; Edinburgh, 1902),
bibli^chen Sprachyebrawsh. Gotha, 1878; C. I. Ives, The and has written De codicibus manuscriptM Augun-
Bible Doctrine of the Soul, Philadelphia, 1878; White,
Life in Chriet, London, 1878; C. M. Mead, The Soul Here
.
tiniqua feruntur Qu&stionum Veteris et Norn Testa-
and Hereafter, Boston, 1879; J. B. Heard, Tripartite Na- menti (Vienna, 1905) and A Study of Ambrosiaster
ture of Man, Edinburgh, 1882; B. Wete, Biblical Theol- (Cambridge, 1905).
ogy of the N. 7., 2 vola., ib. 1882; W. P. Dioloon, St. Pavfe
Uee of the Term* Fleth and Spirit. Glasgow, 1883; G. F. SOUTH SB A ISLANDS, MISSIONS IN THE: Un-
Oehter, Theology of the O. 7 ., New York, 1883; A. West- der this term are included the various groups of
1

.phal, Chair et eeprit, Toulouse. 1885; E. W6raer, Biblieche islands lying between the continent of America
Anthropology pp. 77 sqq., Stuttgart, 1887; H. Sohulta,
Theology of the O. T., London. 1802; J. Laidlaw, Bible
on the east and 'Australia, the East Indies, and
Doctrine of Man, Edinburgh, 180ft; W. Beywhlag, the Philippine* on the west, and south of 20
16 BELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Soul and Spirit
South Sea Iilaadc

north latitude t with the exception of Fiji and the the Rev. Hiram Bingham (q.v.) of the American
Hawaiian Islands! to which separate articles are Board arrived, and work was soon begun in the
devoted. Marshall and Gilbert Islands (see below). In 1865
Austral or Tubuai Islands: A small group ex- the mission was extended to the Truk Archipelago.
tending from about 149 to 151 50' west longitude The Protestant missionaries were expelled by the
in about 22 south latitude, under French control, Spanish government in 1887, but returned in 1900,
with a steadily decreasing population (1,400 in 1880, and before long there were 135 native workers, 57
1,000 in 1900). The principal islands are Rurutu, outstations, 99 schools, 2 printing-houses, 2 dis-
Tubuai, and Rapa Iti. A terrible epidemic having pensaries and 5,500 communicants. The American
appeared in Rurutu in 1821, two of the chiefs re- Board is handing over its work in the Caroline
solved to sail to a happier land. One of them, Auura, Islands to the Liebenzeller Mission, and has now
after long exposure reached the Society Islands and only five missionaries in these islands. The Roman
eventually landed at Raiatea, where he met the Catholic mission was established in 1887, and now
Rev. John Williams (q.v.) of the London Mission- has 1,880 adherents, 12 priests, 12 lay brothers, 6
ary Society. In three months he and his companions sisters, 18 head- and sub-stations, 7 schools, and 200
had learned to read and went back to Rurutu scholars.
accompanied by some Christians from Raiatea. Cook or Hervey Islands: These islands, belonging
These were the first of a large company of South Sea to Great Britain, lie between 157 and 170 west
Islanders who have been foreign missionaries. The longitude and about 20 south latitude. The prin-
idols were soon given up, and Christianity was firmly cipal islands are Rarotonga, Mangaia, Aitutaki, and
established. John Williams visited some of the Atiu (Vatiu). The group was annexed to New
islands in 1823. In 1887 two of the members of Zealand in 1901. In 1821 Papeiha and Vahopa-
the native church in Rurutu volunteered for mis- ta, Christians connected with the London Mis-
sion work in New Guinea. As the islands passed to sionary Society from Raiatea in the Society Islands,
French rule the Paris Missionary Society took over landed in Aitutaki where Christianity was soon ac-
the work in 1890, and now has 8 stations, 10 native cepted. Papeiha passed on to Mangaia, but it was
pastors, 477 church-members, and 624 scholars. not till 1825 that the mission was established there.
Bismarck Archipelago : A large group lying north Papeiha was also the apostle of Rarotonga, which
of eastern New Guinea, in 145~155 east longitude, was discovered by the Rev. John Williams in 1821,
and about 6 south latitude, part of which was for- who frequently visited the island between 1823 and
merly known as the New Britain Archipelago, since 1834. When he landed the people were ignorant of
1884 under the German flag. The native population Christian worship, when he left he did not know of a
(1906) is about 188,000 with 299 non-native colored, house in the island where family prayer was not
and 463 whites. The principal islands are Neu Pom- offered morning and evening. Over 500 men and
mcrn, Neu Mecklenburg, Neu Lauenburg, Neu Han- women have passed through the Training Institu-
nover, Admiralty, Anchorite, Commerson, and tion begun in 1839, many of whom have gone to
Hermit. The Methodist Missionary Society of evangelize other islands. The London Missionary
Australasia under Rev. George Brown, with teachers Society now has 3 missionaries, 21 ordained natives,
from Fiji and Samoa, began work in 1875 in New 23 day schools with 1,283 scholars and 22 Sunday-
Britain and New Ireland now Neu Pommern and schools with 1,152 scholars, and 4,885 adherents.
Neu Mecklenburg. It has 186 churches, 18 preaching- The Roman Catholics arrived in 1894, and now
stations, 8 missionaries, 5 missionary sisters, 7 have 6 priests and six sisters and about 100 converts.
native ministers, 13 catechists, 168 native teachers, The Seventh Day Adventists began work in 1890,
249 class leaders, 4,608 church-members, one col- and have one missionary and 50 adherents.
lege, named after Rev. George Brown, 6 training- EUicc Islands: These islands, under British con-
institutions with 169 students, 189 Sunday-schools trol, are situated 176-180 east longitude and 5
with 5,481 scholars, 196 day schools with 5,463 to 11 south latitude. The area is about fifteen
scholars, and 21,017 hearers. In Neu Pommern square miles, and the population about 2,400. The
the Roman Catholics number 15,045, with 24 principal islands are Sophia, Ellice, Nukufetan, and
mission priests, 37 lay brothers, 28 sisters, 82 native Vaitupu. In 1861 Elikana and other Christians
catechists, 75 head- and sub-stations, 85 schools, from Manihiki hi the Penrhyn Group were carried
4,123 scholars, and 479 children in 13 orphan by stress of weather some 1,200 miles to Nakulflelae
asylums. in the Ellice Islands. Elikana, who was a deacon,
Caroline Islands: Lying north of the Bismarck began preaching Christianity. Rev. Archibald
Archipelago, these islands cover about 140-163 Wright Murray, of the London Missionary Society,
east longitude, in north latitude 5-10. Since 1899 from Samoa visited the islands and settled Samoan
they have been in possession of Germany by pur- teachers there in 1865. Some years previously a
chase from Spain. The native population is about knowledge of the true God had been brought by a
55,000, with about 140 whites. The Spanish dis- man named Stuart, who was the master of a trading-
coveries hi these seas in 1686 were followed by a vessel from Sydney. The group is now worked with
aeries of religious expeditions. The American the Tokelau Islands as part of the Samoan mission.
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions In the two groups there are 13 ordained natives,
began work on Kusaie and Ponape under Revs. B. 1,488 church-members, 2411 adherents, 13 day
Q. Snow and Luther Halsey Gulick (q.v.) in 1852, schools with 1,426 scholars, and 13 Sunday-schools
and with valuable help from the Hawaiian Evan- with 1,543 scholars.
gelical Association the work prospered. In 1857 Gilbert Islands: These islands, belonging to Great
South * bland* THE NEW 6CHAFF-HERZOG 16

Britain and consisting of atolls, lie on both sides of adherents and 6 priests. The American Board of
the equator between 172 and ITT east longitude. Commissioners for Foreign Missions opened a sta-
They have an area of 166 square miles and a popu- tion in Guam in 1900, and is represented by one
lation of about 30,000 natives and 100 whites. The married missionary and 50 church-members.
principal islands are Tarawa, Apamana, Aranaka, Marquesas Islands: 'These islands, under the
Tamana, Marakei, and Nonouti. After a brief French flag, are closely grouped on both sides of 140
visit in 1855 the American Board of Commissioners west longitude and in 9-ll south latitude. They
for Foreign Missions began work in 1857 under the have an area of about 480 square miles and a popu-
Rev. Hiram Bingham, with the help of Hawaiian lation of about 4,000. The largest islands are Nuka-
1

teachers, and he after seven years labor retired be- hiva and Hivaoa. In 1797 William Pascoe Crook
cause of ill-health to Honolulu, where he devoted of the London Missionary Society landed from the
" Duff " and
himself to literary labor for the Gilbert Islanders, ship stayed two years. Other abor-
and took charge of a Gilbert Island colony. The tive attempts were made by the same society in
American Board now works in the nine northern 1826, 1829, and 1834, and by the American Board of
islands, two southern islands, and Ocean Island. Commissioners for Foreign Missions in 1833. In
There are training-institutions at Kusaie in the 1853 a Marquesan chief whose daughter had mar-
Carolines, and in Ocean Island. Three mission- ried a Hawaiian asked for missionaries from Hawaii,
aries work for the group, and much progress is and in response Kanwealoha and others went.
made. The London Missionary Society began work There are now 600 Christians under tne care of
in 1870 and
for thirty years the islands were served Hawaiian teachers. The Paris Missionary Society has
by native teachers from Samoa. In 1000 a resident 5 stations, one missionary, and 2 native pastors. The
missionary was placed in the island of Bern. The Roman Catholics number 2,800 with 8 priests, 7 lay
London Missionary Society now has 2 missionaries brothers, 12 sisters, and 29 head- and sub-stations.
with 5 stations in the Southern Islands, 13 ordained Marshall Islands: This group, belonging to Ger-
natives, 19 preachers, 576 church-members, 5,281 many and situated northeast of the Carolines (ut
adherents, 28 Sunday-schools with 1,568 scholars, sup.) in about 161-171 east longitude and 4-13
29 day schools with 1,462 scholars, and a training- north latitude, has an area of about 1,400 square
institution. The Roman Catholics started work in miles and an estimated population of about 10,000.
1892, and there are 12,965 Roman Catholics, 1,800 The principal islands are Majeru, Jaluit, Mulgrave,
catechumens, 19 priests, 13 lay brothers, 20 sisters, Ralick, and Mentschikoff. The American Board of
87 catechists, 15 head- and sub-stations, 98 schools, Commissioners for Foreign Missions paid these
and 3,310 scholars. islands a brief visit in 1855, and opened a mission
Loyalty Islands: This French group, consisting of in 1857 under Dr. G. Pierson and Rev. E. T. Douane
the three large islands of Uvea, Lifu, and Mar4, and with the help of Hawaiian native teachers. In 1880
a number of very small ones, lies in 166-168 east the headquarters were removed to Kusaie in the
longitude and about 20-22 south latitude. They Caroline Islands, and a training-college was opened
have an area of about 800 square miles and a popu- there. Some Gilbert Islanders trained at Kusaie
lation of over 15,000. The Rev. Archibald Wright opened work in Nauru or Pleasant Island, where the
Murray of the London Missionary Society, from Pacific Phosphate Co. employs about 1,500 Marshall
Samoa, visited Mare* in 1841, and found that a and other islanders. In 1899 a resident missionary
Christian from Tonga had been working there for was placed there, and substantial progress ensued.
seven years. Two teachers from Samoa were settled The American Board has now 4 missionaries for the
1

in Mare and the work prospered. In 1854 two group, two residing at Kusaie, 20 churches, 83 places
missionaries began their residence there. In 1841 of worship, 3,371 church-members, 4,163 Christian
Pao from Rarotonga began his apostolic service. Endeavorers, 87 schools, and 1,417 scholars. The
The Rev. Samuel Macfarlane arrived in 1859. Two Roman Catholic mission has 7 priests, 8 lay brothers,
years later a training-institution was started. Na- 15 4 head- and sub-stations, 6 schools, 170
sisters,
tive Christians from Mare* carried the Gospel to scholars, 323 Roman Catholics, and 523 catechumens.
Uvea in 1856. The London Missionary Society has Hew Caledonia: This island is united under
now one missionary in Lifu, and in Lifu and Uvea French control with the Loyalty Islands (ut sup.)
there are 37 ordained natives, 101 preachers, 37 and the Isle of Pines. It is a long, narrow island
Sunday-schools with 2,243 scholars, 2,348 church- lying northwest and southeast in 164-166 east
members, and 6,173 adherents. The Paris Mis- longitude and 20-23 south latitude. Its area is
sionary Society has one missionary in Mare*. The 7,650 square miles, and the native population of the
Roman Catholics came in 1864, but were not firmly group is about 28,000; the white and other popula-
established till 1875. tion, including convicts, numbers about 26,000. The
Marianne or Ladrone Islands: The Ladrone group, London Missionary Society settled native teachers
bought from Spain by Germany hi 1899 (with the from Samoa in the Isle of Pines and New Caledonia
exception of Guam, which is held by the United in 1840. Four years later three of them were mur-
States), consists of about twenty islands in 142* dered in the Isle of Pines, and the rest were removed
148 east longitude and 13-21 north latitude, with in 1845. The French, who took possession hi 1853,
a population of about 2,700 natives. Guam has an would not allow the mission to be recommenced in
area of about 200 square miles and a population of 1861 and subsequently, but some native evangelists
11,490, of whom 331 are foreigners. The Jesuits from Uvea in the Loyalty Islands have worked
settledIn tbese islands in 1667. In 1907 the mission then occasionally. New Caledonia is now a French
became an apg^Jte prefecture, and now has 12,216 penal colony, with over 7,000 oonvfots. The Roman
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA South Be* Island*

Catholics began work in 1847, and have a bishop, catechists, 29 stations, 28 schools, and 1,596 scholars.
49 priests, 33 lay brothers, 109 sisters, 32 head- and German New Guinea (Kaiser Wilhelm's Land):
sub-stations, 59 churches, 45 schools, 1,933 scholars, The northeastern section of New Guinea, together
and 32,500 adherents. The Paris Missionary So- with some adjacent islands, has been in German
ciety maintains two
missionaries. possession since 1884. The area is estimated at
Dutch New Guinea: The part of the island of 70,000 square miles, and the native population at
New Guinea (lying north of Australia) belonging to 110,000, with 184 whites and 207 others (mostly
Holland extends from the western coast to 171 Chinese). The Neuendettelsau Mission began work
east longitude; the area is 151,789 square miles, and in 1886. It has 13 stations, 45 churches, 2,180
the population is estimated to be 200,000. The first church-members, 1,414 communicants, 1,359 cate-
missionaries to New Guinea were C. W. Ottow chumens, 3,395 adherents, 35 missionaries and
and J. G. Geissler who were sent to Dutch New assistants, 18 native preachers, and 25 schools. The
Guinea by Pastor Gossner of Berlin in 1855. The Rhenish Missionary Society began work in 1887.
Utrecht Missionary Society, which sent mission- It has 4 stations, 12 missionaries, 3 native teachers,
aries thither in 1862,has now 4 missionaries, 1,200 94 baptized natives, 75 communicants, and 7
Christians, 3,000 attendants at worship, 30 native schools with 296 scholars. The Roman Catholics
helpers, and many schools.
There are 1,200 Roman number 1,000 with 24 priests, 20 assistants, 29
Catholics, 210 catechumens, 7 priests, 8 lay brothers, sisters, 10 stations, and 10 schools with 495 scholars.
5 sisters, 4 stations, 13 schools, and 404 scholars. New Hebrides: A group of islands in 166'-
British New Guinea or Papua: To the British 171 east longitude and 15-21 south latitude, under
belong, under the name of the Territory of Papua the joint supervision and protectorate of France and
(since 1906), the southeastern, part of New Guinea Great Britain. The population is estimated at
from 171 east longitude eastwards and the islands 80,000. The principal islands are Espiritu Santo,
between 141 and 155 east longitude and 8 and Mallicolo, Aurora, Pentecost, Tanna, Sandwich, and
12 south latitude. The area is about 90,540 square Efate or Vatc. The mission history of the New
miles, with a population estimated at half a million Hebrides falls into three periods: (1) From 1839
natives with about 1,200 others. The London to 1848, when it was under the care of the London
Missionary Society began work in 1871 under the Missionary Society. (2) From 1848 to 1864, when
Revs. Archibald Wright Murray and Samuel Mc- the Presbyterian missionaries from Nova Scotia
Farlane, with teachers from Mare* and Lifu. They and Scotland had charge, assisted by the Marine
settled at first in the Torres Straits Islands and Service of the London Missionary Society. (3)
established a training-institution in Murray Island; From 1864 onward, when the Presbyterian churches
in 1872 some teachers were settled on the mainland. of Australasia undertook the responsible control.
The Rev. William George Lawes, from Nive, arrived The Rev. John Williams (q.v.) of the London
1874, and the Rev. James Chalmers from Raro tonga Missionary Society left Samoa in 1839 with a party
in 1877. Chalmers, with Rev. Oliver Tomkins, was* of Samoan teachers for the New Hebrides. He
killedand eaten by cannibals at Goaribari in 1901, placed three of them at Tanna and proceeded to
Native teachers from the South Seas have rendered Erromanga, where with James Harris, who was on a
conspicuous service, especially Tepeso of Mare", in visit from Sydney, he was murdered and eaten by
the Loyalty Islands, and Ruatoka of Mangaia, in cannibals. Visits to various islands in the group
the Cook Islands. The training-institution is now were soon afterward paid by the Revs. Thomas
at Vatorata. There are now 15 head stations, 188 Heath and Archibald Wright Murray from the
out-stations and schools, 38 Sunday-schools with same mission, and teachers were settled. In
1,900 scholars, 15 missionaries, 2,514 church-mem- 1842 the Rev. George Turner and Henry Ncsbit
bers hi New Guinea and the Torres Straits Islands, of the same mission made a few months' stay in
188 South Sea and Papuan native teachers, and Tanna, but had to withdraw through the hostility of
14,000 adherents. The society's sphere extends over the natives. Three years later native teachers
1,000 miles of coast line from the Dutch frontier to from Samoa and Rarotonga were settled in Tanna.
Milne Bay. The Methodist Missionary Society In the early days of the New Hebrides Mission,
of Australasia began work in 1891 under the Rev. Christian teachers from other islands did splendid
George Brown, with South Sea teachers. Its sphere service, of whom at least 100 came from the London
is from Milne Bay to Cape Vogel. It has 62 churches, Missionary Society's training-institutions. During
209 other preaching-places, 10 missionaries, 120 the second period, native agents from the same
native teachers, 127 class leaders, 1,497 church- institutions were placed at nine or ten of the islands.
members, 2,150 catechumens, 4 training-institu- In 1848 the Rev. John Geddie was sent out by
tions, 83 Sunday-schools with 4,166 scholars, 77 the Presbyterians of Nova Scotia and settled in
day schools with 3,995 scholars, and 22,065 at- Aneiteum. Four years later he was joined there
tendants at worship. The Anglican Mission con- by the Rev. John Inglis of the Reformed Presby-
nected with the Australian Board of Missions, whose terian Church of Scotland. Geddie retired hi 1872.
sphere is from Cape Vogel to Mitre Rock, began The following memorial is put up in his memory:
"
work hi 1891 under the Rev. A. A. Maclaren. It When he landed here hi 1848 there were no Chris-
now has a bishop, 8 clergy, 5 laymen, 10 ladies, 30 tians, when he left in 1872 there were no heathen."
South Sea teachers, 16 Papuan teachers and evan- In 1854 another futile attempt was made on Tanna,
gelists, 540 members, 432 catechumens. The Roman but in 1858 Rev. John G. Paton (q.v.) with two
Catholics, with headquarters at Yule Island, number other missionaries from Scotland settled there.
4,597, with 25 priests, 20 lay brothers, 37 sisters, 15 Now after more than sixty years' toil there are three
XL 2
South Sea Island* THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG IS

well-established mission stations in Tanna with church-members, 232 Sunday-schools with 9,263
scores of out-stations and some thousands of con- scholars, 211 day schools with 7,975 scholars, and
verts. Paton spent afterwards fifteen years at 24,912 adherents. The Wesleyan Missionary Society
Aniwa. In 1857 the Rev. George N. Gordon, a began work in 1835, and that mission is now under
Presbyterian from Nova Scotia, settled on Erro- the charge of the Methodist Missionary Society of
manga. Three years later he was killed there with Australasia. It has 47 churches, 29 preaching-
his wife, and some twelve years later his brother, stations, 3 missionaries, 5 native ministers, 35
James D. Gordon, was also murdered there. In catechists, '96 teachers, 487 class leaders, 255 local
1864 the Australian Presbyterians took the respon- preachers, 76 Sunday-schools with 1,783 scholars,
sible control of this mission, now called the New and about the same number of day schools and
Hebrides Mission. It works in the southern islands scholars, 2,683 church-members, and 6,778 attend-
of the group, and is supported by the Presbyterian ants at public worship. The Roman Catholics be-
Church in Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and gan work in 1845, and have a bishop, 22 priests, 12
Scotland, with the help of the special John G. lay brothers, 13 sisters, 15 stations, 25 schools, and
Paton Mission Fund. It has now 27 missionaries, 6,315 adherents. The Mormon Mission has 17
5 hospitals, 300 native teachers, 20,000 professing elders and 303 adherents. The Seventh Day Ad-
Christians, and 20,000 other adherents. The work ventists arrived in 1890, and have 2 missionaries,
in the northern Hebrides is carried on by the Melane- 10 adherents, and one school.
sian Mission. When George Augustus Selwyn (q.v.) Santa Cruz: This group, under British control,
was consecrated bishop of New Zealand in 1841, it lies north of the New Hebrides between 165 and
was suggested that he should carry on a mission 170 east longitude and 8-12 south latitude; is
among the Melanesian Islands. From 1847 to 1849 sometimes reckoned with the New Hebrides. The
he made many missionary voyages among these largest islands are Santa Cruz, Tupua, and Vani-
islands. In 1850 that part of the island world was koro. Alvaro de Mendana of Peru made a disastrous
adopted at a meeting of bishops of Australasia as attempt in 1567 to found a colony in the island
their special sphere under the Australian Board of which he named Santa Cruz. After his death his
Missions. The Rev. John Coleridge Patteson (q.v.) widow returned home with the colonists. In 1850
joined the mission in 1855 and was consecrated the Rev. John Coleridge Patteson (q.v ) visited the
bishop of Melanesia in 1861; he made many mis- island, but did not land till 1862. Two years later
sionary voyages and established teachers in many is- he spent two days in the island, but the mission
lands. He was murdered in 1871 at Nakupu in the boat was attacked by the natives and two Norfolk
Solomon Islands (see below). The work was ef- Islanders named Edwin Nobbs and Fisher Young
fectively carried on by Rev. H. Codrington and lost their lives. In the next year or two Patteson
George Sarawia, the native deacon. In 1877 Rev. paid more visits, but was not able to make much
John Richard Selwyn was made bishop and carried advance. In 1871 he attempted to land at Nukapu,
on the work successfully. The headquarters are now one of the islands in the group, and entered a native
in Norfolk Island. The language of Mota in the canoe and went ashore. He was soon killed.
Banks Islands has been made the lingua franca of Joseph Atkin and Stephen, a native of Bauro, died
the mission, and every scholar is trained in it at from wounds they had received. Bishop John
Norfolk Island also, and teaches it on his return Richard Selwyn visited Santa Cruz three years
home. The work is carried on in three of the north later, and had some of the natives educated at
islands of the New Hebrides, and also in the Banks Norfolk Island, the headquarters of the Melanesian
Islands and Torres Islands, with 9 clergy, 344 Mission. The work is now well established through-
teachers, 1,181 communicants, and 2,202 hearers. out the islands of the group under that mission,
It has a hospital and training-school in Norfolk with 22 native teachers, 11 schools, 77 baptized,
Island, with central schools in several of the groups. 16 communicants, 4 catechumens, and 221 hearers.
Samoa: The Samoan group, extending over ap- The Society Islands or Tahiti Archipelago: This
proximately 167-174 west longitude and 13-16 group, under French rule, extends over 148-155
south latitude, is (since 1900) partitioned between west longitude and 15-18 south latitude. It is
the United States and Germany, the latter possess- sometimes made to include the Austral Isles (sec
ing all west of longitude 171. The largest islands above). The
principal island is Tahiti, with an area
under German rule are Upolu, Manono, Apolinia, of 600 square miles, while Moorea has an area of
and Savaii; and under American, Tutuila and Ma- about 50 square miles. The total population is
nila, in the former is the commodious harbor of Pago about 15,000. Missions were begun by the London
" "
Pago. The Rev. John Williams visited the islands Missionary Society, whose ship The Duff under
of this group in 1830, and found that a mission had the command of Captain James Wilson reached
been started by some Christians from the Mar- Tahiti in 1797 with 30 missionaries. Severe hard-
quesas Islands, who after drifting about for three ships were endured and the missionary band was
months had been carried to Manua. The first soon much reduced in numbers. The first Christian
resident white missionary settled in 1836, the church in the Pacific was dedicated here in 1800,
printing-press was established in 1839, the Manua and the long night of toil ended in 1811, when the
Training Institution was founded in 1844. Under conversion of King Pomare and the burning of idols
the Revs. George Turner and Charles Hardie, a hi several islands ushered in a brighter day; a
central school for girls at Papauta was opened in printing-press was established in 1817, and a Tahi-
1891. There are now 11 missionaries, 174 ordained tian Missionary Society started in the following year.
natives, 326 preachers, about 200 churches, 8,861 The Rev. John Williams arrived in 1817, and for
19 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA South Sea Iol*nd

fifteen years made Raiatea his home. A complete Methodist Missionary Society reopened the work in
Bible was published in 1839, chiefly through the 1822 under the Rev. W. M. Lawry, but he left in
labors of Rev. Henry Nott, one of the first mission- the following year so that the Wesleyan Methodist
aries, who rendered forty-eight years of valuable Mission practically dates from 1826 when the Rev.
service. In 1836 two French Roman Catholic priests John Thomas landed. In the mean time some native
who attempted to settle in Tahiti were expelled by missionaries, sent from Tahiti, in the Society Islands,
the queen, but shortly afterwards the Roman Catho- to open a station in Fiji, were detained through
lics were established in the island by the French gov- stress of weather in Tongatabu. Other workers
ernment. The Paris Missionary Society has 18 sta- were soon sent from Tahiti, and the adherence of a
tions, 5 missionaries, 1 1 European teachers, 27 native chief and 400 people was gained, and a church was
pastors, 4,615 church-members, 253 catechumens, built. After the Rev. John Thomas, who was the
1,704 scholars. There are 7,008 Roman Catholics, evangelist of Tonga, the Rev. Stephen Rabone and
23 mission priests, 10 lay brothers, 24 sisters, 80 Thomas Adams and others consolidated the work.
catechists, 85 stations, and 14 schools with 207 A most remarkable feature of the past thirty years
scholars. The Seventh Day Adventists arrived in has been the Tubou College, founded by Dr. Egan
1892, and have 7 missionaries, 73 adherents, and Moulton, where a number of young men have been
one school with 30 scholars. trained for New Guinea and other mission fields.
Niue or Savage Island: See Vol. xii., supple- The whole group has been Christianized, and Tonga
ment. has taken its place among the civilized nations.
The Solomon Islands: These islands lie in 155- In 1885 the Rev. Sidney Baker, who was afterwards
163 east longitude and 5-ll south latitude. The premier, caused a disruption by founding the Tonga
large eastern island Bougainville and some smaller Free Church, which, though not connected with any
islands and islets belong to Germany; the western conference, has remained loyal to Methodist doctrine
islands have since 1899 been in possession of Great and polity. It has 15,000 adherents. The original
Britain, and these include the important islands of Wesleyan Church claims about 5,000, and there is
Choiseul, Mahaga, Guadalcanal-, Malayta, and a prospect of reunion in the near future. The
Christoval; area 8,357 square miles, population Roman Catholics have a bishop, 22 priests,
about 150,000. The Roman Catholic missions were and 14 stations. The Seventh Day Adventiats,
begun in the South Solomon Islands by the Marist who arrived in 1890, have 4 missionaries, 12 ad-
Fathers in 1845 under Bishop Epallc, who with herents, 2 schools with 69 scholars.
three priests was killed and eaten by cannibals on ARTHUR N. JOHNSON.
Ysabel Island. In 1895 a mission was begun in the
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult the literature under the articles on
North Solomon Islands. There are now in both the workers to which reference is made in tho text, the
groups 390 Roman Catholics, a bishop, a rector, 20 Report* of the various societies operating in these islands,
priests, 12 stations, 1,180 catechumens, and 12 and the literature on the missionary societies Riven in vii.
417 of this work. Also the following selected from a
schools with 357 scholars. The congregation of
large range of books: A Missionary Voj/aae to the Southern
The Saored Heart has also 12 priests at Issoudun. Pacific Ocean, 1796-98, in the Ship
"
Duff," London, 1799;
The Melanesian Mission began work in the Solomon W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, ib. 1829; J Williams, A
Islands in 1857 under Bishop G. A. Selwyn and Rev. Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea
Islands, late eds , ib. 1866, Philadelphia, 18S9; W. Hoff-
John Coleridge Patteson. It now has stations and
mann, Sieg des Kreuze* auf Tahiti, Basel, 1844; M. Duby,
schools on most of the group, with 11 clergy, 393 Hist, de la distraction des missions evangilcs h Taiti en
teachers, 151 schools, 8,026 baptized, 1,822 com- 1844, Paris, 1845; G. A Lundie, Missutnary Life in Samoa,
1840-41* Edinburgh, 1845; H. Woginer, Geschichte der
municants, 1,163 catechumens, and 2,377 hearers. chrisUichen Kirche auf dem Geseflschafts-Archipel, Berlin,
The Methodist Missionary Society of Australasia 1845; H. Melville, Typee; or, Marquesas Island. Poly-
commenced work in 1902 under Rev. George Brown. nesian Life, New York, 1846; E. Michelis, Die Vnlker der
It now has 27 churches, 13 preaching-stations, 4 Suds.ee und die Geschichte der protestantise hen und katholi-
Bchen Missionen unter derselben, Munster, 1847; H. T.
missionaries, 2 missionary sisters, 127 class leaders, Cheever, Island World of the Pacific, New York, 1851;
68 church-members, 12 South Sea teachers, 6 Sun- W. F. Besser, Der Missiondr und sein Lohn, odcr die
day-schools with 1,050 scholars, 15 day schools Fruchte des Evangelium* in der Sud-See, Halle, 1852;
with 857 scholars, and 8,800 hearers. The South Abb4 Verguet, Hist, de la premi&re mission catholique . . .
de M&anesie, Paris, 1854; Sarah 8. Farmer, Tonga and
Sea Evangelical Mission began work in these islands the Friendly Islands; with a Sketch of th eir Mission His-
in 1904. It has on four of the islands 11 mission- tory, London, 1855; Tahiti and its Missionaries, ib. 1858;
aries, 4 stations, and 45 out-stations with native G. Cuzent, lies de la Societe. Tahiti, Paris, 1860; T. West,
Ten Years in South Central Polynesia; Reminiscences of
teachers, 1 boarding-school with 100 scholars; a Mission to the Friendly Islwis and their Dependencies,
about 430 islanders have been baptized. London, 1866; G. Pritchard, Missionary's Reward- Gos-
Tonga or Friendly Islands: The Tonga Islands He pel in the Pacific, ib. 1866; C. F. Angus, Polynesia, ib.
south of the Samoan group and east of the Fijian, 1867; S. Macfarlane, Story of the Lifu Mission, ib. 1873;
idem, Among the Cannibals of New Guinea, ib. 1888; Mrs.
in 173M77 west longitude and 15-23 30' south
H. S. Thompson, Ponape, Philadelphia, 1874; A. W.
latitude; area 390 square miles, population 22,000. Murray, Missions in Western Polynesia, London, 1862;
Since 1899 they have been under British protection. idem, Forty Years' Mission Work in Polynesia and New
Mission work was begun in 1797 by the London Guinea, ib. 1876; idem, Martyrs of Polynesia, ib 1885;
" A. Fornander, An Account of the Polynesian Race, 3 vote.,
Missionary Society, whose ship "The Duff ib. 1878-85; P. A. Lesson, Les Polyncsiens, leur oripine,
settled ten missionaries there. Three of them, lew migrations, lew langaoe, Paris, 1880; Li. Steclo, The
Daniel Bowell, Samuel Gaulton, and Samuel Harper, New Hebrides and Christian Missions, London, 1880;
Mrs. M. V. Dahlgren, South Sea Sketches, Boston, 1881;
were killed by natives and the mission was aban- R. W. Logan, The Work of God in Micronesia, 1868-83,
doned without success in 1800. The Weeleyan B>. 1884; J. Mbulu, Joel Bulu ; native Minister in the South
 ith 8k Island* TfiE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Sou, London, 1884; W. W. Offl, Jottings from the Pacific, of the bishops who had been deprived of his bisho;
ib. 1885; idem, From Darkness to Lioht in Polynesia, ib. ric during the protectorate. In 1660, the year of tl
1894; G. 8. Rowe, A Pioneer. J. Thoma*. Missionary
to the Friendly Isles, ib. 1885; A. Williamson, Missionary
restoration of the monarchy, he was elected orat
Heroee in the Pacific, Edinburgh, 1885; E. Croaby, Per-
. to the University of Oxford, and preached before tl
secution* in Tonga, 1886, London, 1886; H. Bingham,
royal commission a sermon entitled the Scribe I
Story of the Morning Star, Boston, 1886; A. Buiaoot, Mis-
strutted, which immediately placed him in the fro:
sion Life in the Pacific, London, 1886; J. Incite, In the
New Hebrides, ib. 1887; A. Penny, Ten Yeare in Melanesia, rank of English preachers. He delivered the ur
ib. 1887; J. Chalmere, Pioneer Life in New Guinea, ib. versity oration when Clarendon was installed cha
1888, new ed., 1895; idem. Work and Adventwe in New cellor of Oxford a discourse which so impress*
Guinea, ib. 1902; J. B. F. Pompallier, Early History of
the Catholic Church in Oceania, Auckland, 1888; R. H.
Clarendon that he appointed him his domestic cha
Codrington, Melanesian Studies in Anthropology and Folk- lain. This led to his installation, in 1663, as tl
lore, London, 1891; A. Monfat, Dix annees en Melanesia, prebendary of St. Peter's, Westminster. In tl
Lyon, 1891; O. Michelaen, Cannibals won for Christ, same year he took the degree of doctor in divinit
London, 1893; The New Hebrides South Sea Islands.
Quarterly Jottings of the J. G. Paton Mission Fund, Wood-
and in 1670 he was made a canon of Christ Churc
ford, 1893; G. Cousins, Story of the South Seas, London, Oxford. In 1678, he was presented to the recto:
1894; idem, From Island to Island in the South Seas, ib. of Islip in Oxfordshire, the revenue of which, son
1894; J. M. Alexander, The Islands of the Pacific, New
York, 1895; C. 8. Home, Story of the London Missionary 200, he applied, half to the payment of his curat
Society, 1796-1896, London, 1895; Fere Margaret, Mgr. and half to educating and apprenticing the poor
BataUion et lea missions de VOceanie centrale, 2 vols., Lyon, children of the parish. He soon became one of tl
1895; A. E. Keeling, What he did for Convicts and Canni- and preached a sermon befo
king's chaplains,
bals. Life and Work of S. Leigh, London, 1896; H. H.
Montgomery, The Light of Melanesia. Record of thirty
Charles II., marked by invective against Cromwe
five Years Mission Work in the South Seas, ib. 1896; A. C. and, what not very common with South, violatic
is
P. Watt, Twenty-five Years' Mission Life on Tanna, New of This recommended him to the mo
taste.
good
Hebrides, Paisley, 1896; J. King, Christianity and Poly-
arch, who suggested his appointment to the ne
nesia, Sydney, 1899; idem, W. O. Lawes of Savage Island
and Neu> Guinea, London, 1909; R. Lovett, Hist, of the vacant bishopric. But South declined all sui
London Missionary Society, 1796-1896, vol. i. ib. 1899; t offers. While he was a strenuous defender of tl
idem, Tamate: Life of James Chalmers, ib. 1902; E. Nij-
English church, he was a determined enemy of tl
land, J. Williams, de Apostel van Polynesia, Nijkerk, 1899;
E. S. Armstrong, History of the Melanesian Mission, Lon- Roman Catholics. The concealed popery of Charl
"
don, 1900; R. W. Thompson, My Trip in the John Will- and the open popery of James met with determiiu
iams'' to the South Sea Islands, ib. 1900; J. Watsford,
opposition from South. His stiff loyalty led him
Glorious Gospel Triumphs as seen in my Life and Work in
refuse to sign the invitation, drawn up by the arc
Australasia, ib. 1900; P. Delord, SocieU dee missions
evangeliques. Voyage cTenqutte en NouveUe-Caledonie, bishop of Canterbury and bishops, to the prince
Paris, 1901; F. Awdry, In the Isles of the Sea: the Story Orange to assume the throne; but subsequent!
of fifty Years in Melanesia, London, 1902; C. Lennox, when James had formally abdicated, and the crov
J. Chalmers of New Guinea, ib. 1902; H. A. Robertson,
Erromanga, the Martyr Isle, ib. 1902; F. H. L. Paton,
was settled upon William and Mary, South gave
Lomai of Lenakei: a Hero of the New Hebrides, ib. 1903; his allegiance to the new government. While ]

H. H. Montgomery, The Light of Melanesia, ib. 1904; did not seek the honors of the Establishment, 1

R. Parkinson, 80 Jahre in der Sudsee. Land und Leute, was the determined enemy of dissent, and preach
Sitten und Gebrauche im Bismarckarchipel und . . .
Salomoinaeln, Stuttgart, 1907; G. Brown, Autobiography, against it. He opposed the Act of Toleration (s
London, 1908; idem, Melanesians and Polynesians: their LIBERTY, RELIGIOUS) When an attempt was mad
.

Life Histories described and compared, London, 1910; H.

A. Krose, Katholische Miseionstatietik, Freiburg, 1908;
through a royal commission, to unite the Dissentc
H. N. Allen, The Islands of the Pacific; from the old to the with the Established Church, by modifying the 1:

new. A Collection of Sketches missionary and diplomatic, urgy, South entreated them to part with none of i

New York and Chicago, 1908; F. W. Christian, Eastern ceremonial. In 1693, due to his Animadversio
Pacific Lands; Tahiti and the Marquesas Islands, London,
1910; J. C. Lambert, Missionary Heroes in Oceania, Phila- upon Dr. Sherlock's Book, entitled: A Vindication
the Holy Trinity (London, 1693; cf., TritkeU
delphia, 1910; P. G. Peekel, Religion und Zauberei auf
. . .

dem mitUeren Neu Mecklenburg, Bismarckarchipel, Sudsee, Charged upon Dr. Sherlock's New Notion of the Tri
MOnster, 1910; C. G. Seligmann, The Melanesians of Brit- ity, 1695), he had a controversy with William She
ish New Guinea, Cambridge, 1910; W. D. Westervelt,
Legends of Ma-ui, a Demigod of Polynesia, and of his lock, a fellow churchman, and dean of St. Paul
Mother Hina, Honolulu, 1910. who, in his construction of the doctrine of the Tri
ity, fell into tritheism. South advocated the Nice
SOUTH, ROBERT: Church of
England prelate view. The last part of his life was clouded wi
and preacher of first rank at Hackney, Lon-
; b. sickness and debility which laid him aside from t
don, Sept. 4, 1634; d. in London July 8, 1716. His active duties of his calling.
father was a wealthy London merchant, who af- Smith's distinction is that of a preacher, and
forded his son every advantage for a thorough edu- is second to none in any language. No one h
cation. His preparatory studies were pursued in combined and blended logic and rhetoric in me
the Westminster School, where he became a king's perfect proportions. He argues closely and rigc
scholar, under the famous master, Dr. Richard ously; but the argument never interferes with t
Busby. In 1651 he was admitted as a student of fluency and impetuosity of the discourse; evensu
Christ Church, Oxford (B.A., 1655; M.A., 1657, also subjects as predestination and the Trinity are ma
1659 at Cambridge; B.D., and D.D., 1663; and D.D., popular and interesting by his powerful grasp ai
at Cambridge, 1664). During this year he composed handling, and all this is heightened by his remai
a Latin poem congratulating Oliver Cromwell on the able style. The closeness and intimacy of the cc
peace which he had concluded between England nection between thought and word is hardly excell
and Holland. South was onjained in 1658 by one by Shakespeare,
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA South
Bower

South was a Calvinist at a time when the drift BIBLIOGRAPHY: Aconsiderable literature, belonging to the
period of her life and a very few yeare after her death, is
of the High-church episcopacy, which he favored, indicated in the British Mutewn Catalogue, s.v. The
set strongly toward Arminianism. Though anti- sources are her own writings, which contain, in fragmen-
Puritan, and bitterly so, in regard to polity, both tary form, considerable biographical detail. Contmlt: The
civil and ecclesiastical, he was a Puritan in theology. Life and Death of Joanna South cott, London, 1815; (J.
Fairburn). The Life of Joanna Southcott, the Prophetess,
John Owen was not a higher predestinarian than he, ib. 1814; Memoirs of the Life and Mission of Joanna South-
and Richard Baxter was a lower one. It must have cott, ib. 1814; The Life and Prophecies of Joanna South-

been from an intense conviction of the truth of this cott, ib. 1815; J. H. Blunt. Dictionary of Sects, Heresies,
.... pp. 668-570, Philadelphia, 1874; DNB, liii. 277-
type of doctrine, that South, in the face of all his
279; Alice Seymour. The Express, Containing the Life and
prejudices and of his ecclesiastical and courtly con- Divine Writings of Joanna Southcott, London, 1909.
nections, defended it with might and main. For this
reason, the great anti-Puritan has continued to SOUTHOATE, HORATIO: Protestant Episcopal
have warm admirers among Puritans and Non-con- missionary bishop; b. in Portland, Me., July 5, 1812;
formists. d. in Astoria, L. I., Apr. 12, 1894. He uas grad-
There have been editions of his Sermons uated from Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Me., 1832,
many
(best ed., 12 vols., London, 1704-44, with a memoir
and from Andover Theological Seminary, 1835, and
of his life and writings in vol. xii., 1717; reissued, was ordained deacon the same year; was engaged,
ed. W. G. T. Shedd, 5 vols., Boston, 1866-71). under appointment by the Protestant Episcopal
W. G. T. SHEDDf. Church, in investigating the state of Mohammedan-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The itandard memoir ia that in the Ser- ism in Turkey and Persia, 1836-38; ordained priest,
mons, ut sup. Consult further John Barber's funeral ora- 1839; missionary in Constantinople, as delegate to
tion, The Character of the Rev. and Learned Dr. Robert the oriental churches, 1840-44; Episcopalian mis-
South, London, 1716; A. k Wood, Athena Oxionenses, ed.
P. Bliss, iv. 631-632, and Fasti, ii. 158, 182, 200, 276, sionary bishop for the dominions and dependencies
281, 334, 4 vols., London, 1813-20; W. C. Lake, South of the Sultan of Turkey, Oct. 26, 1844-49; was rec-
the Rhetorician, in J. E. Kempe, Classic Preachers of the tor of St. Luke's Church, Portland, Me., 1851-52;
English Church, 2 series, London, 1877-78; W. H. Button,
of the Church of the Advent, Boston, Mass., 1852-
The English Church (1886-1714), PP- 268, 208, London,
1903; DNB, liii. 276-277. 1858; and of Zion Church, New York City, 1859-
1872; and then took up his residence at Ravens-
SOUTHCOTT, sauth'cet, JOANNA, AND THE
SOUTHCOTTIANS: The founder of a short-lived wood, L. I. He is the author of Narrative of a Tour
English sect (b. at Gittisham, 14 m. n.e. of Ex- through Armenia, Kurdistan, Persia, and Mesopo-
tamia (2 vols., New York, 1840); Narrative of a
mouth, Devonshire, Apr., 1750; d. at London Dec.
Visit to the Syrian (Jacobite) Church of Mesopotamia
27, 1814) and her followers. Interpreting the text
Rev. xii. 1 sqq. as signifying the speedy advent of (1844); A Treatise on the Antiquity, Doctrine, Min-

the Messiah, she declared herself to be the bride of istry, and Worship oftfie Anglican Church (in Greek;
the Lamb, and, although sixty-four years old, an- Constantinople, 1849); Parochial Sermons (New
nounced that she was about to give birth to the York, 1860); and The Cross above the Crescent, a
future Messiah, this belief being caused probably Romance of Constantinople (Philadelphia, 1877).
by tympanites. She required her followers to keep BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. S. Perry, The Episcopate in America, p.
the Jewish laws regarding clean and unclean meat 103, New York, 1895.
and the observance of the Sabbath. A
magnificent SOUTHWORTH, FRANKLIN CHESTER: Uni
cradle was made to receive the future prince, or b. at North N. Y., Oct. 1863
" tarian; Collins, 15,
second Shiloh," and both Joanna and her ad- He received his education at Harvard University
herents waited patiently for her delivery. She died,
(B.A., 1887; M.A., 1892; S.T.B., 1892); was a
however, of the disease named above ; but her teacher in secondary schools, 1887-89; served the
tracts, some sixty in number, and her works, of Unitarian church at Duluth, Minn., 1892-97, and
which the most important were The Strange Effects the Third Unitarian Church, Chicago, 1897-99; was
of Faith, with Remarkable Prophecies .
of Things
. .
secretary of the Western Unitarian Conference,
which are to come (2 parts, Exeter, 1801-02; contains
1899-1902; and became president of the Meadville
autobiographical material); A Dispute between the Theological School, dean of the faculty, and pro-
Woman and the Power of Darkness (London, 1802); fessor of practical theology in 1902.
Divine and Spiritual Communications (1803) Warn- ;

ing to the Whole World from ihe Sealed Prophecies of SOWER, sS'er, CHRISTOPHER (CHRISTOPH
Joanna Southcott (2 parts, 1803); The Second Book of SATJR): American printer and publisher;
Vwtorw(1803); Copies and Parts of Copies of Letters Laasphe (18 m. w.n.w. of Marburg), Germany, 1693;
and Communications, written from Joanna South- d. at Germantown, Pa., Sept. 25, 1758. He studied
cott (1804); Second Book
of ihe Sealed Prophecies at the University of Halle; in 1724 he emigrated to
(1805); A Caution and Instruction to the Sealed America and settled as a fanner in Lancaster comity,
(1807); The True Explanation of the Bible (7 parts, Pa., but removed to Germantown in 1731 and prac-
1804-10) ; and The Book of Wonders (5 parts, 1813- tised medicine there. In 1738 he acquired, largely
1814), were still eagerly read by her followers, who from philanthropic motives, a printing-press at
did not abandon hope of the predicted Messiah, Germantown, and began the publication of a Ger-
The gradually dwindling sect assembled for a time man almanac, which was continued by his descend-
in London to hear the words of the ants for sixty years. In 1739 he issued the first
prophetess Elisa-
beth Peacock, and later met in the house of her son, number of the Hoch-Deutsch pensylvanische (70-
in Trafalgar Street, but it is schichto-Schreiber, a religious and secular journal
unlikely that it sur-
vived the year 1880. (O. that exerted a large influence upon the Germans of
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HEEZOO

Pennsylvania. In 1743 he brought out a large sey, Oxford, I860, ought to be mentioned.] The
" "
quarto edition of Luther's translation of the Bible. Church History of Sozomen has not been pre-
This was the first Bible in a European language served in its entirety, as is shown by the fact that
printed in America. The type was brought from IX., xvi. 4 promises matter which is not forth-
Frankfort. Thereafter he issued many other works, coming. How much of the history is wanting can
both in German and English. In the German books be estimated from the preface, where it is said that
the German form of his name is used. In connection the work was to extend to the seventeenth consulate
with his printing business he established a paper- of Theodosius, that is, to 439 A.D., while the extant
mill, a small ink factory, and a type-foundry, the history ends about 425, so about half a book may
first in America. Sower wrote Ein abgendthigter be wanting. Gtildenpenning supposed that Sozo-
Bericht (Germantown, 1739; Eng. transl. in The men himself suppressed the end of his work because
Pennsylvania Magazine, xii. 78-96, Philadelphia, in it he mentioned the Empress Eudocia, who later
1888), pertaining to his quarrel with Conrad Beissel, fell into disgrace through her supposed adultery.

founder of Ephrata (see COMMUNISM, II., 5); and But this assumption can scarcely be correct, since
Verschiedene chrisiliche Wahrheiten (1748), an an- Nicephorus and Theodorus Lector appear to have
swer to Franklin's Plain Truth (Philadelphia, 1747). read the end of Sozomen *s work.
From what has been said, the history must have
SOZOMEN, sez'6-men, SALAMANIUS HERMIAS: been written between 439 and 450, the latter the
Church historian; b. at Bethelia, a town near Gaza, year of the death of Theodosius. Sozomen certainly
Palestine, c. 400. He came of a Christian family, wrote after Socrates (cf Socrates, Hist.
.

his grandfather having been converted to Christian- Sources ecd., I., xxxviii. 9 with Sozomen, Hist.
ity, together with his household, through a miracle of the ecd., II., xxx. 6-7). The literary re-
" Church
reputed to have been wrought by Saint lationship of these writers appears
Life. Hilarion (q.v.) by casting out a demon History." everywhere. Valesius asserted that
from a neighbor Alaphrion. These were Sozomen read Socrates, and Hussey
the beginnings of Christianity in the place, and and Gtildenpenning have proved this. For exam-
Alaphrion is said to have built churches and clois- ple, Socrates, in I., x., relates an anecdote which he
ters, uhile the grandfather of Sozomen was cele- had heard, and says that neither Eusebius nor any
brated as an exegete. Under Julian, on account of other author reports it, yet this anecdote is found
his faith, he was forced to seek safety in flight (Hist, in Sozomen, I., xxii., the similarity of diction show-
ecd., V., xv.). Sozomen seems to have been brought ing that the text of Socrates was the source. Doubts
up in the circle of Alaphrion and acknowledges a have been expressed as to the truth of Sozomen's
debt of gratitude to the monastic order (I., i. 19). claim in his preface that he used in his history re-
He appears familiar with the region around Gaza, ports of the councils, imperial letters, and other doc-
and mentions having seen Bishop Zeno of Majuma, uments; but closer investigation shows this to be
the sea-port of Gaza (VII., xxviii. 6). It is probable correct. He also seems to have consulted the laws
that he visited Jerusalem (II., xxvi. 3). Later he (cf. XVI., i. 3, regarding the installation of patri-
adopted the vocation of advocate, in which capacity archs over the five dioceses of the Eastern Empire,
he was active in Constantinople at the time he com- where he cites more correctly than does Socrates).
posed his history. The ecclesiastical records used by Sozomen are
Sozomen wrote two works on church history; the principally taken from Sabinus, to whom he con-
first (cf Hist, ecd., I., i. 12), which has entirely dis-
.
tinually refers. In this way he uses records of the
appeared, comprised in twelve books the history of synods from that of Tyre (335) to that of Antioch
the Church from the ascension to Licinius. Eusc- in Caxia (367). As an example, in II., xxvii. 14, he
"
bius, the Clementine Homilies, Hege- treats of the council of Jerusalem and says: When
Two sippus, and Sextus Julius Africanus they had done this they wrote to the emperor and
Worko; were used in this history. The second to the church of Alexandria and to the bishops and
Editions, and longer work was a continuation of clergy in Egypt, the Thebald and Lybia." Socrates
the first, and was dedicated to Em- speaks of the letter to the emperor and to the Alex-
peror Theodosius the Younger (editio princeps by andrians, but he knows nothing of the other letters.
R. Stephens, Paris, 1544, on the basis of Codex Sozomen appears also to have consulted the His*
Regius, 1444). The text was first placed on a firm toria Athanasii and also the works of Athanasius;
foundation by Valesius (Cambridge, 1720), who used, for he completes the statements of Socrates from
besides the text of Stephens, a Codex Fucetianus the Apologia contra Arianos, lix. sqq., and copies
" "
(now at Paris, 1445), Readings of Savilius, and Athanasius' Adv. episcopos dSgypti, xviii.-xix. He
the indirect traditions of Theodorus Lector and also consulted the writings, of Eusebius and Ru-
of Cassiodorus-Epiphanius. Reading reprinted the finus. The Vita Constantini of Eusebius is expressly
text of Valesius adding collations of a Codex Castel- cited in the description of the vision of Constantino,
lani episc. and a
"
Codex Jones." Hussey's pos- Rufinus is frequently used, and especially instruct-
thumous edition (largely prepared for the press by ive in this respect is a comparison of Sozomen, II.,
John Barrow, who wrote the preface) is important, xvii. 6 sqq. with Socrates, I., xv. and Rufinus X.,
since in it the archetype of the Codex Regius, the xiv. For the anecdote regarding the childhood
Codex Baroooianus 142, is collated for the first time. of Athanasius, Rufinus is the original; Socrates
But this manuscript was written by various hands expressly states that he follows Rufinus, while
and at various times and therefore is not equally 1
Sozomen knows Socrates version, but is not satis-
authoritative in all its parts. [The ed. by R. Hus- fied with it and follows Rufinus more closely. Of
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

secular Sozomen probably used only

historians nis studies in 1861, and, after being a tutor in the
Olympiodorus. A
comparison with Zosimus, who family of the Duke of Argyle in 1863, was pastor of
also made use of this writer, seems to show that the St. Michael's and Zion's Lutheran Church, Phila-
whole ninth book of Sozomen, excepting the re- delphia (1864-67). After 1867 he was pastor of St.
flections of the author, is nothing more than an Johannis' German Lutheran Church in the same
abridged extract from Olympiodorus. Oral tradition city, and professor in the Lutheran Theological
is occasionally utilized, also the Vita Antonii of Seminary, Philadelphia, after 1873. From 1880 to
Athanasius, lists of Persian martyrs (II., xiv. 5), 1888 he was president of the General Council of the
logoi of Eustathius of Antioch (II., xix. 7), the Evangelical Lutheran Church in North America.
letter of Cyril of Jerusalem to Constantius concern- He edited the General Council's German Sunday-
ing the miraculous vision of the cross (IV., v. 4), school book in 1875 and the same body's German
letters of Julian (V., iii. 4), and other sources. church book in 1877, as well as the magazine Jur
The spirit and interest of Sozomen 's history is gendsfreund in 1877, being also joint editor of the
clearly apparent; he follows the thread of the nar- Ministerium of Pennsylvania's Documentary His-
rative of Socrates but seeks to improve upon and tory (Philadelphia, 1898). His independent works
to excel his original by elegance of diction, and by include Evangelien des Kirchenjahres (Philadel-
the use of excellent sources of which phia, 1870) Brotsamen von des Herrn Tische (1871)
; ;

Character he makes skilful use. Generally he General Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Church
of the follows his authorities closely, some- in North America (1885); Liederlust (Allentown,
History, times almost literally; when they dif- Pa., 1886); Saatkdrner (Philadelphia, 1893); Dr.
fer, he occasionally gives the various Wilhelm Julius Mann, ein fautsch-amerikanischer
versions. The historical exposition is altogether Theologe (Reading, Pa., 1895) ; Biography of Dr.
impersonal; Sozomen assumes (III., xv.) that the Charles Porterfield Krauth (vol. i., Now York, 1808);
task of history is to assemble facts without adding Annotations on the Gospel according to St. John
anything to them, hence he indulges in little criti- (1896). His " Order of Lutheran Worship " has
cism and usually adopts the views of his sources. been translated into English by H. D. Spaeth (Bur-
This he does to such an extent that he has been lington, la., 1906).
charged with Arianism and Novatianism. In real-
ity, in accord with his legal training, he has no opin- SPAIN: A kingdom occupying the greater part
ion in theological questions; at the same time he of the most westerly peninsula in southwestern
\\as thoroughly pious and a great admirer of mo- Europe; area (including the Canary Islands and
nasticism. The attempt of Sozomen to compose a the Balearic Isles) 196,173 square miles; popula-
better church history than that of Socrates was only tion (1900) 18,618,086. The inhabitants nearly all
partially successful. He frequently offers additional belong to tho Roman Catholic, which is the State
material but rarely improves upon his prototype. Church. The constitution of 1875 declares (art.
The errors into which Socrates fell in his treatment 11, 2) that no one shall be molested on account
of the Eastern Church, and especially touching the of his religious opinion or in the exercise of his wor-
first phase of the Arian controversy, arc quietly ship, provided the due observance of Christian
copied by Sozomen. But as to the Western Church morals is maintained; but declares again ( 3) with
he was better informed and has made several im- apparent contradiction that ceremonies and public
portant corrections. Still, those who would use his evidences other than of the state religion shall not
" "
work should seek to disengage his citations from be tolerated. By the term public evidences
the context, and endeavor to reach his original was implied not only the building of churches whose
sources. (G. LOESCHCKE.) object is distinctly recognizable from without by
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The moat convenient Eng. transl. is in
such marks as portals, towers, or inscriptions, but
NPNF, 2 ser., vol. ii., where useful prolegomena are to be also the singing of sacred music. On this account,
found. The editions named
in the text are usually ac- for instance, the Evangelical Germans at Barcelona
companied by a Consult: Fabriciua-Harlea, Bib-
Vita.
had to dispense with a tower in building a modest
liotheca Graca, vii. 427 sqq., Hamburg, 1801; F. A. HoU-
hausen, De fontfbua quihu* Socrates, Sozomenus . . . usi house of worship in 1903. This spirit of intolerance
aunt, Gdttingen, 1825; Nolte, in TQS, 1861, pp. 417 sqq.; is explained by the fixed public estimate placed
J. Rosenstein, in Forackungen zur deutschen Geachichtf, i.
167-204, Qdttingen, 1862; A. OUldonpennmg and I.
upon the unity of the Roman Catholic faith, which
is a result of the early age of Christianity in Spain.
Ifland, Der Kaiser Theodosius der Groaae, pp. 21 sqq.,
Halle, 1878; C. de Boor, in ZKG, vi (1883-84), 478-494; After the rapid progress of Christianity from the
A. Guldenpenning, Die Kirchengeachichte dea Theodoret first till the third century there followed a period
von Kyrrhoa, pp. 12 sqq., Halle, 1889; P. Batiffol, in
of much stress; first through the Arian Visigoths
Bytantiniache Zeitachrift, vii (1898), 266-284. x (1901),
128 sqq.; Bardenhewer, Patroloyie, p. 333, Eng. transl., and other Germanic races, but far more through
St. Louis, 1908; J. Bidez, La Tradition manuacrite de Sozo- the plundering and lawless violence of the Moorish
mene at la tripartite de Theodore le lecteur, in TU, xxxii.
2b (1908); Ceillier, Auteura aacrta, viii. 525-34, xi. 102- conquerors. Yet the Church maintained at least
103, 220; DCB, iv. 722-723; KL, xi. 534-536; and the
three archbishoprics out of six, and twenty-nine
literature named under Socrates (the church historian). bishoprics. But the religious ardor was especially
revived and tenaciously develoj>ed in the persistent
SPAETH, spet, PHILLIP FRIEDRICH ADOLF and bitter wars for the expulsion of the Moham-
THBODOR: Lutheran; b. at Esslingen (7 m. s.e. medans.
of Stuttgart), Wttrttemberg, Oct. 29, 1839; d. in An invigorating reinforcement was constituted
Philadelphia June 26, 1910. He was educated at by the four orders of knights, which originated for
the University of Tttbingen, where he completed the restoration of the sovereignty of the Roman
Spain THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG

Catholic faith in Spain. Hand in hand with this of the Rhine toward creating an Evangelical fellow-
was the work of the new monastic orders, espe- ship composed of native Spanish. Most successful
cially the Dominicans, who spread rapidly and was the Rhenish Pastor Fliedner, in Madrid. There
gained in influence from 1215, obtaining in 1233 the is, however, no Spanish Evangelical Church as such,
administration of the Inquisition (q.v.), introduced but there are four separate ones. What is known
in 1215. This institution attained a more definite as the Iglesia Espafia Reformatoria was organized
organisation in Spain than elsewhere. By agree- by the Anglican Spanish Church Aid Society; and
ment in 1483, the king was authorised to nominate is,accordingly, High-church in its order and wor-
to the pope the grand inquisitor, and the court of ship. It comprises eleven congregations and is di-
first instance of this institution was subordinated rected by a bishop. The Methodists and the Bap-
to the royal supreme court. The Inquisition op- tists, together with the Plymouth Brethren, have a
erated first against the spiritual remnants of Moor- smaller scattering of congregations and members.
ish Islam; then against those of the Jews after the The strongest Protestant body is the Iglesia Evan-
act of expulsion in the sixteenth century; and, gelica Espafia, as founded by Fliedner and continued
finally, after a brief restraint, against the incom- by one of his sons. This has twenty-one distinct
ing Evangelical movement. The autos daft of such congregations, and thirty-six preaching-stations.
as were accused of heresy and executions by gar- The supreme government is vested in an annual
roting occurred frequently, and at not a few places; synod. The total number of Spanish Protestants
for not only had a number of Evangelical congre- is estimated at 13,000 to 14,000. Also the Germans
gations organized themselves, but also very reso- have two Evangelical congregations in Spain; one
lute martyrs died for the cause. By the close of the in Madrid, and a stronger one in Barcelona, with
century, the Roman Catholic Church had been com- two associate congregations. There are a great
pletely reestablished, not without bloodshed. Such many weekly church periodicals and other tracts
ecclesiastical disturbances as arose until after 1850 in circulation, furnished from England, Scotland,
consisted in the occasional opposition of kings and North America, and Germany for the support of
governments to the popes' excessive claims of in- Spanish Protestantism. See the following articK
dependence and the power of the Jesuits: for ex- W. G0TZ.
ample, the king's acquisition, from 1757, of the
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the general and Roman Catholic his-
right to nominate bishops; the expulsion of the
tory of Spain consult: D. J. Saens d'Aguirre, Collectio
Jesuits, in 1767; retrenchments on ecclesiastical maxima conciliorum omnium Spania, 2<1 ed., 6 vols., Rome,

property, from 1789, after the number of the clergy 1753; H. Florea, Espafia sagrada (with continuations).
had been fixed in 1768 at 149,800 in a given popula- 51 vola., Madrid, 1754-1879; F. W. Lembke, Oeschichte
von Spanien (continued by Schafer and Schirrmacher),
tion of 9,307,000 souls. In 1808, under Napoleon's 6 vols., Hamburg, 1831-93; P. B. Gams, Die Kirchenge-
king, Joseph, many larger cloisters were abolished; echichte von Spanien, 5 vola., Regensburg, 1862-79; P.
and in 1835, the smaller ones were likewise closed. Rousselot, Lea Mystique* cspoonols, 2d ed., Paris, 1869;
G. Diercks, Das modern* Geistesleben Spanien*, Leipaic,
In 1859, the Church relinquished all its real posses-
1883; idem, Das moderne Spanien, Berlin, 1908; P.
sions, and these were afterward awarded to the Fftrater, Der Einfluss der Inquisition auf dot geistige
separate congregations. In the way of compensa- Leben der Spanier, Berlin, 1890; O. Werner, Orbis ttrrarum
catholicu8, pp. 38-49, Freiburg, 1890; H. C. Lea, Chapter*
tion, the State guaranteed the maintenance of pub-
from the Religious Hist, of Spain connected with the Inqui-
lic worship and the clergy; and the pope obtained
sition, Philadelphia. 1890; idem, History of the Inquisition
the right to nominate a spiritual dignitary in every of Spain, 4 vola., New York, 1906-O7; F. Meyrick, The
diocese. Church in Spain, London, 1892; M. R. Burke, Hist, oj
Spain, 2 vola., London, 1900; M. A. 3. Hume, The Spanish
By the concordat of 1881, the hierarchical ap- People, London. 1901; A. Astrian, Historic, de la Compafiia
portionment of the country provided seven metro- de Jesus en laasistencia.de Espafia, Madrid, 1902 sqq.; W.
politan districts and thirty-eight bishoprics as fol- Webster, Gleanings in Church Hist, in Spain and France,
lows: Burgos, with six suffragans; Santiago de London, 1903; H. Lecleroq, L'Espagne chretienne, Paris,
1906; C. Rudy, The Cathedrals of Northern Spain. Their
Compostella, with five; Granada, with five; Sara- History and their Architecture, together with much of Interest
gossa, with seven; Toledo, with four (including concerning their Bishops, Rulers, etc., London, 1906; K.
Madrid); Valencia, with five; and Valladolid, with Hftbler, Oeschichte Spaniens unter den Habsburgern, vol. i. (

six episcopal sees. In addition, the abbot who has

Gotha, 1907; M. Andujar, Spain of To-day from Within,
New York, 1909; W. W. Collins, Cathedral Cities of Spain,
jurisdiction over the provinces of the orders of ib. 1909; H. Gieasen, Die christlich-arabische Literatur der

knighthood, who has residence at Ciudad Real, has Motaraber, Leipaic, 1909; C. C. Perkins, Builders of Spain,
2 vols., London, 1909; R. Tyler, Spain: Study of her Life
episcopal rank. There are 2,200 parishes divided
and Arts, New York, 1909; KL, xi. 539-551.
into two classes. A new Evangelical movement On Protestantism in this country consult the literature
arose in Spain in 1855 through the Spaniard Fran- under the following articles, and: The Spanish Reformed
cisco de Paula Ruet (q.v.), who, returning from Church. The Declaration set forth by the Central Consis-
where the Waldensian preaching was being tory . . . with some Account of the Members and their
Italy,
Meetings at Gibraltar, . . . 1868, London, 1868; J. A.
eagerly received, published the Evangelical faith in Wylie, Daybreak in Spain; its new Reformation, London,
Barcelona. The cause was further promoted by a 1870; F. O. J. Grape, Spanien und das Svangelium, Halle,
man of spiritual force, Matamoros. However, im- 1806; H. E. Noyea, Church Reform in Spain. A Short
History of the Reformed Episcopal Churches of Spain and
prisonment and exile were used against the move- Portugal, London, 1897; E. Schafer, Beitrage sur Oeschichte
ment until after the end of Bourbon rule in 1868. des spanischen ProUstantismus und der Inquisition im 1ft.
From that time, and after the return of the Bour- Jahrhundert, 3 vols., Gutersloh, 1902; G. Borrow, The
Bible in Spain, late ed., London, 1908; F. E. and H. A.
bons in 1874, not a little has been done through the
dark, The Gospel in Latin Lands, pp. 125-159, New York,
efforts of Evangelical associations and circles in 1900; G. H. B. Ward, The Truth about Spain, London,
Great Britain, Switzerland, and the German states 1011.
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Spain

SPAIlf, EVAHOBUCAL WORK III. type of Roman Catholicism. In its essential fea-

I. The Reformation in Spain.

tures represents a partial and limited devel-
it

The Early Movement (I 1). opment of the Protestant thesis, and, with its
Protestant Movement (f 2). Humanistic and Evangelical tendencies, it was fitted
II. Anticlerical Movement*. to serve as the natural forerunner of a truly Protes-
Political Opposition (f 1).
tant Reformation. At the same time, catching
Diuent and Unbelief (I 2). up
XII. Evangelical Activities. as it did the religious zeal and initiative of the
Protestant Societies (I 1). Spanish people and fusing them into a relatively
Schools and Other Agencies (f 2).
pure and intelligent form of Catholicism, it forged
Summary of Conditions (f 3).
the very weapon that was destined to give the
Opportunities (I 4).
death stroke to Evangelical Christianity on Spanish
L The Reformation in Spain: At the close of the soil, and trained the leaders who were to rally the
Middle Ages the type of Christianity prevailing in forces of Roman Catholicism in the sixteenth century
Spain was more militant, more independent, more for the long and bitter struggle against Protestant
Evangelical, that more nearly Prot-
is, principles throughout Western Christendom.
z. The estant, than that to be found in any The advancement of the Spanish monarch to the
Early other nation of Christendom. More imperial throne in 1520, as Charles V., opened a wide
Movement militant, because the 700 years' war channel for the introduction of Lutheran and Re-
which the Christians of Spain had formed teachings into Spain. At first,
waged with the Mohammedans had given strength a. Protet- Luther's doctrines were generally re-
and tenacity to their religious sentiments; more in- tant ceived among the educated classes with
dependent, because the unbroken spirit of the Span- Movement interestand favor, and their spread
ish rulers and people had secured the interposition was helped for a time by the liberal
of the secular authority to combat the deteriorating tendencies prevailing among the Spanish hierarchy,
influence of the Roman Curia upon the local church; as well as by the temporizing policy of Charles V.
more Evangelical, because twenty years before in dealing with Luther and the Protestant princes
Luther nailed his theses to the church door at Wit- of Germany. With respect to Charles' attitude, it
tenberg the Spanish church had felt the purifying was even asserted by the confessor of the emperor,
and regenerating influence of a reformation largely who himself favored the Protestants, that Charles
Protestant in spirit and aims. This reform was the secretly sympathized with the movement and that
outcome of a plan conceived by Queen Isabella, he hoped to use Luther as a lever for forcing upon
upon the union of the peninsular states to form the the German church a Reformation after the Spanish
Spanish kingdom in 1492. Its execution was ac- model. Subsequently a gradual reaction against
complished under the leadership of Francisco reform among the Spanish clergy and a change in
Ximenes de Cisneros (see XIMENES DE CIBNEROS), the policy of Charles made Protestantism a pro-
a Franciscan monk and confessor to the queen. The scribed religion in Spain, narrowed the circle of its
concordat of 1482 had given the Spanish crown the adherents to the more earnest and daring spirits,
right of visitation and of nomination to benefices. and, after the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, subjected
Cisneros was permitted to use these powers to re- the Protestants to a persecution constantly growing
store the strictest monastic discipline in the con- in severity. The principal features marking its
vents, and to purge the secular clergy of those growth were almost exclusive confinement to
its
abuses which were common to the time. Having the privileged and educated classes; the lack of
improved the morals of the Spanish clergy he set organization, except small congregations at Seville
himself to overcome their ignorance and lack of cul- and Valladolid; the large numbers from the Roman
ture. The reading and study of the Bible were made Catholic clergy and theologians who embraced it;
a special feature in their training, something previ- and especially the large numbers of persons among
ously unknown; new schools of theology were es- its converts, illustrious either for their rank or
tablished, with courses in Bible exegesis; and a learning. Notable among them are the follow-
band of scholars was collected at Alcala in 1502, ing: Alphonso Valdes, secretary of Charles V.;
who undertook at the expense of Cisneros the prep- Alphonso de Bernoldez, chaplain to the emperor,
aration of the celebrated Complutensian Polyglot who suffered condemnation in 1537; Bartalome
(see BIBLES, POLYGLOT, I.). About the same time Carranza y Miranda, archbishop of Toledo, who
he was instrumental in the establishment of uni- was condemned for holding Protestant views; Rod-
versities at Alcala, Seville, and Toledo, where the erigo de Valera, who laid the foundations of the
study of the classics was fostered and a large sym- church in Seville and was condemned by the In-
pathy was shown with the labors of Erasmus and quisition in 1541; Juan Gil, otherwise known as
the Humanists. Unlike Luther, Cisneros made no Doctor Egidius, a famous preacher of Seville who
direct attack on the abuses or authority of the was nominated in 1550 to the bishopric of Tortosa,
papacy, yet when he encountered the opposition of but before his installation was condemned for her-
the pope, in dealing with the abuses of the local esy; Don Carlo* de Seso, a distinguished nobleman
church, he assumed an attitude of virtual inde- who did much for the Protestant cause throughout
pendence, and was protected in it by the Spanish Spain; Jayme Enzinos and his brother Francesco
mien. The immediate influences of this movement de Enzinos (qq.v.), two young men of noble birth
were largely confined to the clergy, but it gradually who were converted while students abroad, the
wrought a distinct change in the religious life of former of whom suffered martyrdom in Rome in
the whole nation and developed in Spain a unique 1546, and the latter translated the first Spanish ver-
Spain THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 26

sion of the New Testament and had it printed at born in Spain and prepared to enter, as in other Latin
Antwerp in 1543 for distribution in Spain. Besides, countries, into the long war against absolutism and
many convents of monks and nuns, especially those clericalism. The first decisive step was taken in
in the neighborhood of Seville and Valladolid, were 1812, during the exile of King Ferdinand VII. The
largely leavened with the Protestant heresy. In Spanish cortes, assembled for the first time in many
spite of this impetus, Protestantism was effectually years, was largely composed of lawyers and literary
suppressed in Spain after a brief career of scarcely men, and though they swore to tolerate no faith
half a century. The chief repressive agency was but Roman Catholicism in the land, they abolished
the Inquisition, which assumed in Spain, as the the Inquisition, curtailed the power of the clergy,
joint instrument of civil and religious absolutism, and framed a constitution. The restoration of Fer-
its sternest form, and made use of the most drastic dinand in 1814 resulted in the overturning of their
and arbitrary methods. But it is to be remarked work and a violent persecution in the vain attempt
that the Protestant forces in Spain were paralyzed to exterminate the Liberal party. From the death
and finally overcome, not so much by the violent of Ferdinand, in 1833, until 1873 occurred a series
persecution at home as by the unfavorable impres- of heated revolutionary conflicts between the liberal
sion made upon the Spanish people by the actions and conservative elements, with alternating vic-
of Protestants abroad. The uprising of the German tories, but with the anti-clerical cause steadily
peasants in 1524 in behalf of social reform caused gaining ground. In 1851, by the concordat estab-
great alarm among the privileged classes in Spain lished with the pope (see CONCORDATS AND DELIM-
and greatly prejudiced them against the introduc- ITING BULLS, VII.), the monastic orders were limited
tion of doctrines which seemed to foment revolu- to three. In 1854 the Liberals, being then in power,
tion elsewhere. Greater antagonism was aroused after granting compensation, sold the church lands.
by the alliance of the Protestant princes of Germany In 1858 and again in 1868 religious liberty and free-
with the king of France, Francis I., the bitter enemy dom of worship were proclaimed, but this meant
of Spain, and later was increased by the revolt of only freedom to attack the Church of Rome, and
the Protestants in the Netherlands against Span- tolerance was by no means established.
full religious
ish rule, so that after a time Protestants came to In 1873 the cortes proclaimed a republic, but this
be looked upon not only as heretics but as traitors was overthrown by the army and Alphonso XII.
and rebels, and it became increasingly difficult for was seated on the throne. From that time onward
any loyal Spaniard to embrace Protestantism. Prior the monarchy has continued, and political questions
to the abdication of Charles V. in 1546 the activities have usually been settled by an appeal to the elec-
of the Inquisition against Protestants were some- torate, rather than to force. Politics among the
what restricted, and though Philip II. on his acces- leaders has largely degenerated into a scramble for
sion gave it a free hand, the work of extermination office, accompanied by more or less
the spoils of
was not begun in deep earnest until 1557. The first compromise with the church party, but there has
" "
auto da f was celebrated at Valladolid in 1559, come to Spain in these years, through the spread of
and thereafter the work of executing Protestant liberal principles, an increasing measure of civil
victims in the principal cities of Spain was con- and religious liberty. The most significant event
ducted under the joint auspices of Church and State, for Protestantism of late years was the returning
combining the features of a religious festival and to power, in the election of 1910, of Premier Jose*
a popular holiday. In 1559 it is estimated that Canalejas and his party, upon a platform pledging,
there were 1,000 Protestants in each of the cities, among other reforms, absolute freedom of worship,
Seville and Valladolid, and a relatively large num- civil supervision of conventual establishments, and
ber in other sections of Spain. By the year 1570 the laicization of schools and colleges. The sig-
Protestantism in Spain was cut off, root and branch, nificance of this may be seen when it is understood
practically all of its converts having suffered either that, previous to 1910, the Protestant denomi-
banishment or martyrdom, and for the three cen- nations and missions were prohibited from dis-
turies that followed the blood of its martyrs was playing any insignia of worship or of propagating
as seed in barren soil. their doctrines publicly; and that, according to a
II. Anticlerical Movements: If it was fanatical recent count, the number of monks and nuns and
patriotism allied with ecclesiasticism that crushed other ecclesiastical officials in Spain totalled 154,517,
the Protestant movement in Spain hi the sixteenth receiving about eight million dollars yearly directly
century, it has been an enlightened from the national treasury, besides various exemp-
i. Political patriotism arrayed against ecclesias- tions and privileges. The first step in the execution
Opposition, ticism that has afforded a shield for the of this program brought about a break with Rome,
Evangelical forces in Spain hi modern the papal nuncio was recalled, and at the close of
times. The radical and revolutionary philosophy the year he had not returned to the Spanish court.
of the French skeptics of the eighteenth century Another phase of this anticlerical movement is
early found an easy, though a restricted, ground in the constantly diminishing respect shown by lay-
Spain. Under its tuition many Spaniards saw their man and ecclesiastic for ecclesiastical
country fastened on by a parasitic tribe of nearly a. Dissent authority even in the sphere of religion,
140,000 priests, nuns, and sacristans, and they wel- and This tendency is noticeable in the~in-
comed the Voltairean estimate of their worth. The Unbelief. dependent spirit animating the several
cataclysm of the French Revolution did still more orders in their relation to each other
to disseminate the seeds of popular freedom, and and to the local clergy. Indeed, so loose has
before the downfall of Napoleon, liberalism was fully grown the bond between them and so bitter has
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Spain

become the antagonism that the assertion is more church, or the solemn assumptions of the Roman
than that the ecclesiastical unity existing
justified pontiff.
within the Roman Catholic Church in Spain is m. Evangelical Activities: The memorable revo-
scarcely more real than that existing between the lution of Sept., 1868, and the proclamation of
liberty
principal Evangelical denominations of Protestant of conscience and worship by the new " provisional
"
countries. Again, this spirit has manifested itself government threw Spain open for the first time
within the ranks of the secular clergy in their pro- to all kinds of Evangelical work. The opportunity
tests against the tyranny and abuses of their supe- was speedily improved by the entrance
riors in the hierarchy, and they have usually been i. Protes- of missionaries, representing various
supported in their contentions by the common peo- tant Protestant denominations of Great
ple. The most striking instance of this occurred in Societies. Britain, Ireland, the United States,
a movement originating in Sept., 1898, and led by Germany, Holland, Switzerland, and
an eminent Spanish priest, Seguismundo Pey Or- Sweden. In 1910 Protestant missions were con-
diex. This brilliant priest was born in Vich, in the ducted in forty-four large cities, with out-stations in
north of Spain, educated in the University of Sala- 149 villages and towns; the total number of build-
manca, and was for many years a parish priest in ings regularly employed for Protestant worship
Mallorca and Barcelona. The despotism of the being 116. The
following societies were at work:
bishops became so offensive that he began to com- (1) Iglesia Espafiola Reformada, or the Reformed
bat them in a weekly newspaper which he published Church of Spain. This church is the outgrowth of an
and called El Urbion. This paper being suppressed independent movement initiated and conducted
by the bishop of Mallorca, Pey Ordicx went to Barce- exclusively by native Spaniards, but fostered and
lona and founded a second paper, and, when this supported by the Spanish and Portuguese Church
was suppressed, still a third, El Cosmopolite, which Aid Society, organized in 1867 among English and
was condemned by the church in Nov., 1900. The Irish Episcopalians. Under its auspices The Church
rupture finally came because of the refusal of Pey of the Redeemer was organized in Madrid in 1869,
Ordiex to obey an arbitrary order of the bishop of and subsequently ten other churches were founded
Barcelona, whereupon he was publicly suspended and united to constitute The Reformed Church of
by the bishop, and forbidden to enter a church. He Spain, under the leadership of Bishop Juan Bautista
began to speak to the people in the open air, in Cabrera, formerly a Roman Catholic friar who was
theaters, and in public halls, attacking clericalism office by the archbishop of Dublin,
consecrated to his
and preaching the Gospel. He at once became the in 1887. The number of congregations has increased
popular idol and quickly gathered a great company to more than a score, the most important of which
of followers estimated at 100,000 or more. Among are found
at Madrid, Valladolid, Salamanca,
the number were at least 1,000 of the most zealous Villaescusa, Monistrol, San Vicente, Malaga, and
priests and friars in the various provinces of Spain. Seville. Schools are conducted at each of these
The movement was not properly organized, and, places and at numerous others. (2) The American
after two years, when the enthusiasm had somewhat Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions opened
abated, Pey Ordiex fell into a trap skilfully laid by its first mission in Spain at Santander in 1871, in
the Jesuits and was compromised in the eyes of his charge of Rev. William H. Gulick, a Congregational
followers; his influence was destroyed, and the move- minister, and his wife, Alice Gordon Gulick. At
ment collapsed, but it had demonstrated the readi- Santander Mrs. Gulick established her cele-
first
ness of many people and priests to respond to a brated school for girls. Later, in 1881, it was
stirring appeal against ecclesiastical abuses in be- moved to San Sebastian, and after the Spanish-
half of freedom and purity in religion. Still another American War it was moved to Madrid and estab-
manifestation of this spirit has been the gradual, lished in commodious quarters under the name of
silent revolt of the great body of intelligent laymen the " International Institute for Girls." An off-
against the asserted authority of the Roman Catho- shoot of this same school is the International College,
lic Church. This drift has been in progress for more now under the charge of the (Congregational)
than a century and it has moved apace with the Woman's Board of Missions of the United States. In
spread of culture and republican principles. Joseph these schools many girls have been fitted to become
M'Cabe (Decay of the Church of Rome, p. 88, London, Protestant teachers, or the wives of Protestant
"
1909), writing in 1909, says: Of the four or five workers throughout Spain. The first church was or-
million adult males in the country [Spain], only about ganized in Santander in 1876 with seventeen mem-
one million are Roman Catholics, and these are for bers. Subsequently churches and day schools were
"
the most part illiterate. Adistinguished visitor to established at San Sebastian and other points with
Spam in 1910, speaking of the men of intelligence, a central station at Madrid. In 1899 these churches,
" There are tens seven in number, of the Congregational polity, were
says: of thousands in the country
whose only use for the Church is at marriage, chris- united with twelve of the Presbyterian order which
tening, and burial services." And this must be the had been founded by the several Presbyterian so-
feeling that oppresses the visitor to Spain when he cieties named below. This is an organic union with
sees the few scattered worshipers in the magnifi- a ministry of twenty-three ordained pastors and
cent cathedrals in the cities, and hears the contemp- five evangelists, and is called The Spanish Evan-

tuous and jesting manner hi which the average in- gelical Church. (3) The United Free Church of
telligent Spaniard refers to the liaisons of the priests, Scotland, through the agency of the Spanish Evan-
the worship of saints and images, the miracles gelization Society (founded in Edinburgh in 1885),
wrought by relics, the pretentious ceremonies of the has established missions and schools in Seville,
.
Spain THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

Cadiz, Huelva, Granada, and various other places. as; ElCarreo, at Valencia, with others making eleven
(4) The Presbyterian Church has opened
Irish in most of which are issued monthly. The British
all,
missions and schools in Cordova and Puerta Santa and Foreign Bible Society, which entered Spain in
Maria; and conducts a theological school in the 1868, has a central depository in Madrid and sup-
latter place which has done not a little in training ports several colporteurs. Three other Protestant
evangelists and pastors. (5) The Dutch Presbyte- depositories and publishing-houses in Madrid, two
rians are reported to have stations at Malaga, in Barcelona, and one in Figueras, issue devotional,
Almeria, and Cartagena. (6) The Reformed controversial, and educational literature at a low
Churches of Lausanne, and Geneva, Switzerland, price. All 6f these agencies have been useful in the
sustain missions at Barcelona, Reus, Tarragona, spread of Pfcptestant culture and Evangelical Chris-
and Pontevedra. The English Wttleymn Meth-
(7) tianity throughout Spain.
odists undertook their first mission in Spain in )816 The great hindrance to the propagation of
from Gibraltar. This was soon abandoned because Evangelical Christianity in Spain in modern times
of the Roman Catholic opposition. Other efforts is the existing ecclesiastical corporation, with the

were made from 1830 to 1840, with Cadiz as a ignorance, intolerance, and irreligion which it has
center, but were also abandoned. The mission was fostered among the people. The strong-
revived in 1869, at Barcelona, and a growing work 3. Sum- est ally of the Protestant forces is the
has been conducted in that vicinity and in the mary of new national spirit which has gradu-
Balearic Isles, just off the coast. The work at Bar- Conditfons. ally emerged in the course of a century
celona has prospered greatly of late years under and has come in large measure to domi-
the leadership of Rev. Franklyn G. Smith. (8) The nate Spanish thought and feeling, especially since
German Lutherans have an important work in the loss of colonial possessions has centered the in-
Madrid, with several stations in the province, and terests of the nation on internal enterprises.
a publication house which has done much to supply It is not surprising that the transition from the
the country with evangelical literature. In Madrid medieval to the modern point of view in the national
also is located, in a fine building, the celebrated consciousness of the Spanish people has been ac-
Lutheran "College of the Future" (Colegio de companied by a general drift toward skepticism.
Porvenir). (9) The American Baptist Missionary To them the Roman Church has appeared as the
Union has a station at Barcelona, with several opponent of progress in every sphere, religious,
preaching-points in the province. (10) The Swe- social, intellectual. Therefore they say, "away with
dish Baptists support one missionary in Valencia the Church "; and as Rome has consistently claimed
who has charge of several small churches. (11) The to be the only representative of Christianity, the
"
Plymouth Brethren (q.v.) have chapels and schools only true religion, they say religion is Roman-
in La Comfia, Marin, San Tome*, Vigo, Figueras, ism, and we have none of it." At the same
will

Barcelona, Madrid, and various other places through- time it could hardly be expected that they should
out the kingdom. (12) The Christian Endeavor assume other than an indifferent, or even hostile,
Societies have been organized in connection with the attitude toward Protestantism. Their knowledge
Protestant churches throughout Spain and, to quote of Protestantism has come exclusively from their
the words of a Protestant missionary on the field, priests, who have presented to the people only cari-
" No other catures of the Reformers and of Protestantism and
agency yet operating in Spain has [so
vitally] produced the spirit of Christian fellowship have filled the minds of the people with preju-
and [so] helped toward vital union in Evangelical dice and contempt for any enterprise promoted by
work as the Christian Endeavor." The number of Protestants. More than this, the Roman Catholic
societies is forty-eight, with a total membership of Church, by its emphasis on forms, ceremonies, and
1,549. Conventions are frequently held in the non-essentials, and by its failure to give the people
principal cities and practically all the Protestant the Bible or adequate instruction in the fundamental
communions are represented. principles of morality, has perverted the conscience
In 1910, statistics show that primary schools were and corrupted the morals of the great mass of the
conducted by Protestants in fifty-one of the principal people to such an extent that there can be little to ap-
cities and towns of Spain, with 167 teachers and peal to them in the high moral teachings of Evangel-
6,462 pupils. Secondary schools were conducted ical Christianity; and this is notoriously true of the
in the larger Evangelical centers such entire Roman Catholic body, notwithstanding the
2. Schools as Alicante, Huelva, Rio Tinto, Madrid, fact that within it there are now thousands of sincere
and Other Santander, and Seville. The higher and faithful Christians, especially in the convents.
" If the Protestant propaganda is to meet success-
Agencies, institutions of learning were the Pres-
byterian Theological Institute," at fully the present crisis in Spain, the Protestant
Puerta Santa Maria, the " International College," leaders by taking a stronger grasp on the agencies
and the " International Institute for Girls," both at already in use and those which lie ready at hand,
"
Madrid, and at, Barcelona The College of the and by a sympathetic approach, and
Future." Two Protestant hospitals are located in 4. Oppor- specific adaptation of their methods to
Madrid, one in Barcelona, and a medical dispensary tunitief. the Spanish point of view, must speed-
in Figueras. The Protestants have two orphanages ily strive to attract the attention and
in Madrid, and one at Escorial. The principal Evan- win the respect of all classes. The opposition of the
gelical periodicals are La Lux, Amigo de la Ittfancia, ecclesiastical corporation can best be offset by an
and Esfuerto Chrittiano, all published at Madrid; intelligent and earnest effort to reach the individuals
El Evangdista, at Barcelona; El Heraldo, at Figuer- within the ranks of the clergy, to invite them to
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Spain

enter the Protestant ranks, and to provide means gratitude for the publication of the Royal Order of
for their support and training until they can be June 6th, 1910, which interprets in its natural
fitted for active work. A converted Spanish friar, sense Article XI. of the Spanish Constitution, and
one who has the right to know, asserts that there are grants to Spanish Evangelicals the toleration which
thousands of the purest and most zealous priests the f ramers of the Constitution desired to give them.
and friars in Spain, who are dissatisfied with their We are convinced that this wise step has secured
own religious status and inexpressibly grieved at the for Spain the good-will of all progressive peoples.
pitiable moral conditions which prevail among their We rejoice with all friends of Religious Liberty
brethren throughout Spain, and these would gladly that those who are unable to accept the State religion
welcome Protestantism, if their minds could be dis- are permitted to worship God in accordance with
abused of prejudice and they could be convinced their conscience, free from the disabilities which
that it was purer than Romanism. This is a point compelled them to conceal their existence as mem-
of strategic importance, which has hitherto been al- bers of the Evangelical Churches, and subjected
most entirely overlooked by Protestants. The them to many inconveniences.
ignorance of the great mass of the people can be We earnestly trust that this enlightened policy
overcome only through the public schools, and Prot- will be continued until Spanish Evangelicals enjoy
estants should not only prosecute with aU vigor the the Religious Liberty extended to Roman Catholics
work of their own schools but should show their by Protestant nations.
sympathy in every way with the cause of liberal BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the literature under the following
education. To meet the intolerance and preju- article, consult: H. Dalton, Die evangelitche Bewegung in
Spanitn, Wiesbaden, 1872; W. Pressel. Das Evangeltum
dice of the people the Protestant forces must be- in Spanien, FreienwaJd, 1877; F. E. and H. A. Clark, The
come more aggressive. Through the secular press Gospel in Latin Lands, New York, 1009; J. M'Cabe, The
and on the platform they must challenge the asser- Decay of the Church of Rome, ib. 1909.
tions of Rome and show themselves willing and able SPAIN, SIXTEENTH-CENTURY REFORMATION
to defend the doctrines and history of Protestantism MOVEMENTS IN: The Evangelical movement
before the bar of reason, and must show that Protes- in Spain was preceded by, and partly simultaneous
tantism is at least entitled to the consideration of with, the movements of the mystics and Humanists.
intelligent men. It must be demonstrated that The mystics, called oLumbrados, " enlightened/ fol- 1

Christianity is not necessarily compromised by the lowed Pietism, and showed a certain independent
history and vicious practises of the Roman Catholic attitude toward the external precepts of the Church.
Church, and that true Christianity is not inconsist- Francesco de Ossuna, 1527, in part three of his Aben-
ent with human freedom and progress in any sphere, cedario (Toledo, 1527), laid stress on the worthless-
In other words, they "
scientific, social, or religious. ness of all good works, and on faith alone." The
must provoke both the Romanists and infidels to Humanism of Erasmus found an enthusiastic ad-
public discussion of the issues involved, and must mirer in Alfonso de Valdes (q.v.), the imperial
project the Protestant enterprise generally upon such secretary. His brother Juan (q.v.) labored in be-
a plane as will appeal to the intelligence, the imagi- half of the principle of justification by faith within
nation, and the patriotism of the Spanish people. the Roman Church, particularly in Italy, before
This was the method of Luther and the Reformers, attempts at reconciliation with the Protestants had
and it is justified by its fruits. To meet the irreligion been given up. Great persecution was encountered
of the people the surest method, both of attack and brothers Jaime and Francesco de Enzinas
by the
defense, is to give them the Bible. This must be (q.v.) of Old Castile, from the now aroused Church.
accompanied by an aggressive evangelism that will Francesco de San Roman, sent to Bremen, 1541,
restore vital religion and quicken the conscience of attended an Evangelical church service and was
while everywhere Protestant leaders
deeply stirred by the sermon of Jacobus Probst.
all classes;
must insist upon such standards of morality among He read Evangelical literature and drew up a Span-
the converts as will commend the teachings of Prot- ish catechism. Upon his return to Antwerp, he was
estantism to the whole people and put to shame the seized and imprisoned for eight months. At Louvain
licentious abuses tolerated under the present relig- Enzinas discouraged him from preaching because of
ious regime. JUAN ORTS GONZALEZ. his meager training and experience, but, borne away
The following is the text of an address (copied by his zeal, he went to Regensburg, where the em-
from Evangelical Christendom, Nov.-Dec., 1910, p. peror was presiding over the diet. Here his im-
130), signed on behalf of the British organization of
portunities caused his arrest and at the departure
the Evangelical Alliance by the president, chairman, of the emperor, July 29, 1541, he was taken to Italy
treasurer, and general secretary, which was for- and Spain in chains and at Mallorca delivered to the
warded to Softer Canalejas, the president of the Spanish Inquisition. He was brought to Valladolid,
council of ministers, for transmission to H. M. the
and, refusing to recant, was burned in 1542. Fran-
king of Spain: cesco de Enzinas, after going to Wittenberg and

TO HIS MAJESTY DON ALFONSO translating the Greek New Testament into Spanish,
XIII., was imprisoned in 1543, but escaped two years later.
KING OF SPAIN. His brother Jamie translated a catechism into
Sir, On behalf of the Council and Members of the Spanish, but in 1545 was arrested in Rome and died
Evangelical Alliance (British Organization), repre- at the stake, 1547. Juan Diaz of Cuenca, the native
senting Evangelical Christians of various Churches town of the brothers Valdls, studied theology at
throughout the British Empire, we humbly address Paris for thirteen years, and was made a convert
to Your Majesty thia expression of our heartfelt by Jaime Enjrfnas. After sojourning several months
SptlStln
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 30

at Geneva with Calvin, 1545, and assisting Butter at Hernandez, a lay brother of the Isidore cloister, and
the colloquy at Regensburg, he retired to Neuburg- others were sent to the stake. The remains of Egidio
on-the-Danube and published his brief Summa and Constantino, who had died in prison, and the ef-
(1546). At the
instigation of his brother Alfonso, figy of Pineda were consigned to the flames. Several
attached to the papal court at Rome, he was treach- autos da ft followed in 1562 with a number of vic-
erously assassinated Mar. 27, 1546. tims including Garcia Arias, called Maestro Blanco,
The first Evangelical groups as nuclei of a con- who had kindled evangelism in the monastery. With
gregation were formed at Seville. Juan Perez de these autos, but barely mentioned, the Evangelical
Pineda, prior of the church of Osma, and secretary movement in Spain was practically smothered. The
of the imperial embassy at Rome, 1547, was there im- rest of the acts of the Inquisition pertain to resident
pressed by the papal abuses. After his return to French, Dutch, and English traders and seamen,
Andalusia he became director of the Colegio de apart from any national movement. A group of
doctrina at Seville, and made an effort to promote French Protestants were thus executed at Toledo,
true piety. Threatened by the Inquisition, he emi- 1565.
grated in the fifties to Geneva. In the mean time, From the group of fugitive monks of San Isidro
Rodrigo de Valera, a layman, who by diligent study originated the Artes Inquisitionis (Heidelberg, 1567),
of the Latin Bible had been led to depart from the under the pseudonym Reinaldus Gonsalvius Mon-
Roman doctrine and who had preached his new faith tanus, the reliability of which was evidently made
in the streets, influenced Juan Egidio, who worked uncertain by the author's hatred of his tormentors,
in unison with Constantino Ponce de la Fuente, and his southern temperament. Of the other fugi-
from 1533 powerful preacher at the cathedral. tive monks of San Isidro Antonio del Corro arrived at
The latter issued Confessio hominis peccatoris Geneva, 1557; he soon went to Lausanne to study
published in the Serinium antiquarum of Dr. at the academy. Theodor Beza (q.v.) honored him
Gerdes (Groningen, 1749-65) and Summa, in Es- with his friendship. In 1559 Corro with the recom-
panoles Rcformados (Madrid, 1847). Egidio, sus- mendation of Calvin returned to southern France in
pended by the Inquisition (1552) from preaching order to be nearer to his countrymen. In 15G3, he,
and lecturing for ten years, retracted, but died in together with his convent friend Cassiodoro de
repentance at Seville, 1556. In 1555 seven men and Reyna and Valera (ut sup.) printed the Spanish New
women from Seville fled to Geneva, and likewise Testament in one of the castles of the Queen of
twelve monks from the Isidore monastery at Seville. Navarre. Corro was proscribed at Toulouse, but
Perez who had been at Frankfort, 1556-58, secured escaped by flight. In Bergerac, where Reynsi
permission at Geneva to be preacher of a Spanish visited him, he was forbidden to preach because he
congregation. He had published a Spanish transla- was a foreigner. Juan Perez de Pineda met the same
tion of the New Testament (Geneva, 1556); Sumario fate in Blois. All these fugitives from Seville wore
breve de doctrina Christiana (1556); the Commen- sheltered in Montargis by Rene*e of France (q.v.).
tary by Juan de Valde*s on Romans (q.v. ; 1557), and In 1566 Corro followed a call as preacher to Antwerp.
on Corinthians (1557). In 1557 some of his publica-
I For the queen regent, however, a Spaniard as Evan-
tions were brought to Seville. Their discovery led to gelical preacher was objectionable. William of
the arrest of a great number of people who were sus- Orange desired that the Evangelicals of the Nether-
pected of heresy; others fled from the country . Con- lands should declare for the Augsburg Confession
stantino was placed under arrest. Similarly there in order to assure imperial aid. The Evangelical
arose an Evangelical movement in the capital, Valla- preachers were banished from the Netherlands,
dolid, and vicinity, on the initiative of Carlos de however, and Alva's regime began. In the mean time
Seso, of Verona, who in Italy had become acquainted Corro had gone to England. At London his known
with the doctrine of the Reformation. He cautiously friendship with Reyna, who had gone there from
gathered adherents, particularly the family of Cazal- Geneva, 1559, and taken charge of the Spanish con-
la, among them the court preacher Augustin de gregation and left England because of unfounded
Cazalla. In 1558 the Inquisition interfered and May charges, barred Corro from the French congrega-
21, 1559, there took place in Valladolid an auto dafe tion. He served the Italian, but was denied the
of Protestants. Cazalla retracted but was burned communion and deprived of the pulpit by the bishop.
alive; a brother and sister were garroted; a brother He united with the Anglican Church, and under
and sister condemned to imprisonment; and the ex- the auspices of the legal corporation of the Knights
humed remains of the mother were burned. The Templars in London delivered Latin theological
only one who refused to retract was the advocate lectures. He became religious teacher in three in-
Antonio de Herrezuelo, who suffered a heroic death. stitutes of the University of Oxford, 1597; was
In Aug., 1559, Carranza, archbishop of Toledo, was theological censor of Christ Church College, 1581-85;
arrested; after an imprisonment of seventeen years received a prebend of St. Paul's, London, 1582; and
he was condemned to abjure heresy. On Sept. 24, died, 1591, atLondon. He transformed the Epistle
1559, an auto dafe took place in Seville. A house in to the Romans into a dialogue between the apostle
which Evangelicals had frequently held meetings and a Roman (London, 1574). His Latin paraphrase
was torn down. The king attended a second auto da of Ecclesiastes (1579)has been printed several tunes.
fe in Valladolid, Oct., 1559, and took an oath that Highly esteemed as a theologian by the Armini-
he would assist and favor the Inquisition. Carlos ans, he denied predestinated reprobation and is said
de Seso was burned also Juan Sanchez the sacristan
; to have opposed the interference of the State against
of another brother of Augustin Cazalla, who in turn heretics. When Cassiodoro de Reyna left England
was garroted, In Seville, Dec. 22, 1560, Julian in 1565 he settled with his family at Frantfprt-on-
31 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA .tin

the-Main, where he made his living in the silk trade he changed to Spalatin from his birthplace after
and worked on his translation of the Bible (Basel, a frequent custom of the humanists. He was edu-
1568-69), which is the first complete Spanish Bible cated at the universities of Erfurt (1498-99, 1505)
translated from the original languages. Frankfort and Wittenberg (1502-03), early coming into con-
conferred on fri citizenship. In 1578 he became tact with humanistic circles. In 1505 he began to
French pastor of the adherents of the Augsburg Con- teach in the monastery of Georgenthal, and in 1508
fession at Antwerp. In 1585 he returned to Frank- was ordained to the priesthood. In the following
fort, and became, 1594, preacher of the Netherland year he was appointed tutor to the prince who later
colony of the Lutheran persuasion. Cipriano de Va- became Elector John Frederick, although here, as at
lera (ut sup.) fled with his friends from San Isidro to the monastery, his innovating tendencies rendered
Geneva and in 1562 was burned in effigy like Reyna his position 'uncomfortable. In 1511 he was for a
and Corro. He studied at Cambridge (B.A., 1560; time one of the guardians of the princes Otto and
M.A., 1563); was fellow of Magdalen College; and, Ernest of Brunswick-Ltineburg, although without
1566, was connected with Oxford. He published Los severing his connection with the court of their uncle,
doB Tratadoe del Papa i de la Misa (1588); Tratado Elector Frederick the Wise, who, in the following
para confirmar los pobres Cantivos de Berberia (1594) ; year, appointed him his own librarian a most con-
a new edition of the Spanish catechism of Geneva of genial post. Spalatin gradually became the elector's
1559 (1596); El Testamento Nuevo of C. de Reyna most trusted confidant and a power at court, but
(1596; 1870); Institution de la Religion Christiana though he was a priest, he had taken orders merely to
(1597), a translation of J. Calvin's Institutes; and escape the trials of a poverty-stricken humanist and
La Biblia of C. de Reyna (Antwerp, 1602 sqq. 1869) ;
.
poet. His association with Luther, whom he seems
Pedro Gale's, a young Catalonian, was arrested about to have met at Wittenberg, changed his life, and
first
1559 at Rome because he had asserted that it was un- even before he broke with the ancient faith, he had
necessary to confess to a priest and to abstain from found in the Wittenberg theologian his most ac-
meat on certain days, and was compelled to abjure. ceptable adviser. It was Spalatin, moreover, who
He studied at Bologna and Paris, and became pro- won the elector to sympathy with Luther, even while
fessor at Geneva, 1582. Afterward he went to endeavoring to restrain the more impetuous Augus-
southern France and taught in several places until a tinian from the course into which he was plunging,
Calvinistic pastoral conference found him unsound and it is to Spalatin that the vacillating tactics of
in doctrine. On the way to Bordeaux, with wife Luther during the earlier years of the Reformation
and children, he was captured by members of the are to be traced.
holy league and in 1593 surrendered to Spain. In In 1518 Spalatin accompanied the elector to the
the prison of the Inquisition at Saragossa he declared diet of Augsburg, and conducted negotiations with
that the doctrine of the Roman church was fre- Cajetan and Miltitz, and he was likewise present at
quently in contradiction with that of Christ and the the election and coronation of Charles V. as well as
Apostles. His second trial was completed after at the Diet of Worms, while during Luther's con-
his death, and were dug up and burned,
his remains cealment at the Wartburg he provided means for
Apr. 17, 1595. Melchior Roman of Aragon entered him to correspond with Wittenberg. Despite the
the order of the Jacobins. In the province of Tou- difficulty of his position with the elector, who still
louse he was appointed Procureur Provincial and remained faithful to the Roman Catholic Church,
sent to Rome; subsequently he became provincial Spalatin constantly sought to win him over to the
vicar and confessor of the Dames du Chapellet views of Luther, who demanded the abolition of
d'Agen. The sight of a victim burned at the stake the ritual maintained in the seminary at Wittenberg.
made a deep impression upon him, and he entered After the death of Frederick the Wise, Spalatin still
the Reformed church at Bergerac in 1600. remained in the service of the court, although he was
(THEODOR SCHAFER.) now able to take up permanent residence in Alten-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. McCrie, Hist, of the Progress and Swp- burg, where he had received a canonry in 1511, and
pression of the Reformation in Spain, Edinburgh, 1829 where he also assumed the position of preacher
and 1856; A. de Caatro, Hist, of Religion* Intolerance in
Spain, London, 1853; Memoires de Francisco de Enzinas,
vacated by the departure of Wenceslaus Link (q.v.).
2 volfl., Brussels, 1862-63; H. Dalton, Die evangelischc Be- On Aug. 13, 1525, he delivered his first sermon, but
wegung in Spam'm, Wiesbaden, 1872; E. Boehmer, Spanish his demand for a change of conditions in the Alten-
Reformers of Two Centuries, London, 1874-83; M. Droin,
Hist, de la reformation en Espagne, 2 vols., Lausanne, burg seminary led to bitter controversy, complicated
1880; M. Menendei y Pelayo, Hist, de los heterodoxos Es- by his speedy marriage, which led to his depriva-
pafioles, 3 vols., Madrid, 1881; J. Lassalle, La Reformeen tion, although by the aid of secular law he rein-
Espagne au xvi. siecle, Paris, 1883; J. Stoughton, The Span- stated himself and gradually carried out his pro-
ish Reformers, London, 1883; C. A. Wilkens, Oeschichte dee
spanischen Protestantiemus, Gtiteraloh, 1888, Eng. t ran si., posed reformation. In 1526 he accompanied Elector
Spanish Protestants in the 16th Century, London, 1897; M. John to the Diet of Speyer, where he took a promi-
F. van Lennep De Hervorming in Spanje in de testiende nent part in formulating instructions for the perma-
eeuw, Haarlem, 1901; E. Soh&fer, Beitrage tur Oeschichte nent embassy to the emperor determined upon by
der spanischen Protestantisms .. im 16. Jahrhundert, 3
.

vols., QUtenloh, 1902; idem, Sevitta und VaUadolid, die

the diet. He was also employed repeatedly in
evangelischen Gemeinden Spaniens im Reformationsalter. visitations. In 1530 he attended the Diet of Augs-
Halle, 1903.
burg, later accompanying the elector to the elec-
SPALATIN, spa-la-tin', GEORG: German Re- tion of Ferdinand at Cologne. In 1532 he attended
former; b. at Spalt (21 m. s.w. of Nuremberg) Jan. the Diet of Schweinfurth; in 1535 he went with
17, 1484; d. at Altenburg (26 m. s. of Leipsic) Jan. Elector John Frederick when the latter visited Vi-
16, 1545, His family name was Burkbardt, which enna to do homage; and he was a leading figure in
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

such important matters as the peace of Cadan ( 1 534) Weri der Oefuhle im Christentum (Leipsic, 1761;
and the formulation of the Schmalkald Articles. Eng. transl., Thoughts on the Value of Feelings in
Throughout his life he was deeply interested in the Religion, London, 1827). In 1764 he was called
University of Wittenberg, of which he had been ap- to Berlin as provost, supreme consistorial councilor,
pointed a visitor as early as 1518, and which he and first preacher at the Marienkirche and St.
regularly visited two or three times each year. Nicholas'. Here for more than twenty years he
In 1536 he sought to be relieved of his many duties, enjoyed the highest reputation as a pulpit orator,
and from this time on he became more and more his sermons being collected in a number of volumes.
melancholy, although he remained active until the It was at this time also that he published the work
last. which exposed him to much attack, the Ueber die
Spalatin was a prolific writer, although some NutebarkeU dee Predigtamts und deren Befdrderung
of his works remain unpublished. His only
still (1st ed. anonymously, Berlin, 1772), in which he
really original contributions, however, are historical advocated the preaching of ethical sermons only,
studies, especially on Saxon and contemporary to the complete ignoring of dogmatic problems.
themes, these including his Chronicon et annales (ed. The true motive of this position was the desire to
J. B. Mencke, Scriptores rerum Germanicarum, ii. 590 retain only what he deemed essential, to oppose the
sqq., Leipsic, 1728-30) and his biography of Freder- shallow infidelity proceeding from France and Eng-
ick the Wise (ed. C. G. Neudecker and L. Preller, land, and to reconcile Christianity with the spirit
Oeorg Spalatina hiatoriacher NochUiss und Briefe aus of the times. This same attitude led Spalding to
den Origincdhandscriften, Jena, 1851). A still more write his Vertraute Briefe, die Religion betreffend
valuable source for the history of the Reformation (1st ed. anonymously, Breslau, 1784), which have
period afforded by his voluminous correspondence,
is a distinct interest in that they give a vivid picture
of which only a small portion has appeared in print, of the shallowness and religious indifference then
although almost all the archives of Germany contain prevailing in the higher circles of society.
specimens, the library at Weimar being especially In 1786 the situation was abruptly changed by
rich in this respect. (T. KOLDE.) the accession of Frederick William IT., and feeling
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Schlegel, Hist, vita O. Spalatini, Jena, himself put at a decided disadvantage, Spalding
1603; J. Wagner, O. Spalatin und die Reformation der secured the acceptance of his resignation in 178X.
Kirchen und Schulen in AUenburg, Altenburg, 1830; E.
Engelhardt, G. Spalatin9 Leben, Leipsic, 1863; A. Seel-
He then retired to private life, and now wrote his
heim, O. Spalatin als tachaischer Historiograph, Halle, last work, Religion, eine Angelegenheit des Menschen
1876; G. Berbig, Spalatin und sein Verhaltnia tu Martin (1st ed. anonymously, Berlin, 1797), while after
Luther, Halle, 1906; and works on the life of Luther and his death his autobiographical Lebensbeschreibung
the Reformation in Germany.
von ihm selbst was edited by his son, G. L. Spalding
SPALDING, spel'ding, FRANKLIN SPENCER: (Halle, 1805). He was neither a great theologian
Protestant missionary bishop of Salt
Episcopal nor a great philosopher; he was essentially a popu-
Lake; b. at Erie, Pa., Mar. 13, 1865. He was edu- larizer who sought to bring the divine truths of
cated at Princeton (A.B., 1877) and at the General
Christianity close to the hearts and wills of rational
Theological Seminary (graduated, 1891), after men, though himself far from being an adherent of
having taught in the Princeton Preparatory School the Enlightenment, Rationalism, or Deism (q.v).
in 1887-88. He was ordered deacon in 1891 and (J. A. WAQENMANNf.)
ordained priest in the following year, being minister
1
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The chief source is the Lebenabeachrefoung
of All Saints , Denver, Col., during this time, and von ihm eftrf. ed. hia son, G. L. Spalding, Halle, 1905.
from 1892 to 1896 was principal of Jarvis Hall Consult further: J. M. Schrdokh, Chrietliche Kirchenge-
Military Academy in the same city. He was then
achichte eit der Reformation, viii. 138 sqq., Loipsic, 1808;
F. K. O. Hirsohing, Hirtoriick-liHerari***, Handbw*
rector of St. Paul's, Erie, Pa. (1896-1904), and in
bertihmter Peraonen. xii. 1, pp. 298 sqq., ih. 1808; K. G.
1904 was consecrated missionary bishop of Salt Sack, in TSK, 1864, part 4; G. W. Frank, Geschichte der
Lake, his diocese comprising all Utah, the eastern protettanti^hen Theologie, iii. 93 sqq., Leipsic, 1875.
half of Nevada, the western half of Colorado, and
SPALDING, JOHN LANCASTER: Roman Catho-
part of a county of Wyoming. lic bishop of Peoria, 111., nephew of the following;
SPALDING, JOHANN JOACHIM: German Lu- b. at Lebanon, Ky., June 2, 1840. He was educated
theran; b. at Tribsees (24 m. s.w. of Greifswald) at Mount St. Mary's College, Emmitsburg, Md.,
Nov. 1, 1714; d. at Berlin May
22, 1804. After at the University of Louvain, Belgium, and in
studying at the University of Rostock (1731-33), Rome, where he was ordained priest in 1863. After
he was for several years private tutor, private an additional year of study, he returned to the
secretary, etc., also finding considerable time for United States. In 1865 he was secretary to the
writing. In 1748 he published at Greifswald the bishop of Louisville, Ky., and in 1869 built, and
work which first brought him distinction, the Ge- was rector of, St. Augustine's (colored) Church at
danken fiber die Bestimmung des Menschen, in which Louisville, while in 1871 he was chancellor of the
he earnestly combated the increasing materialism of diocese of Louisville. From 1872-77 he was curate
his time. A year later he was chosen pastor of Las- of St. Michael's, New York City, and in the latter
sahn, where, though too radical for his congregation, year was consecrated bishop of the newly created
he found opportunity for studying and trans- diocese of Peoria, which office he resigned in 1008.
lating standard works of English deism and anti- He is the author of Life of Archbishop Spalding of
deism. In 1757 Spalding was called to Barth as first Baltimore (New York, 1872); Essays and Reviews
preacher and provost, and here he wrote, against (1877) ; Religious Mission of the Irish People (1880) ;
Pietism, his second great work, Gedanjcen uber den liectures and Discourses (1882); Education and the.
83 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Bpaldinr
Spaneenberg

Higher Life (Chicago, 1800); Things of the Mind GICHTEL, JOHANN GEORo), but after the death of
(1894); Means and End* of Education (1895); Songs, Johann Otto Gl using, the leader of the Gichtelians,
chiefly from the German
(1895); Thoughts and in 1727, and his first contact with the Herrahuters,
Theories and Education (1897); Oppor-
of Life he regained the simple faith of the Bible and the
tunity and other Essays (1900); Aphorisms and Church. In the summer of 1728 Zinzendorf so-
Reflections (1901); God and the Soul (New York, journed at Jena advocating his movement, and
1901) Religion, Agnosticism and Education (Chicago,
;
soon gathered a circle of Pietistic students, among
1902); Socialism and Labor (1902); Glimpses of whom Spangenberg took a leading position. In
Truth (1903); The Spalding Year Book (1905); 1729 Spangenberg took his master's degree and de-
Religion and Art, and Other Essays (1905). livered philological and philosophical lectures, but
his whole heart was with the movement of Zinzen-
SPALDING, MARTIN JOHN: Roman Catholic;
b. near Lebanon, Ky., May 23, 1810; d. at Baltimore, dorf, with whom his relations became most intimate,
especially after a visit to Herrnhut (Apr. 21-28,
Md., Feb. 7, 1872. He was graduated from St.
1730). He continually took part in the affairs of
Mary's College, Lebanon, Ky., 1826; studied the-
the community, and Zinzendorf at various times
ology in St. Joseph's Seminary, Bardstown, 1826-30;
claimed him as collaborator. In spring, 1732,
completed his course in the Propaganda College
in Rome, where he was ordained priest Aug. 13, 1834; however, Spangenberg accepted a call to Halle as
was pastor of the cathedral at Bardstown, Ky., 1834- adjunct in the theological faculty and assistant in
the orphans' home, but did not sever his connection
1838, 1841-48; president of St. Joseph's Theological
with Herrnhut. By his attempts to connect him-
Seminary, Bardstown, 1838-40; pastor of St. Peter's
self with a circle of Pietistic citizens of separatistic
Church, Lexington, Ky., 1840-41; coadjutor bishop
of Louisville, Ky., 1848-50; bishop 185O-54; arch- tendencies, he became involved in a conflict with
his superiors. Early in 1 733 he was called before a
bishop of Baltimore from 1864 till his death. He
founded The Catholic Advocate,, Louisville, in 1835, series of conferences of officers of the orphans'

and was connected with it until 1858; The Louisville home, it being considered a duty of the teachers to
Guardian in 1858; was main promoter of the Catho- conform with the principles and practise of the
lic Publication Society and Catholic World, both church. Spangenberg was finally deposed and left
New York the city on Apr. 4, 1733. With his dismissal the
City. While coadjutor bishop, he estab-
lished a colony of Trappist monks at Gethsemane, rupture between the movement of Zinzendorf and
near Bardstown, Ky., and a house of Magdalens in the Halle movement became complete.
connection with the Convent of the Good Shepherd, Spangenberg then formally joined the Brethren.
and while bishop of Louisville he built a magnificent Immediately after his dismissal from Halle Zinzen-
cathedral in that city. In 1857 he founded the dorf made him his assistant and entrusted him with
American College in Lou vain. Spalding was the various diplomatic missions in connection with
author of D'Aubigne's History of the Great Reforma- his plans of colonization.Spangenberg brought
tion in Germany and Switzerland Reviewed (Balti- colonists to Copenhagen and made the contracts in
more, 1844; subsequently enlarged and reissued as 1733, superintended the beginnings of the colony
on the Savannah river (1735), and finally turned
History of the Protestant Reformation in Germany
and Switzerland ; and in England, Ireland, Scotland, to Pennsylvania in order to care for the Schwenck-
the Netherlands, France, and Northern Europe, 2 vols., feldians (1736-39) who had emigrated under the
protection of the Moravian Brethren. The time
Louisville, I860); Sketches of the Early Catholic
Missions in Kentucky, 1787-1827: from 1739 to 1744 Spangenberg spent in his native
.
Compiled
. .

from authentic Sources, with the Assistance of ... S. country. During this stay in his native country he
T. Badin (1844) Lectures on the General Evidences of
;
had opportunities to show his talent for organization.
Catholicity (1847); Life, Times, ami Character of the
He organized the Brethren in England and founded
in London an auxiliary society for mission work, the
Right Rev. B. J. Flaget (Louisville, 1852); Mis-
cellanea: comprising Reviews, Lectures, and Essays Society for the Furtherance of the Gospel among the
Heathen (1741). But his best work was achieved in
on Theological, and Miscellaneous Sub-
Historical,
and edited, with introduction and America. In 1744 the synod of Marienborn ap-
jects (1855);
notes, Abbe* J. E. Darras' General History of the pointed him bishop and entrusted to him the super-
Catholic Church (4 vols., New York, 1866-66). vision of the work in America. Here two settle-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. L. Spalding, Life of Archbishop Spaldino ments of the Brethren were founded in Bethlehem
of Baltimore, New York, 1872; T. O'Gorman, in American and Nazareth, large areas of land were purchased,
Church History Series, ix. passim, ib. 1895. in New York and Philadelphia congregations
SPANGENBERG, spflng'en-berH, AUGUST GOTT- were formed, while preaching-stations and school-
LIEB: Bishop of the Unity of the Brethren; b. at houses were scattered all over the country. The
Klettenberg (34 m. e. of Gdttingen) July 15, 1704; financial difficulties which arose were solved by
d. at Herrnhut Sept. 18, 1792. In 1717 he entered Spangenberg through the peculiar organization at
"
the cloister school of Ilfeld and in 1722 the Univer- Bethlehem, the so-called common economy,"
sity of Jena. Here he became amanuensis of Johan- according to which all work was done in the interest
nes Franciscus Buddeus (q.v.), whose house was a of the whole community, which in its turn provided
center of Pietism, through whose influence his entire for the needs of individuals. Spangenberg returned
life was transformed, and he resolved to study the- in 1749 to Europe, but in 1751 he resumed his work

ology. In 1725 his development underwent a new inAmerica and founded a second great complex of
change as he was attracted by a circle of mystical North Carolina. In 1762 he again left
colonies in
separatists and afterward by Gichtelianism (see America and made his permanent abode in Germany.
XL 3
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 84

He became member of the provisional board of which he taught the Bervumarbitrium in the sense of
directors formed after the death of Zinzendorf the older Reformed theology. In Mansfeld there de-
(1760), and until his death took a leading position veloped also the tragedy of the controversy on hered-
among the Brethren, one of his services being his as- itary sin which had a fatal influence upon the future
sistance in formulating their system of doctrine. It life of Spangenberg. As early as 1560 Flacius had
is chiefly owing to Spangenberg that the Congrega- used against Strigel the expression that hereditary
tion of Brethren was saved from developing into sin is the substance of man. Spangenberg came to
sectarianism and that it maintained friendly rela- the defense of Flacius after the issuance of Johann
tions with the Evangelical church. Among his Wigand's treatise, Von der Erbaunde, with its blunt
literary works were Deklaration uber die zeither gegen condemnation of Flacius, with the final result that
uns ausgegangenen Beschuldigungen .
(Leipsic
. . in 1575 Spangenberg and his adherents were excom-
and Gorlitz, 1751); Darlegung richtiger Antworten municated and Spangenberg himself was forced to
auf mehr ate 300 Beschuldigungen gegen den ordi- flee into the district of Sangerhausen where he occu-

nariumfratrum ... (1751); Apologetische Schlua- pied himself with the composition of historical works
Bchrift ... (2 parts, 1752); Leben des Herrn and of polemical treatises. In 1578 he, together with
Nicolaus Ludwig Grafen und Herrn von Zinzendorf his protector, Count Volrad, was expelled from
... (8 parts, 1772-1775; Eng. transl., The Life of Sangerhausen and went to Strasburg; but in 1581
N. L., Count Zinzendorf, London, 1838); Idea fidei he was appointed preacher at Schlitzsee-on-the-
fratrum oder kurzer Begriff der christlichen Lehre Fulda in Hesse, where he was allowed to remain
in den evangelischen Brudergemeinen (Barby, 1779; until 1590. During this quiet tune he concluded his
Eng. transl., Exposition of Christian Doctrine, large works of history, but in 1591 he was deprived
London, 1784). Spangenberg was also a writer of of office though he was allowed to live in Vacha-on-
hymns, ten of which went into the denominational the-Werra. About 1595 Count Ernst of Mansfeld,
hymn-book of 1778. Some of these "
have been ren- the nephew of Count Volrad, brought about Spangen-
dered into English, among them The Church of berg's return to Strasburg, where he spent the rest of
Christ that he hath hallowed here," by Miss Wink- his life.
wortfi. (G. REICHEL.) Spangenberg left an immense number of writings,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Spangenberg left in manuscript three ac- in manyrespects faithfully following the lines of his
counts of his life, of which the first has not been pub- father's literary activity. He furnished practical
lished, the second and third appeared in Archiv fftr neiir
este Kirchenoeachichte, i. 40 sqq., ii. 429-487, and Noch-
commentaries on Thessalonians (1557), the pastoral
richten aua der Brtidergcrneinde, 1872, pp. 135-180. Let- epistles (1559 sqq.), Corinthians (1559 sqq.); and
tore of his are published in Der Brttderbote, 1872, pp. 9
compiled tables on the Pentateuch (1563) and other
sqq., 241 spjq., 1874, pp. 10 sqq., 1876, pp. 309 *qq.; and historical books of the Old Testament (1567). He
in J. Bernoulli's Sammlung kurzer Reisebeschrribuno, xvi
(1784), 195 sqq., is found a sketch of him by a contem- also continued the hymnological work of his father,
porary, Janichen. Sketches or lives have been written by Christliches Gcsangbuchlcin, Von den filrnembaten
J. Loretv, in Launtzische Monatoschrift, 1793, i. 336-358, Festen (137 songs, among them some of his own,
ii. 13-31, 75-89; J. Risler, Barby, 1794; K. F. Ledder-
hose, Heidelberg, 1846; C. J. Nitzsch, in Evangelitchea 1568); Cithara Lutheri, a series of sermons on the
Jahrbuch, 1855, pp. 197 sqq.; G. C. Knapp, ed. O. Prick, hymns of Luther (1569, reprinted Berlin, 1855);
Halle, 1884; and (best of all) by Q. Reichel, Tubingen, Der game Psalter gesangaweise und 114 achdne
. . .

1906.
geiatreiche Lieder . . . derlieben Patriarchen (1582).
SPANGENBERG, CYRIAKUS: Son of Johann Among his sermons special mention may be made of

Spangenberg; b. at Nordhausen (105 m. w. of Leip- Theander Lutherua (1589), a cycle of twenty-one

sic) June 7, 1528; d. at Strasburg Feb. 10, 1604.
sermons on Luther. His polemical writings refer
He began study at the University of Wittenberg in chiefly to the controversy on original sin, on syner-
1542; took his master's degree in 1550, and in the gism, and on the Lord's Supper. In German litera-
same year the counts of Mansfeld made him preacher ture he has a place as composer of spiritual comedies
at the Church of St. Andrew in Eisleben. Afterward (1589-90). But his chief services were in the sphere
he became town and court preacher in Mansfeld, of history, his most prominent works being Chronicon
and in 1559, after the death of Michael Coelius, gen- Corinthiacum (1562); Manafeldiache Chronica (Eis-
eral dean of the county and assessor of the Eisleben leben 1572); Hiatoria Manicheorum (Ursel, 1578);
consistory. He was a zealous champion of pure Sdchaaiache Chronica (Frankfort, 1580); Quern-
Lutheranism, combating the school of Melanch- furtiache Chronica (Erfurt, 1590); Adela Spiegel
thon. The theologians of Mansfeld became the (Schmalkald, 1591-94); Hennebergiache Chronica
stanches! partizans of Flacius. The three counts, (Strasburg, 1599) ; Bonifacius oder deutache Kirchen-
Volrad, Karl, and Hans Ernst, were in ecclesiastical Historic von 714-766 (1603), and others.
affairs under the influence of Spangenberg, whose (G. KAWERAU.)
authority grew wherever anti-Philippine Lutheran-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The principal collection of Spangenberg's
ism appeared. The severe invectives of Hieronymus letten is by H. Itanbe, 2 part*, Dresden, 1887-88, though
Menzel, general superintendent of Mansfeld, and of others are printed in J. Feoht, Historic ecctouistica atBcvli
Spangenberg induced Elector August in 1567 to cite XVI., supplement, Frankfort, 1684, and in Mans/elder
them to Dresden to vindicate themselves, but as BHUUr, xxii. 166 sqq. On his life consult: M. Adam,
Vita Ocrmanorum thtohfforum, pp. 731 sqq., Frankfort,
Counts Volrad and Christoph protested against such 1653; J. Feoht, ut sup., Apparatus, pp. 107 sqq.; J. Q.
summons as an intrenchment of their rights, the two Leuckfeld, Hitt. Spanoenbergenri*, Quedlinburg. 1712 (the
best); H. Rembe, in the reprint of Spangenberg's Formu-
theologians refused to go. Spangenberg had offended
ABrfrfeUetn, Dresden, 1887; W. Hots, in Beitrfye tur AM-
the theologians of Electoral Saxony especially by wcfon KtrctavMdtata, iii. 205 sqq.; J. J. 1. von D6U-
seven sermons De pradertinatione (Erfurt, 1567), in inger. Die Reformation, ii. 270 sqq., Regensburg, 1848;
35 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA iberg

J. W. Prater, Af. Flacius lUyricua und trine ZeU, vol. U. ( SPANHEIM, span'haim, EZECHIEL, BARON:
Erlangen, 1801; A. Q. Meyer, Der Fladanimu in der Eldest son of Friedrich Spanheim the Elder; b. at
Grafchaft Mansfdd, Halle, 1873; ADB, zzxv. 37 eqq.
Geneva Dec. 7, 1629; d. at London Nov. 7, 1710.
After 1642 he studied philology and theology at
SPANGENBERG, JOHANN : German theologian ;
Leyden, and in 1650 returned to Geneva. In 1656
b. atHardegsen (10 m. n.n.w. of Gdttingen) Mar. 29,
he became tutor of Karl Ludwig, elector of the Palat-
1484; d. at Eisleben (43 m. s. of Magdeburg) June 13,
1550. He was educated at Gdttingen and Einbeck; in inate, when studies in political science led nun into
a diplomatic career for which he showed great apti-
1508 he entered the University of Erfurt (B. A., 1511).
Afterward Count Botho of Stolberg called him as tude. By order of the elector he went in 1661 to
rector to the Latin School in Stolberg; about 1520
Rome to investigate the intrigues of the Roman
Catholic electors against his sovereign. After his
he became also preacher at the Church of St. Martin.
return in 1665 the elector employed him as ambassa-
He accepted the teaching of Luther and was soon
dor at different courts, finally in England where
known and esteemed as a prominent preacher of the
after 1679 he was charged also with the affairs of
Gospel. In 1524 the council of Nordhausen ap-
the elector of Brandenburg. In 1680 he entered the
pointed him preacher of the Church of St. Blasius
service of electoral Brandenburg as minister of
where during an activity of twenty-two years he es-
state. As ambassador of the great elector he spent
tablished the Evangelical doctrine, and after the
nine years at the court of Paris, and subsequently
disturbances of the Peasants' War carried out a new
devoted some years to studies in Berlin, but after
church order in a conservative spirit. Spangenberg
the Peace of Ryswyk in 1697 he returned as am-
rendered especially valuable services for the ad-
bassador to France where he remained until 1702.
vancement of higher education in Nordhausen. As
In 1702 he finally went as first Prussian ambassador
the cathedral and municipal schools had perished
to England. His principal works are Disputationcs
in the storms of the Peasants' War, Spangenberg
de usu ct pro3stantia numismatum antiquorum (Rome,
opened a private school in his own house until the
council at his request in 1525 established a new 1664; best edition, 2 vols., London and Amsterdam,
Latin school in the Dominican monastery, for which 1706-17) and Orbis Romanus (London, 1704; Halle,
1728). He also edited with Petavius the Opera
Spangenberg wrote text-books. In 1546, at his last of Cyril of Alexandria and of the Emperor Julian
visit to Eisleben, Luther proposed Spangenberg
(Leipsic, 1696). (S. D. VAN VEEN.)
to the counts of Mansfeld as general inspector of all
churches and schools in the county, and in this BIBLIOGRAPHY: A
sketch of Spanheim's life by I. Vcrburg
is prefixed to the Amsterdam ed. of the Disputationes, ut
new position Spangenberg remained until his death.
sup.
Of his numerous writings mention may be made of
Proaodia in usum juventutis Northusance (Augsburg, SPANHEIM, FRIEDRICH, THE ELDER: Cal-
1535); QuoRstiones musicce in usum scholce Nort- vinistic professor at the University of Leyden;
husiance (Nuremberg, 1536); Evangelia dominicalia b. at Amberg (35 m. e. of Nuremberg) Jan. 1, 1600;
in versiculos versa (1539); Artificiosos memories d. at Leyden May 14, 1649. He entered in 1614 the
libellus, in usum studiosorum collectus (Wittenberg, university of Heidelberg where he studied philology
1539); ecclesiasticus (1539); Margarita
Computus and philosophy, and in 1619 removed to Geneva to
theologica (1540;Eng. transl., The Sfi of Divinitie, study theology. In 1621 he became tutor in the
London, 1548); Gross Katechismus Lutheri . . . . . .
house of Jean dc Bonne, Baron de Vitrolle, governor
in Fragstiicke verfasset (1541); Ein new Trostbiichlin of Embrun in Dauphine", and after three years ho
fur die Krancken, Und vom christlichen Ritter (1541- visited Switzerland (Geneva), and France (Paris),
1542) AU und neue gcisdiche Lieder und Lob-Geseng
; and England, returning to Geneva in 1626 and be-
von der Geburt Christi fur die junge Christen. . .
coming professor of philosophy in 1631 he went over
;

(1 543) ; PsaUerium carmine Elegiaco redditum (1 544) ; to the theological faculty, and was rector of the acad-
Cantiones ecclesiasticce latinos simul ac synceriores emy 1633-37. In 1 642 he removed to Leyden as pro-
qucedam pr&culcB . . .
Kirchengesdngedeutschdurchs fessor of theology. In Holland Spanheim became
gantze Jar
(1545); .Des ehelichen Ordens
. . one of the most decided defenders of the Calvinistic
Spiegel und Regel (1545); Kommentar zur Apostel- doctrine of predestination against Amyraut. He
geschichte (Frankfort, 1546); Explications evangeli- published anonymously, Le Soldat suedois (1634), a
orum et epistolarum, qua dominicis diebus more history of the Thirty Years' War until 1631; Le
usitato proponi in ecclesia populo solent, in tabulos Mercure suisse (1634); Commentaire historique de la
. . . redactce (Basil, 1564), edited by his son Cyri- vieetdela mort de Christofle Vicomtc de Dohna
. . .

akus (q.v.). (G. KAWERAU.) (1639). His principal theological works are. Dubia
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Meniel, Epicedion in memoriam Johannia evangelica (3 vols., Geneva, 1631-39; Eng. transl.,
Spangenbero, Wittenberg, 1561; idem, Narratio historica Englands Warning byGermaniea Woe, London, 1646) ;

de ftatu ecclesicB in comitotu Mansfcldensi, reproduced in Disputatio de gratia universali (3 vols., Leyden,
Zntochrift de* Harzvereins, xvi (1883), 86 sqq.; M. Adam, 1644-48); Epistola ad Buchananum super contro-
Vita Germanorttm theologorum, p. 98, Frankfort, 165$;
versiis . in ecdesiis Anglicanis (Leyden, 1645).
,
J. O. Leuckfeld, Verbesserte historisehe Nachricht von dan
.

Lisbon und Schriften Jokann Spangenberos, Quedlinburg, Against the Anabaptists he wrote Varice diaputationcs
1720; E. Q. Fdratemann, Mittheilungen tu einer Oeschichte antirAnabaptisticoB (1643) and Diatribe historica de
der Schuten in Nordhauaen, pp. 22 aqq., Nordhausen, 1824,
origine, progresw, sectis et nominibus anabaptist"
G. H. Klippel, Deutsche Lcbena- und CharoJeterbilder i. 1
sqq., Bremen, 1863; K. Krumhaar, Die Graffschaft Mans-
arum (1645). (S. D. VAN VEEN.)
feld im Reformationateitator, pp. 346 sqq., Eisleben, 1866, BIBLIOGRAPHY. A. Heidan, Oraho funebris in obiium . . .

T. Penchmann, Die Reformation in Nordhauten, pp. 10 F Spanhemii, Leyden, 1649- Bayle, Dictionary, v. 193-
sqq., Haile, 1881. 195, Niceron, Aftmoirea, xzix. 35, J. Senobior, Hist, lit-
 with THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 86

tiraire de Geneve, ii. 191 iqq., Geneva, 1786; Liohtenberger, joiced in the Evangelical Alliance as an expression
ESR, xi. 666. of Protestant unity. Although he sympathized
SPANHEIM, FRIEDRICH, THE YOUNGER: Son with the difficulties of Bishop George David Cum-
of Friedrich the Elder; b. in Geneva May 1, 1632; nuns (q-v.), he deprecated his secession, and re-
d. at Leyden May 18, 1701. He studied at Leyden mained firm in his adherence to the church. Per-
(M.A., 1648), continuing his studies in theology after haps no man of his tune in America did more to
the death of his father, and in 1655 accepted a call to check the spread of the tractarian theology. He was
assist in reorganizing the University of Heidelberg, an earnest antagonist of the dogma of a tactual
having previously received his doctorate at Leyden, apostolical succession, holding it to be essentially un-
whither he went as professor of theology in 1670, scriptural and anti-Protestant. To his great intel-
giving instruction after the next year in church lectual powers he added the influence of exalted
history, becoming librarian in 1674, being four piety, a character of great modesty and humility,
times rector, and in 1684 becoming professor pri- and a life of simplicity and self-denial. His life-
marius. long feebleness of health unhappily prevented his
The results of his literary activity, which was great, entering the field of authorship; but a number of his
were collected in his Opera (3 vols., Leyden, 1701-03). occasional sermons and addresses were published.
They included works in history, exegesis, and dog- In collaboration with J. Johns he wrote Memoir
matics, to which must be added a certain polemic of Rev. W. Meade (Richmond, 1867); and, inde-
activity against Arminians, Cartesians, Cocceians, pendently, Select Discourses (New York, 1877).
and Jesuits. In this last respect important is his BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Walker, Life and Correspondence of Will-
De novissimis circa res sacras in Belgio dissidiis iam Sparrow, Philadelphia, 1876.
epistola (Leyden, 1677). His theology was con-
" novatores." His SPEAKING WITH TONGUES.
servative, and he opposed the
Basal New-Testament Passages ( 1).
commentary on Job is regarded as of high value. Manifestations in the Early Church (J 2).
He issued also a Brews Introductio ad historiam utri- Old-Testament and Ethnic Parallels (5 3).
usque Testamenti (1694), and a large number of ser- The New- Testament Phenomena (J 4).
mons. [The list of his writings takes up two pages Meaning of Glossa (ft 5).
in the British Museum Catalogue.] Of the early Christian phenomenon called " speak-
D. VAN VEEN.) "
(S. ing with tongues (Gk. glossolalia) I Cor. xii.-xiv.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The funeral oration by J. Triglandius was gives a fairly comprehensible picture. It is repre-
published at Leyden, 1701, and was included in vol. ii. of sented as an activity of the Spirit of God coming
Bpanheim's Opera, ut sup. Sketches of his life are given
in their alphabetical place in Niceron, Memoirea, xzix. 11- upon man and constraining him to external ex-
26 and in Chauffepie's Nouveau Dictionnaire, Amsterdam, pressions directed to God but not understood by
1750-66. others (xii. 10-11, xiv. 2), during which the soul life
SPARROW, WILLIAM: Protestant-Episcopalian; is passive and the understanding in

b. at Charlestown, Mass., Mar. 12, 1801; d. at x. Basal abeyance (xiv. 14-15); the condition
Alexandria, Va., Jan. 17, 1874. His parents re- New- that of Ecstasy (q.v.), the utterances
is

turning to Ireland in 1805, he attended a boarding- Testament are words or sounds of prayer or praise,
school in the Vale of Avoca; returned to America, Passages, but are not clear in meaning (xiv. 5,
181 7; was a student at Columbia College, New York, 13-16), and give the impression to the
1819-21; professor of Latin and Greek at Miami hearer of being mysteries or insane expressions (xiv.
University, 1824-25; ordained in 1826; colaborer 2, 23), and need, at any rate, to be interpreted,
with Bishop Chase in founding Kenyon College; though an unbeliever might see in the phenomenon
eleven years Milnor professor at Gambier; and a divine sign (xiv. 21-22) Three sets of illustrations
.

professor of systematic divinity and Christian evi- used by Paul serve to make this clear: in the use of
dences in the Theological Seminary of Virginia, pipe and harp distinct and separate notes are neces-
1840-74. During the civil war (1861-64) he carried sary to give meaning, a definite set of sounds of the
on the work of the seminary in the interior of Vir- trumpet is required to give the signal to battle,
ginia. At its close his unique relations to both and knowledge of a strange tongue is needed in
sections enabled him to exert important influence order to interpret it (xiv. 7-11). This phenomenon
in restoring the Protestant Episcopal Church in seems to include sighs, groanings, shoutings, cries,
Virginia to its former ecclesiastical relations. and utterances either of disconnected words (such
Sparrow was recognized as the ablest theologian as Abba, hosanna, hallelujah, maranatha) or of con-
and the most original thinker of the evangelical nected speech of a jubilating sort which impresses
school in the Protestant Episcopal Church. He the "observer as ecstatic prayer or psalmodic praise.
bowed with unquestioning faith to the supremacy Other passages in the New Testament refer to the
of Scripture, yet welcomed modern criticism as an practise. So the ungenuine Mark xvi. 17, as well
ally; all his thinking proceeded on the conviction as Acts x. 46, xix. 6, refers to something like that in
of the ultimate harmony of revelation and science. I Cor. xii.-xiv. But Acts ii. 1-13, referring to the
An earnest Evangelical and a zealous Protestant, events at Pentecost, needs to be distinguished,
he was usually classed as Anninian in theology; though the phenomena mentioned in verses 4 and
yet he abhorred the narrowness of theological sys- 13 range themselves with those of I Cor. xiv. 21,
tems, and led his pupils to independent thought 23. But the intention of the writer in Acts is not
and rational inquiry. He was an earnest Episco- to describe ecstatic speech, it is rather to describe
palian, but put doctrine before order; hence he felt a miracle of tongues. The noise resulting, happen-
himself at one with Protestant Christendom, ing at the festival of weeks, drew a large concourse,
87 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA with Tongue*

and in verses 9-11 are named nations representa- In the Ada Perpetuce et Fdicitatis, viii., the Spirit
tives ofwhich each heard in his own tongue the dis- overpowers Perpetua and constrains her to utter-
ciples make known the wonders of God. While only ance of a name of which she had not thought. The
four varieties of speech are necessarily involved, the description of the outbreak of Montanism in Euse-
implication is that these Galileans were enabled to bius, Hist, eccl., V., xvi. 7 sqq. (NPNF, 2 ser., i. 231)
speak the Gospel in the languages of the world. But does not exclude speaking with tongues, though the
the problem here presented is difficult. How could concern here is not with unmeaning and unintelligi-
men of different nationality hear, each of them, all ble speech but with prophetic utterance, and not only
the disciples speaking his mother tongue? and it is Montanus but two women had the seizures. Epi-
not suggested that certain disciples addressed groups. phanius (Hcer., xlviii. 4) makes Montanus describe
Indeed, this appears to be within the region of his experience as a taking-out of his own heart by the
legend. Moreover, it would not be strange for the Lord and the implanting of a new one. Tertullian
Jew of verse 9 to hear a Galilean speak his mother (Adv. Marcivnem, V., viii., Eng. transl. ANF, iii.
tongue; the conjectures of Tertullian, Jerome, and of 445-446) seems to include, among his demands of
modern men that some other word is to be read for Marcion, that the latter explain what seems to be a
"
Judea " does not help in view of the text/ and the claim to glossolalia, and the same thing is probably
conclusion is that the story of the miracle is a late meant when in his De resurrectione carnis there is a
intrusion. The speech of Peter in verses 17-18 im- kind of utterance mentioned which no one can know
plies a prophetic inspiration, but says nothing of without interpretation. A weighty witness for the
strange tongues. The enlargement which is to be continuance of this gift is presented by Ireneeus
"
seen here can be traced to Judaistic sources, as in the (Hcer., V., vi. 1), who speaks of many brethren in
belief that the law of Sinai was not to be restricted the Church who . .
through the Spirit speak all
.

"
to the Hebrews but to be given to the nations in a kinds of languages (ANF, i. 531), and he evidently
miracle like that of Pentecost (cf Philo, De septen-
. refers to the phenomena noted by Paul. Yet it can
ario, and De decalogo, 9, 11). Such a conception not be decided whether Irenaeus meant speech in
aw this, embodied in the work of the Alexandrian foreign languages like that of Pentecost or a phe-
Jew, could easily become the basis of an insertion nomenon like that of Corinthians. But that some
like that in Acts ii. This conception is the more such phenomena were in his mind is clear, with
easily understood in that the character of Luke's a probable reference to I Cor. xiv. Chrysostom ap-
representation is to make Christianity universally tic. pears at a loss to describe the facts, which are no
Related phenomena appear elsewhere. In I Cor. longer manifested in his times. In a book that is
xii. 1-3 Paul evidently means by the pneumatikoi half Jewish and half Christian, the Testament of
especially those in ecstasy; in verses 4-11 he shows Job, is a description of the ecstatic speech of the
that the working of the Spirit is varied, and in xiv. daughters of Job, one of whom used the method of
37-39 the pneumatikoi may be those who speak with one class of angels; and this implies the conception
tongues. He also places here the prophets who were of a foreign tongue. Yet the phenomenon is not
endowed with the Spirit alongside those speaking altogether common, and it can not have been im-
with tongues; with verse 39 should be portant in the apostolic Church; later manife.sta-
2. Manifes- compared I Thess. v. 19-20. Paul had tions of which church history knows, such as those
tations in not had occasion to warn at Thessalon- of the Irvingites, must be explained as repristina-
the Early ica against ecstatic and related phe- tions of the events of Pentecost and early Christian-
Church. nomena (cf. II Thess. ii. 2). Gal. iv. 6 ity.
and Rom. viii. 15-16, 26-27 are to be Conditions similar to those outlined in the fore-
brought into this relation, in which the crying (Gk. going are indicated in the Old Testament, where the
krazdri) of the Spirit and its testimony are distin- influence either of the Spirit of God or of an evil
guished from that of man's spirit. It is God's spirit is represented as producing exalted, enthusias-
spirit which speaks within us, and when we know tic, ecstatic speech or action. To the examples
not how to pray, the Spirit makes intercession with noted under Ecstasy (q.v.) may be
unutterable groanings (Rom. viii. 26), and this God 3. Old-Tea- added the seventy elders of Num. xi.
understands (verse 27) The apostle himself has had
. tament and 24-30, and the illustrations furnished
experience of this speaking with tongues (I Cor. xiv. Ethnic by Jer. xxiii. 32, xxix. 26. Having a
18; cf. II Cor. xii. 1, in which he describes ecstasy, Parallels, connection with these phenomena is
and note verse 4, which is to be placed with I Cor. the condition of the prophet when
ii. 9). Somewhat unrelated to this species of ecstasy having his vision; -the consciousness however per-
are the phenomena of Rev. i. 10, iv. 2, xvii. 3, xxi. mits the prophet to give a clear and connected ac-
10, which deal with apocalyptic vision. Justin count of what he sees and an interpreter is not
Martyr relates that in his own times spiritual gifts needed, and nothing is said in this relation of ecsta-
were active in the Church (Trypho, Ixxxii., Ixxxviii., ticspeech. But the things seen in the visions ap-
Eng. transl., ANF, i. 240, 243-244) though it is not pear to the prophet to be psychological realities.
certain that speaking with tongues is here intended; The Greek-Roman world furnishes many evident
in chap, xxxix. he speaks of seven kinds of gifts, parallels. The Greek oracles were mediated through
and this seems to combine Isa. xi. 2 and I Cor. xii. priests or priestesses who
uttered what the divinity
7-10, though speaking with tongues is again not suggested to them while their consciousness was in
"
mentioned. The Address to the Greeks," chap, x., complete abeyance. Another characteristic of the
hardly comes into account here, since the Greek giving of oracles is the obscurity or unintelligibility
doctrine of inspiration is here under discussion. of the oracle, which ever needs explication. So
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 88

Plutarch (De pythia oraculis) brings out the com- but they had no means of discriminating. Paul
plete passivity of the pythia, Heraclitus (Sermo, then recalls for them that they had had experience
Ixxix.) notes the necessity of elucidation of the oracle, of the power of demons, but that now they were
Dio Chrysostom (Oratio, x.) remarks upon the use ruled by the Spirit of God; no one so ruled could
of rather uncommon, poetic, strange, and circum- call Jesus accursed, nor could one call Jesus Lord
locutory expressions. Very illustrative for this except in the Holy Spirit (I Cor. xii. 2-3). Paul then
class of phenomena*is the description which Plato made the distinction rest upon the content of
gives in the Timceus of the mantis or prophet. He spiritual qualification (I Cor. xiv.) While the physi-
.

days that the inspired and true seer's art is not prac- ological basis of thephenomena was the same in the
tised under full consciousness, but that the vision two classes, Paul saw a distinct difference; the Corin-
comes when the understanding is under constraint, thians were in danger of putting undue stress upon
or in sleep, sickness, or ecstasy, and what he sees this one gift, perhaps because it was connected with
or says under such circumstances is to be inter- memories of their old life; but as a matter of fact
preted by one who has his reason. The last is the it of value solely to the one who experienced it
was
gift of the prophet. This representation is analogous unless it were interpreted to others. Hence Paul
to that of Paul, except that the latter does not make would regulate its employment; it was to be used
the prophet interpret the utterances, but speaks of only when an interpreter was present, and not by
an interpreter of the same. In post-Homeric tunes more than two or three at a tune even then, that no
the cult of the Dionysiac orgies made their entrance confusion might result. Indeed, prophecy was a far
into the Greek world. According to this, music, more desirable gift than speaking with tongues. A
the whirling dance, and means of intoxication had slightly different condition is that of Pentecost,
"
power to make men full of deity," to produce a where the events resemble the ecstasy of the Old
condition in which the normal state was left behind Testament and of the Greeks; but a new force is at
and the inspired perceived what was external to work in that it makes them rejoicingly speak of the
himself and to sense. The soul was supposed to wonderful works of God, and have new knowledge,
"
leave the body, hence the word ecstasy," a being inner illumination, and firmness in propagating the
out of oneself, while other expressions used were news of the Gospel.
" " "
to rave and to be in the divinity," the latter In considering the meaning of glossa, " tongue,"
expressing the thought that in its absence from the in the various combinations in which it appears in
body the soul was united with deity, and so the deity referring to the phenomena in question, it may be
spoke in and from the person in that condition. said that this word is used in general to designate
At such times the ecstatic person had no conscious- the organ of speech, to denote a method
ness of his own. It was to this quality that Philo 5. Meaning of speech (in which it has various
attributed the prophet's power (De spec, leg., IV., of Glossa. significations), and also speech itself.
viii.), while Plato regarded true poetry as the result But in the passages in the New Testa-
of divine inspiration through the poet's being entheoi ment under discussion it is best to take glossa in the
"
in the divinity." Out of the Dionysiac rites, metaphorical sense as a technical term denoting a
then, developed a species of prophesying wliich strange and unwonted form of words. With this
through ecstasy put itself into connection with the meaning it occurs not only in the literary monu-
divine and spirit world and so foretold the future. ments but as employed by the common people es-
Cicero (Pro Sexto, x.) joins prophesying and mad- pecially in referring to phenomena which seemed
ness, and in De divinatione, I., Ixvii., asserts that it supernatural or unordinary, like the utterances of
was not Cassandra who spoke, but the divinity in- the pythia, of poets, or of the muses. This could
closed in the human body. A prophetess officiated then easily be taken over by Christianity to express
" "
in a Thracian temple of Dionysus as did the pythia something different from teaching and from
in Delphi. And this same frenzy spread into Italy prophecy, something which impressed one as being
(Livy, XXXIX., viii. sqq.). Origen (Contra Celsum, of the nature of secrets or as inspired. No insuper-
VII., ix., Eng.transl. in ANF, iv. 614) quotes Celsus able difficulties inhere in this meaning. The most
to the effect that both in and outside the sanctua- important arises from the fact that the term seems
ries people exhibited ecstatic phenomena and uttered to have been used in Jerusalem before it was in
unknown, unintelligible speech. In modern times, Corinth, and could not have derived directly from
such demonstrations are not entirely unknown, as the Greek world. The explanation may be offered,
in the case of the dervishes (see DERVISH). however, that in IV Mace. x. 21, and often in the
Consideration of these examples enables one to Psalms (e.g., Ps. cxxvi. 2) the tongue is used to mean
arrive at a decision regarding the New-Testament the instrument of the praise of God. The Jews also
speaking with tongues. It is significant in this thought of the tongue as the unconditioned instru-
connection that the two places, Jerusalem and ment of God and of his Spirit, and from this " to
"
Corinth, where the phenomenon in question ap- speak with tongues could easily come to mean an
peared recall the Old-Testament phenomena and the ecstaticand jubilant method of speech in praise of
" "
practise in the Greek world. Accord- God. So that if glossa means tongue," to speak
" " "
4. The New- ing to the opening verses of I Cor. xii. with other tongues or with new tongues would
Testament it appears that the Corinthians had be analogous to the expression in I Cor. xiii. 1,
Phenomena, asked Paul how one could recognize "
Though I speak with the tongues of men and
the working of the Spirit of God. They of angels." On Greek soil glossa was employed
had learned that the demonstrations of demons to express an unusual, poetic, or unintelligible
were like the operations of the Christian charismata, method of expression. Whether Paul as a Hellenist
89 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

gave the expression the peculiar oast it has in offices of religion for some 200 persons executed for
I Corinthians or whether he borrowed it, it is witchcraft, although he believed them all to be
equally explicable from the basis here afforded. innocent, later assailing the entire system of trial
(P. FEINB.) for witchcraft in his Cautio criminalis t seu de pro-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature of especial worth in that con- cessibus contra sagas (Rinteln, 1631), the first edition
tained in the commentaries on Acts and I Corinthians, of which appeared anonymously. For several
many of which contain excursuses on the phenomena of months he was
Pentecost, with which may be employed the discussions seriously ill at Hildesheim, ap-
in the works on the history of the Apostolic Age e.g., parently in consequence of a Protestant attempt to
MoGiffert, pp. 60-51, 308, 521-622, 526; in the works on assassinate him, and for a tune he lived at the little
general church history, e.g., Sohaff, Christian Church, i.
village of Falkenhagen, but in 1632 he was again
230-243; and in works on the life of the Apostle Paul,
e.g., Conybeare and Howson, vol. i., chap. xiii. Consult teaching moral theology at Cologne, inspiring the
further: F. Bleek, in TSK, 1829, pp. 3-79, 1830, pp. 45- Medulla theologies moralis of Hermann Busenbaum
64; F. C. Baur, in Tlibinoer ZeUachrift f&r Theoloffic, 1S30, (q. v.) Subsequently he was parish priest at Treves,
.

pp. 78-133; idem, in TSK, 1838, pp. 618-702; M.Schneck-

where his devotion to the sick and wounded during
enburger, BeiMtge zur Einleitung in da* N. T., Stuttgart,
1832; D. Schults, Die Oeutergaben der eraten Christen, the siege and after the capture of the city by the
Breslau, 1836; Wieseler, in TSK, 1848, pp. 703-772; imperial and Spanish troops in 1 635 exposed him to a
C. Bohm, Roden mil Zungen und Weiaaaoen, Berlin, 1848;
A. Hilgenfeld, Die Gloaaolalie in der alien Kirche, Leipsic. contagious fever of which he died.
It is, however, as a religious poet that Von Spee is
1850; E. RoBsteuscher, Oabe der Sprachen im apoatoliachen
Zeitalter, Marburg. I860; A. Maier, Die Gloaaolalie, Frei- now best known, both his Trutz NachtigaU, oder
burg, 1855; W. A. Van Hengel, De Gave der Talcn, Ley- geistlichs-poetisch Lust-Waldlein (Cologne, 1649)
den, 1864; J. Gloel, Der heilioe Geist in der HeiUverk&ndi- and his Guldenes Tugendbuch (1649) having passed
gwio dea Fault*, pp. 337-346, Halle, 1888; C. Weis-
sacker. Das apoatoliache ZeitaUer, pp. 589 sqq., 2d ed., through repeated editions, the latest of the Trutz
Freiburg, 1892, Eng. transl., 2 vols., London, 1894-95; Nachtigall, including the poems of the Guldenes
M. Beverslius, De hettioe Geist en zijne Werkingen volgens
het . . . N. Verbond. Utrecht, 1896; A. Wright, Some
Tugendbuch, being that of A. Weinrich (Freiburg,
TV. T. Problems, pp. 277-302, London, 1898; H. Gunkel, 1908), and of the Tugendbuch that of F. Hattler
Die Wirkungen dea heiligen Geiatea, pp. 18-20, 2d ed., Gdt- ( 1894) Two of his hymns have been translated into
.

" "
tingen, 1899; H. Weinel, Die Wirkungen dea Geiatea und English: Bei stiller Nacht, zur ersten Wache as
der Geiater, pp. 71-100, Freiburg, 1899; D. Walker, The
"Within a garden's bound"; and " Der trube
Gift of Tongues and Other Essays. London, 1906 (conserv- " "
ative in tone) C. Lombard, De la glosaolalie ehez lea pre-
;
Winter ist vorbei as The gloomy winter now is
miers Chretiens et des phenomenea aimilairea, Lausanne, o'er." (O. ZflCKLERf.)
1910; DBT, iv. 793-796; EB, iv. 4761-76. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lives have been written by J. B. Diel, 2d
ed., by B. Duhr, Freiburg, 1901; H. Cardauna, Frank-
SPECHT, spent, THOMAS: German Roman fort, 1884; I. Gebhardt, Hildesheim, 1893; R. Mailer, in
Catholic; b. at Tilrkheim (25 m. s.s.w of Augsburg), Hiatonach-politische Blotter, cxxiv (1900), 785 sqq., cxzv
Bavaria, Jan. 29, 1847. He was educated at the (1901), 430 sqq.; in ADB, xxxv. 92 gqq.; and KL, xi.
675 aqq. ; cf T. Ebner, F. Spee und die Hexenprozeaae seiner
Lyceum of Dillingen and at the University of Mu-
.

Zeit, Hamburg, 1900.

nich (D.D., 1875) He was ordained to the priesthood
.

in 1873; was curate at St. U

Inch's, Augsburg SPEER, ROBERT ELLIOTT: Presbyterian lay-
(1875-81); and professor of religion and Hebrew at man; b. at Huntingdon, Pa., Sept. 10, 1867. He
the gymnasium at Neuburg, Bavaria, until 1887. was educated at Princeton College (A.B., 1899)
Since 1887 he has been professor of apologetics and and also studied for a year at Princeton Theological
dogmatics at the lyceum of Dillingen, and librarian Seminary. He was secretary of the Student Volun-
since 1902. He has been an episcopal spiritual coun- teer Movement for Foreign Missions in 1889-90 and

selor since 1901. He has written Die Wirkungen instructor in English Bible in Princeton College in
dea eucharistischen Opfers (Augsburg, 1876); Die 1890-91. Since 1891 he has been secretary of the
Lehre von der Einheit der Kirche nach dem heiligen Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions. In 1896-
1897 he made a tour of the Christian missions in the
Augustin (Neuburg, 1885); Die Lehre von der Kirche
nach dem heiligen Augustin orient, India, China, Japan, and
visiting Persia,
(Paderborn, 1892);
Korea. In theology he is Evangelical, and has
Geschichte der Universitdt Dillingen
ehemaligen
written Studies in the Gospel of Luke (New York,
(Freiburg, 1902); Geschichte des kdniglichen Lyceums
1892) Studies in the Book of Acts (1892) ; The Man
Dillingen (Regensburg, 1904); and Lehrbuch der
;

Christ Jesus (1896); Missions and Politics in Asia

Dogmatik (vol. i., 1907).
(1898); A
Memorial of a True Life (1898); Remem-
SPEE, sp6, FRIEDRICH VON: German Roman ber Jesus Christ (1899); The Man
Paul (1900);
Catholic religious poet; b. at Kaiserewerth (27 m. Presbyterian Foreign Missions (Philadelphia, 1901);
n.n.w. of Cologne) Feb. 25, 1591 ; d. at Treves Aug. 7, Christ and Life (New York, 1901); Principles of
1635. In 1610 he entered the Society of Jesus, and Jesus applied to some Questions of To-Day (1902);
alter ordination to the priesthood became, in 1621, Missionary Principles and Practice (1902); A
professor of grammar, philosophy, and ethics in the Young Man's Questions (1903); A
Memorial of
Jesuit college at Cologne. Four years later he was Horace Tracy Pitkin (1903); Missions and Modem
aent to Paderborn as cathedral preacher, and in 1627 History (2 vols., 1904); Young Men who Overcame
became pariah priest in Wurzburg. In the following (1905); Marks of a Man; Essentials of Christian
year he was transferred to Lower Saxony, where he Character (1907); Master of the Heart (1908); Me-
distinguished himself as a successful leader of the morial of Alice Jackson (1908)-, Paul the Att Round
Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation, especially at Man (1909); Servants of the King (1909); Second
Peine in the diocese of Hildesheim. While at Wurz- Coming of Christ (1910); and Christianity and the
burg, Von Spee was required to perform the last Nations (1910).
gpellxneyer
penrler THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 40

SPBLLMEYBR, HENRY: Methodist Episcopal contributor to various reviews. He was an early

bishop; b. in New York City Nov. 25, 1847. He was convert to the doctrine of development already
educated at New York University (A.B., 1866) and formulated by Lamarck. In 1855, four years be-
Union Theological Seminary (graduated, 1869). fore the appearance of Darwin's Origin of Species,
For thirty-five years he held various pastorates of he published Principles of Psychology, based on the
his denomination in and around Newark, N. J., and principles of evolution. Evolution is defined as a
in 1904 was elected bishop. continuous change from indefinite, incoherent
homogeneity to definite, coherent heterogeneity of
SPENCE, JAMES: Synod of United Original structure and function, through successive differ-
Seceders; b. at Evie (20 m. e. of Kirk wall), Orkney entiations and integrations. By a law of the per-
Islands, May 22, 1845. He was educated at the sistence of force, the entire universe, inorganic,
University of Aberdeen, and in theology in the and superorganic, becomes both more spe-
organic,
Original Secession Hall, Glasgow, and New 'College, cializedand complex and at the same time more
Edinburgh; became minister of the Original Seces- organic and unified. Three laws are appealed to:
sion church at Auchinleck, Ayrshire, 1870, and so
homogeneity tends to heterogeneity; heterogeneity
remains. In 1876 he was appointed professor of
tends to integration and equilibrium; the equilib-
systematic theology in the divinity hall of his com- rium reached is unstable and tends to dissolution.
munion in Glasgow, and was transferred to his In his enlarged Principles of Psychology (London,
present chair of Biblical criticism, 1895. 1870-72) he treats consciousness from a genetic
SPENCE-JONES, HENRY DONALD MAURICE: point of view as analogous to developing biological
Church of England; b. at London Jan. 14, 1836. organisms. Certain tendencies of mental reaction
He was educated at Corpus Christi, Cambridge are traced to racial heredity and hence the explana-
tion of what appear to be innate or intuitive ideas.
(B.A., 1864), and was ordered deacon in 1865 and
ordained priest in the following year. He was pro- Society is an organism and social institutions are the
fessor of English literature and lecturer in Hebrew product of development with two opposing tenden-
at St. David's College, Lampeter, Wales (1865-70); cies the State and the individual; with the in-
rector of St. Mary-de-Crypt with All Saints and St. dividual lies the initiative, only he must be pre-
vented from aggressive self-assertion (Principles of
Owen, Gloucester (187O-77); and principal of
Gloucester Theological College (1875-77); vicar and Sociology, 1877). In the field of ethics development
rural dean of St. Pancras, London (1877-86), and
is also the rule. The moral sense is traced to the
since 1886 has been dean of Gloucester of which he experience of the race; conscience originates in
had been honorary canon since 1875. He was select social customs, either permissive or restrictive; the
moral life is an equilibrium between the claims of
preacher at Cambridge in 1883, 1887, 1901, and 1905,
and at Oxford in 1892 and 1903. In 1906 he was altruism and egoism. Pleasure is indeed the sum-
elected professor of ancient history in the Royal mum bonum, but it must be defined by such an
ideal adjustment to environment that moral con-
Academy. In theology he is a moderate evangelical.
He has contributed the volumes on I Samuel and the duct will be seen to be a perfectly natural function-
Pastoral Epistles to Bishop Ellicott's Commentary ing; this, however, is a condition only possible in a
future and final stage of social development when
(2 vols., London, 1880-84), and on Acts (in collabo-
ration with J. S. Howson) to Schaff s Popular Com- the sense of duty shall wholly disappear (Data of
Ethics, 1879; Justice, ib. 1891). His pttitude toward
mentary on the New Testament (New York, 1880).
He also edited The Pulpit Commentary (48 vols., ultimate reality is twofold: intellectually, a modi-
fied agnosticism; religiously, a feeling of mystery
London, 1880-97) in collaboration with J. S. Exell,
to which he himself contributed the section on Luke and awe. Agnosticism springs from the irreconci-
lable contradictions in our assertions concerning the
(2 vols., 1889), and edited and translated the Didache
(1885). As independent works he has written Absolute, and is partly resolved by the necessary
"
Dreamland and History: The Story of the Norman affirmations of an Infinite and Eternal Energy,

Dukes (London, 1891); Cloister Life in the Days of from Which all things proceed." Even if religions
Carur de Lion (1892); Gloucester Cathedral (1897); have a history, they are reducible to a sense of awe
The Church of England (4 vols., 1897-98); The White which is awakened by the ultimate mystery of the
Robe of Churches of the Eleventh Century; Pages from universe (cf. First Principles, 1862, rev. ed., 1867).

the Story of Gloucester Cathedral (1900); The His- The chief significance of Spencer is found in two
directions: first, his explanation of consciousness
tory of the English Church (1900); Life and Work of
the Redeemer (1901); Early Christianity and Pagan- and all human institutions by reference to a law of
ism: A History, A.D. 64-820 (1902); The Golden functional development; secondly, while he has
been denounced as a materialist, yet many parts
Age of the Church: Studies in the Fourth Century
of his writings are charged with postulates and im-
(1906); and The Early Christians in Rome (1910).
plications which require only further elucidation
SPENCER, HERBERT: Philosopher; b. in to disclose their essential theism. His relations with
Derby, England, Apr. 27, 1820; d. in Brighton Dec. America, which he visited and where he had a large
8, 1903. He was a son of William George and Har- were from the first reciprocally
circle of readers,
riet Holmes Spencer. His father was a schoolmaster cordial. C. A. BECKWTTH.
and private teacher. His early education was un- BIBLIOGRAPHY. Spencer's System of Synthetic Philosophy
academic, partly at home, partly under an uncle. appeared in 10 vols., London, 1860-97, 16 vols., ib. and
New York, 1900, new uniform ed. of his Workt, 18 vols.,
After trials at engineering (1837-46), and journal- New York, 1910. For his life consult: H. Spencer, An
ism (an economist newspaper, 1848-53), he became Autobiography, 2 vols., London and New York, 1904;
41 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

D. Duncan, Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer, ib. 1908 revelation, but was to a certain extent derived from
(the authorised biography); 8. H. Mellone, Leader* of
existing customs. Spencer's views were severely
Religious Thought in the Nineteenth Century, London, 1902;
Home Life with Herbert Spencer, ib. 1906. attacked by men like Hermann Witsius, John
On hia philosophy consult: G. 8. Morris, British Thought Edwards, and others. Spencer replied with a care-
and Thinkers, pp. 337-388, ib. 1870; W. B. Green, The fully revised edition of his work to which was ap-
Facts of Consciousness and the Philosophy of Herbert
Spencer, New York, 1871; B. P. Bowne, The Philosophy
pended a fourth book, which appeared only after
of Herbert Spencer, ib. 1874; J. L. Porter, Science and his death, in 1727, edited by Leonhard Chappelow.
Revelation, Belfaat, 1874; R. Watte, An Examination of Besides these works, Spencer published A Discourse
H. Spencer's Biological Hypothesis, ib. 1876; C. Wright,
concerning Prodigies (London, 1663; 2d ed., 1665,
Philosophical Discussions, pp. 43-96, New York. 1877; with an appendix, Treatise concerning Vulgar Proph-
E. Blanc, Let Nouvelles Bases de la morale d'apres M.
Herbert Spencer, Lyons, 1881; T. R. Birka, Modern Phys- ecies). His chief work is still regarded as the most
ical Fatalism and the Doctrine of Evolution, including an
*
important work on the religious antiquities of the
Examination of Mr. H. Spencer's First Principles,' 2d Hebrews.
ed., London, 1882; W. H. Rolph, Biologische Problems
gugleich als Versuch einer rationetten Ethik, Leipaic, 1882;
BIBLIOGRAPHY: DNB, liii. 359-360 (where may be found
C. E. Beeby, The Woes of the Gospel, London, 1884; T.
references to scattering notices) a life by C. M. Pfaff was
;

prefixed to book iv. of the Tfcbingen edition of the Ds

Fairman, Herbert Spencer on Socialism, ib. 1884; J.
legibus.
Iverach, The Philosophy of Herbert Spencer Examined, ib.
1884; W. Arthur, Religion without Ood, and God without SPENER, PHILIPP JAKOB. See PIETISM, I.
Religion, part 2, ib. 1885; P. S. B ridel, Lea Bases de
morale tvolutioniste d'apres H. Spencer, Paris, 1886; K. SPENGLER, speng'Ier, LAZARUS: Town clerk
Gaquoin, Die Grundlage dcr spencer' schen Philosophic, of Nuremberg and zealous adherent of Luther; b.
Berlin, 1888; A. Rodcr, Der Weg zum Gluck. Auf Grund at Nuremberg Mar. 13, 1479; d. there Sept. 7, 1534.
einer Darstettung der Entwicktlungslehre H. Spencers,
Leipaic, 1888; J. Wataon, Gospels of Yesterday: Drum-
In 1494 he entered the University of Leipsic, but on
mond. Spencer, Glasgow, 1888; C. Laurena, L' Evolution et his father's death, two years later, was obliged to
M. Herbert Spencer, Lyons, 1889; D. G. Thompson, Her- terminate his studies. He then entered the Nurem-
bert Spencer, New York. 1889; E. Grease, Herbert Spencer's
Lehre von dem Unerkennbaren, Loipsic, 1890; B. F. Un- berg chancery, becoming first town clerk in 1507 and
derwood, Herbert Spencer's Synthetic Philosophy, New a member of the council in 1516. A
decided admirer
"
York, 1891; E. A. E. Shirreff, Moral Training: Froebel of Staupitz, and publicly accused of being a
and Herbert Spencer, London, 1892; A. Weismann, Das 1'
disciple or follower of Luther, Spengler wrote, late
Keimplasma, Jena, 1892. Eng. tranal., Germ Plasm, Lon- in 1519, his Schutzred und chrisiLiche Antwort eines
don, 189U; K. Busse, Herbert Spencer's Philosophic der
Geschichte, Leipsic. 1894; W. H. Hudson, Introduction to ehrbaren Liebhabers christlicher Wahrheit, in which
the Philosophy of Herbert Spencer, New York, 1894; E. de he boldly defended Luther's teachings. The work,
Roberty, Augusts Comte et Herbert Spencer, Paris, 1894; which ran through five editions within a year, ex-
J. M. Bosch, Die entwicklungstheoretisrhe Idee sozialer
GerecMigkeit, Zurich, 1896; G. Vidari, Rosmini e Spencer, posed its author to much hostility, especially on the
Milan, 1897; G. Allievo, La Pncologia di Herbert Spencer, part of Johann Eck, and Spengler was included in the
Turin, 1898; F. II. Collins, An Epitome of the Synthetic
'

bull of excommunication against Luther. In com-

Philosophy,' 4th ed., London, 1899; J. Duboia, Spencer et
le principe de la morale, Paria, 1899; J. Ward, Naturalism
pliance with the desire of his superiors, and in the
and Agnosticism, London, 1899; H. Macpheraon, Spencer interest of Nuremberg, Spengler yielded externally,
and Spencensm, New York, 1900; J. Royce, Herbert though only that he might gradually lead the council
Spencer, ib. 1904; C. W. Saleeby, Evolution, the Master and city to his own position, his attitude being
Key, ib. 1906 (entertaining, candid, lucid); J. A. Thom-
son, Herbert Spencer, London and New York, 1906; W. P. strengthened by his observations during his attend-
Hteenkamp, Het Agnosticisms van Herbert Spencer, Am- ance, as delegate of the Nuremberg council, at the
sterdam, 1910. Diet of Worms in 1 521 Hfc name is intimately con-
.

nected with the beginning and gradual development

SPENCER, JOHN: English theologian and He- of the Reformation in Nuremberg. At his suggestion
braist; b. at Bocton (near Blean, 3 m. n.w. of the Irish monastery of St. ^Egidius was transformed
Canterbury), Kent, baptized Oct. 31, 1630; d. at into a Protestant gymnasium; he proposed the
Ely May 27, 1693. He was educated at Corpus church visitation of 1 528 in the territories of Nurem-
Christi College,
Cambridge (B.A., 1648; M.A., 1652; berg and Brandenburg; the formulation of the Nu-
B.D., 1659; D.D., 1665), and then served the par- remberg-Brandenburg church order was largely due
ishes of St. Giles and St. Benedict in Cambridge; had to him; and it was in great part his reluctance to
the care of Landbeach in Cambridgeshire (1667-83); make war upon the emperor that prevented Nurem-
became prebendary at the cathedral of Ely (1671); berg and Brandenburg from joining the Schmalkald
archdeacon of Sudbury (1677) and dean of Ely in
; League. He also maintained continual correspond-
the same year. In 1667 he was chosen master of ence with Wittenberg, especially with Luther, with
Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Not without whom he sided against Butzer in the Eucharistic con-
justice has he been called the founder of the science troversy, exactly as he had opposed the compliant
of comparative religion, tracing as he did the rela- position of Melanchthon at Augsburg in 1530. Be-
tions between Hebrew and other Semitic religions. sides the Schutzred already mentioned, Spengler
In his first treatise, DissertoMo de Urim et Thummim wrote Schrift-Ermanung und Undterweysung zu
(Cambridge, 1669), he derived these emblems from einem tugenhaften Wandel (1520); Ein trosttiche
the Egyptians. This treatise prepared the way for Christenliche anweisung vnd artzney in alien wider-
his chief work, De legibus Hebrceorum ritualibus el weriigkeiten (Nuremberg, 1521); Ein kurtzer Begriff
earwn rationibus (1685; in four books,
libri ires wie sich ein warhaffter Christ in aUem seinem wesen
Tubingen, 1732). Here he investigated the origins und wandel, gegen got vnd seinen nechsten haUen soil
of the Mosaic ritual and arrived at the conclusion ( 1 525) ; Trost in Cleinmutigkeit der heiligen Evangelii
that the Mosaic religion was not wholly based upon sachen belangend (1529); Christliche Trostschrtft
flperatui
Speyer THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ

aamt dem 64. Psalm ausgelegt (1529); Eyn kwrtoer tation in the duchy of Prussia (1526), also taking
ausszug auM den BepsUichen Rechten, der Decret md a prominent part in the second visitation of 1528.
Decretalen (1530), and a number of minor works. In Jan., 1530, Speratus succeeded Ehrhard of Queiss
He is also supposed to have been the author of as bishop of Pomerania, where, despite the greatest
the anonymous Hauptartikel, durch welche gemeine financial difficulties, he displayed marvellous ability
Christenheit bisher verfukrt warden, darneben auch in the Protestantizing of Prussia. He seems to have
Grand und Anzeigen eines ganzen rechten christlichen inspired the division of Prussia into three district
Weaena (1522). Spongier wrote two hymns, one of synods and one national synod, and from 1531 to
"
which, Durch Adams Fall 1st ganz verderbt," 1535 he made every effort to suppress the Schwenck-
was translated by Bishop Miles Coverdale in 1539, feldian movement (see SCHWENCXFBLD VON Ossio,
and in other versions is still used by the Moravians, CASPAR, SCHWBNCKFBLDIANB), his task being made
also appearing in the Evangelical Lutheran Hymnal still more difficult by Albert's harboring of Dutch

published at Columbus, O., in 1880. (T. KOLDE.) Protestant (though non-Lutheran) refugees. The
BIBLIOGRAPHY: U. G. Haussdorf, Lebcnsbeschreibung eine Monster outrages, however, led the duke to require
christlichen Politici, Lozari Spcnglers, Nuremberg,
unity of doctrine in Prussiain the spirit of the Lu-
. . .

1740; M. M. Mayer, Spengleriana, ib. 1830; F. Roth, DM

theran church order of 1525 (the Artikel der Ceremo-
Einfuhrung der Reformation in Nttrnberg, Wtlrsburg, 1886;
P. Drews, W. Pirkheimers Stellung xur Reformation, Leip- nien und anderer Kirchenordnung, in the preparation
1887; G. Ludewig, Die Politik Nurnbergs im ZeitaUer
aic, of which Speratus himself seems to have had a share) .

der Reformation, Gdttingen, 1893; P. KalkofF, Pirkheimers

und Spenglera Losung vom Bonne, 1691, Brealau, 1890; H. Speratus stood ready in 1537 to attend the pro-
Westermeyer, in Beitroge zur baj/eriachen Kirchengcachiehte, posed ecumenical council at Mantua on condition that
vol. ii., Erlangen, 1896; cf. idem, Der brandenburgisch- free expression of opinion be allowed and the Bible
nurnbergische Kirchenordnung, ib. 1894; K. Schorabaum, be taken as the basis of all decrees, at the same time
Zur Politik dea Afarkgrafen Qeorg von Brandenburg, Mu-
nich, 1906; Julian, Hymnotow, p. 1072. maintaining the right of resistance to the forcible
suppression of religious opinions. In 1549 he was
SPERATUS, sper-fl'tus, PAUL : Reformer of Prus- arbiter in the dispute between the Melanchthonian
sia andone of the oldest Protestant hymn-writers; b. Lauterwald and the Osiandrian Funck, and though
at Rotlen (a village near Ellwangen, 45 m. e.n.e. of he died too soon to become a prominent figure in the
Stuttgart) probably Dec. 13, 1484; d. at Marien- Osiandrian controversy, after it had been allayed
werder (45 m. s.s.e. of Danzig) Aug. 12, 1551. He the life-work of Speratus became fully effective,
studied in Paris and Italy, and probably at Freiburg influencing the Church in East Prussia until the rise
and Vienna. About 1506 he was ordained to the of Kantian rationalism. Besides translating some of

priesthood and was later ennobled as a papal and Luther's works from Latin into German and assist-
imperial palsgrave. As a priest he was stationed at ing in the preparation of the Etiich Geaang alles. . .

Salzburg in 1514, became cathedral preacher there aua Grand gotilicher Schrift (Kbnigsberg, 1527), he
in 1516, removed to Dinkelsbuhl in 1520, and in wrote Wie man trotzen soil aufs Kreuz, under alle
July of the same year became cathedral preacher in WeU zu atehen bei dem Evangelio (Wittenberg, 1524) ;

WUrzburg. His Lutheran sympathies, complicated the lost Epistola ad Batavoa vagantes; and probably
by his marriage and his debts, forced him to flee the Epiacoporum Prussia Pomezaniensis atque 5am-
on Nov. 21, 1521, to Salzburg, only to be speedily biensis conatitutionea aynodolea evangelicce (manu-
expelled. He then accepted a call to Ofen, in Hun- script in the archives at Kttnigsberg). The greater
gary, but his denunciation of monastic vows in a portion of his dogmatic writings and of his corre-
sermon preached by him in St. Stephen's, Vienna spondence is edited by P. Tschackert in his Urkun-
(Jan. 12, 1522; printed at KOnigsberg in 1524 as denbuch zur Reformationageachichte dea Herzogthuma
Sermon vom hohen Oelubde der Taufe), led the theo- Preuaaen (3 vols., Leipsic, 1890). Of the five hymns
logical faculty of Vienna to excommunicate him on
of Speratus two have been translated into English:
Jan. 20, 1522. This precluded a position at Ofen, but
"
Es ist das Heil uns kommen her " as " To us salva-
before long he found a place at Iglau, where, in tion now is come"; and "In Gott gelaub ich, dass
" as " In God I "
1523, he was imprisoned by the bishop of Olmutz er hat aus nicht trust, for so I must
and condemned to death, escaping this fate only by (by Miles Coverdale, who also made a version of the
the intervention of influential friends on condition former hymn, "Now is our health come from
that he would leave Moravia. He then went, by way above "). (PAUL TSCHACKERT.)
of Prague, to Wittenberg, where he assisted Luther BIBLIOGRAPHY: As sources use should be made of his works
as given in the text, and of his Briefwechsel, in P. Tschack-
in the preparation of the first Protestant hymnal
ert, Urkundenbuch cur Reformotionsgcschichte de Henog-
(1524). In 1524, on the recommendation of Luther, thuma Preuasen, 3 vols., Leipsic, 1890. Consult further:
he was called to K6nigsberg by Albert of Prussia C. J. Cosaok, Paulus Speratus, Leben und Lieder, Bruns-
wick, 1861; P. Tschackert, Paul Speratus von Rotten,
(q.v.). There he was court chaplain until 1529, and
Halle, 1891 ; T. Kolde, in Beitrage ewr bayeriachen Kirchen-
from 1530 until his death was Protestant bishop of geschichte, vol. vt, part 2, Erlangen, 1899; B. Schumacher,
Pomerania, with his residence at Marienwerder. Niederlandische Ansiedlungen im Henogtwn Preussen tvr
It was largely through his efforts that East Prussia Zeit Henog Albrechta, Leipdc, 1903; J. Zeller, Paulut
was thoroughly Lutheranized, and its religious con- Speratus, seine Herkunft, Mtn Studiengang, und seine
ThUiokeU bit Id**, Stutteart, 1907; Julian, ffymnofcw,
ditions completely reorganized. In all this he was
pp. 1073-74.
aided by Johannes Briessmann and Johann Polian-
der (qq.v.); and with George of Polentz (q.v.), bish- SPEYER, spoi'er or spoir, BISHOPRIC OF: A
op Samland, Ehrhard of Queiss, bishop of Pome-
of German diocese first specifically mentioned in 614
rania, and Councilor Adrian of Waiblingen he although Christianity may have been implanted in
conducted the first and most important church visi- the region during the Roman period. It later be-
48 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Bperatu
Speyer

came part of the archdiocese of Mainz, the larger Speyer, while occasional conflicts between city and
portion of the see being on the right bank of the diocese still further complicated the situation. The
Rhine, and the smaller portion on the left bank. wars of the Polish and Austrian successions also
The northern and southern limits respectively were worked to the disadvantage of the see. In 1801 that
Altrip and Lauterburg, while in the east the diocese portion of the diocese to the left of the Rhine, which
extended to the present Wttrttemberg circle of had been permanently occupied by the French, was
Jagst, and in the west to the vicinity of Pirmasenz. divided between the sees of Mainz and Strasburg,
(A. HAUCK.) while the district to the right of the river was later
For a long time after the rise of
Lutheranism the shared by Freiburg and Rottenburg. In 1817 the
diocese of Speyer, although almost invariably ad- Bavarian concordat created a new diocese of Speyer,
ministered by faithful and able prelates, was exposed which is identical in limits with the Bavarian
to many vicissitudes. In 1546 the deanery of Weis- Rhenish Palatinate and forms part of the arch-
senburg was incorporated in the diocese, but a few diocese of Bamberg.
years later the troops of Margrave Albert of Bran-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Annalea Spirenses, ed. G. H. Pert*, in MGH,
denburg-Culmbach plundered and desecrated the Script., xvii (1861). 80-85; Ponies rerwn Germanicarum,
cathedral. The majority of the old monasteries ed. J. F. Bdhmer and A. Huber, iv. 315-355, Stuttgart,
came into the possession of adherents of the new 1868; F. X. Remling, Urkundliche Geschiehte der ehemal-
igen Abteien und Kloster im jetzigen Rheinbayern, 2 vols.,
faith, although sturdy resistance was made to Prot- Dan Reformationswerk in der
Neustadt, 1836; idem, Pfalz,
estantism both in its religious and its political Mannheim, 1846; idem, Geschiehte der Bischfife zu Speyer,
aspects. In 1621 Ernest of Mansfeld again sacked 2 vola., Mains, 1852-54; idem, Urkundenbuch zur Ge-
schichte der Bischofezu Speyer, 2 vote., ib. 1852-53; idem,
Speyer, and in 1632 the victorious advance of Gus- Der Speyerer Dam, 1861; idem, Die Rheinpfalz in der
ib.
tavus Adolphus led the bishop to make alliance with Revolution 179SB-98, 2 vote., Speyer, 1865; idem, Neuere
the French. This union, even though aided by Geschiehte der BischVfe zu Speyer, ib. 1867; W. Molitor,
Swedish neutrality, could not protect the diocese Die ImmunittU des Domes zu Speyer, ib. 1859; Urkunden
tur Geschichte der Stadt Speyer, ed. A. Hilgard, Stras-
against the horrors of the Thirty-Years' War, and burft, 1885; N. Meyer-Schwartau, Der Dom zu Speyer,
for ten years (1635-45) the bishop was a prisoner Berlin, 1803; J. Zimmern, Der Kaiaerdom zu Speyer, Lud-
at Vienna. The years following were devoted to wigshafen, 1897; Urkunden zur pfolziachen Kirch enge-
schichte im MiUelotter, ed. F. X. GlasschrOder, Munich,
the restoration of the almost ruined diocese, but
1903; KL, xi. 589-614. For hat of the bishops consult
the War of the Palatinate and of the Orleans and Gams, Series epiacoporum, pp. 313-315; and Hauck-
Spanish successions brought new distress upon Henog, RE, zviii. 589.

SPEYER, DIETS OF.

. Diet of 1526. II. Diet of 1529. The " Protest " (5 4).
The Political Situation (| 1). The Emperor's Position ($1). RomanCatholic Charges (fi 5).
Demands of the Estates (J 2). Roman Catholic Preponderance III. Diet of 1542.
Changed Political Situation; Em- (52). IV. Diet of 1544.
baasy to the Emperor (ft 3). Withdrawal of the Evangelicals ( 3).

I. Diet of 1526: When Archduke Ferdinand the execution of the edict of Worms to be impossi-
opened the imperial diet in Speyer June 15, 1526, ble. At the same time they demanded that such
the political situation was unfavorable to the practises as opposed the word of God
friends of the Reformation. Through the peace of 2. Demands be abolished. On July 4, this memorial
Madrid, Jan. 14, 1526, the Emperor Charles V. had of the of the citieswas communicated to the
gained a free hand, and could hope to enforce within Estates, princely colleges, and it was accepted
the German empire the provisions of the edict of unaltered. At this juncture, each of
Worms. The South German Roman the three tribunals, electoral, princely, municipal,
z. The Catholic princes had formed a compact elected a separate committee, whose office was to
Political alliance at Regensburg in July, 1524; decide between abuses to be abolished and the good
Situation, the North German princes, at Dessau practises to be retained. The anti-Roman temper
on June 26. So when, early in 1526, of the major part of the German nation again came
Duke Henry of Brunswick reached Spain, to entreat openly to the front, and powerful reenforcement was
the emjttror's support in behalf of the ancient faith, received by the arrival in Speyer of Landgrave
Charles joyfully acceded to the appeal. On Mar. Philip on July 12, and of Elector John on July 20.
23, 1526, he announced that he expected to start By an agreement subscribed at Torgau May 2, ap-
for Rome in June, then to proceed to Germany to proved by other Evangelical princes on June 12, the
put an end to Lutheranism. leaders pledged themselves to open confession of the
Accordingly, the imperial instructions to the Evangelical truth. The committee for the princes
estates at Speyer demanded no more than ad- endorsed the marriage of priests and the cup for
visement over the ways and means whereby the the laity as articles worthy of resolute endeavor,
ordinances of the Church might be administered as but the municipal committee proposed to leave to a
usual. But although the chiefs of the Evangelical free vote with every estate of the realm how it would

party, Elector John of Saxony and Landgrave deal with ceremonial affairs until convention of the
"
Philip of Hesse, had not yet arrived, the two princely council. Subsequently, on July 30, a great com-
"
colleges, on June 30, demanded some action in the
mittee was appointed for further consideration of
matter of terminating abuses. The cities declared the whole matter; but on Aug. 3, Archduke Ferdi-
flptyer THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 44

nand appeared with the abrupt and summary noti- Speyer in 1529. Charles V., just then on the point
fication that an imperial collateral advice of Mar. of concluding peace with the pope, was resolved to
23 prohibited all that procedure, and called simply make an end of Lutheranism in the
for the execution of the edict of Worms. Most of x. The empire. At the opening of the diet on
the estates heard this communication with aversion. Emperor's Mar. 15, the imperial address to the
Finally the princely colleges agreed to inform the Position, estates expressed in the bluntest terms
imperial commissioners that, in the question of re- the emperor's disfavor on account of
" "
ligious belief, each estate would so abide and the "pernicious errors abroad in Germany, seeing
behave that it might render loyal account before they had even caused tumult and riot. The emperor
God, his imperial majesty, and the kingdom." would connive no longer at these disorders; the
A memorial tendered on Aug. 4 by the cities to council, which the pope, too, would now gladly pro-
the estates called attention to the alteration in the mote, was to be convoked as soon as possible. Till
political situation since the debated instructions had then the emperor forbade, under penalty of the ban
been decreed. The emperor, being now of the empire, that any one be coerced or enticed
3. Changed at war with the pope, must admit the into unrighteous belief. From the former ruling of
"
Political practical inexpediency of the mandate Speyer, there had ensued great mischief and mis-
Situation; of Worms. Since a council could not understanding over against our holy faith "; where-
Embassy convene at short notice, it was advised fore the emperor did now repeal the same, and com-
to the that they report by despatches and en- manded the regulation prescribed in his manifesto.
Emperor, voys to the emperor concerning the In the diet, this time, the Roman Catholic party
present state of affairs, and beseech had vastly the majority. Among the eighteen mem-
him to suspend the edict of Worms, and to approve " "
bers of the great committee that was appointed
the national assembly that had been forbidden by on Mar. 18 for drafting the diet's
the emperor. So early as Aug. 5, the estates con- 2. Roman enactments, only three were Evangel-
curred in the cities proposal, and the instructions
1
Catholic ical. Hence the Roman Catholics
to be despatched with the envoys were concluded Preponder- carried their motions, notwithstanding
Aug. 21. The envoys were to remind the emperor ance. the Evangelical members' resistance.
that while some of the imperial estates were still of No later than Mar. 22, the committee
the former faith and practise, others adhered to a resolved to lay before the diet the repeal of the pre-
different ecclesiastical teaching, which in their ceding decree of Speyer. The committee's memorial
estimation was also Christian; therefore let both was communicated to the estates on Apr. 3, and
parties hold their own way in behalf of the Chris- accepted by the princes Apr. 6 and 7. But when
tian truth. The emperor was entreated to come to the Evangelical princes declared that they would
Germany as soon as practicable, so that counsel not be forced from the former decree of Speyer, the
might be devised through his presence. Further- motion was returned to the committee for modifica-
"
more, he was asked to bring it about that within a tion, with the proviso, however, that the sub-
" "
year and a half a common free council should be stance" thereof should remain unchanged. The
set afoot on German soil, or, at all events, a free memorial, so unpalatable to the Evangelical party,
national assembly. He was also asked to set at rest was left practically unaltered, was referred to the
the matter of the edict of Worms. This proposition princely estates on Apr. 10, and adopted on Apr.
was adopted in the diet Aug. 27, and accepted by 12, although Elector John at once made it publicly
the imperial commissioners. The friends of the known that he would protest against it. Shortly
Reformation had cause to be content with the result afterward, it was delivered to the cities for final
of the diet. While the proviso which gave to the diet passage. When the municipal envoys were sum-
its lasting historical significance brought about no moned one by one to pronounce whether they ac-
permanent peace, it was designed to aid in tiding cepted the decree, twenty-one cities yielded their
over the momentary embarrassment by a truce that assent on Apr. 12 and 13; others answered evasively.
deferred the ultimate decision. But inasmuch as All the rest, however, besides the still protesting
the regulation of the religious issue never came cities of Frankfort, Hall in Swabia, Goslar, and
to pass, and as neither the council nor the national Nordhausen, had the courage to refuse compliance.
assembly, nor even the proposed embassy to the On Apr. 12, the Evangelical princes caused a writ
emperor, was realized, the embassy being expressly of grievance to be read aloud, wherein they offered
forbidden by the emperor, on May 27, 1527, the searching arguments for their declension of the ma-
Evangelical estates of the realm held themselves to jority resolution, and begged for its alteration. But
be justified by the diet's ruling to continue and com- the estates answered merely (on Apr. 13) that they
plete the reforms already begun in their jurisdictions. had delivered their decree, together with the griev-
In this way the resolutions of Speyer came to be the ance, to the imperial commissioners. The estates
legal foundation for the Evangelical party's further being then assembled in solemn convocation on Apr.
innovations in religion. But since the Roman 10, the commissioners, through King Ferdinand,
Catholic estates, in their suppression of the Gospel, announced that in the name of the emperor they
could also appeal to the ruling of Speyer, the relig- adopted the resolution of the estates. Touching the
ious division of the German nation dates effectively grievance of the Evangelical estates, they remarked
from this diet. that they had taken cognizance thereof, and left the
IL Diet of 1529: The political situation had be- same to stand or fall by its own weight, and they
come still more threatening for the Evangelical trusted that the estates concerned would not refuse
estates when a second imperial diet convened at the ruling by majority duly decreed.
45 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Speyar

Thus the situation of the Evangelical estates had this appeal. The Evangelical princes departed from
come to be serious. In the imperial diet, they stood Speyer on Apr. 25 and straightway arranged for the
completely isolated. Yet the Evangelical leaders publication of the protestation. This was effected
held firm and unanimous, even though the opposi- by the landgrave on May 5, and by the elector on
tion attempted to effect their separation by utili- May 12. A deputation, whose members were deter-
zing the dissension between Luther and mined at Nuremberg on May 26, was to convey the
3. With- Zwingli.The magistrates of Evangel- appeal to the emperor. These envoys did also set
drawal of Nuremberg and
ical cities, especially of out in July, but not till Sept. 12, at Piacenza, could
the Evan- Strasburg, contributed not a little, by they deliver their message to the emperor. On Oct.
gelicals. their animating instructions, to the 12, he then assured them that he expected the pro-
result -that their advocates in Speyer testing estates to obey the decree, since otherwise
maintained their courageous determination. After he must proceed against them with severe measures.
the imperial commissioners' ultimatum, Elector Lastly he had the envoys arrested, nor were they
John, Margrave George, Landgrave Philip, and released until Oct. 30.
Prince Wolfgang of Anhalt, as also the chancellor It was from the protest at Speyer that the ad-
of Dukes Ernst and Franz of Lttneburg, who had not herents of the Reformation obtained the designa-
" "
yet reached Speyer, returned to the audience cham- tion of Protestants (see PROTESTANTISM), and
ber, whence they had withdrawn for a brief con- this act received a worthy memorial in the commem-
"
sultation, and protested orally against the decree, orative Church of the Protestation," erected by
stating also that they would take no part in any means of gifts from all Evangelical countries, and
subsequent proceedings of the imperial diet. And solemnly dedicated on Aug. 31, 1904.
when Jacob Sturm announced that the Evangelical The " protest " from which thus " Protestants "
cities adhered to the protestation, they filed in the derived their name has been charged by Roman
records of the diet a writ of protest, which mean- Catholics with being a protest against tolerance as
while had been hastily drawn up by the Saxon expressed with reference to the edict of Worms by
chancellor, wherein they declared that they were not the diet. But the edict bound those who main-
bound, without their assent, to vacate the former tained it to deny to Luther and his adherents all
unanimously resolved decree, and that they pro- rights, even of food and shelter, and
tested against the majority ruling as null and void. 5. Roman permitted their spoliation and persecu-
For the drafting of a second, more explicitly de- Catholic tion; the diet's terms required the
tailed writ of protestation, they commissioned the Charges, execution of these commands. The
chancellor of Brandenburg, George Vogler, who directions of the diet further did not
now prepared with the utmost expedition a draft, admit the legitimacy of the Reformation where it
which is still extant in the district archives of Bam- was already deeply rooted, and forbade further
berg, in sixteen folio pages. This document meeting progress; had the Evangelical party signed this,
with the approbation of the Evangelical princes, a they would by that fact have admitted the Refor-
clean copy thereof was despatched to King Fer- mation to be at fault. The diet further attempted
dinand on Apr. 20. At first, indeed, he accepted the to prohibit preaching against the Roman Catholic
same, but afterward he returned it with disapproval. doctrine of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, even
At the last moment, Duke Henry of Brunswick and where the Lutheran position was held by the major-
Margrave Philip of Baden made an attempt at medi- ity; since it also required that the mass be not abol-
ation that found ready response with the Evangelical ished in Evangelical jurisdictions, even the Evangel-
princes, but was rejected by Ferdinand. The decree ical clergy would have been compelled to read mass,
was signed on April 22; and the diet, wherein the and this involved practically the prohibition of the
Evangelical princes no longer took part, was closed. Evangelical celebration of the Lord's Supper. The
The protesting delegates announced, however, that charge which has most behind it as stated by Roman
they meant to conduct themselves peaceably and Catholics is that of intolerance by Evangelicals, in
friendly toward all estates. that the masses had proceeded to the length of riot
For security against hostile attacks, Elector John in their opposition to Roman Catholic observances
and Landgrave Philip, on April 22, had an " under- and institutions. The medieval theories were in
" this respect still in practise. On the other hand, the
standing with Nuremberg, Strasburg, and Ulm, as
to which more particular terms were to Roman Catholic position was no better, but ex-
4. The be defined in June, at a diet in Rotach. plicitly involved the extinction of Protestant re-
" Protest" On
Apr. 25, the formal act of protes- ligion and practises. But the " protest " embodied
tation was vested with legal finality a clear and concrete presentation of the principles
by an attested instrument of appeal, wherein all of Protestantism, and was a courageous statement
antecedent records were duly cited and reviewed. in the face of an adverse majority.
In this connection, the counselors of Elector John of HL Diet of 1542: The purpose of this third im-
Saxony, Margrave George of Brandenburg, Dukes perial diet of Speyer, opened by King Ferdinand on
Ernst and Franz of Lttneburg, Landgrave Philip of Feb. 9, 1542, was to
afford him aid against the
Hesse, and of Prince Wolfgang of Anhalt, protested Turks, who were closely pressing Austria. The Prot-
by every form of law against the decree; and at the estant estates declared themselves ready to attend
same time appealed to the emperor, the council, the on condition that the religious peace of Nuremberg
national assembly, indeed to every impartial Chris- (see NUREMBERG, RELIGIOUS PEACE OF), whose
tian judge. The delegations of the fourteen cities provisionshad been renewed at Regensburg in 1541,
made simultaneous declaration of their adherence to be maintained intact. It was not until Apr. 11, and
S5ST THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 46

after protracted negotiations, that a ruling was de- BIBLIOGRAPHY: The subject is treated more or less fully in
vised by which the desired aid was granted, and the the works on the history of the Reformation, and the
treatments of the life of Luther generally deal with it.
status of peace, as at Regensburg, was extended for Also to be noted is the literature under PHILIP OF HKSMJ;
five years. By the terms of a bond to the Protestant P. B. von Buoholtc, Oeschichte der Regierung Ferdinand
executed by Ferdinand's order the day be- des Ersten, vols. i.-ii., Vienna, 1831 ; G. Egelhaaf, Deutscht
estates,
" " was also to Oeschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation, Berlin, 1885. On
fore, the Regensburg declaration
the diet of 1526 consult: W. Friedensburg, Zur Vorg*
remain in force during the same period. The Roman schichte des torgauischen Bundnisses, Marburg, 1884; idem,
Catholic estates did not recognize this arrangement, Der Reichstag zu Speier 1686, Berlin, 1887; G. Kawerau,
but accepted a proffer tendered by the papal legate Johann Agricola. pp. 90 sqq., Berlin, 1881; J. Ney, Der
Reichstag ru Speier 1626, Hamburg. 1880; idem, in ZKG,
Morotie, for convening a council on Aug. 15, at Trent. viii. 300 sqq., ix. 137 sqq., adi. 334 sqq., 593 sqq.; A.
The Evangelical estates made written protest against Kluckhohn, Der Reichstag zu Speier 1686, in Historische
the place selected. Zeitschrift, Ivi. 103 sqq.; J. Jansaen, Hist, of the German

IV. Diet of 1544: At the brilliant fourth im- People, v. 50 sqq., St. Louis, 1003; Cambridge Modern
History, ii. 106, New York, 1004; Ranke, Popes, i. 70-
perial diet of Speyer, opened on Feb. 20, 1544, by 80; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, ix. 454 sqq.; T. Briegor,
Charles V. in person, the emperor especially labored Der Speierer Reichstag von 1626 und die religiose Frage der
to obtain the support of the empire in his war with Zeit, Leipsio, 1010.
On the diet of 1520 consult: J. J. Mailer, Historic von
France. The Protestant estates again made their den evangelischen St&nde-Protestation zu Speyer, Jeua,
consent depend upon the condition that the Regens- 1705; J. A. H. Tittmann, Die Protestation der evangeli-
" " be schen Stdnde auf dem Reichstage zu Speier
burg declaration renewed; and they de- .. . 1529,
manded that this proviso be embodied in the diet's Leipaic, 1820; A. Jung, Oeschichte des Reichstags zu Speyer,
Straaburg, 1830; J. Ney, Geschichte des Reichstags zu
ruling, a point which the Roman Catholic estates re- Speier . . . 1629, Halle, 1880; idem, Die Protestation der
fused. After months of prolonged negotiations, it evangelischen Stande zu Speier .. . 1629, Halle, 1890;
was finally resolved, on May 27, to defer the draft- E. Heuser, Die Protestation von Speier, Neustadt, 1004;
idem, Die Appellation und Protestation der cvan-
ing of the proper provisions to the emperor. In this gtlischen Stande zu Speier 1529, Leipsic, 1006; J.
connection the Roman Catholic estates announced Janssen, Hist, of the German People, v. 188 sqq., St.
that they must needs endure what the emperor might Louis, 1003; Cambridge Modern History, ii. 203-204, 206,
resolve. The ruling of the imperial diet, as then 330, New York, 1004; Hefole, Conciliengeschichte, ix.
568 sqq.
sealed on June 10, yielded essential concessions to On the diets of 1542 and 1544 consult. The work of
the Protestants. On occasion of a new imperial Bucholtz, ut sup.; also Jaiwsen, ut sup., pp. 164-172, 247
diet, in the ensuing autumn or winter, when the em- sqq.; A. do Boor, Beitrtige zur Gexchichte des Speierer
Reichstags 1644, Strasburg, 1878; Cambrulge Mod-
peror hoped again to be present, they would ar-
.
. .

ern History, ut sup., pp. 77, 244, 661.

range on what footing they should stand in the dis-
puted articles of religion, until the council. The SPIEKER, spi'ker or spai'kcr, GEORGE FREDER-
proceedings were to be outlined in advance, accord- ICK: Lutheran; Elk Ridge Landing, Md.,
b. at
ing to projects of reform that were to be furnished Nov. 17, 1844. He waseducated at Baltimore City
by the emperor and the estates. Meanwhile the College and in the Lutheran theological seminaries
public peace should be observed; whereas the decree of Gettysburg and Philadelphia, being graduated
of Augsburg and the trials pending before the su- from the latter in 1867. He was acting professor of
preme court for the cause of religion should be sus- German in Pennsylvania College (1864-66); pro-
pended. The clergy, endowments, cloisters, schools, fessor at the Keystone Normal School, Kutztown,
and hospitals, irrespective of religious confession, Pa. (1867-68); professor of Hebrew at Muhlenberg
were to continue in the enjoyment of the incomes to College (1887-94); and since 1894 professor of
their credit in 1541. The supreme court itself was church history, Old-Testament theology, and in-
to be supplied anew with devout and learned judges, troduction in the Lutheran Theological Seminary
without regard to religious affiliations. The Roman at Philadelphia. He was pastor of the Lutheran
Catholic estates were far from satisfied with this Church at Kutztown (1867-83), and occupied a pul-
measure, while the pope formally protested against pit of the same denomination at Allentown, Pa.
it in a brief of Aug. 24. But indeed, even the Prot- (1883-94). He is associate editor of the Lutheran
estants, whom the emperor at this diet had treated Church Review, and has written Commentary on II
with more favor than ever before, could not feel Corinthians (New York, 1897), besides translating
altogether content with the actual result. The L. Hutter's Compend of Lutheran Theology (Phila-
emperor's concessions were merely provisional, and delphia, 1868) and K. A. Wildenhahn's Martin
were equi vocally worded ; nor did the Roman Catho- Luther (in collaboration with H. E. Jacobs; 1883).
lic estates deem themselves bound thereby. Then
again, the aid of the empire, that had been granted SPIERA, spi-e'ra, FRANCESCO: Italian jurist;
the emperor, not only so strengthened his material b. at Cittadella (13 m. n. of Padua), Italy, 1502; d.

power that he was able to advance victoriously into there Dec. 27, 1548. Interest in Spiera is due to the
France and force to his will the peace of Crespy fact that the Protestants of the sixteenth century
(Sept. 14, 1544), but freed his hand, by the same used his case as an example of the dreadful conse-
stroke, for contingent action against the Protestants. quences of the sin against the Holy Ghost, since he
For that matter, the evidence that Charles had not discerned Evangelical truth, but denied and ab-
changed his mind in relation to the Reformation, jured it for external reasons. Spiera had won an
but had fully harbored the intention of opposing it esteemed position in his native town; and a well
with force if occasion required, came clearly to light bestowed house, in which ten children grew up, ap-
in the outbreak of the Schmalkald war, a few years peared to insure his happiness. Besides the Scrip-
later. JUNTOS NET. tures! there fell into his hands various Evangelical
47 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Spina
"
writings, such as The Benefit of Christ's Death/' though Calvin urged him to accept this post, Spi-
"Doctrine Old and New/' and " Summary of fame was next found in Bourges and Paris. With
Sacred Scripture/' which instilled in him doubt as to the outbreak of the first religious war he became a
the Roman Catholic teachings on purgatory, venera- still more important figure, particularly at the
tion of the saints, etc. With others he was ar- princes' diet at Frankfort (Apr.-Nov., 1562), where
raigned before the inquisition at Venice and his trial
; he was the envoy of Conde*. While returning to
came off between May 24 and June 20, 1548. The France, he came into the midst of military opera-
minutes of the trial are still extant in the archives tions, and until the concluding of the Treaty of
at Venice, and are reprinted in Comba's Fran- Amboise (Mar. 19, 1563) was civil governor of
cesco Spiera (1872). On the latter day in St. Mark's Lyons. He then went back to Geneva, where he had
"
Spiera made solemn abjuration of his errors/ and
1
meanwhile been elected to the Council of Sixty, and
subscribed the abjuration, which he then repeated in Jan., 1564, he accepted the invitation of Jeanne
on the following Sunday in Cittadella, after mass d'Albret, queen of Navarre, to visit Pau to ar-
in the cathedral. On returning home, so he related range her affairs. Here he committed the as-
"
it himself, the Spirit," or the voice of his con- tounding indiscretion of declaring that her son,
science, began to reproach him for having denied Henry IV., was the offspring of adultery, and in
the truth. Amid grounds of comfort that either he Apr., 1565, he returned to Geneva. Suspicions now
or his friends advanced, and a state of despair that began to cluster around him; he was supposed to
grew more and more hopeless, there began a ter- be intriguing with France, either to become bishop
rible struggle within himself, which soon so affected of Toul or to be made controller of finances; his
even his sturdy physique that it gave occasion for nephew, who knew the true story of his relations
conveying him to Padua to be treated by the most with Catharine de Gasperne, declared his two
celebrated physicians. The treatment was vain, and children incapable of inheriting; and he was form-
the conflict, which Vergerio and others witnessed, ally charged with insulting the queen of Navarre.
ended in his death, shortly after his return to his On Mar. 11, 1566, he was imprisoned, especially as
home. That Spiera laid violent hands on himself there were rumors that he had forged papers at-
is later invention. K. BENRATH. testing a common-law union with Catharine de
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. 8. Curio, F. Spiera .. historia, Geneva,
. Gasperne in 1539 while her husband was still alive.
1550 [?| (contains accounts by Curio, M. Gribaldus, H.
Investigation proved the falsity of his documents,
Scotus and S. Gelvus, with preface by Calvin and apol-
and though he pleaded that his adultery was out-
ogy by Vergerius); P. P. Vergerio, La Historia di M.
Franc. Spiera .... [Tubingen], 1551, reprinted Florence, lawed and denied all other charges brought against
1883; N. Bacon, Relation of the Fearefull Estate of Francis him, his acts of forgery were deemed by the council
Spira, London, 1638, very numerous editions, latest ap- to be sufficient reason to condemn him to be be-
parently Manchester, 1845; F. Laurence, Hist, dc Francois
headed. (EUGEN LACHTCNMANN.)
Spira, Leyden, 1645; E. Comba, F. Spiera, Episodic della
reforma religiosa in Italia, Home, 1872; C. ROnneke, BIBLIOGRAPHY: The account of the trial and confession of
Francesco Spiera, Hamburg, 1874; K. Benrath, Geschichte Spifame was printed at Geneva, 1606. Consult further:
der Reformation in Venedig, pp. 35-36, Halle, 1887; W. T. Beza, Hist, ecclfsiastique des eglises rcformees . . de
.

Sommerfolt, F. Spiera, ein Unglucklicher, Leipsic, 1896; France, ii. 156 sqq., Geneva, 1580, new cd. by J. W. Baum
Cambridge Modern History, ii. 394-395, New York, 1904. and A. E. Cunitz, 3 vols., Paris, 1883-88, also ed. P.
Vesson, 2 vols., Toulouse, 1882-83; Calvin, Opera, vols.
xviii.-xxi. passim; J. Spon, Hist, de Geneve, vol. ii., Geneva,
SPIFAME, JACQUES PAUL: French Calvinist;
1730; J. Senfebier, Hist, UUeraire de Geneve, i. 384-385,
b. at Paris 1502; executed at Geneva Mar. 23 (or ib. 1786; E. and E. Haag, IM France protestante, ix. 309
25), 1566. He was at first a Roman Catholic and, sqq., Paris, 1850; Bulletin de la soci&te de I' hist, du prates-
having studied law, became a parliamentary coun- tantieme francais, ix. 276-277, xii. 483, xlviii. 228 sqq.;
selor and later a counselor of state. He then sud- Lichtenbergor, ESR, xi. 674.

denly took orders and was made canon, as well as ALFONSO DE: Spanish anti-
SPINA, spi'na,
chancellor of the University of Paris, etc., besides
Jewish and anti-Mohammedan apologist of the
accompanying the cardinal of Lorraine to the Coun- fifteenth century; d. at Orense (115 m. s.w. of Leon),
cil of Trent as his vicar-general. In 1548 he was
Galicia, 1469. Entering the Franciscan order, he
consecrated bishop of Nevers, but eleven years
became rector of the University of Salamanca, and
later resigned his see in favor of his nephew and re-
in 1466 was consecrated bishop of Orense. He is
tired to Geneva, where he soon professed open al-
generally, and probably justly, held to be the author
legiance to Protestantism. This step was clearly
of the anonymous Fortalitium fidei contra Judcsoa,
due in great measure to his adulterous relations Saracenos aliosque Christiana fidei inimicos (n.p.,
with Catharine de Gasperne, whom he had induced
1487 and often), which, according to its preface,
to abandon her husband, and with whom he lived
was written by a Franciscan teacher at Valladolid
after the latter's death. To legitimate the two in 1458. The work is in four books: the first prov-
children of this union, Spifame pretended to reveal
ing the messiahship of Jesus from the fulfilment of
the state of affairs to the council and consistory of
prophecy; the second dealing with heretics and their
Geneva, alleging that his orders had prevented him manifold punishments; the third attacking the Jews;
from marrying the woman, and that he had been and the fourth polemizing against the Moham-
forced to leave Paris because of his fear of persecu-
medans, with an interesting, though one-sided, ac-
tion. The union was declared legitimate on July 27,
count of the struggles between the Christians and
1559, and Beza and Calvin readily accepted him as the Saracens. (O. ZOcKLERf.)
pastor, so that in the following year he became minis- BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. Fabrioius, Delectus argumentorum et
ter at Issoudun. Other congregations soon desired syllabus scriptorum . . . pp. 575-576, Hamburg, 1725;
,

his services, among them his old city of Nevers, but R. Simon, Bibliotteqw critique, iii. 316-322, Paris, 1708;
 Spintola
Spini
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 48

J. M. Sohrftokh, ChrHliche Kirchmo***M**, xrx. 573-

SPINOZA, spi-no'cd, BARUCH (BENEDICT DE):
574, Leipsio, 1802; I. M. Jost, Ge*hicMe de* Jvdmthumt
und seiner Sekten, iii. 96, ib. 1859, H. Qraeti, Qe^hichU Philosopher; b. at Amsterdam Nov. 24, 1632; d.
der Jvdm, viii. 228-220, ib. 1890, Eng. tranal., 5 vob., at The Hague Feb. 21, 1677. His parents were Jews
Philadelphia, 1891-98; JE, jri. 510. who had been driven from Portugal by religious
persecution. He devoted himself to the study of the
SPINOLA, spi-nO'lfl, CRISTOVAL ROJAS DE: Bible and the Talmud; was instructed in Latin by
Spanish Roman Catholic advocate of union; b. Franz van der Ende, a celebrated physician of
near Roermond (27 m. n.e. of Maestricht), HoUand, naturalistic sympathies; and, turning to free philo-
1626; d. at Vienna Mar. 12, 1695. He was edu- sophical speculations, was excommunicated by the
cated at Cologne and at an early age entered the
synagogue. Employing himself with the study of the
order of the Observantine Franciscans. He taught Cartesian philosophy and the development of his
philosophy and scholastic theology at Cologne, and own, he dwelt near Amsterdam, 1656-60 or 61; at
rose to be general of his order. In 1661 he was
Rhynsburg near Leyden until 1664; at Voorburg
called from Madrid to Vienna to become confes- near The Hague until 1670; and at The Hague from
sor of Maria Theresa, wife of Leopold I., and in 1668 1670 until his death, supporting himself by grinding
was consecrated titular bishop of Tina, while in 1685 lenses. In 1673 he declined a call to the professor-
he was made bishop of Wiener-Neustadt. Thor-
ship of philosophy at the University of Heidelberg,
oughly versed in diplomacy and ironic in tempera- so as not to restrict his liberty of thought. His
ment, he labored unceasingly to reconcile Protes- works written at the Hague, 1660-77, were, Reni
tantism with the Roman Catholic Church, willing Descartes principiorum philosophies (2 parts, Am-
to make certain concessions for the furtherance of a
sterdam, 1663); Tractatus theologico-politicus (Ham-
plan which lukewarm Protestantism and notable burg, 1670); and, most important of all, Ethica
conversions from its bickerings rendered plausible. ordine geometrico demonstrate, which, together with
In 1671, after gaining the approval of the papal Troxtatus politicks, Tractatus de intellectus emenda-
nuncio at Vienna, Spinola began negotiations with and PJpistolce, was published in Opera posthuma
tione,
German Lutheran and Reformed princes and theo-
(Amsterdam, 1677). His De Deo homine, ejusque
logians, but in nearly every case his advances were
felicitate was not known before it appeared in a
met with profound distrust. His most favorable Dutch translation (Halle, 1S52).
reception was in Brunswick and Luneburg, and For the basis of liis method Spinoza depended
especially in Hanover, where he had the sympathy on Rene* Descartes (q.v.) and for his point of view
of the converted duke, John Frederick, as well as of in part upon the influence of Giordano Bruno (q.v.).
Gerhard Walter Molanus and Gottfried Wilhelm von
Aiming to arrive at mathematical certainty, he pro-
Leibnitz (qq.v.). The first conference, in 1676, ceeds by a method of exact demonstration, analogous
amounted to little, but in 1683 Spinola made ver- to the geometry of Euclid, with series of definitions,
bally a number of concessions, such as communion axioms, propositions, and proofs. His fundamental
under both kinds, marriage of the clergy, continued notion is that of substance, which he defines as
possession of secularized estates of the Church, the "
that which is in itself and is conceived by itself,
suspension of the decrees of the Council of Trent, and i.e., the conception of which does not need the con-
remission of formal adjuration, the sole require-
ception of any other thing in order to be formed."
ment being recognition of the supremacy of the pope. There is but one substance, which is absolute and
At a conference over which Molanus presided the
infinite, and is God. Nothing can be predicated of
plan proposed by Spinola was practically adopted, "
it, because all determination is negation." It can
but when the proceedings became generally known, be comprehended only by attributes which belong
they aroused the anger of Protestants, while Roman only to the mind. Having neither intellect nor will,
Catholics regarded them as futile. Nevertheless, it cannot have an ultimate end in view, but is the
Molanus and Leibnitz remained in correspondence immanent cause of all things. There being nothing
with Spinola, and in 1691 the plan was submitted to to constrain it, it is absolutely free, acting from an
Boscuet, who bluntly rejected the entire affair, de- inner self-determination or necessity. This sub-
manding unconditional submission to the authority stance has two fundamental attributes cognizable
of the Church and the Council of Trent, although he
by man; namely, thought and extension, although
was unable finally to break off negotiations until an infinite number of attributes is possible. There
1694. Meanwhile Spinola had entered into com- is no extended substance as separate from
thinking
munication with the Hungarian Protestants, having substance. An attribute is "that which the mind
received, in 1691, an imperial appointment as com- perceives as constituting the essence of substance.
1'

missioner general for the promotion of religious

Movement, intellect, and will, on the whole, are
union hi Austria. Here again his hopes were ill- infinite modes or affections of substance; aU in-
founded, and although a conference was expected to dividual things are finite and changing modes. A
be held hi 1 693, it never took place. After the death "
mode is that which is in something else, through
of Spinola a few attempts at Roman Catholic and the aid of which also it is conceived." Modes of the
Protestant union were made by his successor, Graf attribute of extension are physical objects; modes
of Buchheim, and by Leibnitz, only to prove equally of thought are ideas. There is no causal nexus be-
abortive. (PAUL TBCHACKBRT.) tween the attribute and modes of extension on the
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J.D. Graber, Commercii epittolici LZmt- one hand, and the attribute and modes of thought
tiani, i. 411 qq., Hanover, 1722; J. Schmidt, in Grcn*- on the other, inasmuch as they belong to the same
botcn, I860, nos. 44-46; J. X. Kieal, Der Fritdmsplan de*
Lribnb gw Wwdereinfrtno der getrmnUn substance; although in either attribute there are
Kirchen, PMfeffom, 1904; KL, xi. 020-026. chains of cause and effect, and between the two
40 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Lola
Ipino

series there is a complete parallelism (ordo idearum repudiates the authority demanded by the former
idem estac ordo rerum). Finite things including over the latter on the ground that theology deals
individuals being only modes, God is no individual. with the anthropomorphic attributes and relations
Likewise succession in time or duration holds among of God and philosophy with clear notions. In dar-
existences or modes; but essence or substance is ing and imagination and fidelity to method, Spinoza
non-temporal, and God is eternal. ranks as one of the greatest philosophers. The
Man as an individual, being a mode, first sees which his system taught, those of
practical lessons
things in relation to himself discretely, or the world necessity and stoical resignation, were best illus-
of things as natura naturata. He thus has inade- trated in his own life. Undermined by consump-
quate ideas by opinio or imaginatio. Ratio affords tion, harassed by persecutors, and burdened by
adequate ideas of the common agreements of things. overwork, he was a model of patience and sweet
Intuition is the full perception sub specie csternitatia kindliness. See PANTHEISM, 4.
of God as infinite substance in immanent causation, BIBLIOGRAPHY: The chief editions of the Opera are by H.
or natura naturans. The criterion of truth is truth E. Q. Paulus, 2 vols., Jena, 1802-03, C. H. B ruder, 3
vola., Leipsic, 1843-46. J. van Vloten and J. P. Land,
itself; for the human mind in so far as it has a true 2 vola., The Hague, 1883, and 3 vols., 1895-96; Eng.
idea is a part of the infinite divine intellect. Voli- transl. of the chief works by R. H. M. Elwes, 2 vols.,
tion is a form of assent to, or dissent from, the idea, London, 1883-84; Fr. transl., by E. Saisset, 2 vols..
and is identical with it; just as will is identical with Paris, 1842, 2d ed., 1861; by J. O. Prat, Paris. 1863, and
by C. Appuhn, Paris, 1907 sqq. Further details respect-
intellect. Man as a mode, being conditioned by ing partial eds. and issues of separate works are given in
the multiplicity of things about him, is in a state of the British Museum Catalogue, s.v., and in Baldwin, Dic-
tionary, iii. 1, pp. 488-489 (followed by a very full general
constraint, having inadequate ideas (in the form
of duration) of the complex self as affected, of the bibliography). Special works translated into English are
Tractatus theologico-politicus (by R. Willis), London, 1689,
things affecting him, and of the affections or pas- reissues, 1737, and another, 1862, 1868; the Ethica, by
sions thus produced. This is commonly illustrated W. H. White, London, 1813, 2d ed. by A. H. Stirling, ib.
1894, by R. H. M. Elwes, ib. 1884, by H. Smith, Cincin-
by the fact that the same thing appears differently nati, 1866, and selections by G. S. Fullerton, New York,
to different men from different points of view. But 1892, 2ded., 1894; Tractatus de intellectus emendation* by
man is active when he has adequate ideas, or when W. H. White, London, 1895; Principles of Descartes' Phi-
losophy, London, 1907; and Short Treatment on God, Man
anything follows from his essence or nature clearly and his Well-Being', transl. and ed., with an Introduction
understood: he is passive when he has inadequate and Commentary and a Life of Spinoza, by A. Wolf, New
ideas. Desire or conscious appetite as an affection York, 1910.
is the assertion of man's essence toward this greater As sources for a life consult Der Briefwechsel des Spinosa
im Urtexte, ed. H. Ginsberg, Leipaic, 1876; Die Briefe
freedom. The agreeable transition to a higher mehrer Gelehrten an Benedict von Spinoza und dessen A nt-
degree of perfection is the occasion of the passion worien, ed. J. H. von Kirchmann, Berlin, 1871; and
of joy; the opposite is the occasion of sadness. Joy Lettres inedites en fran^ais, translated and annotated by
J. G. Prat, Paris, 1884, 2d ed., 1885. Consult further:
accompanied by the idea of its external cause is the F. Pollock, Spinoza, his Life and Philosophy, 2d ed., Lon-
passion of love; sadness so accompanied is hate. don, 1899; M. Saverien, Hist, des philosophes modernes,
Impotence to prevail over one's passions is bondage, Paris, 1760; A. Sain tea, Hist, de la vie et des ouvrages de
or the opposite of freedom. Evil, which is relative, B. Spinoza, ib. 1842; C. von Orelli, Spinoza's Leben und
Lehre, 2d ed Aarau, 1850; J. B. Lehmann, Spinoza:
impediment. To get rid of a passion, i.e., an af-
,
is
scin Lebensbild und seine Philosophie, WUrzburg, 1864;
fection or a state of suffering, is to have a clear idea K. Fischer, Baruch Spinoza's Ldten und Character, Heidel-
of it. This means to know all things as necessary. berg, 1865, 4th ed., 1898; S. S. Coronel, Bar. d'Espinoza
He who has such a knowledge of self and passions in de hjst van zyn tijd, Zalt-Bommel, 1871; J. van Vloten,
Baruch d'Espinoza, zijn leven en schriften, 2d ed., Sch lie-
rejoices, and the idea of the external cause of such
dam, 1871; J. E. Linter, Spinoza, London, 1873; H. J.
supreme joy involves the love of God, just as ad- Betz, Levenschechts ran Baruch de Spinoza, The Hague.
versely the knowledge of all things as necessary in- 1876; H. Ginsberg, Leben und CharakterbUd B. Spinozas,
volves the knowledge of God as immanent cause. Leipsic, 1876: J. M
artineau, A Study of Spinoza, London,
1882; W. Bolm, Spinoza, Berlin, 1894; J. Freudenthal,
This is what Spinoza calls the intellectual love to Die Lebensgeschicftte Spinozas, Leipsic, 1899; P. L.
God conceived under the form of eternity. As God Couchoud, Benoit de Spinoza, Paris, 1902; J. Freuden-
has only adequate ideas and is not subject to pro- thal, Das Leben Spinozas, Stuttgart, 1904; S. von Dunin-
Borowski, Der junge De Spinoza. Leben und Werdegang
gressive perfection and passions, he cannot be af- im Lichte der Weltphilosophie, Mttnster, 1910.
fected by love or hate. In God, so far as he may be On the philosophy of Spinoza consult: C. Schaar-
" schmidt, Descartes und Spinoza; urkundlich? Darstettung
explained by the essence of man conceived under
the form of eternity," the loving subject and the
B
der Philosophie eider, Bonn, 1850; B. Auerbach, Spinoza;
ein Denkerleben, Mannheim, 1855; E. Saisset, Precurseurs
object loved are one and the same; the intellectual et disciples de Descartes, pp. 185-352, Paris, 1863; F. W.
love of God denotes absolute acquiescence by the Barth, Einige Oedanken uber Atheismus und uber die
divine in the law of his nature. The intellectual Meinungen des Spinoza, Brandenburg, 1868; P. W.
Schmidt, Spinoza und Schleiermacher, Berlin, 1868; M.
love of the mind to God is a part of that love, based Breach, B. v. Spinoza's System der Philosophie mit einer
upon the intellect which is part of the infinite divine Biographic Spinozas, ib. 1870; J. A. Froude, Short Studies
intellect and therefore immortal, i.e., non-temporal. on Great Subjects, London, 1873; R. Albert, Spinoza's
Lehre uber die Existent einer Substanz, Dresden, 1875;
Virtue, which is the power to produce that which is G. Busolt, Die Grundzuge der Erkenntniss-Theorie und
according to one's essence, or nature, is not the re- Metaphysik Spinozas, Berlin, 1875; M. Arnold, Essays in
ward of happiness but its own reward. Criticism, pp. 237-362, 3d ed., New York, 1876; H. J.
In the Theologico-politicua Spinoza argues for Bets, Spinoza en de vrijheid, The Hague. 1877; T. Cam-
erer, Die Lehre Spinozas, Stuttgart, 1877; M. Dessauer,
religious freedom so long as the interest of the State Der Socrates der Neuzeit und sein Gedankenschatz, Cdthen.
in good works is satisfied. He maintains that theol- 1877; R. Flint, Anti-theistic Theories, pp. 353-375, notes
ogy and philosophy have nothing in common, and $47-6*2, Edinburgh and London, 1879; J. Martineaii,
XI, 4
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 50

A Study of Spinota, 2d ed., London, 1883; A. B. MOM, ever, one discovers several lines of development
Bntno and Spinota, London, 188fi; A. Saltier, Spinota's in the idea of the Spirit. (1 ) The tendency to hypos-
Entwicklitngsoang insbesondew nach seinen Briefen gt-
tatize the divine power of action appears already
echUdert, Kiel, 1888; J. Caird, Spinota, Edinburgh and
London, 1888, new ed., 1901; J. Stem, Die Philosophic in the Old Testament (of. Isa. xliv. 3, xlviii. 16, bd. 1 ;
Spinotas, Stuttgart, 1890; R. Worms, La Morale de Gen. i. 2; Ps. li. 11), and is part of that movement of
Spinota, Paris, 1802; Q. J. Holland, Spinota, ib. 1899;
E. Ferriere, La Doctrine de Spinota, ib. 1899; 8. Rappaport, thought which was accelerated by Aryan influences,
Spinota und Schopenhauer, Berlin, 1899; R. Wahle, in which God becomes metaphysically elevated
Kurte Erklarung der Ethik von Spinota, Vienna. 1899; J. above the world, while his withdrawal and isolation
Zulawski, Das Problem der Causalitat bei Spinota, Bern, are compensated for of interme-
1899; J. D. Bierens de Hann, Levensleer naar de begin-
by the introduction
den van Spinota, The Hague, 1900; J. H. von Kirch- diary beings and forces by which his will was effected.
mann, Erl&vterungen *u Benedict von Spinotas Ethik, Moreover, before the close of the apostolic age the
Leipeio, 1900; H. H. Joachim, A Study of the Ethics of Spirit has begun to be differentiated from the
Spinota. Oxford, 1901; B. Auerbach. Spinota, Stuttgart, Father and the Son. (2) Whereas in the entire Old
1903; R. A. Duff, Spinota' s Political and Ethical Philoso-
phy, Glasgow, 1903; J. Iveraoh, Descartes, Spinota, the Testament and in many portions of the New Testa-
New Philosophy, Edinburgh, 1904; E. E. Powell, Spinota ment the Spirit is conceived of as transcendent,
and Religion, Chicago, 1906; W. PrOmen, Spinotas Re-
intermittent, and frequently miraculous in action,
ligionsbegriff, Halle, 1906; J. A. Picton, Spinota, a Hand-
book to the Ethics, London and New York, 1906; A. Wen- yet side by side with this earlier and common
Mi, Die Weltanschauung Spinotas, Leipsio, 1907; F. notion, in the later writings of Paul and John
Erhardt, Die Philosophic des Spinota im Lichte der Kritik, not in the Synoptics the Spirit is presented as
ib. 1908; J. Stern, Die Philosophic Spinotas, 3d ed..
an immanent and abiding personal power. For
Stuttgart, 1908; K. Fischer, Geschichte der neueren Phi-
losophic, vol. ii., 5th ed., Heidelberg, 1909. this change no other occasion need be sought than
that which springs from the permanent necessities
SPIRES. See SPEYER.
of Christian experience a continuous inner redemp-
SPIRIT OF GOD, BIBLICAL VIEW OF: Accord- tive influence by which the follower of Christ is

ing to the final Old-Testament presentation, the quickened and empowered for every good work.
Spirit of God is the divine power which proceeds (3) This idea of the immanence of the Spirit of God
from God in creation and preservation in nature and completes the removal of the divine activity
itself in

in human historical life, especially in Israel. This from the region whether of the physical
of nature

power of God
is active at the precise point where world or of the human soul, and in the entire refer-
energy manifested, i.e., the Spirit of God is the
is ence of it to the ethical and spiritual life.
immediate cause of all kinds of change; it comes C. A. BECK WITH.
and goes, it is given or withdrawn wholly according BIBLIOGRAPHY: The reader should consult the works on
Biblical theology given in the article on that subject, espe-
to the divine will. Special attention is directed to
cially the works of H. Schulti, Duff, and Bennett on the
unusual forms of human action which are attributed Old Testament, and of Beyschlag, Holtzmann, Adeney,
to this Spirit heroism, genius, prophetic utterance, Stevens, and Gould on the New; the subject is treated
also, more or less fully, in the literature given under HOLT
singular personal consecration, in a word, all rare
SPIRIT (q.v.). Consult further: C. A. Beckwith, Reali-
individual physical and religious phenomena. In ties of Christian Theology, pp. 277-286, Boston, 1906;
their suddenness, strangeness, involuntariness, irre- H. H. Wendt, Die Begriffe Fleisch und Oeist im biblischen
sistibleness, and in their results they seem to reveal Sprachgebrauch, Qotha, 1878; H. Qunkel, Die Wirkungen
des heiligen Oeistes nach der . . . Anschauung der apos-
a more than human power. Religious psychology
tolischen Zeit und der Lehre des Paulus, Gdttingen, 1888;
had not yet distinguished the form from the ulti- K. von Lechler, Die biblische Lehre vom heiligen Geiste,
mate source of these experiences. The obverse of Leipsio, 1899; I. W. Wood, The Spirit of God in Biblical
this conception appears in the belief in the influence Literature, New York, 1904. Further discussions will be
found in the various works on systematic theology (see
and possession of men by evil spirits, and later by
DOGMA, DOGMATICS).
Satan as the prince of demons. For the history of
this belief one would need to trace the development SPIRITUAL CONTENTMENT: The harmony
of the notion of the power of discarnate good and of personal feeling with outer conditions; self-
evil spirits over men in its varied stages of unfolding satisfaction being the harmony of personal feeling
from animism through polytheism up to ethical with inward conditions. Contentment presupposes
monotheism (see COMPARATIVE REIIOION, VI.). that the means for the satisfaction of the necessities
The conception of the good Spirit of God influencing of life are inadequate (Prov. xvii. 1), and signifies
men differs from the Greek and other national a willingness not to suffer the inner equanimity to
ideas of divine possession, (1) in the concentration be disturbed by the scantiness of outward means
of the entire divine activity in one personal source, (Phil. iv. 11-12; I Tim. vi. 6). While such content-
and (2) in the aim to which the activity is directed ment may be natural, and conditioned by climate,
furtherance of the theocratic ideals. Distinctive social order, racial instinct, or national circum-
redemptive functions are rarely attributed to the stances, it may also be acquired as a cultured relig-
Spirit of God in the Old Testament. ious and ethical state of life, and as such it is a re-
The New Testament has no elaborated doctrine quirement of Christian religiousness (Matt. vi. 25-34;
of the Spirit of God. There is material for the per- ITim. vi. 8; Heb. xiii. 5). Discontent is unworthy
sonal and trinitarian aspect of the Spirit, but the of the Christian, who must remember that, though
time was not ripe for the theological construction all ishis (I Cor. iii. 21-22), he can not lose his soul
of the Constantinopolitan Creed (q.v.). On the other to the world since he belongs to Christ. Religiously
hand, many allusions imply that the Spirit is an it is the inner result of the piety produced by the
influence or a form of the action of God or of Christ theistic contemplation of God, which obtains quie-
(see HOLY SPIRIT, I.). In the New Testament, how- tude and peace of soul through it* conviction of the
51 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Spire*
Spiritualism

11 "
divine governance both of the individual (Ps. cxvi. 6) Rochester knockings were first heard in the
and of the universe. Yet such satisfaction is active, family of John D. Fox of Hydeville, near Roches-
finding room for ends and aims, the desire of im- ter, N. Y., always in the presence of his daughters
provement, and the joyous taking up of tasks. Margaret and Kate, and continued after the removal
There is a wide difference between the satisfaction of the family to Rochester, communications being
based on natural instinct and temperament and that made by rappings after an established code. These
founded on religious ethical self-culture, even and more violent demonstrations were given near
though temperamental predispositions are of the Stratford, Conn., always, it was claimed, without
utmost importance in the ethical world. Dissatis- visible human agency. The phenomena grew still
faction is aroused by instincts, desires, and passions; more varied and even violent in cliaracter as the
is stimulated by sensibility and the imagination; area enlarged, including table-tipping, playing on
and may be awakened by the exercise of the will musical instruments, levitation of various objects
and by ideals; but receives few stimuli from the and even of the medium, appearance of objects in
understanding, and almost none from the reason. the atmosphere, spirit writing, and materialization.
Christianity does not teach satisfaction with all Mediumship became a lucrative profession, and the
public conditions. It demands dissatisfaction with returns offered temptations to fraud which were not
all that is evil, corrupt, morbid, and disorderly; and resisted, while the frauds were often exposed. But
requires that this disapproval be not merely a interest became extended and believers many. As
matter of opinions and words, but that it enlist the early as 1855 adherents were reckoned at nearly
reforming activity within the confines of vocation. 2,000,000 in the United States (North American Re-
Self-satisfaction, in both the Pharisaic and the Stoic view, Apr., 1855), while over a dozen periodicals were
sense, is opposed to Christian teaching, which re- devoted to the interests of the cult. The move-
jects the moral self-complacency of the natural man ment was introduced into England through Mrs.
(Luke xviii. 11 sqq.), because it is an insuperable Hayden Davenport brothers in-
in 1852, while the
barrier to repentance (Luke v. 30-32) and to the tensified the impression already made by the
kingdom of heaven (Matt. v. 3-6). The power that phenomena which they exhibited there in 1864. Dr.
is possessed in the kingdom of God is not one's own Henry Siade was also distinguished by the character
strength (I Cor. iv. 7), but the divine gift of grace of the exhibitions which he gave. In Germany
(I Cor. xv. 10), so that there is no place for self- spiritistic writing was introduced by Baron Ludwig
glorification (I Cor. i. 31). The highest Christian von Guldenstubbe (d. 1873) in 1850, who received
capability is proportionate to the most humble sense in twelve years more than 2,000 communications in
of personal incapability (II Cor. iii. 5, xii. 8-10). twenty different languages, but the substance of
Persistent Christian dissatisfaction with one- these was trivial and even jejune.
self, therefore, does not denote a peaceful disquie- A new stage was begun with the advent of the
tude, but the sense of indispensable and limitless mediums Daniel Douglas Home, William Stainton
dependence on divine grace, which in Christ does not Moses, and Mrs. Leonora Piper, and with the inves-
impair strength, but sets it free (Phil. iii. 12 sqq., iv. tigations undertaken by men of science of inter-
13). (L. LEMME.) national reputation. Home was a
Later Scotchman by birth, but lived for some
SPIRITUALISM, SPIRITUALISTS: Terms ap- Stage, years in America in the house of an
plied to the belief in the actuality of intercourse aunt, where the manifestations were
between the living and the spirits of the dead and begun in the form of violent movements of the furni-
to thosewho hold this belief. Such a belief has been ture. He visited England, where Mr. (now Sir)
existent in practically all stages of culture (see William Crookes accepted the materializations,
DIVINATION; MAGIC), and in the which Home then showed, as probably genuine.
Early Roman Empire manifestations similar Home's travels extended to Italy, Russia, and
Phenomena, to those common to modern " Spiritu- France, but his work was discredited by the results
" of a suit at law which obligated him to return
alism were reported. To those who 65,-
hold to the belief in modern times, who have formed 000 to the heirs of a rich widow. Moses (b. 1840;
what in some respects corresponds to a denomina- studied at Bedford and Exeter College, Oxford, B. A.,
" " has
tion, the name Spiritualists been given. 1863; d. in London 1892) became convinced of the
Many of these accept, for instance, the statement truths of Spiritualism, became a medium against
that the writings of Swedenborg (q.v.) were the his own predilections, exhibited remarkable trance
result of communications from spirits; while the phenomena, and also automatic writing which was
declarations of Andrew Jackson Davis (b. 1826) claimed to evince the personality of spirits of per-
are treated as part of the evidences for the alleged sons long dead. But he resented investigation by
fact. His Principles of Nature, her divine Revelations, scientists as casting suspicion upon his honesty and
and a Voice to Mankind (New York, 1847) is said to sincerity. The general trend of the later phenomena
have run through fifty editions. Since the middle of has been outside of materialistic happenings and
the nineteenth century Spiritualism has gained in the in the direction of communications of information
United States a large following. The rise of this supposedly beyond the sphere of personal knowl-
movement goes back to 1848, the year of the edge of the mediums. Such communications, cover-
" number of years, were preserved by Moses and
Rochester knockings," though the Shakers (see ing a
COMMUNISM, II., 10) claim that similar phenomena appeared in his Spirit Identity (London, 1879) and
hi their communities in 1837-44 had resulted in Spirit Teachings (1893). Similarly, the exhibitions
valuable QQtnmunicatipnfl from Aon Lee. The of Mrs. Piper are apart from the physical and con-
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

sist of communications of varied character. She sectarian instruction in the public schools, the
first became a mediumin 1885, and soon after came granting of special favors to the clergy, and the ap-
under the observation of Professor William James of pointment of paid chaplains in the public service;
Harvard and of Dr. Richard Hodgson, secretary of the organization favors equal taxation of all secular
the American branch of the Society for Psychical and ecclesiastical property, an educational qualifi-
Research. The various sets of phenomena, an out- cation for all voters, and the elimination of sex as a
line merely of which is given above, aroused scien- criterion of availability for civil office and the suf-
tific interest, and have been under consideration
frage. The Association has offices in Washington,
by various learned or scientific bodies. One of the D. C., holds annual conventions (nineteenth held
year 1884 from the University of Pennsylvania in Wichita, Kan., 1911), maintains a free library
achieved little because of inability to come to an at Washington, employs salaried missionaries, an
understanding with the mediums. In 1882 the So- editor at large, arranges for lectures and camp-
ciety for Psychical Research was formed in Eng- meetings, carries on correspondence with organiza-
land for the accumulation and investigation of data tions in other lands, and has at Whitewater, Wis.,
upon this and related subjects. Parts of the results the Morris Pratt Institute with a two-years' course
of the work of this organization are presented and of instruction. It reports twenty-two state associa-
reviewed by F. W. H. Myers in his Human Person- tions, 437 active local societies with 216 others
ality and its Survival of Bodily Death (London, 1903), meeting irregularly, 32 camp-meeting associations,
while the whole range of alleged spiritistic phenom- 120 churches and temples with a valuation of $2,-
ena is reviewed by F. Podmore in Modern Spiritual- 000,000; 75,000 avowed adherents with a constitu-
ism (London, 1902). The general trend of opinion ency of nearly 2,000,000; 370 ordained ministers,
among scientists, when considering phenomena of and 1,600 public mediums. W. H. LARRABEE.
the sort under consideration, from which the ele- BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. W. Edmonds and Q. T. Dexter, Spirit-
ment or possibility of fraud has been eliminated, is ualism, New York, 1864-55; E. W. Capnm, Modem Spir-
that the manifestations are not those of spirits, but itualism; its Facts, Boston, 1855; R. Ware, Experimental
Investigations of the Spirit Manifestations, New York,
are to be referred to powers of the human mind 1856; R. I). Owen, Footfalls on the Boundary of A nother
which are beginning to be the objects of systematic World, Philadelphia, 1859; idem, The Debatable Land be-
" " tween this World and the Next, New York, 1872; W.
study, such as the subliminal consciousness
Howitt, The Hist, of the Supernatural in Att Ages and
and various other phenomena, many of these com- Nations, London, 1863; A. De MorRnn, From Matter to
ing in the domain of abnormal psychology. One Spirit, ib. 1863; H. Tuttlo, Philosophy of Spiritual Exist-
" ence and of the. Spirit World, 2d ed., Boston, 1S64; idem,
of the characteristics of most of the communica-
Arcana of Nature, new ed., London, 1908; W. Me- Donald,
tions," the inherent unimportance, has thus re-
Spiritualism Identical with Ancient Sorcery, New Tcnta-
ceived explanation. The way is probably being ment Demonology and Modem Witchcraft, New York, 1866;
prepared for a scientific explanation of other kinds E. Sargent, Planchette, or the Despair of Science, Boston,
of manifestation, which have been supposed to show 1869; H. fl. Oloott, People from the Other World, wonder-
"
tho interference of spirits, by profounder and patient ful Doings of the Eddy Brothers," Hartford, n. d.; E. W.
Cox, Spiritualism Answered by Science, Ixmdon, 1872;
study of the lower regions of psychology. The ex- M. Hull, Contrast: Evangelism and Spiritualism com-
posure of those
"
mediums " who resorted to fraud pared, Boston, 1874; J. M. Peebles, Seers of the Aaes;
and the formulation of tests by which to assure the ancient, medieval, and modern Spintualium, Oth ed., Bos-
ton, 1874; idem, Spiritualism Defined and Defended, ib.
reality of the manifestations presented have reduced 1875; F. Q. Lee. The Other World, London, 1875; idem,
the field to be covered, while they have also greatly Sights and Shadows; Examples of the Supernatural, ib.
diminished the number of adherents of spiritualism. 1804; A. Mahan, Phenomena of Spiritualism scientifically
Explained and Exposed, New York, 1876; W. B. Carpen-
The belief in the actuality of communication be- ter, Mesmerism, Spiritualism . .
historically and scien-
.

tween discarnated spirits and the living drew to- tifically Considered, London, 1877; D. D. Home, lights

gether in various places those of like mind, and led and Shadows of Spiritualism, ib. 1878; T. B. Hall, Mod-
ern Spiritualism, Boston, 1883; J. W. Truesdoll, Bottom
in the course of time to the formation of bodies
Facts concerning Spiritualism, New York, 1883; J. Chester
corresponding to congregations and Earthly Watchers at the Heavenly Gates; the false and true
Organized churches in other Christian denomina- Spiritualism, Philadelphia, 1886; E. Gurney and F. W.
Forxn. tions, and utimately to the formation Meyers, Phantasms of the Living, 2 vols., London, 1887;
F. Johnson, The New Psychic Studies in their Relation to
of a national organization, through
Christian Thought, New York, 1887; J. C. Street, The
which a statement of belief and platform of prac- Hidden Way across the Threshold, Boston, 1887; Sir W.
tises have been issued. Thus determined, the belief Crookes, Researches in the Phenomena of Spiritualism,
of Spiritualists involves the actuality of communica- London, 1891; A. R. Wallace, Miracles and Modem
Spiritualism, new ed., London, 1895; J. Jastrow, Fact
tions, as stated above; they reject the doctrine of and Fable in Psychology, Boston, 1901 (adverse to spir-
the Trinity and of the deity of Christ, and also that of itualistic claims); F. Podmore, Modern Spiritualism, 2
the supreme authority of the Scriptures; they hold vols., London, 1902 (history of the movement in England

to the existence of an infinite intelligence expressed and America); idem, The Newer Spiritualism, ib., 1910;
. W. Cook and F. Podmore, Spiritualism; is Communi-
by the physical and spiritual phenomena of nature, cation with the Spirit World an accomplished Factf ib, 1903
a correct understanding of which and a following of (gives both sides of the argument); F. W. H. Myers,
which in life constitute the true religion; the con- Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death, ib.
1903 (important); E. T. Bennett, Physical Phenomena
tinued conscious existence of the spirit after death
popularly Classed under the Hsad of Spiritualism, ib. 1906;
is a postulate, and with this goes belief in progress J. H. Hyslop, Borderland oj Psychical Research, Boston,
as the universal law of nature. All legislation re- 1906: idem, Enigmas of Psychical Research, ib. 1906; J. Q.
Raupert, Modern Spiritism, London, 1904 (critical exami-
specting the observance of Sunday as a holy day is nation of the alleged phenomena) idem, The Dangers of
;

opposed by the National Spiritualists' Association, Spiritualism, ib. 1906; D. P. Abbott, Behind the Scent*
as also all attempts to unite Church and State, with Jfeftumt, Chicago, 1907; C. FJammarion, Mysterious
68 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ptyehic Force*, Boston, 1907; C. M. Lane, The Theory of ogy, as is shown by his anonymous Sangbilchlein
Spiritualism, St. Louis, 1907; W. N. Wilson, Theocosmia: der Lube fib Handwerksleute (Gottingen, 1824). In
the Spirit World explored, London, 1907; W. F. Barrett,
On the Threshold of a New World of Thought. An Exami- 1824 he became a private tutor at Liine, near Ltine-
nation of the Phenomena of Spiritualism, ib. 1908; H. Car- burg, where true religion was for the first time
rington, The Psychical Phenomena of Spiritualism, Fraud- roused within him, and during his residence here
ulent and Genuine, ib. 1908; Q. Oelaune, Evidence for a
the greater and better portion of his hymns were
Future Life, ib. 1908; J. Robertson, Spiritualism: the open
Door to the unseen Universe, ib. 1908; C. Lombroso, After composed. From 1828 to 1830 he was curate at
DeathWhatf ib. 1909; Sir Oliver Lodge, The Survival of Sudwalde, and from 1830 to 1837 was military and
Man, ib. 1910; Amy Elisa Tanner, Studies in Spiritism,
New York, 1910 (a thoroughgoing review of the recent phe- prison chaplain at Hameln, where, despite ration-
nomena of Spiritism, with decidedly adverse decision); T. alistic opposition, he succeeded in reviving relig-
Flournoy, E sprits et mediums, Paris, 1911; the literature ious life and in gaining the esteem of both ecclesias-
under PSYCHICAL RKBBARCH AND, THE FUTURE LIFE. ticaland military authorities. In 1837-47 Spitta
SPIRITUALS. See FRANCIS OF ASSISI, III., 4- was pastor at Wechold, near Hoya, where he again
5; OLIVI, PIERRE. succeeded in reviving interest in religion, as he also
did while stationed as superintendent at Wittingen
SPITTA, spit'fl, FREEDRICH ADOLF WILHELM: (1847-53). At Peine, on the other hand, where he
German Protestant, son of Karl Johann Philipp was pastor in 1853-59, religious life was too dead
Spitta (q.v.); b. at Wittingen (35 m. n.e. of Bruns- for him to achieve any great results. In 1859 he
wick), Hanover, Jan. 10, 1852. He was educated went as superintendent to Burgdorf, but died sud-
at the universities of Gottingen and Erlangen
denly within the year.
(1871-75); was teacher in the high school at The attitude of Spitta was distinctly one of de-
Hanover (1876-77); inspector of the Tholuck vout Lutheran orthodoxy, filled with deep religious
Seminary at Halle (1877-79); assistant pastor at conviction, but absolutely free from sectarianism
Bonn (1879-81), and pastor at Ober-Kassel, near and fanaticism. At the same time his fidelity to
Bonn (1881-87); privat-docent for Evangelical Luther's teachings rendered it impossible for him
theology at the University of Bonn (1880-87); to accept calls to the unionistic congregations of
and went to Strasburg as professor of New-Tes- Barmen (1844) and Elberfeld (1846). He published
tament exegesis and practical theology, as well as anonymously two volumes of Biblische Andachten
university preacher (1887). Besides editing the (Halle, 1836-39), but his chief fame was attained by
Monatsschrift fur Gottesdienst und kirMiche Kunst the phenomenal success of his Psalter und Harfe (2
since 1896, he has written:
ser., Pirna and Leipsic, 1833-43, and in innumer-
Der Brief des Julius Africanu* an Aristides (Halle, 1877); able editions since, Gotha, 1890, Halle, 1901
e.g., ;

Die liturgische Andacht am Luther-Jubilitum (1883); Der "

Knabe Jesus, eine biblischc Geschichte und ihre apokrj/phischen
Eng. transl., by R. Lyra Domestica," 2
Massie,
scr., London, 1860-64, and in part by Lady E. A.
EntsteUungen (1883); Luther und die evanoelische Gottett- "
dicnat (1884); Der zweite Brief des Petrus und der Brief des Durand, Imitations from the German of Spitta
Judas (1885); Die Passionen nach den vier Evangelisten von and Tersteegcn," 1873). [A large number of his
Hfinrich Schutz (Leipaic, 1886); Hcinrich Schutz, sein Leben
und seine Kunst (Hildburgh, 1886); Predigten (3 vols., Bonn hymns have been rendered into English; cf. Julian,
and Stnujhurg, 1886-fl9); Drei kirchliche Festspiele fur Hymndogy, pp. 1075-80.] After his death a further
Weinachten, O stern und Pfingsten (.Strasburg. 1889); Die collection of his hymns was published under the title
Offenbarung des Johannes untersucht (Halle, 1889); Christi Nachgelassene geistliche Lieder (Leipsic, 1861), and
Predigt an die Gcittter der Unterwelt (Gdttingen, 1890); Zur
later still his Lieder aus der Jugendzeit appeared
Reform des evangehschen KuUus (1891) ; Die Apostelgeschichte,
ihre Quellen und der en geschichtlicher Wert (Halle, 1891); Zur (ed. Peters, 1898). (WILHELM NELLE.)
Geschichte und Literatur des Urchristentums (3 vols., Gdttin- The one biography is by K. K. Mtinkel,
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
gcn, 1893-1907) ; Der Entwurfder preussischen Agende (1893) ;
Leipsic, 1861, 2cl ed., with notes by O. Mojor, 1892, with
Verteidigung des preussischen Agendenentwurfes (1894); Das which should be compared the biographical sketch in L.
Gesangbuch fur die evangelischen Gemeinden von Elsass-
Spitta's ed. of the Psalter und Harfe, pp. i.-cxxxvi. f
Lothnngen kritisch beleuchtet (Stroaburg, 1894); Gottesdienst Gotha, 1890. Commit further: . Koch, Geschichte
.

und Kunst (1895); Ludwig Schoberleins musiea sacra fur des Kirchenliedes, vii. 232 sqq., Stuttgart, 1872; S. W.
Kirchenchdre (Qottingen, 1895); Der Brief des Jakobus
Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 239-241, 149, 426, New
untersucht (1896), J. Zwicks Gebete und Lieder fur die Sti-
York, 1886; W. Nolle, Philipp Spitta, ein Gedenkbuchlein,
pend (1901); Untersuchungen uber den Brief des Paulus an Berlin, 1901; idem., Geschichte des deutschen evangelischen
die Romer (1901); Musik und Kunstpflege auf dem Land
Kirchenlieds, 2d ed., Hamburg, 1909; and Julian, Hymn-
(Berlin. 1902); Do* Magnificat ein Psalm der Mfaria und
ologv, PP. 1075-80.
nicht der Elisabeth (Tubingen, 1902); Die Kekhbewegung in
Deutschland und die Reform der AbendmaMsfeier (Gdttingen,
1904); Die Konstanter Liederdichter (Hamburg, 1904); SPITTLER, spit'ler, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH:
" German Lutheran layman distinguished for his
Ein fester Burg ist unser Gott," die Lieder Luthers in ihrer
Bedeutungfur das evangelische Kirchenlied (Q6ttingen, 1905); services in behalf of missions; b. at Wimshcim (a
Streitfragen der Geschichte Jesu (1907); Das Testament
Hiobs und das Neue Testament (1907) ; Jesus und die Heiden- village of Wttrttemberg near Leonberg, 8 m. w.n.w.
mission (Qiessen, 1909); Das Johannes- Evangelium als of Stuttgart) Apr. 12, 1782; d. at Basel Dec. 8,
Quelle der Geschichte Jesu (Gottingen, 1910); and Beitrage 1867. After a brief trial of the revenue and admin-
fur Frage nach der geistlichen Dichtung des Hertogs AlbrecfU istrative service (1796-1800), he was called, in 1801,
von Preussen (Konigsberg, 1910).
to Basel as assistant in the Christentumsgesellschaft
SPITTA, KARL JOHANN PHILLIPP: German (see CHRISTENTUMSGESELLSCHAFT, DIE DEUTSCHE),
Lutheran hymn-writer; b. at Hanover Aug. 1 (or where he kept the books and conducted the corre-
July 31), 1801; d. at Burgdorf (13 m. s. of Celle) spondence both of this society and of the Bible and
Sept. 28, 1859. He was educated at the University tract society which it soon established. In 1807 all
of Qattingen (1821-24), though he there devoted secretarialwork was placed in his hands, and in the
more attention to poetry and music than to theol- following year he received the official appointment
 .us THE NEW 6CHAFF-HERZOQ

to this position, which he retained for the remainder Rahmm winer Znt, Basel, 1876, begun by Spittler'a
of his life. In 1812 he founded a publishing-house adopted daughter, reached only the end of vol. i., com-
ing down to 1812. Consult further: T. Jager, Jakob
Lvd-
at Basel, and in 1834 a lending library, but in 1841
wio Joger, ein Lebmabtid, Basel, 1898; W. Hadom, <7-
he limited his establishment to Bibles, tracts, and tchichte dea PieMmua in den achwtixeriachen reformirten
the publication of the literature of the Christen- Kirchen, pp. 493-504, Constance, 1901.

tumsgesellschaft. He was by no means a clear or LTOWIG TIMOTHEUS: German

SPITTLER,
systematic thinker, and his work was characterized Protestant church historian; b. at Stuttgart Nov.
by a lack of fixed plan which was reflected by the
11, 1752; d. there Mar. 14, 1810. He early devel-
premature and impracticable nature of many of his
oped a marked interest in history, and the main
projects, yet nearly all the activities, 'institutions,
subjects of his study at Tubingen (1771-75) were
and undertakings of the Innere Mission had in him
philosophy and church history. His publications
their pioneer. The diversity of his philanthropic in-
while lecturer at Tubingen (1777-79) included his
terests was marvelous. During the war of 1812-13
Kritiache Unterauchung dea aecfmgaten Laodicaiadum
he labored in behalf of all in distress, regardless of
Canons (Bremen, 1777) and the anonymous Ge-
nationality, station, and creed, and in the war of achichte dea kanoniachen Rechta bia auf die Zeiten dea
1866 he made provision for the distribution of Bibles
folachen Isidore (Halle, 1778), the latter winning
and the care of the sick; while during the Greek
him an appointment as professor of church history
War of Independence he established a society for and the history of dogma at Gottingen in 1779.
the moral and religious betterment of the Greeks
Here his lectures developed into his Grundriaa der
and a short-lived institution for the training of a
Geachichte der chriatlichen Kirche (Gottingen, 1782),
number of Greek slaves whom he ransomed, even as
a work long much admired, being both somewhat
he provided an English school for the children of
the English workmen engaged in tunneling the popular in tone and decidedly rationalistic. To
church history Spittler also contributed, among
Hauenstcin. In 1812 he established a home for poor
other works, his De usu textua Alexandrini apud
students of theology, and in 1830 an institution for
Josephum (Gottingen, 1779) Geachicttie dea Kelcha
;

distributing Bibles to poor children; in 1833 he im Abendmahl (Lemgo, 1780); and Von der chemal-
changed the Greek institution already mentioned
into an asylum for deaf-mutes which still flourishes igen Zinabarkeit der nordiachen Reiche an den rfimi-
achen Stuhl (Hanover, 1797), as well as his Vorlea-
at Riehcn near Basel; and he was also instrumental
ungen -Giber die Geachichte dea Kirchenrechta, and
in the founding of several other philanthropic insti-
Ueber die Geachichte dea Mdnchtuma (both in his
tutions. The development of the deaconess system,
S&mmtliche Werke, x.); Vorleaungen uber die Ge-
likeJewish missions, found an enthusiastic advocate
achichte dea Papattuma (ed. H. E. G. Paulus, Hei-
in him, and to him was ultimately due the estab-
lishment of the seminary for teachers of ragged delberg, 1826); Geachichte der Kreuzzuge (ed. C.
Mtiller, Hamburg, 1827); and Geachichte der Hier-
schools at Beuggen.
orchie von Gregor VII. bis auf die Zeiten der Refor-
Spittler is particularly noteworthy for his effort
mation (ed. C. Mtiller, 1828).
to cany Protestantism into Roman Catholic dis-
In 1782 Spittler began to lecture on general his-
tricts and unchurched Protestant regions, by means
of peasants, artizans, and other laymen, who should tory, and in 1784 he ceased all courses on church
travel from place to place and in their wanderings history, so that his writings were henceforth prac-
tically restricted to secular history, political econ-
spread the tenets of the faith. He soon realized
that a certain degree of training and organization omy, and statistics. He was one of the most
was necessary for such missionaries, but after a popular and influential of the Gottingen professors,
number of abortive attempts (including the estab- although his political attitude caused the king to re-
lishment of colonies of such laymen about a day's gard him with little favor. In 1797 he accepted the
invitation of Duke Frederick Eugene of WUrttem-
journey apart, and the training of quasi-raissionaries
for Palestine), he was compelled by the missionary berg to return to his native city as a privy councilor,
but the sudden death of his patron was almost fatal
society at Basel to restrict his activities to the In- to his plans, and though he was created a baron in
nere Mission and the education of missionaries to
1806, and made minister of state, curator of the
work among the German emigrants to the United
States. Real progress now began, and in 1854 University of Tubingen, etc., his real influence was
" " scanty, nor could his new honors compensate for the
Spit/tier's Chrischona founded some small com-
munities in Sackingen and Rheinfelden, while a days at Gottingen. The 8&mmtliche Werke of Spit-
tier were edited in fifteen volumes by K. Wachter
number of missionaries were even trained for the
(Stuttgart, 1827-37; the vols. of chief interest for
foreign field. The long-cherished plan of sending the theologian are i.-ii. and viii.-x.).
missionaries from the
" "
Chrischona to Abyssinia
also seemed on the eve of realization when the war
(N. BONWETSCH.)
between England and Abyssinia (1866-68) put an BIBLIOGRAPHY: O. J. Planck, Ueber Spittler alt Hiatoriker.
Gottingen, 1811; K. L. von Woltznann, Werke, xii. 311
abrupt end to all such plans. While, however, the aqq., Berlin, 1821; A. H. L. Heeran, Hittorische Wtrke,
" "
foreign missionary field of the Chrischona was vi. 515 aqq., 15 vola., Gattingen, 1821-26; D. F. Strauaa,
Kleine Schriften, pp. 68 sqq., Leipaic, 1862; Q. Waiti,
practically annihilated at the tune of Spittler's
GtiUinoen Profataren, pp. 245 aqq., Gotha, 1872; F. X.
death, his Innere Mission work was most success- von Wegele, Getchichie der devtachm ffwtonbffrapAM, pp.
ful, and has been most prosperously carried on to 872 sqq., Munich, 1885; ADD, mv. 212 aqq.

the present day. (WILHELM BORNEMANN.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The one complete biography is by J. Kober, SPOILS, RIGHT OF (Jus apolii): The claim of the
Basel, 1887, ainoe the more ambitious C. F. Spittler tm Church, the clergy, or secular rulers to a share in
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Spittle*
Spondanuft

the estates of deceased ecclesiastics. The Church popes. The liberty of making wills, which had been
persistently adhered to the Roman law until late in granted by the State to ecclesiastics, was now re-
the Middle Ages, but made an excep- stricted anew by the bishops. And even after it
The Claim tion in regard to the laws of property, had been granted again, there still remained of the
of the which in the Roman code had been right of spoils the Perto (fourth of a mark), which
Church, developed with a rigid consistency. the clergy had to leave to the bishop and this was
When, at least in later times, burial customary in some German states as late as the
was refused to laymen who had bequeathed noth- nineteenth century (cf. E. Friedberg, Kirchenrecht,
ing to the Church (cf. E. Friedberg, Definium inter p. 562, Leipsic, 1903).
ecdesiam et civtiatem regundorum judicio, p. 187, Even the popes, who had so zealously opposed
Leipsic, 1861), it is not strange that the Church con- the robbery of churches, claimed the right for which
sidered itself heir of the clergy and as mother as- they had envied the bishops. In France the kings
sumed the heritage of her own children, the priests. shared with the pope the spoil of churches and eccle-
According to the older church laws the right of siastics. It was in vain that the Uni-
ecdesiastics to dispose of their possessions was not The Claim versity of Paris denounced such abuses.
restricted; but bishops were early required to make of the The leaders of the protesting party
a will, and they were subject to penalty if they did Popes, were thrown into prison, and fear and
not devise in favor of the Church or of blood-rela- terror led others to keep silence. But
tions. Theodosius II. (408-450) awarded to the when the consequences of these abuses clearly
Church all possessions of ecclesiastics which had showed themselves, when bishops were regarded as
not been disposed of by will. In course of time the the worst debtors since their estates offered no se-
obligation to make a will was extended from the curity to creditors, Charles VI. ordered, in 1385,
bishops to all holders of benefices. But strong ob- the abolishment of the papal right of spoils for
stacles continually met the desire of the Church to monasteries and bishoprics. After a few years, how-
become sole heir of clerical possessions. Ecclesias- ever, the Council of Constance was forced to oppose
tics disregarded church ordinances and seized the the same abuses, also in vain; but in France at least
possessions of deceased colleagues. Various coun- the reintroduction of the right of spoils failed,
cilsand synods condemned the right of spoils and owing to the rigid opposition of the French kings.
prescribed severe punishments, but without avail. In 1643 Louis XI. repeated the ordinances of
Ecclesiastics at times did not wait for the death of Charles VI. and emphasized his edict by threats
a brother, and the right of spoils was extended even of severe punishment. But even the resistance of
to the estate of the pope. To do away with these secular princes, which found the willing support of
abuses, Charlemagne appointed oeconomi for the the Church, did not induce the popes to deprive the
administration of church possessions, but without apostolic treasury of the lucrative spoils. As late
success. A capitulary of Charles the Bold issued in as 1560 Pius IV. forbade all ecclesiastics to make a
844 seems to have been more successful. will without the permission of the apostolic seat,
The laity also tried to obtain a share in the estates and did not hesitate to declare future donations in-
of deceased churchmen. As long as the clergy lived valid, while Pius V. (1567) and Gregory XIII. (1577)
according to Roman law, their right to dispose of reasserted the old claims. It is true, however, that
their property by will was acknowledged by the these were the last phenomena on a large scale of an
State; but when they were subjected abuse that had been practised for centuries by lay-
Claims of to the law of the country, they could men and ecclesiastics with equal rapacity, which
Secular make their wills only under the same abuse in Italy even yet has not been abolished.
Rulers, restrictions as laymen. If they left (E. FRIEDBERGf.)
no will, their property did not go to BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Thomaaain, Veins et nova ecclcsia dis-
their relatives or to the Church, but the manor- cipline, III., ii., chaps. 51-57; Zeitschrift fttr Philosophic
lords, later the church-patrons, claimed it; and after und katholiache Theoloffie, parts 23-25; 8. Sugenheim,
Staatalcben dea Klenu im MiUelalter, i. 267 sqq. t Berlin,
Frederick I., the German kings claimed the estates
1839; A. Friedberg, De flnium inter ecclcsiam et civitatem
of the bishops. It is true, Frederick I. threatened regundorum judicio, pp. 220 aqq. ( Leipsic, 1861 ; E. Fried-
with severe punishment all those who tried to cur- berg, Lehrbuch dea . . Kirchcnrcchia, 5 170, Leipsio,
.

tail the liberty of ecclesiastics in making a will, but 1903 (useful for references to late literature); KL, xi.
657-661.
neither he nor his successors regarded their own
laws and promises. Even after the emperors had SPONDANUS, spon-da'nus, HBNRICUS (HENRI
renounced the right of spoils, it was maintained by DE SPONDE): French Roman Catholic convert,
the German princes. Conditions were not differ- church historian and bishop of Pamiers; b. at
ent in England, Scotland, Sicily, and France. The Maul&m (25 m. s.w. of Pau), Gascony, Jan. 6, 1568;
right of spoils was practised in France especially. d. at Toulouse May 18, 1643. He was brought up
The Church there complained that the rulers de- in the Reformed faith and studied at the College at
layed to fill episcopal seats in order to enjoy their Orthez and the Academy of Geneva. He practised
revenues so much the longer. Gradually the same law at Tours and won such distinction that Henry
abuse started anew within the Church itself. Ab- IV. appointed him mattre des requites for Navarre.
bots claimed the possessions of priors and regulars; On Sept. 21, 1595, he renounced the Reformed
bishops the estates of their canons, priests, and other tenets, and through the influence of Cardinal
clergy, even the estate of whole churches; priors Jacques Davy du Perron (q.v.) he obtained a
and chapters the estate of bishops; and all this in canonry. In 1600 he went to Rome, where he be-
spite of the continued prohibitions of councils and came a close friend of Caear Baronius (q.v.), whose
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 56

Annalea he continued to 1622, and was there or- BIBLIOGRAPHY: A

life of the author was prefixed to the

dained priest on Mar. 7, 1606. Spondanus remained The History, and another (by M. Russell)
original ed. of
to the Edinburgh ed., ut sup. Consult further: J. F. 8.
at Rome until 1626, when Louis XIII. nominated Gordon, Scotichronicon, i. 360-616, Glasgow, 1867; DNB t
him bishop of Pamiers, in which capacity he mani- liii. 412-415; and the literature on the Church of Scotland

fested the utmost diligence in the extirpation of given under PRESBYTERIANS.

heresy. In 1639 failing health obliged him to resign SPRAGUE, spreg, WILLIAM BUELL: American
in
his see, and, after devoting himself to literary labors Presbyterian, pulpit orator, and biographer; b.
at Paris, he finally retired to Toulouse. His wri- Andover, Conn., Oct. 16, 1795; d. at Flushing, N. Y.,
tings were as follows: Defence de la declaration du May 7, 1876. He was graduated from Yale College
sieur de Sponde par Henry de Sponde sonfrere centre in 1815 (A.M., 1819); was private tutor for about
Bonnet et Souia (Bor-
lea cavittationa dee miniatrea a year; was graduated from Princeton Theological
deaux, 1597); Lea Cimitierea sacrez (1598; Lat. ed., Seminary, 1819; and was immediately ordained
much enlarged, Paris, 1638); Annales ecdesiastici pastor of the Congregational Church in West Spring-
Cardinalia Baronii in epUomen redacti (Paris, 1612) ; field, Mass., as a colleague of Joseph Lathrop; on
Annales aacri a mundi creatione ad ejusdem redemp- the death of Lathrop, Sprague was left sole pastor,
tionem (1637); and Annalium Baronii continuatio 1820-29; was pastor of the Second Presbyterian
ab anno 1187 ad annum 1622 (1639). Church of Albany, 1829-69; he then removed to
(EUQEN LACHENMANN.) Flushing, N. Y., where he died.
BIBLJOGRAPHT: There isa biography by P. Frixon prefixed Sprague attained very high eminence as a preachei
to the Annalium Baronii continuatio, ut sup. Consult and speaker, and was besides a voluminous author.
also: E. and E. Haag, La France protestantc, ix. 316, Paris,
1859; Lichtenberger, ESR, xi. 603-604.
More than 150 of his sermons and occasional dis-
courses were published by request. He published
SPORTS, BOOK OF : A royal proclamation drawn more than a dozen other separate works, among
up by Bishop Morton James I., issued by that
for which may be mentioned Letters from Europe in
king in 1618; republished by Charles I., under the 1828 (New York, 1828); Lectures on Remvals of
direction of Laud, in the ninth year of his reign.
Religion; with an introductory Essay by L. Woods
Its object was to encourage those people who had
(1832); Life of Rev. Dr. E. D. Griffin (J838); The
attended divine service to spend the remainder of
" Life of Timothy Dwight (1844); Aids to Early Re-
Sunday "after evening prayers in such lawful rec- ligion (1847); Words to a Young Man's Conscience
reation as dancing, archery, leaping, vaulting, May
(1848); Visits to European Celebrities (1855); Mem-
games, Whitsun ales, Morris dances, and setting of oirs of ... J. McDowell, D.D., and ... W. Mc-
May-poles. The proclamation was aimed at the Dowell (1864); Life ofJedidiah Morse, D.D. (1874).
Puritans, and Charles required it to be read in every The great literary work of his life was the An-
parish church. The majority of the Puritan minis- nals of the American Pulpit: Notices of American
ters refused to obey, and some were in consequence to 1855 Trinitarian Congre-
Clergymen (vols. i.-ii.,
suspended. See PURITANS, PURITANISM, 13.
gationalists, Presbyterians, v., Episcopa-
iii.-iv.,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. Wilkins, Concilia Magnet Britannia, iv.
Methodists, viii., Unitarians,
lians, vi., Baptists, vii.,
483, London, 1737; W. Benham, Dictionary of Relioion.
pp. 080-000, ib. 1887; W. H. Hut ton, The English Church ix., Lutherans, Reformed, Associate, Associate Re-
(1686-1714), pp. 107-108, ib. 1003. formed, and Reformed Presbyterians; 9 vols.,
1858-61). The manuscript of the tenth and con-
SPOTTISWOOD, spet'is-wud (SPOTTISWOODE,
cluding volume was completed for publication be-
SPOTISWOOD, SPOTSWOOD), JOHN: Archbishop fore his death; it included Quakers, German Re-
of Glasgow; b. at Mid-Calder (12 m. s.w. of Edin-
formed, Moravians, Cumberland Presbyterians,
burgh) 1665; d. in London Nov. 26, 1639. He Freewill Baptists, Swedenborgians, and Univer-
studied at Glasgow University (M.A., 1581); suc-
salists.
ceeded his father as pastor at Calder, in 1583, when
only eighteen; in 1601 accompanied the duke of SPRECHBR, sprek'er, SAMUEL: Lutheran (Gen-
Lennox as chaplain in his embassy to France, and eral Synod); b. near Hagerstown, Md., Dec. 28,
in 1603 went with James VI. to England; in 1603 1810; d. at San Diego, Cal., Jan. 10, 1896. He
was made archbishop of Glasgow, and in 1605 studied at Pennsylvania College and Theological
privy-councilor for Scotland; was transferred to St. Seminary, Gettysburg, Pa., 1830-36; was pastor
Andrews in 1615, so that he became primate and at Harrisburg, Pa., Martinsburg, Va., and Cham-
metropolitan; on June 18, 1633, crowned Charles bersburg, Pa., 1836-49; president of Wittenberg
I. at Holyrood; and in 1635 was made chancellor of College, Springfield, O., 1849-74; and from 1874
Scotland. He was at first opposed to the intro- was professor of systematic theology there. He
duction of the liturgy into the Church of Scotland, was the author of Groundwork of a System of Evan-
but, seeing that it was inevitable, he resolved to gelical Lutheran Theology (Philadelphia, 1879).
further the royal wishes, and personally led the BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. O. Bell, Portraiture of the Life of Samuel
movement. Owing to the opposition offered he Sprecher, Philadelphia, 1907.

tried to modify the policy of the king, but in 1638 SPRENG, SAMUEL PETER: Evangelical As-
the covenant was signed, and he was forced to re- sociation; Jb. in Clinton Township, O., Feb. 11, 1853.
move to Newcastle for his safety, and in 1630 went He was educated at Northwestern College, Naper-
to London, where he died. He wrote The History ville, (A.B. 1875), and, after holding various
111.

of the Church of Scotland (WS-162S) (London, 1655; pastorates in his denomination and being presiding
best ed., 3 vote., with life of the author, Edinburgh, elder from 1875 to 1887, was elected, in the latter
1847-51). year, editor of The Evangelical Messenger, the offi-
67 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

cialorgan of the Evangelical Association, a position he marched to Quebec. He was ordained to the
which he still retains. He was likewise president ministry Aug. 6, 1777, and became pastor of the
of the Missionary Society of the Evangelical Asso- Second Congregational Church at Newburyport,
ciation in 1894-05 and secretary of the same body Mass., which he served for over forty-one years.
in 1904-07, and a member of the committee to re- He was one of those who gave a powerful impulse
vise the. discipline of his denomination in 1895-99, to the cause of theological education, culminating
while he has also been book editor since 1887, and in the founding of Andover Theological Seminary.
president of the Young People's Alliance of the He also assisted in the organization of the Massa-
Evangelical Association since 1895. In theology he chusetts Historical Society and the American Board
"
is an Arminian of the Evangelical type," and has of Commissioners of Foreign Missions. He was an
written Rays of Light on the Highway to Success editor of The Massachusetts Missionary Magazine.
(Cleveland, O., 1885); Life and Labors of Bishop His most memorable theological treatises are: Dia-
John Seybert (1888); History of the Evangelical As- logue on the Nature of Duty (1784); and Moral Dis-
sociation (New York, 1894); and The Sinner and quisitions and Strictures on the Rev. David Tappan's
his Saviour: or, The Way of Salvation made Plain Lectures (2d ed., 1815).
(Cleveland, 1906). BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. B. Sprague, Annals of the American
Pulpit, 85-89, New York, 1859; W. Walker in American
ii.

SPRING, GARDINER: American Presbyterian; Church History Series, iii. 323, 332, 349-351, ib. 1894;
idem, Ten New England Leaders, passim, ib. 1901; A. E.
b. at Newburyport, Mass., Feb. 24, 1785; d. in Dunning, Congreffatianalists in America, pp. 286-288, ib.
New York Aug. 18, 1873. He was graduated from 1894.
Yale College, 1805; taught in Bermuda, 1805-07;
was admitted to the bar, 1808; abandoned law for SPRINZL, sprin'zl, JOSEF: Roman Catholic;
b. at Linz (100 m. w. of Vienna), Austria, Mar. 9,
theology, and studied at Andover Theological Semi-
1839; d. at Prague Nov. 8, 1898. He studied in the
nary, 1809-10; was ordained pastor of the Brick
priests' seminary at Linz, 1857-61; was ordained
(Presbyterian) Church, Aug. 8, 1810, and held the
priest, 1861; studied in the priests' institute at
position till his death. The first four years of his
Vienna, 1861-64; became professor of theology in
ministry were years of steady, quiet growth, but
the Linz Seminary, 1864; professor of dogmatics
from 1814 to 1834 there were frequent revivals. He
at Salzburg University, 1875; ordinary professor
took part in the formation of the American Bible
of the same at Prague, 1881 spiritual councilor to
Society (1816), American Tract Society (1825), and
;

the bishop of Linz Feb. 23, 1873, and of the prince-

American Home Missionary Society (1826). His
He published Die
bishop of Salzburg Jan. 28, 1880.
congregation first mot in Beekman Street, but in
1856 removed to Fifth Avenue and Thirty-sixth altkatholischeBewegung im Lichte des katholischen
Glaubens (Linz, 1872); Handbuch der Fundamental-
Street. After 1861 he had a colleague. His minis-
theologie (Vienna, 1876); Die Theologie der apos-
try \vas remarkable both for length and power. His
principal publications were Essays on the Distin-
tolischen Voter (1880); Compendium summarium
theologies dogmaticce in usum prcelectionum academi-
guishing Traits of Christian Character (New York,
carum condnnatum (1882).
1813); Memoirs of the Rev. S. J. Mills, Late Mis-
sionary to the Southwestern Section of the United SPROULL, spraul, THOMAS: Reformed Presby-
States (1820); An Appeal to tfie Citizens of New terian (Old School); b. near Freeport, Pa., Sept.
York, on Behalf of the Christian Sabbath (1823) ; The 15, 1803; d. in Pittsburg, Pa., Mar. 20, 1892. He
Attraction of tfie Cross; designed to illustrate the lead- was graduated from the Western University of
ing Truths, Obligations, and Hopes of Christianity Pennsylvania, Pittsburg, 1829; was pastor of the
(1846); The Bible not of Man; or, the Argument for Reformed Presbyterian Congregation of Allegheny
the divine Origin of the sacred Scriptures, drawn from and Pittsburg, 1834-68; professor in Reformed
the Scriptures themselves (1847); First Things. A Presbyterian Western Theological Seminary, 1838-
Series of Lectures on the great Facts and moral Les-
1840; in the united Eastern and Western Semi-
sons first revealed to Mankind (2d ed., 2 vols., 1851);
naries, 1840-45; again from 1856; and professor
The First Woman (1852); Pulpit Ministrations; or, emeritus from 1875. He edited The Reformed Pres-
Sabbath Readings. A Series of Discourses on Chris-
byterian, 1855-62, and The Reformed Presbyterian
tian Doctrine and Duty (1864); Personal Reminis- and Covenanter, 1862-74, both published in Pitts-
cences of the Life and Times of Gardiner Spring (2 burg, Pa. Besides sermons, he wrote Prelections on
vols., 1866) ;
and occasional sermons and collections Theology (Pittsburg, 1882).
of sermons.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides his Personal Reminiscence*, ut sup., SPURGBON, spur'jun, CHARLES ADDON: H
consult the Memorial Discourse of J. O. Murray, New York, English Baptist; b. at Kelvedon (40 m. n.e. of
[1873]; and 8. Knapp, Hist, of the Brick Presbyterian London), Essex, June 19, 1834; d. at Mentone (13
Church, N. Y. ( New York, 1009.
m. n.e. of Nice), France, Jan. 31, 1892. His father
SPRING, SAMUEL: American theologian; b. and grandfather had been Independent ministers.
at Northbridge, Mass., Feb. 27, 1746; d. at New- From the age of seven to fifteen he was educated in
buryport, Mass., Mar. 4, 1819. He graduated at a school at Colchester; he spent a few months in
Princeton College in 1771; studied theology under an agricultural college at Maidstone in 1842; and
John Witherspoon, Joseph Bellamy, Samuel Hop- in 1849 became usher in a school at Newmarket,
kins, and Stephen West (qq.v.). In 1775 he be- kept by a Baptist. As a youth he was subject to
came a chaplain in the continental army, joining a inner restlessness and conflict and dated his con-
volunteer corps under Benedict Arnold, with which version from Dec. 6, 1850, at the chapel of the Primi-
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 68

live Methodists in Colchester, on which occasion he tist, B. W. Noel, Evangelical Clergy Defended (1864),
was deeply stirred and greatly relieved by a sermon in which Spurgeon was censured for introducing
preached by a layman on Isa. xlv. 22. However, needless divisions among men of like faith. He,
the study of the Scriptures brought further mis- however, ended by withdrawing from the Evan-
givings and he was not content until he was im- gelical Alliance. He also watched with misgivings
mersed. This took place in the Lark at Isleham the growth among Baptists of what seemed to him
May and he then united with the Baptist
3, 1851, indifference to orthodoxy, deploring that not enough
communion. In 1851 he became usher in a school stress was laid on Christ's divine nature. He op-
" "
posed what he called the down-grade movement
1
at Cambridge, and entered the lay preachers asso-
ciation in connection with the Baptist church meet- of Biblical criticism; and, not being able to win the
ing in St. Andrews Street, Cambridge. Forced by Baptist Union to his view, he withdrew in 1887,
circumstance he preached unprepared his first ser- remaining independent until the end of his life, al-
mon in a cottage at Teversham near Cambridge, at though still a stanch Baptist. Personally unam-
the age of sixteen. His gifts were recognized at bitious and unselfish, industrious in his exacting
once and his fame spread. He preached in chapels, parish service and incessant Biblical study, human
cottages, or in the open air in as many as thirteen in sympathy and sane on social questions, demo-
stations in the villages surrounding Cambridge, and cratic in temperament, he was ever zealous in the
this after his school duties for the day were past. gospel of grace and redemption, and fearless in de-
In 1852 he became pastor of the small Baptist nouncing evil and upholding what he deemed true
church at Waterbeach, and in 1854, after preach- and right. As a preacher his early success was due
ing three months on probation, he was called to the to the sensation of his youth, his spontaneous humor,
pastorate of the New Park Street Church, South- the fervor of his appeals to the conscience, but most-
wark, London. Only 100 persons attended his first ly to his natural gift of oratory. With a clear sym-
service; but before the end of the year the chapel pathetic voice and easy gesture, he knew how most
had to be enlarged, and he preached in Exeter Hall effectively to present his appeal for salvation, pro-
during the alterations. When the enlarged chapel jected from a shrewd comment on contemporary
was opened it proved at once too small, and a great life and sustained upon his characteristic expository
tabernacle was projected. Meanwhile, in 1856, treatment of Scripture derived from the old Puritan
Spurgeon preached at the Surrey Gardens music- divines. He was in later life a great sufferer from
hall to congregations which numbered 10,000 peo- and frequently was obliged to leave his
gout,
ple; and at twenty-two he was the most popular pulpit.
preacher of his day. In 1861 the Metropolitan Tem- The results of Spurgeon 's literary labors had an
ple, seating 6,000, was opened and there he min- enormous circulation. He conducted The Sword
istered until his death, retaining his popularity and and the Trowel, a monthly church magazine; and
power as a preacher to the end. published more than 1,900 sermons, including, from
Beside preaching, other enterprises made their 1855, a sermon every week, contained in The Metro-
demand upon his energy. In 1855 he accepted his
politan Tabernacle Pulpit, continued after his death
first student for the ministry; soon a class assem-
(49 vols., London, 1856-1904). Other works were,
bled in his house every week for instruction in the- The Saint and his Savior (London, 1857); Morn-
ology* pastoral duties, and other practical matters. ing by Morning; or Daily Readings for the Family
This work was assigned mainly to a tutor. Out of or the Closet (1866); Evening by Evening (1868);
it grew the Pastors' College, located first in his house; John Ploughman's Talk (1869); and John Plough-
under the Tabernacle, 1861-74; and, after 1874, in man's Pictures (1880). Famous also is Our Own
the New College buildings. The local mission work Hymn Book, with paraphrases of Psalms (1866).
of these students in the slums formed the nuclei of His most important work was The Treasury of David,
new Sunday-schools and churches, a circle of which an exposition of the book of Psalms (7 vols., 1870-
banded around the central church. Its internal 1885). In view of his own lack of higher training,
needs weie provided by a number of auxiliary asso- he was dependent in Biblical work upon the research
ciations. Spurgeon was president of a society for of his assistants for scientifical material and on the
the dissemination of Bibles and tracts employing Puritan divines for method and point of view; and
the service of ninety colporteurs. The StockweU his commentaries are practical and homiletical
Orphanage was incorporated in 1867 with an en- rather than scientific. Shortly before his death he
dowment of 20,000 given by Mrs. Hillyard. It completed The Gospel of the Kingdom, a popular
grew to a group of twelve houses and accommodated exposition of Matthew (1898).
500 children.
The figure of Spurgeon was a composite one. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Besides Spurgeon's Autobiography, Com-
Methodist by conversion, Baptist by profession, he piled from his Diary, Letters, Records, by his Wife and His
Secretary, 4 vols., London, 1897-1900, there are biogra-
was fundamentally Calvinistic by descent and is phies by; G. H. Pike, new od., London, 1887. R. H.
"
sometimes called the last of the Puritans." He Gonwell, Philadelphia, 1892; J. D. Fulton, Chicago, 1892
was minded to carry his obduracy even to the ex* G. C. Lorimer, Boston, 1892; R. Shindler, From the
Usher's Desk to the Tabernacle Pulpit, New York, 1892.
tent of disunion among the churches. In 1864 he H. L. Wayland, Philadelphia, 1892. J. J. Ellis, new ed.,
invited a controversy with the Evangelical party in London, 1902; C. Ray, ib. 1903, of. the same author's
the Church of England by a powerful sermon, Bap- A Marvelous Ministry, ib. 1905. Consult further: J.
tismal Regeneration, a doctrine which he opposed; Fernandas, Nonconformity in Southward London. 1882:
W. Williams, Personal Reminiscences of Charles H addon
300,000 copies were sold, and numerous pamphlets Sturgeon, New York, 1890; W. M. Higgs, The Spurgem
written in reply, the most important was by a Bap- ParnHv, London, 1908.
50 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

SPURGBON, THOMAS: English Baptist; b. in and his Adversaries (2d ed., 1733); A New . . .
London Sept. 20, 1856. After studying at the Pas- Exposition of the Apostles' Creed (1747); The Life
tor's College of the Metropolitan Tabernacle, Lon- of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. With the Lives
don, as well as in South Kensington, he visited Aus- of the Apostles and Evangelists (1754).
tralia and Tasmania in 1877 and again in 1879, and BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Nichola, Literary Anecdotes of the 18th
from 1881 to 1889 was pastor of a Baptist church Century, ii. 303-399, 9 vols., London, 1812-15; DNB,
in New Zealand. He was then an evan- liii. 442-443.
Auckland,
gelist of the New Zealand Baptist Union until 1893, STADE, shta'de, BERNHARD: German Protes-
when he succeeded father, Charles Haddon
his
tant; at Arnstadt (20 m. s.w. of Weimar) May
b.
Spurgeon (q.v.), as minister of the Metropolitan 11, 1848; d. at Oiessen Dec. 7, 1906. He was edu-
Tabernacle. He
resigned this position in 1908, in cated at the universities of Lcipsic (1867-69; Ph.D.,
consequence of ill-health, and has since been presi- 1871) and Berlin (1869-70), and in 1871 became
dent of Pastor's College and of Stockwell Orphan- assistant in the library of the former institution,
age, London. Besides a volume of poems, Scarlet where he was also privat-docent in 1873-75; pro-
Threads and Bits of Blue (London, 1892), he has fessor of Old-Testament exegesis at the University
published several collections of sermons: The Gospel of Giessen (1875-1906), and rector in 1882-83, and
of the Grace of God (1884), Down to tfu Sea (1895), 1896-97; after 1894 he was overseer of the theo-
Light and Love (1897), God Save the King (1902), and logical students at Giessen. In addition to his work
My Gospel (1902). as editor of the Zeitschrift fur alttestamentliche Wis-
senschaft, which he founded in 1881, he wrote
SRAWLEY, JAMES HERBERT: Church
srO'll,
Ueber den Ursprung der mehrlautigen TatwOrter der
of England; Handsworth, Birmingham, Dec.
b. at
De Isaice vaticiniis
He received his education at King Ed- Ge'ezsprache (Leipsic, 1871);
13, 1868.
; dSthiopicis (1873); Ueber die aUtestamentlichen Vor-
ward VI. s School, Birmingham, and Gonville and
stettungen vom Zustande nach dem Tode (1877);
Gaius College, Cambridge (B.A., 1891; M.A., 189.5;
Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Sprache, vol. i. (1879); De
B.D., 1903; D.D., 1907); was made deacon, 1893,
populo Javan parergon (Giessen, 1880); Ueber die
and priest, 1894; was curate of St. Matthew's, Wal-
Lagc der evangdiscJien Kirche Deutschlands (1883) ;

sall, Sheffield, 1893-95; vice-principal of Lichfield

Geschichte des Volkes Israel (2 vols., the second half
Theological College, 1895-97; lecturer in theology of the second volume in collaboration with O. Holtz-
at Selwyn College, Cambridge, since 1897, and tutor
since 1007, being also curate of St. Mary the Less,
mann; Berlin, 1887-88); Hebrdisches Handw&rter-
buch zum Alien Testament (in collaboration with C.
Cambridge, 1898-1906, examining chaplain to the
Siegfried; Leipsic, 1893); Die Reorganisation der
bishop of Lichfield since 1905, and general secretary
theologischen Fakultdt zu Giessen (Giessen, 1894);
of the Central Society for Sacred Study. He has
Ausgewahlte akademische Reden und Abhandlungen
published The Epistles of St. Ignatius, Translated
(1899) The Books of Kings in The Polychrome Bible
;
with Introduction and Notes (2 vols., London, 1900);
(in collaboration with F. Schwally; New York,
and The Catechetical Oration of St. Gregory o* Nyssa
1904); Biblische Theologie des Alten Testaments,
(Cambridge, 1903). vol. i. (Tubingen, 1905); and Einst und jetet, Ruck-
STABAT MATER. See JACOPONE DA TODI. blicke und Ausblicke (Giessen, 1905).

STACKHOUSE, THOMAS: Church of England; STAEHELIN, shte'e-lin, JOHAHN JAKOB:

b. at Witton-le-Wear (10 m. s.w. of Durham), Eng- Swiss theologian; b. at Basel May 6, 1797; d. at
land, 1677; d. at Beenham (8 m. w.s.w. of Reading) Langenbruck (15 m. s.e. of Basel) Aug. 27, 1875.
Oct. 11, 1752. He studied at St. John's College, His entire active life was passed as docent or pro-
Cambridge; was head master of Hexham grammar- fessor in the University of Basel. He came under
school, 1701-04; ordained priest in London, 1704, the pietistic influences of the Wttrttemberg school,
becoming curate of Shepperton in Middlesex; was and devoted himself as a scholar to Semitic studies.
minister of the English Church in Amsterdam from His literary activity began in 1827 with a disserta-
1713; curate of Finchley, 1731; and in 1733 was tion which discussed the Blessing of Jacob. In Pen-
relieved from extreme distress by an appointment tateuchal criticism he issued Kritische Untersuchr
to the vicarage of Beenham. He is remembered for ungen uber die Genesis (Basel, 1830), in which he
his New History of the Holy Bible, from the Begin- advocated the application to Bible study of histor-
ning of the World to the Establishment of Christianity ical linguistic work and the comparison of Biblical

(2 vols., London, 1737; best ed., 6 vols., Edinburgh, literature with other oriental writings. This was
1767) ; he was also the author of Memoires of the followed by Kritische Untersuchungen uber den Pen-
Life, Character, Conduct and Writings of Dr. Francis Samuel, und Kdnige (Berlin,
tateuch, Josua, Richter,
Atterbury, Late Bishop of Rochester, from his Birth 1843), in which he anticipated in certain respects
to his Banishment (2d ed., London, 1727); A Com- the results of more recent critics. The last work of
pleteBody of Divinity Extracted from the Best
. . . this character was Das Leben Davids (Basel, 1866),
Ancient and Modern Writers (1729; best ed. 1755); an interesting account of the different phases of
A Defence of the Christian Religion from the Several David's career. A second series of St&helin's wri-
Obiections of Modern Antiscripturists; wherein the tings is concerned with the Hebrew prophets, for
literal Sense of the Prophecies contained in the Old example, Die messianische Weissagungen (Berlin,
Testament, and of the Miracles recorded in the New, 1847), in which he cast some light on the relations
is explained and vindicated, in which is included the of these prophetical texts to the New Testament;
whole State of the Controversy between Mr. Woolston and his Die Propheten des AUen Testaments (1667).
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HER2OG 60

For many years Stahelin devoted his attention to councilor. In all these relations soberness in action
the Psalms, the results of which he printed mainly and wise thoughtfulness distinguished his actions,
in ZDMG. His chief work, however, is Spezidle (T. KOLDB.)
EMeitung in die kanoniachen Bucher desA.T* (El- BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Kolde, Adolf von StoMin, Erlangen, 1897;
O. St&hlin, Oberkonnttorialpr&aident D. Adolf von StfiMin.
berfeld, 1862), though his presentation of the sub-
Munich, 1898.
ject lacked form and attraction, and this interfered
with the popularity and usefulness of his work. STAERK, WILLY OTTO ALEXANDER: Old-
Moreover, he had an insufficient sense of proportion; Testament scholar; b. at Berlin Dec. 15, 1866. He
the material points are often thrust in the back- received his education at the universities of Berlin
ground in favor of philological observation. Yet the and Marburg, 1887-92; was engaged in various
value of his contributions to the critical and relig- places in the teaching office, 1894-1903; became
ious investigation of the Old Testament can not be privat-docent for Old Testament at Jena, 1905, ex-
questioned. (E. STAHELIN.) traordinary professor, 1908, and ordinary professor,
1909. He has issued Das Deuteronomiumj sein In-
STAEHELIN, RUDOLF: Swiss Protestant theo- halt und seine literarische Form (Leipsic, 1894);
logian; b. at Basel Sept. 22, 1841; d. there Studien zur Religion und Sprachgeschichte des alien
Mar. 13, 1900. He studied at the gymnasium Testament (2 vols., Berlin, 1899); Ueber den Ur-
of his native city, also at the university there
sprung der OraUegende (Tubingen, 1903); Die Ent-
and at Lausanne, Berlin, and Tubingen. He stehung des alien Testament (Leipsic, 1905); Sunde
undertook pastoral duties at Stein-on-the-Rhine und Gnade nach der Vorstellung des alien Judentums,
in 1866, and the next year at Arlesheim. Sickness besonders der Dichter der sogenannten Busspsalmen
compelled a rest from duties in 1871, which he (Tubingen, 1905); Neutestamentliche Zcitgeschichte
took in Sicily, and this resulted in his Reisebriefe (2 parts, Leipsic, 1907); an edition of Jesaias
cms Itolien (Basel, 1903). Upon his return he set- Dichtungen (1907); Die judisch^aramaischen Papyri
tled in his native city as a private teacher in the von Assuan, sprachlich und sachlich erklart (Bonn,
theological faculty and was soon after appointed to 1907); an edition Amos, Nahum, and Habakkuk
of
the chair of church history, becoming regular pro- (I^eipsic, 1908); assyrische Weltreich im Urteil
Das
fessor in 1875. After declining a call to succeed Har- der Propheten (Gttttingen, 1908); and Aramaische
nack at Marburg, he was seized by a disease of the Urkunden zur Geschichte des Judentums im VI. und
eyes, which threatened to stop his work on the biog- V. Jahrhundert vor Christum (Bonn, 1908).
raphy of Zwingli, but by the help of his wife and of
friends he was able to bring out the two volumes, STAEUDLIN, KARL FRIEDRICH: German the-
Huldreich Zwingli (1895-97). The rest of Stahelin's ologian; at Stuttgart July 25, 1761; d. at
b.

works are in part preparatory studies for this chief Gottingen July 5, 1826. He studied philosophy and
production, partly studies out of the history of Hu- theology, particularly exegesis and oriental lan-
manism and of the Reformation, some of which ap- guages, at Tubingen, 1779-84; and was professor of
peared in various serial or university publications. theology at GCttingcn, 1790-1826. He lectured in
In a period of theological and ecclesiastical change almost all the departments of scientific theology.
Stahelin kept aloof from all extremes, and main- He published, Geschichte und Geist des Skepticismus
tained as a moderate the respect and admiration of (2 vols., Leipsic, 1794) Grundriss der Tugend- und
;

all his sincerity, nobility of

by manner, and regard Religionslehre (Gottingen, 1798-1800); Phtlosophi-
for the feelings of others. sche und biblische Moral (1805) ; and Neues Lehrbuch
(O. KIRN.)
der Moral fur Theologen (1815). In these works he
BIBLIOGRAPHY: K. Stockmoyer, R. Stohtlin, Basel, 1001;
idem, in A. Bettelheim's BiooraphitchesJohrbuch, v (1903). passed from a speculative and critical to a more em-
pirical and authoritative point of view. He was the
STAEHLIN, shtS'lin, ADOLF VON: German first to attempt a history of ethics, 1794-1812 and
ecclesiastical administrator; b. at Schmahingen in later. His Geschichte der Sittenlehre Jesu (4 vols.,
the deaconry of Nordlingen (60 m. e. of Stuttgart) 1799-1822) he did not complete. He confined
Oct. 27, 1823; d. at Munich May
4, 1897. en-He himself later to the preparation of Geschichte der
tered the University of Erlangen in 1840, and later christlichenMoral seit dem Wiederaufleben der Wis-
spent two years in the Seminary at Munich. He senschaften (1808). In addition appeared, Geschichte
was assistant pastor at Windsbach and other places der phttosophischen, hebrdischen und christlichen
until, in 1856, he was placed as pastor at Tauber- Moral (Hanover, 1806); and Geschichte der Moral-
scheckenbach, whence he went to Rothenburg in philosophic (1823). In church history he left Uni-
1860, and to N&rdlingen in 1864, where he became versalgeschichte der christlichen Kirche (Hanover,
first pastor, and also a leader in the matter of re- 1806); Geschichte der theologischen Wissenschaften
form of the schools, writing on this his first produc- (2 vols., Gottingen, 1810-11); Geschichte des Ra-
tion, Zur Schutreform (Nordlingen, 1865). In 1866 tionalismus und Supranaturalismus (1826); and
he was called to Ansbach as consistorial councilor, Geschichte und Litteratur der Kirchengeschichte (Han-
and during his activity there of thirteen years wrote over, 1827). (J. A. WAGENMANNf.)
among other things, Das landesherrliche Kirchen- BIBLIOGRAPHY; The chief source is the Sethstbiographie, ed.
regiment und sein Zusammenhang mil Volkskirchen- J. T. Hemsen, QOttingen, 1826. Consult further Q. W.
tum (Leipsic, 1871). In 1879 he was called to the Frank, O^chichte der protutantuchen Theotogie, iii. 202
sqq., Leipdo, 1875; ADB, xxxv. 616 sqq.
upper council of Munich, and in 1883 to the head of
the government of the church in Bavaria, which STAFF or CROZIBR. See VESTMENTS AND IN-
brought him into relations with the civil power aa SIGNIA, ECCLESIASTICAL.
61 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

STAFFORTIAH BOOK: The name of a confession nned in Die Philosophie des Rechte (vol. i., Ge-
of Baden-Durlach in the seventeenth century. After achichte der Recktsphiloaophie, Heidelberg, 1830, vol.
the religious peace of Augsburg, the Margrave Karl ii., Reckts- und Staatslehre, 1833; rev. ed., 1847). Of
II. introduced in 1556 the Lutheran church order. the fundamental problems of human life, he con-
After his death in 1577, the guardians of the three sidered two solutions as possible, both philosoph-
sons subscribed to the Book of Concord (q.v.); ically and juridically, one on the basis of pan-
but when they had attained to the government in theism, and one on the basis of faith in a personal
1584, the eldest, Ernst Friedrich, who received God who has revealed himself to man; one giving
as his share the lower part including the cities of the absolute power to the mass of the people, the
Durlach and Pforzheim, manifested his dissatis- majority, and one organizing the State after the idea
faction with the Lutheran confession, and intro- of the highest personality, as a sphere of ethical
duced Calvinistic theologians at the school at Dur- action. What lay between those two extremes
lach, and attempted to introduce by force the he despised as destitute of character. But his
Reformed faith in his dominion. A printing-press own choice he expressed in " No majority, but
wks established at the castle at Staff ort, 1599, and " In
authority I Die Kirchenverfaasung noch Lehre
the Staff ortian Book was issued. In the shorter und Recht der Protestonten (Erlangen, 1840), he
edition, covered by pp. 359-555 of the larger, only aimed at a restoration of the old Protestant doc-
the articles are treated on which the adherents of the trine of church constitution. He held that the
Augsburg Confession (q.v.) differed. Caution is three systems, episcopal, territorial, and collegia!,
prescribed against the new Semipelagians who represented different views of the nature of church
accept foreseen faith as the cause of election. Rep- government, and were the outgrowths of the pre-
robation is very guardedly touched upon. Earnest vailing sentiment of three epochs of development;
protest is raised against the doctrine of ubiquity respectively, the orthodox, the Pietistic, and the
and the confusion of natures. Appeal is made to rationalistic. Stahl advocated the Episcopal order.
the Augsburg Confession and Apology in behalf of a In his Die lutherische Kirche und die Union (1860)
doctrine of the sacrament that does not coerce faith he opposed a formal union of the two Protestant
out of its proper position. Regeneration is repre- churches. Among his other works are Der christtiche
sented as the redemptive gift of baptism, and Stoat und sein VerhdUniss zu Deixmus und Juden-
"
spiritual sustenance of the essential body and thum (Berlin, 1847) ; and DerProtestantismusals polir
blood of Christ, together with all his treasures and tisches Princip (1856). (RUDOLPH KOaEi/f.)
merits," is claimed for believers only. The larger BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. A. 8. van L. Brouwer, Stahl redivivus,
edition, Christliches Hfdencken und erhebliche wol- The Hague, 1862; Pernice, Savigny, Stahl, Berlin, 1862
(biographies).
fundierte Motiven, attempts (pp. 1-358) a criticism
of the text of the Formula of Concord (q.v.). The
STAHR, stdr, JOHN SUMMERS: Reformed
effort to enforce it raised a stubborn conflict. At (German) b. at Applebachsville, Pa., Dec. 2, 1841.
;

Pforzheim the recalcitrant clergy were dismissed; He was educated at Franklin and Marshall College
for weeks there were no pastors; and the new Cal-
(A.B., 1867), with which he has been connected
vinistic preachers met with organized civic resist- ever since, being tutor in German and history (1867-
ance. Ernst Friedrich prepared to move against 1868), assistant professor of the same subjects (1868-
the city by force of arms, when his death (1604)
1871), professor of natural science and chemistry
ended the strife. His successor returned to Luther- (1871-89), acting president (1889-90), and president
anism. (E. F. KARL MILLER.) (since 1890). After studying theology privately, he
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. A. Salig, VollstAndige Historic dcr auoa- was ordained to the German Reformed ministry in
burffischen Confession, pp. 748 sqq., Halle, 1730; J. C.
1872 and assisted Benjamin Bailsman, later supply-
Sachs, Einleiiung in die Gcaehichte dcr Markffravachaft . . .
Baden, iv. 252 sqq., Carlsruhe, 1770; K. F. Vierordt, Gc- ing the pulpit of the First Reformed Church, Read-
nchirhte der evangelitchen Kirche in dem Orossherioffthum
ing, Pa. Ho has been a member of the International
Baden, 29 aqq., ib. 1856; E. F. K. Mttller, Die Bekennt-
Sunday-school Lesson Committee since 1890, and
ii.

nisschriften der reformierten Kirche, Leipsic, 1903.

has also been a consulting member of the editorial
STAHL, shtfll, FRIEDRICH JULIUS: German staff of the Standard Dictionary, a member of the
ecclesiastical jurist and statesman; b. at Munich
eighth Council of the Alliance of Reformed Churches
Jan. 16, 1802; d. at Bruckenau (50 m. e.n.e. of held at Liverpool in 1904, and president of the East-
Frankfort-on-the-Main) Aug. 10, 1861. He was of ern Synod of the Reformed Church. In theology he
Jewish parentage, but embraced Christianity in "
is a progressive conservative, holding to the fun-
his seventeenth year. He studied jurisprudence at damental verities of the Christian faith and doctrine
WUrzburg, Heidelberg, and Erlangen; and was in the sense that our apprehension of them is ad-
professor at Erlangen, 1832; at WUrzburg, 1832; vancing with the progress of human experience and
and at Berlin, 1840. In Berlin he gathered crowded scholarship." He has been an editor of The Re-
audiences, not only of juridical students, but of men formed Church Review since 1905, and translated J.
of all ranks; as when, in 1850, he lectured on Die ge- Grob's Life of Zwingli (New York, 1883).
genw&rtige Parteien in Stoat und Kirche (Berlin,
1863). He also held the highest positions in the STALKER, JAMES: United Free Church of Scot-
state government of the Church, and took an active land; b. at Crieff (17 m. w. of Perth), Perthshire,
part in Prussian politics. His brilliant parliamen- Feb. 21, 1848. He was educated at the University
tary talent soon made him one of the most prominent ofEdinburgh (M.A., 1869), New College, Edinburgh
leaders of the conservative party, both in political (1870-74), and the universities of Berlin (1872) and
and ecclesiastical affairs. His ideas are clearly de- Halle (1873). He held pastorates at St Brycedale's,
Stanley THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 69

Kirkcaldy (1874-87), and St. Matthew's, Glasgow Oder, he continued the controversy in his Apologia
(1887-1902), and since 1902 has been professor of contra Osiandrum, and the elector of Brandenburg
church history in the United Free Church College, intervened, while Melanchthon, in 1553, published
Aberdeen. He was Lyman Beecher lecturer on a Responsiodecontroversiis Stancari (CR, xxiii. 87).
preaching at Yale in 1891, Cunningham lecturer in He then went to Poland, Hungary, and Transylvania,
New College, Edinburgh, in 1899, and hi 1901 was but returned to Pinczow in 1558. He there asso-
Gay lecturer in Louisville Baptist Seminary and ciated with such men as Lismanini and Blandrata
also lectured at Richmond Presbyterian Seminary. (q. v.) ; and contended for the proposition
that Christ
In theology he " rests his faith on the threefold is a mediator with God only in his human nature.
foundation of Scripture, tradition, and personal ex- The dispute reached beyond the borders of Poland;
" "
perience, with emphasis on the third." He has Calvin answered in a Response of the Genevan
written The Life of Jesus Christ (Edinburgh, 1879); Church (Tractatus theologici', p. 682); while in a
The New Song: Sermons for Children (1883); The further message (Epistolcs et responsa t p. 290)
Life of St. Paid (1884); Imago Christi (London, Zurichers made answer, also through Josias Binder's
1889); The Preacher and his Models (1891); The Responsio ad maledicum Fr. Stancari libettum (1563).
Four Men (1892); The Trial and Death of Jesus Both new and old material on the subject has been
(1894); The Two Saint Johns (1895); The Christol- compiled by Wotschke in letters and other. docu-
ogy of Jesus (1899); The Seven Deadly Sins (1901); ments, hi Briefwechsel der Schweizer mil den Polen
The Seven Cardinal Virtues (1902); John Knox, his (Archiv fur Reformations-Geschichte, Erganzungs-
Ideas and Ideals (1904); The Atonement (1908); band iii., 1908). In several of these documents,
The Ethic of Jesus according to the Synoptic Gospels Lismanini protests against the theology of Stan-
(London, 1909). cari, which was combated in Poland as being
Nestorian. Yet it had significance in the history of
STALL, SYLVANUS: Lutheran; b. at Eliza ville,
N. Y., Oct. 18, 1847. He was educated at Pennsyl-
dogma, as in opposing it the attempts of the
Lutheran theologians to carry the point of their
vania College, Gettysburg, Pa. (A.B., 1872), after
Communicatio idiomatum (q.v.) gained special conse-
which he studied theology there and at Union The-
quence. Wigand (De Stancarismo, 1585) and Schlus-
ological Seminary for two years. He held pastorates
in his denomination at Cobleskill, N. Y. (1874-77), selburg (Catalogus hccreticorum) were opponents of
Stancari. K. BENRATH.
Martin's Creek, Pa.
(1877-80), Lancaster, Pa.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources arc: The letters of Calvin, in hia
(1880-88), and Baltimore, Md. (1888-1901). In Opera in CR; 8. Orzechowski, ffoxolam Chimcpra mite dc
1901 he retired from the active ministry to be- Stancari funesta regno Polonia secta, Cologne, 1563; On-
come the head of his newly established Vir Publish- choviana, ed. J. Korzcniowski, pp. 722 sqq., Cracow, 1891
He edited Stall's (contains six letters by Htancari). Consult further Bayl,
ing Company, Philadelphia.
Dictionary, v. 226-233 (quotes extensively from sources);
Lutheran Year Book and Historical Quarterly (1884- 8. Lubienski, Historia rcformatwni8 Polonicae, Frcistadt,
1888), while from 1890 to 1901 he was associate 1685; C. Hartknoch, Preumnnche Kirchen-Histona, i. 330
editor of The Lutheran Observer. He has prepared sqq., Frankfort, 1686; Q. J. Planck, Geschichtc . un-. .

aeres protestantischen Lehrbegriffs, iv. 440 sqq., 6 vols.

Pastor's Pocket Record (Albany, N. Y., 1875); (

Leipsic, 1781-1800; H. Dal ton, Johannes a Lasco, Gotha,

Minister's Handbook to Lutheran Hymns in the Book 1881; and Wotschke, in AUprewtiiache Monataschrift,
of Worship (Philadelphia, 1879) How to pay Church
;
1909.
Debts (New York, 1880); Methods of Church Work,
STANDING FISHES BIBLE. See BIBLE VERSIONS,
Religious, Social, and Financial (1887); Five
9.
B, IV.,
Minute Object Sermons (1894); Talks to the King's
Children (1896); Bible Selections for Daily Devotion STANFORD, CHARLES: English Baptist; b.
(1896) What a Young Boy ought to Know (Philadel-
; at Northampton (45 m. w. of Cambridge), England,
phia, 1897); What a Young Man ought to Know Mar. 9, 1823; d. in London Mar. 18, 1886. He
(1897); What a Young Husband ought to Know commenced preaching, 1839; entered the Baptist
(1899); What a Man of Forty-five ought to Know College at Bristol, 1841; became minister at Lough-
1901); Faces toward the Light (1903); The Social borough, 1845; Denigos, 1847; co-pastor in London
Peril (1905); and Parental Honesty (1905). of the Denmark-place Church, Cambcrwell, 1858,
and was sole pastor from 1861 till his death. He
STANCARI, stOn-ca'ri (STANCARO), FRAN-
was the author of Central Truths (London, 1860);
CESCO: Unitarian; b. at Mantua, Italy, in 1501;
Nov. 12, 1574. He entered
d. at Stobnitz, Poland,
Joseph AUeine: his Companions and Times; a Me-
"
morial of Black Bartholomew,'' 1662 (1861); In-
a and evidently underwent a sys-
religious order,
strumental Strength; Thoughts for Students and Pas-
tematic training in theology, since his method,
tors (1862); Home and Church (1871); Homilies
for instance, in his first theological work, De trinitate,
on Christian Work (1879); Voices from Calvary;
is scholastic in type. Stancari appeared promi-
a Course of Homilies (1881) From Calvary to Olivet.
nently first in 1543, when he lived in Chiavenna;
;
"
Being a Sequel to
1
Voices from Calvary' (1884);
at Basel, hi 1546, he issued a Hebrew grammar.
The Alternatives of Faith and Unbelief (1885) The
In course of the shifting life that was especially ;

Evening of Our Lord's Ministry, being Preludes to

common with Italian fugitives, he was later found "
Voices from Calvary." A Course of Homilies (1886) ;
at Cracow, whence, after seizure as a heretic, he
together with a collection of sermons, and many
escaped to Kftnigsberg, there to teach in the high smaller works.
school. But becoming involved in strife with Osian-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Charles Stanford, Memories and Letters, ad.
der, only three months elapsed before he requested his wife, London, 1889; Baptist Handbook, 1887, pp. 120-
Y
his dismission. Afterward, at 132? DNB, liii. 478-479,
68 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Stall
Stanley

STANGB, CARL: German Protestant; b. in motives and activities of all his life. He entered
Hamburg Mar. 3, 1870. He was educated at the Baliol College, Oxford, 1834; became a fellow of
universities of Halle and Gdttingen (1888-92) and University College, 1838; and was ordained, 1839.
at Leipsic (1893-94), became privat-docent at Halle In 1840-41, he made the first of many journeys
in 1895, extraordinary professor of systematic the- abroad, his interest in foreign lands being en-
ology in the University of Kbnigsberg in 1903, and tirely historical, while he was indifferent to sce-
professor of the same at Greifswald in 1904. He has nery. He became college tutor at Oxford, 1843-51 ;

written Die ckristtiche Ethik in ihrem Verhaltnis zur and select preacher there, 1846-47. These discourses,
modernen Ethik (Gdttingen, 1892); Die systemati- Sermons on the Apostolic Age (Oxford, 1847),
schen Prinzipien in der Theologie des Johann Musdus marked a crisis in his career, at a point of transition
(Halle, 1897); Das Dogma und 8dne Beurteilung in between the old and the new at Oxford. They
der neueren Dogmengeschichte (Berlin, 1898) ; Einleit- showed a divergence from the views of both ec-
ung in die Ethik (2 vole., Leipsic, 1901-02); Der clesiastical parties; acknowledged obligations to
Gedankengang der Kritik der reinen Vernunft (1902); Arnold and German theology, and demanded free
Luther* alteste ethische Disputationen (1904); Heils- inquiry in the matter of Biblical study. Stanley was
bedeuiung des Gesetzes (1904) Was ist schriftgemdssf
;
appointed secretary of the Oxford University Com-
(1904); Theologische Aufs&tze (1905); and Das mission, 1850, the report of which was mainly his
Frdmmigkeitsideal der modernen Theologie (1907). work; and canon of Canterbury, 1851. A journey
to the Holy Land and Egypt in 1852 resulted in the
STANISLAUS, stdn'is-l&s: The name of two saints.
1. Bishop of Cracow, and patron-saint of Poland; publication of Sinai and Palestine (London, 1856).
Memorials of Canterbury (1855) exhibits the develop-
b. near Cracow (210 m. n.e. of Vienna) July 26,
ment of his taste for ecclesiastical landmarks, and
1030; d. there May 8, 1079. After studying canon-
illustrates his gifts for dramatic, pictorial narrative.
ical law at Gnesen and Paris he entered the clerical
He was professor of ecclesiastical history at Oxford,
profession at Cracow. He was a stern ascetic, dis-
tributed his patrimony amongst the poor, and boldly 1856-64, to which was attached a canonry of Christ
denounced the cruelty and licentiousness of Boleslas Church, in which he was installed, 1858. At the
same time he was appointed examining chaplain to
II., king of Poland, whom he finally excommuni-
Archibald Campbell Tait (q.v.), then bishop of Lon-
cated. In revenge, the king murdered Stanislaus
don. To this period belong Three Introductory Lec-
while he was celebrating mass near Cracow. Mir-
tures on the Study of Ecclesiastical History (Oxford,
acles are ascribed to the bishop before and after his
1857) Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church
death. In 1253 Innocent IV. canonized him. Many ;

altars and churches were built to his memory in (London, 1861) ; and Lectures on the History of the
Jewish Church (3 vols., 1863-76).
Poland. His day is May 7.
2. Jesuit; b. at Kostcou (50 m. e. of Breslau, Through the lecture-room, pulpit, and in social
life he exercised a remarkable influence over the
Germany), Poland, Oct. 20, 1550; d. in Rome Aug.
15, 1568. In his fourteenth year he went to Vienna
young men at the university, but he was not an
where he was an object of admiration because of his
intellectual leader among his elder colleagues. He
eschewed party spirit, and his sense of justice and
exemplary life and his remarkable progress in stud-
championship of freedom led him to defend J. W.
ies; he had there a vision of two angels and the Vir-
Colenso, although regretting his work (Ttie Penta-
gin Mary, who urged him to become a Jesuit; after
teuch, London, 1862 sqq.) and, likewise, in the con-
seeking admission to the order at Vienna, which was
;

refused on account of his father's aversion to the step, troversy caused by the Essays and Reviews (1860),
while disapproving of some of the essays, he pleaded
he finally went to Rome, where he was admitted Oct.
against the unfairness of indiscriminate censure.
28, 1567. He predicted the day of his death, and on
His courage to battle against inert ecclesiasticism
account of his severe ascetic practises was beatified
and his moderately stated consideration of all sides
by Clement X., 1670, and canonized by Benedict of a problem, secured him, as champion of liberal
XIII., 1726. His day is Nov. 13.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On 1: The Vita by Johannes Longinua ideas, a growing support from men of the press,
(Dlugosoh) with other matter and commentary is in ASB, science, and society as a whole.
May, ii. 198-280. Other accounts and details are in MGH, In 1864 he was installed dean of Westminster, a
Script., xxix (1892), 604-517. A Carmen Sapphicum in
vitam gloriosrisrimi martj/ria Slanislai, by P. CaUimaohus, position which he made conspicuous until his death.
was printed at Cracow in 1511. Consult further: R. A year before, he was married to Lady Augusta
Roepell, Geschichte Polena, i. 100 sqq., Hamburg, 1840; Bruce, daughter of the fifth earl of Elgin and
H. Zeissberg, Die polnischc QeschickttBchrtribwng de* Mittd- friend of the queen, and his married life was re-
oZtora, pp. 71, 82-90, 266-268, Leipsic, 1873. On 2: The
Vita by Urbano Ubaldini is given in Analecta BoUandiana, markably filled with happiness, so that when his
ix (1890), 360-378, xi (1892), 416-467, with abundant wife died in 1876, he was deeply affected and did
literature. not long survive her. In 1862 he accompanied the
STANLEY, ARTHUR PENRHYN: Church of Prince of Wales to the East. These events issued
England; b. at Alderley Rectory (32 m. e.s.e. of in unrivalled opportunities, so that by the further

Liverpool) in Cheshire, Dec. 13, 1815; d. at London extension of political, literary, scientific, and ec-
July 18, 1881. He was the grandson of Thomas clesiastical connections, facilitated by his charac-

Stanley, sixth baron of Alderley Park, and the son of teristic savoir-faire and his brilliant social relations,
Edward Stanley, bishop of Norwich. At Rugby he obtained that extraordinary influence which,
(1829-34) he became attached by an ideal friend- for more than a decade, made him one of the most
ship to Thomas Arnold (q.v.), attended by an ad- prominent figures in the English capital. West-
miration and affection which served to shape the minster Abbey afforded the material embodiment
 lum THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 64

of his catholic ideal of a national church, reconciling The extravagances of ritual, such as vestments, in-
under the spell of its vast and silent historical per- cense, and the posture of head and hands, he treated
spective every variety of creed and promotive with amused contempt. By the combination of a
activity. He endeared its historical memories and pious interpretation with an honest truth-searching
lessons to the people by the work Memorials of criticism, Stanley was the sagacious and inspiring
Westminster Abbey (London, 1868); enhanced the advance combatant of a new order of Biblical and
attractiveness of its worship for throngs representing historical study. He visited the United States in
all classes, placing his pulpit at the disposal of clergy-
1878, and, as a result, there was published Ad-
men of every shade of opinion and of laymen, and dresses and Sermons Delivered in the United States
admitting even Unitarians to the communion. and Canada (New York, 1879). Other works are a
At certain hours he conducted parties through the commentary on the epistles to the Corinthians (2
aisles of the sacred edifice, communicating his rich vols., London, 1855); Questions of Church and
treasures of information as well as his enthusiasm. State (1870); Lectures on the History of the Church
He wove the charm of his personality about the high of Scotland (1872); Addresses Delivered at St.
and the low, gathering even the poor, sick, and Andrews (1877); and Christian Institutions (1881;
disconsolate from the most wretched quarters of the new ed., 1906).
city in the garden festivals of the deanery. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The indispensable works are: R. E. Pro-
On account of the character of his personal in- thero, Life and Correspondence of Dean Stanley, 2 vols.,
fluence the leadership of the Broad-church party London, 1803, new ed., 1900; idem, Letters and Verses of
Dean Stanley, ib. 1806. Consult further: J. Q. Rogers,
devolved upon him unsought. He published ad- Anglican Church Portraits, Edinburgh, 1876; G. G. Brad-
dresses and brochures on the most important relig- ley, Recollections of A. P. Stanley, London and New York,
ious and social questions of the day; showed his in- 1882; A. J. C. Hare, Biographical Sketches, London, 1895;
F. Locker-Lampson, My Confidences, ib. 1896; E. Abbott
terest in the Old Catholics (1872); favored a move-
and L. Campbell, Benjamin Jowett, 3 vols., ib. 1897-09;
ment for the reunion of the Anglican and Oriental Julia Wedgwood, Nineteenth Century Teachers, ib. 1909;
Churches; and used his influence for the return of DNB, liv. 44-48.
the dissenters into the State Church. In his Biblical
and historical methods Stanley was the grateful
STANTON, VINCENT HENRY: Church of Eng-
land; b. at Victoria, Hong-Kong, June 1, 1846.
pupil of Arnold, to whom he erected a glorious He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge
monument of loyalty, The Life and Correspondence
(B.A., 1870; M.A., 1873), and was ordered deacon
of Thomas Arnold (London, 1844), a work that as- in 1872 and ordained priest in 1874. Since 1872 he
sured him his position at Oxford and in the world of
has been fellow of his college, of which he was junior
letters. His friends admit that his Biblical work was
dean (1874-76), senior dean (1876-84), and tutor
neither profound nor exact; but he won the soul of
(1884-89), and divinity lecturer (1882-80). Since
the people as the interpreter of the great rector of
1889 he has been Ely professor of divinity in Cam-
Rugby. In the depreciation of dogma, however, he bridge University and canon of Ely. He was uni-
opposed Arnold, and he was also governed thereby versity extension lecturer in 1873, select preacher at
in his ecclesiastical principle. The Church, being
Cambridge in 1874-78 and at Oxford in 1896-98,
rational, may not close her doors to any member of Hulsean lecturer in 1879, Cambridge Whitehall
the nation, and must represent all views and aspira-
preacher in 1880-82, and examining chaplain to
tions of the nation. His time he regarded as a period
the bishop of Ely from 1875 to 1905. He has writ-
of transition. The first task of the modern theo-
ten The Jewish and the Christian Messiah (Lon-
logian, as he conceived it, is the study of the Bible
don, 1887); The Place of Authority in Matters of
for the sake of its content. The Biblical scholar must
Religious Belief (1891) and The Gospels as Histori-
;
subordinate all the immaterial, temporal, and cal Documents, parts 1 and 2 (Cambridge, 1903-09).
secondary to the essential and supernatural ele-
ments. He represented as a churchman a broad STAFFER, shtap'fer: The name of a distinguished
catholic tolerance, emphasizing the character of the family of Bernese theologians.
formulae of the Anglican Church assumed to be 1. Johann Friedrich Stapfer: The best-known
universal and mediating. He was enthusiastic in of the elder generation; b. at Brugg (17 m. n.w. of
the recognition of the truth that binds all Christian Zurich) 1708; d. at Diessbach (a village near Thun,
bodies. He advocated the union of Church and 16 m. s.s.e. of Bern) 1775. After studying at Bern
State more and more positively. This he under- and Marburg and traveling in Holland, he was
stood to subsist (1) in the recognition and promotion military chaplain in 1738-40 and private tutor at
of religious faith in the community on the part of Diessbach in 1740-50, while from the latter year
the State, and (2) the subjection of religion thus until his death he was pastor at Diessbach, declining
formulated to the control and conduct of the no less than four calls to Marburg. His first great
Church at large by the authority of law. With such work was his Institutiones theological polemics uni-
views he was at variance with both of the great verses (5 vols., Zurich, 1743-47), followed by his
church parties. From the evangelicals he was GrvndUgung zur wahren Religion (12 vols., 1746-53).
estranged by his contempt of dogma, by his The latter work, which was mainly dogmatic in
views on Biblical criticism, inspiration, justifica- character (the Institutiones being largely symbolic),
tion, and the punishments of hell, and by toler- was supplemented by the much inferior Sittenlehre
ation of ideas well-nigh Roman Catholic. From (6 vols., 1757-66) and was abridged by the author in
the High-churchmen he differed on fundamental two volumes (1754). His theological position was
principles, disagreeing essentially even where there one of orthodox rationalism of the mild Reformed
was formal accord on outward doctrine and practise. type,
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

8. Johannes Stapfer: Brother of the preceding; university in 1833 he again resigned, spending
b. at Brugg 1719; d. at Bern 1801. He was pastor the remainder of his life as pastor at Meikirch.
of Aarburg, and in 1756 he was appointed professor (W. HADORN.)
of dogmatic theology at Bern, where he was pro- BZBUOOBAPHT: C. Mousel, Kirchlich* ffandlexikon, part
fessor of didactic theology from 1776 until his re- 66, pp. 391-392, Leipaic, n.d.; H. J. Leu, AUocmeines Hel-
tirement from active life in 1796. He was a popu- vefaehea . . . Lexicon, xvii. 513 sqq., supplement v. 605
qq., 20 vola. t Zurich, 1747-65; ADB, xxxv. 450 sqq.;
lar preacher, and his sermons were collected in
R. Luginbtihl, PA. Alb. Stapfer, Basel, 1887. Luginbtthl
seven volumes (Bern, 1762-1806). He collaborated ed. in Qucllen der schweizeriachen Gcschichte, xi.-xii. and in
in the revision of the Bern Psalmenbuch and wrote Archiv dea historitchcn Verein, Bern, vol. xiii., the corre-
spondence of Philipp Albert Stapfer.
Theologia analytica (Bern, 1763), a systematic
presentation of the chief tenets of faith. STAPFER, EDMOND LOUIS: French Protestant;
3. Daniel Stapfer: Brother of the preceding. b. at Paris Sept. 7, 1844; d. at Paris Dec. 13, 1908.
After being pastor at Murten, he was called, in He was educated at the Lycee Bonaparte, Paris, and
1766, to the cathedral in Bern, and attained the the theological faculty of Montauban (1864-68),
reputation of being one of the best pulpit orators and also studied at the universities of Tubingen and
ot his time. Halle (1869-70). He was pastor of the Reformed
4. Philipp Albert Stapfer: Elder son of the pre- church in Tours (1870-76); was maitre de confe-
ceding and the most distinguished of the family; rence in the Protestant theological faculty at Paris
b. at Bern Sept. 23, 1766; d. at Paris Mar. 27, 1840.
(1877-90); professor of New-Testament exegesis in
He was educated at Bern and Gottingen, and then the same faculty (1890-1906) of which he was
visited London and Paris, being in the latter city dean (1901-06). In addition to making a French
during the early part of the French Revolution. translation of the New Testament (Paris, 1889), he
Returning to Bern, he was appointed, in 1791, wrote Jesus de Nazareth et le developpement de sa
deputy professor to Johannes Stapfer (see above), pensfe par lui mtme (1872); Lea Idees religieuses
likewise being a teacher of languages at the acad- en Palestine au temps de Jesus-Christ (1876); Le
emy. On his uncle's resignation in 1796 he Palestine au temps de Jesus-Christ (1884; Eng.
was made his successor. The events connected transl. by A. H. Holmdcn, Palestine in the Time
with the overthrow of the old Swiss Confederation,
of Christ, London, 1886); Le Chateau de Laley
however, entirely changed the course of Stapfer's (1888); Jesus-Christ, sa personne, son autorite (3
life, who, being in sympathy with the new govern-
vols., 1896-98; Eng. transl. by Mrs. L. S. Houghton,
ment, was sent on an embassy to Paris, in 1798. 3 vols., New York, 1896-98); La Mori et la resur-
While there, he was appointed by the Helvetic rection de Jtisus-Christ (1898); a volume of sermons
Directory minister of sciences, arts, buildings, bridges, (1904); and De Vetat actuel du protestantisms en
and streets, a position wliich he accepted after some France (Paris, 1908).
hesitation. Here he rendered valuable service in
stemming the tide of irreligion then prevalent in STAPHYLUS, shta-fai'hiR, FRIEDRICH: Lu-
Switzerland, and accomplished still more tangible theran theologian, subsequently Roman Catholic
results in the organization of schools and charities. polemist; b. at Osnabruck (70 m. w. of Hanover)
In 1800-03 he was ambassador to Paris, but on the Aug. 27, 1512; d. at Munich Mar. 5, 1564. He
fall of the Helvetic Republic in the latter year he studied at the University of Cracow, and later at
retired to private life. In 1806 he removed to Padua. About 1533 he returned to Danzig, but in
1 536 went to Wittenberg where he remained about
France, where the remainder of his life, except for
less and less frequent visits to Switzerland, was ten years. In 1541, at the recommendation of
passed, his residence at first being Belair, near Paris, Melanchthon, he became private tutor of Count
and later Talcy, near Mer. During these latter years Ludwig of Eberstein and Neugarten. In 1545 he
he worked quietly but effectually in behalf of French accepted a call from Duke Albrecht of Prussia to
Protestantism, upon which, while himself becoming the newly founded university of Kdnigsberg. In
steadily more orthodox, he brought to bear the in- the very beginning he involved himself in a con-
fluence of German theology; nor should his labors troversy with Gulielmus Gnapheus (Fullonius, q.v.),
in all philanthropic causes be forgotten. Among who as a teacher and lecturer of the university was
his works mention may be made of his De philosophic accused by Staphylus of leaning toward Anabaptist
Socratis (Bern, 1786); Einige Bemerkungen uber views; by continual attacks Staphylus finally drove
den Zustand der Religion und ihrer Diener in Hel- Gnapheus away. After the resignation of Georg Sa-
vetien (1800); and Melanges phttosophiques, lit- binus (Aug., 1547), Staphylus became rector of the
teraires, historiques et religieux (2 vols., Paris, 1844; university, but as such did not justify the hopes of
contains a biography by Vinet). the duke and of his friends at Wittenberg; in 1548
5. Friedrich Stapfer: Younger brother of the he gave up his theological lectures and served the
preceding; d. at Meikirch (a village near Aarberg, duke as councilor. In the controversy with Osian-
12J m. n.w. of Bern) 1840. In the early years of der he still represented the Lutheran position, but
the Helvetic Republic he was assistant to his brother the general instability caused by continual dog-
at the University of Bern, where he was appointed matic dissensions induced him to adhere more
professor of didactic theology in 1801. Being un- closely to the dogmatic consensus of the Roman
successful as a teacher, he became, in 1805, pastor Catholic Church and in this way he gradually ar-
at Diessbaoh, near Thun, but in 1818 was recalled rived at an un-Evangelical conception of tradition
to Bern as professor of Biblical studies. On. the which after his removal to Danzig in Aug., 1551, led
victory of the Liberals and the reorganization of the him to oppose the Protestant norm of the perspicuity
XI. 5
Staphylua
Star* THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 66

for theol-
of Scripture and to advocate the authentic interpre- versity of Iowa since 1906. His interest
tation of the Church. The decisive step was taken ogy lies in his contributions to the psychology of
by him at Breslau, whither he had gone from Dan- religion, among which may be noted: Psychology
zig,where, during a severe illness toward the end of of Religion (London and New York, 1899; Germ,
1552, he received the Lord's Supper after the transl., Leipsic, 1909); a series of studies on " The
" in The Biblical
Roman rite and confirmed his rehabilitation as a Child Mind and Child Religion
"
Roman Catholic by confession. He then removed World, Jan., 1907-08; and on, Reinforcement to
"
to Neisse, the seat of Bishop Promnitz, in whose the Pulpit from Modern Psychology in The Homi-
service he erected a school and was active in other letic Review, 1907-09. His theological position is
directions. Hand in hand with Canisius, he aided in that of monistic idealism.
the restoration of Roman Catholicism in Austria and
STARCK,shtQrk, JOHANN FRIEDRICH: Ger-
Bavaria. Being elected superintendent of the Uni-
man author; b. at Hildesheim (18 m. s.e. of Han-
versity of Ingolstadt toward the end of 1 560, he under-
over) Oct. 10, 1680; d. at Frankfort-on-the-Main
took a reformation of that demoralized institution.
July 17, 1756. While at the University of Giessen
He hailed the idea of a general council, but thought he was greatly influenced by the hours of devotion.
that it should be preceded by negotiations between
After being preacher at the home of the poor and
the emperor and the Protestants in order to win
A great advantage, according to him, orphans at Frankfort, he became deacon of the Ger-
their consent.
man church at Geneva, 1 709-1 1 pastor at Sachsen-
;
could be derived from the inner discord of the Prot-
hausen 1715, and at Frankfort, 1723; and member
estants. In 15G2 Emperor Ferdinand requested
of the consistory 1742. Starck represented a mild,
Staphylus to extract from the opinions of different
practical Pietism after the model of Spener, and his
theologians a definite statement of what in the name career of thirty years at Frankfort was marked by
of the emperor should be presented to the council as
private meetings for devotion after the Sunday
a program of reform. It appeared as Contsuttatio
afternoon services, interest in maintaining the
imperaioris Ferdinandi I. iussu instituta de artic. ref. sacred observance of the Sabbath, the seeking of
in Cone. Trident, prop. Staphylus published also:
souls, and personal charity. He exerted a far-
Synodus sanctorum patrum antiquorum contra nova
reaching influence by his numerous devotional
dogmata Andrea Osiandri (Nuremberg, 1553); His principal work, which made his a
writings.
Theologies Martini Lutheri trimembris epitome (1558) ;
household name in all Evangelical Germany, is Tag-
Scriptum colloquentium August. Conf. . . . cum
liches Handbuch inguten und bbsen Tayen (4 parts,
oppositis annotationibus (1558); Historia et apologia
Frankfort, 1727; 6 parts, 1731; latest ed., 1907;
. . . de dissolutionc colloquii nuper Wormatice in-
In these polemical works Eng. transl., Daily Handbook, Philadelphia, no date).
attiuti (Nisir, 1558).
The work is composed of long prayers, introduced by
against the Protestants he criticized especially the a brief instruction based on a passage of Scripture to
idolatry of Luther and opposed to Protestant sub- induce a devout attitude on the subject of the peti-
jectivism the objective norms of tradition and the tion. The prayer is followed by a hymn written by
consensus of the Church. His last work was, Vom
Starck. Some of his sermons were published as
letzten und grossen Abfoll, so vor der Zukunft des
Sonn- und Festtagn-Andachten uber die Evangelien
Antichrist geschehen soil (Ingolstadt, 1565).
"
By (Reutlingen, 1854); the same uber die Epistdn
Abfoll, apostasy," he meant Lutheranism. He was the
(Stuttgart, 1845; Nuremberg, 1881).
(P. TSCHACKERT.)
author also of Guldnes Schatzkdstlein (Frankfort,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His Opera were digested into a single vol-
ume, Ingolstadt, 1613, and selections are in O. T. Strobelt 1857). (HERIVMNN BRCK.)
Afiscdlanfen literariachen Inholts, i. 219 sqq., ii. 225 sqq., BIBLIOGRAPHY: The current editions of the Handbuch con-
6 vols., Nuremberg, 1778-82, and in J. Q. Schellhorn, tain a sketch. The fundamental source is the account
Anuenitotcn hitttorice ecclesiastical et literari<g, i. 611 sqq., ii. furnished by himself in E. P. Neubauer's Nachnchten von
564 sqq., 2 vols., Erfurt. 1737-40, as well as in the same den jetztlebenden Theoloaen, ii. 884*898, Zulhchau, 1764.
author's ErgMzlichkeiten, ii. 136 sqq., 337 sqq., 469 sqq., Consult further: J. M. H. During, Die gelchrten Theologen
Ulm, 1763. Sources are the sketch by his son in the Opera, DetUsrMands, iv. 307-311, Neustadt, 1835; E. E Koch,
ut sup.; that by Btrobol, MiaceUaneen, ut sup., i. 3-4; Geschvchte des Kirchenlieds und Kirchengenangea, iv. 543-
C. Hartknooh, Pretuunsc/ien Kirchen- Historia, pp. 295 sqq., 549, Stuttgart, 1876; C. Grosse, Die aUen T roster, pp.
Frankfort, 1686. Consult further: C. A. Salig, Vollatand- 335-370, Hermannsburg, 1900.
ige Historic der auffsburgischen Konfession, ii. 902 sqq.,
3 vols., Halle, 1730-35; M. Tdppen, Die Orundung der STARKE, shtar'ke, CHRISTOPH: German exe-
UniversitQt zu Kfmigsberg, passim, Kdnigsberg. 1844; W. gete; b. at Freienwalde (33 m. n.e. of Berlin) Mar.
Mdller, Andreas Osiander, 309 sqq., et passim, Elberfeld, 21, 1684; d. at Driesen (64 m. n.e. of Frankfort) Dec.
1870; P. Tschackert, Urkundfnbuch zur Reformations-
Cfoschichte des Herzogtums Preussen, i. 294 sqq., and vol. 12, 1744. He studied at Halle, coming under the
iii., Leipsic, 1890; ADB, xxxv. 457 sqq.
influence of Spener and Breithaupt (qq.v.); became
pastor and teacher at Nennhausen near Rathenow,
STARBUCK, EDWIN DILLER: Writer on the 1709 first preacher and military chaplain at Driesen,
;

psychology of religion; b. at Bridgeport, Ind., in 1737, where the rest of his life was passed. He
Feb. 20, 1866. He received his education at In- wrote in German a well-known theological-homileti-
diana University (B.A., 1890), Harvard University cal commentary upon the Bible under the Latin
(M.A., 1895), and Clark University (Ph.D., 1897); title Synopsis Bibliothecce exegetica in V. et N.
was professor of mathematics in Vincennes Uni- Testamentatum (9 vols., Leipsic, 1733-41). The
versity, Ind., 1891-93; assistant professor of edu- parts on the Psalms, the writings attributed to
cation in Leland Stanford Jr. University, CaL, 1897- Solomon, and the major prophets were contributed
1903; professor of education in Earlham College, by his son, Johann Georg. See BIBLES, ANNOTATED,
Ind., 1904-06; and of philosophy in the State Uni- I., J 5.
67 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Staphylu
Stars

STARS. quent that the Pleiades were bound together by

X. In the Old Testament. bonds, and were spoken of as a rosette or a nose-
General Conceptions in the Old Testament (J 1). gay, while the Talmud (in Berachoth 58b) speaks oi
Fixed Stare; Constellations (ft 2). the Pleiades as of 100 stars. Stern has supposed
Significance of Stan for Hebrews ( 3).
that kimah is Sirius, i.e., that the stars of Job ix. 9
Hebrew Star- Worship (ft 4).
are all in the same declination of the heavens. In
II. Star-Deities.
General Aspects of Star-Worship (ft 1). that case, since kesil is surely Orion, the other names
In Babylonia (ft 2). in the passage designate Sirius, the Hyades, and the
In Egypt (ft 3).
China and Japan 4).
Pleiades. Hoffmann, who in general agrees with
(ft " "
Stern, then makes the sweet influences (Job
L In the Old Testament: In the general mention xxxviii. 31) refer to the overflow of the Nile, pre-
of stars in the Bible nothing unusual appears. Men ceded by the early rising of Sirius. But this must
speak of their innumerability (Gen. xv. 5), bril- be rejected as impossible; no Hebrew could have
lordship (Wisdom vii. 29), and
xii. 3), "
liancy (Dan. understood canst thou bind the refreshings of
"
height above the earth (Isa. xiv. 13); Sirius? This and like interpretations are shattered
x. General stars also figure in dream (Gen. xxxvii. on the imperative conclusion that kimah must mean
Conceptions 9) and prophecy (Num. xxiv. 17). Of a group of stars. The Arabic equivalent of this
in the a scientific knowledge of the stars there word means " heaps "; the Assyrian cognate kimtu
Old are no traces in the Old Testament, "
is used for family." Many, with the Syriac ver-
Testament, though Wisdom vii. 19 attributes to sion, find mention of Orion and the Pleiades in Job
Solomon knowledge of the position of xv. 27b, but this must be rejected. In Job ix. 9
the stars during the course of the year; nevertheless and xxxviii. 32 there is mention of a constellation
close observation of the heavens by the Hebrews is Hebrew 'ash or 'ayish, Syriac 'iyutha, Septuagint
to be assumed, especially in connection with the Hesperos, Vulgate Vesper which is definitely iden-
seasons and agriculture by way of observing the tified either as the Hyades or as the chief star there-
days when certain constellations either disappeared in, Aldcbaran, and this is confirmed by the Talmud
or appeared in connection with the sun. Of course (Berachoth, 58b), although the latter would also lead
the Hebrews observed the changing course of the to an identification with Aries. The identification
planets, though this does not receive specific men- of this with the Great Bear, attempted by some, has
tion; Jude 13 probably refers to comets. Two planets practically no support. The " chambers of the
"
receive specific mention, Saturn (see REMPHAN) and south of Job ix. 9 is probably to be explained by
Venus. The latter appears in II Peter i. 19 as the the many bright stars in Argo, the Cross, and the
announcer of the coming day, Christ appears Rev. Centaur visible on the southern horizon in the regal
" the
xxii. 16 as bright and morning star," and re- period of Hebrew history, out of which, however,
ceives (Rev. ii. 28) the morning star (i.e., its bril- definite figures had not been made. The Hebrew
liancy) as the prize of victory, while the high priest, mazzaroth of Job xxxviii. 32 is probably a scribal
Simon, is compared with the morning star (Ecclus. error for the mazzaloth of II Kings xxiii. 5, though
1. 6). Venus is the symbol of a brilliant humanity it may represent a different pronunciation of the

(Isa. xiv. 12), where the Hebrew helel (or helal) is same word. It is of Assyrian origin, and denotes
"
probably the morning star. Indeed it may also position," i.e., of astral deities, and then the dei-
mean the moon, since its derivation from the verb tiesthemselves. The passage in Job is best explained
"
haled, to give light," might give rise to designation by thinking of the zodiacal constellations, that in
of either, but the waning moon only is visible in Kings by " the planets in general; the rendering
"
the morning. Hyades offered by Stern and Hoffmann docs not
Fixed stars appear to be mentioned in Amos v. recommend itself, nor does the Syriac rendering
11
8 (the Pleiades); Isa. xiii. 10, where the English Great Bear."
" "
constellations adequately represents the Hebrew The Hebrews had no clear notion of the nature of
" " "
Orions "; Job ix. 9, the Bear or Arcturus, Orion, the stars; in Gen. i. 16 they are called lights set
the Pleiades, and " the chambers of the south "; by God in the heavens, only in poetic literature do
Job xxxviii. 31-32, the Pleiades, Orion, the signs of they appear as living beings. But that to them was
the Zodiac, and Arcturus or the Bear. ascribed a causal relation in connection
2. Fixed Two pairs of Hebrew words occur, kesil 3. Signifi- with the course of nature as they arose
Stan: and kimah, of which the first probably cance of or set may be plausibly suspected. It
Confltella- is Orion and the second the Pleiades; to Stars for was a fast assumption that God was
tiont. this as the meaning of kesil the Septua- Hebrews, their creator (Gen. i. 14-18; Ps. viii.
gint testifies, as well as the Syriac and 3-4), that he appointed for them their
the Targum. The Hebrews saw in the constellation rigidly appointed courses (Jer. xxxi. 35), and that
of Orion a human form, a giant chained to the they are in subjection to him (Isa. xl. 26). Expres-
heavens, and post-Biblical tradition called him sions like that in the last-cited passage to the effect
Nimrod. The Septuagint also testifies to the Pleiades that God calls them by name do not imply that
as the they were conceived as living beings, while Job
rendering of kimah. Bar All (Oesenius, The-
saurus, p. 665) confirms this, though he points out xxxviii. 7 is only a literary figure, as is that in
other meanings for the word and many Syrians un- "
Judges v. 20; Isa. xxiv. 21, the host of the high
derstood by it Arcturus. The Talmud's use sLows ones," has nothing to do with the stars, as there is
that kimah is not to be understood of a no connection immediately between verses 22 and
single star
(of. Job xxxviii. 31), and the conception seems fre- 23 (see SABAOTH). Prophetic declarations of par-
Station THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 68

ticipation of the heavenly bodies in the events of ishardly open to question. The basis of this cult
great world crises is also poetic diction or expres- was primarily the animistic conception of stars as
sions which deal with fateful appearances in the living beings due to the fact of their ap-
heavens (e.g., Joel ii. 10). With the significance of z. General parent motion, combined later with the
the constellations men did not so concern themselves Aspects of assumption that they influenced the af-
that there resulted a science of the stars in Israel; Star- fairs of earth. Thus Cicero (De natura
the references in the Old Testament to an art or Worship, deorum) testifies to the existence of
science of this sort such among the Babyloni- a belief in the divinity of the con-
imply
ans, however (Isa. xlvii. 13; Dan. v. 11), though stellations. The accounts in classical mythology
in the last passage Daniel appears as leader among and poetry of the origin of constellations and stars,
readers of the stars, and this shows that among the such as the story of the Pleiades or of Cassiopeia, are
Jews of the author's times some had taken up a not to be mistaken for worship; they are merely the
profession which they plied till the Middle Ages. exercise of a rude philosophy attempting to account
This art of astrology flourished in Babylon, Egypt, for origins or of the pleasing fancy of the poetic im-
Rome, during the Middle Ages in Christian circles, agination. The comparative insignificance of star-
and especially among the Arabs. It was denounced worship is easily accounted for by the vast number
by Cicero, Tacitus, and the Christian Fathers, yet of the stars, which made individualization (one of
flourished not only among the ignorant but even the first steps to worship) difficult except in the case
among the better informed. An event in the of the planets which, by their motion, seemed to em-
heavens contemporary with some mundane happen- phasize their several degrees of importance, and of
ing was related to the latter as cause, in the general a few fixed stars whose superior brilliance marked
ignorance of the course of nature. Hence astrology them out or whose position made them remarkable,
was by pious people not regarded as opposed to such as Sinus and the North Star.
true faith in God, while it was considered also that What closely resembled star-worship and perhaps
the signs read in the heavens were given by God involved it existed in Babylonia. Indeed the ideo-
himself and so astrology was discriminated from graph for star is the sign of deity thrice repeated

Sorcery (q.v.). (cf. P. Jensen, Kosmologie der Babylonier, pp. 43-

The star of the Magi (Matt, ii.) was probably a 44, Strasburg, 1890). In the Marduk
conjunction, in the sign of the fish, of Jupiter and 2. In Baby- cycle of myths that deity is said to have
Saturn in the year of Rome 747, a coincidence Ionia. set the courses of the planets and to
which Abarbanel states was regarded by Jewish have assigned guardianship of them to
astrologers as an indication of the Messiah. Cal- certain deities (cf. translation of part of a tablet
culations of the appearance of definite accessible in DB, i. 191). Thus he himself assumed
4. Hebrew constellations for certain countries as his charge Jupiter, gave Venus to Ishtar (Ishtar
Star- were made by the Babylonians. In an was also associated with Sinus), Saturn to Ninib,
Worship, assumed significance of the stars is one Mars to Nergal, and Mercury to Nebo. These deities,
root of star-worship, though the two possibly as representative of the planets, are charac-
developed very differently. Even in Babylonia there teristically pictured as riding on certain animals,
was great difference between the mythological and some of them mythological, and in this form received
the astrological significance of the stars. But star- homage (such a representation is easily accessible in
worship is an old heirloom of the Semites, found A. Jeremias, Das alie Testament im Lichte des alien
among all branches. Especially was this developed Orients, fig. 5, p. 11, Leipsic, 1906). This order of
in Babylonia, where the entire pantheon had rela- assignment was not universal in Babylonia, since
tion to the stars; and this suggests that the Su- both Nergal and Kaiwan are known to have been
merian adopted by the Semites, was largely
religion, associated with Saturn, and Ninib and Nergal with
astral, though perhaps the Semites had already de- Mars, while a deity Gud-bjr had Jupiter. Marduk,
veloped it. It does not follow that with the Semites Ninib, and Nergal, with Shamash, are in another re-
star- worship was the original form of their religion; lation regarded as representing the sun and con-
even the Babylonians, whose deities were so closely trolling it at critical points of its diurnal and annual
related with the stars, knew that the gods and the motions. Similarly, and perhaps consequently, Jupi-
stars were different beings. Nothing proves that ter, Mars, Mercury, and Saturn took the same prom-
the Yahweh religion of Israel had anything to do inence in their nightly places as the sun in its corre-
with worship of the stars. The Astarte and Baal sponding positions, and were compared with that
worship apart, star-worship comes in during the late body hi its relative importance. The Pleiades (Sir
" the Seven
regal period. The cults which Amos denounced bitti, ") were worshiped in Babylonia,
were idolatries of his period, not Mosaic in deriva- and the name occurs in incantation texts as that
tion. Before him there is no trace of this worship of a group of demons (Schrader, KAT, pp. 413,
in Israel, and to this refer such passages as II Kings 459), possibly represented in Canaan by Beer-
ori. 3, 5, and the prohibition of Deut. iv. 19, zvB. she oa; in this case the word is wrongly etymolo-
" well of "
2-3. In Judah Manasseh probably introduced the gized as swearing (Gen. xxi. 30, xxxi.
wit, and Josiah attempted to destroy it (II Kings 33). The sun, moon, and Venus were thought of
criii. 4-6) though it arose again (Jer. vii. 18, zix. 13). as in control of the fodiacal signs, and so of all the
(W. Low.) influences that effect on the earth increase and
IL Star-Deities: Actual adoration of the stars as decay, light and darkness, cold and heat, life and
nich is not so easily established as common opinion death.
vould lead one to suppose, though that it took place In Egypt star-worship was, in historical times,
69 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Star*
Static
,tlon

not that of the star itself but of the divinity con- OriQin of the Primitive Constellations of the Greeks, Phoeni-
cians, and Babylonians, 2 vola., London, 1900; C. Thorn-
ceived as animating it. That this is a developed
ion, Reports of the Magicians and Astrologers of Nineveh
conception is at once evident, and points to the and Babylon, London, 1900; F. Hommel, Der Oestirn-
earlier belief in the life and divinity of dientt der alien Araber und die altisraelitische Ueberliefer-
the heavenly body itself. The fact of ung, Munich, 1901 L. Frobetiiua, Das Zeit alter des Sonnen-
3. In
;

Qottes, vol. i., Berlin, 1904; G.&chia.v&relti, Astronomy in the

Egypt a certain type of star-worship is estab- Old Testament, ch'ipa. iii.-v., London, 1905; A. Jeremios,
lished by the figuring of the deities of Das alte Testament im Lichte des aUen Orients, 2d ed., Leipaic,
Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, and Venus as
Saturn, 1906; idem, Daa Alter der babylonischen Astronomic, Leipsic,
1908; F. Wilke, Die astralmythologische Weltanschauung
mounted on their boats (this fixes their divine char- und das Alte Testament, Liohterfelde, 1907; H. Grimme,
acter, as it is the Egyptian method of representing Dae ieraelitische Pfingstfcst und der Plejadenkult, Pader-
the journeyings of the gods and corresponds to the born, 1907; Schrader, KAT, pp. 620 sqq.; Smith, Sem-
ites, passim; Bencinger, Archdologie, pp. 159, 165-166,
Babylonian method referred to above, where deities 186, 391, et passim; DB, i. 191-194, iv. 613; EB, iii.
are riding various animals), and m^lcing their prog- 3354-57, iv. 4779-86; JE, xi. 527-528. For details of
toss under the guidance of Orion and Sinus (E. L*>- worship in separate countries recourse must be had to the
literature under the articles on Arabia, Assyria, Baby-
fe"bure, Les Hypogees roycwx de Thebes, part 4, plate
lonia, China, India, and the like, and to some extent to
xxx vi., Paris, 1886). So there was a Sothis or Isis- that under COMPABATIVK RBUGION.
Sothis, the deity of Sirius or the Dog Star. But the
notice of such divinities is rare, and invocation of STATION: A word having several significations
them not frequent.
is in liturgical and historical theology.
In China among the objects of imperial worship 1. Stations as Fasts: Fasting was a practise of
at the capital are the Pleiades, the five planets, and the early Christians derived from Judaism, which ob-
the constellations, as well as the starry served Monday and Thursday (cf. Luke xvii. 12).
4. China heavens as a whole. The high cere- With the early Christians these days were super-
and Japan, monies of this worship take place at seded by Wednesday and Friday. In the time of
the winter solstice at the Temple of Hennas (III., v. 1) these fasts were already
Heaven situated in the southern part of the Chinese known as " stations/ being compared with the
1

city of Peking. There are tablets to the souls of these sentry duty of soldiers (cf. Paul's frequent use of
"
bodies, as well as to the sun and the moon, which military metaphors and similes; Tertullian, On
last are included in the worship. In the common fasting," xiv.; "On prayer," xix.; Eng. transl.,
or popular religion these bodies have either a far ANF, iv. 112, iii. 687). At first optional and not a
less prominent place or none at all, though certain precept, the observance of stations became obliga-
heavenly bodies which superstition connects with tory in the pontificate of Innocent I. (402-417).
wind and rain receive special attention. These "
The two stational days were also marked by meet-
bodies are supposed to be the agents of the Yin and ings for worship. But these were held in different
the Yang, the male and female elements of the uni- manners in different localities. In some places the
verse. The star-cult in Japan, so far as early testi- liturgy, properly so called, was used; that is, the
mony (the Nittongi) is concerned, is confined to the Eucharist was celebrated. This was the custom in
star-deity Amatsu mike hoshi (" dread star of Africa at the time of Tertullian, and at Jerusalem
heaven ") or Ame no Kagase wo (" scarecrow male toward the end of the fourth century. In the
of heaven a malignant god who was vanquished
"), Church of Alexandria, on the other hand, the sta-
"
in the cosmic battle between forces malign and be- tion did not include the liturgy (L. Duchesne,
nign (for control of man), and to Vega and the Christian Worship: Us Origin and Evolution, p. 230,
North Star, whose worship came from China (W. G. London, 1904). Duchesne thinks that the usage at
Aston, Shinto, p. 142, London and New York, 1905). Rome was like that of Alexandria as described by
The worship of the malign deity was probably avert- Socrates (Hist ecd., V., xxii.; Eng. transl. in NPNF,
ive. Similarly in India the worship of Saturn is 2 ser., ii. 130-134). It is certain that the mysteries
that of a malignant and dreaded deity, who is pro- were not celebrated on Fridays either at Alexandria
pitiated by sacrifice. or at Rome. Nothing is known of the Wednesday
The indications of star-worship among primitive service, and it was abandoned in the West, a fact
peoples are elusive and unsatisfactory, and the most which scandalized the Greek Church and became
that can be said with certainty is that much of the one of grievances against the Latin Church.
its
material is rather that of folk-lore and mythol- The observance of stations is clearly indicated in
ogy than of ritual. Yet it may be noted, for exam- the Gregorian Sacramentary. "The place of the sta-
ple, that the Berbers offer worship to Venus, the tion is always expressly indicated, unless the name
Pleiades, Orion, the Great Bear, and the Little Bear. of the saint alone is sufficient to designate the
For some details of folk-lore, cf J. G. Frazer, Golden
. Church at which the festival was held. For in-
Bough, ii. 19 sqq. (London, 1900). stance, it was not deemed necessary to say where the
GBO. W. GILMORE. station was on the days of St. Marcellus, St. Agnes,
BIBLJOORAPHT: J. G. Rohde, Versuch uber daa Alter de* St. Sylvester, etc. But for the days of Lent, for the
Tierkreises und den Ureprung der Stembilder, Breslau, festival of the Holy Innocents, and for that of St.
1809; M. A. Stem, in Zeiteehrift fur Wissenschaft und
Felix of Nola, the Church is indicated. There are
Leben dee Judentums, iii (1864-65), 258-276; E. von
Bunoen, Einheit der Religion, Berlin, 1870; idem, Die sometimes even two indications, when the station
Plejaden und der Tierhreis, ib. 1879; O. Hoffmann, in is preceded by a general procession. In that
ZATW, iii (1883), 107-110; C. Ploix, La Nature dee dieux. case the Church is denoted from which the proces-
Paris, 1888; P. Jensen, Koemoloffie der Babylonier, Stras-
sion starts, and that also wherein Mass is celebrated,
burg, 1890; R. H. Allen, Star-Name* and Their Mean-
ing* New York, 1899; B. Brown, Researches into the indications are given when there are several
Station THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 70
Staupite

stationson the same day, or several stopping-places BIBLIOGRAPHY : L. Thomaaain, TraiU historique et dogmatique
in a procession, as, for instance, at the festival of ur divers ponto de la discipline de Viglise, part ii., chap. 15,
Paris, 1682-83; Bingham, Origins, XIII., ix. 2, XXI.,
Christmas, on the day of the Greater Litany, and at iii.; Ducheene, ut sup.; H. Liemke, Quadragenmal-FasUn

Vespers in Easter Week" (Duchesne, lU sup., pp. der Kirche, Paderborn, 1854; H. Thurston, The Stations of
the Cross, their Hist, and Purpose, London, 1906; DCA, ii.
122-123). Liturgical stations for Monday and
1928-29.
Thursday were instituted later, but the early Church,
with the exception of Wednesday and Friday, rec- STATISTICS, ECCLESIASTICAL: A numerical
ognized no other station except Maundy Thursday. representation of the progress and state of the Church
Saturday is sometimes erroneously called a station within given periods by the collation and classi-
day, but the service for that day is really the Easter fication of religious data. For a long time [in
Vigil anticipated. Germany] the church registers furnished the prin-
8. Stations of the Cross: This practise, familiar cipal material for all statistics, and hence it is that
to every one who enters the Roman Catholic Church, theologians have taken a prominent part in the
is of modem origin.
It is said that Alvar of Cordova development of this science. But perceiving that
(q.v.),upon returning from Palestine, caused various private studies in this respect are not sufficient, in
oratories to be constructed in the Convent of St. more recent tunes the authorities of State and
" " Church engage in the periodical publication of
Dominic, forming stations where the chief in-
cidents of the passion were portrayed. The idea official tables, thus making possible more accurate
was no doubt suggested by a reminiscence of the and complete statistics. In the German Empire
crusades, during which period indulgence was the quinquennial census includes also ecclesiastical
granted those who in person visited the Holy data. The state church authorities make a tabu-
Sepulcher. The Franciscans, who were the eccle- lated report of their districts annually, and these
siastical custodians of the holy places in Jerusalem, are collated by a statistical committee under the
borrowed the idea and developed it into the " Road German Evangelical auspices. These results are
of the Cross" (Via crucis) with fourteen distinct supplemented by those of societies and private
stations. The practise obtained but slowly in the labors, and official experts in empire, states, and
church. It was not until late in the seventeenth cities,by unproved methods, carry them to further
century that the stations were officially recognized results and conclusions and combine them with
by the popes Innocent XI., 1686; Innocent XII., those pertaining to other vital interests. Statistical
1694; Benedict XIII., 1726; Clement XII., 1731. year-books appear also in most countries. The In-
Each of the fourteen stations recalls some particular ternational Statistical Institute of London assembles
incident of the passion, but not all of them are to be every two years a special congress for the mutual
found recorded in the New Testament, for example promotion of statistical labors. The statistics of
that which has to do with St. Veronica. Each missions provides a comparative survey at the time
station is marked by a cross which alone secures in- being of Christianity and the non-Christian religions.
dulgence; pictures are not necessary, though they Besides, denominational statistics has at the present
are commonly found. The fourteen stations are as tune obtained a prominent place, not only in de-
follows: (1) The judgment of Pilate; (2) the taking termining the relative losses and gains but also in
of the cross; (3) Christ's first fall; (4) Christ's the study of significant problems. Specially valu-
meeting with his mother; (5) The bearing of the able are these methods for the unbiased tabulation
cross by Simon of Cyrene; (6) the wiping of Christ's of such items as theological growth and congrega-
face with a handkerchief by St. Veronica; (7) tional offerings. An application to the concrete
Christ's second fall; (8) Christ's word to the women conditions and relations of the church life of the
"
of Jerusalem, Weep not for me "; (9) Christ's present has been made by P. Drews, Evangelische
third fall ; ( 1 0) Christ stripped of his garments ; ( 1 1 ) Kirchenkunde. This presents, among other results,
the crucifixion; (12) Christ's death; (13) the de- the increase and decrease of communicants in the
scent from the cross; (14) the burial. An unauthor- state churches, the ratio of baptisms to births, of
ized innovation sometimes added is a fifteenth, sacred ceremonies to marriages, of burials to deaths,
the discovery of the true cross by St. Helena (see the number of members who vote for the governing
CROSS, INVENTION OP THE). board of the church, as well as conclusions from the
The stations may be within or without the church numbers of those entering and leaving the churches.
edifice. The privilege of instituting them pertains (F. W. DIBEUUS.)
to the Franciscan Order. Bishops not belonging In the United States of America the decennial
to this order and even simple priests, when duly census now includes materials upon religious de-
authorized, may, however, establish stations of the nominations, and under the general law regarding
cross within churches, but not without. the census, dated May 23, 1850, in the censuses
3. In French Usage: In France, until the recent taken since that year the government has been
dissolution of the concordat of 1801, the word approaching more nearly the idea of completeness.
" " had
station a particular application. The The publication of the special report on Religious
fifteenth article of the Articles Organiques, of Bodies, 1906, issued by the Department of Com-
eighteenth Germinal, year X
(1801), provided that merce and Labor, Bureau of the Census (2 vols.,
"Solemn preachings, called sermons, and those Washington, 1910) makes available to the general
known under the name of Stations, at Advent and public the latest governmental tabulation of statis-
Car&ne shall not be made save by such priests as tics, and affords a review almost exhaustive of all
have received special authorization of the Bishop." matters which are institutionally connected with
JAMES WEBTFALL THOMPSON. religious life. Other data (annual) are furnished by
71 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Station
Stauplti

the handbooks of the various denominations, in clesiadominids et festivis dicbm, appeared at Ttib-
most cases these being the result of compilation by iugen Mar. 30, 1500, and in three subsequent issues
central officers or authorities in each religious body. there was appended a catechetical effort. By 1503

ARGULA VON (AR6ULA VON Staupitz was prior of the monastery at Munich, and
STAUFF, shtauf,
authoress of the German openly advocated in addresses the positions taken
GRUMBACH): First
in his first publication, in the direction of purifica-
Reformation; b. before 1490; d. at Zeilitzheim in tion of monastic life, but was opposed by the Fran-
Lower Franconia, 1554. She received an unusually
ciscan Kaspar Schatzgeyer. He was next called
good education; under Duke Albrecht of Bavaria
by Frederick the Wise to the direction of the newly
(d. 1508) she became lady-in-waiting to Duchess
founded University of Wittenberg, becoming first
Kunigunde, and probably while at court married dean of the theological faculty; and in 1503 he was
Friedrich von Grumbach of Franconia. She early
made vicar-general of the Augustine Observantist
adopted the doctrine of Luther, with whom she was
on terms of friendship after 1522, and became a congregations in Cfcrmany. In the latter office his
first care was the codification and publication of the
zealous student of the Bible. Her first step in
constitution, printing it in 1504. One note in this
literary activity was induced by the condemnation
constitution was the recommendation of Bible study.
of Arsacius Seehofer (q.v.). On Sept. 20, 1520,
on the ground that no one else had protested against
He was concerned also for the strengthening and
spread of the order and for the care of the individual
forcing Seehofer to deny the Gospel, she addressed
to the rector and University of Ingolstudt a protest, houses; to the rebuilding of the Wittenberg cloister
he gave much attention, and received therein Martin
which was printed and widely circulated. The
Luther (1508), with whom he came into contact at
religious edict of Bavaria of Mar. 5, 1522, against
Erfurt during one of his visitation journeys. Him
all Lutheranism did not change her attitude and
Luther afterward praised as having led him into a
she declared that " One must bow to authority,
but concerning the Word of God neither pope, em- knowledge of the grace of God, and it was Staupitz
" When who incited Luther to aspire to the doctorate in
peror, nor prince has the right to command.
she continued her literary activity, the authorities theology.
Even after Staupitz settled in South Germany, he
of the university would not deign to answer a
remained in essential concord with Wittenberg.
woman, but requested the duke to punish her. An evidence of this is the letter of introduction
Chancellor L. von Eck advised to depose her hus-
band and to send hor into exile. Her husband was given by Spalatin to Johann Lang addressed to
Staupitz, in which the last-named was enthusias-
deposed, but no further steps can be proved, while
tically greeted as a friend of Conrad Mutian and of
tho medieval contempt of woman makes it probable
Reuchlin (cf Gillert, Der Bricfwechsel des Conradua
.

that no further notice was taken of her. Although

she soon ceased to write, she continued to take a Mutianus, i. 170, ii. 151, etc., Halle, 1890). Carl-
stadt opened his explanations of Augustine's De
lively interest in the Reformation and maintained
her intercourse with the Reformers. spiritu et Ittera (1519) with a preface (dated Nov.
"
18, 1517) in which he spoke of Staupitz as a pro-
(T. KOLDE.) moter of sincere theology and a distinguished
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Q. 0. Rieger, Ltben der Argula von Grum- "
bach, Stuttgart, 1787; F. F. Lipowsky, Argula von Grum- preacher of the grace of Christ (cf. H. Barge,

bach, Munich, 1801; H. A. Pistonus, Frau Argula von Andreas Bodenstein von Carlstadt, 90 sqq., ii. 533
i.

Grumbach und ihr Kampf mit der Univerritat Ingolstadt, sqq., Leipsic, 1905). Staupitz was often engaged in
Magdeburg, 1845; E. Engelhardt, Argula von Grumbach
long journeys of visitation to the religious houses of
t

diebayerische Tabea, Nuremberg, 1860; C. Prantl, in AM

A,
III. Klaaae, vol. xvii.; Riezler, Geschichte Bayerns, iv.
S. his order like that of 1514, when he was in the
86 sqq., Qotha, 1809; T. Kolde, in Beitrage zur bayenachen Netherlands, and that of the summer of 1516 to the
Ge&chichte, vol. xi., Erlangen, 1905. Lower Rhine and Belgium. When not on these
STAUPITZ, shtau'pitz, JOHANN VON: Augus- tours of duty, he lived in Munich, Salzburg, and
tinian vicar-general and friend of Luther; d. at especially in Nuremberg, where he was in close
Salzburg (156 m. w.s.w. of Vienna) Dec. 28, 1524. touch with such men as Christoph Scheurl (q.v.),
He came of a noble family, but the earliest certain Hieronymus Holzschuher, Lazarus Spongier, Wili-
date in his life is that of his matriculation at Leipsic bald Pirkheimer (qq.v.), and Albrecht Diirer. In-
in 1485 as Johannes Stopitz de Mutterwitz, the last deed, Staupitz was universally beloved. Erasmus
word of this entry appearing to give his birthplace, said: "I indeed greatly admire Staupitz " (A.
which may be Motterwitz near Leisnig (25 m. s.e. of Horawitz, Erasmiana, ii. 597, Vienna, 1879).
Leipsic) or Moderwitz near Neustadt-on-the-Orla Light is thrown upon the relations of Luther and
(24 m. s.e. of Weimar). A further notice in the Staupitz after 1518 by the researches of P. Kal-
university records of Leipsic mentions that Oct. 30, koff (Forschungen zu Luthers romischem Prozess,
"
1489, N. Stopitz, Master of Arts of Cologne," was pp. 44 sqq., Rome, 1905). Following the direction
received into the faculty of arts; if this entry relates of Leo X., in February of 1518 the promagister of
to the subject of this sketch, it implies a period of the order, Gabriel Venetus, notified Staupitz that
study at Cologne. In 1497 as master of arts and Luther had been denounced to the pope as a heretic
reader in theology he was received into the Augus- and urged him to call Luther to account. Staupite
tinian monastery at Tubingen, where he became notified Luther of the bad impression his teaching

prior; on Oct. 29, 1498, baccalaureus biblicus, on was making; the latter on March 31 replied that the
Jan. 10, 1499, sententiarius, proceeding to licentiate charge was unjustified and declined to alter his be-
and doctor in theology in 1510. His maiden essay, havior. But Luther at Heidelberg set forth before
Decisio questionis de audiencia misse in parochiali ec- associates of his order an explanation of his position
sssr THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG

and promised to justify himself to the pope through ture under LUTHBR, since the biographies of that Reformer
the vicar-general by a detailed exposition of his in- contain necessarily many references to the subject of this
sketch.
dulgence theses. Thereafter Staupitz was under
suspicion of the Curia as a follower of Luther. STAVE, stCL've, ERIK ERIKSOIf: Swedish
Staupitz advised Luther to withdraw to a cloister Protestant; b. at Gustafs (a village of Dalarne)
and so relieve his superiors, spiritual and temporal, June 10, 1857. He was educated at the University
from the embarrassment he was causing them, and of Upsala (1880-89), where he became privat-docent
later suggested a retirement to the University of for exegesis in 1889, and was substitute professor in
Paris. His dealing with Luther at this juncture the same university for exegesis, dogmatics, and
was not that merely of superior officer, but of friend moral theology (1892-99). In 1899 he was ap-
and like-minded thinker. He wished also to relieve pointed associate professor of exegesis at Upsala,
the order from the danger of sharing in Luther's and since the following year has been full professor
fortunes. On laid aside his of the same subject. Since 1901 he has been editor
Aug. 20, 1520, Staupitz
office as vicar-general. of the quarterly Bibelforskaren, and has written Om
The next
activity of Staupitz came through a call aposteln Pauli f&rh&Uande till Jesu historiskt lif och
of the cardinal-bishop Matthaus Lang as court l&ra (Upsala, 1889); Sjdn Gennesaret och dess
preacher to Salzburg, but the pope required of him n&rmaste omgifningar (Stockholm, 1892); Genom
a sworn statement of non-participation in Luther's Palestina Minnen fran en re&a varen 1891 (1893);
t

articles. Staupitz refused on the ground that he

Daniels bok dversatt och i korthet forklarad (Upsala,
would not take back what he had never advanced; 1894); Ueber den Einfluss des Parsismus auf das
in this Luther with some right saw a half-lie. In Judentum (Haarlem, 1898); Bilder fr&n landtbe-
order totally to part Staupitz and Luther, Lang folkningens lif Palestina (Upsala, 1899); Mat-
i

made Staupitz abbot of the old wealthy Benedictine teus-evangeliet utlagdt for bibellasare (1900); Bilder
abbey of St. Peter in Salzburg. Staupitz had now franfolkets lif i Palestina (Stockholm, 1901); Om
become frightened because of the new attacks of Gamla Testamentets messianska profetior (Upsala,
Luther in the matter of monastic vows and the mar- 1903); and Bibliska fdredrag fdr ungdom (1904).
riage of priests, the abolishing of the mass, and the STEARNS, LEWIS FRENCH: American Con-
exit of monks and nuns from the houses. In his b. at Newburyport, Mass., Miir.
gregationalist;
office as abbot he devoted himself to religious in-
10, 1847; d. at Bangor, Me., Feb. 9, 1892. He was
struction and the service of souls with a singular
graduated from the College of New Jersey, Princeton,
zeal. Two deliverances of Staupitz are of impor- N. J., 1867; studied at Princeton Theological Semi-
tance here. In one, of the year 1523 (printed in
nary, 1869-70; in the universities of Berlin und Leip
C. Gartner, Salzburgische gelekrte Unterhandlungen,
sic,1870-71; was graduated from Union Theological
ii.67-72, Salzburg, 1812), he mildly reproached Seminary, New York, 1871-72; was pastor of the
Stephan Agricola (q.v.) for opposing his subjective Presbyterian Church of Norwood, N. J., 1873-76;
opinion to the decisions of the Church. The second, professor of history and belles-lettres, Albion College,
later in the same year, was sharper, and advanced
Albion, Mich., 1876-79; from 1880 professor of sys-
the propositions that heretics must be punished since tematic theology in the Bangor Theological Semi-
the sheep must be protected from the wolves, that
nary. He was the author of Evidence of Christian
the adherents of Luther were by the pope's bulls
Experience: Ely Lectures for 1890 (New York, 1890) ;

and the emperor's edicts placed in the position of

Henry Boynton Smith (1892) and the posthumous
;

heretics, that a single proved point of heresy was Present-day Theology; with biographical Sketch, by
sufficient to convict, and that Agricola was guilty in G. L. Prentiss (1893). Just before his death he de-
many points. On Dec. 28 Staupitz had a stroke of clined on conscientious grounds a call to the chair
apoplexy which brought him to his end. of systematic theology in Union Theological Semi-
Of his printed works the following may be named:
nary, New York. He was one of the most promising
the Dccisio qucestionis, ut sup.; Von der Nachfolg- of American theologians of his day.
ung des wiUigen Sterbens Christi (Leipsic, 1515);
Libellus de executions ceternce prcBdestinationis (ed. STEARNS, OAKMAN SPRAGUE: American
Scheurl, Nuremberg, 1517); Von der Liebe Gottes Baptist; b at Bath, Me., Oct. 20, 1817; d. in New-
ton Centre, Mass., Apr. 20, 1893. He was graduated
(Leipsic, 1518); and Von dem hettigen chrisUichen
Glauben (O. CLEMEN.)
from Waterville College, Me., 1840, and from New-
(n.p., 1525).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The German writings of Staupiti were ed- ton Theological Institution, Mass., 1846; was in-
ited by J. K. F. Knaake, Potsdam, 1867. A life, using a structor in Hebrew there, 1846-47; pastor at
rich fund of new sources and antiquating earlier accounts
Southbridge, Mass., 1847-54; Newark, N. J., 1854-
is T. Kolde's Die deutsche Auoustinerkongregation und Jo-
hann von Staupitz, Gotha, 1870. For readers of English 1855; Newton Centre, Mass., 1855-68; and from
the best consecutive account is in C. Ullmnnn, Rtformert 1868 was professor of Biblical interpretation of the
before the Reformation, ii. 234-253. Further literature is Old Testament in Newton Theological Institution.
by L. Keller, Die Reformation und die alteren Reform-par- He 1
translated Sartorius The Person and Work of
teien in ihrem Zusammenhange daroettttttt, Leipsic, 1885;
idem, Johann von Staupitz und die Anftinge der Reforma"
Christ (Boston, 1848); was author of A Syllabus of
tion, ib. 1888 (of. T. Kolde in ZKG, vii., 1885, pp. 426 the Messianic Passages in the Old Testament (1884);
aqq.); A. Hitachi, Die chritiliche Lehre von dtr Rechtfer- and Introduction to the Books of the Old Testament;
tiffung una Veradhnung, i. 124 sqq., 3d ed., Bonn, 1889.
with Analyses and Illustrative Literature (1888).
Eng. transl. of earlier ed., Critical Hist, of the Christian
Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation, Edinburgh,
1872; E. Favre, in Libre Chretien, vi. 17-34. Valuable
STEBBWS, GEORGE COLES: Congregational
periodical literature if indicated in Richardson, Encyclo- evangelist; b. at East Carlton, N. Y., Feb. 26, 1846.
paedia, p. 1041; the reader is also directed to the litera- He was educated at Albion Academy, Albion, N. Y.
78 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA teatf*

(graduated, 1866), and after studying music in tures. The pope now requested still other bishops,
Rochester, Chicago, and Boston, was director of those of Paderborn, Hildesheim, Verden, Miinster,
music in the First Baptist Church, Chicago (1870- and Osnabruck, to preach the crusade against the
1874). He then occupied a similar position at the Stedingers. At his instigation also there was made
Clarendon Street Baptist Church and Tremont a solemn compact between the archbishop and the
Temple, Boston (1874-76), and was associated with council of Bremen (Mar., 1233) against them. In
D. L. Moody and I. D. Sankey in their evangelistic June, 1233, the second crusade was undertaken,
work (1876-99), touring Great Britain and the and first against the East Stedingers. Hundreds of
United States. He likewise spent a winter in India men under arms were slain, the captives burnt as
in evangelistic work with G. F. Pentecost, and in the heretics; the others, including wives and children,
same work has made other extensive tours in Egypt, were reduced to submission by fire and sword,
Palestine, and Europe. Since 1880 he has been con- murder, spoliation, and rapine. The West Stedin-
ductor of music at the Northfield Conferences, gers repulsed the hostile attacks, although their
Northfield, Mass. Besides being one of the editors of position became more and more desperate owing to
Gospel Hymns, nos. 3-6, New York, 1877-91 (in the reduction of the East Stedingers, the failure of
collaboration with I.-D. Sankey and J. McGrana- expected aid from Friesland to arrive, and the deser-
han), and other popular collections of hymns, he has tion of their ally. At the same time the number
compiled The Northfield Hymnal (1904). of the crusaders was increased by a fresh bull, ad-

RUDOLF: Swiss Protestant; vancing them the same indulgence and privileges
STECK, shtec,
as those extended to the crusaders to the Holy Land.
b. at Bern Jan. 18, 1842. He was educated at the
universities of his native city, Jena, and Heidelberg, Notwithstanding, the third crusade under the leader-
ship of Count Burchard of Oldenburg ended with
and, after being pastor at the Reformed Church in
a defeat of the crusaders and the death of their
Dresden (1867-81), was appointed in 1881 to his
leader at Treffen. The fanatical preaching of the
present position of professor of New-Testament
crusade on the part of the Dominicans swept over
exegesis at Bern. In theology he belongs to the
all the low countries, and the revolting tales of heresy
extreme critical school; he is a member of the
and superstitious horrors were exaggerated. The
Swiss Geschichtsforschende Gesellschaft. He has
bull of Gregory authorizing mediation for peace
written Galaierbrief, nach seiner EcMheit untersucht
Die Piscatorbibel und ihre Einfiihrung
came too late. The fanatic hosts of the counts of
(Berlin, 1888) ;
the broad lowlands, variously estimated from
in Bern im Jahre 1684 (Bern, 1897); Der Berner
10,000 to 40,000, assembled against the 2,000
Jetzerprozess, 1507-1509 (1902); Akten des Jetzer-
Stedingers? The decisive battle took place Sunday,
prozesses (Basel, 1904; and Die ersten Seiten der
before Ascension Day, May 27, 1234, at Altenesch.
Bibel, Scho'pfung, Parodies und SiindenfaU, Sint-
The Stedingers were overwhelmed by numbers; few
flul (Bern, 1909).
resorted to flight; most of them, including women,
STEDINGERS, THE: Name of the inhabitants were slain in battle. A
small remnant escaped to
of the lowlands on both banks of the Weser near the the Frisians, and others remained, in submission to
North Sea; they were mostly Frisians who retired the archbishop. The territory was divided between
to these marshlands from the bishopric of Utrecht the archbishop and the count of Oldenburg. Six
in the twelfth century. They acknowledged the months after the battle the pope ordered a rededica-
territorial authority of the
archbishops of Hamburg- tion of the churches and burial-places, and in 1235
Bremen, but actually lived in independence, with- the anathema upon the Stedingers was removed.
standing the attacks of the counts of Oldenburg In memory of the victory a special festival took
and of Archbishop Hartwig II. The struggle was place annually at Bremen, by order of the arch-
resumed, however, with great energy by Gerhard bishop, on the Saturday before Ascension Day, until
II., one of the most prominent archbishops of the beginning of the sixteenth century. On the
Hamburg-Bremen in the thirteenth century. With six-hundredth anniversary of the battle, in 1834,
the aid of his brother Hermann von der Lippe, he there was dedicated a monument in honor of the
gathered an army in order to enforce his tithes and heroic peasants. (A. HAUCK.)
humiliate the peasants. On Christmas eve, 1229, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources for history are to be found in MGH,
in a decisive battle the peasants won a brilliant Script., xvi (1859), 197-231, xxiii (1874), 83, 516, 205.
xxv (1880), 504, and ib. Deutsche Chronik.cn, ii (1877),
victory. In order to avenge the death of his brother 236 sqq. The earlier accounts are superseded by H. A.
and crush the Stedingers the archbishop sought the Schumacher, Die Stedtnger, Bremen, 1865. For compar-
aid of the Church. He called a diocesan synod at ison there may be consulted: F. W. Schirrmacher, Kaiser
Friedrich II., i. 227 sqq., Q6ttingen, 1859; E. Winkel-
Bremen in 1230, and charged them with heresy and
mann, Oeschichte Kaiser Friedrichs II., ii. 437 sqq., Ber-
contempt of the sacrament. By the bull of Pope lin, 1863; R. Usinger, Deutsche-danitche Oeschtchte, pp.
Gregory IX. (1227-41) a crusade was preached 169 sqq., ib. 1863; Q. Denio, Geschichte des Ertbistums
Bremen-Hamburg, ii. 119 sqq., ib. 1877; J. Felten, Gregor
against them, in order to carry the synodal judg-
IX., p. 220, Freiburg, 1886; Hefele, Concilien0cchichte, v.
ment into effect. The bishops of Minden, Ltibeck, 1018 sqq.
and Ratzeburg, aided by the mendicant friars of
North Germany, soon succeeded in gathering an STEELE, ANNE: English hymn-writer; b. at
army of crusaders; but the first crusade in the Broughton (10 m. w.n.w. of Winchester), England,
winter of 1232-33 failed. The Stedingers advanced 1716; d. there Nov. 11, 1778. She was the daughter
to Bremen and found an important ally in Otto of of a Baptist minister. Her personal sufferings are
reflected in her verse, for she was always an in-
LQneburg, duke of the Guelphs. The wrath of the
archbishop was only increased by these misadven- valid. Her Poems on Subjects chiefly Devotional,
Steel*
Steinmeyer THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 74

by Theodoaia (2 vols., London, 1760) were reprinted, three years. From 1867 to 1877 he edited The Re-
to which was added A Third Volume Consisting of formed Presbyterian Advocate, and published several
Miscellaneous Pieces in Verse and Prose (Bristol, sermons and addresses, and a History of the Reformed
1780), with a biographical preface by Dr. Caleb Presbyterian Church in North America (in the Jour-
Evans; the profits in each case being devoted to be- nal of the Presbyterian Historical Society, 1898).
nevolent uses. The whole were reissued at Boston,
STEENSTRA, sten'strQ, PETER HENRY: Prot-
Mass., in two volumes, 1808, and again as Hymns,
Psalms, and Poems. ByA.Steele. W
ith Memoir by J.
estant Episcopalian; b. near Franeker, Friesland,
Holland, Jan. 24, 1833; d. at Robbinston, Me., Apr.
Sheppard (London, 1863). Her hymns, to the num-
ber of sixty-five, were included in Ash and Evans's 27, 1911. He was educated at Shurtleff College,

Collection, 1769, and were accordant with the best

Upper Alton, 111. (A.B., 1858), and entered the Bap-
tist ministry, but became a Protestant Episcopalian
taste of that period, and remarkably adapted to
in 1864 and was rector of Grace Church, Newton,
public worship. Dr. Rippon (1787) used fifty-six of
Mass. In 1868 he was appointed professor of He-
them, and Dobell (1806), forty-five. To probably a
brew and Old- and New-Testament exegesis in the
majority of the hymn-books published in England
and America she is the largest contributor after Episcopal Divinity School, Cambridge, Mass., and
was professor Hebrew literature and interpreta-
of
Watts, Doddridge, and Charles Wesley. Although
few of her hymns can be placed in the first rank of
tion of the Old Testament in the same institution,
of genuine Christian 1883-1907, when he became emeritus. Besides
lyrical composition, they are full
and are natural arid pleasing. She had more translating and editing Judges and Ruth in the
feeling
American edition of Lange's Commentary (New
elegance than force, and was less adapted to stand
the test of time than her masculine rivals, though York, 1872), he wrote The Being of God as Unity and
" Trinity (Boston, 1891).
a fragment of her hymn, Father, whate'er of
earthly bliss," may last as long as anything of Watts STEIGER, stai'ger, WILHELM: Swiss theo-
or Doddridge.
logian; b. at Fiawil (15 m. w. of St. Gall), Switzer-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the profatonal memoirs noted in
land, Feb. 9, 1809; d. at Geneva Jan. 9, 1836. He
the text, consult the treatises on English Hymns given
under HTMNOLOGY, particularly S. W. Duffielcl, pp. 536- studied theology at Tubingen and Halle, where he
638 et paaaim, and Julian, Dictionary, pp. 1089-00; also opposed the rationalistic tendency. Returning to
DNB, liv. 128-129. Switzerland in 1828, he was ordained at Aarau, and
STEELE, DANIEL: Methodist Episcopalian; b. corresponded for the church periodical of E. W.
at Windham, N. Y., Oct. 5, 1824. He was educated Hengstenberg at Berlin, whither he repaired, 1821),
at Wesleyan University (A.B., 1848), where he was as collaborator. In its columns appeared, anony-
a tutor from 1848 to 1850. He then held pastorates mously, the noted brochure, Bemerkungen iiber die
of his denomination in various cities in Massa- hallesche Streitsache und die Frage ob die cvangeliscfi-
chusetts until 1862, when he was appointed pro- en Regierungen gegen den Rationalismus einzu-
fessor in Genesce College, Lima, N. Y., a position schreiten haben (Leipsic, 1830). This was followed by
which he occupied until 1871. In 1872 he was his first book, Kritik des Rationalismus in WegRcheid-
elected first president of Syracuse University, while ers Dogmatik (Berlin, 1830). In Biblical work he
from 1884 to 1893, when he retired from active life, wrote an excellent commentary on I Peter (1832),
he was professor in the School of Theology of and at the same time was called as professor of New-
Boston University. He has written a Commentary Testament exegesis to Geneva. There he began to
on Joshua (New York, 1873); Binney's Theological publish with H. A. C. Haevernick (q.v.) a journal,
Compend Improved (1874); Love Enthroned (1875); MManges de Mologie reformte (1833-34), and com-
Milestone Papers (1878); Commentary on Leviticus menced his commentaries on the Pauline Epistles,
and Numbers (1891); Half Hours with St. Paul but on account of his untimely death was able to
finish only the first volume, on Colossians (Erlangen,
(1895); Defense of Christian Perfection (1896);
Gospel of the Comforter (Chicago, 1897); Jesus 1835). (K. F. STEIGERf.)
Exultant (1899); A Substitute for Holiness or An-
tinomianism Revived (1899); and Hatf Hours With
,

STEIN, stain, FRANZ JOSEPH VON: German

St. John's Epistles (1901).
Roman Catholic; b. at Amorbach m. s.e. of
(33
Darmstadt), Bavaria, Apr. 4, 1832. He was edu-
STEELE, DAVID: Reformed Presbyterian; b. cated at the University of WUrzburg (D.D., 1859),
near Londonderry, Ireland, Oct. 20, 1827; d. at and was ordained to the priesthood in 1855. After
Philadelphia June 15, 1906. He was educated at being a curate at Hilders, Heidingsfeld, and
Miami University, Miami, O. (A.B., 1857), where Schweinfurt, he was instructor in religion at the
he was professor of Greek in 185&-59. He was gymnasium in Wurzburg 1860-65, and was then
licensed to preach in 1860 and ordained the following appointed associate professor of moral theology at
year (1861), after which he was pastor of the Fourth the university of the same city, where he was full
Reformed Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia, until professor of moral and pastoral theology in 1871-
his death. From 1863 to 1875 he was professor 1878 and rector magnificus in 1875-76. In 1878 he
of Greek, Hebrew, and pastoral theology in the was consecrated bishop of Wiirzburg, and in 1897
Theological Seminary of the Reformed Presbyterian was enthroned archbishop of Munich and Freising.
Church, Philadelphia, and after 1875 was professor He has written Historisch-kritische Darstettung der
of doctrinal theology in the same institution, thus pathologischen Moralprinzipien (Vienna, 1871) and
filling a pastorate of forty-five years in one church Studien uber die Hesychasten des vierzehnten Jahr-
and occupying chairs in a single institution for forty- hunderts (1874).
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Steel*
Steinmeye*

STEINBECK, stoin'bec, FRANZ ALBERT JO- pietistic spirit. His works are commentaries on
HANNES: Lutheran; b. at Potsdam (17 m. s.w. Hebrews (Schleiz, 1743 and 1746), Colossians (Frank-
of Berlin) Aug. 6, 1873. He received his education fort, 1751), and I John (Tubingen, 1762); Tagliche
at the Kloster Gymnasium at Magdeburg, and at Nahrung des Glaubens nach den wichtigsten Schrift-
the universities of Erlangen and Berlin; he was stellen aus dem Leben Jesu in 83 Reden (1764; re-
then a private tutor at Rome and Potsdam; served issued, with autobiography, Ludwigsburg, 1859);
as inspector and next as assistant preacher at the Evangeliacher Glaubensgrund in Predigten fur atte
cathedral in Berlin; was pastor at Erfurt, 1903-08; Sonn-, Fest- und Feiertage (1753); Evangelischer
he then became extraordinary professor of practical Glaubensgrund in der heilsamen Erkenntnias der
theology in the University of Greifswald. He has Leiden Jesu Christi (Tubingen, 1759); Christliche
published Das Verh&ltnis von Theologie und Erkennt- Reden nach den Zeugnissen des Briefs Pauli an die
nis-Theorieen (Leipsic, 1898); Das g&ttliche Selbst- Romer (1851); Christologie (Nuremberg, 1797);
bewu88tsein Jesu nach dem Zeugnis der Synoptiker. and Die Haushaltung des dreieinigen Gottes (Tu-
Eine Untersuchung zur Christologie (1908); and bingen, 1761). (HERMANN BECK.)
Der Konfirmandenunterricht nach Stoffwahl, Charak- BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the autobiography in the Tdglichc
terund Aufbau (1909). Nahrung, ut sup., consult: C. Orosse, Die alien Troater, pp.
461-468, Hermannaburg, 1000; A. Knapp, AltwilrUem-
STEINDORFF, stoin'dBrf, 6EORG: Egyptol- bergiache Charoktere, Stuttgart, 1870.

ogist; at Dessau Nov. 12, 1861.

b. He was STEINHUBER, stain'hu-bcr, ANDREAS: Jesuit
educated at the universities of Berlin and Gottingen and cardinal; b. at Uttlau (15 m. s.w. of Passau),
(Ph.D., 1884), and was in Berlin from 1885 to 1893 Bavaria, Nov. d. in Rome Oct. 15, 1907.
11, 1825;
as an assistant at the Royal Museum, being also He studied at Passau, then in the Collegia
first
privat-docent for Egyptology at the university Germanica in Rome (1845-54), fitting himself for
in 1890-93. In 1893 he was called to Leipsic as the priesthood. Having returned to Bavaria he
associate professor of the same subject, becoming was a secular priest, and as such catechist to the
honorary professor in 1900 and being appointed children of Duke Maximilian. In 1854 he entered
to his present position of full professor in 1904. He the Society of Jesus, taught philosophy, then
has made extensive travels and excavations in theology, in the University of Innsbruck, but from
Egypt, and in 1904 delivered a course of lectures in 18G7 to 1880 was rector of the Collegia Gennnnica
the United States under the auspices of the Amer- in Rome. He then became consultant to the Propa-
ican Committee for Lectures on the History of Re- ganda and Inquisition. In 1894 Leo XIII. made
ligions. Besides editing the German translation him a cardinal deacon, with the title St. Agatha in
of G. Maspero's L 'Archtoloyie egyptienne (Leipsic,
}

Suburra; and called him to the prefecture of the

1889); G. Eber's Aegyptische Studien undVerwand- Index. He exerted great influence during the latter
tes (Stuttgart, 1899); Baedeker's AUgypten (Leipsic,
part of the pontificate of Leo XIII. and under the
1901); and Urkunden des dgyptischen AUertums' present pope. He was sternly opposed to the ideas
(1904 sqq.); he has written Koptische Gramma- comprehended under Modernism (q.v.) and urged
tik (Berlin, 1894); Grabfunde des mittleren Reichs the pope to issue his encyclical Pascendi dominici
in den koniglichen Museen zu Berlin (2 vois., 1897- gregis (Sept. 8, 1907) condemnatory of it. His
1901); Die Apokalypse des Elias, eine unbekannte principal publication is Geschichte des Collegium
Apokalypse und Bruchstucke der Sophonias-Apoka- Germaniwm-Hungaricum in Rom (2 vols., Freiburg,
lypse (Leipsic, 1898); Die Bluthezeit des Pharaonen- 1895).
reiches (Bielefeld, 1900); Durch die libysche Wuste
zur Amonsoase (1905); and The Religion of the STEINMEYER, stain'mai-er, FRANZ KARL
Ancient Egyptians (New York, 1905). He is also
LUDWIG: German Evangelical
theologian; b.
at Beeskow (43 m. s.e. of Berlin) Nov. 15, 1811;
editor of the Urkunden des dgyptischen AUertums
d. at Berlin Feb. 5, 1900. In 1830 he entered the
(1904-08), and of the Zeitschrift fur Ogyptische
University of Berlin where he came into close per-
tf/rrache und Altertumskunde (in collaboration with
sonal contact with Neander and was influenced by
A. Erman).
Schleiermacher's preaching. In 1835 at the Seminar
STEINHOFER, stain'ho-fer, MAXIMILIAN at Wittenberg he was permanently- won by Richard
FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH: German theologian; Rothe (q.v.)he was assistant preacher in the same
;

b. at Owen (18 m. s.e. of Stuttgart) Jan. 16, 1706; institution, 1837-40; and in 1840 accepted a call
d. at Weinsberg (27 m. n. of Stuttgart) Feb. 11, as preacher and teacher to the military academy hi
1761. After studying theology at Tubingen, he Kulm; in 1843 he became preacher in Nowawes,
visited Herrnhut and met Count Zinzendorf (q.v.), a colony of Bohemian weavers near Potsdam. In
who secured his appointment as court chaplain to 1848 he established himself as privat-docent at the
the count of Reuss at Ebersdorf. He entered with University of Berlin, and in the following year be-
his congregation the fellowship of the Unity of the came also first preacher of the Charite*, the famous
Brethren in 1746, but after two years retired from hospital of Berlin. Here his extraordinary gifts of
itand returned to Wtirttemberg, where he occupied preaching showed themselves for the first time, and a
various pastoral fields. Steinhofer had a remark- select congregation gathered under his pulpit. In
ably impressive and pious personality. He be- 1852 he was called as professor to Breslau where
longed to the Wurttemberg school of Biblical he taught exegesis and dogmatics; in 1854 he ac-
theology. His aim was to enrich and deepen the cepted a call to Bonn as professor of practical
Christian knowledge of redemption, and his inter- theology and preacher to the university, and in
pretation of Scripture was conveyed with a warm 185S removed to Berlin as professor of the New
ftUdt.
Stenography THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG 76

Testament and of practical theology and preacher (New York, 1896); The Error of Modem Missouri
to the university. Steinmeyer is important in the (Columbus, 1897); Die PostoroJbriefe Pauli uber-
history of preaching. He is the representative of a setzt und erkldrt (GUtersloh, 1899); and a commen-
strictly synthetic method which stands in closest tary on Romans (1899).
connection with his ritualistic ideal. Starting from
the idea of Schleiermacher, he regarded the sermon STELZLE, etels'le, CHARLES: Presbyterian;
as that part of the divine service the function of
b. inNew York City June 4, 1869. He was educated
in the public schools of his rtive city and at Moody
which is to elevate the devotion of the worshiping
Bible Institute, Chicago (1894-95), after having
congregation to adoration. Of his works may be
mentioned: Beitrdge zum Schriftverat&ndnia in
been for many years a machinist. He was then
pastor of Hope Chapel, Minneapolis, Minn. (1896-
Predigten (4 vols., 2d ed., Berlin 1869-66); Apolo-
1897), Hope Chapel, New York City (1897-99), and
getiache Beitrtige (4 vols., 1866-73); Beitrdge mr
Markham Memorial Church, St. Louis, Mo. (1899-
praktiachen Theologie (5 vols., 1874-79); Beitrdge
zur Chriatologie (3 parts, 1880-82); Die Wunder- 1903). Since 1903 he has been superintendent of
taten dea Herrn (1884); Die Pardbeln des Herrn
the Presbyterian Department of Church and Labor,
a division of the Home Mission Board He organized
(1884); Die Rede dea Herrn auf dem Berge (1885);
.

the Labor Temple in New York City in 1910. He is

Das hohepriesterliche Gebet Beitrdge zum
(1886);
also director of the department of Christian sociology
Verstdndnia des Johanneiaehen Evangeliuma (8 parts,
in the Bible Teachers' Training School, New York
1886-93) Studien uber den Brief dea Paulua an die
;

Rdmer (2 parts, 1894-95). After his death several City. He is widely known as a lecturer and has
collections of sermons and his lectures on homiletics written The Workingman ami Social Problems (New

appeared, ed. Reylander (Leipsic, 1901). York, 1903); Boys of the Street: How to Win Them
(G. KAWERAU.) (1904); Messages to Workingmen (1906); Chris-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Haupt, in HdUe toot du hast, vol. xxiii.;
tianity's Storm Centre: Study of the Modern City
L. Schultie, in Evangelische Kirchcnteitunff, 1901, pp. 97 (1907); Letters from a Worbingman (1908); Prin-
Bqq., and in Bioffraphisches Jahrbuch, v (1903), 345 aqq.; ciples of Successful Church Advertising (1909); and
J. Bauer, in Monatsschrift fVr die kirchliche Praxis, 1903, The Church and Labor (1910).
pp. 406 sqq., 444 sqq.
STBNNETT, JOSEPH: English hymn-writer;
STEITZ, staits, 6EORG EDUARD: German b. at Abingdon (6 m. s. of Oxford), England, 1G63;
theologian; b. at Frankfort-on-the-Main July 25, d. at Knaphill, near Hughenden (16 m. n.e. of
1810; d. there Jan. 19, 1879. He studied at Tubing- Reading), July 11, 1713. He received an excellent
en, 1829-31, and at Bonn, 1831-33; taught in his education at the grammar-school of Wullingf onl ;

native city, 1833-42; was pastor at Sachseuhausen settled hi London as a schoolmaster in 1685; and
and Frankfort, 1842-79, and member of the consis- in 1690 he was ordained pastor of a Baptist con-
tory from 1873. He wrote Daa rdmiache Buaa- gregation in Devonshire Square, London, which he
aakrament (Frankfort, 1854); and Die Privatbeichte served till his death. He was the author of Advice
und Privatabsolution der lutheriachen Kirche aus den to the Young: or, the Reasonableness and Advan-
Quetten dea XVI. JoJirhunderta aus Luthers Schriften tages of an early Conversion to God Demonstrated
und den alien Kirchenordnungen dargeatettt (1854). (London, 1695); Hymns in Commemoration of the
(H. DECHENT.) Sufferings of . Jesus
. .Christ. Composed for
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jung und Deohent, Zur Erinnerungon . . . the Celebration of His Holy Supper (1697; 3rd ed.,
Eduard Steitz. Zwei Reden, Frankfort, 1879. with thirteen more hymns, 1709); A Version of
Solomon's Song of Songs, together with the XLVth
STBLLHORN, FREDERICK WILLIAM: Luther-
Psalm (1700); An Answer to Mr. D. Russen's Book
an; b. at Bruninghorstedt, Hanover, Germany, Oct. "
Fundamentals without a Foundation, or,
Entitul'd,
2, 1841. He was educated at Concordia CoUege, a true Picture of the Anabaptists'
9

(1704); . . .

Fort Wayne, Ind. (A.B., 1862), and Concordia

Hymns Composed for the Celebration of the Holy
Seminary, St. Louis, Mo. (1865); was pastor at St. Ordinance of Baptism (1712); also there was pub-
Louis, Mo. (1865-67), and in DeKalb County, Ind., lished The Works of Joseph Stennett .To . . .

until 1869. He has held professorships in North- which is prefixed some Account of his Life (4 vols.,
western University, Watertown, Wis. (1869-74),
1731-32). Stennett was the author of the hymn
and Concordia College (1874-81), and has been " 1
Another six days' work is done/ which in the
professor of theology and German in Capital Uni- had fourteen stanzas.
original
versity since 1881. In 1894 he was appointed BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the account in the Works, ut sup.,
president of the university and served until 1900, consult: Walter Wilson, Hist, and Antiquities of Dissent-
and since 1903 he has been dean of the theological ing Churches in London, ii. 592 sqq., 4 vols., London,
1808-14; 8. W. Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 35-36, New
seminary attached to the same institution. In
York, 1886; DNB, liv. 160; Julian, Hymnology, p. 1001.
theology he is a very conservative Lutheran. He
was editor of the Lutheriache Kirchenseitung (Co- STENNETT, SAMUEL: English hymnist; b. in
lumbus, O.), from 1881 to 1898, except for a very Exeter, England, 1727; d. in London Aug. 24, 1795.
brief intermission, and has edited the Theologiache In 1748 he became assistant to his father as pastor of
Zetibldtter since 1882. He is the author of Kurzge- the Baptist Church in Little Wild Street, London,
foaatea Wdrterbuch zum griechiachen Neuen Testa- and in 1758 bis successor, remaining with the church
ment (Leipsic, 1886); A Brief Commentary on the till his death. He was a fine scholar, held a very
Four Ooapela for Study and Devotion (Columbus, prominent position among the dissenting ministers
O., 1891); Annotation* on the Ada of the Apoatlea of London, enjoyed the confidence of George III.,
77 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA suit.
Itenofraphy

and had John Howard for a frequent hearer and an cused, together with their qualities; for whether or
attached friend. Stennett's works are: Discourses not the judge was acquainted with the party ap-
on Personal Religion (2 vols., 1769; 4th ed., Edin- pearing before him, he was first expected to take
burgh, 1891); Remarks on the Christian Minister's official cognizance of his identity; but because they
Reasons for Administering Baptism by Sprinkling or furnish certain interesting particulars about the
Pouring of Water (London, 1772); An Answer to the future martyr and the proconsul's state of mind. As
Christian Minister's Reasons for Baptizing Infants an example use may be made here of the dialogue be-
(1775); Discourses on the Parable of the Sower (1786). tween Tatian Dulas and the Governor Maximus, his
"
His works were collected as The Works of 8. Stennett examiner. Dulas says: My God is the true God.
. . With some Account of his Life and Writings by
. He became man, was crucified, laid in the sepulcher;
W. Jones (3 vols., 1824). His best hymns are " On he rose again the third day; he sits at the right hand
Jordan's stormy banks I stand,"
"
Majestic sweet- of the Father." Answers the governor: " Wretch,
" thou seest plainly thou hast two gods."
ness sits enthroned/' Tis finished! so the Saviour Dulas:
"
cried." Thou errest in speaking of two gods; for I adore
BIBLIOGRAPHY Besides the Life in the Works, ut sup., con-
: the Trinity." Governor: " Thou hast then three? "
Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 443-444, New
W. "
sult: S. Dulas: 1 confess and adore the Trinity. I believe
York, 1886; Julian, Hymnolow, pp. 1091-92; DNB, liv. in the Father, I confess the Son, and I adore the Holy
150.
Ghost." Astounded by these replies, to which he
STENOGRAPHY AND CHURCH HISTORY. can ascribe no meaning, Maximus then says to the
"
Stenography in Trials of Christians (ft 1).
accused: Try to explain to me how, believing in
Collections for the Acta Martyrum ({ 2). one only God, thou canst yet proclaim three? " The
Use by the Church Fathers ({ 3). record from which this passage is taken is evidently
Use in Church Councils ( 4).
Medieval and Modem Disuse (I 5).
authentic; such a series of questions and answers
could hardly be invented. The Christians would
Notarii or independent (non-official) stenographers then seek to obtain copies of the Acts of the martyrs,
were accustomed to take down the thrilling words and had to pay dear for them to the people of the
"
spoken by the early Christians in the Roman cata- officium. It being of moment," as is stated in the
combs or in their examination by the magistrates. Acts of Tarachus, Probus, and Andronicus, " to col-
Thus they performed a great service, for these lect the evidence bearing on our brethren's con-
words, circulating thereafter under cover of secrecy, fession, we have obtained for 200 denarii, from one
were instrumental toward converting those who were of the recorders named Sabastus, the right to copy
not yet Christians, in reviving the courage of the the Acts." The reading of these copies kindled the
faint, and were no less transporting to others who courage and increased the number of the believers.
were hazarding their lives that they might publicly Accordingly the Roman magistrates directed their
hear some expression of their adopted creeds. attention to the matter, and measures were more
Thus it was that Christ's teachings became spread than once taken to put an end to these secret com-
to the very ends of the Roman world. Nor was this munications. When Vincent of Saragossa was ex-
the only service rendered by stenography to the new amined, it was forbidden to commit the debates or
religion. For the Church owes to the shorthand art proceedings of the case to writing. In the history of
the preservation of the Acts of the Martyrs; both the martyrdom of Victor the Moor, a pagan magis-
those records which have been preserved intact, un- trate, who distrusted the venality of his agents, took
" "
der the form of legal examinations concluded by pains to insure that the Acts of the trial should
a verdict, and other proceedings which for want of not be distributed, or circulated abroad. "Ano-
being stenographed, or else having been distorted in linus, the proconsul, even had all the exceptores
sequel to the loss of the originals, have come down apprehended who happened to be in the palace, to
augmented by tradition, and adorned with miracles, satisfy himself that they were concealing no note,
in the shape of tales and legends. no writing. These men swore by the gods and the
The proconsular tribunals had their special re- emperor's weal that they would secrete nothing of
corders, in the guise of stenographers, who were the kind. All the papers were brought forward;
known as exceptores t who belonged to the officium, whereupon Anolinus had them burned in his presence
and reproduced the debates which ran their course by the hands of the executioner. The emperor
"
in their hearing. As officials these are highly approved this measure (L. P. and E.
i. Sten- to be distinguished from the notarii, Guenin, Hist, de la stenographic dans VantiquiM et au
ography in who had no such rank. The legal ex- moyen dge, Paris, 1908).
animations, once taken down by the
Trials of In the year 92, Clement, bishop of Rome (q.v.),
Christians, aid of shorthand notes (in a form of ordered a compilation of the first Acts of the martyrs.
syllabic abbreviation), were transcribed In 237, Bishop Anterus (q.v.) continued the work
in full, handed over to the judge, and included in of Clement. He made a careful research of the
the brief of the case at issue. The judicial archives Acts of the martyrs among compila-
(archivum proconsulis) became the depository of 2. Collec- tions of the exceptores and the notarii;
these court reports, which formed the official col- tions for which he then deposited in the custody
lection of the public records (acta publica) to which the Actt of the fourteen churches constituting
there is frequent reference by various writers, in- Martyrum. Christian Rome. In a painting of the
cluding Eusebius, Cyprian, Apollonius, and Jerome. underground cemetery of St. Calixtus,
These acts are precious not only because they give Arrenghi reports having seen Bishop Anterus repre-
the family names and Christian names of the ac- sented as being surrounded by notarii, who appear
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 78

to be handing him rolls or volumes carried in baskets. world. On the contrary, among the Christian
Prosecuted by the Prefect Maximus, Anterus paid orators, the speaker would have blushed to prepare,
with his life for the zeal he had displayed in collecting to refine in advance, the phrases of a homily. A
the materials accumulated for two centuries past by Father of the Church entered the pulpit with the
the proconsul's except/ores. His successor Fabian Gospel or the Old Testament, read a verse therefrom,
(q.v.) pursued the work with a new ardor. The and spoke as his heart and his thought inspired him.
Liber pontificalia [ed. Mommsen in MGH, Gest. pont. The notarii, taking down his words, reproduced them
Rom,, i (1898), 27] mentions that this pope reen- and spread them abroad to the four winds of heaven.
forced the seven notarii with seven subdeacons who Moreover, where would the Christian orator have
collected the Acts intact and referred them to the found time to elaborate and polish his discourses?-
deacons. He suffered martyrdom in the time of The bishops had not only to speak, as rhetoricians
Emperor Decius (q.v.). All the bishops of Home, might, but they were obliged to baptize, instruct,
for that matter, have concerned themselves with administer the Church, govern the same, contend for
compiling the Acts that were so precious to the its interests against princes or magistrates, against
Christians. In a letter to a bishop of Vienne, other and opposing churches; they had the poor
one of the second-century bishops advises the and captive to look after, and, in critical hours, to
collection thereof with no less care than the bear all the burden of persecutions. By this very
bones of the victims they describe. The Acts activity, this affluence of speaking and action alike,
of the saints, as ultimately compiled by the Bol- these men carried the palm over the rhetoricians.
landists, form fifty-six huge folios, which were While the latter, devoid of convictions, were shutting
published from 1659 to 1794 (see ACTA MARTYRUM; themselves up in their schools, and laboriously
BOLLAND, JAN, BOLLANDISTS) When finally, after
.
fashioning their periods, the often unpolished, but
300 years of struggle, the Christians witnessed Con- ever living, word of Christian priests was despoiling
stantine adopting Christianity and abjuring the old them of the world.
gods whom his defeated rival had invoked in vain, To stenography, then, and to it alone, is owing
the Church in triumph had then another part to the enormous bulk of materials, of so much use for
play; from a persecuted Church there arose a dom- the history of the Church, and, consequently, for the
inating Church, and the great men placed at its history of society, which antiquity has bequeathed
head assured to it the supremacy over civil society us in this department of preaching and spoken dis-
and over the emperors themselves. course. One may mention Tertullian (Opcru, Paris,
Christianity owed too much to the spoken word 1641), Cyprian (Opera, ed. Baluze, Paris, 1726),
"
and its inseparable adjunct, stenography, not to Athanasius, whose Discourses against the Gen-
" "
continue employing these two very powerful ele- tiles," Letters to the Bishops," Apology against
" "
ments of touching the masses with practical effect; the Arians," Exposition of the Faith," Life of St.
and the notarii, whose function has been shown as Anthony," and other works, fill four folio volumes
it existed at the outset of the struggle between the (Padua, 1778), Origen, the most prolific of either
Church and the Empire, still potently aided the sacred or profane writers, who had with him seven
Christian orators in spreading their notarii, writing incessantly under his dictation, be-
3. Use by doctrine. In particular, the Fathers sides the skilled young girls who assisted him as copy-
the Church of the Church had stenographers in ists. This was the Origen of whom Jerome could say
"
Fathers, their service, and in the most varied in his letter to Paula, Who has ever managed to
"
conditions [cf. Jerome's chance re- read all that he has written? (Letter xxix. of the
mark in Epi8t., cxvii., Eng. transl., NPNF, 2 ser., Benedictine edition, no. xxxiii. in MPL, xxii., cf.
"
vi. 220: my volubility has baffled the expedi- ANF, vi. 46); and in fact, even the slight portion
ents of shorthand "]; while other notarii, freely of his works transmitted to modern times fills no
practising their profession, took down the sermons less than fifteen octavo volumes (Wttrzburg, 1780-
of the Fathers in churches, and sold the copies to 1794). One may adduce still further Ambrose, who
the wealthy among the faithful who were prevented dictated to his stenographers day and night; and
by the condition of their health or other causes from the works of Basil, which are contained in three
coming to hear the sacred word. These great orators folio volumes (Paris, 1721-30); two folio volumes
were not wont to elaborate their works at leisure; are to be credited to Gregory Nazianzen (Benedic-
their discourses were nearly always improvised, tine edition, Paris, 1768-1840); thirteen folios to
being homilies pronounced in the church before the John Chrysostom (Benedictine edition, Paris 1718-
people; and later these discourses, being collected 1738); five huge folios to Jerome (Benedictine
together by the notarii, became books. They thus edition, Paris, 1696-1706), the sole remains of the
belong to the history of Christian preaching, and 6,000
"
volumes " which this great orator is sup-
exhibit its primitive model. A text selected from posed to have dictated according to Isidore of
the Bible and commented upon, such is the origin of Seville (the word volume in this connection is to be
all the pulpit literature of Christianity; while the taken in the sense of its antique use, whereby, for
constant themes of these informal efforts were the instance, each book of the JEneid, or of the works
contempt of riches, charity in all its forms, the fear of Homer, formed a volume). The writings of
of the Lord, the practise of household virtues (see Jerome afford an interesting study from the pro-
PREACHING, HISTORY OP). The pagan rhetoricians fessional standpoint. They discover an intensity
both shunned and disdained improvising. They of animation that strikes all who have read them.
would have refused to speak at length, without long Everywhere is perceived the man of utterance
preparation, before emperors and the great of this whose soul is diffused through his words aglow.
79 BJBLIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Stenography

The style is incorrect; certain expressions appear spread of enterprises aiming, as they directly an-
strange; the form sometimes astonishes, yet all to nounce, to publish verbatim issues of sermons, lee*
no purpose; for, to counterbalance this, everything tures, instructions, delivered in the churches of
is alive with intense animation, and all because Paris by the most celebrated preachers; and this
of "writer's cramp/' which compelled dictation; against the express wish of these preachers, against
but of this surely Jerome had no good reason to their incontestable rights, and to the prejudice of
complain, if it hindered him from writing himself. the dignity and liberty of the sacred Word. Con-
The fact is, while he improvised and dictated, his sequently, the priests undersigned, who more than
thought, flowing from his lips, was taken down by others have had to suffer from this lamentable in-
" "
the notarii and immediately translated to their dustry, avow that not only are they averse to these
notes, or from them; and yielded a work for im- reproductions, but that the same are generally in-
mortality. As touching Augustine, eleven folio vol- exact, marred, and even so deformed as to com-
umes (Benedictine edition, Paris, 1679-1700) are promise, in outward opinion, the purity of their
necessary for accommodating that part of his works orthodoxy and, to that extent, the authority of their
which has been transmitted, so voluble was he. mission. They declare, besides, that there has even
Thus, not one author of antiquity, not Aristotle been abuse of their names under cover of attributing
or even Cicero (though he, too, was indebted im- to them entire discourses which they had not de-
mensely to stenography), has left a bulk of docu- livered, but which were the work of others, or had
ments to be compared with what is supplied by been drawn from works already printed.
most of the Church Fathers; leaving out of account "
Independently of this declaration, which they be-
the appreciable qualification that what the years lieve it their duty to render public at once, the priests
have spared constitutes but a very scanty portion of undersigned reserve to themselves the right to bring
" "
those full tides of eloquence once taken down by lawful action against the authors of these counter-
the stenographers on their waxen tablets. (On the feit*, and to have recourse to that ecclesiastical
tablets cf. the work of (iiie'nin, ut sup., and La Revue authority upon which devolves the punitive control
de stenographic francaise, June, 1906.) of churches; with reference to the stoppage of these
To the shorthand art, those who concern them- unworthy abuses." E. GuiiNTN.
selves with the history of the Church are still further Considering the amount of writing which the or-
indebted for documents of another class. The de- dinary preacher has to produce during the year it
bates of most of the councils and synods, and, in is remarkable that so few employ any of the numer-

particular, those of the Synod of ous systems of short writing which are now pub-
4. Use in Carthage in the year 411 (on the lished. Many of these are very easily acquired and
Church synod of Carthage cf. L. P. and E. well adapted to his purpose. Shorthand is more in
Councils. Gunin, ut sup.; L. P. Gunin, in the use in Great Britain than in America, and still more
Proves verbaux of the 8th Inter- so in Germany. In America shorthand is rarely
national Congress of Stenography at Brussels, practised by preachers, but not a few in cities dic-
1005; and the Revue de stenographic fran$aise, May tate their correspondence and their sermons to
and September, 1906) were preserved by stenog- professional stenographers. But in the eighteenth
raphy. The synod of St. Basil, so called because in century the non-conformist clergy made extensive
the basilica by that name near Reims, which con- use of the systems which had been evolved from the
vened on June 17, 991, and pronounced the depo- primitive system called Characteric, invented by
sition of Arnulf, archbishop of Reims, was one of the Timothy Bright, a clergyman of the Church of
last, if not the last, whose proceedings were thus England, and published in 1588. The best known
taken down. The stenographer, in this instance, of the numerous writers of modifications of Bright 's
was Gerbert, who became pope under the name of system is Philip Doddridge (q.v.), who not only
Sylvester II. (q.v.). himself wrote Rich's system (1699) but made its
Along with the Latin language, the shorthand learning obligatory on all the students of his acad-
notes, or a system of syllabic writing once applied to emy (C. Stanford, Philip Doddridge, p. 78, New
Latin, become swamped in the medieval darkness York, 1881).
(cf. E. Gue*nin, Les Notes tironiennes et la stenogra-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Westby-Gibson, The Bibliography of
phic syllabique latine, Paris, 1909); nor does the Shorthand, London, 1887; F. Fauvel-Gouraud, Practical
shorthand art make its appearance again until a Cosmophonography, pp. 31 aqq., New York, 1850; R.
Fischer, Die Stenographie nach Getchichte, Wesen und
long while afterward, and then it was Bedeutung, Leipaic, 1860; M. Levy, Hist, of Shorthand
5. Medic- based upon wholly different principles, Writing, London, 1862; T. Anderson, Hist, of Shorthand,
val and
Neither, in modern times, in France London. 1882; I. Pitman, Hist, of Shorthand, London,
Modernat least, does the Church account sten- 1884; H. Moser, AUgemeine Geechichte der Stenographic,
vol. i., Lcipsic, 1889; M. Gitlbauer, Die drei System* der
Disuse. ography to be so much as a very useful griechinchen Tachygraphie, Vienna, 1894; K. Faulmann,
aid, not to say an indispensable ad- Ge&chifhtt und Litteratur der Stenograph^, Vienna, 1895;
junct. Among preachers, there are some who write J. W. Zeibig, Geschichte und Literatur der Geachwind-
their sermons and schreibkunst, new ed., Dresden, 1899; A. Cappelli, Lexi-
recite
them; others, distrusting, con abbreviaturarum qua in lapidibua, codicibu* et chartis
doubtless, their oratorical talent and maybe, too, praecrtim mediimvi occummt, Milan, 1899, Germ, transl.,
the skill of stenographers, try to avoid the repro- "
Leipaic, 1901; F. W. G. Fort, On Old Greek Tachy-
duction of what they utter. So in 1861 there was a graphy," in Journal of Hellenic Studies, jad (1901). 238-
formal protest against such reports of their discourses 267 (provides very full bibliography); A. Meister, Grand-
rias der Gcschichtewiascntchaft, chap, x., Anhang 1. pp.
made by such eminent preachers as Lacordaire and 124-127, Leipaic, 1906 nqq.; idem, Die Geheimtchnft im
De Ravignan: "More than ever do we see the ZKoutoder p&pstlichen JCurt'e, faderborn, 1906; A. Montz,
Stephen THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG 80

Geschicht* und Bvstsm* der ffriechMun Tachwraphie, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Von Poleni, Die toffcntliche Mcinuno und
Berlin, 1007. der Pastor Stephan, Dresden, 1840; Vehse, Dis Stephan'-
sche Auswanderuno nach America, ib. 1840; C. Hoch-
STBPHAN; FOUNDER OF THE ORDER OF tetter, Getchichte der Missouri Synode, ib. 1885; H. .

ORAMMONT. See GRAMMONT, OBDEB OF. Jacob*, in American Church History Series, iv. 396 eqq.,
405, New York, 1893. Scattering references will be found
STKPHAH, stefOn, MARTIN, STBPHANISTS: in much of the literature under LUTHERANS.
Lutheran, and originator of the congregation which
became the nucleus of the Lutheran Missouri Synod; STEPHEN: Christian protomartyr, and the first
b. at Stramberg (130 m. n.e. of Vienna), Moravia, named who, according to Acts vi. 5,
of the seven
Aug. 13, 1777; d. in Randolph County, Illinois, Feb. were appointed to take care of the poor and to
21, 1846. He was of humble parentage, and became "serve tables " (see DEACON, I., 1-2). That
an apprentice to a weaver. In 1798 he went to Stephen was a Hellenist is not expressly declared
Breslau, where he soon became intimate with piet- but is probable, since the trouble described would

ifltic circles, and entered the gymnasium. From best be relieved were Hellenists chosen to the office,
1804 to 1809 he studied theology at Halle and Leip- and Acts vi. 9 is thus best explained. Although
sic ina narrow way, but not without energy; and in service of the tables was the especial function of
1810 was called to a church hi Haber, Bohemia, the seven (verse 2), teaching was not excluded (verse
then was appointed pastor of the congregation of 9). The testimonies of the apostolic and poatupos-
Bohemian exiles in Dresden. He was a Lutheran tolic age show that while in early tunes both bishops
of the strictest type, and his success as a preacher and deacons received and distributed gifts for
and an organizer was extraordinary. Though he charity, the later diaconate grew out of the office
severed his connection with the Moravian Brethren, to which Stephen was elected.
and though the revival movement he started But the significance of Stephen does not lie in his
bore a decidedly separatists character, his con- connection with the seven. He is the first disciple
gregation grew rapidly, and gifted and serious whose teaching led to a conflict with Judaism: he
men became devoted to him. He maintained is the Christian protomartyr. His death was the
stations all through the valley of the Mulde, sent occasion of an outbreak of persecution which led to
out young missionaries whom he had educated, and the spread of Christianity. The report given in Acts
found followers even in Wurttemberg and Baden. vi. 1-viii. 3 is generally received as essentially his-
The separatistic tendency, however, of his work, and torical, though it contains difficulties. It is not a

perhaps, also, the very success of his labor, brought unit, the stoning and the charges being repeated
him into conflict with the regular clergy of Dresden; (vii. 58-59, vi. 11, 13-14); for Stephen's speech
and certain peculiarities in his personal habits and in either two sources or a source edited must be sup-
his arrangements finally brought him into collision posed. Was Stephen the victim of mob law or of
with the police, and he was suspended from the legal procedure? In the first case the Romans had
ministry in 1837. In the spring of 1838 the congre- a case against the people; in the second case the
gation for which he originally hud been appointed sanction of the Roman procurator was required, of
pastor formally brought accusation against him, which Acts knows nothing. It has been sought to
and in the fall he secretly left the city for Bremen, parallel the death of Stephen with that of Jesus, but
where he was joined by no less than seven hundred the parallel fails in many particulars. The charge
followers; and at the head of this congregation, against Stephen (Acts vi. 13-14) is that he as-
"
the Stephanists," he sailed for America on Nov. sailed the temple service and the law, saying that
18. Though his early ministerial life had been Jesus would destroy the Temple and alter Mosaic
and remarkable, uncommendable qualities
brilliant customs (Acts vi. 13-14) His speech sets forth that
.

now became apparent that cast a blemish upon his God's activity was not restricted to a definite place
early success and character. Before the vessel ar- or time, that Israel had always striven against God's
rived at New Orleans, he had himself elected bishop will, persecuted the prophets, disregarded God's law,
and made master of the emigration-fund; and at St. and had done with Jesus as their forefathers had
Louis, where the colony stopped for two months, he with Jesus's forerunners. Had Stephen really as-
gave himself up to a life of pleasure. A tract of land Bailed Jewish institutions, he would not have been
was finally bought at Wittenberg, Perry County, entrusted with his office as things then were.
Mo. and in Apr., 1839, the larger portion of the con-
; Stephen's proposition had as basis Isa. Ixvi. 1 note ;

gregation, and the bishop, removed thither. Hardly also Jesus's declaration in John iv. 20-24, and with
one month elapsed, however, before new accusa- Acts vi. 14 of. Mark xiv. 58, xiii. 2. The teaching of
tions came from Dresden, and, as the statements Stephen links itself with that of Jesus in its inner
made were found to be correct, he was deprived of meaning, as when Jesus assailed the externalizing
his dignity and excommunicated. But the congre- of service (Mark vii. 6 sqq.) or called the genera-
gation, after passing through various vicissitudes tion adulterous (Matt. xvi. 4) or demanded a higher
and troubles, prospered, and became the nucleus of righteousness than that of the Pharisees (Matt. v.
" "
the Missouri type of High-church Lutheranism, 20), while the Jews regarded the ideas of their times
which adheres most closely to the symbolical books, as identically Mosaic. This latter was the view of
and has its headquarters hi the Coneordia College at the Hellenistic Jews (Acts vi. 9, ix. 29, xxi.
27-28),
St. Louis (see LUTHERANS, III., 5, 1). His writings illustrated by Philo's declaration (Vita Mosis, ii. 3).
embrace Der CkrMiche Glaube (a collection of If Stephen took the view of Jesus, to the Hellenists
sermons, Dresden, 1825); Herzlicher Zuruf an dUe the charge would seem correct, he would seem to be
tvangefochen Christen (1825) and Oaben /Or wiwre
; <4>Mfltr>g the customs left by Moses.
(Nuremberg; 1334). Since Schneckenburger the teaching of Stephen
61 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Stephen
Stephen

and that of the letter of Barnabas have been re- turica,had been deposed as being libellatici (sec
garded as related, seeming (wrongly) to point to LAPSI), a certain Sabinus was elected bishop of
"
pofltapostolic times. The epithet uncircumcised But the deposed bishops appealed to
of Emerita.
"
in heart and ears goes back upon prophetic ex- Stephen, and he fell back upon the principle ad-
pression, though a spiritualizing of circumcision is
1
vanced by Calixtus that a bishop can not be deprived
excluded by Acts vii. 8. Moses law is to Stephen of office, and would not acknowledge their deposition.
" "
lively oracles because Stephen saw in Moses the He does not seem to have carried his point, however,
complete antetype of Jesus, who expressed the full for the Spaniards asked the advice of African Chris-
content of what Hebrews had possessed since Moses. tians who confirmed the Spaniards in their position.
In Barnabas Judaism is mere externalism, which is Stephen was involved in dispute also with Cyprian of
opposed to Christianity as the free religion of the Carthage (q.v.) on the question of the baptism of her-
Spirit. The representation of Barnabas is totally etics. Cyprian argued against the pope that convert-
different from that of Stephen, especially in the ed heretics should be rebaptized, which Stephen
significance given to Moses. Similarly in Heb. iii. regarded as an offense against the tradition of the
5-6 the religion of the Old Testament is the incom- Roman church, which was based on Peter and Paul
plete antetype of that of the New, Moses being the (see HERETIC BAPTISM, 1). While Stephen did not
servant, Christ the Son. While the representation claim the position of bishop over the whole church,
of Stephen reminds also of Philo, no connection be- whose decisions were to be obeyed everywhere, as the
tween Philo and Stephen is to be traced. successor of Peter he claimed to act as the represent-
Acts pictures Stephen as the forerunner of Paul, ative of the Roman tradition and required uncon-
and as such many still regard him, although it is true ditional obedience to it. (A. HAUCK.)
only in a limited sense. In Christianity Stephen saw BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: Liber pontificalia, ed. Momm-
the divine revelation of the Old Testament; Paul, sen in MQH, Oest. pont. Rom., i (1898), 33; Cyprian, Epist.,
a new religion in contrast with it. Stephen saw in Ixvi., Ixxi (Ixviii., Ixxii.; Eng. transl. in ANF, v. 367-

the law the living divine word; Paul, a mediating 369, 378-379); Eusebius, Hist, eccl., VIII., ii. sqq., Eng.
transl. in NPNF, 2 scr., i. 293 aqq.; Jaff6, RegeMa, i. 20.
instrument which could not give life (Gal. iii. 17-21). Consult further: J. Ernst, Papst Stephen /. und der Ket-
The mission to the Gentiles was not within Stephen's zertaufstreit, Maini, 1905; J. Langen, Gcschichte der romi-
schen Kirchc, i. 313, Gotha, 1881; Harnack, Litteratur, i.
ken; for Paul this was the essence of his apostolic
410, 425, 656, ii. 2, pp. 62, 348, 356 sqq. et passim; idem,
call. Yet the persecutors of Stephen rightly felt
Dogma, ii. 87 sqq., et passim; Bower, Popes, i. 30-34;
that there was in his stand danger to the exclusive- Platina, Popes, i. 52-53; Milman, Latin Christianity, i.
ness and absoluteness of the revelation to Israel, and 88-90; DCB, iv. 727-730 (valuable); and the literature
the persecuting zeal of the Pharisaic Saul had justi- under HERETIC BAPTISM.
fication therein. It is notable that against Paul Stephen II.: Pope 752-757. The policy of
practically the same charge was brought as against Stephen was conditioned by the relation of Rome to
Stephen (cf. Acts vi. 13 withxxi. 28). The Church the Lombards. After Gregory III. had sought in
early began to celebrate St. Stephen's day, in general vain the aid of Charles Martel against Lorabardic
on Dec. 26, though in some places on Jan. 7. The aggression, Pope Zacharias had both maintained
legends regarding him are collected in Tillemont, peace with his dangerous neighbors and had gained
Mfmoirea (vol. ii., Paris, 1701). (P. FEINE.) the objects of the papal policy without foreign aid.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature on the Acts (given under But his death seemed to the Lombards the oppor-
Luke) in the shape of commentaries and introductions tune moment to realize their steady aim, the in-
discusses the literary and other features of the narrative;
while works on the Apostolic Age discuss the history.
corporation under their rule of the remainders of
Consult: F. Nitwch, in TSK, 1860, pp. 479-602; F. C.
Greek dominion in Italy (see PAPAL STATES).
Baur, Pauius, i. 30-62, Tubingen, 1866; W. J. Conybeare Stephen sent an embassy to King Aistulf in order to
and J. S. Howson, Life, Times and Travels of St. Paul, i. obtain the maintenance of peace, but Aistulf sum-
66-77, New York, 1869; E. Zeller, Contents and Origin of
A<*n, i. 237-246, ii. 175-176, London, 1875; F. W. Farrar,
marily rejected all overtures and seems to have
Life and Work of St. Paul, chap. viii. 2 vols., London,
t
doubted (possibly with reason) the pope's good faith.
1879 and often; W. Schmidt, Bericht der Aposteloeschichte Stephen, therefore, in 753, after failing in obtaining
uber Stephanus (Programm), 1882; A. Sabatier. The Apos-
help from Constantinople, sought the aid of the
tle Paul, pp. 39-46, London, 1891; K. Schmidt, Beweis
des Glaubens, 1892, pp. 69-86; J. Weiss, in TSK, 1893.
Franks. Pippin was inclined to grant the requests
pp. 489-501; C. von Weisacker, The Apostolic Age, i. 62- of the pope, seeing that he owed much of his power
71, New York and London, 1894; A. Hilgenfeld, in ZWT, to the spiritual authority of Peter's successor. At
1895, pp. 384-412; A. C. McQiffert, Apostolic Age, pp. a personal meeting with the pope in Jan., 754, after
78-93, New
York, 1897; W. M. Ramsay, St. Paul the
Traveller, pp. 372-377. London, 1897; Kranichfeld, in
considerable negotiation through embassies, Pippin
TSK, 1900, pp. 541-562; B. W. Bacon, in Biblical and agreed to conquer the exarchate of Ravenna and to
Semitic Studies, pp. 211-276, New Haven, 1902; O. Pflei- deliver to the pope these territories, and to force
derer, Das Urchristentum, 3d ed., Berlin, 1902, Eng. transl.,
Primitive Christianity, New York, 1906: R. Schumacher, Aistulf to renounce claim to dominion over Rome.
Der Diakon Stephanus, Mflnster, 1910; Soltau, in ZNTW, The pope himself spoke of placing the Roman
1903, pp. 142-150; Tillemont, Memoires, ii (1701), 1-23; church and the Roman people under the protection
KL. xi. 771-774; DB, iv. 613-615; EB, iv. 4787-^97.
of the Prankish king.
STEPHEN, stt'vn: The name
of nine popes. Stephen remained during the winter in St. Denis,

Stephen L: Pope May 254- Aug. 257. He was and Pippin began to fulfil his promises by sending an
intent upon the elevation of the position of the bish- embassy to Aistulf requesting him to comply with
ops in general and of his own position as bishop of the Roman demands, but in vain. At the Prankish
Rome in particular. After certain Spanish bishops, assemblies of Bernaco (Braisne near Soissons or
Basilides of Emerita and Martialis of Legio and As- Berny-Riviere in Aisne) and Carisiacus (Quierzy
XL-6
Stephen THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

near Laon) in 754 the league between the king and by birth; under Gregory III. he came to Rome
the pope was ratified by the nobles, and it was where he entered the monastery of St. Chrysogonus.
decided to send an army against the Lombards. Pope Zacharias took him into his service and con-
The pope showed his gratitude by anointing on July secrated him presbyter of St. Cecilia; he had close
28, 764, in St. Denis Pippin and his two sons kings relations also with Stephen II. and especially with
and patricians of Rome and binding the Franks Paul I. This explains his election by the opponents
under menace of ban and interdict never to elect a of Constantino II., which signified the intention to
king except from the house of Pippin. Before the adhere to the Frankish alliance. The first care of
outbreak of the war Aistulf made an attempt to Stephen was the entire removal of his predecessor.
separate Pippin from Stephen, and for this purpose Therefore he asked Pippin und his sons to send some
in the spring of 754 sent the monk Karlmann, bishops versed in Scripture and canon law to Rome,
brother of Pippin, who since 747 had lived in Italy, so that Constantino might be condemned at a synod
across the Alps to remind the king of the solidarity in their presence. When the pupal legate arrived
of the Frankish and Lombardic interests. Karl- Pippin was already dead, but his two sons met the
mann met his brother in Quierzy, but he came too desire of the new pope; the intended synod was held
late. Pippin put his brother into a monastery at Apr. 12-14, 769, in the Lateran basilica in the pres-
Vienne, where he soon afterward died. All en- ence of twelve Frankish bishops. The most impor-
treaties of Pippin and Stephen by other embassies tant work of the synod was not the deposition of
to yield peacefully were disregarded by Aistulf, for Constantine, but the regulations concerning election
the incorporation of Rome and Ravenna was a vital of popes, which was put into the hands of the clergy,
question for the Lombardic kingdom. Here the the share of laymen being restricted to acclamation
sword had to decide and the decision favored the after the election and to the signature of the proto-
Franks. In the autumn of 754 Aistulf was forced col of election. The third matter discussed at the
to make peace; he promised indemnification to the synod referred to the veneration of images, which
Roman church and the surrender of Ravenna and a was confirmed in opposition to the Greeks (see
number of other cities between the mountains and IMAGES AND IMAGE WORSHIP, II., 3).
the Adriatic Sea. Stephen returned to Rome vic- Stephen appears but a tool of the party which
torious; but the joy of victory was short-lived. elected him, unable to stop the bloodshed of the
Aistulf broke his promises, and in the winter of period. The difficulties of Stephen's position arose
755-756 marched against Rome and besieged the from his relations with the Lombards. The Roman
pope. In order to maintain the results of the first leaders Christophorus and Sergius had overthrown
war of the Lombards, Pippin had to undertake a Constantine with the aid of the Lombards; but it
second campaign. He was again victorious; Aistulf immediately appeared that their interests and
now surrendered Ravenna and twenty other cities to those of the Lombards were not identical The two
Stephen with a deed of donation, while Rome came party leaders now openly opposed the Lombards
to be regarded as a province of the Frankish king- and became the spokesmen of the demands of the
dom. The death of Aistulf (Dec., 756) delivered Church. But Stephen perceived that the Roman
Stephen from apprehension; he lived to see the and Lombardic powers were too unernial for him
enthronement of the Frankish prote'gc' Desiderius to venture on a rupture, unless he could oppose
(Mar., 757), and died Apr. 27, 757. (A. HAUCK.) Desiderius with a superior ally. Thus ho turned to
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: Liber pontificalia, ed. L. the Franks. Soon after the Lateran synod he ad-
Duchesne, i.440, Paris, 1886; the continuation of Frede- dressed a letter to Charles and Carloman in which
gar's Chronicon, ed. B. Krusch, in MGH, Script, rer. he asked their assistance in his attempt to enforce
Merov., ii (1888), 168-193; Jaffe, Regesta, i 271-272;
Ada regum et imperatorum Karolinorum, ed. T. Sickel, the still unsatisfied claims of St. Peter from King
ii. 380-381, Vienna, 1868; the Epistolce in Bouquet, Re- Desiderius. But Stephen saw that his design had
cueil, vol. v.; the Epistolae et decreta, in MPL, vol. Ixxxix. little chance of being carried out. Since the death of
Consult further: A. von Reumout, Geschichte der Stadt
Rom, ii. 113 sqq., Berlin, 1867; R. Baxmann, Die Politik Pippin the government of the Frankish empire had
der Pfipste, i. 233 aqq., Elberfeld, 1868; P. Genelin, Die lacked unity, the relations between Charles and
Schenkungsversprechen und die Schenkung Pippins, Vienna, Carloman being strained; moreover, since Charles
1880; H. Thelen, Die Losung der Streitfrage uber die Ver- had married Desiderata, the daughter of the Lom-
handlungen Pippins mit Sttphan II., Oberhausen, 1881;
W. Martens, Die rumische Frage unter Pippin und Karl bard king, the Lombardic and Frankish relations had
dem Grossen, pp. 6 sqq., Htuttgart, 1881 ; idom, Neue Erdr- improved and the policy of the Franks had changed.
terungen zur rvmischen Frage, ib. 1882; idem, Bdeuchtung In the winter of 770-771 the pope came to an agree-
der neuesten Kontroveraen, Munich, 1898; Hirach, Die
Schenkungen Pippins und Karls des Grossen, Berlin, 1882;
ment with Desiderius. Desiderius demanded the
J. Langen, Geschichte der romwchen Kirche, ii. 649 sqq., overthrow of the leaders of the anti-Lombardic
Bonn, 1885; K. Laraprecht, Die romiache Frage, Leipsic, party, while he himself made concessions toward
1889; F. QregoroviuB, Hist, of the City of Rome, ii. 272-
satisfying the Roman demands. Christophorus
304, London, 1894; G. Hchnurer, Die Entatehung des
Kirchenstoots, Cologne, 1894; T. Lindner, Die aogenannten
and Sergius took up arms for their defense; but
Schenkungen Pippins .... Stuttgart. 1896; J. A. Ket- their resistance was unavailing, and Stephen was
terer, Karl der Grosse und die Kirche, Munich, 1898; H.
compelled to sacrifice to his foes the men to whom
Lilienfein, Die Anachauungen von Stoat und Kirche, pp. 8
he owed his position. In consequence of the over-
sqq.; Heidelberg, 1902; Hauck, KD, ii. 17 sqq,; Bower,
Popea, ii. 90-108; Platina, Pope*., i. 189-192; Milman, throw of the leaders of the Frankish party in Rome
Latin Christianity, ii. 417-424; DCS, iv. 730-735. The the guidance of the papal policy fell into the hands
literature under PAPAL STATES is of primary importance
of Lombard partizans. Desiderius broke his
here.
promises; yet the pope was unable to extract any
Stephen HL: Pope 768-772. He was a Sicilian advantage from the breach between Franks and
88 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Stephen

Lombards which occurred in 770. Stephen died Consult further: A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt
(A. HAUCK.) Rom, ii. 218 sqq., Berlin, 1868; R. Baxmann, Die Politik
Sept. 24, 772. der Papste, ii. 62 sqq., Elberfeld, 1869; E. Dttmmler, Ge-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: SOUTOM are: Liber pontificalia, ed. L. schichte des ostjranJnschen Reiches, m. 248 sqq.,
the Epistolm in Bouquet, Leipsic
Duohetne, i. 468, Parts, 1886; 1888; H. Dopffel, Kaisertum und Papstwechsel, pp. 152-
Recueil, vol. v., in MPO, vol. xoviii., and in J. Gretser,
153, Freiburg. 1889; J. Langen, Geschichte der rfmischen
Volumen epistolarum, Optra, vol. vi., 17 vole., Regens-
Kirche, iii. 280 sqq., Bonn, 1892; F. Gregorovius, Hist, of
burg, 1734-40; Einhard's Vila Karoli Magni, in MGH, the City of Rome, iii. 208-215, London,
Jaffe, Regesta, i. 285. Con- 1895; Bower,
Script., ii (1829), 443-463;
Popes, ii. 294-296; Platina, Popes, i. 235-236; Milman,
sult further: A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, Latin Christianity, iii. 105; Mann, Popes, vi. 367-402 et
ii. 121 aqq., Berlin, 1868; R. Baxmann, Die Politik der
passim.
Papste, i. 262 sqq., Elberfeld, 1868; 8. Abel, Jahrbucher
des frankischen Reiches unter Karl dem Grossen, ed. B. Stephen VI.: Pope 896-897. After the death of
Simoon, pp. 61 sqq., Leipsic, 1888; H. Dopffel, Kaisertum
und Papstwechsel, pp. 15 sqq., Freiburg, 1889; F. Grego- Formosus, who had crowned Arnulf emperor, the
faction of Spoleto elected a pope of their own
rovius, Hist, of the City of Rome, ii. 327-343, London, 1894; party,
L. Duchesne, in Revue d'hist. et de literature religieuses, Stephen VI., the short pontificate of Boniface VI.
1896, pp. 238 sqq.; J. A. Ketterer, Karl der Grosse und alone intervening. Stephen's consecration took
die Kirche, pp. 19 sqq., Munich, 1898; Hefele, Concilien-
ffeechichte, iii. 433 sqq., Fr. transl., iii. 2, pp. 727 sqq.,
place probably in May, 896. lie was one of the most
Eng. transl., v. 331 sqq.; Mansi, Concilia, v. 680 sqq.; violent opponents of Formosus. His short pontifi-
Bower, Popes, ii. 114-125; Platina, Popes, i. 194-198; cate is disgraced by his unheard-of judgment upon
Milman, Latin Christianity, ii. 433-439; DCS, iv. 735- Formosus after his death The
738; and the literature under CHARLKHAGNE.
(see FOUMOSUS).
horror aroused by this outrage led to a sudden up^
Stephen IV. : Pope 816-817. He was a Roman rising of the people (July, 897) on which occasion
and of noble birth. Like that of his predecessors, Stephen was murdered. (A. HAUCK.)
his policy involved agreement with the Franks; BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: Liber pontificalia, ed. L.
Duchesne, ii., pp. xviii., 229, Paris, 1892; Jaffe, Regesta, i.
consequently after his election he induced the Ro- 439; J. M. Watterich, Pontificum Romanorum
mans to swear obedience to Louis the Pious, whom vitas, i.
. . .

35 sqq., Leipsic, 1862; the Epistol CE, in Bouquet, Recueil,

in Oct., 816, he crowned emperor at Reims. On this vol. ix.; and the Epistolas et privilegia in MPL, vol. cxxix.
occasion the alliance between the pope and the Consult further: Mann, Popes, vii. 76 sqq E. DUmmler,
;

Auzilius und Vulgarius, pp. 10 sqq., Leipsic, 18Q6; idem,

Frankish rulers was renewed. In Nov. he returned
Geschichte des out frankischen Reiches, iii. 426, ib. 1888;
to Italy and died Jan. 24, or 25, 817. A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, ii. 224, Berlin,
(A. HAUCK.) 1868; R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Papste, ii. 70, Elber-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: Liber pontificalia, ed. L. feld, 1869; H. Dopffel, Kaisertum und Papstwechsel, p.
157, Freiburg, 1889; J. Langon, Geschichte der romischen
Duohesne, ii. 49, Pahs, 1892; Jaffe, Regesta, i. 316; J.
Gretser, Volumen epistolarum, in Opera, vol. vi., 17 vols., Kirche, iii. 303, Bonn, 1892; F. Grogorovius, Hist, of the
City of Rome, iii. 225-229, London, 1895; Bower, Popes,
Regensburg, 1734-40; and the Vita of Louis the Pious,
in MGH, Script., ii (1829), 585 sqq. Consult further: ii. 300; Platina, Popes, i. 237-239; Milman, Latin Chris-
R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Pap ate, i. 328, Elberfeld, 1868; tianity, iii. 110-111.
J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen Kirche, ii. 797, Bonn,
Stephen VII.: Tope 929-931. His pontificate
1885; B. Simson, Jahrbucher des frankischen Reiches, i.
66, Leipaic, 1874; H. Dopffol, Kaisertum und Papst- fellduring the time when Theodora and Marozia
wechael, i. 45, Freiburg, 1889; F. Gregorovius, Hist, of ruled in Rome. The pope vanished so completely
the City of Rome, iii. 33-45, London, 1895; Bower, Popea,
into the background beside his ambitious mistresses
ii. 192-193; Platina, Popes, i. 209-210; Milman, Latin
that information concerning him is very scanty.
Christianity, ii. 518-519; Mann, Popes, v. 111-121.
(\. HAUCK.)
Stephen V. : Pope 885-891. This pope lived in a BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liber pontificalia, ed. L. Duchesnc, ii. 242,
period of decline of the Roman bishopric. In the Paris, 1892; J. M. Watterich, Pontificum Romanorum
vitas, i. 33. Leipaic, 1862, Jaffe, Regesta, i. 453;
negotiations with Emperor Basil and his son Leo
. . .

A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, ii. 231, Berlin,

VI. concerning Photius he adhered to the Roman
1868; R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Papste, ii. 90, Elber-
standpoint; not to him, however, but to Emperor feld, 1869; J. Langen, Geschichte der rftmischen Kirche,
Leo was it due that the decision of Rome was finally iii. 333, Bonn, 1892; F. Gregorovius, Hist, of the City of
Rome, iii. 282, London, 1895; Bower, Popes, ii. 311;
acknowledged. In the policy toward the newly Platina, Popes, i. 247-248; Mann, Popes, viii. 189-190.
founded Slavonic church he followed his predeces-
sors, aiming on the one side to preserve the connec- Stephen VIII.: Pope 939-942. His pontificate
tion of that church with Rome, on the other side was coincident with the rule of Alberich. the son of
to concede to it only a small measure of in- Marozia, as prince and senator of the Romans in
dependence. But in the relations to the Occident Rome; and his importance was small compared
he was powerless. The decline of the empire under with that of the energetic Alberich, who regarded
Charles the Fat had an immediate influence upon Rome as his property. But before foreign powers
the papacy and the Church. After the deposition of Stephen upheld the claims of the papacy, threaten-
Charles in Nov., 887, began the period of the less ing France and Burgundy with the ban unless they
powerful rulers, on whom the popes became more acknowledged Louis d'Outremer as king, which they
and more dependent. Stephen died on Sept. 14, were forced to do. (A. HAUCK.)
891, having previously crowned one of these kings, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liber pontificalia, ed. L. Duchesne, ii. 244,
Paris, 1892; Jaffa, Regesta, i. 457; J. M. Watterich, Pon-
Guido of Spoleto, emperor, Feb. 21, 891.
tificum Romanorum vitat, i. 34, Leipsic, 1862; A. von
. . .

(A. HAUCK.) Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, ii. 233, Berlin, 1868;
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: Liber pontificalia, ed. L. R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Papste, ii. 93. Elberfeld, 1K69;
Duohesne, ii. 191, Paris, 1892; fragments of document*, J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen Kirche,iii. 333, Bonn,

ed. P. Ewald, in NA, v. 399; Jaffe, Regesta, i. 427; J. M. 1892; F. Oregorovius, Hist, of the City of Rome, iii 317.
Watterioh, Romanorwn pontificum vita, i. 83, Leip-
. . . London, 1895; Mann, Popes, ix. 209, 212 sqq., 232; Bower,
tio, 1862; and *be
Efittolm in Bouquet, Recueil, vol. ix |
Popes, ii. 313-3)4; Platina, Popes, i. 249-250.
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 84

Stephen IX. (Fr&teric of Lorraine): Pope 1057- Sufis,derived their most fruitful concepts from the
1058. He was one of the three sons of Duke Gozelo Syrian mystic, Stephen bar ?udhaOe. E. NESTLE.
of Lorraine. He was educated at Li6ge, and be- Bzauoo&ApBr: Older literature and wmroei are: Abul-
came archdeacon at the church of St. Lambert. faraj (Barhebneus), Hist, eccl., i. 221; J. 8. Assemanl,
Leo IX. induced him in 1049 to go to Rome, where Bibliotheca orientalis. i. 303, ii. 30-33, 290; J. Abbelooa,
De vita et scripti* S. Jacob* Bathnarwn Saruyi episcopi,
he became cardinal deacon, and in 1051 chancellor Louvatn, 1867. Consult further: A. L. Frothingham, On
and librarian; in 1054 he was a member of an em- the Book of Hierotheus by a Syrian Mystic of the 6th Cen-
bassy to Constantinople, returning after the death of tury, in' Proceedings of the American Oriental Society, 1884,
Leo and retiring into the monastery of Monte Cassino pp. x.-xiii.; idem, Stephen bar Sudaili, the Syrian Mystic
and the Book of Hierotheus, Leyden, 1886 (of. Loofs in
(1055), the abbot of which he became two years Theolooische Literaturzeitung, 1884, pp. 654-555, and
"
later. In the same year (1057) Victor II. died, and Bathgen in the same, 1887, no. 10) V. Ryssel, Das Buch
;

Frldlric was elected in his place. Since the election des Hierotheus," in ZKO, x (1887), 156-158; A. Merx,
Die Idee und Orundlegung einer aUgemeinen Geschichte der
occurred without understanding with the widow of
Mystik, Heidelberg, 1803; W. Wright, A Short Hist, of
Henry III., it implied an open violation of the im- Syriac Literature, pp. 76-77, London, 1894; R. Duval,
perial rights; at the same time it showed that, the re- La Literature syriaque, pp. 358-360, 438, Paris, 1899;
form party considered it the right time to abolish im- C. Brockelmann, in Litteratur des Ostens, vii. 2 (1907), 28.

perial control over the papacy. If this was the aim, STEPHEN DE BORBONE (DE VELLAVILLA):
there could have been found no more suitable person Dominican author; b. at Belleville (24 m. n. of
than Fre"de>ic for the papal chair, since his brother
Lyons) 1190; d. at Lyons c. 1261. He studied
c.
Duke Godfrey, as husband of Marchioness Beatrix at the cathedral school in Mucon and at Paris. In
of Tuscany, possessed the chief power in Italy. But
1223 he was in Lyons among the Dominicans whose
an immediate rupture with the empire was avoided. first settlement he had witnessed in Paris. He was
The activity of Stephen was directed in the first zealous in his attempt to convert heretics; in Ve"ze-
place to the enforcement of the law of celibacy; but
lay (Yonne) he preached the crusade against the
more important for the future was his attitude to-
Albigenses; about 1235 he labored in the diocese of
ward the Patarenes of Milan. By not merely toler- Valence in Dauphin^ to convert the Waldenses (q.v.)
ating,but even approving, revolutionary procedures, and soon afterward was entrusted with the conduct
he formed the union between the papacy and the of Inquisition against them. The last years of his life
democrats of Upper Italy which was so successful he devoted to the book which made him famous,
for both parties. He died at Florence Mar. 29,
* Tractatu8 de diverxia materiis prccdicabililmx, ordina-
1058. (A. HAUCK.) tis et distinclis in septem paries secandum scptem
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liber pontificalia, ed. L. Duoheane, ii. 278, dona Spiriius Sancti. It was primarily intended to
334, 356, Paris, 1892; Jaff6, Regesta, i. 553 sqq.; J. M.
be used in the preparation of sermons, and was a
Watterich, Pontificum Romanorum . . . vitce, i. 188 sqq.,
Loipsic, 1862; A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, compilation of anecdotes, illustrations, incidents,
ii. 351, Berlin, 1868; K. Baxmann, Die Politik der Papstc, and the like, taken in part from previous compila-
ii. 262, Elberfeld, 1869; J. Wattendorff, Pap* Stephan tions, in part derived from contemporaneous events
IX., Padcrborn, 1883; G. Meyer von Knonau, Jahrb ticker
des deulachfn Retches unter Heinrich IV. und Heinrich V.,
in his own official life. It is of historical value as a
i. 30 sqq., Leipsic, 1890; J. Langen. Gesehichte der r/rnii- source of knowledge of the thirteenth century.
schen Kirche, iii. 494, Bonn, 1802; F. Gregoroviua, Hist, (FERDINAND COHRS.)
of the City of Rome, iv. 70-111, London, 1896; Mann,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Qutif and J. Echard, Srriptores ordinis
Popes, x. 381 sqq.; Bower, Popes, ii. 363-365; Platina,
prcfdicatorum, i. 174 sqq., Paris, 1719; Hist, litttraire de
Popes, i. 276-277; Mil man, Latin Christianity, iii. 279-
la France, xix. 27 sqq.; A. Locoy de la Marchc, La Chaire
294; Hauck, KD, iii. 669 sqq.; Hefele. ConcHiengeschichte,
iv. 791. francaise au moyen-dge, pp. 106 sqq., ih. 1868, idem, Anec-
dotes historiques, leoendcs et apologues, tires du rerun! in-
fdit d'Stienne de Bourbon, ib. 1877; B. Haurfau, in Jour-
STEPHEN BAR gUDHAILE (gUD(H)AILI or nal des savants, 1881, pp. 591 sqq., 739 sqq.; K. Muller,
SUDAILI): Syrian mystic of the sixth century. Die Waldenser und ihre einzelnen Gruppen, Gotha, 1866;
He lived for a time in Egypt as the pupil of one John KL, 3d. 76fr-767.
the Egyptian, and later resided at Edessa and STEPHEN HARDING. See HARDING, STEPHEN.
finally at Jerusalem. He was a contemporary of
Jacob of Sarug (q.v.), who addressed a letter to him, STEPHEN OF TOURNAI: Canonist; b. at
while Philoxenus (q.v.) wrote certain priests of Orleans shortly before 1130; d. at Tournai in Sept.,
Edessa concerning him. He is said to have taught 1203. He received his first instruction in his native
that the punishments of hell were finite, and that city, and entered the chapter of St. Evurtius of the
baptism and the Eucharist were superfluous. He Congregation at St. Victor. He must have been
receives a special anathema in the creed of Philox- canon and cantor as early as 1 1 52. He then received
enus and in the Jacobite ordination liturgy. Ac- permission to complete his studies in Bologna,
cording to Barhebraeus, Stephen was the author of where he heard Bulgarus on civil law and Rufinus on
"
a work On the Hidden Mysteries of God/' which canon law. In 1167 Stephen became abbot of St.
was ascribed to Hierotheus, a disciple of St. Paul Evurtius, and ten years later abbot of St. Genevieve
(MSS. in the British Museum and Bibliotheque in Paris, belonging to the Congregation of St. Victor.
Nationale, and at Berlin; the British Museum MS., In 1192 he was elected bishop of Tournai. The
cod. Rich. 7180, is evidently the very one used by work, completed about 1160, that made his name
Barhebreeus). The exact relation of the work to famous, was his Summa on the Decretum Gratiani.
Dionysius the Areopagite (q.v.) is not yet entirely It had an important influence upon ecclesiastical
clear. It is held by A. Merx that not only the medie- and canon law in the Middle Ages,
jurisdiction
val mystics of the West, but also the Mohammedan Stephen was a gifted and enthusiastic preacher,
86 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Stephen
Stephen*

though his sermons betray the exaggerated rhetoric taking could not save him from the censure and
of his time. (FERDINAND COHRS.) ceaseless opposition of the divines, and in 1550, to
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A selection of the Opera was published by escape the violence of his persecutors, he emigrated
C.du Molinet, Paris, 1679, whence, with a supplement, it
" " to Geneva. With his title of " royal typographer "
was reproduced in MPL, ccxi. 295-562. His Letters
were first published by J. B. Masson, Paris, 161 1 then were
Robert made the Paris establishment famous by his
;

taken into the MPL, ut sup.; forty of them are in Bouquet, numerous editions of grammatical works and other
Recucil. xix. 282-306; and a new ed. was issued by J. school-books (among them many of Melanchthon's),
Deeilvc, Lettres d'Etienne de Tournai, Valenciennes, 1893. and of old authors, as Dio Cassius, Eusebius, Cicero,
Consult: F. Maassen, Beitrdge zur Oeschichte der jurutischen
Litteratur de* AfittelaUers, Vienna, 1857; J. F. von Scbulte, Sallust, Caesar, Justin. Many of these, especially
Qeachichie der Qudltn und Litteratur de* kanonitchen Rechts, the Greek editions, were famous for their typograph-
i. 133 sqq., Stuttgart, 1875; L. Bourgain, La Chaire fran- ical elegance. In 1532 he published the remark-
ta\*e an xii, neclc, Paris, 1879; H. Denifle, Chart \darium
able Thesaurus lingua latina, and twice he pub-
univerniatis Paririenria, i. 12 et passim, Paris, 1889; Archiv
/0r kotholiaches Kirchenrecht, Ixvi (1891), 460; Deutache lished the Hebrew Bible entire in 153'J^4, thirteen
ZeiUchrift ftr Kirchenrecht, III., i (1892), 252 sqq.; KL, xi. parts, in four volumes, and 1544-46 in seventeen
770-771. Both of these editions are rare. Of more
parts.
STEPHENS, ESTIENNE, STEPHANUS: The importance are his four editions of the Greek New
name of a distinguished Parisian family of printers, Testament, 1546, 1549, 1550, and 1551, the last in
which did most brilliant service in the interest of Geneva. The first two are among the neatest Greek
literature, and by their publications promoted the texts known, and are called O mirificam; the third
cause of the Reformation. is a splendid masterpiece of typographical skill, and
1. Henry, the first printer of this name, had an is known as the Editio regia; the edition of 1551 con-

establishment of his own in Paris from 1503 to 1520. tains the Latin translation of Erasmus and the Vul-
He was on friendly terms with some of the most gate, is not nearly as fine as the other three, and is
learned men of the day, Bude", Bric.onnet, and Faber exceedingly rare. It was in this edition that the
Stapulensis (q.v.), and had among his proof-readers versicular division of the New Testament was for the
Bcatuu Khcnanus. Among his publications were firsttime introduced (see BIBLE TKXT, II., 2, 2,
Faber's editions of Aristotle, the Paalterium quin- III., 3). A number of editions of the Vulgate also
cuplex, and his commentary on the Pauline Epistles. appeared from his presses, of which the principal
Henry left three sons, Franc, ois, Robert, and Charles. are those of 1528, 1532, 1540 (one of the ornaments
Francois published a number of works (1537-47) of his press), and 1546. The text of the Vulgate
which had no bearing upon theology. His few im- was in a wretched condition, and Stephens'^ editions,
pressions, chiefly issues of the classics, were all in especially that of 1545, containing a new translation
Latin except Psaltmum and a IJorce Virginia in at the side of the Vulgate, was the subject of sharp
Greek. Charles studied medicine, wrote some works and acrimonious criticism from the clergy. On his
on natural history, and gained an honorable position arrival at Geneva, he published a defense against the
both as scholar and as author. In 1551 he assumed attacks of the Sorbonne. He issued the French
control of the Paris printing establishment, on Bible in 1553, and many of Calvin's writings; the
Robert's departure to Geneva, and printed a num- finest edition of the Institutio being that of 1553.
"
ber of works till 1561, using the title royal typog- His fine edition of the Latin Bible with glosses
"
rapher (typography* regius). One of his works that (1556) contained the translation of the Old Testa-
long remained an authority was a Dictionarium ment by Santes Pagninus, and the first edition of
Latino-Gallicum, 1552. He published a number of Beza's translation of the New Testament.
smaller editions of Hebrew texts and targums, which Three of Robert's sons, Henry, Robert, and
were edited by J. Mcrcier. Frangois, became celebrated as printers. Francois,
2. Robert, the second son of Henry, and the the second (b. in 1540), printed on his own account
founder of the splendid reputation which the name in Geneva from 1562-82, issuing a number of
of Stephens still enjoys, was born in Paris, 1503, editions of the Bible in Latin and French, and some
and died in Geneva Sept. 7, 1550. He early became of Cal vin 's works. P'rench writers iclerit ify him with
acquainted with the ancient languages, and entered a printer by the name of Estienne in Normandy,
the printing-establishment of Simon de Colines, who whither he is supposed to have emigrated in 1582.
married his mother upon his father's death. He Robert, the second (b. in 1530; d. in 1570), began
corrected the edition of the Latin New Testament of to print in Paris on his own account in 1556, and in
1523. This work was the first occasion of the endless 1563 received the title of Typographus regius; his
charges and criminations of the clerical party, presses were busily employed in issuing civil docu-
especially the theological faculty of the Sorbonne, ments. He held to the Roman Catholic faith and
against him. In 1524 he became proprietor of the thus won the support of Charles IX., and by 1563
press of his father. In 1539 he adopted as his devices appears to have fully reconstituted his father's es-
an olive branch around which a serpent was twined, tablishment in Paris. His edition of the New Tes-
and a man standing under an olive-tree, with grafts tament of 1568-69 a reprint of his father's first
from which wild branches were falling to the ground, edition,and equal to it in elegance of execution, is
with the words of Rom. xi. 20, Noli attum tapere, now exceedingly rare.
scd time, " Be not high-minded, but fear." The 8. Henry, the second, the eldest son of the great
latter was called the olive of the Stephens family. Robert, and without doubt the most distinguished
In 1539 he received the distinguishing title of member of the family, was born in Paris, 1528, and
" died at Lyons March, 1598. He displayed hi his
Printer in Greek to the king." But the official
recognition and the crown's approval to his under- youth a genuine enthusiasm for Greek and Latin;
Stephen! THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 86
Steudel

and his father took special pains with his education, Francois /., Paris, 1830; L. J. Feugere, Esaai aw la vie
and, as a part of his general training, he undertook
4 lea otwrogea de H. Eatienne, Paris, 1863; Frommann,
.

Aufaotate cur OeachicfUe dea Bwhhandela im 16. Johrhvn-

in his nineteenth year a protracted journey to Italy,
dert Jena, 1876; P. Schaff, Companion to the Greek Tea-
r

England, and Flanders, where he busied himself in lament and the English Version, pp. 230-237, 636-539,
collectingand collating manuscripts for his father's New York, 1883; F. H. Reusch, Index der verbotenen
In 1554 he published at Paris his first in- BUchcr, i. 152, 337, 416, ii. 166. et passim, Bonn, 1886;
press. Noweavx documents aur lea Eatienne, imprimeura pariaiena,
dependent work, the Anacrcon. Then he went again 1511-1665, in Memoirea of the Paris Society of History,
to Italy, helping Aldus at Venice, discovered a vol. xxii., Paris, 1806; Q. H. Putnam, Books and their
Makers during the Middle Ages, ii. 16-100, New York,
copy of Diodorus Siculus at Rome, and returned to 1807; idem, Censorship of the Church of Rome, i. 102, 228
Geneva in 1555. In 1557 he seems to have had a sqq., 206, 238, 411, ib. 1007; P. Renouard, Imprimeurs
printing-establishment of his own, and, in the spirit Parisians depuia 1470 jusquh la Jin du XVL
aiecle, Paris,
" 1808; A. Claudin, Hist, de Vimprimerie en France au xv.
of modern tunes, advertised himself as the Parisian
" The et xvi. siecle, Paris, 1000; L. Radigeur, Mattres imprimews
printer (typographies parixiensis). following owners
et typographea, 1470-1903, Paris, 1003.
year he assumed the mri Huldrici Fug-
title, iHiistris
geri typography*, from his patron, Fugger of Augs- STEPHENS, THOMAS: English Jesuit and mis-
See INDIA, L, 2.
burg. In 1559 Henry assumed charge of his father's sionary. 4,

presses, and distinguished himself as the publisher, STERCORANISTS: The name given (from
and also as the editor and collator, of manuscripts. "
stercus, excrement ") in the Middle Ages to those
Athenagoras, Aristotle, -flSschylus, appeared in 1557; who might possibly hold, as a theoretical position,
Diodorus Siculus, 1559; Xenophon, 1561; Thu- that the body of Christ, received in the Lord's Sup-
cydides, 1564; Herodotus, 1566 and 1581. He im- per, was masticated, digested, and finally excreted.
proved old translations, or made new Latin transla- It was first mentioned as a possible error and re-
tions, of many Greek authors. His most celebrated
jected by Radbertus Paschasius (De corpore et
work, the Thesaurus linguce grcecce, which has sanguine Domini, xx.) in reference to the pseudo-
served up to the nineteenth century as the basis of Clementine Epistle to James, but Radbertus did not
Greek lexicography, appeared in 4 vols., 1572, with assert that it was held by his opponents. Amalarius
a supplement in 2 vols. Of the Greek editions of the of Metz (q.v.) left the question open whether the
New Testament that went forth from his presses, body of Christ was eaten and digested in a natural
there deserve mention those of Beza, with his com-
way, but appealed to Matt. xv. 17. Rabanus ap-
mentary, 1565, 1569, 1582, 1588-89, and the smaller pealed to the same passage. But after the doctrine
editions of 1565, 1567, 1580. A triglot containing of transubstantiation had been adopted, the question
the Peshito appeared in 1569, of which some copies
concerning the natural eating of the body of Christ
are in existence, bearing the date Lyons, 1571. In no longer permitted discussion. The term " Stcr-
1565 a large French Bible was printed. Henry's "
coranist seems to have been used first by Cardinal
own editions of the Greek New Testament of 1576 Frederic of Lorraine, later Pope Stephen IX., in his
and 1587 are noteworthy; the former containing Responsio sive contradictio adversus Nicetoe Peo
the first scientific treatise on the language of the toratilibeUum, xxii., and thence came into quite
apostolic writers; the latter, a discussion of the common use. (A. HAUCK.)
ancient divisions of the text. In 1594 he published BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. d'Achery, Spicilegium, iii. 330, Paris,
a concordance of the New Testament, the prepara- 1723; C. M. Pfaff, De atercoranistis medti cevi, Tubingen,

tory studies for which his father had made. Much 1760; J. M. Schrockh, Kirchengeachichte, xxiii. 420 sqq.,
35 vols., Leipsic, 1772-1803; J. Bach, Dogmengenchichie
earlier he translated Calvin's catechism into Greek,
dea Mittelolters, i. 185-186, Vienna, 1873; K. Werner,
which was printed in 1554 in his father's printing- Oerbcrt von Aurillac, pp. 165-166, ib. 1878; J. Schwane,
room. Dogmengeschichte des Mittelalters, p. 630, Freiburg, 1882;
J. 8chniteer, Berengar von Tours, pp. 205 sqq.,, Stuttgart,
Henry was married three times, and had fourteen 1802; R. Mdnchemeier, Amalar von Metz, pp. 108 sqq.,
children, of whom three survived him. His son MUnster, 1803; KL, xi. 782-783.
Paul (b. 1567), of whose life little is known, as-
sumed control of the presses. Two of Paul's sons STERNE, LAURENCE: Church of England,
were printers Joseph at La Rochelle, and Antoine clergyman, wit, and novelist; b. at Clonmel (46 m.
" " n.e. of Cork), Ireland, Nov. d. in London
(d. 1674), who became Printer to the king in 24, 1713;
Paris hi 1613. Fronton Le Due's Chrysostom, and Mar. 18, 1768. He was the great grandson of Rich-
Jean Morin's Greek Bible (3 vols., 1628) were issued ard Sterne, archbishop of York, and his father was
from Antoinc's presses. His son Henry succeeded to an officer in the army, whose death in 1731 left
" " Laurence unprovided for. Young Sterne was a
the title of Printer to the king in 1649, and his
work closed about 1659. He left no children, and student at Halifax, but was unsystematic in his
was the last of the family who took active interest in work; by his uncle he was sent to Jesus College,
editing and printing. The high standard that had Cambridge (B.A., 1736; M.A., 1740), where phys-
been established by the early Stephens was main- ical weakness was indicated by a hemorrhage of the

tained to the last, and the publications of the later lungs before he finished his studies. He was ordered
deacon in 1736 and ordained priest in 1738, this
publishers were mainly in the division of Greek and
Roman classics. step being taken on the advice of his unele, who had
BZBXJOOIUPHT. M. Maittaire, Stephanorum historia, vitas sent him to college; but his tastes and tempera-
ipsorum ac tibroa complectena, London, 1700; idem, Hist, ment were not such as really to qualify him for the
tvpogrophorum aliquot Parisensium, 2 vols., ib. 1717; A. A.
ministry, the work of which was probably always
Renouaxd, AnnoUs de Vimprimerie dea Ettienne, ou Mat. de
to fam\U* de* Eatienne * de aea editions, 2 part*. Paris, irksome to him. He became vicar of Sutton-iu-the
1887-88; O. A. Grapelet, Robert Setianne . . . et le roi Forest in Yorkshire, 1738; prebend of Givendale
87 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

in York cathedral, 1740*41; commissary of Picker- and sixty-four, those of Hopkins. The rest are by
ing and Pocklington in the same year; the next Thomas Norton, a lawyer who translated Calvin's
year he married Elizabeth (Eliza) Lumley, who Institutes, and d. about 1600; William Whittingham,
was possessed of a small patrimony; in 1742-43 b. at Chester, 1524; d. 1589; educated at
Oxford;
Sterne received in addition to his other charges the married Calvin's sister, and was from 1563 dean of
living of Stillington; he also at this time attempted Durham; and William Kethe, who was in exile with
to add to his income by farming. His first publica- Knox at Geneva, 1555, chaplain to the English
tion was a charity sermon (York, 1747). A second forces at Havre 1563, and afterward rector or vicar
commissaryship was awarded him in 1747, and a of Okeford in Dorsetshire. Kethe is memorable as
claim by another upon his first office of this kind the author of the only rendering now much used of
"
led to Sterne's entrance on the field of satiric humor, all these, All people that on earth do dwell "
A Political Romance addressed to esq. of , (Ps. c.), which has a venerable solidity and
York (1769), often appearing later as The History quaintness.
of a Warm Watch Coat. This line of work proved so BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. W. Duffield, Engliah Hymns, pp. 525-

congenial that he continued it, and began to write 526, New

York, 1886; N. Livingston, The Scottish Met-
ricalPaalter of A. D. 1636, Edinburgh, 1864; Julian,
the work which marks his place in English litera-
Hymnology* pp. 860-861. 863; DNB, liv. 223-224.
ture, Tristram Shandy, the first two books of which
were published by himself (late in 1759) after the STERRY, PETER: Puritan; b. in Surrey; d.

work had been refused by a London publisher. The in London Nov. 19, 1672. He was graduated from
work found instant success, a second edition was Emmanuel's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1633; M.A.,
arranged for by the publisher, and its continuance 1637; fellow, 1636); was one of Cromwell's chap-
was assured upon contract at the rate of a volume lains, one of the fourteen divines proposed by the

a year. A volume of sermons was also put through Lords in May, 1642, and sat as an Independent in
the press. In 1760 he became perpetual curate of the Westminster Assembly almost from the first.

Coxwold, retaining his other charges of Sutton and

He was characterized as mystical and obscure, but
his doctrines of conversion and of religious life, of
Stillington, which were served by curates. His
residence at Coxwold was broken by a visit to Christian experience, duty, and hope were of the
usual Evangelical type. Among his works may be
France, where he was lionized, and by frequent
mentioned The Clouds in Which Christ Comes (Lon-
journeys to London on business connected with the
publication of the later volumes of Tristram Shandy, don, 1648); four Parliament sermons, The Spirit's
of sermons, and of his Sentimental Journey. His Conviction of Sinne (1645); The Teachings of Christ
works were first collected in 7 vols., Dublin, 1779, in the SouLe (1648) The Coming forth of Christ in the
;

then in 10 vols., London, 1780; a late edition is by Power of his Death (1650) ;
The Way of God with his
(}.Saintsbury, 6 vols., 1894. People in TJiese Nations (1657); England's De-
liverance from the Northern Presbytery, Compared
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Fitzgerald, Life of Laurence Sterne, 2
vols., London, 1864, 2d ed., ib. 1896; W. M. Thackeray, with its Deliverance from the Roman Papacy; or a
The English Humourists of the 18th Century, 2d ed., ib. Thanksgiving Sermon on Jer. xvi. 14, 15 (1652);
1853; P Laurence Sterne, sa peraonne et sea
8. Stnpfer,
Discourse on the Freedom of the Will (1675); The
ccuvres, 1870; E. Scherer, Etudes critiques de lit-
Paris,
teroturc, pp. 195-221, ib. 1876; H. D. Traill, Life of Sterne, Rise, Race, and Royalty of the Kingdom of God in the
new ed., London, 1889; L. Stephen, Hours in a Library, Soul of Man together with an Account of the State of a
iii. 139-174, ib. 1892; J. Texte, J.-J. Rousseau et lea Saint's Soul and Body in Death (1683); The Ap-
ongines du cosmopolitisme liUeraire, pp. 337-354, Paris,
1895; DNB, liv. 199-221. pearance of God to Man in the Gospel and Gospel
Change, to Which is Added an Explication of the
STERNHOLD, THOMAS: One of the founders Trinity, and a Short Catechism (1710).
of English psalmody; b. either at Southampton, BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. Neal, Hist, of the Puritans, ed. J. Toul-

England, or on the Hayfield estate near Blakeney min, 5 Bath, 1793-97; B. Brooke, Lives of the Puri-
vols.,
tans, iii. 347, London, 1813; A. & Wood, Athena Oxon-
(20 m. n. of Bristol, England), about 1500; d. Aug.
ienses, ed. P. Bliss, iii 197, 912, 1170. 4 vols., ib. 1813-20;
23, 1549. He studied at Oxford but did not take a D. Mnsson's Life of Milton, passim, 6 voln., ib. 1859-80;
degree; was groom of the chambers to Henry VIII. DNB, liv. 224-225; and the literature under WESTMINSTDB
and Edward VI. He is said to have versified fifty- STANDARDS.
one psalms, of which nineteen appeared in 1548, STEUDEL, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH:
and thirty-seven the next year, immediately after German theologian; b. at Esslingen (8 m. s.e. of
his death (for other data, and developments after Stuttgart) Oct. 25, 1779; d. at Tubingen Oct. 24,
HYMNOLOGY, IX.,
Sternhold, see 2). The work 1837. He was educated at Tubingen, 1797-1804;
was continued by John Hopkins of the Woodend, was vicar at Oberesslingen 1802-06; tutor at
Aure, Gloucestershire (B.A., Oxford, 1544; said to Tttbingen, 1806-08; studied Arabic and Persian
have held a living in Suffolk). The Whole Booke of at Paris, 1808-10; was deacon at Canstatt, 1810-
Psalms Collected into English Metre appeared 1562, 1812; after 1812 subdeacon and deacon at Tubing-
and was bound up with innumerable editions of the en and professor of theology, 1815-37. In 1822
Prayer Book; making for two centuries or more the he became morning preacher at the principal church
only or chief metrical provision of the Church of of the city and after 1826 senior of the faculty and

England. Since 1700 or so, it has been called the assessor of the seminary inspection. His lectures
" at first were on the Old Testament, including later
Old Version," in distinction from its rival, Tate
and Brady. Of its contents about forty-one psalms oriental languages, and after 1826 dogma and apolo-
bear the initials of Sternhold (the only notable getics. He founded in 1828 the Zeitachriftf^r Theo-
sample of his skill being a few stanzas of Ps. xviii.), logie. A rational super-naturalist, Steudel is usually
Steudel THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOQ 88
Stewart

regarded as the last representative of the older (4 vols., 1864-37); The Centenary of American
Tubingen School (q.v.). With his writings he op- Methodism (1865); Women of Methodism: Us three
posed Roman Catholic union in 1811-16, and the Foundresses, S. Wesley , the Countess of Huntingdon,
union of the two Protestant churches in J822. He and B. Heck; with Sketches of their female As-
wrote Ueber die Hcdtbarkett des Glaubens angeschicht- sociates (1866); Madame de Sta&: Study of her Life
liche Offenbarung Gottes (Stuttgart, 1814); Glau- and Times (2 vols., 1881); Character Sketches (1882);
benslehre (Tubingen, 1834); and Theologie des Alien Christian Work and Consolation; the Problem of an
Testaments (Berlin, 1840). He entered into a effective and happy Life (1882).
sharp controversy with D. F. Strauss upon the ap-
pearance of the latter's Leben Jesu. STEVENS, GEORGE BARKER : Congregational-
at Spencer, N. Y., July 13, 1854; d. at New
ist; b.
(G. F. OEHLEnf.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The memorial address' by Dorner and the Haven, Conn., June 22, 1906. He was graduated
sketch of the by Dettinger are in Ttibinger Zeitschrift
life from the University of Rochester, N. Y., 1877, and
/fir Theolooie,1838. part 1. Consult further M. A. Lan- from Yale Divinity School, New Haven, Conn.,
derer, Neutste Doomengcschichte, pp. 170 sqq., Heilbronn,
1880; became pastor of the First Congregational
1881.
Church, Buffalo, N. Y., 1880; and of the First
STEUERNAGEL, stei'er-nCT'gel, KARL: German
Presbyterian Church, Watertown, N. Y., 1^83;
Protestant; b. at Hardegsen (10 m. n.n.w. of studied in Germany, 1885-86; and was professor of
Gttttingen) Feb. 17, 1869. He was educated at the New-Testament criticism and interpretation, Yale
University of Halle (1887-91) and at the theological Divinity School, New Haven, Conn., 1880-95. He
seminary at Wittenberg, and became privat-docent published Pauline Theology; a Study of the, Origin
for Old-Testament exegesis at Halle in 1895, and and Correlation of the doctrinal Teachings of the
extraordinary professor in 1907. Besides editing
Apostle Paul (New York, 1892); Johannine The-
the Zeitschrift des deutschen Pal&stina-Vereins since the Doctrinal Contents of
ology: Study of the. Gospd
1903, he has prepared the volumes on Deuteronomy (1894); Doctrine and
and Epistles of the Apostle John
(1898) and Joshua (1899) for W. Nowack's Hand-
Life: Study of some of the principal Truths of the
kommentar zum Alien Testament, to which he has also Christian Religion in their Relation to Christian
contributed Allgemeine Einleitung in das Hexateuch
Experience (1895); Theology of the New Testament
(1900), and has written Der Rahmen des Deutero-
(1899); Messages of Paul (1900); Mewages of the
nomiums (Halle, 1894); Die Entstehung des deutero-
Apostles (1900); Teaching of Jesus (1901); and
nomische-n Gesetzes (1896); Die Einwanderung der
Christian Doctrine of Salration (1905). He edited
israelitischenStamme in Kanaan (Berlin, 1901); "
Homilies on Acts and Itomans " in
Chrysostom's
Hebrdische Grammatik (1903; 3d ed., 1909); and NPNF New and A
(1 ser., vol. xi., York, 1889);
Methodische Einleitung zum hebrdischen Sprachunter- Short Exposition of the Epistle to the Galatians (Hart-
riclti (1905).
ford, Conn., 1890).
STEVENS, ABEL: Historian of Methodism; b. BIBUOORAPHT: W. Walker, George Barker Steven* on Ad-
dre, New Haven, 1906.
in Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 19, 1815; d. in San
Jose*, Cal., Sept. I 2, 1897. He was educated at Wes-
STEVENS, PETER FAYSSOUX: Reformed Epis-
leyan Academy, Wilbraham, Mass., and at Wesleyan copal bishop; b. near Tallahassee, Fla., June 22,
University, Middletown, Conn.; he completed a 1830; d. at Charleston, S. C., Jan. 9, 1910. He was
course of study at the latter institution in 1834;
graduated from the South Carolina Military Acad-
joined the New England Conference in 1834; was emy, Charleston, S. C., in 1849, and was connected
appointed to churches in Boston, Mass., and Provi- with this institution as professor of mathematics
dence, R. I.; became editor of Zion's Herald, Boston, 1853-57 and of belles lettres 1857-59, and as super-
1840; New York, 1852;
The National Magazine, intendent 1859-61. After serving in the Con-
The Advocate, New York, 1856; was
Christian
federate Army throughout the Civil War, he was
joint editor, with Drs. McClintock and Crooks, ordained priest in the Protestant Episcopal Church,
of The Methodist, 1860-74; and pastor of churches
but in 1875 became connected with the Reformed
in New York City and Mamaroneck, N. Y. On
Episcopalians, and four years later was appointed
retiring from editorial life, be traveled extensively
bishop of the special jurisdiction of the South,
in the United States and then in Europe, where he
having special oversight of the colored churches of
settled finally at Geneva, Switzerland, taking cliarge
that region. In 1890-96 he was also professor of
of the American Union Church there, and became
mathematics in Claflin University.
correspondent of American journals. In a series of
works that remain the standard authority he reduced STEVENS, WILLIAM ARNOLD: Baptist; b. at
the history of Methodism to a connected narrative. GranviUe, O., Feb. 5, 1839; d. at Rochester, N. Y.,
He was the author of Sketches and Incidents (New Jan. 2, 1910. He was educated at Denison Univer-
York, 1843); Memorials of the Introduction of sity, Granville (A.B., 1862), Rochester Theological
Methodism into the Eastern States (2 vols., 1848- Seminary (1865), and the universities of Harvard,
1852); Essay on Church Polity '1M7); Essay on the Leipsic, and Berlin (1865-68). He was professor
Preaching Required by the Times (1855); Essay on of Greek at Denison University (1868-77), and
The Great Reform in Systematic Beneficence (1856); after 1877 was professor of New-Testament exegesis
The History of the Religious Movement of the Eight- at Rochester Theological Seminary. He edited
eenth Century, Called Methodism (3 vols., 1858-61); Select Orations ofLysias (Chicago, 1876); and wrote
Life and Times of Nathan Bangs (1863); History Commentary on the Epistles to the Thessalonians
of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States Philadelphia, 1887); Outline Handbook of the Life of
80 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Staudtl
Stewmrt

Christ (in collaboration with E. D. Burton; New Seminary (1894); pastor of the Fifth Avenue Pres-
York, 1892); Harmony of the Gospels for Historical byterian Church,New York (1902-09); and of the
Study (with the same collaborator, 1894); and Life Brown Memorial Church, Baltimore, since 1909.
of the Apostle Paul (Rochester, 1894).
STEVENSON, WILLIAM FLEMING: Irish Pres-
STEVENS, WILLIAM BACON: Protestant Epis- byterian pastor and organizer of mission work; b.
copal bishop of Pennsylvania; b. at Bath, Me., in Strabane (65 m. w.n.w. of Belfast), Ireland, Sept.
July 13, 3815; d. in Philadelphia, Pa., June 11, 20, 1832; d. at Rathgar, Dublin, Ireland, Sept. 16,
1887. He attended Phillips Academy, Andover, 1886. He was of that Ulster Presbyterian stock
Mass., but was obliged, through failure of health, which has given a special character to the northern
to give up his studies; he then spent two years in province of Ireland. He was graduated from the
travel, and on his return graduated from Dart- University of Glasgow (M.A., 1851), and finished his
mouth, Hanover, N. H. (M.D., 1837); he practised theological studies in Scotland and Germany. Occa-
as a physician in Savannah, Ga., 1838-43; was sional passages in his writings show that while in-
ordained deacon 1843, and priest 1844; was his- terested hi the speculative and critical sides of Ger-
torian of the State of Georgia, 1841; professor of man it was the warm, spiritual, Christian
theology,
belles-lettresand moral philosophy in the Univer- life Germany, as displayed in German hymns and
of
sity of Georgia, Athens, Ga., 1844-48; became missions, which attracted him most. In 1856 he
rector of St. Andrew's, Philadelphia, Pa., 1848; was licensed to preach by the Presbytery of Stra-
assistant bishop of Pennsylvania, 1862, and bishop bane, became town missionary, and worked in the
1865. He was in 1868 appointed by the presiding fever-stricken lanes of the poor part of Belfast. In
bishop to take charge of the American Episcopal 1860 he accepted the call of the newly organized
churches on the continent of Europe, and held the Rathgar-road Presbyterian Church, situated in a
position for six years. He edited with prefaces and suburb of Dublin. Stevenson was the first minister
notes the Georgia Historical Collections (vols. i. and of this church, and it was his first and only regular
ii., Savannah, 1841-42); and is the author of A charge. Literary work occupied much of his atten-
History of Georgia from its First Discovery by Euro- tion. His Praying and Working (London, 1862;
peans to the Adoption of the Present Constitution in new ed., 1886) is of interest to the student of social
1798 (vol. i., New York, 1847; vol. ii., Philadelphia, problems, as well as to the friends of missions.
1859); The Parables of the New Testament Prac- Lives and Deeds worth Knowing (New York, 1870),
ticallyUnfolded (Philadelphia, 1855; memorial ed., composed of collected articles, and published with-
1887); Consolation; the Bow in the Cloud (1855); out authority, is not less interesting. Hymns for
Sunday at Home: Manual of Home Service (1856); Church and Home (London, 1873) has a scholarly
The Lord's Day, its Obligations and Blessings (1857);
accuracy and thoroughness which make it very val-
The Past and Present of St. Andrew's Church, Phila- uable to hymnologists.
delphia (1858); Sabbaths of our Lord (1872); Ser- In 1871 Stevenson was called to the work which,
mons (New York, 1879); and many addresses, in some sense, was the most important of his life,
charges, essays, and occasional sermons. becoming coadjutor with James Morgan, the con-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The memorial ed. of the Parables (ut sup.) vener of the Assembly's Foreign Mission; and in
contains a sketch of the life. Consult further W. 8. Perry.
The Episcopate in America, pp. 151-153, New York, 1895. 1873 he became sole convener, while retaining the
pastorate of his church. Successful as a preacher
STEVENSON, JAMES HENRY: Methodist Epis- and a seemed even better fitted for this
pastor, he
copal, orientalist; b. at Peterborough, Ontario, Apr. new work, which he assumed with great diffidence,
16, 1860. He was educated at McGill University and in its interest he undertook extensive journeys.
(A.B., 1889) and at the Wesleyan Theological Col- In 1881 he was unanimously chosen moderator of
lege at Montreal, Canada (graduated, 1891). He the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church
was a teacher in the public schools of Ontario (1879- in Ireland. As a pulpit orator, Stevenson belonged
1881); pastor in Islington, near Toronto (1890-91); to the first rank.
and later spent three years (1896, 1899, 1902) in the
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His Life and Letters was issued by his wife.
British Museum copying Assyrian contract tablets, London. 1888, and a sketch is given also in the 1886 edi-
while during 1900 he was a student in Berlin. tion of Praying ond Working* ut sup. Consult further
He has been professor of Hebrew at Vanderbilt DNB, liv. 257-268.

University since 1892. Besides being associate edi- STEWARD. See METHODISTS, I., 8.

tor, with H. C. Tolman, of the Vanderbilt Oriental Se-

STEWART, ALEXANDER: Church of Scotland ;

ries, he has written Herodotus and the Empires of the He was

b. at Liverpool Jan. 27, 1847. educated
East (with Tolman; New York, 1898); and Babylo-
at Queen's College, Liverpool (1862-64), United
nian and Assyrian Contracts, with Aramaic Refer-
College (1864-68), and St. Mary's College, St. An-
ence-Notes (1902).
drews (1868-71), and at the universities of Heidel-
STEVENSON, JOSEPH ROSS: Presbyterian; berg and Leipsic (1869-70). After being minister
b. at Ligonier, Pa., Mar. 1, 1866. He was grad- at Mains and Strathmartine, near Dundee, from
uated from Washington and Jefferson College (1886) 1873 to 1887, he was appointed professor of sys-
and McCormick Theological Seminary, Chicago, tematic theology at the University of Aberdeen in
111. (1889). He studied for a year at the University 1887, and principal and primarius professor of di-
of Berlin, then was pastor of the Broadway Presby- vinity at St. Mary's College, St. Andrews, New
terian Church, Sedalia, Mo. (1890-94); became pro- Brunswick, in 1894, which position he still holds.
fessor of church history in McCormick Theological He was Croall lecturer in 1902. In theological posi-
Stewart THE NEW SCHAPF-HERZOG 90
S ti oh om6try

tion he is "a moderate broad churchman, averse 1905. His early education was at the Edinburgh
to extremes and laying stress upon the rational
all high school and at the Perth academy. His father
and ethical elements in religion while recognizing had a farm in Perthshire and one day in his fifteenth
and allowing for the emotional and mystical ele- year while James was plowing one of its fields the
"
ments/' and holds that forms of belief, organiza- determination to be a foreign missionary was sud-
tion, and worship are necessary, but that special denly formed. With this mode of life in view after
forms may change and pass away with fuller light leaving the academy, he entered upon higher studies,
or changed circumstances." He has written Hand- first in Edinburgh University (1850-52), then in
book of Christian Evidences (Edinburgh, 1892) and St. Andrews (1852-54), again in Edinburgh (1854-
Life of Christ (London, 1905). 1855), and in the divinity hall of the Free Church
there (1855-59). Ho did not go in for honors but
STEWART, DUGALD: Scotch philosopher; b.
That he put in much of his time
for a wide culture.
at Edinburgh, Nov. 22, 1753; d. there June 11,
on botany comes out in the two elaborate and beau-
1828. He was educated at Edinburgh University,
tifully illustrated books which he published while
1765-69; and attended the lectures of Thomas
Reid (q.v.) at Glasgow, 1771-72; began to teach
an undergraduate: A Series of Botanical Diagrams,
mathematics at Edinburgh in 1772; succeeded his Exhibiting the Structure, Physiology and Classifica-
tion of Plants. With explanatory Notes (London
father as professor of the same, 1775-85; and was
From [1857]); and Stewart's Botanical Chart, comprising
professor of moral philosophy, 1785-1820.
a Tabular View of Structural and Physiological Bot-
1809 he lived in retirement at Kinneil House, Lin-
any [1857]. Both were text-books in Scottish
lithgoshire, engaged in preparing the substance of
schools and colleges for many years. With the end
his lectures for publication. Stewart was the rep-
" of still better fitting himself for his chosen career
resentative and expounder of Reid's philosophy
" he studied medicine in Edinburgh (1859-61 and
of common sense after the latter's death. He
was greatly distinguished for elegance and eloquence, 1865-66) and took his degree.
In 1857 David Livingstone visited Scotland and
and his lectures were thronged not only by native
students, but by many young men of position from pleaded for men to enter the open door into Africa's
heathen world. Stewart was one of those who re-
England. Like Reid he made philosophy dependent
on inductive psychology, making much of external sponded to this appeal. In 1859 he formally offered
himself to his church for this service, and, as he could
perception as furnishing evidence of objective real-
not be sent at once, became an active preacher of
ity; but, though approximating pure empiricism,
the missionary cause among his own countrymen.
yet he strenuously opposed that school with intui- In 1860 he became a probationer, but with no idea
tionism, representing intelligence as fundamental to
of settling. In 1861 he went to South Africa and
the process of knowledge. He repudiated the on-
met Livingstone, who cordially welcomed him. He
tological argument and was a thorough nominal-
went up the Zambesi and into Central Africa and
ist. His works were, Elements of the Philosophy of
returned to Scotland in 1864. In 1866 he married
the Human Mind (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1792-1827); and went back to Africa, there to spend the rest of
Outlines of Moral Philosophy (1793); and Philoso-
his life. In 1841 the Rev. William Govan had
phy of the Active and Moral Powers of (2 vols.,Man
founded an institute at Lovedale, and in 1867
1828). The Collected Works are by Sir W. Hamil-
Stewart became his associate and in 1870 his suc-
ton, with biography by John Veitch (11 vols.,
cessor. The place had been named for the Rev.
1854-60).
John Love, D.D. (1757-1825), a Presbyterian divine
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the biography by J. Veitch, in vol.
x. of the Works, consult: F. Homer, in Edinburgh Re- who in 1795 founded the London Missionary Society
view, vii (1805), 113-134; 8. Parr, Works, vii. 542-553, and was its first secretary. Stewart believed that
London, 1828; M. Stewart (son of Dugald), Life ofDuoald God had made the black man of the same blood as
Stewart, in Annual Biography and Obituary for 1829, pp.
the white man and was accordingly susceptible to
256-269; A. H. Everett, Stewart's Moral Philosophy, in
North American Review, xxxi (1838), 213-267; H. Cock- the same educational influences. This was a novel
bum, Memorials, passim, Edinburgh, 1866; J. MoCosh, idea, but he succeeded in finding persons of means
Scottish Philosophy, New York, 1885; 8. Leslie, English who enabled him to teach the blacks the profes-
Utilitarians, i. 142-168, London, 1900; DNB, liv. 282-
286. sions, the arts and sciences, and industrial pursuits,
including farming. He took black girls and trained
STEWART, GEORGE BLACK: Presbyterian; them in similar fashion for teachers, nurses, house-
b. at Columbus, O., Feb. 28, 1854. He
studied at
Princeton College (B.A., 1876; M.A., 1879) and at keepers, wives, and mothers. He demonstrated on
a great scale his theories, for under him the Love-
McCormick Theological Seminary and Auburn Theo-
dale Institute became one of the triumphs of mis-
logical Seminary (graduated 1870); was pastor of
sions. He won great fame by doing those things,
Calvary Church, Auburn, N. Y., 1878-84, and of the and as ''
Stewart of Lovedale
"
was known the
Market Square Church, Harrisburg, Pa., 1884-99;
world over long before he died. He was indeed the
and became president of Auburn Theological Semi-
first great industrial and educational missionary.
nary and professor of practical theology, 1899. He But though to many his theories were the interest-
has written Study of the Life of Jesus (Boston, 1907),
and is the editor of the Auburn Seminary Record. ing thing, to him the missionary interest was domi-
nant, and the thousands who came under his influ-
STEWART, JAMES: United Free Church of ence felt that dearer to him than anything else was
Scotland; b. in Edinburgh Feb. 14, 1831; d. at his religion, and that he wanted his colored friends
Lovedale (near the east border of Cape Colony, to know his Savior as the best acquisition they could
South Africa, 700 m. n.e. of Cape Town) Dec. 21, make.
91 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

In 1873 he had the satisfaction of starting at of the previous text; or of quotations and allusions
Blythswood, named after Captain Blyth, magistrate which are found in various writers, which indicate
of the Fingoes, a second Lovedale. In 1874 he made either the locality of some passage in
a tour in Scotland in the interest of both institu- z. Use of a quoted work, or the compass of the
tions, and also proposed the African mission now the Term, whole or part of the works of a given
known as Livingstonia. In 1899 he was moderator author. For example, at the close of
of the general assembly of the Free Church of Scot- Isocrates, Busiris, in Codex Urbinas, there is, in
land. In 1902 he delivered the Duff missionary lec- the archaic character, the number 390; while on
tures at Edinburgh. His life was too crowded with the margin of the same work, in the more recent
V 10
practical matters to allow him leisure for authorship character, there is on fol. 22 ( 25), before
,

of a general nature, but he produced these volumes roijTuv alnoi, the number 2 (B) and on 25 V 12
; ,

which were in the line of his work: Lovedale, Past (39), before yeyovdrof # rovf the number 3 (r)
, ;

and Present (Edinburgh, 1884) ;

Lovedale Illustrated and these numbers represent the second and third
(1894); Livingstonia, its Origin (1894); Kafir Phrase hundreds of lines measured on some exemplar, either
Book and Vocabulary (Lovedale, 1898); Dawn in actual or ideal; Diogenes LaSrtius quotes a pas-
the Dark Continent, Africa and its Missions (the sage from Chrysippus, Kara TOV$ ^Aiovf ari^ovf, and
Duff lectures; Edinburgh, 1903). Galen estimates the extent of a certain portion of
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Wells, The Life of James Stewart, Lon- the works of Hippocrates at 240 verses; roi>rov rov
don, 1908. /3i/3Mov rb fi^v
Kara rb iv ypdfifia fiipof rb irp&rov
elf op* ortxovc L&MI
(Galen, In Hippokratem de nat-
STEWART, ROBERT LAIRD: Presbyterian; b.
ura hominis, xv., p. 9). Full collections of such
at Murrysville, Pa., Aug. 11, 1840. He was grad-
data may be found in F. W. Ritschl, Opuscula phi-
uated from Washington and Jefferson College (B.A.,
lologica, i. 74 sqq., Leipsic, 1866; and in T. Birt,
1806; M.A., 1867) and from the Western Theolog-
ical Seminary (1869); was pastor at Conneautville,
Das antike Buchwesen, chap, iv., Berlin, 1882.
Pa., 1869-73, and at Golden, Col., 1873-79; was
Everything in these data suggests that the numera-
tion has reference to standard lines or copies; and
also superintendent of schools, Jefferson County,
since the actual number of lines in the manuscripts
Col., 1874-79; pastor of the Mahoning Church, Dan-
never tallies with the stichometric record, and we
ville, Pa., 1880-90; and after 1890 professor of pas-
are unable to point to any copies which do furnish
toral theology, Biblical archeology, and Christian
an agreement, it is evident that there is somewhere
evidences in the theological department of Lincoln
a common unit of measurement upon which these
University, and also dean of the faculty. He has
written The Place and Value of Pastoral Theology in subscriptions and quotations are based: in other
tJie Curriculum of Theological Study (1894); The words, the stichos must have an element of fixity in
it,even if it be not absolutely fixed. It is impor-
Land of Israel (1899); Memorable Places among the
tant, therefore, to determine in what direction the
Holy Hills (1903); and Sheldon Jackson, Pathfinder
and Prospector of the Missionary Vanguard in the meaning of stichos deflects from
"
its normal indefinite
" "
sense of line," row," and verse."
Rocky Mountains and Alaska (1908). The term stichos is of itself extremely vague. It
STEWART, WILLIAM: Church of Scotland; may be nothing more than row or line; as when
b. at Annan (14 m. s.e. of Dumfries), Dumfriesshire, the Septuagint uses it for the rows of stones in the
Aug. 15, 1835. He was educated at the University high priest's breastplate; or, in a mili-
" Stich-
of Glasgow (B.A., 1861; B.D., 1867), where he was 2. tary sense, it may represent the num-
examiner in mental philosophy (1867-70). He was OB " Equiv- ber of men in a rank or file of soldiers,
minister of St. George's-in- the- Fields, Glasgow alent to especially the latter; and so in other
" Hex- cases. But in literature it is easy to
(1868-75) since 1873 has been professor of divinity
;

and Biblical criticism in the university of the same ameter demonstrate that the stichos is de-
Line." fleeted in meaning in the direction of
city, and dean of the faculty of theology since 1895.
He has written The Plan of St. Luke's Gospel (Glas- a hexameter line. In the first place,
gow, 1873). such a unit is convenient for the comparison of
prose- works with poetry; hi the next place, actual
STICHARION. See VESTMENTS AND INSIGNIA, instances of prose-passages are reduced to their
ECCLESIASTICAL.
equivalent verse-lengths; in the third place, the
term is used of hexameter poetry, in distinction
STICHOMETRY.
from any other; and, finally, any given work may
I. In General. be divided into hexameter rhythms and results
Use of the Term ( 1).
"
Stiohos
"
Equivalent to
"
Hexameter Line " (I 2). compared with the transmitted numerical data. If
This Measurement Confirmed (ft 3). these points bo taken in order, it may be said that
Partial Stichometry (| 4). the prose-unit is more likely to be taken from poetry
Cola and Commata (ft 5). than that the unit of measurement for poetry is like-
II. New-Testament Btiohometry.
Euthalius (ft 1). ly to be adopted from prose; for the line of poetry
Euthalius Tested (ft 2). is already measured in a sensibly constant unit, and

L In General; The data of stichometry consist no reason exists for a change of that unit. The only
chiefly of subscriptions at the close of manuscripts, question that would arise here is whether there may
expressing the number of lines which are contained not be expected a variety of units of measurement;
in the book that has been copied; of marginal an- as, for instance, an iambic unit in distinction from
notations from point to point, expressing the extent a hexameter unit. It is sufficient to observe at this
Stiohometry THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

point, that such varieties of measurement, if they his correspondent, and threatens to count, not only
exist, are extremely rare. In regard to the actual the pages, but the verses on the page, and the syl-
reduction of a prose-passage to its equivalent verse- lables of each verse (Ego non paginas tartium, *ed
length, there is an important case in Galen (v. 655, versus etiam syUabaaque numerate; Pliny, iv. 11).
ed. Ktihn), where, having quoted a sentence from The preference must, therefore, be given to the
to count the
Hippocrates, he continues: syllable-line. It is comparatively easy

elf ofrrof 6 \6yo$ kwka

job rptdxovra copmass of a book in sixteen-syllable rhythms, but
plv
a toilsome process to estimate with equal accuracy
korl dvolv ndt r]fiioeu$ iiruv
the number of thirty-six-letter lines.
If Galen, according to this, then reckons thirty- It is interesting to compare the relative sizes of
nine syllables as being equivalent to two hexameters the two line-units. M. Graux deduces 37.7 as the
and a half, or, as he continues, eighty-two syllables average hexameter in letters, and Diels (Hermes,
to five hexameters, the hexameter can hardly be vol. xvii.) makes the average of the first fifty lines
different from a sixteen-syllabled rhythm. The as- in Homer to be 15.6 syllables. A verse
sumption is easy that stichometric measurement is 4. Partial of sixteen syllables is then equivalent
made by preference in syllables of which sixteen go Stichometry.to about 1.074 verses of thirty-six let-
to the hexameter, or unit-verse. The number six- ters each. In precisely the same way
teen invites attention as being the number of syl- as M. Graux determined the average number of
lables in the first line of the Iliad, and as being a letters to the verse from the total stichometry, in
square number, a peculiarity which always had a the manuscripts of Herodotus, Demosthenes, Euse-
certain attractiveness for early calculators. That bius, Gregory of Nazianzus, etc., one may examine
the term stichos deflects in the direction of hexam- the partial stichometry. This has been done for
eter verse as against any other line of poetry which Isocrates by Fuhr (Rheinisches Museum, xxxvii.
might have been chosen for a proper unit of meas- 468) ; for the Plato manuscripts, by Schanz (Hermes,
urement, appear from Montfaucon (Bibl. Cois-
will xvi. 309); and for the Demosthenes manuscripts,
lin., p. where there is quoted from a tenth-cen-
597), by W. v. Christ, in the able discussion entitled Die
tury manuscript a catalogue of poets as writers by Atticusausgabe des Demosthenes (Munchen, 1882).
stichoi, and writers of iambics can only have re- The partial stichometry is of the highest value for
sulted from a specialization of the meaning of the the study of texts; and in every case the data which
term stichos by constant use in a particular sense. it supplies are found to accord very closely with the
In the demonstration of the same point by actual fundamental statements above as to the paleo-
measurement, the most important researches are graphical meaning of the word stichos. There are
those published by the late C. Graux (in Revue de traces of partial stichometry in the great Vatican
Philologie, Apr., 1878), in which he demonstrated, manuscript of the Old and New Testaments (cf.
by an actual estimation of the number E. Nestle, in Correspondenz-Blalt fur die Gelehrten
3. This of letters in certain works, that the und Realschulen Wurttembergs, 1883; and J. R.
Measure- stichos represented not a clause, nor a Harris, Stichometry, pp. 59-64, London, 1893). The
ment number of words, but a fixed quantity foregoing investigations received striking and unex-
Confirmed, of writing. The average number of pected confirmation through the discovery by Pro-
letters to the verse he found to vary fessor Mommsen in 1885 of a list of the canonical
between narrow limits, generally thirty-four to books of the Old and New Testaments and of the
thirty-eight letters; and an enumeration of the works of Cyprian in the Phillipps Library at Chel-
letters in fifty lines of the Iliad opened at random tenham. These lists were accompanied by stich-
supplied him with an average of 37.7 letters to the ometric annotations, to which the scribe attached
verse. This very important identification of the the information that the index of verses in the city
stichos with the hexameter is the starting-point for of Rome is not clearly given, and elsewhere, through
a great many new critical investigations as to the greed of gain, they do not preserve it in full; but
integrity of transmitted texts, their early form, etc. that he went through the books in detail, counting
Whether the unit of measurement is a certain num- sixteen syllables to the line, according to the stand-
ber of syllables, or a certain number of letters, is ard line of Vergil, and appended the number of
not at first sight easy to decide. It is tolerably cer- verses. The importance of this statement is evi-
tain that the measured line is, as above stated, a dent. There was not only a stichometry of the Vul-
space-line, and not a sense-line; but to discriminate gate and of the works of Cyprian by which the pur-
between a letter-line and a syllable-line is a more chaser of books in Carthage or elsewhere could be
delicate matter. If the former be adopted, the unit protected against the rapacity of the bookseller,
should probably be fixed at thirty-six letters, be- but the hexameter standard was clearly defined as
cause this is the nearest symmetrical number to the the unit of measurement.
average hexameter. There are very few instances, Some degree of confusion is introduced by the
however, in which the actual letters of a line are existence, apparently, in early times, of an alterna-
found to be numbered; while the custom can tive iambic verse of twelve syllables,
readily be traced of limiting a line by the division 5. Cola and as well as by the introduction of wri-
of the syllables, in the earliest manuscripts. More- Commata. ting by cola and commote. The latter
over, there is the actual measurement in the passage of these points has been an especial
quoted from Galen; and Pliny seems to allude to ground of combat, in consequence of the counte-
the custom of syllable-counting, when, in one of nance which the custom seemed to lend to the theory
his epistles, he demands an equally long reply from of sense-lines in opposition to space-lines. The ex-
88 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Stiohometry

planation of the matter seems to be as follows: when Euthalius consisted in editing the Acts and Catho-
the earlier uncial form of writing was deserted for one lic Epistles, with a complete system of
prologues,
more convenient for purposes of reading and recita- prefaces, and quotations: every book was divided
tion, the text was broken up into short sentences, into lections, and to every lection, as well as to the
named, according to their lengths, cola and com- greater part of the prefaces, was appended its nu-
mote; and in some instances an attempt was made, merical extent. The verses were also marked on the
not only to number these cola, so as to form a colom- margin from fifty to fifty. There is thus a mine of
etry similar to stichometry, and sharing the advan- stichometric information sufficient to test any theory
tages which it offered for reference and book-meas- in the closest manner. Moreover, the work has this
uring, but even to accommodate the arrangement importance, that Euthalius professes to have meas-
of these cola so as to reproduce the original number ured his verses accurately, and to have employed
of verses. Thus the rhetorician Castor (C. Walz, the best manuscripts, viz., those preserved in the
RheWres Greed, iii. 721, Stuttgart, 1834) discusses Pamphilian Library at Caesarea. It is consequently
the pseudo-oration of Demosthenes against Philip permissible to set a high value on the measurements
as follows: TWTOV rbv %6yov ori^ofuv /card xftAov icarav- made, on the ground of antiquity as well as of
TJjaavref eif r^v iroofortra ruv K&huv Kara rbv aptfffMV accuracy.
TVV eyKeifievov kv rolf apxf^otf fitflMotf, caf tfifrpijaev It remains to test these results given by Eutha-
avrof 6 Aqpoo66vw rbv Idiov %6yov. It seems also the lections of the Acts of the Apostles; and,
lius for
that this change of form took place first for those no account being taken of the abbreviations which
books which were publicly recited, or which had might have been found in the text, the
a semi-poetical structure; so that the oldest Bible 2. Eutha- text of the Acts in Westcott and Hort's
manuscripts desert the continuous uncial writing in lius Tested. New Testament will be divided into
the Psalms, in Job, the Proverbs, Canticles, etc.; and sixteen-syllabled rhythms. If allow-
St. Jerome proposed to imitate this peculiarly di- ance were made for abbreviation, the results would
"
vided text in the prophets: What is usually done have been somewhat less, as a syllabic might be sub-
in the cases of Demosthenes and Cicero, viz., that tracted at every occurrence of the words 0tdf and
those writings which are in prose and not in verse Xpurrty, and two syllables for each occurrence of
are arranged in cola and commata, we also, looking and jcfyuoc, with perhaps a few other rarely
itjffovf

to the convenience of the readers, distinguish a new recurring words, as frar?p, twpavdf. The data for
"
interpretation by a new kind of writing (preface Euthalius are taken from Cod. Escoriol, ty. iii. 6, as
to commentary on Isaiah). there arc some errors in Zacagni 's figures. Allow-
II. New-Testament Stichometry: In turning to ing for one or two obvious corruptions, such as the
the New Testament, and particularly to the epis- dropping of the figure p in lection 6, the agreement
tles, it will appear that the theory already advanced is very complete.
is completely confirmed, and that there is a very The lines of the following table are nearly hex-
powerful critical implement for the restoration of ameters, so that the table affords a picture of the
early New-Testament texts in the tra- arrangement of an early bicolumnar codex:
i. Eutha- ditional data. As before, both total
lius. and partial stichometry exists. There
however, a good deal of variation
is,
between the transmitted data, arising from various
causes, such as variation in the text, variation in
the unit employed in the measurement, difference
in versions measured, and difference in the abbre-
viations employed. The greatest authority, how-
ever, for New-Testament stichometry, is found in
the work of Euthalius (q.v.), ed. L. A. Zacagni, Col-
lectanea monumentorum veterum ecdesice *Grcecce ac
Latinos (Rome, 1G98; MGP, Ixxxv.). Euthalius
was a deacon of the church of Alexandria, and after-
ward bishop of Sulci in Sardinia. (For modern dis-
cussions with reference to Euthalius, his history and
ecclesiastical office, besides the literature under
Still more remarkable is the harmony between
EUTHAIJUS, consult Ehrhard, in Centralblatt ftir
the measured text of Westcott and Hort and the
Bibliotheksweaen, viii. 9, pp. 385-411; Von Dob-
These dis- Euthalian figures, when allowance is made for the
schOtz, in the same, x. 2, pp. 49-70.
cussions do not affect the problem of stichometry.) abbreviations previously mentioned. In the follow-
He has frequently but erroneously been credited ing table the first column represents the stichometric
with the introduction of stichometry to the New number supplied by Euthalius and the best manu-
Testament, and these verses which he measured have scripts; the second gives the result of the actual
been by many persons identified with the colon- subdivision of the text of Westcott and Hort into
writing previously described. There is very little sixteen-syllabled verses; and the third expresses
ground for any such ideas; and it appears that the the same result with the proper deduction made for
stichoi mentioned by Euthalius are hexameters of four leading abbreviations.
sixteen syllables, a very slight allowance being made The agreement between the first and third col-
for certain common abbreviations. The work of umns is very complete and decisive as a test of the
Sttahometry THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 94

hypothesis proposed with regard to the nature of BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. R. Harris, Stichometrv, Cambridge, 1893;
idem, in A7P, nos. 12 (supplement), 14, 15; C. Ttochen-
the Euthalian stiohoi.
dorf, Monwnenta acra inedita, nova i., p. xvii.
collectio,

sqq., Leipsio, 1855; F. Scrivener, in the prolegomena

to
his Codex Beta, London, 1867; Graux, in Revue de Phi-
237 or 242 240 237 Demoe-
236 or 242 245 240 lologie, Apr., 1878; W. Christ, Attvcueauagabe dee
154 162 158 thenea, Munich, 1882; W. Sanday, in Studio, Biblica, iii
274 268 262 (1891). 217-303; Turner, in the same, pp. 304-325; idem,
30 31 30 in JTS, ii (1901), p. 236; E. Preuschen, Analecta, pp. 138
32 31 31
68 70 68 qq., Freiburg, 1893; F. C. Burkitt, in JTS, ii (1901),
920 942 919 429; contributions in Rheinuchea Museum as follows: in
870 897 874 ii (1847), by V6mel; xxiv (1869), by Blass; xandv (1879),

690 610 596 by Blass and by Wachsmuth; and xxxviii (1882), by

293 304 296 Fubr; and in Hermes as follows: xvi (1881), 309, by
312 325 314
208 218 209 Sohans; xvii (1882), by Diels; and xxi (1885), 142-166,
208 215 209 by Mommsen; and the works named in the text.
193 202 194
106 112 106
II
Hebrewi 703 714 705 STIEFEL, stf'fel (STIFFEL, STEFEL), ESAJAS:
Religious fanatic; b. at Langensalza (19 m.
. .

ITimothv. 230 239 234 n.w.

II Timothy 172 177 170 of Erfurt) between 1556 and 1564; d. at Erfurt (62
Titus 97 98 97
38 42 40 m. s.w. of Leipsic) Aug. 12, 1626. He traveled
about selling dyer's-weed and salted fish, and when
In the Gospels the data may be handled in a simi- tired of this pursuit conducted a wine-shop in his

lar manner; but the difficulties arising from variety

native place; but in 1603 the city withdrew this
of text, etc., are great: moreover, many manuscripts privilege. The next year he separated from the
transmit not only the number of verses, but also church and kept his children away from church
another number corresponding to the ^para of the and school. This involved him in violent contro-
versies with the clerical ministerium and the coun-
separate books. From a large group of cursive man-
cil, resulting in his imprisonment. In 1606 he
uscripts the following numbers for the four Gospels
appear: abjured his errors and was released. He moved
to Erfurt and soon after to Gispersleben. From
there he issued a great number of tracts; for ex-
"
ample, The Different Explanation of the First
Man before the Fall, of the Other after the Fall,
and of the Third and Last Adam Born of God from
Above." This tract was the one answered by Jakob
Boehme (q.v.) with Siifdius I. These writings
From this it appears that the number of f^ftara is found willing readers at Langensalza, where Stiefel's
sometimes in excess, and sometimes in defect, of
nephew, Ezechiel Meth, was continuing his prop-
the number of verses. It is doubtful, moreover,
Both were placed under arrest in 1613
aganda.
whether the verses of the Gospels are measured by and the next year were brought before the su-
the same unit as is found employed in the Acts
perior consistory at Dresden. They were com-
and Epistles. A fifteen-syllabled hexameter seems make
pelled to public retraction and
pay the costs,
to agree best with the traditional figure. The Gos- and Stiefcl had to meet, heavy fine. He
besides, a
pel of John, in the text of Westcott and Hort, is next acquired property at Gispersleben, Kiliani, and
2,025 abbreviated fifteen-syllabled hexameters, an
8olomon^>orn, where he assembled his sister's fam-
almost absolute agreement with the result given
ily with his own, and their religious adherents. For-
above (2,024). The question as to the meaning of bidden to hold meetings, 1614, he violated his oath,
the typara subscribed side by side with the stichoi at which the Erfurt council attempted his correc-
has caused not a little perplexity. It was pointed
tion, with apparent success. Shortly after, the
out by Harris (Stichometry, pp. 65-68) that the council instigated a posse of farmers to seize him
word Mtiara was only a blundering retranslation and a company engaged in a festival. All were re-
of the Syriac pethgame, which may mean either
" leased after promising under oath to abstain from
11
words or " verses." Thus the reckoning of the
meeting, and Stiefel was likewise bound not to
ptfiara is only a disguised form of the ancient
proselyte. Not fulfilling this, he was banished, to-
stichometry which has come back again from an
gether with wife and child, from the city. His jour-
eastern version. If, for example, the /^/mra as
ney to Basel was a triumphal march. There he met
given above be compared with the pethgame as with no success and returned, hi spite of the pro-
numbered in a Syriac manuscript on Mt. Sinai
hibition, to Gispersleben, Christmas, 1616, where he
(Cod. Syr. Sin., 10), there results: and his kin were immediately cast into prison. After
a little more than a year his wife, sister, and nephew
were released; but his confinement continued until
he recanted in 1619. He was granted the right of
residence at Erfurt and opened a traffic in dyer's-
weed; but resumed his religious efforts hi 1621.
He inveigled the Countess Erdmuth Juliane of
It appears clearly that the two systems are the Gleichen and Ohrdruf whereupon the council was
,

same, when once allowance is made for the obvious deliberating whether it should sentence him to
errors fa J.uke an4 John, J. RBNDEJ, death, when he fle4 into Thuringia. On Mar. 31,
95 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

1624, he was sent back to Erfurt, and remained a of Spain, fled to Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and thence
prisoner at the hospital until he died. He is said to to Prussia, and was stationed at Memel, where he
have repented of his errors. carried his calculations on Daniel into the
pulpit.
Stiefel was a highly gifted man, well educated, After a brief stay in Eichholz, near Konigsberg, on
and very familiar with the Latin and German Bible. account of antagonism to Andreas Osiander (q.v.)
The theological bickerings which then prevailed in there, he returned to Saxony as pastor of Bruck.
the pulpits repelled him, and dry dogmatic disser- At Eichholz he issued Ein sehr wunderbarliche Wort-
tations turned him from the Church. He had been rechnung Sampt einer mercklichen Erklerung etlicher
studying the writings of Thomas M
(Inzer (q.v.) for Zalen Danielis und der Offenbarung Sanct Johannis
a long time, whose fundamental ideas he adopted: (1553), composed of a mass of strophes, the sen-
the renunciation of infant baptism and the Lord's tences of which afforded the apocalyptical numbers
Supper, as taught by the Church, the control of the and disclosed their mysteries. His partisanship for
secular power, and the Scripture as a dead letter; Flacius against Melanchthon induced him to go
and the advocation of dreams and visions and of from Electoral Saxony to the territory of the Ernes-
the inner word of the Spirit. The community idea tines. After 1559 he held mathematical lectures at
of M
(Inzer he followed in practise. the University of Jena. His German explanation
(PAUL MEDER.) of Revelation, which he represented as a prophecy
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The one work of accessibility and value i* of all history, finally reached the Thomas Library of
P. Meder, Der Schwdrmer Eaajaa Stiefel, in Johre&ericht Leipsic; for specimens, see H. Pipping's Arcana
des Erfurter Oeachichta- und Altcrtumtverein*, 1808. bibliothecce Thamesf pp. 70 sqq. (Leipsic, 1703).
STIEFEL (STYFEL), MICHAEL: German Re- (G. KAWERAU.)
former and mathematician; b. at ICsslingen (8 m. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Q. T. Strobel, New Beitr&ge, i. 1, pp. 5
s.e. of Stuttgart) 1486 or 1487; d. at Jena Apr. 19, sqq., Nuremberg. 1790; T. Keim, ReformatwrubUUtcr der
1567. He entered the Augustine monastery of his Reicfuatadt Esslingen, pp. 77 sqq., Esslingen, 1860; O.
Bossert, Luther und Wttrttemberg, pp. 7 sqq., Ludwigsburg,
native city, and in 1511 was consecrated priest. He
1883; ADB, xxxvi. 208 sqq., TSK, 1907, pp. 460 sqq.
first assumed an active part in the Reformation
with the treatise, Von der Christfermigen rechtge- STIER, sti'er, RUDOLF EWALD: German
griindten Leer Doctoris Martini Luihers (1522), being Biblical theologian; b. at Fraustodt (57 m. n.w. of
specially affected by reading the book of Revela- Breslau) Mar. 17, 1800; d. at Exsleben (40 m. n.w.
tion. He took refuge in May, 1522, with Hartmut of Leipsic) Dec. 16, 1862. He entered the Univer-
of Cronberg; but upon the surrender of Cronberg sity of Berlin in 1815 to study law, but finding this
Oct. 15, he fled to Wittenberg, and, Mar., 1523, be- subject ill suited to his poetic taste, he was regis-
came court preacher of Count Albrecht of Mansfeld. tered as a theological student in 1816; but his
With great zeal he devoted himself to mathematical romantic spirit led him to the pursuit of poesy,
studies, setting up a strange cabalistic system by adopting Jean Paul as his ideal, and engaging in
transforming letters into the so-called trigonal num- correspondence with him. In 1818 he went to the
bers 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, thus disclosing secrets of the University of Halle and became president of the Halle
Bible. Luther, however, assured him of the futility Burschenschaft. In consequence of the decease of a
of his practise, from which he desisted for awhile. young woman whom he loved and a change of life in
Luther also sent him as preacher to Christoph Jdr- that intense period of religious revival, he abandoned
ger of Toilet and Kreusbach, a nobleman in upper his literary adventure and took up the study of
Austria. Compelled to flee from Austria in 1527, theology seriously at Berlin, 1819. From 1821 to
he found refuge in Luther's house, where he col- 1823 he occupied a position in the seminary at
lected and transcribed the works and letters of Wittenberg, where he devoted himself to a comprp-
Luther, until Sept., 1528, when he became pastor hensive study of the Bible. In 1823 he took a posi-
in Lochau. From 1532 he returned to his apoca- tion in the teachers' seminary at Karalene, and in
lyptical calculations and published Ein Rechenbtich- the following year became teacher at the mission
lein Vom
End Christi, Apocalypsis in Apocalypsim seminary at Basel; was pastor at Frankenleben,
(Wittenberg, 1532). He unearthed the mysteries of 1829-38; at Wichlinghauaen, 1838-47; spent a
the history of the Scripture, the Church, and the season in literary retirement at Wittenberg, 1847-
papacy, and calculated the date of the advent of 1850; was called by the consistory of Magdeburg
Christ as eight a.m., Oct. 19,1533. Inconsequence to the office of superintendent at Schkeuditz, 1850;
he was brought to Wittenberg by the officers of the and was superintendent at Eisleben, 1859-62. Dur-
elector, held in confinement for four weeks to await ing all these years Stier's main interest was in Bib-
the elector's sentence, and only the intercession of lical study in which J. von Meyer's annotated Bible
Luther and Melanchthon saved him from prison was his basis and guide. Not satisfied with the
and secured his reinstatement in the parish of Holz- Lutheran version he collaborated with Von Meyer
dorf, 1534 or 1535. Holding himself aloof from in the production of his last edition of 1842, and
prophecies, for fourteen years, he prosecuted gen- in his own (Bielefeld, 1856) he made extensive al-
uine mathematical studies, resulting in Arithmetics terations. His translation is specially valuable for
Integra (1543); and Deutsche Arithmetica (Nurem- the parallel passages given. His exegetical works
berg, 1545). He matriculated at Wittenberg, 1541, are practical and devotional, here and there pare-
probably for the purpose of giving mathematical netic, and somewhat lacking in dogmatic relevance
instruction to students. During the Schmalkald and pointedness. He was author of Siebzig ausge-
war Stiefel returned to his cabalistic play with wdhlte Psalmen (Halle, 1834) ; and of commentaries
numbers, was expelled frpm HoUdorf by the soldiers on Ephesians (1846; popular ed. y Berlin, 1859), on
 THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOQ 96

Hebrews (2d Brunswick, 1862), and on James

ed., BIBLIOGRAPHY: Amongsources are his correspondence, in
His experience of the inner CR, Consult: K. GOttling, Vita J. S&ettt
vols. iii.-ix.
(2d ed., I^eipsio, 1860).
Thwinoi, Jena, 1868; H. Finoelius, Oratio d* vita el obit*
life, familiarity with ascetic literature, and a fresh J. StwZu, ib. 1663; M. Adam, Vita Germanorwn phUr
and piquant interest, mark these as well as his otophorum, Heidelberg, 1616; ADB, zxzvi. 228 sqq.
widely distributed Reden den Herrn (2d ed., 5 vols., STIGMATIZATION: The spontaneous forma-
Leipsic, 1851-55; Eng. transl., Words of the Lard tion of wounds on the persons of Christians similar
Jexus, 8 vols., Edinburgh, 1855-58, 4th American to those received by Christ from the crown of thorns,
ed., New York, 1864), a commentary on the Gos- crucifixion, and the spear. No reports of stigma-
pels; and Reden des Herrn wm
Himmel her (1859; tization date earlier than the thirteenth century,
Eng. transl. , Words of a Risen Savior, Edinburgh, Francis of Assisi (q.v.) being the first who was af-
1859), on the Acts and Revelation. He represented fected with it, this taking place in 1224 at Mt. Al-
a doctrine of direct and organic inspiration, accord- verna in the Apennines. Besides his, the Roman
ing to which the personality of the authors disap- Catholic Church relates about eighty other cases,
pears entirely, and the Holy Spirit implies in one some of them exhibiting only a partial stigmatiza-
passage what he expresses in all others. This in- tion; not all, however, are so strongly attested as
spiration was not of the letter but of the Word. that of Francis. Single cases of stigmatization have
He upheld, however, the integrity of the canon, been observed even in recent times, attested both
being influenced more by church tradition than by by men of repute and by many thousands who ob-
historical criticism, and is to be characterized as a served them. A case of this kind is that of Anna
dogmatic mystic. Mention should be made of the Katharina Emmerich (b. of pious peasants in 1774
well-known and useful Polyglot Bible prepared near Coesfeld, 20 m. w. of Miinster). From her
together with K. G. W. Theile (4 vols., Bielefeld, youth she showed deep religious feelings and a rare
1 846-55) (F. A. THOLUCKf.)
modesty and humility. In 1803 she entered the
.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. I. Nitcach, Rudolph Stier als Theologe,

convent of Agnetenberg, where she was affected
Barmen, 1865; Q. and F. Stier, Ewald Rudolf Stier, 2d ed.
Wittenberg, 1871; J. P. Lacroix, The Life of R. Stier, with chronic illness. Soon after 181 1 her body began
New York, 1874; M. A. Landerer, Neueate Doffmenge- to show complete stigmatization, which remained
tchichtc, p. 371, Heilbronn, 1881. with her until 1819, when the scars were healed
STIGEL, sti'gel JOHANN: Ger-
(STIGELIUS), after prayer, though every Friday they assumed a
man humanist; Frimar, near Gotha (77 m.
b. at red color and exuded blood. A similar case is that
s.w. of Leipsic), May 13, 1515; d. at Jena Feb. 11, of Maria von Mori (b. 1812 at Kaltern, 01 m. s. of
1562. Johann Stigel was a man who held a prominent Innsbruck, d. 1868), who showed stigmata in side,
position in the Wittenberg circle of Melanchthoman hands, and feet, witnessed by over 40,000 persons.
humanists, because of his extraordinary endow- The most recent instance is that of Louise Latcau
ments. He entered the University of Wittenberg, of Bois d'Haine near Charleroi, 30 m. s. of Brussels

1531, where he first studied the ancient languages; (b. 1850; d. Aug. 25, 1883). Stigmatization may,
and, later, medicine, physics, and astronomy; and therefore, be accepted as a fact, but its explanation
soon became famous through his poems. By 1541 is to be sought.
he was at Regensburg and for a congratulatory poem
; Roman Catholics regard stigmatization as a mira-
to Charles V., Germanics cpistola gratulatoria (1541), cle, and Gregory IX., Alexander IV., and other
he received the imperial thanks and the title, poeta popes have put themselves on record in the case of
laureatus. In 1543 he received the professura Teren- St. Francis. But the phenomenon may be explained
tiana at the University of Wittenberg, and lectured in a natural way. The human soul possesses not
on Terence, Hesiod, and Ovid. At the outbreak only normal but what pass as abnormal powers. A
of the Schmalkald war he removed to Weimar, and, work of art, for instance, owes its origin not merely
in 1547, to Jena, where he, with Victorinus Strigel, to reason, but also to a subconscious instinct for
established a higher gymnasium, teaching rhetoric creation. The same instinct appears in dream life,
and poetics. This was the foundation of the new while unconscious powers direct the functions of
university, at the dedication of which, 1558, he the human organism. It is noteworthy that St.
delivered the oration. Difficult was his somewhat Francis and the other notable examples among the
neutral position in the Philippist controversy (see
stigmatized suffered from morbid conditions from
PHILIPPIBTS), on account of his friendships which an excess of psychic influence upon a morbidly
in both camps, and just before the downfall inclined and weak body is Protes-
intelligible.
of Flacius, 1501, it became almost intolerable. tants, therefore, while admitting stigmatization, do
His poems indicate a pious and pure heart, not attach to it the same value as Roman Catho-
and include elegies on Johann Friedrich, duke of lics; on the other hand, it is admitted that stigma-
Saxony, and Luther. Collections were published tization shows itself only in those who in glowing
as Poemata (in 9 books, Jena, 1565-72; 2 vols., love have devoted themselves to the Savior.
1577; 3 vols., 1600-01). A German hymn may be (JULIUS HAMBERGER.t)
found in Kirchenlied, iv. 541 (Leipsic, 1862-77) by The phenomenon is one that is known outside re-
C. E. P. Wackernagel; and his Latin spiritual
ligious circles. The exudation of blood through the
hymns (ib., i. 481-490). Besides, he was author skin is recognized by the medical profession and is
of Oratio de origine et usu sermonia (1559); Annota- described in many books on dermatology. There
tions in Quintttiuni institutionum librum x., in P.
is, of course, no miracle
in connection with the
Melanchthon's Annotations in Quintilianum, 1570;
phenomenon.
and De anima commentarii, Melanchthonia explicatio BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature under FRANCIS, SAINT, or
(Wittenberg, 1575). (G. KAWBEAU.) AMDH, especially the life (French and English) by P. 8a-
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

a critical study of stigmata, and

batier. to which is attached attracted the attention of Pastor Seelbach, who in
that by F. E. Chavin do Malan, chaps. 14-15, Paris, 1846; 1755 made him school-teacher at Litzel, at the age
A. Paleotti, Hittoria admiranda de Jesu Chritti atiffma-
of fifteen. Here he read Homer, and also the works
tibus, ed. R. Gibbon, Antwerp, 1616; Evangeliiche Kir-
cherueituno, 1835, pp. 180-201, 346-300; A. Tholuck, of Boehme, but lost the favor of Seelbach by his in-
VermitchteSchriften, i. 07-133, Hamburg, 1839; the intro- tercourse with separatists. Stilling returned to his
duction to Das bittere Leiden unaerea Harm Jesu Christi,
home and assisted his father, but after a short in-
Munich, 1852; J. Ennemoser, Der Magnetitmua im Ver-
HUtnia zur Notur und zur Rdijion, pp. 92-95, 131-142, terval began to teach again in Dreisbach and Kle-
Stuttgart, 1853; B. Johnen, Louise Lateau. Kein W un- feld. In 1762 he went as journeyman tailor on his
der, tondern Tauachung, Leipsic, 1874; A. Rohling, Louise
travels, ultimately reaching Solingen, where he
Lateau, Paderborn, 1874; Charbonnier de Batty, Maladiea
et facultte divereea dea mystiques, Brussels, 1875; P. found work and spiritual advancement in the com-
Majunke, Louise Lateau, Berlin, 1875; T. Schwann, Mein munities influenced by Spener and Tersteegcn. Then
Gutachten uber die Verauche an Louise Lateau, Cologne, he became tutor in the house of a well-to-do mer-
1875; Warloxnont, Louise Lateau, Rapport medical sur chant. After a short time spent with a tailor, he
la stigmatisec de Bois d'Haine, Brussels and Paris, 1875;
Die Stigmatisicrten des 19. Jahrhunderts, Regensburg, taught again in the family of a merchant named
1877; C. Borena, Louise Lateau nach den neuesten Beobacht- Flender who gave him leisure and the means to
ungen und Erscheinungen, Paderborn, 1878; J. J. von continue his studies, especially in ancient and mod-
Gdrres, The Stigmata, a History of various Cases, Lon-
don, 1883 (a transl. of part of Die chrisUiche Afystik, ii.
ern languages. During this time he became ac-
410-456, 494-510, 4 vote., Regensburg, 1836-42); P. quainted with the Roman Catholic preacher Molitor
Pansier, Les Manifestations oculatres de I'hyaterie, Paris, in Attendorn who was very successful in curing dis-
1892; A. Imbort-Goubeyre, La Stigmatication, Vextase eases of the eye and taught him his methods. From
divine, et les miracles de Lourdes, 2 vols., Paris, 1894;
P. Janot, The Mental State of Hysterical. A Study oj 1770 to 1772 Stilling studied medicine in Strasburg,
Mental Stigmata, New York, 1901. where he became acquainted with Herder and
Goethe. He then settled as physician in Elberfeld.
STILES, EZRA: American Congregationalist;
In 1778 he received a call to Kaiserslautern as pro-
b. at North Haven, Conn., Dec. 15, 1727; d. in New
fessor in the school of political economy. After
Haven May 12, 1795. He was graduated from Yale
the removal of this school to Heidelberg in 1784
College, 1746; was tutor there 1749-55; he studied
and its connection with the university, Stilling
theology but turned to law, and was admitted to went to Heidelberg, and in 1787 to Marburg in the
the bar in 1753; practised law two years, but re-
same capacity. But, in spite of his success as teacher
turned to the ministry in 1755; he was pastor in
and physician, he became dissatisfied with his call-
Newport, R. I., 1755-77; in 1777, when the place
was occupied by the British, he removed to Ports- ing, and gave up his position in Marburg (1803) to

mouth to become pastor of the North Church. In accept a call of Elector Karl Friodrich of Baden,
who an annuity upon him so that he might
settled
Sept., 1777, he was elected president of Yale Col-
devote himself entirely to his religious calling and
lege, where ho was professor of ecclesiastical history
till 1780, whon he became professor of divinity. He propagate religion and practical Christianity through
his correspondence and literary activity. He lived
was accounted in his day the most learned and ac-
in Heidelberg as a witness of the living God and
complished divine of the United States. He pub- herald of Christ, 1803-06; the rest of his life he spent
lished An Account of the Settlement of Bristol, R. I.
in Carlsruhe.
(Providence, 1785); and A History of Three of the " "
Stilling was a patriarch of revivals who, in
Judges of King Charles /., Major General Whalley, the time of indifference and of the atrocities of the
Major General Goffe, and Colonel Dixwett, who . . .

French revolution, showed thousands of people

fled to America and were secreted for near thirty
. . .

where salvation from moral degeneration could be

Years. With an Account of Mr. T. Wale of Narra-
to have been one of the Judges (Hart- found, and led them again to a profounder religious
gansett, supposed His books still have influence, being the
He an unfinished Church History feeling.
ford, 1794). left
products of immediate personal experience. Three
of New England, and more than forty volumes of works of Stilling have especially established his fame
manuscripts. and importance: Heinrich Stittings Jugend (1777);
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult the Life by A. Holmes, Boston, Heinrich Stittings Jiinglingsjahre (1778) and Hein-
;

1708; that by J. L. Kingsley, in J. Sparks's Library of The first of these

rich Stittings Wanderschaft (1778).
American Biography, 10 vols., ib. 1834-38; W. B. Sprague,
AnndU of the American Pulpit, i. 470-479, New York, won Goethe's ardent admiration. Of his attempts
1859; W. Walker, Ten New England Leaders, passim, ib. in the domain of belles-lettres, only Theobald oder
1901; and The Literary Diary of Etra Stiles, ed. F. B. die Schwdrmer (1784-85) survived, and even that
Dexter, 3 vols. New York, 1901.
because it contains contributions to the history of
STILLING, JOHANN HEINRICH JUNG-: Ger- the Separatists. Heinrich Stilling* hdusliches Leben
man mystic and writer of devotional works; b. in (1789) and Heinrich StiUings Lehrjahre (1804) are
the village of Grand (23 m. n.e. of Gttttingen) Sept. continuations of the story of his life mentioned
12, 1740; d. at Carlsruhe Apr. 2, 1817. His name above, but they lack the depth and originality of
was Johann Heinrich Jung, but in the last twenty the first works. Das Heimweh, Semen aus dem
years of his life he called himself Jung-Stilling be- Geisterreiche, Siegesgeschichte der chrMichen Re-
cause he had written his autobiography under the ligion and Theorie der Geisterkunde, works of a mys-
name of Stilling. He was the son of a poor tailor tical nature, were soon forgotten, but Stilling showed
and school-teacher and grandson of a charcoal- the irresistible power of personally experienced faith
burner. In his tenth year Stilling was entrusted to in his periodical publication, Der graue Mann (1795-
the rector of the Latin school at Hilchenbach, where 1816), and in Der christliche Menschenfreund (1803-
he studied Latin, mathematics, and history, and 1815); Taschenbuch ftir Freunde des Christentums
XL 7
Stillinrfleet
Stookton THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 98

(1805-16); and Biblische Erzahlungen (1808-16). time he had recovered his reputation as a healer
The poems of Stilling were collected after his death of strife. An activemind like his would meddle in
and published by his grandson W. E. Schwarz all sorts of questions, and he could not refrain from
(Frankfort, 1821); his Sdmdiche Schriften appeared taking part in the great doctrinal controversy of
Stuttgart, 1835-39; and Sdmtliche Werke, in the the age. A Discourse in Vindication of the Doctrine
same place, 1841-44. (A. FBEYBE.) of the Trinity was published in 1697. Stillingfleet
was a metaphysician, as well as a divine, and criti-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: There have appeared in Eng. transl.. Theory
of Pneumatology, London, 1834; Hcinrich Stilling, 3 cized Locke's Essay on the Human Understanding
parts, London, 1835-36 (transl. of the Jugend, Janglings- the same year, following that up soon afterward by
jahrc, and Wanderachaft, ut sup.); Aitiobiography, 2 vols., a rejoinder to Locke's reply. Other works are The
ib. 1835, 2d ed., 1842, abridged, 1847; and Interesting
For Stirling's life his autobiographic Council of Trent Examined and Disproved (1688);
Tale*, ib. 1837.
writings, an indicated in the text, are of course authori- and Sermons (4 vols., 1696-1701). A collected edi-
tative. Among sketches of the life may be named that tion of his works, with his life by Richard Bentley,
by A. Q. Rudelbach, in Christ liche Biographic. Lebena- was published (6 vols., London, 1709-10).
beachreibungen der Zeugen der christiichen Kirche, i. 435-
514, Leipsic, 1849-50; the anonymous Lebenageachichte, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the Life by Bentley in the Works,
3d ed., Berlin, 1859: and ADD, xiv. 097-705. Consult ut sup., consult: G. Burnot, Hist, of his own Time, 6 vols.,
further: Nessler, Etude theologvjue sur Jung Stilling, Oxford, 1833; T. Baker, Hist, of the College of St. John
Strasburg, I860; and Stilling's correspondence with his . .Cambridge, ed. J. E. B. Mayor, ii. 698-703, London,
.

friends, Berlin, 1905. 1869; DNB, lix. 376-378.

STILLINGFLEET, EDWARD: Church of Eng- STILLMAN, CHARLES ALBERT: Southern

land bishop of Worcester; b. at Cranborne (22 m. Presbyterian; b. in Charlestown, S. C., Mar. 14,
w. of Southampton) Apr. 17, 1635; d. at Westmin- 1819; d. at Tuscaloosa, Ala., Jan. 23, 1895. He
ster Mar. 27, 1699. He was educated at St. John's received his education at Oglcthorpc University,
College, Cambridge (B.A. and fellow, 1653; M.A., Midway, da. (B.A., 1841) arid at the Theological
1656; B.D., 1663; D.D., 1668). He then served as Seminary at Columbia, S. C. (graduated, LS44);
private tutor, and in 1657 became rector of Sutton. was licensed by Charleston presbytery in 1844;
Just after the Restoration, he published his Ireni- in the same year served as substitute pastor of the
cum, a Weapon Salve for the Churches Wounds (Lon- Second Presbyterian Church of Charleston for six
don, 1661), an attempt at a compromise between months during the absence of the pastor; was or-
the established church and the Presbyterians. The dained by the presbytery of Tuscaloosa, Ala., in
following year appeared his Origines Sacrce, or Ra- 1845; was pastor at Kutaw, Ala., 1844-53; at
tional Account of the Christian Faith as to the Truth Gainesville, Ala., 1853-70; and at Tuscaloosa, Ala.,
and Divine Authority of the Scriptures, in which he 1870 till his death. He was moderator of the gen-
dwelt upon the knowledge, fidelity, and integrity of eral assembly in 1876.
Moses, and the inspiration of the prophets, as in- He was on the editorial staff of The Southern
ferred from the fulfilment of their prophecies, and Presbyterian for a number of years, while that paper
extended the work in the line of a general apologetic. was published in Columbia, S. C. To him, more
While in many points the work is superseded by than to uny one else, was due the founding at Tus-
later productions, it remains a storehouse of learn- caloosa, Ala., of an institution for the training of
ing, and displays much logical ability and lawyer- colored ministers. From the time of its founding in
like habits of thought. This volume was followed, 1 878
up to within a few months of his death, he was
in 1665, by A Rational Account of the Grounds of the the superintendent of the institution and watched
Protestant Religion, a publication issued to meet the over it with fatherly care. When he resigned from
Jesuit account of the Laud-Fisher controversy. In the superintendency, the general assembly in recog-
1665 he became rector of St. Andrew's, Holborn, nition of his services named the school the Stillman
and preacher at the Rolls Chapel; in 1667, prebend Institute for Training Colored Ministers.
of Islington in St. Paul's, exchanged for Newing- R. C. REED.
ton in 1672; royal chaplain in 1667-68; canon in
STIRLING TRACT ENTERPRISE. See TRACT
Canterbury cathedral in 1669; archdeacon of Lon-
SOCIETIES, III., 3.
don, 1677; dean of St. Paul's, 1678. The Unrea-
sonableness of Separation (2 parts, 1681-82) gave STOCK, EUGENE: Church of England layman;
unmistakable proof that he had abandoned the b. at Westminster Feb. 26, 1836. He received his
moderate opinions, and dropped the conciliatory education at private schools, and was in mercantile
temper, expressed in his Irenicum. This brought on life till 1873, though he acted as honorary editor to
him answers in the way of defense, written by Owen, the Church of England Sunday School Institute,
Baxter, and other non-conformists, and he candidly 1867-75; he was in succession editor, editorial sec-
acknowledged his mistake. His Origines Brtiannica retary, and general secretary of the Church Mission-
(1685) was an investigation of the sources of Brit- ary Society, 1873-1906, and vice-president since
ish ecclesiastical history (standard ed., 2 vols., Ox- 1906; member of the London diocesan conference
ford, 1842). In 1689 he became bishop of Worces- since 1882, member of the house of laymen of the
ter, and as such took part in the commission for Canterbury ecclesiastical province since 1885, and
revising the Book of Common Prayer. In 1695 a diocesan reader for the diocese of London since 1891 ;
violent dispute went on among certain non-conform- and contributor to the American Sunday School
ists respecting Antinomianism; and some of the Journal, 1873-81. He belongs to the Evangelical
disputants appealed to Stillingfleet as a sort of ar- party in the Church of England. He has published :

bitrator, a circumstance which showed that by this Lessons on ihe Life of our Lord (London, 1871, and
99 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA OBf*
often, 200,000 copies sold); lessons
on the Acts of of the literature for the Finns. With great exer-
ike Apostles (1872); Story of the Fuh-Kien Mission tion he had translated Erik Pontoppidan's expla-
of the Church Missionary Society (1877); Steps to nation of the catechism, the New Testament, and
Truth (1878, many editions, also translations into the book of Genesis. These he consigned with others
other languages); Japan and the Japan Mission of to the flames in 1830. He was more and more im-
the Church Missionary Society (1 880) ; Lesson Studies pressed with the necessity for the establishment of
in Genesis (1885); History of the Church Missionary the Lappish literary language upon a new basis.
Society (3 vols., 1899); One Hundred Years of the In preparation for this work he spent the years
Church Missionary Society (1899); Short Handbook 1831-33 in Christiania, Copenhagen, Stockholm,
of Missions (1904); Notes on India for Missionary and Hclsingfors, holding conferences with leading
Students (1905); The Story of Church Missions scholars. Having returned to Finmark in 1833, he
(1907); Talks on St. Luke's Gospel (1907); and My invented a new phonic alphabet. In 1836 he jour-
Recollections (1909). neyed to Christiania to publish his writings, and
prepared two students in the Lappish language.
STOCK, SIMON. See SIMON (SIMEON) STOCK,
The year 1837 he spent in Finland for a more thor-
SAINT.
ough study of Finnish, and, upon his return to
STOCKFLETH, stec'flet, NILS JOACHIM CHRIS- Christiania, published a primer and reader, Luther's
TIAN VIBE: Norwegian missionary; b. at Fredriks- Shorter Catechism, a translation of Matthew and
stad Jan. 11, 1787; d. at Sandefjord (58 m. s.s.w. Mark, and a Biblical history. This was done at tho
of Christiania) Apr. 26, 1866. By the death of his expense of the Storthing, which authorized also a
father, who was a preacher, in 1794, his mother was complete translation of the Bible. Then he turned
left in dire poverty with three children of whom his attention again to the mountain Lapps (1840-
Nils was the oldest. She afterward moved to Copen- 1845, 1851-62), always intent upon the instruction
hagen in order to give the two oldest boys a legal of pastors for the people. The history of all his
education. Nils, however, had a strong inclination missionary expeditions he published in his Dagbog
for theology. In 1805 the mother died; and the over mine Missionsreiser i Finmarken (Christiania,
two boys, overcome by sickness, grief, and over- 1860), with an appendix giving an excerpt from the
work, were brought into a hospital in great destitu- most important writings on Finnish history and
tion. Nils received a lieutenancy in the army dur- language. An episode in the last period of his work
ing the European war, and upon the conclusion of was a wave of religious frenzy originating from tho
peace (1814) was honorably discharged with the preaching of Lars Lewi Lsestadius in a neighboring
rank of captain. He then returned and entered the Swedish diocese. This movement threatened the
Norwegian army. He became a tutor in the family public peace as well as public and private morals.
of a rural preacher near Waldres in 1818, which led Stockfleth hastened to the scene, and for six months
to a revival of his desire for the study of theology. waged battle against the morbid outbreak. Ex-
He entered the University of Christiania in 1823, hausted in strength, he retired in 1853, after having
and was ordained a missionary to Finmark (north- been pensioned; and spent the remaining years of
ernmost Norway) in 1825; and in spile of his weak his life (1853-66) at the baths of Sandefjord. Ills
" "
lungs and his paralyzed right arm, he, accompanied Religious Letters (1845) show a profound relig-
by his wife, went to Vadso on the Arctic Ocean, the ious life. (J. BELSHEIM.)
same year. Finmark has an area of 18,250 square BIBLIOGRAPHY: The principal source is his own D offbog, ut
miles and a scattered Finnish population of 21,000, sup. Sketches of his life are by J. Forschhammer, Copen-
either engaged in the fisheries or following with their hagen, 1867; and C. H. Kalkar, in F. Piper's Evangel-
iaches Kolendar, 1867. Consult also H. Hteffens, Vfbrr
reindeer a nomadic life inland. As the only other die Lappcn und Pastor Stockfleths Wirksamkeit unter
church district was without a pastor, Stockfleth's diesen, Berlin, 1842.
field included this wide extent. At the beginning STOCKTON, THOMAS HEWLINGS: Methodist
of the eighteenth century, the Finns of this prov-
Protestant; b. at Mount Holly, N. J., June 4, 1808;
ince were only nominally Christians, demoralized by d. in Philadelphia Oct. 9, 1868. Converted in tho
the liquor traffic and the selfish spoliation of the Nor- Methodist Episcopal Church, he joined the Meth-
wegians. The Gospel had been planted by the zealous odist Protestant Church on its organization, and in
teacher Isaac Olsen (1703-16) and by Thomas 1829 was placed upon a circuit. He was stationed
von Westen (q.v.), the " Apostle to the Finns." In in Baltimore, 1830; was chaplain to the house of
order to serve the six churches Stockfleth was
representatives, 1833-35 and 1859-61, and to the
obliged to make long and perilous journeys, some- senate, 1862. He preached in Philadelphia, 1838-
times by boat, sometimes by sled, even as far as
1847; in Cincinnati, 1847-50; as associate pastor
into the Russian empire. Finding the work under-
hi Baltimore, 1850-56; as sole pastor in Philadel-
taken beyond one man's strength, he determined He was one of the most eloquent
phia, 1856-68.
to confine himself to the ministry of the Lapps,
preachers of his day, and was an anti-slavery pio-
sharing with them their huts and fare, in order to neer. He compiled a hymn-book for his denomina-
master their speech and win their confidence. At tion (1837), and published Sermons for the People
one-fourth his former income he therefore assumed
(Pittsburg, 1854); Poems, with Autobiographic and
the Lebesby pastorate (1828). His work was an Other Notes (Philadelphia, 1862); and Book above
incessant itinerancy; he tarried usually about eight
All; or, the Bible the only sensible, infallible and di-
weeks in a district and stopped only briefly with vine Authority on Earth: Discourses (1870).
the families scattered miles apart. More and more
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Clark, Memory9 a Tribute to the Life, Char-
the conviction increased upon him of the inadequacy acter, and Work of the Rev. T. H. Storkton. New York
 THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG 100

I860; J. G. Wilson, Life, Character and Death of Rev. Souls that are under Conversion (1714); An Answer
T. B. Stockton, Philadelphia, 1809.
to some Cases of Conscience (1722).

STODDARD, CHARLES AUGUSTUS: Presby- BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. B. Sprague, Annals of the American

Ptdptt, 172-174, New York, 1859; W. Walker, Creeds
May 28, 1833. He was
i.
terian; b. in Boston, Mass.,
and Platform* of Congregationaliem, pauixn, ib. 1893;
educated at Williams College, Williamstown, Mass.
idem, in American Church History Series, iii. 18O-182,
(A.B., 1854), the University of Edinburgh and Free 188, 251, 254, ib. 1894; idem, Ten New England Leaders,
Church of Scotland Theological Seminary (1855-56), pp. 219, 227, 232, 245-247, ib. 1901; L. W. Bacon, The
and at Union Theological Seminary (graduated, Conffregationalists, pp. 81, 113, 117, 119, ib. 1904; F. H.
Foster, Genetic Hist, of New England Theology, pp. 30, 32,
1859), after which he was pastor of the Washington
36-40, 51, Chicago, 1907.
Heights Presbyterian Church, New York City, until
1883. In 1869 he was associate editor, in 1873 part STOECKER, stuk'er, ADOLF: German United
owner, and from 1885 to 1902 editor-in-chief of The Evangelical; b. at Halberstadt (31 m. s.w. of Mag-
Observer; he has also been active in directing and deburg) Dec. 15, 1835; d. at Nuremberg Feb. 25,
promoting various philanthropic enterprises. He 1908. He was educated at the universities of Halle
edited The Centennial Celebration of Williams and Berlin (1854-57) was private tutor in Ncustadt
;

College (Williamstown, Mass., 1894) and has (1857-59) and in Kurland (1859-63); became pas-
written Across Russia from the Baltic to the tor at Seggerda, near Halberstadt, where he re-
Danube (New York, 1891); Spanish Cities, with mained until 1866, when he was called in a similar
Glimpses of Gibraltar and Tangier (1892); Beyond capacity to Hamerslcbcn; from 1871 to 1874 he was
the Rockies (1894) A Spring Journey in California
; military divisional pastor at Mctz (1871-74); was
(1895); and Cruising Among the Caribbees (1895; court and cathedral preacher at Berlin (1874-91);
new ed., 1903). in 1891 his political views caused his dismissal. In
1878 he became a member of the general synod of
STODDARD, DAVID TAPPAN: Congregational the Evangelical Church. Stocker's chief fame is
missionary; b. at Northampton, Mass., Dec. 2,
due to his foundation, in 1878, of the Christian so-
1818; d. at Ummiah, Persia, Jan. 22, 1857. He
cialist and to his sturdy advocacy of anti-
studied at Round Hill Academy and Williams Col- party,
was graduated from Yale College, 1838, and Semitism, since he regarded Judaism as a danger
lege;
both to Christianity and to the political strength of
from Andover Theological Seminary, 1841; sailed
Germany.
as missionary to the Nestorians, 1843, among whom Stoecker was elected as the avowed advocate
he labored successfully. From 1848 to 1851 he was
of these views to the Prussian diet in 1879, re-
in America on a visit. He was particularly inter-
ested in the Nestorian youths whom he gathered in taining office until 1898, while from 1881 to 1893
he was likewise a member of the Reichstag, re-
the seminary established in 1844 at Ummiah. His
elected in 1898. He served as president of the
theological lectures, which embraced a complete
Christlich-Sozialer Verein, which, owing to the
course of doctrinal theology, he delivered in Syriac.
decline of the anti-Semitic movement in Germany,
His Grammar of the Modern Syriac Language was
had diminished in prestige. In 1887 he founded
published in the Journal of the American Oriental the Deutsche evangelische Kirchenzeitung, which he
Society, New Haven, Conn., 1855.
edited after 1892. He wrote ChristHch-Sozial (Biele-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. P. Thompson, Memoir of David Tappan
Stoddard, New York, 1868. feld, 1884) Eins ist Not, ein Jahrgang Volksprcdig-
;

ten uberfreie Texte (Berlin, 1884); O Land, hore des

STODDARD, SOLOMON: Congregationalist; b. Herrn Wort, ein Jahrgang Volkspredigten uber die
in Boston, Mass., 1643; d. at Northampton, Mass.,
Episteln (1885); Den Armen wird das Evangelium
Feb. 11, 1729. He was graduated from Harvard
gepredigt (1887); Die sozialen und kirchlichen
College, 1662; was chaplain in Barbados for two Notstdnde in grossen Stddten (Stuttgart, 1888) Wan-
;

years; preached at Northampton 1669-1729, when deU im Geist (Berlin, 1888); Die sonntdglicfie Pre-
he was succeeded by his grandson, and colleague
digt (1889); Salz der Erde (1892); Wach auf, evan-
from 1727, Jonathan Edwards. From 1667 to 1674
gelisches Volk (1893); Dreizehn Jahre Hofprediger
he was first librarian at Cambridge. He is remem-
" und Politiker (1895); Oesammelte Schriften (1896);
bered for his theory that the Lord's Supper is in-
stituted to be a means of regeneration/ and that
1 Verheissung und Erfullung (1896); Das Evangelium
eine Ootteskraft (1900); Bestdndig in der Apostel
persons may and ought to come to
though they
it,
Lehre (1901); and Das Leben Jesu in tdglichen An-
know themselves to be in a " natural condition."
dachten (1903).
He wrote The Safety of Appearing at the Day of
Judgement, in the Righteousness of Christ (Boston, STOBSSEL, JOHAHH: German theologian; b.
1687; 3d ed., 1742); The Doctrine of Instituted at Kitzingen (10 m. s.e. of Wdrzburg) June 23,
Churches Explained and Proved from the Word of 1424; d. at Senftenberg (33 m. n.e. of Dresden)
God (Boston, 1700; a reply to Increase Mather's Mar. 18, 1576. After taking his degree at Witten-
The Order of the Gospel, Professed and Practised by berg in 1549, he was called, as an anti-Philippist,
the Churches of Christ in New England, Justified, to Weimar by Duke John Frederick as chaplain,
Boston and London, 1700); An Appeal to the and in this capacity he took part with Maximilian
Learned, Being a Vindication of the Right of visible Moriin, court chaplain at Coburg, in introducing
Saints to the Lord's Supper, though they be Destitute the Reformation in the margravate of Baden-Dur-
of a saving Work of God's Spirit on their Hearts; lach in 1556, vigorously opposing everything diver-
Against the Exceptions of Mr. Increase Mather gent from strict Lutheranism. In the same spirit
(1709); A Guide to Christ, or the Way of Directing he opposed Melanchthon at the colloquy of Worms
101 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Stoicism

in the following year. He was made superintend- how far personal ambition was the cause, or how
ent at Heldburg, and in 1558 took part, with M6r- far the reason lies simply in the development of his
lin and Simon Musaeus, in the preparation of the views of theology and of the Church.
Weimar " Book of Confutation, 11 which they de- (G. KAWERAU.)
fended against Victorinus Strigel and Pastor BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Heppe, Geschichte des Prote.Ktantismu9,
Hugel in a special Apologie in 1559. The next year voli. i.-ii., Marburg, 1852-53; A. Kluokhohn, Fnedrieh
der Fromme, pp. 69 aqq., N6rdlingen, 1879; R. Hofmann,
Stossel and Mttrlin accompanied John Frederick
Getchichte der Kirche St. Marten in Pirna, pp. 38 eqq n
to Heidelberg, in the hope of keeping the duke's Pirna, 1890; ADB, xxxvi. 471 0qq.
father-in-law, Elector Frederick the Pious, firm in
Lutheranism. This proved impossible, however, STOICISM: One of the philosophic-ethical
and shortly after StossePs return a change became schools of ancient Greece and Rome. The founder
of Stoicism was Zeno of Citium in Cyprus (d. in
apparent in his own attitude. In ensuing contro-
versies between Lutheran and Calvinistic theolo- Athens c. 260 B.C.), originally a trader, who in mid-

gians both he and Mftrlin assumed an intermediate

dle determined to reside permanently in Athens.
life

position, and in this frame of mind became coun- Here, in the Stoa poikUe, the colonnade adorned
cilors of John Frederick, though at the Naumburg with frescoes of patriotic themes of Attic legends
Diet of princes in 1561 they still worked on the side and history, he was wont to meet his followers,
of Flacius. But when Stossel was appointed, first hence the name. The formal resolutions of the At-
tic government in his honor seem to attest the sub-
temporarily and then (Sept., 1561) definitely,
stantial consistency of his conduct and of his doc-
superintendent in Jena, his mediating position be-
came more pronounced, and with his limitation of trine. Neither his direct successors, Cleanthes of
the theological controversy of the Jena professors Assos (d. about 220 B.C.), and Chrysippus the Cili-
and the elevation of the Weimar consistory, at his cian (d. about 207 B.C.), nor Panoetius (d. 112 B.C.)
instance, to the supreme church authority in Thu-
and Posidonius (d. about 50 B.C.) can be here dis-
ringia, with himself as its assessor, the breach be-
cussed. What is of interest is the attitude of the
tween him and the Flacian party became complete, school toward religion and ethics.
BO that when Flacius and Wigand protested in Formally the Stoics were materialists. Even
writing against him, he lodged complaint against deity, divinity, God, was to them a substance, ether,
them at court. the most delicate and all-pervasive element. In
The result of this controversy was the deposition the periodic processes of cosmic making and unma-
of both his opponents and the rout of their whole king, whether through fire or deluge, this alone it
party, while Stossel was appointed to a theolog- imperishable and eternal. Of this substance are the
ical professorship and undertook the difficult task individual souls of men, but they are not immortal.
of mediating between the Flacian clergy and the "God," "universe," "the world," "fate," "provi-
synergistic Strigel. But his Superdedaratio, com- dence," "Zeus," all these as well as "reason" are
posed to this end, caused fresh dissension and the merely terms and names for one and the same thing
dismissal of some forty recalcitrant pastors in 1562- (Diogenes Laertius, vii. 135). God is immanent in
1563, as well as a bitter literary controversy. Stri- the world, dissolving it in cosmic periods into himself
gel, suspicious of Stossel, resignedfrom the faculty, and creating it again out of himself. Intelligence
and a time Stossel was the sole theological pro-
for and providence pervade and permeate the world.
fessor at Jena, of which he was rector in 1563, 1565, Past and future are infinite eternities, the present
and 1567. After the fall of John Frederick, his only is limited. Toward the physical personifica-
brother and successor, John William, recalled the tions of the so-called religion of the Greeks, this
exiled pastors in 1567, and they issued, against school assumed an attitude which, when superficially
Stb'ssel's Superdedaratio, their own Responsio considered, appeared to be conservative, but it was
exulum Thuringicorum, compelling all who had sub- in effect destructive. They resorted to allegories
scribed to his work to resign. Through the influence and allegorical interpretation. This matter and
of the Elector August he was appointed super- method found its way into the schools of those who
intendent in Muhlhausen, whence he was trans- expounded Homer and Hesiod, and was reasserted
ferred to Pirna, becoming ecclesiastical councilor later on by Cornutus in Rome, a contemporary
and confessor to the elector. In May, 1570, at of Claudius and Nero, as well as by Neoplato-
the colloquy of Zerbst, he sought recognition for nists like Porphyry and Servius. How practise
the Corpus doctrines Philippicum. But his plea for of sincere worship could abide with this allegor-
the crypto-Calvinism of the Philippists doomed hfr", ical dissolution of Hera, Athena, Zeus, and the
and in March he was confined to his house in Pirna, rest it is hard to see; at the same time the scan-
where he signed a declaration submitted to him by dalous elements of Homeric anthropomorphism
the elector. At the Diet of Torgau, however, his were abolished, names, legends, and symbols being
disrespectful utterances about high personages preserved.
were brought to formal notice, in August he was re- The relation of man to himself, to God or the
moved to the fortress of Senftenberg, and in Jan., world, and to his fellow men, is best expressed in
"
1576, again underwent a formal trial. the axiomatic postulate that man must live in con-
Stttssel's revulsion from the Flacians of Jena sonance with nature "; here they differed profound-
receives its explanation from their terrorism, but ly from their chief adversaries, the Epicureans, as
his change to crypto-Calvinism is more difficult to well as from the Greek contentment with mere phys-
" "
account for. Many of his contemporaries ascribed ical felicity. They claimed that nature," God,"
"
it to unworthy motives; and it is impossible to tell reason/' direct man to seek the highest good in
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 102

menu T. W.
virtue,not in pleasure. This was the voice of thai of Zeno and Cleanthe*. Cambridge, 1891;
Rollwton, Ttu Teaching of Epictetus, London, 1891; J. B.
nature, that rational ideal of giving sovereignty to on the
Lightfoot, St. Paul and Seneca, in his Dissertations
God in man, to that precept which will justify Apostolic Aget London, 1892; A. Schmekel, Die Phi-
conduct before the universal reason, and thus make losophic der mittlercn Stoa, Berlin, 1892; J. B. Brown,
Stoics and Saints, Glasgow, 1893; A. BonhOflfer, Epikte-
itby implication obligatory on all.* Thus the Stoics tos und die Stoa, Stuttart, 1890; idem, Die Ethik des
elevated Socrates to a dominating position. Be- Stoikers Epiktet, ib. 1894; A. W. Benn, The Philosophy
tween virtue and moral wrong there are no inter- of Greece, London, 1898; A. Dyroff, Die Ethik der alien
mediate steps or gradations. Nor are there any de- Stoa, Berlin, 1898; T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, 3 vols.,
London, 1901-05; A. P. Ball, Satire_of Seneca on the Apo-
grees of difference or elevation \vithin the category theosis of Claudius: a Study, New York, 1902; C. H.
of virtue or of vice. Virtue, unless it appears in ac- 8. Davis, Greek and Roman Stoicism, Boston, 1903; E.
tion, is of no value. What men mainly cherish, the Renan, Marcus Aurelius, recent issue, London, 1903;
boons of health, wealth, honor, power, pleasure, E. A. Abbott, Silanu* the Christian, London, 1906 (a
historical novel, but valuable); L. Alston, Stoic and Chris-
must not be the objects of action, for they are neither tian in the Second Century. London, 1906; W. H. D.
good nor bad in themselves, but are intermediate Rouse, Words of the Ancient Wise, London, 1906 (selec-
or indifferent (adiaphora). tions from Epiotetus and Marcus Aurelius) ; W. L. David-
Stoics thus took a distinctly spiritual ground, and son, The Stoic Creed, Edinburgh, 1907; St. George Stock,
" " Stoicism (in Philosophies, Ancient and Modern), Edin-
a vigorous contempt for the world can not be
burgh, 1908, New York, 1909; T. Zielinski, Cicero im
denied to some members of the school. At the same Wandel der Jahrhunderte, Leipsic, 1908; F. W. Bussell,
time everything, at bottom, is centered in the sub- Marcus Aurelius and the Later Stoics, Edinburgh, 1909;
R. D. Hicks, Stoic and Epicurean, London and New York,
ject, and suicide is commended as a termination of E. V. Arnold, Roman Stoicism, London, 1911; and
1910;
trouble or as preservation of freedom. Cato, the the literature under EPICTETUS, MARCUS AURELJUH
opponent of Caesar, and afterward, under the em- ANTONINUS, and SENECA..
perors, Pa?tus Thrasea, Seneca (q.v.), Lucan, Cor-
n ut us, and his pupil the poet Persius, Helvidius STOKES, GEORGE THOMAS: Irish ecclesias-
tical historian; Athlone (70 m. w. of Dublin),
b. at
Priscus, and Epictetus were notable adherents of
this school,which really made great demands on its Ireland, Dec. 28, 1843; d. in Dublin Mar. 24, 1898.
He studied at Galway grammar-school and at Queens
followers, and gained from the general body of their
various contemporaries a large measure of respect, College, Galway; was graduated from Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin (B.A., 1864; M.A., 1871; B.D., 1881;
being by far the most virile form of thought which
arose among the ancients. The Antonine emperors,
and D.D., 1880); was vicar of All Saints, New-
whose creed Stoicism was, did much for the improve-
town Park, Dublin, 1868-98; became assistant to
the regius professor of divinity, 1880, and professor
ment of slavery, but Marcus also directed a perse-
of ecclesiastical history in the University of Dub-
cution of the Christians. See NATUHAL LAW.
E. G. SIHLER. lin, 1883; librarian of St. Patrick's Library, Dub-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources arc Diogenes Laertiua, book vii., lin, 1887; and prebend and canon of St. Andrew,
Eng. transls. were published, London, 1688, 1696, and in 1893. He published Ireland and the Celtic Church.
Bohn'n Library, 1853; Plutarch, from his Opera, best ed. t A History of Ireland from St. Patrick to tJie English
ed. T. Doehnor and others, 3 vols., Paris, 1846-55, may
Conquest in 1112 (London, 1886); a commentary
be named De Stoicorum repugnantiis, De placitift philoso-
on the Acts, 2 vols., in The Expositor's Bible (1888);
phorum; Cicero, De natura dcorum, Eng. trannl., London,
1896, De firtibits, Eng. transl., ib. 1890; Epictetus, Works Ireland and the Anglo-Norman Church. A History
(Eng. transl.), new ed., Boston, 1891; idem, Discourses, of Ireland and Irish Christianity from the Anglo-
2 vols., London, 1897 (a fine ed., published by Humph- Norman Conquest to the Dawn of the Reformation
reys), other translations are issued by Dent, London,
1899, and by Bell, ib. 1903; Marcus Aurolius, Golden, Book, (1889); Dudley Loft us: A Dublin Antiquary of the
ed. W. H. D. Rouse, London, 1900 (another transl., 1906); seventeenth Century (Dublin, 1890); The Island
idem, Meditations, Edinbursh, 1904 (a fine edition), Lon- Monasteries of Wales and Ireland (1891); St. Fechin
don, 1905 (in Standard Library), with title Marcus Aure-
liiu to Himself, transl. and introductions by G. H. Kendall, of Fone, and his Monastery (1892); Greek in Gaul
London and Now York, 1901; idem, Thoughts, London, and Western Europe down to A.D. 700. The Knowl-
1890, with introduction by J. L. Spalding, London and edge of Greek in Ireland between A .D. 500 and 900
New York, 1900; Seneca, Minor Dialogues, London, 1886; . . . (1892); Calendar of the Liber Niger Alani
idem, Morals, ib. 1888; idem, On Benefits, ib. 1887; idem,
Tranquillity of Mind and Providence, New York, 1900. (1893); and, in collaboration with C. H. II. Wright,
The subject is discussed in the works on the history of The Writings of St. Patrick; ... a ... Transla-
philosophy by H. Hitter, 4 vols., Oxford, 1836-46; J. E. tion, . with Notes (1887).
. .

Erdmann, New York, 1893; H. Hitter and L. Preller

8th ed., by E. Wellmonn, Gotha, 1898. Consult further: BIBLIOGRAPHY: DNS, Supplement iii. 361-362; Athenceum.
W. W. Capos, Stoicism, London, 1880; E. Zoller, Stoics, Apr. 2, 1898.

Epicureans, and Sceptics, London, 1880; D. Tiedemann,

System der stoischen Philosophic, 3 vols., Leipsic, 1776; STOLBERG, FRIEDRICH LEOPOLD, COUNT:
A. Grant, The Ancient Stoics, Oxford, 1858; M. Arnold, German author and convert to the Roman Catholic
Marcus Aurelius, in his Essays in Criticism, series 1, Faith; b. at Bramstedt (23 m. n. of Hamburg) Nov.
London, 1805; F. May Holland, Reign of the Stoics, New d. on the estate of Sondermuhlen near
7, 1750;
York, 1879; G. P. Weygoldt, Die Philosophic der Stoa
nach ihrem Wesen und ihren Schicksalen, Leipsic, 1883; Osnabrtick (65 m. s.s.w. of Bremen) Dec. 5, 1819.
T. Jordan, Stoic Moralists in the First Two Centuries After the removal of his family to Copenhagen, he
Dublin, 1884; H. de Stein, Die Psychologie der Stoa, 2 was educated there, together with his brother Chris-
vols., Berlin, 1886-88? J. Favre, La Morale stoteienne,
Paris, 1888; C. H. Horford, The Stoics as Teachers, Cam- tian, two years older than himself. Klopatock, a
bridge, 1889; F. W. Farrar, Seekers after God, new ed., 'riend of the family, exercised a deep influence upon
London and New York, 1891; A. C. Pearson, in his Frae- the two boys. They studied at Halle in 1770-71,
* to*
Arfyo* aiptt iroieu- (Diogenes
Laertiui, vii. ii es-
and at Gottingen in 1772-73. In G&ttingen they
108)
sentially M sound as Kant's " categorical imperative," became a part of the well-known "Hainbund,"
103 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Stoicism
Stole

which names a certain period of development in F. von Kerz (vols. xvi.-xlv., Mainz, 1825-46) and
modern poetry. In 1775 the two brothers under- by J. N. Brischar (vols. xlvi.-li., 1849-53). The
took a journey through Germany to Switzerland, work shows a lack of critical discernment and sys-
making the acquaintance of prominent men, in tem, and a hasty pen. He also published Leben
Frankfort associating with Goethe, and at Geneva Alfreds des Orossen (MUnstcr, 1817), with an intro-
meeting Voltaire. In 1776 Friedrich Leopold was duction on Anglo-Saxon history; and Ein Biichlein
appointed ambassador at the Danish court by the von der Liebe (1818; Eng. transl., A Little Book of
prince-bishop of Lubeck and the duke of Olden- the Love of God, London, 1849), a coherent repre-
burg. The literary productions of Stolberg were at sentation of the Biblical doctrine of love. His Rcise
that time in the region of lyrical poetry. At the in Deutschland, der Schweiz, Italien und Sicilicn (4
same tune he occupied himself with the study of vols., Konigsberg, 1794) was translated into Eng-
the Greeks, translating the Iliad, also some portions lish (2 vols., London, 1796-97). (A. FREYBE.)
of -flSschylus, and composing several dramas in the BIBLIOGRAPHY: Biographies have been written by A.
Greek form. In 1785 he was sent on a mission to Nicolovius, Mainz, 1846; T. Mcnge, 2 vols., Gotha, 1802;
J. Janasen, 3d ed., Freiburg, 1882; and K. Windol, 2d ed.,
St. Petersburg, where he met Klinger. In 1789 he
Potsdam, 1896. Consult further: C. F. A. Schott, Voss
was appointed Danish ambassador in Berlin, and und Stolberg, oder der Kampf des Zei! otters zwischen Licht
in 1791 the prince-bishop of Lttbeck appointed him und Verdunkdung, Stuttgart, 1820; W. von Bippen,
Eutiner Skizecn. Zur Kultur- und Litteraturgeschichtr des
president of the government in Eutin, but before
18. Jahrhundert, Weimar, 1859; W. Herhst, Johannes H.
he entered his new position, he traveled to Italy,
Voss, vol. ii., I/jipsir,, 1874; also J. H. Hennes, F L. Graf
and also visited Minister, where he met the Princess tu Stolberg und Herzog Pctfr Fnedrich Ludwig von Olden-
Galitzin, a devoted Roman Catholic. Mtinster at burg aus ihrem Briefwechsel, Mainz, 1870.
that time was the seat of a Catholicism in which STOLE. See VESTMENTS AND INSIGNIA, ECCLE-
Biblical Christianity predominated over Romanism. SIASTICAL.
An interview with the pope later filled Stolberg with
admiration. In 1793 he returned to Eutin and en-
STOLE FEES, SURPLICE FEES: Name applied
to fixed contributions to the clergy for certain offi-
tered his new position, but remained in close con-
cial services rendered, paid by the person at whose
tact with the circle of Munster while Voss, with
behest such service is rendered. In a
whom he had hitherto been in close relations, seemed
the representative of superficial rationalism. In History in wider sense the term includes the fees
the Roman of such lower clergy as cantors, organ-
1793 Princess Galitzin returned his visit; in 1794
Catholic ists, and sacristans. The term first
Stolberg visited in Minister, being powerfully at-
tracted by Filrstcnberg and the princess. The Church, appears in the later Middle Ages, and
originated in the fact that the clergy
change in his opinions appears in a letter to F. H.
in the Roman Catholic Church, then as now, was
Jacobi, written in February, 1794, in which he
says:
"
1 know and love the mysticism of a Plato, obligated to perform those offices clad in the stole.
one of my first favorites but the kind of rev-
. . .
In the Eastern Church these fees are known by the
elation that was granted them remains as distinct corresponding term for stole, epitrachclium. In the
from that of the Bible as the heaven is above the Middle Ages there is mention of justitia, jura presby-
" teri, and jura parochialia, or the fee is designated ac-
earth "; while later it was declared of him: The
miserable condition of Protestantism, that leads to cording to the particular service performed, as baptis-
terium, nuptice, or sepultura. In the early Church, tho
deism, atheism, to a rationalism that eats and des-
troys all mystic roots like cancer, the philosophy bishops furnished the support of the clergy, but many
of Kant, and the whole Enlightenment repelled him voluntary gifts were made as evidences of gratitude,
more and more." In 1798 he visited the Brethren as well as for support. But, by authority of Matt.
in Herrnhut to see whether he could there find peace x. 8, the acceptance of a voluntary gift for the per-

and rest. On June 1, 1800, Stolberg, together with formance of a holy act was expressly forbidden.
his family, adopted the Roman Catholic faith in Nevertheless, the desire of the people to retain the
the chapel of Princess Galitzin. By this step he good-will of the clergy and prove their own ac-
offended most deeply all Protestant North Germany, knowledgment, on the one hand, and the cupidity
but especially his older of friends, Voss,
circle of the latter, on the other, led not only to offensive

Jacobi, Gleim, and After tendering his res-

others. practise among the ordinary clergy, but even the
ignation to the duke, Stolberg retired into private bishops came to accept gifts for such transactions
life and settled near Mttnster, on the estate of Ltit- as ordination, dedication of churches, and confirma-
tion. Again and again it became necessary for the
jenbeek. In 181 1 he removed to the estate of Taten-
hausen near Bielefeld, and in 1816 to Sondermtthlen. Church to forbid the practise, excepting, however,
Meanwhile he had published his lyrical poems, to- voluntary gifts to the support of the clergy (I Cor.
ix. 11-14; Matt. x. 10), if not given specifically for
gether with those of his brother Christian (Leipsic,
services performed. This standpoint appears, in
1779, new ed., 1821, and separately Vaterlandiache
Gedichte, again combined with those of his brother, the ecclesiastical enactments of the twelfth century.
Hamburg, 1815). He was the author also of Zwo Meanwhile an influence among the lower churches
Schriftcn des heiligen Augustin von der wahren Re-
and clergy operated to restrict the right of stole
ligion und von den Sitten der katholischcn Kirche fees. This was the Germanic system of private
(1803). But the work which filled almost the whole temples. In the north, even in pagan times, the
remainder of his was his Oeachichte der Religion
life earl or private owner imposed upon those who fro-
Jew Hamburg, 1806-18). It ex-
Christi (15 vols., quented his temple a toll for the maintenance of the
tends only to the year 430, and was continued by same and the support of his priest, as well as fees
Btonine THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 104

for specific services. The west and south Germans autonomy of the Roman Catholic Church in 1848.
brought this custom with the system of private In fact, the right of the respective churches to fix
temples into the Church, and now the latter had to and regulate fees for ecclesiastical transactions is
encounter as a system what before appeared only inalienable; yet obligations involved are imposed
as more or less scattered abuses. The Church was upon the subjects of the State for the enforcement
a private enterprise of the landlord, who was not of whieh the State must lend its arm. Hence, the
content with voluntary offerings and gifts, but de- matter may not be wholly left in the hands of the
manded a fixed price for every important service Church, and the State is also entitled to the privi-
by the priest, who was his private official. Natur- lege of a normative cooperation. This rule prevails,
ally, thiswas extended to include baptism, marriage, for example, in Prussia; in Austria, on the other
penance, and unction; and, in combination with the hand, alterations in the regulations are reserved by
other Germanic principle recognizing not free serv- the State after the concurrence of the bishops. A
ices but only those recompensed as efficacious, the state concurrence takes place where the Evangelical
system soon extended to the churches in the hands church possesses organized government and by the
of the bishops and became universal. The stole adaptation of presbyterial and synodal elements
fees were regarded as legal appurtenances of the maintains a certain independence, and where the
churches, and were included in sales and investi- regulation of stole fees therefore devolves on the
tures. In spite of earnest protest by legislation church boards in common with the parish organs. In
and through its representatives, the Church was principle, the obligation of paying stole fees pertains
not able to restrict this barter of religious offices, only to the members of the church of the officiating
entrenched as it was behind the power and self-in- clergyman, which members alone arc in a position
terest of the landlord and the legal order. In the to require the services. This is the present concep-
end, when the danger of lay domination was, in tion. But formerly, before the parity of the churches
principle at least, removed by the substitution of was established, the members of the merely toler-
the right of Patronage (q.v.), the Church was not ated bodies were forced to pay the fees to the pas-
unwilling to assume this system of fees as resting tor of the prevailing church, even where they were
upon custom, not without, inside of certain limits, performed by pastors of their own confession.
a commending acquiescence in its origin. This took Voices have been raised in the Roman Catholic
place in connection with the act on Simony (q.v.) Church for the abolition of stole fees, namely, in
of the Fourth Lateran Council under Innocent III. the Council of Trent, and spontaneously in the
in 1215. Extortion for spiritual official services eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
was forbidden, but where the payment of fees was Efforts at though in vain against the practical
according to established custom it was commended Abolition, difficultiesinvolved. More earnestly
and sustained. To make this consistent with the was the practise felt to be improper
prohibition of simony, such payments were not to in the Evangelical church (beginning with Sponer)
be understood as specific recompense for the serv- and its abolition was demanded. Until the last
ices, but simply as a tribute rendered in view of the quarter of the last century this demand was met
obligation of clerical support and the recognition of only in isolated instances. In 1818 Nassau, 1849
parochial jurisdiction. It was also understood that Oldenburg, and 1871 Brunswick abolished the fees
the clergy were not to regard such fees as per con- in lieu of recompense from church funds or other
tract, nor to direct their ministry accordingly; and sources. The introduction of the civil register and
for the poor the necessary services were to be gratis. civil marriage by imperial statute (1875) provided
In following times the acceptance of such contribu- for an indemnification of the clergy, and occasioned
tions was made legitimate and it was only a step in a number of states the abolition of stole fees for
to sanctioning the right of the clerical to demand baptisms, wedding ceremonies, and publishing of
compensation, and also the legal obligation on his the bans, either in all churches or the Evangelical
part to render the service. To this day the right alone. Universal abolition was consummated in
" " Prussia in 1890-1900. In Baden the redemption
to stole fees within laudable custom has retained
the sanction of the Roman Catholic Church. of the stole fees is assigned to the churches; else-
In the Evangelical church, some of the older reg- where it is effected by state provisions. In Prussia
ulations either wholly or partly abolished the stole- the churches are reenforced, if the redemption taxes
fees; as, for instance, for baptism and the com- make an increase in the total expenses, by a state-
munion. Generally, they have been permitted and church fund.
remained customary in the Evangel- While the Old Catholics did not adopt the sys-
History in ical church. Where, as in electoral tem at all, it is in full sway in the Eastern Church,
the Evan- Saxony, demand of them was forbid- as well as in the Roman Catholic
gelical den until the seventeenth century, the Modern Church. Those entitled to stole fees
Church, communion
excepted, the practise of Practise, in the latter are the parish priest, a
payments as
free-will offerings per- clerical whose position is materially
sisted with reference to baptism and confession. the same, or an assistant, either on formal assign-
Under the new regime of state government from the ment by the parish priest or through special title.
sixteenth century the states have assumed the con- Stole fees must be authorized by church statute or
trol of, and, with the concurrence of the spiritual recognized custom. They usually occur in connec-
authorities, regulated, the system of stole fees. tion with baptisms, publishing of bans, marriages,
This standpoint has not been universally main- the blessing and attendance upon the deceased, and
tained, however, since the authorization of the the churching of women. It is excluded in respect
106 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Stole
Stoning

to the dispensation of the other sacraments, as the STONE OF MBSHA. See MOABITE STONE.
communion, extreme unction, and ordination, and STONE, BARTON WARREN: Disciple of Christ;
frequently, penance. In individual dioceses the b. near Port Tobacco, Md., Dec. 24, 1772; d. at
fees in connection with baptisms, penance, and the
Hannibal, Mo., Nov. 9, 1844. He graduated from
churching of women are dispensed with. The amount the academy at Guilford, N. G., in 1793; taught in
depends on the regulations or local custom. The Washington, Ga., and studied theology, then en-
earlier practise of proportioning the tax according tered the Presbyterian ministry as a licentiate in
to the rank of the person is discontinued, but in-
1796, being ordained as pastor of the churches at
stead there is introduced a grading according to the
Caneridge and Concord, Ky., 1798; in 1801 he was
means of the applicant, that is, his civic assessment. led to renounce Calvinism, and with four other
The regulation of the stole-fee system is under the
clergymen formed the Springfield Presbytery in
jurisdiction of the bishop, with the advice of the 1803, though this was dissolved in 1804 and formed
priests and his assistants. By a decree of 1896 this into the Christian Church (see CHRISTIAN B, 2); he
is conditioned by previous concurrences in provin- then turned for a time to fanning and teaching,
cial synods or bishops' conventions. Disputes, ac- meanwhile preaching and founding churches in
cording to canon law, are subject to the ecclesias- Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee; in 1826 he was
tical courts. In Prussia the state courts, by virtue editor of The Christian Messenger; in 1832 he as-
of state control, may hear and adjudicate com- sisted in a union of the churches known after him as
plaints. In Bavaria the administrative boards and "Stoneite" with the " Campbellite " churches in
administrative courts control disputes and enforce Kentucky (see DISCIPLES OP CHRIST, 1); after re-
payments, and in Austria these, in addition, punish moving to Jacksonville, 111., in 1834, he continued
exorbitant charges by a fine and enforced resti- to labor for the denomination until his death, both
tution. From stole fees arc to be excepted the by preaching and editing. He wrote Letters on the
stipends for masses, and fees for burial sites, pews, Atonement (1805); Address to the Christian Churcltes
utensils, and candles. The legal administration of (1806); and Letters to Dr. James Blythe (1822).
stole fees according to Evangelical church law is BIBUOQRAPHT: B. B. Tyler, in American Church History
similar to the Roman Catholic. They must not be New York, 1894, and in
Seriea, xii. 11, 13, 20, 22, 31, 32.
asked in advance, nor must the rites be suspended general the works on the early history of the denomina-
tions with which he was connected.
until payment has been made, and the necessary
official services must be rendered to the poor. Those STONE, DARWELL: Church of England; b. at
legally entitled are the official pastors, or, relatively, Rosset, Denbighshire (19 m. s. of Liverpool), Sept.
church treasuries, or those who administer the pas- 15, 1859. He received his education at Merton
toral income. The whole amount is regulated by College, Oxford (B.A., 1882; M.A., 1885; B.D.,
the church order or canonical precept with allow- 1909; D.D., 1909); was made deacon in 1883 and
ance for local observances. The levy and approval priest in 1885; was curate of Ashbourne, Derby-
of the taxes belongs to the church governing boards. shire, 1883-84; vice-principal of Dorchester Mis-
With the introduction of presbyterial and synodal sionary College, 1885-88, and principal, 1888-1903;
provisions the initiative to alteration devolves upon librarian of Pusey Memorial Library, Oxford, 1903-
the* congregational organs. (U. STUTZ.) 1909, and principal of the same since 1909. He
"
accepts thejprinciples of the Tractarian movement
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. M. Q. Grellmann, Kurze Geachichte dor in the Church of England, and is a student of the
Daa
history of doctrine and criticism." He has pub-
Stolgebuhren, Gottiugen, 1785; F. F. Fertsoh, Beicht-
geld in der proteatantiachen Kirche, Oiessen, 1830; J. A. H.
Tittmann, Ueber die Fixieruny der Stolgebuhren, Leipaic, lished: Holy Baptism (London, 1899; 4th ed., 1905) ;

1831; P. Baldauf, Die . . . Stolgebuhren in den oater- Outlines of Christian Dogma (1900; 4th ed., 1908);
reichinchen Provinzen, Qnue, 1835; E. L. Hagen, Die Christ and Human Life (1901); Meditations for Use
pfarramtlichen Beaoldungen, Neustadt, 1844; F. Kolde- in Retreat (1902); The Church of England. An Ap-
wey, Daa Alter der Stolgebuhren in der evang.-lutheriachen
Kirche dea Henogtuma Braunschweig, Brunswick, 1871; peal to Facts and Principles (1903; in collaboration
R. D. Urlin, Legal Guide to the Clergy, London, 1881; with W. C. E. Newbolt); The Invocation of Saints
H. W. Crippe, The Law Relating to the Church and Clergy, The Discipline of Faith (1904); The Holy
(1903);
ed. C. A. Grippe, London, 1886; J. H. Blunt, Book of
Church Law, Revised by Sir W. O. F. Phillimore, London, Communion (1904); The Christian Church (1905);
1888; G. Boaaert, Die Stolgebuhrenfrage in der evangeliachen and A History of the Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist
Landeakirche W urttemberga, Stuttgart, 1801; A. Luchaire, (2 vols., 1909).
Manuel dea institutions francaiaca, pfriode dea Capttiena
directa, pp. 350-351, Paris, 1892; L. Benario, Die Stol-
STONING, HEBREW USE OF: The employment
gebuhren noch bayeriachem Staatakirchenrecht, Munich,
of stones as a weapon of offense is common to vari-
1894; V. Karl. Orundzugedea bayeriachcn Stolrechtea, WQra-
burg, 1894; U. Stutz, Die Eigenkirche ola Element dea ous stages of civilization. Cases may be cited from
mittclaUerlich-germaniachen Kirchenrechta, p. 27, Berlin, the heroic age of the Greeks (Iliad, iii. 57; ^Eschy-
1895; idem, Oeachichte dea kirchlichen BeneJUtiolweama,
i. 1, pp. 93, 272, ib. 1895; J. Imbart do la Tour, Lea
lus, Agememnon, 1608) or from their historical
Paroiaaea rurolea du iv. au xi. aiecle t Paris, 1900; C. period (Thucydides, v. 60; Pausanius, VIII., v. 8),
Meurer, Bayeriachea Kirchenvermogenarecht, ii. 299 sqq., while the Roman mobs were not averse to the use
Stuttgart, 1901; B. Kaltner, Die neue Stolordnung fur of stones as weapons (Cicero, Pro domo, v. ; Quinti-
doa Henofftum SdUburg, BrOnn, 1904; G. Luttgert. Evan-
lian, Declamatio, XII., xii.). It was a custom also
gdiachea Kirchenrecht in Rheinland und WeatfaUn, pp. 553
aqq., Guteraloh, 1905; MilaBoh-Peatio', Do* Kirchenrecht to throw stones toward the grave of a hated indi-
der morgenl&ndiachen Kirche, 2d ed., pp. 646-547, Mortar, vidual. It is not surprising to hear that in Persia
1905; A. Freisen. Der ... Pfamwang und seine Aufhe-
Antioohus Epiphanes was reputed to have met his
bung in Onterreich und dm deutachen Bundeaatooten, Pader-
born, 1906; Hauok, KD, ii. 273, 717, iv. 21, 48, death by stoning (II Mace. i. 16), and that in Israel
 THE NEW 8CHAFF-HER2OG 106

also stones were thus used (Ex. xvii. 4; I Sain. xxx. blasphemy (Acts vi. 13, vii. 58) and for adultery
6; Matt. xxi. 35, and many other places). The ques- (John The Mishnah (Sanhedrin, vii. 4)
viii. 5).
tion is interestingwhat is the source of stoning regards as punishable by stoning the offenses
as a punishment imposed by the governing body? enumerated above, which either by express direc-
The practise of stoning by official direction is wider tion or by assured deduction were in the Old Testa-
than has been supposed. While this does not appear ment so indicated; but Sanhedrin xi. 1 indicates for
in the code of Hammurabi (see HAMMURABI AND adultery death by strangling, and in general the
HIS CODE), Arabs are known to throw stones at the Talmud divides capital penalties according as they
grave of a transgressor and at the place where a are executed by stoning, burning, the sword, or
shameful deed has been committed; this method strangling.
of execution was employed by Persians, Macedo- Respecting the carrying-out of the sentence the
nians (Curtius, De rebus geatis Alexandri, VI., xi. Bible directs that it be done outside the dwelling-
38), and Spaniards. The scholiast on Euripides, place of the community (Lev. xxiv. 14; I Kings
Orestes, 432, makes the death of Palamedes occur xxi. 13; Acts vii. 58), and that the witnesses cast
by stoning, and many other cases are reported (cf .
the first stone, to the end that witness-bearing be
O. Crusius, Beitrdge, p. 20, Leipsic, 1886). There done with greater circumspection (Deut. xiii. 10,
needs no special explanation of the use of this means xvii. 7; John viii. 7; Acts vii. 58-59). The Talmud
of punishment that it involves a certain rough-
gives the following directions (Sanhedrin, vi ) As :

ness or low state of culture is not true. Thus Israel soon as judgment is pronounced, the condemned is
revealed in its earliest code of laws in several re- to be led away to the place of execution, which is at
spects a nobler sense of humaneness than the code a distance from the court of judgment; one person
of Hammurabi, as is proved by its prescriptions re- remains at the entrance of the court-house with a
garding the care of animals (Ex. xx. 10) and the large cloth in his hand, while another, on horseback,
treatment of slaves and the poor (Ex. xxi. 2, 20, 26, is at a considerable distance away, yet within sight
etc.). Two reasons may be assigned for the custom of the first; in case some one affirms that he has
of stoning among the Hebrews. The first was a
testimony for the condemned, the signal is given
notable and lively ethical consciousness which was with the cloth, and the horseman rides at once to
evident throughout Jewish history with a certain
suspend execution; the condemned is brought back,
earnestness in punishment of certain kinds of and this may be done four or five times. Similarly
breaches of law. There was also apparent a definite execution may be suspended if the accused alleges
effort to bring the liveliest realization to the largest
that he has something vital to offer. In case he pro-
number of people possible of the hcinousness of cer- duces what is found essential, he goes free; other-
tain transgressions by making part of the people
wise he is led forth, while some one precedes him
executors of justice. Benzinger sees also in the par- announcing: Such a one, son of so and so, is led
ticipation of so many an effort to release themselves forth to be stoned for such an offense; so and so are
from guilt. the witnesses; whoever has anything to produce in
This punishment was decreed among the He- his favor, let him produce it. When the condemned
brews, according to the Old Testament, in cases is distant four ells from the place of execution, he
where the vitality of the nation was assailed, i.e., is stripped almost nude. The place of stoning is the
when its religious consciousness was offended; as
height of two men. One of the witnesses casts a
when true prophecy was imitated by false prophecy
stone, and if this does not kill the man, then an-
(Deut. xiii. 6-11) or by soothsaying and sorcery
other, and then, if -death has not ensued, the peo-
(Lev. xx. 27), when Yahweh's oneness was assaulted
ple take up the task. Those so executed arc after-
by the practise of idolatry (Deut. xvii. 2 sqq.), when ward hanged (Rabbi Eliezcr) others say that only
;
Yahweh's sanctuary was invaded by incompetent
blasphemers and idolaters are hanged; Eliezer di-
persons (Ex. xix. 12), in cases of blasphemy (I Kings rects that men and women both be hanged, other
xxi. 10), or desecration of the sabbath (Num. xv.
authorities, only men. The Jerusalem Gemara in
32-35), or when the ban was broken (Josh. vii. 25). the tract Sanhedrin gives the directions on folios
In Hammurabi's code stealing from the temple was
23-24, the Babylonian Gemara on folios 42-49.
the one capital crime in this category. In addition
The latter affirms (folio 43a) that with reference
to these religious offenses, the worst sins against
to Prov. xxxi. 6 before the stoning noble women
morality were punished by stoning, such as extreme
filial impiety (Deut. xxi. 18-21),
gave to the condemned wine with frankincense in
cursing of parents it to produce stupefaction. (E. KONIG.)
(Lev. xx. 9), breach of betrothal vows (Deut. xxii.
20-24), adultery (Lev. xx. 10; cf. Efek. xvi. 40, BIBLIOGRAPHY: For the practise among non-Iaraelitic peo-
ples consult: W. Wachsmuth, HeUenische Aliertumskunde,
xxiii. 47), incest (Lev. xx. 11, 12, 14), pederasty
vol. part 1, Beilage 3, Halle, 1820; K. F. Hermann,
ii.,
(Lev. xx. 13), and unnatural crime (Lev. xx. 16, 16). Griechitchc PrivataUertUmer, ed. K. B. Stark, 73, 5, Hei-
The one case, of adultery, in which the law does not delberg, 1870; Pauly, Realencyklopadie der klaanschen
explicitly threaten stoning, while Ezekiel (ut sup.) AUertumnoitBOMehaft, ed. W. 8. Teuffel, Stuttgart, 1870;
shows that to be the method of punishment, sug- F. Justi, Oeschichte des alien Pcrriena, p. 62, Berlin, 1879;
Haberland, in Zeitschrift ftir Volkerptychologie, xii (1880),
gests that other transgressions were also visited with 289-309. For the practise among the Hebrews much of
stoning. Legal execution with the sword occurred, the literature under LAW, HEBREW, CIVIL AND CRIMINAL,
is pertinent, and for purposes of comparison that under
according to the Old Testament, when sentence was
by the king and execution was by the military HAMMURABI AND HIS CODV. Consult further: F. 8. Ring,
De topUotion* Hebroorum, Frankfort, 1716; C. B. Mi-
(II Sam. i. 15; T Kings fi. 25; II Kings x. 25). In ohaelis, De judiciit poenitque capitolibus in Scriptura sacra
the New Testament stoning is the punishment for commemorate, Halle, 1749; H. B. Fassel, Das
107 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Stoning
Stoioh

rabbiniBche Strafgeaetx und strafrechtlichc Oerichts-Ver- "

Ottoman and the Muscovite were spoken without
fahren, Qroaa-Kaniua, 1870; P. B. Benny, Criminal Code
notes and were never printed; several others were
of the Jews according to the Talmud Maasecheth Synhednn,
London, 1880; 8. Mendelsohn, The Criminal Jurisprudence collected and published after his death in a volume
of the Ancient Hebrews, Baltimore, 1801; R. Mandl, Der entitled Orations and Addresses (Boston, 1901). In
Bann, pp. 22-23, Brttnn, 1898; R. Hirzel, Die Strafe der addition to these and to numerous, occasional dis-
Steinigung, in the Abhandlungen of the Royal Saxon
Academy, Philosophical-historical class, xxvii. 7 (1909);
courses his most important publications are: The
Bencinger, Archaotogie, p. 277; DB, i. 527; EB, iii. 2722; Constitution of the Human Soul (New York 1857);
JB, iii. 564-558; and the commentaries on the passages Preaching without Notes (1875); Ttie Divine Origin
cited in the text.
of Christianity Indicated by its Historical Effects
STORCH, NIKOLAUS. See ZWICKAU PROPHETS. (1884); Bernard ofClairvaux (1888); and Addresses
on Foreign Missions (1899). E. B. COE.
STORR, GOTTLOB CHRISTIAN: See TUBINGEN
THE OLDER. BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. A. Park, Richard S. Storrs: Memorial
SCHOOL,
Addrets, New York, 1900.
STORKS, RICHARD SALTER: Congregation-
STORY-BIBLES. See BIBLES, HISTORICAL.
alist; b. at Brointree, Mass., Aug. 21, 1821; d. in
Brooklyn, N. Y., June 5, 1900. He was the grand- STORY, ROBERT HERBERT: Church of Scot-
son of Rev. Richard Salter Storrs (1763-1819) of land; Roseneath (22 m. n.w. of Glasgow),
b. at

Longmeadow, Mass., and the son of the Rev. Rich- Dunbartonshire, Jan. 28, 1835; d. at Glasgow Jan.
ard Salter Storrs (1787-1873) who was for sixty- 13, 1907. He was educated at the universities of
three years the eminent pastor of the Congrega- Edinburgh (M.A., 1853) and Heidelberg (1853),
tional church of Braintree, Mass. He was prepared and received his theological training at Edinburgh
for college at Monson Academy and graduated at (1853-56) and St. Andrews (1856-57). He was
Amherst College in 1839. After two years spent minister at Roseneath (1860-87); professor of
partly in teaching and partly in the study of law church history in Glasgow University (1887-98);
in the office of Rufus Choate in Boston, he entered from 1898 until his death he was principal and vice-
the Andover Theological Seminary from which he chancellor of the university. In theology he be-
was graduated in 1845. He was immediately called longed to the liberal school. Besides editing the
to the Harvard Congregational Church at Brook- Scot Magazine, he wrote Memoir of the Life of Rob-
line, Mass., but after a year of service there he ac- ert Story (Cambridge, 1862); Christ the Consoler
cepted an urgent invitation to become the pastor (Edinburgh, 1865); Life and Remains of Robert
of the Church of the Pilgrims, Brooklyn, N. Y., Lee (2 vols., London, 1870); William Carstares: a
which had been organized two years before. He Character and Career of the Revolutionary Epoch
was installed Nov. 19, 1846. In spite of numerous (1874); Creed and Conduct (Glasgow, 1878); and
calls to important churches in New York, Boston, The Apostolic Ministry in the Scottish Church (Lon-
and elsewhere, he remained in this position till his don, 1897). He likewise edited Ttie Church of Scot-
death, performing all its duties until 1899, when he land, Past and Present (5 vols., London, 1890-91).
was made pastor emeritus. In 1896 the fiftieth BIBLIOGRAPHY: Memoir of R. H. Story, by his Daughters,
Glasgow, 1909.
anniversary of his installation was celebrated not
only by the church but by various organizations STOSCH, JOHAHN ERNST GEORG: German
throughout the city and by a notable meeting of Protestant; b. at Bautzen (30 m. n.e. of Dresden)
citizens in the Academy of Music. He was a preacher Sept. 2, 1851. He was educated at the univer-
of great eloquence and power, an orator who was sities of Lcipsic and Erlangen (1871-74); became
much in demand on important a recog-
occasions, curate in Ispringen, 1874; pastor in Rosenthal, near
nized leader in the church, an eminent and influ- Konigstein, 1877, and at Helmstadt, 1880; mis-
ential citizen. He was one of the founders of The sionary in India, 1888; pastor in Berlin (1892) and
Independent and one of its editors, 1848-61; was privat-docent for the science of missions in the Uni-
for several years prominent as a lyceum lecturer; versity of Berlin, 1902; in 1907 he became pastor
was president of the American Board of Commis- primarius at Neuwedell (Neumark). He has writ-
sioners for Foreign Missions 1887-98, a critical ten: Briefe uber die Offenbarung St. Johannis (1892);
period in its history; was for many years a trustee Sankt Paulus der Apostel (Leipsic, 1894) Die Augen-
;

of Amherst College and of various benevolent and zeugen des Lebens Jesu (Gtitersloh, 1895); Alttesta-
missionary societies; was one of the founders and menUiche Studien (6 vols., 1896-1903; Eng. transl.
for a long time president of the Long Island His- of the first vol., Die Entstehung der Genesis, 1896,
"
torical Society and an incorporator and officer of under the title The Origin of Genesis," London,
the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, ren- 1897) ; Imfernen Indien, Eindrucke und Erfahrungen
dering important services to both these institutions, im Dienst der lutherischen Mission unter den Tamu-
besides serving for a time as park commissioner and len (Berlin, 1896); Der pastoral-theologischer Ertrag
as commissioner of the civil service; and was the der Bergpredigt (1898) ; Zeitgedanken uber die heihge
orator of the day when the statue of Lincoln was Taufe (1902); Das Heidentum als religioses Problem
unveiled, when the city of New York celebrated the (1903); Fur heilige Guter, Aphorismen zur geschicht-
centennial of the Declaration of Independence, July lichen Rechtfertigung des alten Testaments (Stuttgart,
4, 1876, when the first Brooklyn Bridge was opened 1905); Der innere Gang der Missionsgeschichte in
to the public, at the semi-millennial celebration of Grundlinien (Gutersloh, 1905); Die Prophetic Israels
the birth of John Wyclif in 1880, and on many other in rdigionsgeschichUicher Wurdigung (1907); Die
occasions. Two of his most remarkable orations, apostolischen Sendschreiben nach ihren Gfodanken-
" The
delivered several times in 1875 and 1876, on g&ngen (3 vols., 1908-10).
BtotLffhton
Stranger THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 108

STOUGHTON, JOHN: Congregationaliat ;

b. of Harriet Dow (1832); History of the Baptist Mis-
in Norwich, England, Nov. 18, 1807; d. at Baling sion to India (1835); History of the Danish Mission
(8 m. w. of Charing Cross), London, Oct. 24, 1897. to the Coast of Coromandel (1837); The Whole Fam-
He studied at the Norwich grammar-school; was ily in Heaven and Earth (1845); Christian Brother-
engaged in law till 1828, when he entered High- hood (1859); and First Things (1859).
bury College, Islington; was pastor at Windsor BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. C Stoekbridge, Memoir of Rev. Baron
1833-43, and at Kensington 1843-74; professor of Stow, Providence, R. I., 1895; R. H. Neale, The Pastor
and Preacher: a Memorial of ... B. Stow, Boston, 1870.
historical theology and homiletics in New College,
St. John's Wood, London, 1872-84; and Congrega- STOWE, CALVHV ELLIS: Congregationalist; b.
tional Union lecturer 1855. He edited The Evan- at Natick, Mass., Apr. 26, 1802; d. at Hartford,
gelical Magazine for many years, and was author of Conn., Aug. 22, 1886. He studied at the academy
the following works, many of which have passed in Gorham, Me.; was graduated from Bowdoin
through several editions: Lectures on Tractarian College, Brunswick, Me., 1824, where he was libra-
Theology (London, 1843); Spiritual Heroes; or rian and instructor, 1824-25; was graduated from
Sketches of the Puritans, their Character and Times Andover Theological Seminary, Mass., 1828; was
(1848); P. Doddridge, his Life and Labours: a cen- assistant teacher of sacred literature in Andover
tenary Memorial (1851) Stars of the East: or Proph-
;
Seminary, as well as editor of the Boston Recorder,
ets and Apostles (1854); Ages of Christendom before 1828-30; started his career as a university preacher,
the Reformation (1857; the Congregational Union 1830; was professor of Latin and Greek in Dart-
lectures for 1855) The Pen, the Palm, and the Pul-
; mouth College, Hanover, N. H., 1831-33; of
pit (1858) Church and State Two Hundred Years ago.
; Biblical literature, Lane Theological Seminary, Cin-
A History of ecclesiastical Affairs in England from cinnati, O., 1833-50; of natural and revealed relig-
1660-63 (1862); Ecclesiastical History of England Bowdoin College, 1850-52; and of sacred litera-
ion,
(5 vols., 1867-74; from the Revolution to the Res- Andover Theological Seminary, 1852-64. He
ture,
toration) ; Homes and Haunts of Luther . . . With made a tour of Europe in 1837, investigating the
. Illustrations (1875); Our English Bible: its
. . various systems of elementary instruction, the re-
Translations and Translators (1878); The Progress sults ofwhich were embodied in his Report on Ele-
of Divine Revelation, or the Unfolding Purpose of mentary Public Instruction in Europe (Harrisburg,
Scripture (1878); Religion in England under Queen 1838). His wife was Harriet Beecher Stowe, author
Anne and the Georges. 1702-1800 (2 vols., 1878; of Uncle Tom's Cabin. He translated Jahn's His-
new ed., 6 vols., 1881); Worthies of Science (1879); tory of the Hebrew Commonwealth (Andover, 1828),
An Introduction to Historical Theology: Being a and from the Latin Lowth's Lectures on Hebrew
Sketch of doctrinal Progress from the Apostolic Era Poetry (1829), both with additions; and wrote In-
to the Reformation (1880); William Wilberforce troduction to the Criticism and Interpretation of the
(1880); of Italian Reformers (1881);
Footprints Bible (vol. i., Cincinnati, 1835; vol. ii. not pub-
William Penn, the Founder of Pennsylvania (1882); lished); and Origin and History of the Books of the
Congregationalism in the Court Suburb (1883); The Bible. Pt. 1. New
Testament (Hartford, 1867).
Spanish Reformers, Memories and Dwelling
their BIBLIOGRAPHY: Illustrative matter will be found in the life
Places (1883); Howard the Philanthropist and his of Harriet Beecher Stowe by her son, C. E. Stowe, Bos-
Fnends (1884) Religion in England from 1800 to ton, 1899; The Life and Letters of Harriet Beecher Stowe by
her Son and Grandson, New York, 1911.
;

1850 (1884); Golden Legends of the Olden Time

(1885); The Revolution of 1688 in its Bearings on STOWELL, HUGH Church of England, hymnist
:
;

Protestant Nonconformity (1888) Shades and Echoes; b. at Douglas, Isle of Man, Dec. 3, 1799; d. at
of Old London (1889); and Lights and Shadows of Pendleton (3 m. n.w. of Manchester), England, Oct.
Primitive Christendom (1891; new ed., with title 5, 1865. He entered, in 1819, St. Edmund Hall,
Lights and Shadows of Church Life, 1895). Oxford (B.A., 1822; M.A., 1826); became curate
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the autobiographic Recollections of of Shepscombe, Gloucestershire, 1823, and a few
a Long Life, 2d ed., London, 1894, consult Q. K. Lewis, months later of Trinity Church, Huddersfield, York-
John Stouohion, D.D. A Short Record of a long Life, ib.
1898. shire; in 1828, vicar of St. Stephen's, Salford, Lan-
cashire, where he became first incumbent of Christ
STOW, BARON: Baptist; b. at Croydon, N. H., Church, Action Square, 1831; honorary canon of
June 16, 1801; d. at Boston, Mass., Dec. 27, 1869. Chester Cathedral, 1845; chaplain to Lee, bishop
He was graduated from Columbian College, George- of Manchester, 1851 and later rural dean of Eccles.
;

town, D. C., 1825; became pastor of the Baptist He was popular and effective as a preacher. He
church in Portsmouth, N. H., 1827; of the Baldwin edited A Selection of Psalms and Hymns Suited to
Place Baptist Church, Boston, 1832, and of the the Services of the Church of England (Manchester,
Rowe Street Church in the same city, 1848, retain- 1831); and wrote The Pleasures of Religion, with
ing this connection till his retirement from active other Poems (London, 1832); The Duty of England
work in 1867. He was
and influential as a
active in Regard to the Traffic in Intoxicating Drinks (Leeds,
member of the executive committee of the American 18407); Tractarianism Tested by Holy Scripture
Missionary Union, and was noted as a pulpit orator. and the Church of England, Sermons (2 vols.,
. . .

He assisted in compiling the Psalmist (Boston, 1849; London, 1845), and other collections of sermons;
a hymnal); and edited Daily Manna for Christian and A Model for Men of Business; or, Lectures on
Pilgrims (1846; new ed., London, 1871), and Mis- the Character of Nehemiah (1854). He was also noted
"
sionary Enterprise (1846; a volume of sermons on as the author of the hymn From every stormy
missions); and was besides the author of Memoir \ wind that blows," and numerous others published
109 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Stouffhto
iton.

by his son in the 12th ed. of the Selection of Psalms priesthood in 1885. He was a missionary to the
and Hymns (1864). negroes of southern Virginia during his diaconate,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rev. J. B. Marsden, Memoirs of the Life and and was then rector of the Church of the Good
Labours of Rev. Hugh StoweU, London, 1868; 8. W. Duf-
Shepherd, Raleigh, N. C. (1885-87), St. James',
field, English Hymns, pp. 156-157, New York, 1886;
Julian, Hvmnolow, PP. 1096-97; DNB Iv. 7.
t
Wilmington, N. C. (1887-1900), and St. Paul's,
Richmond, Va. (1900-04). In 1904 he was conse-
STRABO, WALAFRIED. See WALATRXED crated bishop-coadjutor of East Carolina, and in
STRABO. 1905, on the death of Bishop Alfred A. Watson, suc-
ceeded him in the full administration of the diocese.
STRACK, HERMANN LEBRECHT: German
Protestant theologian; b. in Berlin May 6, 1848.
STRANGER: The translation in the English
He studied at the universities of Berlin and Leip- versions of the Hebrew ger " a wanderer, traveler,"
t
sic (Ph.D., 1872; Th.Lic., 1877; Th.D., 1884), and, "
and especially an a foreign land."
alien living in
after teaching at the Kaiser Wilhelm Gymnasium
Originally all individual rights were based upon the
in Berlin (1872-73) and working in the Imperial
blood-relationship which, according to the old Sem-
Library at St. Petersburg (1873-76), became ex- itic view, bound the members of the tribe together
traordinary professor of theology at the University (see COMPARATIVE RELIGION, VI., 1, b). A rela-
of Berlin in 1877, and honorary professor in 1910.
tionship corresponding to that of consanguinity
While acknowledging the full right of critical inves-
" could, however, be brought about artificially, and in
tigation, he is convinced that such investigation
this way aliens were often taken into the tribe.
can be and ought to be combined with reverence There was also the relationship corresponding to
for the Holy Scriptures and earnest Christian faith."
protectorship or guardianship; the fugitive or out-
That Christ died for us and rose again he regards as law could place himself under the care of a family,
an irrefutable fact. He has made it one of the tasks and in this way acquire a degree of citizenship.
of his life to promote Christianity among the Jews
Otherwise, the alien, merely passing through or re-
by combating Antisemitism and refuting misrep- siding temporarily in the territory of a tribe, en-
resentations regarding the Jews and their ritual
joyed no rights except the hospitality usually ac-
practises. His literary activity has been extensive. corded to strangers. This, however, is held sacred
His more important publications are, Prolegomena
in the orient, and as a guest the stranger is safe in
critica in V. T. Hebraicum (Leipsic, 1873); Katalog
the tent even of his enemy. Accordingly, in Israel
der hebraischen Bibelhandschriften der kaiserlichen
there was always a distinction made between the
offentlicfien Bibliothek in St. Petersburg (in collabo- who was under the protection of
ger t the stranger
ration with A. Harkavy, 1875); Prophetarum pos-
some family, and the nokhri, who was an alien and
teriorum codex Babylonicus Petropolitanus (1876),
stood in no relation to the tribe and could claim
which was published at the expense of Alexander
no legal rights (Gen. xxxi. 15; Job xix. 15); and
II. of Russia; Abraham Firkountsch und seine Ent-
even the humane laws in Deuteronomy for the pro-
deckungen (1876); five Mishnah tracts: Spruche tection of the poor and needy leave the alien out of
der Vdter (Carlsruhc, 1882; 3d ed., Leipsic, 1901),
account (Deut. xv. 3, xxiii. 20). The ger, on the
Versohnungstag (Berlin, 1888; 2ded., Leipsic, 1904), other hand, enjoyed legal protection in a compara-
Gotzendienst (Berlin, 1888; 2d ed., Leipsic, 1909),
tively high degree. He had the right of connubium
Sabbath (Berlin, 1890), Sanhedrin-Makkoth (1910);
(see FAMILY AND MARRIAGE RELATIONS, HEBREW) ;

Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1883; 6th ed., and the children of such a union were Israelites
Munich, 1906) ; Einleitung in den Talmud (Leipsic, The ger, unless he was a Canaan-
(I Chron. ii. 17).
1887; 5th ed., 1911); Das Blut im Glauben und
ite, had not the right of hereditary possession in
Aberglauben der Menschheit (Munich, 1891; 8th ed., real estate (Isa. xxii. 16; Ezek. xlvii. 22). Impar-
1900); Grammatik dcs Biblisch-Aramaischen (Leip-
tial treatment before the courts had been assured
sic, 1895; 4th ed., 1905); Die Spruche Jesus, des
to him by the Book of the Covenant (Ex. xxii. 21,
Sohnes Sirachs (1903); Das Wesen des Judentums
xxiii. 9).
(1906); and Jesus, die H&retiker und die Christen
nach den dltesten judischen In col-
Deuteronomy deprived the ger of the right of
Angaben (1910).
laboration with O. Zdckler he edited the Kurzge- marriage (Deut. vii. 1 sqq., xxiii. 4) but it repeated
;

the command to treat him humanely, to allow him

fasster Kommentar zu den heiligen Schriften (Munich, to take part in festivities (Deut. x. 18, xiv. 29, xxiv.
1886 sqq.), to which he has contributed the com-
14 sqq.)i and to grant him justice before the courts
mentaries on Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
(Deut. xxiv. 17, xxvii. 19). He is put on a level
and Proverbs. He also edits the Nathanael; Zeit-
with Levites, widows, and orphans, and is recom-
schrift fur die Arbeit der evangelischen Kirche an mended as an object of love, of which as a stranger
Israel (Berlin, 1885 sqq.), the Jakrbuch der evangel-
he is doubly in need. But all this is made a matter
ischen Judenmission (Leipsic, 1906 sqq.), and the
of compassion, not of law; and the ger's legal status
publications of the Institutum Judaicum, a Jewish was inferior. This was true of the nokhri in a still
missionary society in Berlin. The ger had to adopt,
higher degree (Deut. xi v. 2 1 ) .

STRANGE, ROBERT: Protestant Episcopal in a way, the religion of his protector; but anciently
bishop of East Carolina; b. at Wilmington, N. C., very little was required in this respect, and he might
Dec. 6, 1867. He was graduated from the Univer- retain his sacra (Deut. v. 14, xvi. 11 sqq.; cf. I Kings
sity of North Carolina hi 1879, and from Berkeley ii.7-8; Deut. xiv. 21).
Divinity School, Middletown, Conn., in 1883. He In the matter of religion, the Priest-code was
was ordered deacon in 1884 and ordained to the more exacting, in order that there might be no sin
8trabtt
Itraiburf
StrauM THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 110

among the people of Israel. The ger was required ib. 1843; Urkunden und Akten der Stadt-Straubwg, 10
to avoid everything that was unclean for Israelites vob., ib. 1879 sqq.; H. Mailer, Die Reatauration dee
Katholiciamua in Straaaburg, Halle, 1882; J. Friti, Das
(Lev. xvii. 8 sqq., xviii. 26, xx. 2; Num. xix. 10 TerrUorium dea Bitthuma Straaaburg urn die Mitte dea 14-
sqq.), to observe the Sabbath, to fast on the Day Johrhunderta, Kdthen, 1885; A. Erichaon, UEgliae fran-
of Atonement (Lev. xvi. 29), to avoid leavened caiae de Strasbourg au 16. riecle, Paris, 1886; A. Baum,
Magiatrat und Reformation in Straaaburg, Strasburg, 1887;
bread at the Passover, and not to profane the name W. Horning, Briefe von Stroaaburger Reformatory 1648-
of Yahweh (Lev. xxiv. 16). Further, he was as re- 1664, ib. 1887; Kleine Stroaaburger Chronik, 14X4-1616,
sponsible for any violations of the Law as were ib. 1889; A. Seyboth, Strasbourg hiatorique, ib. 1894; Die

the Israelites (Num. xv. 14 sqq.). On the other Biachbfe von Straaaburg von 1692 bia 1890, ib. 1897; A.
Meister, Der Stroaaburger Kapitelatreit 1638-99, ib. 1899;
hand, he was given equal rights before the courts W. Kothe, Kirchliche Zuatande Straeaburga in 14. Johr-
instead of the bare right to appeal to the compas- hundert, Freiburg, 1903; F. F. Leitsohub, Straaaburg,
sion of the judge (Lev. xxiv. 22; Num. xxxv. 15). Leipsic, 1903; . von Borries, Geachichte der Stodt Stroae-
burg, Strasburg, 1905; Regeaten der Biachfife von Straaa-
By submitting to circumcision the ger became a full burg, Innsbruck, 1907 sqq.; Hauck, KD, 4 vols., passim;
citizen (Gen. xxxiv. 15; Ex. xii. 48; Num. ix. 14). Gams, Series epiacoporum, pp 315-316, supplement 76-77.
Otherwise he might not keep an Israelite as a slave,
but had to treat a servant as a free wage-earner STRATON, NORMAN DUMENIL JOHN: Church
of England, bishop of Sodor and Man; b. at Somers-
(Lev. xxv. 47 sqq.). The right of connubium was
hall (13 m. w. of Derby), Derbyshire, Nov. 4, 1840.
also denied him (Ezra ix. 1 sqq., x. 2 sqq.)-
I. BENZINGER.
He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge
(B.A., 1862), and was ordained priest in 1865. He
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Bertholet, Die Stettung der laraditen und was curate of Market Drayton 1865-66, vicar of
Juden zu den Fremdcn, Freiburg, 1896; M. Peisker, Die
Beriehunff der Ntchtiaraeliten zu Jahve nach der Anschau- Kirkby Wharfe, Yorkshire, 1866-75, and vicar and
ung der altiaraelitiachen Quellenachriften, Clemen, 1909; rural dean of Wakefield 1875-92. In 1892 he was
Benzingor, Archaologie, pp. 284-286, 293; DB, ii. 49-61, consecrated bishop of Sodor and Man, of which he
iv.622-623; EB, iv. 4814-18.
has also been dean since 1895. He was proctor in
A York Convocation for the archdeaconry of Craven,
STRASBURG, stras'bOrg, BISHOPRIC OF:
German diocese first definitely mentioned in the 1880-85; honorary canon of Ripon, 1883-88, and
sixth century, although both ancient remains and of Wakefield Cathedral, 1888-92; and archdeacon
the testimony of Iremeus (Hcer., I., x. 2) prove that of Huddersfield in 1888-92. In theology he is an
Christianity had entered upper Germany during Evangelical Churchman, opposed to the ritualistic
the Roman The old diocese lay on both
period.
movement. He has written Thoughts for Communi-
banks of the Rhine. On the left bank it practically cants (London, 1905).
coincided with the modern Lower Alsace, except STRAUSS, Straus, DAVID FRIEDRICH: Ger-
that the southern boundary was somewhat further man radical theologian; b. at Ludwigsburg (9 m.
south, while in the north the district beyond the n. of Stuttgart) Jan. 27, 1808; d. there Feb. 8,
Hagenau forest belonged to Speyer and that be- 1874. Strauss was the son of a merchant. He at-
yond the Vosges to Metz. On the right bank the tended the Latin school in his native
diocese extended from the mouth of the Elz be- town and in 1821 entered the seminary
Early
yond Baden-Baden, stretching inland to the Black Life. at Blaubeuren, whence he passed in
Forest. (A. HAUCK.) 1825 to the University of Tubingen,
Strasburg eagerly embraced the Reformation where he was a faithful and industrious student.
and became one of the strongholds of Protestant- His former teacher, Ferdinand Christian Baur (q.v.),
ism, the adherents of the ancient faith being ex- formerly at Blaubeuren, but now at Tubingen, re-
posed to bitter persecution. Even some of the lieved what Strauss deemed the dulness of the uni-
canons renounced the Roman Catholic faith, and versity courses. During his student days Strauss
from 1592 to 1604 there was internecine strife as to was much taken with the teachings of Schleier-
whether a Protestant or a Roman Catholic should macher, Schelling, and Hegel, and graduated with
be bishop of the diocese. Protestant supremacy
high rank, having obtained a good theological and
in Strasburg was finally ended by the Peace of West-
philosophical foundation.
phalia, and the see then became part of France, al- Strauss acted as vicar fora while at a village near
though the bishop continued to rank as a prince Ludwigsburg, and then journeyed to Berlin, 1831-
of the Empire on account of his territories on the
1832, in order to study the Hegelian philosophy at
right bank of the Rhine. During the French Revo- its source. He also heard Schleiermacher, but was
lution Roman Catholicism, like every form of relig- rather repelled by his lecture style. He read the
ion, suffered heavily, but by the concordat of 1801 manuscript of Schieiermacher's lectures on the life
the diocese was reorganized, becoming coterminous of Jesus, and resolved on returning to Tubingen,
with Alsace. Hitherto forming part of the archdio- where he received an appointment as repetent, with
cese of Metz, Strasburg was made a suffragan see of the privilege of lecturing at the university, of which
Besanoon in 1822. Henceforth it remained un- he took advantage, giving courses on Hegel's logic,
changed until 1870, when Alsace became German the history of modern philosophy, and Plato. He
territory, and since 1874 the diocese has been under aroused great enthusiasm for the Hegelian philoso-
the immediate jurisdiction of the pope.
phy among the students, and thought of entering
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. D. Sohopflin, Alaatia Uluatrata, 2 vols., the philosophical faculty, but, meeting with some
Oolmar, 1761; idem. Alaatia . diplomatic, 2 vols., opposition from the university authorities, he re-
. .

Mannheim, 1772-75; P. A. Orandidier, ffiat. de Violin et

de* Mquea de Strasbourg, 2 vols., Strasburg, 1776-78;
turned to his theological studies. His Leben Jew,
Cod* hietoriyue A diplomatique de la vitte de (2 vola., TQbingen, 1835-36; Eng. transl., 3 vols.,
Ill RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA StTMbtLTff
Straus*

London, 1846) was written at this period, in the which is one of his most brilliant performances. His
short space of one year. friends succeeded in getting him an appointment to
The impression of profound theological scholar- the University of Zurich, but clerical opposition
" Life of Jesus " makes on
ship which the the reader prevailed, and he was not permitted to enter upon
is the more remarkable in view of the his duties. He refused to resign voluntarily, but
" Life of fact that it was the work of a drew to the end of his days the pension of 1,000
young
Jesus." man of twenty-seven. There were at francs that was granted him, a large portion of
that time three parties to the contro- which he spent in charity.
versy on the problem of the life of Jesus: super- His next most important work, Die chrisdiche
naturalists, who accepted the New-Testament nar- Glaubenslehre in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwickelung
ratives and miracles; rationalists, who rejected the und im Kampfe mit der modemen Wissenschaft (2
miracles; and radical rationalists, who rejected the vols., TQbingen, 1840-41), was begun while he was
Gospel narratives as fabrications, though this posi- preparing to go to Zurich. It is more
tion was held practically alone by Paulus at Heidel- Later negative in character than the Leben
berg. Strauss took an independent position. He Lifeand Jesu, sharply polemical, and from a
began with the assumption that the Gospel narra- Works. literary point of view superior to his
tive must be interpreted exactly like any other his- first work. It bears clear traces of the
torical work. But although he rejected the mira- author's sense of the injustice that had been done
cles, he refused to attribute intentional fabrication him. During the following twenty years Strauss
to the Evangelists. To reconcile these two posi- wrote nothing on theology. His marriage to the
tions, he advanced his "mythical" theory. This opera-singer, Agnes Schebest, proved unhappy.
conception he derived from Hegel's philosophy of For a short time he represented Ludwigsburg in the
religion. Philosophical ideas are preceded by myth- Wtirttemberg Landtag. He published a volume of
ical presentations which are comparatively inac- political speeches (1847) and biographies of Schu-
curate, but are true to the intellectual state of the bart (2 vols., Berlin, 1849), Christian Marklin (1850),
myth-maker. But even though an idea be promul- Nikodemus Frischlin (Frankfort, 1855), Ulrich von
gated with full knowledge on the part of its author Hutten (3 parts, Leipsic, 1858-60), and Hermann
" "
of its fictitious character, it may be called myth Samuel Reimarus (1862). Strauss returned to the-
if it is accepted and passed on confidently by the ology in 1860 with a translation of the conversations
multitude as being in harmony with their religious of Ulrich von Hutten, to which he prefixed a polemic
feelings and ideas. A certain remoteness in time is against the Wiirttcmberg prelate, Mehring. He
norossary to constitute a myth. Hence the Gospel then set to work upon a new Leben Jesu fur das
of John could not have been written by an eye- deutscke Votk (1864). While the work was still in
witness, i.e., not by John the apostle. Thft synop- manuscript, though nearly completed, Kenan's
" "
tic Gospels do not claim to have been by eye-wit- brilliant Life of Jesus appeared, and Strauss for
nesses. Another Hegelian conception Strauss ap- a while thought of letting his own work go unpub-
plied to the theory of the life and personality of lished. But, on second thought, he concluded that
Jesus. According to the supernaturalists, Jesus his book might serve for the German people just as
was a unique and perfect personality, and, as such, Kenan's did for the French. The new work was an
God's son. Strauss replies that the " idea " docs attempt at positive construction, but the author
not realize itself in this fashion by pouring itself finally was obliged to admit that the data for such
in all its completeness into one example; but rather, an attempt were insufficient: "It all still remains
through a multitude of examples that mutually sup- in a certain sense a tissue of hypotheses." He was
plement one another. The true God-man, hence, is unable to bridge the chasm between the Christ of
not an individual, but humanity as a species. The faith and the Jesus of history. In the winter of
writers of the Gospels, he asserts, had before their 1869-70 Strauss delivered some lectures from which
eyes the Messianic prophecies of the Old Testament, arose the masterly little work on Voltaire (1870).
and ascribed to Jesus words and deeds that should The outbreak of the Franco-Prussian war called
have been his according to the prophecies; in doing forth two patriotic open letters to Ernest Kenan
so, however, they often added original ideas and that met with universal applause in Germany. In
breathed a new soul into the old material. Strauss' 1872 he again issued a popular version of a theme
work was throughout critical. In his opinion, the he had handled long before: Der alte und der neue
time had not yet come for a constructive picture. Glaube. Artistically it was a masterpiece, accord-
His book caused so great a sensation that one ing to Zeller on the same high plane as the work
may call the year of its appearance, 1835, a turning- on Voltaire. It aroused, however, a storm of criti-
point in modern theology. It brought squarely be- cism and even of abuse for its skeptical views. To
" 1'
fore the Christian world the question: the question, Are we still Christians? the author
Results Who was Jesus, the founder of the answers bluntly,
"
No." To the question " Have
"
upon his Christian religion? Strauss had to bear we still religion? he replies, " Yes or no," accord-
Career, almost alone the storm of attacks that ing to one's conception of religion; the old belief in
followed. He was releasedfrom his a personal God and in immortality is gone; there
repetentship and transferred to the lyceum at Lud- remains the feeling of absolute dependence on the
wigsburg. This position he soon left and removed universe. The tone of the book in discussing the
to Stuttgart, where he wrote his StreUackrtften zwr nature of the soul is materialistic. The author
Verteidigung meiner Sckrift fiber das Leben Jesu und adopts the Darwinian theory and takes his stand
xwr Characteriatik der gegenw&rtigen Theofogie (1837), frankly on the ground of natural science. His last
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG lid

illnessfollowed soon after the publication of the to Saxony and on Aug. 4 was hi Kemberg, where a
book, while attack and criticism were still proceed- sermon preached in Hall was printed Eine versten- :

ing. A series of poems written on his death-bed, dige trdstlieh Leer ilber das Wort S. Paulus: der
breathing pious resignation, show how truly in his Mensch sott tick selbs probieren, etc. In September
own way he possessed religious feeling. In 1910 a he went on Luther's recommendation as preacher
sightly memorial was erected to him in his home to Count Georg of Wertheim, but his domineering
town. ways caused his dismissal the next month. He was
In the critical study of the life of Jesus, Strauss at Weimar at Christmas, 1522, and at the beginning
stands at the middle point. All previous investiga- of 1523 at Eisenach as preacher, where he printed
tions converge in him, and all later work, either in his document on the Weimar disputation and his
agreement or opposition, takes him as its point of Wunderbarlich Beichtbilchlein, abolished the mass,
departure. He accomplished his greatest feat at pictures in the churches, and the use of oil and the
the beginning of his career. The remainder of his chrism in baptism, advocated the marriage of priests,
life was tragically incomplete. Even bis bitterest and wrote Wider den simoneischen Tauff, und
enemies with the single exception of Nietzsche erkauften, ertichten Krysam and Fegefeuer und Opfer
have admitted that he was a brilliant writer and a fur die Toten. He replied also to those who slan-
brave, truth-loving man. (T. ZIEQLEB.) dered and accused him in a number of pamphlets.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Strauss' Gesammelte Schriften, ed. E. Zeller, He assailed the burdens of taxation, church endow-
appeared in 12 vols., Bonn, 1876-78. On his life and ments, payment of interest. Luther, being appealed
works consult: E. Zeller, D. F. Strauss in seinem Leben
und Sfinem Schriftcn geachtidert, Bonn, 1874, Eng, transl., to, attempted to correct Strauss' mistaken zeal and
London, 1874; E. Muaaard, Exam en critique du systems to moderate it, and Melanchthon did the same in
de Straws, Geneve, 1839; Do Valeuti, Hegel, Strauss und 1524. The result was a more temperate advocacy
der Christ englaube, Basel, 1843; C. Albrecht, Epochs aus
of his principle that the Mosaic law should be a
der Straussenzett, Biel, 1863; J. Cairns, False Christ* and
the True, Edinburgh, 1864; 0. E. Luthardt, Die modernen basis for church law in a tract of 1524, though de-
Darstellungen den Lebens Jew, Leipsic, 1864; O. Bagge, manding the introduction of the jubilee year. In
Das Pnnrip desMy thus im Dienst der christlichen Position, 1524 Duke Johann Friedrich charged Strauss with
Leipsic, 1865; G. P. Fisher, Essays on the Supernatural
Origin of Christianity, New York, 1866; H. Rogers, Rea-
a visitation in Eisenach and neighboring parts, and
son and Faith, London, 1866; W. H. Scott, The Christ of this Strauss conducted imprudently, arbitrarily do-
the Apostle's Creed, New York, 1867; B. Bauer, PhUo t
posing and installing ministers. Disaffection arose
Strauss und Kenan und das Urchristenthum, Berlin, 1874;
W. Lang, D. F. Strauss, Leipsic, 1874; J. de LeRoi, among the peasants, which Strauss tried in vain to
D. F. Strauss, Paris, 1875; H. Ulriei, Der Philosoph quell; after the rebellion Strauss Avas arrested and
"
Strauss: Kritik seiner Schrift Der alte und der neue tried, submitted, and was discharged. His position
Glaube," Halle, 1873, Eng. transl., Philadelphia, 1875; in Eisenach was untenable. Ho was at Nuremberg
A. Hausrath, D. F. Strauss und die Theolooie seiner Zeit,
2 vols., Heidelberg, 1876-78; C. Schlottmann, David in 1525, and later went to Hall in Swabia; he re-
Strauss als Romantiker des Heidenthurns, Halle, 1878; ceived a rebuke from (Ecolampadius, whom he had
H. K (inkier, Zum Gedachtnis an David Friedrich Strauss,
challenged to a disputation. Meanwhile Strauss was
Wiesbaden, 1808; fl. Eck, D. F. Strauss, Stuttgart, 1899;
K. Harnrus, D. F. Strauss, Leipsic, 1001; O. Gramaow,
made preacher in Baden-Baden, where he entered
David Friedrich Strauss, Charlottenburg, 1004; K. Fischer, the sacramental controversy, and wrote against
Ueber D. F. Strauss. Gesammelte Aufsdtze mit Einleitung Zwingli. In 1527 he wrote again against (Ecolam-
von H. Falkmheim, Heidelberg, 1008; H. Kurd, Ein Vor-
Gedenkworte an padius' Antisyngramma, who, however, did not deign
kampfer moderner Weltanschauung.
David Friedrich Strauss (dazu ein Juaendbildnis) ZOrioh,
,
to notice Strauss. Little is known of his career after
1008; A. Kohut, David Friedrich Strauss als Denker und that, though probable that in disappointment
it is
Srtiehcr, Leipsic, 1008; T. Ziegler, David Friedrich Strauss, he reentered the Roman Catholic Church.
2 vols., Strasburg, 1008; A. Levy, David Frfdcric Stratus.
La Vie et Vosuwe, Paris, 1010. He was a restless, turbulent spirit, combining ele-
ments of the new and the old, proud of his erudi-
STRAUSS, JAKOB Reformer in Hall, Wertheim,
:
tion, yet unpractical, having a deep sympathy for
and Eisenach; b. at Basel between 1480 and 1485; the people, strong in his critical faculties but with-
d. possibly in Baden probably in 1533. He received G. BOSSERT.
out constructive ability.
his early education in his native town, left there in
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ayn freunUich gesprech zwyschen ainem
1495 and became teacher in Wertheim, Strasburg, Barf-Osser Munch aus der Provj/rut Osterreych, der Observanz,
probably in Horb also; in 1515 he went to Freiburg, und ainem L&ffelmacher, of. Zeitschrift der deutschen Philn-
where he took his bachelor's and doctor's degree, xxxvii. 75 sqq.; F. A. Sinnacher, Beitrttge zur Ge-
lotfie,
schichte der bischo/lichen Kirche von Saben und Brixen, vii.
and was afterward Evangelical preacher in Berch- 1888 sqq., 314, 7 vols., Innsbruck, 1821 sqq. ; G. T. Strobel,
tesgaden. In 1521 he went to Schwaz in the Tyrol, Miscellaneen, iii. 1-04, 6 parts, Nuremberg, 1778-82;
but was compelled to withdraw before the Francis- C. A. Cornelius, Oeschichte des munsterischen Avfruhrs,
cans under Michel von Bruneck and went to Hall, ii. 243 sqq., 246, Leipsic, 1860; Schmidt, Jakob Stratum,
where he lectured to priests upon the Gospel of Programm des Realffymnasiums, Eisenach, 1865; Q.
Kawerau, Johann Aaricola, pp. 51 aqq., Berlin, 1881;
Matthew and preached in the churches and hi the H. Neu, Oeschichte der evangelischen Kirche in der Graf-
open air before vast crowds upon confession and the schaft Wertheim, Heidelberg. 1903. A
number of refer-
ences to further information are given in Hauck-Henog,
monastic life, attacking the hierarchy and demand-
RE. xix. 92.
ing the administration of both elements in the sac-
rament. He was guarded by the citizens from at- STRAWBRIDGE, ROBERT: Methodist Episco-
tack, but was compelled to leave there in May, pal pioneer and lay preacher; b. at Drummer's Nave,
1522, amid the bitter weeping of the people, to near Carrick-on-Shannon, Ireland; d. near Baltimore
whom he sent on May 16 from Haslach Ein kurter in 1781. He seems to have been a local preacher
Unterricht von erdichteten Brudtrschaften. He went before his emigration to America, which took place
113 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Strauss
Btrigel

between 1760 and 1765; he settled on Sam's Creek, War he served in the " Stonewall Brigade " of the
Frederick Co., Md., and soon began to hold meet- Confederate Army.
ings and to preach in his own house, later building STRIGEL, VICTORIOUS: German
stri'gei,
a log meeting-house, and the Minutes of 1773 re- Melanchthonian theologian; b. at Kaufbeuren (36
cord him as assisting Francis Asbury (q.v.); again m. S.B.W. of Augsburg) Dec. 26, 1524; d. at Heidel-
he appears in 1775 as second preacher on Frederick
berg June 26, 1569. He studied at the University
circuit, but acting as with the full rights of an itin- of Freiburg, 1538-42, and then at Wittenberg, where
erant, including the administration of baptism and he attached himself to Melanchthon. After his pro-
the Lord's Supper; in his ministrations he appears
motion in 1544 he gave private instruction at Wit-
to have manifested an independent spirit, and to
tenberg. During the Schmolkald war he went to
have determined on the exercise of full ministerial
functions in spite of directions from the conference. Magdeburg and then to Erfurt, where he lectured
In 1776 he moved to a farm, the full use of which acceptably. He received a call to Jena, where
he, together with Johann Stigel, opened the new
was granted to him during lu's life; but he continued
to preach, and, the Revolution causing many min-
Gymnasium academicum. He began with lectures
on philosophy and history, subsequently also on
isters from England to withdraw, he took charge
the Loci of Melanchthon. He was, however, soon
of the churches at Sam's Creek and Bush Forest,
involved in the theological controversies of the
Harford County, remaining as pastor until his death,
time; his relations with Melanchthon and the senti-
but not recognizing the authority of conference.
ments and tendency of the theologians in Ernestine
BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. B. Wakeley, Lost Chapters Recovered
Saxony were destined to lead him into conflicts
from the Early Hi*t. of American Methodism, New York, which destroyed the happiness of his life. Melanch-
1858; W. Hamilton, m
Methodist Quarterly Review, July,
1856; N. Bangs, Hist, of the Methodist Episcopal Church, thon tried in vain to induce him to accept a call to
4 vols., ib. 1860; \V. B. Sprague, Annals of the American
Augsburg. Matters assumed an especially critical
Pulpit, vii. 3-4, ib. 1801; J. M. Buckley, in American
condition after Flacius (q.v.) went to Jena in 1557.
Church History Series, v. 113-116, 201, ib. 1896; and, in
general, works on the early history of Methodism in Strigel published a written statement to the effect
America. that he did not approve the attitude of Flacius
toward the Wittenberg theologians. The domina-
STREANE, ANNESLEY WILLIAM: Church of
b. at Eastersnow Rectory, County Ros- ting influence of Flacius made itself felt immediately
England; at the Colloquy of Worms (see WORMS), where
common, Ireland, Apr. 8, 1844. He received his
education at Trinity College, Dublin, and Emmanuel Strigel together with the other deputies of Thuringia,
in accordance with the instmctions of Flacius, \vas
College, Cambridge (B.A., 1874; M.A., 1877; B.D.,
compelled to participate in the protest of the Gnesio-
1891; D.D., 1895); he was made deacon in 1875 Lutherans and contributed to the lamentable out-
and priest in 1876; has been fellow of Corpus Christi
come of the colloquy. When Flacius induced the
College, Cambridge, since 1875; was dean of the
duke to order the drawing-up of the Weimar Book
same 1877-83 and 1886-92, Hebrew lecturer there
of Confutation, Strigel, Schnepff, and Superintend-
1875-97 and from 1906 to the present; curate of
ent Hiigel were entrusted with the task, but against
St. Luke, Chesterton, Cambridge, 1883-85; senior
their desires. In the ensuing discussions at Weimar
proctor, University of Cambridge, 1891-92; and
Flacius and Strigel were involved in dispute, but the
vicar of Grantchester, Cambridge, 1898-1904. In
former gained his point, and Strigel returned to Jena
theology he a moderate Anglican. Among his
is
in on embittered state of mind. The polemic was
literary productions are to be noted Prolegomena
continued in their lectures; the duke tried to recon-
(part vii.) to Tregelles' Greek Testament, edited jointly At the beginning of 1559
cile them, but in vain.
with F. J. A. Hort (Cambridge, 1879); Ttie Treatise "
there appeared the Book of Confutation," sanc-
Chagigah Translated from tfic Babylonian Talmud, rich and modeled in the
tioned by Johann Fried
with Introduction and Notes (1891); Jesus Christ in
the Talmud (1893); The Double Text of Jeremiah spirit of Flacius. Hiigel and Strigel refused to ac-
The Age of the Maccabees (1898) an edition cept it, the latter because of the condemnation of
(1896) ; ;
man
the thesis that the rational will of cooperates
of Ecclesiastes for the Churchman's Bible (London,
in conversion and regeneration; he rejected the
1899), of the Psalms for the Temple Bible (1902),
Esther for the Cambridge Bible for Schools doctrine of Flacius that the attitude of the will is
and of
He has also translated Karl von Hase's purely passive, and that the Holy Spirit is given
(1902).
to those who reject him. After the refusal of Strigel
Handbuch der protestantischen Polemik as Hand-
to be silent, he, together with Httgel, was imprisoned
book to the Controversy with Rome (2 vols., 1906).
on Mar. 27, 1559, but they were released on Sept.
STRICKLER, GIVENS BROWN: Presbyterian; 5, at the intercession of the university, the most
b. in Strieker's Springs, Va., Apr. 25, 1840. He prominent Evangelical princes, and even the em-
was graduated from Washington Washing-
College, peror; Strigel, however, was suspended from teach-
ton and Lee University (A.B., 1868), and Union ing. The duke finally conceded to the general desire
Theological Seminary, Va. (1870). He was ordained that Flacius and Strigel should discuss the disputed
to the ministry of his denomination, 1870; was points in a colloquy, which took place on Aug. 2,
pastor of Tinkling Spring Church, Augusta County, 1560, in the old castle at Weimar, in the presence
Va. (1870-83) of the Central Church, Atlanta, Ga.
;
of the duke, the court, and a large audience from
all estates; but the only point discussed was the re-
(1883-96) and was appointed professor of systema-
;

tic theology in Union Theological Seminary, Rich- lation of human will to divine grace in the act of
mond, Va., where he still remains. During the Civil conversion. Strigel presented the synergism of his
XL-8
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 114

teacher Melanchthon, with a protest against the elation (1569-71); and the New Testament (1565-
charge of Pelagianism. The initiative in conversion 1583). Still more esteemed, though dependent on
he conceded to the Word and the Spirit of God, but Melanchthon, were his dogmatic text-books, Loci
he asserted that the will cooperates. Against this quibus loci communes
theologici, Philippi Me- . . .

view Flacius formulated the thesis so fatal for him lanchthonis iUitstrantur . . .
(ed. Pezel, 4 parts,
at a later time, that original sin is the very substance Neustadt, 1581-84), the most important work of
of the natural man. After thirteen sessions, from dogmatics of the school of Melanchthon in the nar-
Aug. 2 to Aug. 8, the disputation was broken off rower sense; Hypomnemata in epitomen philosophies
without result. Both parties were requested to re- moralis Philippi Melanchthonis (ed. Pezel, 1582);
main silent until the matter was fully decided. As Enchiridion theologicum (1584); Enchiridion h-
Flacius did not conform to this request, he, together corum theologicorum (Wittenberg, 1591).
with his closer associates, was dismissed Dec. 10, (G. KAWERATJ.)
1561. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Diapvtatio de original* P#>-
Sources are:
Before rehabilitating Strigel, the duke asked cato et libero arbitrio inter M. Flacium III.
et V. Strigelium
Vinarias 1660
habita, ed. S. Musocus,
Christoph of Wtirttemberg to send two theologians
. . . . . . . . .

1562 and 1663; V. Strigelii epistolce aliquot de negocio

to bring about an agreement. Jacob Andrea and euchariatico, Ncustudt, 1584. Letters are in Matthai,
Christoph Binder arrived for this purpose at Weimar Wesenbedi Papinianiu, Wittenberg, 1569; J. Voigt,
in May, 1562. After an oral discussion a declaration Briefwechnel der berlihmtesten Gelehrten mit Herzog Al-
brecht, pp. 575-604, Konigsberg, 1841; H. L. J. Heppe,
was formulated which was signed by Strigel and ap- Geachichte des dcutschen Protcstantiamus, vol. i., Beilago
proved by all present. It stated that the natural 6-8, Marburg, 1853; cf. G. Wolf, Zur Genchichte der
man is entirely incapable of doing good, but that he deutachcn Proteatantismen, 1656-69, pp. 300 sqq., Berlin,
1888. Consult: H. Erdmann, De Strigelianismo, Jena,
has preserved the capacity to be converted. The 1658 and 1675; J. C. Zeumer, Vita professorum Jenen-
Dedaratio Victorini (as it was called) only caused num, pp. 16 sqq., 2 parts, Jena, 1703-O6; H. Mora, Hint,
new dissension. But few signed it; most of the vita et controversies V. Strigehi, Tubingen, 1732; U. J<
Planck, Geschichte dts protestantischen Lehrbrgnffa, vol. iv.,
preachers, instigated by men like Hcsshusen and
Leipsic, 1796; J. C. T. Otto, De V. Stnyeho libmons
Flacius, preached against it as being ambiguous, mentis in ecclenae Lutherana vintiice, Jena, 1S43; A Beck,
and refused their signature. Consequently about Johann Friednch der Mitilere, vols. i.-ii., ib. 1843; J J. I.
forty preachers were deposed and expelled. On
von Ddllinger, Die Reformation, ii. 237 sqq., 325 sqq 3 ,

vols., Regcnahurg, 1846-48; H. L. J. Heppe, ut BUJ> i.

May 24 Strigel was rehabilitated and resumed his

,

157 sqq., 192 sqq., 298 sqq idem, Dogmatik des dcutschen
;

lectures, but he felt the discomfort of his position Protestantismus im 16. Jahrhundert, i. 163 sqq., Gotha,
so much that in autumn, 1562, he went to Leipsic, 1857; W. Preger, Flaciua, vol. ii Erlangen, 1861; J. ,

Janssen, Hist, of the German people, vii. 145, 275, 355, x.

with the intention of never returning. lie was ap-
263, London, 1905-06; ADB, xxxvi. 590 sqq.
pointed professor in Leipsic, and on May 1, 1563,
STRIGOLNIKI. See RUSSIA, 2.
began his lectures on theology and philosophy.
1.,

Here his doctrine of synergism became still more STROHSACKER, str6'sac"er, HARTMANN : Aus-
evident than before; he taught that the human will trian Roman Catholic; b. at Mauternbach (a vil-
must not be inactive in conversion, but must itself lage near Kreins, 88 m. n.w. of Vienna) July 6, 1870.
will obedience; faith is a gift of God, but is not given He entered the Benedictine order in 1888, after com-
to those who resist it, but to those who listen and pleting hisgymnasium education; studied at the
incline themselves; the innate image of God is not Benedictine seminary at Gottweig (1889-93), and
completely destroyed and extinguished. He lec- at the University of Innsbruck (1893-97; D.D.,
tured especially on dogmatics and ethics, but sud- 1897); was professor of philosophy and dogmatics
denly in Feb., 1567, his lecture hull was closed and at the seminary of Gottweig (1897-99); and since
he was prohibited from teaching because of the sus- 1899 has been professor of dogmatics at the Bene-
picion that he inclined toward Calvinism in the doc- dictine university, Rome.
trine of the Lord's Supper. This suspicion was not
without foundation. He went to Amberg in the
STRONG, AUGUSTUS HOPKINS: Baptist; b. at
Rochester, N. Y., Aug. 3, 1836. He was educated
Upper Palatinate where Frederic III. was on the at Yale (A.B., 1857) and at Rochester Theological
point of abolishing Lutheranism and introducing
Seminary (graduated 1859), completing his educa-
Calvinism; here Strigel openly confessed the Re- tion in Germany in 1859-60. He then held pastor-
formed doctrine of the Lord's Supper. On Sept.
ates at the First Baptist Church, Haverhill, Mass.
14, 1567, he entered a new position as professor of
(1861-65), and at the First Baptist Church, Cleve-
ethics in Heidelberg, but was soon called away by
land, 0. (1865-72; became professor of systematic
death.
theology and president of Rochester Theological
Strigel always was and remained a true Melanch-
thonian. He distinguished himself by his efficient
Seminary 1872); resigned presidency in 1912. Ho
has written Systematic Theology (Rochester, 1886) ;

philosophical training, his dialectic cleverness, and

Philosophy and Religion (New York, 1888) ; The Gnat
his brilliant oratory. His extensive literary activ-
Poets and their Theology (Philadelphia, 1897) Christ ;

ity lay in the sphere of philology, philosophy, and in Creation and Ethical Monism (1809) ; Systematic
history, and hi Biblical, patristic, and systematic
Theology (3 vola., 1907-09); and Outline* of Sys-
theology. He wrote commentaries on Psalms ( 1 563, tematic Theology (19C8).
1567), Isaiah (1566), Wisdom Literature (1565),
Daniel (1565), Jeremiah (1566), the Pentateuch STRONG, JAMES: Methodist layman; b. in
(1566), Joshua (1567), Samuel, Kings, Chronicles New York Aug. Round Lake, N. Y.,
14, 1822; d. at
(1569), Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Ruth (1571), Job Aug. 7, 1894. He was graduated from Wesleyan
(1571), Ezekiel (1570), Minor Prophets (1570), Rev- University, Middletown, Conn., 1844; teacher of
115 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Strype

ancient languages in Troy Conference Academy, exceptional degree of authority among the churches,
West Poultney, Vt., 1844-46; owing to failure in and a rare degree of skill in conducting revivals.
health he occupied himself in study and held vari- He was an indefatigable student; but his learning
ous economic positions, 1846-67; was professor of was developed in his intellectual character, not in
Biblical literature, and acting president of Troy his references to books. He was also a pioneer in the
University, 1858-61; and professor of exegetical cause of Christian missions, and has been regarded
theology in Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, as the father of the Connecticut Missionary Society
N. J., from 1868. He was a member of the Old (1798), the oldest of the permanent missionary so-
Testament Company of revisers; and was the author cieties in the land. His most noted work was The
of Harmony and Exposition of the Gospels (New Doctrine of Eternal Misery Consistent with the Infinite
York, 1852); Harmony of the Gospels in the Greek Benevolence of God (1796); he published also two
of the Received Text (1854); Irenics: A Series of volumes of Sermons (1798-1800); and was the pro-
Essays showing the virtual Agreement between Sci- jector and principal compiler of the Hartford Col-
ence and the Bible (New York, 1883); and edited lection of Hymns (1799), to which he contributed
"
Daniel (1876) and Esther (1877) in the American several hymns, among them Swell the anthem,
edition of Lange. His most important work was raise the song."
the editing, at first with Dr. McClintock for 3 vols., BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. B. Sprague. Annals of the American
and afterward alone, of a Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Pvlpit, ii. 34-41, New York, 1859; F. H. Foster, New
England Theology, pp. 209-210, Chicago, 1907.
Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature (10 vols.,
New York, 1867-81; with a supplement in 2 vols., STRONG, THOMAS BANKS Church of England
: ;

1885^87) the work was begun in 1853. He also pub-

;
b. inLondon Oct. 24, 1861. He was educated at
lished a literal translation of Ecclesiastes (1877). Christ Church Oxford (B.A., 1883), and
College,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Methodist Review, Ixzvi (1804), 783-788; was ordered deacon and ordained priest in
in 1885
J. W. Mendenhall, in Old and New Testament Student, ziv the following year. He was lecturer of his college
(1892), 71-76.
(1884-1901), where he was also student (1888-1901) ;
and has been dean since 1901. He was examining
STRONG, JOSIAH: Congregationalist; b. at
Naperville, 111., Jan. 19, 1847. He was educated chaplain to the bishop of Durham 1889-1901; and
at Western Reserve College (A.B., 1869) and at has been examining chaplain to the bishop of Lon-
Walnut Hills Seminary (now Lane Theological don since 1905. He was Hampton lecturer in 1895,
He and has written Manual of Theology (London, 1892);
Seminary), Cincinnati, O. (graduated 1871).
was home missionary at Cheyenne, Wyo. (1871- Christian Ethics (Bampton lectures; 1896); Doc-
1 873) instructor in natural theology in Western Re-
trine of the Real Presence (1899); Historical Chris-
;

serve College (1873-76); pastor at Sandusky, O. tianity (1902); and Authority in the Church (1903).
(1876-81); secretary of the Ohio Home Missionary STRYKER, MELANCHTHON WOOLSEY: Pres-
Society (1881-84); pastor in Cincinnati (1884-86); byterian; b. at Vernon, N. Y., Jan. 7, 1851. He
secretary of the Evangelical Alliance (1886-98). was graduated from Hamilton College (A.B., 1872)
Since 1898 he has been president of the American and from Auburn Theological Seminary (1876).
Institute of Social Service. Besides editing Social He held pastorates at Presbyterian churches at
Progress from 1904 to 1907 he has written Our Auburn, N. Y. (1876-78), and Ithaca, N. Y. (1878-
Country (New York, 1885); The New Era (1893); 1883), at the Second Congregational Church, Hoi-
The Twentieth Century City (1898); Religious Move-
yoke, Mass. (1883-85), and the Fourth Presbyterian
ments for Social Betterment (1900) Expansion (1900),
;
Church, Chicago, 111. (1885-92), and since 1892 has
The Times and Young Men (1901); The Next Great been president of Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y.
Awakening (1902); The Challenge of the City (1908); He has written Tte Kong of Miriam (Chicago, 1888) ;

Studies in the Gospel of the Kingdom (1910); and Church Song (hymnal; New York, 1889); Dies
My Religion in Everyday Life (1910). Iroe, with Versions (Chicago, 1893); Hamilton Lin- t

coln, and Addresses (Utica, N. Y., 1895); Letter of

STRONG, NATHAN: Congregationalist: b. in
James (Boston, 1895); Lattermath (poems; Utica,
Coventry, Conn., Oct. 16, 1748; d. in Hartford,
1896); College Hymnal (New York, 1897); Well &?/
Conn., Dec. 25, 1816. Having been graduated at
the Gate (sermons; Philadelphia, 1903); and Bacca-
Yale College in 1769, he pursued the study of law
laureateSermons to the Graduating Classes of Hamil-
for a time; was tutor in Yale College in 1772-73;
ton College 1893-1905 (Utica, 1905).
and, after a brief course of theological reading, was
ordained pastor of the First Congregational Church STRYPE, JOHN: Historiographer of the English
in Hartford, Conn., Jan. 5, 1774, holding this pas- Reformation; b. at Houndsditch Nov. 1, 1643; d.
torate nearly forty-two years, and making the at Hackney Dec. 11, 1737. After passing through
church the strongest in the state. During the early St. Paul's school, he entered Jesus College, Cam-
part of his work, in the midst of the colonial troubles bridge, 1662, from which he was transferred to
with Great Britain, he published many political Catherine Hall (B.A., 1665; M.A., 1669). He was
papers which exerted a wide and deep influence. made curate of Theydon Bois, Essex, and of
These and other discussions were characterized by a Low Leyton, Essex, 1669. Archbishop Tenison con-
wit sometimes keenly sarcastic in character. During ferred upon him the sinecure of West Tarring, Sus-
the last twenty years of his pastorate he became sex, 1711, and he was lecturer of Hackney, 1689-
eminent as a revivalist, and was, in the best sense 1724. He published vol. ii. of J. Lightfoot's Works
ot the term, a pulpit orator. His knowledge of (London, 1684); Memorials of . Thomas Cran-
. .

buman nature was remarkable. This gave him an mer, Archbishop of Canterbury. Wherein the History
Staokenl THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 116

of the Church and the Reformation of it during the cized William Robertson Smith's Lectures on the
Primacy of the said Archbishop are greatly illus- . . . Old Testament in the Jewish Church. In 1885 he
trated .. In three Books, 2 parts (1694) \Ufe of the
. put forth a pamphlet on Christian Standing and
Learned Sir Thomas Smith (Oxford, 1698); Histor- Condition, which aroused acrimonious discussion
ical Collections of the Life and Acts of ... J. Ayl- culminating in a division of the Brethren, not yet
mer Lord Bishop of London in the Reign of Queen
t
healed (see PLYMOUTH BRETHREN). This was fol-
Elizabeth (London, 1701); The Life of the Learned lowed by a series of papers on propitiation, in which
Sir J. Cheke, Kt., (1705); his most important
. . . Stuart insisted on the detailed fulfilment of the pres-
work Annals of the Reformation and Establishment of entation of the Savior's blood, immediately after
Religion and other Occurrences in the Church of
. . .
death, in the heavenly sanctuary; this doctrine also
England; during the first twelve Years of Queen Eliz- was obnoxious to old associates. There followed
abeth's Reign:
. . With an Appendix, 2 parts
. . . .
expositions of the Gospels and Acts, of the epistles
(1708-09; a 2d ed., more complete, 4 vols., 172&-31, to the Romans and the Hebrews, and of the Psalter.
Oxford, 1824); The History of the Life and Acts of A pamphlet entitled The Critics: shall we follow
. . Edmund Grindal
.
Archbishop of Can- . . . . . . themf did battle for traditional views of the Old
terbury, 2 parts (1710) The Life and Acts of Matthew ; Testament. Stuart adhered closely to belief in ver-
Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, 2 parts
. . . bal inspiration. With independent judgment he
(1711); The Life and Acts of John Whitgift . . . held firmly the general body of doctrine, prophetic
Archbishop of Canterbury, 2 parts (1718); Ecclesias- as well as ecclesiastical, characteristic of the Breth-
tical Memorials Relating chiefly to Religion, and the ren. E. E. WHITFIELD.
Reformation of it, and the Emergencies of the Church
STUART, GEORGE HAY: Presbyterian layman;
of England under King Henry VIII. , King Edward b. at Rose Hall, County Down, Ireland; d. at Chest-
VI., and Queen Mary the First (3 vols., 1721).
nut Hill, Philadelphia, Pa., Apr. 11, 1890. He camo
Strype was a diligent collector of materials, but to Philadelphia in 1861, went into business and
lacked literary style and skill in methodical ar-
accumulated wealth. He was for many years presi-
rangement. The complete works of Strype were dent of the Merchants' National Bank of Philadel-
issued at Oxford, 1822-40, in 27 vols.
phia. Heacquired a national reputation as a phi-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 87 K. Maitland, Remarks on the First Vol-
ume of Strype' Life of Archbishop Cranmer, London, 1848; lanthropist and Christian worker. During the Civil
DNB, Iv. 67-09. War he was president of the Christian Commission.
Later he was president of the Philadelphia branch
STUART, CHARLES MACAULAY: Methodist of the Evangelical Alliance, vice-president of the
Episcopalian; b. at Glasgow, Scotland, Aug. 20, American Bible Society, of the American Tract So-
1853. After completing his high-school studies in
ciety, and of the National Temperance Society, and
his native city, he left Scotland for the United was prominently connected with many other relig-
States, and was educated at Kalamazoo College, ious and philanthropic associations.
Kalamazoo, Mich. (A.B., 1880), and at the Garrett BIBLIOGRAPHY: Life of George H. Stuart, written by himself,
Biblical Institute, Chicago. Entering the ministry edited by R. E. Thompson, Philadelphia, 1890.
of his denomination, he remained in its pastorate
until 1885, when he was associate editor of the STUART, MOSES: American Hebraist; b. in
Wilton, Conn., Mar. 26, 1780; d. at Andover, Mass.,
Michigan Christian Advocate for a year. From 1886
Jan. 4, 1852. He was graduated from Yale Col-
to 1896 he occupied a similar position on the North-
western Christian Advocate, and since 1896 has been lege with the highest honor (1799); taught school
at North Fairfield and Danbury, Conn.; studied
professor of sacred rhetoric in the Garrett Biblical
Besides editing the Methodist
law and was admitted to the bar 1802, and the same
Institute. Hymnal
(New York, 1905), and The Books and their Message year was called as tutor to Yale; pursued the study
of theology with President Dwight, and was or-
(1910), he has written Descriptive Text of Photo-
dained pastor of the First Congregational Church,
gravures of tfo Holy Land (New York, 1890) ; Life
and Selected Writings of Francis Dana Hemenway New Haven, Conn., 1806, showing remarkable talent
as preacher and pastor; became professor of sacred
(in collaboration with C. F. Bradley and A. W.
literature in Andover Theological Seminary in 1810,
Patten; 1890); Gospel Singers and their Songs (in
collaboration with F. D. Hemenway; 1891); Vision retaining his place there until his retirement in 1848.
His first literary work was a Hebrew grammar,
of Christ in the Poets (1896) and Story of the Master- ;
which was circulated among the students in manu-
pieces (1897).
script because it was not possible to print Hebrew
STUART, CLARENCE ESME: Plymouth in this country at that time; when it was finally
Brother; b. at Tempsford Hall, Sandy (8 m. e. of printed (1813), he was compelled himself to set up
Bedford), England, 1828; d. at Reading 1903. He part of the type for lack of compositors equipped
was grandson of William Stuart, Archbishop of for the task; later editions long remained the text-
Armagh; went from Eton to St. John's College, books for American students. To Americans he
Cambridge, where he took his master's degree, after brought the knowledge of what was being done for
obtaining a Tyrwhitt university scholarship in Biblical scholarship in Germany, and thus founded
Hebrew. About the year 1860 he entered the ranks in America the scientific study of Biblical archeology
of the Brethren at Reading, where he continued to and linguistics. For his services in this department
He wrote on the sacrifices, "
reside until his death. he has been called the father of American Biblical
the Church of God, textual criticism of the New literature"; in the course of his labors he trained
Testament (he was of the Tregelles school), and criti- more than 1,500 ministers, 70 professors or
117 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA ttnart
tuokenbarff

presidents of colleges, more than 100 foreign mis- STUBBS, WILLIAM: Church of England bishop;
sionaries, and about 30 translators of the Bible b. at Knaresborough (16 m. n. of Leeds) June 21,
into foreign tongues. 1825; d. at Oxford Apr. 19, 1901. He studied at
His literary work was extensive. He translated Christ Church College, Oxford (B.A., 1848; M.A.,
Winer's Greek Grammar of the New Testament (1825; 1851); was fellow of Trinity College, Oxford (1848-
in collaboration with Professor Robinson), and 1851); of Oriel (1867-84); honorary fellow of Bal-
Roediger's Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar (1846); pre- liol (1876-84); honorary student of Christ Church

pared commentaries on Hebrews (2 vols., 1827-28), (1878-84); vicar of Navestock, Essex (1850-67);
Romans (2 vols., 1832), Revelation (2 vols., 1845), librarian to the archbishop of Canterbury, and
Daniel (1850), Ecclesiastes (1851), and Proverbs keeper of the manuscripts at Lambeth (1862-67);
(1852); and wrote, besides Hebrew Grammar
his , examiner in the schools of law and modern history,
Letters to Rev. on the
Wittiam E. Channing . . . Oxford (1865-66); regius professor of modern his-
Divinity of Christ (1819); Letters to Rev. Samuel tory (1866-84); select preacher (1870); examiner
Miller . on the Eternal Generation of the Son of
. . in the school of theology (1871-72); and of modern
God (1822); Hebrew Chrestomathy (1829); Elemen- history (1873, 1876, 1881); rector of Choldorton,
tary Principles of Interpretation^ from the Latin of Wilts (1875-79); canon of St. Paul's, London (1879-
Ernesti (1842); Hints on the Prophecies (1842); 1884) member of royal commission on ecclesiastical
;

Critical History and Defence ofthe Old Testament courts (1881); became bishop of Chester (1884),
Canon (1845); Miscellanies; consisting of Letters and was translated to Oxford (1888). As a historian
and Sermons on the Trinity, the Atonement, etc.
,
and critic he belonged in the front rank of English
(1846); and Exegetical Essays (1867). scholars. He was one of the foremost contributors
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Funeral Sermon, by E. A. Park, was to the Rolls Series; was the editor or author of
published, Andover, 1852. Consult further W. Adams, Registrum sacrum Anghcanum (Oxford, 1858);
Discourse on the Life and Services of Moses Stuart, New
Chronicles and Memorials of the Reign of Richard I.
York, 1852; W. B. Sprague, Annals of the American Pul-
pit, ii 475-481, ib. 1859; W. Walker, in American Church (2 vols., London, 1864-65); Benedu-tus Abbas (2
History Series, iii. 341, 352-353, 355, ib. 1894; idem, Ten vols., 1867); Roger Hoveden (4 vols, 1868-71); Se-
New England Leaders, pp. 372, 388, 308, 415-417, ib. 1001. lect Charters (1871); Councils and Ecclesiastical
Documents (vol. iii., 1871); Walter of Coventry (2
STUBBS, CHARLES WILLIAM: Church of Eng-
vols., 1872-73); Constitutional History of England
land; b. Liverpool Sept. 3 1845.
at He was
(3 vols., 1874-78); Memorials of St. Dunstan (1874);
educated Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
at
The Early Plantagenets (1876) The Historical Works
(B A., 1868), and was ordered deacon in 1868 and
;

ordained priest in 1869. He was senior curate of of Ralph de Diceto (2 vols., 1876); Works of Gervaxe
St. Mary's, Sheffield (1868-71), vicar of Granbor- of Canterbury (2 vols., 1879); Chronicles of Edward
I. and II. (2 vols., 1882-83); Seventeen Lectures on
ough, Bucks (1871-84), and of Stokenham, Devon-
the Study of Mediaeval and Modern Church History
shire (1884-88); rector of Wavertree, Liverpool " "
(1887); TVte Gesta Regum of William of Malmcs-
(1888-94); dean of Ely (1894-1906); and bishop
of Truro since 1906. He has been honorary fellow bury (1887-89); and, posthumously, Ordination Ad-
of hia college since 1904, and was select preacher at dresses, ed. E. E. Holmes (1901); Historical Intro-
ductions to Rolls Series, collected and ed. A. Has-
Cambridge in 1881, 1894, 1896, and 1901, and at
sall (1902); Letters, 1825-1901, ed. W. H. Hutton
Oxford in 1883 and 1898-99, Lady Margaret preach-
er at Cambridge in 1896-97, select preacher at Har- (1904); Visitation Charges, ed. E. E. Holmes (1904);
Lectures on Early English History, ed. A. Hassall
vard in 1900, and Hulsean lecturer in 1904-05. He
(1906); and Germany in the Middle Ages, ed.
. . .

has written, in addition to several volumes of poems,

A. Hassall (2 vols., 1908).
Origin and Growth of Sentiments of International
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. H. Hutton, William Stubb*, Bishop of
Morality (London, 1869); Village Politics: Ad- Oxford, 1826-1901, London, 1906.
dresses and Sermons on the Labour Question (1878);
The Mytiu of Life (1880); Christ and Democracy STUCKENBERG, JOHN HENRY WILBURN:
(University sermons; 1883); God's Englishmen: Lutheran; b. at Bramschc (60 m. s.w. of Bremen),
Sermons on the Prophets and Kings of England (1887) ; Germany, Jan. 6, 1835; d. at London May 28, 1903.
For Christ and City (Liverpool sermons; 1890); He was educated at Wittenberg College, Springfield,
The Land and the Labourers (1890) Christ and Eco- ;
O. (A.B., 1857), and at the universities of Halle
nomics (1893) Christus Imperator (1894); A Creed
; (1859-61), Gottingen, Tubingen, and Berlin (1865-
for Christian Socialists, with Expositions (1896); 1867). He held Lutheran pastorates at Davenport,
Historical Memorials of Ely Cathedral (1897) ; Hand- O. (1858-59), Erie, Pa. (1861-65), Indianapolis,
book to Ely Cathedral (Ely, 1898); Charles Kingsley Ind. (1867-68), and Pittsburg, Pa. (1868-74), being
and the Christian Social Movement (London, 1898); also chaplain of the 145th Pennsylvania Volunteers
T)w Social Teachings of the Lord's Prayer (Univer- in 1862-63; he was professor of theology in Witten-
sity sermons; 1900); Pro Patria! (cathedral and berg Theological Seminary (1874-80), and from 1880
university sermons; 1900); In a Minster Garden: until his retirement from active life in 1894 was pas-
Colloquies of Ely (1901); Cambridge and its Story tor of the American Church in Berlin. In theology
(1904); and The Christ of English Poetry, Hulsean he was a liberal evangelical, and wrote Ninety-Five
lectures (1905). He has edited Matthew and Mark Theses for the Seventh Semi-Centennial of the Refor-
for The Temple Bible (London, 1901); and Verba mation (Baltimore, 1868) History of the Augsburg
;

Christi: Sayings of the Lord Jesus, Greek and Eng- Confession from its Origin till the Adoption of the
lish (1903). Formula of Concord (Philadelphia, 1869); Christian
Student Volunteer Movement THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG 118
Stumbling-Block

Sociology(New York, 1880); Ltfe of Immanud of properly qualified student volunteers to meet the
Kant (London, 1882); Final Science (New York, successive demands of the various missionary boards
1886) ; Introduction to the Study of Philosophy (1888) ; of North America; (3) to help all such intending
The Age and the Church (Hartford, Conn., 1893); missionaries to prepare for their life-work and to
Tendencies in German Tfiouglti (1896); Introduction enlist their cooperation in developing the mission-
to theStudy of Sociology (New York, 1897); The So- ary life of home churches; (4) to lay an equal bur-
cial Problem (York, Pa., 1897); and Sociology: or, den of responsibility on all students who are to re-
The Science of Human Society (2 vols., New York, main as ministers and lay workers at home, that
1903). He also translated C. R. Hagenbach's Ger- they may actively promote the missionary enter-
man Rationalism in its Rise, Progress, and Decline prise by intelligent advocacy, gifts, and prayer.
(in collaboration with W. L. Gage; Edinburgh, Student volunteers are drawn from those who
1865). are or have been students in institutions of higher
learning in the United States and Canada. Each
STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT FOR FOR- student volunteer signs the
"
declara-
EIGN MISSIONS: A movement originated at the Methods of tion," which is as follows: " It is my
first international conference of Christian college
Work. purpose, if God permit, to become a
students, held at Mount Hermon, Mass., in 1886, at The work for
foreign missionary."
the invitation of the late D. L. Moody.
which the movement, as an agency of the Church,
Origin, Or- Of the 250 delegates who attended, is held responsible is the promotion of the mission-
ganization, twenty-one had definitely decided to ary life and activity in the institutions of higher
Purpose, become foreign missionaries when the learning in the United States and Canada, in which
conference opened. Of this number more than 250,000 students are matriculated. From
Robert P. Wilder of Princeton, Tewksbury of Har- these should come the future missionaries and mis-
vard, and Clark of Oberlin had come with the con-
sionary leaders of the Church. Therefore no work
viction that God would call from that large gather- can be more important than that of making each
ing of college men a number who would consecrate student center a stronghold of missionary intelli-
themselves to foreign missions. Before the confer- To accomplish
gence, enthusiasm, and activity.
ence closed 100 of the delegates had recorded their this a staff of secretaries is employed, offices are
" if God to become mis-
purpose, permit, foreign maintained in New York City, and conferences and
sionaries." At the conference it was decided that conventions are held. Besides administrative sec-
a deputation should be sent among the colleges, retaries, there are traveling secretaries; and this
and four students were selected for this purpose. position usually held for one year by a student
is
Of the four selected, Wilder alone was able to go, volunteer ready to go to the mission field Returned .

and John N. Forman, also of Princeton, was induced missionaries also have been employed. The number
to join him. The expenses of the deputation were of traveling secretaries is determined by the funds
borne by Mr. D. W. McWilliams, of Brooklyn. at the disposal of the executive committee. The
Messrs. Wilder and Forman visited 176 institutions,
traveling secretaries visit the colleges, deliver ad-
including a majority of the leading colleges and dresses on missions, meet with missionary commit-
divinity schools of Canada and the United States. tees and volunteer bands, organize mission-study
In the summer of 1888 about fifty volunteers at- classes, and in every way possible promote the mis-
tended the student conference at Northfield. It sionary activities of the colleges but the chief ob-
was there decided that some organization was nec- ject of their work is by public address and personal
essary, and a committee was appointed by the interview to lead students to give their lives to mis-
volunteers present to effect such an organization. sionary service. The student volunteers in an in-
This committee met in Dec., 1888, and an organ- stitution are organized into a volunteer band, which
ization was effected, taking the name of the Stu- has as its objects to deepen the missionary purpose
dent Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions and spiritual lives of the members, to secure other
which is incorporated under the laws of the state volunteers, and to promote missions in the college
of New York. There is an executive committee, and in the college community. Once in four years
a board of trustees, and an advisory committee. an international convention is held. Six such con-
This movement is in no sense a missionary board. ventions have been held; at that of 1010 there
It never has sent out a missionary, and never will. were present 2,054 students and professors repre-
It is simply a recruiting agency. Those who be- senting 735 institutions.
come student volunteers are expected to go out as The Volunteer Movement has reached by its
missionaries under the regular missionary organ- propaganda nearly not quite 1,000 institutions of
if

izations of the Church. It does not usurp or en- higher learning in North America. In a large ma-
croach upon the functions of any other missionary jority of these the work was the first
organization. It is unswervingly loyal to the Results, real missionary cultivation which they
Church, and has received the endorsement of every ever received. It is the testimony of
leading missionary board on the continent. It is professors and other observers that even in the in-
primarily a movement of students, and it is not in stitutions which had already been influenced in dif-
any sense an organization forced upon the students. ferent ways by the missionary idea, the Volunteer
The purposes are as follows: (1) To awaken and Movement has very greatly developed missionary
maintain among all Christian students of the United interest and activity. Because the Student Volun-
States and Canada intelligent and active interest in teer Movement is a movement for foreign missions,
foreign missions; (2) to enroll a sufficient number the principal proof of its efficiency is to be found
119 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

in the going forth of its members to the foreign more than $90,000 was given to foreign missions
mission field. It is gratifying, therefore, to note and $37,000 to home missions. Eighty-nine insti-
that the movement has on its records the names of tutions gave $300 or more each. Many colleges and
4,784 volunteers who, prior to Jan. 1, 1911, had theological seminaries are supporting entirely or in
reached the mission field, having been sent out as large part their own representative on the foreign
missionaries of no less than fifty different mission- field. The movement has been helpful also in raising
ary boards of the United States and Canada. About the standards of qualifications of intonding mission-
one-third of the sailed volunteers are women. aries. During the past twenty years in particular it
The sailed volunteers are distributed by countries has emphasized that those who arc to become mis-
as follows: sionaries should possess the highest qualifications.
Mexico 152 It invariably encourages students to take a regular
Central America 28 and thorough college or university course and to
South America 288
press on to such graduate courses as may be required
West Indies 146
Latin and Greek Church countries of Europe 21 by the agencies under which they expect to go
Africa . 603 abroad. The leaders of the movement have always
Turkish Empire .... 174 insisted that no student volunteer was prepared for
Arabia 21
his high calling unless he were spiritually qualified.
Persia 39
India,Burma, and Ceylon 924 Hence the movement has guided and stimulated
Siam, Laos, and Straits settlements 79 volunteers to form right devotional habits such as
China 1,389 that of personal Bible study, secret prayer, and the
Korea 219
Japan 401 practise of religious meditation.
Philippine Islands 145 Great as the achievements have been, the work
Oceania 58 is not and will not be finished while there is an in-
Miscellaneous 197
creasing demand for missionaries. New missionaries
Total 4,784 arc needed to fill the places made vacant on the
mission field by the death or retirement of the old
In order to be of greater service to all the mission
missionaries, to reach the unevangelized millions
boards in helping them to secure the most capable
in the countries where missions have already been
men and women to go as missionaries, there was
established, and to occupy the countries which are
established in the fall of 1907 the candidate depart-
at present without a single missionary, or where no
ment. The work already done has demonstrated
work has as yet been attempted. These recruits
the wisdom of this forward movement. Almost
must be found among the students.
every board has been aided during the past year in F. P. TURNER.
finding properly qualified candidates. In 1894 the BIBLIOGRAPHY: Reports of the Executive Committee and of
movement began to promote the systematic and the international conventions, published by the organiza-
progressive study of missions among students. At tion from time to time.
that time there were less than thirty classes carry-
STUDITES. See ACOSMETI.
ing on such study in all the institutions of North
America. During the first year there were organ- STUMBLING-BLOCK, STONE OF STUMBLING:
ized 144 classes with an enrolment of 1,400. In the The translation in the Knglish versions of the He-
year 1909-10 there were in 596 institutions 2,379 brew mikshol, makshelah, ebhcn negfteph, and the
classes having an enrolment of 29,322. At the be- Greek proskomma, lithos tou proskommatos, skan-
ginning of this period there were no text-books dolon, the fundamental idoa of which is either an
available for the classes. Since 1894 a text-book object in the way over which one may stumble or a
literature has been created, not only for the stu- weighted trap used for catching wild animals, which
dents, but the work, taken up by other organiza- falls when the bait is touched. These terms may
tions, has been pushed in the churches among young represent persons or things good in themselves, as
people's societies, women's missionary societies, when (I Cor. i. 23; I Pet. ii. 8) they are applied to
"
and in the Sunday-schools, so that now the annual Christ, the guilt resting upon those which stumble
sales of missionary text-books by these different at the word, being disobedient "; and moral guilt
agencies has passed the 100,000 mark. This mission may be incurred by a Christian if, when he should
study work is developing an intelligent and strong uphold his faith, he weakly denies it or conceals it

missionary interest and is striving to make that for fear of giving offense. On the other hand, he is
interest permanent. It is an invaluable help in pre- always to take the ideas and feelings of others into
paring missionary candidates for their life-work, is consideration (cf. Matt. xvii. 27). An offense which
making the conditions favorable for the multiply- involves blame to the giver does so because it leads
ing of the number of capable volunteers, is develop- to sin, if only by confusing the moral judgment, in
ing right habits of praying and giving for missions, the awakening of a doubt about the character of
and is equipping those who are to become leaders at the agent or the action or about the correctness of
home to be real citizens of a world-wide kingdom. another's habitual convictions. Sin is thus made
The movement has also stimulated gifts to missions easier, and the one who gives offense incurs the guilt
of consciously or unconsciously leading another into
by students. When it began its work less than
$10,000 a year was being contributed toward mis- temptation. It is from this standpoint that St.

sionary objects by all the institutions of the United Paul exhorts the Corinthians to abstain from meat
States and Canada. During 1909-10 29,000 stu- offered hi sacrifice (I Cor. viii. 7-13, x. 28), laying
"
dents and professors gave over $133,761, of which down his principle of Christian liberty, All things
 Stnndiita
Sturm THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 190

are lawful unto me, but all things are not expedi- Hesse and Saxony; Bavaria in 710; d. at
b. in
"
ent (vi. 12, x. 23, 32). (RUDOLF HOFMANN.) Fulda Dec. 17, 779. He came of a distinguished
Christian family, and was sent to Boniface for in-
STUHDISTS. See RUSSIA, II., 7.
struction while the latter was in Bavaria; he ac-
STUPA: A mound of masonry, usually dome- companied Boniface on at least one of his mission-
like,employed by Buddhists to commemorate a ary journeys, and for further education was under
notable event, mark a sacred spot, preserve a relic, the care of Abbot Wigbert at Fritzlar, being made
or to serve a combination of these purposes. The priest in 740. He was then a missionary in Hesse
terms dagoba and tope are employed to some ex- for three years; but, feeling a strong inclination for
tent as equivalents, the latter having reference to the monastic life, he was encouraged by Boniface
the form and the former to the purpose as protect- to build an abbey, and after some indecision settled
ing a relic. The shape has been explained as due at Fulda, receiving a gift of the land from Carlo-
to the tradition that Buddha, born among a race man through the intercession of Boniface, erecting
descended from the Scythians, directed that his re- the first structure and becoming its first abbot under
mains be buried in Scythian fashion (cf Herodotus, .
the Benedictine rule. After the death of Boniface,
iv. 71, 72, 217; and the notes and plans in Rawlin- when great efforts were made to carry the body to
son's transl., iii. 57-63, New York, 1875) under a Mainz for entombment, Sturm carried out the
raised mound (S. Beal, Catena of the Buddhist Scrip- wishes of his master for burial at Fulda. Lull us of
tures from the Chinese, pp. 126-130, London, 1871). Mainz attempted to disregard the exemptions se-
The period during which these structures were cured by the abbey, and Sturm was the defender;
raised coincides roughly with the middle stage of but in consequence he was charged with disloyalty
the dominance of Buddhism in India, c. 250 B.C.- to Pippin and banished to Jumttges in Normandy,
250 A.D., though some rebuilding was done as late 758, but was permitted to return in 760 and received
as the eighth century. Those best worthy of men- into Pippin's good graces, this result being in part
tion are (1) that at Sanchi, Bhopal, Central India, due to the favor in which Sturm was held through-
having a horizontal diameter of 106 feet and placed out the Frankish kingdom. Sturm was also re-
upon a circular platform 120 feet in diameter, and garded highly by Charlemagne, and was employed
having a perpendicular radius of forty-two feet. by him in diplomatic affairs, and it fell to his lot
It is constructed of bricks laid in mud covered with to carry the Gospel to the regions brought under
a layer of chiseled stone, and has a tee or flattened the Frankish 's king's dominion in Saxony. His
surface on the apex (the place where usually the accomplishment was not merely the planting of the
relic was kept) fourteen feet in diameter. The whole abbey and its erection into a strong and influential
is surrounded by an elaborately carved stone rail- institution, but the impulse to general education
ing. (2) A second important example is found at and culture which he imparted and the results of
Manikyala, near Raval Pindi, in the Punjab (where this in churches and schools in central Germany.
these structures are especially numerous). (3) The BIBLIOGRAPHY: The fundamental source is the Vita by
finest of all, perhaps, was that at Amravati, in the Egil, abbot of Fulda, 818-822, in ASH, iii 2, pp. 269-

Madras Presidency, the sculptures of which are now 284, with discussion of the year of death and account of
the canonization by Mabillon, pp 284-286, also m
MGH,
in the British Museum. (4) One of great historic Script., ii (1829), 365-377, and M
PL, cv. 423-444, there ia
interest twelve miles from the Lumbini Garden
is a Germ, transl. by W. Arndt, Berlin, 1863. Consult fur-
ther: G. F. Maclear, Hist, of Christian Missions during
(the traditional birthplace of the Buddha, about 110
the Middle Ages, pp. 211-217, Cambndge, 1863; idem,
m. n.e. of Benares), and covered that part of the
Apostle* of Medieval Europe, pp. 132-138, London, 1888;
ashes of the saint which fell to his own Sakhya clan. F. J. Nick, Der heilige Sturmius, crater Abt von Fulda,
(5) A notable series of groups are in the vicinity of Fulda, 1865; J. Kayscr, Der heilige Sturmi, der erste
Glaubensbote de Paderbornrr Landes, Padorborn, 1866;
Bhilsa in Bhopal, and number between twenty-five A. Ebert, Allgemeine Oetchichte der Literatur dea Mittel-
and thirty. Most of these are ina most ruinous alter*, ii. 104-106, 121, 144, Txjipsic, 1880, B. Kuhlmann,
condition, the Mohammedans and others having Der heilige Sturmi, Or Under Fulda* und Apostel Westfalena,
used them as quarries of material for later struc- Paderbora, 1890; Rettberg, KD, i. 371, 607 sqq., 616 sqq.;
Hauck, KD, vol. ii. passim.
tures. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Hiouen
Thsang (seventh century) reports that what are STURM, sturm, JAKOB: German reformer; b.
known to have been some of the earliest were al- at Strasburg Aug. 10, 1489; d. there Oct. 30, 1553.
ready in ruins. GBO. W. GILMORE. He was educated at Heidelberg (B.A., 1503) and ;

at Freiburg (M.A., 1505), where he studied theology

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Indian and Eattem
J. Fergusson, Hist, of
Architecture, book I., chap, iii., London, 18Q1 (gives ex- in connection with law after 1506. He maintained
cellent cuts, one on title-page); idem, in Royal Atiatic relations with the greatest humanists of his day,
Society's Journal, new series, iii (1868), 132-166; K. Hit- and was highly esteemed by Erasmus. He was first
ter, Die Stupas, Berlin, 1838. H. H. Wilson, Artano An-
tiqua, pp. 55-118, London, 1841; A. Cunningham, The
a clerical of the lower order; occupied the position
BhUea Topes, ib. 1854, idem, in Royal Atiatic Society'* of secretary to the cathedral provost at Strasburg,
Journal, xiii (1852), 108-114, J. BurgeM, Note* on the
1517-23; was an earnest member of the Strasburg
Amaravati Stupa, Madras, 1882; J. Burgess, The Buddhist
Stupas of Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta, London, 1887; society of learning; and in 1522 devised a plan for
and the following articles in the Royal Atiatic Society'* the reorganization of the University of Heidelberg.
Journal, new series, v (1870), 164-181 (by 8. Beal), ziv In 1524 he entered the municipal service, being
(1882), 332-334 (by W. Simpson), 1902, pp. 29-46 (by J.
elected to the great council, as a member of which
Burgess).
he represented Strasburg and other imperial cities,
STURM (STURMI) OF FULDA: Disciple of in the government of the empire. From 1526 he
" 1
Boniface, first abbot of Fulda (q.v.), and apostle of was one of the college of thirteen/ was chosen
191 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA ttum
ttundiotft

Stadtmeister thirteen times from 1527, and soon dtmie de Strasbourg (1638-1621), ib. 1900; M. Fournier
and C. Engel, L'UniveraiU de Strasbourg et lea ocodemiea
advanced to the leadership of Strasburg statesman-
proteatantea franfaiaea, Paris, 1894; J. W. Richard. Philip
ship. The wise moderation of Strasburg in the Melanchthon, pp. 18, 176, 185, 226, 264, New York, 1898;
Peasants' War was due to his influence. His fear- S. M. Jackson, Huldreich Zwingli, pp. 312, 324, 330, 2d

less championship of the Protestant cause and his ed., ib. 1903; Cambridge Modern History, ii. 204, 258, ib.
1904; and works on the history of Strasburg.
eloquence at the Diet of Speyer of 1526 (see SPEYEK,
DIETS OF) secured for his city the leadership in STURM, JOHANNES: German humanist and
Schleiden (60 m. s.w. of
at
upper Germany. In the quiet movement of the schoolman; b.
Reformation at his native city, he took the ground Cologne) Oct. 1507; d. at Strasburg Mar. 3,
1,

of liberty of conscience in church matters, recog- 1589. He entered, in 1521 or 1522, upon his hu-
manistic studies at the school of St. Hieronymus
nizing neither pope nor emperor in matters of faith.
Hence Strasburg became a center of toleration and at LQttich and completed them at the University
freedom. He held aloof from the Eucharistic con- of Louvain, where he had a share in a printing-

troversy, declining the communion for years; but press and issued several Greek works. Visiting
was present at the conference at Marburg (q.v.). Paris in 1529 to sell his books, he was induced to
At the Diet of Speyer in 1529 he advocated the abo- teach dialectics and give lectures on Cicero and
lition of the mass, took sides with the protesting Demosthenes. Influenced by the writings of M.
estates, and assisted Philip of Hesse to prevail upon Butzer, he adopted the principles of the Reforma-
these not to concur in the condemnation of the tion. After participating in the attempt to recon-
Swiss. At the Diet of Augsburg (1530) he helped cile the Protestant and Roman Catholic parties

in drawing up the Confessio tetrapolitana and strove, in 1534, upon a new outbreak of persecution, he
though unsuccessfully, for unity. He participated repaired to Strasburg to organize the new gymna-
in the deliberations before tho Wittenberg Concord sium. Dependent on Melanchthon, he followed the
of 1530. Simultaneously he was employed upon principle of training in rhetoric and eloquence,
ecclesiastical organization at Strasburg; he was based upon Humanism and Evangelical piety, for
the offices of the Reformation movement and the
president of the synod of 1533, and took a part in
the preparation of the church order which appeared State.
in 1534. Shortly after he succeeded in founding Although a Protestant, Sturm had many Roman
the Strasburg gymnasium. Since 1528 he had been Catholic connections and always cherished the hope
one of the supervisors of public instruction. During of a reunion. His oratorical talent and diplomatic
the Interim, he humbled himself, though uncon- aptitude qualified him for many embassies in behalf
of Strasburg, the Protestant estates, and the king
quered, to the emperor, thus parting with M. Butzer,
whom he had hitherto supported; yet sustaining the of France. He attended the conferences at Hagenau

dignity and Protestant freedom of the city. As a

and Worms, 1540; of Rcgonsburg, 1541; and went
strategic point on the Rhine, he took every precau- with Butzer to meet the elector of Cologne, 1542.
tion to fortify Straaburg against the French. Sturm After helping to negotiate peace between England
held the respect of all parties as well as of his op- and France, 1545, he again went to France, 1546,
ponents and of the emperor; and from 1525 to 1552 at the outbreak of the SchmalkaJd War, to procure
represented the city of Strasburg ninety-one times the aid of Francis I. A personal friend of many
at political and religious conferences. Unsurpassed French Protestants and especially of Calvin, Sturm
as an administrator and statesman in the history preferred the Reformed teaching on the Eucharist,
of Strasburg he was a man of deep moral and re- but, desiring a reconciliation, shared the attitude of
wisdom and high-
ligious conviction, of circumspect
Butzer and Melanchthon. He spared no sacrifice
minded Christian patriotism. in behalf of liberty of conscience for France, even

(JOHANNES PICKER.) demanding German aid to the Huguenots. For this

he incurred the suspicion of the Lutherans. After
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: E. Winkelmann, Urkunden-
the death of Jakob Sturm (q.v.) and with the stricter
buch der Univeraittit Heidelberg, i. 214 sqq., Heidelberg,
1886; the Opera of Zwingli, passim; Politiache Korre- enforcement of the Lutheran confession after 1555,
spondem der Stadt Straaaburg im Zeitolter der Reforma- Sturm became involved in continuous violent con-
tion, ed. H. Virck and O. Wmckelmaim, vols. i.-iii., Straa- troversies. He upheld the broader views of Butzer,
burg, 1882-07; J. Strickler, Aktenaammlung der achweiz-
iachen Reformotionageaehichte, 1521-S2, 5 vols., Zurich.
which formerly prevailed at Strasburg, being also
1878-84; and M. Lenz, Briefwechael Landgraf Philipp dea influenced by his Biblical and humanistic tendency
Groaamutigen von Heaaen mil Bucer, 3 vola., Leipsic, 1880- toward a non-dogmatic Christianity. This contro-
1891. For biographical material consult: J. Sturm, Con-
aoloiio ad aenatum Argentinenaem de morte Jocobi versy, lasting more than thirty years, marks the
division of the Strasburg church from its past. A
. . .

Sturmii, Straaburg, 1553; Stein, Jacob Sturm (Jena dis-

sertation), Leipsic, 1878; H. Baumgarten, Hiatoriache und consensus in 1563 on the basis of the Wittenberg
politische Aufatitee und Reden, pp. 458 sqq. Strasburg,
t
Concord did not last long. Sturm was engaged to
1894; ADB, xxxvi. 5 sqq. For light on various sides of
Sturm's activities consult: A. Jung, Geachichte der Refor- organize a number of schools upon the model of his
mation der Kirche in Straaaburg, vol. i., Leipsic, 1830, own, among which was the gymnasium at Lauingcn,
T. W. Rdhrioh. Geachichte der Reformation in Elaaaa und 1564. In 1566 he secured an imperial privilege for
besondera in Straaaburg, 3 parts, Strasburg, 1830-32,
an academy, which was dedicated 1567. But the
A. W. Strobel, Hiat. du gymnoae proteatant de Straabourg.
ib. 1838; J. W. Baum, Capito und Butter, Elberfeld, 1860; complaint of tho theologians against the Reformed
H. Baumgarten, Ueber Sleidana Leben und Briefaechael. tendencies of himself and some of his professors
Strasburg. 1878, A. Baum, Mogiatrot und Reformation in became ever louder. The intensely partisan Johann
8tra8burg bia 1669, ib. 1887, C. Engel, Dos Grundunga- Marbach (q.v.) brought on an acrimonious strife
johr dea proteatantiachen Gymnoaiuma *u Straaaburg, pp.
113 iqq., ib. 1888; idem, L'cofo latin et Vancienn* oca- over the school, which a referee decided in favor of
 turm THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 128

Sturm in 1575. But soon after, the occasion of the das Hohelied der Liebe (1854); Neuefromme Lieder
introduction of the Formula of Concord (q.v.) at undGedichU (1858); Filr das Haus (1862); Isradtir
Strasburg reopened the conflict. Coarser in method ische Lieder (2d ed., Halle, 1867); Aujw&rts (1881),
was the assault of Johannes Pappus (q.v.), who was and Dem Herrn mein Lied (Bremen, 1884), both
supported by L. Osiander and Jakob Andrea (qq.v.) collections of religious poems; and his last poems,
of Wurttemberg. virulent pamphlets were
Many in Freud und Leid (Leipsic, 1896).
exchanged. The result was the removal of Sturm (A. FREYBE.)
from the rectorship. He spent his last years at his BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Heyden, Galcrie beruhmter und merk-
rural house at Northeim. He had a sanguine, sym- wurdiger Reussenl&nder, Frankfort, 1858; O. Kraua,
Geistliche Lieder im 19. Jahrhundert, pp. 543 sqq., 2d ed.,
pathetic nature, easily attracted or violently re-
GUtereloh, 1870; Zuppki, in Unser Vogtland, ii. 1 (1895),
pelled, and was lacking in self-control. To this may
2-10; R. KOnig, in Daheim, xxxii. 37 (1896), 592 sqq.;
be added his arrogance and increasing passion of F. Hoffmann, in R. Virchow and F. von Hoitjsondorff'a
temper as motives of his controversial spirit, pro- Gemeinverstandliche urissenschaftliche Vortr&ge, part 306,
voked when his broad, international, humanistic Hamburg, 1898; K. L. Leimbach, Auagewtihlte deutache
Dichtungen, iv. 2, pp. 345 sqq., 13 vola., Frankfort, 1899;
attitude refused to be pressed into narrow confes-
Julian, Hi/mnology, p. 1100.
sional molds. Ilia eminent capability as an organ-
izer and teacher made the Strasburg high school STUTTGART, stut'gOrt or stut'gQrt, SYNOD
world-renowed and one of the best attended of the AND CONFESSION OF: The convention in 1559

time, and history has assigned him the fame of which gave solemn sanction to the Lutheran doc-
" trine of the Lord's Supper. The immediate occa-
the greatest of the great school rectors of the six-
teenth century." (JOHANNES FICKER.) sion of the synod was an accusation brought against

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The book of most value is C. Schmidt, La

Bartholomaus Hagen, pastor at Dottingen, and
Vie et lea travaux de Jean Sturm, Strasburg* 1855 (con- preacher to the Duchess Sabina of Wiirttemberg,
tains list of the works of Sturm and also names the earlier mother of Duke Christopher, of being an adherent
literature). As sources to be consulted are: J. Camera- of the Swiss doctrine. At the command of the
Epistolarum libri V posteriores, pp. 496-505, Frank-
riiis,
fort, 1595; Zanchii epistolarum libri duo, passim, Han- duke, Hagen was cited to appear in Apr 1559, at ,

over, 1609; Aschami familiarium epistolarum libri III, Stuttgart and was given a month's time to offer a
pp. 529 sqq., ib. 1610; Fecht, Hist. eccl. sac. XV L, sup- categorical explanation on the article of the pres-
plementum, pp. 836, 877, 886-896, Frankfort, 1684; A. ence of Christ. After this had been referred to all
Schumacher, GeleJirter Manner Briefe an die Kunige in
Danemark, ii. 311 sqq., Copenhagen, 1758; Zurich Let- the superintendents and their judgments reeeived,
ters (16 68-1 60S), Parker Society, Cambridge, 1845; the an extraordinary synod was summoned at Stutt-
Opera of Calvin and Melanchthon in the CK; and A. L.
gart, which consisted of four general superintend-
Herminjard, Correspondence des reformateurs, 9 vols.,
Geneva, 1864-97. For discussions of Sturm's life and ents, the clerical and lay members of the consistory,
activities consult: L. Kdckelhahn, Johann Sturm, Strass- the rector, and the theological faculty of the Uni-
burffs crater SchulreJttor, Leipsic, 1872; E. Laos, Die Pdda- versity of Tiibingen, and all the special superintend-
gogik dcs Johann Sturms, Berlin, 1872; E. and E. Haag,
ents of the country. The synod met on Dec. 13,
La France proteatante, ix. 318 sqq., Paris, 1859; F. von
Bezold, Briefe des Pfalzgrafen Johann Casimir, 3 vols., 1559. Jakob Andrea (q.v.) was appointed to con-
Munich. 1882-1903; R. Zoopffel, Johann Sturm, Der erste duct the disputation with Hagen before the assem-
Rektor dcr Straseburger Akodemic, Strasburg, 1887; H. bled synod, presenting, after a conference with
Veil, in Festschrift des protestantischen Gymnasiums tu
Strassburg, ib. 1888; O. Srhmid, in K. A. Schmid, Ge-
Johann Brenz (q.v.), the same arguments on the
" "
schichte dcr Erziehung, ii. 2, pp. 30 sqq., Stuttgart, 1889; ubiquity that appeared later in the Confession of
F. Paulson, Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, passim, the synod. Hagen was finally obliged to confess his
2d ed., Leipsic, 1896-97; Bourilly, in Bulletin de la so-
defeat and to acknowledge the doctrine of the Wurt-
ctete de Vhist. du protcstantiame franrais, 1900, pp. 237 sqq.,
477 sqq.; idem and Weiss, in the same, 1904, pp. 97 sqq.; temberg Church as true and Scriptural. On Dec.
G. Mertz, Das Schulwesen drr deutschen Reformation, pas- 19 Brenz presented a formula which was signed by
sim, Heidelberg, 1902; T. Zieglcr, Geschichte der Pada- all the theologians, and published in German and
gogik, pp. 73-91, 2d ed., Munich, 1904; ADB, xxxvii. 21-
38; much of the literature under STORM, JACOB, especially
Latin under the title, Confessio et doctrina ttoo-
the works there named of C. Engel, M. Fournier and C. logorum et ministrorum verbi Dei in ducatu Wirtem-
Engel, H. Baumgarten, and T. W. Rdhrich, and the Politi- bergensi de vera prcesentia corporis et sanguinis Jesu
sche Korrespondem der Stoat Strassburg.
Christi in casna dominica (Tubingen, 1560-61). The
STURM, JULIUS KARL REINHOLD: German main points are here summarized (1) In the Lord's
:

poet and hymnist; b. at Kostritz (30 m. s.s.w. of Supper, by virtue of the Word, or institution of
Leipsic) July 21, 1816; d. at Leipsic May 2, 1896. Christ, the true body and blood of Christ are truly
He received his preparatory training at the gymna- and essentially given and transferred with the
sium at Gera, 1829-37, and studied theology at bread and wine to all who partake; so that both
Jena, 1837-41. He served as tutor at Heilbronn, the body and the blood, as given by the hand of
1841-44; then was tutor of Prince Henry XIV. of the minister, are received by the mouth of those
Reuss-Schleiz-Gera, 1844-47; and attended the who thus eat and drink. (2) The nature and sub-
prince in the gymnasia of Schleiz and Meiningen, stance of the bread and the wine are not trans-
1847-60. His first volume of secular and religious formed, but are ordained and sanctified by the Word
poetry appeared with the title Oedichte (Leipsic, of the Lord to serve in the distribution of the body
1850). He served as pastor at Goschitz, 1850-57, and blood of Christ. Yet they are not merely sym-
and at K5stritz, 1857-78; was church councilor bols, but just as the substance of the bread and
there, 1878-85; and privy councilor after 1885. wine is present so also the substance of the body
Among a long aeries of poetic publications may be and the blood is present, and by means of those
named; Fromme Lieder (1852); Zwei Rosen oder is truly given and received. (3) This does
123 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Sturm
Stylite*

not imply a confusion of the bread and the wine qq. f Hamburg, 1842; H. Heppo, Geachichte dea deutachen
Proteatantismua, i. 311 sqq., Marburg, 1852; H. Schmid,
with the body and blood of Christ, there is no spa-
Der Kampf der IvLhtrischen Kirche urn LiUfiera Lehre vom
tial enclosure but only such a sacramental union of Abendmahl, pp. 226 aqq., Leipsic, 1858; B. Kugler,
the bread and body as is described by the Word Christoph Herzog zu Wirtemberg, ii. 171 sqq., Stuttgart,
of the Lord; hence, there is no sacrament aside 1872; Wilrttemberffiache Kirchcngeachichte, pp. 303-304,
ib. 1803; W. Kdhler, Bibliographia Brentiana, nos. 368-
from the use. (4) The ascension of Christ into 370, 301, 600, Leipeic, 1004.
heaven is no obstacle to the doctrine, inasmuch as
Christ in his majesty and glory at the right hand STYLITES (PILLAR SAINTS): Anchorets who,
of the Father fills all things not only by his divin- in their desire for complete separation from the
world and extreme asceticism, passed their lives on
ity, but also by his humanity, in a mysterious way
conceivable not to reason but only to faith. (5) Not pillars. The first pillar saint was Simeon the Elder,
only the pious and v, orthy, but also the godless and
who was born in Sisan or Sesan, in northern Syria,
about 390. Originally a shepherd in the lonely
hypocrites receive the body and blood, the latter
to their judgment; therefore to be received by the mountains, he visited a church for the first time at
the age of thirteen and immediately resolved to be-
godless does not detract from the glory and majesty
of Christ, because as a just judge for him to punish come a monk. His extreme asceticism caused the
the impenitent is as laudable as to show grace to the monks to expel him, and after living for three years
" as a hermit near Tel Neskin (Telanessa), continuing
penitent. This Confession," which was claimed
to rest upon Scripture and to be in accord with the excessive mortifications, he began, about 420, his

Augsburg Confession (q.v.) and the Wittenberg pillar life. This he selected, he said, in consequence
Confession submitted to the Council of Trent, was of a divine revelation, as well as to escape the im-
forthwith incorporated with the Wurttemberg portunities of the masses. He accordingly built
church order. himself a pillar, at first only four ells high, but later
The historical significance of the Stuttgart Synod reaching the altitude of thirty-six or forty ells.
liesin the fact that there, for the first time, was the The later stylites practically imitated Simeon
difference between the Lutheran and the Calvinistic with slight modifications. They lived on the cap-
doctrines of the Lord's Supper sharply distin- itals of pillars of varying height, these capitals being

guished; namely, the three main points: giving sufficiently large for the construction of a small cell
and receiving by hand and mouth, partaking by the on them. They were surrounded by a railing to
unbelieving, and the founding of the doctrine of keep the stylite from falling, and communicated
the Lord's Supper on the teaching concerning the with the ground by a ladder.
Simeon at first roused sentiments other than ad-
person of Christ and his sitting at the right hand of
the Father. Epoch-making was the last, in which miration. The Nitrian monks, fearing the loss of
their prestige as incomparable patterns of monas-
Brenz, in strict dependence upon Luther, coor-
dinated the doctrine of the Lord's Supper with ticism, threatened him with excommunication; and
the Mesopotamian abbots likewise disapproved bis
Chriatology, which occasioned a renewal of the doc-
trine of Ubiquity (q.v.), a name charged by the ascetic methods. But the purity of his life and mo-
tives soon silenced his critics, and Simeon became
opponents but disavowed by Brenz. This synod
marked a rallying of the original Lutheran doctrine renowned as a worker of miracles, a healer of the
at a crisis in which it had been well-nigh supplanted sick, and a converter of the heathen. He was a
by the ever-spreading view of Calvin and Melanch- powerful factor in promoting peace and in the cause
thon. Moreover, the advancing unionistic tendency of the suffering and oppressed; he also took part
in church polity, as when, in 429, he induced Theo-
promoted by the alliance of the influences of Me-
lanchthon and Calvin was thwarted, and for Ger- dosius II. to revoke an edict which restored to the
man Protestantism the cleavage was fixed. Duke Jews of Antioch their synagogues, and, in 457, the
"
"
Christopher vainly hoped to make the Confession Emperor Leo I. asked his advice concerning the
a basis for his tireless efforts to effect union, and troubles in Egypt, whereupon the saint espoused
the cause of ChaJcedonian orthodoxy in two letters
despatched it throughout Germany and France, but
it was almost universally ignored. Within Wurt- to the emperor and Bishop Basil of Antioch. Until
his death, in 450, Simeon remained on his pillar.
temberg this assertion of the conservatism of its
reformer and organizer, Brenz, marked the begin- The example of Simeon St.ylitcs was quickly imi-
ning of a new scholastic theology, and proved not tated, at first by only a few, but later by so many
that the stylites formed a regular order in the East.
only exclusive to neighboring lands for a century,
but also oppressive to many of the clergy at home. The immediate pupil of Simeon and his first succes-
sor was Daniel of Maratha near Samosata, who
(H. HERMELINK.)
began to live on a pillar in the vicinity of Constan-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The confession ia printed in Ada et acripta
tinople shortly after his teacher's death. Like Sim-
publica ecclence Wirtembergiccc, ed. 0. M. Pfoff, pp. 334
sqq.,340 aqq., TQbingen, 1720. Matters of importance are eon he zealously defended the ChaJcedonian creed,
to be found in the Opera of Calvin, vola. xvi-xix., espe- even leaving his pillar once for this purpose. He
cially xvii. 622-825, xix. 350-353 (in CR. xliii.-xlvii.). enjoyed the special protection of Leo I., who built
Consult further: J. V. Andrea, Fama Andrecma rcflorescens,
for him a new pillar and later prevailed upon him
pp. 04 sqq.. Straaburg, 1630, C. A. Salig, Vollsttlndioe His-
toric der auospuroiache Confession, u'i. 424 sqq., Halle, 1735; to permit the construction of a tiny cell on the
C. F. Schnurrer, ErlQuterunoen der wUrttemberoiachen Kirch- pillar to protect him against the elements. Daniel
enreformationa- und Qdehriengcschichte, pp. 250 sqq., Tu- died in 493. In the sixth century lived Simeon the
bingen, 1708; Q. J. Planck, Qeschichte der Entatehwno dea
protestantiaehm Lehrbeyriffa, v. 2, pp. 308 aqq., Leipaic, Younger. He is said to have left his father's house
1700; J. Hartmann and K Jager. Johann Brent, ii. 372
at the age of five and to have lived as a stylite for
 lubintroduotw
Strtdnt THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG 124

vols., Paris, 1856-61). The last two volumes

sixty-nine years until his death in 596 near Antioch. 28 of
He sought to surpass Simeon the Elder in his aus- the former of these two editions contained meta-
the
terities,against the warnings of his teacher. Dur- physical disputations and a complete index to
ing the reign of Heraclius, Alyphius lived as a sty- metaphysics of Aristotle, and was so widely recog-
lite at Adrianople in Paphlagonia. Like nearly all nized that it formed a text-book in Protestant
the stylites he reached an advanced age, though institutions for a long time. Vols. i.-xx. consist of
for the last fourteen years of his life he was unable disputations and comments on Thomas Aquinas.
to stand, lying crouched on his pillar until his death. As vol. ix. represented the "congruism" of Luis
Mention may finally be made of the stylite Lucas Molina (q.v.), it failed to receive the imprimatur
the Younger, who in the tenth century lived on a of the pope, and was not allowed to appear until
pillar near Chalcedon, reaching the age of 100 years. 1651. In the field of morals Suarez discussed only
Many other stylites are known by name, and the the three theological virtues (vol. xi.), the State,
system was flourishing in the tenth century. The religious discipline, and the duties of monks (vols.
last stylites known were among the Ruthenian xii.-xv.). In accordance with the taste of the age
monks in 1526. and of his order, he heaped up scholastic problems
were most numerous in Syria, Palestine,
Stylites without end by means of his remarkable gift of
and Mesopotamia, though they were also found in invention, and with a refined subtlety resolved them
Greece and in the Russian church. Only one effort by means of dialectic. He wrote his Defensio fidei
is known to have been made to introduce stylitism catholicce et apostolicce adversus anglicancs sectce er-
into the West. In 585 a deacon named Wulflaicus rores (Coimbra, 1613) at the instance of Pope Paul
erected a pillar near Treves, but the bishops com- V. against James I. of England and the English
pelled him to descend from it and then destroyed oath of allegiance, in which he laid down the prin-
it. Occidental antagonism to extravagant asceti- ciple that the pope had the power to depose tem-
cism, episcopal opposition to a body of men who poral rulers for heresy and schism, and that this
might easily withdraw from their control, and un- must be accepted as an article of faith on the
favorable climatic conditions all combined to ren- ground of the power of the keys. James had the
der stylitism impossible in the West. book publicly burned by the executioner in front
(G. GRtfTZMACHER.) of St. Paul's. It was also burned in Paris, but
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Several early Vita of the earlier Simeon are Philip II. of Spain accepted the principle as genu-
collected, with commentary, in ASB, Jan. i. 261-286; the inely Roman Catholic, and the pope gratefully ap-
Vita by Theodoret of Kyros, Hist, rdiffiosa, xxvi.; the plauded the work in a personal letter to the author
A eta mistakenly ascribed to Cosmaa is in S. E. Assemani,
Acta sanctorum martyrum, ii. 268-398, cf. ib. 230 sqq. (a Sept. 9, 1613. (O.
poem by Jacob of Sarug), Rome, 1748. Consult further: BIBLIOGRAPHY: The one work of importance w C. Werner,
G. Lautcnsack, De Simeone Stylita, Wittenberg, 1700; F. Suarez und die Scholastik der letzten Jahrhundertc, 2
F. Uhlemann, Symeon der ertte Sdulenheilioe in Syrien, volfl., Regensburg, 1861. Consult further: the biography
Leipsic, 1846; P. Zmgerle, Leben und W irk en des heiligen printed with the collected works; B. Sartolo, El Doctor
Simeon Stylites, Innsbruck, 1855; H. Delehaye, in Compte F. Suarez, 2d ed., Coimbra, 1731; KL, xi. 923-929.
rendu du 3. congrea scientifique des catholiques b. Bruxettes,
vol. v., Brussels, 1805; E. Marin, Lea Moines de Constan- SUBDEACON: A clerical order in the Roman
tinople, Paris, 1807; H. Lietimann, Das Leben des hciliffen Catholic and Greek Churches, ranking next below
Symeon Stylites, Leipsic, 1008. A Vita of the younger the deacon. The orders in the ancient Church
Simeon with commentary is in ASB, May. v. 208-401.
were only those of bishop, presbyter, and deacon
SUAREZ, swa'reth, FRANCISCO: Jesuit scholas- (see ORGANIZATION or THE EARLY CHURCH).
tic; b. at Granada, Spain, Jan. 5, 1548; d. at Lisbon From the diaconate branched the subdiaconate,
Sept. 25, 1617. He was of noble birth; studied law not uniformly, however, as shown by its frequent
at the University of Salamanca, 1561-64; but absence as late as the middle of the ninth century.
decided to enter the order of Jesuits. After his Pope Cornelius mentions among the clergy at Rome
novitiate of three years he studied philosophy at seven subdeacons, which goes to show the existence
Salamanca; lectured on Aristotle at Segovia and of the office by 250, as well as its origin at Rome.
A vila after 1572, and on theology at Valladolid, When Alexander Severus divided the city into
1576-78, at Rome, 1578-S5, at Alcala, Spain, 1585- seventeen administrative districts, Fabian, not to
1502, at Salamanca for a year; and at the Univer- exceed the Apostolic number, added seven sub-
sity of Coimbra, Portugal, 1597-1617. His lectures deacons to the seven deacons for the corresponding
are said to have been sensational in their popularity. ecclesiastical divisions. In Spain they are mentioned
"
Spanish grandees came to hear the prodigy and hi connection with the Synod of Ancyra (c. 305);
oracle of his age," and in an episcopal approbation in Africa, according to Cyprian, they existed at the
of one of his writings occurs the term, " a second middle of the third century, and in the East they
Augustine "; but Suarez never relinquished his were known at the middle of the fourth. The sub-
modesty. He lived only for knowledge and pious deacons performed minor functions. They might
exercises. He fasted three times a week and on no handle the holy vessels when empty; they received
day took more than one pound of nourishment, the oblations, had superintendence of the graves of
and flagellated himself daily with a wire-woven the martyrs, guarded the church doors during the
scourge. communion, and poured the water into the chalice,
Suarez's literary activity was directed mainly to which duties was added the chanting of the epistle.
to the discussion of the Aristotelian philosophy Gregory the Great extended the obligation of celi-
and to scholastic theology. His works were pub- bacy to the subdeacons, and a council under Urban
lished, Opera omnia (23 vols., Venice, 1740-51; II. granted them permission to become
bishops.
105 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA SubLnt
iblntroduotae

In the Eastern Church they remained a lower order, missionaries came to Annorica, the Gallic bishops
but in the West Innocent III. decided that they con- regarded it specially censurable that they were
stituted a higher order. Their ordination, however, accompanied by women who like the men exercised
differs from that of deacons; they are not presented sacramental functions. A new form
of spiritual
"
by the archdeacon, and the ordination is the tradi- marriage was developed as the wealthy circles in
tion of instruments and vestments." The age of the great cities entered the Christian Church.
consecration fixed by the Council of Trent is the Rich widows and maidens disdained marriage, but
entrance upon the twenty-second year. One year in order to provide a master over their houses and
must intervene before the diaconate is reached, estates joined themselves in spiritual marriage
a rule from which the bishop may depart. The to priests or monks. This variation did not always
office of subdeacon is assumed as transitional, and lead to happy results; the woman retained both
its functions are fulfilled chiefly by laymen and the possession of her property and the reputation of
presbyters. In the Evangelical Church, when it unwedded chastity. No matter how seriously
occurs, the title subdeacon indicates a difference of asceticism and the soul-tie were taken, the clerical
outer rank only, not of ordination. could not escape compromise, and his position
(E. FRIEDBERGf.) varied all the way from steward or chaplain to
An spiritual paramour. This was the r61e acted by
BIBLIOGRAPHY: adequate and authoritative historical
presentation will be found both in Bingham, Oriffinet, the French abbe* in the seventeenth and eighteenth
III., ii., and in DC A, ii. 1938-39. Consult further: H. centuries. At the time of Chrysostom (MPG,
Reuter, Daa Subdiakonat, de*sen historiache Entwickeltmg xlvii. 495 sqq.) the abuse was prevalent in Constan-
und hturgisch-kanontatiache Bedevtung, Augsburg* 1890;
F. Wioland, Die g^netiache Entwickclung der sogenannten tinople, and likewise in Gaul according to Jerome
Ordines minorea in den eraten Johrhunderten, Rome, 1897. (Epist., cxvii., NPNF 2 ser., vi. 215-220). Best
t

known is the spiritual marriage of the clergy.

SUBINTRATION. See TRANSUBSTANTIATION,
Marriage being disparaged, and the clergy being
II, 5 4.
required to lead spiritual lives, celibacy became the
SUBINTRODUCTJE VIRGINES (SYNEISAKTOI) : rule and spiritual marriage followed. The purity of
A name for female ascetics who lived together with the original motive gradually declined. The spirit-
men although both parties had taken the vow of ual bride became a mere housekeeper, suspected of
celibacy with earnest intent. It is a nickname that being a mistress. She came to be called mulier
arose relatively Into when the practise was con- extranea, received the same recognition as a maid-
demned, and has had not a little influence in con- servant, and Spanish synods about 600 ordered
fusing opinions on this form of asceticism. The that she be sold as a slave and the proceeds given
practise was widely prevalent throughout Christian to the poor (e.g., Synod of Toledo, 589, capitulum
antiquity. In Antioch Paul of Samosata had 5, Hcfele, Conciliengeachichte, iii. 51, Eng. transl. iv.
several young girls in his entourage (Eusebius, Hist, 419, Fr. transl. iii. 1, p. 225). Gregory IX. dis-
ecd., VII., xxx. 12 sqq., NPNF, 2 ser, i. 315). tinctly prohibited clerical concubinage. Likewise
In Cyprian's time dedicated virgins dwelt with in the Orient the syneisaktos was regarded as no
confessors, clericals, and laymen. The rigorous more than a housekeeper of the clerical by the
Tertullian advised well-to-do Christians to take twelfth century. Practical exigencies had replaced
into their houses one or more widows
"
as spiritual the earlier common ideal. The original motive of
consorts, beautiful by faith, endowed by poverty, cohabitation was the natural result of two op-
and sealed by age/' and stated that " to have posing tendencies in early Christianity: fraternal
'*
several such wives is pleasing to God (" Ex- love fostered in communal life and ascetic contempt
;

hortation to Chastity," xii.; "Monogamy," xvi.; of the sexual relation, and the renunciation of
Eng. transl. in ANF, iv. 56-57, 71-72). Among marriage as sensual. The inconsistency of the social
heretics the chiefs of the Valentinians lived with ideal of ultimate community life with another that
" "
sisters (Irenams, Hear., I, vi. 3, ANF, i. 324); increased the distance between man and woman
the Montanistic Alexander was bound in spiritual resulted in this unnatural combination of asceticism
marriage with a prophetess (Eusebius, Hist, eccl., and fraternal love, with a form of cohabitation
V., xviii. 6 sqq., NPNF, 2 ser., i. 236), and the which in its moment of spiritual enthusiasm failed
Marcionite Apelles had two spiritual wives, one the to foresee its pitfalls. Naturally, at first Christians
prophetess, Philumene (Tertullian, Pr&scriptione, of the highest standing, such as prophets, bishops,
xxx., ANF, iii. 257). This spiritual marriage, and confessors, lived in spiritual marriage. The
"
springing from ascetic motives, had its real place in "
spiritual wives were those who, as " brides of
Monasticism in which it retained its original form, Christ," enjoyed especially honorable consideration;
even far into the Middle Ages. In the desert, where such were the widows, virgins, and prophetesses.
the monk and his companion dwelt in seclusion, The opinionof the Church regarding the institution,
she frequently became his servant. It should, at first favorable, however, changed, and beginning
however, not be forgotten that the motive that with the Synods of Elvira, Ancyra, and the Council
drew them both into the desert was a common as- of Nicsea in the fourth century the edicts against
cetic ideal. In the ancient Irish Church, the organ- codwelling with subintroductce do not cease. In
ization of which was built upon asceticism, men and case of disobedience the clergy were corrected or
women of distinction were permitted to participate dismissed, and the monks and laity received stern
in ecclesiastical functions. In the cloister, monks warning. The change of attitude on the part of the
and nuns lived together until 543 (Haddan and Church was caused by its rapid increase in the
Stubbs, Councils, ii. 2, p. 292). When the Irish first three centuries and the
absorption of
 uccession THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG 126

which undermined the austerity against carnal xxviii. 18, 19; Johnxx. 21-23). The twelve apostles
sins. Spiritual marriages tolerable in small com- formed a distinct company within the general
munities could not be entrusted to large societies of society; within the body mystical, as within the
mixed elements, and the increasing sternness of the body physical or social, there is a differentiation of
prohibitions prove the obstinate resistance to the functions. This is marked in the New Testament,
effort at extermination. Concerning the remoteness e.g., by certain powers being conferred
on the
in time of spiritual marriages, first mention occurs Seven, who preached and baptized, but apostles
hi the Shepherd of Hennas (Visions, I., i. 1, Eng. were sent after them to confirm (Acts viii.) Doubt-
.

transl., ANF, ii.

9; Similitudes, ix. 11, 3, 7; x. 3, less all acted as organs of the body, representing the
Eng. transl., ANF, ii. 44-47, 55). The passage I whole society, but they were like the eye or ear in the
Cor. vii. 36-38 has been brought into connection natural body, divinely appointed and constituted
with spiritual marriage (E. Grabe). In the De vita organs, whose functions cannot be changed at will,
contemplativa, a genuine work of Philo, reference is nor the limitations of their several commissions
made to the Therapeutce in Egypt who repudiated enlarged. Accordingly while the officers may and
marriage and the sexual relation and dwelt together should be chosen from below, they are endowed
in ascetic companionship like the later Christian with authority from above not merely deputed
ascetics, except that the element of fraternal love from below. This authoritative stewardship or
was there absent. It is to be concluded that spiri- pastorate was intended to be perpetuated in every
tual marriage belongs, in the primitive life of Chris- generation. The gifts were not personal but
tianity, to an ascetic effort to replace marriage with official. God's gifts last as long as the needs which
brotherly love, and was not an outgrowth of clerical they are designed to supply. The authoritatively
celibacy and monasticism. (H. ACHELIS.) commissioned ministry is the normal instrumental-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Achelis, Virgines wbintroducta. Ein ity through which Christ, the exalted and invisible
Beitrag turn I Kor. vii., Leipeic, 1002 (of. Jiilicher, in head of the Church, working by his Spirit, com-
Archiv far Religionswiaaenschaft, vii. 373 aqq.); Pseudo- municates to his people his promised gifts of grace.
Cyprian, De rinffidaritate clcricorwn (edition of it promised
in Ttf, new series, ix. 3); DC It is the guaranty of his presence and action.
A, ii. 1039-1941; and the
commentaries on I Cor. vii. The episcopate (see BISHOP; EPISCOPACY) is the
normal organ for transmitting this authoritative
SUBLAPSARIAHISM: The view held by moder-
ministerial commission, the organ of spiritual gen-
ate Calvinists, first applied to the Remonstrants
eration. Here certain distinctions must be made.
(q.v.), according to which the decree to create log-
(1) In the New-Testament writings the names
ically preceded the decree of the fall. God deter- " " " "
presbyters or elders (see PRESBYTER) and
mined to create the world and man notwithstanding " "
bishops are apparently used to designate the same
the fact that he foresaw man's fall. Cf. Supralap-
officers, the pastors of local churches. It was not
sarianism and Infralapsarianism in CALVINISM, 8. " "
till later that the title bishop was reserved for a
SUBMISSION. See OBEDIENCE. single chief pastor who presided over a number
of presbyters (see ORGANIZATION OF THE EARLY
SUBORDINATIONISM. See ANTTTRINITARIAN-
CHURCH). But in the New-Testament writings,
ISM; and CHRISTOLOGY, II., 2.
though the names are interchangeably used, a
SUCCESSION, APOSTOLIC. difference of functions may be recognized. Timothy
I. The Anglican View: The handing on of the and Titus exercise authority over the presbyters as
ministerial commission and authority, given by over the church generally in their respective dis-
the Lord Jesus Christ to his apostles, by a regular tricts; while others cooperate, they are respon-
chain of successive ordinations. It presupposes the sible for ordaining men to the ministry (I Tim.
formation by Christ of a visible Church on earth, an iii., v.; Titus i. 5-9). The organization seen in its
organized society, the kingdom, or the embodiment beginning at Ephesus and in Crete seems to have
of the kingdom, which the Messiah was to set up, been thoroughly established in Asia Minor before
to carry on his work by witnessing to the truth St. John, the last of the original apostles, passed
revealed, by ministering covenant gifts of grace, away, and thence it spread, if it had not already
and by guiding and training its members in life been independently adopted, generally throughout
" "
and character. If Christianity were a philosophy the Christian Church. (2) The bishop differed
scattered broadcast for men to follow as isolated in two respects from the apostle proper, to whose
individuals, there would be no need of or room for a authority in general he succeeded. The original
succession of ministers. The theory of a traditional apostles had their special function as witnesses to
ministry is linked with the belief in a visible Church, what they had seen and heard with the incarnate
corresponding, in its outward organization and its Son (Acts i. 8, 21 22 ; I John i. 1-4) This, of course,
,
.

inward spiritual life, with the law of the Incarnation. could not be handed on. The bishops were limited in
Specialized functions belong to an organized body. the exercise of their office, each to one church in a
In the society which he formed, Christ ordained a district, whereas the apostolic office had been more
particular body or order of ministers to act for him general. The twelve exercised a concurrent or
and with *iis authority. Out of the general company collegiate world- wide jurisdiction. (3) It is possible
of the disciples he chose the twelve that they should that in some churches the rule by a body of presby-
be with him and then go forth in his name. By a ters continued for some time after the monarchical
trial mission during his own earthly ministry they episcopate had been elsewhere established. But
were in part prepared for the commissions he gave this would make no exception to the doctrine of
them to represent him when he left the earth (Matt. apostolic succession rightly understood, since this is
127 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA gablapMirianiun
uooeMlon

concerned not so much with the exact form of the modern forms of the secular state, autocracy,
ministry, as with the transmission of the commission limited monarchy, and democracy (see POLITY,
to execute ministerial functions by those who have ECCLESIASTICAL). The
solution of the question of
received authority to transmit it. The college of apostolic succession, or the constitution of the Chris-
presbyters at Alexandria, to which Jerome refers, tian Church, is of even greater importance to-day
was probably a college of presbyters possessed of than during the Reformation and post-Reformation
full ministerial power, including the right of or- periods, because the antagonisms and polemics of
daining. those centuries are all but forgotten, and the con-
All this was generally recognized hi the Christian sciousness of the weakness of the divided Western
Church for 1,500 years. Where the rule was then Church is inspiring an increasing longing for the

reluctantly abandoned, this was done (as was suppression of sectarianism, and for the restoration,
thought) by force of necessity, as the lesser of two especially in America, of that imposing unity and
evils, in order to preserve a pure faith. visible solidarity which was the glory of the post-
Two further points should be mentioned. It was apostolic age.
to the consentient testimony of the Scriptures and It is a fundamental fact, not sufficiently recognized
of the due successors of the Apostles that Irenaeus or emphasized in the discussions of the original
(A.D. 180) appealed against false teaching (Hcer., constitution of the Christian ministry, that the
iii. 3).
2, As a matter of history the traditional apostolic age of the Church was a formative period
faith has been linked with the traditional ministry; during which neither the New-Testament canon, the
the one has very largely depended on and failed polity, nor the ritual was defined decisively or fixed
with the other. The episcopate with its chain of finally. Therefore it is in the post-apostolic or con-
succession serves as a link of historical continuity, ciliar canons and decrees, rather than in the primi-
such as is needed in a universal spiritual society. tive or ante-conciliar writings descriptive of the tran-
ARTHUR C. A. HALL. sition state from a Judeo-Hellenic to a pan-Hellenic
II. The Syrian Succession: The doctrine of apos- homogeneous ecclesia, that this debated question
tolic succession, which includes necessarily the his- of the received polity of the one holy, catholic, and
toric episcopate as continued generation after gen- apostolic Church of Christ can find a satisfying his-
eration in all branches of the Christian church, was toric solution of the perplexing problems involved.
scarcely ever questioned (or denied) during the con- That monarchical episcopacy, as it has been es-
ciiiar ages. The first serious opposition
and medieval tablished for many centuries in both the Latin and
occurred when various leaders of the several reform- the Greek church, was not known in the apostolic
ing movements of the sixteenth century had gained age, is no longer authoritatively asserted by eccle-
sufficient popular support to enable them to dispute siastical historians of the present period. The
the truth of the traditional Catholic teaching of an earliest evidence in favor of the former, or tradi-
ecclesiastical hierarchy consisting of three orders, tional, theory, are the well-known quotations from
bishops, presbyters, and deacons. the epistles of Ignatius of Antioch (q.v.). These
Of the immediate results of the ecclesiastical impassioned pleas for the willing recognition of each
conflicts of that memorable period in the progressive parochial bishop as the only head of the Christian
development of the Western church, the first, the congregation of the city, used again and again as
steady and continuing weakening of the inner or positive proof of the apostolic authority for a mon-
spiritual authority of the Latin church, as exem- archical episcopacy, are now met by other equally
plified by the increasing deviations from the accepted credible citations from contemporaries and even
doctrines of the medieval theologians, was soon fol- from later writers, whose several statements suggest
lowed by the defiance of its outer or hierarchical unmistakably that isolated peculiarities of a per-
authority, by the ordination of presbyters by sisting presbytera! polity were well known to them.
presbyters instead of by bishops. This departure That monarchical episcopacy, whether or not owing
from the historic, ecumenical order of the Catholic its final form to the Apostle John, as one tradition
Church was then and is even now justified by the asserts, became slowly and silently the prevailing
appeal not only to the assumed presbyteral polity of polity of tho entire Christian Church, asis admitted
the Apostolic Church, but also by the citation of the by can be explained only on the as-
all historians,
statements of certain of the Fathers and ecclesias- sumption that the experience of the early Church
tical historians of the primitive and conciliar ages. with sectarianism, already evident during the apos-
Although the presbyteral polity was first introduced tolic age, emphasized the necessity of concentrating
by the German reformers into those parts of con- in the bishop, as the head of the established pres-
tinental Europe which had generally accepted their bytery of parochial clergy, that spiritual authority
ecclesiastical
leadership, through the influence of which was formerly exercised in common by them
the Genevan reformers it soon passed into Scotland with the itinerant prophets and other apostolic
and England, in which latter country it in turn gave coworkcrs mentioned in the Pauline epistles, the
birth to an even more radical departure from the Didache (q.v.), and other newly discovered authen-
episcopal government of the Latin church, Congre- tic descriptions of the congregations and services of

gationalism or Independency. There are, as a re- the primitive period. The correctness of this theory
sult of these various reforming movements in the of the general adoption of episcopacy in its final
Western church, the three distinct theories of the form, is indicated by the fact that in the first ecu-
Christian ministry, the episcopal or monarchical, the menical council of the Church, convened at Nicaea
presbyteral or collegiate, and the congregational or in 325, bishops from all parts of the then known
democratic, corresponding closely to the three world assembled as the sole representatives of their
eSoooth-Bcnoth THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG 188

several sees, for the discussion and the definition of but also of their eventual intercommunion with the
the fundamentals of the Christian faith, summarized older Latin, Greek, and Eastern branches of the
in that creed of the Catholic church accepted by One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of Christ.
every separate branch which professes orthodoxy. That the restoration of the primitive historic epis-
Furthermore, among the decisions of the preparatory copate with its college of presbyters, assisted by
synod of Alexandria in 324 is one concerning the the deacons and subdeacons and lower orders of
question of the ordination of presbyters by presby- laymen, developed so practically for effective pas-
ters (Athanasius," Defence against the Arians," 12, toral service by the successors of the apostles them-
76, Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2 ser., iv. 107, 140). This selves, will work marvels in regaining the wavering
of our free secu-
synodal action recognizing the exclusive right of allegiance of the unchurched people
the bishops to ordain presbyters (reaffirmed in a lar states by solving the pressing problems of our
similar case by the Council of Sardica in 347, Canon intricate modern civilization, can neither be doubted
20) was evidently not contested by any opponent nor denied.
during the subsequent sessions of the Nicene Coun- Then, if this be generally recognized, the question
cil, which not only declared the accepted faith, but must naturally arise: From what source can a his-
also decided other less vital questions affecting the toric episcopate be obtained, since both the Latin
ritual and the clergy in general. The authoritative and the Greek churches view with suspicion the
canonical action of the assembled bishops in refu- several churches developed from the reforming
sing to recognize the regularity of non-episcopally movements of the sixteenth century, and have re-
ordained presbyters can be rejected by any dissent- peatedly insisted that intercommunion with them
ing communions only by repudiating in toto the can be secured only by the unreserved and unques-
apostolic authority of this the first undisputedly ecu- tioning acceptance of their respective dogmatic de-
menical synod of the undivided Christian Church, crees on the Catholic faith, the seven sacraments,
in declaring definitely what is and what is not and their ritual in its entirety? Heretofore there
binding on all who accept the teachings of Christ was no independent historic episcopate in the West-
and of his apostles and their successors. ern patriarchate which was not derived directly or
This, then, should be the authority for the prin- indirectly from the Latin church of the pre- and post-
ciple of the historic episcopate, the authority of the Reformation periods. Therefore, all episcopal suc-
Catholic Church as it developed under divine direc- cessions in the Western church are involved in
tion from its formative state under the care of the the notorious apostasies, heresies, and simonies of
apostles themselves, through various minor changes those past centuries, filled as they were with
in its primitive polity necessitated by its varying mutual papal depositions, accusations, and counter-
needs, until, at the time of the Council of Nicaea, accusations of irregularity, invalidity, and schism,
unity in polity and organization had been fully ending usually with mutual anathemas and excom-
attained through the general acceptance of the doc- munications.
trine that the bishops, as the recognized successors of But in the year 1891, the Syrian patriarch of
the apostles, are the centers of Christian and Catho- Antioch, to whom can be ascribed as the historic
lic communion. This doctrine of apostolic succes- successor of the first bishop of Antioch, the Apostle
sion is not only Scriptural in asserting the authority Peter himself, whatever preeminence and primacy
of the apostles, and of their recognized successors, of jurisdiction the leader of the apostolic college
in exercising the plenary power of binding and of could impart to another, authorized the elevation
loosing (see KEYS, POWEK OF THE), committed to to the episcopate of the Old Catholic priest Pere
them by Christ himself, but is also consistent Vilatte (q.v.) of Wisconsin. The solemn patri-
throughout with the historic development of the archal bull permitting this canonical archiepiscopal
ecclesiastical hierarchy, which recently discovered consecration by eastern prelates, of a western priest,
writings of the primitive periods describe in and investing him with the plenary power and apos-
detail. tolic authority of the primatial dignity, is given
The several departures, during the troubled times verbatim as translated from the authentic Syrian
of the Reformation, from the established episcopal original.
"
polity of the entire Catholic Church, both East and In the name of the Essential, Eternal, Self
West, have scarcely justified their introduction, in Existing, Almighty God: His servant Ignatius
view of the division and subdivision which have re- Peter III., Patriarch of the Apostolic See of Antioch
sulted in every Reformed church that has rejected and the East.
"
the historic episcopate universally accepted (until We, the humble servant of God, hereby allow
the Reformation) since the ecumenical Council of the consecration by the Holy Ghost of the Priest
Nicsea. While, on the contrary, those Reformed Joseph Rene* Vilatte, elected for archiepiscopal dig-
churches which retained the historic episcopate, the nity, Archbishop-Metropolitan in the name of Mar
Anglican and Scandinavian communions, have been Timotheus, for the church of the Mother of God in
comparatively free from sectarianism, a positive Dykesville, Wisconsin, United States, and other
proof in modern times of the truth of the traditional churches hi the archdiocese of America, viz., the
Catholic teaching, that the bishops are ever the churches adhering to the orthodox faith, hi the
centers of unity in the Christian Church (through- name of the Father, amen; and of the Son, amen;
out the centuries). There is this further view of the and of the living Holy Ghost, amen.
historic episcopate, considered in connection with
11
We stand up before God's majesty, and raising
the question of reunion, not only oi the divided up our hands towards his grace, pray that the Holy
churches resulting from the Western Reformation, Ghost may descend upon him! as he did upon the
199 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

apostles at the time of the ascension of our Lord, tolicSuccession, London, 1889; W. Earle, The Reunion
Jesus Christ, by whom they were made patriarchs, of Chrutendomtn Apostolical Succession, London, 1895;
C. H. Waller, Apostolical Succession, St. Leonards, 1895
bishops, and priests, and were authorized to bind J. Brown, Apostolical Succession in the
Light of History
and loose, as written by St. Matthew. and Fact, London, 1898; R. C. Moberly, Ministerial Priest-
" hood with an Appendix upon Roman Criticism
We, therefore, by virtue of our authority re- . . .
of
ceived from God, authorize him to bind and loose, Anglican Orders, London, 1897; T. F. Lockyer, The Evan-
gelical Succession, or, the Spiritual
Lineage of the Christian
and elevating our voice, we offer thanks to God, and Church, London, 1899; R. Bruce, Apostolic Order and
'

exclaim, Kyrie Eleison, Kyrie Eleison, Kyrie Elei- Unity, Edinburgh, 1903; W. H. M. H. Aitken, Apostolical
son.' Again, we pray to God to grant him cheer of Succession in the Light of the History of the Primitive
Church, London, 1903; R. E. Thompson, The Historic
face before his throne of majesty, and that we and
Episcopate, Philadelphia, 1910; and the literature under
he may be made worthy to glorify him, now and at APOBTOUO SUCCESSION.
all times for ever and ever.
" SUCCOTH-BENOTH: A term
Given on the seventeenth of Konum Kolim of used in II Kings
the year of our Lord, eighteen hundred and ninety- the name of a deity of Babylon.
xvii. 30, evidently as
one (corresponding to the twenty-ninth of Decem- The passage in which the term occurs (verses 24-
ber, eighteen hundred and ninety-one) from the 41) describes the settlement in the district of Sa-
patriarchal palace of the monastery of Mardin." maria of the colonists brought by Sargon from dif-
"
(Signed) IGNATIUS PETER III." ferent parts of the East to replace the northern
The ceremony performed in conformity with this Israelites carried by him into exile after the cap-
was unique in the simul-
apostolic authorization ture of Samaria (q.v., II., 1, J 1). The phrasing of
taneous use of both the western and the eastern the passage is peculiar in that it is said that these
" "
made (Hebr. 'asu) the deities and put "
rites of episcopal consecration. The Portuguese settlers
1'

Archbishop Alvarez, himself consecrated by Syrian them in the houses of the high places. Appar-
prelates, conferred the episcopate on Pere Vilatte, ently the idea is that they made images of the dei-
according to the forms of the Latin ritual, while tiesand put them in the shrines left by the Hebrews;
concurrently, the two co-consecrating Syrian metro- possibly, however, the meaning is simply that they
politans likewise conferred the episcopate according installed the worship of these deities on the high
to the forms of the Syrian ritual, so that the validity places. At first sight the passage seems very cor-
of this new apostolic succession in the western rupt, for out of seven deities named only one, Ner-
patriarchate is indisputable either respecting ca- gal, is certainly recognizable (see ADRAMMELECH;
nonical authority, intention, or rite. It will be no- ANAMMELECH; ASHIMA; NIBHAZ; and TARTAR);
ticed that the title of consecration of P6re Vilatte and yet it seems to pass the bounds of probability
is stated as archbishop-metropolitan of the arch- that in a short passage from a context that is gen-
diocese of America. This plenary canonical power erally clear six out of seven names should be so
was consistently conferred on Archbishop Vilatte utterly distorted as to be unrecognizable.
by the patriarch of Antioch, because it is admitted With slightly different vocalization the term
"
by all unbiased canonists that, as the Western con- should mean tents of (the) daughters," yet no
tinent was unknown during the conciliar ages, it is deity is known whose name or title could be even
obviously exempt from the exclusive jurisdiction of approximately thus represented; and Marduk as
any patriarch, either of the eastern or western god of Babylon is the deity whose name would be
branches of the Holy Catholic Church of Christ. expected here. The various attempts at solution
There is therefore in the western patriarchate, offered in the commentaries and elsewhere throw
besides the Latin succession of the Independent little light on the subject. Seldcn (De dis Syris,
Catholic Church of Holland, derived in 1724 from ii.7) supposed a shrine where marriageable girls
the French Bishop Varlet, the canonical Syrian (banoth) offered their virginity as a religious duty;
succession of Archbishop Vilatte, who has already Gesenius (Thesaurus) changed banoth to bamoth
been solemnly recognized in his archiepiscopal (" high places ") A number of students see in the
character not only by the Church of Holland, but term a corruption of Zirpanitu (Zirbanit), the name
even by the Holy Office of the Roman Catholic of Marduk's consort. No progress is made by com-
Church. parison of the word with the sikkuth of Amos v. 26
In view of this fact, the several reformed com- (cf. R. V. margin). And other suggestions in the
munions in the Western Church are not now de- commentaries display ingenuity but give no solu-
pendent for a historic episcopate, either upon the tion which has commanded acceptance.
disputed Anglican succession dating from the Eliza- To be remembered is the fact that the colonists
bethan restoration, or upon the valid but irregular introduced by Sargon were almost certainly from
succession of the Old Catholic bishops of Europe, the lower orders, who worshiped, in all probability,
since there is now available this newer apostolic deities or spirits of an animistic sort whose names
and canonical episcopate derived direct from that have not been transmitted.. As in modern times in
firstcenter of Christianity itself, that oldest of all non-Christian lands (e.g., India) the state cults are
the branches of the primitive Church, the Syrian often not those of the masses of the population
"
Church of Antioch. ERNEST MARGRANDER. (Kipling makes a countryman in Kim speak of the
'

good little gods' "), so in ancient times it is de-

BIBLIOGRAPHY. W. E. Gladstone, Church Principles Con-
sidered in their RenM*. London, 1840; W. Palmer, A monstrable in many cases that the objects of wor-
Treatise on the Church of Christ, 3d ed., 2 vote., London,
ship were deities whose names do not appear in the
1842; H. P. Liddon, A Father in Christ, 3d ed., London,
official records. Some of these names may in exact
1885; C. Gore, The Church and the Ministry, London,
1889; J. Tod, Protestant Episcopacy in Relation to Apos- or confused form be present in the text awaiting
XL
ttft THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 180

future light. At present nothing satisfactory can the people, assisted by the Pannonian Martinus (d.
be made out of Succoth-benoth. 580), abbot of Dumium and later metropolitan of
"
GBO. W. GILMORE. Braga, who was known as the Apostle of Galicia."
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the commentaries on Kings con- It is disputed whether the reaction came under
sult: P. Scholi, Qotaundienat und Zavbenoeaen bei den Carraric (550-559) or Theodemir (559 or 560-570).
alien Hebrtern, pp. 407-409, Regensburg, 1877; F. De-
Miro was conquered (583) by Leovigild, the last
litiaoh, Wo lag das Parodies, pp. 215-216, Leipaic, 1881;
A. Jeremias, Das A.T.im Lichte des alien Orients, p. 322, Arian Visigoth king, and made a vassal. Leovigild
ib. 1904, Bng. tranol., London, 1911; Nagl, in ZKT, 1904, took advantage of the contests for the throne that
pp. 417-418; DB, iv. 626; EB, iv. 4820. broke out after the death of Miro to incorporate the
SUDAILL See STEPHEN BAR ?UDHAILB. kingdom of the Suevi in his kingdom as the province
of Galicia. (5) and (6) were the second Arian (585-
SUESKIND, FRIEDRICH GOTTLOB. See
586) and the third Romanizing (587 and 589) peri-
TUEBINGEN SCHOOL, THE OLDER.
ods. After their absorption Leovigild, wishing to

SUEVI, swi'voi, IN SPAIN, THE: A branch of the attach the Suevi to his moderate Arianism, without
Germanic people of that name which removed from using measures of 'force, appointed Arian duplicate
the Rhine during the migration of nations. More bishops to certain dioceses, namely, Lugo, Oporto,
inconstant than the other migratory peoples, the Tuy, and Viseu. Many Suevi adopted Arianism to
Suevi manifested six religious epochs in their his- please their new ruler. A little later they showed
tory: (1) In the heathen period (409-448 or 449), themselves just as hospitable to the opposite re-
under the kings Hermeric and Rechila, these tyrants ligious policy of Recared (586-601), and became
occasionally came into conflict with the Roman again Roman Catholics at the command of this
"
Church; but while they plundered the property, Spanish Constantino." (FRANZ G^RRES.)
they were indifferent to the religion of their con- BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: The continuation of the Hiero-

quered subjects. The organization of the Church nymian Chronicon by Hydatius, in MGH, Auct. Ant., xi
remained intact in Galicia, the core of the kingdom (1893), 21-25, 85-93, 212 sqq., also Joannes Biclarensis,
Chronica, and the Hist. Gothorum of Isidore of Seville in the
of the Suevi. (2) During the first Catholic period same volume; Isidore of Seville, Suevorum histona, in his
(448 or 449-c. 464), the Suevi were brought into Opera, ed. Arevalus, vii. 134 sqq., Rome, 1803; Martin of
the Church under King Rechiar and remained Cath- Braga, Formula de vita honesta, ed. A. Weidnor, in a Mag-
olics under his successors until 463 or 464. deburg Profframm, 1872, pp. 3-10; Martin of Braga, De
Many, correction* rutsticorum, ed. C. P. Campari, Chnatiania, 1883.
however, may have clung to their primitive forest Consult further: J. Aschbach, Geschirhte der Wertgothen,
heathenism. Rechiar, in spite of his orthodoxy, Frankfort, 1827; F. W. Lembke, Genchichte von Spanien,
married the daughter of the Arian Visigothic King Hamburg, 1831; P. B. Gams, Kirckengesckicktf von Spanien,
vol. ii., 3 vola., Regensburg, 1862-79; F. Dahn, Die Koniye
^Theodoric I.; and he surpassed his heathen prede- der Germanen, vols. v.-vi., Leipaic, 1870; L. Geley, L'Ea-
cessors in love of plunder. He was vanquished and poffne dea Goths et des Arobea, Paris, 1882; J. Draseke, in
made captive at Astorga (456) by the Visigothic ZWT, xxviii (1885), 506-508; F. Corns, in Jahrbiichcr fur
The first Arian period (c. protestantische Theoloffie, xii. 132-174, and in ZWT, xxviii
King Theodoric II. (3)
(1886), 319-325, xxxvi., 2 (1893), 542-578; E Per6x Pujol,
464~o. 550) followed when Remismund had re- Hist, de las institurionea socialc* de la Eapafia Goda, 4 vola.,
stored his shattered kingdom and married a Visi- Valencia, 1896; J. Ortega Rubio, Los Vungodoa en Espafia,
Madrid, 1903; R. de Urefla y Smenjaud, La Legislation
gothic woman, perhaps a relative of Theodoric, in
gotico-hispafia, Madrid, 1905; DC/?, lii. 845-848, 924;
order to establish friendly relations with his more
KL, viii. 922-024; and literature on GOTHS.
powerful neighbor. He went over to Arianism, and,
with the help of the renegade Ajax, led over a ma- SUFFERING: Any state of physical or mental
Under Euric (466-485) the In the general view, anything detrimental
jority of his people. pain.
Suevi lost all their possessions in the southeast of to self-preservation is an evil, anything favorable
the peninsula, and were driven back to Galicia, and to self-preservation a good. In many respects the

during this dark and little-known period the diocesan Christian view is just the opposite. Here self-pres-
organization continued. This statement is sup- ervation is thought of not for this natural life but
ported by an inscription found at Braga which nar- for life eternal. Thus, what would seem to be an
rates that a nun Marispalla dedicated a church evil becomes a good when viewed sub specie CBternita-
under King Veremundus, implying freedom of cul- tis, and similarly a good becomes an evil. Sickness,
tus to Roman Catholics, and by the letter of Pope for instance, by awakening the religious con-

Vigilius of 538, to the resident bishop Profuturus sciousness, becomes a good; and riches, by encour-
of Braga, which shows that the Arian regime did aging worldliness, become an evil. Even from the
not in the least disturb the Roman church organiza- worldly point of view suffering has value, since it
tion; that free intercourse with Rome was allowed develops character and enriches experience. From
to the orthodox episcopate; that the orthodox the Christian point of view, a good is that which
clergy were allowed a free hand in combating all promotes the attainment of the kingdom of God,
heresies, Prisciliianism as well as Arianism; and which is the highest good, and an evil is that which
that Arianism refrained from propaganda by peace- opposes its attainment. However, it is a mistake
able persuasion no less than orthodoxy. (4) The to suppose that pain and suffering cease to be such
second Catholic period continued from c. 550 to the for the faithful; if they did, they would lose their
potentiality for good. It would be fantastic to
collapse of the kingdom 585. About the middle of
the sixth century the Arian kings were replaced by deny that for the Christian real pain and evil still
Catholic princes. Zealously orthodox longs like exist. God sends to every Christian his measure
Theodemir (559 or 560-570) and Miro (570-583) of suffering, and particularly those persecutions
succeeded in winning back the great majority of incident to the enmity of the world (John xv. 1&-21 ;
 181 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Sodaili
Suloeru*

Matt. v. 10-12, x. 38, xvi. 24). To practise asoeti- to live as a man of the world till
1127, when he
cism and inflict pain on oneself is not only un- came under the influence of the reformatory move-
necessary but antagonistic to God (Col. ii. 23). ment of his time. He at once assumed the habits
The task of the Christian is rather to bear patiently and practises of severe asceticism, but he continued
the sufferings actually sent by God and make them to be a politician rather than an ecclesiastic. After
a means of righteousness (Heb. xii. 11; II Cor. iv. the death of Louis VI., in 1137, he was appointed
16). For the real Christian all trials and tribulations regent during the minority of Louis VII., and again
contribute to the attainment of the highest good when the latter, in 1140, made a crusade to the
(Rom. viii. 26). Of course suffering may have just Holy Land; and during his lifetime hardly any-
the opposite result, in case of a weak Christian thing of consequence took place in French politics
(Matt. xiii. 21). It is the moral obligation of the without his immediate intervention. His leading
Christian to take effective action against threaten- idea was the consolidation of the monarchy as a
ing reverses, and his position in the world makes divinely established institution. He was planning
this necessary. Stupid resignation is as unchristian and preparing to conduct in person a crusade when
as rank fatalism. he died. His writings embrace Libellus de consecra-
Pain and suffering are the means appointed by tione ecdesice a se cedificatce et tramlatione corporum
God to wean the Christian from the pleasures of the s. Dionysii ac sociorum eiusfacta anno 1140; Liber

world and the flesh and bind him close to the king- de rebus in sua administrations gestis; and Vita
dom of God. Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth, Ludavici VI. Grossi sive Crassi regis Francorum
and if he sends afflictions he sends at the same tune (t 1137), Philippi I. filii; all of which are found
strength to bear them or overcome them (II Cor. most conveniently in MPL, clxxxvi. 1211-1340.
i. 3-8, iv. 8-9). God may send sufferings and tribu- They were also edited by A. Locoy de la Marche,
lations to punish offenders (Ps. xxxviii. 5; Lam. i. Paris, 1867.
14; Ex. xx. 5), to prove and educate his children
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The early life by the monk and associate
(Heb. xii. 5-12; II Cor. xiii. 5), or to glorify himself W. Suffer is in MPL,
clxxxvi. 1103-1208, and in the ed.
"
(John ix. 3, xi. 4). (L. LEMME.) of the "Works by Lecoy de la Marche, ut sup., pp. 377-
411. Consult further: J. Baudouin, Le Ministre fidile.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Burritt, The Mission of Great Sufferings,
represent^ sous Louis VI. en la personne de Suffer, Paris,
London, 1866; W. O. Eliot, The Discipline of Sorrow,
1640; M. Baudier, Hist, de V administrate n de Suger,
Boston, 1868; E. dc Pressense. The Mystery of Suffering ',
abbe de St. Denys, Paris, 1645, new ed., 1660; F. A. Gor-
New York, 1869; J. Hinton, The Mystery of Pain, Boa- vaise. Hist, de Suger, abbe de St. Denis, 3 vols., Paris,
ton, 1893; C. C Hall, Does God send Trouble f ib., 1894;
1721; A. Nettement. ^f^8t. de Suier, Paris, 1842; A. de
D. O. Meare, Inspired through Suffering, Now York, 1897;
8aint-M6ry, Suger, ou le France au xii. siecle, Limoges,
V. C. Harrington, The Problem of Human Suffering . . .
1851; F. Combes, L' Abbe Suger, Paris, 1853; A. Huguenin,
from the Standpoint of a Christian, ib. 1899; Q. M Oiler, Das tude sur Fabbe Suger, Paris, 1855; L. de Came, Les Fon-
LeidaUdie Wunel des Gluckes, Berlin, 1899; J. H. Brookes,
dateurs de V unite fran?aise: Suger, Paris, 1856; J. L. T.
The Mystery of Suffering, New York, 1903; J. Hinton, The
Bachelet, Les Grands Ministry fran^ais, Rouen, 1859;
Mystery of Pain, London, 1909; Fere Laurent, The Mission A. Vetault, Suger, Paris, 1871; P. Viollet, in Biblwthegue
of Pain, ib. 1910. de Fecole des chartes, xxxiv. 241-254, Paris, 1873; E.
regrnt de France, pere de la patrie,
SUFFRAGAN: A title applied to certain classes
Menault, Suger . . .

Paris, 1884; A. Lecoy de la Marche, in La France chre-

of bishops (see BISHOP; BISHOP, TITULAK; and tienne, 1806, pp. 148 sqq; Hist, htteraire de la France, xii.
VICAR). The word does not appear to have been 361-362; KL, xi. 075-077; Ceilher, Auteurs sacres, xiv.
in classical Latin, but is frequent in the 373-376 et passim.
employed
ecclesiastical language of the Prankish kingdom
(MGH, SUICERUS, swi'ser-us, JOHANNES CASPARUS
Leg. Cap. reg. Francarum, p. 79, 1835),
i.,
"
where it appears in the sense of helper," and so, (HANS KASPAR SCHWEITZER): Philologist,

The author of the Thesaurus ecdesiasticus; b. at Zurich

e.g., Amalarius of Treves (q.v.) understands it.
term becomes equivalent also to ' '
vicar.
' '
The term June 26, 1620; d. there Dec. 29, 1684. He began
" his studies in the schools of his native city, and
bishops who assist
11
suffragan is applied to titular
or substitute for diocesan bishops; also to diocesan completed them at Montauban and Saumur, return-
ing in 1643 to Zurich for his examination, and being
bishops, expressing their relation to the metropoli-
sent as pastor to Basadingen in Thurgau; he was
tan [cf. Bingham, Origines, IL, xiv. 14-15]. The
called to teach in Zurich, 1644; became inspector
ordinances bearing on the relative rights of suffra-
of the Alumnates and professor of Hebrew, 1646;
gans and metropolitans are collected in Gratian,
causa III., qu. 6 and IX. 3. For suffragans hi the professor of catechetics, 1649; of Latin and Greek
in the Collegium humanitatis, 1656; and of Greek
United States see PROTESTANT EPISCOPALIANS, II.,
at the Caroiinum, 1660; retired on account of fail-
i 1. (A. HAUCK.)
ing health, 1683. He served theology well through
SUGER: Abbot of St. Denis; b. in 1081, prob- his works in philology, many of them going through

ably hi the neighborhood of St. Omer; d. at St. several editions. Among his published works may
Denis Jan. 12, 1151. He was the contemporary of be named: Syttoge vocum Novi Testamenti (Zurich,
St. Bernard and Abelard, and one of the greatest 1648); Novi Testamenti dictionum syttoge Grasco-
statesmen France produced during the Middle Ages. Latina, issued by Hagenbuch in 1744 as N. T. Glos-
He was educated in the monastery of St. Denis, sarium Grceco-Latinum; the celebrated Thesaurus
together with Louis VI.; and when the latter ecdesiasticus (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1682; encyclo-
ascended the throne, in 1108, he immediately called pedic) ; and Lexicon Graco-Latinum et Latino-Grce-
the monk to his court, and made him his principal cum (1683). He left other works in manuscript,
councilor. In 1122 Suger was elected abbot of St. among them his apparatus for a new edition of
Denis; but he remained at the court, and continued the lexicon of Hesychius. (P. SCHWEIZBK.)
 Bnioarns
Suidbert THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 132

SUICERUS, JOHANNES HBINRICH: Swiss and interpreting suffering as a divine dispensation

theologian, son of the preceding; b. in Zurich in (Rom. v. 3 sqq., viii. 18). The early Church firmly
1646; d. in Heidelberg Sept. 23, 1705. He studied opposed suicide, although practically the only case
in Zurich and Geneva; was professor of Greek and in which such a tendency appeared was in the
philosophy in the gymnasium at Hanau 1665-67; overzealous desire for martyrdom (see MARTYRS
then became pastor at Birmensdorf near Zurich; in AND CONFESSORS). Whether, in time of persecu-
1683 succeeded his father at the Carolinum; and tion, Christian women might commit suicide to
went in the spring of 1705 as first pastor and eccle- escape dishonor was a moot question, lauded by
siastical councilor to Heidelberg. He caused con- Eusebius, Chrysostom, and Jerome, but condemned
siderable excitement by the publication of his book by Augustine (De civitate Dei, i. 16 sqq.), the latter
on Revelation (1674), and it was suppressed, but position also being taken by church councils, some
he had it and his Lapis Lydius printed anonymously of which forbade the suicide honorable burial (Or-
in Holland (1676), after which he received a repri- igans, 533, canon 15, Hefele, ConcUiengeschichte,
mand from the council of Zurich. Outside of his ii. 757, Eng. transl., iv. 187, Fr. transl., ii. 2, p.
commentary on Colossians, his other works were on 1135; Braga, 563, capitulum 16, Hefele, ut sup.,
subjects in philosophy or church politics. iii. 19,
Eng. transl., iv. 385, Fr. transl., iii. 1, p. 180).
(P. SCHWEIZEB.) The rise of the tenet of personal freedom in the
period of the early Illumination wrought a marked
SUICIDE: The intentional killing of oneself, change, although many of the earliest works advo-
the term excluding both the shortening of life by cating the permissibility of suicide could appear
excess or recklessness, and self-sacrifice, or the sur- only posthumously, as J. Donne's Biathanatos
render of life to gain a higher moral good, since only (London, 1644) and D. Hume's essay on suicide in
in suicide is there a conscious and deliberate con- his Two Essays (1777). In the general literature of
tempt for life per se and an entire absence of desire the eighteenth century suicide was frequently dis-
to attain any superior good (as in self-sacrifice) or cussed as a psychological and moral question, as
even a greater degree of pleasure (as in excess or by Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Goethe; but while
recklessness) The history of suicide reveals marked
.
these authors advocated a less rigorous attitude,
variations according to race and period. Among theologians and all the best philosophical writers,
peoples of simple civilization and those with a such as Spinoza, Wolff, Mendelssohn, Kant, and
fixed code of moralsand an unshaken Fichte, condemned it. Modern pessimism main-
History, belief suicide israre, and is
very tains a rather indeterminate position toward the
deemed unnatural and reprehensible. problem.
This was the view of the early Greeks, and of the The
increasing frequency of suicide had been sta-
Pythagoreans, Plato, and Aristotle; but with the proved in the nineteenth century, the rate
tistically
decay of national thought and character Stoicism being at least trebled in the great civilized coun-
taught indifference to life and death as mere exter- tries. A largo number of suicides, about a third,
nal phenomena, and advocated voluntary surrender may be traced to mental derangement, thus indi-
of life as a means of gaining independence for the cating a close connection between sui-
soul. This view, which failed to distinguish clearly Conditions cide and insanity. Suicide is more fre-
between self-sacrifice and suicide, and was also and quent in cities than in the country,
irreconcilable with the Stoic doctrine of the virtu- Remedy, increasing with ease of communication
ous man's submission to the universe, was eagerly and the progress of education; it is
defended by the Romans of the early Empire, par- far more frequent among Protestants than
among
ticularly by Seneca (q.v.). While Biblical religion Roman Catholics, but is in inverse proportion to
conquered this attitude of despair and the useless- crimes against the person. All this does not imply
ness of life, neither the Old nor the New Testament that higher culture involves despair and disgust for
contains any specific prohibition of suicide, though life, but that as needs increase, the number of those
the principles enunciated in the sixth command- increases who, unable to satisfy these needs, des-
ment and in such passages as Rom. xiv. 7-9, I Cor. pair since they have within themselves no means of
vi. 19, and Eph. v. 29 may be extended by analogy consolation. The highest percentage of suicides is
to suicide. Even where cases of suicide are recorded, found among the Germanic peoples, next coming
as of Saul (I Sam. xxxi. 4), Ahithophel (II Sam. the Romance peoples and the Slavs. The reasons
xvii. 23), Zimri (I Kings xvi. 18), and Judas (Matt, for the excessive frequency of suicide among the
xxvii. 5, Acts i. 18, 25), there is no word of con- Teutons has been ascribed either to the use of in-
demnation of the act in itself. On the other hand, toxicants or to the results of unrestricted investi-
Paul once prevented suicide (Acts xvi. 27-28). gation in science and religion, although it seems
The lack of express prohibition finds* explanation more probable that the true explanation lies in
partly in the extreme rarity of suicide among the Germanic idealism and individualism, with a touch
Jews, and partly in the national abhorrence of it, of sentimentalism, which is ill adapted to cope with
the sole exception being when patriotic motives stern and circumscribing conditions. A
still more
entered into the question (Judges xvi. 28-30; potent factor than all others, however, is the decay
II Mace. xiv. 37-46; Josephus, Ant., XIV., xiii. 10). of religion and of moral conviction during the nine-
Christianity worked here, not by prohibitions, but teenth century, which has deprived large masses
by creating a new attitude of mind, teaching the of influences most potent in counteracting the tend-
fatherly love of God (I Cor. x. 13; I Thees. v. 9), ency to suicide; for it is only a spiritual and inward
giving life a distinct ethical content (Phil. i. 22 sqq.), strength which can enable the individual to stand
 138 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Suidbert

against the pressure and the vicissitudes of complex scholiasts. His articles on secular and ecclesiastical
modern civilization; though natural elasticity and history are derived chiefly from the book of excerpts
strong sense of duty may give similar results within of Konstantinos Porphyrogenitos and from
George
a limited area, the only reliable foundation of a the Monk. He also read a great number of sources
patience and a hope which do not fail even in the at first hand. From all this it is easy to explain the
most desperate situations is religion. And as once manifold character of Suidas' work. It resembles
Christianity brought new regard for life into a de- now a lexicon, now an encyclopedia. It is a reper-
cadent civilization, so only the Gospel can heal the torium for the study of the classics and the Bible,
destructive and deadly tendencies of modern cul- of secular and ecclesiastical history.
ture. The battle against suicide thus becomes, in Of interest from a theological point of view are
the last analysis, identical with the validation of a especially the Biblical glosses derivedfrom Hesy-
Christian view of life and morality. He who knows chius and such Greek exegetes as Theodoret and
that he has a duty to perform toward God is bound C^cumenius, relating to Biblical names and the
to go on, be conditions what they may; and he who more important New-Testament words and con-
is convinced that there is forgiveness for the penitent ceptions. It is still worth while to consult Suidas
and help for the fallen can never despair. The on such words as tiiKauxdvti, dutatApa, 66a 6cov,
Christian Church has naturally condemned utterly
an act which she can not but regard as absolute The theological and dogmatic point of view of
negation of the fear of God and of trust in him, and the work may bo from such entries as
inferred
as an insult alike to divine judgment and to divine 6e6f t The general scientific and philosophic in-
grace. It is, therefore, inadvisable to brelk down terest of Suidas appears abundantly. Finally
the barriers erected by law and custom against the Suidas offers a large register of patristic names
suicide, for such procedure would only invite still and choice excerpts, enriched with biographical
greater laxity of public opinion. While in some and literary details. The notice of Hypatia's life,
cases the suicideVmay deserve pity rather than studies, and death may be cited. The opinion of
blame, the act itself must uncompromisingly be re- the author and his church appears not seldom in
garded as morally impossible for the Christian. At the account. For example, Dionysius the Areop-
"
the same time, it is hopeless to look for great results agite receives the appellation of the most famous
merely from laws and disciplinary measures; only man,", who attained the summit of Greek wisdom,
the Gospel can create a new spirit, and thus heal and as a pupil of Paul was by him made bishop of
the frvils of modern civilization. (O. KIBN.) Athens. Chrysostom is praised yet more highly.
His eloquence was like the cataracts of the Nile
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. F. Staudlin, Geschichte der Vorstettungen
und Lehren vom Selbstmord, Gdttingen, 1824; A. Wagner, and was never equaled; only God could count the
Die Gesetemassiokeit in den
scheirfar
wiWciirlichen mensch- number of his works.
lichen Handlungen, Hamburg, 1864; A. Legoyt, Le Sui- The lexicon was first issued by Demetrius Chal-
cide ancien el modcrne, Paris, 1881; T. O. Masaryk, Der
Selbstmord als sozialc Afassenerscheinung der modernen kondylas (Milan, 1499; Aldine ed., Venice, 1514).
Civilisation, Vienna, 1881; H. Morselli, Dec Selbstmord,
Other editions are Cambridge, 1705, by Kiister; Ox-
Leipnic, 1881, Eng, transl., Suicide, Londdf 1881; J. J. ford, 1834, by Gaisford; best ed. by Bernhardy,
O'Dea, Suicide; Studies on its PhttosoWfyf New York, Halle, 1853; and the reprint by Bekker, Berlin,
1882; Q. Garrisson, Le Suicide dans taniiquite t dans les
1854. (PHILIPP MEYER.)
temps modernes, Paris, 1885; M. Imhofer, Der Selbstmord,
Augsburg, 1886; C. A. Geiger, Der Selbstmord im klassi- BIBLIOGRAPHY: The introduction in Beruhardy's ed., ut
schen Altertum, Augsburg, 1888; E Motta, Biblioorafia
sup.; Krumbaoher, Oeschichie, pp. 562-570. where a
del suieidio, Bellinzona, 1890; E. Rehfisch, Der Selbst-
large list of helps is furnished; Fabricius-Harles, Biblio-
mord, Berlin, 1893; Durkheim, Le Suicide, Paris, 1897;
.
theca OrcBca, vi. 389-595, Hamburg, 1795.
H. H. Henson, Suicide, Oxford, 1897; F. H. P. Coste,
The Ethics of Suicide, London, 1898; J. Gurnhill, The
Morals of Suicide, 2 vote., London and New York. 1900; SUIDBERT, swid'bftrt: Apostle of the Frisians;
H. Host, Der Selbstmord als sozialstatistische Erscheinung, d. at what is now Kaiserewerth in Mar., 713. He
Cologne, 1905; H. A. Kroee, Der Selbstmord im 19. Jahr- was one of the twelve who under the leadership of
hundert; and Die Ursachen der Selbstmordh&ufigkeit, 2
vols., Freiburg, 1906; W. W. WestcoU, On Suicide, Lon-
Willibrord (q.v.) began the mission to the Frisians.
don, 1905; W. Spark, Der Selbstmord, seine Folgen und He was chosen bishop by his companions and placed
seine Verhittung, Freiburg. 1909. at the head of the undertaking, and this has given
rise to many explanations of the passing over of

SUIDAS, swi'dos: Greek lexicographer. Nothing Willibrord, the real leader; the probable reason
is known of the personal history of Suidas, even his was Willibrord 's youth and Suidbert 's maturity.
period only with probability assigned as that of
is Suidbert was consecrated by Wilfrid of York late
Johannes Tzimisces, Basil II., and Constantine IX., in 692 or early in 693. Soon after his return to his
therefore before the end of the tenth century; his field of work he abandoned it and went to labor

home is conjectured to have been Samothrace. His beyond the Rhine among the Bructeri, a course
Greek lexicon, probably finished c. 976, is a most probably to be explained by a difference between
important, even indispensable, reference-book for him and Pippin, who had the right of confirmation
the classical philologist, and is equally valuable for of bishops in his realm. The only notice of Suid-
"
the theologian and church historian. He drew upon bert's success is Bede's brief statement that by
"
older dictionaries and collections, upon Hesychius his preaching he ledmany into the way of truth
Milesius for facts of literary history, upon the dic- (Hist, ecd., v. 11); but this success aroused the
tionary of Harpokratio, perhaps also upon that of animosity of the heathen Saxons who scattered the
Photius, upon the Biblical glossators, and upon the Christians. Suidbert was then presented with the
8uid*er
Bummi THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOQ 184

island on which he founded the cloister of Kaisers- leader of the Lutheran movement; then he and his
werth, where he passed the remainder of his life. following strove in vain to abolish the
oath that
(A. HAUCK.) bound the prepchers to a recognition of Zwingli's
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Early material is collected in A SB, Apr., doctrines and to introduce the Lutheran view of
iii. 802-805, March, i. 67-86; ASM, iii. 1, pp. 239-245; the Lord's Supper. In 1544 he succeeded Kunz as
and At PL, oxxxii. 547-550, 557-550. Consult further:
Bede, Hist, eccl. v. 11; P. Heber, Die vorkarolingitchen
t
preacher, but in 1548 was deposed from his position
chrittlichen Glauberuboten am Rhein, Frankfort, 1858; after a quarrel which, it is supposed, he provoked
K. W. Bouterwek. Swidbert, der Apottel dee bergitchen in order to pose as a martyr in the Lutheran cause.
Land*, Elberfeld, 1850; P. P. M. Alberdingk-Thijm, Der He was made pastor at St. Peter's, Basel, 1549;
heUige Wittibrord, pp. 108 sqq., Mttnster, 1863; W.
Diekamp, Die Faltchung der Vita S. Swdberti, in Hiator- professor of Hebrew, 1552; successor to Oswald
ische* Jahrbttch der Gorrea-Geaellachaft, ti (1881), 272-287; Myconius at the minster, and antistes of the Basel
Analecta Bollandiana, vi (1887), 73-76; Rettberg, KD, church, 1553. He was happy and active in his
ii.306, 460, 524; Hauck, KD, i. 437, ii. 367; DNB, Iv. double position, defended the persecuted Lutherans,
155; DCS, iv. 745; Ceillier, Aideura Mcrfe, xii. 218, 783.
and advocated union between Germans and Swiss.
SUIDGER. See CLEMENT II. He could not conceal his anti-Zwinglian views,
which ultimately became plain to everybody.
SULPICIANS: A congregation the foundations of
Sulzer's efforts to introduce Lutheran ideas in
which were laid by Jean Jacques Olier (q.v.) in
Basel had no lasting effect. He never dared to put
1642. Thesociety arose through the promise of
aside the first Basel Confession of 1534, although he
great usefulness afforded by the seminary founded After his death, the
relegated it to the background.
by Olier first at Vaugirard and later moved to the Basel church was brought back to Zwinglianism and
church of St. Sulpice at Paris. This society received
united to the Swiss churches. His efforts were more
the protection of Anna, queen-regent of Austria,
successful in Baden. He became acquainted with
and being devoted principally to the cause of edu-
cation was soon engaged in that work in other sem- Margrave Karl II., who in 1555 began the Refor-
mation of the lower part of his margravate. Sulzer
inaries established in various cities of France, in
recommended and ordained over twenty pastors,
Canada, and in 1790 in the United States. The Sul-
and was named superintendent of Rotcln, Schopf-
picians are bound by no vows, but have been noted
for their fidelity to the church which they serve and heim, Mttllheim, and Hochberg. His activity was
" but his undeniable services to the
for the model of " regularity which they have remarkable,
schools of Bern and the churches of Basel and
furnished. In the United States St. Mary's Sem-
Baden are somewhat shadowed by his weak charac-
inary and St. Charles' College in Baltimore are under
ter and his injudiciously partizan opposition to the
their care, as was the seminary of Brighton, diocese
traditional Swiss church. (W. HADORN.)
of Boston, till 1911, and they have the spiritual
direction of the students of theology in the Catholic
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hundeahagen, in F. Troohsel'n Rrttr&oczw
Geschichte der Bchweizerisch-reformirten Kirch f, pp. 105
University at Washington. The events of the years sqq., Bern, 1844; Q. Linder, Simon Sulztr und sein Anteil
1903-06 in France (see FRANCE, I., 5) bore with an der Reformation im Lande Baden, Heidelberg, 1890;
A. Fluri, Bemer Schulordnung von 1548, Berlin, 1901.
especial hardship upon this congregation, bringing its
activities to an end, and leaving North America the SUMER. See BABYLONIA, V.
most important field of work.
SUMMA DER GODLIKER SCRIFTUREN: The
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the literature under OLIUR, JUAN
clause in the title of a noted hook which first
first
JACQUES, consult: G. M. de Fruges, J. J. Olier, Paris,
1904; Vie de Emery .
. . precedee d'un precis de Vhitt. du appeared in Leyden, 1523. The full title reads:
eeminaire et de la compagnie de St. Sulpice, 2 vols., Paris, Summa der Godliker Scrifturen, oft een duytsche The-
1862; J. St. Vangan, in The Dublin Review, 1866, pp. 22 leerende en onderwijsende aUe
ologie,
sqq.; J. H. I card, Traditions de la compagnie de prttres
de St. Sulpice, Paris, 1886; M. Siebengartner, Schriften History menschen, wot dat Christen gheloue is,
und Einrichtungen tur Bildung der OeisUichen, pp. 428 of the waer doer wi attegader salich worden t

sqq., 431 sqq., Freiburg, 1902; Heimbuoher, Orden und Work. ende wat dat doepsel beduyt, nae die
Kongregationen, iii. 442-449.
leeringe des heiligen evangdijs ende
SULZBR, SIMON: Swiss theologian of Lutheran sinte Pauwels episteln. It was suppressed by the
tendencies; b. in the Haslithal above Meiningen (24 Btadtholders in the name of Charles V., orders were
m. s.s.w. of Lucerne) Sept. 23, 1508; d. at Basel given for its destruction as containing prohibited
June 22, 1585. He was educated at Bern under the doctrines, all persons were forbidden to own, read,
humanist Rubellus of Rottweil and at Lucerne buy or sell the book, while in 1524 the publisher,
under Oswald Myconius (q.v.); in 1530 he was in Jan Zwerts, was banished for life and his fortune
Strasburg, where he heard lectures from Butcer and confiscated. Fresh editions continued to appear,
Capito, and in Basel in 1531, where Simon GrynsBua however, as well as translations into other languages,
(see GRYTMEUS, 1) taught him, where he also helped although it was placed on the Index of the Church
the printer Herwagen, taught at the Collegium, and on that of the Louvain Theological Faculty.
later the Padagogium; in 1533 Capito and Butzer In England various edicts issued in 1526, 1535, 1539,
had him called to Bern as a teacher with occasional against the Latin original and the English version
preaching duties and the work of inspecting six dis- (The Summa of Holy Scripture, 1542, etc., five edi-
trict schools; in 1536 he went to Basel to continue tions). The Sorbonne condemned it in 1550, in
his studies, and the same year visited Luther at Italy it was found on all the indexes after 1549,
Wittenberg. From this time his Lutheran tend- in Spain the indexes of Valdez, 1559, and
Quiroga,
encies became marked. In 1538 he was again called 1583, mention it, and it was known at the court of
to Bern, and in 1541 succeeded Sebastian Meyer aa Charles V. It had an important part in the Refor-
185 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

mation in the countries named.

Having performed the words " new and thoroughly revised edition."
its mission during the Reformation, the book was The author's name docs not appear on either the
forgotten until 1877, when Professor Boehmer, of (Economica or the Summa. Van Toorenenbergen
Zurich, discovered in the public library a copy of and Benrath both incline to ascribe the authorship
the Italian version and enabled Professor Milio, of to Hendrik van Bommel, a preacher in Wesel in
Florence, to publish it in Riviata Cristiana and in 1557, who then acknowledged himself the author
a special edition. Benrath found a Dutch edition of Summa der deutschen Theologie, which had ap-
of 1526, published a German translation (Leipsic, peared thirty years earlier.
1880), and judged that there must have been an The (Economica consists of two parts, the first
earlier original Dutch issue in 1523. It appeared, containing fifteen, the second fourteen, chapters;
also, that a second part was published in low Ger- the Summa contains thirty-one chapters and a pro-
man, presumably the following year, the author of logue. The first fifteen chapters of
which claimed the authorship of the first part, but both works treat of the doctrine of
Contents,
the second part was written originally in low Ger- faith under the same headings: What
man, and does not appear in other languages. The is baptism; What baptism insures, and that it is
first part, however, with the prologue, is a transla- not a mere sign; What Christians celebrate in bap-
tion, and from the Latin, as Benrath surmised and tism; What Christian faith is and what those must
Van Toorenenbergen proved, the author himself believe who would be saved; On the surest way of
being the translator. salvation; That by God's goodness alone, and not
An edition of the Latin and the oldest Dutch by works, are we saved; In what manner our salva-
translation were published by Prof. J. J. van Toor- tion is assured by his death who gave us his Testa-
enenbergen, of Amsterdam, in 1882. The Latin, ment; How, according to the Gospel, faith is never
(Economica Christiana in rem Chris- without works; Faith stirs your souls to obey God's
The Latin, tianam instituens, quidve creditum in- commands; Who is a son, and who a hireling;
genue Christianum oportet, ex evangelicis Two kinds of men in the Christian world The fruits ;

was published, Strasburg, 1527. Com-

literis eruta, of faith; Of many beliefs mentioned in Holy Scrip-
parison shows that the Summa is much less com- ture; The
condition of Christendom; That death
plete than the (Economica, which was evidently should not make us sorrowful. In the fourteen
intended to enlighten the minds of the clergy and chapters of (Economica (second part), the author
educated laity regarding the truths of the Gospel, shows how all conditions of men should live accord-
and also to combat the corruptions of monastic life, ing to the Gospel, and also in chaps, xvi. to xxxi.
and especially the illusion that the life, in itself, was of the Summa; but in (Economica eight chapters
sanctified. One portion is practical; the other, are devoted to monks and nuns, and in the Summa
theoretical. The Summa is adapted to the popular only four, which are materially abridged, with a
understanding, and consequently is abridged in special chapter on parents who dedicate their chil-
many places, especially those portions that refer to dren to monastic life. Chaps, xi. and xii. of (Econ-
monastic life. The author was at first reluctant to omica deal with the rich, the married, burghers, and
publish the Latin original, and it is questioned magistrates; chap. xiii. shows that the Gospel for-
"
whether he indorsed its publication in 1527. Van bids war; chap. xiv. closes with the inquiry: By"
Toorenenbergen surmises that a friend of the author, what Gospel authority may princes levy taxes?
Gerardus Goldenhauer, being in straitened circum- and discusses the corresponding duties of subjects.
stances, handed over the work to the Strasburg In the Summa, chap. xxii. deals with the question
publisher, Christian Egcnolphus. The original of married life; xxiii. with the Christian rule of
(Economica was probably written in 1520. The children by parents; xxiv. considers the life of the
author was evidently still in the Roman church and middle classes; and xxv. tells how the rich should
desired to reform, but not abolish, monasticism. conform to the teaching of the Gospel. Chap, xxvi.,
The influence of Luther's writings is traceable, which treats of worldly and spiritual rule, shows that
" "
among others the Sermon on Baptism (1519), the author was familiar with Luther's Von weltlicher
" "
the Babylonian Captivity," and A Christian's Obrigkeit', chap, xxvii. points burgomasters, magis-
Liberty" (1520). In the Summa, the Reformers trates, and other officers to the Gospel; xxviii. re-
also speak. In the edition of 1523 is a formula for sembles chap. xiv. of (Economica; xxx. deals with
the celebration of the Lord's Supper: Dat Testa- the life of men- and maid-servants and day-laborers;
ment Jesu Christi datmen tot noch toe de misse ghe- and xxxi. with widows.
noempt heeft, verduyts(t) duer Joannem Oecolam- A truly remarkable work is the Summa, and it
padium to Adelenburch, and in the edition of 1526 indicates that a wholesome spirit of reform pre-
is an entire chapter taken almost verbatim from dominated in the Netherlands earlier than else-
one of Luther's writings. In all editions prior to where, where was, so to speak, an individual refor-
1526, the twenty-ninth chapter contains a merci- mation, of which the Summa was the expression.
less condemnation of war, unless it be for the It also bears evidence of a growing sympathy with

protection of subjects from foreign or internal op- Luther and Zwingli. In fact, the Netherlands sup-
pression. This is evidently an almost verbatim ported and furthered the reform movement in other
06 Kriegsleute countries partly by the Summa, which spread abroad
transcript of Luther's treatise of 1526,
ouch im seligen Stande sein kdnnen. The author and fostered the intellectual awakening of the re-
must be responsible for this change of sentiment, form spirit. (S. D. VAN VEEN.)
as no one else would have ventured to introduce it, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the introduction* to the edition!
and on the title-page of the edition of 1526 stand named in the text, consult the articles in the
 Suminenhart
Bun and Sun Worship THE NEW 6CHAFF-HERZOG 186

ch* Stud (of Utrocht), i (1883), 313-323, and ii (1884),

1817, and next year became a local Wesleyan
447-451, by H. G. Kleyn, ii (1884). 14JM62. by Van
Taorenenbergea; K. Benrath. In JPT, vii. 127 eqq.; minister. In 1819 he was received on trial in the
Dtoferdieok, in GOA, 1878, and Kattenbuaoh, in the same, Methodist Conference of Ireland, and in Mar., 1821,
18
?;*
P; Bofctede
M. A.
^
Qro t. k
*> Tijdipugtl. 1882-83;
having emigrated to America, in the New York
and Ooouen, in Gdoofen Vrijheid, 1882. conference. He leaped into astonishing popularity
SUMMENHART, KONRAD: Scholastic theo- by reason of his eloquence, and in 1822 he preached
logian; b. at Calw (20 m. w.n.w. of Stuttgart), and Washington, every-
in Philadelphia, Baltimore,
Wurttemberg, or more probably in the village of where heard by great crowds. Because of ill-health
Sommenhardt (close by Calw), between 1450 and he was in France and England, 1822-24, returning
1460; d. at the monastery of Schuttern near Offen- to New York Apr. 19, 1824, but he was not able
burg (17 m. S.B.W. of Carlsruhe), Baden, Oct. 20, again to do full work. He was a founder of the
1502. He was a representative of the scholastic re- American Tract Society. His Sermons and Sketches
action against William of Occam's formalism, which of Sermons was published (New York, 1842).
constituted the realistic transition to humanism, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lives were written by J. Holland, New York,
and has been lauded as a precursor of the Reforma- 1829, and W. M. Willitt, Philadelphia, 1857. Consult
tion. Summenhart studied first at Paris, and in further: N. Bangs, Hist, of the M. E. Church, iii. 324-329,
New York, 1860; W. B. tipraguo, Annals of the American
1478 went to Tubingen, where, from 1489, he leo-
Pulpit, vii. 639-654, ib. 1861; and literature (under
tured on canon law, sociology, and natural philoso- METHODISTS) on the early history of Methodism in
phy. The writings left by Summenhart, mainly
his America.
Tubingen lectures, into three groups.
fall The SUMMERS, THOMAS OSMOND: Methodist
Tractatus bipartitus de decimia (Hagenau,
1497) Episcopal South; b. near Confe Castle (18 m. e.s.c.
and Septipertitum opus de controctibus pro foro con- of Dorchester), England, Oct. 11, 1812; d. at Nash-
sciential (1500) belong to the borderland of theol- His early religious train-
ville, Tenn., May 5, 1882.
ogy, sociology, and canon law. The second group ing was Calvinistic. He camo to America, 1830,
consists of Commentaria in summam and united with the Methodist Church; joined the
physice Alberti
Magni (Freiburg, 1503), essaying a pious explana- Baltimore Conference, 1835; was ordained deacon,
tion of nature. The third group is
composed of oc- 1837, and elder, 1839; was an organizer of the first
casional addresses: Oratio funebris Texas conference, 1840, and a missionary to Texas,
pro Eberhardo
(Tubingen, 1498); Quod deus homo fieri voluerit; 1840-43; member of the Alabama conference,
and Tractatulus exhortatorius super decem defectibus 1843-76; and secretary of the Louisville Conven-
virorum monasticorum (1498), against monastic tion in 1845, at which the Methodist Episcopal
abuses. (H. HERMELINK.) Church South was organized. In 1846 he was ap-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. J. Moaer, Vita profaaorwn Tvbinomriwn,
pointed by the general conference to assist Bishop
pp. 36-41, Tubingen, 1718; F. X. Linsenmann, Konrad
Summmhart, ib. 1877; K. Steiff, Der erste Bvchdrwk in Wightman as editor of The Southern Christian Ad-
TtitoHren, pp. 60-53, 228-233, ib. 1881; H. Hermelink, vocate, published at Charleston, S. C. while there,
;

Die thAogi9che FakulUU in Ttibinyen vor der Reformation, he edited for four years the Sunday-School Visitor.
pp. 156-162, 194-195, ib. 1906; W&rttembervische Viertel- He was the general book editor for the organization
iahrshefte /Or LandugncMehte, 1906, pp. 331 sqq.
of the church, editing some 300 volumes; he re-
SUMMERBELL, MARTYN: Free Baptist; b. moved to Nashville in 1855, where he took charge
at Naples, N. Y., Dec. 20, 1847. He was educated of The Quarterly Review; performed
pastoral work
at the College of the City of New York (A.B., 1871), in Alabama, 1862-66; in 1866 was elected editor of
pursued a post-graduate course in New York Uni- the Nashville Christian Advocate; was professor of
versity (188&-89; Ph.D., 1889), and was non-resi- systematic theology in Vanderbilt University, Nash-
dent professor of pastoral theology in the Christian
ville; also dean of the theological faculty and ex-
Biblical Institute, Stanfordville, N. Y. (1874-1901). officio pastor, 1874-82. He was secretary of every
He has held successive pastorates at the Christian
general conference of his church, devoted much time
Church of the Evangel, Brooklyn, N. Y. (1866-80), to hymnology, and was chairman of the committee
the First Christian Church, Fall River, Mass. (1880- that compiled the hymn-book, which he edited.
1886), St. Paul's Evangelical Church, New York Possessed of encyclopedic knowledge, and
always
City (1886-88), and the College Church, Bates Col- abreast of the times, he was thoroughly
Wesleyan
lege,Lewiston, Me. (1888-98). He was instructor and Anninian but in hearty sympathy
in his creed,
in church history at Cobb Divinity School, Lewis- with all Evangelical denominations of Christians.
ton, Me. (1895-98), and was elected president of He edited Songs of Zion: Supplement to the Hymn-
the Palmer Institute, Starkey Seminary, Lakemont, book of the Methodist Episcopal Church South (Nash-
N. Y., in 1898, which position he still occupies. In
" ville, 1861); Biographical Sketches of Itinerant
theology he holds to fellowship for active Chris- Ministers, Pioneers within Bounds of the Methodist
tians of every name on the basis of vital Christian
Episcopal Church, South (1858); and wrote Baptism:
piety." He has written Special Services for Chris- its Nature, Perpetuity, Subject .With Strictures
. .

tian Ministers (Fall River, Mass., 1885) and is joint on Howett's " Evils of Infant Baptism " (1852) ; com-
author of The People's Bible History (Chicago, 1895). mentaries on the Gospels (186&-72), the ritual
SUMMERFIELD, JOHN: Methodist Episcopal; (1873), and the Acts (1874).
b. in Preston (28 m. n.w. of Manchester), England, BIBLIOGRAPHY: O. P. Ftogerald, Dr. Summers, a Life Stvdu.
Jan. 31, 1798; d. in New York June 13, 1825. He Naahvflle, 1884.
waa educated at the Moravian Academy at Fail-field, SUMNBR, JOHN BIRD: Archbishop of Canter*
near Manchester; was sent into business at Liver- bury; Kenilworth (44 m. n.n.w. of Oxford)
b. at
pool; removed to Dublin, 1813; was converted in England, Feb. 25, 1780; d. in Addington (12 m. s!
187 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
and Son Worship

of Charing Cross) Sept. 6, 1862. He studied at Eton, Ephesians, Philippians, and Colossians (1845), and
1791-08, and at King's College, Cambridge (B.A., Thessalonians (1851); also, A Treatise on the Rec-
1803; M.A., 1807; D.D., 1828). In 1802 he be- ords of the Creation, and on the Moral Attributes
of
came assistant master at Eton; was rector of the Creator; wtth particular
Reference to the Jewish
Maple Durham, 1820-48; became canon of Dur- History, and to the Consistency of the
Principle of
ham, 1820; bishop of Chester, 1828; archbishop of Population with the Wisdom and Goodness of the
Canterbury, 1848. He was untiring in his efforts to Deity (2 vols., 1816); The Evidence of Christianity,
provide for schools and to further the erection of Derived from its Nature and Reception (1824); Ser-
churches, and had consecrated more than 200 new mons on the Principal Festivals of the Christian
"
churches by 1847. He was the leader of the evan- Church; to which are added three Sermons on Good
"
gelical party in the Church of England, and ear- Friday (1827); Four Sermons on Subjects Relating
nestly opposed to Romanism and the Oxford move- to the Christian
Ministry (1828); Christian Charity,
ment. His primacy covered the restoration of the its Obligations and Objects, with
Reference to the
Roman Catholic hierarchy to England, the period of Present State of Society, in a Series of Sermons ( 1841) ;

Essays and Reviews (q.v.), and the revival of the On Regeneration and Grace (1850); Practical Re-
synodical power of convocation . His publications in- flectionson Select Passages of the New Testament
clude commentaries on Matthew and Mark (London, (1859); and numerous occasional sermons.
1831), Luke (1832), John (1835), on Romans and BIBLIOGRAPHY: DNB, Iv. 168-170 (given reference* to scat-
I Corinthians (1843), II Corinthians, and Galatians, tering notices).

SUN AND SUN WORSHIP.

I. Among the Hebrews. 1. In General. Arabs and Nabateana (5 4).
Names and Titles ( 1). 2. Babylonia. 5. The Hittites.
General Conceptions ( 2). 3. Egypt. 6. India.
Worship ( 3). 4. Aramea, Syria, and Phenicia. 7. China and Japan.
Date of Introduction (f 4). Place Names (ft 1). 8. Western Indo-European Peoples.
[I. In Other Lands. Personal Names (ft 2). 9. Primitive Peoples.
Monumental Testimony (ft 3).

I. Among the Hebrews: In the Old Testament recurring times. The sun as a measurer of time
Lhe usual name for the sun is shemesh, a name which, naturally comes into connection with both the Day
A-ith various vocalization, appears in most of the and the Year (qq.v.; see also MOON; and TIME,
Semitic languages, as in Babylonian-Assyrian, BIBLICAL RECKONING OF). The arrangement for
Aramaic, Arabic, Phenician, and Pal- an intercalated month in later times reveals the
i. Names myrene (cf. the name of the god fact that the lunar year was made to square, at
and Titles. Shamash, BABYLONIA, VII., 2, 4, and least approximately, with the solar year, at any
see below, II., 2). The signification of rate in the later period of Jewish history.
:he word is unknown (Brown-Driver-Briggs, He- The Hebrew notions regarding the sun were those
)rew and English Lexicon, p. 1039, Boston, 1906). of the region in which Palestine was situated, and
The word is in the Hebrew prevailingly masculine,* of the period when Babylonian influence prevailed.
" "
3ut sometimes feminine (as in Gen. xv. 7), as is the The luminary was regarded as going forth in
\ramaic stiemsha; the Assyrian-Babylonian form the morning from his pavilion at the
s invariably masculine, and the Arabic (shams) is 2. General eastern end of the heaven (cf. the seals

ilways feminine (Albrecht, in ZATW, xv., 1895, p. Conceptions, in which the Babylonian Shamash is
524). Poetical names for the sun in Hebrew are represented as issuing from a gate, rep-
iammah (probably " the glowing one "; Job xxx. resented by posts, in W. H. Ward, Seal Cylin-
28), and hercs (Job ix. 7; meaning of the root of
ders of Western Asia, chap, xiii., Washington,
ihe word doubtful). In Gen. i. (where the sun is 1910) with the joy and confidence of a bride-
lot called shemesh, but is spoken of as the greater groom (Ps." xix. 5), while his setting is called an
" " in the West; cf. the cog-
>f the two great lights ") the purpose of the sun entering (i. e., of gates
"
s given as to rule the day," " to divide the light nate Babylonian thought, P. Jensen, Kosmologie
rom the darkness," and " to be for signs, and for der Babylonier, p. 9, Strasburg, 1890); and this in-
masons, and for days, and for years "; that is, the volved the idea of a subterranean course in the
unction of the sun was conceived as being to indi- night in order to be in his place of rising in the
cate morning, noon, and evening, the seasons of the morning (Ps. xix. 5-7; Eccles. i. 5, the latter a
roar, and therefore the religious festivals in their conception slightly more developed). An eclipse or
darkening of the sun was considered to be ominous
* An one of the signs constantly associated
and
interesting question is raised with reference to the of evil, is
"
;ender of shemesh in Gen. xxxvii. 9. The sun and the with the of the Lord (q.v.; cf. Job iii. 5; Isa.
noon and the eleven stars " [signs of the zodiac] represent
Day
xiii. 10; Joel ii. 10, iii. 15; Amos viii. 9; Matt.
facob, Rachel, and the eleven brethren of Joseph (cf. verse
.0). But the word for " moon " is invariably masculine, and xxiv. 29, and often). Interference with the orderly
t is argued that consequently themeth must here be feminine. course of the sun is conceived as within God's power
Dn the other hand, the order in verse is as above and the
tin corresponds in place to Jacob, the moon to
" (Job ix. 7), and its progress is reported to have been
thy mother,"
ind so on. Moreover, where Semitic Babylonian influence stayed to work salvation in battle for Israel (Josh.
>revails the male is the superior (note the insignificance of x. 12-13) oreven reversed as a sign to Hezekiah
Babylonian female deities after Sumerian influence had be- (the shadow of the dial or steps is reversed, II Kings
>ome decadent; see ASSYRIA, VII., ft 1), and in theology
xx. 9-11; the sun itself, Isa. xxxviii. 8). With the
he sun takes precedence of the moon.
Sun and Sun Worship THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOQ 188

exegesis of these passages the present article does and the Mihir Yost, 13, Am. ed. of SBE, iii., part
"
not deal further than to say that the attempt to 2, p. 122,speaks of the swift-horsed sun "). The
relieve the earlier passage of difficulty by calling idea of the chariot of the sun appears outside of
attention to its poetical character seems unneces- these sources and the Greek myths in Enoch, Ixxii.
sary because of the existence of the second and 5, Ixxiii. 2, Ixxv. 3, 4, 8, where sun, moon, and stars
much later passage, where not merely suspension are supplied with chariots; Baruch, Apocalypse,
of progress but actual reversal equivalent to forty vi.; and the Mandaeans placed the seven planets
in
minutes in time is stated as an actual fact (if the chariots. The conception of Yahweh or of the Son
" "
degrees be of a circumference). If the Hebrews of Man riding on the clouds (Ps. civ. 3; Dan. vii.
of Hezekiah's age and later could accept as historical 13) has no relationship to this idea. Further evi-
such an event, it is not necessary to have recourse dence of sun-worship in Israel is furnished by the
to the usual palliative explanations of a statement existence of sun-pillars (Hebr. hammanim, A. V.,
" "
arising so much nearer a primitive (and more credu- images/' R. V., sun-images "; for representa-
"
lous) age dealing with the stopping (apparently for tion of one to the lord, Baal-Hamman," cf. Ben-
twenty-four hours, cf. Josh. x. 13, last clause) of zinger, Archdologie, p. 183) which the reforming
the sun's progress. The effects of the sun's action kings are said to have destroyed (II Chron. xiv.
on the earth were, according to Hebrew belief, in 5, Hebr. verse 4, xxxiv. 4, 7) against which the
general, the production of crops (Deut. xxxiii. 14; exilic and
post-exilic prophets speaking in Isa. xvii.
II Sam. xxiii. 4) ; it was his also to give light (Gen. 8, xxvii. vi. 4, 6, and the priestly writer
9 and Ezek.
i.; Ecclos. xi. 7; Rev. vii. 16) and heat (Ps. xix. 6). (Lev. xxvi. 30) uttered their threats.* Other evi-
In respect to this last function it is noteworthy that dences adduced to prove the existence of worship
the references to the scorching heat of the sun, to of the sun among the Israelites do not bear exam-
what may be called its malign influence, are com- ination. Certainly the name of Samson, even though
paratively infrequent (Ps. cxxi. 6; Isa. iv. 6, xxv. it be derived from shemesh (which isnot altogether
4, xlix. 10; Jonah iv. 8;Rev. xvi. 8-9), though the sure) does not show this cult; it is not at all neces-
conception of its malevolence comes out frequently sary, nor is it the best explanation of the episode
in other lands, as in India (see below, II., 6) and in to regard it as a sun myth, since it is rather an accre-
Babylonia, where Nergal was a god of destruction tion of legend about a character whose exploits were
(see BABYLONIA, VII., 2, 4). The prevailing Bib- probably in fact just such as suit the heroic period
lical idea of the sun was that of its might and glory of a nation's development. And as little faith is to
as a luminary, and these naturally became the basis be put in the assumption that the horses and chariot
of poetical comparison for heroes and the faithful of fire by which Elijah was translated are those of
(Judges v. 31; II Sam. xxiii. 4; Ps. xix. 5-6; Cant, the sun. The much later practise of the Essenes
vi. 10); Yahweh is himself in metaphor called a (q.v.), as given in Josephus, War, II., viii. 5, of
sun (Ps. Ixxxiv. 11; Isa. Ix. 10), and his healing directing their worship toward the sun instead of
grace is in the same manner compared with a sun toward Jerusalem is hardly sufficient, in view of the
of righteousness (Mai. iv. 2). The passage in Isa. general Pharisaic character of their beliefs and cus-
xxiv. 23 is noteworthy the glory of the restored toms, to convict them of following the cult of the
Zion and Jerusalem is to be so great that even the sun. The Mandsean practises were not Jewish but
sun in his brightness will be abashed (there does Babylonian in origin. Dr. Briggs, in his commen-
not seem any basis for the quite common exegesis tary on Psalms (vol i., New York, 1906), sees in the
of the passage which regards the sun and moon first part of Ps. xix. a hymn to the sun.
here as demonic powers which are put away, e.g., All indications point to a late date for the impor-
W. von Baudissin, in Hauck-Herzog, RE, xviii. 519, tation of this cult into Israel, and also to its deriva-
and Semitische Studien, i. 118 sqq., Leipsic, 1876). tion from the peoples in the immediate environ-
The evidence for the worship of the sun among ment, and (less likely) from Assyria. It is true that
Israelites is limited and II Kings xxiii. 11
late. the Chronicles (II Chron. xiv. 3) reports that Asa
records the destruction of the chariots and removal suppressed this worship; but the parallel and earlier
of the horses of the sun from the Tem- passage in I Kings xv. omits mention
3. Worship, pie at Jerusalem. Ezek. viii. 16 de- 4. Date of of the pillars, though it specifies mi-
scribes a vision of the prophet in which Introduc- nutely the anti-idolatrous activities of
he saw twenty-five men at the door of the Temple tion. that king. The same situation is ra-
"
worshiping the sun in the East and putting the peated with reference to Josiah (II
"
branch to their nose (i.e., using a branch as sym- Chron. xxxiv. 4, 7; cf. II Kings xxiii.). So that
bolic of the productive powers of the sun; cf. J. G. apparently the earliest mention of the sun-pillars
Frazer, Golden Bough, passim, 3 vols., London, is found in Ezekiel, and this squares with the other

1900; tree-worship often combines with the cult of data already examined. The mention of the horses
the sun). With respect to the chariot and horses of and chariot of the sun, however, carries this feature
the sun the most obvious source is Babylon (see be-
* The word for " sun-pillar " in these
low, II., and cf. Jensen, Kosmologie, ut sup., pp. 108 passages is the same
as that found in an inscription on an altar at Palmyra and
sqq.; Schrader, KAT, p. 368). It is hardly likely now in the Aahmolean Museum at Oxford, England (D. Q.
that so early as this the influence of the Persians is Hogarth, Authority and Archcaoloffv, pp. 135, 139, London,
to be seen (cf. F. Spiegel, Eraniache AUerthufM- 1890), and in the name Baal-Hamman, who was a sun-deity
of Carthage, as is shown by a votive pillar and by inscriptions
kunde, ii. 66 sqq., Leipsic, 1873; for references to (W. Qesenius, Scriptura linyucBQue Phoenicia monument*,
the Persian sacred horses cf. Herodotus, i. 189, vii. table 21, Leipsio, 1807). Other traces of this name are quite
55, viii. 115; Xenophon, Cyropasdia, VIII., iii. 12; frequent in Aramean environment.
189 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Sun and Son Worship

back of the time of Josiah. It must be borne in mind hawk, eagle- or hawk-headed figures of gods, the
that while such place-names as Beth-shemesh, Har- winged horse, the scarab, possibly the swastika.
heres, Timnath-heres, and Heres (see below, II., 4, J When the figure takes the human form, it
usually
I) favor the supposition that the worship of the sun appears as vigorous and youthful, with golden hair
had loci there, it does not followthat during Israel- and often golden horns, while a rayed crown or rays
itic times this cult was followed. Biblical place- of light issuing from his body serve in other cases
names in Palestine in general date back to pre- to identify him. The benefactions attributed to him,
Hebraic times, and the worship at those places, if apart from the obvious ones of light and heat, are
worship there was, was Canaanitic. The probable quite commonly those of life and fertility; and in
date of the introduction of such worship as is im- lands as disassociated as Semitic Syria and Dravidian
plied in the horses and chariot of the sun (II Kings India he is connected with wells and springs (possi-
xxiii. 11) and the vision of Ezekiel may perhaps be bly in a way similar to the popular occidental super-
" "
given as the reign of Manasseh (q.v.), who was a stition which speaks of the sun as drawing water
contemporary of the vigorous and aggressive Esar- when its oblique rays are seen shining in the distance
haddon and Asshurbanipal. It is a priori probable through rifts in the clouds; cf. for this relationship
that a king with so decided heathen tendencies as with water, W. H. Ward in AJT, ii., 1898, pp. 116-
Manasseh would adopt a cult which was so popular 118). The same thing occurs in symbolism when,
as the cult of the sun was in the neighboring lands from the symbolic disk, there emanate not only rays
(see below, II., 3) and in Assyria, especially as of light (indicated by straight divergent lines) but
his policy was pro-Assyrian and not pro-Egyptian. also streams of water (indicated by parallel wavy
And there are indications of a wide-spread distrust lines. A representation of Shamash with streams
of thepower of Yahweh in the days of the declining of water issuing from his body is in A. Jeremias,

kingdom, just before the exile, which would favor Das Alte Testament im Lichte des alien Orients, p.
this period. Ill, Leipsic, 1906; that the streams represent water
II. In Other Lands. 1. In General: That, if and not light is proved by the fish swimming in
not in temperate, yet in tropical or sub-tropical re- them). In accordance with this conception, the
gions the sun should from primitive times be an flowers and incense offered to him are sometimes
object of worship is no occasion for wonder. The thrown into a stream. His course in the heavens
feelings of awe which manifested themselves in early is conceived as made onfoot (as occasionally in
ages were only heightened as man's capacity for India), on horseback, in a chariot, or in a boat, the
increased recognition, as time went on and experi- form of representation depending upon the cos-
ences enlarged, of the influence of the sun on the mological notions of the different peoples. As a
earth and its contributions to the well-being of man. deity who in his daily journey passes over the earth
So that in some form, explicit or implicit, either as and looks down upon the deeds of men, it is not
itself a divinity, or as the seat of deity, or as in strange that he should be now the eye of Ouranos
some other way related to the gods, in probably or Varuna (Heaven) who sees all and reports to
every inhabited land the sun has received homage, that exalted deity, or again that he should be the
influenced thought, and contributed to human de- judge of men and gods, or once more (as pure light)
velopment. Even in architectural matters it has the champion of truth and an agent in ethical up-
had much to say, controlling the orientation of rightness. Still further, occasionally the sun ap-
structures down into late Christian times, so that pears as a culture deity, conceived as giving laws
cathedrals often stand with their altars so placed to men, leading the advances of civilization, and,
that worship is directed to the East, the place of on the reverse side, punishing those who break the
the rising sun. Some nations have found the sun's laws of gods and men. And, once more, it ought
power and significance too great and his activities not to surprise that the sun may have two opposing
too varied to be expressed by homage to a single aspects, that he may be regarded as kindly and as
deity, and numerous sun-gods were imagined, and malign, so that in Babylonia (see below) he is both
to each was given his own cult and worship. Shamash and Nergal, and that in India the Aryans
A fundamental law in religious psychology is that could, while in the temperate land of the five rivers,
the human mind works out into similar forms in sing gloriously in his praise and in central and south-
"
different countries the same or similar conceptions ern India affirm yon burning sun is death."
dealing with similar material. Hence, it is not sur- 2. Babylonia: In this land, early and late, sun-

prising that the symbols for the sun are so few yet gods were numerous, though the number tended
so universal. Thus the disk or circle, with or with- ever to decrease. Chief among these was Shamash,
out wings, sometimes with rays (these rays may be who of this class of deities figures most frequently
outside the disk or on the face of the disk; for ex- in inscriptions and on seals. He is the successor of
amples of both cf A. J, Evans, in Journal of Hellenic
.
or identical with the Sumerian Utu, whose principal
Studies, xxi., 1901, pp. 108, 161); again it is sur- shrines were at Larsa and Sippara
(see BABYLONIA,
mounted by a human figure, and often occurs with IV., 4, 11, VII., 2, a very excellent repro-
4;
the accompaniments of serpents (see SERPENT IN duction of the figure and inscription of the Sippara
WORSHIP, etc., IV., } 1), is the almost universal Shamash, with the sun's disk and light rays and
symbol.* Other common symbols are the eagle or water streams, is given in R. W. Rogers, Religion of
Babylonia and Assyria, p. 84, New York, 1908). At
* Several of these
symbols are reproduced on a single Sippara there were horses and a chariot sacred to
page in J. B. Deane, Worship of the Serpent, p. 51, London, him, with which were associated a large number
1833; for a Phenician example of. Beniinger, Archtologie,
p. 180. (140 in one list) of sacred objects, and to the chariot
Bun and Sun Worship THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 140

sacrifices were offered (in one case of a white sheep; Egyptians, p. 75, New York, 1807), a symbol largely
cf. DB, iv. 629).With this should be connected employed was the obelisk, and pyramids and mas-
possibly the horses and chariot of the sun mentioned tabas (truncated pyramids) served the same pur-
in II Kings xxiii. 11 (ut sup., I., 3). But the wor- pose. The great center of sun-worship
was On (q.v.),
ship of Shamash was not confined to these places. the Greek Heliopolis and the Hebrew Beth-shemesh;
He represents the beneficent power of the sun and there is the sacred spring connected with the Holy
the ethical side of life. He was portrayed on the Family, as a resting-place on their flight into Egypt,
monuments and seals in two postures, sitting and stillknown as " the spring of the sun." In Egypt
standing, the latter including his posture as he is the great importance of the Nile led to the concep-
represented as emerging from the gates of day (cf . tion that the gods made their journeys on boats
W. H. Ward, Seal Cylinders of Western Asia, Wash- over the Nile of the heaven, and the solar deity was
" "
ington, 1010; H. Gressmann, AUorientalische Texte supposed to have two, the" Madet boat for the
"
und Bilder,ii. 12, cf. p. 57, Tubingen, 1900). Some- morning and the Sektet boat for the afternoon
times he journeys in a boat, and once is figured as or night, and these figure largely on the monuments.
stepping on a human-headed bull. He wears a The sun-god most noted of all, and indeed the
tiara, sometimes rayed, and rays of light and some- chief deity of Egypt, was Ra, portrayed as a h:iwk-
times streams of water proceed from his shoulders headed man, or as a hawk, and he wears a disk en-
or other parts of his body. He carries a serrated circled by the urseus or the serpent Khut. In his
sword, or a club, or both, and occasionally a battle journeys on his boats the course was kept by nu-
ax. He is spoken of in the inscriptions as supreme merous other gods. His nightly travel involved a
judge, avoucher of truth, giver of oracles, bestower conflict with the serpent Apcpi, and the story of
of life and health. The metal particularly associated the first conflict quite closely parallels that of the
with him was gold, as silver was with Sin, the moon- conflict of Marduk with Tiamat (see BABYLONIA,
god. In the course of history this deity became so VII., 3, 4), excepting the creation of the firmament
important that he absorbed into his own personal- out of Tiamat's split corpse. As in Japan, the early
ity the sun-gods of minor cities. The worshiper dynasty claimed descent from the sun. In the proc-
often brings a goat or an antelope as a sacrifice. ess of amalgamation of deities so noteworthy in
Some noble hymns to him are extant (cf. M. Jas- Egypt, Ra became combined with various other
trow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, Boston, sun-gods, whose names he took. Apparently he
1808; Germ, ed., issued in parts, Giessen, 1002 had different names in the various parts of his daily
"
sqq.). His consort Aa often appears, sometimes as course: O thou who art Ra when thou risest and
intercessor. While Marduk appears as a sun-god, Temu when thou scttest " ..." I am Khopora
his part in this sphere is unimportant. Another in the morning, Ra at noonday, and Temu in the
"
deity related to this luminary was Ninib, associated evening (E. A. W.
Budge, Gods of the Egyptians,
especially with the sun of early morning and of i. For hymns of praise to
335, 352, London, 1904).
spring, a god of fertility and the guardian of boun- him cf. Budge, ut sup pp. 335-348, and Wiede-
,

daries, as well as a war-deity. In the case of Ninib, mann, ut sup., pp. 40-42, 44-51, 111-118, 136.
as of Shamash, the process of coalescence with other Myths concerning him are numerous, the most
gods was protracted, so that in his person were famous being that of Isis and the serpent (see
summed up many early local gods of the field, in NAMES, I., 1). Hathor was originally the female
later theology regarded as his manifestations. Ner- counterpart of Ra, and in the religious texts wears
gal was specifically the sun of high noon and of sum- on her head horns and the solar disk. She was also
mer, hence the sun which brought destroying heat, connected with the star Sothis (Sirius), " the second
fever, pestilence, and death, therefore belonging sun in heaven." Bast was identified with Rat (the
also to the deities of the nether world. Associated feminine form of Ra), and symbolizes the heat of
with the sun as fire was Girru, known in Assyria early and late summer. Of Horns it is difficult to
principally asNusku; testimonies to him are derived speak, since one can not say how many doities of
mainly from the magical texts, a fact which shows that name there were. Over twenty forms of Horus
what was regarded as his chief concern. In the are noted by Budge. In some of these, or, to ex-
Assyrian Asshur there was originally seen a solar press it in another way, in some of his phases Horus

deity, but his position at the head of the pantheon was solar, and appears both as the rising and as the
of the warlike Assyrians led to the entire obscura- midday sun, often wearing in the texts the solar,
tion of this significance. Nevertheless, this origin disk. He was also represented in the more philo-
is perhaps to be discerned in his symbol, the disk, sophic texts as one of the chief forms of Ra, is given
winged and surmounted by the figure of a warrior a hawk's head, and is reported as transforming
discharging an arrow (remember the Greek figure himself into the winged disk with the urams. His
of the rays of Apollo shooting his arrows, in the first temples were apparently in all parts of the coun-
book of the II ad). For Tammuz as a solar deity try. Next to Ra is Amen often united with Ra
see the article on the subject. It may be added that as Amen-Ra, whose attributes he possesses, two
" "
Semitic solar deities seem in large part to have hymns speaking rays (shining) on all faces
of his
" "
gained the ascendency over Sumerian lunar gods, and of hissailing over the sky in peace (Budge,
Sin being the one marked exception. ut sup., ii. 5, 7); as a crown he wears horns and
8. Sfjrpt: It is demonstrable that in this coun- the double disk. Similarly he is lord of the Sektet
try worship of the sun is prehistoric. Besides the boat and is said to shine in the eastern and the
disk, plain and winged (for a fine example of the western horizons. Apparently, however, it was
latter cf* A. Wiedemann, Religion oj the Ancient only by this union with Ra that he was associated
141 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Sun and Sun Worship

with the sun, and by it he absorbed " all the attri- not a star such as Venus; but the probability is
butes of Ra and of every other ancient form of the that a star is meant. The cromlechs of Syria are
"
sun-god (Budge, ii. 11). Thus he became in the possibly to be connected with sun-worship. One
later empire the mightiest of the gods of the land. reason for this is that the Dravidians still employ
Aten ( = disk of the sun) is noteworthy because of these monuments in that cult, while some of these
the attempt of Amenophis IV. (1375-58 according places are used in worship of the phallus with rites
to Breasted, History of the Ancient Egyptians, p. that differ hardly at all in many particulars from
428, New York, 1908; for an account of the at- those of the sun (cf. C. R. Condor, Heth and Moab,
tempt itself cf. the same author, pp. 264 sqq.), pp. 218-219, London, 1883), and connections of sun
"
the heretic king," to create a monotheism by ma- and phallic worship are not difficult to find.
king the worship of Aten dominant in the land. To these lines of evidence is to be added for this
Conflict with the priests of Thebes caused him to region the formation of personal names. Quite
build his capital at Tell Amarna, and the revolution prominent in this relation is the name of Shamash
at his death, with the covering up of a part of the (however it was vocalized). Thus
2> Perional
records, is responsible for the existence of the fa- Name* there may be adduced from Phenicia
'
mous Amarna Tablets (q.v.). This deity is note- Adon-Shmsh, 'bd-Shmsh (Greek Hdio-
worthy for the portrayal of him in this reign as a doros, borne by a Phenician in a Greek environ-
disk the rays from which terminate in hands (sym- ment, CIS, no. 117, 2; the Greek equivalent for
bolizing the blessings he bestows), and in some Shamash is found in a Beirut inscription Kronou
cases two of the hands hold out the ankh (the sign Heliou bomos cf. Ceccaldi, Revue archeologique,
of life) to Amenophis and his consort, the handle xxiii., 1872, pp. 253-256). Yet it is noteworthy
being toward the recipients (cf. Budge, ut sup., that actual worship of Shamash under that name
vol. ii., chap. iv.). Solar deities were doubtless nu- does not appear in Phenicia, so far as monumental
merous in Egypt, especially local gods, such as the evidence goes; it is inconceivable, however, that
ancient Menthu, later Menthu-Ra and Her-shef, Phenicians did not know its significance. The
god of HcTaklcopolis, who was granted many of fragments of Sanchuniathon (q.v.; in Eusebius,
the attributes of Ra. Pr&paratio Evangelica, Eng. transl., pp. 37 sqq.,
4. Aramea, Syria, and Phenioia: In the region Oxford, 1903) report sun-worship among the Phe-
thus designated the indications of sun-worship are nicians, and this author traces the cult back to the
" "
numerous and persistent. In the Canaanitic por- earliest men, who called him Baal of Heaven
tions the place names have some significance, those (ib., p. 39). From Edessa come the names 'math-
"
who deny this fact not having taken Shmsh, maid of Shamash," Br~Shmsh, " son of
Plaoe " "
II fully into account the very early habit Shamash," 'bd-Shmsh, servant of Shamash
of indicating the kind of sanctity in- (Sachau, in ZDMG, xxxvi., 3882, pp. 145 sqq.,
hering in a place by the name attached to it. The 163; Doctrina Addai, ed. Phillips, p. 39, London,
names are En-shemesh, " fountain of Shemesh " 1876, Eng. transl. in ANF, viii. 663). Attention
"
or of the sun," Josh. xv. 7, xviii. 17; Ir-shemesh, has frequently been called in this work to the real
" " "
city of Shemesh," Josh. xix. 41; cf. Isa. xix. 18; significance of names into which servant of and
" " " " " " "
Beth-shemesh, house or temple or city of maid-servant of enter as elements, they being
"
Shemesh," Josh. xxi. 16; Her-heres, mount of regarded as proofs of the worship in the region of
"
the sun," Judges i. 35; Timnath-heres, territory the deity whose name forms the second element in
11
of the sun, Judges ii. 9; and possibly the Kir- the compound. At the same time this may not al-
hores of Jer. xlviii. 36, with which, however, cf. the ways be assumed as evidence of worship contem-
Kir-hareseth or -hereseth or -hares of II Kings iii. poraneous with the person bearing the name, since
25; Isa. xvi. 7, 11; and Jer. xlviii. 31. It will be nomenclature often persists after the recognition
noticed that these names occur mainly in connec- of its significance is lost. From Emesa, also from
tion with the early history of Israel and as the Maglula near Baalbek and from Palmyra, comes
names which the places had (presumably) when the name in Greek form Samsigeramos (CIG, 4511;
the Hebrews entered the land. The easiest expla- attested also by Photius, Bibliotheca, 181; S. A.
nation and the most likely is that the names indi- Cook, Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions, Cambridge,
cate the presence of sanctuaries dedicated to the 1898; M. Lidzbarski, Ephemeris fiir semitische Epi-
sun.' Other secondary and general evidences of this graphik, Giessen, 1906). Strabo (XVI., ii. 10-11)
cult are the use of the disk, especially on coins, both mentions a Samsikeraraos as an officer in Emesa
winged and plain, and particularly the disk in a whose origin (?) was in Apamea; and Josephus
crescent. In one case a coin of Baalbek has the sun (Ant., XVIII., v. 4) knows of a king of Emesa bear-
mounted on a chariot, and in other instances he is ing that name; while a Baalbek Latin inscription
on a steed (cf. e.g., L. Heuzey, in Comptes rendus also contains it (CIL, iii. 14387 a). From Palmyra
de I'academie des inscriptions, 1902, pp. 190-200). come Br-Shmsh, Tym-Shmsh 'bd-Shmsh), while
(
" "
This does not take into account the existence of inscriptions containing to Shmsh are frequent
the disk in inscriptions or monuments left by in- (cf. Cook and Lidzbarski, ut sup.); and Klzyr-
vaders, such as that of Rameses II. at Nahr al- Shmah and Shmsh-'dri are found (CIS, nos. 87, 97).
Kalb, nor the many coins of late times which bear Baudissin (Hauck-Herzog, RE, xviii. 507) is in-
the disk, though in many cases these are evidential. clined to accept the ending sh' as an abbreviation
It has been supposed that possibly the rayed star for the Aramaic form of the word shemesh, and so
so frequently seen above the crescent in Syrian to increase greatly the volume of testimony; but
monumental remains and coins represents the sun, the hypothesis can not be said to be proved.
SUB and Sun Worship THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG 149

Clermont-Ganneau (Archives des missions scien- Nasr (" eagle "), evidently referring to the rising
3d series, xi. 182, no. 23, Paris,
tifiques et litteraires, and the setting sun. The same connection so com-
1885) describes the bronze head of a statue with mon in Egypt is confirmatory, not evidential. A
be ad-
rayed crown from Tripoli (cf. Gress- large number of additional witnesses might
8 j- _
mann u* sup-* u. 74), and numerous duced from the region south of Hermon and east
mftntal* '

of the Jordan, but most of them would be but sup-

Testimony,* evidences of the same sort might
be
In the
adduced. Julian (Oratio, iv.) speaks of plementary to the testimony already cited.
Edessa as long the sacred territory of the sun. At Amarna Tablets Akizzi of Katna near Emesa speaks
Emesa honey was offered in sacrifice to the same of Shamash as the God of his fathers; the Senjirli
deity (Athenseus, xv., emended text). One of the and Nerab inscriptions name Shamash apparently
deities of this city was Elagabalus, who became a as one among a number of deities; Shamash was
solar god (he was perhaps a god of the hill-top), and worshiped at Gebal (Amarna Tablets, nos. 87, 65
his namesake the Roman emperor (see ELAGABA- in Winckler's numbering). There was an Amoritic
"
LUS) endeavored to force his cult upon the empire deity Sharebu, heat/' who is perhaps to be con-
as the sole legitimate worship (cf J. H, Mordtmann,
. nected with the sun (Schrader, KAT, p. 415); Ner-
in ZDMG, xxxi., 1877, pp. 91-99); a conical stone gal is mentioned on a Canaanitic seal cylinder at
stood in the temple of this deity, and this, once Taanach, probably as the name for a local sun-god
more, shows that between sun-worship and the (E. Sellin, Tett Ta'annek, pp. 27, 105, Vienna, 1904),
phallic cult there were interconnections. The coins and is mentioned also in the Amarna Tablets, nos.
of Emesa often bear the image of a deity with rayed 13, 25, 37. The Egyptian deity Amon-Ra was
crown. For Palmyra the fact of the existence of known in North Syria and was identified with
the cult is so well-known as hardly to need addi- Shamash at Gebal. One of the eight temples of
tional testimony. While Shmsh (however vocal- Gaza was dedicated to the sun.
ized) is the predominant object of worship, other From ancient testimony like that of Servius (an
deities there were brought into relations with the annotator of Vergil's JSneid, on i. 729) there is
sun; coins of the city bear the usual head with raised the presumption that in this region where the
rayed crown, and monolingual and bilingual in- name Baal is used of a deity, the sun
4. Arab* j s me ant.
scriptions add further witness. The worship of It has already appeared
Shamash appears to have been very ancient. One and Naba- that the title of the
teaana.
sun-god varied,
"
deity known as Mlkb'l (" Baal is king ?) is identi- now appearing as Bel or Baal, Greek
"
fied as Sol on an altar inscription in Rome, and the Despoils; now as Melek or King," Greek Basileus,
solar eagle is present (Lidzbarski, ut sup., p. 477, and later as Mar, Syrian for " Lord." Not infre-
"
no. 2). The predilection for solar deities in this quently he received also the title savior," espe-
region is perhaps in this city most strongly repre- cially when he was regarded as a deity of healing.
sented, as is attested by the fact that the deity Even Saturn was blended with this cult in late Ro-
Yrhb'l (" Moon is lord "; cf. yareah as a name for man times. The spread of the Mithra cult only em-
the moon in MOON, HEBREW CONCEPTIONS OF, 1) phasized the general tendency, for as a solar god
was identified with the sun (CIL, iii. 108), and a he gained recognition, although the myth distin-
relief of this god wears the rayed crown of a solar guished him from the sun and made him the sub-
deity (Ronzevalle, in Comptes rendus de V academic duer of that luminary and the master assigning
des inscriptions, 1903, pp. 276 sqq.). At Baalbek tasks to it. Even Tammuz (q v.) at Byblos, be-
the evidences of sun-worship, outside of those be- came a sun-deity (E. Hcnun, Mission de Phenirit,
longing to the Roman imperial age, are well known; plate xxxii. 2, Paris, 1864; Macrobius, Saturnalia,
"
among these are many evidences of Egyptian in- I., xxi. 1, Adonis is surely the sun "). As bearing
fluence on the art side at least, the disk with uraus on the later Nabatasan conceptions it may be re-
appearing in the reliefs; there are also traces of membered that in Arabia Shams was feminine, and
Phenician influence. The Greek name Heliopolis is the testimony of proper names attests the fact of
indicative of the controlling worship of the place, worship. Aramaic names among the Nabataeans
and the bronzes and other art objects found there (q.v.), such as Shmsh-grm (see above, 2), do not
show both the rayed crown and gilding. The coins carry conclusive weight, because of the borrowing
often carry this same crown together with an eagle, of language which characterized the Nabataeans.
while the inscription CIL, iii. 14386U mentions the Yet much might be said for the original Nabatsean
sun. Even Balanios, originally perhaps a form of origin of this name. Strabo (XVI., iii. 26) reports
Hadad (see RIMMON) came to be accepted as solar. that these people had altars to the sun on their
Farther east, at Hierapolis on the Euphrates, Lucian houses, and the tendency is to see the sun in Dusares
(Dea Syria, 34) reports a temple in which was a (see NABAMANS, II., { 3; cf. J. H. Mordtmann, in
throne for the sun-god, but no image of him; and ZDMQ, xxix., 1875, pp. 99-106), especially as the
from a place called Nizib to the north comes a epithet "invincible" so common in association
bronze eagle which bears the inscription Helios (R. with solar deities is applied to him. This solar char-
Dussaud, Notes de mythologie syrienne, Paris, 1903) acter may, however, have been acquired after he
the connection of the eagle with the sun-god, came to Aramean soil, for the indications are plain
which has been assumed in the foregoing, is made that he was originally a god of fertility (Lidz-
certain for the Semitic region by the very numerous barski, Ephemeris, ut sup., p. 262).
occasions in which they are brought together, by 5. The HittitM: In the present state of limited
the explicit identification just noted, and by the knowledge of the Hittites reserve respecting their
Arabian conception of an eastern and a western religious ideas is eminently becoming From the
148 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Sun and Bun Worship

inscription of Rameses II. giving the account of the munificence. In the Brahmanas the sun has the
treaty with the Hittite King Khetaaira (cf. W. M. power to draw forth and out a person's vitality and
Mtlller, Der Bttndnisvertrag Ramses II. und des Che- to cause his death; and so he is regarded often as
titerk&nigs, Berlin, 1904; W. H. Ward, Seals, etc., malignant (Satapatha Brahmana, II., iii. 3, 7,
ut sup., pp. 257 sqq.), it is clear that the solar disk Eng. transl., SEE, American ed., ix. 343). As the
was employed among the Hittites (this is abundant- priesthood developed its power, the solar gods, like
ly evident also from other remains), and there are the others, lost much of their divinity in the thor-
"
references to a sun-god localized as god of Are- ough anthropomorphization they underwent. Yet
"
nena," but also universalized as lord of all lands." in the epics Surya retains much of his old grandeur
The quite numerous seals reveal the worship of and under Hinduism regained much of his eminence
Shamash (or his Hittite equivalent; these seals show as creator, furnishing the rain which refreshes the
this deity in attitudes characteristically Babylo- earth and so acting as the provident father of his
nian), as well as of a deity similar to Nergal. The family. So in the Bhagavad Oita (III., iii. 36 sqq.)
entire question of borrowing is here on the carpet, occurs a hymn where are chanted the 108 names of
priority between native conceptions and the accept- the sun, while the poet thinks " that in all the seven
ance of Babylonian-Assyrian gods being hard to worlds and all the 6raAma-worlds there is nothing
decide (J. Garstang, Land of the Hittites, p. 322, superior to the sun." Among the Hindu sects nat-
London, 1010). The series of art-remains plainly urally there are some devoted particularly to the
influenced by Egyptian ideas do not here come into sun; and it is curious that a feature found in Egypt
consideration. and elsewhere repeats itself here, since some sects
6. India: A distinct change is to be perceived in direct their worship to the sun of the morning, others
passing from the immediately Semitic environment. to that of noon, and still others to the evening sun,
The emphasis upon the sun as an object of worship while some unite all in their worship as offered to a
is lost, and other objects fairly divide uith him the triad or trinity. The Sauras of southern India are
attention of devotees (only about thirty of the an existing sect of this sort. In the festivals the
1,028 hymns of the Rig Veda are to the sun-deities). second of the four New Year's days is sacred to
In India, the land of many races and of different Agni or Surya, and Feb. 4th to the sun. Some of the
grades of civilization contemporaneously present, finest temples in India tell of the ardor of his wor-
interesting features are to be discerned, one of which shipers. For early hymns to solar deities cf .
Hop-
is that in the Vedas there can be traced the advance kins, ut sup., pp. 17-18, 48-50, the translations
of the Aryan invaders as they enter the land from noted at vol. ii., pp. 249-250 of this work, and R. W.
the northwest and advance into central and south- Frazer, Literary History of India, pp 49-50 (New
ern India. The difference in the conception of the York, 1898).
sun in the Big Veda and in the Atharva Veda is 7. Ohina and Japan The sun in China is not
:

noteworthy; in the former the sun is the quickener marked out for especial distinction in worship. The
and giver of life, in the latter he becomes deadly sacrifices to him belong not in the first or highest
and the cause of death (E. W. Hopkins, Religions grade into which cultic offerings are divided, but
of India, p. 44, Boston, 1895). In early times and in the middle or second grade. In Peking he has
under favoring environment Surya, the principal a large walled park with open altar terrace outside
Vedic deity, son of Aurora, was " the shining god, the East Gate, where the especial sacrifices by the
"
the red ball in the sky (Hopkins, ut sup., pp. 40- emperor or his representative arc offered in the mid-
"
41). He is also called Savitar, the quickener or dle of spring. In Japan in the Shinto pantheon (see
generator," and comes later to be identified with JAPAN, II., 1) the sun-goddess Amaterasu-O-Mi-
"
the local Brahmanic deity Bhaga and \\ith Pushan, Karai (or Amaterasu no Ohc-Kami, Heaven-shi-
while in Hinduism he appears as Vishnu, \v ho trav- ning-grcat-Deity "; or, to use the now common Chi-
ersed the dome of heaven in three strides, thus \\ in- nese equivalent of her name, Tien-shc-dai-yin) is
"
ning the worlds for the gods, \\ho holds the solar chief, bears the title ruler of heaven," and is said
disk as his emblem, and has the eagle-man as his to be unrivaled in dignity. It must not be under-
companion. In the earlier time this deity was felt stood from these expressions that there is any lord-
as a stimulating force, author of birth, giver of life ship over the other deities, nor is the idea quite that
even to the gods, and donor of wealth. He drives of the worshiper in Egypt, who in addressing any
across heaven with his seven steeds, and notes in his one deity heaped up phrases of adoration as if no
course all that passes. Sometimes again he is tho other deity existed. The goddess had her supposed
"
eye of Varuna (Ouranos, Heaven "), the creation sphere of influence, however, and her worship is his-
of Mithra and Varuna. A little farther on in time torically perhaps the most important in the island
the advance of the priestly conception is seen, and empire. The mythology of the Japanese is in spots
"
the statement is made that he is the priest's peculiarly crude and repulsive, to say nothing of its
" " Thus in the theogony the
priest," the arranger of sacrifice (Rig Veda, v. occasional obscenity.
81), and in later time his glory was as the divider origin of Amaterasu is traced to the ablutions of the
of time for the sacrifice. As Pushan the bucolic primitive creation deity Izanagi, who made the
11 "
deity he was bestower of a prosperity in which the descent into hell to see his dead consort. This
rural or pastoral ideas are predominant, though compelled ceremonial purification on his return, and
those of the warrior or priest are to be seen inva- in his ablutions as he discarded garments and
ding. The later sun-god is Vishnu, whose hymns washed away filth, these became deities of various
in the earliest collection are few, celebrating his grades, and the sun-goddess took form from the
three strides, his anchoring of the earth, and his washings of his left eye (those from his right eye
 Sun and Sun Worship
THE NEW 8GHAFF-HERZOQ 144

producing the moon-god). Native conceptions vary But the Teutonic pantheon as reflected in the Eddas
from the animistic, which induce worship of the and sagas seems to contain no sun-deity unless Balder
physical sun (still to be seen), to the anthropomor- be one. That he was a light-god is clear, but that he
phic which regards her as a deity whose sphere of was solar is disputed.
control centers in the sun. She figures as a benefi- 0. Primitive Peoples : In the barbarous stage of
cent goddess whose chief care is the welfare of man- civilization, as well as among the more advanced
land, hi the exercise of this providing them with stages, the cult of the sun is often registered by sym-
seeds and showing them how to cultivate rice. The bolic acts which, though they do not always involve
mirror is her emblem, and as such is in itself an ob- actual worship, yet are indicative of a high degree
ject of reverence and worship, with ceremonies pe- of reverence. Such are the Sioux customs of look-
culiar to itself. The sun crow, a fabulous creation, ing toward the sun when they smoke the ceremonial
is her sacred bird and messenger (cf . the eagle-hawk pipe and of presenting to him the calumet; that of
of the Egyptian-Semitic-Greck deities and the ravens the Natchez of smoking toward the cast at sunrise,
of Wotan or Odin) For a prayer to this deity offered
. and that of burial of the dead facing the east as
in 870 A.D. cf. W. G. Ashton, Shinto, pp. 125-127 practised by Ainus, Guarayos, Yunanas, and Aus-
(London, 1905). The idea of different sun-gods for tralians. Sometimes the evidence demonstrates
different parts of the day reappears in Japan. worship, as is the case among many American Indian
Waka-hirume (" young-sun-female ") is the morning tribes which perpetuate the sun-danco, an annual
sun, as is also Ho-no-akari, while Ho-no-susori is the ceremony performed during the first week of July.
noon sun and Honowori the evening sun. Other In this ceremony the sun's benefactions are remem-
mythical sun-gods are known, as Nigi-haya-hi bered and he is praised as the giver of life to man
(" gentle-swift-sun "), and Hiruko, the first-born of and its supporter, the donor of corn and the one
Icanagi and Izanami. who makes it grow', and also as giving success in
8. Western Indo-European People*: Among the the hunt. At that time prayers are offered for con-
Aryan nations of the West the cult of the sun takes tinuation of his gifts and sacrifices are made to him.
a relatively unimportant place. The Greeks and Primitive peoples often registered thoir adoration
Romans, it is true, were devoted to Apollo. But the of the sun by cruel rites, especially by human sacri-
mature form of this deity is the result of a long fice. In Central and South America, the first-horn
period of development, as is manifest from the di- was usually the sacrifice to the sun (t-f. J. G. Frazor,
verse epithets and the variant rites employed in his Golden Bough, ii. 52 sqq., London, 1900; where
worship. Amalgamation with other gods is evident, cases are collected). In the Aztec region one of tho
and that solar deities were among these is unques- great deities of the official cult was the sun-god
tionable. Helios (Latin, Sol) and Apollo were orig- Ometecutli (" twice lord," i.e., supreme lord), and
inally distinct (cf L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek
. a sort of derivative was Uitzilopochtli, tho sun of
States, iv. 136 sqq., Oxford, 1907), and the merging spring, summer, and autumn, whose messenger was
of the two was completed only by the Romans of the humming bird. He was beloved, the people
imperial times, so that not until the Christian era called themselves his children, and they delighted
was Apollo made to ride in the chariot of the sun, in praising his qualities of kindness and his henof ac-
and apparently not till the Roman period in Greek tions. His worship was performed eight times each
history did he receive the rayed crown. The iden- twenty-four hours, conducted by courses of priests.
tification of Helios and Apollo at the end of the At three annual festivals his glory was celebrated,
second Christian century is explicitly attested by in May, August, and December. At the last was
Pausanias (VII., xxiii. 8; Frazer's transl., i. 364, performed one of the rites which scidptounded the
London, 1898), but how much earlier this had come early RomanCatholic missionaries -the making of
about is uncertain. Among the gods who went into an image of the sun-god in dough mixed with the
the composition of Apollo is a Cretan deity figured blood of slaughtered infants, piercing it with an
with rays streaming from his shoulders much like arrow (to typify the death of the fading sun), and
those of the Babylonian Shamash (ut sup., II., 2; then eating it in sacramental fashion. The winter
cf. A. J. Evans, in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxi., sun, Tezcatlipoca, brother of Uitzilopochtli, was
1901, p. 170). The identification of Apollo had, how- different in qualities, being stern where his brother
ever, been growing for centuries, and it was in part was kind, a god of judgment and retribution. Among
due to this phase of his being, though also to his ac- the Gonds, a Dravidian tribe of India, the sun was
tivities as an oracle god and to his relation to music, the chief object of worship and to him human sacri-
that he was one of the most influential members of ficeswere offered, which were later represented by
the Greco-Roman pantheon. He inspired some of a manikin of straw. Similarly the Khonds of India
the noblest productions both in art and literature offered human beings in sacrifice to him, though he
(cf. the Homeric hymn to Apollo, Eng. transl. and was not their chief deity. The Santhals regard the
discussion by Andrew Lang in Homeric Hymns, Lon- sun as the highest of all spirits. Among other
don, 1899). The early Teutons and Scandinavians Dravidian tribes he was adored both as the creator
undoubtedly had a cult of the sun such antiquities
as a sun chariot with six wheels arid disk and horse
and as the paradise of souls.
Gao w GlLMOEE
" A BIBLIOGRAPHY: For the cult of the sun in the Semitio-
being conclusive (cf. K. Blind, Prehistoric Sun- Egyptian-Hittite region consult: E. Renan, Afwaion de
Chariot in Denmark/' in Westminster Review, clx., PhenMe, Paris, 1804; . M. De Vogue, Melarqea d'arcM-
oloffie oriental*, Paris, 1800; idem, 8yrie, Pofeiftne, Mount
1903, pp. 552-558). Evidential also is the cycle of
Athoe, ib. 1870; C. R. Oonder, in PEF, Quarterly State-
festivals at critical points in the year, at the winter
ment, 1881, 80-84; F. A. Paley, Gold-wonhip in to Ra-
and summer solstice* and in spring and autumn. tion to Su*-worthip, in Contemporary Review, xlvi (1884),
145 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Bun and Bun Worship
Sunday

270-277; P. Jensen, Kosmologie der Babylonier, pp. 1 OS- History of India, New York, 1898; W. G. Aston, Shinto,
Ill, Strasburg, 1890; M. Jattrow, Religion of Babylonia chap. vii. et passim, London, 1905; L. R. Faraeil, Cults
and Assyria, Boston, 1808; W. H. Ward, in AJT, ii of the Greek States, vol. iv., Oxford, 1907; and literature
(1898), 115-118; idem, Seal Cylinder* of Western Aria. under BRAHMANUM; CHINA; HINDUISM; INDIA; and
Washington, 1910; S. I. Curtise, Primitive Semitic Religion JAPAN.
To-day, New York, 1902; R. Dussaud, Notes de mythologie For practises among primitive peoples consult: G. Cat-
syrienne, 2 parta, Paris, 1903-05; L. Frobeniua, Das Zeit- tin, O-Kee-Pa; a Religious Ceremony, Philadelphia, 1867;
alier de* Sonnengottes, vol. i., Berlin, 1904; O. V. Sehia- W. Mannhardt, Wold- und Feldkulte, 2 vols., Berlin, 1875-
parelli, Astronomy in the O. T., Oxford, 1906; Vollers, in 1877; A. Reville, Native Religions of Mexico and Peru,
Archiv fur Religionswissenschaft, ix (1906), 176-184; pp. 39 sqq., London, 1884; S. D. Peet, Animal Worship
A. T. Clay, Amurru, the Home of the Northern Semites, and Sun Worship in the East and the West Compared, in
Philadelphia, 1910; J. Qantang, Land of the Hittites, JAOS, 1889, pp. cclxx.-cclxxix.; D. G. Brinton, Religions
Now York, 1910; DB, iv. 627-629; EB, iv. 4821-22; JE, of Primitive Peoples, pp. 138-139, New York, 1897; J.
xi. 588-597. W. Fewkes, in American Anthropologist, xi (1898), 65-87
For the Indo-Aryans and Eastern Asiatics consult: (on an Arisonian Indian winter solstice ceremony) G. A. ;

R. T. Griffith, Hymns of theRigveda, 4 vols.. Benares, 1889- Dorsey, in Columbian Museum Publication no. 76, June
1892; H. B&ttger, Sonnencult der Indogermanen . ins-
. . 1, Washington, 1903; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture,
besondere der Indoteutonen, Breslau, 1890; W. E. Griffis, London, 1903; A. L. Kroeber, Religion of the Indians oj
Religions of Japan, Boston, 1895; E. W. Hopkins, Re~ California, San Francisco, 1907; J. Deohelette, Le Culte du
liffions of India, Boston, 1895; R. W. Eraser, Literary soldi aux temps prthistoriques, Paris, 1909.

SUNDAY.
I. History of Observance of Sunday. Recent Movements in Germany (ft 5) . Early English Legislation (ft 4).
The Apostolic Age ( D. II. Sunday Legislation. Legislative Results of Puritanism
To the Reformation (5 2). Origin and Character of the Sabbath (ft 5).
Post-Reformation Conceptions of (ftl). Legislation in the Several States
Sunday (ft 3). The Week (ft 2). (J6).
Three Theories of Sunday (ft 4). Roman Legislation for Sunday (ft 3). Conditions in Europe (ft 7).

History of
I. Observance of Sunday: The of laborbe avoided, not out of respect to the Old-
earliest traces of the observance of the first day of Testament law (Ex. xx. 8-9), but because it was in
the week in remembrance of Christ's resurrection keeping with the purpose of devoting the day to a
is found in the Pauline period of the celebration of joy.This conception of
i. The Apostolic Age. Preceding this, Chris- 2. To the Sunday continued number of cen-
for a
Apostolic tians had, after the example of Christ Rcforma- tunes; as late as 538, at the Third
Age. himself and as a continuation of the tion. Synod of Orleans (Hefelc, Concilienge-
Old-Testament custom, kept the Sab- schichte, ii. 778; Fr. transl., ii. 2, p. 1162;
bath, but with some freedom as to the method of Eng. transl., iv. 208-209), the idea that meals could
its observance. At first daily meetings were held not be prepared on Sunday and that other like work
for the expression of thanks for salvation. But soon could not be done was condemned as Jewish super-
a movement began among gentile Christians (cf. stition. Sunday was first regulated by civil author-
I Cor. xvi. 2 with Acts xx. 7) to hold longer serv- ity in 321, under Constantine, directing that the
ices on Sunday characterized in part by the collec-
"
day be hallowed and observed appropriately. By
tion of free-will offerings. The name, the Lord's this law juridical and industrial activities were sus-
day," became a designation for it (Rev. i. 10; Igna- pended. The laws regulating Sunday observance
"
tius, Magnesians," ix., Eng. transl., ANF, i. 62; were gradually made more comprehensive and
Didache, xiv.). The author of the Epistle of Barna- stringent by subsequent emperors, forbidding par-
bas (chap, xv., ANF, i. 147) speaks of the day as ticipation in or attendance at places of public amuse-
" "
the eighth day and justifies its observance as ment and prescribing a more humane treatment of
celebrating the resurrection of Christ, his first ap- prisoners on that day. A synodical decree of 585
pearance to the disciples, and his ascension. The (canon 1, Synod of Macon;
Hefele, Concttienge-
day is called Sunday by Justin Martyr as commemo- schichte, iii. 209, cf. note 2, Eng.
40, Fr. transl., iii.

rating the creation of light on the first day of the transl., iv. 407) established severe punishments for
creation and also the awakening of Christ, the the desecration of Sunday. But these strict regula-
"
Sun of righteousness/ from the darkness of the
1
tions were not borrowed from Old-Testament legis-
grave. After Justin, the mention of the Lord's day lation, the day being only broadly regarded as
"
as the weekly observance of the Christians becomes corresponding to the Old-Testament Sabbath. Sab-
ever more frequent. Opposed to the claim that the bath signifies rest, Sunday signifies resurrection,"
Christians in celebrating Sunday had indirectly taught Augustine (on Ps. cl.). Not until the time
appropriated a day already observed in honor of a of the Carolingians did the idea of substitution of
heathen deity, it is to be considered that in addi- Sunday for the Old-Testament Sabbath prevail hi
tion to the motive for observing that day assigned Christian Europe. Charlemagne's numerous strict
by Justin Martyr and Barnabas, the great aversion Sunday regulations were explicitly based upon the
of the early Christians to
idolatry would preclude Old-Testament command to keep the Sabbath day
the possibility of such appropriation. holy, and henceforth, throughout the Middle Ages,
From Tertullian (De corona, iii., t ANF
iii. 94) the Old-Testament idea of the Sabbath was the basis
and other sources it appears that, after the Apos- for laws regulating the observance of Sunday. And
tolic Age, since
Sunday was a day of rejoicing, the situation hi the East repeated that in the West,
fasting and kneeling at prayer was not observed. labor being strictly prohibited on Sunday as by
Tertullian advised that the ordinary daily routine Leo the Isaurian,
XI, 10
Sunday THE MEW 8GHAFF-HERZOQ 146

After the Reformation German Protestantism opposed this view, and in America particularly the
turned away from the Judairing theory back to the influence of the Sunday-school has tended to mod-
original conception of Sunday observ- erate, in some measure, the earlier Puritanical view
3* Pott- ance. Luther's Larger Catechism of Sunday observance. In England there has been
Reformation taught that one day is not essentially during the last quarter of a century, under the
Conceptions better than another, but that, since it influence of anti-Sabbatarian and even irreligious
of Sunday, is not possible to devote each day in utilitarian ideas, a reaction against the formal ob-
the week to a special religious celebra- servance of Sunday. The Sunday League, organ-
tion, one day should be set apart for that purpose ized July 2, 1875, at a meeting in Westminster
"and that, to avoid the unnecessary disturbance Palace Hotel, in London, is in favor of allowing
which an innovation would occasion, it should con- participation in harmless Sunday amusements, par-
tinue to be Sunday. The Augsburg Confession ticularly in the larger cities. Here and there, where
(art. xxviii.) protests against the Sabbath substitu- the influence of this organization has reached,
tion theory. However, there was not entire agree- museums, public gardens, and libraries have been
ment among the early Protestants on this subject, opened on Sunday. A more radical tendency is that
there being a number who advocated literal adher- which supports public lectures on secular themes on
ence to the Sabbath law of the Old Testament. Sunday afternoons.
Others, on the contrary, feeld that Sunday was only In Germany there developed a strong movement
a symbol of the resurrection and that no outward about the middle of the nineteenth century in favor
formal observance was required on that day. But of a more careful observance of Sun-
the more commonly accepted view among Protes- 5. Recent day as a day of rest. Through a series
tants sanctioned a moderately liberal observance of Movements of church conventions and by the issue
Sunday. Even the stringent Sunday regulations of in Germany, of a large number of publications rela-
Calvin were not the outgrowth of the substitution ting to the subject, the great extent of
theory. Scotch and English Presbyterians returned Sunday labor was brought to public attention, and
to the idea that Sunday took the place of the Old- the necessity of protecting the laborer in his right
Testament Sabbath and that consequently no labor to Sunday rest. The governments of Prussia and
is to be permitted, the entire day being devoted to WUrttemberg responded to the appeal of the Prot-
worship (Schaff, Creeds, i. 777-778). This doctrine estant church there (1850) by enforcing Sunday ob-
found acceptance among Anglicans and had some servance in all branches of the governmental service.
following in Holland and Germany. However, op- The religious periodicals championed the cause with
position to the Puritan Sunday was present among great zeal. The movement waned for a period but
both Anglicans and Presbyterians. In England revived about 1874 as one of the phases of the Kul-
the controversy was bitter throughout the seven- turkampf. In both Germany and Switzerland nu-
teenth century. The Presbyterian theologians merous organizations were brought into existence
strongly protested against an edict of James I. in for the purpose of strengthening the movement, and
1616 (see SPORTS, Boos OF), allowing participation these have been united since 1876 in an interna-
in certain pleasures on Sunday. But the edict found tional congress. The movement has resulted in
defenders among Anglican prelates and theologians. Germany in a number of recent laws enforcing the
It may be noted that, in a revival of the dispute observance of Sunday as a day of rest.
toward the end of that century, John Bunyan took (O. ZflCKLERf.)
a position favoring the freer conception of Sunday. IL Sunday Legislation: Laws respecting Sab-
John Milton in On Christian Doctrine (vol. iv. of his bath-keeping or the observing of Sunday have never
Prose Works, London, 1848-53) recorded opinions been religious only, but have had also a hygienic
partially at variance with those of the Westminster basis. So far as the acts of observance
Confession. In the controversy which was then in z. Origin have been detailed in legislation, the
progress on the continent, the development of the and Charac- course prescribed has always been rest
extreme views of the anti-Sabbatarians is note- ter of the and quiet. In fact, the word " Sab-
"
worthy. They held that Christians are not com- Sabbath, bath has never been the name of a
manded to devote any particular day to a special day of the week at any time, but has
celebration, and that everything which a Christian always been descriptive of human conduct on the
may do, he may do to the glory of God. Ordinary day in question. Although the spirit may be relig-
labor need not, therefore, be suspended on Sunday, ious and distinctly Christian, the idea of physical
provided only the hearts of the laborers are in a rest and quiet is at the bottom of all the regula-
correct attitude toward God. tions in all Sunday legislation. The Mosaic annals
Thus three main tendencies developed regarding record the command from Sinai to keep the Sab-
the observance of Sunday: the Puritanical, the ex- bath holy, but its details relate largely, if not wholly,
treme anti-Sabbatarian, and the mod- to the enforcing of physical rest. It must not be
4. Three erate Lutheran. The first of these assumed that these were new regulations. It was
Theories positions is represented best in the beyond doubt the writing into the Decalogue of a
of Sunday, strict Sunday laws of Scotland and of law previously existing and observed, whether writ-
the New England colonies. That Sun- ten or unwritten. How early those regulations were
day should be most carefully observed as a day of rest first made does not appear, but it is impossible from
and that the State should support them in securing the whole of that record to conclude otherwise than
such an observance, was held as a fundamental right. that it was a regulation for human conduct which
However, there were always men of influence who had been given from the very origin of the human
147 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Sunday

race, and that contemporary with it was the week passed through the throes of persecution, and had
of seven days as a division of time. So far as is been deprived of property and of civil rights.
known the Hebrews never had names for the days Constantino had ruled in Gaul and
of their week, but knew them by numbers only. 3. Roman Britain, where he had ameliorated the
Aside from the Bible record, the division of time Legislation conditions for Christians. And when
into weeks, consisting of seven days each, one of for Sunday, he came to power in 313 A.D., he
which days was by law made a rest day, appears was joined by Maxentius in the cele-
very early in the history of oriental peoples, other brated edict of Milan, by which civil rights were
than the Hebrews (see WEEK). accorded to Christians, their property restored, and
Upon the basis of the archeological discoveries of general religious liberty guaranteed to all. In 321
the last half-century it is claimed by many arche- A.D. Constantine, having become sole emperor,

ologists, with apparent justification, that the Ak- issued his famous edict, prohibiting certain labor
kadians, who inhabited North Babylonia long before and trades on Sunday. (" Let all magistrates and
the time of Abraham (see BABYLONIA, people of the city, and all who work as artisans,
2. The V., f 1), divided time into periods of rest on the venerable day of the sun "; text and
Week, weeks, and that each week consisted transl. of the edict given in Schaff, Christian Church,
of seven days, named for the sun, the iii. 380, note 1).
Exceptions follow as to fanners
moon, and five of the planets. One day of each and vine-growers, who might otherwise lose their
week, or the seventh, fourteenth, nineteenth, twenty- crops. However one may strain not to see in this
and twenty-eighth days of each month, each
first, edict of the Roman emperor any recognition of the
known as Sabatu, was a rest day, on which all labor religious element or of Christian rites, it remains
was unlawful, and even the king was interdicted clear that it was not the inauguration of a feast to
from labor and from ordinary and royal pleasures the sun, or to Apollo the heathen representative
(see WEEK). The regulations in that regard will of the sun, for it was not Apollo's day. Apollo
compare in drastic repression with any of the re- never was worshiped on the first day of the week,
quirements of the mythical blue-laws of Connecti- nor on the seventh day of the week, but upon
cut. The weekly calendar of seven days was un- the seventh day of the month, which was his festal
known to the early Greeks. Their week consisted day. It is also beyond dispute that it was a set-
of ten days. The early Romans divided the year ting apart by law for the first time of the first
into months and the months into three unequal and day of the week as zfestum, or feast day, which day
varying parts, the Kalends, of thirteen to fifteen was then kept holy only by Christians, who ob-
days, the Ides, of seven to nine days, and the Nones, served it as a rest day as well as a day of worship.
of nine days. The Egyptians, like the Assyrians By the edict of Constantine the keeping of the day
and Babylonians, were advanced astronomers, and in the same manner as Christians kept it was en-
in very remote time, but how early is not known, joined by making physical labor unlawful on that
had their weeks of seven days each. How they came day. Sixty-six years later, 387 A.D., in another
to have weeks of seven days like the Akkadians, the Roman decree, Sunday is called " The Lord's Day. 11
Assyrians, and the Babylonians is not known. Nor This constitutes legal recognition of the Christian
is it known why they also called their days for the name for the day, used by Christians from the middle
sun, the moon, and five of the planets. This Egyp- of the first century. In 392 A.D., another Roman
tian division of time was introduced into Rome and decree forbade on that day all exhibitions that might
supplanted the Roman calendar, but the time of the turn away attendance from the mysteries of the
innovation is not certainly known; some authori- Christian religion. The Sunday legislation of the
ties placing it in the second and others in the fourth Roman empire never went backward. The decrees
century of the Christian era. In this Roman week of Valens, Valentinian I., Gratian, Valentinian II.,
of seven days, one day was named for the sun, and Theodosius the Great, Honorius, Arcadius, Theo-
called "day of the sun." It is clear that this naming dosius II., Leo I., and Athenius, between 364 and
it after the sun was wholly distinct from and uncon- 467, added other inhibitions, but also made from
nected with the worship of the sun or of Apollo, time to time exemption from certain prohibitions
who, in Greek, and later in Roman, mythology rep- of the law. In the time of Justinian 685 A.D., the
resented the sun, and was worshiped in Greece on laws of the empire on the subject were gathered
the seventh day of each month, and in Rome on a into the codes, which contained the law of the Ro-
like day, and not on the first day of the week of man empire, and from the year 800, when Charle-
seven days, the day in the calendar named for the magne was crowned, "
this code was of force and
sun. With the progress of the Greek armies under effect all over the Holy Roman Empire," that
"
Alexander many oriental customs disappeared, and complex Prankish empire," a State composed of
with the destruction of the Jewish nation and the many states. During the Middle Ages there were
supremacy of the Roman empire, the general and decrees and canons of popes and of councils concern-
open keeping of the Mosaic law as to Sabbath ob- ing the observance of Sunday, which, though eccle-
servance ended, though the Jews privately continued siastical, were of civil force because enforced by the
the observance. civil power.
Not until the Christian religion had made its con- It would seem that English Sunday legislation
verts throughout the Roman Empire, and the body got impulse and initiative from the Christian re-
its
of Christians had become so great as to be an ele- ligion. Such early statutes as are known followed
ment to be reckoned with, does legislation concern- the advent of Augustine in England and the con-
ing the rest day again recur. The Christians had version of the Saxon
kings to Christianity. They
Sunday THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 148

appear as early as the Heptarchy. Ina reigned Edward VI., chapter 3; 1603 A.D., the 1st of James
king of Wessex from 688 to his abdication in 725. I.,chapter 25; 1625 A.D., the 1st of Charles I.,
He began as a warrior, then became a chapter 7; 1627 A.D., the 3d of Charles I., chapter 1).
4. Barly statesman and law-giver, and died a The Puritan ideas obtained ascendency in Eng-
English religious recluse. When he had added land and in 1676 A.D., 29 Charles II., chapter 7,
Legislation, much to his kingdom by war upon his was enacted. This statute was the most compre-
neighbors he gave a code of laws, hensive and severe and the most detailed of any
known as the " West Saxon code/' in which was a English Sunday law. Its purpose as expressed in
law for observance of Sunday which prohibited all was for " the better observa-
its title
work on that day. In the east of England, the king- 5. Legiila- tion and keeping holy of the Lord's
dom of Kent, the home of Augustine and the field tivc Results Day, commonly called Sunday." It
of his success, it is strange that there is no earlier of Puritan- enacts the careful execution of all
record of Sunday laws. Perhaps ecclesiastical canons ism. existing laws relating to the Lord's
were deemed enough. But in the time of Withred, day; commands exercises public and
king of Kent, in 696, a statute was enacted forbid- private of piety and of religion on that day; for-
ding labor from Saturday at sunset to Sunday at bids all labor, work, or business of ordinary calling,
sunset. This recalls an early New England custom works of charity or necessity alone exccptcd, but
as to the beginning and ending of Sunday observ- exempts children; forbids the crying or exposing
ance. The same law made free the slave who worked for sale of wares, merchandise, fruit, herbs, goods,
on Sunday by his lord's command, and enslaved or chattels on pain of forfeiture; forbids travel by
the free mpn who worked without his lord's com- horse or boat, except as allowed by a magistrate;
mand. Other severe penalties are mentioned. In relieves the parish of responsibility for robbery of a
747 Eidelbald, king of the Mercians, enacted the Sunday traveler; makes void all service of legal
observance of the Lord's day by all, and forbade writs or proceedings, except in case of treason, mur-
all business, journeys, and meetings. Before 900, der, and breach of the peace but its provisions are
;

" over-lord " of the

Alfred, king of Wosscx, and not to apply to dressing of meats in private fam-
Saxon kingdom of England, had enacted a law for ilies, or in inns, cook or victualing houses, for such
Sunday observance. Earlier than 930, the kingdom as can not be otherwise provided; also the crying
of the West Saxons and Mercia having been united, and selling of milk before 9 A.M. and after 3 P.M.
" "
Athelstan the king, also over-lord of the other This statute has been practically the law of Eng-
kingdoms, by his statute forbade all merchandizing land ever since. It has been modified in particulars
on the Lord's day. Edgar, king of the same realm and exceptions, and other regulations have been
959-975, enacted a further Sunday law forbidding made by subsequent statutes, but the law remains
Sunday trading, folkmotes (meetings of the people), substantially the same to-day. At the time of the
heathen songs, and devils games on that day, and American Revolution the statute of Charles II. had
he is said to have enacted that Sunday began at been for more than 100 years the law of England
three on Saturday afternoon and continued until and of its colonies. With this history of Sunday
daybreak of Monday. Ethelred, king of the legislation inEngland for more than 900 years
same kingdom 978-1016, enacted that all " hunting (from 747), the Puritans came to America. They
bouts," trafficking, courts, and worldly works were came with the traditions, civil and religious, of the
forbidden on Sunday; yet allowed courts to sit on mother country, particularly those which developed
occasions of necessity. Canute, the first Danish with the Reformation in England; their colonial
king of England, came to that throne in 1017, and regulations as to Sunday-keeping therefore could
reenacted Sunday laws forbidding hunting and not fail of such influence. To their account has
worldly work on Sunday, and also marketing, ex- been laid the fabulous " blue-laws," the reports
cept for necessity, and forbade capital punishment concerning which were an exaggeration of the facts
on that day. The Saxon dynasty was restored in and ridiculous in some things as applying to dumb
1040, and Edward the Confessor about 1056 en- beasts and inanimate objects. It is, however, true
larged the Sunday law of Canute. Lord Mansfield, that there were colonial laws on the subject of Sun-
in a decision of a lawsuit (Swann vs. Browne, 3 day-keeping which partook strongly of the religious
Burrow, 1599) which involved the question whether spirit of the English laws on the same subject and
a court could make a valid judgment on a Sunday, that of the English Puritans who settled the colonies.
is authority for the statement that both William They were enacted in Massachusetts Bay Colony.
the Conqueror and Henry II. ratified and confirmed The Dutch authorities of the West India Colony
the canons of the councils of Tribury and Saint enacted Sunday laws for the New Netherlands in
Medoro and the ordinances of Edward the Con- 1641, 1647, 1657, and 1663.
1656, In 1665 the
11 "
fessor as to Sunday observance, and decreed that duke's laws (duke of York's laws) took effect in
the codes of Justinian on Sunday observance were the English colony of New York, and they con-
the law of England. Successive acts of parliament tamed a provision against profaning Sunday; colo-
on Sunday observance became the law of England nial statutes for preventing desecration of Sunday
(eg.: 1354 A.D., the 28th of Edward II., chapter were enacted also by the general assembly of that
14; 1388 A.D., the 12th of Richard II., chapter 6; colony in 1685, and again in 1695, which were in
1410 A.D., the llth of Henry IV., chapter 7; 1428 effect at the time of the American Revolution.
A.D., the 6th of Henry VI., chapter 3; 1449 A.D., When the independence of the American colonies
the 27th of Henry VI., chapter 5; 1464 A.D., the was proclaimed, the continental congress called
4th of Edward IV., chapter 7; 1552 A. D., the 6th of upon the colonies (then called states), each for itself
149 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Sunday

to frame and adopt a constitution, and these con- abrogated. Its provisions as to observance of
stitutions all recognized liberty of conscience and Sunday may have become obsolete and disregarded,
freedom of worship, and also the God of the Chris- but the influence of the Church and
tian, and obligation to him for all benefits. These 7. Condi- the decrees of councils and popes have
features have been retained in the subsequent tions in kept it in force. It may with the
amended constitutions of the original thirteen states Europe, changes and the social changes
political
as well as in the constitutions of all the states later and modern times have
of medieval
admitted into the union, until in the constitutions ceased to be observed, but the law remained, en-
of all but one of the American states God and the forced or unenforced. In modern times the Sunday
true religion are recognized, and in twenty of them legislation of the countries of continental Europe
his worship is guaranteed, and in not one is any has gone forward. In France such legislation has
other worship guaranteed. It matters not that the had a varying history. In 1793 the convention
federal constitution forbidding establishment of re- abolished the week of seven days, and with it Sun-
ligion as a legal national institution has not
"
God " day, and all other then and now known names for
written in it, for that constitution is but an instru- days, substituting a week of ten days. The seven-
ment to provide a union of the several states, all day week with its names of days was restored under
but one of which constitutionally recognizes God. Napoleon. Since then, in the history of that peo-
And yet Sunday laws have been enacted by con- ple during the struggles with the Roman Catholic
gress, which has forbidden the pursuit of studies at Church and with rationalism and atheism there have
the military and naval academies on Sunday. been attacks upon everything that has religious re-
With such origins for the founders, such tradi- lationship, and hence upon Sunday-keeping. The
tions for its settlers, such laws of the mother coun- excess of this virulence brought all workmen to
try in force in the colonies, and such recognition of demand one rest in seven, and in 1906 a law
day
the true God in the constitution of the was enacted requiring a rest of one day in seven for
6. Legisla- states, it would have been strange allworkmen, preferably on Sunday, but not requir-
tion in the indeed if in the legislation of the states ing it on that day; in practise, however, Sunday
Several laws for observance of Sunday had not was the choice. In Belgium, after many years of
States. been enacted. In the several original discussion and agitation, in 1905 a law was enacted
states, and in the many states admitted guaranteeing one day of rest in each week to all
from time to time, Sunday laws followed until in all workmen, but it does not require closing of shops.
the states of the American Union except one (and In Holland since 1815 Sunday rest has been required
that on the western frontier) laws have been enacted by law. The statute is religious in character, and
for the observance of Sunday, not as a day of wor- includes many exceptions that it does not
so
ship, but as a day of rest and quiet. In New York command the loyal obedience of the people. In
they appear as early as 1 788. They are not uniform Germany the claim is that after the Franco-Prus-
in language but agree in substance, forbidding by sian war the German Emperor William I. was
some formula labor and work and business on that sympathetic toward Sunday legislation, but that
day, except for necessity or charity. Spme of them Bismarck opposed it on the ground that the closing
limit prohibition to work, labor, or business for of factories would increase the consumption of beer
profit or amusement, or to secular work, and in most on the idle day, cause deterioration in physique,
states make the of a contract on Sunday
fulfilling and tend to disorder. No progress was made until
unlawful, and in some the making of a contract; in the reign of William II. a great reform was com-
also the serving of legal process, or the holding of menced, and in 1892 laws were enacted for what is
courts. In many states all noise and disorderly called Sabbath rest in commerce, and Sabbath rest
conduct are prohibited; also sports for purposes of in industry, reducing hours of work on Sunday to five
money-making through admission fees. There is hours after 7t\.M. The hours from 9 to 11 A.M. were
often in these statutes such a recognition of others earlier protected for public worship. These laws,
who continually observe another day as holy time, however, gave some discretion to municipalities as to
as permits such to pursue their labor or calling, but limitations of the hours, and the result has been
in such manner as shall not disturb the quiet, re- a lack of uniformity of application. In Norway
pose, or worship of those who regard Sunday as a labor in factories, opening of drinking-shops from
holy day. These laws have not always preserved 6 P.M. of Saturday to 8 A.M. of Monday, and the
the original language, but have from time to time printing and publishing of newspapers are unlaw-
been amended. Attacks are continually made upon ful. In Sweden buying and selling are unlawful,
these statutes principally on the ground that they and public places of amusement must be closed on
are unconstitutional, but the laws have been uni- Sunday. In Russia hi 1906 a Sunday law was
formly upheld by the courts of the several states and enacted restricting labor engaged in industry or
by the supreme court of the United States. These commerce on Sunday and on holidays. The enforce-
attacks have come almost exclusively from Seventh ment is another question. Greece and Servia are
Day Baptists and Jews, who have never proposed without Sunday legislation. Rumania enacted a
to make any other day a rest day, but have pro* Sunday law in 1907, which was abrogated the next
posed only to destroy the rest day of Sunday. year, and now has no Sunday statute. The dual
But Sunday legislation in modern times has not empire of Austria-Hungary has for twenty-five
been confined to Christian England or Christian years been struggling with the matter of Sunday
America. The Code of Justinian remained the law legislation, and the latest statute enacted in Aus-
of the territory of the Roman empire until legally tria in 1905 provides for a Sabbath in commerce.
Sunday THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 160
Sunday-School*

limiting work from four to six hours. In Hungary, Repot hebdomadaire, Paris, 1873; T. Lefort, Du report
since 1891, there has been a Sunday rest law. In hebdomadaire au point de vue de la morale, de la culture
inteUectueUe et du proofs de I' Industrie, ib. 1873; C. M.
Switzerland, consisting of several independent can- Davies, Unorthodox London, pp. 51-52, 2 vols., London,
tons united for limited purposes, the State lacks 1873-76; Orthodox London, vol. i. passim, ib. 1873; E.
uniformity hi Sunday laws. Five of the cantons Wetsel, Ueber den Ursprung der christlichen Sonntagsfeier,
have laws requiring rest in commerce. This coun- Stettin, 1874; A. Eschenauer, Le Repos du dimanche au
point de vue hygienique, Paris, 1876; E. Naville, La Lot
try is such a resort of tourists that no law could bo du dimanche du point de vue social et religieux> Geneva,
obtained to limit Sunday as regards their enter- 1876; M. Rieger, Stoat und Sonntao, Frankfort, 1877;
tainment and amusement. In Italy in 1907 a Sun- A. Vinet, Le Sabbat juif et le dimanche chretien, new ed.,
Lausanne, 1877; K. Rohr, Der Sonntao; sein gtittl. und
day law was enacted by which labor must cease and menschl. Recht, Schaffhausen, 1878; T. Zahn, Oeschichte
shops must be closed after noon on Sunday. In dee Sonntags vomehmlich in der alten Kirche, Hanover,
Spain in 1904 a Sunday law was enacted, but has 1878; A. Haegler, Le Dimanche au point de vue hygienique
et social, Basel, 1879; R. Lauterburg, Die Sonntagsarbeit
since been very much changed. Bull fights on Sun-
in den grossen Industrien, Bern, 1880; P. Niemeyer, Der
day were unlawful, but the popular clamor for that Sonntag vom hygienischen Standpunkt, Heidelberg, 1880;
brutal sport compelled the modification of the law L. B. Bacon, The Sabbath Question, New York, 1882;
to permit restoration of bull fights on Sunday. R. L. Dabney, The Christian Sabbath; its Nature, Design,
and proper Observance, Philadelphia, 1882; M. J. Fuller,
Portugal has a Sunday law, but it is practically The Lord's Day; or, Christian Sunday; its Unity, His-
ignored. In Turkey the Mohammedan keeps Fri- tory, Philosophy, and perpetual Obligation, London, 1883;
day as his Sabbath; the Jew, Saturday; the Chris- A. J. Sessions, The Lord's Day Rescued, Botiton, 1884;
W. F. Crafts, The Sabbath for Man. A Study of the
tian, Sunday. This land has many of all these peo-
Origin, Obligation, History and present State of the Sab-
ples, and to require physical rest or business sus- bath Observance, New York, 1885; Eight Studies in the
pension for all three would leave but four days Lord's Day, Boston, 1885; G. Elliott, The Abiding Sab-
in the week for other than religious duties. Hence, bath: an Argument for the perpetual Obligation of the Lord's
no Sunday legislation exists or can exist in the Day, New York, 1885; W. W. Everts, The Sabbath- its
Permanence, Promise, and Defence, ib. 1885; J. Plath,
Ottoman empire. Der Sonntag, das Geschenk Gotten an die Welt, Berlin, 1885;
From this survey, it is impossible to avoid the A. E. Waffle, The Lord's Day; it* universal and perpetual
conclusion that, although the manner of Sunday- Obligation, Philadelphia, 1885; A. M. Weaton, The Evo-
lution of a Shadow; or, The Bible Doctrine of Rest, Cin-
keeping is physical rest and quiet for one day in cinnati, 1886; H. A. K6atlin, Geachichte dea chnatlichen
seven, yet the general and exclusive choice of Sun- Oottesdienstes, Freiburg, 1887; T. Hamilton, Our Rest-
day for that time of rest, is due to the influence of Day; its Origin, History, and Claims unth special Refer-
the Christian religion. Although observation may ence to present-day Needs, new ed., Edinburgh and New
York, 1888; A. A. Gieguel dee Touches, Le Dimanche chez
show that Christian religious and hygienic require- les nations protestantea, Paris, 1889; U. Grimolund, Die
ments are not loyally observed and enforced by all, Geschichte des Sonntags, GOtarsloh, 1889; J. A. Heasey,
this does not contradict the teaching of history that Sunday, its Origin, History, and Present Obligations, 5th
All attacks upon these ed., London, 1889; J. Schwab, The Sabbath in History,
its provisions are Christian.
St. Joseph, Mo., 1890; W. Spiers, The Sabbath made for
laws are in violation of the best interests and assail Man: an Inquiry into the Origin and History of the Sab-
the health and manhood of the people. Such at- bath Institution with a Consideration of its Claims upon the
tacks are mainly commercial, aiming to destroy any Christian, the Church, and the Nation, London, 1890;
E. J. Waggoner, Sunday Origin of its Obmrvance, ib.
rest day whatever, and never aim to substitute 1891 8. E. Warren, The Sunday Question; or, The Lord's
;

another day of rest for the Sunday of rest. Day: its Sacredness, Permanence, and Value as shown by
RALPH E. PRIME. its Origin, History and Use, Boston, 1891; J. O. Bittenger,
A Plea for the Sabbath and for Man. With Discussions
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For the Sabbath as a Hebrew institution of Social Problems, ib. 1892; D. Campbell, The Puritan
see SABBATH. On the history, theory, and ethics of Sun- in Holland, England and America, London, 1892; A. M.
day observance consult. Bingham, Origin**, XX., ii.- Earle, The Sabbath in Puritan New England, ib. 1892;
ffl., cf. XVI., viii.; A. J. Binterim, Denkwurdigkeiten, vol. O. Henke, Der Sabbatismus. Eine judaistiache Reliquie
v., part 1, Mains, 1829; Q. Holden, The Christian Sab- in der christlichen Kirche, 3d ed., Barmen, 1802; R. Link-
bath, London, 1825; D. Wilson, The Divine Authority and later, editor, The Lord's Day and the Holy Eucharist.
Perpetual Obligation of the Lord's Day. ib. 1830; J. J. Treated in a Series of Essays by various Authors, New York,
Gurney, Brief Remarks on the History, Authority, and Use 1892; R. A. Morgan, Bible Teaching; or, The Sanctifica-
of the Sabbath, ib. 1831; J. E. Volbeding, Thesaurus com- tion of one Day in Seven, London, 1892; L. Thomas, Le
mentationum selectarum, vol. i., Leipaic, 1847 (collects Jour du Seigneur, 2 vols., Geneva, 1892; G. Guiroy, The
tracts by C. C. L. Franoke, J. B. Albert, and D. H. Hallowed Day, New York, 1893; S. J. Du Toit, De Leer-
Arnoldt); P. J. Proudhon, De la celebration du dimanche, stukken der Sabbattariers, Paarl, 1893; G. Godet, Le Bon
Paris, 1848; G. Huyssen, Die Feste der christlichen Kirche, Droit du dimanche, Neuchatel, 1894; C. Buttnor, Die
2 vols., Iserlohn, 1850-59; W. B. Barter, Tracts in De- Sonntagaruhe im Oewerbebetrieb und im Handelsgewerbe
fense of the Sabbath and the Church, London, 1851; E. Leipsic, 1895; M. Werner, Die Sonntagsruhe in Industrie
W. Hengstenberg, Der Too dee Herm, Berlin. 1852, Eng. und Handwerk, 3d ed.. Berlin, 1895; W. de L. Love, Sab-
transl.. The Lord's Day, London, 1852; J. T. Baylee, His- bath and Sunday, Chicago, 1896; M. von Nathusius, Die
tory of the Sabbath, London, 1857; W. L. Fisher, History Mitarbeit der Kirche an der Lfisung der soxialen Frage
of the Institution of the Sabbath Day. its Uses and Abuses. Leipsio, 1897; T. de Vries, Overheid en Zondojsviering
2d ed., Philadelphia, 1859; J. N. Andrews, History of the Leyden, 1899; J. R. Milne, Primitive Christianity and
Sabbath and First Day of the Week, Battle Creek, Mich., Sunday Observance, Norwich, 1900; 8. W. Gamble, Sun-
1887. London, 1861; N. L. Rice and others, The Chris- day the True Sabbath of Ood, Cincinnati, 1901; H. R
tian Sabbath: its History, Authority, Duties, Benefits, and Gamble, Sunday and the Sabbath, New York, 1902; F!
Civil Relations, New York, 1863; R. Cox, The Literature Meyriok, Sunday Observance, London, 1902; W. B!
of the Sabbath Question, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1865; J. Gil- Trevelyan, Sunday, New York, 1902; L. Duchesne, Chris-
fillan, The Sabbath, ib. 18*1, New York, 1865; W. Mffli- tian Worship, its Origin and Evolution, pp. 47, 78, 228
gan. The Decalogue and the Lord's Day in the Light of the 494, 549, London, 1904, A. Barry, The Christian Sunday
General Relation of the Old and New Testament, Edinburgh, ib. 1905; A. W. Streane, Sabbath and Sunday historically
1866, J. S. Stone, The Divine Rest; or, Scriptural Views of the Considered, New York, 1906, R. J. Floody, Scientific
Sabbath, New York, 1867; G. Uhlhora, 5fe Sonntagsfrag* Basis of Softool* and Sunday: a new Investigation after
m ihrtr sofialm Bedeutunj, Leipsio, 1870; T. Hayum, Le the Manner and Method* of Modern Science, revealing the
151 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sunday*-School*

true Origin and Evolution of the Jewish Sabbath and the necticut from the Code of 1660 and Public Records Previous
Lord's Day, 2d ed,, Boston, 1907; World's Reel Day. to 16B6, 5th ed., New York, 1904; B. Kingsbury, The
Being Account of the Thirteenth International Congress Sabbath: a Brief History of Laws, Petitions, Remonstrances,
on (he Lord's Day, held at Edinburgh 6th to 8th Oct., 1908. and Reports, with Facts and Arguments relating to the Chris-
Edinburgh, 1009; A. E. Main, Bible Studies on the Sab- tian Sabbath, ib. 1840; J. H. Rigg, The Sabbath and the
bath Question, Alfred, New York, 1910; W. B. Dona, A Sabbath Law, London, 1881; E. Beavan, History of the
Day for Rest and Worship; its Origin, Development, Welsh Sunday Closing Act, Cardiff, 1885; L. A. Oovett,
and Present-day Meaning, ib., 1911; DC
A, ii. 1042- The King's Book of Sports, London. 1890; Q. E. Harris,
1056; 138-141, iv. 317-323; EB, iii. 2813-16;
DB, iii. A Treatise on Sunday Laws. The Sabbath. The Lord's
JE, x. 587-605; DCO, i. 251-253, ii. 540-542; Schaff, Day, its History and Observance, Civil and Criminal,
Christian Church, i. 476-480, ii. 201-205. Rochester, 1892; A. H. Lewis, A Critical History of Sun-
For Sunday laws consult: Codex Theodosianus, ed. T. day Legislation, new ed., New York, 1902; R. C. Wylie,
Mommaen, Berlin, 1905; Blue Laws of New Haven Colony Sabbath Laws in the U. S., Pittsburg, 1905; H. E. Young,
. .Connecticut: Quaker Laws of Plymouth and Massa-
. Sunday Laws. Paper in Proceedings of Third Annual
chusetts: Blue Laws of New York, Maryland, Virginia, Meeting of American Bar Association; Documents J89, 41,
and South Carolina, Hartford, 1838; Blue Laws of Con- 43, etc., of New York Sabbath Committee.

SUNDAY-SCHOOLS.
I. History. In America (ft 5). 1869-1010 (fi 2).
1. Early Religious Instruction. In Denmark, Germany, and Nor- Other Conventions (ft 3).
Early Ethnic Religious Training way (J ). III. Modes of Instruction and Litera-
(51). In Other European Countries ((7). ture.
Hebrew and Jewish Religious Ed- II. Sunday-school Societies. Earlier Methods (J 1).
ucation ( 2). 1. In Great Britain. Transition to Systematized In-
Early Christian Schools (ft 3). London Sunday-school Union (J 1). struction (ft 2).
Schools in the Reformation Era Other Societies (( 2). Various Systems Tried (i 3).
( 4). 2. Societies in America. The International Lessons (| 4).
Anticipations of Modern Sunday- Early Societies Local ( 1). British Sunday-school Literature
school (ft 5). American Sunday-school Union (55).
2. Modern Sunday-schools. <J2). American Literature (ft 6).
The Raikes Schools (i 1). Result* of this Society's Work (ft 3). Conclusion ($ 7).
Popular Interest Aroused (i 2). Other Societies (J 4). IV. Statistics of Sunday-*chools.
Voluntary Services of Workers 3. Conventions of Sunday-school 1. United States.
(3). Workers. 2. Great Britain and Ireland.
Extension in Great Britain (J 4). Conventions to 1862 (f 1). 3. Other Countries.

The Sunday-school may be defined as an and the glimpses of the fact which appear in the
hly of persons grouped in classes, with teachers, on Hebrew narratives, reveal its existence, and come
" "
the Lord's Day, for the study of the Bible, for moral out unmistakably hi the record of the first and
and religious instruction, and for the worship of great commandment (Deut. vi. 4-9). And these
God. The modern Sunday-school grew out of a are unexpectedly and signally confirmed by the
movement to provide religious instruction for poor school-tablets found in Babylonia and by a law of
and neglected children, near the close of the eight- Hammurabi (see HAMMURABI
AND His CODE), for-
eenth century. In its present popular form, it seeks bidding a by its parents, when
lost child's recovery
"
"
to teach and to train all whom it can reach in the adopted and taught a handicraft or trade by
performance of the duties owing to God and to its foster-father ( 188-189; Eng. transl. in DB,
neighbor, as these duties are set forth in the Jewish Extra Volume, p. 605).
and Christian Scriptures. Faithful religious instruction of the young was
I. History. 1. Early Religion* Instruction; Re- given by Abraham, with military training (Gen.
ligious instruction of the young and the unlearned xiv. 14; cf. Job i. 5), and was enjoined in the ob-
has, from the earliest history of the human race, servance of the Passover. The Mosaic
been recognized as a sacred duty. In early times 8. Hebrew l ftw required children and adults to
allprimary instruction centered in the family, the and Jewiflh come together before the Lord at
father was teacher and priest of the Beligioua certain seasons to hear the law, and to
1. Early household (Gen. xviii. 19). The more Education, have it explained, in addition to the
Ethnic instruction given in the family (Deut.
advanced education was, however,
often provided in connection with tem- xxxi. 10-13; Josh. viii. 34, 35). Joshua gathered
Training.
ples, indicating how large a place re- the people at Gerizim and Ebal, where the law of
ligion had in the nations of great antiquity. The God was impressively proclaimed anew. The proph-
recent explorations in Babylonia, as at Sippara and ets, from Samuel to Elijah and Elisha, promoted
Nippur, have not only shown that fully equipped God's will,
religious instruction, teaching the people
the so-called "
"
schools existed in the days of Abraham and earlier, besides maintaining schools of the
but they have also made known the methods of prophets. Jehoshaphat appointed a royal educa-
those schools, since multitudes of tablets have been tional commission to reestablish systematic relig-
found giving varied forms of school exercises of ious instruction throughout the Hebrew nation,
pupils, illustrating the pedagogical methods in the and a similar effort was made by Josiah (II Chron.
schools of Ghaldea and Babylonia when Abraham xvii. 7-9, xxxiv. 30-33). In like manner Ezra
and his fathers were children. Hymns and relig- gathered the people with the children into a na-
ious texts formed part of the extensive equipment tional Bible assembly or school, wherein the priests
used. Among the Semitic peoples, religious instruc- taught and explained the meaning of the law of
tion in accord with school methods, therefore, was God, similar to modern methods of school instruc-
known and practised long before Abraham's day, tion. In New-Testament times, schools for relig-
 TflE NEW 8CflAJ?P-fiR2OG

ious instruction were held in connection with Jewish incarnation, the resurrection, and future rewards
synagogues in every city and important village of and punishments. Their books were portions of the
Palestine. These schools were part of an extended Bible, sometimes in verse, Old-Testament history
system of religious instruction. Lightfoot finds and antiquities, sacred poems, and dialogues. When
four kinds of schools and teaching among the Jews: the ecclesiastical spirit overcame the apostolic and
(1) the elementary school; (2) the teaching of the Gospel teaching, the study of the Bible was largely
synagogue; (3) the higher schools, as those of Hillel displaced by ritual ceremonies and priestly confes-
and Shammai; and (4) the Sanhedrin, which was a sionals. A few faithful continued to teach the Bible,
great school, as well as the great judicatory of the as the Waldenses and the Lollards.
nation. Some have questioned the prevalence of Classes and schools for the religious instruction
elementary schools in the time of Christ's child- of the young were among the agencies recognized
hood; but, according to the Talmud, synagogue as indispensable by the Protestant Re-
schools were of earlier origin, and had then become * IB
formers. "Christian schools must be
in ^?
the
common. They used the Hebrew Scriptures, and, e gtablished and maintained," declared
"
for God maintains the church
later, little parchment prepared for children.
"
rolls
tion Bra" Luther,
The Mishna says, Atage let children
five years of through the schools." He prepared
begin the Scripture, at ten the Mishna, and at thir- Biblical catechisms and lessons for such schools in
teen, let them be subjects of the law." In this 1529. Calvin in 1536 issued similar catechisms in
period a synagogue presupposed a school, as now a fifty-eight sections, for teaching the young in Ge-
church implies a Sunday-school. Hence the Church neva. Alarmed by the spread of the Reformation,
and Sunday-school, not the Church and district- which he strenuously opposed, Carlo Borromeo
school, parallel the Jewish system. The methods (q.v.), archbishop of Milan, gathered boys and girls
in these schools were not unlike those of the mod- for religious instruction. He separated them into
ern Sunday-school. Questions were freely asked two divisions, and grouped them into large classes,
and answered, and opinions stated and discussed. with a priest aided by a layman for the boys, and a
Such a Jewish Bible school, no doubt, Jesus entered matron for the girls, that they might be taught the
in the temple when twelve years old. Paul was doctrines and discipline of the Roman Catholic
"
brought up at the feet of Gamaliel," a phrase Church. Similar schools wore established through-
which implies the customary posture of Jewish stu- out his diocese by the cooperation of bishops,
dents at a school. The apostolic age was remark- priests, and the Jesuits, the instruction aiming to
able for the activity of these schools. Every town hold the people to the Roman Catholic faith and to
having ten men, giving themselves to divine things, prevent them from accepting the Reformer's doc-
was to have a synagogue; and every place having trines and instructions from the Bible. The religious
twenty-five boys, or, according to Maimonides, 125 instruction in Borromeo's schools was concentrated
families, was compelled to appoint a teacher, and chiefly upon the Church's decrees and confessions,
for forty or fifty boys, two teachers. In the apos- while that of the Reformers was upon Christ and the
tolic period teachers were a recognized body of Bible. The way was further prepared for the modern
workers quite distinct from pastors, prophets, and Sunday-school movement by the labors of Zwingli,
evangelists (I Cor. xii. 28, 20; Eph. iv. 11; Heb. Beza, Melanchthon, Spener, Franckc, and Zinzen-
v. 12). The special work of teachers in the apos- dorf (qq.v.) on the continent; and in Great Britain
tolic church was to instruct the young and the in- by John Knox, Baxter (qq.v.), and the English
experienced in religion and in the way of salvation and Scottish Reformers, who recognized the school
through Jesus Christ. as a part of the divinely appointed mission of the
"
The Christian schools were founded upon the plan Church. Luther would that nobody be chosen as
of the Jewish synagogue schools. These schools or a minister if he were not before this a school-master."
catechetical classes were to aid in pre- The Heidelberg Catechism declared as a require-
paring new converts ment of the fourth commandment " that the min-
ZlS^S*
c_int*i frtliHl i it for full church
*
memDersmP aad ^8 were *** impor-
*

Schools. istry of the Gospel and the schools be maintained."

tant means of instructing the young The first Scottish general assembly directed that
and the worldly in the knowledge of God, and of the second of the two public services on every Lord's
salvation through Jesus Christ. Thus in the fourth Day be given to worship, and the catechizing of the
century A.D., Gregory the Illuminator (see ARMENIA, young and ignorant. The Church of England as
III., 2) founded Bible schools for the children early as 1603 required "every person, vicar, or
throughout Armenia. The sixth general council at curate, upon every Sunday and holiday, for half
Constantinople (680 A.D.) required the presbyters an hour or more, to instruct the young and ignorant
to hold schools hi country towns and villages, to in the ten commandments, the articles of belief, and
teach all children sent to them without pay or re- in the Lord's Prayer." In America early Protes-
ward, except as parents made them a voluntary tant settlers regarded it as a duty of the Church and
present. Schools were effective and aggressive mis- the State to maintain schools wherein religion and
sionary agencies of the early churches, and are aptly the Bible were taught. Some form of catechetical
termed the Sunday-schools of the first ages of Chris- and religious instruction, therefore, widely prevailed
tianity. They were graded, the pupils being divided in connection with the Protestant and Reformed
into two, three, and four classes, according to their Churches of Europe and America for more than a
proficiency. They committed passages of Scripture, century before the origin of the modern popular
and were taught the doctrines concerning God movement. The religious influence of the schools,
creation, providence, sacred history, the fall, the it is true, declined in the seventeenth and eighteenth
153 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPED ftunday-ftehool*

centuries, but it was partly because the school His sympathies were widened, his charity deepened ;

method was misused or neglected, and greater em- his failures in prison reform set him thinking, until
"
phasis was laid upon proclaiming and preaching he reached the conclusion that vice is prevent-
than upon interlocutory teaching of the Gospel. able." Twenty-five years later, when he was forty-
Religion and morals suffered a sad decline in conse- four years of age, he began a " new experiment, "
"
quence. Great and godly men saw and lamented as he called it, of botanizing in human nature."
their mistakes in this respect. Thus Bishop Joseph Going into the suburbs of the city, where many
Hall (q.v.), Henry More (d. 1687), and George youths were employed hi the factories, his heart was
Herbert (q.v.) placed catechizing in the forefront touched by the groups of ragged, wretched, cursing
minds of
for effectively planting the Gospel in the children. He knew their parents, homes, and hab-
"
men. John Owen (d. 1683) declared that more its; none ever entered the house of God. It was
knowledge is ordinarily diffused among the young useless to appeal to such parents. He had tried to
and ignorant by one hour's catechetical exercise, reform adults and had failed. George Whitefield
1
than by many hours continual discourse." had tried to reach the masses in Gloucester, but
These facts account for the fact that many places with meager results. Raikes was moved, therefore,
"
claimed to have had Sunday-schools previous to to apply his maxim that vice is preventable."
"
those in Gloucester, England. Among the many Begin with the child, for idleness is the parent of
"
worthy instances only a few can be vice," and ignorance is the cause of idleness ";
5. Antioi- no ticed. "
It is claimed that Sunday- therefore, begin by instructing the child." These
f
schools were begun in Scotland by John
'
seem like trite statements now, but they were the
Knax about 1560 in Bath EnKlan<*,
> ' result of long, deep thought by Raikes. Here was

school. Ifi 60 by Joseph Alleinc; in Roxbury, his mission. And the Rev. Thomas Stock, head-
Mass., 1674; in Norwich, Conn., 1676; master of the Cathedral School, whom he met in
in Plymouth, Mass., 1680; in Newton, N. Y., 1683; his walk, was the man to help him. He started his
by Bishop Frampton, England, 1693; in Glasgow, first Sunday-school in Sooty Alley in 1780, paying
Scotland, 1707; by the Schwenckfelders, in Penn- Mrs. Meredith for teaching the wretched little street
sylvania, 1734; in Bethlehem, Conn., by Joseph children, whom he persuaded to come to her kitchen
Bellamy, 1740; in Ephrata, Pa., by Ludwig Hacker, for instruction. Mrs. Meredith found the boys
"
1740 a school giving gratuitous instruction, hold- terrible bad," and soon the pupils were transferred
ing children's meetings and blessed by many con- to Mrs. Mary Critchley's in Southgate Street, whose
versions, maintained for thirty years among Ger- house extended to Grey Friars, facing the south
man Seventh Day Baptists, and broken up by the porch of the St. Mary de Crypt Church. Raikes
war of independence; in Philadelphia, Pa., by Mrs. lived nearly opposite the church. Bad as the boys
"
Greening, 1744; in Norham, Scotland, by Rev. were, the girls were worse." The children were
W. Morrison, 1757; in Brechin, Scotland, by Rev. required to come with clean hands and faces, hair
David Blair, 1760; in Catterick, England, by Rev. combed, and with such clothing as they had, though
T. Lindsey, 17G3; by Rev. E. Wheelock, Columbia, shoes and clothes were sometimes provided. The
" " " "
Conn., 1763; by Miss Harrison, Bedale, England, boys were strapped or caned by Raikes him-
1765; by Oberlin, at Walbach, 1767; by Miss self, for misbehavior; the girls were subdued by
Hannah Ball, High Wycombc, England, 1769; by other means. The children were to remain in school
W. Gait, Doagh, County Antrim, Ireland, 1770; by from ten to twelve, then go home; to return at one,
Rev. J. W. Moffatt, Nailsworth, England, 1772; by and, after a lesson, to be conducted to church; after
Dr. Kennedy, Bright, County Down, Ireland, 1774; church service to repeat portions of the catechism;
by Kindcrman, in Bohemia, 1773; by A. Cromp- then to go quietly home about five, without play-
ton, Little Levers, near Bolton, England, 1775; by ing in the streets. Attentive scholars received re-
David Simpson, Macclesfield, England, 1778; and wards of Bibles, Testaments, books, combs, shoes,
by many others in the decade, 1770 to 1780. These and clothing. The head teachers were paid a shil-
were, in some cases, catechetical schools and classes, ling a day. Raikes engaged four women in his
giving religious instruction, yet not wholly parallel schools, and procured other employment for them
"
with the methods of the modern Sunday-school as as rewards of diligence, which may make it"worth
devoted to the study of the Bible. sixpence more." The Rev. Thomas Stock went
2. Modern Sunday-school*: The pioneer schools around to the schools Sunday afternoon," says
"
mentioned above, were isolated, often with cate- Raikes, to examine the progress made, and to en-
chisms as the chief text-books. They did not arouse force order and decorum among such a set of little
popular interest, nor did they come into affiliation heathen." The boys were in classes of five, the ad-
"
one with another, tending toward organized move- vanced pupils acting as monitors," or teachers,
. _,. ment or toward a system of religious teaching the younger pupils their letters. The girls
in a separate room, with white tippets on their
KaikeL instruction, with the Holy Scriptures
a* the cnief text-book. Of this great shoulders and white caps on their heads, were in
School*, " "
movement Robert Raikes, Jr. (q.v.), is classes also, with monitors or sub-teachers over
justly called the founder. He was editor and pro- them. This was nearly ten years before Dr. Bell
prietor of the Gloucester Journal, Gloucester, Eng- or Joseph Lancaster introduced the " monitorial
" " "
land, and a strange mixture of the dandy and systems into the week-day schools of England,
of the reformer. Before he was of age, he began and his biographer, Harris, affirms that Raikes
visiting the two prisons of Gloucester, to relieve the maintained these monitors without change and his
horrors ot prison life, and to reform the prisoners. schools have continued unto this day.
Sunday-Sohool* THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 164

" "
For about three years, Raikes looked upon his mistresses and the few paid instructors by vol-
schools as an experiment. When William Fox, untary and unpaid superintendents and teachers.
William Wilberforoe (q.v.), and the Wesleys John Raikes used unpaid class-teachers from the first,
but paid superintendents. Sir Charles Reed credits
2 Ponnl&r an(^ Charles (qq.v.), and Jonas Han-
way came M
tne ^
ests of Haikes and Oldham, England, with having been the first Sun-
Intereiit
Arouaed. ^ '

neighbors, he explained his plan, day-school to displace paid by gratuitous instruc-

asked their counsel, and took them to tion. John Wesley notes Sunday-schools at Bolton,
"
the school to hear the children repeat prayers, the England, in 1787 having eighty masters (teachers)
catechism, answer Bible questions, and sing Watts' who receive no pay but what they received from the
"
hymns. It is recorded that they were astonished, great Master. The famous Stockport Sunday-school
" in 1794 paid only six of its thirty teachers. A Sun-
caught the fire," and extended the movement.
Contrary to a popular notion, it is now affirmed that day-school in Passaic County, N. J., in 1794, having
"
Raikes used voluntary teachers," or monitors over children from a cotton factory, gave them gratui-
"
small classes. The system/' says Harris, the la- tous instruction, and Samuel Slater, of Fawtucket,
"
test biographer of Raikes, was founded on, and R. I., had a similar school, with unpaid teachers, for
supported by, voluntary effort; paid masters and factory operatives. William Brodie Gurney intro-
mistresses were at first necessary, but they gradually duced gratuitous instruction into several Sunday-
disappeared; the monitors over classes were unpaid schools in London, England, about 1796; and similar
and voluntary from the beginning of his schools." schools were promoted by Rowland Hill about the
The paid "master" and "mistress" of Raikes' same time. Wholly gratuitous instruction speedily
schools were the superintendents; the class teachers became a popular feature of the institution, and dis-
were unpaid and voluntary, selected and directed placed the earlier plan of paid supervision and partly
by the paid master or mistress. When satisfied that paid instruction. The adoption of the Sunday-
his scheme had passed the experimental stage, school as a mode of religious instruction for children
Raikes published a brief notice of it in the Gloucester of the Church came more slowly into favor. But
Journal of Nov. 3, 1783, which was copied into the it had a remarkable growth, under the improved
London papers. The Gentleman's Magazine also feature of wholly voluntary instruction and man-
published a letter of Raikes' of Nov. 25, 1783, in agement, which adapted it to the needs of poor
full, and a little later, another description by Raikes communities and parishes in city and country.
was given in the Arminian Magazine edited by The growth of modern Sunday-schools was phe-
John Wesley. These and many other published nomenal. While published reports of the merrier-
accounts extended knowledge concerning the new ship vary widely, showing imperfect enumeration
movement, while many pulpits repeated the story and defective census with gaps filled by more esti-
and praised the institution. By these means the mates, yet the following figures give some idea of
knowledge and character of these Sunday-schools -
the average progress, at different peri-
were rapidly diffused throughout the Christian ods during the past century. Ruikes,
world. in a letter to the Gentlemen's Mogor
The schools of Raikes, and of the earlier promoters Britain.
2in6 * n 1787, estimated the number of
of the new movement, chiefly aimed to reach the children in Sunday-schools at 250,000.
children of the poor, and of those who neglected the This was evidently on over-estimate, for the same
. church. The scheme commended itself magazine in 1800 gave the number as only 156,400.
* "
11
tars^
* thoughtful and philanthropic minds; A parliamentary census of England and Wales in
Service* of l eamed and
influential persons became 1818 reported 5,463 Sunday-schools, with 477,225
Worker*, its warm advocates. It met with criti- scholars, and 19,230 day-schools having 674,833
cism and opposition from some profes- scholars. A similar census in 1833 reported a mem-
sors of religion and churchmen, who questioned its bership of 1,548,890. An educational census of
wisdom and its usefulness. The archbishop of England and Wales in 1851 reported 2,407,642 Sun-
Canterbury was moved to call together bishops and day scholars, which was 260,000 more than were
clergy to see what should be done to ctop it. William reported by the same census for all the public and
Pitt seriously considered the introduction of a bill in private [secular] schools in the country at that time.
Parliament for the " suppression of Sunday-schools." At the same period it was said that there were 292,-
In Scotland, teaching on the Sabbath by laymen 549 Sunday scholars in Scotland, and a total in
was pronounced an innovation and a breach of the Great Britain (including Ireland and some islands)
fourth commandment. Sunday-schools on the new of 2,987,980 in 27,048 Sunday-schools, having 325,-
plan, however, continued to multiply in face of op- 450 teachers. At the Raikes centenary in 1880,
position, extending with marvelous rapidity in Eng- reports and estimates placed the number of Sunday
land, Wales, and Ireland, more slowly in Scotland, scholars then in Great Britain at 6,060,677, with
upon the continent, and in" America. Experience 674,704 teachers. At the world's Sunday-school
soon proved that even paid masters," to say noth- convention in 1889 it was reported that Great Brit-
ing of paid teachers, made the system expensive, ain (including Ireland) had 44,944 Sunday-schools
tending to limit its usefulness. If class-teachers and with 704,286 teachers and 6,695,399 scholars. In
monitors could give their time, why might not per- 1907, at the Rome convention, Great Britain and
sons competent for masters, and for all the instruc- Ireland reported 44,399 Sunday-schools, 684,342
tion, be found to act without pay? Next, therefore, teachers, and 7,450,374 scholars. J. Henry Harris
to founding the system, the most important step computes that the Sunday-schools in Great Britain
was to replace paid supervising "masters" and involve an annual expenditure of about
700,000,
165 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Sunday-School*

11
and including incidentals, such as excursions, so- day, on which the services are wholly for the chil-
cials, and other items, the amount equals 1,200,000 dren and in large part consist of exercises in which
per annum for the schools in Great Britain alone. they have the principal parts. The system has not
The growth in America was even more phenom- made such great gains in the continental countries
enal than in Great Britain. In 1825, the American of Europe, as in Great Britain and America. The
Sunday-school Union reported in itsconnection Roman Catholic and Greek churches
with 11,295 5 In*
have not placed emphasis upon instruc-
1,150 Sunday-schools
6. In
and 82,697 scholars, and com- tion directl y from the Bible, but from
America. teachers Oennany''
puted from reliable data that there and catechisms, creeds, and confessions pe-
were in other Sunday-schools in this country and Norway. culiar to them. The large bodies of
British America and the West Indies upward of Protestants on the continent believe in
61,000 Sunday scholars, making a total for North religious instruction in their day-schools, wliich some
America of 143,697 scholars. The reported conver- there deem equal, if not superior in efficiency, to
sions in the schools of the American Sunday-school the method pursued in the modern Sunday-school.
Union were] as remarkable as the growth of the Thus, in Denmark, all between seven and fourteen
schools. In 1828, the number of teachers in these years of age are compelled to attend day-school,
schools reported as professing Christ was equal to and religious instruction is obligatory. Dissenters
about four per cent of the entire number of teachers. (numbering less than one in 100 of the population)
In 1829, the number of schools connected with the can have their children excused from religious in-
American Sunday-school Union increased to 5,901, struction in the State schools by showing that they
with 52,663 teachers and 349,202 scholars. This are satisfactorily taught elsewhere. In 1907 it was
" "
rapid growth was further increased by the effort, computed that of children's services and Sun-
national in scope, in 1830 to plant a Sunday-school day-schools together, there were in Denmark about
in every needy community throughout the newly 1,000, having an attendance of about 80,000, the
settled valley of the Mississippi. About eighty numbers having more than doubled in the last
Sunday-school missionaries were employed to visit twenty years. In Germany, day-school attendance
the 8,000 to 10,000 destitute settlements estimated is compulsory and religious instruction required by
to be in the valley; 2,807 new Sunday-schools were the State. The kind of religious instruction thus
organized and 1,121 revived within about eighteen given varies with the different views of the parish
months, and not less than 20,000 adults and 30,000 clergyman and the village teacher in charge of the
scholars in the Union's schools professed conver- school. The modern Sunday-school is there widely
"
sion, as many as 17,000 in a single year, it was be- looked upon as designed for the lower classes. Chil-
lieved." And in 1831, the semi-centennial of the dren of the better class rarely attend. Yet Sunday-
" " " "
founding of the system by Raikes, the American schools on the class or American system
Sunday-school Union reported that the number in were begun in Prussia about 1834, received a new
the United States enrolled as members of the Sun- stimulus from the American Albert Woodruff about
day-school may be safely estimated at upward of 1862, are extending among the free or dissenting
600,000. In 1851 the membership in the United churches, through the work of the centennial mis-
States and Canada was computed at 3,250,000. sion of the London Union, and are winning their
Meanwhile, besides the extension work of the Amer- way slowly into State churches. Many Evangelical
"
ican Sunday-school Union, which for over eighty Lutherans, however, say: Luther taught us how
years formed an average of three and one-half new to teach the Bible in our schools; why do we need
"
Sunday-schools per day, the larger denominations Sunday-schools? The State views every one as a
separately began a vigorous Sunday-school exten- Christian who is not a Jew, Moslem, or pagan. Some
sion and improvement in their respective churches. see two kinds of Sunday-schools in Germany; those
At the first international Sunday-school conven- in State churches and those in dissenting churches.
tion in 1875 the United States and Canada were re- Some of the former adopt the class system, others
ported to have 69,272 Sunday-schools with 788,805 do not. The free churches generally welcome the
teachers and 6,062,064 scholars. The latest statis- modern class system in Sunday-school. The reports
tics (1910-11) from the most trustworthy sources for 1910 give about 9,000 Sunday-schools of all
give the number of Sunday-schools held by Prot- kinds in Germany with about one million scholars.
estant churches in the United States and its The modern Sunday-school system was introduced
possessions at 193,495, with 1,749,894 teachers and into Norway, with the free-church movement, about
15,380,694 scholars. 1850, and is extending into the State churches,
Schools enrolled in English-speaking lands are about three-fourths of all Sunday-schools in 1898
now computed at about 263,000, with about 2,500,- belonging to them, and they use lessons of their
" "
000 teachers and about 24,000,000 scholars, while own. Including the children's services and Sun-
all the rest of the world not speaking English is to day-schools in the State churches there were in 1910
be credited with about 65,000 schools, upward of upward of 1,000 schools in Norway. Many of the
300,000 teachers, and about 4,000,000 scholars. free-church schools are coordinated in a union and
These facts indicate the phenomenal growth use the International Sunday-school Lessons.
in English-speaking lands. It is also to be taken Sweden introduced Sunday-schools also into the
into account that in connection with this in- about 1851, and the system is gaining
free churches
stitution not less than 15,000,000 young people strength in the State churches (see statistical table).
and adultsalso receive instruction. In connection The first Sunday-school in Sweden was organized
" about 1833 in Stockholm by the daughter of an
with the movement is often found a children's
Sunday-School* THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG 156

English consul; it was followed by a few others, but In Spain the Sunday-school exists by sufferance as
continued only a short time. In 1851 P. Palmquist do all Protestant bodies, though the spirit of relig-
of the same city saw the exhibit of ious toleration is gaining strength in the Spanish
nth WORK
mind EVANGELICAL
XtaroMAa* Sunday-school work in the great exhi- (see SPAIN, IN).
In the other countries of the world, except in
OountrlM.' button at London, and began a Sunday-
school for the poor children on his re- India, Austria, and the Philippines and Hawaii,
turn, which became the germ of the system of
Prot-
Sunday-school extension is dependent upon
the free (Baptist, Wesleyan, and Congregational) estant missions maintained by the missionary so-
churches of Sweden. In 1853 Lady Ehrenburg be- cieties of Christian lands. The Sunday-schools are
gan a similar school, which introduced the system comparatively few, and can not be increased except
into the State church. For twenty years the new through mission agencies. The efficiency and econ-
system had a slow growth. In the first five years of omy of the Sunday-school, modified to meet con-
this century, greater activity in extension and im- ditions in non-Christian lands, fit it for a far wider
provement of Sunday-schools has been secured usefulness in propagating the Gospel than almost
through special missionaries, though in 1909 there any other means within reach of the Church.
were districts and provinces where Sunday-schools IL Sunday-school Societies. 1. In Great Britain :

are unknown. Holland has a strong Sunday-school The magnitude of the task of " teaching the Bible
"
society, chiefly supported by the free and Evangelical to the world attracted the attention of Christian
churches, that for several years has promoted the philanthropists, and after several public conferences
extension and improvement of Sunday-schools, re- in London, William Fox, Jonas Hanway, Henry
sulting in about 200,000 children in 2,000 schools. Thornton, and Thomas Raikes (brother of Robert
In Switzerland Sunday-schools are popular in all Raikes) with three others formed The Society for
the German Evangelical cantons. The system has the Support and Encouragement of Sunday-schools
been adapted to the special conditions of the people, in England, Sept. 7, 1785. As its work extended
training of teachers, and the latest improved meth- beyond England, the was changed some years
title
ods are studied in the land of Zwingli and of the later to include the British dominions. Owing to
"
Reformed churches. In the French cantons of the long title, it was popularly known as The
Switzerland, the modern Sunday-school method Sunday-school Society." It leased rooms, employed
"
has been in use for over fifty years. Childrens' teachers, and provided Bibles and books gratui-
"
services have been held, the children being grouped tously. In 27 years it founded and aided 3,730
"
in classes, each class in charge of a teacher for cat- Sunday-schools, having 303,981 scholars, donating
echetical exercises," followed by the general address 8,001 Bibles, 70,537 Testaments, 329,695 spelling-
" "
of instruction by the minister, the course of books and primers, and expending 4,383 15s 4d.
study being Old-Testament history and New-Testa- After 1811 its work was limited to grants of class-
ment doctrines. In the land of the Huguenots, books and Scriptures. This society dissolved in
Sunday-schools early found a footing, but not a 1864.
hearty welcome. The upheaval in civil affairs, the As the advantages of voluntary teachers and
domination of the Roman Catholic priesthood, and wholly gratuitous instruction became apparent,
the disruption of Church and State in France in schools discontinued paid teachers altogether. Row-
this century have prevented a wide extension of land Hill, pastor of Surrey Chapel,
* L ion
Bible-study. Lately there has been a revival of in- 5" London, England, formed a Sunday-
Sunday- gchoQ] on this
terest, the Protestant churches have a wide-open purely voluntary plan.
door, the Gospel can be extended freely by the best Union. WiUiam Brodie Gurney, a young Chris-
Sunday-school methods, and the opportunity for a tian layman, fired with zeal for this
large increase of the 1,200 Sunday-schools (with service by meeting William Fox, John Howard the
74,000 members) never was brighter in France than philanthropist, and others, proposed a conference,
since the separation of Church and State. Russia, to consider the extension of schools with
voluntary
under rigid laws, has hitherto frowned on Bible- teachers only. This was held in Surrey
Chapel,
study save by those only who adhered to the Greek July 13, 1803, and resulted in the formation of the
Church. Among the few dissenting or free churches London Sunday-school Union. This society is con-
of the empire, some Sunday-schools were founded. ducted by members of different Evangelical de-
It was reported in 1910 that there were about 1,000 nominations, through a general committee of fifty-
schools having about 66,000 scholars in Russia, four persons, who render service gratuitously. For
taught in different languages, on the Dnieper, Volga, more than a century, it has promoted the work in
and Don rivers, and along the Black Sea. The sys- Great Britain by publishing suitable record and
tem of Bible-study by the Sunday-school method reading-books and other requisites at a low price,
is not welcome in the Greek Church. Bohemia, the and by issuing cards, periodicals, and helps for
land of HUBS, has about a quarter of a million of teachers. The Sunday School Teachers
Montldy
Protestants, among whom Sunday-schools find Magazine, founded by its secretary, W. F. Lloyd,
favor; the greater number of Bible scholars, how- in 1813, was a pioneer in that line and was con-
ever, study at home; the home department gener- ducted with rare ability. The Sunday-School Chron-
ally outnumbering those in the schools. Italy was icle, now issued by the London Union each
week, is
late in receiving the Sunday-school. It has a na- the foremost periodical of its class in Great Britain.
tional committee and "Union" formed in 1891, The Union, by means of auxiliary unions, extended
which is still doing effective work in the extension the system throughout the British dominions. It
of Sunday-schools in the face of great difficulties. has provided a system of teachers'
training-classes
167 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Sunday-Schools

or institutes in which persons by study and exam- nine others held a meeting in Philadelphia Dec. 19,
ination have been fitted for teaching. It secured a 1790, which resulted in forming The First Day, or
" "
loan fund from which loans were made without Sunday-scaool Society, for the" estab-
interest to churches and organizations erecting lishment of Sunday-schools." It se-
buildings and class-rooms, and maintains a large cured funds, rented rooms and halls
reference library and reading-room for teachers and for holding schools, had both paid
others, at a subscription price of one shilling per and voluntary teachers (hi 1794), and secured a
annum for each person. Since 1864, the union has charter in 1797. In 1791 it petitioned the state
"
aided in maintaining special missionaries to extend legislature to establish free public schools." In
Sunday-schools on the continent, in India, and else- ten years it expended in rents, salaries, and gifts of
where. At its centenary in 1903, it reported in its books about $4,000. When voluntary teachers dis-
" "
connection, through its auxiliaries, 9,584 Sunday- placed all paid masters in Sunday-schools, the
schools, 213,226 teachers, and 2,252,497 scholars. society appropriated its funds to supply needy
Affiliated with it is the International Bible Headers' schools with religious literature, issued on the union
Association, having 800,000 to 1,000,000 members, principle, a benevolent work which it still continues,
in nearly 100 countries, who are pledged to read an " "
having granted about $40,000. The First Day
assigned portion of the Bible daily. Its chief sup- is therefore the oldest existing Sunday-school society

port is from the Congrcgationalists, Baptists, and in the world. The changes in the modern Sunday-
Presbyterians. The other dissenting bodies and the school movement in the beginning of the last cen-
Church of England each have separate Sunday- tury, such as introducing the systems into the
school societies. churches, displacing all paid masters with voluntary
The Church of England Sunday-school Institute teachers, and transferring the sessions of the schools
was formed in 1843, " to extend, improve, and de- from rented rooms and halls to the churches, and
velop the Sunday-school system in the Church of the like, checked the spread of the new movement
"
England and " to secure efficient for the first decade of that century. But organiza-
teacnm therein." It is directed by a tions for promoting Sunday-schools sprang up in
Societies
committee of about 50 persons, 25 many parts of this country. The Union Society for
clergymen and 25 laymen. The work is promoted the education of poor female children was formed
through branch or local associations (about 400), in Philadelphia in 1804, chartered in 1808; the
and through publications, institutes, teachers, ex- Evangelical Society in 1808; and half a dozen other
aminations, and lectures. Its benevolent receipts local union societies a few years later in Philadelphia
in its Jubilee year (1893) were 2,213, and from sales were in part the result of the zealous labors of Chris-
of publications 10,869; in its sixtieth year (1903) tian men and women. The Rev. Robert May, in
the benevolent receipts were 1,339, and from sales 1811, also popularized a system of reward tickets,
9,032 (about the average yearly receipts). In primers, and the wider adoption of small classes,
1910 the number of scholars for England and under voluntary teachers. In 1815, EJeazer Lord
Wales in its schools was 3,153,476, and of teachers, visited Philadelphia and studied its Sunday-school
212,712. Its total annual receipts have slightly methods, then returned to New York so fired with
diminished in the last twenty years. Its lessons enthusiasm that two societies were at once formed
comprise a course of five years' study, based on the there the New York Female Sunday-school Union
Bible and Prayer Book, and conforming to the (Jan., 1816) and the New York (male) Sunday-
church calendar. The Wesleyan Sunday-school school Union Society (Feb., 1816). Meanwhile the
Union was formed in London in 1875. In seven several local Sunday-school unions in Philadelphia
years, it enrolled about 6,500 schools, 123,000 united in founding The Sunday and Adult School
teachers, 830,000 scholars, with 700 annual benevo- Union, 1817, which became the largest in America,
lent receipts. It has steadily advanced in all within seven years having over 700 affiliated schools
branches of its operations. Its report for 1907 gave : and auxiliaries.
schools, 7,566; officers and teachers, 133,108; The New York Sunday-school Union proposed a
scholars, 1,000,819. This showed a decrease of national society as early as 1820, and this was sec-
28,858 from the previous year's report, but the mem- onded by other unions until 1824, when the Phila-
"
bers of the " pleasant Sunday afternoon classes delphia Sunday and Adult School
2. Ameri- Union was
showed a gain of 33,271, leaving a net gam of 4,413.
~
changed into a national so-
The Sunday-school Society for Ireland was formed ciety and named the American Sun-
in 1809. At the end of fifty years it had 2,700 day-school Union, the various unions
schools, 255,000 members, and it is still doing a elsewhere becoming auxiliary to the
useful work. There are Sabbath-school societies in new national union. This
"
Union " is composed of
Edinburgh and Glasgow, and in several countries persons of different evangelical denominations who
"
on the continent of Europe. The India Sunday- voluntarily unite together, to establish and main-
school Union and the Australian Sunday-school tain Sunday-schools, and to publish and circulate
Union at Melbourne are doing an effective work, moral and religious publications." The union is
having affiliation with, or encouragement from, the not therefore anti-denominational, nor undenom-
London Sunday-school Union. inational (for all its members and workers are
8. In America: Christian philanthropists actively connected with some denomination), nor
abounded in America, and were early awake to the is it strictly interdenominational, since it does not

advantages of the Sunday-school. Bishop William aim to blend or act for organized denominations,
White, Dr. Benjamin Rush, Matthew Carey, and nor do ecclesiastical bodies appoint its officers and
BundayBohool THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 168

" "
managers; it is a voluntary union of individual years the union cla^T""* to have formed in America
Christians of different churches for promoting the 121,038 Sunday-schools, with over 655,000 teachers
study of the Bible and the Sunday-school cause. and 4,770,000 scholars. It has preserved a detailed
It is conducted by a board of officers and thirty-six record of every school, its precise location, the name
managers, all laymen. It employs laymen and min- and address of each superintendent, and the num-
isters as missionaries to found Sunday-schools in ber of teachers and scholars in each school, when it
new communities and in those removed from was formed and when revisited, for fifty years past.
churches, issues library books, dictionaries, com- The union, from time to time, enlists students i&
mentaries, maps, records, tickets, primers, teachers' colleges and seminaries in the work of Sunday-
tracts, manuals, lesson helps, and Sunday-school school extension under direction of a regular mis-
records and requisites in great variety, and also sionary. Thus, it claims to have organized an aver-
nine periodicals. In five years after its organiza- age of nearly four schools a day for every day of
tion, the American Sunday-school Union issued the last 86 years, and to have distributed Bibles
over six millions of copies of Sunday-school works, and publications to the value of about $15,000,000;
published 200 bound volumes for libraries in Sun-
1
having responded to 335,000 requests from schools
day-schools, started a Teachers Magazine and two with over 20,000,000 members for aid and encour-
other periodicals, was receiving and expending an- agement in the study of God's Word. The union
unally over $76,000 in promotion of the cause, had conducts all its operations on a thoroughly system-
in its connection 6,000 schools with 60,000 teachers atic plan (financial, publication, including educa-
and over 400,000 scholars, and one-half its schools tional, and missionary extension), each feature
reported in 1833 that 2,607 teachers and 6,121 being under direction of a standing committee. The
scholars had professed Christ in that year alone. whole country is divided into great districts with a
Among important measures inaugurated and popu- district superintendent to counsel, aid, and direct
larized by this union may be noted: the system of the labors of its force of missionaries.
free lending or circulating libraries of religious books, It reports for the year ending Mar. 1, 1910, new
the first American monthly magazine for Sunday- schools organized and reorganized, 2,366, with 93,-
school teachers, 1824; the first weekly folio journal 527 members, and also 11,198 visited for aid and
for Sunday-schools, 1831; the employment of mis- encouragement, having 739,495 members. Its re-
sionaries specially to establish Sunday-schools, ceipts for 1910 were $224,922 (exclusive of funded
1821-24 and continuously since; a world's monthly bequests and gifts), and its expenditures $218,728.
concert of prayer for Sunday-schools, 1825; a sys- It employed 231 regular missionaries, who reported
tem of selected uniform Bible lessons for Sunday- 9,275 professed conversions for the year, visited
schools, 1826; a national scheme to plant a Sunday- 178,587 homes for instruction and prayer, and dis-
school in every needy settlement in the Mississippi tributed 40,087 copies of Bibles and Testaments,
valley in two years, 1830; a similar scheme for the 21,663 sermons and addresses to public assemblies,
entire south, 1833; proposing and planning the 88 new churches as the outcome of these union
first and second national Sunday-school conven- schools, $6,200 worth of religious books and period-
tions, 1832, 1833; graded lessons and Union Ques- icals given to the needy, besides grants for special
tions,1829; a simultaneous invitation, July 4, 1833, objects, as homes, hospitals, and prisons, and issu-
"
to all suitable subjects of Sunday-school instruc- ing devotional commentaries, Bible wall rolls, charts,
tion in the United States to attend some place for maps, and lesson helps. The union is supported by
Bible study, on the following Sabbath, July 7"; the voluntary contributions, and has invested funds,
issue of low-priced illustrated Sunday-school period- amounting to between $1,000,000 and $2,000,000,
icals for children, providing special records and the income from which is devoted to its benevolent
manuals for conducting and improving Sunday- work, including founding and improvement of Sun-
schools, establishing and furnishing supplies to aux- day-schools, and distribution of religious literature
iliaries (400) in all parts of the land, which were to issued by the Society as directed by the donors.
supply the same to Sunday-schools connected with The leading denominations in America also have
them, below or at actual cost; and finally, organiz- Sunday-school unions, societies, or publishing de-
ing state Sunday-school unions from 1825; and partments. The Massachusetts Sunday-school
later, teachers' normal institutes and lectures, to Union, formed in 1825 by Congregationalists, Bap-
inform and train officers and teachers in better tists, and others, dissolved in 1832. The
methods of instruction, and also of discipline in, ZL then started the
Congregationalists
'
and the conduct of, Sunday-schools. Massachusetts Sabbath-school Society
In the first decade of the twentieth century (1901- which, after several changes, is now the Congrega-
1910) it founded 24,992 schools, with a membership tional Sunday-school and Publishing Society, and
of 963,412, in which were reported 98,659 professed employs secretaries, editors, and agents to promote
conversions, and 1,062 churches of dif- Sunday-schools in that denomination. The Meth-
8. Basalti ferent denominations odist Episcopal Sunday-school Union was formed
following from
the 8chools Planted aBd over 305,000 in 1827, merged with its Tract Society in 1833, re-
8orirt?
Work, copies of the Scriptures provided for organized in 1844, for promoting the movement in
those without the Word of Qod. The that church and publishing and distributing litera-
Union employed in the ten years 2,594 missionaries, ture through the preachers attached to that denom-
exclusive of superintendents and secretaries, an ination, holding training-classes and Sunday-school
average of about 260 a year. It expended in benevo- assemblies, and the Chautauqua (see CHAUTAUQUA
lent wprk in the decade, $2,110,000. In eighty-six INSTITUTION) has achieved a wprld-wide reputation.
159 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Sunday-School*

The Protestant Episcopal Church formed a Sunday* heads, embracing organization, mode of instruction,
school Union in 1827, and was warmly supported by system of lessons, libraries, infant schools, adult
many. Others, while conceding that Sunday-schools Bible classes, visiting, and all measures
tending to
were useful for non-churchgoers, and those who were improve the institution. Delegates from fourteen
poor and destitute, held that the church should teach states and territories met, discussed the questions
its children by its clergy, under their direction, in for two days, referred the answers to the
interroga-
families, and in parish schools. Yet Sunday-schools tories to a committee to collate and report later, and
have prospered under the fostering care of diocesan proposed a second convention to be held in Phila-
authority, and through an efficient Sunday-school delphia in 1833. The second convention approved
commission. Courses of study and text-books are of the effort proposed by the American Sunday-
provided that are suited to the worship and articles school Union personally to invite every person on
of confession in that church. The Presbyterians July 4, 1833, to attend some Sunday-school the fol-
(North and South) have Sunday-school boards and lowing Sabbath, July 7; urged that religious in-
the Baptists (North and South) have similar boards struction be given to inmates of jails, prisons, and
and Sunday-school departments. Each of these em- alms-houses, favored private Sunday-schools in
ploy colporteurs or agents, and provide an extensive homes with irreligious parents, recommended that
literature for the use of their respective schools. sermons be preached for teachers and members of
The Reformed churches also maintain similar pub- Sunday-schools, and the training of the young in
lishing-houses, and secretaries for promoting the mission-work. The special report on modes of in-
efficiency of their schools in instructing the young. struction, prepared by James W. Weir and pub-
Besides these, there are upward of twenty-five pub- lished by the American Sunday-school Union, was
lishing-houses of more or less prominence devoting based upon the information given in response to the
their chief attention and energy to providing pub- seventy-eight interrogatories. The replies made a
licationsand requisites for Sunday-schools in every quarto volume of about 1,200 pages. A third na-
variety of form and character, so that if Sunday- tional Sunday-school convention was held in Phila-
schools in America do not steadily improve and at- delphia in 1859. A general convention was held in
tain increasing efficiency, they can not plead lack of London, England, in 1862, attended by about 450
machinery and material. delegated workers from Great Britain, Ireland, the
8. Convention* of Sunday-cohool Worker*: Con- continent, America, and Australia, and considered
ventions are used to awaken public interest, to dis- the history, objects, and methods, with a view to
cuss methods, to gather and disseminate informa- the improvement and extension of Sunday-schools
tion, and to promote Sunday-schools. at home and abroad.
* nven kocal
"
conferences and conventions for A fourth national convention in America was
P
1862
this P urP<>se were held before 1820. held, 1869, in Newark, N. J., attended by 526 en-
The first delegated convention, general rolled members from 28 states and 1 territory, be-
or national in its scope in America and representing 81 dcs some from Canada and abroad.
2 1889-
societies from all parts of the land, was held in
1010.
^c Pur? 086 f this convention was
Philadelphia in 1824, to consider the formation of a twofold, inspiration and instruction.
national society, and led to the organization of the The fifth convention was held in Indianapolis, Ind.,
American Sunday-school Union. In 1828 another in 1872, attended by 338 delegates, from 22 states,
convention was held in the same city, when dele- 1 territory, and Canada. Meanwhile a conference
"
gates from fourteen states considered various meas- of publishers had arranged a series of uniform
ures for enlarging the operations of the " National," " " "
lessons as a trial scheme as hereafter noticed.
or American Sunday-school Union. Among other This plan was adopted at the convention with great
measures commended were extension of Sunday- enthusiasm, and prepared the way for the next and
" "
schools in communities using the German language, first international convention at Baltimore in
among seamen, the offer of premiums for suitable 1875, and the lesson committee through Dr. Warren
publications, and plans for increased contributions Randolph made its first report. Since 1875, the in-
to sustain the cause. In 1830 conventions and ternational conventions have been held triennially.
meetings were held in every important city of The second was in Atlanta, Ga., 1878, with over 400
" "
America, in furtherance of the Mississippi Valley delegates, and promoted kindly feeling between the
mission proposed by the American Sunday-school northern and the southern states; the third in
Union. In 1832 the American Sunday-school Union Toronto, 1881; the fourth in Louisville, Ky., 1884,
"
proposed a national convention for considering when a third lesson committee was appointed and
the principles of the institution (Sunday-school), and four persons added to it from Great Britain, and
improved plans for organizing, instructing, and one from France. The fifth met in Chicago, 111.,
managing Sunday-schools/' At the call of the union 1887; the sixth in Pittsburg, Pa., 1890, where a
ninety delegates from thirteen states and one terri- quarterly temperance lesson was adopted; the sev-
tory and the District of Columbia met, and decided enth in St. Louis, Mo., 1893; the eighth in Boston,
to call a national convention of Sunday-school 1896, over 1,000 delegates present, marked by the
workers in New York, to be composed of delegates leadership of D. L. Moody; the ninth in Atlanta,
appointed by the local unions, associations, and by Ga., marked by the election of Marion Lawrance as
schools not connected with general secretary; the tenth in Denver, Colo., 1902,
any union. This pre-
liminary meeting also appointed committees, and with 1,168 delegates, when special lessons for be-
authorized the sending out of a series of seventy- ginners were approved; the eleventh in Toronto,
" " "
tight interrogatories grouped under thirteen 1905, with 1,988 delegates, when advanced lea-
Sunday-School* THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 160

"
were adopted, and the historical exhibit illus-
i the Bible. Even in Raikes' schools there were
trating the development of the Sunday-school by many children that must first be taught to read
Dr. Edwin W. Rice, and of the educational exposi- (and this was done that they might
tion of current Sunday-school material by Dr. C. R. i.Earlier read the Bible for themselves); be-
Blackall were marked features. The name was also Methods. sides teaching the catechism and
"
changed "from International Sunday-school Con- prayers, and singing, the scholar? were
vention to " Association/ and it was proposed to
1

taught answers to Bible questions. Raikes took

obtain a charter of incorporation. The twelfth con- great pains to have the children understand Bible
" "
vention, 1908, in Louisville, Ky., appointed a new passages, so that they could give the sense to
lesson committee instructed to prepare a thoroughly parents in the home. Instruction in those early
graded course of lessons, in addition to the uniform Sunday-schools had the germ of a method radically
course of Bible study. The thirteenth convention, differentfrom a mere parrot-repeating of memorized
1011, met in San Francisco, Cal. The international lessons. Mere memorizing and reciting of the cate-
Sunday-school convention originated in a desire for chism and of verses was carried to excess in the
conference upon methods of organization and im- catechetical schools of Scotland and elsewhere. Be-
provement. The leading workers in it for about fore the era of free public schools in America, it
twenty years did not favor assuming or claiming any was a necessity to teach the children of the poor to
continuous authority. When each convention read in the early Sunday-schools. To aid in remov-
ended, all further action devolved upon the state, ing a prejudice against these schools, because read-
county, denominational, and other organizations. ing was taught in them, the founders no doubt
Some wished to make it an organic institution with thought a liberal use of the catechism a prudent
continuous power; this view finally prevailed, and measure, and this condition may have led to the
resulted in an incorporated association. The dele- excess. Yet it is clear, from the latest investiga-
gates are appointed by state and provincial organ- tions of the rise of this early movement, that the
izations, several of which also are incorporated under aim was specially to teach children to think for
independent charters. The representatives in all themselves. Raikes repeatedly laid strong
empha-
these conventions and associations are mainly from sis upon this feature of his plan.was inherent
It
those workers who use the international series of in his scheme from the beginning and was bound to
lessons. The Church of England, the established win its way. Free public schools spread slowly in
Church of Scotland, the Protestant Episcopal, and some portions of the United States, in the early part
some branches of the Lutheran Church in the United of the nineteenth century, hence there Sunday-
States, and the state churches on the continent are schools were forced to continue to teach pupils to
not represented in the deliberations of these con- read at a later date than in other portions. Yet the
ventions beyond occasionally sending friendly great purpose of the Sunday-school, to teach the
greetings. Word of God, was steadily kept in view. The ad-
Besides the above, there have been other notable vance of free day-schools in due time relieved the
gatherings in the interest of religious education, as Sunday-school of the apparently secular service of
the world's Sunday-school conventions in London, teaching reading. However, it
widely overlapped
St. Louis, Mo., 1893; what has been termed the " "
England, 1889; as
memorizing era
8. Other " "
the memorizing era overlapped that of " limited
Loado^ 1898; Jerusalem, 1904; Rome, 11
1907; Washington, 1910; the next will and uniform lessons. The period of excessive
ttonii?"
meet in Geneva, hi 1913. Denomina- memorizing of lessons in the Sunday-school was
tions have held assemblies to consider Sunday- approximately from 1810 to 1824, in America. This
school work, and the London Sunday-school Union was also the period when the system was expanding
invited a centenary meeting, to celebrate the found- from an exclusively missionary stage for the chil-
ing ofmodern Sunday-schools in London, 1880, with dren of the wretched, ignorant, neglected poor, and
a session hi Gloucester, and in 1903 commemorated began to be introduced in churches as an aid or sup-
its hundreth year by centenary meetings. The plement to religious instruction in Christian fami-
American Sunday-school Union held a series of lies. Catechetical teaching was the " old time "
meetings hi Philadelphia in 1899, to celebrate its form in such families; and Sunday-schools in
seventy-fifth anniversary. The Religious Educa- churches accepted it, thinking that if it was well
tional Association in America has also held several to memorize catechism questions and answers, and
noteworthy conferences in Chicago, Philadelphia, hymns and verses in some measure, it was better to
Boston, and Washington, bringing together repre- memorize as many as possible. So they offered
sentative educators to discuss measures, and tend- rewards therefor, until the teachers were over-
ing to bring Sunday-school methods more fully into whelmed with the astounding achievements of
harmony with accepted modern principles of edu- pupils; some coming with an entire catechism, or
cation as advocated in the twentieth century. with a whole book of the Bible for a single " mem-
m. Model of Instruction and Literature: In the orized lesson/'
modern Sunday-school movement two distinct Meanwhile the " monitorial " or " mutual "
plan
features came into prominence, making it to differ of instructioncame into public prominence,
popu-
from the preaching and children's services on the larized by the efforts of Andrew
Bell, M.D., a
one hand, and from venerable catechetical instruc- churchman, leading to the formation of the Na-
tion on the other. These features were: (1) group- tional School Society in the established Church
of
ing of persons into small classes, each class having England, which provided that the articles and for-
a teacher; (2) lessons chiefly, if not wholly, from mularies of that church should be taught to the
161 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Sunday-School*

exclusion of all others. This action was stimulated ting large portions of Scripture to memory is
by a similar plan of instruction exploited by generally relinquished." About fifteen or twenty
ministers in New York City gave weekly lectures on
Joseph Lancaster, a Quaker, known as
a. Transi- the Lancastrian system, on which the the lesson to teachers; churches were crowded at
tion to Sys- Britishand Foreign School Society was the public examinations held quarterly in several
schools on the
" select "
tematized founded. His plan provided lessons lessons," and scholars be-
Instruction, from the Scriptures, but excluded les- came acquainted with the general truths of the
sons in denominational creeds and cat- Scriptures." Judson's questions were soon com-
echisms. This society was largely sustained by dis- bined with another similar help, and the joint book
senters. These plans agreed in employing monitorial called Union Questions issued by The American
or voluntary teachers, but differed widely on the Sunday-school Union, and the successive volumes
system of lessons and subjects of study. Lancaster's (12 in all) of these lesson helps covered the chief
plans had a decided influence upon the instruction books of the Bible. These Uniform Select Lessons
in Sunday-schools in Great Britain and America. with the Union Questions thereon were commended,
Other influences followed, as the vigorous attacks of as the best then known, by the first and the second
James Gall of Scotland upon the parish mode of re- national Sunday-school conventions, 1832, 1833,
citing catechisms in Scotch churches. Gall also and continued to be widely used for more than a
" "
advocated what he termed the lesson system of generation. Special helps, notes, and explanations
instruction, which consisted in requiring the scholar on the lessons were issued weekly in the (Union's)
" " " "
to draw some practical lesson from each Sunday School Journal of Philadelphia, and in book
sentence or clause in the lesson of the day. More- form, the latter being a fivefold form of notes. For
over, the Sunday-school teachers' magazines were, instruction in the doctrines peculiar to each denom-
for two or more decades, devoting column after ination, the chief dependence continued to be cate-
column in their journals to explaining and discuss- chisms; particular Sundays often being designated
ing the principles of education suggested by Bacon, for this purpose, by schools using the Union Ques-
Milton, Comenius, Locke, Pestalozzi, Francke, tions and Uniform . .Lessons.
. After a time,
Froebel, Gall, Bell, Lancaster, Jacatot, Stow, and many large schools began to prepare for themselves
others, and sifting therefrom whatever seemed suit- a course of Bible-study lessons each year, and some
able or helpful in shaping lessons or methods of in- prominent in a denomination advocated or put forth
struction in Sunday-schools. The diffusion of this a series of lessons intended to teach the doctrines
knowledge prepared the way for better schemes of peculiar to the denomination, which soon drifted in-
"
lessons, and improved methods of teaching. The to what has been termed the " Babel series of
"
idea of a system of " selected lessons uniform for lessons in America.
the entire school seems to have come about the In Great Britain about 1842, the London Sunday-
same time into many minds, widely separated, in school Union issued a double series of Bible lessons
America and Great Britain. It was first put in (without the texts), one for the morning session of
practise, as stated in the Appendix to the Report the Sunday-school, and another for the
for 1825 of the American Sunday-school Union 3. Various afternoon, giving brief explanations,
(issued May, 1826), in several schools in Albany, Systems doctrines, practical lessons, and ques-
Utica, and by fourteen schools in New York City, Tried. tions on each lesson in a monthly tract
" " of twelve pages, duodecimo in size, dif-
and a list of Selected Lessons was published
first in a leaflet by the Union. The first year's fering from the American lessons of 1820 and on,
course comprised forty-nine lessons in the Gospels, by omitting to provide for any review, either weekly
" or quarterly. The Lesson System of James Gall, the
chronologically arranged according to the most
" Graduated Simultaneous Instruction by Robert Mim-
approved harmonies." The selection is divided "
" of David Stow, and
into four portions, each designed to occupy the priss, the training system
" "
Sabbaths of three months, for the convenience of a the collective system of the London Union were
quarterly examination of the scholars." The pro- popular in England about the same period. The
jectors hope that this plan will be so systematized, great defects of Gall's system were said to be ab-
"
that every school may be furnished with the same sence of all instruction, save as to meaning of words,
lesson at the same time." Each lesson was limited and the use of direct catechizing. Mimpriss's was
"
to from ten to twenty verses," and among the ad- better, but required too much mechanism, and is
" limited chiefly to the Gospels. S tow's was without
vantages claimed for the scheme were: it pro-
motes uniformity," and united study by teachers a book of explanations, or questions, and required
" con-
during the week; aids the teachers' classes separate rooms for classes, and was fitted in the
"
ducted by the pastor " for " expounding the selec- most part for infant classes only; the collective
" same lesson when he "
tions," gives the scholar the system of 1842 was largely topical, the Bible texts
moves to another school as would have been as- were too long to be mastered, suited better for
signed him in the school he left." Within a year advanced Bible classes only, and failed to give a
after this list of " Bible lessons
"
had been first pub- comprehensive knowledge of the entire Scriptures.
lished, a book of questions in three grades, prepared Each of these systems was tried in America, and
" each laid aside, after it had attained a brief local
by Albert Judson on these same selected lessons,"
was published, as a help in the study of them. They popularity in different places. Meanwhile the way
were so " happily adapted to advance the scholars was being providentially prepared for the interna-
in an intimate and correct knowledge of the Scrip- tional uniform lessons. The uniform idea had been
"
tures that it was said " the old plan of commit- partially lost to sight, though continued in fact, in
XI. 11
Sunday-School* THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 169

the annual aeries of Union Questions, and in the se- theme of study in each department of the Sunday-
ries of Explanatory Question Books. Orange Judd's school at the same time.
Lessons for Every Sunday in the Year (1862-65), The Sunday-schools of the Church of England
lessons of the Sunday Teacher of Chicago, 1866, have a system of their own, adapted usually to the
Vincent's Berean Lessons, McCook's Westminster church year. This church system is used, it is
series, and Drs. Newton's and Allibone's Union claimed, by about one-half of the Sunday scholars
and Explanatory Lessons, with others, indicated the in England. A similar system is used by the Sun-
features of a new system that was coming. day-schools of the Protestant Episcopal Church in
Representatives of the foregoing systems of les- the United States and in Canada. Several branches
sons, and of about twenty-five Sunday-school so- of the Lutheran Church also have a series of Bible
cietiesand publishers met in New York in August, lessons conforming to the church calendar, and
1871, and appointed a committee of five, who ar- many schools in Scotland and on the continent of
ranged a trial list of uniform lessons for 1872. This Europe have special courses and have not adopted
proved so satisfactory that the national the international lessons.
4. The Sunday-school convention of 1872 at A new institution of the magnitude of the mod-
Intema- Indianapolis approved the system, ern Sunday-school would naturally demand a litera-
tional and appointed a committee of ten (five ture. There was in the eighteenth century no juve-
Lessons, ministers and five laymen) from five nile literature, of moment, in existence,
denominations, to select a
different 5. British certainly none of a religious type.
seven-years' course of study to cover the entire Bible. Sunday-Sunday-schools created a religious re-
This committee has been since continued with some school and an intellectual awakening,
vival,
changes and modifications and the addition of the Literature, which demanded a juvenile literature.
British section to the American. Latterly, persons It began in England with primers, and
" "
of nine denominations serve on this committee, simple hints for forming, conducting, and teach-
comprising about 32 members (12 from the United ing Sunday-schools, followed speedily by books of
States, 3 from Canada, 15 from Great Britain, and prayers, hymns for children, selections of Scripture
1 each from India and Australia) Since 1804, each
. for reading, and small periodicals. Youths' Maga-
course of lessons has been limited to six years. In zine (1805), Child's Companion, Children's Friend,
1902 special lessons were provided for beginners and and juvenile magazines by the score sprang into
in 1906 for advanced classes. In general, the plan existence. They were at first small leaflets, month-
of study aims to give a comprehensive knowledge ly, each issue having from four to twelve pages.
of the Bible in six years, the lessons being selected The Repository or Teachers' Magazine began as a
from the Old and the New Testaments alternately, quarterly (1813) of about fifty pages, and was later
upon some intelligent system, presenting the im- continued as a monthly for nearly forty years, and
portant salient events, characters, doctrines, and followed by the Union Magazine, The Teacher, and
narratives of the whole Bible in the compass of each by the Sunday-School Chronicle, London, weekly,
six-years' course of study. Gradually, the "uni- the leading journal for Sunday-school teachers in
"
form idea has been modified by the demand for Great Britain. The Church of England maintains a
graded courses of study suited to scholars of the scholarly magazine for Sunday-school workers, as
primary department, and another for advanced do the Wesleyans. Scotland and Ireland sustain
Bible classes as stated above. The lessons are called similar journals worthy of note. Instructive relig-
" "
international because they are used in different ious books, narrative and didactic, for youth rapidly
countries of the world, and probably more widely multiplied. Authors like Hannah More, Jane Taylor,
than all other current systems of Sunday-school Rowland Hill, and Mrs. Sherwood devoted their
study. best thought to producing literature of this type.
"
In addition to the above " Uniform Series of Manuals and hand-books on teaching and principles
study, the International Lesson Committee began, of educationwere issued in abundance, beginning
1908, a graded series of lessons for Sunday-schools. before 1840. Training-classes for those intending
The plan outlined is for each grade to have one year to become Sunday-school teachers have long been
of study, and a Bible text adapted to each succes- maintained by the London Sunday-school Union,
sive grade. It recognizes beginners' department, the Church of England Sunday-school Institute,
two courses of one year each; primary, three and other societies. Educational writers of note
courses, one year each; junior, four grades, each a prepared text-books for the instruction of these
year; intermediate, four, and a similar number of training-classes, constituting quite a body of lit-

grades for senior and advanced departments. Thus, erature, specially relating to instruction and
when complete there will be from sixteen to eighteen methods of teaching. A
revival of interest in
different grades and Bible texts studied in the same thisbranch of the work sprang up in Great Britain
school at the same time. and America in the first decade of the twentieth
The Bible Study Union (Blakeslee) system of century.
Graded Lessons has been outlined for about twenty In America, the literary awakening was even
years. Its plan provides six series of lessons to more significant. While Great Britain produced
cover the whole Bible; each series has four courses many religious periodicals for the young, America
issued in seven grades, as biographical, Old-Testa- gave greater attention to books and a permanent
ment history, life of Christ, gospel history, apostolic rather than an ephemeral juvenile literature. Men
leaders, and apostolic church history. The Bible like President Humphrey of Amherst College, and
texts are selected so as to give a uniform text or Dr. T. H. Gallaudet of Hartford, testify that, in
163 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Suaday-BohooU

the first decade of the nineteenth century, a half- delphia, the recognized representative weekly Sun-
dozen books for children exhausted the list of day-school periodical of America, which has been
existing works that could then be classed as juve- issued for half a century. For more than a
genera-
nile. The Sunday-school had the task tion the International Lessons have been credited
6. American of creating a juvenile literature and a with causing a great revival in Biblical investiga-
Literature, taste for it also. In this The Amer- tion and research, using and taxing the abilities of
ican Sunday-school Union was cred- the foremost Biblical scholars.
ited with leading the way. It secured some of the A revival of interest in summer assemblies for
most gifted of Christian writers to prepare works for Sunday-school workers, in the first decade of the
the young, setting forth Gospel truths in pleasing twentieth century, has produced a new literature in
form. The three Alexanders father and sons America on teacher-training and instruction. This
Drs. Nevin, Edwards, Judson, Sears, D. Wise, Todd, agency for promoting Bible instruction, which was
Durbin, Tyng, Hodge, Bedell, Packard, Newton, earlier known as the Chautauqua movement (see
Trumbull, Schaff, Allibone, Hall, Rice, and the CHAUTAUQUA INSTITUTION), was begun in 1874 by
Guernseys, among many others, aided in producing John H. Vincent (q.v.). Renewed attention to
a juvenile religious literature in America, of the teacher-training has stimulated other persons to
foremost character and in varied types of history, form summer assemblies in all parts of the United
biography, narrative, travel, interlocutory instruc- States, as educational forces for students of the
tion,and discourse, which were brought out, with Bible. Several permanent Bible schools have also
engravings by the most skilled artists and engravers created special departments in methods of study
of that day an attractive literature, religious in and instruction, as Moody's Bible Institute, Chi-
1

tone, forceful in thought and expression, and rich cago; White's Bible Teachers Training School,
in substance and variety, the most widely read, of New York, which have led to the issuing of special
all the literature current for two generations, in their text-books and a literature suitable for normal
day. Statesmen and clergymen of note here and class work. Each of the larger denominations has
there declared that their first taste for learning provided manuals, instruction books, and courses
was acquired by reading the books issued by The of study for intending Sunday-school teachers, and
American Sunday-school Union. Composers of offers a diploma at the satisfactory completion of
music, like Hastings and Lowell Mason, prepared the course.
hymns and songs for the young. Songs of the chil- The Sunday-school movement, as to its numbers
dren from Sunday-school displaced the ribald, rol- and glory, appears in this historical sketch. The
licking songs and drove them from the street if not weakness and defects of the movement are also
from the face of the earth. Cheap Bible dictionaries, obvious. Foremost among these are:
antiquities, helps in Bible study, and libraries for 7. Conclu- (1) The organization and machinery
Sunday reading were issued by the tens of thou- ion. are often too complex and cumbersome
sands, and scattered and read in every part of in proportion to the teaching and spir-
America. Primers and question books were pro- itual power, for its highest efficiency. (2) The em-
duced by advice and cooperation of leading edu- phasis is placed too much on the school idea only,
cators, college and theological professors, and mil- to the neglect, in part, of worship and of spiritual
lions of copies distributed. Normal works and training. (3) It fails to make adequate provision
teachers' manuals by Trumbull, Vincent, and others for the adolescent period, and does not satisfacto-
followed later. The influence of this juvenile litera- rily hold the scholars passing into the adult stage.
ture on the mind of the rising generation, in the The defects, however, will be remedied in time.
first half of the nineteenth century in America, has The Sunday-school is destined to accomplish great
not been surpassed by any produced since that era. victories in the work of advancing the kingdom of
The several denominational Sunday-school socie- God. The Sunday-school in the past thirty years
ties, and not a few private publishersalso, have has concentrated upon its lessons and methods of
been conspicuous in providing a juvenile literature, instruction a ripe scholarship, a wealth of learning,
until it was conceded that America had the most a masterful marshaling of the widest knowledge
abundant supply of such literature in the world, in critical investigation, stimulating explorations
and this was marked for the purity of its tone and in Bible lands, and the production of a literature
teaching. The stronger denominations issue peri- on Oriental manners, habits, and customs, and a
odicals and magazines, giving, from time to time, keen discrimination in practical applications of
articles and essays on topics and methods of in- truth to modern conduct, never before surpassed
struction by foremost educators, and they have a or equaled. More light has been thrown upon the
wide circulation. Among them are The Baptist interpretation and illustration of the books of the
Teacher, Philadelphia; Methodist Sunday School Bible for this generation than ever before in the
Journal, New York; Pilgrim Teacher, Boston; history of the world.
Westminster Teacher, Philadelphia; American IV. Statistics of Sunday-Schools.!. United
Church Sunday School Magazine, ib.; Heidelberg States:* The United States Census Bureau says
of the census figures for 1905:
"
Teacher, ib.; Sunday School World, ib.; Sunday These figures do
School Magazine, Nashville; Bible Teacher, Day- not include the mission Sunday-schools which
ton, O.; Sunday School Helper, Boston; Earnest are maintained by some bodies, notably the
Worker, Richmond, Va. The medium of commu-
nication and of news, between workers of all *
Compiled from the Special Report of the United States
denominations, is the Sunday School Times, Phila- Census Bureau on Religious Bodies for 1006.
NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 164
165 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Sunday-School*
Supererogation

Expansion of the Sunday School, tb. 1906; H. C. Trumbull, Sunday Schools. Studies for Teachers in Principles and
Yale Lectures on the Sunday School, New York, 1888; Man- Practice, London, 1909; P. J. Sloan, The Sunday-School
anna O. Brown, Sunday School Movements in America, ib. Director's Guide to Success, New York, 1909; H. H. Meyer,
The Graded Sunday-School in Principle and Practice, New
1901; J. H. Harris, Story of the Sunday School, London,
1902; W. H. Groser, A Hundred Years' Work for York, 1910; R. P. Shepherd, Religious Pedagogy in the
the Chil-
dren ib. 1903; O. S. Michael, Sunday School in the Develop- Modern Sunday School, St Louis, 1911.
ment of the American Church, Milwaukee, 1904; W. Paret, SUNDAY, WILLIAM ASHLEY : Presbyterian and
Place and Function of the Sunday School in the Church, New
York, 1906; Sunday Schools the World Around. The Official revivalist; b. at Ames, la., Nov. 19, 1863. re-He
Reports of the World's Fifth Sunday-Schools Convention in ceived his education at the high school, Nevada, la.,
Rome, 1907, London and Philadelphia, 1908; W. H. Wat- and at Northwestern University; was a profes-
son, First 60 Years of the Sunday School, London, n.d., and sional baseball player, 1883-90; assistant secretary
literature under RAIKBB, ROBERT; and the Records and Re-
Annual Reports of the following societies and of the Young Men's Christian Association, Chicago,
ports or
conventions; First Day or Sunday School Society, Phila- 1891-95; became an evangelist in 1896, and has since
delphia, 1790 sqq.; Sunday School Union, London; Sun- devoted himself with great success to that work, re-
day School Society for Ireland; New York Female and
Male Sunday School Unions, 1816-24; Philadelphia Sun- ceiving Presbyterian ordination in Chicago in 1903.
day and Adult School Union, 1818-24 (nos. 1-7); Amer- SUNESOEN, ANDERS. See ANDREW OF LUND.
ican Sunday School Union, 1825-1910; General Sunday
School Convention, London, in 1862; National and In- SUPERANNUATION. See Vol. xii., Appendix.
ternational Sunday School Conventions, 1869-1910;
World's Sunday School Conventions; Church of England SUPEREROGATION, WORKS OF: A concept
Sunday School Institute, London. in Roman Catholic theology which has its place
On methods and principles consult: J. W. Alexander, in the doctrine of indulgences was justified by
The American Sunday School and its Adjuncts, Philadel- the great scholastics through the notion of the or-
phia, 1856; A. W. and C. E. Knox, The Infant Sunday
School, Cincinnati, 1870; J. S. Hart, Sunday School Idea, ganic unity of the Church. They asserted that the
Philadelphia, 1871; W. Abbott, Our Sunday School and sum total of the merits of Christ was greater
how to conduct it, new ed., Boston, 1872; J. H. Vincent, than was required for the salvation of man, and
Church School and tte Officers, New York, 1872; W- ?.
that the saints also had done more and suffered more
Crafts, Through the Eye to the Heart, or, Eye-Teaching in
the Sunday School, New York, 1873; idem, Plain Uses of than was absolutely required to insure their own
the Blackboard and Slate, New York, 1881; W. H. H. salvation, that these superabundant merits were
Marsh, The Modern Sunday School, Philadelphia, 1874; " "
E. W. Rico, Organization and Classification of Sunday
placed in the spiritual treasury of the Church,
at the disposal of its visible head; that as the
Schools, Philadelphia, 1881; idem. Handy Helps for Busy
Workers, ib. 1890; idem, The Sunday-school; how to start Church is one, in this world and the next,
and keep it, ib 1909; A. E. Dunning, Sunday School they may be applied to such of its members as
Library, Boston, 1883; B. Clarke. The Blackboard in the are still lacking in the required amount of works
Sunday School, I/melon, 1884; E. G. Harmer, By-Paths
of Sunday-School Work, London, 1892; J. L. Hurlbut, necessary to satisfy the divine demands. This is
Seven Graded Sunday Schools, New York, 1893; A. E. effected by indulgences, as an exercise of judicial
Winahip, Metlwds and Principles in Bible Study, Boston, power for the living and per modum suffragii for
1885; idem, Organizing and Building up the Sunday-
the souls in purgatory. The doctrine is set forth
School, New York, 1910; A. F. Schauffler, Ways of Work-
ing, Boston, 1895; E. Hofcon, Principles and Practice of in the Constitution Unigenitus Deifilius of Clement
Teaching in their Application to Sunday Schools, London, VI. (1343), and implicitly sanctioned by the Coun-
1896; J. Bailey, Sunday School Teaching, London, 1897; cil of Trent in its affirmation of the doctrine of
I. P. Glack, Practical Primary Plan, Philadelphia, 1898;
W. H. Groser, Sunday School Teacher's Manual, 16th ed., indulgences. It was further established in the
London, 1S98; A. P. Foster, Manual of Sunday School condemnation of contradictory propositions of Lu-
Methods, Philadelphia, 1899; P. DuBois, Point of Con- ther by Leo X. (1520) and of Bajus by Pius V.
tact in Teaching, 4th ed.. New York, 1900; J. E. Hor-
rocks, Suggestions towards Improving the Instruction in
(1567), Gregory XII. (1569), and Urban VIII.
Sunday Schools, London, 1901; H. Williams, The Refor- (1641), as well as by Pius VI. in the constitution
mation of the Sunday School, London, 1902; E. D. Burton Auctorem fidei of 1794, against the Synod of
and S. Mathews, Principles and Ideals for the Sunday
Pistoja.
School, Chicago, 1903; G. W. Mead, Modern Methods in
Sunday School Work, New York, 1903; A. H. McKinney,
The Roman Catholic doctrine of good works has
A ftcr the Primary What f New York, 1904; F. N. Pelou- a threefold basis. It rests first upon the Augus-
bet, Front Line of the Sunday School Movement, Boston, tinian doctrine of grace together with the idea of
1904; A. R. Wells, Sunday School Problems; practical the universal operation of God. Thus considered,
Plans for Sunday-School Teachers, New York and London,
1905; M. G. Brumbaugh, Making of a Teacher, Phila-
a meritorious work in the strict sense is inconceiv-
delphia, 1905; idem, Development of the Sunday School, able; but another complementary idea comes in
Boston, 1906; M. Lawrence, How to Conduct a Sunday that free man is bound to acquire merit before God
School, New York, 1905; R. F. Y. Pierce, Pencil Points
and through it to make satisfaction for his sins.
for Preacher and Teacher, Chicago, 1906; J. Adams, A
Primer on Teaching, with Especial Reference to Sunday This idea, found as early as Tertullian, is the joint
School Work, Edinburgh, 1907; H. F. Cope, The Modem product of Jewish legalism and Stoic moralism. A
Sunday School in Principle and Practice, New York, 1907; third element comes in from the Stoic distinction
E. A. Fox, The Pastor's Place of Privilege and Power in
the Sunday School, Nashville, 1907; F. Johnson, ed.,
between the medium and the perfectum, to say
Bible Teaching by Modern Methods, London, 1907; nothing of the Jewish emphasizing of special and
H. T. Musselman, National Teacher-training Institute extraordinary virtues (cf. Tob. xii. 8). An appar-
Text-books, Philadelphia, 1907 sqq.; M. 8. Littlefield, ent sanction for the notion of a gradation in the
Hand-Work in the Sunday-school; with an Introduc-
tion by DuBois, Philadelphia, 1908; G. H. Trull,
P. value of works was found in Matt. xix. 16-22 and
A Manual of Missionary Methods for Sunday-School I Cor. vii. 25, 40. By degrees the doctrine of
Workers, Philadelphia, 1908; G. H. Archibald, The Sun-
"Evangelical counsels" (see CONIILIA Ev ANGEL-
day School of To-Morrow, London, 1909; J. C. Gray and
C. S. Carey, The Class and the Desk. A Manual for Sun- ICA) was developed, and took ever deeper root with
day School Teachers, 4 vota., London, 1909; J. Gunn, Our the establishment of the ascetic life in the Church.
Superintendent THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOQ 166
Superstition

Thus, while the practical significance of works of ent official features. In Old Prussia, they are spir-
supererogation is connected with indulgences, their itual consistorial directors besjde the temporal con-
theoretical basis is found in the conception of merit sistorial president. Their sphere of action stretches
and of the nature of Christian perfection. Protes- over an entire province; and, if need be, they exer-
tantism, by dissolving the association of the entire cise very personal influence over the superintendents
train of thought in which they find a place, did and pastors under their jurisdiction. Elsewhere,
away with them altogether. If the good works of while certain superintendents are indeed members,
men are the product of God's free grace, the idea as well, of the church governing boards, it is only
of merit on man's part is ruled out; if Christ is the in this attribute that they rank higher. Recent
one mediator and his death the one atonement, modifications in the superintendents' position have
there can be no more talk of even the possibility their warrant in the introduction of presbyterial
of satisfaction on the part of man; and if he is alone and synodical constitutional arrangements, by
the head of the Church, such a thing as a treasure virtue of which, in most German Evangelical state
of superfluous works to be arbitrarily distributed churches, the previous consistorial church organiza-
by an earthly head becomes a figment of the imag- tion has become a so-called mixed one.
ination. (R. SBEBERG.) The German Evangelical state churches have,
for the most part, adopted the synodical limitation
SUPERINTENDENT: The title of a German of the superintendent's office, which varies in differ-
"
Among later schoolmen su-
ecclesiastical officer.
"
ent localities.
perintendent was applied, as by Gabriel Biel (Super [The title is now substituted in the Methodist
quattuor libros sententiarum, dist. 24, qu. 1), to bish- Episcopal Church for that of presiding elder (see
ops, in so far as they were governing officers, this METHODISTS, IV., 1, 8).] E. SEHLING.
translation of episkopoi occurring as early as Augus- BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. W. J. Schmidt, Der WirkungRkrei* und
tine (" City of God," xxix. 19) and in Jerome die Wirkungaart dea Superintendent* in der evangiliachen
Kirche, Quodlinburg, 1837; J. C. W. August!, lleitrrtge
(Epist., Ixxxv.), and after them in the Corpus juris no 14,
tur Statiatik . . . der evangelischen Kirche, in ,

canonid (c. 11, C. 8, qu. 1, and D. 93, c. 24). The Leipsic, 1837; E. Friedberg, Das geltende Verfaagungn-
term was applied in Saxony to the permanent su- recht der evangeliachen Landeskirchen in DetUschland, Leip-
sic, 1888; and the works on Kirchenrecht by A. L Hich-
pervisory officers that were instituted after the
ter, { 72, 8th ed., ed. W. Kahl, ib. 1886, and E. Friedberg,
visitations had been completed (cf E. Sehling, Die
.
pp. 236 sqq., 6th ed., ib. 1900.
V Kirchenordnungen des 18. Jahrhunderts, i. 142
sqq.) .The Saxon superintendents of 1527 and later SUPERNATURAL RELIGION: The title of a
were intended to be no other than state executive work in criticism which evoked much attention in
officials. But at the start they officiated as sub- the last part of the nineteenth century. Its author,
ordinates to the visitation committees, and after- Walter Richard Cassels, was born in London in
ward to the consistories. The example of Saxony 1826. His early ventures in authorship were poet-
was often followed, though the term " superin- ical. His first book bore the title Eidolon; or, the
"
tendent was not generally retained. In South Course of the Soul, and other Poems (London, 1850),
" "
Germany the designation dean is occasionally a critic of which wrote in The Saturday Review
"
in vogue (as in Bavaria) ; in the German Reformed (i. 236): He must do more and also do less; and
"
churches " inspector," and, locally, metropoli- we hazard a prediction that he will at last do
will
" " "
tan," senior," ephor," provost." But this in- something which will not be forgotten." The pre-
volves no material alteration. The bishops of the diction was fulfilled when, in 1874-77, he published
Evangelical State Church of Balkan Transylvania Supernatural Religion (3 vols. latest popular ed.,
;

are superintendents. 1 vol., 1902). I ran through many editions, caus-

Within the area of his province, the superintend- ing a stir similar to but more profound than that
ent exercises supervision over the official adminis- made by Essays and Reviews (q.v.).
tration and conduct of the clergy and of the inferior To understand the purpose of the book and the
church servants; also at times over the conduct, stir it made, a word regarding the history of Bible
and sometimes the studies, of ministerial candi- study in England is necessary. In the eighteenth
dates, who come to him for permission to preach in century Deism (q.v.) hod made a fierce and pro-
particular instances. Where pastoral vacancies longed attack on the traditional conception of the
occur, he must provide proper supplies, conduct supernatural. The defense, in substance, consisted
" "
the pastoral election, and induct the new pastor. in showing that revelation was a republication
" "
In the event of disputes between pastor and con- of reason with divine authority, that author-
gregation, he is the competent referee. He has, fur- ity being authenticated by the supernatural in two
thermore, oversight of administration of church forms, prophecy conceived as prediction of
(1)
property. To what extent the superintendent has events in the life of Christ, and (2) miracles. For
the right to define disciplinary penalties, or inde- the time being the defense succeeded, in part be-
pendently to institute official suspensions, is a mat- cause deism was lacking in constructive force, but
ter which varies according to special statutes. Va- mainly because of the vast revival of religion (Wes-
rious details of the superintendent's activity also leyan and Evangelical movements; see METHOD-
involve the cooperation of the civil organism. ISTS; and REVIVALS). The traditional conception
There are superintendents of higher and lower of Holy Scriptures was grappled to the heart of the
grades. The former class especially includes the nation. England had no constructive philosophical
general superintendents, whose discretion hi the movement^ and no critical movement of her own.
several state churches, however, shows very differ- The entire) strength of the nation went into the
167 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

struggle with Napoleon and into commercial ex- edge. And he rode the argument from silence till
pansion. When interest in history revived, it came its back was raw. HENRY S. NASH.
in the form of the Oxford movement (see TRAC- BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. H. Habershon, The Wave of Scepticism
TABIANISM), so that the critical question was still and the Rock of Truth: a Reply to "Supernatural Religion,"
further postponed. English orthodoxy stood en- London, 1875; J. Kennedy, A Brief Defence of Supernat-
The ural Christianity, being a Review of the Philosophical Prin-
trenched and intact down to 1860. assault was
..." Supernatural
ciples ... o/ Religion," ib. 1875;
opened by Essays and Reviews (1860; cf. F. Har- C. A. Row, The Supernatural in the New Testament Pos-
rison's brilliant sketch in The Creed of a Layman, sible, Credible,and Historical, ib. 1875; M. F. Sadler, The
Lost Gospel and its Contents,- or, the Author of " Super-
London, 1907), was continued by Ecce Homo in natural Religion
"
refuted by himself, ib. 1876; J. B. Light-
1865, and in 1874 reached its climax in Supernatural foot, Essays on ..." Supernatural Religion," ib. 1889
Religion. (generally regarded as a complete rejoinder). Many of the
The title of the book places it in close connection later works on the criticism of the Gospels (see under GOB-

with eighteenth-century deism. It is an assault PEL AND GOSPELS) remark on the subject of this article.
" "
upon Since that religion
supernatural religion. SUPERNATURALISM. See RATIONALISM AND
connected itself inseparably with miracles, the pur- SUPKRN ATUR ALISM
" " .

pose of the book is to bring the supernatural to

the ground by knocking the miraculous underpin- SUPERSTITION.
ning from beneath it. Definition (5 1).
"
I contend that the historical (argument against mira- Etymology; Biblical and Other Usages (5 2).
Historical Usage in Religion ($3).
cles) is the necessary complement of the philosophical argu-
ment. .. The preliminary affirmation is not that mira- Bases: Ignorance, Credulity (4).
.

cles are impossible, but that they are antecedently incredible.

Conservatism and Fear as Factors (5).
The counter-allegation is that, although miracles may be Historical Effects ((6).
Present Superstitions ( 7).
antecedently incredible, they nevertheless actually took
It is, therefore, necessary, not only to establish the
Present Consequences ( 8).
place.
antecedent incredibility, but to examine the validity of the Contributions to Development (5 0).
allegation that certain miracles occurred, and this involves
" Superstition may be defined objectively as either
the historical inquiry into the evidence for the Gospels
(preface to 6th ed., pp. v.-vi.). the aggregate of erroneous beliefs and practises cur-
The purpose to show that the canonical Gos-
is rent which may be traced to a combination of er-
removed in time from the events rant reason with feeble will, ill-controlled emotions,
pels are so far
and ignorance more or less complete;
they record that they lose all competence as wit-
z. Defini- or, any single act or belief which bears
nesses to the reality of the miraculous. The author
conceived that by thus lopping off the " supernat- tion. these marks. Subjectively, it is a
"
" mental attitude, a phyletic instinct-
ural from the religion of Jesus, the spiritual maj-
ive desire to believe in certain causal relations which
esty and the moral sublimity of Christ would shine
forth with beauty and clarity. have not been and can not be proved, either experi-
"
" entially or logically, to exist (F. B. Dresslar, Su-
Destructive must precede constructive criticism. It is
only when we clearly recognize that the Bible is not in any perstition and Education in University of California
ecclesiastical sense the word of God, that we can worthily Publications, V., i., p. 141, n.p., 1907). The essen-
honor and enjoy it as the word of Man " (prof., p. Ixxxii.). tial error of superstition is therefore in part the
"
We gam infinitely more than we lose in abandoning belief
in the reality of Divine Revelation. Whilst we retain pure misplacing of the source of causation. Psycholog-
and unimpaired the light of Christian Morality, we relin- ically, a superstition is often the result of inability
quish nothing but the debasing elements added to it by or unwillingness to carry on sustained thinking, in-
"
human superstition 489).
(ii.
volving a consequent readiness to accept as correct
Essays and Reviews had not touched the question certain conclusions which have been handed down
of the supernatural in the life of Christ, but con- without being tested as to their cogency. From
fined its specific criticism to the Old Testament. this same psychological standpoint, according to
Supernatural Religionj on the contrary, touched scientific investigation, subjective superstition, or
the very vitals of Christianity by assaulting the su- the tendency to accept quasi-reasoning as effective,
pernatural in the life of Christ. English orthodoxy is in part an emotional credulity inherited from
had learned nothing from deism, it was not willing earlier periods; it is a species of atavism. Inas-
to learn anything from Germany. So the attack much as inherited mental reactions are not easily
caused profound emotion and alarm. The strength changed, not only is there in this fact a partial ex-
of the book was due first of all to the facts that its planation of the persistence of superstition even
author carried the art of the popularizer to a high where education has in other respects produced its
pitch of perfection, and that he used his art in the effects, but also a partial palliation of the individual
interest of a dogmatic thesis. As a historical critic moral culpability of those who, though educated,
he took his responsibility quite as lightly as the still entertain beliefs of this character. More spe-
positive dogmatist on the other side took his. His cifically, and from the standpoint of religion, super-
art was not cramped or confined by original learn- stition is a belief that is erroneous in that it asserts
ing. He was fairly well read in German critical a causal connection between supernatural powers
scholarship, an accomplishment decidedly rare in and events, real or conceived, in the world of sense.
the England of that day. His book is part of the It thus not only involves ignorance of the laws of
German invasion of England. But, while he massed nature, but offends the enlightened reason in that
the conclusions of German scholarship in sweeping it opposes those dicta of revelation which have
and undiscriminating ways, he was altogether lack- found the securest sanction in human experience
ing in the intellectual restraints of first-hand knowl- and consciousness.
Bvpmtttfon THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG

Slight advance is made toward a comprehension practically denning superstition as proeterita

usur
"
of the subject by a study of the etymology and patio, antiquated usage." Even within the bound
equivalents of the word, though a development in of the same religion great, indeed, irreconcilable
meaning is traceable. The Latin superstitio (super difference exists as to what constitutes superstition
" Thus Protestants very many Roman Catholi<
and stare,to stand still over or by a thing "; cf. to
" beliefs and observances are nothing less than super-
the Gk. deisidaimonia, fear of the
a. Etymol- gods, religious feeling "; Germ. Aber- stition. Among these may be named the veneratioi

ogy; Biblical glaube, for Oberglaube, "belief to ex- of the Host, the adoration of images, the entire cul'
"
and Other cess," Dutch, Biglove) expressed ex- centering about the Virgin Mary and the saints
Usages, cessive fear of the gods, unreasonable particularly the belief in such phenomena as man]
religious belief," and was opposed alleged to have taken place at Lourdes and Loret<
"
to religio, reasonable awe of the
a proper, (qq.v.), together with the strongly entrenched re
gods" (Cicero, De natura deorum, i. 42, 117, ii. gard for relics, such as the Holy Coat (q.v.). Ye
28, 72). It developed so as to mean a (religious) to the devout Roman Catholic some of these thingi
performance over and above what custom and the belong to the very arcana of the religion, am
nature of the case required, or one which was not doubt of them seems little if at all short of bias
recognized by proper authority. In the authorized phemy. Another illustration which comes fron
version of the New Testament the word and its de- the same region is the Roman Catholic belief con
" "
rivative superstitious both occur. In Acts xvii. cerning the liquefaction of the blood of St. Januariui
4

22, in the celebrated address of Paul on Mar's Hill (q.v.), regarded by those of that faith as a recurren
" "
at Athens, superstitious translates wrongly the miracle, while scientists scoff at the explanation o
Greek deisidaimonesterous (R. V., margin, " relig- the alleged miracle, and point to the fact that analy
OUB "). It is to be noted that an unfavorable mean- sis of the contents of the vial is refused. Of course
ing is not to be accepted here, since it is not likely the guardians decline to allow decisive tests on th<
that Paul would have prejudiced his case by charg- ground of the sanctity of the relic. Agreement upoi
ing his hearers, whom he wished to conciliate, with what constitutes a superstition in many cases o
" " "
superstition." In Acts xxv. 19, superstition this sort is unattainable. The difficulty is not re
translates the Greek original deisidaimonia, though lieved if one considers that Roman Catholic author
exactly what term Festus employed (as he prob- ities would almost certainly denounce as supersti

ably spoke Latin) is of course not known. But, as tion the belief that incubation as practised in th<
in the former case, Festus would hardly have gra- cult of Asklepios (cf. Mary Hamilton, Incubation
tuitously offered offense to Agrippa and the Jews or the Cure of Diseases in Pagan Temples and Chris
"
by calling the religion of the latter superstition," tian Churcties, London, 1906) resulted in cures
the word employed must have had a good sense (cf .
though claimed that cures result from the prac
it is
R. V., text, " religion "). Outside these passages, tise as maintained in connection with certain saint:
the word does not occur in the English Bible. The in Roman Catholic churches in and near Naples, a
moaning the word has taken in modern times fol- Amain, and elsewhere, as well as under the Greel
lows a different construction of its etymological ele- Church (cf. Mary Hamilton, ut sup., pp. 109 sqq.)
"
ments, and embodies the idea of something sur- And the case is still more complicated by the fac
" "
viving or something left over (from an earlier that psychologists maintain the entire probability
and less advanced stage of culture)." This mean- of many cases of cures under both pagan and Chris
ing is in itself an explanation of many of the con- tian auspices, and offer what they deem scientific
crete facts of superstition they are survivals from explanation of the alleged cures.
earlier usage or belief which persist against the pro- On its subjective side or as a mental attitude su
nouncements of an enlightened reason. At the perstition seems to spring from four roots: (1) Ig
same time it is not precluded either in fact or the- norance, combined with the exceedingly prevalen
" "
ory that new superstitions arise from time to and characteristically primitive fallacy of post ho<
time. propter hoc, is a fundamental cause. Man has, s<
In close connection with the usage just noted is far as indications show, always
sough
that according to which the word is employed by 4. Bases: for the reasons of events, but in hi
adherents of one faith to characterize the religious Ignorance; lack of knowledge of real causes ha
beliefs and
practises of adherents of another faith, Credulity, often linked things causally which an
particularly those of a dead religion. not so connected. Thus, to give ai
3. Historical Tacit us (" Annals," xv. 44) speaks of example of savage logic, the breaking of the flub
Usage in the religion which had sprung from of an anchor cast ashore from a wreck on the west
"
Religion. Christ us, who had been put to death ern coast of Africa having been followed by tin
"
by ... Pontius Pilate as exitiabilis death of the man who committed the act, his asso
"
superstitio, pernicious superstition." On the other ciates regarded the anchor as a divinity which ha<
hand the compliment was returned when, under been offended by the mutilation and had punishec
Christian influence a couple of centuries later, pagan the evil-doer, and they thereafter did reverence t<
rites and worship were so denominated. Thus the anchor as to a god (cf. E. B. Tylor, Primitiv
Constantino in a law of 310, speaking of the pagan Culture, ii. 143 sqq., London, 1877).
" Similarly
religion of Rome, says: They who are desirous of bathing in a pool being followed by a scrofulou
being slaves to their superstition, have liberty for affection, the natives of the region regarded th<
"
the public exercise of their worship (Codex Theo- pool as the haunt of a deity which was offended fr
dosianus, IX., xvi. 1-2), only a little afterward the invasion and looked upon the disease as thl
169 feEtlGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

"
penalty for the breach of the divinity's rights (cf. happen often overcomes common sense," and a
Tylor, ut sup., ii. 209 sqq.). In like manner, the person who lives may even in
the present under this
fact that contact with a chief, or with some article influence do that which he will in other circum-
belonging to him, had preceded some calamity to stances hesitate to acknowledge. The emotions are
the person who touched him led to the belief that in modern life, and with the utmost certainty have
the chief and his possessions were taboo (see COM- always been, the strongest element in superstition.
" " " "
PARATIVE RELIGION, VI., 1, c), from which belief Faith is felt in certain indications in spite
has unquestionably resulted the death of many of the pronouncement of reason against them and
natives of Australia, New Zealand, and other re- of the mandate of the will not to receive them.
"
gions (Old New Zealand, by a Pakeha Maori, pp. Thus, as stated by Dresslar (ut sup., p. 150),
'
the
83, 94-97, London, 1884; A. S. Thomson, The Story
'
will to believe and the reason for believing are both

of New Zealand, i. 103, ib. 1859). Thus, in some re- impotent when opposed by a well-developed feeling
spects, superstition takes the form of pseudo-science. to believe." In other words, the emotions may over-
The cases are illustrative, and also representative ride both reason and will. It is susceptible of proof
of an enormous body of facts in human history; that fear, as an emotion, is in part the result of cer-
they serve to open up the wide range of primitive tain physical conditions. This is illustrated by the
and later superstitions, including the practises of fact that at night, when what psychologists call the
totcmism, taboo, magic, fetishism, sacrifice, and the subnormal and more primitive psychical forces are
like (see COMPARATIVE RELIGION; FETISHISM). to the front and man's rational and higher faculties
(2) Involved in the foregoing is a credulity from are less advantageously situated, the stress of su-
which enlightened reason offers the only escape. perstitious fear is accentuated. Similarly, physical
That primitive and early man should accept either or mental or moral illness produces conditions
explanations which occurred to him in accordance favorable to the operation of superstition. Shake-
with the methods of logic just exemplified, or those speare noted the effects along this line in his saying,
" "
which tradition hud supplied, was to be expected. Conscience does make cowards of us all (Ham-
Science, in the sense of careful induction, is a very let, III., i. 83). In this respect superstition, like
modern product, and the acquisition even yet of
is Ecstasy (q.v.), belongs, so far as it is religious, to
comparatively few. As a consequence, credulity is the pathology of religion, and altogether to the
one of the most persistent traits of the mass of man- pathology of psychology.
kind, and those \\ho exhibit it are perhaps propor- Only the merest suggestion, comparatively, of
tionally almost as numerous in Christendom as else- the all-pervasiveness and the harmful effects of su-
where As a striking example of this it is possible to perstition in history can be afforded here. A brief
cite the testimony of a clergyman at the trial of Dr. summary of the story is given as follows in J. G. "
C. A. Briggs (q.v.) for heresy in 1893 to the effect Frazer's PsycJie's Task (p. 1, London, 1909): It
that his mother in Scotland used to lay the Bible on (superstition) has sacrificed countless lives, wasted
the doorstep to keep out the witches. This custom untold treasures, embroiled nations, severed friendb,
is not yet entirely obsolete. Still widely prevalent parted husbands and wives, parents and children,
and productive of corresponding actions is the be- putting swords, and worse than swords, between
lief in the validity of signs and omens, such as indi- them: it has filled gaols and mad-
cations of the weather drawn from the inclination of 6. Histor- houses with its innocent or deluded
the horns of the new moon, or in prophylactics and ical Effects, victims: it has broken many hearts,
cures of various sorts such as that which regards embittered the whole of many a life,
us a cure or preventive of rheumatism the carrying and, not content with persecuting the living it has
in the pocket of a stolen potato, or as a cure for pursued the dead into the grave and beyond it,
warts the rubbing of the same with a piece of stolen gloating over the horrors which its foul imagination
bacon rind (which is then to be buried) No reason. has conjured up to appal and torture the survivors."
adequate to the alleged effects can be assigned for How numerous its ramifications and products have
the assumed causes, and induction finds no invari- been merely hinted in the following list of sub-
is

ability in such antecedents and consequences. So jects given as cross-references in a public-library

that credulity is to be charged with a part at least catalogue card: Alchemy, apparitions, astrology,
in the continuance of superstition. It is important charms, delusions, demonology, devil-worship, di-
to note in this connection that credulity is in a sense vination, evil eye, fetishism, folk-lore, legends,
communicable. A superstitious person, who is al- magic, mythology, occult sciences, oracles, palmis-
most invariably dogmatic in his attitude, easily try, relics, second sight, sorcery, spiritualism, super-
communicates and diffuses his anticipations or his natural, totems, and witchcraft. And this list is
dread and wins new adherents for his theories. most incomplete. This force has pervaded all
(3) The native conservatism of the human mind provinces of life from the cradle to the grave, and,
lends to the acceptance and retention of ex-
itself as Frazcr says, beyond. It establishes customs as
planations or statements when once binding as taboo, dictates forms of worship and per-
5. Conserv- they have become current. The au- petuates them, obsesses the imagination and leads
atism and thority of tradition is potent, and what it to create a world of demons and hosts of lesser
Fear as the fathers believed is often for that spiritsand ghosts and ghouls, and inspires to fear
Factors, reason alone taken as fact. So that in and even worship of them. It has, even under
this aspect superstition is an external- Christianity, sought and received the sanction of
ization of the native conservatism of the race. the Church, as in the affirmation of Thomas Aquinas
(4) Fear is also an element. Dread of what may (Quodlibeta, xi. 10) regarding Witchcraft (q.v.) and
Superstition THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 170

" " "

in the bull Summit desiderantea of Innocent VIII. the attention paid to signs and omens." The
issued in 1484 commanding the clergy to assist in function of the Church as an educator and the large
hunting out and punishing witches, and giving papal field which is here opened bring the

authority to belief in succubi, incubi, and other 8. Present subject in this aspect into view with
horrible figments of the diseased imagination (text Conse- relation to religious duty. Knowledge
of the bull is hi Reich, Documents, pp. 200-201; cf. quences. of the actual work of the Church war-
further, Schaff, Christian Church, v. 1, pp. 879 sqq., rants the statement that not sufficient
and 2, pp. 514 sqq.)* And with equal force it has made attention is paid to this side of the Church's pai-
use of the State, from the time of Hammurabi (q.v., deutic mission. The preoccupation of the mind by
II., 2) to the Salic Law (xix. 2; Eng. transl. in F. A. such superstitious faiths can but retard the accept-
Ogg, Source Book, p. 64, New York, 1908), and ance not merely of scientific but of religious truth.
even much later (see ORDEAL, 9). It reestablished The very springs of healthy mental and spiritual
the pestiferous distinction between white magic perception are poisoned while such trivialities are
and black, a distinction which seems to have existed permitted to control the sources of action. That
in all grades of civilization. Its deadliest power, such effects are very far-reaching, even to the con-
perhaps, is that by which it acquires influence over trol in a measure of business concerns of immense
the commonest affairs of everyday life, stifling importance, is shown by the fact that some great
initiative, stagnating thought, poisoning the in- corporations engaged in transoceanic transporta-
tellect, and subjecting activities to the imagined tion avoid Friday as a day of sailing, this custom
effects of chance happenings with which they have being undoubtedly due in considerable part to the
no relation. outworn sailors' superstition as to the misfortune
The statement just made may be exemplified by which surely awaits the voyagers who set out on
reference to the list of current superstitions educed that day. And another consequence which is not
by the inductive study of the subject by Dresslar paltry is that by such beliefs imposture is encour-
in the work already cited. The study was conducted aged, while hosts of quacks in medicine, palmists,
" "
upon the basis of questions submitted fortune-tellers, and wizards flourish on the
7. Present to students of normal schools (there- credulity of the ignorant and deluded, at the same
Super- fore adults or adolescents) in California time that these beliefs are spread because the cun-
stittons. hi the twentieth century. Things with ning and ambiguous pronouncements of the im-
which superstitions were connected postors are interpreted as wisdom by the victims
were named as follows: salt, bread and butter, tea and new strength is furnished to superstitious
and coffee, plants and fruit; fire, lightning, rainbow, growths. Of the results in loss of life in more back-
the moon, the stars; babies, birds, owls, peacocks ward communities such as Russia and even Ireland,
and their feathers, chickens, cats, dogs, cows, sheep, of sacrifices and cruelties practised even in the lat-
swine, horses, rabbits, rats, frogs and toads, fish, ter part of the nineteenth century and indeed in
crickets, spiders, snakes, lizards, turtles, wolves, the city of New York itself, there is not space here
bees, dragon flies; chairs and tables, clocks, mirrors, to treat. How terrible the current beliefs and the
spoons, knives and forks, pointed instruments, pins, almost contemporary consequences are may be dis-
hairpins, combs, umbrellas (mostly unlucky), can- covered from the accounts in the Popular Science
dles, matches, tea-kettle, brooms, dishcloths, hand- Monthly for 1898-99, pp. 207-218, of murders, e.g.,
kerchiefs, gardening tools, ladders, horseshoes, hay; of helpless infants supposed to be fairy changelings
days of the week and various festivals or fasts, es- in the last part of the nineteenth century. And if
pecially Hallowe'en, birthdays; various numbers, at such a period events can occur such as are there
counting, laughing, singing, crying; starting on a recounted, the imagination must fail to portray what
journey and turning back, two persons simultane- has happened in the darker ages of human history.
ously saying the same thing, passing in at one door It is therefore no argument for the perpetuation
and out at another, walking on opposite sides of a of superstition that some fruits of good have re-
post, stepping on cracks, sneezing, crossing hands sulted from its existence, such as those adduced by
while shaking hands, use of windows as exits, J. G. Frazer (in Psyche's Task, ut sup.). Exam-
stumbling; itching of palm, eye, nose, ear, or foot; ination of savage and barbarous life reveals that,
warts, moles; various articles of dress, shoes, pre- for instance, the institution of taboo,
cious stones, amulets and charms, rings, money; 9. Contri- founded essentially upon superstition,
wish bones; death and funerals, dreams, spiritisms, buttons to has entrenched respect for certain
weddings, and initials. Of course, even this long Develop- forms of government, especially those
list is most incomplete and might be expanded in- ment of a monarchical type, and in this way
definitely. The practical significance of the beliefs has contributed to the development of
registered in connection with these various beliefs the body politic and consequently to society at
or actions is that activities and procedure are sup- large. By this means the will of the individual has
posed to be governed by them action is indicated within certain lines been subjected to what is rec-
"
or inhibited according as the " sign is favorable ognized as a common good, a basis for a partially
or unfavorable. A slavery with respect to action is altruistic practisehas been laid, and the exercise of
thus shown which ought to be anomalous in en- self-denialhas been fostered. In a similar way re*
lightened Christendom, and yet is manifested as spect for private property has been enforced under
current. fear of penalty impending from supernatural
pow-
A paver fact than the preceding is involved in ers. In certain stages of development the sugges-
the slavery of thought which is a consequence of tion and protection of the rights of
ownership were
171 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

necessary in order to an attitude toward communal Origins of Popular Superstitions and Customs, London,
And 1010.
affairs which should make progress possible.
Useful as source books for various superstitions are:
though this end was not consciously present, the W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, 2 vols., London, 1829;
historical effects are unquestioned. Another social T. Wright, Narrative of Sorcery and Magic, 2 vols., Lon-
don, 1851; T. F. Campbell, Popular Tales of the West
institution, that of the family, has experienced
Highlands, 4 vols., Edinburgh, 1862; R. Taylor, Te Ika
some degree of unfolding under the protection of A Maui; or New Zealand and its Inhabitants, London,
certain superstitions touching the relations of the 1870; S. Matter, The Land of Charity; a descriptive Ac-
sexes. It can not be doubted that the passions and count of Travancore and its People, London, 1871; A. R.
lusts of man have been restrained, in part, it is Wallace, The Malay Archipelago, 6th ed.. London, 1877;
8. Baring-Gould, Curious Myths of the Middle Ages, many
probable, under instinctive impressions that license editions, e.g., Boston, 1882; J. Grimm, Teutonic Myth-
was injurious which registered themselves as super- ology, 4 vols., London, 1888; H. Spencer, Principles of

stitions, under the influence of which what is now Sociology, chaps, x.-xxvi., London, 1888; T. Parkinson,
Yorkshire Legends and Traditions, 2 vols., London, 1880;
known to be immorality was decreased, e.g., penal- A. B. Ellis, The Ewe-Speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast
tiesof infidelity to marriage ties were imagined of West Africa, London, 1800; R. H. Codrington, The
which checked indulgence and the welfare of society Melanesians, Oxford, 1801; J. Fiske, Myths and Myth-
was thereby served. In a fourth way, namely, by Makers, Boston, 1801; G. B. Grinnell, Blackfoot Lodge
Tales, New York, 1802; J. Curtin, Hero Tales of Ireland,
hedging about the life of man and by introducing London, 1804; idem. Myths and Folk-Tales of the Rus-
the fear of taking that life because of the penalties sians, Western Slavs, and Magyars, Boston, 1003; F.
which would follow, the respect and honor for life Granger, The Worship of the Romans, London, 1805;
W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folk-Lore of Northern
itself upon which in so large measure present human
India, London, 1806; J. Abercromby, The Pre- and Proto-
society is founded has gradually been built up. The historic Finns, 2 vols., London, 1808; B. Spencer and

superstitions which have accomplished these results F. J. Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, London,
are as varied as the peoples among which they have 1800; idem, Northern Tribes of Central Australia, ib.
1004; J. G. Fraser, Golden Bough, 2d ed., 3 vols., London,
worked; and under them and out of them man has 1000; J. G. Campbell, Superstitions of the Highlands and
changed in character from savagery and barbarism Islands of Scotland, Glasgow, 1000; idem, Witchcraft and
into something higher and more ennobling. These Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland, ib.
1002; F. H. Cushing, Zuni Folk-Tales, Now York, 1001;
facts arc, however, no plea for the continuance of
H. G. Hutchinson, Dreams and their Meaning, London,
illogical or irrational practises. To end them both 1001; G. F. Abbott, Macedonian Folk-Lore, Cambridge,
the Church, with all its auxiliaries, and the State, 1003; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, 2 vola., London,
3d ed., 1003; E. L. Daniels. Encyclopedia of Superstitions,
employing especially educational means and proc- Folk-lore, and Occult Sciences, 3 vols., Chicago, 1003;
esses, are obligated; the aim is to encourage man A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia,
to honor his Creator by the intelligent and rational London, 1004; E. Crawley, The Tree of Life, London,
use of his powers as against the retention of customs 1005; C. Partridge, Cross River Natives, London, 1905;
A. C. Kruijt, Het Animisme in den Indischen Archipel,
or beliefs which arc impeached by reason and by a
The Hague, 1006; C. A. Sherring, Western Tibet and the
lofty faith in God. GBO. W. GILMORB. British Borderland, London, 1006; E. M. Gordon, Indian
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The one work discussing superstition from Folk-Tales, London, 1908; B. Thomson, The Fijians, a
the modern inductive standpoint is that by Dreeslar, cited Study of the Decay of Custom, London, 1908; A. C. Hollis,
in the text. The literature giving the superstitions of The Nandi, their Language and Folk-lore, Oxford, 1009;
A. Freybe, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube in seincm Ver-
various peoples is extremely abundant, and no attempt
hdltnis zum Christ enium und im Unterschiede von der Zau-
is made here to exhaust the list. Only some works con-
berei, Gotha, 1910; T. G. Knowlson, The Origins of Popular
cretely representative of the psychology of the subject
from different religions are cited. The list of works given Superstitions and Customs, New York, 1910; The Laws of
under FETISHISM; MAGIC; and WITCHCRAFT are of course Manu, in SBE, vol. xxv.
pertinent, and are not repeated here. Especially valua- SUPRALAPSARIANISM. See CALVINISM, 8.
ble for concrete statements of superstition in the Americas
are the painstaking Reports and other publications of the SUPREMACY, ACTS OF: Acts declaring the
Smithsonian Institution. Sidney Hartland's Primitive king (or queen) of England the head (or governor)
Paternity, London, 1010, a discussion of certain concrete of the Church of England and abrogating therefore
primitive superstitions, contains a very rich bibliography
which should not be overlooked; and H. Webster's Primi- the authority of the pope.
tive Secret Societies, New York, 1008, in the footnotes re- Henry VIII., although bent on retaining the chief
points in Roman Catholic doctrine and worship,
fers to literature on travels which are sources of very
numerous facts. Discussions of superstitions are. R. Blake-
resolved to abolish in time papal jurisdiction within
man, Philosophical Essay on Credulity and Superstition,
New York, 1840; C. Meyer, Der Aberglaube des Mittclalters, his realm. The rupture with Rome, at first at-
Basel, 1884; A. Lang, Custom and Myth, London, 1884; tempted by means of gradual steps, was definitely
idem, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, ib. 1880; C.Rogge, Aber-
accomplished in Nov., 1534, by the passing of the
glaube, VoUcsglaube, und Volksbrauch, Leipsio, 1800; L.
Act of Supremacy (26 Henry VIII., chap. 1), which
Strumpell, Der Aberglaube, Leipsic, 1800; L. J. B. Berenger-
Feraud, Superstitions et survivancew etudiees au point de vue conferred on the king the headship of the Church of
de leur origins et de lews transformations, 5 vols., Paris,
England. The sovereign became, without qualifi-
1805-06; F. D. Bergen, Current Superstitions, Boston, 1806;
A. Lehmann, Aberglaube und Zauberei, Stuttgart, 1808; A. tion, "the only supreme head in earth of the
' "
D. White, Hist, of the Warfare of Science and Theology in Church of England, called Anglicana Ecclesia.'
Christendom, 2 vols., New York, 1808; E. P. Evans, in Pop- This assumption of ecclesiastical jurisdiction was
ular Science Monthly, liv (1808), 206-221; idem. Criminal
relinquished by Mary, who likewise repealed all the
Prosecution and Capital Punishment of Animals, New
York, 1006; A. Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der
other enactments of her father's reign antagonistic
Oegetnoart, 3d ed. ( Berlin, 1000; J. D. Hirsch, Der Aber- to papal authority. Elizabeth's first act, when she
Olaubc, Bielefeld, 1002; C. F. Robinson, in American Jour- felt assured of her position, was to nullify all the
nal of Religious Psychology, Aug., 1004, pp. 240 sqq.;
W. Fischer, Aberglaube otter Zeiten, 5 vols., Stuttgart, religious restorations of her sister, Mary. Her Su-
1006-07; E. Westonnarck, The Origin and Development premacy Act (1 Elizabeth, chap. 1) was passed in
of Moral Ideas, London, 1008; T. Sharper Knowlson, Jan., 1559. It reenacted many of the antipapal
SVtttU'ttp
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

acts of Henry VIII., andvested the fulness of

it practised asceticism until his fortieth year,
when
ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the crown. It pre- his system was so exhausted that, in order to save
scribed for all holding office in Church and State his body, he was forced to discontinue it. Return-
an oath recognizing the Queen as " the only Su- ing to his monastery he became lector and prior.
preme Governor of this realm as well in all spiritual He sided with the pope in his dispute with Louis of
and ecclesiastical things or causes, as temporals/' Bavaria, and was banished from Constance and
and provided penalties for those refusing to take it. sent to Diessenhoven (1339-46). Here he began
work as an itinerant preacher, also hearing confes-
gu'rt-us, LAURENTIUS: German Car-
sions, and in his wanderings sought out the Domin-
thusian; b. at LQbeck in 1522; d. at Cologne May ican convent of Toss (near Winterthur) and met
23, 1578. Probably of 'Protestant parentage, he Elsbet Stagcl, daughter of a councilor of Zuricn,
was educated at Frankfort-on-the-Oder and at
who was the original inspirer of the publication of
Cologne, where he became acquainted with Petrus his biography. He subsequently retired to Ulm,
Canisius; was won to Roman Catholicism, and, in
passing his later years in the Dominican monastery
1541, became a Carthusian. All his subsequent life there. At what date he was summoned before a
was characterized by his zeal for the exercise of the
council and his books condemned, as containing
rules of his order, and, in his writings, by his pas-
false doctrine that contaminated the whole land, is
sionate enthusiasm for his church and his violent
uncertain.
hatred of the Reformation. Among his works was
a Commentarius brevis rerum in orbe gestarum ab Among Suso's writings was the so-called Exem-
plar, a collection of four treatises with a prologue:
anno 1500 usque in annum 1668 (Cologne, 1568), " "
(1) the Biography "; (2) Book of Eternal Wis-
which was continued by others -to 1673, and was in " "
dom "; (3) Book of Truth
Little Little
"; (4)
reply to Johann Sleidan's Protestant Commentarii Book of was added an unabridged
Letters," to which
de Btatu religionis etreirepublicce, Carolo Quinto book of letters. A fifth work is Horoloyium sapien-
CcBsare (Strasburg, 1555), a famous history of the "
ticB; a sixth consisted of Sermons," and there was
Reformation. He also wrote HomHice sive con-
dones prcestantissimorum ecdesia doctorum in evan- possibly a seventh, the MinncbuMcin. The date "
of these books is unknown. The " Biography
gelia totius anni (1569); and Concilia omnia (1567). owed its existence to Elsbet Stagol, who wrote down
His main work was the Vita sanctorum (6 vols., On learning
all that Suso had told her of his life.
1570-75), republished with an additional volume
this, Suso destroyed a portion of the notes and ex-
under the title, De probatis sanctorum historiis
panded and revised the rest, not observing chrono-
(1618; 12 vols., Turin, 1875), which was recognized
logical order, but describing his inner life, using
by the Bollandists as the best predecessor of their his career merely as a guide to the attainment of
own hagiology (ASB). (O. ZGcKLERf.) Christian perfection. He finished it shortly before
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Rasa, Die Convertiten teti dor Reforma- his death. The
"
Book of Eternal Wisdom " be-
tion, ii. 338 sqq., Freiburg, 1866; ADB, xxzvii. 166; KLt
zi. 099-1001; D*r Katholik, 1863. ii. 416 sqq.
came one of the favorite books of meditation of the
Middle Ages. Suso made a free Latin translation of
SURPLICE. See VESTMENTS AND INSIGNIA,
it, the Horologium sapiential, in order to present it
ECCLESIASTICAL,.
to Hugo von Beaucemain, who was general of his
SURPLICE FEES. See STOLE FEES. order, 1333-41, and this fixes its probable date.
" "
The Book
Truth is mainly devoted to the de-
of
SUSA. See SBUSHAN.
fense of Eckhart, and to that end is directed against
SUSANNA, HISTORY OF. See APOCRYPHA, the Beghards (see BEGHARDS AND BEOUINEB) and
A, IV., 3. the Brethren of the Free Spirit (see FREE SPIRIT,
BRETHREN OP THE), who distorted Eckhart's teach-
SUSO (SUS, SUSS, SEUSE), HSINRICH (AMAlf-
DUS): German mystic; b. at Constance Mar. 21, ings.
The aim of all Suso's teaching was to point the
1300; d. at Ulm Jan. 25, 1366. One of the great-
est of German mystics, and the inspired prophet of path to perfection, as it was made plain to him in
the religious lyric, he understood how through di- his monastic study of the writings of Solomon, dur-

vine love to influence a sinful world by the power ing which time he had visions of Christ and of the
of human love and sympathy. He came of a noble Virgin Mary. Many of his views and speculations
are derived from the great teachers of the Church,
family, but took the name of his mother, a godly
woman, in preference to that of his worldly father, John of Damascus, Augustine, Bonaventura, and
Von Berg. Being delicate, he was destined for the others. In certain points Eckhart's views arc dis-

ministry, and was permitted to enter the Domin- tinctly recognizable, as, for instance, the teaching
ican monastery when only thirteen. Being dissat- that in aspiring to perfection man becomes one with
isfied spiritually with the monastic routine, he
God. Suso's aim, however, was not speculation;
he sought to make religion have a practical bearing
sought to attain higher spirituality and devoted
himself to the practise of asceticism, wearing a hair on life. (FERDINAND COHRS.)
shirt studded with nails and a cross a span long, BIBLIOGRAPHY: The writings of Suso were firat edited by
F. Fabri, Augsburg, 1482, then by A. Sorge, 1512, L.
pierced with nails and needles, and remained for Surius* Lat. tranal., Cologne, 1555, by H. Diepenbrook,
years in utter seclusion, hi order to tame his spirit Heinrich 8tuo8 . . . Leben wnd Schriften, Regensburg,
and subdue his body. While studying in Strasburg 1829, 4th ed., 1884* by Denifle, Munich, 1880, and by
H. B. Bihlmeyer, Stuttgart, 1907; FT. tranal. by Thirot,
and Cologne, hi his twenty-eighth year, he came 2 vols., Paris, 1899; and the Brfe/e. ed. W. Preger, Leip-
under the influence and teaching of Eckhart (q.v.), fo, 1870. Preger also edited an additional and previ-
whom he defended from the charge of heresy . Suso ously unknown writing in AM
A, III. KUsse, and. 2, pp.
178 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

425 sqq. On Suio's life and works consult: 0. Schmidt, 1878; in 1878 he was appointed parish priest for
TSK,1843, pp. 835 qq.; F. Bricks, Henri Suao, StrM-
Leikanger in Sogn. He had already become a power
in
burg, 1854; The Life of Bleeeed Henry SUM, by himaeif,
in local politics, and in 1876 had been elected mem-
trend, from the German by T. F. Knox, London, 1865;
the Prooramm of the Gymnasium of Duisburg for 1860 ber of the Storthing, in which he held a seat until
by Volkmann; L. K&roher, in Freiburger Dibceeenarchiv, 1884.
1868, pp. 187 sqq.; F. Bohringer, Die Kirch* Chrieti in
ihre Zeugen, xviii. 1 sqq., Stuttgart, 1878; W. Preger, During these years of service in the Storthing he
Geachichte der deutachen Myetik im Mittelalter, ii. 309 sqq., was an active worker in the committee on ecclesi-
Leipsic, 1881; F. Vetter, Ein Myetikerpaar dee 14. Jahr- astical matters. In 1884 when Johan Sverdrup,
hunderta, Baaol, 1882; K. Goedeke, Orundriee fur Getchichie
der deutachen Dichtung, i. 212, Dresden, 1884; R. Seeberg,
Norway's greatest statesman, was elected prime
Ein Kampf wn jenaeitigea Leben: Lebenabild einee miUel- minister, Jakob Sverdrup, his nephew, was made a
olterlvchen Frommen, Dorpat, 1889; K. Jager. Heinrich member of the cabinet, arid in 1885-39 he was chief
Seuae aua Schwoben, Basel, 1894; H. Delacroix, Etudes of the department for ecclesiastical affairs and pub-
d'hiat, et de psychologic du myaticiame, Paris, 1908; R. A.
lic instruction. To .him Norway owes the adoption
Vaughan, Hours with the Mystics, i. 341 sqq., 8th ed.,
London, n.d.; Schaff, Christian Church, v. 2 f pp. 233*234, of two new series of pericopes (1887), and of a new
262 sqq.; ADB, xxxvii. 169 sqq.; KL, v. 1721*29. liturgy and book of worship (1889). Through his
efforts the State dame to permit a greater latitude
SUSPENSION. See JURISDICTION, ECCLESIAS-
in using the churches. When a new ministry was
TICAL, L, 1, 5.
formed, 1889, Jakob Sverdrup got a well-earned
SUTEL, stf'tel, JOHANN: German Reformer; respite as legislator. He was appointed parish priest
b. at Altenmorschen near Melsungen (50 m. n.e. of in Bergen, which anew elected him member of the
Giossen) 1504; d. at Northeim (48 m. s.e. of Han- Storthing, where he served 1892-97. After a schism
over) Aug. 26, 1575. In 1518 he went to Erfurt to in the liberal political party, he became one of the
study, andafter the completion of his education leaders of the moderate whig. Twice he was re-
became rector in Melsungen. In 1530 he was called quested by the king to form a new ministry the
to Gottingcn as Evangelical preacher. At first he existing union with Sweden was the burning ques-
preached at the Church of St. Nicolaus; later he re- tion but he could not comply with the king's
ceived the parish of St. John's as Evangelical super- wishes because of political opposition at home.
intendent. In 1542 Landgrave Philip of Hesse In 1895 he was a second time appointed member of
called him to Schwcinfurt to introduce the Refor- the cabinet and chief of the department for eccle-
mation there, where he formulated a church order siastical matters. With
his gift of organizing, fine
for the city under the title, Kirchenordnung Eines political intuition (a family birthright), and his
Ehrbaren Raths des hdligen Reich* Stadt Schwein- great learning, he was instrumental in having passed
furt in Franken (Nuremberg, 1543); but the out- a number of salutary measures regarding churches,
break of the Schmalkald War compelled his flight cemeteries, salaries of the clergy, etc. With the
from the city in 1547. After a short activity as resignation of the entire ministry Feb. 17, 1893, he
pastor in Ailendorf (1547-48), he became again retired from political life, and was appointed bishop
preacher in Gottingen at the congregation of St. of Bergen. But before he could be consecrated, a
Alban (1548-55). In 1555 he accepted a call to the painful disease, which kept him confined after Mar.,
Church of St. Sixtus at Northeim, where he labored 1898, terminated his life.
until his death. He published Artikel wider das Perhaps no one has worked so faithfully and ag-
pdpstlictie Volk in Gdttingen (1531); Das Evan- gressively to give the State Church of Norway a
yelium von der grausamen erschrecklichen Zerstdrung liberal form of self-government. He followed the
Jerusalems (Wittenberg), with a preface by Luther; plan, originated by his father, of building up the
Historia von Lazaro, aus dem XL Kapitel das Evan- Norwegian church on a national basis true to the
gelii S. Johannis gezogen (1543). ideas of the Reformation. As leader of the demo-
(PAUL TSCHACKEBT.) cratic element in the western part of Norway he
BIBLIOOBAPHT: P. Tschackert, Johann Sutel, Brunswick, was a strong opponent of High-church bureaucracy
1807; H. G. Book, Sutelliue, Schweinfurt, 1842 (good only as well as of the anti-Christian literary movements
for the Sohweinfurt period).
which were undermhiing the morals of the Nor-
SVERDRUP, tsvarMrup, JAKOB LIV HOSTED: wegian people. An illustration of the first was his
Norwegian clergyman and statesman; b. in Chris- continuous opposition to the High-church concep-
tiania Mar. 27, 1845; d. in Bergen June 11, 1899. tion of the office of the ministry held by J. N. Skaar,
He was graduated from Nissens Skole (B.A., 1864) later bishop.
and from the University of Christiania (Candidate By his translations of French and German relig-
hi Theology, 1867). A traveling scholarship from ious works, by his sermons, essays, debates scat-
the government enabled him to study the people's tered in an immense amount of printed matter, too
high schools in Denmark (see Grundtvig) which large to be covered here his name is familiar to
proved profitable to him when he organized a like every household in Norway. He was coeditor of
school in Sognedal. These institutions pay special Ny Luthersk Kirketidcnde, 1877-81. Of special in-
attention to influencing the personality of young terest to the American reader is an article on the
men and women, fostering an affection for country oldest Norwegian theological school in America,
and mother-tongue. The attempt is not to train Augsburg Seminary, founded 1869, now quite Ang-
the pupils for any particular position in life or for Luthersk Kirketidende, 1875, no. 14. Like-
licized, in
examination, but to fit the pupils by general cul- wise hU Forklaring over Luthers litte Katehisme ( 1 893) ,

ture for whatever sphere of life they are called upon an abbreviated edition of his father's epitome of
to enter. Sverdrup taught in such a school, 1871- Luther's catechism, which in 1898 passed through
Sweden THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOQ 174

the nineteenth edition. It has been translated into With the beginning of the eleventh century
external conditions changed. Christianized Den-
English by H. A. Urseth, Luther's Small Catechism
Explained (Minneapolis, 1900). JQHN Q EvjEN mark had obtained inner stability; with the help
of England King Olaf Trygvesson (995-1000) of
BXBUOOBAPHT: B. Halvonen, Norsk Forfatter-Lankon,
J.
v. 537 aqq., Chriatiania, 1901 (contains a complete list of Norway had Christianized his countrymen; and
bis works).
after the battle of Svoldern (1000), Svend (Sweyn I.),
the redoubtable king of Denmark, who had brought
SWEDEN. England under his yoke (1014), annexed part of
I. History. Norway. His son Knut the Great, or Canute, bred
1. The Missionary Period (830-1130).
2. The Roman Catholic Period.
in England, introduced English interests. On the
Foundations (1). other hand, the archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen
Organization ( 2).
struggled to preserve their northern interests. The
The Height of Power (} 3).
work of evangelizing was prosecuted with earnest
Struggle of the Rising Nationality with the Hier-
zeal from two directions (1000-66), with the result
archy ( 4).
3. The Later Period. that the kingdom was won to Christianity. In 1008
The Reformation (1520-1611) (5 1). Olaf Skottkonung, with many of his nobles, was
Ecclesiastical Organization and Orthodoxy (ft 2).
The Religious Awakening (ft 3). baptized at Husaby in West Gothland, in spite of
The Neological Period and the Nineteenth Century the fact that he and his successors retained their
(54). office as chief defenders of the heathen worship and
II. Statistics.
of the national temple at Upsala. It is disputed
III. Swedish Theology of the Nineteenth Century.
whether Siegfried, who baptized Olaf, was German
Sweden is a kingdom constituting the eastern or English, but the fact remains that West Goth-
side of the Scandinavian peninsula in northwestern land, bordering on Norway, first received Christian-
Europe. It has an area of 172,876 square miles and ity from Norway, probably through the English
a population (1909) of 5,476,441. priest, Sigurd, who is almost certainly the same as
I. History. 1 The Missionary Period (83Q-1 180)
. ;
Siegfrid, and in this manner came to be one of the
In the beginning of the ninth century, the Norse greatest saints of Sweden. He also preached in
religion had assumed a strong monotheistic tend- Sm&land, where he is venerated as the founder of
ency. Thor and Odin had acquired preeminence the church in Vexio. One effect of the leaven of
over the other gods, who, on the other hand, were Christianity among the people was the awakening
multiplied in the direction of polytheism. This two- of individual consciousness; there arose a desire to
fold tendency prepared the soil for the reception hand down the names of their dead to posterity.
of Christ, and Sweden was one of the few heathen Most of the runic inscriptions date from this period;
countries in which missionary activity took its in- and these stones show that Christianity was now
itiative from the natives themselves. The belief in spreading to East Gothland, and as far as Svealand.
heathen deities was not in decadence, but the proc- But West Gothland was its head source, and the
lamation of Christ was not in the eyes of the Scan- first bishopric was nominally erected there at Skara
dinavians necessarily inimical to their system of (Thurgot was first bishop of Skara, c. 1025). Those
religion; so that everywhere old Norse representa- called bishops in Sweden at this time were really
tions, with little alteration, could be transplanted missionary bishops. King Olaf and his sons, Anund
to the soil of triumphant Christianity. It was a and Edmund, carried on a very prudent religious
matter of outward test between the strength of policy, exercising no pressure to hasten the conver-
Christ and the ancient gods. This is why, all through sions. The Swedish mission developed more rapidly
the Middle Ages, old national ideas and beliefs en- after Adalbert became archbishop of Bremen, and ho
deavored to reshape the Roman Catholic Church. succeeded in maintaining the dominance of German
Great political interests had a share in Christiani- influence; Adalvard I. and Adalvard II., ordained
zing Sweden, influencing the sending of the first mis- by him, introduced Christianity to the north, the
sionary, Ansgar (q.v.), in 830. Sweden became one former to Vftrmland, the latter to Sigtuna in Upp-
of the northern world powers in the ninth and tenth land, which later became the chief seat of the church
centuries, taking part in the wars in western Europe; of North Sweden. John the Monk was bishop of
Denmark was at times under its control; and the Birka, the first monastic known to have worked in
Russian kingdom was established by Sweden (Rus) Sweden after the time of Ansgar. Stenfi, another
under Rurik about 860. Sweden was also in close German missionary, went to Helsingland and be-
relation with the Byzantine orient at this time, and came the apostle of the Lapps, and a rune records
of such importance as to attract missionary zeal. that Jemtland was now Christianized. The first
The missionary history falls into three periods. The church was built in Gothland and around it the
firstconsists of incipient sporadic efforts for 150 town of Visby grew. Asmund, a relative of Sigurd,
years under the archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen. who had obtained access to King Edmund, sought
After Ansgar's death in 865 his work was carried in Rome to obtain ordination independently of
on by Rimbert. Of the succeeding archbishops Bremen; but Adalbert thwarted his plans.
Unni seems to have been most active in the Swedish The year of the Norman conquest in England,
mission, and died while on a visit to Birka in 936. 1066, witnessed the downfall of Adalbert and the
There were probably few Christians in this period; severing of the relations with Germany, through
the mission exerted no influence upon national in- the reaction of heathenism in the German colonies.
terests; the chief end seems to have been to bring All attempts, therefore, to unite Sweden with the in-
Sweden under German domination and culture. terests of the German Empire were at an end. The
176 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Sweden

pope's desire was to free the north from Bremen and Archbishop Eskil received the pallium intended for
attach it to his interest. Gregory VII. was the first Sweden, and the Danish Lund obtained the pri-
pope to interfere directly in Swedish affairs (two macy over Sweden. As a token of Swedish depend-
letters addressed to King Inge, 1080 and 1081, in- ence on the Church of Rome, the synod decreed the
viting him to send ambassadors and contributions annual contribution of Peter's pence. The first
to Rome). Stenkil, the last king capable of holding missionary crusade was a sign that the Church was
together the kingdom, died in 1066, and the national awakening to self-consciousness. King Eric of
assembly was dissolved for a century. The antag- Uppland, the rival of King Sverker of East Goth-
onism between the provinces became more marked land for the national throne, undertook a crusade,
(according to some, between two races, the Svea, or in 1150, to heathen Finland, where, in the south-
Swedes, and the Goths) the more prominent prov-
; western part, a mighty work of conversion was car-
inces, West Gothland, East Gothland, and Uppland, ried on. It is impossible to determine whether there
had each its royal stock, although for a short time was a political motive behind this, but Eric acquired
Stenkil's successors, who were of West Gothland, fame above all other Swedes as a warrior of God;
maintained a certain preeminence over the rest of and when, shortly after, he was assassinated by a
the country. They were Christian, but had not the Danish pretender to the throne, he was crowned as
wise tolerance of their predecessors; and thus the a martyr, and thus became patron saint of Sweden.
opposition to the practically heathen Svealand and He was revered also in Denmark and Germany.
the Upsala temple became more intense. The peo- Equal reverence was accorded in Sweden to the
ple there demanded that the king should preside Norwegian Saint Olaf, in the earlier Middle Ages.
over the heathen sacrificial worship. This discord The establishment of an archbishopric at Upsala in
was turned to good account by the missionaries in 1164 was the culmination of the work of establishing
spreading the Gospel. East and West Gothland the Roman Catholic Church; and Sweden became
were, in 1100, the chief stronghold of Christianity, a self-governing church province. This was the
and Svealand now joined them. According to leg- result of the Gregorian policy of Alexander III., who
end, David was the apostle to Westmanland, and feared the growth of large archiepiscopal dioceses;
Eskil and Botvid were the apostles to Soderman- and it was a powerful obstacle to Frederick I. in
land; and they all came from England or had been attaching Sweden to German interests. But the
educated there. Anselm, archbishop of Canter- founding of this archbishopric was important as a
bury, who upheld
the papacy, became interested in factor in the individual development of Sweden.
Sweden, and it was partly due to him that Lund The primate of Lund still retained the right to con-
was made the see of an archbishop of the northern secrate the archbishop of Upsala; but the one desire
countries in 1104, although Sweden's formal de- of the Swedish Church was to free itself from this
pendence on Bremen was not dissolved until 1150. vestige of foreign dependence.
English bishops were also sent to Skara. The down- The next period (1164-1305) was that of organi-
fall of the ancient gods was due to the work of the zation. Karl, the son of Sverker, soon gained recog-
English missionaries; finally, in Uppland, where nition in Svealand, and Sweden once more became
Sigtuna became the seat of a bishopric; and by 1130 a united kingdom. The ecclesiastical system of law
Sweden may be considered a Christian country. and organization served as prototype for the
2. The Roman Catholic Period: A brief period developing state system; on the other hand, it was
(1130-64) of national dissolution closed these in- the papal policy to support a unified
ternal conflicts simultaneously with the weakening
of English aggression by interior disturbances at
k"1^ ru k > ^ UCJ k a go vermnent was
indispensable to the inner organiza-
home; this appears to have been especially favor- tion of the newly established church with respect

1 F a
da-
* P^ ans *or R
oman Catholic or- to the requirements of canonical law. The arch-
tionB. ganizationSweden.in Almost all bishop of Sweden became the king's main support,
institutions which were favorable to and Sweden's political unity was confirmed by the
the Church and to the culture of the Middle Ages establishment of the archbishopric. The descend-
entered at this time or strengthened their position. ants of Sverker and Eric, reigning alternately for
Behind the work of organization was the strong ninety years, both depended on the support of the
hand of Archbishop Eskil of Lund (1137-78). Church, which, independent of their disputes, could,
Bishoprics were established in Skara, LinkBping, with their assistance, erect new edifices. The jurist
Upsala (removed from Sigtuna), Strengnfts, Wes- pope, Alexander III., issued a number of decretals
ter&s, and later, Wexift, first mentioned in 1183; to the king and bishops of Sweden; and two letters
Abo, in Finland, the last in the Middle Ages, was (1171) may be considered the earliest basic laws of
founded by 1200. With Eskil's assistance the first the Swedish Church. Ecclesiastical jurisdiction in
monasteries were erected in Sweden, and they be- criminal cases was demanded for the clergy, and
longed to the Clairvaux branch of the Cistercian canonical testaments were to be admitted, in pica
order. The most important of these were Alvastra usus. A conflict ensued between canonical and old
in East Gothland, 1143, and Nydala in Sm&land, Germanic legal views. By 1200 the priests were
1144. Pope Eugenius III. attempted to make universally exempt from secular jurisdiction in
Sweden an independent church province. As legate criminal law. A special priestly status began. In
he sent Nicholas Breakspear, afterward Pope Adrian 1219 John I., son of Sverker, placed the church
IV., who, after erecting Norway into an archbishop- property outside the royal penal levy, thus origi-
ric,called the Synod of Linkdping in 1152. Owing nating ecclesiastical freedom from taxation. At
to disagreement on the primacy, the plan failed. the instance of the popes, the establishment of
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO 170

ithedral chapters in the episcopal sees was begun; national assemblies. Political events shaped them-
bout the year 1200 Upsala had regular canons, selves in the interest of the Church. The Folkungar
"his collegiate organization served as a basis for the Magnus Ladulas overthrew his brother, Waldemar,
kter development of state law. During the papacy in 1275; but in return for the assistance of the
f Innocent III., the king appealed for coronation Church in his coronation had to grant almost all
o the Church. While Germany and Denmark were the demands made by Gregory X. in a decretal to
aaking conquests in Livonia, a Swedish crusade set Sweden in 1274. By this means, all church property,
>ut for Esthonia. The long struggle for the suprem- even the diocesan churches, became exempt from
fly over the Baltic now began. The reign of Eric taxation and the legal authority of the Church was
II. (1222-50), the last of the old dynasty, was the extended. The conditions by which the king was
noet important period in the organization of the bound were ratified at the Synod of Telje, 1277,
Church, and it would seem as if anarchy had been which was the most important in the history of the
*he best soil for its development. The prelates ad- Swedish Church, whose independent position in the
vanced as the most powerful figures of the regency kingdom was now complete. Under the protection
md of the incipient institution of councils. Bishop ofMagnus the mendicant orders took on new life
Bengt of Skara, a man of great political foresight, and many new cloisters were built, the most im-
visited Rome in 1220-21, and he established the portant of which were the Franciscan monastery at
chapter at Skara, probably the secular chapter
first Riddarholra in Stockholm in 1270, and the monas-
Hi Sweden. Bishop Bengt of Linkoping, his con- tery of the Poor Clares at the Norrmalm in Stock-
temporary, established a cathedral chapter in 1232, holm in 1289. The Franciscans became the most
Mbd began the erection of a magnificent cathedral in influential order; mendicant monks frequently be-
tiftkftpmg. The chapter at Abo was founded at this came bishops. Church instruction, carried on prin-
time. Archbishop Jarler (1236-55) restored as a cipally by the Dominicans in Skennige, began to
Italia? chapter the defunct chapter at Upsala, and improve. Swedes began to study diligently in Paris,
Introduced the mendicant orders. After 1230 mon- where they had a house, 1285. Collections of books
life became a chief factor in the Swedish were taken to Sweden, and the first Swedish writer
; the rising cities from the beginning of the of any importance was Petrus de Dacia, a Dominican
century were closely identified with its inter- lector in Skennige (d. 1288). Educated at Cologne
eftt*. The Franciscans came to in 1233, and
Wisby he studied under Thomas Aquinas, and was of a
wetit from thence to various towns in 1240, and to deep mystical nature. His language may be taken
Upsala in 1247. The Dominicans, of more import- as a sample of the speech of the thirteenth century.
ance, first established themselves firmly in Sigtuna, Mysticism in Sweden began with him. In every
Where their cloister became one of the most famous department the Church advanced under royal
in Sweden, and then founded a scarcely less import- promotion, which was reciprocally requited; yet
ant one in Skennige. Many others were built in the alliance bore the seed of future conflict. Progress
tarious towns. A new crusade to Finland was un- attained to less power than in the neighboring lands.
dertaken in 1249. This had long been a pet scheme There was a tenacious adherence to the old Ger-
of Gregory IX. to counteract the Palestinian politics maaic legal point of view, retarding canonical in-
of Frederick II. At its head was the most powerful novation. In important questions the Church was
man in the country, the king's jarl, Birger, of the old forced to yield to King Magnus, as in the case of the
race of the Folkungar. Tavastland was now con- long-desired canonical testament law; and thuH a
verted. King Eric on the demand of Innocent IV. definite limit was set to the economic extension of the
gave the church legal jurisdiction over certain of- power of the Church. The Swedes maintained their
fenses of the laity, and exempted cathedral property ancient popular right of appointment to the lower
from taxation. The organization of the lower clergy ecclesiastical offices ina manner almost unparal-
and the episcopal divisions were confirmed. And leled in church history. A fruit of the pblitical
now Innocent IV., in accordance with his greater awakening was the establishment of the Swedish
political schemes, sent the cardinal-bishop, Wilhelm organic law which relatively culminated in the
of Sabina, who understood northern conditions, in- granting of the code of 1300. In ecclesiastical speci-
vested with great authority as cardinal-legate. He fications this was an apparent compromise with
knew how to turn the internal troubles to the canon law, but in general the basic Swedish charac-
benefit of the Church. At a provincial synod at ter and standpoint were maintained. The last
Skennige (1248), it was decreed that the clergy crusade (1290) effected the conversion of Karelia
be obligated to celibacy; and that the bishops pro- and occasioned the beginning of the long Russian
cure and study the last collection of decretals. wars. To the climax of outer and inner organization
Innocent IV. supplemented the same by an ordi- was lacking only release from the primacy of Lund;
nance that the bishops should be chosen by the but this came practically with the close of the thir-
cathedral chapter, and not, as heretofore, by popu- teenth century when Nils Allesaon, archbishop of
lar vote and the sanction of the king. This was Upsala, received the pallium.
the corner-stone of the Roman Catholic edifice. In The dominant period of the Church (1305-1448)
the next half-century, celibacy was very gradually opens with the regent administration of Marshal
established and the canonical choice of bishops Torgils Knutsson who represented in Sweden the
simultaneous with the universal organization of beginning of political reaction against the prepon-
cathedral chapters. The seat of the archbishopric derance of the Church, which at that time was felt
was transferred from Old-Upsala to Upsala in all over Europe, and found its principal repre-
1270, and its incumbent presided over the great sentative in Philip the Fair. Greater restrictions
177 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

were placed on the Church's freedom from taxation, continued by the order of St. Bridget. When the
the ecclesiastical taxation of the peasantry was great struggle for freedom began (1434) with the up-
remitted, and church property was rising of the peasants under the popular hero,
8. The e ven confiscated; but this aroused the Engelbrecht, it found an advocate at the Council of
BM*ht of opp08ition of the prelates. The in- Basel in its prominent Swedish representative,
pow*n famous King when he had Nils Ragnaldsson, who became archbishop in 1438-
Birger,
attained his majority, capitulated to the lay and 1448, and steered the Swedish Church with extraor-
spiritual rulers. At the great conference at Streng- dinary wisdom and piety through the political tem-
nas (1305) the prelates allied themselves with the pests. A provincial synod at Soderkoping, 1441,
nobles against the crown, the control of the feudal passed several measures for the extension of a true
lords began, and the hierachy returned to power. Christianity among the lower classes, and for the
The struggle between Birger and his brothers is- foundation of an independent Swedish educational
sued in a complete revolution resulting in the ac- institution; but the University of Upsala was not
cession of Magnus, the three-year-old son of Duke founded until 1477.
Eric, to the throne. The government conducted The next period (1448-1520) is marked by the
by lay and spiritual lords was not advantageous to struggle of the modern ideas of state with the hier-
the kingdom. Finally, the demands of Magnus archy following the victory of the papacy ever
becoming too exacting, and a parliament being the councils. In 1448 the Union was dissolved by
threatened, he was deposed and Albrecht of Mecklen- the election of Charles Knutsson as
4. Struggle
burg was enthroned. His economic demands con- Jong; a domestic kingdom serving the
*
flicting with the Church he lost its support and sub- national interest now arose. Nils
2^
sequently his throne. The rule of the nobles was NfttioLSlty
dvinS k '
this vear' Jons Bengtsson
still further confirmed by the so-called Kalmar with the Oxenstierna became archbishop. He
Union of 1389. The consummation of outward Hierarchy, was a typical upholder of ecclesiastical
power was accompanied with intense internal ac- dominance, which saw the danger to
tivity. The only bishop-saints are of this period. the Church of a powerful royal authority. King
Matthias of Linkoping, the confessor of Bridget Charles's investigations into the illegality of the
(q.v.), was the foremost scholastic theologian in church holdings incensed all the prelates (1454).
Sweden of the Middle Ages and the first to attempt J6ns led the hierarchy over to the side of the Danish
a translation of the Bible, the earliest attempt at union; or rather, it united with the feudal nobility
a German rendering. This period was the most in their struggles with the State. The disgrace and
active in culture in Swedish history. Religion was death of Jons, upon his flight in 1467, put an' end
to a great extent robbed of its grossness, and be- to his endeavors to combine all ecclesiastical and
came an ennobling power. The monks and priests political power in his own hands. His successors
now began to preach in Swedish. The rich culture with the suffragans followed in his steps. The
of the Middle Ages became so securely planted in regents Sture had to accustom themselves to the
Sweden that it weathered all subsequent storms; prelates as the opponents of national liberation and
philanthropy on a large scale fostered by the Church reorganization. An exception was Heming Gad,
spread over country and city, and the treasures of bishop of Linkoping from 1501 and one of the few
learning were rendered available. The zenith of advocates of humanism in Sweden, a warrior and
development in the fourteenth century is in striking poet inspired by deep love of country. The pope
contrast with the decay of the Church elsewhere in never confirmed his election, and he was excom-
the West. St. Bridget (q.v.) was a contemporary municated in 1512, and gave place to Hans Brask,
of Wyclif, Petrarch, and Boccaccio; and she and the last noted prince of the Swedish Church. Brask,
her order, in which all church activities were con- after some vacillation, adopted the interests of the
centrated, stand as evidence of this florescent hierarchy. The lower clergy, on the other hand,
period of the Swedish church. At the beginning of were frequently loyal to their fatherland, and await-
the fifteenth century the decline of the papacy ed a brighter future; as, for instance, Ericus Olai
produced more pronounced results in Sweden. (d. 1486) the most learned man in the new university.
,

Margaret and after her, Eric of Pomerania, the In this long struggle the Swedish hierarchy had
regents, lived in Denmark; they were in accord neglected the peasantry. This caused the downfall of
with the pope whenever it came to plundering the the inner power of the Roman Church in Sweden.
Church. Both pope and king repeatedly attempted None of the pre-Ref ormation influences elsewhere, as
to name the archbishop at Upsala. Their most humanism and hostility to indulgences, were present
degraded choice was the Dane, Jdns Jerkerson in in Sweden. The change came with a political crisis,
1408, who was forced to leave Sweden in 1419. followed by political ^establishment. Of this the
These disputes resulted in the Church becoming Reformation was an attendant circumstance.
interested in the endeavors for reform and in the 8. The Later Periods The great Reformer of
growing national desire for an independent Sweden. Sweden, Olaus Petri (b. at Oerebro, 100 m. w. of
Although, during the papal schism, Sweden had Stockholm, Jan. 6, 1493; d. at Stockholm Apr.
united itself to the papacy, its church took part in 19, 1552), studied at Upsala, Leipsio, and Witten-
the reform councils, and recognized their authority berg with Luther and Melanchthon, 1516-18; and
over that of the pope, and preaching in Swedish became a deacon at the cathedral of Strengnas hi
came more and more into vogue. Many churches 1520. Eloquent, genial, and faithful, he here won to
were built. Almost forty years Bishop Tavast his side the old archdeacon Lorenz Andrea (q.v.),
served as the apostle of the Finns, and his work was the greatest political ecclesiastic of the Swedish
XL 13
Sweden THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 178

reformation, who introduced the new teachings to up a vigorous opposition, had to flee after the Synod
Gustavus Vasa, and was made secretary to the king, of Wester&s and died in exile in 1538. When Gus-
anc^ counselor. For a short period, tavus Vasa supplied the vacated bishoprics by in-
1 Th
B16rm*tiQii wnen tne feudal and unionist policy stalling such men as were then available, consecra-
(1520-161 1)." ^d reaped its reward in the Stockholm tion was performed by Petrus Magni, a monk of
massacre in 1205, the whole country the order of St. Bridget, who had himself received
appeared to be crushed and lost; but the peasants of episcopal consecration from the pope at Rome.
"
Dalecarlia arose under Gustavus Vasa to fight for Thus the so-called " Apostolic succession was pre-
national freedom. The Danish Christian II. had served. The latest writings of Olaus Petri, which
executed the former leaders, among them most of were in accord with the decisions of the Synod of
the bishops; in 1522 only two bishoprics were filled. Oerebro (1529), in regard to outward religious forms,
"
were the " Church Manual
"
The popular uprising resulted in the establishment (1529), the Postil,"
" " " "
of a national government, in 1523, in Strengnas, the Catechism (1530), and the Swedish Mass
and the king, as the people's choice, was invested (1531). Olaus Petri was aided by his brother, Lau-
with purely personal authority. In every depart- rentius, who became the first Protestant archbishop
ment, however, the Roman Church, forming a state of Sweden, 1531. A Swedish translation of the
within a state, appeared as an obstacle, particularly whole Bible was given out by the brothers Petri in
on the economic side; for after the war Sweden was 1541, and new Reformation literature was spread
an impoverished, defenseless country, unless it could abroad. Under ultra-reform influence, Gustavus at-
avail itself of the wealth of the churches and monas- tempted (153943) to do away with the office of
" "
teries. The king at once recognized the value of the bishop, to install superattendenten over the entire
new teachings as a means to a popular national Swedish Church, and to establish a sort of presby-
regeneration, the principle of which was to unite the terian rule. Olaus Petri and Lorenz Andrea, on ac-
whole population in the common obligation to count of their opposition, were sentenced to death
rescue and defend their fatherland, and in the com- (1540), but were pardoned, though thoy did not
mon responsibility for the execution of necessary regain their former influence (both died in 1552).
measures and their consequences. The king was The opposition of the people recalled the king to his
the accountable personification of this union; the former policy. A diet at Westerns discarded more
entire people shared in his undertakings, and were Roman Catholic forms and usages, and a compila-
therefore responsible to him as long as he maintained tion of church laws, Vadtitena artilMir (1553), drawn
the defense and prosperity of the country. The up probably by the archbishop, was the first attempt
religious life of the people formed no exception, and to make the Church a purely Protestant organiza-
the king was obliged personally to conduct the tion. Eric XIV., successor of Gustavus, not being
whole reform, so far as it came within the interests able to maintain the personal character of govern-
of the State. It was Gustavus Vasa who decided ment, the Church slipped somewhat from royal con-
on the manner of introducing the Reformation, as trol, and its administrative forces, particularly the
appeared at the decisive diet which he assembled at archiepiscopate, increased greatly in importance
Westerns (1527). He compelled the decision of the The great religious war of Europe now spread to
diet assistedby the nobility and the military party. Sweden. Calvinism sought to establish a firm foot-
By this decision, the Church was freed from Rome ing (1560-68) and Calvin himself corresponded with
;

and the rule of canonical law ; its possession were Eric, and his followers presented to the king a
placed at the disposal of the king (except the parson- formula of belief. This movement was opposed by
ages), and the nobles were bound to the throne by Laurentius Petri, and the result was an internal de-
the acquisition on their part of the church property. velopment through which the Church became more
"
It was decreed that the Word of God should be narrowed to Evangelical Lutheranism. A result, as
preached purely and plainly"; formally, religious well as the last work of Laurentius (d. 1573), was
freedom for Protestantism only was introduced. the church order of 1571, which prevailed for a cen-
There was no loud demand for religious changes. In tury. A Counter-Reformation was threatened by
fact, however, Protestantism had to ensue as the the fact that Catherine, wife of King John III., was
successor of abolished Rome. All the estates sub- a Roman Catholic. In 1574 the first Jesuit came to
scribed the resolutions, and in this manner the Sweden. John, who had been under the influence
national popular government, through its king, of the party of Melanchthon and the development
maintained the right to watch over the develop- of the English Reformation, sought a safe middle
ment of the Church. The inner work of the Refor- path. His " Red Book," a new order of the mass,
mation meanwhile progressed slowly, guided by the was to reunite the Swedish Church with the old true
wisdom and prudence of Olaus Petri, who in 1524 had Roman Catholic Church. The papal obstinacy to
been removed to Stockholm as preacher and secre- the compromise put an end to Roman influence in
tary for the city. In 1526 he translated Luther's 1580; but the controversy concerning the Red Book
"
Prayer-book," the first Reformation publication and cryptopapacy constituted the baptismal firo of
in Sweden, and the same year gave the people a Lutheranism and produced a generation of stanch
translation of the New Testament, which had the characters, so that upon John's death (1592) it was
same influence on the language and culture of Swe- with the support of Duke Charles, son of Gustavus I.,
den as Luther's translation of the Bible had in completely triumphant. The synod called by Duke
Germany. He also collaborated in the publication Charles, now
regent, in Upsala (1593) was the most
of the first hymnal. The Roman Catholics were important in the history of the Swedish Lutheran
lacking in able defenders. Brask, who at first set Church. The Red Book was prohibited and all
179 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Sweden

"
bound themselves to stand by the pure word of faith within and its combination under Gustavus
God, the three symbols, and the unaltered Augs- Adolphus with popular freedom explain Sweden's
burg Confession." Calvinism was discarded, in influence abroad. During the great wars ecclesias-
spite of the protests of Duke Charles. At this synod tical organisation was left principally to the
great
the independence of the Church with reference to bishops. Gustavus contemplated a universal self-
internal matters of faith and doctrine come to recog- government, and proposed a general consistory
nition; and at the same time its character as a (1623) of representatives of the laity and the higher
national church, with claims on the State for the and lower clergy. The bishops, however, thwarted
protection of its belief and dogmas, received expres- this plan. The cathedral chapter, which had lan-
sion. Sigismund, the son of John III., the heir-in- guished since the time of Gustavus Vasa, now be-
law to the throne, was also king of the Poles, and came under episcopal guidance a central organ of
the great champion of the Counter-Reformation the administration and gained a unique and benefi-
in the northeast of Europe. His endeavor was cent standing. The composition of the chapter was
to restore Roman Catholicism in Sweden. Duke also changed, especially under Rudbeckius, from
Charles, at the diet in Soderkoping (1595), took the being largely prelatical to consisting of pro-
same revolutionary national stand that his father fessors, while the laity gained an important part
had taken; summoned the estates to their mutual in the administration, which they, still possess.
responsibility to oppose the Roman Catholic plans The Church was somewhat represented by the
of the legal king; and finally, by the defeat of spiritual estate assembled at the diets, but this
Sigismund at the battle of St&ngebro (1598), put was under the control of the bishops. However,
an end to Sigismund 's attempt. After 1600 he be- under their control, led by Rudbeckius and Lauren*
came king and reigned as Charles IX. The results tius Paulinos Gothus at Strengnas (1609-46) the
of this period of the new birth of Sweden was the Church made tremendous advances in administra-
organic union of the independent Evangelical church tion, literature, missions, and schools. But after
with the State, concentrating its power in the crown, 1648 the great bishops disappeared, and leadership
and the beginning of its political greatness. The was transferred to the diet. The result of the Treaty
external quarrels had as a consequence inner chaos. of Westphalia (1648) was to turn interest to internal
Organization was deficient, morals coarse; the mon- affairs. The effort was no longer toward a consis-
asteries as the repositories of culture had gradually tory but a unitary organization. From the political
become impoverished and disappeared; education side after 1648 new territories continued to come un-
was neglected. The University of Upsala was closed, der the crown of Sweden. Their absorption was best
but in 1595 King Charles and the Church sought to promoted by church activity. The erection or
reestablish it. The Lapland mission needed workers. conquest of new dioceses necessitated closer organ-
The Roman Catholics continued their plotting; ization in the life of the Church. Examples of
Charles, with his political ambitions and Calvinistic these dioceses are Wiborg (1618), Karlstad (1647),
tendencies, had no sympathy with the, to him, op- Hernosand (1647), Wisby (1645), Lund (1658); in
pressive and exclusive Lutheranism. The Church 1665 Gothenburg, and in 1678 Kalmar became bish-
had to combat, single-handed, Calvinism that was oprics. Thus the provincial organization was com-
now making headway over all Europe. The cause plete as has continued to the present time. A uni-
it
of Lutheranism was led by Archbishop Olaus Mar- versity was founded in Lund (1666), which became a
tini (d. 1611). With the accession of Gustavus theological center of great importance to the Swedish
Adolphus, the Swedish Church for the first time Church. The question of orthodoxy was now at its
gained an assured position in the kingdom. height; but the proposal of the bishop of Wester-
A new era (1611-1718) of organization and or- as, Olof Laurelius, that the Formula of Concord be
thodoxy now began. A younger generation took made a part of the church law, was not pleasing to
matters in hand in Church and State. Gustavus all; Matthia was its most distinguished opponent,
Adolphus was only eighteen when he ascended and he was supported by Queen Christina, and later
the throne, and his great coadjutor, by Charles X. Matthia and John Terscrus, bishop
9. Eoolaoi- Axel of Abo, the former a disciple of Comenius, the
Oxenstierna, governed European
c ** Or - " "
at the
politics age of twenty-eight; latter of Calixtus, were also Syncretists the
^. and the most celebrated generals in and
;

freedom
^and latter fought for popular spiritual
tne Thirty Years' War had not yet against the growing power of the nobles and the
Orthodoxy. '

attained the age of thirty. In the bishops. On the death of Charles X. (1660), the
Church J. Rudbeckius, leading ecclesiastical per- regency being in the hands of a powerful orthodox
sonality, began his great career at twenty-three. nobility, they were deprived of their bishoprics on
He represented the Aristoteliamsm that, from 1615, the charge of syncretistic heresy.
prevailed in the university, and was the court and Charles XI. introduced the one-man rule in Swe-
military chaplain of the king, and bishop of Wester- den, and he did not intend to allow the Church to
as, 1619-46. Under him concomitant with ortho- exist as an independent factor. The church itself had
doxy a hierarchical reaction set in. The king set no organized central government that could protect
himself against orthodox intolerance and persecu- its interests. Owing partly to orthodoxy and partly
tion, assistedby John Matthia, royal chaplain and to the ceaseless wars, a spirit of superstition and a
tutor from 1629, and bishop of Strengnas from 1643. decline in morals prevailed among the people and
During the ceaseless foreign wars the Swedish the lower clergy. The king procured the adoption
Church was distinguished by an intense inner life of the Book of Concord as a symbol of the Church
and work of organisation. The energy of the new in the great church law pf 1686. This confirmed
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 180

orthodoxy; it confirmed also unified organiza- to the education of the young. Murbeck, "the
tion, but reduced independence, producing a pro- Francke of Sweden/' became the head of the relig-
nounced State Church. The king assumed the ious awakening in the southern part. In the north
appointment to a large number of spiritual positions. the movement was led by Eric Tollstadius (d. 1759),
He was energetically employed in completing the vicar and pastor at Stockholm, the most celebrated
great work of organization, which served as a cloak name in the inner church history of the time. A noble
to hide the peril to the heritage of independence and more influential representative of the strongly
and the decline of the religious and moral life. A mystical branch of Pietism was Sven Rose*n (d. 1760).
general catechism was introduced (1689), a new Pietism met with more opposition than apprecia-
church manual (1693), the celebrated hymnal tion from the higher authorities. Many bishops
(1698), a revised translation of the Bible (1703), attacked it; the spiritual estate of the diet opposed
and subsequently a large work on the Bible. A it. Both Tollstadius and Murbeck were subjected to
royal ordinance provided for the general instruction wearisome 'law processes. At a conventicle at Sicla
of children in reading and the catechism. Among outside Stockholm (1723) the government brought
the ecclesiastics of this period distinguished for the principals to trial at which they set forth their
clearness of thought, intense patriotism, intolerance views in a remarkable memorial that may be con-
of any deviation from the true doctrine, and a will- sidered the creed of the Swedish Pietists. They were
ingness to sacrifice themselves to the demands of or- acquitted, but the proceedings resulted in the gov-
thodoxy and absolute monarchy were Archbishops ernment allowing the well-known Konventikelplakatet
Olof Svebilius (1681-1700), the author of the (1726), by which all private religious meetings for
manual and the catechism; and Eric Benzelius the edification were prohibited under severe penalties.
elder (1700-09), father of the most distinguished Domestic devotions, however, were permitted, and
family of bishops in Sweden; the celebrated poet, the clergy were called upon to hold frequent house
Torsten Rud&n, subsequently bishop of Linkoping, inquiries. While the edict of restriction checked
the spokesman of the clerical estate at many a diet; Pietism, it also remained a fetter upon free relig-
and the noted hymn-writers, Archbishop Haquin ious life for 125 years. The strength of the Church
Spegel and Bishop Jesper Svedberg, the former over against the government was also shown other-
striving for uniformity of worship and belief, and wise. The sovereign diet of the estates erected a
" "
furthering the education of the masses, the latter special ecclesiastical deputation in 1723, which,
stanchly opposing the abuses of orthodoxy and in view of Pietism, was intended to become a general
" "
strongly inclined to mysticism. Upon the death of consistory dependent on the diet with the func-
Charles XII., a new direction was given to all tion of bringing the church order into conformity
Swedish culture. with the new politics; but the spiritual estate in
With the awakening of individualism in culture the diet knew how effectively to neutralize the ac-
"
and politics in the " age of freedom there entered tivity of this deputation. In the tracks of Pietism
at the same time the religious and moral influence followed the great tide of Roman Catholic mysticism
of Pietism and the Unity of the Brethren (q.v.) which struck Sweden in the third decade of the
among the masses of the people (1718-72). At this eighteenth century. After 1727 the movement
time the Swedish Lutheran Church passed beyond bounds. Enthusiastic forms, sepa-
probably enjoyed its greatest prosper- ratism, apocalyptic, and general schism followed.
ity- Durin the last years of Charles The inner situation became precarious in the next
'XL, Pietism had entered the German decade, when help came from the Unity of the Breth-
possessions of Sweden, where it was opposed with ren (q.v.). When the brotherhood was founded in
orthodox intensity. It extended from thence to 1727 a Swede, Assessor C. H. Grundelstierna, was
Finland and found a good soil in the temperament associated with Zinzendorf; and from the first the
of the people under the teachings of the brothers brethren directed their attention to Sweden.
Wegelius, but was strongly opposed by J. Gezelius Grundelstierna returned to Sweden to prepare
(q.v.). In the early part of the eighteenth century the soil, 1729-39. In 1738 Arvid Gradin arrived
it surrounded the Baltic Sea and reached Stock- at Herrnhut and became after 1741 the leader
holm. But the movement first made a significant in Sweden. Even the mystic Sven Ros4n joined
religious inroad after the return (1721) from Si- the community. Under the Stockholm pastors
berian captivity of some of the soldiers of Charles Thore Odhelius and Jonas Hellmann the brother-
XII., who were now converted to Pietism. It now hood maintained its flourishing condition in
spread over a great portion of Sweden, the sane Sweden, 1739-44, with headquarters at Stockholm
Halle Pietism, that did not antagonize the Church, and West Gothland. The movement was whole-
being the prevailing form. A great many ecclesias- some, bringing back the enthusiasts and stimulating
tics joined the movement. Sweden's two foremost orthodoxy with life. Unfortunately in 1745 ap-
men, Eric Benzelius the younger (bishop of Lin- peared also the morbid mystical side as the worship
kttping and archbishop), and Andreas Rydelius, the of the wounds of Christ, resulting in religious de-
first well-known and independent philosopher of cline and factionalism. This phase was overcome
Sweden, later bishop of Lund, could not withstand after 1760. These special awakenings aroused the
it. The latter, in particular, was in sympathy with orthodox Church to turn to the needs of the masses.
the efforts of the young convert to Pietism, Peter A series of energetic bishops and pastors came to
Murbeck of Schonen (1731-66), and placed his theo- the front, who, by a more earnest instruction and
logical erudition and practical ability at the service care of souls, effected profounder religious sound-
of a deeper religiousness. He was especially devoted and piety. Such were Sven Baiter (d. 1760),
181 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Swtdtn

a famous preacher; Bishop Jacob Serenius (d. 1776), advocate, d. 1877), the layman K. 0. Rosenius
who introduced the rite of confirmation according (d. 1868), and the missionary Peter Fjellstedt
to English and Danish form; and Anders Nohr- (d. 1881). In 1863 the Church obtained its own
borg (d. 1767), court preacher, and author of Die representation at the church assembly through
Seligkeitsordnung des gefaUenen Menschen, a devo- the change which converted the old diet into one of
tional work ranking next to the Bible for the people two chambers, whereby the position within the na-
of Sweden. A peculiar product of the time was tional state life intended by the Reformation and
Emanuel Swedenborg (q.v.). attempted by Gustavus Adolphus was achieved.
This previous period formed the transition from IL Statistics: Ninety-nine per cent, of the popu-
Sweden of the Reformation and the politics of war lation belongs, formally at least, to the Evangelical
to the modern state; it was prolific of ideals minus Lutheran State Church. By the church law of 1686,
fixed purposes. It prepared the way for the specu- which, with some changes and amplifications, is
lative Enlightenment, or the period of neology still in force, the confession of faith embraces, be-
(1772-1817). The great religious per- side the three ancient symbols, the resolution of the
sonali ties were
gone by 1770; the prince Upaala mdte of 1593, and the entire Book of Con-
of the Enlightenment, Gustavus III., cord. In the constitution of 1809 the Upsala mdte

and the neP hew * Frederick the Great, and the Confessio Augustana alone were mentioned,
Nineteenth mounted the throne in 1772; and his and the uncertainty whether the entire Book of
Century. French school of poets, particularly Concord is symbolically in effect has not been finally
J. H. Kellgren, satirized Swedenbor- decided. Any one may leave the State Church, but
gianism and Pietism. German rationalism began must join some other denomination recognized by
to show its head and to influence more and more the State. In 1900 there were 2,378 Roman Catho-
the leaders of the Swedish Church; but it never lics; 3,912 orthodox Jews; 7,041 Methodists; 3,309
reached extremes, and in southern Sweden and other Baptists; and smaller scattered bodies. The actual
portions of the country it never gained the mastery. number of Baptists was 40,000 and of Methodists
Almost all earnest men in the Church at this time 15,231, most of them remaining in the State Church.
were of the Unity of the Brethren or Swedenbor- The most considerable sect within the State Church
"
gians, and these two beliefs were the salvation of is the Pietistic Swedish Missionary Union," devi-
the religious life of the country. The religious ating somewhat from the normal doctrine of the
awakening of the middle of the century was pro- atonement and practising separate communion, and
tracted among the people, and Wurttemberg Piet- carrying on an extensive internal and foreign mis-
ism was spread abroad in Sweden by many revival- sion. This union was founded by the well-known
ists,preparing the way for the epoch-making work Paul Petter WaldenstrSm (q.v.). They numbered
of Henrik Schartau (q.v.). The independence of the (1903) 84,602, with more than 1,100 churches. The
Church in the national life did not suffer; although State Church of Sweden embraces 13 bishoprics, to
for a time the rationalistic royalty which had again which are added the municipal consistory of Stock-
become supreme worked some injury to the eccle- holm and the court consistory. The latest diocese,
siastic conditions by its appointments. The king Lulea (1904), was established by the diet only on
found, however, his match in the intellectual and condition that Wexio and Kalmar were to be com-
powerful bishop, Olof Wallquist of Wexio (d. 1800), bined on the death of either of the incumbent bish-
as celebrated in statesmanship and finance as in ops. The diocese of Upsala bears the title of arch-
church organization. He organized a new eccle- bishopric, although its incumbent bears only the
"
siastical office, called the ecclesiastical expedi- relationship of a primus inter pares. The dioceses
tion," by which all church business was to be pre- are now Upsala (including Stockholm), Linkoping,
pared. It was not of long duration but paved the Skara, Strengnas, Westerns, Wexio, Lund, Goteborg,
way for the present ministry of worship. The period Kalmar, Karlstad, Wisby, Herndsand, and Lulea.
lacked the power to afford the Church new impulse. The dioceses are divided into district, each of which
The neological revision of the church-books was a contains seven to eight parishes. There are now
failure; and the Church was too weak to aid the 1,380 parishes. Each parish has its kyrkoherde
people in political cases. The cession of Finland (pastor); one of them provost over the district.
is
to Russia in 1809 was rather a religious than a po- The parishes are frequently divided into sub-par-
litical loss. The first half of the nineteenth century ishes, each with its own church, and often also with
was a time of restoration for the Church, when in- its own ordinary minister. The number of churches
ternal and foreign missions prospered, with some in' 1909 was 2,576, and of ministers 2,767, and
persistent sectarian dispersion of a subjectivistic there is one minister to every 1,700 inhabitants.
character. Then came the non-conformist move- The king of Sweden is the highest earthly ruler of
ments from England, George Scott preaching the Swedish Church, and must be an adherent of
Methodism in 1840, and Anders Wiberg the Baptist the "pure Evangelical doctrine, as adopted and
doctrine from 1851 followed by the Irvingites (Catho-
, explained hi the unaltered Augsburg Confession
lic Apostolic Church, q.v.). The conventicle edict and in the resolutions of the Synod of Upsala of
was recalled in 1858, and Swedish subjects were 1593." He must, however, in the exercise of his
" obtain information and
granted religious freedom in 1860. This gave im- ecclesiastical authority,
petus to the Reformed tendency even within the advice " from the ecclesiastical minister, and from
national Church. The most important fact in relig- the rest of the council of state, the members of
ious life was the revival after 1840 under the preach- which must all be adherents of the pure Evangelical
ing of Dean Peter Wieselgren (noted temperance doctrine. In ecclesiastical legislation, the king and
 THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOQ 188

the diet cooperate, with the consent of the church covering three years is laid down for the public

assembly. In this manner the danger of hasty legis- services. The

liturgy otherwise is regulated by the
lation is avoided, as the diet consists of two cham- latest church-book of 1894. The translation of the
bers, and the ordinary church assembly is to be called Bible, which occupied more than a century, resulted
by the king only once in five years; but, on the other in an approved version of the New Testament in
hand, it increases the difficulty of passing justifiable 1883; but this is again under revision. goodA
reforms. Changes may more easily be effected in translation of the Old Testament, approved by the
matters that come within the king's administrative church assembly of 1903, is permissible in public
authority in ecclesiastical affairs, such as a new worship. The completion of the new translation in
translation of th- Bible, the Psalter, the church 1911 makes available a new source for Bible read-
manual, and the catechism, to which the consent of ing. For missions in Sweden see JEWS, MISSION TO
the diet is not necessary, but only that of the church THE; LAPPS. A flourishing mission is also carried
assembly, acting by a two-thirds vote of those on in several large ports of Europe and Australia
present. This consists of sixty members (with and among the fishermen of the North Sea.
the diocese of Lulea of sixty-four), half clerical (HjALMAR HOLMQUJST.)
and half lay; and these are chosen by their respect- m. Swedish Theology in the Nineteenth Century:
ive electors, except the bishops, who are members At the beginning of the century rationalism
ex officio. Their compensation and other expenses was dominant, although not to such an unlimited
are defrayed by the State. The consistory of Stock- degree as in other countries of Protestant Christen-
holm and the cathedral chapters of the dioceses dom. The influence of the Unity of the Brethren
come next to the king as permanent church author- and Swedenborgianism, to a great extent, coun-
ities. The bishop presides over his own chapter and teracted its effect, and the old form of orthodox
his assessors are usually the cathedral provost and piety had remained unshaken in the outlying coun-
certain lectors of the free high-school of the bish- try districts. Opposition to rationalism began to
op's see. The lay element has more representation show its triumphant effect in the second decade,
here than the clerical. Under these ecclesiastical led by J. O. Wallin, archbishop of Upsala (d. 1839),
authorities are also the public schools. Since 1905 who gave to Sweden a hymnal ranking with the best
the higher popular educational institutions have in Christendom; Esaias Tegn6r, prince of poets;
been withdrawn. The cathedral chapter, among F. M. Franzen, poet and bishop of Wexio, and E.
other duties, has to make proposals on the appoint- Q. Geijer (d. 1847), the historian, philosopher, poet,
ment of pastors and assistants, except in a few par- and musician, whose Von falscher und wahrer Auf-
ishes that are in the gift of patrons; and has to issue kldrung (1811) was strongly instrumental in turning
letters patent to all appointees, except of the so-called the attention of the young men to inner spiri-
royal pastorates, which number 404. The congre- tuality. In the universities the modification of
gation selects its pastor from one of three candidates rationalism advanced as far as a rational supernatu-
proposed by the chapter, after these have preached ralism. Geijer scouted both dogmatic orthodoxy
on trial before the congregation. Erring clergy may and sentimental Pietism, but at the same time de-
be cautioned, suspended, or removed by the chap- tected the weakness of rationalism and manifested
ter. The bishop, besides making visitations in per- true religious susceptibilities in his hymns. Cen-
son or through the district provosts, is obliged to tral in his philosophical position is the idea of per-
call conventions of his clergy at least once every sonality. The ultimate antithesis is not between
six years, in order to render a report and receive being and not-being (Hegel), nor between the ego
under consideration matters of discussion. Every and the non-ego (Fichte) but between the ego and
;

parish has the right to deliberate and decide in the alter-ego. The succession in the philosophy of
church meeting on the affairs of the parish church religion proceeded through the idealism of C. J.
and of the common schools, and to take action in BostrOm (d. 1866) to the two most famous person-
regard to economic interests. The contributions alities of the latter half of the century: W. Ryd-
for church purposes by the parishes for 1903 were berg, author of Die Lehre der Bibel von Christus, and
$3,687,234, and for common schools, $6,423,308. P. Wikner, author of Gedanken und Fragen von dem
The common schools are under a school council rep- Menschensohne. Theology proper, however, owes its
resenting the parish; and the pastor presides over renascence to the University of Lund, and particu-
these councils ex officio. Liberals are endeavoring larly to H. Schartau (q.v.) and E. M. Ahlman (d.
to dissolve this union between the Church and the 1844); the latter forms the connection with the new
schools. Popular education is at a high level. There epoch of theology, which began with Kant and
are two complete universities, one at Lund, the Schleiermacher. Among his pupils H. Keuterdahl
other at Upsala, each having a faculty of theology. (q.v.), the most learned theologian of the first half
Before ordination the candidates are required to of the century, was a disciple of Schleiermacher, and
pass an examination before the philosophical faculty, wrote Svemka kyrkans historic (2 vols., Lund, 1838-
"
next an examination in theology and hi practical 1850), and an Introduction to Theology " (1837).
exercises before the theological faculty, and, finally, Hegel's philosophy was represented in Sweden by
a clerical examination before the cathedral chapter. E. Q. Bring (d. 1884). His contemporary was the
The church assembly of 1903 formulated the ordi- H. M. whose lectures on
ezegete, Meljn (d. 1887),
nation vow as follows: "To proclaim the pure the life of Christ, directed against Strauss, were re-
Word of God according to one's best understanding ceived with great enthusiasm. In 1850-70 the the-
and conviction,
"
as given by Holy Scripture and wit- ology of Lund developed in a conservative and or-
by the creeds of our Church." A
perioope thodox direction. While all forms of contemporary
188 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Protestant theology were represented in Lund, the G. M. WUliami, The Church of Sweden and the Anglican
Communion, Milwaukee, 1010; E. Linderholm, Rosen, Up-
theology of Upsala had remained more uniform. sala,1011; K. B. Westman, Birgittastudier, ib. 1011; J.
This was due to the exclusion of the new develop- Wordsworth, National Church of Sweden, London, 1011.
ment beginning with Schleiermacher. The prevail-
ing characteristic was a strict confessional ortho- SWEDENBORG, swt'den-b8rg, EMANUEL.
doxy, embracing a Pietistic element as well as a I. Life.

liberal Low-church tendency as distinguished from

Parentage and Education ($1).
Scientific Labon (i 2).
the High-church tendency of Lund. Among theo- II. His Writings.
logians at Upsala were L. Lindblad (d. 1837) the ;
1. Scientific.
2. Philosophical.
exegctes A. E. Knos (d. 1862) and O. F. Myrberg
Philosophy of Matter (J 1).
(d. 1899); and the church historians, L. A. Anjou Mind and " Tremulation " (J 2).
(d. 1884), Theodore Norlin (d. 1870), and C. A. Psycho-Physiology; Correspondences (I 3).
Cornelius (d. 1893). Outside of the theological Transition to Theology ( 4).
Call as a Seer (fi 5).
faculties, J. Hallenberg wrote a distinguished com- 3. Theological.
mentary on Revelation (3 vols., 1800); and N. The " Internal Sense " of Scripture (J 1).
Igncll (d. 1864) wrote Grundzilge der chrisdichen Heaven, Hell, Spirits, and Revelation (ft 2).
Sittetdehre (1842-49), and Menslikliga utvecklingens Doctrines of Christ and the Scriptures (} 3).
Life and Faith ( 4).
historia (Stockholm, 1855-62). (G. AULN.) The " Angelic Wisdom " ( 5).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For the political history the beat work is Marriage; the Planets; Summary ($ 6).
E. Hildebrantl, Svenges Historia, Stockholm, 1003 sqq.; III. Close of Life; Death and Burial.
and for the organization of the state, idem, Den svenska IV. Recent Honors.
Statsfitrfattningens historiska Utveckling, ib. 1896. On
the Swedish church a good work is H. Hildebrand, Life: Emanuel Swedenborg (Swedberg) was
I.

Svenges Medeltid, part iii., on the church, ib. 1903, to born in Stockholm Jan. 29, 1688; d. in London
which add H Reuterdahl'H Svenska kyrkans historia, ut Mar. 29, 1772. His father, Jesper Swedberg, was
sup., Germ, Iran si., Berlin, 1837. For later history
there is available. L. Stavenow, Frihetstiden, Gothenburg,
at the time Lutheran court chaplain, afterward
1898; idem, Gustaf III., ib. 1901; H. HjaTfne, Qustaf professor and dean of the University of Upsala,
Adolf, Stockholm, 1901; idem, Karl XII., ib. 1902. On and bishop of Skara from 1702 to his death in 1735.
the history of Swedish literature consult: H. Schttck,
Svensk Litteraturhistoria, vol. i., Stockholm, 1890; idem
He was distinguished for his religious
and C. Warburg, Illustrerad svensk Litteraturhistoria, ib., 1. Parent- zeal, his upright life, and by his ex-
1895 sqq Consult further. E. Tegncr, Die Kirche age and tensive writings. The family were de-
Schwedens in den beiden letzten Jahrzehnten, Stralsund, Education, scendants of Daniel Isaacson, a mining
1837; E. G. Geyer, Hist, de la Suede, Paris, 1840;
A. G. Knds, Die schwedische Reformation, Berlin, 1852; peasant-proprietor in Fahlun, who
L. A. Anjou. Hist, of tfie Reformation in Sweden, New gave the name Sweden to their property. When
York, 1859; idem, Svenska kyrkans historia fr&n Upsala the family of the bishop was ennobled by Queen
mote 1593, Stockholm, 1866; T. Norlin, Svenska kyrkans Ulrica Eleanora in 1719, the name Swedenborg was
historia efter reformationen (1549-1649), Luiid, 1864-71;
M. Weibull, Lunds Universitets Historia. Luud. 1868; A. given it. Swedenborg's mother, Sara Bchm, was
Crichton and H. Wheaton, Scandinavia, Ancient and Mod- also the daughter of a miner, Albrecht Behm, and
ern, 2 vols., Now York, 1872; H. Hildebrand, Das fteidnische therefore Emanuel inherited on both sides a bent for
Zeit alter in Schweden, Hamburg, 1873; C. Anne rated t,
Upsala Universitets Historia, Upsala, 1877; J. Weidling, mining pursuits. Piously educated at home under
Schwedische Oeschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation, Gotha, his tutor, Dr. Moreus, Emanuel pursued his studies
1882; C. M. Butler, The Reformation in Sweden, New York, at the Upsala University till 1709, experiencing
1883, new issue, 1900; W. Tottio, Jesper Svedberg, Upsala,
something of the Cartesian controversy rife at that
1885-90; G. Billing, Ebbe Gustaf Bring, Lund, 1886; R.
Sundelin, Swedenborgianismen i Sverige, Upsala, 1886; C. time, and acquiring facility in the classics and in the
A. Cornelius, Svenska Kyrkans historia efter Reformationen, writing of Latin verse. On leaving the university he
Upsala, 1886; idem, Handbok i svenska Kyrkans Historia, at first, under the friendly patronage of his brother-
3d ed., ib. 1892; J. B. Baur, Die Kapuziner und die
schwedische Qeneralitat im SO-jUhrigen Kriege, Brixen, in-law, Eric Benzclius, afterward archbishop, made
1887; P. B. Watson, The Swedish Revolution under a journey to England in pursuit of scientific knowl-
Oustavus Vasa, London, 1889; F. Puaux, Hist, de Vetab- edge, especially of mathematics and astronomy,
lissement des protestants francais en Suede, Paris, 1891;
H. Lundstrdm, Laurentius Paulinus Gothus, Upsala, 1892-
meeting Flamsteed in London, and Halley hi Ox-
" "
1H98; O. Ahiifelt, Utvecklingen af Svenska kyrkans ordning ford, studying Newton daily and acquainting
under Gustaf I., Lund, 1893; H. Hjalne. Reformationsrika- himself in the workshops with various trades and
dogen i Vesterfa, Stockholm, 1893; J. A. Kallstrdm, Bidrog arts, including the grinding of lenses. Returning
till den Svenska Pietismens Historic^ Stockholm, 1894; H.
to Sweden he published a book of verses, Camena
Wordin, De eklesiastika deputationerna, Strengnas, 1895;
E. J. Ekman, Den inre missionen historia, Stockholm, Borea, edited a mathematical journal, Dasdalus Hy-
1896-1902; K. O. Lundquiat, De Svenska dornkjapiOen un- perboreus, and, in 1716, published the first algebra
der meddtiden, Upsala, 1897; K. A. Ap pel berg, Kyrkans-
produced in Sweden.
rattskja Stallning i Sveriye, Helsingsf ors, 1900, F. Nippold,
Handbuch der neuesten Kirchengeschichte, ii. 431 sqq., Ber-
He devoted himself to the study of metals and
lin, 1901; H. Lundstrflm, Skitzer och Kritiker, Stockholm, mines, the action of water on the earth's surface,
1903; E. Hildebrand, Gustaf Vasa och hans soner, ib. the discovery of longitude by the moon, and mean-
1903-04; L.M.BlAth,Bidrag till kanoniakerrtttens historia while was fertile in remarkable inventions, many
i Sverifjc, Stockholm, 1905; T. Hojer, Vadstena klosters och
of which are only at the present day
BirgiUenordens historia, Upaala, 1005; R. Chartin, Gustaf
Vasa et la rtforme en Suede, Paris, 1906; G. Aulen, Reuter- 2. Scien- coming to practical experiment, in-
dahl, Upaala, 1007; R. Holm, Terserus, Lund, 1007; H. tific Labors,
eluding the submarine war vessel, the
von Schubert, Kirchengeschichte Schleswig-Holstein*, Kiel,
1007; H. Holmquist, De svenska domkapitlen 1671-1687, flying-machine, and the machine gun.
UpwUa, 1008; N. Jakoboon, Den svtntka herrnhutiamens Attracted by his genius and ability, King Charles
uppkemot. ib. 1008; . Rodhe, Kyrka och skoU, Lund, 1008; XII. called Swedenborg to his service in the college
 THE NEW 164

of mines and gave him afl apprenticeship with the Dr. J. J. G. Wilkinson, London, 1840), has become
celebrated royal engineer Polhem, in whose family widely known as embodying Swedenborg's physical
he became a favorite inmate. He formed a love philosophy or cosmology. In 1740 appeared the
attachment with a daughter of Polhem, which was (Economia regni animalis (" Economy of the Ani-
favored by the king, but failed of marriage by the mal Kingdom "); in 1740, the first and second parts
daughter's refusal, and Swedenborg remained single of the Regnum animale; and in 1745, the De citltu
the rest of his life. After the death of Charles XII. et amore Dei (" The Worship and Love of God ").
hi 1718, Swedenborg took his seat as the oldest son In this wide range of physical, physiological, and
of the now ennobled family, in the house of nobles psychological studies, Swedenborg pursues what "
he
in the Swedish diet. Declining a professorship in
mathematics in the university and in pursuit of his
1.
Philojo-
fop the^
avows to be his one quest his search
wi^ to fi^ ner> he
asks but in her own realm~"the
studies as a royal assessor of mines, he undertook
a series of journeys through the various countries
Matter. ^y
Hence came the term regnum animale
?

"
of Europe especially for the study of mines and or soul kingdom," applied to the human anat-
" "
manufactures. In these journeys he enjoyed the omy and physiology. In the Chemistry and
patronage and friendship of princes and scholars, the Principia he had sought the imponderable and
and his explorations took him not only into mines, invisible substances and forms which lie at the be-
furnaces, workshops, laboratories, and lecture-rooms, ginning of creation and which mark the entrance
but also to museums, galleries, churches, theaters, of life from the Infinite into the finite. Conceiving
army garrisons, palaces, everywhere where the life the origin of the universe as lying in a " conatus of
"
and civilization of his time could be observed and motion in the Infinite," which assumes in the nat-
" " "
studied. His Itinerarium or Diary of Travel ural point an existence in time and space (in
"
affords a picturesque view of the actual life of the which " point lie potentially all future forms and
important cities of France, Italy, Germany, Bel- motions in their perfection), he traces the progress
gium, and Holland at that period. Meanwhile his of the point through a series of finites in active and
" "
treatises had been appearing from time to time at passive relation to the elementarios or primal
home or abroad and his widely extended reputation auras, ethers, and atmospheres, and thence to the
as a metallurgist and anatomist brought him in- first forms of solid matter. These he conceives to
vitations to membership in the academies of science be angular particles originating in the interstitial
at St. Petersburg, Paris, and Stockholm. His prac- spaces between the spherical globules. The mod-
tical achievements at home in assisting Polhem in ern sciences of crystallography and stereo-chemis-
large engineering works for the kingdom, especially try are admitted by the best authorities to find
in transporting galleys for fourteen miles overland their germ in Swedenborg's conception of elemen-
at the siege of Friedrickshall in 1718, show that tary forms. Swedenborg conceives light as a form
his life was by no means satisfied with theorizing. of ethereal motion. The series of forms, circular,
Courted by princes, praised by scholars, a man of spiral, and vortical, the nature and phenomena of
the world in a wide sense, his inner life may best be magnetism, the evolution of the planets from a con-
known by the simple rules drawn up by himself to densed ring thrown off by the central mass of the
govern his daily conduct. These were: (1) Often primal nebula, the position of the earth in the gal-
to read and meditate on the Word of God; (2) to axy, are discussed in these works in lines which an-
submit everything to the will of divine providence; ticipate not only Kant, Buffon, and La Place, the
(3) to observe in everything a propriety of behavior supposed originators of the nebular theory, but even
and to keep the conscience clear; (4) to discharge the most recent discoveries in radioactive and vi-
with faithfulness the duties of my office and to ren- bratory forces and motions. In method, Sweden-
der myself in all things useful to society. borg proceeds inductively from experience but under
EL Writings: The writings of Swedenborg may the guidance of certain a priori principles. To ex-
be divided into three classes: (1) material and perience and geometry there must be added the
scientific, including those in mathematics and litera- recognition of deity and the soul. Adopting Aris-
ture; (2) philosophical; (3) theological. totle as his model rather than Plato, he, with this
1. Scientific: The works produced during the master, finds that intelligence can discover only
first (the literary and scientific) period of his life what intelligence has devised, and that to all the
are as follows: Carmina Miscellanea; Camena sensitive faculties of man there descends a
" some-
"
Borea; Selecta Sententice L. A. Senecce; Itinerarium; what from above giving to the sensuous impres-
Prodromus principiorum natwralium (" Principles of sions a form and meaning.
Chemistry ") Nova Observata circa Ferrum et Ignem
; With this survey of the material universe behind
(" On Iron and Fire "); Artificia Nova Mechanica him, Swedenborg proceeds to explore the universe
(" Construction of Docks and Dikes"); Miscel- of mind or, as he terms it, the regnum animale, a
lanea Obaervata (in geology, mineralogy, etc.); term inadequately translated by " animal kingdom/ 7

the treatises on metals and mines in the Opera phi- meaning rather the kingdom of the
losophica; posthumous tracts on salt, on muds, and 8. Kind rational soul presiding over the entire
soils; on the height of water, etc., in Oeologica et and "Trwn- realm of matter, not only in her own
niation."
epistolcB, Royal Academy series no. 1. body, but in the universe as a kind of
*. Philosophical: It was in 1734 that, together indefinite extension of her body. The
with the small treatise, De infinite, the Opera phi- universe is a system of tremulations moved by the
losophica et mineralia appeared in three volumes, divine life and communicated through recipient
the first part of which, Principia (Eng. transl. by forms and substances in their various orders and
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

degrees. In his introduction to the Prindpia he just beginning to receive due appreciation among
" "
conceives the true philosopher as that primitive Europe's most learned physiologists (cf. the ad-
perfect soul which responds by a perfect innate dress of Prof. Gustav Retzius of the Royal Swedish
intelligence to every tremulation of the universe. Academy before the Congress of Anatomists in Hei-
For sensation is but a succession of vibrations com- delberg, 1902).
municated from without through the series of subtle Further portions of this vast work, notably on
receptacles even to the sensory of the brain. Here the fibers, the generative organs, on the senses, on
action is produced by a similar series of motions re- the soul or rational psychology, and on the brain
versed, originating primarily in the will and taking have been posthumously published and translated
form in the thought and in the action of the nerv- into English. The De Anima (" The Soul, or Ra-
ous and muscular systems. As early as in 1719, he tional Psychology ") is in method not unlike Aris-
had outlined his doctrine of tremulations in a dis- totle's Peri PsychS treating of the mind in its suc-
t

sertation submitted to the Royal Medical College cessive planes as animus, mens, and anima (the
on The Anatomy of our most Subtle Nature, Showing sensitive or imaginative mind and memory; the ra-
that our Moving and Living Force Consists of Trem- tional mind and the pure intellect; and the soul
ulations. and its state after death). The chief and perma-
" "
The Economy Animal Kingdom treats
of the nent interest of the Rational Psychology lies in the
in part I. of the circulation of the blood and of the subtle analysis of the process of the conversion of
fetal life and in part II. of the motion of the brain, sensation into idea and then of ideas into thoughts
the cortical substance, and the human and of these again back into words or motions, all
Ph iT ^ 8ou1 Jt affords a complete system of
3
' in accordance with the great universal doctrine of

^Oorref psycho-physiology. The human anat- tremulation and of series, orders, and degrees. All
pondenoea. omv and organic l^ e are treated as
the the remaining manuscripts of this and other works
"theater of the soul's activity; conse- of Swedenborg are now in process of translation and
quently in their normal, living play of forces and publication by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sci-
mechanism. Their mechanism is so complete as to ences under the editorship of Professors Retzius,
seem almost to exclude the free action of the soul Arrhenius, Nathorst, and other eminent scholars.
and the influx of the Infinite; but the reconcilia- The De cultu et amore Dei (" Worship and Love
tion is found in the involution of the wisdom of the of God ") forms the bridge between the philosoph-
Infinite in the least finite forms of motion, and this ical and theological periods and is a work unique
is what gives the human soul a finite sense of its in literature for the boldness of its
own freedom. In the " Animal Kingdom," the pub- 8 ecu at on and tne sublimity of its
^Tto" P
^ ^
ti
lication of which is still incomplete, the doctrine of It traces the process of
Theology conceptions.
correspondences, forms, series, and degrees is out- the creation of this planet out of the
lined and the theory set forth that the physical sun's nebula, the evolution of its seasons and tem-
world is purely symbolical of the spiritual world. peratures, and of the kingdoms successively from
But even the spiritual world in the philosophical mineral through vegetable up to man, and views
period had a certain continuity of degree with mat- the human soul as a little world of intelligences and
ter, its distinction from matter being that of prior- forces by which the created universe renders up its
ity of form and simplicity of structure. It was not adoration to its creator. This work is written in a
"
until Swedenborg's later experience of things style of great elegance and contains passages of
"
heard and seen in the spiritual world that he poetic beauty and sublimity. In it, at the same
learned actually the discreteness between matter time, the author takes leave, as it were, of his career
and spiritual substance. His doctrine of forms and of personal authorship and ambition to devote
order he derived in part from Wolf, the disciple of himself henceforward to being the simple recorder
" "
Leibnitz, even as in his vortical theories and his of things revealed and the humble proclaimer
"
doctrine of the first atomic shapes he somewhat of the second coming of the Lord."
resembles Descartes. It is not until after his illu- Parts I. and II. of the
"
Animal Kingdom " were
"
mination or alleged intromission into the spiritual published in 1744, and the Worship and Love of
world as an actual witness and participant that he God " in 1745. At this point there is a sudden and
sets forth in all its fulness the great doctrine of the strange interruption of Swedenborg's scientific
three discrete degrees, projected now beyond nature quest. He experiences, as he avers, a
ai1
into the vast scale that embraces God as end, spirit direct divine call to enter upon the
or the plane of conscious relation as cause, and na- higher mission of a seer and revelator
ture as effect, and that in its assertion of two co- of the things of the spiritual world, and simulta-
existent and correspondential worlds, the spiritual neously of the spiritual truth and doctrine which
and the natural as given in the minor treatise, De underlie the literal and symbolic sense of the sacred
Commerdo Animoj et Corporis (" On Influx ") seems Scriptures. During the period from 1743 to 1749
to have given Kant (who had interested himself in (in which year he began to publish the Arcana C0-
Swedenborg's two-world experiences and had de- lestia, containing the spiritual sense of Genesis and
clared his doctrine strangely like his own) the sug- Exodus) he had not only been experiencing visions
gestion of his inaugural discourse at KBnigsberg, and dreams of an extraordinary character, accom-
1770, De mundi sensibUis atque intettigibilis forma. panied by temptations and struggles of soul of the
The vast and profound researches on the structure severest kind, a conflict between the flesh and the
and function of the brain, its respiratory motion, spirit and between intellectual ambition and the
the location of its several sensories, etc., are only authority of a divine voice within, but he had re-
Swedenbor* THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 186

corded these with great frankness and in an awed Heaven and its Wonders and Hell; and the World
sense of their deep significance, in his Dreams and of Spirits; from Things heard and seen (London,
Spiritual Diary. At the same time in his Adversaria 1758) is a description of heaven in its three degrees
he noted down glimpses appearing to him of an in- or planes and of the angelic life and its occupations,
ner meaning of the Scriptures. But it is in the in- showing that angels are regenerated
8. Heaven, human
troduction to the Arcana Ccelestia that he plainly beings who have lived in the
11 '
and are now living in a
declares, after asserting that the sacred Scriptures 8 i ^t* d natura^ world
have a spiritual sense: B* relation " P erfected civilization according to the
41
That this is really the case in respect to the Word it is laws of the divine order of life in the
impossible for any man to know except from the Lord, spiritual world, heavenitself being a reflection of
wherefore it is expedient here to premise, that, of the Lord's the divine human form, in its life of related uses and
mercy, it has been granted me now for several years to be
constantly and uninterruptedly in company with spirits neighborly service. Hell is in the opposite or re-
and angels, hearing them converse with each other and con- versed order of the heavens, and exhibits the divine
versing with them. Hence it has been permitted me to hear love in its endeavor to control and restrain the
and see things in another life which are astonishing and wicked who are governed by the love of self, and
which never before came to the knowledge of any man or
entered into his imagination. I have thus been instructed to protect them from their own insanities. The
concerning different kinds of spirits, and the state of souls world of spirits is the intermediate state between
after death; concerning hell or the lamentable state of the heaven and hell into which all souls enter immedi-
unfaithful; concerning heaven or the most happy state of
the faithful; and particularly concerning the doctrine of ately upon the death of the body. Here the judg-
faith which is acknowledged throughout all heaven, on which ment takes place and the revelation, to each one, of
subjects, by the divine mercy of the Lord, more will be said the nature of his own ruling loves and of his ability
in the following pages."
or inability to be happy in heaven, where the ruling
3. Theological: Here begins, then, the period of love is love to the Lord and charity to the neigh-
Swedenborg's theology and spiritual philosophy, or bor. Four smaller works are: The Earths in the
what is called by him the " angelic wisdom," being Universe; The Last Judgment; The New Jerusalem
a survey of the two worlds, natural and spiritual, and its Heavenly Doctrines; and The White Horse of
and of the operation of God as end and final cause, the Apocalypse (London, 1758). The Apocalypse
through the spiritual world as instrumental or effi- Explained, Giving the Internal Sense of the Book of
cient cause, into or upon nature as the world of Revelation reveals the internal history of the Chris-
effect. The series of theological works was begun tian Church, showing its decline in the two dominant
"
by Arcana Ccelestia (an exposition of the internal evil tendencies, the "harlot or the lust of domin-
sense of Genesis and Exodus, published anony- ion, exhibited in the Roman Catholic hierarchy,
mously in Latin, 8 vols., London, 1748-66). and the " dragon " or doctrine of faith alone as
Of this " internal sense," Swedenborg says: " In saving, exhibited in the Protestant sects, termina-
the following pages it will be seen that the first ting with the judgment enacted in the world of
chapter of Genesis in its internal sense treats of the spirits in the year 1757. This judgment, which
new creation of man or of his regenera- marks the transition into a new age of the world
1. The tion in general; and specifically, of the and of the Church, is effected by the coming of the
^ Internal
mOB^ ancient Church; and this in such Lord to spirits and to man in the opening of his
Scripture.
a manner tnat there is not a single Word in its spiritual sense, which is his promised
"
syllable which does not represent, sig- second coming. In the light of this book of life,"
nify, and involve something spiritual." The first the false and evil spirits are cast down and the good
eleven chapters of Genesis are declared by Sweden- are enabled to recognize the Lord Jesus Christ in
borg to be strictly symbolic and to have been de- his glorified humanity as the only God, and to fol-
rived by Moses from a more ancient word given in low him in the life of charity and faith combined,
purely correspondential language in which spiritual and so to compose the new Christian heaven. Out
truths are clothed with natural figures. Beginning of this will descend to the earth more and more the
with Abraham, the Word is historical in form but holy city, New Jerusalem, by which is signified the
divinely composed into a drama of the spiritual life true doctrine of faith and of life as seen in heaven
of man in its progress from the bondage of nature in which God will himself dwell with men and be
and self, represented by Egypt, into the liberty of with them their God (see NEW
JERUSALEM CHURCH).
the heavenly kingdom. The temptations and strug- The Apocalypse Explained was not finished by the
gles of the forty-years' wandering are prophetic of author, but was replaced later by an abridgment en-
the Lord's temptation combats in the flesh, by the Apocalypse Revealed (Amsterdam, 1766).
titled
which he, in the fulness of time and in fulfilment of The Doctrine of the New Jerusalem respecting the
all the prophets, overcame the power of hell and Lord; the Sacred Scriptures; Faith; and Life; com-
set man spiritually free. In this way the Word is monly known as the Four Leading Doctrines (Am-
shown to be everywhere in its spiritual sense de- sterdam, 1763) are brief treatises which embody in
scriptive of the incarnation and glorification of the concise form what may be called the religion of the
divine humanity in Jesus Christ. While this minute New Church. The Lord Jesus Christ is shown by
explanation in the Arcana coven only the books of Scripture texts to be Jehovah incarnate in a hu-
Genesis and Exodus, its citations from other parts manity born of the virgin; who, by triumphs over
of the Word are so numerous as to make it a very the hells in the conflicts of his temptation and pas-
comprehensive Biblical exegesis. A subsequent sion on earth, set man free from the tyranny of
posthumous publication gives an outline of the evil which threatened the human race, and opened
" Internal Sense of the
Prophets and Psalms." the way to heaven. This is redemption. The doc-
187 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Swadanborff

trine of a trinity of persons resulting in worship fied by the New Jerusalem in the Revelation "
and prayer to three gods, and of a vicarious atone- (1760); and, lastly, the great summary of all his
ment made by one god to appease theology, "The True Christian Religion or Uni-
8. Dootrlne* ano t ner are declared to be human in- "
versal Theology of the New Church (1771).
f h St ventions. The works entitled " Angelic Wisdom " present
^ !i The holy Trinity of Father,
Son and Hol y S P irit
'
declared to be systematically what may be called a spiritual meta-
Scripture.. "
a trinity of person, not of persons, like physics and ethics in distinction from the dogmatics
that of soul and body and action in man, being and the exegesis of the other works.
"
essentially the trinity of the divine love and wisdom " AiureUo Thu8 m AnSelic Wisdom Respecting
and operation in Jesus Christ glorified, " in whom
"
WlSom." the ^v" 16 Lov6 and Wisdom there is
" and
dwelleth all the fulness of the godhead bodily a spiritual philosophy of creation and
" " is
who, having all power in heaven and earth of the discrete degrees by which the universe and
the only visible and true God and the only rightful man emanated from God without being continuous
object of worship in the Christian Church. In the with God. It is the
complement to Swedenborg's
" books of the Word " which earlier cosmology, and in place of the formless infi-
sacred Scriptures the
" of the
embrace the " law, prophets, and Psalms nite there is substituted the divine man, a being
Old Testament and the " four Gospels and Revela- whose esse is love, whose exiatere is wisdom, and
tion " of the New are shown to have an internal whose procedere is use; whose first effulgence or man-
sense throughout, being dictated by the divine through the sun of the spiritual world
ifestation is
spirit to the human writers without their interven- which emanates from himself, whose heat is love and
tion, and clothed in natural symbolic language ex- whose light is truth; and which in succession, by
actly corresponding to the spiritual and universal its emanations, produces the auras, ethers, and at-
truths within, just as nature is a symbolic clothing mospheres of the spiritual world. These again in
with matter of the forces and forms of the divine their receding orbits become condensed and fixed
love and wisdom. The other books of the Bible are in the forms of the material atmospheres and so of
inspired and useful for the Church but are not the the visible and ponderable suns and earths of our
divine Word itself in the sense of the above named. universe, every particle of which is actuated and
By the Word man is brought into association with put in motion by the particles or forces of the corre-
angelic societies in heaven who are in the spiritual sponding higher atmosphere or aura of the spiritual
sense, and by the same divine indwelling and asso- world. In this way God, who is the only life and
ciation the holy sacraments of the church, founded the source of motion and the divine Man after whose
in the Word, have their supernatural power. form all things are created, actuates and shapes all
The doctrine of life teaches that " all religion has creation, without being himself nature; and because
relation to life and the life of religion is to do good." these degrees of creation, viz., God, spiritual world,
The good of life, which is charity, is defined as con- nature, are discrete, like end, cause, and effect, and
sisting primarily in shunning all evils not continuous planes of matter more or less atten-
** sins against God and doing faith- uated, pantheism is avoided and the human indi-
Faith.
viduality is preserved. The universe is shown to be
,

fully the duties Qf one g office The

decalogue in its external and internal sense shows the theater of the divine altruism, the world deri-
what evils are sins, including not only outward deed ving its being from love's need of an object, which
but inward motive. Particularly the sin of adultery can freely reciprocate that love, man in his free
is shown to embrace fornication and all lust and moral nature being that object. The reciprocation
practise hurtful to the holy bond and pure marriage of the divine love by man is in the life of charity,
love between one man and one woman. Saving that is, of love and service to the neighbor. Man's
faith is shown to be faith in the Lord God, the Sa- individual personality, being the reactive agent to
vior Jesus Christ, and in his power to save those respond to divine love, is never destroyed, and
who look to him for strength to overcome evil in heaven is the perfect society of immortal personal-
" "
obedience to the divine commandments. With ities. In the Divine Providence the laws are
those who are in this effort and are fulfilling faith- set forth by which the Lord leads man in freedom
fully their duty to the neighbor in a life of use accord- by reason out of his evils into lesser evils and into
ing to their station, the Lord implants a good and good, and how the Lord's providence, looking only
heavenly nature in place of the evils put away, and to eternal ends, controls everything with a view to
BO man is regenerated and enters the heavenly life. the greatest good.
"
Acts of charity, benevolence, piety, etc., are not In the Conjugal Love," Swedenborg presents
properly good works, since they may be done equally an ethics of marriage remarkable for its elevation
by the evil, but they are the signs of charity and and purity. The sex distinction and relation are as
the means of its exercise for those who are in the fundamental in the spiritual as in the physical na-
effort to shun evils as sins and do good from God. ture of man, resulting from the rela-
Other works published in Amsterdam are:
M f*' tion of the volitional and the in-
'
"Continuation Concerning the Last Judgment tellectual faculties of the mind,
" and marriage and holy
and the Spiritual World "; The Angelic Wisdom finds its high
"
Respecting the Divine Love and Wisdom (1763); source in the union of love and wisdom in the di-
"The Angelic Wisdom Respecting the Divine vine nature. The Christian marriage relation of one
Providence" (1764); "The Delights of Wisdom man and one woman is essentially holy and chaste
Concerning Conjugal Love (1768);
"
A Brief Ex- " and its bonds inviolable. It is " the purest pearl of
position of the Doctrine of the New Church Signi- human life, the most precious jewel of the Christian
Sw6<J6iiiborf
8w*te THE NEW 3CHAFF-HERZOQ 188

religion." In an appendix to this work, Sweden- the presence of the king and royal family and of the
borg has written on scortatory love and its insane dignitaries of the university and of the Church, was
pleasures; showing how these are the very opposite solemnly dedicated the memorial erected over the
of marriage and destructive of the holy conjugal remains by order of the Swedish parliament.
principles and pointing out their various degrees IV. Recent Honors: Like many leaders of the
of destructiveness. While exhorting his reader to world's thought, Swedenborg has required the vista
seek alone the sacred union of marriage he warns of years by which to be seen in his real significance.
him " to shun wandering lusts as he would the lakes Kant concealed his indebtedness to him under the
of hell." persiflage of the "Dreams of the Spirit-Seer";
In the " Earths in the Universe," the distinguish- Goethe is more outspoken in his gratitude, and
ing qualities of the inhabitants of various planets his Faust is full of the Swodenborgian world-view.
are discussed, but not, as some have supposed, from Swedenborg's trinal monism, the doctrine that the
any claimed abode in the planets themselves, but One embraces in itself the three essential degrees,
from information obtained in the spiritual world end, cause, effect: the grand man or the human
from the former inhabitants of these planets. form of society; the spiritual, as being the real,
The True Christian Religion gives the great sum- world; the spiritual meaning as the true and essen-
mary of all the theological doctrines, including tial meaning of the Scriptures; God as divine Man,

chapters on God, on redemption, on reformation, on visible and adorable in the glorified humanity of
regeneration, on the sacraments, on the succession Jesus Christ; the doctrine of the world as a vast sys-
of the churches or divine dispensations on the earth, tem of tremulations set in motion by its center, the
from the most ancient or Adamic through the No- infinite divine love, and transmitted through suc-
achic, Jewish, and Christian to the New Jerusalem cessive spiritual and natural spheres and atmos-
of the Apocalypse; and of the second coming of the pheres; and of the kingdom of heaven as a kingdom
Lord in the opening of the internal sense of the of uses these ideas are permeating all the newer
Scriptures. The opening chapters on God the Cre- developments of philosophic and religious thought.
ator, in their discussion of the ease and the existere Early theological prejudice is giving way to pro-
of God and their respective attributes, handle the found respect; and the time seems near when Swe-
profoundest ontological concepts and afford a basis denborg's own prophecy, from the words of Seneca,
"
for a philosophy of revelation and of human know- will be realized: There will come those who will
"
ing of the widest scope and validity. judge without offense or favor (Epist. Ixxix.).
III. Close of Life; Death and Burial: A note- FHA.NK SB WALL.
worthy fact connected with Swedenborg's period of BIBLIOGRAPHY: The scientific and philosophical works, let-
illumination is that far from exhibiting any signs of ten, and archives are in course of publication in a com-
mental aberration during these same years in which plete monumental edition under the auspices of the Royal
he claimed to be in daily intercourse with the inhab- Academy of Sciences in Stockholm under the clurf editor-
ship of Prof. Gustav Retzius. Nearly all the unpublished
itants of the other world, he was living the normal MSS. have been reproduced in photo-lithograph and are
public life of a useful citizen. Rejecting the royal deposited in the national libraries. The writings of Swe-
offer of a permanent assessorship in the Board of denborg have been translated and published as a whole or
in part in the English, Welsh, French, Gorman, Italian,
Mines, and asking to be retired on a half-salary, the Spanish, Norwegian, Swedish, Icelandic, Russian, Danish,
board, on his retirement, gave expression to the Dutch, Polish, Hindi, Arabic, and Japanese languages.
honor and appreciation in which he was held; his The chief publishing centers of his works and collateral
literature are the Swedenborg Society, London, founded in
contributions on the mining industry of Sweden
1810, located at 1 Bloomsbury Street; the Massachusetts
were declared to be of the highest practical value, New-Church Union, 16 Arlington Street, Boston; and the
as were his contributions to finance; even so late American Swedenborg Printing and Publishing Society, 3
" West Twenty-ninth Street, New York. Complete editions
as 1766 he published in Amsterdam his New
are to be had in both Latin and English.
Method of Finding the Longitude of Places on Land As literary helps use: J. Hyde, Bibliographical Index
M
and Sea. In 1771 Swedenborg went to London for to the Published Writings of Emanuel Swedenborg Original
the last time and took up his humble lodgings in and Translated; from the Library of the Swedenborg Society,

Cold Bath Fields. He saw The True Christian Re- supplemented from English and Foreign Collections, public
and private, London, 1897. A very largo list of entries will
ligion come from the press in that year. In the fol- be found in the British Museum Catalogue
"
under Sweden-
lowing year, the eighty-fourth of his age, he peace- borg." Note also J. F. Potte, The Swedenborg Concordance,
Before his death he devoutly 6 vols., London, 1898. On the life consult: R. L. Tafel,
fully passed away.
Documents concerning the Life and Character of Emanuel
received the sacrament at the hands of the Lutheran
Swedenborg, 3 vols., London, 1875-77; B. Worcester, Life
pastor, Ferelius, to whom he solemnly avowed, as and Mission of Emanuel Swedenborg, Boston, 1883; G.
his dying testimony, the truth of all that he had Trobridge, Emanuel Swedenborg his Life, Teachings and
,

written. Swedenborg's remains were interred in the Influence, London, 190S; 8. P. Doughty, Life of JBmanuel
Swedenborg, London, 1857; J. W. Fletcher, Emanuel Swe-
Lutheran Church in Princes Square, Ratcliff High- denborg, London, 1859; J. Hyde, Swedenborg the Man of the
way, London, and some years later a memorial tab- A0,new ed., London, 1863; W. White, Emanuel Sweden-
let was placed on its wall. In 1008, owing to the borg: Life and Writings, London, 1871; J. J. G. Wilkinson,
Emanuel Swedenborg, London, 1886; J. F. Buss, Sweden-
necessary abandonment of the church by its con-
borg; his Life and Mission, London, 1887; C. T. Odhner,
gregation and the deep interest awakened hi Sweden- Account of the Life and Work\ofE. Swedenborg. Philadelphia,
borg among the learned men of Sweden, by con- 1893; Q. Ballet, Swedenborg-' hist. <fun visionaireau xviii.
sent of the British government the remains were tOcfe, Paris, 1899.
disinterred and transferred in state on a Swedish
On the doctrines of Swedenborg consult: J. J. Q. Wil-
kinson, A Sketch of Swedenborg and the Swedenborgians,
warship to Sweden, and were deposited in the Boston, 1842; idem. Popular Sketch of Swedenborg's Phi-
cathedral at Upsala; and here two years later, in London, 1847; A. Clissold, Practical Nature of
189 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Swedenborv
Bwete

Swedenborg's Writings, Boston, 1839; I. Kant, TrAume It has three weekly periodicals, Missionsvannan and
eine* Geisterschcra, Kdnigsberg, 1766, Eng. transl., Lon-
don, 1900, see below under F. Sewall; R. W. Emerson,
Chicagobladet, published in Chicago, and Vecko-
Representative Men, Boston, 1850; E. Cambefort, Euai bladet,published in Minneapolis. D. NYVALL.
aur Swedenborg et at* idees eechotoloffiqves, Strasburg* 1867; BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. Magnus, The Scandinavian Work in
J. Mill, The Claims of Swedenborg, London, 1857; A. J. Michigan, in The Home Missionary, Mar., 1885; P. Wal-
Matter, Emanuel de Swedenborg, Paris, 186!); H. James, denstrom, Oenom Nordamerikas Forenta Stater, Stock-
The Secret of Swedenborg, Boston, 1869; J. J. van Oos- holm, 1890; idem, Nya Farder genom Nordamerikas
teraee, Emanuel Swedenborg, Amsterdam, 1873; Q. Wallis, Forenta Stater, Stockholm, 1902; World's Congress of Re-
Swedenborg and Modem Culture, London, 1875; 8. Simp- ligions, ed. J. H. Barrows, Chicago, 1893; A. P. Nelson,
son, The Delusions and Errors of Emanuel Swedenborg, Missionsvannernes Historia, Minneapolis, 1906.
North Walaham, 1876; W. Bruce, Wesley and Sweden-
borg, London. 1877; B. F. Barrett, Lectures on the New
SWEENY, JAMES FIELDING: Anglican bishop of
Dispensation, Boston, 1881; E. A. Beaman, Swedenborg
and the New Age, Philadelphia, 1881; E. Swift, Sweden- Toronto; b. in London, England, Nov. 15, 1857.
borg: the Man and his Works, London, 1883; E. Madeley, He was educated at McGill University, Montreal
The Science of Correspondences Elucidated, London, 1884; (B.A., 1878), and was ordered deacon in 1880 and
W. Graham, The Facts of Being; a concurrent Study of the
Divine Word and the theological Works of E. Swedenborg, priested in the following year. In 1880-83 he was
London, 1806; Q. Bush, Statement of Reasons for Embra- rector of St. Luke's, Montreal, and of St. Philip's,
cing the Doctrines of Swedenborg, new issue, New York, Toronto (1883-1909), also being commissary for the
1898; J. E. Bowers, Sun* and Worlds of the Universe,
bishop of Moosonee in 1901-09, domestic chaplain
London, 1899; G. Trobridge, Swedenborg and Modern
to the archbishop of Toronto in 1903-09, and arch-
Thought, London, 1899; A. Vismara, Emanucle Sweden-
borg, Milan, 1902; J. Whitehead, A Study of Swedenborg' s deacon of York, diocese of Toronto, in 1906-09. In
Psychical States and Experiences, Boston, 1909; F. Sewall, 1909 he was consecrated bishop of Toronto.
Swedenborg and Dante. Essays on the New Renaissance,
London, 1893; idem, Kant and Swedenborg, in Kant's SWBTE, HENRY BARCLAY: Church of England ;

Dreams of a Spirit Seer, ib. 1900; idem, Swedenborg and b. at Bristol Mar. 14, 1835. He was educated at
the Sapientia A ngelica, in Constable's Philosophies Ancient
and Modern, London, 1910. To the exposition of the Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge (B.A.,
philosophy of Swedenborg, The New-Church Review, Bos- 1859), and was ordered deacon in 1858 and or-
ton, and The New-Church Magazine and The New-Church dained priest in the following year. He was curate
Quarterly, London, are devoted. The New Philosophy,
of Blagdon, Somerset (1858-65), All Saints', Cam-
Lancaster, Pa., promulgates his science and philosophy.
bridge (1866-68), and Tor Mohun, Devonshire
SWEDISH EVANGELICAL MISSION COVENANT (1869-72), and rector of Ashdon, Essex (1877-90).
OF AMERICA: An association of churches in the He was fellow of his college (1858-77); tutor (1872-
United States whichis an offshoot of the free-church
1875); divinity lecturer in the University of Cam-
movement inSweden there organized into the bridge (1875-77); professor of pastoral theology in
Swedish Covenant. The history is as follows: King's College, London (1882-90); and since 1890
In 1868 a congregation of former members of the has been regius professor of divinity at Cambridge,
First Swedish Lutheran Church of Chicago was or- where he was Lady Margaret preacher in 1902-03.
ganized and incorporated with a charter permitting After being an honorary fellow of Gonville and
the ordination of ministers. Other churches spring- Caius College in 1886-90, he was reelected fellow
ing up in various towns, especially in Illinois and in the latter year, and has also been fellow of King's
Iowa, united in 1873 with this congregation to form College, London, since 1890. He was examining
the Swedish Evangelical Lutheran Mission Synod. chaplain to the bishop of St. Alban's from 1881 to
Another synod, the Swedish Evangelical Ansgarii 1890. He has written or edited: England versus
Synod, was organized 1874, and the two bodies Rome: A brief Handbook of the Roman Catholic Con-
united, 1885, into the Swedish Evangelical Mission troversy (London, 1868); On the Early History of
Covenant of America. The basis of the movement the Doctrine of the Holy Spirit (Cambridge, 1873) ;

is the idea that each Christian church is a voluntary Theodoras Ijascaris Junior, De Processione SpirUus
union of individuals upon the foundation of faith Sancti oratio apologetica (London, 1876); On the
in Christ Jesus and of brotherly love and confidence, History of the Doctrine of the Procession of the Holy
this union to be held open to every believer leading Spirit from the Apostolic Age to the Death of Charle-
a Christian life, without considering differences of magne (Cambridge, 1876); Theodori Episcopi Mop-
creeds as far as these do not imply a denial of the suesteni in epistolas Beati Pauli Commentarii (2
authority of the Holy Scriptures. The covenant is vols., 1880-82); The Old Testament in Greek (3
not, strictly speaking,a church organization, but vols., 1887-94, 4th ed. of vol. i., 1909); The Akh-
rather a missionary society having churches as its mim Fragment of the Gospel of Peter (London,
1
members. The churches have in fact consolidated 1893); The Apostles Creed in Relation to Primitive
because their missionary spirit has led them on to Christianity (Cambridge, 1894); Faith in Relation
missionary enterprises too large for any Jngle to Creed, Thought, and Life (London, 1895); Church
church to undertake. There is at the same time a Services and Service Books before the Reformation
tendency, although not very pronounced, to grow (1896); The Gospel according to St. Mark: The
into a more intimate consolidation along denomi- Greek Text, with Introduction, Notes, and Indices
national lines. And, in theory at least, the cove- (London, 1898); An Introduction to the Old Testa-
nant has, through its annual conferences, the same ment in Greek (1900); Patristic Study (1902);
disciplinary power over any single church as the Studies in the Teaching of Our Lord (1903, new ed.,
church over any single church-member. 1910). The Apocalypse of St. John (Greek text, with
The organization reports 185 churches, 375 min- introduction and notes), 1906; The Appearances of
isters, 34,500 church-members, property value our Lord after his Passion (1907); The Holy Spirit
9143,000, income for missionary purposes |31,000. in the New Te9tamwk a Study of Primitive Christian
BwftMrtend THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 100

Teaching (1909); The Ascended Christ; a Study in Among his published works are Truths for To-day
Teaching (1910); and edited
the earliest Christian (2 series, Chicago, 1874-76); Motives of Life (1879);
Essays on Some Biblical Questions of the Day (1909). Club Essays (1880); Sermons (1883); Old Pictures
of Life (1894) two volumes of essays edited after
SWING, ALBERT TEMPLE: Congregation alist; his death. JOSEPH FORT NEWTON.
b. at Bethel, O., Jan. 18, 1849. He was educated
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. F. Newton, David Swing: Poet-Preacher,
at Oberlin College (A.B., 1874), Yale Divinity
Cedar Rapids, la., 1908.
School (B.D., 1877), and the universities of Berlin
and Halle (1891-92). He has held pastorates at SWISS BRETHREN. See MENNONITEB.
Fremont, Neb. (1878-86), Cortland, N. Y. (1886- SWITHUN, swith'un (SWTTHlfl, SWITHUM),
1887), and Detroit, Mich. (1887-90). In 1890-93 SAINT: Bishop and patron of Winchester; d.
he was in Europe, and since 1893 has been profes- at Winchester July 2, 862. Of noble birth, he was
sor of church history at Oberlin Theological Semi- educated in the Old Monastery, Winchester, where
nary. In theology ho is a liberal conservative. He he was ordained by Bishop Helmstan, 827. Egbert,
is the author of Theology of Albrecht Ritschl (New king of the West Saxons, committed his son and
York, 1901); Outline of the Doctrinal Development successor, Ethelwulf, to his care, and availed him-
in the Western Church (Oberlin, O., 1904); and Life self of his counsels. Ethelwulf, on his accession,
of James Harris Fairchild or Sixty Eight Years
f made him his minister, especially in ecclesiastical
wUh a Christian College (New York, 1906). affairs, and in 852 appointed him, with the clergy's
consent, bishop of Winchester on the death of
SWING, DAVID: American divine; b. in Cincin-
Helmstan. St. Swithun's Day is July 15, because
Aug. 23, 1830; d. in Chicago Oct. 4, 1894.
nati, 0.,
on that day, in 971, his relics were moved from the
He came of blended English and German ancestry;
churchyard, where he had been buried at his own
grew up on a farm near Williamsburg, Clermont
request, so that his grave might be trodden on by
County, O., attending the district school of the
was graduated from Miami University, passers-by, to the cathedral of Winchester. Owing
village;
to the fact that rain fell on the day and for a con-
Oxford, O., 1852; studied for two years in the
siderable period afterward, the superstition exists
Theological Seminary at Cincinnati, under Dr.
that a rainy St. Swithun's Day presages forty days
Nathan Lewis Rice; then returned to Miami Uni-
of rain immediately afterward. Miracles arc re-
versity as professor of classic languages, where he
remained for twelve years. He married Miss Eliza- ported to have followed in great number.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Early material, with comment, ia collected
beth Porter, of Oxford, O., in 1855, and two daugh- in ASH, July, i. 321-330, Aug., i. 98 100, and in MPL,
ters were born in their home. In 1866 he was called civ. 57-66. Consult further. J. Earle, Gloucester Frag-
to the Westminster Presbyterian church of Chicago, ments, vol i., Facsimiles of some Leaves in ... Hand-
which was consolidated with the North Church in writing on St. Sioithun, London, 1861 (contains essay on
life and times of Swithun and throe early lives); DNB,
1869, under the name of the Fourth Presbyterian Iv. 239-241.
church, Professor Swing being retained as pastor of
the new organization. The church edifice was des-
SWITZERLAND.
I. The Church Law.
troyed by fire in 1871, but was rebuilt the follow- II. The Reformed Church.
ing year. Charges of heresy were filed against History ( 1).
Professor Swing with the Chicago Presbytery in Present Church Constitution ( 2).
Intercan tonal Arrangements ( 3).
1874, by Dr. Francis Landey Patton, editor of The State of Theology and Religion ( 4).
Interior. An exciting trial ensued, the records of III. The Catholic Churches.
which are preserved in The Trial of Rev. David The Church of Rome (1).
Swing, Edited by a Committee of the Presbytery (Chi- The Christian Catholic Church ( 2).
IV. The Free Churches of French Switzerland.
cago, 1874). The result was a verdict of " not Geneva ($ 1).
proved," but upon appeal by the prosecution to the Vaud (5 2).
Northern Illinois synod the accused withdrew from Neuchatel (5 3).
the Presbyterian Church. The censuses ordered by the federal government,
The following year, 1875, Central Church was 1850-1900, give evidence of the varied and often
organized with Professor Swing as pastor, $50,000 complicated conditions in the Church as well as in
having been subscribed by citizens of Chicago to the State of Switzerland. The four divisions tabu-
support the enterprise. It was an independent so- lated were the Protestant, Roman Catholic, Jewish,
ciety,founded upon a simple statement of faith in and " Others not specified "; but distinctions were
Christ as the savior and leader of men. In 1880 not clearly drawn, and subdivisions were omitted.
Central Music Hall was dedicated as the home of It is therefore not evident how many members of
the church, and in that spacious auditorium Pro- the smaller Evangelical denominations were in-
fessor Swing preached to a congregation of 3,000 cluded either in the first or fourth categories; how
people until his death. Professor Swing was editor
.
many Christian Catholics (Old Catholics), in the
of The Alliance,an undenominational religious second or fourth; and how many were included in
weekly, 1873-82, and of The Weekly Magazine, the fourth because of religious indifference or in-
1883-85. He was much in request as a lecturer, his advertently. From a review of the census statis-
most popular themes being " The Useful and the tics of Dec. 1, 1900, it appears that the confessional
" "
Beautiful," Overdoing," and The Novel." His distribution in Switzerland from 1880 to 1900 has
sermons, which he read, were little essays, covering undergone little alteration. The Protestants lost
a wide range of moral and spiritual topics, and eight per cent, the Roman Catholics gained the same;
writtei* with rare delicacy and beauty of style. the Jews increased from two to four per cent of the
191 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA .tzerland

total; those of no denomination fell from four to must not be restricted either for religious or eco-
two per cent. Of a total number of Jews of 12,263, nomic reasons, nor on account of previous conduct.
the canton of Zurich had 2,933 and of Basel-Stadt, The spiritual jurisdiction is abolished. The carry-
1,897. Of the 7,359 non-classified Geneva had ing-out of these fundamental laws might have
1,928 or over twenty-five per cent of its total. The had as a result the complete indifference of State
cantons of Zurich, Bern, Schaffhausen, Vaud, and to Church and the disappearance of the cantonal
Neuchatel were (1900) over 80 per cent Protestant; state churches; but only a few radical conse-
Appenzell-Outer-Rohdes, over 90 per cent. The quences have actually resulted. A reaction in
original cantons of Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, the favor of a closer union of Church and State has
two Unterwalden, Zug, Appenzell-Inner-Rhodes, gradually set in. The articles on the civil status
Ticino, and Valais were over 90 per cent Roman and marriage have been enacted. A statute aim-
Catholic, with Freiburg at 84.6 per cent. Most ing at the extension of the federal supervision of
closely divided are Graub Unden, Protestant 52 public schools by the creation of a secretary was
per cent, and Roman Catholic 47 per cent; Aargau, voted down in 1882. After much deliberation the
55 and 44, respectively; and Geneva, 47 and 51. constitutional article was amended so that the can-
I. The Church Law: The federal constitution of tons receive national aid for the primary school
May 29, 1874, placed the church conditions of all con- system without the sacrifice of independent control.
fessions on a new footing. That of 1848 had guar- The effect of the operation of the constitution
anteed to all adherents of the Christian confessions to date may be summed up as follows: (1) All re-
unmolested residence and freedom of worship; re- ligious instruction, in or out of school, is faculta-
served to the federation and cantons the mainte- tive. However, in most cantons it is given in the
nance of public order and peace among the confes- schools, and in many cantons it is imparted by the
sions and equality between church-members
civil clergy, especially in the higher grades. (2) The
and citizens; and prohibited the Jesuits and clergy may not serve ex offido as inspectors, presi-
affiliated orders. The constitution of 1874 further dents, or members of school boards; but they may,
guarantees state primary education open to all nevertheless, be elected, which often happens in
without restriction of confessional faith or freedom the Reformed cantons. (3) It has been questioned
of conscience, both of which are pronounced invio- whether persons belonging to a religious order, and
lable within the state. There is to be no coercion hence bound by vows other than those to the state
of religious affiliation, religious instruction, or of authority, may become teachers in public schools;
any religious performance, and no penalty on ac- but the Roman Catholic cantons hold to it, and no
count of religious opinion. Parents or guardians other decision has been reached by the Federation.
exercise control of the religious instruction of chil- (4) Religious jurisdiction, especially official par-
dren till the end of the sixteenth year, in the sense ticipation of church or priest in legal questions of
of the above-mentioned principles. The exercise marriage and paternity is prohibited; the civil
of civil and political rights are not to be abridged marriage is obligatory, and alone legally valid;
by any prescriptions or conditions of an ecclesias- the civil register must not be conducted by
tical and religious character. Religious beliefs do priests; the church ceremony prior to the civil
not exempt one from civic duties. No one is obliged marriage is forbidden under severe penalties. (5)
to pay taxes for the special purposes of religious The federal diet has interfered with attempts of
worsliip of a society to which he does not belong. the Roman Catholic Church to make changes in
The application of this fundamental principle in the dioceses without reference to the Federation.
detail is reserved to the federal diet. Freedom of (0) Ecclesiastical measures (e.g., exclusion from
worship guaranteed within the limits of morality
is church voting) against those who intentionally
and public order. Full power is secured to the disregard church practises like baptism, confir-
federation and cantons to adopt measures for the mation, communion, church marriage, or church
maintenance of order and public peace among the burial, are not admissible in cantons where the
adherents of the different religious societies as well Protestant Church is established.
as against the invasion of the rights of citizens by II. The Reformed Church: In the course of the
church authorities. Questions of public or private Reformation the only alternative to the power of
rights arising from the formation or separation of the papacy was the State. The resort to this on the
religious bodies may, by way of complaint, be sub- part of the adherents of the Evangelical Church was
mitted to the decision of the proper civic author- not opposed by Zwingli and Calvin, who
ities. The erection of dioceses on Swiss territory is i. History, sought to promote the religious moral

subject to the approval of the Federation. The pro- reformation of the whole as politically
hibition against the Jesuits may, by act of the Fed- organized, as well as of individuals. Only the Evan-
eration, be extended to other religious orders whose gelical adherents belonged to the State in Protes-
activity may be a menace to the State, or disturb tant cantons; the Roman Catholics, in cantons
the peace of the confessions. The erection of new, under their control. The former were masters, the
or the restoration of abolished, monasteries or re- latter servants, of their governments. The council
ligious orders, is not permissible. The disposition of 200 at Zurich ordered the preaching of the Word
of burial places devolves upon the civil authorities, only, carried out the Reformation in doctrine and
who must see to it that every dead person is suit- cultus, and organized the synod of clericals in 1528,
ably buried. The civic authorities are to deter- including the clergy of Glarus until 1630, and those
mine and record the civic status. The right of mar- of Thurgau and Rheinthal till 1798. Similar synods
riage is under the protection of the Federation, and were erected in St. Gal] with Appenzell, Toggen-
Switzerland THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG 198

burg, and Schaffhausen. Those instituted at Bern zell, had only, even in purely church affairs, the
and Basel soon lapsed. In Graubunden (Orisons) right to propose measures. Mixed synods, with a
the synod had almost independent conduct of limited clerical representation, were established in
church affairs. In Geneva, the choice of the clergy Bern (1852), Neuchatel (1848), Freiburg (1864),
lay with the Compagnie de&pasteurs, and the church and Glarus (1845). Popular synods, with absolute
discipline in the hands of a consistory whose mem- free choice, belong to a recent date. Basel-Stadt
bers were the six pastors of the town, and twelve had a church council, but no synod; Basel-Land
men chosen by the council. The entire church gov- no definite church constitution. The chapter-gen-
ernment in Neuchatel lay in the hands of the Com- eral in Aargau had the right of decision in purely
pagnie des pasteurs. In canton Vaud, the discipline church matters; and in others the right of approval.
and the appointment of pastors, subject to con- The cantons are independent of each other in
firmation by the government, was vested in the church matters, there being no Swiss Reformed
five classes. The union of classes into synods was Church, in the legal sense; but only cantonal state
not invariable, and ceased in the seventeenth cen- churches. No one is obliged to belong to the estab-
tury. The current church administration was con- lished church of his canton; however,
ducted by a board of examiners in Zurich, consisting 2. Present a Protestant removing from one can-
of members of the council, pastors, and professors, Church ton to another is ipso facto regarded
presided over by the the pastor of the
antistes, i.e., Constitution, as an adherent of the state church
Great Minster and president of the synod. It exam- where he takes up his residence. Be-
ined and ordained candidates, offered suggestions tween 1863 and 1903 new church laws were made
to the council for the election of pastors, and had in thirteen principal cantons, including Bern and
supervision of the clergy. Similar boards existed Geneva (1874), and Zurich (1902). In Schaffhausen
in Schaffhausen, Basel, and other cantons under an the law of 1854 is in contradiction with the consti-
antistes or dean. The chapter of Roman Catholic tution of 1876. Basel-Land has as yet no church
times survived in the assemblies of the clergy of law. In purely internal church affairs (worship,
smaller districts, under the name of classes as in hymnal, liturgy, or materials for religious instruc-
Bern and Vaud, or colloquies as in Graubtinden, tion), the organizations decide, with or without the
their presiding officer being generally called dean. pleasure of the State; but in mixed affairs the State
In Glarus, Appenzell, and Graub linden, the con- decides, subject to the approval of the church or-
gregations had the right to choose and dismiss their ganization (supervision of church properties, pay
pastors, but in most cantons this was the preroga- of the clergy, or division of parishes). In Glarus,
tive of the government, or of the hitherto existing Freiburg, Appenzell, St. Gall, Thurgau, the inde-
collators acting on the suggestion of the examiners pendence of the Church or of individual churches
or church conventions. Even from the time before is predominant; in Basel-Stadt, Schaffhausen, Aar-
the Reformation the congregations in many can- gau, Vaud, and Geneva, the material competence
tons had variously constituted and differently of the state authorities. The churches set up no
named administrative boards which regulated dis- formal creed, but declare themselves members of
cipline and morals, the observance of festivals, at- the Christian church, or of the Evangelical church,
tendance at church, management of church prop- or avow the principles of the Reformation. Some
erty, and charities, and formed the first court of deny all confessional form as qualification for syn-
marriage discipline. Absolute church discipline to odal rights and ecclesiastical offices. All citizen
the extent of exclusion from the communion de- voters who belong to the Reformed faith, or sub-
volved on these boards only in the cantons of Basel, mit to the church regulations, constitute a parish
Schaffhausen, Neuchatel, and Geneva, in the last of community. Outsiders have a church vote in Ap-
which very severe civil penalties were associated penzell and Neuchatel. Parishes in all the can-
with those of the Church, such as expulsion. The tons may choose then* pastor; in Vaud, however,
synods began to lose power, or ceased altogether they have only two nominations to the govern-
in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and ment. Most have the choice of the church govern-
the church interests became more and more those ing boards; many the choice of the members of the
of the State. With the founding of the Helvetian synod; some have either the sole right with refer-
republic, a plan was projected for a unified church ence to worship, hymn-book, and liturgy, or the
organization, but was not put into effect. The Hel- right to veto the proposals of the synod. The
vetian government held the highest ecclesiastical church board of which the pastor is member ex
authority, the minister of arts and sciences being officio or advisory member, generally has supervi-
also minister of religion. During the intermediate sion of the order of worship, of pastoral activity,
period the old forms were revived. The newly specially of instruction, moral discipline, and offi-
formed cantons of St. Gall and Thurgau were given cial or non-official charge of the poor. The synods
synods and church councils, but Aargau, only a (consistory in Geneva) are either absolute legisla-
church council. In 1830 the political changes occa- tive bodies, in purely church affairs, or are subject
sioned alterations in the church constitution looking to the state authorities or to the churches. They
toward more independence from tho State. A few are constituted of representatives of the parishes,
church synods obtained the right of decision in or of parishes and the State combined, or election
purely church matters, subject to the ratification of districts, or of the entire canton, or of district
the grand council, and the right of approval in boards. The term is three, four, or six years, and
matters not purely ecclesiastical, as in Zurich, St. the sessions are usually annual (monthly in Geneva).
Gall, Thurgau. Others, as in Schaffhausen, Appen- The highest board of administration, variously
198 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Switzerland

styled church commission or council and synodal ing the sufficient gymnasium studies, and a testi-
commission or council, is either collateral, or subor- monial as to morals, besides a certificate of at least
dinate to the government of the canton, or has a two years in high-school studies for the propsedeii-
representation therefrom, and is wholly or partly tic test, and of at least three years for the theo-
or not in any way chosen by the synod. Its duty logical. Ordination is performed by the church
isto prepare and execute the decisions of the synod, council that recommends the candidates. The exam-
to regulate mostly the acceptance and eligibility of ination certificates qualify the holders to a position
the clergy, supervise the clergy, institute visita- in any of the associated cantons, but a pastor go-
tions, settle cases of discipline and dispute, and, in ing from one canton into another must bring a cer-
many cantons, to supervise the administration of tificate of official conduct and character from the
church property. The intermediate district boards church council of the former canton. Local rea-
exist only in Zurich and Vaud. The colloquies in sons prevented Bern and Graub unden from join-
Graub unden and the deans of the chapters in St. ing the Concordat, but free interchange is in effect
Gall have similar prerogatives. The clergy of a in all German Switzerland. The first conference of
district together form a chapter in Zurich, St. Gall, the Evangelical church boards of Switzerland met
and Thurgau, and may submit matters to the ac- annually, 1858-62, and resolved upon (1) Good
tion of the synod, and cooperate with it in prac- Friday as a solemn holy day; (2) the mutual ad-
tical and theological affairs. In Basel-Stadt and mission of pastors; (3) the arrangement of a liturgy
Aargau the clergy of the canton form the chapter. for Evangelical field service, beside pastoral in-
The Compagnie des pasteurs in Geneva and the struction,and preliminaries for a military hymn-
convention of clergy at Schaffhausen and Basel- book; toward a common translation of
(4) steps
Land have a similar function. The clergy become the Bible on the basis of Luther's; (5) proposi-
eligible on the basis of a university course, followed tions to the federal authorities for the simplifica-
by examination before appointed committees, or a tion of the marriage ceremony; and (6) mutual
diploma granted by a theological faculty. Ordina- exchange of the official reports of the cantonal
tion takes place in connection with a public service church boards. No conferences were held between
by the laying on of hands, and in most cantons by 1863 and 1875, but in the latter year the relation of
the taking of a vow, pledging faithfulness in the the church boards to the state law as regards the
preaching of the Gospel, and the administration of civil estate was discussed and agreement arrived at
the sacred ordinances, and purity of life. Geneva concerning general principles. The church council
and Neuchatel exclude the vow, placing every cler- of Zurich was authorized to look out for matters of
ical on the responsibility of his own conscience. common importance to the Evangelical churches,
Pastors are elected for life in Vaud and Geneva; and to call a conference whenever circumstances
for three years in Glarus; five in Basel-Land; six warranted. In consequence by means of a joint
in Zurich, Bern, Freiburg, Basel-Stadt, Aargau, and resolution by circular of the church boards, 1876,
Neuchatel; eight in Schaffhausen, and until dis- the federal diet was induced to adopt a provision
missed in Graubimden; but these terms are usually for the securing of religious instruction to children
renewable. The church councils usually deal with working in factories. On the occasion of the dis-
the suspension of delinquent pastors; the synod turbance of the celebration of the national day of
with dismission from office in Glarus, Freiburg, St. prayer by a military parade, 1877, similar steps
Gall, Graub linden; the civic council in Basel-Stadt, secured tho assurance against its recurrence. The
Vaud, Geneva, and Neuchatel; the church council conferences were resumed in 1881, in order to bring
in Appenzell. Dismission can be effected only by the church boards into closer affiliation in matters
legal sentence in Bern and Zurich. The pastors are of common interests, and have been held annually
paid by the State in nine cantons, with here and ever since. They are attended by representatives
there additional free-will offerings from the Church, of all the boards of the cantonal Evangelical state
and in the others by the churches, and salaries aver- churches. The place of meeting changes every
age between $300 and $595, the minimum being two years. Each canton has one vote which is
$105, the maximum, $780-877. A pension for re- cast according to the instructions of its board;
tired clergy is provided by law in Bern, Basel-Stadt, these decisions are not obligatory, but suggestive
Zurich, Schaffhausen, Aargau, and Vaud; and in to the cantons, or are simply expressions of com-
many cantons there are free institutions for old and mon opinion. The most important subjects that
sick clergy, and for their widows and orphans. have been treated are: the membership of the state
The Concordat of Feb. 19, 1862, relating to the churches; the right of outsiders to vote; the right
" of women to vote; church statistics; the matter
mutual admission of Evangelical Reformed cler-
"
gy is in effect in the cantons of of baptism and confirmation; a general proclama-
3. Inter- Zurich, Aargau, Appenxell-Outer- tion for the day of prayer, and Reformation day,
cantonml Rhodes, Thurgau,
Glarus, Schaff- on the first Sunday in November; appointment of
Arrange- hauaen, St. Gall, and from 1870 the Mar. 6, 1004, as Bible Sunday; celebration of the
ments. two Baaels. These cantons together fourth centennial anniversary of Zwingli's birth-
appoint an examining board, which day, 1884; prayers for the federal celebration of
holds office three years, and may call in professors 1891; the question of the establishment of a per-
as experts in the examinations. The usual require- manent Easter day; measures against instruction
ments for examination are a recommendation from in advanced education on Sunday, and for the re-
the church council of the canton in which the candi- striction of amusements on solemn feast days, and
date has a permanent residence, a certificate affirm- especially the running of excursion trains on those
XI. 13
SwitMrUnd THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 194

days; a petition for the prevention of the disturb- the Bible. In the German parts this is the Lutheran
ance of the celebration of the day of prayer by version. Zurich has its own since the Reformation,
military assemblies; the minimum amount of ma- frequently revised and improved until 1882. Bern
terial to be taught and memorized in the instruc- had the translation of Johannes Piscator (q.v.)
tion of the young on the part of the church, and the after 1602. A revision instituted for Switzerland
provision of concrete materials for the same; re- in 1836, resumed in 1862 by the Evangelical con-

ligious instruction in the gymnasia; care of the ference, and again in 1877, resulted in the com-
newly confirmed; restriction of divorce; and regu- pletion of the New Testament and the Psalms
lations against games of chance and lotteries. In (Frauenfeld, 1893) but it was not adopted by the
;

1905 there were, in the cantons of the Reformed Synod of Zurich. In Geneva the old translation
State Church only, 953 churches with 1,030 clerical authorized by the Compagnie des Pasteurs held
positions. In the cantons dominated by the Roman undisputed recognition and use for a long time
Catholics there were 30 Reformed churches, 23 of (see BIBLE VERSIONS, B, VI., 3). The revisions
which were organized and supported by Protestant of this of D. Martin and J. F. Osterwald circulate
aid associations. In the principal cities and in the widely in Neuchatel and Vaud. The Compagnie
canton of Bern (8) there are together 27 French authorized new versions; namely, of the Old Tes-
churches. In cantons Vaud, Neuchatel, and Geneva tament by L. Segond (1874), and of the New by
are 16 German pastorates. H. Oltramare (1872). Divine service consists of
Theological instruction is given by the theolog- preaching, prayer, and singing. There is no sys-
ical faculties of Zurich, Bern, Basel, Lausanne, tem of pericopes. Liturgies, of which almost every
Geneva, and of the academy of Neuchatel. Eccle- canton has its own, were drawn up partly by the
siastical instruction is no longer bound Reformers and based on Roman Catholic prayers or
4. State of to an official confession of faith in any have partly originated in recent times, or have
Theology Swiss Evangelical State Church, but often resulted from the long and toilsome work of
and rests on the general recognition of the synods. These liturgies, formerly strictly
Religion. Evangelical truth, as expressed in the obligatory, can now be employed with more liberty
ordination and synodal vows, or, more by pastors and churches. Until the nineteenth
or less briefly, in the provisions of the church con- century, church singing was restricted to the met-
stitutions. The use of the Reformation catechism rical version of the Psalms in four-part melodies.
is also not obligatory, and no longer generally em- Hymnals have been introduced based on the Ger-
ployed, and in preparation for confirmation, the man in the cantons individually. A new Swiss
pastor is free in most cantons to adopt his own hymnal (1890) for universal use has been very
method, or to select from one of the many of greater widely adopted. Solemn holy days are Sundays,
or less merit that are available. Theological and Christmas, Good Friday, Easter, Ascension Day,
religious diversities have produced severe and pro- and Whitsuntide; with holiday seasons specially
tracted controversies in the Swiss state churches. in the eastern cantons for Christmas, East or, and
After the strife of supranaturalism and rationalism Whitsuntide. Reformation Sunday is the first in
in the third decade of the last century had been November, and the third Sunday in September is a
allayed by the influence of Schleiermachcr, and the general day of national thanksgiving, penance, and
constitutional conflicts of 1830 had diverted atten- prayer, celebrated since 1650. The Lord's Supper
tion to the practical side of church matters, the is administered three or four times a year and on
"
Life of Jesus," by D. F. Strauss, and its adoption solemn feast days, including the day of prayer, or
at the Zurich high-school, led to a violent reaction, on the Sunday before or after; but in Basel it is,
which culminated in the popular movement of Sept. besides, administered every Sunday in one of the
6, 1839. This was neither purely religious, nor four principal churches. Children's services are
purely political, but the outcome of deep, relig- held everywhere, devoted cither to catechetical or
ious and moral emotion, blended with personal, consecutive Biblical instruction. Confirmation
local, and political interests. Hegel's philosophy usually takes place after the age of sixteen, follow-
and the critical writings of the Tubingen School ing a course of catechetical instruction given on
led to fresh theological and ecclesiastical contro- week-days. Free associations have exercised a
versies. Thus there grew up three church parties: beneficent influence on religious life in Switzer-
the Evangelical church association, representing a land. The Association of Swiss Evangelical Preach-
strict Biblical tendency; the association for free ers and Theological Teachers was founded in 1839,
Christianity, which is at the heart of the free-think- for the furtherance, through united action, of the
ing, or reform tendency; and, mediating between theological and practical interests of the church.
the two, the theological church society. The influ- This body meets annually at different places, and
ence of the Ritschlian theology among the younger has branches in the various cantons. In addition
men in recent decades has done much to weaken to the cantonal assemblies the larger cantons have
and alter these tendencies. Opposition to dog- pastors' societies. Bible societies exist in most of
matism and intellectualism has given rise to a the cantons, that of Basel having been organized
strong aversion here and there to the present or- in 1804, and also missionary associations, which
ganization and cultic institutions, without, however, partly contribute their gifts to the Basel society
practical results. The organization of free churches and partly to the general Evangelical Protestant
has restricted itself to isolated examples in German missionary society organized in 1883. The Prot-
Switzerland. The principal resource for the edifi- estant church aid societies were founded in 1842
cation and revitalizing of the Swiss Church has been through the Swiss preachers' association. Under the
195 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Switzerland

priority of the Basel society they foster and support ies there are 45, besides numerous congregations of
Protestantism in scattered places, specially Roman sisters devoted to charity and instruction. The
Catholic cantons, as well as in neighboring foreign institute of teaching sisters at Menzingen, canton
countries. Associations of the Innere Mission have Zug, has 700 teachers, who teach in 250 public
in hand a great variety of philanthropic work. Re- schools,and care for 45 orphanages, poorhouses,
ligious periodicals in Protestant Switzerland num- and hospitals; and the congregation of the sisters
bered (1904) twenty-nine, in Roman Catholic seven. of mercy in Ingenbohl, canton Schwyz, numbers
For Free Churches of French Switzerland see IV., 3,400 sisters, 1,350 of whom are active in Switzer-
below. Other denominations that have gained fol- land, and the rest in various Austrian institutions.
lowers are, the Methodist Episcopal, the Methodists There are organizations in behalf of the Roman
of the Evangelical Communion, the Baptist, the Catholic interests, such as the Swiss student socie-
Catholic Apostolic (Irvingites), the Darbyites, Swe- ties (600 members), the Roman Catholic associa-
denborgians, Salvation Army, Christian Science, tions (30,000), the Roman Catholic association for
the Christian Catholic Apostolic Church of Zion of internal missions, to care for interests in Protes-
Alexander Dowie, and the Mormons. Of these the tant cantons under the direction of the Swiss bish-
Methodists and Baptists are the most numerous, ops, and the associated Roman Catholic men and
the former in 1904 having 60 preachers and 9,083 labor unions (6,000).
regular members. Many of the adherents of these After the dispute arising in the Basel diocese in
continue as members of the state churches. consequence of the Vatican Council of 1870, Bern,
m. The Catholic Churches: According to the Aargau, Solcure, Thurgau, and Basel
representations of the Roman Curia the diocese of 2. The rejected the doctrine of papal infalli-
Chur (q.v.) embraces the cantons of Zurich, Uri, Christian bility, and forbade their bishops to
Schwyz, Unterwalden, Glarus, and Catholic discipline priests for the non-accept-
i. The Graubunden; the diocese of Basel, the Church. ance of it. As the bishop refused to
Church cantons of Bern, Lucerne, Zug, Sol- obey, he was removed, and the adher-
of Rome, cure, Basel-Stadt, Basel-Land, Schaff- ents formed the Association of Swiss Liberal Catho-
hausen, Aargau, and Thurgau; of St. lics. Christian Catholic churches were at once or-
Gall, the cantons of St. Gall and Appenzell; of ganized in the above cantons, and in the towns of
Lausanne and Geneva, the cantons of Freiburg, Basel and Zurich. Bern and Geneva transferred
Neuchatel, Vaud, and Geneva; and the diocese of the state church organization from the Roman
Sitten, the canton of Valais. The organization of Catholic Church to the new churches. They held
the Roman Catholic Church in Switzerland is lax their first national synod in 1875, chose a bishop,
and for the most part in a state of confusion. The 1876, who, with all his followers, was promptly ex-
administration of the bishop of Chur is only pro- communicated by the pope. The synod consists
visory except in the canton of Graubunden. This of the bishop, the synodal council, all clergy in
does not include Zurich, the congregations in office, and delegates from the churches. It issues
which were declared absolved from the see of Chur, general regulations concerning worship and disci-
and were permitted to secure episcopal means in- pline, and chooses the synodal council and the
dividually for themselves as needed according to bishop. The synodal council consists of five lay-
their own judgment, subject to the supremacy of men and four priests, and is the administrative and
the State. The bishop of Basel, with his seat at executive board. At the beginning of 1905 there
Soleure, is for the time being recognized only by were 43 churches and associations and 56 priests.
Zug and Lucerne. In a dispute all the other can- The most important reforms arc the use of the na-
tons save Schaffhausen pronounced the episcopal tional language in liturgy and ritual; and the abo-
office vacated in 1873, and no reorganization has lition of enforced confession, the commandments of
yet taken place. The latter is under the see by fasting, and the law of celibacy. The mass is re-
provisory arrangement. After violent and lengthy garded as the outgrowth of the celebration of the
disputes at Bern, the Roman Catholics there or- Last Supper; and the saints, it is held, can best be
ganized as free associations. In the diocese of St. honored by emulating their example.
Gall the Roman Catholics of Appenzell assume ad- (F. MEYER.)
herence but are not formally united. In Sitten IV. The Free Churches of French Switzerland:
there is no church law, but the church is governed Although in the same relation toward the state,
by canonical law. The canton of Ticino, according these three bodies of Geneva, Vaud, and Neuchatel
to the agreement of 1888, is nominally under the are by origin, ruling principles, and historical de-
Bishop of Basel, but has its own administrator re- velopment very different from one another. The
siding at Lugano and chosen by the pope, by agree- community at Geneva is the oldest and most rigid
ment with the bishop of Basel. In consequence of in doctrine, organization, and discipline. Although
a papal encyclical containing strictures on the con- the Free Church of Neuchatel, which is the latest,
flict at Geneva, the papal nunciature was abolished, has no bond with the government, it resembles a
the federal diet declaring further papal representa- state church most closely, and still claims to be a
tion inadmissible. The total number of Roman national church. The Free Church of Vaud, on the
Catholic churches is given as 1,207, and of priests, other hand, holds an intermediary position between
1,957. There are 32 monasteries; of Benedictines a state and a merely confessional church.
(with 165 monks), Augustinians (106), Carthusians In doctrine, Vaud is the most liberal, the profes-
(22), Franciscans (9), 25 Capuchin monasteries sors of its college of divinity being in constant touch
(6-12 each), and a number of hospices. Of nunner- with German theology; the Geneva community
BwitBerland THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 196

has always been very orthodox, so also that of tor. At present the congregation consists of about
Neuchatel, though standing on a broader basis. 700 members, has an annual budget of $5,265, and
The churches of Vaud and Neuchatel each possess contributes $3,140 to the Mission romande.
a general fund, a synod, and a college of divinity. The Free Church of Vaud, too, had its origin in
The Geneva Free Church is organically quite sepa- the revival after the period of religious stagnation.
rate from the Geneva Evangelical Society's college, The preparations were unknowingly
although from the beginning it has been connected 2. Vaud. laid by Dean L. A. Curtat, later a foe
with it by deep spiritual bonds. of the Free Church, who, by the power
The two former owe their origin to political and of his preaching and the stimulating intercourse
religious events; the latter sprang from the re" veil, with the students at Lausanne, revived the funda-
that great Pictistic movement which spread mental truths of the Gospel and the Reformation,
throughout the whole country in the beginning of bearing fruit in zeal for the Bible, Evangelization,
the nineteenth century. These three communities, and missionary associations. But the movement
independent of each other, were united in 1902 into encountered the opposition of the government
a federation. In addition, the Transvaal mission, and the populace. The mission society, founded
originating in Vaud and being known as Mission ro- at Yverdon (1821), was suppressed, and several
mande, has a budget amounting yearly to $29,250, of the pastors were dismissed. Many young men
and is supported by the three churches. being excluded from the state examination were
From the days of the Reformation Geneva has obliged to gain their living abroad. In 1824 a
been a very important center of religious life for all law was promulgated against " the exalted peo-
lands of the French language. There- ple who are trying to found and propagate a now
i. Geneva, fore when Count Zinzendorf (q.v.) sect." The Pastor Bauty had to appear before the
came in 1741, after the period of the government because he had frightened his commu-
barren orthodoxy of the seventeenth century, he nity by his preaching on the Holy Communion; an-
found a favorable ground for his Bible lessons and other had to resign because he held a meeting of
prayer-meetings. In 1817 Robert Haldane (q.v.)> twenty people in a private house; and Alexander
Scottish Pietist, arrived at Geneva and attracted Vinct (q.v.) had to submit to prosecution for pul>-
to his devotional Bible hours a group of about lishing two pamphlets on religious liberty. In 1839,
twenty students of divinity. Among them were by a new law, the government made itself supremo
H. Merle d'Aubigne", Ce"sar Malan, and Frangois over the church, and abrogated the Helvetic Con-
Louis Gaussen (qqv.). From the time of Zinzen- fession. Immediately eleven clergymen resigned
dorf, opposition to the Pietist movement grew until and others soon followed. In Feb. -Nov., 1845, dur-
a sermon of Gausscn, emphasizing Christ's divin- ing a revolution, the situation grew more unbear-
ity, raised it to a climax. The church authorities able, the government forbidding private meetings,
forbade private assemblies. Guers immediately requiring total submission, taking no notice of a
protested, refused submission, and in 1818 founded petition signed by 222 clergymen ending with these
"
with a few friends a free congregation whose regu- words: We are ready to sacrifice everything to
lar meetings were held at the Bourg de Four. Six our state church but our conscience "; and order-
years later, Ce"sar Malan, having been suspended ing the reading of a proclamation (July 29) from
by the Compagnie des Pasteurs, founded L'figlise the pulpit commending its injustice and intoler-
du Te*moignage, which soon became a center for ance to the people. Forty-one pastors refused
Geneva Pietism, but at the same time an object to read this proclamation, and were suspended.
for the fury of the mob, so that the government Shortly after, 190 sent in their resignation. To
troops had frequently to protect it. Both congre- escape the predicament, the government offered to
gations, the former Congregationalist, the latter those who had resigned, with the exception of
Presbyterian, were united, 1848, under the name of twenty, the privilege of resuming their charges, but
figlise eVangeUique. In 1831 the " Evangelical Soci- conditionally and without reservation. Forty re-
"
ety (q.v.) was founded, which, without an organic turned; the others, like Charles Sccretan and Vinot,
bond with the Free Church, is, however, in intimate were dismissed. A commission of seven clergymen
connection with it. Gaussen was dismissed from and seven laymen asked Professors Vinet, Chappuis,
the Compagnie des Pasteurs and opened L'Oratoire, Herzog, Pastor Bauty, and others to give lectures
a hall where the principal divine services of the Free on divinity. A committee of evangelization was
Church of Geneva are still held. The confession founded for the purpose of establishing new congre-
of faith of the figlise e*vange*lique de Geneve is the gations throughout the canton, and the Free Church
so-called Apostolic Creed, and contains seventeen was born, the first synod being held June, 1847.
articles embodying the usual Evangelical orthodox The Free Church of Vaud comprises 42 churches
doctrines. The difference in dignity between the and numbers not more than 5,000 members, but
clergymen and elders is nominal, the church being has over 15,000 auditors at its different services.
quite Presbyterian. Admission to membership is by The Free Church of the canton of Neuchatel had
confession of faith in the presence of two elders, and a history of quiet development. In spite of tho
admission by confirmation is not tolerated. The separation, maintains the character
it

church has a committee of evangelisation working 3. Neu- and the forms of a state church; such
in different places in connection with the chapels, chAttL as confirmation, liturgy, and the vest-
and several Sunday-schools numbering more than ments. In 1872 the grand council re-
600 scholars. From 1884 the whole body has di- jected a bill proposed by the government for the
vided into three parishes, each having its pwn pas- separation of State and Church, and then adopted
197 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Switzerland

another which necessitated a complete revision of the Oelpke, Kirchengeschichte der Schweiz unter der R timer-.
fundamental law of the State Church. The synod, Burg under- und Alemannzeit, 2 vols., Bern, 1856-61;
J. C. Moerikofer, BUder aus dem kirchlichen Leben der
in extraordinary session, opposed the bill and al-
Schweiz, Leipsic, 1864; A. Liitolf, Die Glaubensboten in
most unanimously replied to the superior council, der Schweiz, Lucerne, 1871; F. Naef, Les Premiers Jours
apropos of a revision of the fundamental church du christianisme en Suisse, Lausanne, 1879; E. Egli,
law of 1848, by protesting against political com- Kirchengeschichte der Schweiz bis auf Karl den Grossen,
Zurich, 1893; E. Hercog, Beitrage zur Vorgeschichte der
petence to enact confessional statutes, and against christ/catholischen Kirche der Schweiz, Bern, 1896; J. A.
their consolidation with so-called liberal Protestant- Qautier, Hist, de Geneve des origines b, Vannee 1691, 6
ism. It demanded the same autonomy as was given vols., Geneva, 1896-1901.
to other non-established churches, and, in the case
On the Reformation consult: The works of the Swiss
Reformers, Bullinger, Calvin, Farel, Leo Jud, CEcolum-
of the revision of the organic church law, requested padius, Vadianus, and Zwingli, and the literature under
that such be undertaken only in consultation with the articles on them in this work; Schaff, Christian
the church boards and be submitted to popular Church, vol. vii.; S. Fischer, Die Reformation in Bern,
Bern, 1827; J. Kuhn, Die Reformation Bems, Bern, 1828;
vote. The government ignored the letter. The bill A. Ruchat, Hist, de la reformation de la Suisse, 7 vols., 2d
projected by it was in turn rejected by the synod, ed., Nyon, 1835-38; H. Bullinger, Reformationsgeschichte
with only one negative vote, which declared it to be nach dem Autographon, ed. J. Hottinger and H. Vdgeh,
3 vols., Frauenfeld, 1838-40; K. B. Huudeshagen, Die
perilous to the State Church on the ground that the
Konfltkte des Calvinismus, Zwinglianismus und Luther-
State exceeds its rights in prescribing the qualifica- thums in der Berner Landeskirche, Bern, 1842; F. Godct,
tions of electors and their rights in ecclesiastical Hist, de la reformation dans le pays de Neuchdtel, Neu-

matters; in claiming absolute freedom of doctrine chatel, 1859; W. M. Blackburn, William Farel: Story of
the Swiss Reformation, Edinburgh, 1867; Archiv fur die
for pastors and professors; in creating a synod schweizenschc Reformations-Geschichtc, Freiburg, 1869 sqq.;
which abrogated the colloquies and in pointing out E. Egli, Die Zurcher WiedcrtauferzurReformationftzeit, Zu-
sua sponte its attributes Further, the identifica- rich, 1878; K R. Hagenhach, Hist of the Reformation in
tion of the ecclesiastical with the political voter, Germany and Switzerland, Edinburgh, 1878-79; A. L. Her-
minjard, Correspondence des reformateurs, 9 vols., Geneva,
the interdiction upon the church of confessing its
1878-97; Actensammlung zur schweizerischen Reforma-
faith, the eligibility of any graduate citizen as a tionsgeschichte, 1621-32, ed. J. Stncklcr, 5 vols., Zurich,
pastor without any guaranty as regards culture or 1878-84; Actensammlung zur Geschichte der Zurcher Ref-
ormation 1619-33, ed. E. Egli, Zurich, 1879; H. G. Sulz-
morality, were pronounced measures detrimental berger, Geschichte der Reformation im Kanton Graubanden,
to the State Church. To this was attached the Coire, 1880; H. S. Bun-age, History of the Anabaptists in
proposition of the separation in autonomous con- Switzerland, Philadelphia, 1882; H. Escher, Die Glaultens-
parteien in der Eidffcnossenschaft, Frauenfeld, 1882; R.
gregations of the Evangelicals and liberal Protes-
Nitzsche, Geschichte der Wiederttlufcr in der Schweiz, Ein-
tants, all to share in the privileges and goods siedeln, 1885; E. Baehlcr, Le Comte de la Croix. Ein
afforded by the state, or, best of all, the separation Beitrag zur Reformationsgexchichte der Westschweiz, Biel,
of church and state. Signed by 55 clergymen and 1895; E. Choisy, La Theocratic fi Geneve au temps de Cal-
vin, Geneva, 1896; E Itisel, Die Reformation in Kon-
supported by a petition of 10,300 signatures, this stanz, Freiburg, 1898, A. Bern us, T. de Bczc a Laumnnc,
document was presented; nevertheless, the grand fitude, Lausanne, 1900; Quellen zur schweizenschen Jiefor-
council, by a vote of 47 to 40, adopted the pro- mationtgeschichte, ed. E. Egli, Basel, 1901; H Vuillcurmor,
jected bill, further aggravated by the clause that
La Religion de nos peres, Lausanne, 1888; idem, L'figlise
du pays de Vaud aux temps de la reformation, ib. 1902,
the professors of theology should be chosen by the
Cambridge Modern History, 11. 305-341, New York, 1904;
government and not by the synod. A second peti- Die Chronik des I^aurencius Bosshart von Winterthur 1 Iftfi-
tion asking for the separation resulted in a sub- 1632, ed. K. Hausor, Basel, 1905
mission to popular vote and by a majority of 16 On history since the Reformation use G Faisler,
Kirchliche Statuttik der reformiertrn Schweiz, Stuttgart,
out of 13,956 revision was lost. Nothing remained 1854 (valuable), J Gaberel, Hi*t dc I'efjhsc de Gentve
to be done but to organize a free church. Twenty- . . jusqu'fi nos jours, 3 vols , Geneva, 1858-62; J. Cart,
.

one congregations with twenty-four pastors founded Hist, du mouvement religieux et ecclcsiastique dans le canton
de Vaud pendant la prcmitre moitie du 19. sieclc, 6 vols.,
the figlise eVange*lique neuchateloise inde"pendante
Lausanne, 1870-79, G. R. Zimmerman, Die Zurcher
dc l'6tat. From that time, 1873, the Free Church Kirche und ihre Antistes, Zurich, 1877; idem, Die Zur-
of the canton of Neuchatel has developed; the cher Kirche 1619-1819, ib. 1878; H. Fleury, Hist, de
number of its members has increased from year to I'tglise de Geneve, 3 vols., Geneva, 1879-81 (comes to
1820); G. Fmsler, Geschichte der theologisch-kirchlichen
year; and the participation in the Evangelization Entwickelung in der deutsch-reformirten Schweiz seit den
of France, Belgium, Spain, and Italy and in the SO Jahren, Zurich, 1881; J. Genoud, Les Saints de la
Mission romande is very energetic and self-denying. Suisse fran?aise, 2 vols., Paris, 1882; E. Bloosch, Qe-
schichte der schweizcrisch-reformirten Kirchen, 2 vols.,
C. CORRKVOV. Bern, 1898-99; 8. Grueter, Der Anteil der katholischen
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Collections of titles are to be found in: und protestantischen Orte der Eidgenossenschaft an den
Schaff, Christian Church, vol. vii. the literature, general Kampen im Wallis, 1600-13, Stans, 1900; W. Hadorn,
and special, on the Reformation is given with great ful- Geschichte des Pietismus in den schweixerisch-reformirten
ness in this work; F. Lauchert, Bibliographic der christ- Kirchen, Constance, 1901; F. Nippold, Handbuch der
lich-katholischen Kirche der Schweiz, Bern, 1893; Q. Fins- neuesten Kirchengeschichte, ii. 466 sqq., Berlin, 1901,
ler, Bibliographic der evangelisch-reformirten Kirche in der
W. Hadorn, Kirchengeschichte der reformixrten Schweiz,
Schweiz, Bern, 1890. On the general history of Switzer- Zurich, 1907; T. de La Rive, La Separation de I'eglise et
land consult C. Gareis and P. Zorn, Stoat und Kirche in de I'etat h Geneve, Paris, 1909.
der Schwciz, 2 vols., Zurich, 1877-78; A. von Orelli, Das On the Free Churches consult: Bulletin des seances du
Staatsrecht der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft, Freiburg, synode constituant de Ceglise evang&ique neuchdteloise,
1885; K. Pandliker, Geschichte der Schweiz ... von den Neuchatel, 1874; E. Guers, Notice historique sur Veglise
altesten Zeiten, 3 vols., Zurich, 1893-95, cf. his Short His- tvangtlique libre de Geneve, Geneva, 1875; J. Cart, Hist,
tory of Switzerland, London, 1899; B. van Muyden, Hist,
du mouvement religieux dans la canton de Vaud, vol. vi.,
de la nation suisse, 3 vols., Lausanne, 1896-99; Cambridge Lausanne, 1880; L. Monastier, Une voix de jadis sur
Modern History, vols. i.-xii., New York, 1902-10. I'origine et let premiers pas de Veglise evangelique libre du
For history prior to the Reformation consult: E. F. canton de Vaud, ib. 1885; Constitution de Veglise evan-
Symbolic*
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 198

"
geligue neuchAteloiae independence tie V fit at, Neuchatel, pests of this description "; the fifth, errors con-
1897; J.Favre, 11 y a cinquante ana, Lausanne, 1897;
cerning the Church and her rights; the sixth, errors
. Monvert, Hist, de la fondatwn de Veghse evangelique
neuchdteloisc, Neuchatel, 1898; R. Dupruz, Fondation de concerning civil society; the seventh, errors of
realise cvangelique libre du canton de Vaud, Lausanne, n. d.; natural and Christian ethics; the eighth, errors
the journals Le Chretien evano&ique, 1847-97, and Le
concerning Christian marriage; the ninth, errors
Mesaager; and literature under VJNET, ALEXANDER.
On the Roman Catholic Church consult. Der Easier concerning the temporal power of the pope; the
Religionsprozesa vom Jahre 1884-86, Born, 1885; C. tenth, errors of modern liberalism. Among the
Woeste, Hist, du culturkampf en Suisse, 1871-86, Brus- errors condemned are the principles of civil and re-
selB, 1887; A. Buchi, Die katholische Kirche in der Schweiz,
ligious liberty, and the separation of Church and
Munich, 1902; J. Beck, Die katholmch-sociale Bewegung in
der Schweiz, Bern, 1903; P. G Gschwind, Oeschichte der
State. The Syllabus impliedly asserts the infalli-
EnUtehung der chmtkatholiachen Kirche der Schweiz, 2 bility of the pope, the exclusive right of Romanism
volfl., Basel, 1904-10. to recognition by the civil government, the unlaw-
fulness of all religions other than the Roman
SWORD, BRETHREN OF THE (Fratres mili-
tia Christi): An order founded by Bishop Albert Catholic, the complete independence of the papal
of Appeldern in Livonia in 1202 and patterned after hierarchy, the power of the Roman Church to coerce
and enforce, and its supreme control over public
the Templars (q.v.). The name is derived from the
fact that the members of the order wore upon their education, science, and literature. It reasserts all
the extravagant claims of the medieval papacy, and
white mantle as an insignium a red sword alongside
is a declaration of war against modern civilization
of a red cross. The purpose of the bishop was the
und progress.
securing of the Christian colony in Livonia and the
extension of its bounds. The founding of the order
What authority attaches to this document?
Cardinal Newman, in his defense of the Syllabus
was ratified by Innocent III. in 1202, and the rule
against Gladstone's attack, virtually denied its dog-
prescribed was that of the Templars. There were
three classes of members: knights, of noble birth
matic force, saying (Letter to the Duke of Norfolk,
"
and obligated to soldierly duties; spirituals, whose p. 108), We
can no more accept the Syllabus as
defide, as a dogmatic document, than any other in-
duty was the conduct of divine service; and serving dex or table of contents." But the Syllabus is
brethren, who performed the lower duties pertain-
more than a mere index, and contains as many
ing to service hi war, had household duties, and
aided by using their skill as handicraftsmen. The
definitions and judgments as titles. Moreover, the
papal infallibility decree of 1870 makes all ex cathe-
numbers, at first small, rapidly increased under tht;
dra or official utterances of the pope on mutters of
political conditions of the time and place, and early
claimed one-third of the region, the subjection of
faith and
discipline infallible. The Syllabus is an
which was the object of the foundation. Campaigns document, addressed to all the bishops of
official
the Roman Catholic world, and sent to them with
were carried on in the surrounding regions, in
a papal encyclical. Its infallibility was at once as-
Lithuania, Russia, and Denmark, and the result,
serted by Cardinal Hergenrother (cf. J. J. I. von
by 1230, was to decimate the numbers of the order,
while the number of accessions continually lessened. Dollinger, Das Papstthum, ed. J. Fried rich, p. 281,
Munich, 1892). The quotations made from it by
Proposals were then made for union with the Teu-
tonic Order, and in 1237 this union was accom-
Leo XIII. and in 1907 by Pius X. i?i his encyclical
Pascendi gregis seem to confirm its infallible au-
plished, and the fortunes of the Brethren of the
thority. Pius X. quotes it extensively at least
Sword were thenceforth those of tho Teutonic Order.
twice (cf. T)w Programme of Modernism, pp. 195,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Voigt, Gcitchichte Preunsens, vols. i.-ii. t
Kdnigsborg, 1827; K. von Schlozer, Lioland und die An- 222, New York, 1908). At the opening of the
fange deutschen Lebenn im baltwchen Nurd, Berlin, 1850; Vatican Council (q.v.) a part of the program was
F. G. von Bimge, Der Orden der tfrhwertbruder, Lcipaic,
solemnly to ratify the Syllabus (T. Grandcrath,
1875; idem, Oeschichte der Ostzeeprovinzen, vol i., Mitau,
Geschichte des vatikanischen KonzUs, i. 357, Frei-
1879; H. Hildebrand, Livomca, Riga, 1887; Drugeudorff,
Ueber die Beamten dea Deutschcn Ordens in Livland wah- burg, 190,3; J. Friedrich, Gcschichte des vatikani-
rend des 13. Jahrhunderts, Berlin, 1894; PfUlf, in Stim- schen Komils, i. 749, Bonn, 1877), but this was not
men aua Maria-Loach, lii (1897), 58 sqq.; KL, x. 2116-
2118. formally carried out. Clothed with infallible au-
thority, and followed by the decrees of the Vatican
SYLLABUS OF ERRORS, PAPAL: An index or Council, the Syllabus provoked and stimulated the
catalogue of eighty heresies condemned by Pope so-called Kulturkampf in Germany, a pamphlet
Pius IX., Dec. 8, 1864, on the basis of several en- war in England about its bearing on civil and po-
cyclical letters and consistorial allocutions issued litical allegiance, and led to serious conflicts between

previously by the same pontiff. The number of Church and State hi Italy, Austria, Prussia, France,
heresies was probably suggested by the work of Belgium, and Brazil. Where Church and State are
Epiphanius against the eighty heresies of the first united, there must be collision when each claims
three centuries, which were mostly of a Gnostic sovereignty, and the one claims infallible authority
character. The papal document is purely nega- in addition. Even in the United States, the Sylla-
tive, but indirectly it teaches and enjoins the very bus comes into crisp conflict with the functions of
opposite of what it condemns as error. It is divided government as recognized by the statutes of the
into ten sections. The first condemns pantheism, land. The State claims and exercises the right and
naturalism, and absolute rationalism; the second, duty of educating the people for intelligent and
moderate rationalism; the third, indifferentism and useful citizenship; while the Syllabus condemns all
latitudinarianism; the fourth, socialism, commu- public education which is not controlled by the
nism, secret societies, Bible societies, and other teaching of the Roman Church, and stimulates the
190 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Symbolic*

efforts of the priesthood to Romanize or to break of Ancona, 1170 or 1174; d. at his monastery on
up the public schools, or, where neither can be done Monte Fano near Fabriano, 45 m. s.w. of Ancona,
from want of power, bo neutralize them by parochial Nov. 26, 1267). After studying at Padua and
schools in which the doctrines and principles of Bologna and being canon in his native city, he re-
Trent and the Vatican are inculcated upon the ri- tired, about 1227, to the Grotta fucile near Osimo.
sing generation. The encyclical Pascendi gregis (ut Here his piety attracted so pupils and fol-
many
sup.) sounds almost like a continuation of the Sylla- lowers, that about 1231 he established a monas-
bus, being a condemnation of
"
Modernism " (q.v.). tery for them on Monte Fano. The congregation
The text of the encyclical is given in The Programme was approved by Innocent IV. (June 27, 1247), and
of Modernism (ut sup.). spread especially in Umbria, Tuscany, and Ancona.
P. ScHAFFf. D. S. SCHAFF. In 1662-67 the Sylvestrins were united with the
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The text is most convenient of
access in order of Vallombrosa, and in 1688 their rule was
Sohaff, Creeds, ii. 213-233; it is also in A
eta et decreta
revised, approval being given by Alexander VIII.
concilii Vaticani, Freiburg, 1871, and in W. E. Gladstone,
in 1690. The congregation was directed by a gen-
Rome and the Newest Fashions in Religion, London and
New York, 1875 (containing three tracte of Gladstone on eral, elected by the chapter general quadrennially,
the subject, the text of the Syllabus, and a history of the and represented at Rome by a procurator-general,
Vatican Council). On the subject consult besides the whom he appointed triennially. The habit is dark
literature named in the text: Pronier, La Liberia religieuse
blue, of the general, who may wear epis-
and that
et leSyllabus, Geneva, 1870; Cardinal H. E. Manning, The
Vatican Decrees in their Bearing on Civil Allegiance, ib. copal vestments, is violet. The order is now very
1875 (reply to Gladstone, ut sup.); Cardinal J. H. New- small in numbers, although it has monasteries in
man, Letter to the Duke of Norfolk on Occasion of Mr.
Gladstone's Recent Expostulation, ib. 1875; and much of
Rome and other parts of Italy, and an active mis-
the literature under INFALLIBILITY; ULTRAMONTANISM; sion in Ceylon. (A. HATTCK.)
and VATICAN COUNCIL.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Fabrini, Breve Chronica detta Congrega-
SYLVESTER. See SILVESTER. zwne dei Afonachi Silvestrim, Camerino, 1618, new ed.,
"
ed. A. Moroai and A. Lucantovi, Rome, 1706; the Con-
"
SYLVESTRINS: A Roman Catholic congrega- stitution was printed at Camerino, 1610, and Rome,
under Obaervantine Benedictine rule, estab- 1690; Helyot, Ordres monastiques. vi. 170 sqq.; Heim-
tion
bucher, Orden und Kongregationen t i. 277-279; KL, xi.
lished by Silvestro Gonzelini (b. at Osimo, 9 m. s. 1039-41.

SYMBOLICS.
I. Creeds and Confessions. Western Development ($ 3). IX. Comparative Symbolics.
Original Idea of Symbol ( 1). Change of Attitude m the West (S 4). Nature, Scope, and History (5 1).
The Rule of Faith (2). Post-Reformation Creeds ( 5). Konfessionskunde (5 2).

I. Creeds and Confessions: The term symbol is gians, such as RufiniiR, rendered it by cottatio, con-
used in a twofold sense; for the pictorial repre- fusing the Greek symbole and symbolon. The latter
sentation of religious ideas (see MYB- attached his interpretation to the legend that the
i. Original TAGOGJCAL THEOLOGY; SYMBOLISM, primitive creed was composed jointly by the Apos-
Idea of ECCLESIASTICAL), and for the au- tles, each contributing one sentence. Cyprian
Symbol. thoritative ecclesiastical formulations (Epist., Ixix [Ixxv] 7; Eng. transl., ANF, v. 399)
" "
of religious doctrines. This article is is a sure witness of the application of symbol
to be restricted to the latter class of symbols, other- to the baptismal confession. In what sense it was
wise styled the church creeds or confessions. From applied is open to explanation; it was probably
them the theological discipline styled " symbolics " used as a general token of recognition, although
and mostly pursued in Protestantism has derived different views are held on this point, according to
its name. The custom of designating as symbols the diverse theories of the origin of the creed itself.
the formulas by which Christian faith has expressed The view of the present writer is that all the for-
itself in history took its origin in referring to mulas found in the primitive Church go back to the
that formula as a symbol by which, in the ancient creed known as the old Roman (designated as R
Church, the candidates for baptism were wont to in this article); that this creed was composed in
"
confess their faith. It began with I believe," Rome at one time, as the expression of the sum-
being therefore decidedly individual and personal. mary of faith at the period of its date, probably
Of its many names one was simply that of "the about 100, but rather earlier than later; and that
" "
faith." In the East the lesson (to mathema) it was composed for liturgical and catechetical pur-
was sometimes employed, but seldom " the con- poses, but not as the outcome of polemical antagonism
fossion of faith." The designation of the baptismal to heresy, as is the view advocated by A. C. McGiffert
" "
confession as symbol originated in the West; (The Apostles' Creed, New York, 1902). The latter
in the East it appeared relatively late. The term considers R the fundamental formula, indeed, but
is first found in Tertullian (Adv. Marcionem, v. 1). one composed by the Roman Church during the
The Latin Church borrowed the term from the struggle with Marcion. Loofs doubts the hypothe-
"
secular Greek. Derived from symballein ("to com- sis of a single mother-formula," and traces the cus-
pare ")> symbolon may be applied to whatever sig- tom of making the catechumens recite a creed (which
nifies a means of recognition or identification, a was substantially the same everywhere, though not
sign, a watchword, a comparison or agreement. identical in phraseology) to Asia Minor, if not to the
The equivalents in Latin are signum, nota, indicium, primitive churches of Palestine and Syria.
tessera, pactum; some of the older Latin theolo- It may at least, however, be taken as proved
Symbolic* THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG 800

that the creed originally had its proper place in the finally again toa single formula, the present text
solemn administration of baptism. There were dif- of the Apostles' Creed (q.v.) as received to-day
ferent local developments of the cus- by Roman Catholics and Protestants
a. The toms of the traditio symboli to the 3. Western alike (T). It was then extended to C,
Rule of catechumens shortly before baptism; Develop- which in the West also, though only
Faith. a redditio of the same, after catechet- ment gradually and within limits, became
ical exposition of the several articles, the Eucharistic creed; and to the
" "
as a proof of their readiness for the sacrament; and Athanasian Creed (q.v., and see revised transla-
an assent to the same in the midst of the act of tion below; called symbolum Quicunque from its
baptism itself; but wherever the baptismal symbol opening word; hence Q). The Middle Ages speak of
" the three
was employed, it had, notwithstanding its personal these as symbols "the phrase is first
form, a liturgical character. With this is connected demonstrably found in Alexander of Hales, Summa,
the signification of the formula as a sacramentum, III., qu. 82, m. 5, introduction. T and C were
no doubt partly as the oath militant of the Chris- compared usually as minus and major. Ludolf of
tians, and partly as a sacred emblem signifying by Saxony (cf. Loofs, Symbolik, p. 58), in the four-
"
its traditio the setting apart, once for all, of the be- teenth century, defining symbol as a compendious
liever as a Christian. From the very early time of collection of all things which concern salvation,"
"
the first conflict with a contrary belief (loosely says that the first symbol was made for instruc-
Gnosticism, perhaps in its Marcionite form), the tion in the faith, the second for explanation of
"
creed came to be used in the West as the rule of the faith, and the third for defense of the faith."
faith." That from the middle of the second cen- Occasionally the formula of the Latcran Council of
"
tury the West considered the creed as a weapon 1215, the Definition against the Albigenses and
"
against hostile attacks, as the standard given by other heretics," is called the fourth symbol";
" "
God himself, is demonstrable. Not so certain but this professes to offer a compendium of the whole
probable is the theory that the East adopted it faith, in formal adherence to T, but makes use of
before the end of that century in Asia Minor (per- C and still more of Q, besides sanetioning the new
haps in connection with Polycarp's journey to developments of the Eucharistic doctrine. It may
Rome) but that here originally the Scriptures had
;
have been the obvious following of the structure of
occupied the position of a rule of faith. This was T that allowed the name of symbol to be applied
their position in the rest of the East, which only to it, though it came to no liturgical use. Tn the
gradually, in some places not till the fourth cen- same indefinite way, the name is applied to the
tury, adopted a formulated creed. Especially with Symbolum fidti a Leone IX propositum Petro cpia-
Origen appears as though there was no creed and
it copo, though this formula has a certain public use,
none was desired, but it was deemed better to meet being put in the form of questions for the examina-
various controversial needs by expedient formulas tion of candidates for episcopal consecration. Simi-
drawn up for each occasion. This method issued larly mention is made of the symbolum Tndcntinum
"
in the practise of councils of preparing consistent by which is meant the profession of Trideniinc
formulas, somewhat suggestive of the symbol. In faith prescribed by Pius IV." in 1564, and slightly
the third century and numerously in the fourth, enlarged by Pius IX. in 1877; it was recited by
dogmatic resolutions resembling a (or the) symbol, candidates for reception into the church until 1 859,
and in part distinctly under the subsumption of and is orally confessed and subscribed by those who
such a one, were adopted at the councils. Such are entering the teaching office, especially by priests
"
definitions were never designated as symbols," (see TRIDKNTINE PROFESSION OF FAITH).
unless, as in some instances, they were applied to It must now be remarked that theological devel-
baptismal use. In time, especially after the legis- opment in the West, unlike that of the East, differ-
lation of Justinian, the formula attributed to the entiated increasingly the conception of the rule of
joint action of the first two ecumenical councils, the faith from that of the symbol. After
so-called Niceno-Constantinopolitan creed (C; see 4. Change uncertainty had arisen in the fourth
CONSTANTINOPOLITAN CREED) came to hold the of Attitude century as to the sufficiency of the
rank of a " symbol." It, then, in the East, though in the symbol for the purpose of a rule of
still in ultimate association with the Scriptures and West faith, and the Scriptures had begun,
"
with the " exposition of the faith made by the under the influence of the East, to be
whole seven ecumenical councils, came to be the considered as part of it, Augustine not only took
rule of faith, as it is to this day in the Greek Or- account of the new development, but also set
thodox Church. (The term ecumenical, strictly bounds to it. He brought the symbol into such in-
speaking, applies to C only, since neither the Apos- timate connection with the Scriptures that he could
tolic nor the Athanasian creed ever obtained official speak of it as really representing in condensed form
recognition hi the East.) Even if C thus presents the whole of their teaching. Thus the Middle Ages
the highest criterion for distinguishing between or- held firmly to the thesis that the symbolum triplex
thodox and heretical doctrine, it owes its special was one and the same sum of faith in a threefold
importance to the fact that it retained its position form, with varying degrees of explicitness. But
in the public services of baptism and the Eucharist. while in the East the content of the Scriptures was
In the West also the idea of a " symbol " carried more and more reduced to an equivalence with that
with it, until the Reformation, a reference to the of C, Augustine had shown how to get a deeper
liturgical use of a formula. The title passed from meaning from them for the words of the creed and
" "
R, or the provincial daughter-recensions of R, to fill the latter with new import. Other influential
201 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Symbolic*

theologians, however, especially Vincent of Lerins creeds, which Georg Calixtus (q.v.) and his school
(q.v.), spoke of the symbol rather as a single portion wished to use as a basis of union between the con-
of tradition, agreeing with the Scriptures but not flicting churches. Attempts were even made from
sufficient as a guide through them; and their view this standpoint to formulate a new creed among
prevailed in time over Augustine's. But though the orthodox Lutherans; but the point was never
the Scriptures gradually won the superior rank as actually reached. Among the Reformed, on the
the rule of faith, yet it was in conjunction with the other hand, the production of new formulas was
untested ecclesiastical tradition and the operation incessant, nor has the tendency to reviiion or new
of the episcopal or papal teaching office; so that creation yet ceased.
practically the rule of faith came to be the proposi- The authority of the creeds, strongly enforced in
tio ecclesice, that which is put forth by the Church, the period of Pietism, declined notably under the
in which the creeds have their place. In modern influence of rationalism. In the history of Protes-
Roman Catholic usage the Protestant term, " sym- tantism they belong essentially to established or
bolic books," has boon adopted (KL, xi. 1050 sqq.). territorial organizations, except in certain Reformed
A distinction is made between symbolic writings of confessions in North America and free churches
the first and of the second class; the former in- elsewhere; but the relation between Church and
cluding the creeds proper, the definitions of the ecu- State was really as close in the Reformed system
menical councils, and ex cathedra papal decisions in as in the Lutheran, only somewhat differently de-
" "
matters of faith, \\hile the hitter arc such docu- fined, while the free churches, the first type of
ments as the Tridentine Profession and the Roman which is the English Independent, are essentially
Catechism. modern. In the old political systems, which con-
" "
In the Reformation period the term symbol templated only one Church (a conception not yet
departed wholly from its original liturgical basis, entirely done away; see LIBERTY, RELIGIOUS; and
and acquired an almost exclusively theological UNION or THE CHURCHES), the creeds were among
meaning, in spite of the fact that T the foundations of the constitution; and citizens,
5. Post- and, to a certain extent, C were still especially officials and most of all clericals, were
Reforma- employed in cultic functions. The strictly bound by them, at least BO far as their pub-
tion Creeds, personal character of the primitive lic teaching was concerned. In what measure they
creeds also disappeared; the formulas should be binding upon the conscience was difficult
became professions of groups or churches. Thus a to determine in Protestant states and churches. The
distinction begins to be made between "ecumen- nineteenth century has for the most part brought
"
ical creeds and those of the Protestant commu- forth an unhistorical abstract idealizing of the sym-
nions, especially of the Lutherans. With the Re- bols in Protestantism. A result of the methods of
" "
formed bodies the name symbol did not become Schleiermacher is a confessional theology wliich re-
" "
customary; the term confessions was preferred, gards itself bound in advance by the symbols, as
being better adapted to denote the formulas as the over against the Bible. To this the a priori justi-
expressions of faith and the determination of doc- fication of symbols, of that view of the history of
trine on the part of the churches. The part per- dogma resting upon Hegel, is to be added. The ob-
formed by each, however, was practically the same. ligation of teaching with reference to them has long
In the Formula of Concord (q.v.) the term symbol since been restricted to theologians, and frequently
is first applied to the Augustana (see AUGSBURG to pastors alone. The idea of this obligation, by
CONFESSION AND APOLOGY) on the same plane with virtue of the development assumed by theology as
the ecumenical creeds, to which was added the the science of Christianity, is everywhere in a state
M
"Apology and Articles of Schmalkald (see of uncertainty.
SCHMALKALD ARTICLES). Neither in itself nor in II. Comparative Symbolics: The symbolics of
the Book of Concord was the Formula included as modern times is partly a substitute for, and partly
a symbol. The history of the internal effect of the an amplification of, older disciplines. The latter
symbols upon the development of Protestantism has reverts for its origin to a department of knowledge
not yet been written. Indeed, they performed a first introduced in the seventeenth
much smaller part in orthodox dogmatism than i. Nature, century by the Lutherans, represent-
might have been expected. The doctrine of the Bible Scope, and ing it by lectures in various univcr-
as the only rule of faith reduced the authority of all History. sities and in literature, having as its
creeds. This supremacy of Scripture was due to its object the introduction of the symbolic
own inner authority and not to that of the Church, books. The creator in this form was probably
as before The symbols subordinated to Scripture Leonhard Rechtenbach, author of Encyclopaedia
were obligatory only in so far as they accorded with symbolica vel analysis Confessionis Augustan ce
it. They were regarded not as having dogmatic (Leipsic, 1612). This was followed by the Isagoge
value, but as polemical and political or juridical. in ecclesiarum Lutheranarum symbolicos (1665)
lilrros

There remained also the consciousness that they by B. Carpzov the elder (see CARPZOV, 2), who
J.
"
were confessions, in the sense of witnesses to Bib- first used the title symbolic books "; and an abun-
lical truth. In the Syncretistic Controversies (see dant literature succeeded. On the other hand,
SYNCRETISM, SYNCRETISTIC CONTROVERSIES) the comparative symbolics takes the place of polemics.
orthodox Lutherans were disposed to emphasize How superior in intellectual power the Roman Ca-
the insufficiency of all extant symbols as compared tholicism of the seventeenth century was is shown
with the completeness of the entire faith; this was by the form in which the controversies were waged.
especially the case with regard to the ecumenical It furnished the tone and presented the themes.
 Boola.l*.tioal B NEW SCHAFP-HERZOG 808

Doctrine was opposed with doctrine absolutely, It iscommonly understood that the living churches
without historical appreciation on cither side. The can not be adequately judged historically, either
" "
attempts at union proved also futile. The irenics merely by their authoritative statements or by
of the time did not possess a corrector understand- the documents according to which they were origi-
ing of the confessions than the orthodox polemics. nally distinguished. Hence it is incumbent upon
The literary expansion of polemics is best illus- Konfessionskunde to bring into view not only doc-
trated by J. G. Walch's Bibliotfieca tfieologica, chap, trines but also the cultus, constitution, morals, spiri-
v. (19 parts, Jena, 1757-65) covering the whole tuality, and the like, of the churches. The writer
history of the subject, and only in part of interest of this article has therefore sought to satisfy this
to symbolics. Pietism awakened also the life of altered consideration by substituting the title
" "
Christians and churches alongside of doctrines, and Comparative knowledge of confessions (Ver-
augmented the attention to sects. The semi-ortho- gleichende Konfessicmskunde; see bibliography).
doxy of the first half of the eighteenth century ap- (F. KATTENBUSCH.)
proached matters of church and confession from the The Guardian, London, Nov. 10, 1909, gives the
standpoint of independent understanding. The translation of the Athanasian
revised
following
Historiscfic utid theologische Einlcitung in die Re- Creed (q.v.), made at the request of the archbishop
ligionsstrritigkeiten (1, ausserhalb der lutheriscfien of Canterbury, pursuant to the twenty-ninth reso-
Kirche, 3d ed., 5 vols., 1733-36; and 2, in der lu- lution of the Lambeth Conference of 1908, by a
therischen Kirche, 5 vols., 1730-39) is a type of the
committee of
seven, viz.: Bishop Christopher
learned treatment of the inner divisions of the Wordsworth of Salisbury; Dean Alexander Francis
Church, though yet from a polemical standpoint.
Kirkpatrick of Ely; Vice-chancellor Arthur James
The Geschichte der Rcligionsparttteyen (Halle, 1766) Mason of Cambridge; Warden Walter Lock of
by S. J. Baumgarten, representing not churches Keble College, Oxford; Regius Professor of Divin-
and sects, but religions, shows a broadening of the
ity Henry Barclay Swete, Cambridge; Regius Pro-
point of view. With the reappearance of an eccle- fessor of Ecclesiastical History Edward William
siastical interest, rationalism first produced the for-
Watson, Oxford; and Cuthbert Hamilton Turner,
mation of comparative symbolics. The originator
Magdalen College, Oxford.
was G. J. Plank with his Abriss einer historischen
1. WHOSOEVER would be saved (1): before all things it
und vergleichenden Darstellung der dogmatischen is needful that he hold fast the Catholic Faith
Systeme unserer verschiedenen chrisdichen Haupt- 2. Which Faith except a man have kept whole and un-
partheyen (1796). The term symbolics came to be defiled (2) without doubt he will perish eternally
:

3 Now
the Catholic Faith is this, that we worship the
applied to such comparative study by Pliilip Mar- one God as a Trinity, and the Trinity as an Unity.
" "
heineke, and comparative symbolics has fixed 4. Neither confusing the Persons: nor dividing the Sub-
itself in usage as a result of G. B. Winer's Compara- stance.
tive Darstettung (Leipsic, 1824; 4th ed. improved 5. For there is a Person of the Father, another of the Son.
another of the Holy Ghost;
by P. Ewald, 1882). The new step of Plank was 6 But the Godhead of the Father, the Son, and of the
not the limitation of the material which he reat- Holy Ghost is one: their glory equal, their majesty co-
tempted, nor merely comparison, but the sublima- eternal.
tion of fundamental principles and their compari- 7 Such as the Father is, such is the Son: and such is
the Holy Ghost;
son. Marheineke further emphasized the peace of 8. The Father uncreated, the Son uncreated: the Holy
history and the impartial objective treatment of the Ghost uncreated;
The 9. The Father infinite, the Son infinite: the Holy Ghost
spirit and the essentials in each confession.
infinite;
most valuable works along this line of thought are 10. The Father eternal, the Son eternal: the Holy Ghost
the Protestant Lehrbuch der Symbolik of G. F. eternal;
Oehler, issued by J. Delitzsch (Tubingen, 1876; 11. And
yet they are not three eternals: but one eternal;
2d ed., T. Hermann, Stuttgart, 1891), and Handbuch 12. As not three uncreated, nor three in-
also they are
finites: but one infinite, and one uncreated.
der Symbolikby Hermann Schmidt (Berlin, 1890); 13. So likewise the Father is almighty, the Son almighty;
and the Roman Catholic Symbolik (Mainz, 1834) of the Holy Ghost almighty;
J. A. Mohler. 14. And yet they are not three almighties: but one
almighty.
Progressive historical investigation must reveal 15. So the Father is God, the Son God, the Holy Ghost
that the symbols can not serve as adequate sources God;
for the comparison of the confessional 16. And yet they are not three Gods, but one God.
17. So the Father is Lord, the Son Lord: the Holy Ghost
2. Konfes- churches. Symbolics can form only
Lord;
sionskunde. a department of the Konfessionskunde 18. yet they are not three Lords: but one Lord.
And
(the summary of all material knowl- 19. For we are compelled by the Christian verity
like as

edge pertaining to the confessional churches). By (3) :to confess each of the Persons by himself (4) to be both
and God and Lord;
lectures literary productions it may occupy its
'

20. So are we forbidden by the Catholic religion: to

independent position, and thus fulfil its former ppeak of three Gods or three Lords.
function of introduction to the symbols, and treat 21. The Father is of none: not made, nor created, nor
a constantly considerable part of the sources for begotten.
22. The Son is of the Father alone: not made, nor created,
the Konfessionskunde. It is undisputed that the but begotten.
symbols are specially adapted to afford an under- 23. The Holy Ghost is of the Father and the Son: not

standing oi the Reformation and eel forth sharply made, nor created, nor begotten, but proceeding.
^4. TYvere tVieteioTe one YutYm, noX XYiiee at\\eiB; one
what should be the inner norm oi an "E,varige\\ca\ Son. not three Sons: one Holy Ghost, not three Holy Ghsts.
church; but to determine at the present time what 25. And in this Trinity none is before or after: none is
the churches are is another important problem. greater or less;
808 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Symboliun, Eooleiiartioal

26. But all three Persons are co-eternal one with another: der alien Kirche, ed. A. Hahn, 3ded. by G. L. Hahn,
and co-equal. Breslau, 1897 (for the early
creeds); H. Denzingcr,
27. So that hi all ways, as is aforesaid: both the Trinity Enchiridion symbolorum, 9th ed. by J. Stahl, WUrzburg,
isto be worshiped as an Unity, and the Unity as a Trinity. 1900 (for the I^atin Church); T. H. Bindley, The (Ecumen-
Let him therefore that would be saved (5) : think thus
28. ical Documents of the Faith, London, 1901; W. Townsond,
of the Trinity (6). Great Symbols, London, 1901 ; Die Bekenntnissschriften der
29. FURTHERMORE it is necessary to eternal salvation: reformirten Kitchen, ed. E. F. K. MOiler, Leipsic, 1903;
that he also believe faithfully the Incarnation of our Lord Thisauros tea orthodoxiaa, ed. J. Michalcescu, Leipsic, 1904
Jesus Christ. (for the Greek Church).
30. The right Faith therefore is that we believe and con- On the history or theory of symbolics consult: J. G.
fess: th'it our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of Qod, is at Plank, Geschichte der Entstehung^der Veranderungen und
once both God, and Man; der Bildung unseres protestantischen Lehrbegriffs, 6 vols.,
31. He is God of the Substance of the Father, begotten Leipsic, 1781-1800; P. Marheineke, Christliche Symbolik,
before the worlds (7) and He is Man, of the Substance of
: 3 vols., Heidelberg, 1810-13; P. Hall, The Harmony of
his Mother, born in the world (8); Protestant Confessions, London, 1841; A. Schweizer, Die
32. Perfect Ood: perfect Man, of reasoning (9) soul and protestantischen Centraldogmen in ihrer Entwickelung tn-
human flesh consisting; nerhalb der reformirten Kirche, 2 vols., Zurich, 1854-56;
Equal to the Father as touching his Godhead: less
33. W. Gass, Symbolik der griechiachen Kirche, Berlin, 1872;
than the Father as touching his Manhood. C. G. A. von Scheurl, Sammlung kirchenrechtlicher Ab-
34. Who, although he be God and Man: yet he is not handlungen, i. 149 sqq., Erlangen, 1872; G. B. Winer,
two, but is one Christ; Comparative View of the Doctrines and Confessions of the
35. One, however, not by change of Godhead into flesh: Various Communities of Christendom, Edinburgh, 1873;
but by taking of manhood into God; K. G. G. von ticheele, Theologische Symbolik, 3 vols.,
36. One altogether- not by confusion (10) of substance, Gotha, 1881-82; J. A. Mohler, Symbolik, 10th ed., Mains,
but by unity of person. 1889, Eng. trans!., new issue, New York, 1894; H. E.
37. For as reasoning (11) soul and flesh is one man: so Jacobs, A Study in Comparative Symbolics. The Lutheran
God and man is one Christ; Movement in England during the Reign of Richard VIII.
38. Who Buffered for our salvation: descended to the and Edward IV., and its literary Monuments, Philadelphia,
world below (12), rose again from the dead; 1890; G. F. Oehler, Lehrbuch der Symbolik, 2d ed., by T.
39. Ascended into heaven, Hat down at the right hand Hermann, Stuttgart, 1891; F. Kattenbusch, Lehrbuch der
of the Father: to come from thence to judge the quick and vergleichende Konfesftwnskunde, vol. i Freiburg, 1892; P.S.
,

the dead. Liebmann, Kleines Handwnrterbuch der christlichen Sym-

40. At whose coming all men shall rise again (13) with bolik, Leipsic, 1893; Zntschnft fiir Theologie und Kirche,
their bodies; and shall give account for their own deeds. iii (1893), 140 sqq. (by KSell), 332 sqq. (by F. Nitznch),
41. And they that have done good will go into life eter- 427 sqq. (by J. Kaftan), x (1900), 405 sqq. (by H. Schultz) ,

nal they that have done evil into eternal fire. G. A. Gumlich, Christian Creeds and Confessions, New
42. THIH in the Catholic Faith which except a man have York, 1894; E. F. K. Mullor, Symbolik, Erlangen, 1896;
faithfully and steadfastly believed, he cannot be saved. K. F. Nosgen, Symbolik oder confessionelle Principien-
The figures in parenthesis above refer to the following lehre, Gtitersloh, 1897; P. Tschackert, Die unveranderte
alternative renderings: augsburgische Konfesaion, Leipsic, 1901; idem, Die Ent-
(1 ) Or deaireth to be saved. (8) Or in time. stehung der luthenschen und der reformierten Kirchenlehre,
(2) Or unrorrupted. (9) Or rational. Gottingen, 1910; F. Loofs, Symbolik oder christliche Kon-
(3) Or by Christian truth. (10) Or One: not by any con- fessionskunde, vol. i Tubingen, 1902; A. G. Mortimer, The
,

Or severally. fusion. Creeds: Exposition of the Apostles', Nicene and Alhanasian

(4)
(5) Or desire to bo saved. (11) Or rational. Creeds, London, 1902; C. W. Leadbeater, The Christian
(0) Or concerning the Trin- (12) Or into Hades. Creed, its Origin and Significance, New York, 1904; J. A.
Moehlor, Symbolism or Doctrinal Differences, tronsl. fiom
ity. (13) Or must rise again.
Or before all time. 6th Germ, ed., by J. B. Robertson, London, 1906; C. H.
(7)
Turner, Hist, and Use of Creeds ... in Early Centuries of
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources, besides those named in the text, the Church, London, 1906, J. Cooper, Confessions of Faith
are Schaff, Creeds; C. A. Heurtley, Harmonia symbolica: and Formulas of Subscription in the Reformed Churches of
a Collection of Creeds belonging to the ancient Western Great Britain and Ireland, Especially in the Church of Scot-
Church and to the Mediaeval English Church, Oxford, 1858; land, Glasgow, 1907, E. C. S. Gibson, The Three Creeds,
F. W. Bodemann, Sammlung der wichtigsten Bekenntmss- New York, 1908; A. E Burn. The Nicene Creed, London,
schnften der evangelist h-reformirten Kirche, 2d ed., Got- 1909; N. Bonwetsch, Gnechisch-orthodoxwchcs Chnstentum
tmgen, 1867; C. P. Caspar!, Ungedruckte, unbeachtete und und Kirche in der Neuzeit, A. Ehrhard, Katholisches Chris-
wenig beachtete Quellen tur Geschichte des Taufsymbols und tentum und Kirche in der Neuzeit, and E TrOltsch, Protes-
der Glaubensreneln, 2 vols., Christiania, 1869-75; Die tantisches Chnstentum und Kirche in der Neuzeit, all in
symbolischen Bilcher der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche, Kultur der Gegenwart, 2d ed., Leipaic, 1909; DCB, iv.
ed. J. T. M
tiller, 6 parts, Stuttgart, 1847-48, 4th ed., 523. Much relevant material will be found under DOC-
1876; H. E. Jacobs, The Book of Concord, 2 vols., Phila- TRINE, HISTORY OF, and under the articles on the three
delphia, 1893; Bibliothek der Svmbole und Glaubensregeln principal creeds.

SYMBOLISM, ECCLESIASTICAL.
I. Symbolism in General. Development of Liturgical Sym- 3. The Middle Agea.
Definition ($1). bolism ( 5). Trinity, Christ, Mary (5 1).
Symbolism Rooted in Human Na- Examples of Liturgical Symbolism The Church, Virtues, and Vices
ture (6 2). (56). (2).
In the Old Testament (5 3). Symbolism of Vestments and In- Later Forms and Conceptions (5 3).
Comprehensiveness of Symbolism signia (5 7). 4. Byzantine Art.
(M). Symbolism in Baptism (8). IV. Apologetics of Symbolism from the
II. Christian Symbolism. Consecration of a Church (5 9). Roman Catholic Standpoint.
Symbolism as a Religious Need (51). III. Symbolism m Art Symbolism Inevitable (51).
Early Tendency toward Unification 1. Relations of Art and Symbolism. Fundamental Analogy (5 2).
((2). 2. The Early Period. Sacramental Analogies (5 3).
Early Symbolism ( 3). Primitive Forms (51). Essential Valuation of Symbolism
Sources and Figures Employed (54). Advanced Development ( 2). (14).

I. Symbolism General: By ecclesiastical

in meaning being added another
to the obvious natural
based on some analogy with supernatural things.
symbolism is meant the system of interpretation
by which all objects used in connection with divine The Greek word symbols from which the word
"
worship are made to bear a twofold interpretation "symbolism comes originally meant tallies, the two
Symboliim, BoleiMtioal THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 204

halves of a coin or other like object which any two Elisha's command to Joash to smite upon the
contracting parties broke between them; hence the ground with the arrows (II Kings Jere-
xiii. 18);
derived sense of a token or ticket, and miah breaking the earthen bottle in the presence
z. Defini- consequently a distinctive mark or of the elders of Israel (Jer. xix. 1-11); and Ezekiel
tion. formula, in which sense the creeds of removing his household goods as a type of the cap-
religious bodies are known as symbols tivity of Zedekiah (Ezek. xii. 3-16). There is, how-
(see SYMBOLICS). Symbolism is, within obvious ever, a great difference between such things as the
limits, the science of the relations which unite God two fundamental symbols, the Sabbath (q.v.) and
and his creation, the natural and the supernatural the rite of Circumcision (q.v.), both representing
worlds; the science of the harmonies which exist be- tho covenant of God with his people, and the ex-
tween the different parts of the universe, consti- tremely minute and fanciful interpretations put
tuting a marvelous whole, each part of which by the later students of the Law upon every detail
presupposes the other and throws light on the other. of the temple worship interpretations not sur-
The belief of Plato that this world was nothing but passed in elaborate ingenuity by the most imagina-
the image of a divine exemplar recalls the words of tive of medieval symbolists, ^hus the Temple was
"
Ecclesiasticus: Look upon all the works of the interpreted as symbolic of human nature, and the
most High; and there are two and two, one against two cherubim, the only images in it, of the con-
" "
another (xxxiii. 15), or again, All things are centration of all natural life; although Philo, at-

double, one against another; and he hath made tributing a cosmic meaning to the entire edifice,
"
nothing imperfect (xlii. 24). In the words of takes them as denoting the two hemispheres. ^TheX
Hugo of St. Victor (q.v.), one of the greatest of table with the showbread set forth the dependence
"
medieval symbolists, a symbol is the comparison of the people upon God for their sustenance. The
of the visible forms for the showing forth of the in- seven-branched candlestick meant in Philo's scheme
"
visible (In hierarchiam ccelestem, II., i. 941). the seven planets, for later interpreters the congre-
The history of symbolism in a broad sense is co- gation of the people of God. According to Joseph us
extensive with that of humanity; the creation of (Ant., III., vii. 7), every detail of the high priest's

man in God's image and likeness out of the clay of officialvestments hud its own special meaning.
the earth, and of woman from a rib of man, arc Thus the coat symbolized the earth and the upper
given their symbolic meaning. Cain's garment heaven; the bells and pomegranates,
2. Sym- sacrifice of animal life by the side of thunder and lightning; the ephod, the four ele-
holism Abel's offering of the fruits of the earth ments; and the interwoven gold, the glory of God.
Rooted in contained a symbolic reference to their The breastplate in the center of the ephod set forth
Human respective callings. The worship of the relation of the earth to the universe; the girdle
Nature, all races, as well as the idols of many was the ocean, the stones on his shoulders the sun
pagan religions, remained symbolic and moon, and the twelve jewels in the breastplate
until the grossest materialism prevailed; and in the signs of the zodiac, while the miter once more
the family and social life of primitive peoples there represented heaven.
was scarcely any important act but had its tinge / It is impossible within the limits of this article to
"
of symbolism. The truth is/' says W. R. Inge give any extended account of the world-wide prac-^
(Christian Mysticism, p. 259, London, 1899), "that tisc of attaching an inner meaning to the simplest
the need of symbols to express or represent our religious acts, as it is likewise to de-
Iiighest emotions is inwoven with human nature, 4. Comprc- scribe in detail the far-reaching nature-
i

and indifference to them is not, as many have sup- hensiveness symbolism of the Middle Ages, which
posed, a sign of enlightenment or of spirituality. of Symbol- provided an emblematic meaning for
It is, in fact, an unhealthy symptom. We do not ism. everything in the visible world, re-
"
credit a man with a warm
heart who does not care garding it as full of sacred crypto-
to show his love in word or act; nor should we grams." A salient instance of this kind of labored
commend the common sense of a soldier who saw in search for analogical reference is the Physiologus or
his regimental colors only a rag at the end of a pole." Bestiary (probably a product of the allegorizing
The most richly developed symbolism of ancient school of Alexandria, but popular and influential
times, especially important by reason of its abun- down to late medieval times), in which various ani-
dant influence on that of the Christian Church, was mals are supposed to typify moral or spiritual qual-
found in the Mosaic system, in which, ities. A
complete survey of this kind of analogical
3. In the consonantly with the whole character teaching would lead far afield, out of the domain of
Old Testa- of the old covenant, scarcely any re- theological learning into that of poetry at least
ment ligious action took place without at such poetry as Wordsworth's, who reproaches his
least the accompaniment of a symbolic Poter Bell for blindness to it:
meaning. To many of the prescribed rites and the A primrose by the river's brim
objects to be used hi them the signification was ex- A yellow primrose was to him
pressly attached at the time of their institution by And it was nothing more;
divine command; but throughout the Old-Testa- who also says of himself, on the other hand,
ment history there are numerous examples of action To me the meanest flower that blows con bring
instinctively symbolic, after the manner of eastern Thought* that do often lie too deep for tears.
peoples. Typical examples are the rending of Jero- If this is true, in a greater or less degree, of
boam's garment by the prophet Ahijah, to signify all poets, it is not surprising to find it pointed
the separation of Israel and Judah (I Kings xi. 29); out as a special method of the greatest of the medi-
200 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA SymbolUm, BoolMUuitioal

eval poets by A. F. Ozanam (Dante, p. 68, Paris, ing the more important ceremonies tended by
"
1839), who calls it a very philosophic proceeding, degrees to become fixed and prescribed, in order
since it is based upon the incontestable law of the that the same belief might be every-
association of ideas, and, moreover, one which is 2. Early where symbolized and the same lesson
eminently poetic; for, while prose places the Tendency taught by the action in question;
thought proposed immediately under the sign of toward although so long as the advantage of
the word, poetry sets there instead certain images Unification, absoluteuniformity was not recog-
which are themselves the signs of a more elevated nized, it was possible for varying
thought." symbols to set forth different sides of the one
This article considers only such symbolism as truth. Thus in Spain in the sixth and seventh cen-
in the Christian Church has been deliberately in- turies, a single immersion or affusion was custom-
troduced for the sake of the lesson conveyed, or ary in baptism in order to assert against the Arians
sanctioned as a more or less officially accepted ex- the single substance of the three divine Persons
" "
planation of the inner meaning of such usages. The one Lord, one faith, one baptism while usu-
language of signs may be used either to instruct ally it was threefold, setting forth the other side of
those whose understanding of words is limited, or the same doctrine and corresponding to the pro-
to baffle those who are not supposed to understand nunciation of the three sacred names of the Trinity.
them. Thus a crucifix may be as good as a sermon The most interesting features of early Christian
to an illiterate peasant; while the sign of the fish symbolism are to be found in the painted and sculp-
was used by the early Christians because it told tured representations of the Catacombs (see CEME-
their enemies nothing. This latter kind of symbol- TERIES) and later of the most ancient churches,
ism, however, was in the nature of the case of but which were full of the fervent faith of the primitive
transitory importance, employed as it was only Church. The art of Rome in the period just before
during the time of persecution, when it was neces- the coming of Christianity had shown an increasing
sary to conceal from the pagans some of the deepest tendency not to represent objects liter-
truths of Christianity. 3. Early ally, but to employ visible forms for
II. Christian Symbolism: In the earliest ages of Symbolism, the representation of abstract notions.
the Christian Church one would look in vain for the The fundamental difference, however,
detailed and minute symbolism of which the Middle between classical art, as represented by the Greek,
Ages are so full, because the conditions and Christian, as represented by the Gothic, is that
i. Sym- of divine worship had not yet allowed the former dwelt contentedly on mere physical
holism as so stately and developed a ritual; but beauty, while the Christian artist, who has gained
a Religious the underlying principle was the same a conviction of his own spiritual nature, always
Need. the belief in a real affinity or corre- tries to represent it. Clement of Alexandria (q.v.)
spondence between the visible sign suggested to the faithful of his day that instead of
and the invisible truth. Adolf Harnack truly says the pagan devices cut on stones and rings by Roman
"
(Dogma, ii. 144): What we nowadays understand artists, they should have such things as a dove,
symbolic of the Spirit of God within them, the palm-
' '

by symbols is a thing which is not that which it

represents; at that time [in the second century], branch of victory, or the anchor, emblematic of their
hope. Tertullian, in his De idololatria, though his
'

symbol denoted a thing which, in some kind of

'

way, is that whieh it signifies"; and again (iv. zeal against pagan rites inclines him to object to all
"
289), The symbol was never a mere type or representations and to stigmatize the painter's art
sign, but always embodied a mystery." Thus the as unlawful, yet makes an exception in favor of
sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper (qq.v ) these devices, and speaks of the Good Shepherd as
are symbols in this sense of the word, taking it to depicted on chalices (De pudidtia, vii., x., Eng.
imply something which, in being what it is, is a transl. ANF, iv. 80, 84-85).
sign and vehicle of something higher and better. The sources of the early symbols are various.
The need of sacraments rests ultimately upon the Those of a pictorial nature, owing to the prohibi-
reluctance instinctive in our nature to allow any tion of painted or plastic representations among the
spiritual fact to remain without an external expres- Jews, usually either spring from primi-
sion, as well as upon the principle enunciated by 4. Sources tive Christian consciousness, or are
"
Augustine (Contra Faustum, xix. 11) that there and Figures adaptations of forms already at hand
Ian be no religious society, whether the religion be Employed, in the work of pagan artists. A useful
rue or false, without some sacrament or visible illustration of the latter case is the
ymbol to serve as a bond of union." Both of these frequently recurring figure of the Good Shepherd,
ites arc symbols of the mystical union between which often resembles that of Hermes Kriophoros,
Christ and the believer, baptism symbolizing that the ram-bearer. Apart from the place which the
union in its inception, the Eucharist in its organic life. shepherd occupies in the life and literature of an-
In harmony with its natural development, Chris- cient peoples, it is obviously unnecessary to con-
tianity took over a multitude of the old symbolic clude that the motive or spirit of the Christian sym-
interpretations, both those of the earlier revelation bol was derived from prevalent heathen thought.
and those of various surrounding peoples. But Not to mention the frequent references in the Old
it also carried the tendency further by attaching Testament to the pastoral relation of God to his
symbolic meanings to its own proper ceremonies people, the words of Christ himself (John x. 11-19)
and external acts. Thus, early in the development would naturally have been in the artist's mind; and
of Christian worship, the exact manner of perform- confirmatory evidence is often present in the asso-
Symboliom, Ecclesiastical THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 206

elation with the figure of distinctively Christian path which was to be

Seville (qq.v.) lead along the
symbols the fish, the Chi Rho monogram (see so much Symbolism was reduced to a
trodden.
JESUS CHBIST, MONOGRAM OF), or the Alpha and speculative science by Hugo of St. Victor; by his
Omega (q.v.). The palm-branch
found equally
is pupil and successor Richard of St. Victor (q.v.);
on pagan and Christian monuments, but in the by Honorius of Autun (q.v.), who, after the fashion
latter bears its unmistakable reference to Rev. of the time, took all knowledge to be his province;
vii. 9. The vine, again, occurs on heathen monu- by Sicardus, bishop of Cremona (d. 1215), renowned
ments with manifest reference to the worship of as a historian, canonist, and liturgiologist, especially
Bacchus, while it would at once call up in Christian in his Mitrale seu de officiis ecclesiasticis summa; by
minds the parabolic touching of John xv. 18. In Vincent of Beauvais (q.v.), after Albertus Magnus
the absence of authentic likenesses of the Savior, and Thomas Aquinas (qq.v.) the most distinguished
his person, life, and office were set forth under sym- Dominican theologian of the thirteenth century;
bols whose meaning was at once intelligible to all by Jacobus de Varagine (q.v.), the Dominican arch-
"
the initial c(l. Among the earliest and most fre- bishop of Genoa, in his and
Golden Legend";
quently recurring is the lamb, which, with a variety most of all by Durandus (q.v.), bishop of Mende
of accompaniments, continued to be used until its in Langucdoc, the greatest of medieval liturgiol-
representation was forbidden by canon 82 of the ogists, whose Rationale divinorum officiorum, written
Trullan Synod in 692 (Hefele, Concihengeschichte, about 1284, is said to have been oftener republished
iii. Eng. transl. v. 234, Fr. transl., iii. 1, p.
340, during the early days of printing than any other
573) apparently because of mystical extrava- book except the Bible.
gances connected with it in some minds; the de- There was no limit to the range of medieval sym-
cision, however, was not accepted by the Western bolism. Hugo of St. Victor (In hicrarchiam cedes-
"
Church, in \vhich the symbol of the lamb long re- tern, II., x. 1146) considered it possible that in-
mained an object of reverence. Of even deeper telligent minds might perhaps arrive
significance the fish (Greek ichthus), sometimes in
is 6. Examples at the union of everything in a beau-
its pictorial representation and sometimes indicated of Litur- tiful harmony, visible and invisible
merely by the Creek letters of its name. Wherever gical Sym- things alike, so as to leave no single
the word or the figure was found, rudely scratched holism, sensible object without demonstrating
upon the fresh mortar of the Catacombs, or more that it has the mission of representing
elaborately chiseled in connection with other sym- something immaterial." There was no detail about
bols or inscriptions, or engraved upon gems in a church, however insignificant to the ordinary eye,
signet rings, it spoke of the precious doctrine con- in which the medieval imagination could not find
tained in the five words for which its Greek letters a meaning, an analogy. Thus, in the very walls of
stand" Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Savior." the church building, where, of course, the founda-
It connotes even more in some early mural paint- tion and other stones have their Scriptural inter-
ings which bear distinct evidence of the eucharistic pretations (I Cor. iii. 11; I Pot. ii. 5), Durandus
character of the feast in which the fish is the central goes so far as to remember and interpret the ce-
"
figure. Still more permanently familiar are the ment. This, without which there can be no sta-
cross, the Chi Rho or monogram composed of the bility of the walls, is made of lime, sand, and water.
first two Greek letters of the name of Christ, and The lime is fervent charity, which joineth to itself
the Alpha and Omega, referring to Rev. i. 11, xxi. 6, the sand, that is, undertakings for the temporal
xxii. 13. The disciples appear also under the sym- welfare of our brethren; because true charity taketh
bols of the dove and the fish, or as the sheep of the care of the widow and the aged, and the infant, and
Good Shepherd's fold; the Church as a ship riding the infirm; and they who have it study to work
safely over the waves, or as the ark of Noah, to with their hands, that they may have wherewith to
which a dove returns, bearing an olive-branch in its benefit them. Now the lime and the sand are bound
beak. together in the wall by an admixture of water. But
The other division into which the subject falls, water is an emblem of the Spirit; and as without
the symbolism of ceremonial observances and ac- cement the stones can not cohere, so neither can
cessories, is illustrated by a long series of liturgical men be built up in the heavenly Jerusalem without
"
treatises, becoming fuller and more charity, which the Holy Ghost workcth in them
5. Develop- minute as the thirteenth century ap- (Symbolism of the Churches, p. 15, London, 1906).
ment of preaches. Among the earlier works, The above quotation is an instance of the pertinacity
Liturgical those of the Alexandrian school, with with which a meaning was sought for everything,
Symbolism, leaning toward sym-
its characteristic however practical the reason for its presence. Of
or allegorical interpretation of
bolic more importance and, for most people, of more in-
Holy Scripture, contain the most frequent instances terest are the significations attached to the essen-
of such treatment; Cyril of Jerusalem's catechetical tial and prominent ritual accessories of the chief
instructions are also full of mystical explanations of act of worship hi the Roman Catholic Church, me-
the Church ceremonies (see MYSTAOOQICAL THEOL- dieval and modern. Candles (see LIGHTS, USE OF,
OGY), although when he approaches the chief of IN WORSHIP) burn upon the altar, to typify the
them all, the Eucharist, he is almost exclusively true Light of the world. Incense is used at certain
preoccupied with the dogmatic and devotional as- portions of the mass, as before the altar in heaven
pects of it. The works of the pseudo-Dionysius (Rev. via. 3), and with the same general significa-
afforded much suggestion for the later development; tion, that of prayer (Rev. v. 8). But, as in so many
and in the seventh century Bede and Isidore of cases, there is no restriction to a single symbolic
907 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Symbolism, Ecclesiastical

meaning. Thus the Fathers delight to see in the miserable state of fallen man, meets the child at
censer the humanity of Christ, in the fire his divin- the door of the church to signify that in its original
ity, and in the
smoke his grace. The censer, says state it has no right to enter the house
Augustine, is like the body of the Lord, and the in- 8. Sym- of God. After the command to the
cense like the same body offered in sacrifice for the holism in devil to depart, the seal of a different
salvation of the world and received as a sweet per- Baptism. Master is impressed on the child's
fume by the Heavenly Father (Horn. vi. in Apoc. forehead and breast with the sign of
x.3). the cross; and the priest lays his hand upon its
The vestments of the officiating priest and his head to denote that he takes possession of it in the
attendants have each its reminder, either of the name of God. Salt, which preserves from corrup-
passion of Christ or of somo virtue ncc- tionand gives a relish to food, is then put into the
7. Sym- essary to his ministers. The amice mouth, and then, lest the devil should attempt to
bolisin of figures the helmet of a warrior, and take away the gift of Christian wisdom and the
Vestments reminds the priest that he is a warrior; he is solemnly exorcised. A
relish for divine things,
and Insignia, or it is a memorial of the veil with strange but very ancient ceremony, mentioned by
which the eyes of Christ were band- Ambrose (De sacramentis, I., i.) is still retained at
aged by the soldiers. The alb is the white robe this point. In memory of Christ's curing of a deaf-
put upon him by Herod; the emblem of purity. The and-dumb man by touching his ears and tongue
girdle brings to mind the manner in which Christ with spittle, the same is done by the priest to the
was bound, and typifies continence. The maniple, ears and nostrils of the child, to symbolize the open-
originally a kind of handkerchief intended to wipe ing of its cars to the truth and its mouth to the
the face during the holy offices, teaches the lesson praise of the Lord. After the formal renunciation
that man must earn the bread of immortality in of Satan at the font (see RENUNCIATION OF THE
"
the sweat of his brow, and figures also the whips DEVIL), the child is anointed with the oil of cate-
and scourges of the passion. The stole, even in its chumens," on the breast to make it love the yoke
present diminished form, by its very name reminds of Christ and on the shoulders to give it strength
us of the garment of innocence and immortality to carry that yoke. The actual essential ceremony
with which our first parents were clothed. The of baptism proper has already been spoken of It
chasuble symbolizes the yoke of Christ; when he is followed by a fresh anointing with the sticred
" O
puts it on, the priest prays Lord, who hast chrism, in token of the quality of prophet, priest,
said, My is easy and my burden is light, grant
yoke and king which has been bestowed upon the new
that I carry it in such a manner as to obtain
may" member of Christ; and the child's head is covered
thy grace and there an* similar prayers alluding with the white chrism-cloth (as the newly baptized
to the symbolic meaning with each of the other adults in the primitive Church wore their white
vestments. Of those peculiar to bishops, it will be garments for eight days), as a reminder of the ne-
sufficient here to mention the crosier or pastoral cessity of striving to preserve baptismal innoc ^nce
staff, in the shape of a shepherd's crook, which in unspotted to the end. A
lighted taper is then placed
his own diocese he carries with the curved part out, in the child's hand, held by one of the godparents;
as a sign of jurisdiction; in that of another bishop, and the words put into the priest's mouth express
he turns it toward himself to express the opposite. an allusion to the light which must be kept burning
The colors used for the sacerdotal garments under till the call comes to go out and meet the Bride-

the old law were five gold, blue, purple, scarlet, groom.
and white (linen); and as late as Gregory the Great For one final illustration, the intricate ceremonies
(De pastor all r?/ra, ii. 3) there seems to have been a of the consecration of a church, as would naturally
tendency to retain the consecrated sequence. The be expected, were in the Middle Ages, and arc to-
modern Roman colors, however (increasingly fol- day in theRoman Catholic Church,
lowed in the Anglican church), while still five ac- 9. Conse- an elaborate symbolism of their
full of

cording to the traditional number, are partly differ- cration of own, including some unique features,
ent. They are white, a symbol of purity, on feasts
: a Church. One is that in which the bishop, with
of Christ, the Blessed Virgin, confessors (saints who the end of his crosier, traces the let-
were not martyrs), and virgins unless also martyrs; ters first of the Greek alphabet and then of the Latin
red, suggesting both blood and
fire, on the feast of in the shape of a great X from corner to corner of
Pentecost and of martyrs; green, the ordinary
all the church; this corresponds to tli3 taking posses-
color of nature, on Sundays and weekdays not sion of land and marking its boundaries. While
specially set apart; violet, the somber color of not found in the East and not attested before the
mourning and penitence, during Advent and Lent; ninth century in the West, this rite goes back for
black on Good Friday and in services for the dead. its origin much further, and may have been sug-
See MASS, II., 7. gested by the practise of Roman surveyors, who
The usages accompanying the solemn adminis- used to trace two transverse lines on land which
tration of the sacrament of baptism at this day in they wished to measure. But it was easy to regard
the Roman Catholic Church, most of which have the formation of the big X
as a taking possession
come down from very early times, are an admira- of the floor space of the church in the name of Jesus
ble illustration of the manner in which every small- Christ, the great Alpha and Omega, whose mono-
est action in sacred things was supposed to teach gram and title, so to speak, were written large upon
its own lesson to the participants and spectators. the pavement by the tracing of the intervening
The priest, wearing a violet stole, symbolic of the letters. Lustration with specially prepared holy
Symbolism, Booleiiartioal THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG 908

water is a prominent part of the rite; but rather wonder-working Jesus. The fish, one of the moat
too much, it seems, has been made of the analogy ancient symbols, also belongs here so far as it ex-
drawn by L. Ducheane (Christian Worship, p. 413, presses the mystical communion brought about
London, 1904), following such medieval liturgists through the Lord's Supper, the result of which is
as Yvo of Chartres, between the consecration and incorruption. The conversion of this into a con-
the ceremonies of baptism. There is no attempt, fession as Ichthus (-*Iteous Christos Theou huios
" "
however remote, to imitate the form of bap- sot&r) can be proven first in the fourth century,
tism; and it is safer to regard the lustration as while the designation of the Christians as pisdculi
merely a symbolized moral disinfection. It is the seems never to have been taken up into art. The
natural and logical order that purification should vine, appearing as early as the second century,
precede embellishment. Even in pagan Greece, either relates itself to the Lord's Supper or repre-
at the annual commemoration of those who fell at sents the living community with Christ (John xv.
Platea, the archon washed the gravestones with 1 sqq.). The dove, with or without the olive branch,
water before anointing them with oil. So in the as the symbol of heavenly peace belongs here; it
rite under discussion the consecration is symbolized may be purely ornamental, however, or it may rep-
and made eloquent to the spiritual sense by the resent the Holy Spirit. So mention may be made
use of oil, typical of God's benedictions. here of the palm, the wreath or crown, and the
A. I. DU P. COLEMAN. anchor. The peacock was a possession of the an-
m. Symbolism in Art. 1. Relation of Art and cient, of Jewish, and of Christian sepulchral sym-
Symbolism: Throughout the entire history of bolism. The same may bo said of the Sirens, the
Christian art more or less of symbolism has ever Dioscuri, Eros, and Psyche. The figure of Orpheus
been present. This Christian art has on the one also was used, not because there was any relation
side been in agreement with the historic manifes- to Christ, but possibly because of the eonneetion in
tations or forms of art in general, while on the the Orphic mysteries \\ith immortality. Ship and
other side religious fancy and the tongue of the lighthouse portrayed the voyage to eternity; the,
Church and of Christendom have brought forth a shepherd suggested the sighing of the soul for eternal
wealth of symbols, comparisons, allegories, and peace, and was employed in baptisteries Whether
types peculiarly their own which in turn have had the so-called Orantes (praying figures, generally
an especially eventful influence upon art. In the female) represented Christian prayer as such is not
early Christian period alongside of purely Christian absolutely sure, but they do not represent the
conceptions earlier art traditions were still effective. Church. Religious regard restricted representations
In the discovery and interpretation of art symbols of the deity to a hand reaching down, later sur-
needful care has not always been exercised in dis- rounded by a nimbus or giving rise to rays of light,.
tinguishing between what belongs to literature, From the secular life were taken such figures as the
what to literature and art combined, or what ex- lion, eagle, horse, balance, and instruments of labor.
clusively to art. Such men of the Middle Ages as With the end of the fourth century began the
Honorius of Autun, Sicard, and Durand, for exam- downfall of sepulchral figuring and Joss of its sym-
ple, in their symbolic interpretations concerned bolism, replaced by a new series of symbols. To
themselves all too narrowly with the emblematic be named here are the monogram of Christ (see
speech of art. For the Middle Ages the most effect- JESUB CHRIBT, MONOGRAM OF), the cross (see CROSS
ive work has been done by such French scholars as AND ITS UBE AS A SYMBOL), the A and
Cahier and Didron, for the early Christian period '
the swastika the P henix au <i the
>

by German Protestants. ment. eagle (both symbols of the resurrec-

8. The Early Period: For the period before Con- tion), the cantharus from which vine
stantine this form of expression is limited to se- branches issue (recalling the Supper), while serpents,
pulchral monuments. The expression is essentially dragons, and other monsters either lie at Christ's feet
symbolic, and material from the Old and the New or are transfixed by the emj>eror'8 bannered spear

l t>
i 44.4
Primitive
4 Testament is used to express the
.. . , . .,* .
(recalling the fall or representing the devil and his
. ,

Forms. conceptions and hopes of that penod, companions). Other objects introduced more or
although with occasional peculiarities less frequently were the lizard, squirrel, cypress,
more or less loosely attached. Roses, branches of spring or well, dog, and ring. To be separated in
bloom, flowering meadows, and trees, especially the category are the purely heathen symbols which owe
palm, represent paradise, the entrance being indi- their entrance into Christian art to purely mechan-
cated by two pillars, or, later, by two great candle- ical causes, such as Eros (Cupid) with reversed
sticks. Still more significant was the lamb, stand- torch (see MITHRA, MITHRAISM), Gorgon head, and
ing upon a mountain from which gushed the four pomegranate (an accompaniment of Persephone).
streams of paradise, and the Jordan also came A higher step in development was taken when by
into this connection. In very intimate connec- way of personification the human figure came to be
tion with this was the favorite figure of the good used. So a half-figure, with a robe in folds over the
shepherd, thought of as lord and protector of head, upon which the enthroned Christ sets his foot,
the dead, to which belonged also the sheep upon represents the heaven. While sun and moon appear
his shoulder. The sheep also appeared alone in this as disk and crescent, the sun appears also as a youth
symbolism; the number twelve represented the going forth in his chariot with winged horses, likewise
apostles; the lamb stood for Christ and also for as a bust from the head of which issue rays; the moon
the sacrificial lamb; exceptionally upon the sar- is a woman with the sickle in her hair or with a gar-
cophagus of Juniufl Baesufl the lamb represents the ment blowing or falling in folds about her. Male
909 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Symbolism, Eooleilafrtioal

forms, from the pedestals of which waters issue, cup; or Christ on the cross crowned her, or she
represented sea and rivers, especially the Red Sea caught from hit wounded side the flowing blood,
and the Jordan. Nymphs of the springs appear and a prophet was her companion; her
* k*
also, while the seated matron may represent the for salvation was
significance repre-
city if she have a tesselated crown. The Codex Virtu*. Bentedbyaehiportheark. Opposed
Rossanensis introduces a new Christian creation, and Vice*. to ner 8^KX^ the synagogue, unbeliev-
wisdom, or inspiration; death is presented as a ing Judaism, a feminine form, in the
half-naked youth seated upon a sarcophagus, and right hand a cracked staff and in the left a table of
prayer was also personified. the law falling to earth; a bandage covered her eyes,
8. The Middle Affe*: In the Middle Ages there and the crown was falling from her head. The in-
was a great inrush of new forms and ideas, derived drama was felt here, and the
fluence of the religious
not only from the influence of the Bible and the popular feeling against Judaism registered itself in
sermon, but also from the liturgy, the legends of art by picturing Judaism under the figure of the
the saints, the religious drama, and the moralities, swine. For the sacrament the cup and ears of grain
from fable, and indeed from scholar- had their symbolism; the cup on a gravestone in-
1. Trinity, hj
8 p y et on i y a sman part of w ^a t dicated the priestly character of the deceased.
^
Mary* was avai^a e was really employed. Transubstantiation had also its symbolism in the
"
The mystery of the Trinity was repre- mill of the host." Of course, the moralizing char-
sented by the triangle, by three rings interlaced, or acter of the Church was displayed here, and the
by a triplet of like-formed animal shapes; while virtues appeared on portals, in the chancel, on
about the end of the period issued a three-headed memorials of the dead, and in the patterns of the
form. The number three had an important part in carpets. Practically always they appeared as female
architecture and artistic composition. The Holy forms: Faith had the cup and the cross, Justice had
Spirit wasfigured as a dove, while doves repre-
still the balance, Charity (or love) protected a beggar
sented likewise the seven gifts of the Spirit, only or a child, Hope looked off in the distance or
exceptionally did this person of the Trinity appear stretched out her hand for a crown, Prudence held
in human form as a lad. The life of Jesus afforded a a book, Bravery made preparation (for defense or
rich material. For the incarnation the unicorn attack), Temperance had a measuring instrument,
legend was used hunted by Gabriel and his four Chastity was represented by a palm, phenix, or a
hounds, pity, truth, justice, and peace, the unicorn nesting dove, Humility by a dove, Perseverance by
took refuge in the protection of the seated virgin. a crown, Harmony by an olive branch. Naturally
The virgin birth is connected in symbolism with the this symbolism induced the figuring of the opposites:
virginity of Mary, as by the use of the lily. So from Idolatry was shown by a man worshiping an idol,
the Old Testament into connection with the life of Desperation by a man committing suicide with a
Christ were brought the burning bush, the vessel sword, Inconstancy by a monk fleeing from the
with manna, the rod of Aaron which sprouted, etc. monastery.
The sufferings and death of Christ were symbolized As the seasons symbolized the changing course of
by the lamb with the cross-banner or the stream of human life, so the wheel of fortune was especially
blood flowing from its breast. The self-sacrificing employed for this purpose, being taken in from pre-
death of Christ was figured by the pelican which Christian art after being passed over
3. Later
pierced its breast to give drink to its young. The by earjy Christian symbolism. It be-
JPormi and
lioness also appeared, bringing to life by breathing
i

Conception..
came ft greftt favorite ^
a moralistic
upon it her stillborn cub. The lion represented the medium The destructive might of
evil powers and the devil. Christ's exaltation was death was set forth by the figure of a man weed-
figured by showing him seated upon a throne or a ing a garden or felling trees, or of a rider (Rev. vi. 8)
rainbow, a b'ly branch (grace) issuing from his head, with stretched bow, or more extensively as an ema-
while a sword denoted justice. The Virgin Mary ciated old man which developed into the skeleton
was portrayed as queen of heaven with diadem, with sickle and hour-glass. The dance of death
scepter, and throne, and with her were pictured sun, (see DEATH, DANCE OF), a favorite theme in art,
" "
moon, and stars; as mother of pity she wore a is in origin connected with the devastation of the
mantle which was caught up by the wind and cov- Black Death. The departing soul was usually
ered those who sought her help; to her the lily and pictured as a small, naked, sexless, human figure,
the rose were sacred; the red rose symbolized her issuing from the mouth. The last judgment was
sufferings, the white her joy. The functions of also a subject of art, in which the revenge of the
prophets and apostles and certain doctors of the monsters of hell occupied the central place, while
Church as teachers were represented by the book the devil was a prominent figure. Upon the devil
or which was given them in art; to some, certain
roll played all the popular richness of imagination and
definite articles gave character and distinction the grotesqueness; hence developed the human figure
lyre to David, the keys to Peter, or the sword of in varied shapes, with horn of goat, hoof, bat's wings,
martyrdom distinguished Paul; the founders of and tail; he even appeared as a black bird inspiring
churches sometimes bore in the hand a model of Pontius Pilate. There was in connection with this
the church. theme not a little also of the humorous. There was
Of course the Church had its figures representing a great revival of the antique in art as in literature.
itself. In the most beautiful representations of the Sirens, centaurs, the Sibyl, Plato, and Aristotle are
Middle Ages the Church appeared as a royal woman, common figures. Great difficulty attends the un-
crowned, carrying the banner of victory and the derstanding of the meaning of the scenes in which
XI,-H
Symbolism* Sootoii THE NEW SCHAFF-HEBZOQ filO

animals appear, now figuring in wild combat and of his public worship in the holy sacrifice of the
again grouped in restful pose. These are found Mass, which sanctifies and applies symbolism in
especially in Germany in many situations. Possi- the highest and widest sense. The study of Ro-
bly in manycases the explanation is to be sought in man Catholic ceremonies might be called the science
warning against demonic powers, assaults, and sins; of liturgical esthetics.
occasionally the decorative motive is evident; again It may be said that asymbol is synonymous with
possibly, though not probably, irony is present. a sacrament, inasmuch as they are both signs,
4. Byzantine Art; Byzantine art was not nearly something which stands for something
so rich in its forms and figures as the artistic sym- 2. Funda- else; something exterior, visible, which
bolism of the West, the naturally conservative mental signifies and usually conceals some-
tendencies of the East revealing themselves here Analogy, thing interior, invisible. For instance,
and permitting little that was creative. In this its life, per se, in itself vegetative, sensi-
literature differed,employing symbols, allegories, tive, or rational is never really seen;
it is perceived

personification, and types freely. While the West only by its effects in exterior signs and symbols
employed the human form in this region, the East which that life informs, through which it works.
remained true to its traditions in the employment The best illustration of the symbolism or sacramen-
mainly of animal and plant forms. The image con- tality of the universe is found in man himself, a
"
troversy (see IMAGES AND IMAGE WORSHIP, II.) had microcosm, as he is called, a sum and compendium
its effects in this direction, so that the Physiologus of the universe." His body, composed of all the
myth had a far narrower influence upon art. An- sensitive, vegetative, and mineral elements found
thropomorphic symbolism was less potent in its in the world outside him, is the sacramental sym-
effects. Of course the East had its own favorite bol of the rational soul by which it is informed; the
symbols. Thus in the pictures of the last judgment outward and visible sign of the real invisible ego
there appears the crowned king of hell riding a sort within. And man thus constituted, himself a kind
"
of griffin. It had also the Etimasia," a throne of sacrament, in a world which is by its nature uni-
upon uhich rested cross, lamb, and book repre- versally sacramental, must of necessity lead a sac-
senting Christ; while the empty throne stood for ramental both in the order of nature and of
life,
the majesty of God, in which the early Christian grace, i.e., because in the order of nature therefore
abhorrence of figuring God as a person is seen. in the order of grace; for grace does not destroy
Byzantine art remained closer to the earlier per- nature, on the contrary, it presupposes and per-
sonification, as when the shepherd lad David, play- fects it; nature is the raw material for grace to work
ing the harp, gives the key to the melody, behind upon. Revealed religion is above natural theology,
a pillar in the distance the Oread Echo takes up but never opposed to it A religion purely spiri-
the tone, while in the foreground the half-naked tual, without the outward sign of the interior grace,
mountain-god listens. Similarly David appears as would be for angels (pure spirits), not for men at
the royal singer, by his side the female forms Sophia least according to Roman Catholic doctrine. In-
and Prophecy and above his head the Holy Spirit deed, Christ- himself became a sacrament, for he be-
as inspirer in the form of a dove. came man. The incarnation is the sacrament of
In France, Germany, and England the Roman sacraments; his humanity was the sign, the sym-
Catholic Church is endeavoring at present to come bol of his divinity. As a teacher of men he was a
again into full accord with the symbolic feeling of symbolist, for he spoke in parables. The sacramen-
the Middle Ages, while Italy and Spain seem to tal idea is coextensive with the Roman Catholic

linger in the rear. There are attempts at creation, Church, and is the basis of ecclesiastical symbolism
" "
seen especially in the use of the Heart of Jesus with all it implies, not only of the seven sacraments
and " Heart of Mary." The Protestant churches themselves, but of the elaborate Roman Catholic
are also showing an awakening interest in symbols ceremonial and ritual. Every Roman Catholic theo-
and their use in religious art. See ANIMALS; and logian who admits a divinely instituted sacramen-
PAHAMENTA. (VICTOR SCHULTZE.) tal system necessarily more or less of a symbolist.
is
IV. Apologetics of Symbolism from the Roman The reason for symbolism in the supernatural is,
Catholic Standpoint: A
certain amount of sym- according to Thomas Aquinas, the same as that
bolism is necessary in all religions, pagan, Christian, required in the natural order, viz., man is composed
Roman Catholic, or Protestant. In all ages and of body and soul. Truth, which is immaterial, must
places the inward feeling of devotion must be ac- be presented to him by material signs. In the nat-
companied by an outward manifesta- ural order ideas are expressed by words; thoughts
z. Symbol- tion of it. All religious actions are arrive to us through the senses, not that the material
ism In- from their very nature symbolical and sense contains the essence of the immaterial idea,
evitable. figurative. The Mussulman in his de- but that it is its messenger, just as the wind carries
"
votions must take off his shoes and winged seeds. Sensation is our messenger to the
kneel on his carpet facing toward Mecca. These are intellect, our king." Similarly in the supernatural
symbolical acts. Even the Quaker must keep on order grace is brought to men through the exterior
his hat and sit in a bare room in silence, to show form of sacraments and ceremonies.
by these symbols his vain attempt to disregard Sacrament here is taken in the strict Roman
symbols. A fortiori, the Roman Catholic, whose re- Catholic, theological sense, as understood of the
ligion is based on a sacramental system, is surround- seven sacraments, to wit: it must be a sensible
ed on all sides by symbolism, in architecture, art, sign, it must be instituted by Christ, it must effect
and music, all contributing to the elaborate ritual the grace it signifies. The matter or material
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Symbolism, Ecclesiastical

(materia)of these sacraments was not chosen Augsburg, 1470 and often, Eng. transl. of first book. The
"
It was becoming," again to Symbolism of Churches and Church Ornaments, 3d ed.,
arbitrarily by Christ. " London, 1906; Bingham, Origines, book VIII.; H. Alt,
quote Thomas Aquinas, that there be Die Heilioenbilder, Berlin, 1845; J. Dudley, Naolow; a
3. Sacra- a natural analogy between the matter Treatise on the Origin, Progress, and sacred Import of the
mental of the sacrament and the grace oper- sacred Structures . of the World, London, 1846; F.
. .

What
the effect of Piper, Mythologie und Symbolik der chrisllichen Kunst,
Analogies. ated by it," e.g., is
W.
Weimar, 1847-51; Menzel, Christ lie he Symbolik, 2
baptism? To cleanse the soul of the vols., Regensburg, 1854; W. and G. Audsley. Handbook
stain of original sin. Therefore water, which of Christian Symbolism, London, 1865; C. Cahier, Les
cleanses the body, is the necessary matter of this Caracteristiques des saints dans Fart populaire, 2 vols.,
Paris, 1866-68; J. R. Thomson, Symbols of Christendom,
sacrament. Oil softens and strengthens, it perme-
London, 1867; R. St. J. Tyrwhitt, Art Teaching of the
ates and nourishes, servos as a dressing for wounds, Primitive Church, London, 1873; C. A. Aubor, Histoire
it is a seasoning for food, and, combined with other et theorie du symbolisms religieux, 4 vols., Paris, 1874;
J. W. Legg, Notes on the Hist, of the Liturgical Colours,
liquids, rises to the top; it is used for the anointing
London, 1882; J. P. Lundy, Monumental Christianity;
of priests and kings. It is a symbol of youth and
or, the Symbolism of the Primitive Church, New York,
vigor of soul. Mixed with balm it is the symbol of 1882; F. A. Philippi, Symbolik. Akademische Vorlesungen,
good example, of the good odor which the Christian Gutersloh, 1883; C. Auber, Hint, et theorie du symbolisme
soul should everywhere exhale. All these many reltgieux avant et depuis le christianisme, 4 vols., Paris,
1884; T. Inman, Ancient Pagan and Modern Christian
qualities of oil are symbolic of the many and great Symbolism, New York, 1884; H. C. W. Phitipps, Domain of
operations of the Holy Ghost upon the soul, hence Symbolism in Religious Worship, London, 1884; J. R.
itsuse in the sacraments of baptism, confirmation, Allen, Early Christian Symbolism in Great Britain and
Ireland before the 13th Century, London, 1887; H. Schmidt,
holy orders, and extreme unction. Handbuch der Symbolik, Berlin, 1890; J. F. A. T. Landriot,
Bread and wine are the matter of the sacrament Le Symbolisme, Paris, 1891; W. R. Lethaby. Architecture,
of the Eucharist, because, according to the Council Mysticism, and Myth, London, 1892; W. Palmer, Early
Christian Symbolism, London, 1895; W. F. Shaw, Chap-
of Trent, Holy Communion produces in the spiri-
ters on Symbolism, London, 1897; E. C. Neff, An Anglican
tual all the effects of bread and drink in the material
Study in Christian Symbolism, Cleveland, 1898; E. M
order, it sustains, gives growth, repairs forces, and Rap u 11 6s y Vargas, El Symbolismo en la arquitectura cris.
fills the soul with a holy joy. tiana, Madrid, 1898; E. Geldart, Manual of Church Deco-
ration and Symbolism, Oxford, 1899; J. H. Spencer, " As
In Le Symbolisms (see bibliography), Landriot,
Old as Adam "; first Principles in religious geometrical
archbishop of Reims, says in effect: Every creature, Symbols and alphabetical Characters, London, 1899; F. W.
however small, is a partial and material expression Hackwood, Christ Lore; being the Legends, Traditions,
of the Infinite Intelligence. Besides Myths, Symbols, Customs, and Superstitions of the Christian
Church, London, 1902; J. Sauer, Die Symbolik des Kirchen-
4. Essential its proper form, its individual charac- gebttudes und seiner Ausstattung in der A uffassung des Mit-
Valuation ter, itcontains within a divine thought, telalters, Freiburg, 1902; H. J. Smith, Illustrated Symbols
of Sym- a divine ideal, it bears the indelible and Emblems of the Jewish, Early Christian, Greek, Latin,
seal of the Word, of which it is an im-
and Modem Churches. London, 1900; H. D. M Sponce,
holism,
White Robe of Churches, London, 1900; H. J,eclercq,
perfect though in a sense a true ex- Manuel d'archtologie chretienne, Paris, 1907; J. H Blunt,
pression. Just as on a page written by a man of The Annotated Book of Common Prayer, pp. 44-80, latest
literary genius one can distinguish in each letter its impression, New York, 1908; DC A, n. 1944-47; KL, vi.
593-600; A. E. Waite, The Hidden Church of the Holy
form, individuality, material direction, typograph- Graal: its Legends and Symbolism, London, 1909; M. C.
ical beauty, yet underneath the dead letter above Nieuwbarn, Church Symbolism; a Treatise on the General
all in the ensemble of these inanimate characters Symbolism and Iconography of the Roman Catholic, Church
there is there is the sublime, gra-
else: Edifice, ib. 1910; Mrs H Jenncr, Christian Symbolism,
something
Chicago, 1910; and the literature under PAH AMENTA.
cious, and varied thought of the master. So every On symbolism in relation to art forms in general con-
object of creation corresponds to a divine ideal, it sult, the works named under ART AND CHURCH by Didron-
is a sign of a divine thought, a hieroglyphic of the Hemans, Piper, Liibkp, Tyrwhitt, Otto, Jameson, Stokos.
Cutts, Schultze, Kruus, and Michel; the literature under
language of heaven. Hence, Roman Catholic the- ARCHITECTURE, ECCLESIASTICAL; CEMETERIES; JESUS
ology, the highest Roman Catholic philosophy, the CHRIST, PICTURES AND IMAGES OF. Books dealing with
great secret of art, consist first in knowing how to art in all periods are: F. E. Hulmo, The Hist., Principles,
and Practice of Symbolism in Christian Art, new ed., Lon-
spell, then to read, then to understand this magnifi-
don, 1908; F. Piper, ut sup.; Loufoa Twining, Symbols
cent poem of the Creator, this sublime literature of
and Emblems of Early and Mediaeval Christian Art, Lon-
God, this masterpiece of the greatest of creative don, 1860; C. Browne, A Lecture on Symbolism and its
artists. Thus to discover through the material ele- Connection with Church Art, New York, 1865; H. J.
ment the divine side of things is to discern him who Grimouard do Saint Laurent, Guide df Vart chretien, 6 vols.,
Pans, 1872-75; C. E. Clement, A Handbook of Legendary
is at once the Great Unknown and supremely In-
Art, Boston, 1881; idem, Heroines of the Bible in Art,
telligible Being. An activity could hardly be found London, 1900; E. P. Evans, Animal Symbolism in Eccle-
more worthy than this of man's rational soul, made, London, 1896; A. B. Hinds, A Garner
siastical Architecture,
of Saints. Legends and Emblems usually" represented in
as it is, after the image of its maker. H. Kehrer, Die
Art, London, 1900; Heiligen drei
But such is the science and the philosophy of "
Konige in der Legende und in der deutschen bildentlcn
ecclesiastical symbolism, understood and applied
"
by Kunst bis Durer, Strasburg, 1904.
" For the early period read: W. D. Ward, Hist, of the
the Roman Catholic Church, symbolism in its
Cross; the pagan Origin and idolatrous Adoption and Wor-
most universal and therefore most Catholic mean-
ship of the Image, London, 1871; C. LUdtke, Die Bilder-
ing and use. STUART CHAMBERS. verehrung und die bildenden Darstellung in den ersten
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the general subject of symbolism the christlichen Jahrhunderten, Freiburg. 1874; J. E. Wessely,
reader referred to: Rupert of Deutz, De divinis officiia
is Jkonographie Gottes und der Heiligen, Leipsic, 1874; V.
and De trinitote, in his Opera, in MPL, clxviii.-clxx. ; Schultxe, Archaologische Studien liber altchristliche Monu-
Cabrol, Dictionnaire (the one great modern thesaurus of mente, Vienna, 1880; F. X. Kraus, Realencyklopadie der
the facts); W. Durand, Rationale divinorum offidorum* chritUichen Altertumer, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1882-86; A.
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 812

Hasenclever, Der altchriatliche Grdberachmuck, Brunswick, into connection with Marcionites (see MARCION)
1886; H. Bergner, Der Gute Hirt in der aUchristlichen and Manicheans (q.v.). Augustine (Contra Fau*-
Kunat, Berlin, 1890: A. Breymonn, Adam und Eva in der
Run* dea chnatlichen Alterthuma, Wolfenbtittel, 1893; tum, xix. 4, 17, NPNF, 1 ser., iv. 240, 246; Contra
A. Heussner, Die altchriatlichen Orpheus Daratellungen t Cresconium, i. 31) relates Symmachians with the
Cassel, 1893; H. Detzel, Christliche Ikonographie, 2 vols., Ebionites (q.v.), and also (by implication) with
Freiburg, 1894-96; E. Honnecke, Altchristliche Malerei Manicheans.
und altkirchliche Literat ur, Leipsic, 1896; G. Stuhlfauth,
Die Enoel in der afohriatlichen .Kunat, Tubingen, 1897;
L. Cloquet, Elements d'iconogranhie chretienne, Lille, 1900; SYMMACHUS, sim'a-kus": Pope 498-514. On
K. M. Kaufmann, Die sepulkralen Jenaeitsdenkm&ler der the death of Anastasius II. the deacon Symmachus
Antike und dea Vrchnatentuma, Mainz, 1000; idem, Hand-
of Sardinia and the archpriest Laurentius divided
buch der chriatlichen Archtiologie, Padcrborn, 1905; T.
Beaudoire, Geniae de la cryptographic apostolique, Paris, the votes; the former was consecrated in the Lat-
1902; K. Michel, Gebet und BUd in fruhchrietlicher Zeti, eran and the latter in S. Maria Maggiore on Nov.
Leipsic, 1902; H. Bergner, Kirchliche Kunataltertumer in 22, 498. Both parties agreed to submit the affair
Deutachland, Leipsic, 1903-05; J. Reil, Die frVhchriat-
for decision to Theodoric the Great, although he
lichen Daratellungen der Kreuzigung Chriati, Leipaic, 1904;
J. Wilpcrt, Die Malereien der Katakomben Roma, 2 vols., was an Arian, who was then the suzerain of Rome.
Freiburg, 1904. He decided that whoever was consecrated first, and
For the Middle Ages and modern times consult: J. M.
von Rcdowitz, Monographic der Heiligen, Berlin, 1834; by a majority, had a right to the papal chair; this
idem, The Saints in Art, Rome, 1898; A. N. Didron, being Symmachus, Laurentius withdrew, and ap-
Iconographie chretienne, Paris, 1843; English transl., parent unity reigned. Symmachus called a synod
Chriatian Iconography; or, the Hiat. of Chriatian Art in the on Mar. 1, 497, and introduced directions regarding
Middle Agea t London, 1851; C. Cahier and A. Martin,
the papal election which would render impossible
Melanges (and Nouveaux Melangea) d'archeologie, d'his-
toire, de litterature sur le moy en-age, 10 vols., Paris,
et such events as had occurred. This decision did not,
1847-77; O. Heider, Ueber Tieraymbolik und doa Symbol however, prevent later schisms; moreover, the ri-
dea Lbwen in der chnatlichen Kunat, Vienna, 1849; J. E.
valry between Symmachus and Laurcntius was re-
Wessely, Die Geatalten dee Todca und dea Teufela in der
daratellenden Kunat. Leipaic, 1876; H. J. Gnmouard de newed, and although the latter was made bishop of
Saint-Laurent, Lea Image* du aacre-caur au point de vue Nocera and removed from Rome, his followers con-
de Vhiat. et de Vart, Paris, 1880; A. Springer, Ueber die tinued their opposition to Symmachus, blaming him
Quellen der Kunstdaratellungen im Mittelolter, Leipsic, for appointing a time for the Easter festival of 501
1880; II. Otte, Kunstarcfioologie dea deutschen Mittelaltera,
2 vols., Leipsic, 1880-85; B. Eckl, Die Madonna ala Ge- A.D., and accusing him of adultery, of alienating
genatand chnsth-her Kunatmalerei, Brixen, 1H83; P. Jea- church property, and various other crimes. Appeal
sen, Die DaratcUung des WeUgenchta but auf Michelangelo, was again made to Theodoric, who called Peter,
Berlin, 1883; G. Voss, Das jungate Gencht in der bildenden
Kunat dea fruhrn MvtteloMrra, Leipsic, 1884; N. Kondakoff, bishop of Altinum, to Rome to investigate matters,
Hist, de /'art byz(mtin,'2 vols., Paris, 1886-91; E. MOntz, and to take control of the chureh property. Syin-
Etudes iconographiquea et archiologiquea aur le moyen-Age, machus, who was in Ariminum, refused to appear
Paris, 1888; F. Lauchert, Oeachichte dea Phyaiologua,
at the synod called by Peter in Rome, some time
Strasburg, 1889; C. Rofcault de Floury, Lea Saints de la
mesae et leura monuments, Paris, 1893; M. Engels, Die after Easter, 501, unless Peter withdrew and the
Daratellung der Geatalten Gottea dea Votera in der Malerei, church property were restored to his control, when
Luxemburg, 1894; idem, Die Kreuzigung Christi in der he would be willing to defend himself before the
bildenden Kunat, ib. 1899; P. Weber, Geiatlichea Schau-
apiel und kirchliche Kunat in ifirem Verhdltnia ... an
synod. The bishops dared not deny the pope's re-
einer Ikonographie der Kirche und Synagoge, Stuttgart, quest, but Theodoric demanded a new session of the
1894; J. Strzygowaki, Der BUdcrkreis dea griechiachen synod, at which Symmachus decided to appear; but
PhyaiologuB, Leipsic, 1899; N. Bell, The Saints in Chriatian as a tumult arose during the session he refused to
" "
Art, 3 vols., London, 1901-04; M. Keruarel, Le Livre
de Paula. Cauaeriea familierea aur Vart et le symboliame appear again and appealed to the king, to whom the
chretiena, Paris, 1902; J. Sauer, Symbolik dea Kirchenge- synod also referred the matter. Theodoric, how-
haudea . .dea Mittelaltera, Freiburg, 1902;
. . Male, ever, ordered the bishops to decide, and on Oct. 23,
L'Art religieux du xni. aiecle en France, Paris, 1902
the A. The 501, at a fourth session they rendered the famous
(crowned by Academy); Venturi, Madonna,
London, 1902; J. E. Weis-Liebersdorf, Christ us- und Apos- decision by which all accusations against Symma-
telbUder, Freiburg, 1902; E. A. Greene, Saints and their chus were set aside without examination, on the
Symbols: a Companion in the Churches and Picture Gal-
leries of Europe, London, 1904; O. Zockler, Die Tugend-
ground that, by reason of the exalted authority of
lehre dea Chriatentuma mit beaonderer Ruckaicht auf deren
the Apostle Peter, they did not dare to judge the
zahlensymboliache Einkleidung, Gtitereloh, 1904; A. pope, but left it to God, who sees the secrets of the
Munoz, Iconografia delta Madonna, Florence, 1905; H. O. heart. The synod followed out the conclusions of
Taylor, The Medieval Mind, 2 vote., New York, 1911. its decision, and declared those who had not favored

SYMBOLUM APOSTOLICUM. See APOSTLES' Symmachus to be schismatics, and condemned Peter

CREED. of Altinum and Laurentius. Symmachus convoked
a sixth session of the synod Nov. 6, in order to pre-
SYMMACHIA5S: The name appHed to one or vent the interference with his election from becom-
more heretical sects, at least one of them centering ing a precedent. The decision of the synod did not,
at Rome. Philaster (H car., Ixii.) speaks of them as however, restore harmony, and after deeds of vio-
derived from a certain Patricias, a teacher at Rome, lence, the followers of Laurentius finally resorted
whose chief doctrine was that the body was the to literary arguments. Symmachus finally carried
handiwork of the devil, and that in consequence ill- the day, but the opposition to Symmachus was
treatment of it was a duty. This was pushed by broken only when Theodoric declared himself against
followers to its extremes of suicide and of indul- the Laurentians and commanded that their church
gence in all lusts. Ambrosiaster (prologue to Gala- be given over to Symmachus (505 and 506 A.D.);
tians, and on I Tim. Jv. 1) brings a sect of the name whereupon Laurentius retired to a country place
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Symbolism. Eooleiiaitioal
213 Synagogue

" "
belonging to his stanch supporter, Senator Festus, simply prayer (cf. Acts xvi. 13), synagdgion and
and became an ascetic. proseukterion (the last two used by Philo). The
Symmachus was now firmly established as pope, need to appoint special places and to build houses
and devoted himself to building and endowing for common worship seems not to have been felt be-
churches. He entered into a dispute with the Em- fore the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrez-

peror Anastasius (Epist., x,), had relations with the zar, that is, so long as the Temple of Solomon
banished Africans (Epist. xi.), with Ennodius of,
stood with its centralizing of the sacrificial cultus.
Pavia (Epist., vii., ix., xviii.), and with the Gauls While it may be concluded from II Kings iv. 23
(Epist., xiv.). He favored the demands of the bish- that the pious on feast-days assembled at the place
ops of Aries, and his utterances at this time were of dwelling of a prophet who lived hi the neighbor-
not without influence on later views regarding the hood, it is clear that this did not become a firmly
relation of spiritual to worldly authority. He died established institution. That the Targums (e.g.,
July 19, 514. (A. HAUCK ) Pseudo- Jonathan on Ex. xviii. 20; Judges v. 9;
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liber pontificalia, ed. L.
Sources
are: Isa. i. 13) speak of synagogues as an early institu-
Duchesne, i. 44 sqq., 260, Paris, 1886, and ed. Mommsen, tion is an example of the habit of the Targums to
in Qe*t. pont. Rom. i (1898), 120; Theodoras Lec-
MGH, attribute unhistorically to earlier times what be-
tor, in MPG, Ixxxvi. 1, pp. 189-190; MGH., Auct. ant ,
"
ix (1891), 324, xii (1894), 393 sqq.; and the Letters" longed only to later. During the exile the people
in E
pinto! (f Romanorum pontificum genuince, ed. A. Thiel, had neither Temple nor sacrifice. There remained
639 sqq., Braunaberg, 1867. Consult furtherf
i Jaffe,
only their attention to the words of Ezckiel and
Regeata, i. 96; A. von Reumont, Geachichte der Stadt Rom,
other men of God, the Sabbath, and prayer in com-
li 38, Berlin, 1868; Vogel, in Hiatoriache Zcitachnft, i
(1883), 400 sqq.; J. Langen, Geachtchte dcr rumiachen
mon. Whether during the exile houses for such
Kirche, ii. 219 sqq., Bonn, 1885; F. Grogorovius, Hiat. of meetings were already appointed can not be de-
the City of Rome, 317-321, London, 1894;
i. Hefele, Con- termined. It may be taken as correct, however,
t 11. 625 sqq., Eng. transl., iv. 49 sqq., Fr.
ilienyeachichte,
that the need produced by the exile led up to com-
traual., pp. 947 sqq., Bower, Popes, i. 296-309; Platina, (

Pope*, i. 116-118; Milman, Latin Chriatumity, i. 350-351, mon services 'of worship which did not cease after
416-423. the exile had come to an end. Another motive con-
SYMMACHUS: Translator of the Old Testament tributed to this end. The law, transgression of
into Greek. See BIBLE VESBIONS, A, I., 2, 2. which in earlier times had led to so severe punish-
ment, became now the determinative norm, knowl-
SYMPHORIANUS, sim-f5r"f-e-'nus: A Gallic mar- edge of it the one condition of the continued favor
tyr of the reign of Marcus Aurelius; d. probably in of God, its study a profitable engagement. Read-
180 He was a native of Autun, and is described ing and explanation of this law was the chief busi-
sis a youth of distinguished appearance and excel- ness of the post-exilic assemblages of the people
lent education. Having refused to do homage to prayer and instruction in the prophetic word and
the statue of Borocynthia (Cybele), he was carried in history were secondary to this. The purpose of
before the prefect Heraclius, who tried to subdue learning to know the law could be accomplished only
him by threats and torture, and finally had him be- by regular recurrence of meetings. Naturally the
headed outside the walls. day chosen was the Sabbath. This regularity of
BIBUOGRAPHV: The early Ada, with commentary, are in meeting together led as a matter of course to the
AHH, August, iv 491-498. Consult further. C. L. Dinet,
Kami tfymphonen et son culte, 2 vols., Autun, 1861; K. J. appointment of definite places. The earliest men-
tion of synagogues is in Ps. Ixxiv. 8, which may
Neumann, Der romiache Stoat und die attaemnne Kirche,
i. 303-304, Leipsic, 1890, DCB, iv. 753; Ceillier, Auteura belong to the period of Artaxerxes III. Ochus (359-
aacrta, i 472-473, x. 358, xii. 327, 832, 834, xiii. 21; 338 B.C.) [now usually assigned to the early Macca-
Neander, Christum Church, i. 108, 115. bean period]; the expression used in that passage
can hardly be understood of anything else than of
SYNAGOGUE. houses of assembling for divine worship, and with
I. The Institution.
this agrees Acts xv. 21. Josephus' mentions syna-
Name, Origins, Purpose (J 1).
Number, Location, Structure, Furnishings ((2). gogues seldom and only casually. It may be con-
Officers (J 3). cluded from the mention by Josephus (War, VII.,
II. The Servire.
iii. 3) of a synagogue in Antioch as first coming into
Shoma, Benediction, Shemoneh 'Esreh, Prayers (f 1).
Scripture Heading, Sermon ((2).
existence in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes that
Festivals ( 3). he does not mean to claim so late an origin for them
Fasts ( 4). in Palestine.
III. The Jewish Calendar.
At the time of Christ and the apostles there was
I. The Institution: Synagogue is the term ap- at least one synagogue in each city of any size in
plied to the Jewish local houses of worship which Palestine (at Capernaum, Mark i. 21; Nazareth,
arose probably during the Babylonian exile and Mark vi. 2). In Jerusalem at least the
are still in common use. In the Mishna and later 2. Number, more important, if not all, divisions of
"
they were called houses of assem- Location, the city had their bwn synagogues.
i. Name, bling," or a terra shortened in the Structure, But the Jerusalem Talmud is unhis-
Origins, Aramaic from that; there was also in Furnishing8.torical in declaring (Megilla, iii., be-
"
Purpose, use the expression house of teach- ginning, folio 73d) that there were 480
ing." The Greek word synagogS, often synagogues in the city, or 460 according to an-
"
employed in the New Testament, means both as- other reading. Also most of the cities of Syria, Asia
M
sembly and "house of assembly"; equivalent Minor, Egypt, and Greece which contained any con-
" "
terms are place of prayer (I Mace. iii. 46), siderable number of Jews had one or more syna-
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 814

gogues. Thus there was one in Antioch in Pisidia tures to the reader and replaced them in their re-
(Acts xiii. 14), Iconium (ib. xiv. 1), Thessalonica ceptacle, cared for the cleansing of the structure
(ib. xvii. 1), Berea (ib. xvii. 10), Athens (ib. xvii. and its lighting, inflicted punishment by stripes
17), Corinth (ib. xviii. 4), Ephesus (ib. xviii. 19); (this taking place in the synagogue, Matt. x. 17,
there were several in Damascus (ib. ix. 2, 20), Sala- xxiii. 34; Mark xiii. 9), but it is not certain that he
mis in Cyprus (ib. xiii. 5), Alexandria (Philo, Opera, had the office of teacher of children. Alms were
ed. Mangey, ii. 565), Rome (ib. ii. 568-569), and given at the door of the synagogue. Whether there
certainly in Antioch in Syria, since the one which was a special officer to care for this in the time of
"
Josephus mentions (War, Vll., iii. 3) was the chief Christ is not known. The shaliah zibbur, deputy,"
synagogue. These were built within the cities, and was probably not a special officer, but the duties
so far as possible on the highest point and in such were probably assumed at special times by such as
a way that the roof was above the roofs of the would undertake them (cf. on the subject E.
dwelling-houses; or it might happen that one was Schurer, Die Gemeindevcrfassung der Juden in Rom
built upon the shore of a lake, the sea, or on the in der Kaiserzeit, Leipsic, 1879).
bank of a river. The Toscphta demands that the (H. L. STRACK.)
entrance be on the east side, after the pattern of IL The Service: In order that this should take
the door of the Tabernacle; but this was not strictly the character of public worship, the attendance of
carried out, and the matter was often determined not less than ten men was required, and from these
by the varying circumstances. The individual one was chosen as leader. The charac-
turned himself for prayer toward the Holy of Holies, i. Shema, ter of the service was that of common
or, if he was not in Jerusalem, toward Jerusalem or Benediction, prayer offered by a people deprived of
toward Palestine. It was not prescribed that the Shcmoneh political independence, but united upon
synagogue should have a roof, and as late as the 'Esreh, the Torah delivered at Sinai and rec-
fifteenth century there were in the orient synagogues Prayers. ognizing as the one living God him who
in which, as a rule, worship was conducted under had given that Torah. The liturgical
the open sky. Of the internal arrangement only effect was that of an art of confession. For the
the following items are known. The holy ark or form of prayer the Psalms were the pattern, though
chest containing the holy books was opposite the the verse form is often displaced by prose by the ;

entrance. The manuscripts of the law used in the Middle Ages a large number of what may be called
" "
reading, as also that of Esther used at the feast of forms of prayer had developed, yet it must not
Purim, had and still have the form of rolls, which be supposed that in the ancient period anything
was the customary form for books for the Jews from like a set form had arisen, although the outline was

antiquity even down into the Christian era. The settled. An important part of the service was the
bema, or elevated platform in the midst of the syna- recitation of the shema' (so called from its initial
gogue from which the reading was conducted, is word), which comprised three passages: Deut. vi.
indeed not mentioned in the New Testament, but 4-9, xi. 13-21; Num. xv. 37-41. The first and sec-
was doubtless already in use in the times of Christ ond of these are taken to enjoin the use of Tephillin
(cf. Neh. viii. 4). The congregation sat (Matt, (q.v.). The recitation of the shema, in which all
xxiii. 6; James ii. 3; Philo, ed. Mangey, ii.458, joined, was preceded by two benedictions and fol-
630), except during prayer (Matt. vi. 5; Mark xi. lowed by a third. At the beginning of the second
25); he also sat who expounded the Scriptures century the chief prayer of the synagogue was the
(Luke iv. 20). But he who read the Scripture les- Shemoneh 'esreh, " eighteen (benedictions)," said to
son stood, as did the one who rendered the passage have come down from the time of Ezra and to have
into Aramaic. Neither Old Testament nor New nor received their final redaction from Simeon ha-Pa-
earlier Jewish tradition knows of a separate part koli c. 110 A.D.In Babylonia nineteen benedictions
"
of the synagogue for women; the passage so often were used, the nineteenth against the " heretics
cited from Philo (ed. Mangey, ii. 476) is in the much attributed to Simeon the Little. The recitation of
later De vita contemplative,. The construction and the Shemoneh 'esreh was enjoined on all Israelites
care of the building were the affair of the congrega- women, children, and slaves three times daily
tion, though a private individual of wealth might (after Dan. vi. 10), viz., in the morning, at the time
assume the expense (cf. Luke vii. 5). of the afternoon offering (i.e., about three o'clock),
The administration was under the control of the and at evening. A fourth daily prayer was directed
religious community, which in Palestine coincided for those days when the law prescribed an offering
with the political body (non-Jews having no par- additional (Hebr. musaph) to those usual. This ad-
ticipation in either), and was under the control of dition was for the most part connected with the
elders. Officers named in the New Testament are: morning service, while on the Day of Atonement
the ruler, Gk. archisynagogos (Luke (see ATONEMENT, DAY OF) and fast-days a fifth time
" ru- of prayer was added.
3. Officers, xiii. 14; Acts xiii. 15 speaks of Great importance was at-
lers "), also designated as archdn Ms tached to the response to the benediction made by
synagogte (Luke viii. 41), who was probably chosen the people in the Amen (see LITUBQICB, III., 1), by
from the elders and had the oversight of the wor- which they made the words of the leader their own.
ship, and also guarded against improprieties (cf. The priestly blessing was, according to Num. vi.
Luke xiii. 14), besides caring for the conduct of the 22-26, to be bestowed by the descendants of Aaron
ervice (Acts xiii. 15) the attendant, Gk. hyptrette,
; as often as an assemblage of Israelites for worship
Aram, hazzan, or hazzan hakkeneseth (Luke iv. 20, gave opportunity. For this purpose the priest took
**
minister "), who at worship brought the Scrip- up his station between the feazzan (see above, I.,
916 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

{ 3) and the ark, facing the people; the leader ut- had one. In ancient times the sermon seems to
tered the blessing as the priest stood with hands have been connected directly with the prophetic se-
shoulder high, while the congregation responded lection; later this connection seems to have been
with the Amen at the end of each of the three parts severed, probably owing to the introduction of the
of the blessing. Were no priest present, in ancient musaph prayer. The preacher sat while he taught,
times the blessing was not uttered, as it was not and often an interpreter assisted him. A visiting
regarded as a part of the service, but was considered teacher was preferred, otherwise local scholars
as exclusively the duty of the priests. officiated.
It was regarded as a Mosaic ordinance that the On any week-day the three seasons of prayer
Torah be read in public on the morning of all Sab- might be kept in the synagogue, and on Monday and
baths, new moons, feast-days and half-feasts, while Thursday morning the reading of the Torah (ut
it was believed that Ezra extended this reading to sup.), originally for the benefit of the country people
the mornings of Monday and Thurs- coming to town. The rabbinical ob-
2. Scripture day and the afternoon of the Sabbath. 3. servance of the Sabbath (q.v.) required
Festivals,
Reading; While the prayer was uttered by the abstention from all work, including
Sermon, leader, it was the desire that as many the preparation of food, and limitation of travel to
as possible take part in the reading; on a distance within 2,000 cubits of the dwelling, which
Sabbath morning at least seven were to take part, distance was extended, however, by a method of
in the afternoon and on Monday and Thursday at symbolic interpretation to double the distance (see
least three, and no one was to read less than three WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, HEBREW). The syna-
verses priests and Levites usually preceded in the
; gogue service has been Observance
set forth above.
reading. When the required number of scholars at home consisted in the lighting of the Sabbath
were not present, one officiated in their place, espe- lamps on the evening of Friday, arrangement of the
cially among the Hellenists. In the reading a Sabbath meals at the same time, the blessing of the
method of cantillation was employed which is still wine before the eating of the first Sabbath meal;
in use. The Pentateuch was read through consecu- the celebration was closed on Saturday evening by
tively in the Sabbath and week-day readings, in a benediction upon wine, spices, and light, and a
Palestine in the course of throe years (cf. A. Buch- formula of blessing which praised God, who distin-
ler, in JQR, v 420 sqq vi. 1 sqq.), being divided
, guished between profane and sacred. At New Moon
into weekly portions; these portions went by the only women refrained from work; in the public
Aramaic name of sidra, Ilebr. svdhcr, but the gen- service there was reading of Scripture, the musaph
eral name for each section of Scripture was Parashah prayer; individuals, when they first saw the moon,
(q.v.). Special readings were selected for the four uttered a benediction (see MOON, HEBREW CON-
Sabbaths before Passover, festivals, half-festivals, CEPTIONS OP THE). The first of Tishri, or New
now moons, and fast^days. It was the hazzan's duty Year (see YEAR, THE HEBREW), was the first day of
before the service so to adjust the roll that it would the common, Sabbatical, and jubilee years, and re-
open at once to the lesson, ^hich \\as to be read ceived a specially solemn character through the be-
standing. Special benedictions were pronounced lief that it was the day when it was determined who

by the first reader before the reading and by the should die during that year. In addition to the
last reader at the end. After each verse an Aramaic prayers, ten passages were read which dealt with
rendering (Hobr. targunt) was given by an inter- the kingdom of God, remembrance of God, and the
preter (Hobr. methurgeman) who in Palestine was
, blowing of trumpets, the latter ceremony being re-
bound not to use a written translation, not to alle- garded as an admonition to repentance and prayer.
gorize, and to adhere to the traditional rendering. The Passover (q.v.) was the feast of unleavened bread
No independent position in divine service was held (Nisan 15-21) during which leaven was scrupu-
by the reading of prophetic selections (the name lously removed from the house. While the paschal
for a prophetic lection was haphtarah); in general lamb was no longer slaughtered, the paschal meal
such reading was limited to the morning of the Sab- was regarded as a duty, including the drinking
bath, festivals, and the Day of Atonement; as a of four beakers of wine, the eating of unleavened
rule, only a few verses were read, and this lesson bread, of bitter herbs, and of a dish of sweets, while
was also rendered into Aramaic by an interpreter, there was also the recitation of a formula setting
who translated it three verses at a time. The first forth the meaning of the festival and of the Hallel
explicit testimony to this reading of the prophets (q.v.) in two parts, each concluded by a special
is Acts xiii. 15, 27; cf. Luke iv. 10-17. The Hagiog- benediction. According to Pesakim 37d two dishes
rapha (see CANON or SCRIPTURE, I., 1, 4c), with of meat were used, recalling the Passover and the
the exception of Esther, did not form a part of the festival sacrifice. The leading thought of the cele-
reading in public. The official service consisted in bration is the deliverance from Egypt. The first
the shema, the prayers, and the reading of Scrip- and seventh days were rest days, though prepara-
ture; with this the sermon (i.e., exposition of tion of food was permitted, the other days were half-
Scripture (midhrash, derash; see MIDRASH) had festivals; the musaph prayer was used on all seven
nothing to do. Yet there is testimony (cf L. Zunz,
.
days, on the first and on the previous evening the
Die gotteadiensdichen Vortrdge der Juden, pp. 342 Hallel was recited. Pentecost (q.v.) or the feast of
sqq., Berlin, 1832) that especially on the afternoon weeks came fifty days from the day after the Pass-
of the Sabbath the service was followed by an ex- over Sabbath (Lev. xxiii. 15), was the harvest festi-
position of the lesson, doubtless delivered in the val, and lasted for a single day on which no work
"house of learning," provided the congregation was done; the musaph (i.e., additional) prayer was
 The Great THE NEW SCHAFF-HEfcZOa

said and the Hallel recited. The " Little " or " Sec- by Zechariah (viii. 19) were revived. The fast of
ond PatsoVer " was celebrated on lyyar 14 by those Adar 13, commemorating the day on which, accord-
who had been unable to attend the celebration of ing to the counsel of Hainan, the Jews were to bo
the Passover (Num. ix. 10). The Feast of Taber- destroyed, is not ancient. The Palestinians seem
nacle! lasted eight days (Tishri 15-22), of which the later to have had three fast-days after Purim (Mon-
first and last were full festivals and the others were day, Thursday, and the following Monday), while
half-festivals. The musaph prayer and the Hallel the Babylonian Jews celebrated these in advance.
were recited each day; the distinctive features were Extraordinary fast-days might be appointed by a
the eating and sleeping in booths, the carrying of a community in time of distress, but they might not
palm with myrtle and willow branches and a citron. fall upon the Sabbath, new moon, or a feast-day;
The seventh day was known as the day of willows, moreover, fast-days were not to succeed each other
since on that day the floor was beaten with willow without the interposition of other days (cf Monday, .

branches. In the post-Talmudic period the Jews Thursday, and Monday above). The public service
encircled the reading-desk in procession carrying of a fast was by preference celebrated in the open,
the palms, etc., and singing special songs with the and the participants had ashes on their heads.
refrain Hosanna. In Babylon, where the Penta- There was an exhortation to repentance, the She-
teuch was read through in a year, the conclusion of moneh 'esreh, six selections from Scripture and
the reading took place on what was there the ninth benedictions were interpolated; so there arose a
day of the festival, which gave rise to the feast of prayer with twenty-four benedictions.
"
the rejoicing of the Torah." The Feast of Dedi- in. The Jewish Calendar: For the Jewish year
cation (Kislew 25-Tebet 3) was instituted by Judas and week see YEAR, THE HEBREW; and WEEK. The
Maccabeus (I Mace. to celebrate the rcdedi-
iv. 59) settlement of the calendar was claimed as a preroga-
cation of the sanctuary, and, according to II Mace, tive by Palestinian Jews, and the announcement of
i. 9, 18, ii. 10, x. 8, was
generally observed by carry- the new moon was made in early times by beacon
ing branches and singing songs of praise. Ps. xxx. fires and later by messenger, though only in the six
seems from its title to have been especially com- months in which feasts fell. The most important
posed for this occasion. Jewish tradition enjoins months in the fixing of the calendar were Nisan and
recitation of the Hallel and the Shemoneh 'esreh Tishri, since the indication of the days of cele-
daily, but no cessation of work or musaph prayer. bration appointed by the law hinged upon them.
"
Josephus calls itthe feast of lights," and in each Outside of Palestine, observances covered two days
house at least one lamp was to be lighted and (except that of the Day of Atonement) because of
placed before the house. Purixn was celebrated on uncertainty as to the time of beginning the month.
a day between Adar 11 and 15, and recalled the But, owing to the matter of intercalating a month
deliverance recounted in the book of Esther. The in certain years, the calendar was long in confusion,
Shemoneh 'esreh was recited, and the universal and the first fixed system was introduced by Hillel
obligation was to read or hear read the book of II. (c. 350 A.D.), who provided for seven leap-years
Esther. It was a festival marked by the giving of in every period of nineteen years, and fixed also the
presents and aims. See FEASTS AND FESTIVALS, I. years which should have six months each with
On the Day of Atonement (see ATONEMENT, DAY twenty-nine and thirty days and what years should
OF; also KOL NIDRE) food, work, and anointing of have five and which seven months with twenty-nine
oneself were prohibited during the entire twenty- or with thirty days each. While it is usually stated
four hours; the musaph and ncila (the name given that since the second century before Christ the Jews
to the last of the services on the Day of Atonement; employed the Greek era, and I Mace, uses this
JE, ix. 214-222) prayers were recited, and confes- method of dating, there were later in use in Pales-
sion of sin characterized the prayers of this day. tine a number of eras. The method of counting
The killing of a cock, now found in from creation is medieval in origin, the year of crea-
4. Fasts, the post-Talmudic in origin.
ritual, is tion being equivalent to 3761 B.C. Aids in computa-
Other were both public and pri-
fasts tion of tune are G. A. Jahn, Tafdn zur gegenseitigen
vate. In Palestine the one public fast outside of the Verwandlung judischer und chrisilicher Zeitangaben
Day of Atonement was the ninth of Ab, observed in (Leipsic, 1856); H. Schlesinger, Hundert Tabellen
commemoration of the destruction of the Temple (Creuznach, 1862); B. Zuckermann, Anleitung und
by the Chaldeans and the Romans and the taking Tdbetten zur Vergleichung judischer und christlicher
of Bittir in the insurrection of Bar Kokba (q.v.). Zeitangaben (Breslau, 1893); and M. Simon and
From the first of the month pleasures were elimi- L. Cohen, Ein neuer Maphteach (Berlin, 1897).
nated, while the week in which the ninth fell was (G. DALMAN.)
one of lamentation. On the eighth of Ab there was BIBLIOGRAPHY: Maimonides, HUchoth Tephitta, in Germ,
"
abstention from wine and meat, and on the ninth a transl. of Worka," i. 257-341, 10 vols., St. Peteraburg,
1850-62; L. Zuni, Die goUetdimsUichen Vortr&ge der Judcn,
total fast. In Babylonia Tammm 17 was a public 2d ed. f Frankfort, 1892; also. Die tynagogale Poerie de Mit-
fast, commemorating the taking of Jerusalem by the tdaUert, 2 vote., Berlin, 1856-59; idem, LiUeraturgeschicht*
Chaldeans (Jer. xxxix. 2), and the setting up of an <tertynaoogalen Pocsie, ib. 1865; C. Vitringa, De synagoga
idol in the Temple by the Romans; there, too, Tishri veters, Franeker, 1696; J. Buxtorf, Synagooa Judaica,
Hanau, 1604, and often, e.g., Leipsic, 1737; 8. J. Cohen,
3 was observed to commemorate the killing of Geda- Hi*on**'knti9che Darttelluno det j'Vditchen Gottes-
liah (Jer. xli. 2), also Tebet 10 commemorated by a dtautof, if* detMn Modiflkationm, Leipsic, 1819; A. T.
fast the day of the beginning of the Chaldean siege Hartmann, Die tnge Verbindvng d*8 A.T.mti d*m Neuen,
of Jerusalem. pp. 225-376, Hambuig, 1831; A. Geiger, Der Hamburger
Clearly, after the destruction of Jeru-
TimpMreit, Braalau, 1842; idem, in NachoeUuaene
salem by the Romans, the ancient fasts mentioned Schriftm, i. 203 aqq., 283-3OJL Berlin. 1875; idem, Itneli-
fil? HELlGlOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Synagogue, The Great

J. M. Jost, Geachichte
tiachee Gebefbuch, 2 vola., ib. 1870;
proof. The most complete assemblage of passages
dea Judentuma und seiner Secten, Leipsic, 1857; M. from Jewish literature bearing on the subject is
Duschak, Geachichte und DarateUung dea judiachen Cultua,
Mannheim, 1866; Sieffert, in Beweia dea Glaubrna, 1876, found in Rau, Buxtorf, and Aurivillius (see bibli-
pp. 3-11, 225-230; J. Hamburger, Reol-Encyklopadic fur ography).
Bibel und Talmud, ii. 1142-47, Strelitz, 1883; A. Eders- All testimonies for the existence and activities
heim, Life and Timea of Jeaua the Meaaioh, i. 430-450,
(as outlined above) of this body are late. The old-
London, 1884; I. Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle
Agea, pp. 1-34, New York, 1896; Weinberg, in Afonofc- est passages relatively are Pirke Aboth, i. 1-2 [cf.
achrift fur Geachichte und Wiaaenschaft dea Judenthuma, C. Taylor, Sayings of the Jewish Fathers, pp. 124-
1807, pp. 688 sqq., 630 sqq., 673 sqq.; L. Ldw, in Ge- 125, Cambridge, 1877], and Baba Bathra, 15a, in the
aammelte Schriften, iv. 1-71, Szegedin, 1808; J. Elbogen, "
Geachichte dea Achtzehngebeta, Breslau, 1003; idem, Stu- Babylonian Talmud. In the first passage the men
"
dien zur Geachichte dea judiachen Gottesdienatea, Berlin, of the Great Synagogue appear simply as the me-
1908; L. Stern, Die Vorachnften der Thora, 4th ed., Frank- diators of the law (torah) between the prophets on
fort, 1904; A. Kifltner, Der Kalender der Juden, Carla- the one side and Antigonus of Socho and his follow-
"
nihe, 1005; P. Haupt, Purim," in JBL, 1006, and Leipeic,
Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte, 2d ers on the other. Simon the Just, i.e., probably the
1906; O. Holtzmaun,
ed Tubingen, 1006; M. Roaenmann, Der Uraprung der
, high-priest Simon I. at the beginning of the third
Synogoge und ihre ollmahliche Entwickelung, Berlin, 1007; century before Christ, is designated as belonging to
W. O. E. Oesterloy and G. H. Box, The Religion and Wor- the remnant of the Great Synagogue, so that with
ship of the Synagogue: an Introduction to tht Study of Juda-
ism from the New Testament Period, New York, 1908; E. him or soon after him the body ceased to exist.
Schurer, Geschichte, ii. 427-463, Eng. transl., II., ii. 52- Now, since the period between the rebuilding of the
80, Nowack, Archtiologie, ii. 83 sqq.; DB, iv. 636-643;
Temple and the overthrow of Persian rule in Pales-
EH, iv 4832-40; JE, xi 619-640. The subject is dis- tine (516-331) is compressed to thirty-four years,
cussed in many of the works on the history of the Jews
(see under AUAB; and IHKAKL, HISTORY OF).
the traditional conception of a body which continued
On the worship consult: C. G. Bodcnschatz, Kirchliche for more than a century has here no firm basis. The
Verfassung der heutgen Juden, part ii., Leipsic, 1748; "
passage from Baba Bathra reads: The men of the
J. F. Schroder, Satzungm und Gebrauche dea tolmudiach-
robbinisthen Judenthums, Bremen, 1851; L. M. Lewin- Great Synagogue wrote Ezekiel, The Twelve, Daniel,
Bohn, Geschichtf und System dea judiachen Kalenderweaena, and Esther. Ezra wrote his book and the genealogies
1856; F. Dehtzsch, Phynologie und Musik, pp. 44-57, in Chronicles up to his time." Of the closing of the
Leipsic, 1868; M. H. Friedlander, Beitroge tur Geschichte canon there is here no mention; the subject dealt
der synanognlen Gebete, Brunn, 1869; Rothschild, Der
Synagogalkultus in hmtorisch-kritische Entwickelung, vol. i.,
with is only the authorship (editing?) of the books
Alzey, 1S70; A. Kchwarz, Der judiache Kalendar, Breslau, which are recognized as the latest. From the na-
1K72; J. DeRsavicr, Schlassel zum Gebetbuche, Budapest, ture of the relations existing and from some indi-
1878; II. Ciuodallah, Observations on the Jewish Ritual of
the Present Time, London, 1885; J. Singer, Die Tonarten
cations in the Bible (such as the reference to Ezra
des traditioncllen Synagogengeaangea, Vienna, 1886; A. H. in Ezra vii. 6 as a ready scribe in the law of Moses)
Lawatsch, Doa Synogogenjahr, 2d ed., Reichenberg, 1887; it may be concluded that activities corresponding
L. Stern, Die Vorachriften der Thora, 3d ed., Frankfort,
to those attributed to the Great Synagogue actually
1895; J. Winter and A. Wunsche, Die judiache Litterotur,
in 477-529, Troves, 1896; J. M. Japhet, Die Accente der were carried on. It is a fact that since the time of
heiligrn Schrift, pp. 167-184, Frankfort, 1896; E. Bres- Ezra Jewish life was under the domination of the
lau r, Rind onginale Synagogen- und Volkamelodien bei den law and was characterized by that very fact. So
Juden . nachwcmbar t Leipsic, 1898; L. N. Dembits,
. .
that while the Great Synagogue can not be estab-
Jnvmh Services in Synagogue and Home, Philadelphia,
1808 (popular); T. Scharf, Das gotteadienatliche Johr bei lished as historical, yet the activities attributed to
den Juden, Leipsic, 1902; L. Zunz, ut sup.; also the it were actually in operation through some medium
works of Geiger, Duschak, Elbogon, Stern, Kifltner, and then authoritative, and it is upon these activities
Oesterley and Box in the preceding paragraph.
that the tradition cited was in fact based.
SYNAGOGUE, THE GREAT: According to (H. L. STHACK.)
Talmudic and rabbinic tradition, a council estab- BIBLIOGRAPHY: The modern hypothesis regarding the exist-
lished in the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, consisting ence of this body depends upon J. Buxtorf s Tiberias,
of 120 members, and lasting till the beginning of chap, x., Basel, 1665, and Elias Levita's Afassoreth ha-
Massoreth, ed. Ginsburg, pp. 112 sqq., London, 1867.
the Greek period, which was concerned principally That the question is now answered in the negative is due
with the law and the ordering of life according to principally to H. E. Ryle, Canon of the O. T., Excursus
that law. Especially to this body were attributed A, pp. 250 sqq., London, 1892, and A. Kuenen, Over de
the settling of the Canon of Scripture (q.v., I., 1,
mannen der groote Synagoge, Amsterdam, 1876, Germ,
transl., Ueber die Manner der grossen Synagoge, in Gesam-
2), the masoretic marginal notes, the punctuation meUe Abhandlungen, pp. 125-160, Freiburg, 1894. The
or pointing of the text, the composition of prayers, subject will be found treated in most of the recent larger
treatises on the introduction to the O. T. and on the
and directions respecting prayer and the like. As
canon e.g., C. A. Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, pp.
support for the theory of the existence of this body, 120-122, 252 sqq., New York. 1899. Consult further:
the report in Neh. viii.-x. regarding the reading of J. E. Rau, Diatribe de synagoga magna, Utrecht, 1727;
the law by Ezra was cited, together with the assem- C. Aurivillius, Dissertations, ed. J. D. Michaelis, pp. 139-
160, Leipsic, 1790; A. T. Hartmann, Die Verbindung dea
bly in which the people obligated itself to keep per- A. Ta. mit dem Neuen, pp. 120-166, Hamburg, 1831;
petually the law. The number 120 is found there M. Heidenheim, in TSK, 1553, pp. 93-100; L. Henfeld,
(Neh. x. 128 comprising eighty-five subscribers to Geschichte dea Volkea Jiaroel, ii. 22-24, 380-396, iii. 244-
245, 270-271, Nordhausen, 1855-57; J. M. Joet, OeachichU
the obligation, with Ezra as the eighty-sixth) and
dea Judenthuma, i. 41-43, 91, 95-97, Leipsic, 1857; J. E.
the twenty-six (Neh. viii. 4, 7), who supported Ezra Ldwy, Kritiach-tolmudiachea Lexikon, i. 241-261, Vienna,
at the reading of the law, together with eight Levites 1863; J. Derenbourg, Essai tur Vhistoire et la otographie
de la Palestine, i. 29-40, Paris, 1867; J. S. Blooh, Studien
(Neh. ix. 6-6) who prayed and sang. That from tur Geachichte der Sammlung der althebraitchen Litterotur,
these three chapters no cogent proof for the exist- pp. 100-132, Breslau, 1876; J. Hamburger, Real-Bncy-
ence of the Great Synagogue is deducible needs no klopadie fur Bibel und Talmud, ii. 318-323, Streliti, 1883;
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 818

D. Hoffmann, in Afooorin filr die Wissentchaft dea Juden- called "the great protosyncellus." The (patri-
x
(1883), 46-63; L. Low, QeaammeUe Schriften,
lAuffM,
archal) syncelli took precedence of the metropoli-
pp. 399-449, Scegedin, 1889; 8. Krauas, in JQR. x (1898),
tan at festivals, though later this precedence was
347-377; JE, xi. 640-643.
contested. They were usually the confessors of the
SYNAXARIUM. See ACTA MABTYBUM, ACTA patriarchs, and hence were often employed as spies
SANCTORUM, II., 1.
by the emperors, who sometimes conferred the title
SYNCELLUS: The title of certain high ecclesi- upon archbishops and bishops. They were not un-
astical officers in the Eastern Church. The name known in the Western Church, and a synod held by
" in 595 issued regulations concerning
signifies literally one who shares a cell/' and was Gregory I.

attached to monks and clergy associated with high them. (PHILIPP METER.)
ecclesiastics. The patriarchs and metropolitans of BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Thomarein, DC vetere et nova ecclwim
di*cipl\na, I., ii., Frankfort, 1787; Milaaoh, Das Kirchen-
Constantinople had from early times one or more of recht der morgcnl&nduchen Kirche, Moetar, 1905; A, ii. DC
these officers, the chief of the patriarch's being 1947-48.

SYNCRETISM, SYNCRETISTIC CONTROVERSIES.

I. Syncretism. In Prussia (Si). Herman Conring ( 4).
Origin of the Term ((1). In Electoral Saxony (ft 2). The Counsel of Spener (5 5).
Misuse of the Term ( 2). 2. The Second Period. 3. The Third Period.
II. Syncretistic Controversies. In Hesse-Cassel ( 2). Recrudescence of Calovius (1).
The Synod of Charen ton ($1). In Prussia and Brandenburg (52). 4. Final Influence.
1. The First Period. The Wittenberg Consensus (} 3).

Syncretism refers in general to the union of op- The Jesuit Adam Contzen attacked the proposition
ponents on a basis which they hold in common, and of Pareus with De pace Germanics (Mainz, 1616) in
so applies to philosophy and organized religion; in two books, the first of which is superscribed De syn-
particular, to the irenic movement arising from an cretismus. He
omitted no effort before the Thirty
effort within the Lutheran Church in the seven- Years' War to incite the Lutherans against the Re-
teenth century toward interconfessional union, the formed in order to avert an anti-Catholic union.
sole final result of which was the moderation of the Two years before the Synod of Dort he pointed to
theological spirit. is a
Syncretistic controversies the alleged effort of the stricter Reformed to sup-
phrase summing up the conflict waged between the press the moderate, charging thorn with syncrctis-
partizans and opponents of the movement. sare, which, according to Titus i. 12, they had
L Syncretism: The only mention of the term in ascribed to others; and he in eighteen chapters sug-
ancient literature is that of Plutarch, who, in illus- gested numerous reasons against fellowship with the
trating brotherly love, cites the example of the Cre- revolutionary Reformed. In the next three decades
tans, stating that they make war upon of the war, the term as well as the thing to which
z. Origin one another, but in the face of attack it applied retired to the, background.
of the unite against a common enemy. It Toward the middle of the century, however, there
Term. was resuscitated by Erasmus (q.v.), developed a tendency in the direction of the finality
who, in Adagia, critized the practise, and authority of dogma, specially in
yet in a letter to Melanchthon (1519) proposed a Misuse the Lutheran and Roman Catholic
2.
common (synkretizein) defense of the learned of the Churches. This necessarily involved
against their opponents, although not wholly in ac- Term. the perpetuity of differences and divi-
cord among themselves. In a letter of Zwingli (q.v.) sions within the Church. Against this
to (Ecolampadius (q.v.) and other clerics of Basel Georg Calixtus (q.v.) protested, denouncing it as a
(in Zwingli 's Opera, ed. Schuler and Schulthess, vii. cause for shame in Christianity, and the theology
390), the former urged a syncretistic union against crystallized for this purpose as barbarism. He
the persecutions arising over the Eucharist, and soon brought to recognition the differences between the
after both term and conception became prominent more and the less fundamental doctrines, proposed
in the peace negotiations of M. Butzer (q.v.), and to refer those basic doctrines which by common con-
in the vocabulary of humanists in general. Zach- sent were less important to the schools for further
arias Ursinus (q.v.) applied it likewise to the wicked, development, and desired to see a closer affiliation
" "
speaking of their syncretism and conspiracy established, at least between the Lutheran and Re-
against God. In the first half of the seventeenth formed Churches. But with the events of 1645 (see
century the twofold value of censure and praise con- below), the ironies of Calixtus only served to irri-
tinued, although the term acquired an increasingly tate the Lutherans and Roman Catholics. Before
sinister significance as the unpopularity of the con- the Conference of Thorn (q.v.) two published briefs
cord with dissenters increased during the time in from Wittenberg counseled against " syncretism."
which dogmas became more and more fixed. The The Jesuit Voit Ebermann, in Eirenikon catholicum
Roman Catholic theologian Paul Windeck predicted, (Mainz, 1645), objected to the ironies of Calixtus,
in Prognosticon futuri status ecdesia (1603), the holding that there could be no more dangerous
speedy fall of Protestantism, and admonished those heresy than that all who could assent to the apostolic
"
own church to cultivate syncretism," which
of his symbol should therefore feel themselves as one;
called forth the Irenicum sive de unione Evangeli- because it would admit to unity those otherwise at
carum conctiianda (Heidelberg, 1614-15) of David variance, or lead to a false appearance deceiving
Pareus (q.v.), summoning the two Protestant bodies both themselves and others. Thereby the union
to a peaceful conciliation against the common foe. not only of individuals of different religions but of
219 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Synaxmrium
Syncretism

the discordant religions themselves would receive led to heresy (F. Ve>on). Others claimed to see in
endorsement. Perhaps from this arose the false as- it an apostasy from the faith of their fathers, a vio-

sumption that the demand for an alliance of par- lence done to the constitution, i.e., the Edict of
tially dissenting persons on the basis of their con- Nantes, thus releasing Roman Catholics from the
sensus meant a jumbling together of religions. At observance of the latter.
any rate the term came to be wrenched from its 1. The First Period: Oeorg Calixtus (q.v.; ut
original practical sense and was forcibly applied sup.), by his extensive travel and acquaintance and
to a confused mixing of religions, and later was his comprehensive studies, had acquired a broader
strained even to the extent that it was derived from irenic attitude toward the confessional bodies and
synkerannumi ("to mix up"). The theologian a more real appreciation of the rela-
J. K. Dannhauer, Mysterium syncretismi detecti 1. In tive inner truth and value
of the dog-
Prussia.
(Strasburg, 1648), who includes all combinations of mas than most Lutheran theologians
the unlike under syncretism and compares the per- of his time. He looked with concern upon the crys-
fection of the Lutheran doctrine with the eye that tallization of theology and the ecclesiastical author-
cannot stand a particle of dust, and Abraham Ca- ization of fixed dogma as a menace to free investi-
lovius (q.v.), raised the point against Calixtus that gation, the peace of the Church, and the hope of
the term signified things irreconcilably different, Protestantism. This variance with the trend of the
such as the Lutheran and Reformed Churches. This times was apparent in his many writings. He nat-
is the only meaning implied in the term in the con- urally aroused the ill-will of the guardians of or-
troversies; but even syncretists like Calixtus de- thodoxy and self-assumed sole defenders of the Ref-
clined the epithet. Its original laudable meaning ormation and drew their attacks, such as the at-
gradually disappeared; so that the incorrect mean- tempted refutation at the convention of theologians
ing of a perverse attempt at combining unlike and at Jena, 1621; and the polemic of Statius Buschser,
irreconcilable elements of truth persisted. The re- later Cryptopapismus theologia Helmslo-
entitled
cent attempts, by reason of the historical tendency diensis (1640). But the open assault of orthodoxy
in theology, to show Christianity at the beginning upon Calixtus and his Holmstedt colleagues was
as syncretistic (H. Gunkel), or the old Catholic first occasioned by the events of 1645 and 1648.

Christianity of c.250 as a syncretistic religion (A. When King Ladislaus IV. of Poland issued the call
Harnack), has invested the term with a new im- for the Conference of Thorn, Calixtus not only cir-
portance. culated and commended the proclamation by a wri-
II. Syncretistic Controversies: Three periods may ting of his own, but also sought appointment as a
be noted, separated by seasons of quiet: namoly delegate. Hereby he drew upon himself the enmity
from the Conference of Thorn till the death of Calix- of the East Prussians, who were engaged in a strug-
tus, 1645-56; from the colloquies of Hesse-Cassel gle against union with their ruler, the Reformed
and Berlin till the order of silence to the Saxon theo- elector of Brandenburg, and were led by Colostin
logians, 1661-69; and the last struggles Myslenta (1588-1653) of Konigsberg and Abraham
i. The of Calovius for the Consensus and Calovius (q.v.) of Danzig (thon Polish). Tho latter
Synod of against Johann Musoms (q.v.), until prevented the election of Calixtus from Danzig;
Charcnton. his death, 1675-86. All the efforts be- then, when the elector delegated him from Kbnigs-
fore 1645 to bring together the Lu- berg, Calovius succeeded in having him barred from
theran and Reformed Churches may be considered the chairmanship of the Lutheran collocutors, a
as preliminary to the controversies. In reply to an post which was secured for Johann Hulsemann
appealed question the general synod of the French (q.v.) of Wittenberg, and even from entering the
Reformed Church atCharenton in 1631 instructed, conference at all as a Lutheran, as well as a repre-
upon the basis of the essential agreement of the sentative for the towns of Thorn and Elbing.
churches of the Augsburg Confession and the other Nevertheless, Calixtus rendered the valuable serv-
Reformed churches and of the absence of supersti- ice of his learning and counsel to the Reformed.
tion and idolatry from their worship, that in the Next, as Elector Johann Georg I. of Saxony had
French churches those Lutherans who approached forbidden all innovations from theological conven-
in the spirit of friendship and peace should be ad- tions, the theologians of that electorate united with
mitted to the communion without abjuration; and Hulsemann in a joint memoir (Dec. 29, 1647) accu-
that such could as sponsors present children for sing the theologians of Hclmstedt with innovations
baptism, if they only promised the consistory that and departures from the Augsburg Confession and
they would never incite those so baptized to trans- with undermining the foundations of Evangelical
gress the doctrine received in those churches, and doctrine. In reply Calixtus branded his accuser,
that they would bring them up in the instruction whoever he might be, as an infamous calumniator,
of those articles of doctrine on which there was until he had proved his charges. This set the op-
agreement. This was approved also by many of position in the succeeding years to watch for every
the strictest Reformed theologians outside of France, possible deviation on the part of the Helmstodt
but aroused violent attacks from the Roman Catho- theologians and to denounce it as a departure, in-
lics in France against Protestant union. The prin- viting the inference that efforts for union were un-
ciple of a union of the unlike upon the fundamental trustworthy. In Prussia the elector replaced Ca-
of faith was alleged to be the foundation of a new lovius at Konigsberg with C. Dreier, and appointed
sect, namely, the neutralists, the worst heresy of as professor of theology J. Latemann, respectively
all, because it led to the renouncing of all love for friend and pupil of Calixtus. Myslenta and his sup-
their own religion, obligated to indifferentism, and porters invited a joint Censures thcologorum ortho
Syneretim THE tfEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 890

doxorum (1648) of all opponents of the Reformed, Gewissenswurm (1654), a work exceed-
calixtinische
in condemnation of their new colleagues. Calovius ing 1,600 pages. Most active was Calovius, who
used the term " syncretism
"
as one of the springs produced, besides his wailing inaugural, Consideratio
" "
of ruin, and hence syncretist fastened itself novas theologies Helmstadioregiomontanorum at/n-
" "
more and more to the more moderate theologians cretistarum (1649); and Syncretismus Calixtinus
of Helmstedt and the tendency which they repre- (1653). Ninety-eight heresies of Calixtus were col-
sented. The battle continued in Prussia with liter- lected and a conference of theologians demanded by
ary broadsides pro and con until after the death of the party of Calovius; but this effort failed owing
Myslenta. to the wise suspicion of the dukes of Saxony, who
Political jealousy and strife also played their part were first invited, and the Jena theologians, that
in the controversies. For years the electorate of the veiled pretension concealed the design of a joint
Saxony had sought to prevent the attack upon the dukes of Brunswick, their exclusion
a. In
grant of an equal status to the Re- from the Lutheran body, and, consequently, a
Saxony formed,
in favor of the other two elec- widening of the schism. At the most recent diet at
torates, of the Palatinate and Branden- Regensburg, twenty-four Evangelical estates had
burg; but, in the Peace of Westphalia (see WEST- united in a call for a conference of peaceable theo-
PHALIA, PEACE OF) aim was defeated. Equality
its logians and state representatives and in an appeal
was sustained. The Reformed
of religious practise for silence on the part of both theological factions.
professed themselves adherents of the Augsburg But Johann Georg, upon whom, as director of the
Confession as a genus to which the two bodies were corpus Evangelicorum, first action devolved, gave
as species, to which electoral Saxony objected in heed to neither. His theologians now clamored for
vain (1649). Even the assignment as director of the expulsion of the Helmstedt party from the Lu-
the Corpus Evangelicorum (165,3) could not com- theran Church on the basis of the ninety-eight
pensate for the humiliation of Saxony. The theo- heresies. A consensus repetitus fidei vere Lutherance
logians of Wittenberg and Leipsic made a report was drawn up as a new confession. In eighty-six
that the theologians of Helmstedt were astray not parts, following the order of the Augsburg Confes-
only on the necessity of good works, but also on al- sion, it was arranged, each according to the scheme
most every article of faith, and Johann Georg bade of (1) the right doctrine (profitcmur); (2) tho clissi-
" "
them to set this forth article by article (Jan. 21, dence of the Helmstedt faction (rejicimwt)', (3)
1648). On June 16, 1649, the elector issued an proofs from the writings of the latter (ita docet).
address to the three dukes of Brunswick, who main- Subscribed first by the Leipsic and Wittenberg theo-
tained Helmstedt as their joint university, person- logians, the signatures of others were sought by a
ally assuming all the charges against Calixtus, whom fresh productivity of the pen of Caloviua; Har-
he accused of patching together a new religion and monia Calixtina-hceretica (1655) of 1,200 quarto
introducing violent schisms. He asked that the pages; Sy sterna locorum theologicorum (2 vols ,

theologians of Helmstedt be prohibited from issuing 1655); and Fides veterum et imprimis fidehum
polemics against his theologians, and invited the mundi antediluviani in Christum (1655), in which
dukes to a proposed alliance of Evangelical states the heresies of Calixtus were mentioned as the " ex-
for restrictive measures, under threat of assuming crements of Satan." But the acceptance of the con-
protection against schism. On the other side, the fession elsewhere could not be Becured, and the
dukes of Brunswick had commissioned Konrad death of Calixtus, 1656, followed the same year by
Horneius (q.v.) to prepare an apology against the that of Johann Georg, produced a lull in the storm.
Konigsberg censures (ut sup.) and requested an ex- 2. The Second Period: The peace of Westphalia
position in German of the points (1) on the author- had restored the more Lutheran parts of North
ity of the ancient Church, (2) good works, (3) the Hesse to the Reformed rule of Casscl, including,
New-Testament proof of the Trinity, (4) the the- practically, the control of Schaumburg and the Uni-
ophanies of the Old Testament, and (5) the unity of versity of Rinteln. The policy of
"
dissidents charged as syncretists." Calixtus elab- Landgrave Wilhelm VI. was broad and
orated the third and fourth points, Num mysterium l cn* cnt enough under the liberal church

trinitatis e solius, etc. (1649). Now, he furnished an order to effect the union of Lutheran
apology against Johann Georg 's address, and the and Reformed elements. The University of Magde-
dukes of Brunswick in joint reply to the latter burg,, reopened in 1653, was pledged to promote
" the ecclesiastical
(1650) offered to acquiesce in the suppression of the peace and concord of all Prot-
polemical writings of their theologians, provision- estants," and to a mediating theology. Further,
ally, if he would take the same steps, and proposed to promote the union and abate partizan hatred,
a convention to devise counsels against schisms in the landgrave called a colloquy at Cassel June 1-9,
behalf of peace, but intimated resistance to the 1661. When the Wittenberg theologians, Calovius,
threatened directorate, if the same implied the as- J. A. Quenstedt, and Johann Deutschmann (qq.v.)
sertion of superiority by force. But the elector only heard of it eight months later, they issued a violent
consented to a more vehement polemic. The call of attack, Epicrisis de cottoquio Casselano Rintelio-
Calovius to a professorship at Wittenberg meant Marpurgensium (1662) which they despatched far
the concentration of forces and occurred amid fresh and wide to tho faculties and ministeria. In con-
polemical explosions. Hulsemann issued Dialysis sequence, the three faculties of Saxony united in a
apologetica problematic Calixtini num mysterium representation to the theologians of Rinteln in
trinitatis (1649); Judidum de Calixtino desiderio which the repudiation of the elenchus against the
concordice ecdesiasticce (1650); and, finally, Der Reformed and of their condemnation in worship
221 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Syncretism

were pressed upon them as errors, and a retraction preface, with express reference to the syncretism
or closer explanation was urged. Before the receipt at Rinteln and a " synopsis of the errors of Calixtus
1'
of this the Rinteln theologians had replied with an and his accomplices. The obvious
Epistola apologetica (1662). For the people H. M. purpose was the exclusion of all cyn-
Eckart prepared a memoir (1662) setting forth that cretista from the Lutheran Church,
by schisms the Church violated its foremost mark and, in a less degree, the binding of all
of distinction, the commandment of love, and made other Lutherans under a new confession, including
itself the laughing-stock of the wicked that it was
; such eccentric doctrines as the knowledge of Old-
specially incumbent upon Protestants to remove the Testament believers of the whole doctrine of the
disgrace; and, without mixing confessions or organi- Trinity, the real faith of baptized infants, and the
zations, to promote amity and peace. The more ubiquity of the human nature of Christ to all be-
violently incensed by their failure, the Wittenberg lievers. The main effect of its adoption would have
theologians now published their Epicrisis (1663), been the rehabilitation of the idea of the one true
with a preface in which they threatened another church, visible and invisible, namely, the Lutheran,
edition of collective censures, this time against the with an absolute, unimprovable body of dogma as
theologians of Rinteln. This was followed by a an exclusive ecclesiastical norm. Friedrich Ulrich
fusillade of polemical writings, among which De Calixtus took up the defense of all his father's par-
puncto discrepitatione inter Lutheranos et Calvinianos ticular ideas, publishing Demonstrata liquidissima
(1664) by Andreas Kiihn; and by Calovius a (1667), a running commentary on the Consensus,
GrundLicher Beweis (1664) of 1,000 pages, to the attempting sometimes to show the baselessness of
effect that the Calvinistic error threatened the syn- the meanings attributed to his father and his fol-
cretistic innovation at Rinteln, followed by an An- lowers, sometimes the accordance of these with the
tapologia (Wittenberg, 1666) of 700 quarto pages, confessions, and sometimes the intrusion of the
a resume" of all points of contention from Calvin opinions of the authors into the Consensus as though
to the Rinteln colloquy. they were doctrines of the church, thus opening the
The renewal of this controversy soon brought on arbitrary multiplication of dogmas indefinitely.
its revival in Prussia and Brandenburg. In Konigs- A new and
professional disputant appeared at Wit-
berg, Dreier had been protesting against tenberg, ^Egidius Strauch, who in a Vittdicatus
PruBsiaand *^ c stigmatization of the efforts for (1668) discharged a flood of mendacious invective
Brandon- church peace as syncretism, and de- and sophistry against the younger Calixtus. This
burg-. chired that the common faith must be was followed by De Deo uno (1667) by Deutsch-
sought in the ancient Church and not mann, son-in-law of Calovius, who, in turn, followed
in the sum of contents of the new confessions. The with Locos et controversial syntagmatis antisyncretis-
great elector of Brandenburg, Fricdrich Wilhelm, tici (1668), in which the tabulated Calixtine errors
following the example of his brother-in-law, Land- reached the number of 120. Calixtus answered the
grave Wilhelm, in an edict (June 2, 1662) deplored last two with writings, and against Strauch ho
the schisms and local religious demoralization, and brought formal charges of libel. Strauch responded
enjoined that clergy to be appointed must be pledged by a joint legal opinion of the juristic faculties of
to silence except as to what is edifying. He called the three universities, and now the conflict was
a colloquy (Sept., 1662-May, 1663) at Berlin, of waged back and forth from behind the battlements
three theologians from each party. But the sus- of legal authorities, while the polemics of Strauch,
picions and over-scrupulousness of the Lutherans said to have been prepared by Calovius, now pro-
(instigated from Wittenberg) to relent in the con- duced in German, greatly incensed the public.
demnation of points rejected by their confessions Seeing that the proposed Consensus threatened
defeated the effort. A new edict of Sept. 16, 1664, the freedom of learning in the universities and
forbade the use of abusive epithets and the attrib- might further disrupt the Lutheran
4. Her-
uting of doctrines to their opponents not acknowl- ch urc h, and jeopardized the benefits of
edged by them. Soon after a pledge was demanded Gonxlnff
tne trcatv * Westphalia over against
of all the clergy to this and previous edicts. In vain the Roman Catholics, the university
the Lutheran clergy of Berlin made appeal to the now put forth an abler champion, Hermann Conring
universitiesand minister! a. The elector summoned (q.v.),who, in Pietas academice Julice, made reply to
them before the consistory and demanded the pledge Strauch and others. He maintained that there was
under pain of removal. E. S. Reinhardt and C. no school of Calixtus and none desired by him; that
Lilius, and finally Paul Gerhardt (q.v.) lost their the latter regarded free inquiry as the safeguard of
positions. By an order of June 6, 1667, the pledge the Church. Helmstedt had been singled out be-
was no longer demanded, but strict maintenance of cause here the Word of God was treated as trust-
the edict was now enjoined upon the consistory. A worthy and of itself authentic, while the confessions
declaration of May 6, 1668, guaranteed to the Lu- were treated impartially and considered valid in so
therans not only full religious liberty, but the peace- far as they accord with Scripture. Calovius con-
ful discussion of disputed points. founds heresy with error, whereas the Calixtine ideas
The Wittenberg theologians meantime resumed do not violate express dogmas. The masses are
a fresh onslaught on the syncretists. They pub- not to be thrown into religious confusion with these
lished their great collection of Consilia theologies controversial questions; yet the intelligent are not
Witebergensia (1664), including the Consensus repeti- to be denied a voice in the acceptance of a new
tus fidei vere Lutherans (ut sup.) retired since 1655. confession. The Consensus should first be proved
Calovius issued a special edition in 1666 with a by Scripture; and the princes must exercise their
tyncretUm
ynergitm
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 888

responsible offices for the restoration of order, for whom was Johann Musseus (q.v.), in a conference
they (the clergy) who excite the tumult are not at Jena (Apr. 15-17, 1670). The most diverse per-
the ones to allay it. A German edition of the above, sonages, like Calovius, Spener, Quenstedt, were al-
entitled Schutzrede der Juliusuniversittit, issued ready being proposed for a peace court, when the
shortly after by C. Schrader, summed up the judg- measure carried to send deputations to ascertain
ment upon the Consensus, that (1), according to the the opinions of other Lutheran courts. These gave
scheme, the profitemur is not invariably the univer- only friendly but evasive replies, but Ernst re-
sal confession of theLutheran Church; (2) rejicimus doubled his efforts to remove the schism. He ob-
is opposed to liberty and promotes schism; and tained an opinion from Spener (May 31, 1670) to
(3) ita docet, the doctrines attributed to Calixtus the effect that it was not yet too late for the res-
and Horncius are unwarranted and untruly repre- toration of unity; because the quarrel had not yet
sented. Even the pope was slow to decree new arti- rent the churches, and the Consensus had nowhere
cles of belief and not until after prolonged investi- been introduced. As to the cause of the strife he
gation with the cardinals and councils. Calovius did not exonerate Calixtus from eccentricities of
dismisses without notice the greater number of ad- doctrine and obduracy, and ascribed the disorder to
"
herents of the Augsburg Confession, sums up the human affections." As to the measures for res-
mass of disputed points, and in the heat of haste toration, he advised a cooperation of Christian gov-
forges a number of antagonistic tenets, which hence- ernments and clergy and a reformation from ex-
forth are to be called Lutheran. Those ^ho do not ternal sterile conformity. If a synod of all Germany
approve of the intruded symbols are to be thrust was not practicable, then a consultation of earnest,
out of the fellowship of the saints; and this is not enlightened men would be advisable. The question
the end, but the process is to l>e perpetual. As the as to what Calixtus the elder and Horneius once
Galatians refused circumcision (Gal. v. 1-2), so they taught should be buried with the past, and the pro-
will decline the Consensus. These writings, scattered fession and assertion by the Hclmstedt theologians
among courts, consistories, and universities, had the that their teaching was in accord with the symbols,
effect of arousing apprehension; for if it came to be and their declination of the charge of syncretism
accepted that those not recognizing the Consensus and adherence to the fundamental errors of Ro-
were out of the Lutheran Church, they might lose manism, should be deemed sufficient. Whether and
the benefits of the treaty of Westphalia, a result how far the remaining doctrines like that of ubiq-
not far removed from the motive of Culovius. Duke uity were fundamental to faith might then be easily
Friedrich Wilhclm of Saxe-Altenburg now sought determined. Toleration and gentleness were meet
to counteract further separation and passion, and for weaker brethren and unnecessary invective
induced his brother-in-law, Elector Johann Georg without prejudice to the elenchus was to be for-
ITT., to give audience to the theologians of Witten- bidden. Ernst sent out another deputation with
berg. Their long report of Apr. 22, 1669, may be an outline of this to seek out the theologians and
summed up as follows: (1) continuance of the refu- persuade them to the counsels of peace. Turning
tation; or (2) a synod, or rather, since no exami- first to the electorate of Saxony, these were referred
nation of the Helmstedt doctrine is further neces- from Dresden to Wittenberg. Quenstcdt and B.
sary, letters of cornmuni cation for sounding the Meisner (q.v.) themselves complained of the rad-
opinion and binding together the orthodox; (3) icalism and inflexibility of Calovius, who now sur-
that first the theologians of electoral Saxony get the reptitiously inserted over his signature to the theses
consensus of other theologians before the elector to be submitted to the Helmstedt theologians, two
refers to other potentates; (4) amendment of the fresh points: on abandoning the errors of syncre-
code for the clerical and political ministries with a tism and on believing the mystery of the Holy
clause forbidding syncretism, the mixing of relig- Trinity in the Old and New Testaments. The three
ions, ecclesiastical toleration, and spiritual affilia- things demanded by the other theses were that the
tion with papists and Calvinists, or its equivalent, theologians should not dispute any doctrine con-
subscription to the Consensus; (5) compulsory tained in the Book of Concord; should teach ac-
binding of the Brunswick theologians to their cording to their charter; and renounce syncretism,
old confessions without reservation, which latter
" " by which was meant only the recognition of a fun-
knavery is not to be tolerated by any Christian damental consensus between Lutherans and Re-
government. Though approved by the elector, the formed. But at Helmstedt and other places under
effect of which as well as the advice of the coun- Calovius was utterly mistrusted, and
its influence,
selors was to perpetuate the quarrel, yet the alarm a quarrel among the rulers caused the forbidding
sounded by Conring and the theologians of Hclm- of the Helmstedt theologians to commit themselves.
stedt was not without results, for the order given in Yet the negotiations allayed the strife for a few
Saxony to refrain from literary polemics was heeded years.
for several years. 3. The Third Period: In 1675 the conflict was
An interim of quiet followed, 1669-79. Duke renewed and lasted till the death of Calovius in
Ernst the Pious, successor to Friedrich Wilhelm of 1686. The latter knew how to take
"
Saxony, made an alliance with his son- advantage of the favor of Ernst and
in-law,Ludwig VI. of Hesse-Darmstadt, B Peciall y of ^8 successor, so that he felt
Owmwl an(* conceived the preventive of a per-
Oaloviiie.
bold to reopen hostilities. In the year
of Spener.
manent college of theologians. With in which Spener by his Pia desideria (1675) opened
his three sons he gathered his clergy and ministry, a new epoch in Christian life, Calovius again an-
together with several outside theologians, among nounced in programs as. his unchanged life purpose,
823 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Syncretism
Synergiun

E diaboli excrementa CalixtinaB sordes exquirire. as name of a party gradually disappeared and came
CalixtuB answered with his Pietatis officium pii to recur only as incidental reference to varying
viri innocentiam vindicans. This was followed by combinations of the unlike. To be sure, the after-
writings pro and con, prose and verse, reaching its effects of the strife persisted a long time, specially
climax in the appearance of a farce in four acts of in electoral Saxony. A result was the aversion to
three or four scenes each celebrating the installa- affiliation on the part of the German Lutherans
tion of Deutschmann into the prorectorship at and Reformed for a century to come, as seen, for
Wittenberg, almost blasphemous in terms. The example, in the indifference of the Lutherans to
elector caused the printer to be fined and the author the French Protestants at the revocation of the
to be imprisoned. Likewise, Strauch, called to Edict of Nantes (1685; q.v.). The peaceable sepa-
Danzig in 1669, was detained as prisoner at Kustrin ration of religion and theology and the adjustment
by order of the elector of Brandenburg, 1675-78; of the borders between church and schools, con-
and the elector of Saxony renewed the edict against fession and science, were not actualized, though
writing polemics without special permission. Calo- they were frequently on the horizon of promise.
vius now wrote under a pseudonym, and pro- According to Calovius pure doctrine is the only
duced also Systema locorum theologicorum (vols. necessity; it is ready-made and complete, the eccle-
v.-xii., 1677), more flighty than the first four and siastical norm, admitting of neither addition nor
including also the new polemic against Jena. In reduction. According to Calixtus, doctrine is not
vain was Spener's caution to him that the effort to only not the only necessity but it is also of vary-
secure the recognition of his Consensus was both ing degrees of value within itself, giving room for
futile and injurious. Besides a quarrel with his col- broad unity on essentials. The controversy lett a
league Meisner and the lattcr's humiliation, 1677- cloud of suspicion and prejudice specially over the
1680, he engaged, by sermons, disputations, and Lutherans, retarding the progress of these distinc-
writings, in a warfare on Musaous at Jena, who won tions. The despotic determination to force a Con-
his displeasure by rendering his allegations against sensus rcpetitus, as the only and final dogma and
the syncretists void and was now being condemned theology before which all investigation and prog-
as worse than they. He succeeded in having the ress must fall prostrate, raised up its own factional
entire faculty of Jena, including Musams, compelled limits, and the most deplorable result, surviving to
to abjure syncretism, if not to adopt the Consen- the present, is the alienation from the church of
sus. But the limits of his accomplishment were educated men, and thereby the demoralization of a
reached. Johann Georg II. renewed the edict great unitary spirit, for the need of which the Ger-
against polemical writing (Jan. 12, 1680), and the man Evangelical Church is suffering.

printers of De syncretismo Mused were severely (PAUL TSCHACKERT.)

dealt with. With the accession of Elector Johann BIBLIOGRAPHY: The principal source is A. Calovius, His-
tona syncretistica, 1685. Consult further: J. G. Walch,
Georg III. in 1680 began a protective alliance with
Religionastreitiffkeiten der lutheriachen Kirche, i. 219 sqq.,
the great elector of Brandenburg. Calovius had iv. 666, 10 vols., Jena, 173:j-39; W. Gass, G. Caltxt und
to see his Historia syncrctistica (1682), a compila- der Synkretittmus, Breslau, 1846; E. L. T. Henke, G.
tion issued anonymously and without place, con- Calixtus und urine Zeit, vol. ii., Halle, 1856; A. Tholuck,
Akademischea Lcbm dcti 17. Jahrhunderts, vol. ii., ib. 1854;
sisting of the blows he had dealt against syncre- W. Gass, Gcschvchte der protcMantischen Dogmatik, vol. n.,
tists together with fresh fulmi nations, refused Berlin, 1857; I. A. Doruer, Geschichte dtr protestantischen
circulation. This made such an impression on him Theologte, pp. 600 sqq., Munich, 1867, Eng. transl., Edin-
that he referred two questions to his most intimate burgh, 1871; G. W. Frank, GeschicfUe der protestantise hen
Theologie, ii. 4 sqq., Leipsic, 1875.
followers at Giessen: whether, in view of the po-
litical syncretism made necessary by the danger SYNEISAKTOI. See SUBINTBODUCT^J VIRQINES.
from France, a Calixtine syncretism with the pa- SYNERGISM AND SYNERGISTIC CONTRO-
pists and Reformed was still to be condemned; VERSY: A type of Semi-Pelagianism in the six-
and whether the strife brought on by the univer- teenth century and the dispute which arose concern-
sities ofHelmstedt, Jena, and Konigsberg, on ac- ing it. Synergism is the doctrine of the cooperation
count of the elector of Brandenburg and the dukes of human effort and divine grace in regeneration.
of Brunswick, should be buried with an amnesty, Luther regarded the spiritual life as
or the controversy over syncretism be continued. Opinions monergistic, the result of the experi-
This was taken by friends and foes alike as a wa- of Luther cnce of a divine act. Faith is a gift of
vering and a sign of alinement with the court. This and God. " Free will determined without
Calovius denied in a pamphlet relating the corre- Melanch- grace has no power with respect to
spondence thereto and reiterating his anathemas thon. righteousness but is necessarily in-
against all his opponents inclusive of the Mussean volved in sin." Justification follows
" whenever we are made
syncretists. The comprehensive publications, Apo- purely passive with re-
dixis artiddorum fidei (16(58), and Synopsis con- spect to God with reference to interior as well as ex-
troversiarum cum hcereticis modernis (1685) appeared terior acts." God's relation to man is considered as
before his death, which practically closed the strictly predestinarian. After the Leipsic Disputa-
controversies. tion Melanchthon maintained that " man is wholly
4. Final Influence: The great work with which
" in the choice of
incapable of doing good "; that
"
Friedrich Calixtus closed his career, Via ad pacem external things there is some freedom, but inter-
inter protestantes restaurandum (Helmstedt, 1700), nal effects are not within human power. " All things
was the irenic counterbalance to the Historia syn- that happen, happen of necessity by divine pre-
crefatica republished in 1685. The term syncretism destination; there is no freedom of will." Con-
 ynrarlzn
yneiu THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 894

version is possible only as an inner divine act. Dead ing,then there would be no inner struggle to secure
" "
through the law, man is resuscitated by the word faith; if man was idle or purely passive," then
"
of grace." Faith is originated by the Spirit of the distinction between pious and impious, elect
God renewing and illuminating " the human heart. and non-elect, as well as the impartiality and jus^
"
To say that the beginning of repentance is in man, tiee of God, would disappear. Therefore, there
would be inverting the order; man turns to God on was in us some cause why some assent and others
the ground that God first turns to man. Melanch- do not assent." Pfcffinger's doctrine was renounced
thon later modified this view, first, by relinquishing by V. Strigel and by Nikolaus von Amsdorf (q.v.),
the deterministic conception of the doctrine of pre- who opened the attack (1558) with a rude misrep-
"
destination (Scholia on Colossians, 1527). The resentation as if Pfeffinger had asserted that man
special properties of the nature with which God en- could adapt and prepare himself by free will from
dowed man in distinction from the other creatures his natural powers for the reception of grace with-
" "
are reason and " choice." The natural man is out the gift of the Holy Spirit."
"
capable of a carnal and civil righteousness." The To the defense of Pfeffinger, Flacius replied in
thought of God as the author of sin formerly not Refutatio, published in Disputatio de originali pec-
avoided is now repudiated. In the Commentary on cato et libero arbitrio, pp. 367 sqq. (Weimar 1560).
Romans (Wittenberg, 1532) he teaches the universal- He appealed to the words of Luther and further
ity of divine grace, and shuns all closer investiga- asserted that in regeneration, when the
" ' '
tion of the mystery of divine election. Melanch- Conflict old man is made into a new creature,
thon now regards the pity of God as the cause of with he is worse than a block or stone inas-
election, but recognizes in non-rejection a negative Flacius. much as he its not only passive but
"
cause of acceptance. The development of his doc- contrary, resisting, or hostile toward
trine of free will and conversion gains momentum the work of God," like a knotty piece of wood wholly
with his growing desire to understand the act of di- unfit for the hewer. The despised adiaphorists hero
vine grace at the same time as a psychological proc- received the additional denunciatory appellative of
"
ess in the human consciousness and will, consist- synergists." Another polemic followed, De orig-
ently with his explanations of the mental powers inali peccato et libero arbitrio (ut sup., pp. 398 sqq.)
presented in his commentary on the Ethics of Aris- and a disputation at Jena Nov. 10-11, 1559.
totle (1529) and in De anima (1540). Besides, there Flacius succeeded in pressing the denunciation into
was his practical motive to make man responsible the second part of the " Weimar Book of Confuta-
for his own salvation. With respect to the former, tions," Ittustrissimi principis Jo. Fridcrici secundi
the will is the formal power which responds, either solida et ex verba Dei sumpta confutatio ct condem-
by willing, not willing, or neutrality, to the sub- natio prceripuarum corrupfelarum, sectarum ct erro-
jects manifested by the intellect; it may follow the rum hoc tempore grassantium (Jena, 1559). It de-
beckoning of the desires or the admonitions of the nounces those who teach that by the fall man's
"
reason. The will produces nothing original, but natural powers were not KO totally perverted and
assumes an attitude toward what approaches it. corrupted that he, animated by the help and sup-
This power was not lost through original sin. Like- port of grace, is capable of anything in conversion
wise, when the grace of God contained in his Word by his own free will; that they ascribe to free will
draws nigh, and, through the hearing of it, the Holy such grace in its arbitrary power that it can aecept
Spirit enters man and produces the spiritual effects and follow or reject it"; and that they describe
of repentance and faith, there yet remains to the human reason and will as synergos, or co-agent with
will the alternative attitude of acceptance or re- the Word and the Spirit of God. Against these
jection. In this sense Melanchthon mentions the alleged errors was affirmed that man is by nature
" "
three concurrent causes of good actions -in re- wholly dead and his heart is petrified; that all knowl-
"
generation: the Word, the Holy Spirit, and tho edge of Christ springs from the enlightenment of the
will,not absolutely inert, but struggling against its Holy Spirit; and all that pertains to will to become
own infirmity." In this sense he lets the definition obedient to God must first be given and wrought by
"
of Erasmus hold: Free will is the power of apply- God. Melanchthon, at whom the attack was aimed,
ing oneself to grace." vindicated his views before the Elector August,
This synergism was taught in the Leipsic Interim, emphasizing his ethical practical motive in turning
which affirmed among other things that God does against the deterministic delirium and investigating
not deal with man as with a block, but the problem of free will. Sinful nature retained
The Leipsic so regenerates him that his will coop- some freedom to maintain outward discipline. In
Interim, crates. Matthias Flacius (q.v.) pro- conversion the Word of God has the initiative, to
fessed to divine in those words a pa- condemn sin and extend pardon and grace and
pisticalmeritum de congruo and a fragment of free thereby produce fear and comfort; but God does
will. Johann Pfeffinger published Melanchthon's not coerce any one to be different regardless of
doctrine in two disputations: DC libertate voluntatis " He
heeding the Word. who rejects God does so
humance (Leipsic, 1555); and De libero arbitrio by his own will and God is not the cause of the will's
(1555). The concurrent active causes are " the rejecting him." Conversely, there is no regenera-
"
Holy Spirit moving through the Word of God, the tion, so long as the will wholly resists." " God
mind in the act of thinking, and the will not resist- draws; but he draws him who is willing," was his
ing, but complying whenever moved by the Holy favorite sentence. He protests against the form of
"
Spirit." If the attitude of man were ut statua when speech used by Flacius referring to compulsion of
the Holy Spirit has kindled reason, will, and feel- faith/' as also in the disputation of Nov. 28, 1559,
896 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

when he criticized the same as indicative of Mani- to the matter thus indicated, consult: H. Heppe, Oe-
tchichte dee deutochen Protettantitmtu 1665-81, 4 vols.,
chean error and sophisms.
Marburg, 1863-69; idem, DoomaXk das cfeutecAtn Pn*e+
In the mean time Victorinus Strigel (q.v.) as- ftmtwmttt tm 16. Jabrhundert, Qotha. 1867; A. Beok,
sumed tho defense of Melanchthon at Jena. He Johann Friedrich dor Mittler* 2 vols.. Weimar, 1858;
had successively sought to prevent the severity and F. H. R. Frank, Theoloffie der Konkordienformel, vol. i.,
Erlangen, 1858; C. E. Luthardt, Die Lehre vom freien
the adoption of the Book of Confuta-
Witten, Leipsic, 1863; Flotow, De synergismo MelarUhonia,
Support tions, and now Duke Johann Fried- Wratislaw, 1867; E. F. Fischer, Mdanchthona Lehre von
of StrigeL rich called for a disputation between der Bekehrung, Tubingen, 1905; F. Loofs, Leilfaden turn
Studium der Dogmenffeachichte, 4th ed., Halle, 1906.
Flacius and Strigel, which occurred at
Weimar Aug. 2-8, 1560. For Flacius conversion SYNESIUS, si-ni'shi-us, OF CYRENE: Bishop of
was the awakening in brief time of the sinner to re- Ptolemais; b. at Cyrene inthe Libyan Pentapolis
pentance and his endowment with faith, while the between 370 and 375; d. before 415. He prided
will remains passive. For Strigel, conversion was himself upon his descent from a royal stock, as the
the development of the state of grace continuously descendant of Eurysthcnes, one of the Heraclides,
" who led the Dorians to Sparta. Eager for classical
through life, embracing the perpetual repentance,
governance, and conservation," the beginning and learning, he went to Alexandria to study poetry,
growth of the spiritual life. According to Flacius rhetoric, and philosophy under Hypatia. After re-
" "
a new will is originated by the gift of faith turning home, although still young ho became tho
capable of spiritual motives. According to Strigel head of a deputation from the Pentapolis to the
the human will enters into coordinate action with Emperor Arcadius to secure release from certain
the inception of conversion, and to every spiritual onerous conditions of taxation. About 399 or 400
activity there is a corresponding exercise of human he traveled to Constantinople, where the eunuch
will. The disputation was suspended without judg- Eutropius was ruling the incompetent emperor and
ment by the duke, who thought to bring the matter the empire; he remained there three years, waiting
before a synod. The attitude of the court, at first a year before he could obtain audience. He then
favorable to Flacius, underwent a gradual change, delivered before Arcadius and the court his cele-
" "
and in spite of Flacius' fanning of the flames and of brated oration Concerning Kingship (MPG,
his increasing clamor to secure the condemnation Ixvi. 1053-1108), in which he showed the difference
of his rival the duke simply demanded a declaration between a tyrant and a king ruled by the fear of
of doctrine from both (ut sup., pp. 322 sqq.). Be- God, and portrayed the departure from the old
fore the end of 1561, Flacius and his associates were Roman simplicity in affectation of oriental ostenta-
driven from Jena. In hia Declaratio of Mar. 3, 1562 tion and ceremony. He uttered a patriotic protest
(ut sup ,
p. 591), Strigel distinguished between the against the entrusting of the empire to irresponsible
" " " " and dangerous foreigners, just then emphasized by
power or efficacy (lost in the fall) to con-
sider, \ull, and execute what is \vcll-pleasing to God, the outbreak of the Goths under Tribigild in Asia
"
and the " capacity for the divine calling which Minor, with whom Gainas made common cause soon
marks the rational man from the other creatures, afterand compelled the banishment of three noted
by which he remains capable of assenting to the statesmen, among them Synesius' friend Aurehan.
Word through the Holy Spirit and of retaining This situation Synesius described in a historical
the acquired blessing of grace. This was adopted romance (MPG, Ixvi. 1209-1282). By 402 he had
and Strigel was restored to his professorship. The achieved the results he sought for his native city,
Declaratio meeting with opposition from the clergy, and returned home, describing his journey in a letter
the visitator Johann Stoessel supplemented it by a (MPG, Ixvi. 1328 sqq.). He next visited Athens
mitigating Superdfidaratio requiring only condi- and Alexandria (402-404) for further study, and
tional signature. This only served to intensify the then divided his time between his home in Cyrene
quarrel, so that the refractory clergy were removed, and his country estate, where he occupied himself
and Strigel, dissatisfied with the Superdeclaratio, in in rural occupations and leisurely study, having a
disgust withdrew from the discussion of free will distaste for public occupations. At times he was
and retired to Leipsic. See further STRIGEL, VIC- engaged in defense of his estates, against the incur-
TORINUS; STOESSEL, JOHANN; FLACIUS, MATTHIAS. sions of tribes from the interior. In 403 he married
With the reign of Duke Johann Wilhelm Gnesio- a Christian woman. lie engaged in an extensive cor-
Luthcranism entered, and with it stress upon the respondence; though bewailing that he was in un-
"
Book of Confutation " as a doctrinal norm. As philosophical surroundings, he produced in his
"
On
"
the Wittenberg theologians broke off the discus- the Dream (MPG ut sup., 1281-1320) a state-
sions at the Altenburg Colloquy, Oct. 21, 1568- ment of his ideal of philosophical culture; his Dion,
Mar. 9, 1569, the Jena theologians had to be con- peri Ms kath' heauion diagogSs is a defense of the same.
tent with a protest in writing consisting of the old It is a remarkable fact that such a man should a
objections. The Formula of Concord (q.v.) cast its few years later be called to work in public as a
decision against the Philippists (q.v.) but rejected bishop. No trace in his life or writings up to this
the language of Flacius identifying original sin with point suggests that he was a Christian, though he
substance as a Manichean error. knew Christianity well. He may have witnessed
(G. KAWXIUU.) the fanaticism which in 302 destroyed the Serapion
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult the work on Matthias
articles in this at Alexandria, as at Constantinople he did not escape
Flaoius, Martin Luther, Philipp Melanchthon, Johann the activities of a Chrysostom. He had sung of the
Pfeffinger, Philippista, Augustus Gottlieb Spangenberg. Christian temples as sanctuaries of the serving gods
Johann Stigelius, Johann Stoesael, Victorinus Strigel, and
Will, as also the literature given thereunder. In addition and spirits whom the All-ruler had clothed with
XI. 15
Syneaitui
Synodal Court* THE NEW SCHAFF-HEEZOG 226

angel brilliancy; and in monkish theology he recog- difficulties Synesius were increased when the
of
nized a striving akin in mystic contemplation to tribes from theinterior again fell upon the unfortu-
philosophy. The influence of his wife may have nate province. At first the young and capable
been felt, as well as the influence coming from the Anysius, whom Anthemius sent as commanding
interest of such theologians as Theophilus in him- officer, was able to afford protection. But a little
self, and he was in a Christian environment. To later a change in affairs gave the barbarians free
this ten hymns testify, written before he became play, and Synesius even thought of leaving his
bishop, which, though in Neoplatonic wise, speak fatherland; even when, a year later, the situation.
of God as the highest unity, the monad of monads, improved, the dominant sadness did not leave him.
father and mother, center of nature. Yet in the Of the rest of his life nothing is known, though he
ninth hymn, the divine Son appears as the Savior, does not appear to have outlived Hypatia or the
son of the Virgin, opener of the gates of Tartarus episcopate of Cyril of Alexandria. ,Q
and leader of the souls to the highest heaven. He
Rty<3ER \ K
"
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The " Works of Synesius were edited by
became even more Christian in tone, developing his A. Tumebus, Paris, 1553 (incomplete), and by D. Petavi-
material without changing essentially the nucleus us, ib. 1612; Hutwtantially the latter text was taken into
" "
of his religious-philosophic view of things, until in MPL, Ixvi. 1021-1756; the have been pub-
Letters
lished by R. Hcreher in Epmtr igraphi 638-Grceci, pp.
the last hymn is the pious prayer to Christ, the
739, Paris, 1873, and a critical edition expected from is
physician of soul and body. W. Fritz, who has made preliminary studies on the sub-
" "
In 409 (406 or earlier?) the bishop's seat at Ptol- ject (see below); of the Hymns the first edition was
emais became vacant, and clergy and laity called by Contents, Basel, 1567, while others are by J. F. Bois-
sonade, in Sulloge poctarum Grceearum, vol xv Pans,
Synesius, from whose influential connections much
,

was hoped. He consented to have the affair referred

1825; W
Christ and M Paranikaa, in Anthologia Grceca
carminum Chnstianorum, Leipsic, 1871, and J. Flach,
to the Patriarch Theophilus, but sent with the mes- TUbingen, 1875.
senger a letter to his brother Evoptius (MPG, Ixvi.
On the life consult DCB, iv 756-780 (elaborate, with
1481 sqq.) which was meant for publicity. This many illuminative extracts from the works); Clausen, DC
Synesio philoaopho, Copenhagen, 18U1; B Kolbe, Der
letter, remarkable for its contents, contained the Bischof Synesius von Cyrene als Phyniker und A&tronom,
expression of his scruples and doubts in view of the Berlin, 1850; H. V M Druon, fitudcs .tur la vie ft Ics
cfuvrcs de Synesius, Pvfque de Ptolemai, Pans, 1850;
duty of the priest or bishop and the high obligations F. X. Kraus, in TQS, xlvh (1865), 391 44S, xlviu (I860),
which rest upon him. Moreover, the conclusions his 85-129; R. Volkmann, Synesius von Cyrene, tine Ino-
philosophy had forced upon him might not accord graphische Charakteribtik, Berlin, 1869, G A Sio\crs,
with the teachings religion might demand of him Studien zur Gesc/tiehte dcr romischen A'awr, pp 371-4 IS,
ib. 1870; E. R. Schneider, De vita Synesn, Gnmina. J870,
the idea of the relation of the soul to the body, the
E Oaiser, Des Synesiux von Cyrene auuptmthe Krsnh-
form of the doctrine of the resurrection, as he held lungcn, WolffenbOttel, 1886, A. (iardner, Nyncmua of
them, were not in the shape of the beliefs hold by Gyrene, London, 1886; G. Earner, Comparantur inttr se de
the multitude, for philosophy is opposed to the foel- regentium hominum mrtutibus nuctorcs, pp. 47-fiU, Mnrburg,
1889; O. Secck, in PluloloauH, hi (1893), 442-483; ().
ings of the vulgar. There was, too, the matter of Bardenhewer, Patrologie, pp. 314-316, Freiburg. 1M01,
his marriage; his wife was the gift of the law, of EIIR. transl., St. Louis, 1908, \V. S. Crawfoid, Nyncnus
the Hellene, London, 1901 II Koch, in Hmtorwhr* Jahr-
God, and of Theophilus, and he would not separate ;

buch der Gorresgeaellschaft, xxvui (1902), 751-774; A J.

from her openly nor yet visit her secretly. He would
Kleffner, Syneniua von Cyrene, der Philosoph und Dichter,
regret also to give up his beloved occupations and Paderborn, 1901.
amusements, but would do so if the call seemed im- On the works consult. J. C. Thilo, Commentani in
Synesii hymnos, Halle, 1842-43; F. Reesa, Dcr gnech-
perative, and would do his best in his office. After
iache H ymnendiehter Synesiu* von Cyrene nut einigen
a delay of seven months Synesius received baptism
Uebcrsetzungsversuchen, Constance, 1848; J N. Huber,
and episcopal consecration, though his letters show Philosophic der Kirchenvater, pp. 315-321, Munich, 185'J,
that his heart remained heavy and his feelings di- W. Friti, Die Bnefe des Bischofa Synesiut von Kyrene,
vided. His letters express humility and distrust of Leipsic, 1898; idem, in AM
A, 1905, 329-398; idem, in
JJyzantinmrhe Zeitsehrift, xiv (1905), 75-86; C Velley,
his powers and fitness for his duties. The year 407 fitudet sur lea hymnes de Synesius de Cyrene, Paris, 1904;
brought him into conflict with Andronicus, the A. Baumgartner, Die IcUeimtiche und gnechiache Liileratvr
der christlichen Volker, pp. 52-63, 4th ed., Freiburg, 1905,
tyrannical prefect and direst plague of the Pentap-
W. von Christ, Getchichte der christlichen Litteratur, pp.
olis, whom at first in vain he tried to turn from
947-948, 4th ed., Munich, 1905.
his cruelty. Through the withdrawal of the right SYNGRAMMA SUEVICUM. See BRENZ, JOHANN,
of asylum by Andronicus Synesius found himself in
2.
a difficult position and as a philosopher unable to
handle the affair. In the very noteworthy address SYHOD. See COUNCILS AND SYNODS; and PRES-
BYTERIANS, X., 2 (6).
(MPG, Ixvi. 1384-1400) in which he told of his de-
termination to excommunicate Andronicus, he re- SYNOD OF THE REFORMED PRESBYTERIAN
called the happier earlier time when such duties CHURCH IN NORTH AMERICA. See PRESBYTE-
did not engage him. He expressed his wish that he RIANS, VIII., 4.
could be relieved of his consecration, he feared to SYNODAL COURTS.
minister unworthily in the mysteries of God; he Origin Further Changes
( 1). ({ 3).
desired, if he could not be relieved of his duties, at Addition of Jurors (| 2). Decline (ft 4).

least to have an assistant. Before the ban was Under the name Send (from Gk. synodos, Lat.
of
pronounced, Andronicus appeared to have repented; eynodtis), or Sendgericht, an institution grew up in
the publication was delayed, when the prefect fell Germany in the ninth century which was practically
back into his old courses and the excommunication an episcopal court for the trial and punishment of
was pronounced at the close of the year 407. The misdemeanors. It developed out of the episcopal
927 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Synodal Courts
<

visitations (see CHURCH VISITATIONS) which had was becoming customary. In the course of the
been customary since the fourth century alike in twelfth century the lay element gained still further
East and West. In the Prankish king- strength when the choice of the jurymen was taken
z. Origin, dom, Boniface had insisted on their away from the bishop. Another innovation was
observance, which was enforced by even more far-reaching. With the increase of the
Carloman, Pippin, and especially Charlemagne worldly state of the bishops, they became less and
(Capitularies of 769, 789, 802, 813; cf. canon xvii. less able to execute their ecclesiastical duties in per-
of the Synod of .Aries of 813). At these visitations son. The archdeacon gradually took the bishop's
each class and order was questioned as to the per- place in the synodal court. In the twelfth century
formance of its special duties; and the synodal the representation of the bishop by his delegate had
court arose out of the separation from the other become the usual custom; the brief of Innocent II.
visitation business of the investigation and punish- to Provost Gerhard of Bonn (1139) exhibits the
ment of misconduct on the part of the laity. This archdeacon as possessing independent power; and
development took place immediately after the close under Innocent III. (1211) he is denominated judex
of Charlemagne's reign. The sixteenth canon of ordinarius equally with the bishop. In some places
the Synod of Rouen (held probably under Louis the disintegration of the synodal jurisdiction went
the Pious) exhibits the synodal court as an inde- even further, and the archdeacons were represented
pendent institution, though still connected with by the archpriests, who later claimed independent
diocesan visitation. As to the offenses subject to jurisdiction. In consequence of the synodal courts
the jurisdiction of this tribunal, Carloman empha- ceasing to be strictly episcopal, the nobility began
sized the duty of the bishops to root out all remains to claim exemption from them, as they were doing
of pagan superstition. Charlemagne enjoined upon from the lower secular tribunals, which exemption
"
his bishops the investigation of incest, parricide, the bishops acknowledged in the thirteenth century.
fratricide, adultery, superstitious beliefs, and whatso- The same exemption was claimed and obtained by
ever other evil things are contrary to the law of God." the ministerial class in some states; and this with-
In the second half of the ninth century a modi- drawal of subjects led in the end to the downfall of
fication was introduced in the selection of a sort of the institution.
grand jury, which was to relieve the Throughout the greater part of the Middle Ages
2. Addition bishop from the necessity of depend- the offenses which the synodal court was competent
of Jurors, ing wholly upon chance evidence that to try remained practically the same; but at the
an offonse had been committed. He end of this period a notable restriction
chose a number of trustworthy men from the dis- 4. Decline, became
visible. Thus a synodal ordi-
trict who were bound by oath to lay charges against nance of Julich-Berg in the fourteenth
all offenders in those points known to them. That century names as offenses of this class blasphemy,
this usage was still unknown in the middle of the drunkenness, unchastity, unlawful marriages, dis-
century is shown by the eighth canon of the Synod orderly housekeeping, breach of the Sunday laws,
of Mainz of 852, according to which the bishop still neglect of divine worship and the sacraments, and
dealt immediately with the people at large. But hedge-preaching those offenses which fell directly
the tcstes or juratores synodi are found in the diocese under the secular law being excluded. The disin-
of Constance between 875 and 889. This innova- clination of the laity, after they had obtained an
tion was probably copied from a similar secular in- important share in the power of the court, to be
stitution established by Charlemagne's son Pippin bound by its decisions came partly from the feeling
for Italy, and was found north of the Alps under of competition with the civil laws, partly from un-
Louis the Pious. The accusations brought by this willingness to see ecclesiastical offenses made mat-
jury were not required to be proved by them, but ter of legal proceedings. The territorial rulers also
the accused was expected to prove his innocence. came to regard the courts as an invasion of their
For freemen this was done by an oath, unless there rights; andtheir importance gradually decreased.
were well-grounded doubts of their credibility; in The imposition of money fines instead of the earlier
that case the Ordeal (q.v.) was resorted to. In the penances also hurt them in the public esteem, espe-
absence of the accused, the charge might be proved cially when a portion of the fines went to their mem-
by the evidence of those who were present. After bers and were looked upon as a source of income.
the proof of the charge, the bishop (together with At the Bformation the whole institution was reck-
such priests as were in attendance) passed sentence oned -among the abuses of the unreformed Church.
in terms of ecclesiastical penalties. Excommunica- In the Roman Catholic districts it maintained a
tion was not an ordinary penalty, but was employed partial existence until the eighteenth century (the
in case of stubborn refusal to attend the ocrurt or synodal court of Aachen was abolished only in
obey its rulings. 1797); but its real significance ceased with the end
The system seems to have remained substantially of the Middle Ages. (A. HAUCK.)
the same in the eleventh century; but early in the BIBUOOBAPHY: C. F. Eichhorn, Deutocfa Stoat*- und Recht*-
gexhichU, i. 706. ii. 409, 4 vola., GOttingen, 1821-23;
twelfth the or jvratores not merely appeared as
testes
A. J. Bintwim, Dmtatotftffcnto* v. 3. pp. 36 Bqq.,
accusers, but shared with the ecclesias- Mains, 1829; H. F. Jaoobson, dmeAtbAto d*r
Kirchenrechto, i. 118 sqq., K6nigsberg, 1837; K. von
3. Further tical judges in the finding of the court.
Riohthofen, Frferfaefo RechtoqueUen, passim. Berlin, 1840;
Changes. This development is explicable by the P. Hinsohius, Kirckenncht, v. 425 aqq.. ib. 1895; R.
fact that at this time the participation Schrider, Lohrbuch der deuttchtn Rechtsgexhichte, pp. 577
of laymen in the decision of questions affecting legal sqq.. Leipaio, 1898; E. Friedberg, Lehrbuch des . . .

KirchenrechU, 820 sqq., ib. 1903; Rettherg, KD, ii. 742

and property questions pertaining to the Church sqq.; Hauok, KD, ii. 733 sqq., iv. 61-62.
Syria THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 228

SYRIA.
I. Name. Under the Roman Empire (| 1). Origins and Work (J 1).
II. Geography. Period of Persian Rule ( 2). Publications; Arabic Bible (ft 2).
Division* ( 1). 6. To the Year 1516. Educational Work ( 3).
Physical Geography (| 2). Arab Dominion (J 1). 2. The Syrian Protestant
College.
III. History. The Crusades and Turkish As- 3. Irish Presbyterian Mission in Da-
1. To the Assyrian Conquest. cendency ( 2). mascus.
Aasy ro- Babylonian Period ($1). 6. From 1516 to the Present Time. 4. The Church of England Missions.
In the Old Testament ($ 2). IV. Population. 6. The German Evangelical Missions.
Fortunes of the Synan States ((3). V. The Native Oriental Churches. 6. The BritiHh Syrian Mission.
2. To the Year 332 B.C. VI. Modern Protestant Missions in 7. The Society of Friends (English).
3. To the Year 64 B.C. Syna. 8. Other Enterprises.
4. To the Year 635 A.D. 1. American Presbyterian. VII. Summary and Conclusion.

L Name: The name Syria is an abbreviation of derun (or Aloxandretta Bay) to the Nahr al-Kabir
" "
Assyria, even as Syrians is shortened from (the classical Eleutherus). South of the Nahr al-
11
Assyrians," the ultimate source being the name Kabir are Lebanon (q.v.) and Anti-Lebanon, the
of the Assyrian god Asshur ASSYRIA, IV.,
(see 1, highest peak of the latter range being the Biblical
VII., 2). In their earlier period the Greeks ap- Hermon (q.v.). The highland east of
plied the designation Assyrians or Syrians in a 2. Physical the plateau of al-Bika', which separates
purely political sense to all subjects of the king of Geography. Lebanon from Anti-Lebanon and finds
Assyria; and in their view this empire, with which its continuation in the Jordan valley,

they came in contact aft<r the eighth and seventh falls away toward the Euphrates or to the northern

centuries, stretched from the Black Sea to the Medi- Syrian desert, agreeably interrupted by the oases
terranean. When, however, the Greeks became of Damascus, Aleppo, and Palmyra. In the south-
better acquainted with Asia after the fall of the east the plateau extends over the Lcjjah and Jabal
Assyrian empire, they reserved the name Assyria IJauran to the Syro-Arabic desert, proper. Syria
for the original center of Assyrian power, and termed has but few rivers. From the valleys of the Anti-
the western provinces of the former empire Syria. Libanus the Nahr Barada (the Chrysorrhoas of the
This usage corresponds in general to that of the Old Greeks and the Abana or Aituma of II Kings v. 12)
Testament, where Asshur generally connotes As- flows to the Bahrat al-'Ataibuh, six hours east of
syria proper, exclusive of the conquered lands. By Damascus; and from Herinon the Nahr ul-'Awaj
the time of Alexander the Great the Greeks hud (the Pharpar of II Kings v 12) flows into the Bah-
come to restrict the designation Syrians to the Sem- rat Hijanah. On the plateau of al-Bika' rises the
ites in the western portions of the former empire of Nahr al-'Azi (the classical Orontes), which flows
"
Assyria, and thus Syrians," now an ethnograph- north to Antioch, where, augmented by the dis-
"
ical term, became identical with Arameans." In charge of the Ak-Daniz, it turns to the west and
the Old Testament there is no mention of either empties into the Mediterranean. The Litany (the
Syria or Syrians, the designation there being Aram classical Leontes) rises near the source of Nahr al-
(q. v.) but in the Talmud and in Syriac, under Greek
; 'A?i, flows first to the south and then to the west,
" "
influence, the term Syria is found. The Arabs and empties into the Mediterranean north of Tyre.
" "
call the land al-Sham, the left (in contradistinc- Besides the Batyrat al-'Ataibah, Bahrat Hijanah,
tion to South Arabia, to the right of Syria), and the and Al-Daniz, mention may be made of the morass
Turks designate it Suristan or Arabistan (" Syrian of al-Ma^kh near the ruins of IJjnnasrin (the Chal-
Land " or " Arab Land "). cis founded by Seleucus Nicator), where the Nahr
II. Geography: Modern Syria is practically Ifuwaifc debouches, and of the salt Bahrat Jabbul
coterminous with the land so designated from the and the Bahrat Horns (the ancient Emesa). The
time of Alexander, its approximate boundaries being year is divided into the dry season or summer (May-
Cilicia and the Alma Dagh on the north, the Eu- October), and the rainy season or winter (Novem-
phrates and Syrian Desert on the cast, Arabia and ber-April). Rain is rare by the middle of May
Egypt on the south, and the Mediterranean on the (I Sam. xii. 17-18), but dew is plentiful in summer,
west, while a considerable portion of this territory except in the desert. The early rains begin in No-
of 108,000 square miles is occupied by Palestine vember (cf. Deut. xi. 14; Joel ii. 23), the heavy
Syria forms part of Turkey in
(q.v.). rains fall in the middle of December, and the late
x. Divisions. Asia, and comprises the vilayet of rains in March and April. The heat is most intense
Aleppo with the liva* ("districts") on the coast, though the sea breezes cause some
of Aleppo, Mar'ash, and Urfa (Edessa); the inde- moderation. In Damascus and Aleppo, where the
pendent liva of Zor; the vilayet of Beirut with the climate is more extreme both in heat and oold, the
liva* of Ladifciyah, Tarabulus, Beirut, 'Akka, and west winds alone bring relief. The fertility of Syria
Nablus; the independent liva of Lebanon; the is much inferior to what it was in ancient times,
vilayet of Suria (" Syria ") with the livas of IJama, largely because of Assyrian and Turkish misrule.
Damascus, IJauran, and Ma'an; and the independ- Recently, however, a marked amelioration has be-
ent Zrxz of Jerusalem. For population and ethnol- gun; the Qauran plateau, anciently one of the chief
ogy see below, IV. granaries of the East, is regaining its former renown;
The mountain ranges run from north to south. grapes are cultivated on Lebanon; the cultivation
The northern portion of the narrow coastal high- of the olive is reviving; there is an increasing trade
land is formed by a range from the Gulf of Iskan- in apricots in Damascus; and in northern Syria
229 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Syria

"
gall-nuts promise to be rivaled by the orange as master of Damascus, was an adversary to Israel
"
products for export. For the flora and fauna of all the days of Solomon (I Kings xi. 23-25).
Syria see PALESTINE. I Kings xv. 18 also mentions Hezion, father of Tab-
in. History: The early history of Syria is ob- rimmon and grandfather of Bcn-hadad, this latter
scure. About 2000 B.C. Arameans were found east monarch being apparently different from the Ben-
of Syria proper, into which they penetrated about hadad of I Kings xx. In the war between the north-
1200, finding there a population for the most part ern and southern kingdoms after Solomon's death,
probably Semitic. The history may most conve- the latter power invoked the aid of the Arameans.
niently be divided into six periods: (1) to the con- Damascus, situated at the junction of the caravan
quest of the Aramean states by the Assyrians, or routes between north and south, as well as between
to the capture of Damascus in 732; (2) under As- east and west, gladly welcomed this opportunity,
syrian, Babylonian, and Persian dominion (to 605, and Tabrimmon concluded a treaty with the father
539, and 332 respectively); (3) under Greek do- of Asa, this being renewed between Asa and Ben-
minion (to 64 B.C.); (4) under Roman dominion hadad, and so forcing Baasha (q.v.) to desist from
(to 635 A.D.); (5) under Arab dominion (to 1516); fortifying Raman (I Kings xv. 18-21). Aramean
and (6) under Turkish dominion (to the present hostility toward Israel continued during the reigns
time) of Omri and Aliab, and the northern kingdom ac-
1. To the Assyrian Conquest: About 2800 B.C. cordingly made alliance with Phenicia; but since
the North Babylonian King Sargon I. (see BABY- this imperiled the safety of Aramaic caravans to
LONIA, VI., 3, 1) made an expedition to Syria, the Mediterranean, the Arameans, during Orari's
Palestine, and the Mediterranean, and some 700 reign, seized Israelitic cities and made bazaars in
years later Hammurabi (q.v.) termed himself king Samaria (I Kings xx. 34). It is possible that Omri
* ^ murru (P a l es ti ne anc* Syria). The was a vassal of Aram, and this was certainly the
1 A Aramcans wno crossed the Euphrates case with Ahab (I Kings xx. 3-4, 9), but I Kings
Bab Ionian
Period. fr m the south found the Mesopota- xx. records the complete defeat of the Aramean by
mian kingdom of Mitanni (cf ASSYRIA,
. the Israelitic king. This struggle may best be dated
VI., 2) to the north and Assyria to the east, and in before 854, the year in which Shalmaneser II. de-
the fourteenth century the Assyrian King Arik-den- feated Ben-hadad and twelve allied kings, including
ilu (Pudi-Ilu) was warring against Aramean hordes. Ahab (q.v.).
By 1400 the Hittites (q v were pressing into Syria
) WhenTiglath-Pileser I. had overcome the Hit-
and Phenicia, their capital being Carchemish (q.v.), tites,the Assyrians laid claim to northern Syria,
and their dominions extending to the northern but the Aramcans took advantage of the weakness
boundaries of the later Israel. About 1270 Rameses of Assyria after Tiglath-Pileser's death and founded
warred against the Syrian Hittites, but was forced a series of petty states in Mesopotamia and north
to conclude an offensive and defensive alliance with of the mouth of the Orontes, these including Ha-
them. Northern Syria was tributary to the Hittites. math, Patin, Arpad, Sam'al, Yaudi, Gurgum, Suhi,
After destroying the kingdom of Mitanni in the Laki, and Bit-Adini. Shalmaneser II.,
3- rt nes
fourteenth century, the Assyrians attacked the *? however, conquered all the states of
kingdom of Hanigalbat (between the Euphrates, f JeL+-f~ northern Syria
J as far as Hamuth, but
ian States. af
Taurus, and Anti-Taurus), defeated the King Shat-
.

though
,
m
. . . ,

854, as already noted, he

. . .

tuara, who had allied himself with the Hittites and was victorious over the confederation headed by
Arameans, and seized the Aramean stronghold of Damascus, it was but a hollow success, as were
Kasyar (the modern Karaja Dagh), as well as Syria his three subsequent campaigns in 850 (?), 849,
as far south as Carchemish. Shalmaneser I., who and 846. But soon after 854 war again broke
had conducted these campaigns, was compelled to out between Ben-hadad and Ahab, this being con-
lead repeated expeditions against the Arameans tinued by Ahab's successors. Finally, however,
in the Kasyar range, but with Hittite and Alaro- Ben-hadad suddenly raised the siege of Samaria
dian inroads in the twelfth century the Arameans, (II Kings vi. 24-vii. 7) and shortly afterward was
who had reached the Tigris during Shalmaneser's murdered by Hazael (II Kings viii. 7-15), who suc-
reign, were divided, one portion migrating west- cessfully defended Ramoth-gilead against Joram
ward to Syria and the other eastward to Assyria. and Ahaziah (II Kings viii. 28-29), but in 842 was
Tiglath-Pileser I. kept the Arameans from Assyria defeated by Shalmaneser on Ilermon and unsuc-
proper, and also broke the Hittite power in Syria. cessfully besieged in Damascus. Ten years later
The latter people formed a number of petty states, the inhabitants of Patin killed their King Lubarna
into which the Arameans poured. II. and made Surri his successor, and when he died

By the time of the rise of the kingdom of Israel during the siege of Kunalua by the Assyrians, the
the Old Testament could record the existence of latter crowned Sasi king of Patin. After 839 Hazael
several Aramean states (see ARAM, 1, 9), of which was unmolested by the Assyrians, and he became
the most important was Damascus. the most dreaded enemy of Judah and Israel (cf.

th*
made energetic war on the Ara- II Kings x. 32-33, xii. 17-18, xiii. 3, 7). With
means x . 8C! (l-) Dut with
- Adad-Nirari III. (812-783), however, Assyrian op-
Testament '

the rcestablishment of Damascus a pression of Aram commenced again, and in one of

power was created which was to exercise a profound his expeditions he beleaguered Man, or Ben-hadad
influence on the fortunes of Israel. The founder of III., inDamascus, exacting from him rich tribute.
the new dynasty was Rezon, who had revolted from In 773 Shalmaneser III. made another expedition
Hadadezer, king of Zobah, and, making himself against Damascus, and in the following year As-
Syria THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 230

sbur-Dan III. marched against Hadrach, on Leba- (261-246), the decay of the kingdom began. Bao-
non (Zech. ix. 1). These diversions were doubtless triaand Parthia became independent; the Attalids
the factors that enabled Joash of Israel to defeat harried Asia Minor; Palestine and Phenicia had
Ben-hadad III. thrice and probably to wrest from been ceded to Egypt in the previous reign; and for
him the conquests of his father Hazael west of the a time Ptolemy III. Euergetes, ruled the Seleucid
Jordan (II Kings xiii. 14-19, 24-25); although the dominions. In 198, after several reverses, Anti-
real liberator of Israel from the Arameans was Jero- ochus III., the Great (223-187) definitely recovered
boam II., who regained all the territory from Ha- Palestine from Egypt, but his crushing defeat by
math to the Dead Sea. The fall of the Aramean the Romans at Magnesia (190) brought with it the
states was the work of Tiglath-Pileser III. (745- loss of Asia Minor to the Taurus. Cappadocia and
727). Arpad was the first to yield (740), followed Armenia revolted, while the pro-Hellenic and anti-
by other Syrian principalities in alliance with Ar- Jewish sympathies of Seleucus IV. (187-175) and
menia. Unki (the modern al-Amfc) and Kullani Antiochus IV. (175-164) provoked the revolt of the
(the Calno of Isa. x. 9) were taken in 738, and nine- Hasmoneans (q.v.), which finally detached Pales-
teen districts of Hamath were formed into the tine from Syrian sway. Between 150 and 140 the
Assyrian province of Simirra. During Tiglath- Parthians won from Syria the Iranian provinces
Pikier's Median campaigns (737-735) Rezon of and Babylonia, and with the death of Antiochus
Damascus, aided by Pekah of Israel, revolted, cap- VII. in battle against the Parthian Phraates (129)
tured Elath, and besieged Jerusalem until forced Seleucid power was restricted to Syria. Interne-
by Tiglath-Pileser to withdraw. The Assyrian king cine strife broke out after the death of Antiochus
now subdued the northern parts of Israel, and in VIII. in 112, and in 83 Tigranes II., the Great, of
732 Damascus was reduced and Rezon slain, while Armenia, made himself master of Syria. In 69
Ahnz of Judah did homage to Tiglath-Pileser in Tigranes was crushed by Lucullus, who placed the
Damascus (II Kings xv. 29, xvi. 5-10). The sub- Seleucid Antiochus XIII. on the throne, but this
jugation of the remaining provinces quickly fol- petty king fled before Pompey, and in 64 Syria be-
lowed. In 720 Ilu-bi'di, or Yau-bi'di, of Hamath, came a Roman province (for more detailed account
in alliance with Arpad, Simirra, Damascus, and of this period see PTOLEMIES; and SELEUCID^E).
Samaria, revolted, but in the same year Sargon 4. To the Tear 685 A.D.: Under the Seleucids
crushed them, probably simultaneously with the Syria proper had apparently been divided into the
subjugation of Sam'al. Finally Gurgum was in- four districts of Antiochia, Seleucia, Apamoa, and
corporated with Assyria in 711, and the first period Laodicea. The Romans, bounding the country by
of Syria's history came to an end. the Taurus, the middle Euphrates, the Gulf of Is-
2. To the Tear 332 B.O.t In 625 Syria was in- sus, Parthia, and the isthmus of Suez, divided it
vaded by Scythian hordes, and from the battle of into the ten districts of Commageno, Cyrrhestica,
Megiddo (609) to that of Carchemish (605) the land Chalybonitis, Pieria, Cassiotis, Chalcidice, Apamene,
was under the sway of Pharaoh Necho, after which Laodicea, Palmyrene, and Ccele-Syria.
it came under the dominion of the Neo-Babylonian .? There were also a number of prince-
tha xCom&n ,.
empire. With the fall of Babylon in 539 Syria was Empire.
i
w
^ were ^
^. ,
oman clients: the
made part of the Persian province " beyond the Herodians of Palestine, a Seleucid dy-
"
river (Neh. ii. 7, 9), over which a satrap ruled, nasty in Commagene (until 72 A.D.), the dynasties
apparently residing in Aleppo, though Damascus in Chalcis (until 92 A.D.), Abila (until 41 A.D.),
was the most important of the inland cities. Ara- Arethusa and Emesa (until 72 A.D.), and Damascus
maic became the official language for the conquests and Petra (until 106 A. D.). On the death of Anti-
of the Persian empire, and south of Carchemish ochus XII. in battle in 85 B.C., Damascus passed
Mabog (the Greek Bambyce and the modern Mam- under Arab control, only to submit to Roman do-
bij) became a religious center for the worship of minion. When Paul fled from the city, it was con-
Atargatis, while Nebo was worshiped in such cities trolled by a governor appointed by Arctas (see
as Edessa and Palmyra. The general fortunes of NABAT^JANS), but in the reign of Trajan it became
Syria during the Persian period were evil, since the a Roman provincial city. From 65 to 48 Syria was
land constituted the route of the expeditions against under the sway of Pompey, but in 56 Crassus re-
Egypt, Phenicia, and Palestine. See MEDO-PEBBIA. ceived it, and after sharing the vicissitudes of the
8. To the Tear 64 B.C.: In 332 Syria passed period, it was controlled by Mark Antony from 41
under Macedonian dominion, and with peculiar to 30, despite attempted Parthian invasions. It
facility adopted Hellenic culture. The death of was one of the provinces assigned to Augustus in
Alexander in 323 was followed by the dismember- 27 B.C., and after the Jewish war of 66-70 was sepa-
ment of his empire, and in 321 Seleucus I., Nicator, rated from Palestine. Septimius Severus (193-211)
became ruler of Babylonia, although it was not divided the district into Syria Magna and Syria
until the death of his great rival, Antigonus, satrap Phenice, the latter including, besides Phenicia, Heli-
of Phrygia, in the battle of Ipsus in 301 that he opolis, Emesa, Damascus, Palmyra, Auranitis, Ba-
became uncontested lord of the greater part of tanea, and Trachonitis. As the heir of the Seleu-
Syria. He made his capital the city of Antioch on cids, Trajan (98-117), and Caracalla (211-217)
the Orontes, which he himself had founded, his took possession of the Mesopotamian regions, so
eastern capital being another of his many new that a distinction was now drawn between Osrhoene
cities, Seleucia on the Tigris, south of Bagdad. in the west., Mygdonia in the east, Zabdicene, and
Seleucus was succeeded by Antiochus I. (280-261), the district the ofArabes Scenitae. Constantino the
but in the reign of the latter 's son, Antiochus II. Great detached Commagene and Cyrrhestica from
 31 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Syria

Syria, which was included in the " province of the astated northern Syria and Mesopotamia, in 878
Euphrates "; and on the division of the Roman the Turk Afrmad ibn Tuhin extended his power from
Empire in 394 Syria was given to Byzantium. The- Egypt over Syria as far as Mesopotamia. Although
odosius II. (408-450) divided what remained of his dynasty was extirpated by the Abbasids in 905,
Roman Syria the eastern part had long been the the Hamdanids had meanwhile founded a double
prey of Arabs and Parthians into Syria Prima, or kingdom with capitals at Mosul and Aleppo. After
the coast and the northern portions as far as the 970 the Fatimids ruled in Damascus, and toward
Euphrates, and Syria Secunda, or the country the middle of the eleventh century the Seljufcs for
bounded by the southern course of the Orontes, the a time ruled the greater portion of the Mohamme-
capital of the former division being Antioch, and of dan East. In 1071 the Seljuk Malik-Shah took
the latter Apamea. Jerusalem, reducing Damascus five years later,
The rise of the Sassanian dynasty in the third while in 1085 Antioch, a Greek possession since 966,
century brought new danger to the Roman power was lost to the Turkish Sulaiman of Iconium.
in Syria, and Sapor I. (241-272) \\as even able to During the period of the Crusades (q.v.) the for-
make tho Roman Emperor Valerian (q.v.) prisoner tunes of war at first inclined toward the Christian
in Antioch. A little later Zenobia, queen of Pal- side. In 1098 Antioch was taken by the Franks,
myra, sought, in alliance \\ith Persia, to establish and a year later Jerusalem was theirs.
2. The
a Syrian world-empire, but the exten- j n t ne i a tter year Baldwin was lord of
n f her domains to S >rria Meso~ '
andTurkfsh E(ieasa but in 1144 thc citv was ^rced
>

Ptamia, and part of Egypt brought Ascendency. to capitulate

to Imad-al-Din Zengi,
her into conflict with Rome, the result 'whose son, Nur-al-Din, not only held
being a crushing defeat by Aurelian at Horns in possession of northern Syria, but made resistance
271. In the reign of Jovinian the Romans were to the crusaders a religious obligation. The bat-
forced to cede Nisibis, among other places, to Sapor tle of Hattin, near Tiberias, in 1187, where Saladin
II. (309-379); and though the status quo was main- (1169-93) conquered the Franks, marked the turn-
tained by the treaty between Theodosius II. and ing-point of the crusades. Acre and Jerusalem
Yazdagird I. (399-420), war with the Romans again were taken, and by the peace of 1193 the Franks
broke out in the reign of Kavad, the result being were obliged to surrender the entire coast from
the treaty of 531, humiliating to the Romans. Jaffa to Acre. Malik al-Kamil (1218-38), on the
Chosroes I. (531-579) ravaged the portions of west- other hand, made a treaty with Emperor Fred-
ern Syria still belonging to the Romans, taking crick II. whereby Jerusalem and thc coast cities
Antioch, among other cities, in 540; while in the were given to the Franks for ten years. In 1244
reign of Chosroes II. (590-628) his general reduced the alliance of the Franks, Nasir Daud of Karak,
Hamath and Edessa in 609, Aleppo in 611, Antiorh, and Salih Ismail of Damascus was defeated by the
Damascus, and Jerusalem in 614, and Egypt in 618. Mameluke Bibars at Gaza. With the fall of the
For a brief time Heraclius (610-641) recovered the kingdom of Chwarizm in the first half of the thir-
Roman territories which the Persians had held since teenth century, the Turkish hordes poured Into
623, but in 635 Syria passed definitely into the hands Syria, where, in the pay of the Mameluke Salih of
of the Arabs. Egypt, they won Jerusalem (1244), Damascus
To the Year 1516: Long before the Arab ex-
6. (1245), Baalbek (1246), and Ascalon and Tiberias
pansion there had been Arab kingdoms and en- (1247). In 1269-70 the Mongols under Hulagu
claves in and near Syrian soil, such as the Lahmid Khan overran Syria, but in the latter year they
dynasty and the Nabatffians (q.v.), the latter grad- were routed by Bibars at 'Ain Jalut, near Nablus
ually spreading power from northwestern
their (the ancient Shechem), and all Syria now passed
Arabia as far as Damascus and Palmyra. It was under Egyptian control. Bibars successfully op-
"
not, however, until the Arabs had been posed thc crusaders, taking Antioch in 1268, while
un ifi e d and inspired by the teachings in 1291 al-Ashraf Halil of Egypt reduced Acre, the
D i ^ of Mohammed that the establishment last stronghold of the Christians in Syria. After a
of an Arab world-power was projected. The first century of strife between Bahritic and Cherkiss
land to yield to the immigration from the interior Mamelukes and the Ilkhans of Hulagu's line, Syria
of Arabia was Syria, and in 635 the Byzantine Em- was once more terribly devastated by the Tatar
peror Heraclius was routed by Halid on the banks hordes under Timur in 1400.
of theYarmuk. Damascus was retaken in 636, Je- 6. From 1516 to the Prevent Time:
1
In 1516
rusalem and Antioch fell in 637, Hamath and Aleppo Syria was wrested from the Egyptian Mamelukes
surrendered voluntarily, and in 640 Ccesarea was by the Osmanli Turk, Selim I. of Constantinople,
taken. Muawiya, the founder of the Omayyad dy- and since that time the country has formed part of
nasty (661-750), transferred the khalifate from the Turkish empire. From 1545 to 1634 a Druse
Medina to Damascus, and a period of glory began kingdom maintained itself, with a capital at Beirut,
for the city. With the rise of the Abbasid dynasty but was finally crushed by Amurath. Ali Bey of
in the eighth century, power passed from Damascus Egypt became lord of Syria in 1771, and in his
to Bagdad, but learning still flourished in Syria, Egyptian campaign Napoleon reduced Jaffa and
especially at Damascus, and through Syriac trans- besieged Acre, ultimately penetrating as far as
lations the writings of the Greeks became accessible Safed and Nazareth. Meanwhile, in the middle of
to the Arabs. As the Abbasid dynasty decayed, the eighteenth century Shaikh Zahir al-Omar had
Turkish elements commenced to make themselves gained control of Lower Galilee and a considerable
felt, and while in 837 Theophilus of Byzantium dev- portion of Upper Galilee, his capital being at Acre,
Syria THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 232

while his son and successor, Jazzar Pasha, ruled V. The Native Oriental Churches: These are the
from Baalbek to Ctasarea. In 1832, however, Ibra- Orthodox Greek, the Maronite, the Uniate Greek,
him Pasha, son of Mohammed Ali of Egypt, aided the Jacobite, Armenian, and Uniate Armenian. The
by the Druse prince, took Acre and Damascus and Greeks number about 304,000. They are Syrians
defeated the Turks at 9oms and Bailan, although by birth and descent, and speak only the Arabic
the European powers secured a peace favorable to language. The doctrines and ritual are the same as
Turkey. A rebellion broke out against the Egyp- in Greece and Russia. They differ from the Roman
tians in 1834, and though at first Ibrahim was suc- Church in (1) the calendar, (2) the doctrine con-
cessful,he was finally defeated by an Anglo- Austrian cerning the procession of the Holy Spirit, (3) re-
force. Another anti-Egyptian revolt broke out in taining the use of pictures and excluding images
Lebanon in 1840, and the same European allies from sacred buildings, (4) rejecting of purgatory,
restored Syria to the Turkish dominions. After the (5) retaining communion in both kinds, and (6) in
Arab conquest of 635 the position of the Christians permitting the marriage of the secular clergy. The*
was generally not unfavorable, although they were church is divided into the patriarchates of Antioch

persecuted by the Fatamid Hakim bi-Amrillah and and Jerusalem, which, though nominally independ-
by Timur. The Turks sought to mediate between ent, are really under the control of the primate of
the different Christian sects, but in 1860 European Constantinople. The patriarch of Antioch governs
interference in Syrian affairs, combined with the the bishoprics of Beirut, Tripoli, Akkar, Latakiii,
Indian Mutiny, led to a Christian massacre by Hamah, Horns, Saidnaya, and Tyre. The patri-
Druses and Turkish soldiers, the result being a archate of Jerusalem includes Palestine and Perea,
punitive expedition of the French against the and has under it the bishoprics of Nazareth, Akka,
Druses. (G. BEER.) Lydda, Gaza, Sebaste, Nablus, Philadelphia, and
IV. Population: The population of Syria, which Petra. Among these the bishop of Akka is the only
here includes the five governmental divisions of one who resides in his diocese; all the others live
Aleppo, Beirut, The Lebanon, Damascus, and Jeru- in the convent at Jerusalem. The Greek Church
salem, was estimated in 1905 to be between three allows the reading of the Scriptures by the people,
and three and a quarter millions; about 700,000 of hence they have become more enlightened than any
these are in Palestine. other of the Syrian sects The Jacobites (q v ) use
the Syriac language in church services, although it
is not understood by the people. Their head is the
patriarch of Mardin. Their number is small, chiefly
in Sudud, Kuryetein, Horns, Nebk, Damascus, and
Aleppo. They are poor and industrious, and recci ve
the Scriptures without opposition. The Maronitos
(q.v.) renounced monothelitism in 1182, and sub-
mitted to the pope. They are devoted Roman Cath-
olics, andcall their part of Lebanon the Holy Moun-
tain. Although adhering to the pope, they still
retain many of their former peculiarities Their
ecclesiasticallanguage is Syriac their patron saint,
;

Maron, is not found in the Roman calendar; they

have their own church establishment, and the peo-
ple regard their patriarch as not inferior to the pope;;
and their secular clergy marry. Their convents,
numbering nearly 100, own the best estates in
Lebanon, and formerly supported about 2,000
monks and nuns, with a revenue of not less
than $350,000. Emigration has been steadily re-
ducing the numbers of those entering the monas-
Of these it may be said that the Druses (q.v.) and teries and convents. The people are independent,
Nusairi are semi-pagan; the Bedawin, nominally hardy, and industrious, but are left in gross
Moslem, are really ignorant and superstitious deists; ignorance, illiteracy, and superstition. Their clergy
the Maronites are devoted adherents of the papacy; are educated at Ain Werka; and those trained in
the Ismailt are heretical Moslems; while the Greeks, Rome are men of fair learning: but the mass of
Armenians, and Jacobites are Oriental Christians. the priests are lamentably ignorant.
The bulk of the population in the cities is Moham- The Roman Catholic schismatic churches which
medan, excepting Beirut, of whose population of are in connection with the Roman communion
140,000 less than one-third are Mohammedans. The Greek, Syrian, and Armenian sprang from the mis-
northern part of Lebanon is almost exclusively sionary efforts of Roman Catholic priests and Jesuits
Maronite; the southern portion, south of the Da- during the past two centuries. The Greeks retain
mascus road, being chiefly Druse, with scattering the marriage of the clergy, their Arabic service,
villages of Greeks, Maronites, and Moslems. In oriental calendar, and communion in both kinds.
Palestine proper the most of the villagers are The Armenian population is confined to the vicinity
Moslems, the Greeks and Uniate Greeks being of Antioch and Aleppo, speaking the Turkish and
dispersed in northern Palestine and on the plain Armenian languages. The Jews of Palestine are
of Sharon. foreigners, numbering about 40,000, having come
236 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA ftyria

from every country on earth, and living chiefly in lock, thepunches of a new font of Arabic type,
Jerusalem, Hebron, Tiberius, Safcd, and the Jewish made from the best specimens of Arabic calligraphy.
colonies. But the Jews of Damascus (5,000), Alep- The type was cast by Tauchnitz, in Leipsic. This
po (15,000), and Beirut (5,000) are natives, speak- type, which at first was anathematized by the re-
ing the Arabic, and many of them possess great ligiousheads of the oriental sects, has been adopted
wealth (see ZIONISM). by the Turkish government journals, the Domin-
Modern Protestant Missions in Syria. 1.
VI. ican press at Mosul, the Greek, and other native
American Presbyterian: The first modern Protes- presses, and the Leipsic Arabic press. Seven com-
tant mission to Syria began in Jan., 1819, when plete editions of the Arabic Bible have been electro-
Revs. Pliny Fisk (q.v.) and Levi Parsons, mission- typed at the American Press at Beirut at the ex-
aries of the A. B. C. F. M., landed in Smyrna. In pense of the American Bible Society, together with
- . Feb., 1821, Parsons reached Jerusalem.
.
many portions in various types of different books
of the Old and New Testaments.
and Work. In 1823 Messrs Fisk Jonas Kin 6 from
"
- Of the seven com-
America, and Way, of the London Jews plete editions four are unpointed except where am-
Society, reached Beirut, and summered in Lebanon. biguity would result without the vowels and two
Jerusalem and Beirut continued for years the two are completely voweled. One is a second font Ref-
centers of American missionary labor, until 1843, erence Bible, and two editions of a first font Refer-
\\hcn the American mission was withdrawn from ence Bible have been printed from types. An en-
Jerusalem, and confined to Syria proper, leaving tirely new edition of the largest first font Reference
Palestine to the Church Missionary Society. In Bible is now in preparation, with a new set of refer-
1871 the Syria mission of the American Board was ences based upon the standard American and Eng-
transferred to the Presbyterian Board of Foreign lish editions. The adaptation of the new references
Missions of the United States, owing to the then was begun in 1908 by the present editor, Rev. F. E.
recent reunion of the two branches of the Presby- Hoskins, D.D., and, with the making of the plates
terian Church. The whole number of American for about 1,450 pages, can not be completed before
missionaries laboring in Syria under these two boards 1914. A photographic edition of the first font
from 1823 to 1910 is as follows: male missionaries, pointed Bible has also been issued in London by the
fi(); female missionaries, 93; printers, 4; total, 157. British and Foreign Bible Society. The Arabic
The missionaries were at first directed to attempt Bible, during the past thirty-seven years, has been
the reform of the oriental churches, leaving the eon- distributed throughout Syria and Palestine, Meso-
verts witliin the oriental communions; but it soon potamia, Egypt, in Asia Minor, Tunis, Algiers, Trip-
became necessary to organize a distinct Oriental oli, Morocco, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Zanzibar, Aden,

Evangelical Church. Thirty-four native Evangel- Bagdad, India, China, and wherever Syrian emi-
ical churches have been organized, of which 14 have grants are found in the United States, South Amer-
native ordained pastors, and 27 licensed preachers ica, and Australia. Between July 1, 1872, and Dec.
aid in the work of evangelization. The number of 31, 1909, there have been printed in Beirut, 158,998
converts is about 2,800, of whom 1,100 arc women. complete Bibles, 210,522 complete New Testaments
Eighty Sunday-schools contain about 7,000 schol- and 972,746 parts, making a total of 1,342,266 vol-
ars The number of Protestant adherents is about umes of the Arabic Scriptures. In addition to this,
S,000. Medical mission work has received especial nearly 500 different books have been printed at the
attention in a well-equipped hospital at Tripoli and Beirut press; comprising works on medicine, sur-
in medical practise among the poor in the interior gery, anatomy and physiology, chemistry, natural
towns and villages. The refuge and sanatorium
first philosophy, botany, astronomy, the higher mathe-
for tuberculous patients was opened at Tunieh in matics, geography with atlases, grammar, arith-
1909, with summer quarters at Shebainych. metic, history, theology, homilctics, church history,
The great work undertaken by the American evidences of Christianity, mental philosophy, her-
Syria Mission, however, is not merely for the three meneutics, etc., together with religious books and
millions in Syria, but, through the medium of the tracts, and illustrated books for the young, and
Arabic Scriptures and Christian Arabic weekly and monthly journals. Butrus Bistany, a
2. Publica- learned convert from the Maronite faith, who aided
literature, for the 235,000,000 of the
Mohammedan world. The work of Dr. Eli Smith in the Bible translation, published,
Arabic
translating the Bible from the orig- in 1870, a fine dictionary of the Arabic language
Bible.
inal tongues into Arabic; was begun in (2 vols 8vo, 1,200 pages) and began in 1872 an
,

1848 by Dr. Eli Smith, who labored assiduously Arabic encyclopedia (12 vols., 8vo, 800 pages each),
until his ddath, Jan. 11, 1857. Only Genesis, Exo- of which vol. xi. is completed. During the year
dus, and the first sixteen chapters of Matthew had 1909, 39,231,000 pages in Arabic were printed at
received his final revision; but he had revised and the Beirut press, making 962,577,000 from the foun-
nearly prepared for the press the whole of the New dation of the press. The demand for the Beirut
Testament, and all except Jeremiah, Lamentations, publications is greater in Egypt than in any other
and the last fourteen chapters of Isaiah, of the Old country. The Beirut press has an Arabic type foun-
Testament. On his death, Rev. Cornelius Van Alan dry and electrotype apparatus, five steam presses,
Van t)yck continued the work of translation. In six hand presses, hydraulic, hot rolling, and em-
1860 the New Testament was completed, and issued bossing machines, and sixty-two employees. The Am-
from the press; and in 1865 the entire Bible was erican Bible Society and the American and London
finished, and sent forth to the world. Dr. Smith Religious Tract Societies have given substantial aid
had prepared in 1837, with the aid of Homan Hal- in the printing and publishing work of the mission.
 yrl* THE NEW SCHAFF-HER20G 684

Education is a prominent branch of the mission- Moslems, 160 Protestants, 85 from the Roman, and
work in Syria. The first missionaries found tho the remainder, 379, from the orthodox Christian
people in a deplorable state of intel- sects of the orient. They represented at least 12
and moral ignorance. The only
lectual nationalities and spoke 24 different languages. The
ti itl*"
schools were the Moslem medrisehs, total number of graduates to the year 1909 was
Work
attached to the mosques, and the cler- 1,767, distributed as follows: preparatory (since
ical training-school of the Maronites at Ain Wurka, 1883), 922; collegiate (since 1870), 300; commerce
Mount Lebanon. Books were to be made for read- (since 1902), 53; pharmacy (since 1875), 162; med-
ers, and readers for books. Drs. Thomson and Van icine (since 1871), 330.
Dyck founded a seminary for boys in Abeih in 1846, 3. Irish Presbyterian Mission in Damascus:
which was placed under the care of Simeon Howard This was founded in 1843. The United Presbyterian
Calhoun in 1849, and continued in his care until Church of the United States soon entered upon the
1 876. It was the highest literary institution in Syria work, and continued to cooperate for a number of
for years, until the founding of the Syrian Protes- years, until the latter church concentrated its work
tant College in Bcurut (see below). In the absence upon Egypt. Since 1905 the Irish church has con-
of any adequate public school system the mission fined its work to Damascus and the village of Blu-
has more than 100 day-schools gathering nearly dan in the Anti-Lebanon. Besides the evangelistic
5,000 children from all the religious sects. It has work of preaching, there are in Damascus a girls'
three boarding-schools in Beirut, Sidon, and Trip- boarding- and day-school and a boys' boarding- and
oli for the higher education of girls with nearly day-school in the Christian quarter, and two similar
300 pupils; four training-schools for boys in Suk schools in the Jewish quarter for Jews, all under the
ul-Gharb, Sidon, Shweir, and Tripoli where 500 care of Irish ladies; also two day-schools in Bludan.
boys are being educated along the best American On the rolls of these schools are about 600 pupils of
lines. The Sidon school for boys, now known as various sects, including 200 Jews. Two Bible
Gerard Institute, has industrial training in four de- women visit about 230 homes in the Jewish quarter
partments and on its large farm an orphanage for of the city.
children from Protestant families. Several members 4. The Church of England Missions: These,
of the mission give theological instruction to candi- having their center at Jerusalem, embrace a vari-
dates for the Christian ministry. The total number ety of enterprises which, while acknowledging and
under instruction is nearly 6,000 pupils. affiliating with the Anglican bishopric, differ in
2. The Syrian Protestant College: Situated on their organization and policy from each other. The
a commanding location at Ras Beirut, with its eight- historical beginnings and relations of the four main
een stone buildings scattered over its campus of divisions arc not easy to disentangle. (1) The Lon-
forty acres, this college is now the largest American don Society for Promoting Christianity among the
educational institution in the world outside tho Jews dates back to 1829, when its Jerusalem mis-
boundaries of the United States. While a direct sion was begun. The other centers now occupied
outgrowth of the American mission and closely are Safed and Damascus. Since 1829 various insti-
with its work, it is not connected with any
affiliated tutions have been founded, many of which have
missionary society, but is undenominational, and passed into other hands. In 1910 there were two
has an entirely independent organization. It was boarding-schools for Jewish children, with 80 schol-
incorporated by the legislature of New York in 1863 ars, and a day-school for girls with a regular attend-
and is under the control of the board of trustees ance of 130; an industrial establishment for receiv-
residing in that state, who have charge of all the ing inquirers and teaching them a trade in addition
funds of the college and ultimate authority in all to ordinary Christian instruction. The society has
the affairs of the institution. The local government two workshops for carpentry and printing. A
is vested in the faculty. The college began with a prominent feature is the medical work in the hos-
preparatory class in 1865 and the college proper pital and three dispensaries, this being the first
opened in the fall of 1866. A medical class was medical mission of modem times. Christ Church,
formed in 1867. In the autumn of 1873 the college Jerusalem, was the first Protestant church built in
moved to the present location. The departments of Syria and was consecrated in 1849. There have
the college are seven: preparatory, collegiate, com- been 659 baptisms of Hebrews since the foundation.
merce, medicine, pharmacy, training-school for The staff consists of two clergy and twelve lay mis-
nurses, and Biblical archeology. English is the lan- sionaries with two doctors and five English trained
guage of instruction in all the departments. The nurses. In connection with Jerusalem there is a
eighteen buildings furnish excellent accommodations small mission in Jaffa. Safed is the center of the
for the present staff of 70 instructors and nearly 900 work in Galilee. Here there are schools and a hos-
students. There are nine well-furnished laborato- pital served by two clergy, three lay missionaries,
ries; a library with over 15,000 volumes; the George an English doctor, and three nurses. In Damascus
E. Post Hall of Science contains nine museums there has been a small mission with schools and in-
scientifically arranged for exhibition and study; the dustrial work among girls. (2) The Protestant
astronomical observatory is well equipped; four bishopric of Jerusalem (see JERUSALEM, ANGLICAN-
new buildings accommodate the hospitals for GERMAN BISHOPRIC IN) now has attached the Col-
women, children, and eye diseases, together with the legiate Church of St. George with the status of a
training-school for nurses. The whole number of cathedral, a school for boys and for girls, two hos-
students in the college for the year 1909-10 was tels, and a home for nurses, and is the main center
845, of whom 4 were Behai, 25 Druses, 88 Jews, 104 of the Jerusalem and the East Mission whose opera-
885 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Syria

lions are coextensive with the jurisdiction of the congregations in the Church of the Redeemer at
bishopric, which extends over the congregations and Jerusalem, operates schools, and maintains chap-
interests of the Anglican Church in Egypt, the Su- laincies at Beirut and elsewhere. (4) The Herrn-
dan, the region on both sides of the Red Sea, Pales- hut or Lutheran Brethren have charge of the Leper
tine,and Syria, parts of Asia Minor, and the island Asylum near Jerusalem, where 40 to 60 of these sad
of Cyprus. (3) The Society for the Propagation of sufferers now receive Christian care from trained
the Gospel in Foreign Parts proposed a mission to deaconesses. (5) The Jerusalem Verein (Berlin)
the Druses of Lebanon in 1841, but it was many was founded in 1852 to assist German evangelical
years later before it really entered Syria. In 1905 institutions in the orient. It long enjoyed the royal
the society agreed to become trustees of the prop- protection of the Empress Augusta and since the
erty of the Jerusalem bishopric, and since then has present emperor's visit to the Holy Land in 1897
aided in many of its enterprises. (4) The Church has received special support and encouragement.
Missionary Society's work in the Holy Land may be While contributing yearly to the hospitals, orphan-
said to be the outcome of previous work done about ages, leper asylum, supporting German pastors in
the shores of the Mediterranean and the establish- Jaffa and Haifa, it has also provided native pastors
ment of the Jerusalem bishopric. It has 11 Euro- for Arabic-speaking congregations at Jerusalem,
pean and 116 native workers. Its operations are Bethlehem, and Beit Jala. It took up independent
mainly in Palestine, where in 28 stations and out- work at Bethlehem in 1860, Beit Jala in 1870, He-
stations it carries on an extensive educational work bron in 1884, and Beit Sahur in 1900. (6) The
in 46 schools with nearly 100 teachers and an aver- Knights of St. John own the hospitals in Beirut and
age daily attendance of 2,581 scholars. Its medical Jerusalem and the hospice at Jerusalem, and are to
work 4 well-equipped hospitals and many dispen-
in have charge of the Augusta Victoria Institute on
a great blessing to the country. The native
saries is the Mount of Olives, the largest and finest pile of
church organizations with 10 ordained men form buildings in the Holy Land devoted to Protestant
the Palestine Native Church Council, which aims mission work, which were dedicated with ceremony
at self-administration and ultimate financial inde- by Crown Prince Eitel Frederick Apr. 9, 1910.
pendence. The communicants number 777 and the 6. The BritUh Syrian Mi ion: This enterprise,
adherents 2,239. formerly the British Syrian schools founded in 1860
5. The German Evangelical Micaiona These in-
:
by Mrs. J. Bowen Thompson and afterward con-
clude the following agencies: (1) The deaconesses ducted by her sister, Mrs. A. Mentor Mott, has com-
of Kaiserswcrth, whose work comprises orphan pleted its first half century of superb work for the
training, higher education of all nationalities, and girls and women of Syria and begins another period
hospital nursing, and there are 64 sisters in Beirut, with extensive enlargements of its training-college
Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Haifa. They began at Beirut, where the mission aims thoroughly to
labor in Sidon after the massacres of 1860 and then train teachers for its own 38 schools, which are
transferred their work to Beirut, where, in 1910, grouped about the main centers at Beirut, Damas-
they have 31 deaconesses and 6 native helpers who cus, Baalbec, Tyre, Hasbeya, Zahleh, Shemlan, and
sorve in the Johanniter Hospital, the large orphan- Ain Zehalteh, and also to render the largest possible
age, and their schools, which contain 320 pupils. work of all other societies. Twenty
assistance to the
In Jerusalem 10 of the deaconesses are nurses in the English workers superintend the 38 schools, with 82
hospital, 13 serve in the Talitha Kumi Orphanage, teachers and over 3,000 pupils. Fifteen Bible
and 6 in the magnificent new Augusta Victoria In- women visit thousands of homes and teach Chris-
stitute on the Mount of Olives. Two serve in Beth- tian and Moslem women to read. Two schools for
lehem and 2 in Haifa as visiting nurses and kinder- the blind, one for girls and one for men, the latter
garten teachers. They represent one of the finest with 23 pupils, teach various forms of handicraft in
Christian enterprises in the world. (2) The Syrian addition to reading and other studies.
Orphanage, commonly called Schoeller's, after its 7. The Society of Friend* (English) : This or-
founder, at Jerusalem, is one of the most useful, ganization carries on work on Mount Lebanon with
varied, and successful of the enterprises which came resident missionaries at Brumana, Beit Miri, and
into existence after the massacres of 1860. It has Ras al-Metn. In Brumana are two large boarding-
maintained and trained thousands of orphans, in- schools for boys and for girls, and a hospital with
structed the blind, and done much for the industrial 20 beds where clinics arc held regularly and a num-
improvement of Syria. With 21 German and 14 ber of Syrian girls have been trained as nurses.
native workers it carries on a system of kindergarten, Besides these larger stations they have schools in
elementary, and higher education in the orphanage eight villages and about 1,000 pupils under instruc-
and tributary schools, which enroll 315 pupils. tion, 13 English missionaries, and 35 native work-
Its most important features have been its training ers. This mission was founded in 1873 by Theophi-
workshops, where hundreds of boys have been taught lus Waldemeier, and was carried on by a special
printing, blacksmithing, locksmithing, tailoring, committee until 1898, when it was taken over by
carpentry and turning, pottery and brickmaking, the Board of the Friends' Foreign Mission Associa-
basket and chair making, and its agricultural de- tion as one of its five fields of missionary labor
partments at Bir Salem in the Plain of Sharon and (Syria, India, Madagascar, China, and Ceylon). In
near Nazareth, the latter a gift of Germans Kving 1896 Waldemeier left the mission and founded the
in America. Its Protestant community embraces Lebanon Hospital for the Insane at Asfurtyeh just
118 communicants and 277 adherents. (3) The outside of Beirut. After extensive journeys in
Jerusalem Stiftung, which cares for the German Switzerland, Great Britain, and the United States,
 Literature THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 236

Waldemeier proceeded with the erection of the lady who gave her money and 21 years of her life
buildings which now constitute the best-equipped to the building up of two boarding-schools. At her
home for the insane in the whole Turkish empire. death the work was placed in the hands of her
The general committee of the hospital is in London, assistant, Rev. Tanius Saad, who, in cooperation
the trustees are English and American, while the with an English and Irish committee of reference
executive committee is international. and a board of visitors, is carrying on the work suc-
The Society of Friends (American) carries on an cessfully. Two English and 6 Syrian workers care
extensive medical and educational work at Ramal- for 173 pupils in the schools. (9) The Christian
lah, Jaffa, and Ramleh with 4 American and 22 and Missionary Alliance of New York began in 1893
Syrian workers. an undenominational work in Jerusalem among
8. Other Enterprise*: These, mentioned in the Jews, Moslems, and oriental Christians for a deepen-
order of their founding, are: (1) The Reformed ing of the religious life, and has organized a church
Presbyterians (Covenanters) in North America oc- with boarding-schools for boys and girls, sends visit-
cupied Latakia in 1859 and later extended their ing workers into the villages, and supports a day-
work to Suadieh, Tarsus, Mesine, and Cyprus. They school for girls in Hebron. (10) The Presbyterian
have done much for the Nusairt, really a pagan peo- Church of England's Mission to the Jews entered
ple, which the government has attempted to make Aleppo in 1895 and aims mainly at helping the Jews
Mohammedan. Twenty American missionaries with while admitting a limited number of Gentiles. Three
48 native helpers in the 4 main stations and 9 out- British and 9 Syrian workers care for a community
stations have gathered more than 350 communi- of 120 Protestants with about 300 pupils in its
cants and 800 pupils in 15 schools. (2) The Ta- schools. (11) The Danish Mission to the Orient in
beetha Mission (1863) in Jaffa, aiming to give a 1898 entered Syria, in 1905 took over the Kala-
Christian training to Christian, Jewish, and Mos- moon district (n.c. of Damascus, toward Palmyra)
lem girls, was founded and is still carried on by from the Irish Presbyterian Mission, and has opened
Miss Walker Arnott. Four foreign and 10 Syrian work in Yabrood, Nebk, Deir Atiyeh, Hafr, and
helpers serve a hoime with 44 boarders, 2 day- Karjasem. Eight Danish and 17 Syrian workers
schools with 160 girls, and oversee an industrial have opened 9 schools with 340 pupils, while plans
work employing 500 women and girls. (3) The for an extensive medical and church work are well
Church of Scotland Jewish Mission (18G4) in Beirut under way. (12) The Swedish Jerusalem Society
aims to create and direct a movement among the of Stockholm entered Jerusalem in 19(),'> and is
Jews by which they may deliver themselves from building a hospital at Bethlehem, whore Dr. Rib-
rabbinical traditions and seek after God, and to in- bing has been laboring since 1904. This society
fuse Christian knowledge rather than to withdraw employs 4 Swedish, 2 German, 1 English, and 4
individuals. Eight British and 12 Syrian workers Syrian workers.
maintain excellent day schools for boys and girls VII. Summary and Conclusion: The whole
and a boarding home for Jewish girls, with a total number of foreign Protestant societies now opera-
of about 400 pupils. (4) Miss Taylor's orphanage ting in Syria is 35, with not less than 500 foreign
for Moslem and Druse Girls (1868) in Beirut is with- workers of whom about 150 are Americans and 200
out question the most unique work in Syria, if are from Great Britain. The pupils in Protestant
judged by the class of pupils and the influence ex- schools number more than 20,000. Medical mis-
erted by Miss Taylor's impressive personality and sions are carried on in 28 cities and towns, with
those who have followed her. (5) The Palestine more than 40 foreign physicians and twice as many
and Lebanon Nurses' Mission (1883) at Baaklin in trained nurses. In addition to the Protestant edu-
the Ixjbanon for the evangelization of the Druses cational institutions in Syria and Palestine, numer-
through the agency of a medical mission, with 5 ous schools have been opened by other sects, foreign
English and 2 native workers, maintains a cottage and native, and the Turkish government has begun
hospital with 15 beds, a large clinic, and services and to develop a system of its own, but has apparently
Druse women and girls. (6) The Edin-
classes for begun at the top with military and civil institu-
burgh Medical Missionary Society at Damascus tions instead of at the bottom with elementary ed-
(1884), after many years in hired premises, erected ucation. Beirut was in the days of the Roman em-
in 1908 commodious Victoria Hospital, where
its pire a city of schools and is so still. Out of 97
Dr. Frank Mackinnon and another English doctor schools of all grades 36 are Moslem (mainly elemen-
with 3 English and 2 native nurses receive and treat tary attached to the mosques), 43 are foreign, 14
the sick poor of all creeds and nationalities. Their belong to the native Christian sects and 2 to the
aim and object is u to preach the Gospel and to heal Jews. Out of the 13,256 scholars more than half
the sick." (7) The United Free Church of Scot- are in foreign schools and more than two-thirds are
land Mission has a fine hospital at Tiberias on the in Christian schools. The highest grades of all
Sea of Galilee (1884) with 40 beds and a large out- schools are Christian.
patient department where Dr. Torrance has labored The re-promulgation of the constitution in Turkey
26 years; another large hospital at Hebron, and in 1908, the deposition of Abd ul-Hamid in 1909,
one at Safed. In connection with the medical work and the other stirring events of the years 1907-09
are 4 schools with 330 pupils and religious services gave a great impetus to all missionary operations.
and communities. There are 12 British and 20 na- The new government, despite the malignant influ-
tive workers. (8) The Dufferin and Procter Me- ence and activity of the reactionaries, has shown
morial Schools for boys and girls at Swheifat were itself friendly to all educational enterprises, and
founded in 1885 by Miss Louisa Procter, an Irish men prominent in the new regime have rendered
237 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Syria
Syrlao Literature

One Hundred Syrian Pictures, Work of the

illustrating the
superb tributes to the foreigners who toiled amid W.
A. Easery, The Ascend-
Syrian Mission, London, 1903;
the darkness and confusion of the past twenty-five
ing Cross. Som* Rtsults of Missions in Bible Lands,
years. Great problems confront the present ad- London. 1005; Jehay, Sujtts Ottomans non- Mussulmans,
ministration. The politico-religious alliance be- BniMtls, 1000; Badk*r'i Syria and PaUttin*, Ltipiio,
1008.
tween Islam and the State must certainly give way
to something more suited to the modern world. S7RIAC LITERATURE.
Those who have fanned the fanaticism of the ig- Divisions of Syriao Literature ($1).
norant Moslems are guilty of awful crimes. But General Works on Syriac Literature (J 2).
closer contact with European influence, the growth Judaeo-Pagan Writings ( 3).
Bible and Apocrypha ( 4).
of education, the reading of the Bible, the phenom-
Native Christian Literature (5 5).
enal increase of newspapers, and the spread of a Theological Literature under Greek Influence ( 6).

purer Christianity are surely leavening the minds Rise of History under Islam (5 7).
of an increasingly larger number of Mohammedans. Period of Decline ( 8).
Collected and Miscellaneous Writings (5 0).
Diplomacy can never regenerate the East. The Works on Philosophy and Science (5 10).
patient work of education, the preaching of the Translation Literature ( 11).
Juristic Literature ( 12).
Gospel, the distribution of God's word among the
Historical Treatises ( 13).
masses, and the diffusion of Christian literature,
will gradually disarm prejudice, awaken inquiry, Syriac literature the literature of the language
" " " "
promote social harmony, destroy polygamy, reform designated as Syriac or Syrian (R. V. marg.
" "
the oriental churches, and bring the followers of Aramaic," Aramean ") in the Old Testament
Mohammed to the religion of Jesus Christ. Thus (II Kings xviii. 26; Dan. ii. 4; Ezra iv. 7) is of

will the press, the Church, and the school cooperate prime importance in the history of tho Christian
in hastening the true regeneration of this most in- religion, though not so much for its bearing on the
teresting, and, until recently, so degraded land. Bible and its exegesis as because of the high value
H
TI. jEssurt. Revised by F. E. HOSKINS. of the Christian literature which it contains. This

On the geographical and political history

iiAiMiY
statement holds good both of the works originally
up of the Soleucidan kingdom the literature is
to tho full written in Syriac by native authors, and of those
fully uu-luded in tho hats given under ASSYRIA; BABY- works which were first composed in other languages,
LONIA; PEHSIA, AIIAB; IKHAML, HISTORY or (where such but which now, their original texts having been
works; as MrCurdv's Hmtorj/, Prophecy and the Monu-
ment* deal with Assyrian and Babylonian control of Syria); lost, are preserved only in Syriac translations. Of
PAMUHTINIC; PTOLEMY, and SELRIICID^C; nee also under the latter type it is sufficient simply to allude to
DHUHKH, and MAH<NITEH Consult further G Cormack, such recent finds as the Old Syriac Gospels from
Efjyjjt in A <m A Plain Account of pre-Riblical Syria and
Sinai (sec BIBLE VERSIONS, A, III., 1, 3), to the
Paleotmc, New York, 1908; Sehrader, KAT, cd. of 1902,
pp 132-i:ifi; A. P Stanley, History of Syria and Pales- Odes of Solomon (see SOLOMON, ODES OF), or to the
tine, new ed London, 1883; W. L. Gage, Palestine, His- "
, list of Old Syriac Versions of Early Christian
toru and Descriptive, London, 1887; H
Wmckler, Keihn- "
Greek Literature given by Harnack (Litteratuf, i.
schnfthchcs Texlburh zvm A T., 2d ed., Leipsic, 1903;
idem, Auszuff au* der vorderasiatische Geschichte, ib. 1905; 885-886).
A. Henderson, Historical Geography of Syria, Edinburgh, Syriac literature may be divided (1) from the re-
1885; A Sanda, in Der alte Orient, v. no 3. Lcipsie, 1902;
ligious point of view into (a) heathen, (b) Jewish,
T. Noldeko, in Hermctt, v 443^08; A. Netibauer, La G6o-
(jraphie du Talmud, Paris, 1868; W. M. Mailer, Asien unti
and (c) Christian. (2) Chronologically it ranges
Europa nach altaayptischcn Denkmalern, Leipsic, 1893, from the beginning of the Christian era, or, if the
A Mullcr, Der /dam im Morym- und Abemlland, 2 vols., recent discoveries of Aramaic papyri in Egypt be
Borlm, 1885-87; E. Meyer, GeschvMe drs Altertums, vols.
included, from the fifth century B.C.
i., in, Stuttgart, 1884-1901; idem, Die Kntstehunff des
i. Divisions to the Middle Ages; while in the nine-
JudcntuntK, Halle, 1896; idem. Die Israelite*, und ihre
Nachbarstamme, Halle, 1906; W. Geiger and E. Kuhns, of Syriac teenth century a modern Syriac litera-
Iramsche Philologie, ii. 395-604; F. Hommol, Grundnss Literature. ture sprang up, largely through the
der Geonraphic und Geschichte des alien Orients, pp. 187-
194, Munich. 1904; idem, Geschichte des alien Morgen- agency of the American Mission at
landes, 3d ed I^ipsic, 1904, G. L. Bell, Durch die Wusttn
,
Urumiah. (3) Geograpliically the literature ranges
und Kulturxtflttcn Symns, 2d ed. Lei pair, 1910 from the southern frontier of Egypt and the shore
On missionary work, besides tho reports of the various of the Mediterranean across Mesopotamia to India
bodies operating in Syria, consult: T. Laurie, Historical
Sketch of the Syria Mission, New York, 1862; R. Anderson, (Kottayam in Malabar), Turkestan (Semiryeshchie),
Oriental Missions, 2 vols., Boston, 1872; J. 8. Dennis, Sketch and China (Singan-fu). (4) In extent and contents
of Syrian Missions, New York, 1872; H. H. Jessup, Women Syriac literature is sufficiently rich to arouse the
of the Arabs, Now York, 1874; idem, Syrian Home Life,
zeal of the scholar, without being so huge as to
ib 1874; idem, Mohammedan Missionary Problem, Phila-
delphia, 1880; idem, Fifty-three Years in Syria, New York, make him despair, as is the case, for instance, with
1910; E. D G. Prime, Forty Years in the Turkish Empire; Arabic. The new Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum
. .Memoirs of ... W. Goodett, New York, 1876; W.
.
Orientalium (Paris, 1903 sqq.) allows 125 parts for
A. Holliday, Historical Sketch of Missions to Syria, Phila-
the Syriac section, or more than for any other
delphia, 1881; Mrs. E. R. Pitman, Mission Life in Greece
and Palestine, London, 1881 The Star in the East: quar-
; branch; a single editor, Paul Bedjan, during recent
terly Record of the Progress of Christian Missions within years has published over thirty volumes, mostly
the Turkish Empire, London, 1883; F. Oonil, Jerusalem
inedita; and Paul de Lagarde (q.v.) began a Bib-
modeme. Hist, du mouvement catkoliqv* dan* la Ville
Saint, Paris, 1894; J. H. Wilson and J. Wells, Sea of liolheeaSyriaea (Go'ttingen, 1802).
Galilee Mission of the Free Church of Scotland, Edinburgh, Though mainly theological, Syriac literature
1895; M. Jullien, La Nouvelle Mission de la compagnie de covers all branches of science history, geography,
Jesus en Syrie, 1831-96, 2 vols., Tours, 1898; A. Forder,
With the Arabs in Tent and To urn; an Account of mission- philology, medicine, law, and astronomy and even
ary Work in Moab and Edam, London, 1902; H. J. E., contains specimens of the romance.
 Byrifto Literature THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 238

Eusebius, in various places in his Hist, eccl., like equal of Socrates and Pythagoras, was probably
Jerome and Gennadi us in their DC vir. ill., make a pagan, not* a Christian (cf Harnack, Litteratur,
.

mention of some Syriac writers who had already i.763, ii. 701; E. Renan, in JA, IV., xix. 328; F.
become known in the West, but the chief work of Schulthess, in ZDMG, li. 365-391).
" "
this sort is the Catalogue drawn up by Ebed The beginnings of the Syriac version of the Bible
Jesu (q.v., where details will be found regarding the probably came from Syrian Jews (see BIBLE VER-
edition by J. S. Assemani). Among modern works SIONS, A, III.; cf. also W. E. Barnes, "The Pes-
mention may be made of W. Wright, Short History hitta Version of II Kings," in JTS, vi. 220-232, xi.
of Syriac Literature, London, 1894 (first 533-542); but a practical and critical edition of the
"
a. General published as the article Syriac Litera- Syriac Old Testament is still to be made (cf. E.'
"
Works on ture in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th Nestle, in TLB, 1910, no. 23, and the same scholar
Syriac 824-856, London, 1887); R.
ed., xii. on the edition of the British and Foreign Bible So-
Literature. Duval, La Literature syriaque (Paris, ciety, in ZDMG,lix. 31-32). To Christian or Gnos-
1899; 2d ed., 1901); E. Nestle, Litr tic literature, rather than to apocryphal or even
teratura Syriaca (Berlin, 1888; extract from his Jewish, belong the Odes of Solomon (q.v.), which
Syrische Grammatik, 2d ed., giving the titles of the were first edited by J. R. Harris (Cambridge, 1909;
principal publications prior to 1888); C. Brockel- 2d ed. revised, 1911), who has also
mann, Syrische Grammatik, pp. 124-144 (2d ed., 4. Bible published An Early Christian Psalter
Berlin, 1905), gives a selection with additions up to and (London, 1909; cf. A. Harnack and
1905, and the same scholar has also treated this Apocrypha. J. Flemming, Ein judisch-christliches
field in the section on the Syriac and Christian Ara- Psalmbuch aus dem ersten Jahrhundert,
bic literatures in the Geschichte dcr christlichen Lite- Leipsic, 1910). On the Syriac translations of the
raturen des Ostens, pp. 1-74 (Leipsic, 1907); J. B. New Testament general reference may be made to
Chabot, Les Langues et les literatures aramecm BIBLE VERSIONS, A, III., to which may be added, as
(Paris, 1910); more
while special topics are dis- the most important subsequent publications, A. S.
"
cussed by A. Baumstark in his Bibliotheks- und Lewis' Old Syriac Gospels or Evangelion da-Mephar-
Buchwesen der christlichen Syrier," in Germania, restrf: Being the Text of the Sinai or Syro-Antiochene
"
Sept. 23, 1909, and in his Palaestinensia," in RQS, Palimpsest, including the latest Additions and Emen-
"
xx. 123-149, 157-188, and Ostsyrisches Christen- dations with the Variants of the Curetonian Text (Lon-
tum und ostsyrischer Hellenismus," ib., xxii., pp. don, 1910) and H. K. H. von Soden's Die Schriften
17-35. For a more thorough study the catalogues des Neuen Testaments in Hirer dltestcn erreichbaren
of the collections of Syriac manuscripts in the li- Textgestalt ( 331, 342, 3G3-368, 463, 493, 548, Ber-
braries of Europe and the East are indispensable, lin, 1902 sqq.), his main conclusions being that the
since a large part of Syriac literature is still hidden Diatessaron of Tatian (q.v.) existed not only in
in manuscripts, of which some are to be found in Syriac, but also in Greek, and that the influence of
America (for a list of some of these catalogues see both Tertian and his work was extremely great on the
BrGr.,* p. 124-125; cf. also the works referred to in text of the New Testament. Among the Apocrypha
SYHIAC CHURCH, especially those of F. C. Burkitt, of the New Testament more than usual interest at-
R. Duval, J. Labourt, and L. J. Tixeront). taches to the Acts of Thomas (see APOCRYPHA, B,
A Judceopagan source is probably to be sought II. (9), and cf. A. S. Lewis, in Horce Semiticce, iii.,
in the story of Ahikar the Sage, a fragment of which London, 1904), which seems to be of Syriac origin
has been found in one of the Aramaic papyri now in and to belong to the school of Bardesanes (q.v.).
the Royal Library, Berlin, while the complete ver- It is also noteworthy as containing the celebrated
sion was made accessible by F. C. Conybeare, J. R. "
Hymn of the Soul," on which cf. A. A. Bevan, in
Harris, and A. S. Lewis in their Story TS, v.; BrL, pp. 12-15; F. C. Burkitt, Hymn of
3. Judseo- of Ahikar from the Syriac, Arabic, Ar- Bardaisan (London, 1899) and Early Eastern Chris-
Pagan menian, Ethiopic, Greek, and Slavonic tianity, lecture vi. (New York, 1904; Eng. transl.,
Wxitings. Versions (London, 1898; cf. BrL, p. pp. 218-223). There is considerable doubt as to
5; F. Nau, Histoire et sagesse d' Ahikar whether the original language of the " Book of the
VAssyrien, Paris, 1909); and Mara bar Serapion, Laws of the Countries," which also belongs to the
who, in a letter to his son (first edited by W. Cure- school of Bardesanes, was Greek, as is maintained
ton, in his Spicilegium Syriacum, London, 1855), by F. Schulthess, or Syriac, as T. Noldeke holds (cf .

makes the wise king of the Jews (i.e., Christ) the ZDMG, Ixix., 91-94, 555-560, 745-750; and F. Nau,
in ZA, Sept.-Oct., 1910, pp. 209 sqq.)
*
Special abbreviations employed in this article: Excepting these few pieces which have a heathen,
AB, Analocia Bollandiana, Paris and Brussels, 1882 sqq. Jewish, or Gnostic origin, and to which may be
BO, J. 8. Aasemani, BibliotJuca Oriental*, Rome, 1719-28.
added scattered fragments of Manichean literature
BrGr, C. Brookelmann, Syrtodh* Grwnmatik, 2d tod.. Ber-
lin, 1905. (seeMANi, MANICHEANS; and note also MANDJBANB),
BrL, C. Brockelmann, in GtscAtdto dor chrietlichen Lterar Syriac literature is entirely Christian, and for the
turen dee Oetena, Leipsic, 1907.
most part ecclesiastical and theolog-
GA, Abhandlurwc* der kdnigHcten CtodlKhaft <*er Wiam-
chaften zu GdMnoe*, GOttingen, 1848 sqq. 5. Native ical. The chief centers were Edessa
NSt. N<n Studicn sur OetohwhU der Theologie und JCMh* Christian and Nisibis, and at first the literature
ed. G. N. Bonwetaob and R. Secberg, Leipsic. 1807 sqq. Litexmturt. was purely national, though later it
OChr, Orient Christiamu, Rome, 1901 sqq.
PO, Patroloffia Orientate, Paris, 1903 sqq.
came under the influence of the Greek
ROC, Revue de V orient chr&icn, Paris, 1896 sqq. Church, and finally was compelled to struggle against
RQS, Rtonitche Quartakchrift, Rome, 1887 sqq. Arabic domination. As the chief authors of this
 888 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Syriac Literature

literature have already been considered in separate chalde's edition of certain letters (Rome, 1902) has
articles, it is sufficient here merely to allude to them, been further considered by R. Duval, in JA, Jan.-
giving in addition the latest literature upon them. Feb., 1903, pp. 168-170, and by A. Baumstark, in
The chief representatives of the earliest original OChr, ii. 447-150. Stephen bar Zudhailc (q.v.) is
Syriac literature are Aphraates and Bphraem Syrus of importance chiefly because of his connection with
" " the literature which gathered around Dionysius the
(qq.v.), the Homilies of Aphraates have been
edited afresh by J. Parisot in Patrologia Syriaca Areopagite (q.v.), the latest contribution to this sub-
"
ii (Paris, 1894
sqq.), while his theological point of ject being P. Peeters, La Vision de Denys I'Areop-
view is discussed by P. Schwen, in his Afrahat, AB, xxix. 3. Very little was
agite a Heliopolis," in
-
seine Person und sein Verstandnis des Christentums known concerning Martyrius-Sahdona (c. 650) until
(Berlin, 1907; cf. TJB, 1907, pp. 322, 327, 330; of. II.Goussen published his Martyrius-Sahdona' s Leben
further, H. Koch, " Taufe und Askese in der alten und Werke (Leipsic, 1897) and P. Bedjan edited his
syrischen Kirche," in ZNTW, xii. 37-69). Igna- writings (Sancti Martyrii qui et Sahdona qua super-
tius Ephraem II. Rahmani's Sancti Ephraemi Syri sunt omnia, Paris, 1902; cf. R. Duval, JA, Jan.-
Hymni de Virginitate (Beirut, 1906) is, despite ita Feb., 1903, p. 166). When Sahdona abandoned
full title,only in part a first edition (cf. TJB, 1907, Nestorianism, he found a bitter opponent in Isho-
pp. 324-325). Minor successors and imitators of yabh III., the author of A eta Martyrii ISo'sabran
Ephraem were Cyrillona (c. 396; cf. Zahn, Kanon, (ed. J. B. Chabot, in Nouvclles archives des missions
ii. 252; G. Bickcll, in ZDMG, xxvii. 566-625, xxxv. scientifiques, viii. 486) and TheBook of Consolations,
357) and Balai (c. 420), whose works were edited, or the Pastoral Epistles of Mar Isho-Yahb (ed. P.
together with some of Ephraem and others, by J. J. Scott-Moncrieff, part i., London, 1904; these epis-
Overbeck, in his S. Ephrcemi Syri, Rabulce Episcopi tles have also been edited, with a Latin transl., by
Edessem, Balcri aliorumque opera selecta (Oxford, R. Duval, in CSCO, II., Ixiv., 1905). Another wri-
1865; on Balai cf., further, K. V. Zetterst&m, Bei- ter whose very name was almost unknown until the
trage zur Kenntnis der religiosen Dichtung Balai' 8, present century was Theodorus bar Koni (or, per-
Leipsic, 1902; BrGr). haps, Kewanai), who left a large collection of anno-
"
For the second period of Syriac literature, that tations on the Bible (cf. J. B. Chabot, Th&xlore
under Creek influence, general* reference may be bar Khouni et le livre des scholics," in JA, Jan.-
made to F. C. Burkitt's Early Eastern Christianity, Feb., 1901, pp. 170-179), the first part of which has
"
ut sup., and to J. Tixeront's ThSologic de langue been edited byAddai Scherin CSCO, II., Ixv., 1910.
"
syriaque au iv. siecle (Hifttoire dcs dogmes, vol. An author long known and justly famous was Jacob
ii., chap, vii., Paris, 1909). Here the most of Edessa (q.v,), new fragments of whose corre-
prominent figures are Rabbula of Edessa, Isaac of spondence have been published by F. Nau (ROC,
Antioch (qq.v.), and Barsauma of 1901, pp. 1-9, 1905, pp. 3-4); and to this same pe-
6. Theo- Nisibis (flourished c. 485). Isaac's riod belongs George, bishop of the Arabians (q.v.),
" "
logical De Perfectione Religiosa has
treatise who worked over the Chronicle of Eusebius, and
Literature recently been edited by P. Bedjan, some of whose fragments are quoted in BrGr.
under Greek Paris, 1908; while the letters of Bar- A new period began with the rise of Islam and
Influence, sauma to the Catholicos Acacius have the establishment of the calif ate in Babylonia; and
been published by P. Braun (in Actes Syriac literature as a whole soon yielded place to
du x. congres international des orientalistes, iii. 83- Arabic. Theological literature fell into the back-
101, Leydcn, 1896), and a hymn ascribed to him ground, and secular branches were cul-
(though others attribute it to Mar John) is given 7. Rise of tivated, treatises now being written
in A. J. Maclean's East Syrian Daily Offices, p. 226 History on astronomy, on astrology, on philos-
(London, 1894). under Islam, ophy, on logic, and on rhetoric. The-
The literary importance of Narsai (Nerses) the ophilus of Edessa is said to have corre-
Great (see NERSES) is attested both by his surname sponded with the calif Al-Mahdi on astrological
and by the publication of Sancti Nersetis Preces problems, and he even attempted to translate the
xxxiii linguis editor (Venice, 1862). To the works Iliad and the Odyssey for his countrymen, although
of Feldmann, Martin, Sachau, and Weil listed in only a few fragments of his version have survived.
BrGr, p. 135, and besides those mentioned in the After Paul the Persian had written on logic, Anto-
bibliography of NERSES, allusion may be made to nius the Rhetor, of Tagrit, adapted Greek rules to
V. Grabowski, Die Geschichte Josefs von Mar Norses the Syriac language; while by translating the works
I. (Leipsic, 1889), and to A. Mingana's edition, Nar- of Aristotle the Syrians became the teachers of the
sai Doctoris Syri homilias et carmina prime edita (2 Arabs, and thus, through them, the instructors of
"
vols., Mosul, 1905). The fifth volume of the Horn- medieval Europe [cf. I. Pizzi, Delia Gultura cre-
HicB Selectee of Jacob of Sarug (q.v.) has been ed- duta araba," in Giornale arcadico, ser. III., vol. v.].
ited by P. Bedjan (Paris, 1910), this part containing A historical work written about 776 A.D., and em-
homilies cxlvii.-cxcv., only one of which had pre- bodying extracts from Eusebius, Socrates, and
viously been edited. Philoxenus of Mabug (see John of Epheeus, has preserved the chronicle of
whom Brockelmann calls "
PHILOXENUS), the great- Joshua the Stylite, a chronicle which was long be-
est prose writer of Syria," has recently received lieved to be the work of Dioaysius of Tell-Mahre,
further study. The edition of his Discourse* by but of DionysiuB* own history only a portion has
.A. W. Budge (London, 1894) has been discussed survived. Moses bar Kepha (b. about 813; d. 903;
ina Russian criticism by A. Spassky, in Bogoslavsky bishop of Mosul, under the name of Severus, in
Vettnik, Oct., 1896, pp. 143-149; while A. A. Vas- 863) was a prolific author, although scarcely any of
Syriao Literature THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 940

his writingshave thus far been published (cf. 0. such as the works of Cyprian, which probably came
Braun, Moses bar Kepha und sein Buck von der Seek, through the medium of Greek. Among theological
Freiburg, 1891). The work of Thomas of Marga works mention may here be made (cf the more .

(monk in the cloister of Beth 'Abbe in 832, secre- complete list in Harnack, lAtteratur,
tary to the Patriarch Abraham in 837, and later 9. Collected i. 885-886) of the writings of Alexan-

bishop of Marga), The Book of Governors, the His- and Miscel- der of Alexandria, Clement of Alex-
toria Monastica of the Bishop of Marga (ed. and laneous andria, Clement of Rome, Dionysius
transl. E. A. W. Budge, 2 vols., London, 1893; Liber Writings, of Alexandria, Eusebius, Gregory Thau-
Superiorum . . Mar Narsetis HomUice in Joseph,
. maturgus, Ilippolytus, Ignatius, Ire-
Documenta patrum de quibusdam fidei dogmati- nceus, Julius Africanus, Pseudo-Justinus, Marcion,
bus, ed. P. Bedjan, Paris, 1901), is of importance Melito, Methodius, Origen, Paul of Samosata, Peter
for the history of the Syrian monasteries. A of Alexandria, Polycarp, Sextus, and Tatian (qq.v.).
contemporary of Thomas of Marga was Ishodad, Noteworthy among the collections and anonymous
whose position in the exegesis of the Old Testa- works are the important Didasralia and Apostolic
ment has been pointed out by G. Diettrich, in the Constitutions (see APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTIONS AND
"
Beihefte zur ZATW, no. 6, 1902, while an edition CANONS), the so-called Rules of the Egyptian
and translation is promised in the near future by Church," and the Acts of Andrew, Archelaus, John,
Margaret D. Gibson. Philip, and Paul (especially the hitter's correspond-
The eleventh century produced no great author ence with the Corinthians). Being the home of the
among the Syrians, but to the twelfth belongs Christological controversies, almost every impor-
Dionysius bar Salibi, some of whose numerous tant writer and document became known to the
works have been published in CSCO, II.: the ex- Syrians through translations, particularly Cyril of
planation of the Mass (by H. Labourt, vol. xciii., Alexandria, Athanasius, Gregory Nazianzen, and
1903), the first part of the commentary on the Gos- Gregory of Nyssa; while special mention is duo
pels (by I. SedlaJfek, vol. xcviii., 1906), and the the last great discovery in this field, the finding of
commentary on Revelation, Acts, and the Catholic the Liber Heraclidis of Nestorius. This treatise,
Epistles (by the same, vol. ci., 1910). In the early the Greek version of which has been lost, has be( n
part of the thirteenth century there edited by P. Bedjan (Lc Livre d'IKrachdc dc Daman,
8. Periodflourished Bishop Solomon of Basra, Paris, 1910) and has been translated into French by
"
of Decline, the author of The Book of the Bee (ed. F. Nau (Paris, 1910; cf. also E. W. Brooks, La
and transl., E. A. W. Budge, in An- Lettro de Nestorius aux habitants do Constanti-
ecdota Oxomensia, vol. i., part ii., Oxford, 1886), nople," in ROC, II., v. 3; M. Briere, ib. v. i.). And
which is full of curious legendary information con- a considerable literature has already arisen on the
cerning the Bible. To this period also belongs the Odes of Solomon, which were first edited from the
poet Giwargis Warda of Arbela (about 1225), but the Syriac version by J. R. Harris in 1909 (see SOLOMON,
most versatile author of the century, and indeed of ODES OF).
the whole range of Syriac literature, was Abulfaraj In the domain of philosophy the Syrians became
(q.v.), commonly called Bar-Hebrseus. To the list the teachers of the Arabs, whose translations of the
of modern editions of his works given by Nestle writings of Aristotle carried this now learning
(Litteratura, pp. 46-50, ut sup.) some twenty more throughout medieval Europe. Here the way was
have been added by BrGr, p. 159, and even this is led by the Nestorian Probus, who probably flour-
"
not exhaustive (cf. J. Gottesberger, Barhebraus ished in the first half of the fifth century, and he
und seine Scholien zur heiligen Schrift," in Biblische was followed by Theodore, bishop of
Studien, ed. O. Bardenhewer, v. 4-5, Freiburg, 10* Works Merv after 540. Here belong also Paul
1900). Abulfaraj was followed by Ebed Jesu (q.v.), on Philoso- the Persian (see above), who resided
the author of a versified list of Syriac literature, a phy and at the court of Chosroes Anushirvan,
"
collection of canons, and the Paradise of Eden," Science, and Sergius of Ras'ain (c. 535; see the
"
an imitation of the Arabic " Seances of Hariri. works of A. Baumstark, Friedmann,
The name of the last writer of good Syriac is un- R. J. H. Gottheil, G. Hoffmann, A. van Hoonacker,
known, but he was the biographer of the Patriarch and N. Nagy, cited in BrGr, p. 140). For the gram-
Yaballah (1281-1317), who started on a pilgrimage matical treatises of the Syrians reference may be
from China to Jerusalem and Europe, and who rose, made to A. Merx, Historia Artis Grammaticce apud
through his relations with the Mongolian princes to Syros (Leipsic, 1889 [cf also Mdr(i) Elid of $6bhd,
.

whom the Syrian Church was then subject, to the Treatise on Syriac Grammar, ed. and transl. R. J. H.
dignity of patriarch. Several centuries then passed Gottheil, Berlin, 1877]). Galen and Hippocrates
before the literature in modern Syriac began, a gave to the Syrians their knowledge of medicine (cf .

literature which, however, falls outride the scope the works of Gottheil, Merx, and H. Pognon listed
of this article. in BrGr, p. 142). On geography J. P. N. Land pub-
The discussion has thus far been concerned chiefly "
lished Aardrijkskundige fragmen ten uit de syrische
"
with individual authors, most of whom wrote on litteratuur in the Verslagen en Mededeelingen der
theology. There are, however, also numerous works koninklijken Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdee-
the authors of which are unknown, as well as col- Kng LeUerkunde, III., iii. 1886), while from R. J. H. .

lected works (cf. the list in BrOr, pp. 131-134) and Gottheil came contributions on the history of Syriac
the rich literature of translations (BrGr, p. 140 geography in Hebraica, vii. 39-55, viii. 65-76, Mit-
sqq.), especially from Greek, though there are also teilungen des akademisch-orientalisciien Vereins zu
aome from Arabic and Persian; and a few from Latin, Berlin, no. 3, 1890, pp. 148, JAOS, Proceedings, May,
241 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Syriao Literature

1888, pp. xvi.-xx., and F. Nau has written not only in Zeitschrift fftr vergleichende
Rechtswissenschaft,
" " "
La Cosmographie au chez les Syriens
vii. siecle xix., parto 2-3; V. Aptowitzer, Die Rechtsbticher
in ROC, on the theme of astron-
II., v. 3, but also, der syrischen Patriarchen und ihre Quellen," in
" Wiener Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des Morgenlandes,
omy, Notes d'astronomie syrienne," in JA, Sept.-
Oct., 1910. xxiv., parts 2-3). Much importance attaches to
Syriac translations from the Pahlavi include the the Syriac translations of the canons of the early
"
famous " Kalilag and Dimnag (ed. and transl., synods of the Church (see the ed. by F. Schulthess,
"
G. Bickcll, with introduction by T. Benfey, Leip- Die syrischen Kanones der Synoden von Nicsea
sic, 1876), while the Psalms, with the canons of Mar bis Chalcedon nebst einigen zugehorigen Documen-
Abha, were translated from Syriac into Pahlavi (see ten," in GA, vol. x., part 2; cf. also F. Nau, An-
F. C. Andreas, in SBA, 1910, p. 869 cienne litterature canonique syriaque, iii., Paris,
11. Trans- sqq.)- [There is also reason to sup- 1909). Among the canons of individual bishops, to
lation pose that the Biblical fragments pro- which a more limited interest attaches, special men-
Literature, served in Pahlavi translation in the tion may be made of those of Jacob of Edessa (q.v.),
Shikand-gumanig Vijar were derived, John bar Cursus (BrGr), Timotheus I. (transl., F.
as the form of the proper names shows, from a Labourt, Les Canons ecclesiastigues du patriarchs
Syriac original (see BIBLE VERSIONS, B, XIII.).] nestorien Timotfae /., Paris, 1908), and Simeon of
The Syriac version of the Pseudo-Callisthencs (ed. Revardeshir (c. 650; cf. A. Reicker, Die Canones des
and transl., E. A. W. Budge, The History of Alex- Simeon von Revdrdesir, Leipsic, 1908; see also W.
wider the Great, Cambridge, 1889) was based on the Wright, Notulce Kyriacae, pp. 3-11, n.p., 1887). It
Greek original, while, on the other hand, some Syr- should also be stated that some Syriac canons are
iac writings, notably of Ephracm, were rendered into translated from the Persian.
"
Greek. A second Syriac recension of Kalilag and The historical literature of the Syrians begins
"
Dimnag was founded on an Arabic instead of a with the legend of King Afogar (q v.), which Euse-
Pahlavi version (ed. W. Wright, Book of Kalila and bius incorporated in his Hist. eccl. This literature
Dtmna, London, 1884; new ed., with German includes works of great importance, among them
transl by F. Schulthess, Berlin, 1911), and to a
,

"
the translation of the history of Eusebius just men-
similar source belongs the Story of Sindban, or, tioned a version made perhaps during the life-
"
The Seven Wise Masters (ed. and transl., F. time of its author. The calendar of the church at
Baethgen, Leipsic, 1879). Many Syriac works have Nicomedia is preserved in the " Syrian Marty rol-
"
been translated into Armenian, Arabic, and Coptic. ogy (first ed. W. Wright, in Journal of Sacred
Thus, the homilies of Aphraates were long known Literature, viii. 45, 423; also by R. Graffin and L.
from their Armenian version, although, prior to the Duchesne, in ASB, Nov., vol. ii., 1, pp. lii.-lv.;
discovery of their Syriac original, they were as- German transl. by II. Lietzmann, Die drei altesten
cribed to Jacob of Nisibis (q.v.). Still other works, Martyrologien, Bonn, 1903). The
such as Ephraem's commentary on the Diatessaron 13. His- Syriac Acta Martyrum et Sanctorum,
of Tatian, are yet lost in Syriac, and are known only torical edited or reedited by P. Bedjan, fill
through Armenian versions. Treatises, seven volumes (Paris, 1892-97), these
The juristic literature of the Syrians was con- including the collection of Maruthas,
cerned with both ecclesiastical and civil law, and bishop of Maipherkat (see MARUTHAS), on the Per-
it was especially important since the bishops and sian martyrs. The historical and geographical
other clergy were the representatives of their peo- knowledge that may be gained from these acts is
ple under the Iranian and Mohammedan rulers. For well illustrated by G. Hoffmann's Auszuge aus
the earlier literature reference may be made to syrischen Akten persisctier Martyrer (Leipsic, 1880).
BrGr, and other publications of note A good type of the historical legend is that of Alexis,
" "
12. Juris- are C. G. Bruns and E. Sachau, Syrisch- the man of God (cf. A. Amiaud, La Legende
tic Litera- romisches Rechtsbuch aus dcm funften syriaque de saint Alexis, rhomme dc Dieu, Paris,
ture. Jahrhundert, Leipsic, 1880; O. Braun, 1889; T. Noldeke, in ZDMG, liii. 256-258); while
Buch der Syntiados, Stuttgart, 1900; for a real historical biography reference may be
J. B. Chabot, Synodicon orientate, Paris, 1903; and made to that of Rabbula (q.v.). There are, be-
the Nomocanon of Ebed Jcsu (q.v.). There is also sides, a large number of chronicles, largely revisions
a great collection of laws, the Greek original of and continuations of the work of Eusebius (cf. F.
"
which appears to date from the reign of Basiliscus Macler, Extraits de la chronique de Maribas Kal-
(475-477), while its Syriac version has been trans- doyo," in JA, May-June, 1903, pp. 491-549). Three
lated into Armenian, Georgian, and Arabic (cf. E. parts of Chronica minora have been edited and
Sachau, Synsche Rechtsbucher herausgegeben und translated by E. W. Brooks, J B. Chabot, and I.
ubersetzt, i., Berlin, 1907, containing the laws of Guidi in CSCO, ser. iii., vol. iv., parts 1-3), and
"
Constantine, Theodosius, and Leo; idem, Ueber special value also attaches to L. J. Delaporte*s editio
altere syrische Rechstliteratur der Nestorianer und princeps of La Chronographie d'filie bar Sinaya,
im besonderen Uber das Buch der richterlichen Ur- metropolitain de Nisibe (Paris, 1910). New fields
teile des im Jahre 705 gestorbenen Patriarchen of church history were opened up by the writings
Chananischo," in SBA, 1904; E. Sachau and L. of John of Ephesus (q.v.); the Chronicle of Joshua
"
Mitteis, Ueber drei neue Handschriften der syrisch- the Stylitc (ed. W. Wright, London, 1882); the
" "
rb'mischen Rechtsbucher" ib. 1905also published Chronicle of Edessa (ed. and transl., L. Hallier,
separately; D. H. M
tiller, Das syrischr-ro'mische in his Untersuchungen uber die edessenischc Chronik,
Rechtsbuch, Vienna, 1905; J. Kohler, "Altsyrisches," Leipsic, 1892); the church history of Zacharias
XL 10
Syrlao Literature
Syropulua
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 842

Rhetor (see ZACHARIAB SCHOLABTIKOS; Eng. transl., SYRIAN CHURCH: This organization, in spite
by F. H. Hamilton and E. W. Brooks, The Syriac of its importance, particularly in the earlier period,
Ckronide, known as thai of Zachariah of Mitylene, has by historians and investigators been sadly neg-
London, 1899; cf. also K, Ahrens and G. Kriiger, lected. Thereis yet no really critical edition of
in Scriptores Sacri et Profani Seminarii Philologid its Bible, and no work devoted to the history of
" "
Jenenns, iii., Leipsic, 1899; the Life of Severus the church. Yet it has been noted by Harnack
has been edited and translated by A. Kugener in (Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums, ii. 126,
PO, vol. ii., part 1; cf. further, A. Kugener, in ROC, 2d ed., 2 vols., Leipsic, 1906, Eng. transl., Mission
1900, parts 2-3, J. Gwynn, in Hermathena, xi., no. and Expansion of Christianity, 2d ed., London,
24; the Syriac text includes the legend of Joseph 1908) that it is a church to which protection by the
and his wife, Asenath); the legend of the Seven State has never been granted, while J. F. Bethune-
Sleepers of Ephesus (q.v.; cf. also M. Huber, Die Baker (JTS, viii. 123) remarks upon the Nestorian
Wanderlegende von den SiebensMdfem, Leipsic, branch that its magnificent history, its endurance
1910); a description of Rome in connection with under unparalleled persecution, its undoubted loy-
the war of Totila; and an account of the world alty to the faith received from the Fathers, and its
based on Ptolemy. Among the historical romances Eastern character combine to give it a unique postion.
is the history of Julian called the Apostate (see In a sense its history begins when the apostles
JULIAN), which has been edited by G. Hoffmann were in Damascus und Antioch, and each of the
(Julianos der Abtriinnige, Leiden, 1880) and, in Gospels alludes to the Syrians (Matt. iv. 124; Mark
selections, by R. J. II. Gottheil (1906); while a vii.26; Luke iv. 27; John xii. 20). It would appear
complicated history attaches to the so-called that there were Christians at Damascus in the days
" "
Chronicle of Dionysius of Tell Mahre (cf. H. G. of Origen, and the bishop of the city was present at
Kleyn, in Feestbuundel aan Prof. M. J. de Goeje, Nicola, though nothing is known concerning the
pp. 57-75, Leyden, 1891; F. Nau, Nouvettes etudes number of Christians there. In the time of Chrysos-
8ur le chronique attribut a Denys de Tellmahre, Paris, tom the inhabitants of Antioch were proud of the
"
1896; Bulletin critique, 1897, pp. 54-58; JA, viii. fact that there the disciples were called Christians
2; ROC, 1897; the fourth part of the chronicle in first" (Acts xi. 26); according to Ephraem Synis
question was edited by J. B. Chabot, Paris, 1895). the Gospel of John was written there; this eity had
E. NESTLE. its own bishops (although the list is not without
BIBLIOGRAPHY: In addition to the works mentioned in the variations), among them Ignatius, who termed
article, the following treatises may be consulted with ad- "
Antioch the Church of Syria." The national
vantage: from PO, Histoire nestonenne (chronique de
Syrian Church began, however, in Edessa (q v ). It
Seert), i., Arabic text, ed. Addai Schcr, tninsl. P. Dib (vol.
is possible that the Syriac translation of the Old
iv., part 3, vol. v., part 2); LM JAgendes synaques d Aaron
1

de Saroug, de Maxime et Domece, d* Abraham, maUre de Testament was at least in part a Jewish production,
Barsoma et de I'empereur Maurice, ed. and trantd. F. Nau but Christianity did not become the dominant fac-
(vol. v., part 5); James of JKdesaa, the Hymns of Severua tor in Edessa until the early part of the third cen-
of Antioch and Others, ed. and transl E. W. Brooks (vol.
vi., part 1; cf. W.
E. Barnes, in JTS, xii. 304-305); tury. By the time of the first pilgrims to Palestine
TraUe d'/fai le docteur et de ffnana d'Admbene BUT lea
Edessa had come to be regarded almost as a part
martyrs le vendredi d'or et lea rogations, suivis de la confes- of the Holy Land, a fame which it retained through-
sion de foi a reciter par lea evfques avant V ordination, cd. out the period of the Crusades. The earliest cer-
and transl. Addai Scher (vol. vii., part 1); also F. Nau, tain names in the history of the church at Edessa
"
Hagiographie syriaque," in RCO, II., v., no. I; id La
are those of Bardesanes (q.v.) and his son, Har-
,

Version aynaque de la premiere lettre de Saint-Antoine:

Analyse du traitf de Denys bar Salibi contre les Nestonena, modius, and their antagonist, Ephraem Syrus (q.v ).
"
Paris, 1909; Ignatius Ephraem II. Rahmani, Documen- Syriac literature (q.v.) is almost entirely Chris-
ta de aiitiquis haaresibus," in Studio, Synora, part iv.,
" tian, and, indeed, theological (cf. BIBLE VERSIONS,
1909; H. W. Codrington, Liturgia prccsauctificatorum
Syriaca," in xpuaocrroMiKa, Studi e ricerche intorno a S. A, III.; HARMONY OF THE GOMPELS, I, 2-3), in-
Giovanni Crisostumo, pp. 719-729, Rome, 1908 ; A.
"
cluding a large number of Apocrypha, such as the
Baumstark, Die Chrysoatomusliturgie und die syrische Testamentum Domini nostri Jesu Christi (q.v.) and
Liturgie des Nestorios," ib. pp 771-857; J B. Chabot,
44
L'Autodafe des livrcs syrmques au Malabar," in Flonle-
The Gospel of the Twelve Apostles, togettier with the
ffium . . a M. le marquis Afelchtor de Vogue, Paris.,
. Apocalypses of each one of them (ed. J. R. Harris,
1909; B. Charon (pseudonym for C. P. Karalevsky), His- Cambridge, 1900), while the Bible manuscripts fre-
toire des patriarcats melkites depuis le schisme mono-
quently contain III Cor., but have neither the Cath-
. . .

physite du vi. siecle jusqu'a nos jours, Rome, 1909-10;

A. Rabbath, Documents inedits pour servir & Vhistoire du olic epistles nor the Apocalypse, for which they
christianiame en orient, Beirut, 1910; S. Euringer, 4I Abys- sometimes substitute the Tcstamentum Domini and
simen und die heilige Stuhl," in TQS, xcii 329 sqq.; Addai the six books of Clement.* The art displayed in
4'
Scher, Episodes de 1'histoire du Kurdistan," in JA, X.,
xv. 119-139; id., " Joseph Harzaya, fcrivain syriaque
these manuscripts is an important factor in the de-
du viii. siecle," in Rivista degli studi orientali, iii.; G. Levi termination of the influence of Syrian art on the
"
della Vida, Pseudo-Beroso siriaco," ib.; G. Richard. Two Occident and of the significance of Syrian individ-
Syriac-Arabic Glosses of lsh& bar 'AH, Rome, 1910; R. uals and colonies in Italy and Gaul. There were
Duval, Les HomiUa cathedrales de Severe d'Antioche, Paris,
1907 (cf.JTS, viii. 465-467); J. Lebon, Le Monophyaiame Syrian popes: Anicetus, John V., Sergius, Sisin-
scvtrien, Louvain, 1909 (cf. Revue d'hiatoire et de Ititdroture nius, Constantino I., and Gregory III. A new period
religituses, xi. 85-93); E. A. W. Budge, Coptic Homilies in the history of the Syrian Church began when
(London, 1910; contains the Syriac text, with translation,
of John the Paster's homily; and also the text and transl.
of portions of a homily of Alexander, the twelfth patriarch *
[The Testamentum Domini, in two books, together with
of Alexandria); I. Piwi, " La Dottrina dell' apostolo Ad- six otherbooks of church law, forms the " Clementine Octa
Jai," in Giornole arcodico, ser. iii., vol, iv, teuch," used both by Nestorians and by Jacobites.]
848 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Syriac Literature
Syropulus

Greek influence commenced to be predominant in Ephesus, Isaac of Antioch, Maruthas, Rabbula,

theology and Church shortly after the time of Stephen bar Zudhaile, Syriac Literature, and Theo-
Aphraates (q.v.) in the fourth century, while po- dore of Mopsuestia.
litical bonds with the empire were dissolved. It BIBLIOGRAPHY For sources the fint place is taken by CSCO.
:

was then that the Christological controversies of the Other sources are indicated in the articles (and attached
bibliographies) referred to in the text. Eng. transls. of
Eastern Church raged with greater fury in Syria various documents are to be found in ANF, vola. viii. and
than in their own land, ultimately causing not only ix., and in NPNF, ser.,
2 xiii. 117 sqq.; W. Cureton, An-
transformation and schism, but well-nigh resulting cient Syriac Documents, London, 1864; Ein Brief Georgt
an den Presbyter Jesus, aus dem Syrischen, Gotha, 1883;
in destruction. Much of this struggle is discussed
Thomas of Marga, The Book of Governors; the Historic,
in the articles MONOPHYSITES; and NESTORIANS. monastica, Eng. transl. by E. A. W. Budge, 2 vols., Lon-
The great extension of the Syrian church may be don, 1893; Das Buck der Synhados, Germ, transl. by
"
seen from its inscriptions, which are found as far O. Braun, Stuttgart, 1000; Michael the Syrian, Chron
icle," ed. J. B. Chabot, Paris, 1000 sqq.; Lettre du catho-
south as India (Cottayam, in North Travancore), licos Mar- Aba II. aux membres de Vecole patnarcale, ed.
as far east as China (the famous inscription of Sing- and transl. J. B. Chabot, Paris, 1806; La Ltgende de Mar
an-fu of 781; see NESTORIANS, 2), and as far Bassus, ed. and transl. J. B. Chabot, Paris, 1803; Jesus-
dena, La Livre de chastctt, ed. and transl. by J. B. Chabot,
north as Semiryeshchie. Syrian influence is shown
Paris, 1806; Vie de Jtsut-Sabran, tcrite par JAsus-Yahb
in Central Asia by the Mongolian script, which is d'Adiabiene, ed. J. B. Chabot, Paris, 1807; Regula mon-
from top to bottom in the early Syrian fashion, and asticct sac. VI. ab Abrahamo et Dadjesu condita, ed. and
transl. J. B. Chabot, Paris, 1808; The Book of Consola-
still more clearly by the manuscripts discovered in
tions. Pastoral Epistles of Mdr IshA Yahbh. Syriac text,
Turkestan in Estrangclo script (though in a number with Eng. transl. by P. 8. Moncrieff, London, 1004.
of different languages), these texts, however, being For discussion and history consult: F. C. Burkitt, Early
mainly concerned with Manicheism. Syriac literature Christianity outside the Roman Empire, Cambridge, 1800;
idem, Early Eastern Christianity, New York and London,
is exceedingly extensive, the comprehensive charac-
1004; J. B. Chabot, L'ficolc de Nisibe, Paris, 1806; idem,
ter being shown by the four series contemplated and Pierre I'lberien, tvfique de Afayouma, ib. 1806; idem, Vie
begun in CSCO. Its relation to monasticism is close, de Mar Youssef I., patriarche des Chaldeens, ib. 1806;
and its martyrology voluminous, much of which
is E. S. A[ppleyard|, Eastern Churches, London, 1850; A.
d'Avril, La Chaldee chreti<-nne, Paris, 1864; C. B. Benni,
is being utilized in the Analecta Bollandiana.
Tradition of the Syriac Church of Antioch, London, 1871;
Since the Syrian church stood very close, both in Jacobites of Ceylon. By a Missionary A postal tc, Colombo,
place and language, to the primitive Church, it is 1880; R. Duval, Hist. d'Edesse, Paris. 1802; L. Halher,
in TU, ix. 1 (1802); A. J. Maclean and W. H. Browne,
evidently very important for the history of liturgy
The Catholicos of the East and his People, London, 1802.
and organization, especially since such sources as G. M. Rac, Syrian Church in India, Edinburgh, 1802;
the Didascalia are more ancient than the corre- R. Graffin, Patroloffia Syriaca, Paris, 1804; O. H. Parry,
sponding documents of the West. The Nestorian Six Months in a Syrian Monastery, London, 1895; J. G.
Gregson, Among the Syrian Christians in Travancore,
liturgy is most nearly akin to that of Dionysius the London, 1807; idem, The Reformed Syrian Church in Mal-
Areopagite (q.v.), yet it contains neither renuncia- abar, ib., 1800; P. Perdrizet and C. Fossey, Voyofje dans
tion of the devil (see RENUNCIATION) nor a creed la Syrie du Nord, in Bulletin de correspondence, xxi V 1807),
66 sqq.; G. Voisin, L' Apollinarismc, Lou vain, 1901; S.
(the latter omission scarcely being original). Val-
Jamil, Genuine* relationes inter sedem apoatolicam et Assyri-
uable data for the history of canon law may also
orum orientalium seu Chaldoeorum ecclesiam, Rome, 1002
be drawn from Syriac literature, as from the Nomo- (Lat. and Syr.); W. Bauer, Der Apostolos der Syrer, Gies-
canones of Barhebr&eus, Ebed Jesu, and Jacob of sen. 1003; R. H. Conolly, in JTS, vi (1904), 422-439; A.
Harnack, Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Cen-
Edessa, or the Syro-Roman code of the fifth cen-
turies. 2d ed., 2 vols., London and New York, 1008; H.
tury edited by K. G. Bruns and E. Sachau (Syrisch- Labourt, De Timotheo /., Nestorianorum patnarcha (728-
Romiaches Gesetzbuch, Leipsic, 1880). 823), Paris, 1004; W. A. Shedd. Islam and the Oriental
The twenty-five metropolitans once possessed by Churches; their historical Relations, Philadelphia, 1004; [.
Silbernagl, Verfassung und gegenwdrtigcr Bestand sttmmt-
the Nestorian church are now reduced to the patri-
licher Kirchen des Orients, Regensburg. 1004; J. R. Harris,
arch and metropolitan, with three bishops in Persia The Cult of the Heavenly Twins, chaps, xii.-xiv., Cam-
and seven in Turkey, some of the dioceses being bridge, 1006; E. Buonajuti, Lucian of Samosata and the
A matte and Syriac Christianity of his Times, in New York
merely nominal. An active propaganda has been
Review, July, 1006; Bernard GhobaYra al-Ghaziri, Rome et
carried on among the Nestorians by the Jesuits at
realise Syrienne Maronite d'Antioche (617-1631), Beirut,
Beirut, the Dominicans at Mosul, and the Roman 1006; De L. O'Leary, The Syriac Church and Fathers, Lon-
Catholic mission in Malabar. Comparatively little don, 1000; G. D. Mnlech, Hist, of the Syrian Nation and the
Old Evangelical- Apostolic Church of the East, Minneapolis.
has been accomplished by the archbishop of Can-
1011. Of the highest value is the detailed literature
terbury's Assyrian (East Syrian) Mission or by named under the articles to which attention is called above.
American Protestant missionaries at Urumiah (see
ANGLICAN-GERMAN BISHOPRIC IN).
SYRO-HEXAPLAR VERSION. See BIBLE VER-
JERUSALEM, 6.
SIONS, A, L, 1,
No even approximate, can be given con-
statistics,
cerning the present numbers, divisions, or institu- SYROPULUS, soi-rep'u-lus (SGUROPULUS),
tions of the Syrian Church. (E. NESTLE.) SILVESTER: Historian of the Council of Ferrara-
The foregoing outline should be read in connec- Florence (q.v.); lived in the first half of the fif-
tion with a series of articles in this work (mainly teenth century. He was one of the five high dig-
by the same author) exclusive of those named in nitaries under the patriarch in Constantinople. He
the text. These articles, which illumine particular was a passionate adherent of his church and averse
epochs and practically display the entire history of to all Latin tendencies; but circumstances forced
the church, deal with Abgar, Apollinaris of Laodicea, him to take part in the pressing movement for
Ebed Jesu, Ibas, Jacob of Edessa, Jacob of Nisibis, church union under the leadership of Emperor Jo-
Jacob of Sarug, Jacobites, John of Dara, John of hannes. At the synod he belonged to the party of
Tabernacle, The Movaio
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 244

Marcus Eugenicus of Ephesus, a strictly orthodox In 1642 Claudius Serrarius, the learned senator
anti-unionist. According to bis own account, he in Paris,had the work of Syropulus copied from a
detested the whole journey, did not expect success, codex of the Bibliotheca regia (N. 1247) and sent
became involved in conflict with the patriarch and the manuscript to Isaak Vossius for publication.
even the emperor, and obstinately refused his as- The English minister, Robert Crcighton, chaplain at
sent to the agreement only the demand and threat
;
the court of Charles II. and subsequently bishop
of the emperor induced him to sign, and this he of Bath, was entrusted with the work; ho undertook
counted a weakness. After his return to Constan- the publication of the Greek text together with a
tinople his concessions at the synod occasioned bit- Latin translation under the title, Vera historia
ter attacks. He then retired from his activity and unionis non verce inhr Grcecos et Latinos, sive Con-
gave an account of this important experience in a
"
cilii Florentini exactixsima narratio grcece scripta per
work bearing perhaps the title as Recollections of Sylvestrum Sguropulum (The Hague, 1600). Unfor-
the Council of Florence." It is of great value as a tunately the edition is incomplete since the whole
source, being the work of a participant in the events. of the first book was missing in the Paris codex,
Though partizan, it reveals a series of relationships but the beginning may perhaps still be supplied
and developments which otherwise would have re- from manuscript. (PHILIPP MEYER.)
mained unknown. The author tries to prove that BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Allatius, In R Creyghtoni apparatum
a real harmony could not be attained, but that the . .ad hiaioriam conciln Florentine pnrt i. Home, 1005,
. f

also 1674; Fahncjus-Hiirles, BMiothrca Orirca, xi. 711,

leading personalities, the pope, Bessarion, the pa-
Hamburg, 1808; Hefele, Connlienfjfftchichtp, vol vii. pas-
triarch, and the emperor, together with some other sim; idem, m TQ, xxix (1847); () T Frommann, Knt-
spokesmen, approached each other more closely until ische Beitr&ge zur Gesc hie htr ,dcr Ftonmtincr Ktrchennntg-
the urgent position of the Greeks decided the issue. ung, Halle, 1872; A. C. Demctracopulos, Craecia orthodoxa,
p. 109, Leipsic, 1872; KL, xi. 1154-55.
Syropulus justly calls the result a mediating pact,
instead of a union. SZEGEDINUS. See Kis, STEPHANUS,

TABERNACLE: The term used in the Middle of the boards, ten cubits. The boards were con-
Ages for the outer vesselwhich the host is
in nected with each other and with the floor by tonons
preserved, the inner being named the pyx (see VES- and sockets. The sockets were of silver, and each
SELS, SACRED). The word also designates the board had two such sockets, i.e., probably holes into
baldaquin above the altar, and the ciborium (see which the tenons wore put. The rear wall had, be-
ALTAR, II., 1, 1). sides the six boards that were like tho others, t\vo
corner boards of a different kind, but it is not clear
TABERNACLE CONNECTION. See METHODISTS,
from Ex. xxvi. 24 wherein their peculiarity con-
I., 2.
sisted. The boards were fastened together with
TABERNACLE, THE MOSAIC. five bars for each side that were thrust through
The Tent ( 1). rings of gold; the boards were covered with gold,
The Curtains (2). as were the bars, which were made of acacia wood.
The Interior and its Furnishing ( 3). " "
The Court and its Furnishing ($ 4). This wooden structure became a tabernacle
" "
Historicity of the Account (5). or tent only through the curtains spread over
Conclusion; Later History (56). it (Ex. xxvi. 1 sqq., xxxvi. 8 sqq.) which were so
" labernacle " is essential to it that one of them, the byssus curtain,
the term used in the English
versions of the Biblical account of the exodus to could be called the tabernacle (xxvi. 1,
name the structure serving in the wilderness wan- 2. The 6, etc.). The lowest covering, the so-
derings as the dwelling-place of God, to which the Curtains. called byssus curtain, consisted of ten
people assembled. It represents several Hebrew pieces each twenty-eight cubits long
phrases 'ohel nw'edh, 'ohel Ha'edhuth, miskkan, and four wide, of twined byssus, therefore probably
mishkan ha'edhwth, which, translated literally, mean of white as the ground-color, interwoven with pat-
"tent of meeting/' " t/ent of testimony," but it is terns of blue, purple, and scarlet cherubim. Five
not to bo taken as a place in which men met. In of these ten pieces were fastened together so as to
structure it was a temple in the form of a tent. make two large curtains twenty-eight cubits long
The tent itself consisted of a wooden structure of and twenty cubits broad. Each of these curtains
acacia boards covered with curtains. The boards had fifty loops of purple yarn through which were
were forty-eight in number, each one ten cubits thrust golden taches, fastening the whole into one
long and one and a half wide. They covering. Over this curtain, to which the name
" "
I. The were distributed in such a way that tabernacle was given, there was spread for its
Tent. "
there were twenty boards each on the protection a curtain of goats' hair, called tent."
north side and the south side, eight It consisted of eleven pieces, each thirty cubits
boards at the west or rear; the front, on the east, long and four wide, so connected as to make two
remained open. Inasmuch as the boards were curtains, one of five, the other of six of the smaller
closely joined to make a real wall, the length of the pieces. In the larger of these two the sixth piece
structure was thirty cubits, the width twelve was to be doubled in the forefront of the tabernacle.
cubits, and the height, corresponding to the length These were coupled together by the fifty loops 04
845 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA The Mosaic

the edge of each curtain by means of fifty taches of temples the shrine proper is surrounded by a court-
brass put through the loops. The curtain hung over yard for the congregation as it sacrificed and cele-
the three sides of the tabernacle. This curtain of brated. The court was a hundred cubits
goats' hair was protected by a covering of rams' 4. The long and fifty wide; and instead of
skins dyed red, and this again by a covering of Court walls there was a portable barrier con-
tahash skins. Tahash probably denotes the sea-cow and its sisting of sixty pillars, placed at
which frequents the Red Sea, the skin of which Furnishing, intervals of five cubits, on which were
furnishes a strong leather. hung byssus curtains. The most im-
The interior was divided into the holy place and portant piece of furnishing in the court was the
" "
the most holy place by means of a veil (Ex. altar, generally known as the altar of burnt offering,
xxvi. 31 sqq., xxxvi. 35 sqq.) The veil was of the a portable object, thus in accordance with the de-
same material as the byssus curtain and hung on sign of the whole sanctuary. It was five cubits
four gilded pillars of acacia wood with long, five broad, and three high, and had horns on
3. The silver sockets. It was adorned with its four corners; it was of wood covered with brass.
Interior patterns of cherubim and was fastened The utensils which went with it, such as pans,
and its on the pillars with golden nails. shovels, etc., were of brass. For half its height the
Furnishing. Behind the veil was the most holy altar was surrounded with a network of brass, un-
place, a cube of ten cubits, containing doubtedly to protect it from desecration. On the
only the ark (sec AKK OP THE COVENANT). On the four corners of the network there were fastened
flide of the veil toward the entrance was the holy rings by the aid of which the altar could be trans-
place, ten cubits wide and high and twenty cubits ported on staves. Beside the altar there is men-
long. It contained the table of showbread, the tioned in Ex. xxx. 17 sqq. also a laver of brass in
candlestick, and the altar of incense. On the north which the priests used to cleanse themselves when
side of the holy place stood the table of showbread they entered the sanctuary.
(Ex. xxv. 23 sqq.), made of acacia wood, overlaid There is no reason to doubt the authenticity, in
with gold, two cubits long, one broad, and one and a its essential points, of the tradition respecting the
half high. Round about the table was an ornament tabernacle as it is recorded in Ex. xxxiii. 7 sqq.
in the form of a wreath, likewise a border extending According to this account, Moses pitched the taber-
around the table connecting its four feet; this also nacle without the camp and called it
was adorned with a wreath. The account does not 5. Histor- the tabernacle of the congregation,
show how these were fastened. The enclosing iciry of the Whenever one desired a revelation
border had rings of gold through which staves were Account, from Yahweh he went out to the tab-
thrust to carry the table. On the table were dishes, "
ernacle; for there the Lord spake
spoons, and bo\\ls of gold. On the opposite side unto Moses face to face, as a man speaketh unto
of the holy place, opposite the table, stood the his friend." It would naturally be expected here
candlestick (Ex. xxv. ,'U sqq., xxxvii. 17 sqq.). It that mention would be made of the ark, since the
was beaten work, of pure gold throughout. From tent was merely a covering or protection for some
the stem or central stock proceeded six branches, object within (cf. II Sam. vi. 17). While there is
three on each side, each one of which ended in a no reason to doubt the existence of a Mosaic tab-
bowJ made like an almond, each bowl having a ernacle, it is another question whether it is iden-
knob and a flower; the stem had four such bowls. tical with the tabernacle described in Ex. xxv.
Each of the three lower knobs of the stem was under sqq. In the first place it is to be mentioned that
a pair of side branches. While the Biblical descrip- the account (by E) in Ex. xxxiii. 7 sqq. regards the
tion does not assert that the branches and stem tent as outside of the camp, not, as is the case with
were in one plane, Jewish tradition makes that to be the tabernacle of Ex. xxv. sqq., in the midst. The
the ease. According to Ex. xxvii. 20 sqq; Lev. xxiv. older tradition of E evidently gives an idea of the
1 sqq., the lamps were to burn the whole night. Mosaic tent other than that afforded by the later
This is presupposed also by the story of Samuel, tradition of P; the historical Mosaic tent, therefore,
I Sam. iii. 3. But according to Joscphus (Ant., III., was of another kind than that of the narrative of
3) three of the lamps burned also in the daytime.
viii. P. After this fact is made evident, the account of P
From I Sam. iii. 3 it is not improbable that in the will appear in a different light. The great amount
law the older idea and custom are reflected; but as of precious materials and metals in possession of a
in private houses lights were burned day and night, migrating people in the desert, the artistic execu-
it may be assumed that in the course of time the tion of all these objects there, the difficulties of
custom of private houses was transferred to the transportation, and the like, have been cited to
sanctuary. Various symbolical meanings were at- show the historical improbability of the account in
tached to the candlestick. The ancients recognized Ex. xxv. sqq. Many of these objections may be
in it a symbolical representation of the seven planets answered as not pertinent, but even were all diffi-
(Josephus, War, V., v. 5; Ant., III., vi. 7, vii. 7). culties of this kind solved, there would still remain
Philo interpreted the middle lamp, also the cen- the fact mentioned that the Mosaic tabernacle of
tral stem, as representing the sun. Its resemblance the older tradition is quite different from that of
to a conventionalized tree is evident, while the con- Ex. xxv. sqq. How then did the account of Ex.
nection with light is, of course, on the surface xxv. sqq. originate or how did it pass into tradition if
(cf. Ps. xxxvi 10). according to genuine Biblical tradition it does not
Around the tabernacle extended a spacious court assume to be the historical Mosaic tabernacle? In
(Ex. xxvii. 9 sqq., xxxviii. 10 sqq.), exactly as in the first place it may be said that, if this tabernacle is
Tabernacle, The Mosaic THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 946
Table of the Nations

not the historical tabernacle, it must owe its origin at variance concerning the historicity of the Biblical ac-
count. Further material is in F. Friedrich. Symbol** der
to the idea of a later time; the account of P tells mosaischen Stiftshutte, Leipsic, 1841; Kamphausen, in
how, at a later time, the Mosaic tabernacle was TSK. 1858, pp, 97 sqq., 1859, pp. 110 sqq.; W. Neu-
conceived. If the description of the temple of mann, Die Stiftshutte in Wort und Bild, Ootha, 1861;
J. Popper, Der bibliaehe Bericht aber die Stiftshutte, Leip-
Solomon be compared with that of the tabernacle of
sic, 1862; R. Newton, The Jewish Tabernacle and its
Ex. xxv. sqq., it appears that the tabernacle is Furniture in their Typical Teachings, New York, 1863;
rather the temple of Solomon in a portable con- K. H. Graf, Die Qcschichtliche Bucher des A. T., pp. 51
dition. It is the prototype of the temple of Solomon sqq., Leipsic, 1866; C. J, Riggenbach, Die mosaische
Stiftshutte. Basel, 1867; K. C. W. F. Bahr, Symbolik des
transplanted into the wilderness. People of the mosaischen Kultus, vol. i., Heidelberg, 1874; E. E. At-
later time who knew the temple of Solomon could water, Hit*, and Significance of the Sacred Tabernacle of
not imagine the divine service of Israel without it the Hebrews, New York, 1875; H. Ewald, Antiquities of
Israel, pp. 317-333, Boston, 1876; A. E. Webb, The Tab-
(or its equivalent). That the tabernacle of Ex. xxv.
ernacle and the Temple, London, 1882; J. E. Hawkins,
sqq. was imagined after the model of the temple Lectures on the Tabernacle, ib. 1883; J. Ritchie, The Tab-
and not vice versa appears from the fact that cer- ernacle in the Wilderness, ib. 1884; F. Whitfield, The Tab-
tain peculiarities of the tabernacle are explicable ernacle, ib. 1884; J. J. Chose, The Jewish Tabernacle, Cin-
cinnati, 1884; J. Wellhausen, Prolegomena, 6th ed., Ber-
only as being transferred from the temple, where lin, 1005; Eng. transl. of earlier edition, pp. 38 sqq., Edin-
they had a proper place, to the tabernacle in a burgh, 1885; T. O. Paine, Solomon's Temple .... and
form adaptable for use in the desert and in the Tabernacle, Boston, 1886; D. A. Randall, Ham-Mishkan,
The Wonderful Tent, Cincinnati, 1886; J. F. K. Keil,
portable sanctuary, and were even estranged from
To mention only one in-
Manual of Biblical Archaeology, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1887-
their proper purpose.
1888; B. F. Westcott, Epistle to the Hebrews, pp. 233 sqq.,
stance, the stately altar, as required for the burnt London, 1889; C. Schick, Die Stiftshutte der Temp el in
offerings of the temple, had to be either of stone or Jerusalem, Berlin. 1896; A H. Klostermann, in NKZ,
of brass; the altar of the tabernacle of Ex. xxv. viii. (1897); M. Rainaford, The Tabernacle in the Wil-
derness, London, 1897; R. L. Ottley, Aspects of the O. T.,
sqq., however, was a wooden structure with a cover- pp. 261 sqq., ib. 1897; W. Brown, The Tabernacle and its
ing of brass. Such an altar had the one quality Priests and Services, 6th ed., London, 1899; J. Adams,
which was required for the Mosaic tabernacle, port- The Mosaic Tabernacle, Edinburgh, 1900; W. 8. Caldecott,
The Tabernacle, its Hist, and Structure, ib. 1904, B. Jacob,
ability; but it lacked every other quality of an Der Pentateuch, pp. 134-346, Leipsic, 1905; M. Dibelms, Die
altar in the proper sense. It was unusable for the Lade Jahves, G6ttingen, 1906; H. Gunkel, Die Lade ein
sacrifices for which it was assumably intended, Thronsitz, Heidelberg, 1906; K. Budde, in TSK, 1906, pp.
especially of whole oxen. There can be no doubt 589-607; Bensinger, Archaologie, pp. 336-339; Nownok,
Archaologie, vol. ii.; Driver, Introduction, pp 128, 153;
that such an altar did not exist; it is not the original
DB, iv. 663-688 (elaborate); EB, iv. 4861-75; JE, xi.
of that other altar, but an imaginary idea proceed- 653-656.
ing' from it. Portable altars, indeed, are well known
to history; but the altar in question was intended TABERNACLES, FEAST OF: A festival of the
for the great burnt offerings of the Mosaic cultus. Hebrews, known in the Old Testament also as the
" " "
The conclusion is warranted that a " tabernacle feast of ingathering
" "
(Ex. xxiii. 16) and more
"
as a protection for the ark existed in early times, simply as the feast (I Kings viii. 2), or the
"
but that the description of it in Ex. xxv. sqq. con- feast of Yahweh (Lev. xxiii. 39); it is mentioned
tains little ofa historical character. Since David also in the New Testament and in II Mace. x. 6

according to II Sam. vi. 17 erected a For the historicaldevelopment sec FEASTS AND
6. Conclu- tent for the ark, it is evident that in FESTIVALS, I. It was one of the chief festivals of

ion; Later his time the old tabernacle no longer

the Hebrews, and in the codes it is coordinated with
History, existed. It may, therefore, be sup- the two other great feasts and connected with the
posed that it had been lost or des- harvest. In the latter connection it was the festival
of thanks for the yield of the earth (Ex. xxiii. 16;
troyed at the time of the capture of the ark, if
in that time it still existed, i.e., in the time of Eli. Deut. xvi. 13), in early times celebrated at some
But this seems to be contradicted by the fact that sanctuary (I Sam. i. 3). The corresponding Canaan-
the place of the ark in Shiloh during Samuel's itic feast appears in Judges ix. 27, the first mention
" " of it as Israelitic is Judges xxi. 19 sqq. as a yearly
youth (I Sam. i. 7, 9, iii. 3) is" called house (not
" " celebration at Shiloh. In the early regal period it
tent ") and even temple while in I Sam. iii.
" " seems to have taken place in the eighth month,
15, i. 9 its doors and posts are mentioned. It
is, therefore, to be assumed that at that time there though Solomon is said to have connected it with
existed a permanent structure. There remains the seventh month (I Kings viii. 2, cf. vi. 38) and
then only the notice of Josh, xviii. 1, which relates with the consecration of the Temple. The earliest
that the Mosaic tabernacle was erected in Shiloh. laws prescribe no definite time, Ex. xxiii. 16 giving
What is related here of the Mosaic tabernacle is simply autumn. Deuteronomy requires its cele-
made probable by the fact that Shiloh was for a bration at the central sanctuary for a period of
long time the place of the ark. The old tabernacle seven days (cf. I Kings viii. 66). The Deuteronomic
may have been preserved for a time, but in the regulations are expanded in Lev. xxiii. and the
course of time was replaced by a more solid struc- manner of the feast prescribed (the prescription as
ture. See HEXATBUCH, 14. (R. KTTTEL.) to date is by a later hand) It was to continue seven
.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The earlier literature may be regarded M days, on the first of which the participants were to
having but historical interest. Consult the commen- take boughs of trees (to make booths) and were to
taries on the principal passages cited in the text, many dwell in the booths during the feast. The text
of which contain excursuses on the subject; especially
enacts that only Israelites shall participate; but
Important is much of the critical and conservative litera-
ture cited under HEXATEUCH, since the two schools are Bertholet shows that the reading is probably a
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA .bio of the Nation*

late refinement. The regulations suit an agricul- after their families, after their tongues/' etc., with
tural, not a nomadic, environment, and point to an a variation for the end of the whole in verse 32.
original feast celebrated in vineyards and gardens, This forms the basis of the exposition
in accordance with the modern Palestinian custom. i. Literary by the redactor; the pieces from J are

After Deuteronomy had made the festival Analysis, interwoven. But other materials are
universal, to be kept at the Temple, a definite da- clearly intruded, as where verse
ting became necessary, and such fixation appears breaks the thread between 8 and 10 to complete
first in Ezekiel (xlv. 25) for the fifteenth day of the the picture of Nimrod. So verse 24 gives a different
seventh month of the later reckoning, where the account of Eber from that in 21 and 25 sqq.; in
offerings are also prescribed. The final step ap- the former he is great-grandson of Shem, in the latter
pears in Lev. xxiii. and the date is that of Ezekiel, he is the son. The remainder of the chapter belongs
but an additional day was added to the duration, to J.
each day having its offering, while the first and eighth The material taken from J in verses 8-20, dealing
days were marked by convocations of the people and with Ham, diverges in form from P in that the items
"
abstinence from labor. The method of the first are not bound together with the word son," which
celebration after the promulgation of th new law has in Hebrew a wider sense than in
" he
is described in Neh. viii. 14 sqq., the booths being 2. The English, but by the expression
"
erected on the roofs, in the temple court and private J Source, begat "or the passive were bora." J
courts, and in the streets. The Chronicler depends derives Babel and Asshur from Gush,
upon this latest code, and consequently ascribes while P in 22 derives Asshur from Shem. This
to Solomon a celebration lasting eight days in the difference has been ascribed to an errorof the redac-
seventh month (II Chron. vii. 8 sqq., cf. I Kings viii. tor, who equated the Kasshu of the cuneiform in-
66). The importance of the festival for post-exilic scriptions with the African Cushites (see ASSYRIA,
times is indicated by Zech. xiv. 16 sqq., where VI., 2, 1; BABYLONIA, VI., 5). A
better explana-
not to attend yearly is regarded as a grievous sin. tion is that which makes J refer Gush here to the
The interest in the festival is shown in the develop- Arabian district of that name (see GUSH and NIM-
ment of attendant customs (cf. II Mace. x. 7; ROD). Verses 13-14 differ in form from verse 8; the
Josephus, Ant., III., x. 4, XIII., xiii. 5; Mishna, latter uses the singular, the former the plural, a
tract Sukkah), tending to greater minuteness in fact explained by Gunkel as due to the fact that
details. Thus prescription was given as to the kind 13-14 are later parts of the document J. Among
of branches to be carried in the right and in the left the seven sons of Egypt (Mizraim) Lud (singular of
hand, the altar of burnt offering was to be encircled Ludim) is mentioned in Ezek. xxvii. 10, xxx. 5;
once daily and seven times on the seventh day, and Isa. Ixvi. 19; Jer. xlvi. 9, and is to be regarded as a
a special libation of water was made. A high point people who were neighbors to Egypt; the same is
was reached in the night between the first and the true of the Anamim. The Pathrusim were no
second day. The priests and Levites erected in the doubt the inhabitants of Pathros (Isa. xi. 11; Jer.
front court of the women a double gallery for the xliv. 1, 15; Ezek. xxx. 14), especially of Upper

spectators. In the middle of the front court was Egypt; the Egyptian pata-res means southland.
placed a great candlestick with four golden cups to Krman suspects that for " Naphtuhim " the text
serve as lamps, and then a torch dance took place should read " Pathmahim," which corresponds to
while tho Levites sang psalms, this continuing till Pathrusim and means " northland." Nothing is
first cock-crowing, when two priests stationed at known of a people corresponding to the Gasluhim;
Nicanor's gate gave on the trumpet the signal to but the Caphtorim are generally connected with
cease. The Psalms sung at the feast were xxix., Crete. Verses 15-19 deal with Ganaan. Comparison
1. 16 sqq., xriv. 16 sqq., and 8 sqq., Ixxxi. 7 sqq., of verses 8 and 15 show that the redactor united
Ixxxii. 5 sqq., Ixv., cxiii.-cxviii (F. BUHL.) passages in which different magnitudes were com-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Bible Dictionaries; JE, xi. 656-662; prehended Gush is the name of a people and a land;
:

C. F. Kent, Student's Old Testament, vol. iv., New York, Nimrod is the name of a legendary person; Ganaan,
1907; and the full literature under FEASTS AND FESTIVALS. of a land; Ridon, of a city; Heth, of a people (see
TABLE OF THE NATIONS. CANAAN; PHENICIA; and HITTITES). Verses 16-
18a are a later insertion, aiming to enumerate the
Literary Analysis ($1).
The J Source (2). Ganaanites more completely (see AMORITES; JEBUS,
Character of the J Narrative (( 3). JEBUSITEB; CANAAN; and PITENICIA for treatment
Japheth in the Narrative of P (ft 4). of the peoples named). The Hamathites were
Gush in P (8 5)
The Sons of Gush (5 6).
inhabitants of the city and kingdom of Hamath
Shem ( 7). on the Orontes (see SYRIA). Verses 18b-19 deal
General Review ($8). with the spread of the Ganaanites southward to
The chapter containing the "
so-called Table of Gerar, and are a later part of the J source. The
the Nations," Gen. x., is composed of two parts completest selection from J is found in verses 21-
which go back to the documents J and P. To tho 30; Shem is designated as the father of all the
latter belong verses la, 2-7, 20, 22, 23, 31, 32, the children of Eber, and this last name has here a
chief divisions of which are marked by the formulas: wide connotation, covering not only the line of
"
the sons of Japheth are. .," "... of Ham,"
.
Peleg which leads to Abraham, but also the line of
"... of Shem"; with similar formulas for the Joktan. The name Eber may bo connected with
subdivisions; while the close of each division is the expression 'ebher hannakar, " beyond the river,"
"
marked by the formula: these are the sons of .,
. . of Isa. vii. 20, the land beyond the Euphrates,
 of th fetation* THE NEW &4d

regarded as the home of the Israelitic branch of the by the Assyrians. The knowledge of the South
Hebrews in the Old Testament. For Pelcg the best Arabians a consequence of the commerce under
is
assonance is found in the place-name Phalga at the Solomon, a relation which was broken off when
confluence of the Chabor with the Euphrates; the the Edomites got their freedom, c. 845. The age
narrator makes a word-play on the name with the of this source, therefore, can not be lower than the
" "
meaning divide (cf. Gen. xi. 1-9), but does not eighth century, with parts still older.
carry his line further, because in later passages the Concerning Japheth the redactor used material
development is followed out (cf Gen. xi. 10 sqq., xii.
.
only from P, possibly because the data of J no longer
Bqq.)> and the Moabites and Ammonites, Arameans suited the situation. Japheth had seven sons. Of
Ketufcans, Ishmaelites, and Edomites are touched* those Gomer corresponds to the Cimmerians of the
on in later chapters. In verses 26-29 the descend- Odyssey (xi. 14) and Herodotus (iv.
ants of Joktan are named, and thirteen South 4. Japheth 11-12), the Gimir of the Assyrian in-
Arabian stocks are given, though probably originally fo the scriptions, dwelling to the north of the
there were but twelve. Little is known of the Narrative Black Sea and west of the Don, who
settlement of the individual areas of the different of P. migrated in the eighth century to
tribes. Thrace, thence with Thracian tribes to
This review of the data derived from J shows Asia Minor c. 709 B.C., where about 650 they came
that it is nowhere complete. The transition is into conflict with the Lydians and were driven back
lacking from Shem to Eber (verse 21 sqq.), and noth- to the highland of the Halys. To Gomer are assigned
ing is said of Japheth. Possibly the beginning of the tlmx sons, Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah.
table of J is to be found in ix. 18-19 and Ashkenaz has been taken to moan the Phrygian
3. Character x. Ib, where is found the same ordcr- Ascanians; but Winckler (Altorientcdischc Forsch-
of the J ing of the brethren as in P (x. 1), and ungen, i. 484 sqq., Leipsic, 1893) would read Ashkuz
Narrative, x. 21 shows that Japheth follows Shem. instead of Ashkenaz, and see in them the Scythians,
"
It appears that the order Shem, designated in the cuneiform documents Ashkuza.
"
Ham, Japheth is late. The older J thinks of all This is a possibility, but the mistake in writing is
mankind as springing from one family, that of hardly a probability. In Jer li 27 Ashchenaz is
Noah, who stands at the head of the new race after named in an Armenian environment, or on the up-
the flood, and so divides the whole into three branches per Euphrates and about the Araxes. Bochart
derived from the three sons. But according to and Lagarde look for Riphath in the Ribantians
Gen. ix. 20-27 Noah was the original settler in on the River Ribas in Bithynia not far from the
Canaan, the founder there of agriculture and viti- Bosporus, while Josephus equates them with the
culture, while his sons represented the inhabitants Paphlagonians. Togarmah (cf. Ezek. xxvii. 14,
of that region. The difference can not now be ex- xxxviii. 6) is by scholars brought into connection
"
plained. The representation in the table of the with the Armenians, who once stretched down into
"
nations does not have the usual purpose, viz., the Taurus and Antitaurus, who derived their
to trace the relationship of nations by speech and descent from Haik, son of Thorgom. The locus
descent. J was concerned with the Hebrew races indicated for Gomer and his sons is, therefore,
in their widest extent and with the South Arabian chiefly in the neighborhood of Cappadocia and
stocks. The mention of Ham raises great difficul- Armenia. The second son of Japheth, Magog, is
ties. But it is not to be understood that the author first mentioned in Ezek. xxxix. 6 in close connection

brings together not only the Egyptians and neigh- with Gog (see Goo AND MAGOG). For the third son
boring peoples, but also Canaan, the Hittites, and of Japheth, Madai, see MEDO-PEKSIA. Javan (q.v.)
even the Assyrian-Babylonians with Cush all under designates the Greeks in general (cf. verso 5),
Ham under the relationship of blood and of speech; though in Ezek. xxvii. 13; Isa. Ixvi. 19, Javan ap-
rather it is political and geographical relationships pears along with Tubal and Meshech, cf. verse 4,
that influence him. He counts Israel as belonging where the sons of Javan are Elishah, Tarshish,
to Shem, the Canaanites to Ham, although Israel .
Kittim, and Dodanim (q.v.). The Kittim were
spoke the speech of Canaan. Cush
(verse 8) be-
If originally the inhabitants of the city Citium in
longs to South Arabia, it may be that the matter of Cyprus, then, generally, of Cyprus. Tarshish, the
verses 26-29 was derived from a tradition of early Greek-Roman Tartessus, was the Andalusian plain
wanderings no longer in existence. Ham
in the on both sides of Guadalquivir in Spain; Elisha is
Old Testament is used for Egypt (Ps. Ixxviii. 51, either Carthage or Sicily. Since these four names
cv. 23, 27, cvi. 22); the word may correspond to (of verse 4) stood originally in connection with the
the native name for the land, kam-t, Coptic kemi, Phenicians, their arrangement under Javan is a
khemi. The purpose of the narrative is ethno- surprise, to be explained by the consideration,
" "
graphic to give a review of the peoples in the however, that the expression son does not neces-
little world of the author; but the material em- but rather a relationship of
sarily express derivation,
ployed is not all of a kind; names of persons, cities, influence, whether through cult, politics, or com-
and peoples are commingled. The material dates merce. Hence for P what once was Phenician is now
from a time when Assyria and Babylon were known, Greek, the latter having gamed the hegemony of the
when Assyria was the ruling power and had not Mediterranean Sea after about 700 B.C., Carthage
gone down under the Medes and Babylonians. The alone remaining distinctly Phenician. Tubal and
most important people in Canaan were the Pheni- Meshech (verse 2) are in the Old Testament often
cians, while the Hittites had still importance for named together (Ezek. xxvii. 13, xxxii. 26, etc.).
Palestine, and their cities were not yet overcome The former (Assyr. Tabali) are the Tibareni, and
646 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Table of the tfatiozit

Meshech (Assyr. Mu&hki) are the Moschi of Herod- to-day. Whether it had any connection with the
otus (III., according to As-
xciv., VII., Ixxviii.), kolpos Ayalites and the Abalitai on the African
syrian data of the ninth century north of Cilicia; He- coast near the straits of Bab al-Mandeb named by
rodotus places the Moschi between the upper Phasis Ptolemfieus and Pliny can not be made out. Glascr
and Kyros, the Tibareni east of Thermodon in the connects Sabtah (verse 7) with the city Saphtha
later kingdom of Pontus. Either the Assyrians or named by Ptolemeeus (VI., vii. 30) not far from the
the Cimmerians drove them from their old settle- western coast of the Persian Gulf; others think
ments. For Tiras one would look somewhere in of the old Arabian city Sabbatha or Sabota, the
the neighborhood of Tubal and Meshech; the Tyr- central point for the commerce in spices. Nothing
rheni seem to be too far to the west. The peoples certain is known of Sabtecha. Raamah has been
named in verses 2-5a are all assigned to Japheth, newly found on Sabeean inscriptions as a place-
and dwell northward from the Taurus, eastward name within the region of the early Minseans
as far as Media, westward to the isles and coasts north of Maryab. Sheba, one of the sons of Raamah,
of the Mediterranean, with the exception of Crete is no doubt the people often mentioned in the

(see above). The Persians do not appear are they Old Testament and in early writers as the Sabaeans,
included under the Medes? A satisfactory explana- who dwelt in Southwest Arabia and were con-
tion of the name Japheth has not yet been given. nected always with gold and incense material
Under Ham P first names Cush (q.v.). By this (Isa. Ix. 6) and with the commerce from India;
name the Old Testament usually means the land their chief city, Sheba or Maryab, lay three days'
and people south of Egypt. Originally the Cuahites journey from San'a, and numerous inscriptions
dwelt in the land rich in gold east of the Nile; later, show that their speech was Semitic. Little is known
Syene was their northern boundary. They were of their history; they rendered tribute to Tiglath-
usually despised by the Egyptians, who under the Pileser III., and Sargon the Assyrian. Of the ex-
twelfth dynasty subdued their northern tribes, tent of their territory and their relations to the
while in the new kingdom their land Minffiuns almost nothing is certain. The fact that
5. Cush in was an Egyptian province. By 1000 in the Old Testament they are now reckoned to
P. B.C. the land was lost to Egypt, and in Cush, now to Shem, and then to Joktan the son of
the eighth century the Cushite or Keturah (Gen. xxv. 3), is not to be construed as
Ethiopian kings subjected Egypt. Their chief city meaning three separate stocks, but simply as im-
was Napata, the present Mcrawi between the third plying change of settlement and of relationships,
and fourth cataracts, and their culture was Egyp- and that alongside the settled Sabocans there were
tian. The So of II Kings xvii 4 has been identified those who lived a nomadic life and that groups
with Shabako of the twenty-fifth dynasty (Ethio- broke away and led a separate existence. Dedan
pian); Winokler understands rather Sib'i (Shabi), appears (Jer. xlix. 8; Ezek. xxv. 13) as being on
the general of Pir'u, king of Mu?ri in northwestern the southern border of Edom; the present writer
Arabia (see ASSYRIA, VI., 3, 10, and 2, 1). An- may have had in mind a part which wandered to
other king of this dynasty is mentioned in II Kings the south and came into relations with the Sabaeans.
xix. 9. Several prophecies of Isaiah (xix., xxx. 1-5, The arrangement of the districts named under
xxxi. 1-3) relate to this people, whose rule over Cush in verse 7 shows that the writer did not limit
Egypt was broken by the campaigns of Esarhad- Cush to Africa but extended it to the west coast of
don and Asshurbanipal (see ASSYRIA, VI., 3, 13- Arabia, whose inhabitants had connections with
14). Probably the campaign of the Persian Cam- the regions of the Upper Nile, and he was not
byses (see MEDO-PKRSIA) resulted in the fall of governed by the matter of language, since he in-
Merawi and the assumption of Meroe as the capital cluded Sheba. The arrangement of Sheba as a son
of the Cushites under a priesthood which fell at the of Ramaah proves that he dealt with a late period.
beginning of the third century. The queen mother The Phut of verse 6 refers to the land of Punt,
was the real power and had the title Candace (cf. designating the coast east of the Nile and north of
Acts viii. 27 sqq.). the region of the Cushites and the region opposite in
To Cush P gives five sons and two grandsons, Arabia. The connecting of Canaan with Cush,
among them Havilah and Seba, whom J assigns to Egypt, and Phut again shows that the matter of
Joktan (verses 28-29). Scba was frequently iden- language did not control the narrator. Ham meant
tifiedwith Moroe (Josephus, Ant., I., vi. 2), though for him the people on the southern Nile and the
Mcroc is never called by this name. adjacent coast of the Red Sea; why Canaan is
6. The Strabo (XVI., iv. 8) and Ptolemapus brought in here is not clear, but perhaps it was the
Sons of (IV., vii. 7-8) knew of a seaport Saba, opposition between Israel and Canaan and also that
Cush. near the present Massowa, which may the center of Phenician power in his time was trans-
have its name from a Cushite tribe ferred from the Phenician to the African coast at
of that name, living between the Nile and the sea. Carthage. With this J in versos 15-19 hardly agrees.
"
Havilah was probably a considerable territory in If the division Shem, Ham (instead of Canaan),
"
South Arabia, is named with Ophir (q.v.) in verse and Japheth issued first from P, the use of earlier
29; it had various
in the course of the centuries pieces necessarily involved dissimilarity and con-
tribes as its inhabitants and consequently is in tradiction. The relations of Cush imply the twenty-
verse 29 reckoned to Joktan and in verse 7 to Cush; fifth dynasty; were earlier data used, or were there
inGen. xxv. 8 it seems to indicate a region in north- migrations to us unknown?
ern Arabia, and the name is known in both the The data of P concerning Shem are in verses
northern and the southern part of the Arabia of 22-23. For Elazn and Asshur see ELAM; and As-
Tabl of th Nation* THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 260
TafiLn, J**n

STRIA. Since Bocbart Arphaxad has been identified dle region. In details and incidentally, geographical
with the district of Arrhapachitis of Ptolemaeus considerations did govern. But it seems forbidden,
(VI., i. 2) on the Upper Zab, the Armenian Aghbak if one would understand the arrangement of peoples

and Kurdish Albak. But the last and lands, to regard P, still more than J, as governed
7. Shem. consonants remain unexplained by by historical and political relationships. Strictly
this name, and the identification has scientific principles do not appear; the geographical
by many been given up; Cheyne and Jensen com- or the historical view-point is used as one or the
pound the word of 'rpd and ksd, the first part being other seems best to P. Hence on political grounds
(Cheyne and Winckler) the Assyrian city and prov- Lud placed under Shem, on geographical grounds
is
ince of Arabha west of Elam and between the Tigris the peoples of Asia Minor generally are placed under
and the Median mountains; Jensen retains the early Japheth. He may have been governed, also, by
explanation. Hommel explains the name as reports or legends regarding the derivation of the
" "
equivalent to Ur of the Chaldees in Gen. xi. 28. nations. We can not follow the learned of early
Lud is generally accepted as the Lydians of Asia times, because our science and theirs seldom coin-
" "
Minor, who were subjected by the Persians under cide, indeed often conflict. This table of nations
Cyrus in 546 B.C. Here again is shown the fact that can not be regarded as a complete review of all the
language does not govern the arrangement, since nations known to Israel or of all the peoples of the
the Lydians did not use a Semitic language. If world, although this was the view of Jewish and
language were considered, Elam and Lud would not Christian scholars who saw in the list seventy
be found among the Semitic peoples. An east-lo- peoples, thirty-four in P and thirty-six in J. But
west arrangement of lands and peoples does not apart from the artificiality of the number, the most
appear if verse 23 is taken into account. With that could be said is that the redactor who united
Elam and Lud the Hebrews were not acquainted the sources had this number in mind, and even that
till late, with Lud probably not till the conquest does not appear probable. For an estimate of the
by the Persians in the sixth century. Lud may bo whole it is essential to keep completely within the
a portion of the Persian kingdom, and the govern- view the analysis of the chapter; and on this ac-
"
ing consideration here may be political relations. count the data of the " table of nations do not fit
That the regions and stocks known to early Israel on one chart.
are not named here may be due to the lateness of " "
In its present connection the table serves as
the author, the older groups of the Arameans the bridge from the universal history of mankind
having been lost. The name Shem is often brought to the history of the patriarchs of Israel. All men
"
into connection with the Hebrew Shem, name," go back in origin to Noah and Adam (Gen i. 26,
11
repute," and explained as an abbreviation for ix. 6; cf. Job xxxi. 15); but the history of these
Bene Shem, " noble race." Others prefer the people is not that of the salvation which God is pre-
" 1'

meaning high, as deriving the race from a paring for mankind. That salvation begins \\ith the
heaven-god or as referring to the lofty home- patriarchs of Israel, through whose mediation the
land of Semites. Yet none of these is entirely blessing is to come upon all peoples (Gen. xii. 2-3).
satisfactory. This connection belongs to P, possibly also to the
The field of vision of P is quite extensive; it compilation of J, but \\ bother to the original J is
reaches in the north the sources of the Euphrates doubtful. (H. GFTIIE.)
and the Black Sea, in the west the Straits of Gibral- BIBLIOGRAPHY: The earliest interpretations are to be found
tar, in the south the present Nubia and South in Josephus, Ant., I., vi and the Book of Jubilees, viii -
;

ix., Eng. transit, by G. H. Bchodde, Oberlin, 1888, and

Arabia, and in the east Elam and Media. J shows
by R. H. Charles, London, 1002. The chief modern ma-
exact geographical knowledge of South Arabia. terial is in the commentaries on Genesis (named under
The larger horizon of P speaks in gen- Hexateueh), beat by S. R. Driver, London, 1904, nnd J.
8. General eral for the later date of that document, Skinner, ib., 1910. Consult further: A. Knobel, Die Volk-
ertafelder Genesis, Giessen, 1850; P. de Lagnrde, Gemmmelte
Review, though use of older sources is not Abhandlungen, pp. 254 sqq., Gdttingen, 1866; De Goeje, in
excluded. Verses 20 and 31 are clear ThT, iv (1870), 233 sqq.; D. Chwolson, Die srmitischen
in their expression of the fact that the editor has VoVeer, Berlin, 1872; F. Delitzsch, Wo lag das Paradiest
united under his three groups not only diverse Leipsic, 1881; F. Hommel, Die aemitischen V biker und
U
Sprachen, ib. 1883; idem, Die altisraelitische eberlicferung
stocks, lands, and peoples, but also diverse lan- in inschriftlicher BeleurMwng, Munich, 1897; J. Halevy, in
guages; consequently the basis of division is not to Revue des etudes juives. xiii (1886), 147 sqq.; E. Glaaer,
be sought in linguistic relationship or hi diversity of Skizze der Geschichte und Geographic Arabic* a, ii. 323 qq.,
387 sqq., Berlin, 1890; A. H. Sayce, Races of the O. T.,
ethnical relationship. While the modern distinc-
London, 1891; idem, The "Higher Criticism" and the
tion into Semitic and Hamitic languages goes back Monuments, ib. 1894; W, M. M tiller, Asien und Europa
to this chapter, there is a similar product of com- nach altagyptischen Denkmdlcrn, Leipsic, 1893; H. Winck-
ler, AUorientalisrhe Forschungen, ib. 1893 sqq.; idem, Die
parative linguistics which does not derive its Volker Vorderasiens, ib. 1902; idem, in Schrader, KA T;
standards from antiquity. The proposition has A. Jeremias, Das A. T. im Lichte des aUen Onents, 2d ed.,
been advanced that a geographical view-point gov- Leipsic, 1906; A. R. Gordon, Early Traditions of Genesis,
erned the writer, that Japheth represents the peoples Edinburgh, 1907; M. E. Kern, The Distribution of the
of the north, Ham those of the south, and Shem Races; a Commentary on Gen. z., College View, Neb., 1907;
DB t extra vol., pp. 72-83.
those between; but in that case why are Elishah
and Tarshish under Japheth, Canaan under Ham, TABOO. See COMPABATIVB RELIGION, VI., 1, c.
the distant Lud under Shem? Moreover, J would
TABOR LIGHT. See HBSYCHAOTS.
not have put the South Arabian tribes under Shem
if he had seen in the Semites the peoples of the mid- TABOR, MOUNT. See PALESTINE II., 6.
961 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Table of the Nations
,
Jealf

TABORITES. See HUBS, JOHN, HUSSITES, II., bishop, but never attained importance. When the
3-7. successors of Mohammed extended their conquests
beyond the confines of Arabia, Palmyra became sub-
TACHE, ta"sh6, ALBXANDRB ANTOINE: Roman
ject to the califs, and from that period seems to
Catholic archbishop; b. at Riviere-du-Loup, Canada,
have fallen into decay. In 1173 it was visited by
July 23, 1823; d. at Winnipeg, Canada, June
He was educated at the College of Benjamin of Tudela, who found there a considerable
22, 1894.
Jewish population, besides Mohammedans and
St. Hyacinth and the Seminary of Montreal, en-
Christians. It was again visited in 1751 by R. Wood,
tered the order of the Oblates of Mary Immaculate,
and since the beginning of the eighteenth century
and began missionary activity among the Indians
of the Red River. He was ordained to the priest-
by many travelers. The inscriptions recovered at
the place have exceptional interest and value.
hood in 1846, and five years later was consecrated
GEO. W. GILMOIIK.
titular bishop of Arath. He now made Ile-a-la-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Wood, The Ruins of Palmyra, London,
Crosse the center of his labors, and in 1853 became 1753 (highly valuable); L. de Laborde, Voyage de la
bishop of St. Boniface. He sought in vain to induce Syrie, pp. 10-22, Paris, 1837; E. M. de Vogue, Syrie
the Canadian government to remedy the grievances centrale, 1865-77; idem, Syrie, Palestine. Mount
Paris,
of the Me*tis in 1869, but on his return from the
Athos, ib.1870; Von Sallet, Die Fursten von Palmyra,
Berlin, 1866; Barthdlemy, Reflexions sur V alphabet et sur
Vatican Council he was requested by the govern- la langue ... A Palmyra, Paris, 1874; P. V. N. Myers,
ment to use his good offices in quieting the in- Remains of Lost Empires, Sketches of the Ruins of Pal-
surrection which had meanwhile arisen, and in this myra . . . , New York, 1875; L. Double, Les Ctsars de
Palmyre, Paris, 1877; E. Ledrain, Diciionnaire dcs noms
he was successful. In 1871 St. Boniface was erected propres palymyrenicnn, Paris, 1886; B. Moritz, Zur anti-
into a metropolitan see, and Tache* became its arch- ken Topographic drr Palmyrene, Berlin, 1889; CIS, In-
bishop. He was the author of Esqwiase sur le nord- tcriptwnes Aramatcct, 2 parts, Paris, 1889-93; Deville,
ouest de VAmerique (Montreal, 1869; Eng. transl., Palmyre. Souvenirs de voyage et d'hirt., Paris, 1894; W.
Wright, Palmyra and Zenobia, London, 1895; E. Gibbon,
Sketch of the Northwest of America, by D. R. Cam- Decline and Fall, ed. J. B. Bury, i 372, 306 sqq., London,
eron, 1870) and Vingt ana de missions dans le nord- 1896; J. II. Mordtmann, Palmyreninche*, Berlin, 1899;
ouest de I'Amerique (1866). M. Sobernheim, Palmyrenische Inschriften, Berlin, 1905;
Baedeker's Palestine and Syria, pp. 339-348, Leipsic,
TADMOR (TAMAR): A city named in the Bible 1906; DB, iv. 673; EB, iv. 4886; JE, ix. 607; Vigouroux,
Diciionnaire, fasc. xxx. 2070-72.
only in Kings ix. 18 (keri) and II Chron. viii. 4,
I.
as built by Solomon and generally identified by TAFFIIT, JEAN: Dutch Reformer and pro: ichor;
geographers and historians with Palmyra (150 m. b. at Tournai probably in 1528; d. at Amsterdam
n.c. of Damascus). Practically the whole tend- July 15, 1602. He came of a well to-do-family, but
ency of modern criticism, however, is to discon- of his education and youth almost nothing is known.
nect Solomon from any relationship with Tadmor (in He first becomes known as secretary or librarian to
both Biblical passages
"
Tamar " is doubtless Gran voile, bishop of Utrecht, but how he came to
right; the other places named there are in southern break with the Roman church is not known. He
Palestine). Inherently, the probability is against may have studied under Calvin and Bcza at Geneva
any connection of Solomon with a place so far to the before the founding of the university there. He
northeast of his kingdom. Its site was originally was in Amsterdam at the end of 1557, where in the
an oasis formed by springs or streams from the neigh- controversy between Caspar van der Heyden and
boring hills, and in the time of Pliny (Hist, not., v. Adrian van Hcemstedo he took part against the lat-
24) it was a considerable town, which formed an in- ter. Thence he seems to have gone to A'ichen and
dependent state between the Roman and Parthian worked in the Walloon congregation, uhich sent
empires. In the second century it seems to have him in 1559 to Worms, and from Aachen to Stras-
been beautified by the Emperor Hadrian, the name burg in 1561, and thence as preacher to Mctz, where
being changed to Hadrianopolis. Under Septimius he stayed till 1565. For a short time he worked
Severus it became a Roman colony, and received the in Tournai, but went the same year to Antwerp,
jus Italicum, but it was ruled by its own laws. The where he preached secretly, and his arrest was
"
most interesting period in the history is the time of ordered on the ground that he was a great heretic
Odenatus and Zenobia. The Emperor Valerian and might do much harm." But he avoided arrest,
by the Persians, Odenatus, perhaps
being captured and when the prince of Oraiigo sanctioned public
a man who had attained the position of prince of preaching, Sept. 2, 1566, he became preacher to the
Palmyra, revenged the wrongs of the fallen emperor Walloons in the "Round Temple." But Protes-
and vindicated the majesty of Rome. The services tant worship was precluded by agreement, and
thus rendered to Rome were so great, that Odenatus Taffin went to Mctz again, where in Apr., 1569,
was given the title of Augustus (264 A.D.). He en- Charles IX. closed the church; then Taffin settled
joyed his dignity but a short time, being murdered at Heidelberg as preacher for the Walloon church
only three years afterward. Zenobia, his widow, there. He attended the Synod of Emden in 1571,
succeeded him as queen of the East, and ruled the and was deputed to convey a message to the next
country during a period of five years. In 272 the synod of the Reformed Church of France. In Hei-
Emperor Aurelian turned his arms against her; delberg Taffin formed a close and lasting friendship
and having defeated her in two pitched battles with the prince of Orange, by whom he was sent on a
invested Palmyra. Zenobia attempted to escape, confidential mission to Germany in Dec., 1576. He
but was captured and taken to Rome to grace the also assisted in promoting the marriage of the prince
triumph of Aurelian. Palmyra never recovered its to Charlotte of Bourbon. Taffin was associated
former opulence. It eventually became the seat of a with the prince as court chaplain, representing the
 bald
Tait, krohili Campbell
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 262

interests of the Dutch church. With the prince's 1904, and has been a delegate to such bodies as the
other chaplain, De Villiers, he presided at the Ecumenical Conference of Methodism, London,
Walloon synods, and also represented the Walloon 1901, the Church Federation Conference, New York,
interests in the synods of the Dutch churches at 1905, and the Federal Council of Churches of Christ
Dort in 1574 and 1578, and in Middelburg in 1581. in America, Philadelphia, 1907.
The Antwerp synod decreed in 1578 (art. 3): " In-
asmuch as the court is in residence where there is a TAGGERT, ROBERT BREWSTER: United Pres-
French church, the town church and that of the byterian; b. at East Palestine, O., Sept. 16,
court shall become one church: the court chaplains
1842. He was educated at Westminster College
(B.A., 1865) and at Xenia United Presbyterian
combining with the other preachers to serve the
united church as ministers of the same. Mes- Theological Seminary, from which he was graduated
in 1868. He began preaching as a missionary in
sieurs De Villiers and Taffin shall accordingly be con-
sidered ministers of Antwerp, and shall minister to
New York City, and later held pastorates in North
the court, and should the court absent itself, the Kortright, N. Y., Washington, la., Mount Pleas-
ant, Pa., Clinton, Pa., and Harriman, Tcnn. He
church of this town shall be obliged to provide it
was one of the founders of Temperance (later Amer-
with one of these two, or some other chaplain, until
the next synod." Taffin thus became preacher to ican) University, Harriman, Tenn., where he was
the Walloon congregation. professor of ancient languages. He likewise taught
Owing to his French in Ruskin College, Trenton, Mo., and in 1884- 86
sympathies, the prince was obliged to leave Antwerp
in July, and when the town was yielded to Parma
was professor of Greek in Westminster College.
"
Theologically he describes himself as independ-
by treaty, hi 1585, Taffin also left and went to Em-
ent, Judeo-Christian, with the Bible and sanctified
den, but the following year became preacher to
reason as basis."
the Walloon congregation in Haarlem until 1590,
when he went to Amsterdam and preached there TAGORE, DEVENDRANATH: Hindu thoist;
till his death. May, 1817; d. Jan. 19, 1905. His father, Dwar-
b. in
Taffin was noted for his probity and eminent kanath Tagore, was a distinguished and wealthy
piety. He showed his moderation and forbearance Bengal lawyer and a merchant, a friend of Raja
in the controversy regarding Arminius, and in so Rammohan Roy (see RAMMOHAN ROY), and a co-
doing roused suspicion of his own orthodoxy; laborer with liim in the religious reform movements
though as a Calvinist he opposed the views of of that day. The eldest son Devendrannth grew up
Arminius. Of hi earlier writings nothing is known,
., under the social instruction of his father's mother,
although he is mentioned in the Antwerp Index of who was a devout believer in idolatry. He at-
"
1570 among authors of the first rank." He was tended the school founded by Raja Rammohan
prominent as a practical theologian. A little work Roy, gaining a knowledge of Sanskrit, Persian, and
entitled Des marques dcs cnfans de Dieu et des English, besides his vernacular Bengali. In his
consolations en leurs afflictions went through more autobiography he recognizes the temptations that
than nine editions (1606, etc.; Dutch transl., wealth brought him, leading him to forget his higher
1593, etc.; Eng. transl., The Markes of the Children duties in the pleasure of the moment. At the age of
of God, London, 1590). He issued also four pam- eighteen, however, his mind passed through a
phlets bound in one, entitled Instruction contre Ics change. While watching by his dying grandmother
erreurs des Anabaptistes (Haarlem, 1589); an in- at the river bank, a strange sense of the unreality
structive treatise Vermaninghe tot licfde ende aeZmoe.se of all things entered his mind and he was filled with
ende van de schuldige plicht ende troost der armen the ecstasy of the feeling of God's presence, followed,
(1591); the Traite de Vamendement de vie (1594), however, for a time by sadness and despair. At the
is his best-known work, and was translated into age of twenty-one he picked up a torn leaf of a San-
Dutch in 1595 with fresh editions in 1628 and 1659; skrit book which proved to be a verse from the
published in Latin in Geneva in 1602; and in Eng. Ishopanishady and through it he was induced to make
transl., The Amendment of Life, London, 1595. a deeper study of the Upanishads. He became ab-
(S. D. VAN VEEN.) sorbed in these studies, and decided to become a
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Rahlenbeck, in Bulletin de la commission religious teacher. In order to make known his views
des tglwes ivallonts, vol. ii., The Hague, 1887; C. Sepp. to sympathetic friends, he established a society
Drie Evangeliedienaren uit den tijd der Heruonning, pp.
called the Tatwabodhirii Sabha, to which finally
1-80, Ley don, 1870; idem, Polemische und irenische The-
otogie, pp. 81-04, ib. 1881; H. Heppe, Geschichte des Pie" even elderly and influential men were attracted.
tismus und der Mystik in der reformirten Kirche, nament- In 1842 he was first brought into contact with the
Kch der N\ederlande, pp. 05 sqq., ib. 1870. Brahmo Somaj, which had been founded by Ram-
TAGG, FRANCIS THOMAS: Methodist Protes- mohan Roy, but since the death of its founder, in
tant; b. at Union Md., June 2, 1845. He was
Mills, 1833, had been languishing. Devendranath's re-
educated in Carroll Academy, in his native town, ligious devotion, his talents, and wealth gave new
"
where he was a teacher and principal until 1870, life to the society. Henceforth," says his biogra-
when he became a Methodist Protestant minister. "
pher, Mr. Muzoomdar, he was not only the leader,
After holding various pastorates in Maryland and but the absolute all of the society; the committee
Washington until 1884, he was chosen missionary was his making; he ruled it; the bulk of the ex-
secretary of his denomination, and organized its mis- penses he paid; the monthly journal he controlled."
sion work in Japan. Since 1892 he has been editor The Tatwabodhini Sabha and the Brahma Somaj
of the Methodist Protestant. He was president of the were amalgamated. Devendranath, perceiving that
general conference of the Methodist Protestants in the members had not absolutely given up idolatry,
 Taffln Jean
253 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Toll, Archibald Campbell

introduced a Brahmi covenant, which every mem- king ") The struggle continued against the imperial
.

ber was asked to sign. This covenant changed the troops with slow but continuous gains for the rebels,
Somaj from a mere platform for the discussion of until Shanghai was menaced and foreigners
reformed views to a fraternity based on a creed. In English and French were engaged. In 1863
1845 a heated discussion with Dr. Duff, in which the Charles George Gordon took charge of the imperial
members were charged with being believers in the forces, and within fourteen months the rebellion
infallibility of the Vedas, led Devendranath and his was so far suppressed that the leader despaired of
followers to reexamine their faith. The result was his cause and with his wives committed suicide.
the pronouncement of their belief that no ancient Hung Siu Tsuen's religious views were a mixture
writings arc infallible guides and that reason and of Christian and Chinese elements. He considered
conscience alone arc of supreme authority. The Christ the oldest of the sons of God, and himself
doctrine of the infallibility of the Vcdas being one of the younger. In his manifestos he grouped
abandoned, the rationalistic wave in the society God the Father, Jesus Christ, himself, and his son,
rose so high that Devendranath, becoming alarmed whom he styled the " Junior Lord," as the coequal
and finally disgusted, retired in 1856 to the Himala- rulers of the universe. He adopted baptism, but
yas, where he spent his time in the study of Indian rejected the Lord's Supper, allowed polygamy (he
and Western philosophical books, returning only had himself a hundred and eighteen wives), and
after an absence of a year and a half While he was
.
punished adultery and opium-smoking with death.
absent, in 1857, Keshav Chandra Sen (see SEN, BIBLIOGRAPHY. L. Brine, Taeping Rebellion, London, 1862;
KESHAV CHANDTIA) joined the Somaj. His energy A. Wilson, The " Ever Victorious Army.'' A History cf
and enthusiasm attracted Devendranath, and with Campaign under
the (Chinese . . C. O. Gordon, ib. 1S68;
.

closo affection the two worked in the interests of the

C G. Gordon, Gordon's Diary in China, ib. 1885; A. E.
Hake, Events of the Tai-Pino Rebellion, ib. 1892; C. Spiel-
Sabha. But the conservatism of Devendranath and manii, Die Taiping-Rcvolution in China, 1860-64, Halle,
the radicalism of young Keshav led in time to a rup- 1900; and the general histories of China.
ture. In 1865 Keshav withdrew and in I860 founded
TAIT, ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL: Church of
the Brahmo Somaj (q.v.) of India. Devendranath
England, archbishop of Canterbury; b. in Edin-
then named his faction the Adi-Brahmo Somaj.
burgh Dec. 22, 1811; d. at Addington (11 m. s.s.w.
The defection of Keshav disheartened Devendranath of Charing Cross, London) Dec. 3, 1882. After
and he retired from the activities of life to solitary
passing through the high school and academy of
meditation, after the ideals of a Hindu rishi. For Edinburgh, he studied at Glasgow University,
nearly half a century he lived in this retirement, 1827-30; and at Balliol College, Oxford (B.A., 1830;
but was visited by those \vho reverenced his piety, fellow, 1834); became tutor, 1835; and was or-
and who wished to listen to the words of wisdom dained, 1836. He took a prominent part in oppos-
that fell from his lips JUSTIN E. ABBOTT.
ing Tractarianism (q.v.), and was one of the four
BIBIJOOHA.PIIY: In Memoriam, Maharahi Devendranath tutors who entered a protest against Tract No.
Tagore, Calcutta, 1905; The Adi Brahma Samaj, its Views
and Principles, ib. 1870; Sivanath Shaatra, The New Dis- 90 (see NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY). In 1842 he was
pensation and the Sadharan Brahma Samaj, Madras, 1881; appointed headmaster of Rugby school. In 1850
The Offering of Srirnat Afaharsha Devendranath Tagore t
Tait accepted the deanery of Carlisle, and became
Lahore, 1890; and the literature under INDIA.
well known as a hard-working parish clergyman,
TAI-PING ("Great peace"): The name given to a and in 1856 was appointed bishop of London. Tait
Chinese religious sect established by Hung Siu initiated the scheme for raising a million pounds to
Tsucn (b. in a village thirty miles from Canton, meet the deficiency of church accommodation in
1813; d. at Nanking July 19, 1864). While on a London. In 1868 he was raised to the see of Canter-
visit to Canton to attend the official examinations,
bury. He was a representative of Low-church views,
he received from I. J. Roberts, an American mission- and managed with great courtesy and excellent
ary, a package of tracts in Chinese. Five years after- judgment the conflicting relations of the ritualists,
ward he fell sick, and had visions, in which an old and ecclesiastical law of England. He was a man
man with a golden beard commanded him to destroy of sound piety and practical common sense rather
the demons (i.e., the idol-gods) of his countrymen. than of preeminent literary attainments. His
He then read the tracts; and associating the man in works embrace Suggestions Offered to tlie Theological
his visions with Christ, and catching up several
Student, wider Present Difficulties (London, 1846) ;

Christian ideas, he abandoned the Chinese religion, An Historical Sketch of Carlisle Cathedral. A
and began to preach his new faith. Ho retired to Lecture (Carlisle, 1855); The Dangers and Safe-
the mountains, and by 1840 gathered many con-
" guards of Modern Theology (London, 1861); Ttie
verts, whom he styled God- worshipers." Ho car- Word of God and the Ground of Faith (sermons;
ried out his supposed commission, and destroyed
1863-64); Harmony of Revelation and the Sciences
some Buddhist idols. This brought him into con- (Edinburgh, 1864); The Present Position of the
flict with the government, so that he again retired to Church of England (3rd. ed., London, 1873); Some
the mountains. In 1850 he engaged in a new en-
Thoughts on the Duties of the Established Church
terprise. The time was ripe for rebellion; and he of England as a National Church (1876).
proclaimed himself as sent by heaven to drive out BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. T. Davidson (Tail's son-in-law) and W
the Tatars and set up a native Chinese dynasty. Bcnham, Life of Archibald Campbell Tait, 2 vols., London.
His standard was pushed victoriously forward. 1891; W. Benham, Memorials of Catherine and Crau-
furd Tait, new ed., ib. 1882; A. C. Bickley, Public Life of
Nanking was captured in 1852. The Tai-ping the Late Archbishop of Canterbury, ib. 1883; F. W. Cor-
dynasty was founded, with himself as the first nish. The English Church in the Nineteenth Century, %
emperor under the title Tien-Wang (" the heavenly vols., paaaim, ib. 1910; DNB, Jv. 209-900,
Talbot, Bdward Stuart THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 854
Talmud. The

TALBOT, EDWARD STUART: Church of Eng- to the Roman Catholics in Ireland, The Duty and
land, bishop of Southwark; b. in London Feb. 19, Comfort of Suffering Subjects (Paris, 1674).
1844. He was educated at Christ Church College,
TALIANI, tal-yfl'nl, EMIODIO: Cardinal; b.
Oxford (B.A., 1866), of which he was senior student at Montegallo (a village in the diocese of Ascoli-
in 1866-70 and honorary student since 1899. He
Piceno), Italy, Apr. 18, 1838; d. there Aug. 24,
was ordered deacon in 1869 and ordained priest in 1907. He was ordained to the priesthood in 1861,
the following year. HP was warden of Keble College, and in 1869 was appointed secretary to the papal
Oxford, 1870-88, and vicar of Leeds, 1889-95. nuncio at Madrid. From 1875 to 1880 he occupied
In 1895 he was consecrated bishop of Rochester, a similar position at Paris, after which he was made
and in 1905 was translated to his present see of a canon of the Lateran. Consecrated titular arch-
Southwark. He was commissary to the bishop of
bishop of Sebaste in 1896, he was sent to Vienna as
Colombo in 1881-91, chaplain to the archbishop of
papal nuncio, and in 1903 was created cardinal
Canterbury in 1883-89, honorary chaplain to the priest of San Bernardo alle Tenne.
Queen in 1890-94, chaplain in ordinary in 1894-95, THOMAS:
TALLIS, English musical composer;
and was select preacher at Oxford in 1871-72,
b. probably about 1510; d. Nov. 23, 1585 (buried
1883-85, and 1906, as well as rural dean of Borough- in Greenwich) . He was organist of Waltham Abbey
bridge in 1890-95 and dean of St. Saviour's, before 1540, and soon after of the Chapel Royal,
Southwark, since 1897. He
has written Influence
under Queen Elizabeth, and has been styled the
of Christianity on Slavery (Oxford, 1869) Prepara-
; "
father of English cathedral music." Five of his
tion for the Gospel in History in Lux Mundi (Lon-
anthems were included in John Day's Certain Notes
don, 1889); Some and Aspects of the Eucharist
Titles
Set Forth in Four and Three Parts ... in 1560,
(1894); Sermons Church
preaclied in Leeds Parish
and eight of his tunes in Archbishop Parker's
(1896); Vocation and Dangers to tlie Church (1899);
Psalter in 1567. With his pupil William Byrd ho
Some Aspects of Christian Truth (1905) Sermons in
;

Southwark (1905); and The Church's Stress (1907). published Cantiones Sacra; in 1575. In 1641 his
First Service in the Dorian mode, besides a litany,
TALBOT, ETHELBERT: Protestant Episcopal responses, and canticles, appeared in Barnard's
bishop of Central Pennsylvania; b. at Fayette, Mo., Selected Church Music, but by far the most re-
Oct. 9, 1848. He was graduated at Dartmouth, markable of his works was the motet for forty
" "
1870, and at the General Theological Seminary, voices Spem aliam non habui edited by Mann
New York City, 1873; became rector of St. James', in 1888. The seven-voiced Miserere was an ex-
Macon, Mo., 1873; missionary bishop of Wyoming traordinary piece of canonic writing, and it was in
and Idaho, 1887; and bishop of Central Pennsyl- the Latin church music that Tallis displayed his
vania, 1897. counterpointal ingenuity. His instrumental music
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. S. Perry, The Episcopate in America, was only mediocre.
p. 301, New York, 1895. BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Davey, Hist, of English Music, pp. 126-
148, 479. London, 1895; DNB, Iv. 348-351.
TALBOT, PETER: Roman Catholic archbishop
of Dublin; b. 1620; d. in Newgate
prison, Dublin, TALMAGE, THOMAS DEWITT: Presbyterian;
1680. He joined the Jesuits in Portugal in 1635; b. near Bound Brook, N. J., Jan. 7, 1832; d. at
was ordained in Rome; and taught moral theology Washington, D. C., Apr. 12, 1902. He studied at
at Antwerp. He was in Ireland during part of the the University of the City of New York (special
civil war and espoused the royalist cause. In 1654 diploma, 1853), and was graduated from the Theo-
he made the acquaintance of Charles II. at Cologne, logical Seminary, New Brunswick, N. J., 1856.
whom he is reported to have reconciled to Roman He was pastor of the Reformed Dutch Church at
Catholicism. Eventually he severed connections Belleville, N. J., 1856-59; at Syracuse, N. Y..
with the Jesuit order. Harsh things have been said 1859-62; of the Second Church, Philadelphia, Pa.
of him on account of his alleged duplicity and 1862-69; Central Presbyterian Church, Schermer.
machinations with political conspirators. He was horn Street, Brooklyn, N. Y., 1869-70. In 1870 the
consecrated archbishop of Dublin at Antwerp in congregation erected on the same street, near the
May, 1669. His preferment was mainly due to his old site, a new and much larger church, known as
" " " Tabernacle." It was burned
opposition to the Remonstrance of Peter Walsh, the Dec. 22, 1872;
which was considered derogatory to papal author- rebuilt 1874; dedicated, Feb. 22, 1874, and burned
ity. He was forced to leave Ireland in 1673. Re- Oct. 13, 1889. A new structure was erected on Green
turning in May, 1678, he was imprisoned on the Ave., in 1891, and burned May 13, 1894. Talmage
"
charge of being implicated in the popish plot." then preached a few months in the Academy of
Although Talbot's diplomatic affairs claimed much Music, 14th Street, New York; and in 1895 be-
of his attention, he published numerous works dis- came associate pastor with Dr. Byron Sunderland
playing ability and learning. Erastus Senior (Lon- of the First Presbyterian Church, Washington, D. C.,
don, 1662), aiming to disprove the vindications of and then sole pastor, but retired in 1899 from all
Anglican orders advanced by Mason, Heylin, and active pastoral work, continuing the issue of his
Bramhall, has been reprinted several times; Prima- sermons in the weekly journals; indeed, his sermons
tus Dubliniensis (Lille, 1674) was an attempt to were widely published in America and Europe,
show the precedency of the see of Dublin over Ar- weekly, for thirty years. Talmage edited The
magh; Blakloance hceresis confutatio (Ghent, 1675) Christian at Work, New York, 1873-76; The Advance,
and Scutum inexpugnabile fidei (Lyons, 1678) were of Chicago, 1877-78; Frank Leslie's Sunday Maga-
directed against the peculiar opinions of Thomas zine, 1880-90; and The Christian Herald. He was
White (q.v.). While in exile, Talbot wrote a letter the author of Crumbs Swept Up (Philadelphia,
255 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA , The

1870); Abominations of Modern Society (New York, Sacred Places seen through Biblical Spectacles (1892) ;

1872); Sermons (4 vols., 1872-75); One Thousand besides many other volumes of sermons, the con-
Gems (1873); Around the Tea Table (Philadelphia, tents of most of which were first disseminated by
1874); Masque Torn Off (Chicago, 1879); Brooklyn the daily and weekly press.
Tabernacle Sermons (New York, 1884); New BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. F. Adams, Jr., Life and Sermons of T.
Tabernacle Sermons (1886); Marriage Ring; Dis- DeW. Talmaffe, Chicago, 1002; C. E. Banks, Life and
courses (1886); From Manger to Throne; a New Works of T. DeW. Talmaae, New York, 1902; L. A.
Banks and Others, T. DeWitt Talmage, hit Life and Work,
Life of Jesus, and a History of Palestine (Phil- Philadelphia, 1002; W. C. Wilkinson. Modem Matter* of
adelphia, 1891) From the Pyramids to the Acropolis:
; Pulpit Ditcourtc, pp. 33-64, New York, 1005.

TALMUD, THE.
I. History. II. Divisions. Censorship; Consequent Changes
Situation Created by the Exile ($1). III. Contents of the Sixty-three Mishna (52).
Beginnings of Oral Law ( 2). Tracts. VI. Evaluation of the Talmud.
The Minima; Origin and Growth IV. The Palestinian Talmud. Halacha and Haggada ((1).
(53) V. The Babylonian Talmud. VII. Explanation and Translation of
The Material Described (5 4). Origin; Celebrated Authorities ( 1). the Page from the Talmud.

I. History: The Babylonian exile was for the sprang up the theory of the Great Synagogue (q.v.).
history of the Jews a turning-point of moment. Decisions, rules, and Halakoth were delivered as
The subjects of the kingdom of Judah had lost not the times and special cases required,
only their political independence and their home, 2. Begin- and thus grew up an oral common law
but also, through the destruction of the Temple, nings of (cf the works of Brlick and Bloch in
.

one legitimate place of sacrifice,

their Oral Law. the bibliography). The immediate ori-
i. Situation the center of the whole worship of Yah- gin of these deliverances being forgot-
Created weh. But the hope of restoration was ten, they came to be regarded as early, indeed as
by the still strong; they had for it a support given to Moses at Sinai (cf Pirke Abhoth, i. 1) Later
. .

Exile. in the words of Yahweh communicated men resorted to explanations or interpretations of

through Jeremiah that the Chaldean the written law, which served as an extension of
sway should last but seventy years, after which God the latter, and this oral method came to be ac-
would be again found of his people, who were to knowledged as authoritative. It came to be the ordi-
return into their o\\n land (Jer. xxv. 11, xxix. 10 nary belief of the faithful Jew that an oral law
sqq.; Dan. ix. 2). The one condition to all this was transmitted by tradition had existed alongside of
that the people seek their God with their whole that which was written in the Pentateuch. But this
heart (Jer. xxix. 13). This could not then be done receives, of course, no historical support and is
by sacrifice nor through the ordinary ordinances of negatived by lack of mention in Scripture, by the
worship; the only way was by keeping of the sab- lack of even traditional support, and by the false
bath and by honoring God's word that which was chronology used to support it. How feeble the sup-
written as well as that which was spoken during the port for this is may be illustrated by the fact that
exile especially by regarding the will of God as the whole system of rules for ritual slaughter is made
"
laid down in the Pentateuch. Special devotion to to depend on the words as I have commanded
"
the law was suggested by the result of the search thee in Deut. xii. 21. All this constantly increas-
after the cause of the calamity to the people chosen ing material of additions to the Torah (the Law) was
by God, by the hope of restoration of the cultus and for a long time transmitted orally. Philo, in a frag-
of independence, and by the resolution not to sink ment preserved in Eusebius (Prceparatio Evangelica,
again into the past course of iniquity. Conse- VIII., vii. 6; Eng. transl., ii. 388, Oxford, 1903),
"
quently there arose in the exile the class of men speaks of countless unwritten customs and
. . .

learned in the law to which Ezekiel belonged (V. usages "; while Josephus (Ant., XIII., x. 6) declares
"
Ryssel, in TSK, 1887, pp. 149-182). This develop- that the Pharisees have delivered to the people a
ment was favored by the vanishing of prophecy and great many observances by succession from their
the gradual disuse of the Hebrew language, the fathers, which are not written in the law of Moses;
vehicle of the law and of the revelation of God in wherefore the Sadducees reject them and declare
the past. Ezra was already described as " a ready that those observances are obligatory which are
"
scribe hi the law of Moses (Ezra vii. 6, 11), who in the written word, but not those which are de-
had " prepared his heart to seek the law of the rived from tradition." Many other such references
"
Lord . .and to teach it (Ezra vii. 10), and took
. there are, but none of the early period suggest fix-
with him to Jerusalem
"
men of understanding " ation of tin's body in writing. The first reduction
(i.e., teachers; Ezra viii. 16), while the Levites were of this matter to writing took place in the first half
instructors of the people (Neh. viii. 4 sqq.). of the second century of our era, and was arranged
The written Pentateuchal law was closed at least both topically and according to the order of the
from the time of Ezra, and could not submit to ad- passages explained. It may be assumed that the
dition or other change. Nevertheless, new relations existence of the canon of the New Testament had
in life called ever for new pronouncements; so from some influence.
Ezra's period there must have been some organized The two forms which this new collection took
power to preserve the law and apply it to practical were, then, the topical or Mishna form and the
life. From this fact and in view of Neh. viii.-x. exegetical or Midrash (q.v.). Mishna (from shanah,
Talmud, The THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 256

" "
to repeat," to learn and teach [the content TJie Mishnah on which the Palestinian Talmud Rests,
"
of doctrine]) means oral teaching and its study. London, 1883; based on the Cambridge Ms. Add.
It comes to mean the total content 470, 1). The relation of these recensions to each
3. The of the material of oral tradition which other needs investigation.
Mishna; had gathered by the end of the second The development of the Halacha in the earlier
Origin and century of our era, or the total content period was altogether independent of the written
Growth, of the teaching of individuals active ( Pentateuchal) laws; only later were the citations
"
in this work (the Tannaim "), or added. Yet, in relation to the present Mishna the
their single deliverances (in this sense Halakah is form of the midrash (or exegesis) is in
also used), then any collection of such deliverances. 4. The many passages more or less signifi-
It moans, par excellence, the collection made by Material cantly to be recognized as the older
Judah ha-Nasi. In opposition to the sixty (sixty- Described, (for examples cf. Hauck-Herzog, RE,
three) tracts of this collection the term Baraitha xix. 320). The extant Tosephta in
was applied to other collections, as also to single many cases is the Mishna in midrash form. Here
pronouncements not contained in it. Among these should receive mention, at least, the fact which is
collections were those called Tosephta, of which one of interest to the Christian reader, that the Penta-
isextant (ed. M. S. Zucker, Tosefta, Pasewalk, 1880, teuchal passages to which the traditional material
supplement volume, Trcvcs, 1882). An Aramaic brings explanation, extension, and the like arc not
" "
equivalent of Mislma is Mathnitha (from teni directly cited but are set forth as thoroughly known.
"
or tena', to teach "), while tanna, pi. tannaim, is Variations from the arrangement which the name of
the designation of the Mishnaic doctors, and also of the tract would lead one to expect arc due to the fact
" "
the later wandering librarians who had memor- that for the sake of relieving the memory deliver-
ized Mishnaic deliverances and in the discussions of ances which arc alike on one point only are cited,
the Amoraim or lecturers on the Mishna served in even though they differ on other things. The links
place of texts. In the Talmud the Mishna is cited of association are of many kinds. Dissimilarities
"
with the formula \\c learned." The attempt has in the handling of the material are sometimes due
been made to prove that before the destruction of to the reception into the collection of not a few
the Temple a Mishna collection was made by the tracts, apart from additions, essentially in the shape
schools of Shammai and Hillel (D. Hoffman, Die crstc, in which their collectors left them. There is also
Mischna, Berlin, 18S2); but if Josephus (ut sup.) great lack of systematic arrangement. Originally
is to be relied upon, this could have been only oral. a controlling factor in the arrangement was the
But before Judah ha-Nasi there were halachic col- length of the tracts, partly due to the teacher's
lections. It is probable that many revered tannaim desire to utilize the zeal of the student in mastering
made halachic collections and books of Haggada the longer treatises wliile he was fresh to the sub-
both to aid the memory and in the preparation of ject. The Mishna rabbis soon deserted all other
their lectures, though these might not be used during Mishna collections for the one which had the ap-
the actual course of instruction. Such collec- proval of the Amoraim. In elucidating the Mishna,
tions, relating to special departments of traditional the same rules were employed as on the written law
material, may have been used by the redactors of of Moses. The relation of the Amoraim to the Mish-
the Mishna, and to this may have been due the at- na was very like that of the Tannaim to the Torah.
tribution of certain tracts to this or that noted Manuscripts are: (1) at Parma, MS. 138, according to
teacher of early times. There is good testimony De Rossi of the thirteenth century, half of it pointed; (2) at
Berlin, Orient. Fol. 507, orders II. -IV., with the commen-
to work of this kind by Rabbi Akiba (first third of
tary of MaimonideH in Hebrew translation; Orient. Qu.
the second century), as in Zabim 678, and upon this 500-574, with the Arabic commentary of Maimoiiides (no.
the work of Rabbi Meir rested. These collections 508 was written in 1222, eighteen years after the death of
laid the foundations for the more comprehensive Maimonides); (3) at Hamburg, no 18, orders T -III. with
the Hebrew commentary of MamiouideH, dated 14 JO; (4) at
labors of Judah ha-Nasi. That a collection was Oxford, nos. 393-407, with the Arabic commentary of Mai-
really made at this time seems certain, though that monides: nos. 408-409, 2002, with Hebrew translation; nos.
the Mishna in its present form could have originated 2001, 2002-2009 contain fragments of a somewhat higher
so early is not to be doubted. It has in the course antiquity; (/>) at London, in the British Museum, the Miflh-
na with Arabic commentary of Maimcmides Cod. Orient.
of time received numerous additions, such as those 2217-20, 2391-94, Add 27588, (0) at Cambridge the MS.
in which the first assumed author's name is men- Add. 470 published by Lowe ut sup.; (7) at Budapest there
tioned with his views, and differing views by his is a valuable old codex.

contemporaries, and the like. Later authorities II. Divisions: The extant Mishna
and the
than he are seldom named. The text of the Mislma Babylonian Talmud consist of six
parts called
"
exists in three recensions: that in the manuscripts sedharim, orders," and from the initials of the
or editions of the Mislma; that in the Babylonian Hebrew for this expression (shisshah sedharim,
"
Talmud, in which the work of the Amoraim follows six orders ") arose the Hebrew mnemonic for
"
short excerpts or single pronouncements of the Talmud, shas." Of the Palestinian Talmud only
Mishna; that in the Palestinian Talmud, in which the first four orders and a part of the sixth arc ex-
the Gemara follows each whole chapter of the Mishna tant. Each order has a number of tracts (from
and so that the initial word of the explanatory seven to twenty-two) called massekhtoth (sing.
Mishna sentence is repeated in the corresponding "
massekheth, web
"), and the tracts fall into chap-
place, Of this third recension for a number of cen- ters (perakim) which are divided into paragraphs
turies there were known only the first four series and or sentences (each of which is called a mishnah, or,
pf the sixth series only Nidda 1-4 (cf. W. H. Lowe, in the Palestinian Talmud, halakah). The names of
267 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Talmud, The

"
the orders are: zera'im, "seeds"; mo'edh, "fes- BREW, } 12). (2) Kethubhoth, marriage contracts," deals
' '
women ' ' l ' ' '
with the duties of husband and wife. (3) Nedharim,
tivals"; naskim , ;
nezikin ,
in j uries ; "
considers vows and their annulment. (4) Nazir,
vows,"
kodliashim, "holy things"; and teharoth, "puri- "
Nazirite," on the Nazirite vow (see NAZIRITES). (5) Git-
"
fications." The names of the tracts are old, testi- \in, divorce papers," on the dissolution of marriage.
"
mony to some comes from the middle of the second (6) Sotah, woman suspected of adultery," on the subject
treated in Num. v. 11 -SI (see ORDEAL). (7) Kiddushin,
century of our era; some of them are derived from "
betrothal," has to do with the conditions of legal mar-
the contents, some from the first word, and some riage (see FAMILY AND MARRIAOK RELATIONS, HKBREW).
"
have in use a double nomenclature. The present Fourth Order, ten tracts. (1) Babha kainma, first

number of the tracts is sixty-three. gate," deals with injuries, and follows Ex. xxi. 33, xxii. 5-0,
Originally
giving four chief kinds of injuries of this kind. (2) Babha
the three first tracts of the fourth order constituted "
me/i'a, middle gate," treats of sales, leases, things found,
but one, and the fifth tract of the same order was and interest. (3) Babha bathra, " lost gate," considers
matters dcahng with property rights, Hales, and inheritance
formerly the conclusion of the preceding tract. "
(4) Sanhedhrin, court of justice," treats of the various
Consequently the number of tracts was formerly courts of law, the four methods of capital punishment, and
but sixty. The arrangement of the tracts within of those who shall have part or no part in the future world
the separate orders is not universally the same, but See LAW, HEBREW, CIVIL AND CRIMINAL; STONING; SAN-
"
the length of the t rants has been the most general HKDUiN. (5) Makkoth, blows," deals with stripes as a
method of legal punishment. This and the preceding tract
governing 'principle. The division into chapters is were originally one. (6) Shebhu'oth, " oaths," on the reg-
also ancient. Tn the (iemara many chapters aro ulations respecting oaths (cf. Lev. v. 4 sqq.). (7) 'Kdhuy-
"
eitcd by the names (the initial words) still in use. yoth, evidences," is a collection of testimonies by later
teachers to earlier deliverances; many of the sayings occur
An alphabetical index of the chapter-headings is elsewhere in the Mishna under other subjects. (8) 'Ab-
found in many editions of the Babylonian Talmud hodhah zarah, " idolatrous worship," treating of idolatry
" "
in the appendix to the tract Bcrakhoth; it may be and idols. (9) Abhoth, fathers (also Pirko abhoth,
"
found also in J. Huxtorf, DC abbrcviaturis Hcbraicix, sayings of the fathers"), aims to show the continuity of
tradition and its reliability, and then to give practical in-
at the end (Basel, 1(>1H); J. C. Wolf, Bibhollutca struction This tract is very often reprinted, and is com-
Jlchrwa, ii. 724-7-11 (Hamburg, 1721); and best monly found in Jewish prayer-books (10) Horayoth,
'*
in W. H. Lowe, The Fragment of Talmud Babli decisions," deals with religious and legal decisions erro-
rcsachim in the U?ri versify Library, pp. 50-59 neously followed.
Fifth Order, eleven tracts. (1) Zcbhahim, " sacrifice,"
. . .

(Cambridge, 1879). The number of chapters is 523. the name indicates its subject. (2) Mcnat.ioth,
"
meat
III. Contents of the Sixty- three Mishna Tracts: offerings," the title of which also denotes its subject. (3)
"
" Hulhn, profane," has to do with the killing of animals
First Order, eleven tracts (1) Borakhoth, blessings," not designed for sacrifice and like matters. (4) Bekhoroth,
is on blessings and prayers, especially thosr for daily use. " " "
" first-born (on various firstlings). (5) 'Arakhm, val-
(2) JY'ah, corner," deals with the corners of the faeld in
uations," deals with equivalents to be paid instead of per-
agriculture and the rights of the poor (cf Lev. xix 9, 20, "
sons dedicated to deity (6) Temurah, exchange," re-
xx m. 22, Dent XYIV 19-22) (.i) Oammai (also pro-
" fers to substitution for dedicated animals. (7) Konthoth,
nounced Deinnv), doubtful (fruits)," deals with fnutH of "
\vhieh it is unceit'im whether the tithe was Riven to the extirpations," treats of the excommunication or cutting
" of one off from the congregation, and the expiation for a
priests (4) Kil'ayiui, of two sorts," deals with forbid- "
fault so punishable. (8) Me* Hah, trespass," has to do
den mivtuioH of things (ef Lev xix. 19; Deut. xxii. 9-11).
" with the subject prescribed for in Num v. fi-8. (9) ^a-
(.")) Shebhi'ith, sabbatical year" (Ex xxiii. 11, Lev. xxv. "
1 sqq ), ot which it treats
midh, the daily (morning and evening) offering," the
1 7; Deut xv (6) Terumoth, "
denotes the subject. (10) Middoth,
"
heave (offering," deals with the offerings noted Num. m title
expounds" tho furnishing of Temple and sanctuary. (11)
measuras,"
r
xvin S s<i<i , 2, >-20 (7) Ma'usioth (or Ma'aser nshon),
"
tithe.s
"
(01
"
fust tithe "), treats of the matter of Num. Kmnim, birds' nests," has to do with the bnngmg of birds
x\m 21 24 (S) Ma'aser sheru, "second tenth," deals (doves) as offerings.
with the tithe which was to be eaten at Jerusalem (Dout.
Sixth Order, twelve tracts. (1) Kehm, " utensils,"
" treats of the various kinds of ceremonial impurity which
xiv 22 sqq ) (9) llallah, Cake," having to do with the "
vessels may acquire. (2) 'Ohaloth, tents," deals with
dough of Le\. xv 1821 (10) 'Orlah, "foreskin (of
the defilement incurred through connection with a corpse.
trees)," treats of the prohibition to eat the fniit of trees "
(3) Negha'im, leprosy," is concerned with that disease.
dunng'the first "three years after planting (Lev. xix. 210. "
red heifer," has to do with the ceremony of
(4) Parah,
(11) Bikkurnn, first fruits," on the laws in Ex. xxiii. 19;
Deut. xx vi. purification by the ashes of a red heifer (Num. xix ). (5)
sqq
1 " "
" f eharoth, purities the name is a euphemistic expres-
Second Order, twelve tracts. (1) Shabbath, Sab- "
sion for impurities," and the tract deals with minor defile-
bath," on the laws connected with observance of the Sab- "
ritual baths," treats of the ba-
ments. (0) Mikwa'oth,
bath, enumerates the thirty-iiine chief kinds of work for- "
thing of the defiled. (7) Niddah, menstruous woman,"
bidden (2) 'Krubhin, "mingling," treats of three methods "
tho name indicates the subject. (8) Makhshinn, pre-
of avoiding the especially burdensome requirements of the
Sabbath laws (3) Pcsahim,
"
Passover festivals," treats disposmgs," has to do with the predisposition to defilement "
caused by contact with various fluids. (9) Zabhim, suf-
of the ordinances respecting Passover. (4) Shekalim,
" ferers from discharges," deals with the subject of Lev. xv.
shekels," dealing with the tax of Ex. xxx. 12-16 for the
" 2 sqq. (10) febhul yom, the title means one who has
support of the Temple. (5) Yoma, "
day of (atonement),"
taken a ntual bath on the day of defilement, and therefore
treats of that fast. (6) Sukkah, booth," on the feast of "
" " " remains defiled till sunset. (11) Yadhayim, hands,"
tabernacles (7) Bczah or Yom tobh, egg or feast
treats of ceremonial defilement and purification of the hands.
day," named after the initial word, treats of the observances "
stems," deals with the relations of fruit to
(12) 'Uk^in,
of festivals, and on the distinction between these and the
"
new year's feast," deals stems, skins, and seeds with reference to the mutual im-
Sabbath. (8) llosh ha-Shanah,
with festivals of the new moon and the new year. (9) Ta- partation of defilement.
'atiith,
"
fasting," treats of fasts and times of mourning. IV. Two early names
The Palestinian Talmud:
"
(10) Meghillah,
"
roll," principally on the Esther roll read
"
Talmud of the land of Israel "
of this collection are
at Purim in the synagogue. (11) Mo'edh Jfatan, half-
and "
Jerusalem Talmud." Talmud itself means:
feast," deals with the days between the first and last days
of the Passover and feast of tabernacles observances. (1) study, especially in the expression Talmud
"
(12) tfaghigah, feasting," has to do with tho observances torah; (2) teaching, especially in connection with
of the three chief feasts.
proof texts; (3) explanations coming from the time
Third Order, seven tracts. (1) Yebhamoth, "widows of the Amoraim dealing with deliverances of the
obligated to a Levirate marriage," has to do with the levi-
rate marriage (see FAMILY AND MARRIAGE RELATIONS, Hu- earlier Tannaim (in this sense it is supplanted by
XI. 17
Talmud, The THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 958

TABLE OF THE TRACTS IN MISHNA, TALMUDS, AND TOSEPHTA.

The Munich Ma. has Berakhoth between orders 2 and 3; the Mishnayoth of the first order (without Berakhoth) and of
the sixth order (with Niddah) stand after the fifth order in Maimonidc arrangement. 9 A fourth chapter of many Mishna
'

ds. and of many eda. of the Talmud do not belong to the Mishna, but IB taken from the Tosephta and extended. The Pale-
stinian Gemara to Shabbath chaps, xxi.-xxiv. is no longer extant. 4 With the Palestinian
Gemara, which is printed with this
tract also in eds. of the Babylonian Talmud. 6
Lippmann, Heller, and Levi ben Gerahon place Gi^m after Sota. Alter
tliis Niddah, followed by the order
Neti)pn.
7
Makkoth, chap. iii. here is without Gemara. " A later addition is the sec-
tion $inyan ha-Torah or Perelf R. Me'ir reckoned as the sixth chap, of Abhoth. '
Stands after the Mishnayoth of the
sixth order at the head of the so-called little tracts. "The Mishna of Naples, 1492, transposes Abhoth and Horayoth.
"The Erfurt (Berlin) MS. contains only orders I. -IV. and Zebhahim chaps, i.-iii. tfullin and Bekhoroth are in the
fourth and fifth places in order VI. J> In
Tamidh chaps, i., ii., and iv. alone have Gemara. In Lowe's ed. of the Mishna
chaps, vi.-vii. form one chapter. " The Naples Mishna transposes Tamidh and MicJdoth, " Mishna
chaps, i.-iv., Gemara
to chaps, i.-iii. and the first three lines of Gemara to
chap, iv,
900 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Talmud, The

"
Gomara," which means acquired learning); and near Sura, and after his death the school at Sura
(4) Talmud is the comprehensive term for the Mishna acquired new importance. The deliverances of
and the explanations it contains. Amoraim is a Joseph and Raba form a large part of the Babylo-
" "
term which means speaker and refers to the nian Talmud, and to these is added material brought
Jewish scholars who were active from the period from Palestine. Through Ashi, for half a century
of the closing of the Mishna till toward the end of the head of the school at Sura, the accumulated mate-
fifth century. The most celebrated of the Amoraim rial during two centuries was arranged. A spur to
was Johanan bar Nappaha (d. 279; cf. JE, vii. the making of this collection was the persecution of
211-213). Of later date were Mani bar Jonah, head the Jewish religion in Persia, 439-457. Rabbina
of the school in Sepphoris, and Jose bar Abin. The bar Huna (d. 499) was the last of the Amoraim,
close of the Palestinian Talmud took place in the those coming after used the work of those who pre-
next generation in the beginning of the fifth century. ceded as a basis. As early as Tanna Judah ben
In the Palestinian Talmud there are evidences of Il'ai mention is made of mnemonic signs, and these
several redactions: in the first and second orders were used in manuscript for convenience and for
there are many Tannaitic sayings attributed to saving of time and space; collections of these ab-
Samuel (of Nehardoa; see below, V.), but none in breviations were employed by the Tannaim, also
the third and fourth; on the other hand there are the abbreviations themselves were used by those
many notes of controversy between Mani and Abin who collected and arranged the Babylonian Talmud.
in the third and fourth, in the first and second they In the manuscripts these gradually fell away, partly
are few. Against compilation by one author may because they became superfluous and partly be-
be adduced the great number of repetitions; thus cause they were no longer understood. Of the
from the first book there arc thirty-nine long sixty-three tracts of the Mibhna twenty-six are with-
excerpts in the second, wixteen in the third, ten in out the Babylonian Gemara; these were, no doubt,
the fourth. The editions of the Palestinian Talmud discussed in the Babylonian schools in the fourth
contain only the first four orders and the Mishna of century, but the discussions were probably never
four chapters of Niddah (sixth order) with the digested or reduced to writing. A great part of the
Gemara of three chapters and a few lines beside. contents of many of these tracts can not have been
In the second order there are lacking the four last employed outside of Palestine, while that of others
chapters of the Gemara to Shabbath, in the fourth went under other tracts; 'Edhuyyoth and Abhoth
the hust chapter of the Gemara to Makkoth and all could from their subject matter have had no Gemara.
of Ablioth and 'Edhuyyoth. Ttiis results from the The first mention of the Babylonian Talmud entire
condition of the Leydon Codex upon which the first occurs in the second half of the eighth century.
edition (Venice, 1523-24) was based, and there are
Of manuscripts the following may be mentioned (1) at
witnesses to the existence of some of these parts. Munich, Codex Hebr. 95, the one extant manuscript of the
The Mishna of the Palestinian recension is complete entire Babylonian Talmud, written in 134.J, Codex Hebr.
in the Cambridge manuscript already noted. This 6, containing Pesalum, Yonia, nnd Ilaghighu; Codex He!>r.
140- 141, which contains five tracts or parts of tracts, (2) at
Talmud as extant has Gemara to thirty-nine tracts, Rome according to the brothers Assernam thirty-one co-
the Babylonian to only thirty-seven; yet the latter dices contained fifty-seven tracts of the Talmud and some
is three times afl extensive. The Babylonian Talmud of tho so-called lesser tracts, (3) at Oxford no 306* con-
was authoritative, and in case of conflict was pre- tains two tracts, no. 367 has two, 368 has one, 36i) one, 370
four, 373 one, 375 one, while other fragmentary codices arc
ferred to the Palestinian.
nos. 2061, 2666, 26G7, 2671, 2673-78, some of them impor-
Manuscripts arc (1) the Loyden Codex Scaliger 3, dated tant, the oldest dated 1123 (cf S Sehechtcr and S. Singer,
1289 A D used for the first edition (ut sup.); (2) at Oxford,
,
Talmudical Fragment* in the Bodlwan Library, Cambridge,
no 3o5, Bcrakhoth with commentary, no. 2671, Mo'edh 1896); (4) in London, Hntish Museum Hurley 5508 con-
fca{,an, 2672, Bablm kainma, no. 2674, Berukhoth; (3) at tains eight tracts, and Add 25, 717 contains three m whole
London, British Museum, Codicos Orient 2822-24, Zeraiin or part; (5) in Florence the National Library contains tho
and Shckahin; (4) at Home, Codex 333 contains Zera'im second-oldest of known dated Talmud manuscripts (1176
and Sotah; (5) a Lowis-CJibson manuscript of one leaf from or 1177), with seven tracts (6) in Hamburg no 105 of tho
year 1184 contains throe, tracts (7) at Gottingen Codex
Giftm IB descnbed in JQR, 1897, 117-119.
Heb. 3 contains five tracts in whole or part; (8) at Carls-
V. The Babylonian Talmud: In the beginning of ruhe a manuscript contains Sanhodrin; (9) at Paris the
the second century Nehardea was a seat of Jewish National Library has no 671 with Berakhoth, no. 1337
with three tracts, and no 1313 with a part of Babha Bathra;
learning, and under Mar Samuel (d. 254) it was at
(10) in New York Columbia University has a South Arabian
the height of its prosperity. Contemporaneous with
manuscript written in 1548 which contains four tracts;
this was the academy at Sura under (11) at Cambridge is the manuscript described in W. H.
i. Origin; Rab (d. 247). After the destruction Lowe, The Fragment of Talmud Babli Peaarhim . . . (Cam-
Celebrated of Nohardea in 259 Judah bar Ezekiel, bridge, 1879).

Authorities, a disciple of Samuel and Rab, founded The fewness of early manuscripts is in some de-
the school at Pum Beditha, noted for gree compensated by the numerous citations in
the activities of Babbah bar Nalimani (d. 331), a early authorities, such as the Talmud compendium
keen dialectician, of Joseph bar IJiyya (d. 333), who of Isaac ben Jacob Alphasi (between
because of his comprehensive knowledge of the law 2. Censor- 1013 and 1103), the Talmud diction-

was called Sinai, and of Abaye (d. 338), the pupil ship; Con- ary of Nathan ben Yehi'el of the
of the two named just before him. Raba bar sequent eleventh century, and the Talmud
Joseph bar Kama (d. 352) taught in Mahuza on the Changes, commentaries of Rashi and the Toseph-
Tigris, and after him Nahman bar Isaac (d. 356) tists. There is need of a critical com-
was the head of the academy restored at Pum mentary of the Talmud (the Mishna and the two
Beditha. Papa (375) founded the school at Neresh Talmuds), and this need is the greater because of
Talmud, The THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 260

the mischief wrought through Christian censorship halachic part of the Sedher Tannaim we-' Amor 'aim,
(or the fear of it) both in manuscripts and in edi- or by the employment of the Yadh ha-Hazalca of
tions. The evidence both of this censorship and its Maimonides, the Scpher ha-Mizwoth of Moses of
results is abundant. In 1G31 a Jewish assemblage Coucy, and the Shutyan 1\a-Arukh of Joseph Karo,
in Poland issued a circular (cf. C. Leslie, A SJiort and with these last the commentaries should be
and Easy Method with the Jews, pp. 2-3, London, used. Haggada (Haggadliah) now denotes in gen-
1812) which directed under pain of excommunica- eral the non-halachic contents of the Talmud; it
"
tion that in the issue of editions of Mislma or Gemara comes from a word employed in the sense to
all references to Jesus of Nazareth be expunged teach," and was formerly employed in the sense
"
and marked with a circle (which the rabbis would the Scripture teaches." Haggadic material in
know how to explain); this was in consequence of the Talmud is inserted in the body of halachic
the interest of Christians in Jewish literature and material, and often the connection is loose; some-
was intended to avoid persecution and charges times there is no connection at all. Long haggadic
against Jews by Christians. Russian censorship pieces which may be specifically referred to
has forbidden attention to be called to omissions by are Berakhoth 54a-64a, Shabbath 30a-33a, Meg-
the existence of blank spaces. An example of this hillah 10b~17a, Giftm 55b-58b, Sanhedrin 90a-
censorship is the edition of the Talmud of Basel, 113b.
157S-81; the tract 'Abhodhah zarah is wholly Few literary products have educed so contradic-
omitted, in place of
"
Talmud " " Gemara " ap- tory estimates of their value as has the Talmud. To
" " " "
pears, Sadduceans or Epicureans displaces it have been given overweening praise, and calumni-
"Jewish Christian" or " heretic," "Samaritan" ous blame. A calm estimate requires first the consid-
" " "
or Cushite displaces the word for non-Jew," eration of the foregoing distinction between Halacha
" " " " "
Rome is transposed into Babylon," Roman and Haggada. Next there must be taken into
"
becomes " Antmean or
"
Persian "or
"
Babylo- account the political relationships and the religious
nian," and other even graver changes are made. In views of the Jews both in Palestine and in Babylonia
matters of this sort not only Christians but Jews during the first five centuries of the Christian era
have been deceived, as uhen portions belonging to and the circumstances under which these relations
the second century make mention of Sadducces, and views arose. There will then be explained the
\\hose existence ceased after the destruction of the hostility of the Jews, which hero sometimes finds
Temple, ami, similarly, mistakes have beon made in expression, to their oppressors and to the forms of
"
th. understanding of the >Nord rendered Jewish religion and irreligion and heathenism and unethic-
" u
Christian or horetic." On the censorship of ality which pervaded the regions and actions of that
Jewish books light thrown by L. Zunz, Die Ritus
is period. While the forms of this hostility will not
den synagoynlen Gotlesdienstex, pp. 147-149, 222-225 thus be justified, they will at least be understood.
(Berlin, 1859) II. Reusch, De,r Index dcr verbolcnen
; (H L. STKACK.)
Bue/wr, vol. i. (Bonn, 1883); A. Berliner, Censurund VH. Explanation and Translation of the Page
Confiscation hebraiseher Bueher im Kirchcnstaate from the Talmud.
(Frankfort, 1891); W. A. Popper, Tfa Censorship The text is the matter in large print in the center
of Hebrew Books (New York, 1899). Some of the of the page; the Rashi (commentary) is immedi-
passages either stricken out or changed through this ately on the left of the text, and the Tosafot (" ad-
censorship are collected in books mostly anony- ditions ") immediately on the right. The material
mous (with Hebrew titles; one issued at Konigs- on the margins arc condensed biographical notes
bcrg, 1800) and in the Dikdukc sopherim of Rabbin- (not translated), and that on the lower right hand
ovicz (1868-88). and bottom margin relates to another page and is
VI. Evaluation of the Talmud: As respects the also not translated. The question under discussion
contents of the Talmud, distinction is to be made on the preceding pages (not reproduced here)
between halachic and haggadic material. The has to do with the saving of a scroll of the law in
meaning of TIalacha (Hulakah) is (1) conduct case of fire by means of passing into a closed lano,
regulated by the Torah, (2) the law according to and in the discussion the query arises, what is a
which conduct is regulated, or legal regulations. closed lane? The various answers to this appear
The plural is used to express both in the first part of the translation which follows
I. Halacha individual regulations of a religious sort (which is given very literally, preserving so far as
and and also the collections of such regu- possible the order of the words).
Haggada. Halacha means, in its impli-
lations. Text: R. Ashi, however, said: three partitions
what has been immemorially
cations, and one stake form a closed lane, three partitions
regarded as fixed, then what a majority has de- without a stake form an open lane; and even R.
cided in a recognized assembly (of scholars), and Eliezer, who says that two stakes are required,
finally what has been taught by prevailing authority. that is only for (moving thither) provisions and
In the Mishna conflicting opinions are often adduced beverages, (admits that) for a scroll of the Law
without indi eating which prevailed. The Gemara one stake is sufficient.
gives the impression of a salon or of a collection of Mishna: One may save food for three meals,
records of discussions by the Amoraim concerning that which is fit for human beings (may be saved)
Tannaite deliverances. Relatively seldom can one for men, and that which is fit for cattle (may be
determine from the Talmud itself what is Halacha saved) for cattle. How so? If a conflagration
or definitive requirement; this is to be reached by happen on a Friday night one may save food for
investigation and use of the rules found in the three meals; on Saturday morning, for two meals;
 -
a
iBi'!Ba:lHlw>ffi!ittllirf

'l
a
:.,,,
JS

W E
s
" M fl
Sillf
^ r
i fti s
fc
n 4P
f

yd i HA? M

R8SB
^til^iiilllllliy!'"

B|' E
261 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Talmud, The

" "
in the afternoon, forone meal. R. Jose says one said: Twice as much bread (verse 22). R. Ashi
may always save food for three meals. said: have seen R. Kahana keeping in his hands
I
Gemara: Since (a man) is troubled about what two loaves and break only one, stating that it is
is permitted, why should not he save more? Said said, they gathered (twice, but did not break).
Rabba, because a man is anxious for his possessions, R. Zera used to break a large piece that sufficed for
and were he allowed he would go so far as to ex- the whole meal. Said Rabina to R. Ashi, did it
tinguish (the fire). Ahaye said to him: Wehave not look like gluttony? The latter answered him:
previously learned that a man upon whose roof a Since he did not do it every day it did not look
barrel becomes broken may bring a vessel to put un- like gluttony? R. Ami and R. Assi, when they hap-
derneath; but may not bring a vessel to intercept pened to have the bread that was used for making
(the flowing), nor put a vessel alongside (the roof). an Erub, would begin the meal with it, for they
What precautionary measure can be (devised) in said that because one religious duty had been ful-
that case (to prohibit it)? Here there is also the filledwith that bread, it should be used to fulfil
precaution against his bringing a vessel through another religious duty.
public ground. The text reads: man upon How so? If a conflagration happen, etc.* The
whoso roof a barrel becomes broken, u> bring a rabbis taught: How many meals is one obliged
vessel and put it underneath; but he ma> not bring to eat in Sabbath? Three. R. Ilidka says four.
a vessel to intercept (the flowing), nor put. a vessel Both opinions are deduced from the same verae
"
alongside (the roof). Should he happen to have And Moses said, eat that to-day; for to-day is a
guests he may bring a vessel to intercept or put a Sabbath unto the Lord: to-day ye shall not find it
vessel alongside. He should not, however, inter- in the field" (Ex. xvi. 25). R. Hidka holds that
" "
cept first and then invite guests, but should invite the thrice repeated to-day means three (meals)
guests first and then intercept: no artifice should besides that of the evening, while the rabbis hold
be used in order to circumvent the law. Tt is re- that therein is included tins evening meal. We
ported in the name of Jose ben Judah that an arti- have learned: If a conflagration happen on Friday
fice may be used. Is the clash of opinions not the night
same as that of R. Eliezcr and R. Joshua in the fol- Rashi (on the left): R. AM, however, said, etc."\

lowing teaching: An animal and its offspring that Both the sages and Ben Bethera are of the opinion
have fallen into a pit (on a holy day)? R. Eliezer of R. Eliezer that generally three partitions and two
says that one may bring up one to be killed, while stakes are required, but the sages say that in the
the other is to be left where it is, but provided with case of a scroll of the Law even R. Eliezer admits
food t hal it may not starve. R. Joshua says that one that one stake is sufficient, ulnle Ben Bethera says
may (supposedly) bring up one with the intention that in this ease R. Eliezer admits that no stake is
of killing it, but on some pretext may not kill it, needed. One slake is sitj/icicnl: this refers to the
and may bring up the other and then kill either one. opinion of the sages.
No, it is possible that R. Eliezcr says so only in the Mishna: A Conflagration happen on Friday
case \\lien it (the remaining animal) can be fed, but iright before the meal. In the Morning: before
not here in our case; on the other hand, it is pos- breakfast. One may always save: it being such a
sible that R. Joshua says so only when the suffering day (i.e., when fasting is prohibited) and he is
of a living being is involved, but not in our case troubling himself about what is permitted, for food
where there is no suffering of a living being. is an article that by itself it, allowed to be moved
The rabbis taught: If one has saved fine bread, and it (is carried) to a court provided with an Enib,$
one is not allowed to save afterward coarse bread, he would have been allowed to save more, were it
but if one has saved first coarse bread, he may save not for the precautionary measure, as explained
afterward fine bread. One may save on the Day in the Gemara.
of Atonement (food) for Sabbath, but not on Sab- Gemara: Since he is troubling himself about
bath for the Day of Atonement, and still less on what is permitted: things which are allowed by
Sabbath for holy days, or for the next Sabbath. The themselves to be carried and (removed) to a court
rabbis taught: If a man has forgotten bread in provided with an Erub. If he were allowed: In
the oven and the sanctity of the day (i e., the sacred busying himself \\ith HO much saving, he might forget
day) begins, he may save of it for three meals, and the Sabbath in his state of anxiety and might pro-
tell to others that they may come and save for ceed so far as to extinguish the fire. Intercept:
themselves. He should not, however, take it with the flow that is falling through the air. Put along-
a baker's shovel, but with a knife. Why, did not side: near the roof as a receptacle, though it can
R. Ishmael teach "In it thou shalt not do any not draw because tho roof is flat and the wine is not
"
work (Ex. xx. 10), except blowing of the horn and in a hole. He, therefore, places a vessel near the
taking out bread because these belong to science * Tho abbreviated form used here and elsewhere arises
and not labor? So far as it is possible to do it (i.e.,
from the fact that only tho initial words of well-known
such a piece of work) in another way (than as it is formulas wore used in stating a case or beginning a discussion.
performed in the week-days) we are under obliga- t This is cited from the first paragraph above. It will be
tions to do it (in that other way). R. Hisda said: noted that tho commentary takes up successive portions of
A man should always make his preparations for the the text, first citing in abbreviated form (printed in italics)
the part on which comment is to be offered.
Sabbath early, for it is said: and it shall come to "
shall prepare that t The technical term for a symbolical act by which the
pass, that on the sixth day they legal fiction of community or continuity is established."
which they bring in (Ex. xvi. 5), at once. One M. J as trow, Dictionary of the Targumim, . . . , p. 1075,
must break on Saturday two loaves, because it is London and Now York, 1003.
Talmud, The THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 262

roof that it should drip from the roof into the ves- the roof" (private ground). The Ri answered:
selwhich he holds in his hands. What precaution- There it is stated that the wine was spilled on the
ary measure can be, etc.: Since it is permitted (to ground and there was reason to fear the using of a
carry wine in private ground), why should he not be sponge. R. Samuel said in the name of R. Tarn
allowed to intercept or to put (a vessel alongside that (this prohibition) is only in the case when
the roof)? Against his bringing a vessel through the barrel is broken, but when the barrel is only
public ground; in looking so much after vessels he cracked and it drips, one may bring vessels to inter-
may forget and bring. He should not intercept and cept or to put alongside, for then the man would
invite afterward: for while intercepting he docs not not be so greatly confused as to bring vessels through
need guests. No artifice should be used: who do the public thoroughfare, as (he might be) if it were
not wait to taste, in order that they should leave. entirely broken.
Fatten into a pit: on a holy day. The mother and A vessel to intercept or a vessel to put alongside:
its offspring may not be killed on the same day The Ri said that there is meant here " not only this,
(since this is prohibited by Mosaic Law). May not but even that," not only to intercept, when it is
kill it: for he might use the pretext that the other evident that one is saving, but even to put along-
is fatter. R. Eliezer mys so only: that no artifice side when it is noticeable that one is saving, is also
is to be used. One has saved fine bread: sufficient for proliibited.
three meals. One is not allowed i,o save afterward // one has saved fine bread one is not allowed to
coarse bread: coarse bread made of the seconds; save afterward coarse bread: The Ri said that when
for it is not a fitting pretext that this is better for one has baked on the Passover unleavened bread
him. But not on Sabbath for the Day of Atonement: from fine flour sufficient for the holy days, one may
as, for instance, when the Day of Atonement falls on not bake afterward unleavened bread from seconds;
a Sunday. As one is not allowed to eat before the but he may bake first from seconds and afterward
day is over, he
compelled to prepare in the even-
is from fine flour.
ing. And on a Sabbath for a fioly day: be-
still less But not on a Saturday for tJw Day of Atonement:
cause one can prepare it on the same day. Baker's The commentaries explain for the evening following
shovel: an instrument with which the bread is the Day of Atonement (for there is no need of food
moved and separated from the walls of the oven to for the Day of Atonement which is a fast-day). But
which it cleaves, one should not take out with the if thou shalt ask: Is it not a matter of course, what

baker's shovel because that is the e very-day way difference is there between the evening following the
of doing. A man should early: to busy him-
. . .
Day of Atonement and that following the Sabbath?
self on the eve to prepare that what is needed for One may answer that it is a religious duty to eat
the Sabbath. They should prepare that which they on the evening following the Day of Atonement, as
bring, at once: to prepare at the moment of bring- explained above (folio 11 4b), and also because one
ing,and that the bringing should be early is deduced fastod in the day he would believe that it is allowed.
from the verse " and they gathered it every morn- It is also possible that it is meant for the Day of
"
ing (early). Break: to pronounce the benediction Atonement itself, to give food to the children.
of ha-Mozi. Keeping two: he took them in his Did not R. Ishmael teach: u You shall do no
"
hands. It is said: "They gathered"; which shows servile work (Lev. xxiii. 8. As one may see, the
that two have to be kept, but it is not said that two Tosafists had here another reading): If thou
must be broken: To break a big piece that sufficed for shouldst ask, why is quoted here the verse of "no
"
the whole meal: A big piece that was enough for that servilework which refers to holy days, since on
meal. He did it in honor of the Sabbath, showing Sabbath to which refers the verse " thou shalt not
thereby that the Sabbath meal was so dear to him do any work," in general, without saying " servile
that he is going to make effort to eat much. When work," one may also blow the horn and take out
happening: sometimes when the Erub was made in bread from the oven according to the Mosaic Law,
their house,and sometimes when it was made in as we see here where it is quoted in reference to
it
the house ofsomebody else. Would begin: that is, Sabbath? R. Samuel explained that in fact the
" " "
to pronounce on it the bcnedic'.on of ha-Mozi correct reading here is Thou shalt not do any
which is the beginning of eating. Begin: start. work." The Rashba explained that it is true that
Thrice repeated "to-day": [The repetition here] the exceptions of blowing the horn and taking
comes (to show) the number of meals. bread from the oven arc derived from the verse
Tosaf ot (on the right) We : have previously learned "Any servile work," and we (apply what is) deduced
that a man upon whose roof a barrel became broken: from what is said about the holy days to the Sab-
R. Porat queried: Why did he (Abayo) not ask his bath, because there is no other difference between
question from the Mishna which is at the beginning holy days and Sabbath than the preparation of food
" "
(of the chapter entitled) Ilobit," where we have (which is allowed on holy days) as is said: Save
learned: A barrel that became broken one may save that which every man must eat " (Ex. xii. 16).
from it enough for three meals, and may say to Because these belong to science and not labor: And
others, come and save for yourselves, only one since they are allowed by the Mosaic Law, though
should not use a sponge? He answered: There one it is prohibited by the sages, as is said hi the treatise
can say that the barrel was in a marked-off plot in Rosh ha-Shanah: " One does not prevent children
a public thoroughfare (where articles are not allowed from blowing the horn, but one prevents women
to be moved) and there was reason to fear that one from doing so," here one has to allow (the taking
would carry the vessel to a distance of four cubits, out of bread) for the sake of three meals (that are
while here in this Baraitha " on
is expressly said needed).
868 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Talmud, The

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Of the Mishna the first ed. was issued at gese. Bin Beitrag cur Geachichte der Exegese und fur
Naples, 1492, with the (Hebr.) commentary of Maimon- Methodologie des Talmuds, Berlin, 1840; W. Bacher, Die
ides; another ed. was that of Riva di Trento, 1559; and Agada der babylonischen Amortier, Strasburg, 1878; idem,
the latest that of Lowe named in the text. The first com- Die Agada der Tannaiten, 2 vols., ib. 1884-90; idem, Die
plete ed. of the Babylonian Talmud was that of Bomberg, Agada der pal&atinischen Amorder, 3 vols., ib. 1892-99;
Venice, 1520-23; others are Venice, 1531 and 1546-51; idem, Die Agada der Tannaiten und Amoraer BibeUtel-
Lublin, 1559 sqq. (incomplete), 1617-39 (entire text); lenregister, ib. 1902; M. Joel, Blicke in die Religionsge-
Basel, 1578-81 (censored); Cracow, 1602-05, 1616-20; schichte zu Anfang des t. christlichen Jahrhunderts, Bros-
Frankfort, 1697-99 and 1720-22 (the basis of most later lau, 1880-83; idem, Der Aberglaube und die Stellung des
eds.); Amsterdam, 1644-48 and 1714-19. Of modern Judenthums zu demselben, ib. 1881; E. Schreiber, Der Tal-
editions those which are perhaps best worthy of note are: mud vom Standpunkte des modernen Judenthums, Berlin,
Berlin, 1862-68; Wilna, 1886 (the largest, with many aida 1881; W. H. Lowe, The Mishna on which the Palestinian
to study); and the ed., with Germ, tronsl. and notes, by Talmud Rests, Cambridge, 1882; M. Ehrentheil, Der
L. Goldschmidt, Berlin, 1896 sqq. (in progress vol. v., fasc Geist des Talmuds, Budapest, 1887; M. Schwab, Le Talmud
1 issued Leipsic, 1910). Of the Palestinian Talmud the de Jerusalem traduit, pp. i.-lxxxiii., Paris, 1890; E. O. M.
editio princeps is that of Venice, 1523 sqq.; later ones arc Deutech, The Talmud, Philadelphia, 1895; A. Edersheim,
Cracow, 1609; Krotoschin, 1866; Jitomir, 1860-67 (com- Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, Appendices III.,
plete with commentary); and that of Fiotrkow, 1898-1002. V., VIII., XVII., XVIII., 8th ed., London and New
For other editions of both Talmuds cf. JE, xii. 23-24 York, 1896: M. FlUgel, Spirit of the Biblical Legislation; the
Space can not be given here to editions of parts of the Tal- Mosaic and Talmudical Codes, Baltimore, 1896; D. A.
mud and of single tracts. A partial list is given in Hauck- Friedman, Rabbis of Ancient Times; biographical Sketches
Herzog, RE, xix. 315, and a further source for recent of the Talmudic Period, Rochester, 1896; I. Hal6vi (or
issues is the Schlagwort Katalog of C. Georg, Hanover, Halevy), in REJ, xxxiii (1896), 1-17, xxxiv (1897), 241-
"
1889-1909, under the caption Talmud." There is an 250; idem, Die Geschichte und Literatur Israels, vol. ii.,
Eng. transl. of the Babylonian Talmud by M. L. Rodkin- Frankfort, 1901, vol. iii., Pressburg, 1897; A. Darmesteter,
son, 10 vols., New York, finished 1906, but it is not alto- The Talmud, Philadelphia. 1897; 8. Bernfeld, Der Talmud.
gether scholarly; a French transl. of the Palestinian Tal- Sein Wesen, seine Bedeutung und seine Geschichte, Berlin,
mud is by M. Schwab, 11 vols., Paris, 1878-90, while a 1900; L. Ginsburg, Die Haggada bei den Kirchcnvatem, ib.,
French transl of the Babylonian was begun by J. tie Pavly, 1900; 8. Funk, Die Juden in Babylonien 00-600, 2 vols.,
Orleans, 1900; in German there are: A. Wunschc, Der ib. 1902-08; M. Mielziner, Introduction to the Talmud, New

Jerusalem. Talmud in seinem haggadischen Bestandteilen York, 1903; B. von 8chotteufeld, Waa muss Man von
. . . ins Deutsche ubertragcn, Zurich, 1880; idem, Der Talmud wissenf Berlin, 1904; A. Wunsche, Monumenta
babylon. Talmud in seinem haggad. Bestandteilen . . . Judaic a, Vienna, 1906-07; idem, Aus Israels Lchrhallen,
ubersetzt und erlautert, 5 vols., Loipsic, 1886-89. Leipsic, 1907 sqq.; J. Gossel, Was ist und was cnthalt der
For commentaries on tho Talmud the reader is referred Talmud? Frankfort, 1907; J. Baswfreund, Zur Redaktion
to the article in JE, xii. 27-28, where a history of tho der Mischna, part i., Berlin, 1908; M. 8. Zuckermandel,
subject and a list of commentaries down to 1905 are fur- Tosefta, Mischna und Boraitha in ihrem Verhdltnis zu
nished. einandrr, Oder palastinensische und babyloniache Halocha,
As helps to tho Talmud
the following stand out 2 vols., 1908-09; L. Rosen thai, Ueber den Zusammenhang
among Levy, Neuhebraisches und chal-
dictionaries: J. der Mischna. Em
Beitrag zu ihrer Entstchungsgeschichte,
daisches Wvrterbuch, 4 vols Loipsic, 1876-89;
, idem, part i Strasburg, 1909; S. Kraus, Talmudische Archaolo-
,

Choldaisches Witrterbuch uber die Targumim, ib. 1886; gie (vol. i., Leipuic, 1910; vol ii., Stuttgart, 1911); F.
M. Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumim, Talmud Babli W. Farrar, Life of Christ, excursuses II., XII., 13th ed.,
and Yerushalmi, and Midraahic Literature, 2 vols., Lon- London, n. d.
don, ]886-190:i; H KruiiHs, Gnechische und lattimsche The materials in the Talmud have been practically di-
Lehnwdrter im Talmud, Midrasch, und Targum, Berlin, gested in monographs. Some of these arc: On geog-
1898-99; idem, Talmudische Archaologie, vol. i., Leipsic, raphy: J. Derenbourg, Essai sur
I' hist, et la geograpnie de

1910; G. Dalman, Aramaisch-neuhebraisches Handwortcr- la Palestine d'apres lea Talmuds et les autres sources rab-
buch, Frankfort, 1901; and cf. JE, iv. 580-585. For biniques, vol. i., Paris, 1867; A. Neubauer, La Geographic
grammars: I. Rosenberg, Daa aram&ische Verbum im du Talmud, ib. 1868; A. Berliner, Bcitragc zur Geographic
babylonischen Talmud, Marburg, 1888; C. Levias, A Gram- und Ethnographic Babyloniens im Talmud und Midrasch,
mar of the Aramaic Idiom Contained in the Babylonian Berlin, 1883. On life as regulated by the Talmud: J.
Talmud, Cincinnati, 1900; G. Dalman, Orammatik des Stern, Die Frau im Talmud, Zurich, 1879; A. RohJing,
Judisch-palastinischen Aramaisch, Leipsic, 1905; M. L. Le Juif selon le Talmud, Paris, 1889; A. KaU, Der wahre
Margolis, Lehrbuch der aramdischen Sprache des babylon- Talmudjude. Die wichtigsten Grundsiltze des talmudiachen
ischen Talmuds, Munich, 1910, Eng. transl., Manual of the Schriftthums uber das sittliche Leben, Berlin, 1893; L.
Aramaic Language, London and New York, 1910; and Viol, Le Juif ou, la tolerance talmudiquc, Paris,
sectaire;
cf. further JE, vi. 67-80. Other kinds of helps are: J. 1899. Law as affecting phases of life. II. B. Fosse 1, Daa
Lightfoot, Horce Hebraic ce et Talmudicat t in Eng. transl. in moaaiach-rabbinische Civilrecht, 2 vols , Gross-Kanisha,
the Works, 2 vols., London, 1684 (the great thesaurus for 1852-54; J. L. Saalschutz, Daa moaaische Recht, nebst den
English readers); Isaak ben Samuel Lampronti, Pahadh vervollstdndigcn thalmudisch-rabbinischen Bestimmungen,
Yi;hak, 14 vols., printed at various places, 1750-1888 Berlin, 1853; S. Mayer, Die Rechte der Israeliten, Athener,
(the most comprehensive encyclopedia of facts relating und Romer, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1862-66; 8. Mendelsohn, The
to the Talmud); J. Hamburger, Real-Sncyklopadie fur Criminal Jurisprudence of the Ancient Hebrews, Baltimore,
Bibel und Talmud, 3 vols., new ed., completed Leipsic, 1891; M. Bloch, Die Civilproccss-Ordnung nach mosaisch-
1901; JE, viii. 609, 618, xii. 1-39. rabbin. Rechte, Budapest, 1882; idem, Der Vertrag nach
In matters of introduction, on the origin consult: N. mosaisch-rabbin. Rechte, ib. 1893; A. 8chwarz, Die her-
Brull, in Jahrbucher fur judische Geschichte, ii (1876), meneutische Analogic in der talmudiachen LiUerotur t Carls-
1-123; D. Hoffmann, Die erate Mischna und die Con- ruhe, 1897; idem, Der hermencutische Syllogismus in der
troversen der Tanaim, Berlin, 1882; J. 8. Bloch, Einblicke talmudischen Litteratur, ib. 1901; idem, Der Mischnah-
in die Geachichte der Entatfhung der talmudischen Litera- Thorah. Ein System der mosaisch-talmudischen Gesetz-
tur, Vienna, 1884; I. A. Rosenthol, Ueber den Zusammen- lehre, ib. 1905; J. Fromer, Der Organismus des Judentums,
hang der Miachna. Bin Beitrag zu ihrer Entstehungsge- Charlottenhurg, 1909; M. Duschak, Daa mosaiach-tal-
schichte, 2 vols., Strasburg, 1890-92, 2d ed. of vol. i., mudische Eherecht, Vienna, 1864; M. Mielsiner, The Jew-
1909 idem, Die Miachna, A ufbau und Quellenscheidung, ib-
;
ish Law of Marriage and Divorce, Cincinnati, 1884; M.
1903-06; H. L. Reich, Zur Genesis des Talmuds, Vienna, Bloch, Daa mosaisch-talmudische Erbrecht, Budapest, 1890;
1892; 8. Funk, Die Entstehung dca Talmuda, Leipsic, 1910. idem, Dt Vormundschaft nach mosaisch-talmud. Recht,
On other matters of introduction such as the history, etc., ib. 1904; D. W. Amrom, The Jewish Law of Divorce, Phila-
consult: H. L. Strack, Einleitung in den Talmud, 4th ed., delphia, 1896; T. Andre, UEsclavage chez les anciens He-
Leipsic, 1908; M. L. Rodkinson, The History of the Tal- breux, Paris, 1892; M. Mieliiner, Slavery among the An-
mud from the Time of its first Formation, about 00 B.C., cient Hebrews, Cincinnati, 1895; D. Farbstein, Daa Recht
to the Present Date, New York, 1904; J. C. Wolf, Bib- der unfreien und der freien Arbeiter nach judisch-talmud.
liotheca Hebrata, ii. 657-993, iv. 320-456, Hamburg, 1721- Recht, Bern, 1896. On education: M. Duschak, Schulge-
1733; A. G. Wanner, Antiguitates Hebratorum, i. 231- settgebuno und Methodik der alien Israeliten, Vienna, 1872;
584, G&ttingen, 1743; H. S. Hirschfeld, Halachische Exe- B. Spiers, The School System of the Talmud, London, 1882;
Talmud, The THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 264
TMZUUUZ- Adonis

B. Straraburger, Geschichte der Erzithung und des Vnter- Amos viii. 10 can hardly be related with the mourn-
richta von dem talmud. Zeit bts auf die Gcgenwari,
ing for this deity; Jer. vi. 26 is no more germane,
. . .

8trnsburg, 1885. On various scientific matters. E.

Grunebaum, Die Sittenlehre det Judenthuma, Strasburg, while the passage Zech. xii. 10 has already been
1878; M. Jacobson, Vertuch finer Psychologic des Talmud, explained as giving another meaning (see HADAD-"
Hamburg, 1878; A. Wunsche, Neue Bcitrage zur Erlou- RIMMON). It is very likely that the phrase the
terung der Evangelicn aus Talmud und Midrasch, Got- desire of women," in Dan. xi. 37 has reference to
tingen. 1878; J. Bergel, Studien uber die, naturwissen-
Khaftlichen Kenntmsse der Talmudisten, Loipsic, 1880; Tammuz-Adonis, for the sense requires some deity
A. Hahn, The Rabbinical Dialectics, Cincinnati, 1881; honored by women, and this cult was especially
F. Weber, Judischc Theologie auf Grand dcs Talmud und feminine. The apocryphal Epistle of Jeremiah may
verwandter Schriften, Leipsic, 1897; W. Bacher, Die exe-
getiache Terminologie der judischen Traditwnslitteratur, 2 possibly have in mind the Adonis cult, though it is
vols., Leipsic, 1899-1905; B. Zuckermann, Matcrialicn noticeable that in this case it is the priests and not
zur Entwicklung der altjudischen Zcitrechnung, Brcsluu, the women who mourn and shave their heads and
1862; idem, Das judmche Maasssystcm, ib. 180 7; idem, beards. For Isa. xvii. 10-11 sec below, 13.
Das Mathematischr tm Talmud, ib. 1878; P. Rieger, Tech-
no logic und Terminologie der Handwerke in der Misnah, The name Tammuz represents the Sumerian
vol. i., Berlin, 1894; H. Vogelstem, Die Landunrtschaft in Dumuzi (variant forms Tauuzu, Ta'uzu, Da'uzu,
Paltistina zur Zeit der MiXnah, vol. i., ib. 1894; J. Kren-
Duzu; full form Dumuzi-abzu; the form Tammuz,
gel, Datt Hawtgerat in der Misnah, vol. i., Frankfort, 1899;
R. J. Wuiiderbar, Biblisch-talmudutchc Medizin, 2 vols.,
with doubled m, seems to have originated in the
Leipsic, 1850-60; J. M. Rabbmowicz, Kinleitung in die Hebrew, perhaps on account of the
Geaetzgebung und die Medizin des Thulmuda, Leipaic, 1883; 2. Name; short vowel in the first syllable), the
W. Ebstem, Die Medizin im Neuen Testament und im Mention in meaning of which is still under discus-
Talmud, Stuttgart, 1903. Illustrative of Christianity:
R T. Herford, Christianity in Talmud and Midrash, Lon- Early In- sion. Zimmern (latest in J. Hastings,
don, 1903; G. Aichcr, Das A. T. in der Mischna, Frei- scriptions. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics,
burg, 1906; A. Marmorstcin, Talmud und Ncues Testa- ii. 313, New York, 1910; cf. Schrador,
ment, Vmcovci, 1908, Miss A. Lucas, Talmudic Legends, "
Hymns, and Paraphrases, London, 1908; A
Marmorstein, KAT, p. 397) renders the full form real child of
Die Bezeichnungen fur Christen und Gnostiker im Talmud the water depths "; Prof. J. I). Prince (in a private
und Mulras, Hkatschau, 1910; W. Knight, The Golden "
communication) gives as the rendering young
Wisdom of the Apocrypha and an Appendix Contain- " "
life "; the usual translation has been son of life
. . .

ing some of the Proverbial Wisdom of the Talmud, London,

1910; S Kapaport, Tales and Maxims from the Talmud,
In Babylonian (Sumerian) literature Tammuz makes
ib. 1910. his appearance as early an Urukagina, (judoa, and
Siniddina (see BABYLONIA, VL, 3, 3, f>), and if
TAMMUZ-ADONIS. the identification of Tammuz and Adonis bo re-
Tammuz in the Old Testament (1). garded as made out (see below, 8), the final traces
Name, Mention in Early Inscriptions (5 2). of his cult do not disappear till late in the Christian
In Adapa and Gilgamesh Epics ( 3).
" "
The Descent of Ishtar ( 4). era, indeed, it seems not to have received its coup
Unimportance in Babylonia (5). de grace until tho Mohammedan conquest of the
Tammuz in Other Literature (6). Arameun region. Tammuz appears in the inscrip-
Byblus and Nahr Ibrahim ($ 7). tions and documents of the pre-Somitic period in a
Tammuz and Adonis (8).
The Name Adonis (9). variety of ways. Testimony to his early existence
Distribution of the Cult ($ 10). in the pantheon is given by tablets from Telloh
Forms of the Myth ($ 11). which bear names in which his name form one ele-
Identification with Other Deities (5 12).
ment (II. Zimmern, Abhandlungcn of the Saxon
The Ritas ( 13).
Date of the Festival ( 14). Academy, xxvii. 721-722, Loipsic, 1909). Witness
Significance of the Deity ( 15). to him comes from Shirpurla and Kish in the times
Huinerian Origin of Tammuz (J 16). of the kings named above and of Kannatum, and
Influence of the Tumiuuz Myth ( 17).
from Larsa under Siniddina, \\hon mention is made
"
In Ezek. a chapter in which the prophet
viii. 14, in of the month of the celebration of the god Tamuz."
relates the idolatries of the Jews as seen by him in Consequently, he rightly claims a place among the
a vision, it is stated that before the north door of oldest of the well-attested deities of the Sumerian
the Temple women sat weeping for Tammuz. This pantheon, though in those times there seems not to
statement opens up the history of a exist any hint of his relations \vith the Sumerian
i. Tammuz cult which, in the light of a certain Ishtar. After the Semites gained control he drops
in the Old identification presently to be estab- out of sight, except for the name of his month, in
Testament. lished, persisted through several mil- official records, and that in the quite numerous

lennia, arising among the Sumcrian hymns and in the epics he still has mention, also
inhabitants of pre-Semitic Babylonia, passing into that he appears among the very minor deities who
the worship of their Semitic conquerors, and pro- seem to have stalls in some Assyrian temples.
ceeding by way of Cyprus to become the possession He figures in the Babylonian myths named after
of Aryan peoples the Greeks and the Romans. Adapa and Gilgamesh, and in the " descent of Ish-
"
The story of Tammuz-Adonis is thus in more than tar (these are most easily accessible to the Eng-
one sense one of the romances in the history of ro- lish reader in Assyrian and Babylonian Literature,
ligion. Other references to the cult than the one Selected Translations, ... by R. F. Harper, pp.
cited above which this scholar or that has seen in 314 sqq., New York, 1901; for mention of Tammuz
the Old Testament arc, with two exceptions (Dan. cf. pages 316-317, 338, 413). In all this Babylonian
xi. 37 and Isa. xvii. 10-11), not to be allowed, the literature the story is by no means complete as
explanations which bring them into connection judged by the myth as it appears from Greek
with Tammuz being forced rather than natural. sources; the references are quite obscure, though
 66 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Talmud, The
Tamxnuz- Adonis

for tho most part the details are in accord with, Abhandlungen, ut sup., pp. 723-726; F. A. Vanden-
or at least do not contradict, the fuller story as burgh, Sumerian Hymns, New York, 1908; St.
recovered from Greek and Roman Langdon, Sumsrian and Babylonian Psalms, pp.
3. In sources; so that it is possible to infer 299-341, Paris, 1909; T. Pinches, Memoirs of . . .

the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society,

Adapa and that in these latest records the essen-
Gilgamesh tial features of the original are pre- xlviii., 1904, no. 25), which go very far toward com-

Epics. served. In the Adapa myth Tammuz pleting the picture of the Babylonian deity. These "
"
is associated with the deity Giahzida hymns speak of the stormy weeping for the god,
apparently as guardian of the gate of heaven, and who is " lord of the year, ... of the name of life,
the two become the successful advocates before Anu ... of the word of judgment, of the eye of pre-
of Adapa, who has offended Anu by breaking the cious stones, the artificer, the light of heaven, my
\\ingsof the south wind. To this story Tammuz, ... the shepherd, him of stormy weeping ";
. . .

though in a subordinate position >\ith respect to his sister is goddess of the wine of heaven (J. D.

Anu, seems to be independent, is not connected Prince, in American Journal of Semitic Languages,
\\ith Tshtar, and with his companion is spoken of xxvii. 1, 1910, pp. 84-89). In another hymn ap-
"
as having disappeared, apparently much to the parently Ishtar sings the lament for mighty my
surprise of the two gods themselves. In the one, . . .
great god of tho heaven-
my spouse, . . .

(Jilgamesh epic there appears a feature \\hich is ly year, lord of the lower world [!],
. . . .of . .

not easily explained and docs not come out in tho vegetation, artificer, the shepherd [a very constant
\\cstern form of tho story. When Lshtar tempts element in the activities attributed to him], the
(iilgamesh with her Jovo the hero answers her : lord, the god Tammuz who liveth no more." And
"
Where is thy husband Taiumiia!, who was to be forever? from the further mutilated text it seems to be de-
What, jndoL'd, hits become of the Allallu bird ? . . . duciblc that he was producer of wine and lord of
Well, I will toll thoe plainly the dire result of thy coquet-
fructification, and he is compared with a mighty
ries.
To Tammu/, the husband of thy youth, bull (acommon oriental symbol of strength), and is
"
Thou didst cause weeping aud didst bring grief upou him the power of the land, the word which over-. . .

every year. cometh disease," giver of food and of water, strength-

The Allullu bird, so bright m colors, thou didst love; ener of the maid and the warrior, in contrast with
But ito wing thou didst break arid crush ..."
Ninib, who is tho destroyer (Prince, in JAO8, xxx.
In this passage t\\o things are significant: (1)
1, 1909, pp. 94-100).
Tammuz and Ibhtar are brought into close relation-
" " Noteworthy is the fact that in Babylonia Tam-
shipho is her husband (lover?), and this is muz does not appear as the god of any large city.*
one of the enduring features of the myth which
In tho Adapa myth, while his standing is independ-
accompanies the cult in all its travels; (2) Gil- ent, it is subordinate ho is doorkoopor and picador
giimosh accuses Lshtar of herself working ill upon with Anu. So far as records in hand show, he
those she loves concerning Tammuz yearly grief
played no heroic part and achieved no
and weeping arc specified. This second and later
5. Unim- noteworthy deed. lie is connected
feature does not appear in the western and later
portance in with fertility, productiveness, and
forms; although the god comes to his death be-
Babylonia, strength; but the epic passages have
cause of Ishtar's love for him, that death is caused
tho sound of artistic and forood poetic
by other means than the goddess herself, while here laudation and lack tho tone of sincere attribution of
the charge is plainly brought home to her, parallel
power. Even in tho hymns, in spite of tho many
with the breaking of the wing of the Allallu bird.
epithets, his death and the mourning for him arc
For the descent of Ishtar to " the land of No- tho notable features, together with his relations
RcUirn," so far as the epic itself relates, the motive with Ishtar. And still further, it is not his death
has to be supplied. But the object is that effects decline of fertility, it is tho absence of
4. The by most Assyriologista asserted to be the goddess that causes passion and desire to
" Descent
the rescue of Tammuz
from the world cease.
of Ishtar." of the dead. During the absence of Summing up the apparent facts as gathered from
Ishtar, who was detained by Allatu, her
Babylonian sources, Tammuz was a deity who, at
sisterand tho goddoss of the lower world, desire one time regarded as a gate-keeper of heaven, came
ceased among all on earth, man and beast, and the to bo associated with Ishtar as her beloved. Each
allurements of lovo were no more. Hence Ea cre-
year he died and passed to Hades, the realm of
ated a man who entered the lower world and de- Allatu or Ereshkigal. He was mourned (in the
manded drink from Allatu from her water-skin. month named after him, occurring just before the
The very demand (its full significance is not known) summer solstice) not only by Ishtar, but by male
brought about the return of Ishtar (and presumably and female mourners and with the accompaniment
of Tammuz). Then comes mention of Tammuz of flutes. His mistress journeyed to the lower world,
" "
"
the husband of Ishtar's youth and of his " day
seemingly in quest of him; and since her absence
on which the sad sounds of the flute and the wail- caused the absence of love, Ea sent a messenger and
ing of male and female mourners mingle and in-
cense is burned. There seems to be implied also the * Zimmern (Abhandlungen, ut sup., pp. 718-721) cites in.
washing, anointing, and clothing of the figure of scriptions from a very early period, showing apparently a
Tammuz (see below, 13). temple to him in a suburb or a subject town of Lagash and
in a fortress named Bad-urud-nagar or Dur-gurgurri. Eridu
There is also a considerable body of hymns to and Erech (ib., p. 720) seem also to have had temples in
Tammuz in the Sumerian language (cf. Zimmern, which he was present.
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
"
secured her release from the land of No-Return/' where Adonis and Aphrodite are said to have met,
and presumably also that of her lover. where also ho was said to be buried (Melito, ut sup.,
"
Outside of Babylonian literature and Ezck. viii. ANF, viii. 752; Eusebius, Life of Constantine,"
14, the references to Tammuz under that name are iii. 55, Eng. transl. in NPNF,
2 ser., i. 534-535;
few, but fortunately significant. Thus the Syrian Sozomen, Hist, eccl., ii. 5, Eng. transl., NPNF, 2
lexicographer Bar Bahlul reports that Tammuz, a ser., ii. 202). At Ghineh, one point of the glen, there
shepherd and hunter, was beloved by Balthi (Balti), is a recess or tablet carved in the rock on which is
whom he carried off and whose hus- the figure of a hunter (identified as Adonis) with a
6. Tammuz band he slew, but was in turn killed by spear awaiting the onset of a bear (not of a boar) ;

in other a wild boar. Consequently in his and a little distance away is a female figure in a
Literature, month a season of mourning for him posture of mourning, identified by many as the sor-
was observed. The reference hero is rowing Aphrodite (cf. Macrobius, Saturnalia, 1.,
doubtless to the myth current and the practise in xxi. 5; Renan, Mission, ut sup., plates xxxiv.,
vogue in Byblus (see below, 7, 13), and the effect xxxviii a reproduction from a photograph is in
;

is to give the equation Tammuz = Adonis, while A. Jeremias, Das Altc Testament irn Lichte des alten
Balthi can be no other than Ishtar (cf. IX Chwolson, Orients, p. 90, Leipsic, 1904). Other sculptures are
Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus, ii. 206-207, St. Peters- known along the glen, as at Mashnaka. To put the
burg, 1856, and the same author's Ueber Tammuz matter briefly, Byblus and the course of the Nahr
und die Menschenvervhrung bei den alten Babylonier, Ibrahim to Aphaka formed the locus of a cult whose
ib. 1860). Melito (Apol., i., Eng. transl., in ANF, objects were Adonis and Aphrodite, and are proved
"
viii. 752) reports that Balthi, queen of Cyprus (see below, 10) to have been the center for diffu-
. . fell in love with Tamuz, son of Cuthar, king
. sion of that cult in a considerable part of the Medi-
of the Phenicians, and . came and dwelt in
. . terranean basin.
Gebal (Byblus; see PHENICIA, PHENICIANS, 1., 7). The continuation of the combined cult of Tam-
. . Also, before Tamuz, she had fallen in love with
. muz and Ishtar in Greek surroundings depends upon
Ares, and committed adultery with him; and He- the answer to the question whether the worship of
phaistos, her husband, caught her, and his jealousy the deities at Byblus and along the
was roused against her, and he came and killed 8. Tammuz Nahr Ibrahim is the same (under
Tamuz in Mt. Lebanon as he was hunting wild and Adonis, changed names as transmitted through
* and from that time Balthi remained in non-Semitic sources) as that in Baby-
boars;
Gebal. And she died in the city of Aphiki (Aphaka, lonia. It must be premised that (1) no clear indi-
sec below, 7) where Tamuz was buried." The cations exist of a path by which such a cult passed
data here are sufficient to establish the connection from the lower Euphrates to the Mediterranean
between the Babylonian Tammuz, the beloved of traces of Syrian Adonis worship are post-Christian
Ishtar, and Adonis, the beloved of Aphrodite*. Simi- and Tnay well have spread from Byblus eastward;
larly, the statement that Balthi was the consort of (2) the usual indications in names of places and
Hephsestus and had a liaison with Ares, identifies persons compounded of the divine name Tammuz
her with Aphrodite, while the fact that she loved an; altogether lacking in Phenician environment.
Tammuz identifies her with Ishtar, giving the equa- That Tammuz and the Adonis of Byblus were re-
tion Balthi = Ishtar- Aphrodite-Venus. It is to be garded as the same is asserted in numerous sources.
noted, however, that the scene of action is no longer This is the testimony of Origen (commentary on

Babylonia, but the Lebanon and Phenicia, particu- Ezekiel at viii. 14) based on apparently early tra-
larly Byblus or Gebal and Aphaka. dition, of Jerome (Epist., Iviii. 3, in NPNF, 2 ser.,
Strabo (XVI., i. 18) and Lucian (De dea Syria, vi. 120, and in his commentary on Ezekiel at the
6 sqq.) report that at Byblus there was a great passage cited), of Cyril of Alexandria (commentary
sanctuary of Aphrodite where the worship of Adonis on Isa. xviii. 1, in MPG, xcii. 329), of Aristides
was conducted, and the former declares that the (Apol, Eng. transl. in ANF, ix. 272), and of Macro-
city was sacred to him and to Kinyras bius (Saturnalia, I., xxi. 1), who asserts the Assyrian
Byblus his reputed father. The Nahr Ibra-
7. origin of the Adonis cult and makes clear the rela-
and Nahr him, which had its mouth a short dis- tion of Ishtar and Aphrodite- Venus by mentioning
Ibrahim. tance south of the city, in early times the descent to the lower world for the purpose of
"
bore the name of Adonis (Lucian, ut rescuing Adonis from Persephone." Lucian does
sup., viii.; E. Renan, Mission de Phtnicic, pp. 282 useful service in connecting the Adonis of Byblus,
sqq., Paris, 1864), and the discoloration of its waters not indeed by direct identification, but by his ac-
at the time of the freshets was attributed to the count of the celebrations in the great temple of
" "
blood of the deity. For suitability to the rites which Aphrodite celebrations which included flagel-
were associated with the Aphrodite and Adonis lation, mourning, sacred prostitution, shaving of
cults, as well as for romance and beauty, the glen of the head, and offerings to one who was regarded as
the river is remarkable (Robinson, Researches, iii. dead. The express identification already cited is
603-609). At the head of the glen hi the moun- confirmed by several facts: in both environments
tains is Afka, the ancient Aphaka, where was a grove the god occupies a subordinate (in the Phenician a
"
of Astarte and a temple (to Venus ") at the spot passive) position; the assumed death of the god is
in both regions the occasion of formal mourning,
* The connection of Adonis with hunting ia so constant aa
chiefly by women, and this is the principal charac-
hardly to need citation; but cf. Apollodoroua of Athena, Peri
teristic of the rites; and in both there is seen in the
theon, III., xiii. 4, IX., Ixiv. 401; Properthu, III., xiii. fid-
54; Ovid, Metamorphoses, x. 635 sqq. significance of the deity some reference to death and
867 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Ttt-tn TTI 11 ar- Adffllf fi

decay, whether of the sun of the springtime or of had a part (with Aphrodite) are in some degree
vegetation (see below, 15). In view of this wealth indicated by Phenician settlements. Before naming
of explicit and authoritative testimony to the iden- these it is proper to remark that the
tity of Tammuz and Adonis, combined with infer- 10. Dis- cult was established in Antioch in
ential evidence including the coincidence in the two tribution of Syria Ammianus Marcellinus (XXII.,
centers of principal features in myth and ritual, the the Cult Eng. transl., by C. D. Yonge
ix. 15,
identificationmust stand against the doubts of Bonn's Classical Library, p. 297,
in
Chwolson (Die Ssabier, ut sup., ii. 510), Renan (Mis- London, 1887) reports that on the occasion of Juli-
sion de Phtnicie, pp. 216, 235), and Baudissin an's visit to Antioch the festival of Adonis, the
(Hauck-Herzog, RE, xix. 376). The argument of beloved of Venus, was being celebrated. In Cyprus,
the last-named that the identification argues sepa- early settled by the Phenicians, on the south coast
rateness falls before the apparent fact that the scpa- was Amathus, where Astarte- Aphrodite had a sanc-
rateness is no more than difference in name in a dif- tuary, and Adonis r/as worshiped (Pausanias, IX.,
ferent environment. The duality is only apparent. xli. 2;confirmed by Stephen of Byzantium, Ethnika,
"
The identification, however, raises two questions: s.v. Adonis "). Paphos in the southwest was a
(1) the transmission of the cult from Babylonia to notable center, and coins of the Roman period pic-
Phenicia (see below, 16), and (2) the origin of the ture the sanctuary with doves (the bird sacred to the
name Adonis. There can be no doubt that the lat- goddess) over the fagadc. There is an interesting
"
ter is the common West Semitic Adon, lord," model of a shrine of just this pattern recovered at
occurring frequently in the Hebrew in Mycenae (Journal of Hellenic Studies, ix., 1888, pp.
"
9. The the form Adonai, translated ray 210-213), and if there is a connection which it is
" " "
Name lord or Lord in the A. V. (cf., e.g., tempting to see the history of the shrine is carried
Adonis. Gen. xviii. 12; Ezek. vi. 3). The way back to c. 1 100 n.r. The cone and pillar, so charac-
had already been prepared in Baby- teristic of the Ishtar-Astarte-Aphrodite cult, were
lonia for the application of such a title of address to present, and the custom obtained of requiring of
Tammuz when he was addressed as Bel (" lord "; the native women submission as a religious duty
see above, 4) ; and it requires no imagination to to strangers once in a lifetime, as at Babylon, Baal-
see that this title might become a proper name in a bek, and elsewhere. Photius (MPG, ciii. 632) quotes
cult, justas Baal did in Canaan. It is curious that, Ptolemy Hephapstion to the effect that Aphrodite
in spite of the wealth of testimony to this worship found the body of Adonis in " Argos, a city of
at Byblus, there is no monumental or inscriptional Cyprus "; and Pausanias (II., xx. 5) remarks upon
testimony in Phenicia to the name as applied to this the wailing for Adonis by the women of the city.
particular deity. Yet the name was applied to other It will be remembered that Melito makes Balthi a
deities, as is shown by numerous inscriptions to queen of Cyprus, asserting that she changed her
Baal-Shamem, Melkarth (both of Cyprus and Tyre), residence to Byblus and Aphaka. Pausanias also
Rcseph, Hamman, Esmun, Shamash, and others quotes Apollodorus (III., xiv. H-4) as making Adonis
(cf. CIS,vol. i. passim; M. Lidzbarski, Epigraphik, son of Kinyras, founder of PtiphnK in Cyprus. There
Berlin, 1898, and Ephemeris, Giessen, 1900 sqq.). is similar testimony for Aphrodisias in Cyprus if
Zimmern (in Schrader, KAT, p. 398, note 2) re- the name is not enough. This island seems to have
marks on a number of compounds in the Assyrian been covered by the cult. At Alexandria the cele-
cuneiform, but of Phenician origin, in which the bration was elaborate, and is described by Theocri-
form Aduni occurs, giving such characteristic com- tus in one of his celebrated Idyls (the fifteenth,
"
binations as Aduni has given a son," " Aduni is named the Idoniazusa') which relates the part taken
,
"
brother," Aduni is my rock "; but no certainty in the festival by Ptolemy Philadelphus and his
exists that Aduni is here more than an appellative. queen. The story as current in the West connects
By the Greeks, however, the term was regarded as closely with Byblus (see below, 11). Canopus in
a proper name and adopted as such, being taken Egypt was another center. Concerning Athens
into the scheme of declension of nouns. It seems there can be no mistake, for Plutarch (Alcibiades,
beyond doubt, therefore, on the basis of the pre- xviii.) states that when the ill-fated expedition
ceding, that the Adonis of the Greeks and the Tam- against Sicily in 415 was departing, the celebration
muz (Tamuz) of the Babylonians are one, and that of the Adoneia (the local name for the mourning)
their meeting-place was Byblus (on the Phenician was in progress, and the ill omen was noted after
coast about 32 m. n. of Sidon). It was no secret the event. Evidence can be adduced for the cele-
to the Greeks that Adonis came to them from the bration in Alexandria of Caria, Perga of Pamphylia,
Semites (Strabo, XVI., ii. 18-19), especially from Samos (cf. O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologic und
"
Byblus, sacred to Adonis," and the coins of the Religions-Geschichtc, p. 275, note 6, p. 291, note 1,
"
city contain the epithet sacred," but do not name Munich, 1902), Laconia, and Dion in Macedonia.
the deity. These names of places are representative, not ex-
That the Greeks adopted Adonis very early is haustive. The earliest explicit witness for the cele-
evinced by the quotation from Hesiod (8th century bration among the Romans is Ovid (43 B.C.-18
B.C.; in Hesiodi qucBferunter omnia, ed. A. Rzach, A.D.; Ars Amatoria, i. 75); but an Etruscan mirror
fragment 41, Leipsic, 1884) and by a fragment of bears the name Atunis, suspected to mean Adonis
Sappho (c. 600 B.C.; cf. T. Bergk, Poetce lyrid Greed, (A. Falratti, Corpus inscriptionum Italicarum, Turin,
iii. 897, Leipsic, 1843; Pausanias, IX., xxix. 8). 1867), and this suggests a much earlier footing in
The transfer came about through the Phenicians, the Italian peninsula. The cult was favored by
the locations of the temples in which Adonis Elagabulus (q.v.). Certainly to be attributed to a
T&mxnuz-AcloxiiB THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 868

late period and probably through Greek, not Semitic, to birth (Apollodorus, Biblioiheca, iii. 182, ed. R.
agencies, came the establishment of the cult at Beth- Wagner, Lcipsic, 1894; Ovid, Metamorphoses, x.
lehem, where, according to Jerome (Epist., Iviii, 3, 298-502; Vergil, Eclogues, x. 18; and the glossator
Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2 ser., vi. 120), there was a on the same author's dEndd, v. 7 1 ) Both the father
.

grove to Tammuz- Adonis, and in the cave of the and the mother are variously connected with both
"
nativity lamentation was made for the paramour Cyprus and Phenicia. The father is Agenor, or
of Venus." The extinction of the cult in certain Phoinix (an evident recollection of the derivation
parts of Syria, notably at Aphaka, under Constan- of the cult from Phenicia), or Theias (Panyasis, fifth
tine is reported by Sozomcn ii. 5, Eng.
(Hist, eccl., century B.C., cited in Apollodorus, III., xiv. 4;
transl. in NPNF, 2 yet the reports
ser., ii. 262); Athenceus, X., Ixxxiii. 456, cd. W. Dindorf, 3 vols.,
from Arabic sources by Chwolson (Die Ssabier, ut Leipsic, 1827) ;
the mother is Aoa or Methanne (in
sup ) show its continuance much later. Cyprus) in place of Myrrha, or Alphesiboia (so
It was not to be expected that a myth and a cult Hesiod, ut sup.) and Adonis has as children Amy-
;

which wandered so widely as these of Tammuz- mone, Golgos, Melos, Priapos, and Zariadres (The-
Adonis would retain everywhere their original forms. ocritus, Idyl, xv.; glossator on Vergil's Eclogues,
It is a law of the diffusion of religions that observ- viii. 37; cf. SHE, xxiii. 80). The accounts of the
ances of a religious character in trans- death vary also Ares (or Hepluestus) caused it by
ii. Forms plantation to a new locus take on nat- means of the boar, or one or the other transformed
of the urally, and, so to speak, unconsciously, himself into that animal, or Apollo did it in revenge
Myth. something of the local character in for the blinding of his son Erymanthos by Aphro-
order to domicile themselves and to dite when by him she was seen bathing. The place
become acceptable to the new clientele.* The scholia of the death was variously located in the Lebanon,
to classical authors make mention, too frequently for at Argos in Cyprus, and at Idalim. Once more the
citation here, of the details of the cult. So the story duration of the stay of Adonis in Hades is differ-
and the rites of this deity, while; faithful in the main ently given. The principal thread of the Greek
to the Semitic originals so far as these can be made myth records that on his birth Aphrodite received
out and also often preserving the consciousness of him and hid him in a chest which she gave to Pros-
this origin, yet in different localities differed in the erpine to guard. But his beauty won the love of
minutiae. This has already been illustrated by the the latter, and she refused to give him up to Aphro-
story of the finding in the Cypriote Argos of the body dite. Appeal was then made to Zeus, who adjudged
of the god, while the Pheriician form locates the possession of him for a third of the year to Proser-
event in the Lebanon near Aphaka. The many pine, another third to Aphrodite, while the rest of
epithets applied to Adonis illustrate the same fact the year was at his own disposal, nnd he gave it. to
Kiris or Kirris (in Laconia), Memnon, Serach, Aphrodite. Other accounts divide the year equally
Koare or Koros, Itaios, Abobas (in Painphylia, from between the two goddesses, or give the larger part
"
the Semitic abub, flute "), Gingras, Hoics or Aoos to Proserpine.
or Ao (among the Dorians), Gauas, Pygmaion (in It is not at all improbable that at many places
" where the Adonis cult became domesticated there
Cyprus; cf. Hesychius, s.v. Pygmaion "), Luch-
nos, Pherektes (cf. of these O. Gruppe, ut
for many was already a worship not alien in character. This
sup, s.v. "Adonis"). Each of these applied to would prove the solution of a number of problems
Adonis probably has reference to or suggestion of which arise. It is not merely probable but certain
local peculiarity of observance or conception. The that other cults of a kind not antagonistic in idea
genius of Greek mythology required that a father came in upon the Adonis worship and fused with it
be found for the deity, the Babylonian conception or modified it. Thus confusion camo to
being lost in the distance both of space and time. 12. Identi- exist as to the particular deity in
The principal story in the West was that Aphrodite, fication whose honor the rites were performed,
in revenge for a slight upon her beauty by the queen with Other or the deities were identified. Among
of Kinyras, king of Cyprus, in declaring her daugh- Deities, those with whom Adonis was either
ter more fair than the goddess, inspired the unfortu- confused or identified wore Apollo,
nate girl with an illicit passion for her own father, Apsyrtos (O. Gruppe, ut sup p. 57(5 note), Epaphos
,

which for twelve nights she contrived to indulge. (Apollodorus, II., ix.; Mnaseas, in R. and T. Mul-
When the father discovered the identity of his com- ler's Fraymenta, iii. 155, no. 37), Phocthon (Timon,
panion, in horror he pursued her with drawn sword, in Muller, ut sup iv. 522, no. 3). But of especial
,

and the girl was saved from him only by being note were Attis and Osiris. The closeness of rela-
metamorphosed into a myrtle-tree (Apollodorus, tionship of these may be seen in a somewhat over-
III., xiv. 4). The story of the birth then assumes emphasized form in J. G. Frazer's Adonis, Attis, and
various forms the father cleaves the tree, and Osiris, passim (London, 1906). The connection
Adonis is born; or in ten months the tree parts of with Osiris comes out particularly in the story of
itself to give birth to the beautiful young god; or the body of Osiris, or his head, later rationalized
a boar (one of the constant elements of the myth) into a letter, which was yearly committed to the sea
rips the bark with his tusk and so brings the boy at Alexandria and made its way to Byblus (M. H.
Ohnefalsch-Richtcr, Kypros, die Bibel und Homer,
* Of course it is not to bo forgotten that the atory and
pp. 219-220, Berlin, 1893). The mourning of Isis
cult of Adonis were bound up with that of the goddess with for Osiris, to say nothing of that of the farmers who
whom he was associated, and that the accounts of him under-
went variations more or lorn concordant with those of Aphro- called on Isis as they cut the first sheaf of grain
dite in different environments. (Diodorus Siculus, I., xiv. 2), as well as the search
260 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

for the body of Osiris and the burial, suggested a ful youth. The image was surrounded by fresh
relationship between the two deities who caused flowers and and at Alexandria also with the
plants,
"
their loves so great sorrow, and the identification early fruits, the gardens of Adonis," myrrh, and
was indeed made. The emphasis upon the cult of cakes of honey, meal, and oil, and after this was
Adonis at Alexandria (see below, 13) and Byblus done the wailing and singing of dirges began (Sap-
and the similarity of ideas for which the two deities pho, fragment 6). After the wailing and on the
stood, whatever that may be, made the identifica- second day, the image was carried away and cast
tion easy (Damascius, in Vita hidori, cited by into the river or the sea, or was given burial, the
Photius, Bibliotheca, ccxlii., in MPG, ciii. 127G; women accompanying the procession with bared
Hippolytus, 7/or., v. 4, in ANF, v. 4, but cf. v. breasts and singing an ode which besought prosper-
" "
56, where the thrice desired Adonis is the As- ity for thecoming year. "At Harran the story went
"
syrian, i.e., Syrian, name for Attis; Stephen of By- that the lord of Adonis slew him and ground lus
"
zantium, Ethmka, s.v. Adonis "). So the myths bones in a mill, and then scattered the fragments;
of the two overflowed and mingled at the meeting- hence the women of that region during the celebra-
places of Byblus and Alexandria, just as those of tion ate nothing that had passed through the mill
Attis and Adonis did in Cyprus, so near to Phrygia. (Frazer, Adonis, etc., p. 131, citing Chwolson). At
Attis was a Phrygian deity whose myth relates that Byblus, after the wailing a sacrifice was offered to
he was cither killed by a boar or bled to death from Adonis " as to one who was dead," therefore it was
self-castration, and orgiastic rites and mourning a holocaust and piacular (Lucian, De dea Syria,
marked his cult; in this case also a goddess, Cybele vi.; Smith, Rel. of Sem., p. 411). In Cyprus it was
"
the Great Mother," was the objective of the wor- customary to build a pyre for Adonis and to cast
ship G. Frazer, ut sup., and Golden Bough, i. 290-
(J. therein live doves (the bird of Aphrodite). Appar-
.301, London, 1900). Rather less obvious is the re- ently with the mourning for Tammuz there was com-
lationship of Adonis and Dionysus, yet Plutarch bined lamentation for departed friends and relations,
" "
testifies explicitly (Kymposiaca problemata, IV., v. so that the occasion was a sort of All Souls' Day
" A
H) that they regard Adonis not as another (deity) (Jastrow, ut. sup, pp. 575, 599, 682). unique in-
" " " "
but as Dionysus (cf. also Orphic Hymn," xlii.). stitution was the gardens of Adonis (Plato,
This identification of Adonis with other gods was Pfurdrus, 27GB; Theophrastus, De historta ct catisis
"
not confined to the Greeks. In Babylonia Tammuz platitarum, VI., vii. ,3; Hesychius, s.v. Adonidos
was the same as an early god Shulgur (M. Jastrow, kepoi "). These were shallow receptacles much like
Religion of A xttyrut and Ilabylorria, p. 58, New York, fern dishes, filled with earth, sowed with various
1898), and Zimmern (Abtuindlungen, ut sup., pp. kinds of seeds, and for a few days before the festival
705-709) gives a list of names applied to Tammuz carefully tended by the women. Under the warm
several of which involve identification of him with eastern sun the seeds germinated quickly, but when
others. It is indisputable that in Babylonia, Syria, left un watered, the same sun quickly dried the shal-
' '

low earth and the growth withered The gardens

' '

Egypt, Asia Minor, and Greece there were concep- .

tions of deities so alike in their main features, hav- were then carried to a spring, river, or the sea and
ing to do \\ith the decay of power whether solar thrown in. That this was an old charm intended to
or vegetational (see below, 1.3) that confusion promote the growth of vegetation is practically cer-
and merging were to be expected. Whether in the tain (Frazer, Adonis, etc., pp. 137-159, where early
writings of Sanchuniathon (q.v ) in Eusebius, Prce- authorities are cited, to which add the Emperor
paratio evangclica, i 4 (Eng. transl. by E. II. Gif- Julian, "The Caesars," xxv., in E. Talbot's Fr.
"
ford, i. 41, Oxford, 190,3) the
"
Elioun and " Be- transl., p. 285, Paris, 1863; and R. Rochette, Re-
ruth," the former of whom died in an encounter vue archeologique, viii. 1, 1851, pp. 97-123; a pic-
"
"
with wild beasts, are Adonis and Aphrodite is not ture of these gardens is given in A. Jcremias,

certain. Das Altc Testament, etc., ut sup., p. 88).* It is con-

Just as the myth and conceptions concerning the cordant with this interpretation that the mourning
deity varied in different localities, so the details of was followed on the next day by a festival which
the celebration differed in accordance typified the return of the god from the dead (Origen
13. The with the genius of place and people. and Jerome on Ezek. viii. 14, and Cyril of Alexan-
Rites. The salient feature was the mourning, dria, on Isa. xviii. 1-2; MPG, Ixx. 440-441). This
principally by women, and generally feature, perhaps not a part of the original rites in
accompanied by the mournful strains of the flute. Babylonia, has always mystified the narrators and
In the Adapa epic but nowhere else the mourning students, some of them assuming strangely that the
seems to have included Gishzida. The mourners incensing of the effigy was supposed to effect re-
beat their breasts and in some cases shaved their vivification. But on that hypothesis why should
heads, the hair going to the temples as a part of the burial or the casting of the effigy in river or sea
perquisites of the shrine. From notices as cited
above respecting the observances at Byblus, Alex- * There are several
good reasons for thinking that in Isa.
" "
10-11 the prophet had these
andria, and Athens it is gathered that an effigy or xvii. gardens of Adonis in
mind. The surface moaning gives just the usual order of
image of Adonis was made, washed, dressed, in- procedure and the results of making these
"
gardens," while
censed, and laid on a couch or bier (at Alexandria
"
the day of grief and desperate sorrow " certainly looks like
an image was made and laid on a couch
of Aphrodite the mourning. The word rendered " pleasant " (na'amamm)
and the observance celebrated probably containing a double reference to the anemone
by that of Adonis,
(sacred to Adonis) and to the meaning
"
darling," an epi-
the wedding of the two deities). Where classic in- him seems to make the reference to
thet often applied to
fluences prevailed, the image represented a beauti- Adonis (or Tamxnu*) quite certain.
Tamnroc-Adoni* THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 970
Tanohelxn

follow? In accordance with the naive magic of early sion of the Adonis celebration with one to Aphro-
times, persisting after its original moaning had been dite. The final conclusion will in some degree rest
forgotten, the revival to life can be understood as
"
upon the solution of the question of the significance
"
expected after the ceremonial of casting garden of Tammuz-Adonis.
or effigy into the supposed sources of fertilization. What Tammuz-Adonis stood for in the popular
The date of the festival has caused no little dis- mind was as variously answered in antiquity as now.
cussion. For Babylonia the month Tammuz (June- Macrobius (Saturnalia, I., xxi. 1 sqq.) says that
July) is indubitably indicated, and about July 15 he was considered to be a sun-god; and Martianus
is implied by Maimonides and Makrizi as cited by Capella (De nupfr'ia, ii. 192) gives
" "
Chwolson (Die Ssabier, ut sup., ii. 202 sqq.) for a 15. Signifi- Byblius Adon as one of the names
late period in the Christian era; for cance of of Sol. Ammianus Marcellinus (XIX.,
14. Date Harran the date is also July (ib., ii. 27, the Deity, i. 11; Eng. transl. ut sup., p. 186)
"
of the and Ueber Tammuz, ut sup., p. 38). speaks of the solemn festival of
Festival. Jerome (ut sup.) seoms to imply June Adonis, which the mystical doctrines of religion
as the date for the death of Tammuz. show to be some sort of image of the ripened fruits
" "
The feature of the gardens as just related sug- of the earth . .cut down in their prime." Por-
.

gests surely the heat of summer. According to Fra- phyry (cited inEusebius, Pr&paratio evangelica, III.,
"
zer (Adonis, etc., p. 7), relying upon W. R. Smith, xi., Eng. transl., i. 120) also asserts that Adonis
the month Tammuz does not absolutely fix the was the symbol of the cutting of the perfect fruits,"
time of year, inasmuch as the Syrian calendars Attis representing the early blossoms which drop
varied considerably. Jastrow (ut sup., pp. 547, off unfertilized. Origen (ut sup.) makes him repre-
682), speaking for Babylonia and adjacent regions, sent the seed corn placed in the earth and fructify-
sets the time at just before the summer solstice. ing; Jerome on the same passage reports that the
For Antioch the data afforded by Ammianus Mar- common idea related the celebration to the death
cellinus (XXII., ix. 15) in connection with Julian's and resurrection of the seeds; and Smith (Rd. of
visit to the city necessitates a time before Aug. 1. Sem., p. 318) connects it with the harvest. Jastrow
The description in Theocritus, Idyl, xv., implies a (ut sup., pp. 547-548) lends his weighty authority
date sufficiently late in the summer for certain to the idea that Tammuz was a local solar deity
fruits to have ripened (cf. W. Mannhardt, Antike a god of spring approaching the summer solstice.
Wald- und FMkulte, p. 277, Berlin, 1875-77). The Zimmern (Schrader, KAT, p. 397) culls him the
"
data from Byblus are confusing. Lucian (De dea god of spring vegetation." Frazcr (Adonis, etc.,
Syria, vi. sqq.) gives the time as when the Nahr passim) also makes him a deity of vegetation. His
Ibrahim runs red, \\hich seems to imply the season position is strong, though allowance has to be made
of spring freshets, the color being locally attributed for the thesis which underlies his volume. A. Jere-
to the blood of the god \\ho is slain annually; but mias (Das Altc Testament, etc., pp. 114 sqq ) shows
this is against most other indications, which imply that Tammuz is a form which admits identification
midsummer, though an alternative supposition is with sun, moon, or star, since he represents dying
that sandstorms caused the discoloration. There and reviving life. The Babylonian relations do little
was a spring festival at Byblus, which, however, to clear up the question, since Tammuz appears
had no connection with Adonis, and Lucian may now in the circle of Ea, now in that of Anu, again in
have confused his references. On the other hand, that of Shamash (cf. Zimmcrn, Abhandlungen, ut
the scarlet anemone blooms at this time of the year, sup., p. 715), as well as with such deities of vege-
" "
and the legend derived its color from the blood of tation as Gishzida and Ningirsu. The gardens
the god either as springing from it or being stained might turn the scale in favor of the vegotational
"
by it. The Arabs still call the flower the wounds theory did they not seem a late intrusion. Bau-
" dissin's contention (Hauck-Herzog, RE, xix. 336-
of Na'aman (na'aman being an epithet of Adonis;
W. R. Smith, in Historical Rvmcw, ii., 1887, p. 307). 337) that the midsummer date best attested for the
Yet somewhat inconsistent \\ith this in the same festival is against a solar significance falls with the
" "
region the color of the red rose, blooming in June, consideration of specialized seasonal suns which
is attributed to the blood from Aphrodite's feet ruled a part of the year, and these existed in Baby-
wounded by a thorn as she went to meet her lover. lonian as well as in Egyptian thought. Were Tam-
In Attica the date is fixed for midsummer by the muz the god of the spring sun, the summer solstice
departure of the expedition to Sicily (ut sup.; cf. would be the time of his death. To be sure, the rAles
Thucydides, vi. 30). At Hierapolis in Syria there of solar and vegetational deity are not exclusive (see
was an annual festival at the beginning of spring SUN AND SUN WORSHIP, II., 1); and where great
at which trees were cut down and planted in the deities like Shamash emerge with definite solar

temple court, animals and birds were hung on them functions, it is not uncommon to find lesser and
as sacrifices, and then fire was set and the whole local deities having originally the same relations
consumed. This may have been wrongly brought relegated to subordinate functions. This may be
into connection with the Cypriote festival described the solution of the question. That later philosoph-
above and have influenced the conception of the ical conceptions should advance beyond these was
date. General indications from many incidental to be expected. So Hippolytus seems to regard
allusions suggest the beginning of the harvest sea- Adonis as typifying the soul (Hcer., v. 7, Eng. transl.,
son,which for Syria, Greece, and Egypt varies from ANF, v.56-58). The triple conception Adonis-
the end of March to the end of June (see AGRICUL- Osiris-Dionysus was regarded as giving a hope for
TURE). The dating in spring may be duo to confu- a future life. The life substance of Adonis was con-
871 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tamnmz-Adonia
Tanohelm

nected with myrrh, which was supposed to arrest sacred to Aphrodite. Its part in the stories about
decay and so was used in embalming (cf. John xix. Attis has already been noticed, and in the Dionysus
39). The Orphic hymn cited above makes Adonis cycle it also appears. But one may discard the in-
hermaphrodite, and this recalls the fact that some terpretations of Jeremias (Das Alte Testament, etc.,
Sumerian data raise the question whether Tammuz passim) regarding the influence of the myth on the
"
was not feminine. Old Testament, especially when he sees Tammuz-
"
The question of the origin of Tammuz-Adonis motives in the history of Abraham, Joseph, David,
may be regarded as settled. It is no longer possible and other Hebrew heroes. Still less basis of fact can
to regard him as Cypriote in derivation (W. H. bo found for the astral interpretations of E. Stucken,
Engel, Kypros, ii. 643, Berlin, 1841), a theory re- Astralmythen der Hebrder^ Babylonier und dBgypter
vived in part in Pauly, Realencyklo- (Leipsic, 1896 sqq.). GEO. W. GILMORE.
16. Su- ptidie (ed. G. Wissowa, vol. i., Stutt- BIBLIOGRAPHY The principal literature is cited in the text;
:

merian gart, 1893), which conceives him as the older literature among that which follows is of value
chiefly for its citation of the passages in the classics and
Origin of coming under Phenician influence and elsewhere from which the data are collected J. Selden,
Tammuz. then traveling eastward; nor even as DC dis Syria, pp. 254-264, Amsterdam, 1680; C. Moini-
Semitic (Haudiasin, in Hauok-Horzog, chen, Hortulu* Adomdia, Copenhagen, 1702; Baylc, Dic-
RE, xix. 378-377). Had he been Semitic, a more tionary, s.v. Adonis, i 113-116; C. F. Dupuis, Oriffine de
tous lea cultes. pp 156-163, Paris, 1795; F. C. Movers, Die
general popularity among that people would have Phonizier, i. 191-253, 2 vols Bonn, 1841-56; H. Brugsch,
,

been expected. The deity is clearly pre-Semitic AdonislJagc und Linoslied, Berlin, 1852; Greve, De Adon-
Sumerian, attested by the early mention in the ide, Leipsic, 1K77; A. Jeremias, Die babylonixch-astyri-
schen Vomtrllungcn vom Leben nach dem Tode, ib. 1877;
Sumerian texts, especially in the Sumerian hymns,
P. Scholz, (rotzendienst und Zauberwesen bei den Hebra-
as well aw by the fact that the later hymns clearly ern, pp 217-238, RcKonaburK, 1877; W. W. von Baudissin,
imitate the earlier. Under the Surnerians Tammuz Rtudim zur semitisrhen Keltgtonitgeschichte, i. 298-304,
had some importance; with the Semites that disap- Leipsic, 1878; W. H. Iloscher, Lex ikon der griechischen
und r<>micken Mythologic, I. 69-77, ib. 1884; A. H. Sayce,
peared, he became one of the popular as contrasted Religion of Ancient Babylonia, pp. 221-250, London, 1887;
with the official gods; and but for the popular cele- Journal of Hellenic Studies, ix (1888), 210-213; F. Baeth-
bration and the epies he almost drops out of sight. gen, Bntragc zur semitischen Rehgionsgeschirhte, pp. 41-44,
Berlin, 1H89; P. Jensen, Die Coitmologie der Babylonier,
Among the Assyrians ho had no position of note passim, Strasburg, 1890; idem, Assynsch-babylonischt
in the national worship. His festival may have
Mythcn und Kpen, pp. 81 sqq 95 sqq., 109, 560, Berlin,
,

been celebrated among the Assyrians, but in that 1900, Ball, in PXBA, xvi (1894), 195-200; W. L. King,
case all traces have been obliterated. As Adonis Babylonian Religion and Mytlwlogy, pp. 178-183, London,
he reappeared at Uyblus and along the Nahr Ibra- 1899; T. K. Cheyue, Bible Problems, pp. 71-95, London,
1904 (cf. A. Jere;imas, Babylonisches im Neuen Testament,
him to Apliaka. The explanation of this curious p. 34, Lcipmc, 1905, Cheync finds a North Arabian form
leap across the desert is difficult, possibly reached of the myth of Adonis in the tale of Dusares see NABA-
TJRANH, II.,| 3); C. Vcllay, Lt CuUeet lea fUesd* Adonis-
only by the help of two hypotheses. If the Pheni- Thammouz dans I' orient antique, Paris, 1904 (the student
cians came from the Persian Gulf (see PHENICIA, can not afford to pass this book); idem in KHR, xlix
i. 1-8, vii. 8-9, and Rawlin-
II., 2; cf. Herodotus, (1904), 154-162; R Dussaud, Note* demythologie syntnne,
son's note to in his translation), they might have
i. 1 ii. 148-155, ib. 1905 (also important); M J. Lagrange,
Etudes sur les religions semitiques, pp 40, 295, 309, 348-
brought the cult with them. Still the difficulty
349, ib. 1905; O. Gruppc, Gnechische. Afythologie und
"
arises, why was not the cult more general among the ReligtonsgcHchicMe, Index
"
Adonis and "Tammua,"
Phcnicians? The second hypothesis is what has Munich,'190fi; and especially the works of Zimmorn noted
in the text and his Sumensc h babylonischf Tamuzlicder,
already received notice a pre-Phenician local cult
in the Berichte of the Saxon Academy, hx (1907), 201-252.
in some features akin to that of Tammuz. For the
first of these suppositions there is evidence; the TANCHELM, tcm'kelm (TANCHELIN): Oppo-
second has only indirect support in the facts of simi- nent of the medieval Church; killed at Antwerp 1115
lar cases in Egypt and Cyprus. (or 1124). He is said to have assailed the entire
influence of the myth of Tammuz was widely
The hierarchy and all their ecclesiastical functions,
felt. In Bceotia in the cults of Artemis and Diony- and to have defamed the Church, claiming that his
sus the mourning and mock burial were repeated. followers were the true Church, that the efficacy of
The wailing reappears in the story of the sacraments depended upon the worthiness of the
17. Influ- Laodameia and Protesilaos, and in that ministers, and that ho himself was filled with the
encc of the of Artemis for Hippolytus and for Holy Ghost and was, therefore, God, even as Christ
Tammuz Endymion. The relation of Adonis to had been. He is also said to have married an image
Myth. myrrh passed over into the stories of of the Virgin, and to have given water in which he
the later Dionysus in the epithets ap- had bathed to his followers as a sacrament bringing
plied to him, such as myrrha, smyrne, myrine, myrto; salvation to body and soul. This account, of which
and the plant was sacred both to Aphrodite and to the chief source is a letter written about 1112 by the
Artemis, whose relations with their lovers were so Utrecht clergy to the archbishop of Cologne (ed. P.
alike. The element of the boar comes out strongly Fredericq, Corpus documentorum inquisitionis Neer-
in Greek and Roman literature from Bion (Ode i. landicoe, i. 15 sqq., Ghent, 1889), is evidently in-
"
of the Idyls," cf. lines 7-8) to Augustine (" City spired by hostility. Probably Tanchelm was little
of God," vi. 7, Eng. transl. in NPNF,
2 ser., ii. 116) ; else than one of those who, in the medieval Church,
and Macrobius (Saturnalia, I., xxi. 4) interprets this demanded that the Church should be holy, and who
element as typifying winter. It is well known that often attacked the hierarchy. He doubtless be-
" "
in Syria the swine was a tabooed or sacred ani- lieved himself to be inspired, and he was apparently
mal (Lucian, De dea Syria, liv.), and in Greece was influenced by political motives, seeking to detach
Tanner THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 87ft
Tate

a part of the diocese of Utrecht and to unite it with Kosmologie der Babylonier, pp. 49 sqq., Strasburg,
the neighboring French bishopric of Tcrouanne. 1890) mentions Tartaku as a name for An tares and
He preached to thousands, assuming considerable perhaps connected with the deity Ninib (see BAB-
pomp and finding many adherents among women YLONIA, VII., 2, 9), but this requires a change from
and the lower classes. At this time his chief center k to ^ which is unlikely. Hardly more probable is

was Utrecht, but later he is found at Antwerp and the derivation from the name of the deity (A) tar-

Bruges, the authority for his activity in the former gat (is), originally perhaps Derketo (cf. Schrader,
city being the Vita Norberti, xvi. (MGH, Script, KAT, p. 484, note 4) or from the name of a storm-
;

xii., Hanover, 1856). In Antwerp the unworthiness god Tarku (Baudissin, Hauck-Herzog, RE, xix.
of the only priest stationed there gave Tanchelm 381); and Chcyne's suggestion (EB, iv. 4903) that
such following that neither prince nor bishop dared the word is a corruption of Jcrah(mecl) does not
molest him. He was finally killed by a priest, but command support. The possibility exists that the
his adherents maintained themselves until the com- name will sometime be found as that of a folk deity
ing of Norbert in 1124. (A. HAUCK.) who did not obtain entrance into any official pan-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: U. Hnhn, Geschichte der Ketzer im Mitt cl- theon, except perhaps that of the city from which
atter, i. 459, Stuttgart, 1K45; J. J. I. von Ddlhnger, Bei- the Awites were brought. What that city was is
trage zur Sektengcschichte des Mittelaltera, i. 104 sqq. f
not known, and the ascertaining of this datura may
Munich, 1890; P. Froiloncq, Gexchiedenis der Inquisitie in
de Nederlanden, i. 20, Ghent, 1892; H. C. Lea, History of be a condition precedent to a final explanation of
the Inquisition of the Middle Ages, i. 64-65, New York, the name. GEO. W. GILMOTIK.
1906; Hauck, KD. iv. 88 sqq. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the commentaries on Kings, con-
sult: J golden, De dis Hi/rus, ii. 253, Amsterdam, 1GKO;
TANNER, BENJAMIN TUCKER: African Meth- F. Leuormaiit, La MOQIC chcz leu Chaldrens, pp 10, 110,
odist Episcopal bishop; b. at Pittsburg, Pa., Dec. Eng. transl Chaldean Magic, Lomlou, 1877; P. Scholz,
,

He was educated at A very College, Al- Gotzendienst und Zniultprwtsen bei den alien Hfbraern, p.
25, 1835.
400, Regensbur* 1877; Nagl, in ZKT, 1904, pp. 412-422;
leghany, Pa., and the Western Theological Seminary, DB, iv. 689; EH, iv. 4903; JE, xii. 06.
though without graduating from the hitter institu-
tion, and, after holding various pastorates in his de-
TASCHEREAU, ELZEAR ALEXANDRE : Roman
Catholic cardinal; b. at Saiiite-Marie-de-la-Bcauce,
nomination, was appointed, in 1867, editor of the
Christian Recorder, its official organ. This position Quebec, Feb. 17, 1820; d. at Quebec Apr. 12, 1898.
he held for sixteen years, after which he was editor He was educated at the Seminary of Quebec and at
of the African Methodist Quarterly Review (1884-
Rome (D.C.L., 1850), and was ordained to the
1888) until he was chosen bishop in 1888, with special priesthood in 1842. lie was then appointed pro-
fessor of moral philosophy in the Seminary of Que-
jurisdiction in Canada, Bermuda, and the West
Indies. Since 1892 he has had charge of the First bec, and held this position until 1851, displaying an
attitude in marked contrast with ultriunontaiiism.
District, comprising New York, New Jersey, and
In 1856*-59 he \\as director of the Petit Se'miniiiiv,
eastern Pennsylvania, and in 1901 was a delegate
to the third Ecumenical Methodist Conference at
and of the Grand Se'rninaire in 1859 (>(), being
also a member of the Council of Public Instruction
London. Among his publications may be mentioned
his Apology for African Methodism (Philadelphia,
for Lower (Canada. He was appointed superior
of the Grand Sminaire and rector of Lavul
1867) and The Negro's Origin; andj Is the Negro
Cursed? (1869). University in 1860, and two years later became
vicar-general of the diocese of Quebec. Shortly
TAOISM. See CHINA,!., 2. after his return from the Vatican Council, he was
TARGUM. See BIBLE VERSIONS, A, V. chosen, on the death of Archbishop liaillargeon, one
of the two administrators of the archdiocese, and in
TARPELITES: A word occurring only in Ezra 1871 was raised to metropolitan rank. In 1886 he
iv. 9, apparently as the name of one of the tribes was created cardinal, being the first Canadian to
settled by the Assyrians in Samaria (II Kings xvii. receive that dignity, and in 1894 he retired from
24), but otherwise unknown. G. Hoffmann (ZA, ii. active life. He was the author of Discipline du
54 sqq., 1887) sees in the word the Persian tara- dioctee de Quebec (2d ed., Quebec, 1895).
"
parda, beyond the bridge," and takes it as quali- TASCODRUGITES (PAXILLONASONES) The
"
Rehum " and " Shimshai " in the
:

fying the names nickname of a heretical sect first

" mentioned in the
sense of (the provincials) across the Euphrates."
fourth century by Epiphaniua and Jerome. The
Jensen (TLZ, 1895, p. 509) would translate it
" designation occurs in widely variant forms, and is by
couriers." See APHARSACHITES.
Epiphanius (Hcer, xlviii. 14) derived from the
"
TARSHISH. See COMMERCE, J 2; NAVIGATION, Phrygian taskos, wooden nail or stake," and
"
3; OPHIR; and TABLE OF THE NATIONS. drungos, nose "; whence the sect bore the Greek
TARSUS.
name Pcuscdorhynchites and the Latin PaxiUona-
See ASIA MINOR, IX.
Bones. The designation was bestowed on them
TARTAK: The name of a deity mentioned in because of a peculiarity in their worship, or because
II Kings xvii. 31 as belonging to the Awites settled they prayed with one finger on the nose, or thrust a
in Samaria by Sargon. For the general condition of finger in their mouth for a sign of strictest silence,
the passage see SUCCOTH-BENOTH. An identifica- in reference to Ps. cxli. 3.
Epiphanius obscurely
tion of this deity with any so far known is as yet connects them with Theodoret
the Montanists,
most uncertain. No reliance can be placed upon (Hceretiwrum fdbularum compendium, i. 9-10) with
the late rabbinical statement that this god had the the Gnostics. Jerome (commentary on Galatians,
form of an ass (Sanhedrin, 63a-b). P. Jensen (Die book ii., preface) and Epiphanius place the sect in
973 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tanner
Tate

Galatia,whence it seems to have spread over Asia regent of the duchies, and the king not only toler-
Minor and into Syria. Imperial laws came in to ated, but advanced, the cause of the Reformation.
forbid the sect's assemblages. Theodore the Tast prepared the way in Flensburg, so that in
Studite (Epist. xl. ad Naucratium, in MPG, xcix. advent season, 1526, the first Evangelical sermons
1051) in the ninth century is the latest to testify to were delivered in the two principal churches of the
its existence. Philastrius (Hcer., Ixxv.), who had town by Geert Slewert and Nikolaus Johannis.
no independent knowledge of the sect, confused About the same time Husum was won for the
them with the Ascites who kept the consecrated Reformation. In 1527 Tast was appointed pastor,
blood in a sack (askos) and had a cult resembling Pistorius and Hamer first and second chaplains.
that of Bacchus. G. GROTZMACHEH. Roman Catholic masses and vigils were prohibited,
BIBLIOGRAPHY The principal sources are named in the and an Evangelical church service was introduced.
text. Consult further: Augustine, Haer., Ixiii.; Timothy
of Constantinople, in J. B Baptism was administered in accordance with Lu-
Cotelerius, Ecclesia Grceca
monumenta, lii 377 sqq , Paris, 1677-92; "J. H.
4 vols
,
ther's Taufbiichlein; the school of the monastery
Blunt, Dictionary of .... p. 690, London, 1874;
ftcct* was reorganized, and H. Bokelmann of Brunswick,
T. Znhn, Geschicfite des netUestamentlichen Kanona, li. 437, a pupil of Luther, was placed at its head.
Lcipsic, 1891. At the colloquy of Flensburg, which was held
TASKER, JOHN GREENWOOD: Wesleyan on April 8, 1529, with Melchior Hoffmann (q.v.)
Methodist; b. at Skipton (22 m. n.w. of Leeds), Tast was the chief spokesman of the Lutheran party.
Yorkshire, England, Jan. 20, 1853. He received his The controversy turned principally about the Lord's
education at Hawkshaw House School, Garforth, Supper, which Hoffmann interpreted spiritually. It
Leeds, and at Richmond College; was assistant was impossible to convince Hoffmann, and the collo-
tutor at Richmond College, 1870-80; was at Cann- quy ended with his banishment. In the winter of
statt, (Jormjuiy, also pastor of English Church at 15U6-37 Tast assisted in the elaboration of a church
Stuttgart, 1880-84; returned and served again as order for the territories of Christian III., which ap-
assistant tutor at Richmond College, 1884-87, peared under the title, Ordinatio ecdeaiastica regno-
then as classical tutor, 1887-91; superintendent of rum Danio? et Norwegian et ducatuum Slesv., Holsat.,
the Manchester (Longsight) circuit, 1891-92; as etc. (1537). After its issue Tast was entrusted with
Biblical and classical tutor at Handsworth College, the provostship of the old Nordstrand with its more
1892-1904, and as theological tutor, 1904-10, when than twenty churches, and soon afterward also with
he became principal. He delivered the Fcrnley that of Eiderstedt and with the inspection of the
Lecture in 1901, with the title Does Hacckel Solve the churches in the district of Husum. After 1540 he
litddlc? in/* Christianity True? (London, 1904); was one of the four (five) superintendents in the
has written Spiritual Religion: a Study of the Re- duchy of Sleswick. In 1542 he, together with the
lation of Facts to Faith (1901) and has contributed
;
other superintendents, assisted Bugenhagen in draw-
to Hasting 's Dictionary of the Bible, Dictionary of ing up the church order of Sleswick-Holstein, issued
Christ and the Gospels, and Encyclopedia of Religion on March 9, 1542. In accordance with this church
and Ethics. order Tast lost his privileges as superintendent in
favor of the new Lutheran bishop or superintendent
TASMANIA. Sec AUSTRALIA.
of Sleswick, and, in consequence of the division of
TAST, HERMANN (HARMEN, HERMEN): Re- the country in 1544, also his provostships (1545,
former in Sleswick-ITolstein; b. at Husum (21 m. 1547-48).
w. of Sleswick) c. 1490; d. there May 11, 1551. Tast earned the reputation of a highly educated
At some time after 1514 he held the vicarage of St. and studious thinker, diligent, zealous, courageous,
Michael in the Church of our Lady in Ilusum. and earnest in the performance of all his duties.
The Reformation was felt there at an early time; (E. MICHELBEN.)
as early as 1518 two students from that flourish- BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Mollor, Introdurtio ad hist, ducat., Leipeic,
ing borough studied at Wittenberg, others followed 1699; idemJjCimbnce literate prodromwt, vol. i. f Copenhagen,
from the vicinity, and all returned zealous friends of 1744; A. Heimnuch, Nordfresische Chronik, 3d ed. by N.
Falck, vol. i., Tondern, 1819; C. Kortholt, Hist. eccl. t Lcipsic,
the new truth. Tast is said to have arrived at his
1697; L. von Scckondorf, Histona Lutheranismi, ib. 1694;
better knowledge by reading the works of Luther, Eggora, H. Tantti Memoria (Husen Programm), 1817; O.
and about 1522 he dared to announce the truth Kallwea, in Mcyn's Schlcswig-holsteimscher Hauskalendar
for 1880; ABD, vol. xxxvii.; H. F. Rttrdam, in Dansk
openly. He found many adherents; but as the
biografisk Lexikon, vol. xvii., Copenhagen, 1887 sqq.
majority of the priesthood and of the congregation
clung to the old traditions, he was excluded from TATE, NAHUM: Hymnist, and poet laureate;
the church, and his life was endangered. But Mat- b. in Dublin 1652; d. in the Mint at Southwark,
thias Knudsen, a neighbor, protected him and opened London, Aug. 12, 1715. He was educated at Trinity
his house for the gathering of his adherents. When College, Dublin (B.A., 1672); went to London, and
it could no longer hold them, Tast preached in the in 1692 became poet laureate. He is remembered
churchyard. The Reformation developed further by A New Version of the Psalms of David, made in
under the protection of Frederic I., who in 1524 is collaboration with Nicholas Brady (q.v.), which ap-
said to have required of both parties mutual tolera- peared in 1696 (see HYMNOLOGY, IX., 3, for de-
tion in a formal and general edict of toleration. velopment). Tate is supposed to have been the
Tast found an efficient assistant in Theodoricus better poet, and to have shown it chiefly here. The
Pistorius (Becker), father of Johannes Pistorius psalter made its slowly but surely in popular
way
(q.v.), a true pupil of Melanchthon.
After 1526 the acceptance, not entirely driving out Sternhold and
young Duke Christian, as temporary stallholder and Hopkins till the nineteenth century was somewhat
XL 18
Tinier THE NEW SCHAFF-HEEZOO 974

advanced, and being, in turn, displaced by the i.353) that Tatian after the death of Justin sepa-
greatly increased supply and use of hymns in the rated from the Church and taught Encratitic heresy,
Church of England. In one section, at least, of this also a doctrine of eons related to that of Valentine.
country, it was largely used in preference to the New Such statements are to be received with caution;
England version, or Bay Psalm Book (q.v.), many for the Occident regarded as heretical much which
editions appearing in Boston between 1750 and the Orient judged orthodox. The ascetic character
1800. It contains some fairly poetical portions, which Syriac Christianity bore as late as the time
many that are still well adapted to public worship of Aphraates was not impressed upon it by Tatian,
where metrical psalms are preferred, and a few that but has roots that reach deeper. The importance
are able to hold theirown simply as hymns. The of Tatian lies neither in his protest against Hellen-
"
Supplement to the New Version (1703) is supposed to ism in his " Address to the Greeks (see below),
be the work of Tate alone; it contains versions of nor in his work on Jewish antiquity, but in his serv-
the Te Deum, Lord's Prayer, Creed, Commandments, ice for the church in Syria. He was the first to
and other passages of Scripture or Prayer-Book. give the Syriac congregations the Gospel in their
Some of these are well done, and have been largely own language. The Syrian church possessed and
" While
used in the English Church; and one, shep- used the Gospel from the very beginning until the
1
herds watched/ is in nearly universal use. In 1702 time of Rabbula only in the form of the Diates-
Tate was named historiographer-royal. In 1677 he saron; it is probable, therefore, that Tatian not only
published a volume of poems, and in 1678 his drama brought the Diatessaron into Syria, but also de-
Brutus of Alba (London) he also wrote some ver-
; veloped there a successful missionary activity in
sions of Shakespeare's dramas. His best original the last quarter of the second century. A later age
poem was Panacea a Poem on Tea (London, 1700) ; did not realize that the Syrian ascetic tendencies
and his translations include The Life of Louis of had been transmitted from Semitic primitive Chris-
Bourbon, Late Prince of Conde (1693), and Cowley's tianity, hence it regarded Tatian as a sectarian, the
History of Plants (1695). head of the Encratites.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. S. Austin and J. Ralph, Lives of the II. Writings: His "Address to the Greeks"
Poets-Laureate, pp. 196-222, Ix>ndon, 1853; S. W. Duffield, tries to prove the worthlessness of paganism, and
English Hymns, pp. 428, 610, New York, 1886; Julian,
Hymnology, pp. 799-802, 919-920; DNB, Iv. 379-380;
the reasonableness and high antiquity of Christian-
and the literature on English hymns under HYMNOLOOY; ity. It is not characterized by logical consecutive-
and PSALMODY. ness, but is discursive in its outlines. The careless-
TATIAN, te'shi-on. ness in style is intimately connected with his con-
I. Life. n. Writings. tempt of everything Greek. No educated Christian
I. Life: Concerning the date and place of birth has more consistently separated from paganism;
of Tatian nothing is known except what he himself but by overshooting the mark, his scolding and
"
tells in his Address to the Greeks," chap. xlii. blustering philippic lost its effectiveness because
"
(ANF, ii. 81-52), viz., that he was born in the it lacks justice. But Tatian was praised for his dis-
land of the Assyrians "; and neither the date nor cussions of the antiquity of Moses and of Jewish
place of his death is known. He enjoyed a good ed- legislation, and it was because of this chronological
" "
ucation and became acquainted with Greek culture. section that the Address was not generally con-
Extensive travels led him through different coun- demned. For his Diatessaron, see HARMONY OF THE
tries and showed him the nature of Greek education, GOSPELS.
art, and science. He himself states that he studied In a lost writing, entitled On Perfection according
the pagan religions. Finally he came to Rome, to the Doctrine of the Savior, Tatian designates mat-
where he seems to have remained for some time. rimony as a symbol of the tying of the flesh to the
" "
Here he seems to have come for the first time in perishable world and ascribed the invention of
touch with Christianity. According to his own rep- matrimony to the devil. He distinguishes between
resentation, it was primarily his abhorrence of the the old and the new man; the old man is the law,
heathen cults that led him to spend thought on re- the new man the Gospel. The early development
ligious problems. By the Old Testament, he says, of the Syrian church furnishes a commentary on
he was convinced of the unreasonableness of pagan- the attitude of Tatian in practical life. Thus for
ism. He adopted the Christian religion and became Aphraates baptism conditions the taking of a vow
the pupil of Justin. It was the period when Chris- in which the catechumen promises celibacy. This
tian philosophers competed with Greek sophists, and shows how firmly the views of Tatian were estab-
like Justin, he opened a Christian school in Rome. lished in Syria, and it supports the supposition that
It is not known how long he labored in Rome with- Tatian was the missionary of the countries around
out being disturbed. The later life of Tatian is to the Euphrates. The starting-point of Tatian's the-
some extent obscure. Since the " Address to the ology is a strict monotheism which becomes the
"
Greeks was written probably in Greece, it may be source of the moral life. Originally the human soul
inferred that he tarried in that country for some possessed faith in one God, but lost it with the fall.
time. Epiphanius relates that Tatian first estab- In consequence man sank under the rule of demons
lished a school in Mesopotamia, the influence of into the abominable error of polytheism. By mono-
which extended to Antioch in Syria, and was felt in theistic faith the soul is delivered from the material
Cilicia and especially in Pisidia, but these statements world and from demonic rule and is united with God.
can not be verified. The later activity of Tatian is God is spirit (pneuma), but not the physical or sto-
attested by the history of the Diatessaron (see be- ical pneuma; he was alone before the creation, but

low). IreoteuB remarks (/for., I., xxviii. 1, ANF, he had within himself potentially the whole crear
875 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tauler

tion. The means of creation was the dynamis logike logica, vol. i., Leipeio, 1895, and by J. R. Harris. Frag-
ments of the Commentary ofEphrem Syrua upon the Diotts-
(" power expressed in words ") At first there pro- aron, London, 1895. The Arabic working over was issued
ceeded from God the Logos who, generated in the by A. Ciasca, Totiani Evangelic* harmonic* Arahicc,
beginning, was to produce the world by creating Rome, 1888 (with a Latin transl., which is rendered
into English, with an introduction by J. H. Hill, The
matter from which the whole creation sprang.
Earliest Life of Christ ever Compiled from the Gospels,
Creation is penetrated by the pneuma hylikon,
" Being the Diatessaron of Tatian, Edinburgh, 1894, 2d ed.,
world spirit," which is common to angels, stars, 1910, ard an Eng. transl. of the Arabic is furnished in
men, animals, and plants. This world spirit is lower ANF, ix. 9-138; all of these are provided with critical
than the divine pneuma, and becomes in man the apparatus). The Codex Fuldenaia was edited by E.
" Ranke, Marburg, 1868. The early German version has
psychs or soul," so that on the material side and been edited by J. A. Schmellor, Vienna, 1841, and by E.
in his soul man does not differ essentially from the Bievers, Paderborn, 1892. Discussions other than those
above indicated are: A. Harnack, in ZKO, iv (1881),
animals; though at the same time he is called to a
471-505; J. P. P. Martin, in Revue dea questions histo-
peculiar union with the divine spirit, which raises riques, xxxiii (1883), 349 sqq., xliv (1888), 5 sqq.; S.
him above the animals. This spirit is the image of Hemphill, The Dioteaaaron of Tatian, London, 1888;
God in man, and to it man's immortality is due. J. R. Harris, The Diatessaron of Tatian, ib. 1890; idem,
in Contemporary Review, 1893, pp. 800 sqq.; M. Maher,
The first-born of the spirits fell and caused others to
Recent Evidence for the A uthenticitj/ of the Gospels; Tatian'*
fall, and thus the demons originated. The fall of Diatessaron, ib. 1893; B. W. Bacon, in AJT, 1900, pp.
the spirits was brought about through their desire 770 sqq. C. H. Turner, in Journal of Theological Studies,
;

iii (1902), 110 sqq.; F. C. Burkitt, Early Eastern Chris-

to separate man from God, in order that he might
tianity, London, 1904; A. Hob son, The Diatessaron of
serve not God but them. Man, however, was im- Tatian and the Synoptic Problem, Chicago, 1004; K. Lake,
plicated in this fall, lost his blessed abode and his in Expository Times, 1906, p. 286. See also HARMONY
soul was deserted by the divine spirit, and sank into OF TH GospiLfl.
the material sphere, in which only a faint reminis-
TATTAM, HENRY: Orientalist; b. in Ireland
cence of God remained alive. As by freedom man Dec. 28, 1789; d. at Stanford Rivers (7 m. n.e. of
fell, so by freedom he may turn again to God. The
Charing Cross, London) Jan. 8, 1868. He was edu-
Spirit unites with the souls of those who walk up- cated at Trinity College, Dublin, and at the univer-
rightly; through the prophets he reminds men of sities of Gottingen and Ley den; held the benefices
their lost likeness to God. Although Tatian does not of St. Cuthbert's, Bedford, 1822-49, and of Great
mention tho name of Jesus, his doctrine of redemp-
Woolstone, near Newpont Pagnell, 1831-49. He
tion culminates in his Christology. Other (lost) was archdeacon of Bedford, 1845-66, and from 1849
writings of Tutian are a work written before the till his death, rector of Stanford Rivers, and also
" "
Address to the Greeks and treating the nature
chaplain-in-ordinary to the queen. His fame rests
of man as contrasted with the nature of the animals,
upon his labors on Coptic, in which he was an au-
and a Problematdn biblion, which aimed to present a
thority. He discovered in the Nitrian convent, and
compilation of obscure Scripture sayings. secured for the British Museum, a splendid collection
(E. PREUSCHEN.) of ancient Syriac manuscripts. He edited in Arabic
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On Tatian: H. A. Daniel, Tatianus der and Coptic the Gospels (London, 1829) the Coptic ;
Apologet, Halle, 1837; J. Donaldson, Critical Hist, of
Christian Literature and Doctrine, Hi. 3 sqq., Oxford, 1806; Apostolic Constitutions (1848; with English trans-
A. Hilgonfeld, Ketzergeachichte des Urchristentums, pp. 384 lation); the Book of Job (1846; with translation);
sqq., Lcipsic, 1884; T. Zahn. in Forschungen zw Oeschichte the minor and major prophets (1836-52; with
dea neutestamentlichen Kanona, i. 268 sqq., Erlangen, 1881;
Latin translation) and the New Testament in Cop-
;
Haroack, in TV, ii. 1-2 (1886); idem, Litterotur, i. 485
sqq., ii. 1, pp. 284 sqq.; idem, in Encyclopaedia Britannica,
tic and Arabic (1847); and he was tho author of
9th. ed xxiii. 80 sqq., cf K. Lake, in llth ed., xxvi. 450-
, A Compendious Grammar of the Egyptian Language
451 F. R. Wynne, J. H. Bernard, and S. Hem ph ill, Lit-
;
as Contained in the Coptic and Sahidic Dialects, with
erature of the Second Century, London, 1881; F. X. Funk,
Observations on the Bashmuric ... 3 pts. (1830);
Kirchenffeschichtliche Abhandfungen, ii. 142 sqq., Fader-
born, 1800; O. Bardcnhewer, Oeachichte der oWcirch- and Lexicon dSgyptiaco-Latinum, ex veteribus lingua
lichen Literotur, i. 242 sqq., Freiburg, 1902; Kruger, JEgyptiacce monumentis, et ex operibus La Crozii,
History, pp. 117-121; DCB, iv. 783-803; KL, xi. 1233 aqq. Woidii
Editions of tho
"
Address
"
are: the editio pnnceps by
. . .
congestum (Oxford, 1835).
Primus and Gessner, Zurich, 1546; by J. C. T. Otto, in
TATTLER, tau'ler, JOHAWN: Dominican mysti*
Corpua apologetarum Chn/itianorum, vol. vi., Jena. 1851;
and the independent one by E. Schwartz, in TU, iv. 1 (see FRIENDS OF GOD) b. at Strasburg about 1300;
;

(1888). There is an Eng. transl. in ANF, ii. 66-3. For d. there June 16, 1361. More would bo known of
discussions, besides the introductions to the editions and the circumstances of his life, if the
in the treatment of Tu Lion's life and work, consult: C. E. " master of the "
Life. Holy Scriptures ap-
Freppel, Lea Apologiatea Chretiens au ii. siecle, Paris, I860; " Meisterbuch
B. Aub6, DC rapologetique chr&ienne au 4. siecle, ib. 1861; pearing in the of the
"
H. Dembowflki, Die Quellen der chriatlichen Apologetik, Great from God of
Friend the
Highlands (issued
part i., Leipsic, 1878; W. Steuer, Die Oottes- und Logos- by Schmidt under the title, Nicolaus von Basel
C.
lehre dea Totiana, ib. 1803; B. Ponschab, Tatian* Rede an
Bericht von der Bekehrung Taulers, Strasburg, 1875)
die Griechen, Metten, 1805; R. C. Kukula, Tatians aogc-
nannte Apologia, Leipaic, 1000; J. Draseke, in ZWT, xliii of Rulman Merswin (see FRIENDS OF GOD) could be
(1900), 603 sqq.; H. U. Meyboom, in ThT, xxxvii (1903), identified with Tauler. This was long assumed, but
440 sqq.
For the Diatessaron it is to be noted that all earlier conclusively disproved by H. S. Denifle (Taulers
works are discounted by the careful reconstruction by T. Bekehrung, Strasburg, 1879). Attracted by the
Zahn, in Forachungen zur Oeachichte dea neutestamentlichen ascetic life of the Dominicans, Tauler joined that
Kanona, vol. i., Erlangen, 1881, of. ii. 286 sqq., and also order at Strasburg at an early age. It is not im-
Zahn's Oeachichte dea neutestamentlichen Kanona, ii. 2, pp.
530 sqq., Leipsic, 1891. The fragments found in later possible that during his eight years of study there
writers have been collected by H. Goujgen, in Studia theo- he heard Meister Eckhart (q.v.) preach, whose stay
Tattler THE NEW SGHAFF-HERZOG 276

at Strasburg is determined at least for the year epistlesin xl.-lxvi., and chapter Ixxii. Golden
1314. Also he must have been reached by the in- Thoughts on the Higher Life (Glasgow, 1897) consists
fluence of the mystic Johann Sterngasser, lector at of selections from (1) and (2) translated into Eng-
the Dominican monastery at Strasburg (1317-24). lish. (3) Betrachtug und erklerung des leidens und
If it be assumed, with W. Preger, that Sermon 1. sterbens Jhesu Christi (Cologne, 1567; Berlin, 1856)
was preached at Cologne (which is not established), was shown to be ungenuine by C. Schmidt. (4)
Tauler may have been at the stadium generale of Several hymns have been ascribed to Tauler (cf.
the order in that city while Eckhart was lecturer P. Wackernagcl, Das deutsche Kirchcnlied, numbers
(1326-27). Possibly he witnessed, at the same 457-67, ii. 302 sqq., Lcipsic, 1863-77); but even
"
time, the closing events of the latter's life, and in the one most generally held to be genuine, Es
that case met Heinrioh Huso (q.v.). At any rate he kumt cin schif geladen," Preger has declared not
" "
was acquainted \\ith Suso, having received from by him. (5) There remained the Sermons of
him as a gift his Horologium sapientiw. Beyond which no edition scientifically adequate has been
doubt Nicholas of Strasburg (q.v), whom he may produced, and there is scarcely the beginning of a
have known at his nati ve city, was one of his teach- critical examination of the manuscripts. The first
ers at Cologne. Heprobably returned to Stras- redaction, Sermon des gross yelarten in gnade cr-
burg at the conclusion of his studies and reappears lauchtc doctor is JoJiannis Tauleri (Leipsic, 1498;
toward the close of the fourth decade in the corre- reprint, Sermones von latein in teutsch gcwendt,
spondence of Henry of Nordlingen (q.v.) with Mar- Augsburg, 1508), consisted of eighty-four sermons.
gareta Ebner (q.v.). During Lent 1339 he appears The second redaction, Prediye, (Basel, 1521; another
at Basel, driven from Strasburg, together with the ed. with preface by Johann Arndt, Hamburg, 1621),
other Dominicans, in consequence of suspending adds forty-two, " recently found," to the first, of
mass pursuant to the interdict of John XXII. (q.v.). which several in the opinion of the publisher were
He is known to have been there at the beginning of not from Tauler. It further affixes sixty-one, ser-
1346, and with Henry of Nordliugen was the center mons and literary pieces from other teachers, in
of a numerous body of Friends of Cod. In 1347, or particular, Meister Eckhart. The third redaction
1348 at the latest, he was preaching at Strasburg, (Cologne, 1543) drops the latter and instead adds
"
and Christina Ebner (q.v.) writes of his fiery twenty-five sermons, which are genuine in the judg-
tongue that has kindled the horizon." Rulman ment of the editor, but certainly are not all by
Merswin chose him as his confessor. To this activ- Tauler. This edition, baaed upon the, manuscript
ity at Strasburg must have belonged his open op- found at St. Gcrtrud, Cologne, in 1512, which is the
position to pope and interdict mentioned by the first to distribute the sermons according to the
chronicler Daniel Speckle (Specklin), an account church year, became the basis of all those follow-
which has been variously disputed. A coincidence ing. L. Surius translated and paraphrased it into
of a sermon (ICJL'd) preached on the twentieth Sun- Latin, Opera omia ex Gcrmanico mine primum 'idio-
day after Trinity inhonor of St. Cordula (Oct. 22) mate in Latinu transfusa scrmoncm (Cologne, 1548;
leads W.Preger to the conclusion that about 1357 German retransl., Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1622-
Tauler stayed for a considerable period at Cologne, 1621; another ed., with preface by P. J. Spener,
and that his extant sermons belonged to this period. same place, 1681; Gerin. Roman Catholic retransl.,
That they were preached at Cologne is shown by in- Cologne, 1660; and retranslations into Italian,
ternal references arid by the mention of the ancient Dutch, and French) . Recent editions, going back
Cologne manuscript (see below), which locates them to the old prints, are, Johann Tauler' 8 Predigteti.
at St. Gcrtrud, of that city; yet the arrangement, Nach den besten Ausgaben und in unverundertetn
according to the church year, points to a later Text in die jetzige Schriftsprachc uberfragrn, with
date. The sermons may presuppose a long sojourn an excellent introduction (Frankfort-on-the-Main,
in Cologne, and there is nothing to be said against 1826; Eng. transl., T/ie History and Life of the Rev-
this being in the sixth decade. erend Doctor John Tauler, by Susanna Wink worth,
With reference to the works ascribed to Tauler, with preface by Charles Kingsley, London, 1857,
the following is to be said: (1) Nachfolgung des and New York, 1907; rev. ed., J. Hamburger,
armen Lebcns Christi (Frankfort, 1621; Eng. transl., Frankfort, 1864); and Predigten (Berlin, 1841).
The Following of Christ, London, 1886), published It can scarcely be presumed that most of the ser-
by Denifle with the more accurate title, mons were preached at St. Gertrud. In form they
Works. Das Ruck von der geisdichen Armut are rather dissertations than sermons; they pro-
(Munich, 1877; Eng. transl., Golden ceed in a quiet, orderly way, but often rise into
Thoughts from the Book of Spiritual Poverty, Glas- dramatic energy. Scripture is employed in most
gow, 1897), formerly ascribed to Tauler, has been fanciful allegory. The sermons, contrary to the
proved by Denifle to be ungenuine, by the differ- misunderstood titles of the first redaction, were de-
ence of doctrine from the sermons; and A. Ritschl livered in German.
showed that it is a compilation; (2) the Medulla The sermons are to form here the only basis upon
animas (Frankfort, 1644) contains the material ap- which to determine Tauler's doctrines. A disciple
" "
pended in seventy-seven chapters to Sermons of Eckhart, he was more practical;
(Cologne, 1543). The title intended for chapters Practical hence his sermons lack in real consist-
i.-xxxix. only originated with Christian Hohburg, Teachings, ency. This practical side, which came
who issued this separate edition. These are merely to the attention of Luther, who in
compilations, and of the rest of the collection even his day frequently extolled him, made him famed
Preger would claim as genuine only several of the among Protestants as a forerunner of the Reforma-
277 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tanler

tion. It may be shown, however, that this Evan- himself in sensuous tasks and works of fasting,
gelical tone appears prominently in the popular watching, and prayer; but who, unable to realize
parts of his preaching. Sifted down to his elemental his essence purely, regards himself with sensuous
speculations these impressions disappear. That satisfaction, or pleasure and displeasure. In the
immediacy and personal experience of the divine second stage is to be discarded the man who has
in the place of dead formalism and works was Evan- despised all temporal things and overcome the
gelical can not be gainsaid. This does not imply coarser instincts. As the weeds are removed, the
that he had wholly overcome traditional views; he divine sun begins to shine upon the ground.
revered the saints, but direct communion with God In the third stage, just as the sunshine clasps
stood first (sermon xxxiii.). Sometimes this com- the grape, when the leaves are cut away, so all
munion seems to be mediated through the work of images of saints, as well as knowledge, works, and
Christ (death on the cross), and the acceptance of prayer fall away; man is absorbed in God like a
it by faith (Ixv., Ixxxiii.). While it appears that drop of water in a cask of wine; all differences dis-
the conception of faith as assenting to the truth of appear. But where in this deification reaching to
" " "
the promise of forgiveness is advanced, yet the other annihilation," to actless passivity (xlix.), has
idea, of trust, is the essential and avails with God. he left behind his regard for the practical, the earth-
To this the fundamental significance of Scripture ly vocation, the service of love, and, above all, the
receives the supreme emphasis, likewise in the Evan- redemptive work of Christ? While the renewal of
gelical sense, us the ultimate source of truth. Tauler grace by the acceptance of Christ through the sacra-
also warns against the contemplative life and im- ment, taking into account his suffering and death,
practical quietism, and values, though in the low- and union with the Father through him as proto-
est degree, the works of the earthly vocation; and type (cxxviii., Ixxii ), are emphasized; yet the basis
he ascribes worth to deeds of loving service
full of grace is not in the restored relation of love be-
(Ixxxvii.). He
counsels hia hearers to shun lofty tween man and God, but the essence of the soul. It
speculations, such as the mystery of God, but tp is but a figure for Tauler to say that man is born in
know themselves in spirit and nature and maintain Christ of the Father and with the Son returns again
a pure and simple faith (liv.). into the Father to become one with liim (Ixix.). To
However, the interest in the practical appears al- remove Christ and his work from Tauler's views
ways as one of expedience and somewhat strained, would not alter his fundamental conceptions. At
while his tendency is ever backward to the deep bottom the entire interpolation of Christian thoughts
and mysterious ground of things, a field which he and modes may be designated as an accommodation
regards as reserved for the speculative select. He to the churchly and Christian modo of speech. That
deplores that the masses of the people he did not see clearly how, though with the best in-
Speculative pass through their lifetime with the tentions, he clothed his mystical ideas in Christian
Doctrines, help of the grace of God, and yet, like form is certain; that he also sometimes felt the
blind fo\\ls, remain ignorant of what necessity of distinguishing himself as a Christian
lies concealed within (cxix ). He has reference here, preacher from the adherents of a false mysticism is
with Eckhart, to the speculative fundamental es- likewise shown (xxxi.). In this he severely cen-
sence of the soul, which is essentially the core of his sures those brethren of the free spirit who mistake
doctrine and rests upon his views of the divine and idle inertness for unity with God; the latter is not
the human. The former is the divine darkness to possible, and no one is free without the keeping of
the u hole understanding of man and angel. But as the commandments, good works, and divine love
God the heavenly Father, in self-knowledge be- and aspiration. The difference was not inherent in
getting his beloved Son, or speaking by his eternal the doctrines but in the attitude toward the teach-
Word, proceeded out of himself, indeed in such ing of the Church and the different spirit in which
manner that Father and Son remained one, joined Tauler proclaimed them. At bottom he was in
in a new unity, and sent forth from them both the accord with the libertine trend. Likewise in his at-
Holy Spirit, in an indescribable compass, as the love titude to the revealed Word, he is no more entitled
of both so has he also further poured himself out to the name of forerunner of the Reformation. In
to the creatures (Ixxx.). What man, created, is in particular instances he insisted upon the funda-
himself he was uncreated from eternity in God mental importance of the Scriptures (Ixxxviii., xci.),
(cxix.). By laying aside every appetency to the but at the same time he placed the inner Word, or
lower, or animal, alienated from all sense and sor- Christ enthroned within obedient man, as of higher
row, man returns not only to a vision of the essence authority (Ixxxii.)- As to the Church he is so pre-
of the soul as a rational image of its source (xciii.), possessed by his estimation of the personal relation
but also to behold with raptures the abyss of God, to God that he loses all appreciation for the ordi-
who now first emerges from the darkness. This nances, in spite of incidental recognition of them
image is not a picture or resemblance of the divine, (cxxxi.). To him the Friends of God, who are in
but it is that in which God loves, knows, and en- immediate contact with God, take the place of the
joys himself, and acts within himself. In this unity Church (cxiii., cxxvii., cxxxi.) The visible Church
God and the soul are one. It would be difficult to has only a preliminary pedagogical worth, to be for-
acquit Tauler of pantheism in this light. As to the saken as soon as the inner Word is perceived.
final estimate of these pensive speculations, the (FERDINAND Coims.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Works of Tauler recently made accessible in
gradual union of the divine and human is illustrated in English are A. W. Button, The Inner Way, Sfi Sermons
(xxvi.) by the grape-cluster and the sun. In the
for Festivals by John Tauler, Tranal. with Introduction, Lon-
first stage must be overcome the man who exerts don, 1905; and Conferences and Sermons of John Tauler;
Tanler THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 278
Taxation

being his Spirit Doctrine; first complete Translation by Rev. Franciscan church, but in 1529 went to Copenhagen,
W. Washington, D. C. 191 1
Elliott, Consult J. Qu6tif and
f .
where his sermons had the same effect as in Viborg.
J. Echard, Scriptures ordinis prcedicatorum, i. 677 aqq.,
Paris, 1719; R. Hoffmann, Johann Tauter, Rixdorf, 1833; At the diet of 1530 held at Copenhagen, under the
C. Schmidt, Johann Tauter, Hamburg, 1841; idem, Die leadership of Tausen, there was laid before the as-
OoUesfreunde im 14. Jahrhundert, ib. 1854; A. Q. Kudel- "
sembly a confession of faith, the forty-three arti-
bach, Christliche Biographic, pp. 187 sqq Leipsic, 1849; F.
,

Bahring, Johann Tauler und die OoUesfreunde, Hamburg,

cles of Copenhagen," an independent counterpart
1853; W. Edel, Tauler, Strasburg, 185H; H\st. and Life of of the Augsburg Confession, and on July 14, 1530,
Rev. Doctor John Tauler . . /
. Transl. with twenty-five freedom was granted for Evangelical preaching.
of hi* Sermons from the German with additional Notices of Tausen defended his Evangelical doctrine in a
Tauter' s Life and Times, by Susanna Winkworth .. . and
a Preface by C. Kingsley, London, 1857, new ed., New learned work which in Dec., 1530, was submitted
York, 1907; E. Bohiuer, Nicolaus von Basel und Tauler, to the council of the empire and printed six months
in Damans, 1865, pp. 148 Hqq W. Preger, in ZHT, 1869,
;
later. In Copenhagen also the reformatory move-
pp. 109 sqq.; idem, in the Abhandlungen of the Bavarian
Academy, xiv. 1; idem, (Jeschichte der deutschen Mystik ment was the occasion of violent disturbances. On
im MittelaUer, part III., Leipsic, 1893; idem, in ADB, Dec. 27 the citizens, headed by their burgomaster,
xxx vii. 453-465; (). Billhorn, Tauleri vita et doctrina, invaded the Church of Our Lady and there demol-
Jena, 1874; Nicolftus von Basel, Berirht von der Bekehr-
ished pictures and relics. Tauscn, naturally con-
ung Tauter*, ed. C Schmidt, Stronburg, 1875; J. Nobbo,
in Zeitachnft fur luthmsche Theologie, 1876, pp. 637-663; servative, disapproved of this iconodasm and prac-
H. S. Deniflo, iii Histonsch-politische Blatter, Ixxv (1875), tised moderation in regard to the old usages of the
18 sqq.; idem, T aiders Hekehrung kntisch untersucht,
Church. Nevertheless, the hatred against him in-
Strasburg, 1879; idem, in Zeitachrift fur deutsches Alter-
turn, xxiv. 200 sqq., 280 sqq., xxv. 101 sqq.; M. Jundt, creased, and on the death of Frederic I. in 1533 his
Les Amis de Dieu au 14- siecle. Pans, 1879; idem, Rut- position was very insecure. He was accused at the
man Mersunn et I' ami de Dieu de VOberland, ib. 1890; P. diet in 1533, but was allowed to continue his activ-
Btrauch, Margaret ha Ebner, Tubingen, 1882; M. Arnold,
in Nineteenth Century, xxi (1887), 499-506; F. A. Be van, ity. He took part in the compilation of the Danish
Three Friends of God, London, 1887; J. E. Erdmann, church ordinance of 1537 and in the same year be-
Qrundriss der Oettchtchte der Philosophic, i. 504 sqq., 4th ed.. came lector in Hebrew at the university. In 1542
1896, Eng. transl. of earlier ed., London, 1893; Schaff,
Christian Church, v. 2, pp. 256 sqq., and literature under
he was consecrated bishop of Ribe. Under the
FRIENDS OF GOD. A new ed. of his Predigten, ed. F. Evangelical Christian III., Tausen continued his
Velter, appeared Berlin, 1909. work unhindered. He translated the Pentateuch
into Danish (Magdeburg, 1535), and edited a Da-
TAUSEN, HANS: Danish Reformer; b. in the
nish liturgy and a collection of sermons on the Gos-
village of Birkende on the island of F linen, 1494; In 1543 Christian III.
pels and epistles (1535).
d. at Ribe (154 m. w.s.w. of Copenhagen) Nov. 11,
granted him a privilege for twenty years to furnish
1561. He received his early education at the schools
a Danish translation of the whole Bible as continua-
of Odense in Frinen, and Slagelse in Zealand, and
tion of the five books of Moses, but Tausen was not
in the monastery of the Knights of St. John near
able to carry out this plan. Ho was also a com-
Slagolse. In 1516 he entered the University of Ros-
poser of hymns. (F. NIELSEN!-)
tock, where he lectured in 1520; from 1520 to 1521 BIBLIOGRAPHY: A selection from Tausen's smaller works
he probably studied in Louvain and Cologne, and in was edited by H. J. R5rdam, Copenhagen, 1870. Con-
October, 1521, he was called home to lecture at the sult: F. Wedel, in ThT, vola. vi.-vii., 1888-89; D.
Sch&fer, Oeschichtc von Dancmark, vol. iv. Gotha, 1893;
University of Copenhagen. In 1523 he entered the
f

L. Schmitt, Johann Tauser, oder der danische Luther,

University of Wittenberg and heard Luther, but Cologne, 1894 (Roman Catholic).
because of his enthusiasm for the Reformation was
TAVERHER BIBLE. See BIBLE VERSIONS, B,
recalled. Having advocated the doctrine of justi- 4.
IV.,
fication by faith in one of his sermons, he was im-
prisoned in a monastery and subsequently sent to TAVERNER, RICHARD: Translator of the
Viborg in Jutland where the prior of the monastery English Bible; b. at Brisley (20 m. n.w. of Nor-
of the Knights of St. John vainly endeavored to wich), England, 1505; d. at Wood Eaton (4 m. n. of
win him back to the old faith. Tausen was pro- Oxford) July 14, 1575. He studied first at Corpus
tected by Peder Trane, the burgomaster of Viborg, Christi College, Cambridge, and then at Cardinal
while Jakob Skjonning, rector of the school and College, Oxford (B.A., 1527; then M.A., Cambridge,
priest of the Church of St. John, yielded his pulpit 1530). After teaching at Cambridge and studying
to Tausen; the crowds which soon assembled com- abroad, he began to study law in 1533, and in 1536
pelled him to hold services in the open air; later he became, at Cromwell's recommendation, clerk
the citizens of Viborg, embittered by the resistance of the privy seal; he was licensed to preach, 1552;
of the clergy, broke open the Franciscan church, served as justice of the peace, 1558; and as high
and Tausen preached there twice every Sunday sheriff of Oxfordshire, 1569. He published the
afternoon and introduced singing in the Danish following translations: The Flowers of Services
tongue. On the arrival of King Frederic I. at Aal- Gathered out of Sundry Writer% by Erasmus in Latine
borg in 1526, Tausen induced him to issue a letter (London, 1547); also from Erasmus A Ryght Frute-
of protection. An armed assault by the Roman fuU Epystle . ..in Laude of M
atrymony (1530?);
Catholic bishops in Jutland evoked the protection and The Confessyon of the Fayth of the Germanes
of the people, and the Reformation in Viborg began (1536). He was the author of The Garden of Wyse-
to make progress. In 1528 Tausen published a bap- dome Conteynyng Pleasant Floures that is to Sayet t

tismal formula for Evangelical church services. Propre and Quycke Sayinges of Princes, Philosophers
From Viborg the Reformation spread to other cities and other Sortes of Men pts. (1539).
. . . Ho is
of Northern Jutland. Tausen became pastor of the remembered for his edition of the English Bible
979 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tauler
Taxation

(London, 1530), commonly called Taverner's Bible. people under the longs, and it is not impossible
It appeared both in folio and quarto, the latter edi- that the taxation of families which is implied in
tion in parts, so that all might be able to secure a I Sam. xvii. 25 refers to the tenth.
portion of the Scriptures. It was really a revision 2. For mention of "
The "
king's mowings
of Matthew's Bible. In 1539 he also issued two Secular (Amos vii. 1) points to a claim of the
editions of the New Testament. See BIBLE VER- Purposes, king upon the first cutting of cultivated
SIONS, B, IV., 4. crops suitable for fodder for his horses
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the literature on the history of the (I Kings From I Kings iv. 7-19, although
xviii. 5).
English Bible noted in vol. ii. p. 141 of this work, consult: the text is corrupt, the following may be inferred
A. & Wood, Athena, Oxonieruca, ed. P. Bliaa, I 419-423,
, 1813; DNB, Iv. 393-396. concerning tribute at the time of Solomon: all Israel
was divided into twelve districts, each of which
TAXATION. was under a governor; on the basis of this division
I. Hebrew.
For Sacred Purposes (f 1). the corv6e was arranged (I Kings v. 13-18; cf. xi.
For Secular Purposes ({ 2). 28), and the burdens of taxation were fixed. That
0. Ecclesiastical. the latter intended payment in kind is evident from
The Primitive Custom (J 1).
I Kings iv. 7, where it is said that each of these
Rise of Taxation of Clergy ({ 2).
Feudal Principles Applied ($3). governors provided food for the king and his house-
Development from the Fourteenth Century (5 4). hold, each man his month in a year. The other
Present System (5 5). revenues of Solomon were derived from his expedi-
L Hebrew The Hebrew:
language has no general tions to Ophir (I Kings ix. 28, x. 22), with which
term for taxes. Dues
collected for the temple, an export trade was probably connected; from the
priests, and sacred purposes in general are desig- trade in horses, which were bought in Egypt and
nated by terumah, " oblation," " offering," " heavo sold to the kings of the Hittites and of Syria (I
offering"). The first-born, the first- Kings x. 28-29); and from the imposts collected
z. For fruits, and the Tithes (q.v.), which from the caravans passing through his kingdom to
Sacred belonged to Yahweh as Israel's king, Phenicia (I Kings x. 15). All these taxes were en-
Purposes, may be considered the first class of tirely new and were necessitated by Solomon's
such sacred taxes. In II Kings xii. 4- splendid court, as may be seen from the fact that
12, xxii. 3-7 mention is made of money paid into upon his death the people complained of the bur-
the temple treasury, which consisted in part of dens as something unusual. His predecessors had
"
the money imposed by estimation," i.e., of the probably no need to levy such tribute. Saul main-
tax fixed by law for the redemption of persons de- tained no costly court. In the time of David rev-
voted to God by a vow (Lev. xxvii. 1-13), and in enues derived from tributes of homage and justice
part of voluntary contributions. Ex. xxx. 11-16 had probably greatly increased. At any rate,
(P) treats of a tax for the regular service, and this David's property had become considerable, and,
Mosaic legislation was used in later time to justify according to I Chron. xxvii. 25-34 (cf. II Chron.
the assessments necessary for the sanctuary (cf. xx vi. 10), he owned crown lands of large extent.
II Chron. xxiv. 6, 9) the revenue thus derived was
; Added to this were the rich spoils of war (II Sam.
to be used for the temple service, but not for the viii. 11-12, xii. 30), and the regular tributes of the

building of the sanctuary. The sum imposed upon subjugated nations (II Sam. viii. 2; cf. I Kings v.
"
every one that passeth among them that are num- 1; II Kings iii.). It is probable that the census by
"
bered was " half a shekel after the shekel of the David (II Sam. xxiv.) was intended to serve as a
sanctuary "; rich and poor were taxed alike (verse basis for taxation, on which account evil results
15). The from this
post-exilic period developed were expected from the innovation. The tax sys-
an annual temple-tax. Under Ne-
single poll-tax tems were most likely the same under the kings of
hemiah the community agreed to an annual con- the two kingdoms as under Solomon. According to
tribution of one-third of a shekel for the service of I Kings xxi. 1-16, the crown demains seem to have
the house of God (Neh. x. 32; cf. Ezra vi. 9; I Mace. been increased by confiscating in certain cases the
x. 39-41; II Mace. iii.). The money current at this property of those who were condemned; I Sam.
time was the Babylonian silver coinage, in which viii. 12 also implies real estate over which the king
the shekel was divided into thirds. In the time of could appoint his officers (cf. Ezek. xlvi. 17). But
the Maccabees Phenician money was introduced, there is no mention of land tax in the time of the
which divided the shekel into halves, and the temple divided kingdom, and a poll-tax (which is not men-
tax was then half a shekel, i.e., a double drachma tioned in the description of the royal privileges,
(Matt. xvii. 24, 27). Since Exodus xxx. 13 re- I Sam. viii. 10-18) was exacted only in extraordi-
quired payment in the ancient sacred coinage, nary cases, as when a war-contribution was to be
money-changers found entrance into the temple paid to foreign despots (II Kings xv. 20, xxiii. 35).
(Matt. xxi. 12). Jews living outside of Palestine In the post-exilic period, the Jews as subjects of the
also sent the temple tax to Jerusalem after they Persian kingdom had to pay customs, " tolls," and
"
became twenty years of age (Mishna, Shekalim, tributes," no doubt a direct money-tax and prob-
iii.-iv.; Josephus, Ant., XVIII., ix. 1). ably a capitation-tax (Ezra iv. 13, 20, vi. 8; Neh.
Of secular tributes the tenth is mentioned as one v. 4); the priests and temple-attendants were ex-
of the royal privileges in the address which is put empt (Ezra vii. 24). Owing to the bitter feeling of
into the mouth of Samuel when the Israelites asked servitude (Neh. ix. 36-37) the burden of taxation
fora king (I Sam. viii. 10-18). From this it has seemed harder than it really was; yet the Persian
been inferred that such a tax was known to the governors occasionally practised extortion (Neh. v.
 ._
Taylc
,ylor
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG d80

15). For the Greek and Roman periods, see must have arisen about the same time, since the
TAXES,TAX-GATHERERS (PUBLICANS). fourth Lateran Council (1215) speaks of them as a
VICTOR RYssBLf. laudable custom (see STOLE FEES).
II. Ecclesiastical: The cost of maintaining the As the constitution of the Church more and more
ecclesiastical organization is defrayed partly from assumed the character of a feudal monarchy, eccle-
the endowments which it possesses in land and capi- siastical taxation developed in the same direction.
tal, partly by subsidies from the State, and partly Secular rulers paid tribute to the pope
by the contributions of its members. 3. Feudal in token of feudal allegiance;
"
the
"
I. The In primitive times the Church de- Principles Peter's Periee collected from every
Primitive frayed its expenses from the voluntary Applied, household seems to have had a similar
Custom, oblations of its members, consisting character. 'The same may be said of
of oil, wine, bread, incense, and the the protection-money paid by monasteries and
fruits of the earth. The Jewish custom of present- exempt bishoprics from the reign of Alexander III.
ing the first-fruits was early adopted; and by the (d. 1181). With the decay of the secular impor-
time of Tertullian (d. 215) contributions of money tance of the Church, most of these have disappeared.
arc mentioned. Gradually the custom grew up of Two, however, arc still worth mentioning the sub-
paying tithes, partly as a substitute for the obla- sidium c/iaritativum and the jus deporluum. The
tions in land; but before the end of the sixth cen- former is a tax which the bishop was empowered to
tury only scattered notices of it are found. The levy, in case of extraordinary need, on all the bene-
clergy, as they became a distinct class, were ex- ficcd clergy of his diocese; it is first mentioned at the
empted from these payments, though from the end beginning of the thirteenth century. A variant
of the fourth century they were not at liberty to form is the ingressus or cntrata, \Nhieh the bishop
alienate from the Church the property they acquired. might levy on entering his see eity; this is still
The first traces of a real taxation of the clergy preserved in Bavaria. Allied to it also is the tithe
occur at the end of the sixth century. First, an of all ecclesiastical ineomes which the pope asserted
annual tax was paid by all the churches in a diocese his right to take in case of great need. The /// dc-
to the cathedral. It is first met in portuum (annates), mentioned under Ilonorius III
2. Rise of Spain (council of Braga, 572; of To- (d. 1227) and Boniface VIII. (cl 1305), was the
Taxation ledo, 646),where it was paid in money. right by which the bishop was entitled to collect
of Clergy. In the Frankish empire, where it was the first year's income of every benefice in his dio-
paid in kind, it is mentioned in a ca- cese from a new incumbent. Sometimes it appears
pitulary of Charles the Bald, 844; in Italy it appears as a special privilege accorded by the pope for ex-
as an almost universal custom under Innocent III. traordinary needs of a certain year, sometimes as a
(d. 1216) and Ilonorius III. (d. 1227). According fixed and permanent right. Both bishops and popes
to the Council of Trent, its payment is regulated by at times claimed this right. Sometimes the popes
the diocesan synod. Next, a fee was paid by one exacted it only from the benefices to wliich they
appointed to a benefice to the bishop who installed had reserved the right to present. Out of this right
or ordained him. In the East this is mentioned as developed the later papal annates strictly so called.
a custom in 546; the amount can not have been To the class of feudal payments belong those which
small, since it is stipulated that it shall not exceed were levied on the estate of a deceased cleric, when
a year's income of the benefice. In the West, a in the fourteenth century the clergy gained liberty
Roman council declared in 595 that voluntary gifts to dispose of their property by will. Sometimes the
to the ordaining bishop and his assistants were not clergy were required to leave a fixed proportion to
simoniacal; but a synod at Paris in 829 and Ivo of the Church; in other cases to submit their wills to
Chartres (q.v.) in one of his letters complain of the the rural dean for probate and pay a fee to him.
magnitude of the gifts which the Curia expected The decay of church life after the fourteenth cen-
from prelates consecrated in Rome. When in the tury gave rise to a number of new forms of pay-
ninth century metropolitans were compelled to ap- ment or modifications of existing ones. To this
ply to Rome for their pallium, a somewhat similar period belongs the absence-money,
tax was attached, which had become so heavy by 4. Develop- paid to the bishop for dispensation
1027 that Canute requested a remission of it for the ment from from the obligation of residence, gen-
English archbishops. Similar objections were later the Four- erally by clerics who possessed more
raised elsewhere, especially in Germany. Finally, teenth than one benefice. The pope, when-
itwas considered (again first in Spain, 589 and 646) Century. ever as metropolitan or patriarch he
the duty of the clergy to entertain the bishop on his consecrated a bishop, claimed the ob-
visitations. This obligation (called procuration) latio spoken of above. In fourteenth-century docu-
was afterward commuted for a money payment. ments such payments occur under various titles, of
The eighth century witnessed a further develop- servitia camera papas, servitia communia, and by
ment. The task of church-building was systemat- the end of that century they are fixed at a maxi-
ically regulated; and dispensations were granted mum of a year's income. From this time, in addi-
by popes and bishops on payment of a contribution tion, the popes claimed (at first occasionally and
for some pious end. Regular fees to the pope ap- then definitely) the jus deportuum to the extent of
pear first under John XXII. (d. 1334), and they half the first year's income from all benefices the
were systematized under Alexander VI. Fees, vol- appointment to which was reserved. As this class
untary, indeed, but fixed by custom, paid to the of benefices was always increasing, opposition to
clergy for certain sacraments and sacramentals this payment developed in more than one national
881 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Taxation
Taylor

Church, particularly in the German. In England State formerly exercised a supervision in many
the papal annates were transferred to the crown places over these taxes, that they might not fall too
at the Reformation in the reign of Anne they were
; heavily on any subject. See IMMUNITY.
formed into a fund (Queen Anne's Bounty; q.v.) (E. FlUEDnF/RGf.)
for the augmentation of the poorer livings. As re- BIBLIOGRAPHY: On I., besides the literature under TITHE and ;

TAXATION, consult: J. Wellhauscn, Prolegomena, 4th ed., pp.

garded Germany, the arrangements were regulated
140 sqq., Berlin, 1895, Eng. transl. of earlier cd., Edin-
at the Council of Constance in 1418, the provisions
burgh, 1885; B. Stade, Biblische Theologie ties A. T., i.
of which resulted in the practical abolition of an- 84, Tubingen, 1905; Benzinger,|4rcAfloJo0ie, pp. 382-386;
nates in Germany, as well as in Belgium, France, Nowack, Archaolooie, vol. ii.; EB, iv. 4905-16; JE, xn.
and Spain. The so-called quindennia, whose collec- 69-70. On II. consult: L. Thomassm, Vet-us ct nova
ecclesice disciplina circa beneficia, III., ii. 32 sqq , Farm,
tion every fifteen years was decreed by Paul 11.,
1728; G. Phillips, Kirchenrecht, v. 235, 238, vii. 438. 7
also never became practically operative there; these vols., Regensburg, 1852-72; P. Wokcr, Das ktrchlwhe
were payments in compensation for the loss of an- Finanzwesen der Pupate, Nordlingcn, 1878; A. Gottlob.
Aua der Camera Apostolica des XV. Jahrhunderts, Inns-
nates from such reserved benefices as had been in-
bruck, 1889; L. Konig, Die papstliche Hammer untrr
corporated with others, in which therefore no va- Clemens V. und Johann XXII., Vienna, 1894; K. Fried-
cancies ever occurred. The scr?>i/ia, however, both hrrg, KirchenrecfU, 171-173, 5th ed., Leipnic, 1903;
J. P. Kirch, Die papstltchen Annaten in DetUschland waA-
the cmnmuma and the smaller chancery fees con-
rend des 14. J ahrhunderts, Paderborn, 1903.
nected with them, were still to be paid to the pope;
and these in common pnrlanee often took the name TAXES, TAX-GATHERERS (PUBLICANS): The
of annates. The Council of Basel, in agreement with
earliest notice of a species of taxes in the Old Tes-
the German princes, talked of abolishing them en-
tament is I Kings x. 15, as derived as toll from
commerce in return for protection; a standing im-
tirely; but the Concordat of Vienna in 1448 left the
matter where the Council of Constance had left it, post is mentioned (Ezra iv. 13, 20, vii. 24). Such
taxes were levied by the Persians, Ptolemies and Sc-
except that after that time the tux gradually rose
leucidffi (qq.v.), and Romans in the subjected coun-
in amount, and was paid in one sum instead of two.
tries upon exports and imports, and \\ere collected
In the later concordats and bulls of circumscription
not immediately by the State but through those
(see CONCORD ATH AND DELIMITING BULLS), the an-
nates are usually retained and their amount desig-
who bid for the privilege for certain periods, a year-

nated. Tt became customary, however, in later ly sum being contracted for yearly, all excess going
into the collector's purse and deficiencies being sup-
times for an individual agreement to be reached at
the appointment of oach new bishop, by which a plied from the same. Little is known of Palestinian
tax-gatherers of the time of Christ. Palestine was
lump sum was paid considerably smaller than that
in three districts, at the frontiers of which prob-
named in the older documents. The whole subject
was considered at the Council of Trent. The result ably toll was collected for the respective rulers. So
was partly the regulation of the older imposts, part- Levi (Matt. ix. 9) at Capernaum collected for Herod

ly the creation of a new one, which the bishop was

Antipas, and Zaccheus at Jericho (Luke xix. 1-2)
authorized to levy on all the beneficed clergy in his for the Romans. Among the Romans companies
of the equestrian order often united for the purpose,
diocese, using the proceeds to found and maintain
the clerical seminaries which the council wished to and the office had no necessary taint, except for
see established. This is called alumnaticum or semi- the lower ranks of officials; but among the Jews it
waristicum. was despised, the official was regarded as on an
The payments which remain nowadays of all this equality with incendiaries and bandits, and his entire
complicated system may be classified according as family suffered under social and religious ostracism.
This was due to the facts that the native Jewish
they arc paid by all members of the Church or only
by the clergy, or again only by the impost was laid for purposes of religion only, that
the impost of the ruling power tended to protect
5. Present beneficed clergy; those which are re-
ceived by all the clergy, or the bishop, and continue foreign domination, and that it was
System,
or the pope alone; those which are the means of oppression, the collectors often be-

properly called taxes, and those which are rather coming rich. Tax-gatherers and sinners were classed
fees. In the Roman Catholic Church at present together. The graciousness of Jesus toward tax-
those paid by all members include surplice (see gatherers was shown not to the office, but to the
STOLE FEES) arid dispensation fees, the former re- person, and gained for him the hatred of the Jews.
ceived by all the clergy, the latter by the bishop or The two striking cases are Matthew and Zaccheus
pope; tithes, payments for church-building, and (Luke v. 27 sqq., xix. 1-10). Compare TAXATION.
the voluntary offerings whose amount is more or (R. ZEHNPrtTND.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L.
Horzfcld, Handel*ge*chichte der Jttden
less fixed by custom; and, in certain countries, es-
des AHcrtums, pp. 160-163, Brunswick, 1879; Remon-
pecially some of the German states, a tax regulated dftre, Df la levee des impdts en droit romain*, Montauban,
by the government for the support of public worship. 1884; J. Marquardt, Romiache Staatnverwaltung, ii 261-
The 270, 289-293, Leipsic, 1885; A. Edersheim, Life and
clergy, again, pay fees for their letters of orders,
Times of Jesus the Messiah, i. 514 sqq., Now York, 1896;
letters dimissory and of approbation, dispensations, i. 473-479, Eng. transl
Schiiror, deschichte, I., ii. 65-71;,

etc. The taxes formerly levied on the clergy are DB t 172-173, extra volume, pp. 394-396; DCG, ii.
iii.

not now (with the exception of a possible universal 455; JE, z. 265-266; and literature under TAXES.
tax in case of necessity, as described above) pre- TAYLOR, BARNARD COOK: Baptist; b. at
scribed by the common law of the Church; local Holmdel, N. J., May educated at
20, 1850. He was
laws provide for procurations, inheritance duty, the Brown University (B.A., 1874) and Crozer Theo-
alumnaticum, and the annus carentia (q.v.). The logical Seminary (1877). With this institution ho
Vfcylor THE NEW 8GHAFF-HERZOQ S88

has since been connected as instructor in Hebrew and edited its magazine, 1798. His chief literary
(1877-80), associate professor of Biblical interpre- works are: Compendious View of Christian Baptism
tation (1880-83), and professor of Old-Testament (London, 1772); Fundamentals of Religion in Faith
literature and exegesis (since 1883). He has written and Practice (Leeds, 1775); Dissertations on Sing-
Outline Analysis of the Books of the Bible (Philadel- ing in the Worship of God (2 parts, London, 1787);
phia, 1892) and Historical Books of the Old Testa- Eternity of Future Punishment (1789) and Essay ;

ment (1895). on the Truth and Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures

(1790).
TAYLOR, CHARLES: Church of England; b. Dan
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Taylor, Memoirs of Rev. Taylor,
in London May 27, 1840; d. at Nuremberg, Ger- Dan
London, 1820; W. Underwood, Life of Rev. Taylor,
many, Aug. 12, 1908. He was educated at St. ib. 1870; DNB, Iv 405-406. References will be found
John's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1862; M.A., 1865); also in the literature on Baptists dealing with this period*
was ordained priest 1867; became a fellow of his
TAYLOR, GEORGE BOARDMAN: Baptist; b.
college, 1864, and master, 1881. He was an exam- at Richmond, Va., Dec. 27, 1832. He was educated
iner at St. David's College, Lampeter, Wales, 1874-
at Richmond College (A.B., 1850), and, after teach-
1877; vice-chancellor of Cambridge, 1887-88; and
ing and studying law (1850-52), studied at the Uni-
alderman of the borough of Cambridge, 1889-95.
versity of Virginia (1852-54). He has held pastor-
He was select preacher at Cambridge in 1887, 1893,
ates at the Franklin Square Church, Baltimore
1899, and after 1876 was an honorary fellow
(1854-55), and at Staunton, Va. (1855-73), being
of King's College, London. His works embrace:
also a confederate chaplain in the Civil War. He
The Gospel in the Law, a Critical Examination of
was twice appointed chaplain of the University of
the Citations from the Old Testament in ttie New
Virginia (1869-71 and 1885-87). In 1873 he was
(London, 1869); The Dirge of Cohehth Discussed sent by the Foreign Mission Board of the Southern
and Literally Interpreted (1874) Sayings of the Jew-
Baptist Convention to take charge of their mission
;

ish Fathers, including Pirke Aboth, etc., in Hebrew

in Italy, which position he held until 1904, uhile
and English, with Critical and Illustrative Notes
since 1901 he has been professor of systematic the-
(1877; second enlarged edition, with a Cairo Frag-
ology in the Baptist Theological School at Rome.
ment of Aquila's Version of the Old Testament,
In theology he is a progressive conservative. He
1897; appendix, 1899); The Teaching of the Twelve has written Baptists TF/io TJisy are and wlwt They
Apostles, with Illustrations from the Talmud (Cam- have Done (4 vols Philadelphia, 1872-73)
, Italy ;

bridge, 1886) The Witness of Hennas to the Four

;
and the Italians (1898); and Manuale di Teologia
Gospels (1892); The Oxyrhyncus Logia and the Sistcmatica (Florence, 1906).
Apocryphal Gospels (London, 1899); Tfie Wisdom
of Ben Sira, Portions of Ecclesiasticus from Hebrev) TAYLOR, GRAHAM: Congregation alist; b. at
Manuscripts in the Cairo Genizah Collection now at Schenectady, N. Y., May 2, 1851. He was grad-
Cambridge (in collaboration with S. Schechter; uated from Rutgers College (A.B., 1870) and from
Cambridge, 1899); Cairo Genizah Palimpsests, in- the New Brunswick Theological Seminary (1873).
cluding a Fragment of Psalm xxii. according to Ori- He was pastor of the Reformed Church, Hopewell,
gen'sHexapla (1900); Sheplwrd of Hermas (2 vols., N. Y. (1873-80), and the Fourth Congregational
London, 1903-06); and The Oxyrhyncus Sayings of Church, Hartford, Conn. (1880-92); professor of
Jesus (1905). practical theology at the Hartford Theological Sem-
TAYLOR, DAN: Founder of New Connection of inary (1888-92); was appointed professor of soci-
General Baptists; b. at North Owram (2 m. n. of ology at the Chicago Theological Seminary in 1892,
professorial lecturer at the University of Chicago in
Halifax), Yorkshire, England, Dec. 21, 1738; d. in
London Dec. 2, 1816. He began work as a miner 1903, and director of the Chicago Institute of Social
Science in 1906, all of which positions he still holds.
with his father at the age of five, came under Meth-
odist influences when fifteen, joined the Wesleyans
He founded The Commons, a sociological settle-
in 1759, began to preach for them in 1761, but with-
ment in Chicago, and has exerted a wide influence
as arbiter in labor troubles.
drew in 1763, and was immersed in 1763, taking the
pastorate at Wadsworth of the General Baptist TAYLOR, ISAAC: English lay theologian; b.
Church, the same year. He became dissatisfied with at Lavenham (28 m. o.s.e. of Cambridge) Aug.
the Unitarian drift in this connection, and sought 17, 1787; d. at Stanford Rivers (7 m. n.e. of Char-
to arrest it. Failing, he, together with the Barton ing Cross, London) June 28, 1865. Early in life he
Independent Baptists, formed, hi June, 1770, the entered the Established Church; after following for
New Connection of General Baptists (see BAP- a while the profession of engraver and artist, he
TISTS, I., 3, 3). He preached at Halifax from 1772, turned his attention to literature and inventions.
where a church was organized in 1782, of which he He invented a very ingenious engraving machine
became pastor 1783; in 1785 he became a colleague which was eventually used for patterns upon rollers
at Church Street, Whitechapel, London, and in 1794 for calico-printing. His intellectual activities were
sole pastor. He was a tutor hi the General Baptist largely in the Baconian and patristic lines of study,
Evangelical Academy at Mile End, London, 1798- and as an author he was very prolific and original.
1813, retaining his pastorate meanwhile. He wrote His works embrace Elements of Thoughts (London,
copiously and ably on the theological questions of 1822); History of Transmission of Ancient Books to
the day, and also shaped the course of his denomi- Modern Times (1827); The Process of Historical
nation. He was its leading spirit for nearly half a Proof (1828) Natural History of Enthusiasm (1829)
; ;

century, founded its college in 1797, and started New Model of Christiana Missions to Popish,
883 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Taylor

Mahomedan and Pagan Nations Explained (1829); Frederick Foster Gough of the Church Missionary
Fanaticism Spiritual Despotism (1835);
(1833); Society, completed the revision of a version of the
Physical Theory of Anoltter Life (1836); Ancient New Testament in the colloquial of Ningpo for the
Christianity, and the Doctrine of t)\e Oxford Tracts British and Foreign Bible Society, and also finished
for the Times (1839); Loyola and Jesuitism in its his medical course. To arouse interest in the great
Rudiments (1849); Wesley and Methodism (1851); Middle Kingdom he published a book entitled
The Restoration of Belief (1855); Logic in Theology China, its Spiritual Need and Claims (London, 1865,
. .
Essays (1859);
. Ultimate Civilization . . . 8th ed., 1890), which has been much used in calling
Essays (1800); Spirit of Hebrew Poetry (1861); forth sympathy for China and volunteers for the
and Considerations on the Pentateuch (1863). field, who began to go out in 1862, the first being
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A fundamental source for a life is his own James J. Meadows. In 1865, at Brighton, Taylor
Personal Recollections, Ixmdon, 1864; and his Memorials definitely dedicated himself to God for the found-
of the Taylor Family of Ongar, 2 vola., ib. 1867. Consult
further: Sir J. Stephen, Esaays in Ecclesiastical Biog-
ing of a new society to undertake the evangelization
DNB t Iv. 417-419.
of inland China. In May, 1866, he, with his wife
raphy, pp. 685-633, ib. 1868;
and children and a party of sixteen missionaries,
TAYLOR, JAMES HUDSON: Founder of the sailed for China. Thus was definitely launched that
China Inland Mission; born at Barnsley (18 m. 8. organization which, on Jan. 1, 1911, had 968 mis-
of Leeds), Yorkshire, England, May 21, 1832; d. at sionaries (including wives) connected with it, and
Changsha (340 m. n. of Canton), China, June 3, in the support of which more than 1,471,000 had
1905. His father was an eloquent and able Method- been contributed in answer to prayer and without
ist local preacher and his mother a woman of more
public or private solicitation of funds. From the
than ordinary sweet and patient spirit. Hudson founding of the mission in 1865 Taylor's time be-
Taylor combined the ability of his father with the came more and more occupied as general director
gentle disposition of his mother. He was converted of a growing work. His duties necessitated exten-
through the reading of a tract at the age of fifteen, sive journeys in China and frequent visits to the
and not long afterward passed through a remarkable home country. In 1888 a wider ministry was com-
experience, at which time he dedicated himself to menced through the formation of a home center in
God for whatever service might be appointed. Un- North America. This arose through Taylor's pres-
known to himself, his father, who had been deeply ence at the Northfield Convention (see MOODY,
interested in China, had prayed that his son might DWIGHT LYMAN). Two years later another center
go to that land as a missionary, and very early, was founded in Australasia. Various visits to the
through the reading of Walter Henry Medhurst's continent of Europe led to the inception of associ-
China (London, 1838), the thoughts of young Taylor ate missions, which recognized Taylor as their gen-
were directed to that country. eral director on the field. In Jan., 1911, these as-
With a view to preparing himself for his life- sociate missions had 216 workers on the field.
work, ho engaged as assistant to a physician at The constant pressure and increasing strain in-
Hull, and subsequently studied medicine at the separable from such a work frequently threatened
London Hospital. The great interest awakened in a serious breakdown; but Taylor, though far from
China through the Taiping rebellion, which was strong as a child, manifested remarkable recupera-
then erroneously supposed to be a mass movement tive powers. In 1900, however, at the New York
toward Christianity, together with the glowing but Conference, the first serious signs of failing health
exaggerated reports made by Carl Friedrich August began to manifest themselves. Having already as-
Gutzlaff concerning China's accessibility, led to the sociated Dixon Edward Hoste with himself in the
founding of the China Evangelization Society, to directorate of the mission, he slowly resigned his
the service of which Hudson Taylor offered himself great responsibilities, still seeking to assist the work
and on Sept. 19, 1853, he sailed for China before the as consulting director while; living quietly in retire-
completion of his medical studies. The six years ment in Switzerland. His second wife (ne'e Fauld-
from 1854 to 1860 were spent in Shanghai, Swatow, ing), to whom he had been married in 1871, and by
and Ningpo, working sometimes in company with whom he had two children, died in the summer of
older missionaries of other societies and especially 1904. Early in 1905 Taylor determined, though
with William Chalmers Burns of the English Presby- extremely feeble, to pay another visit to China.
terian Mission. During this period he retired from After visiting various centers he reached Changsha,
the China Evangelization Society, which subse- the capital of the previously anti-foreign province
quently ceased to exist, and continued as an inde- of Hunan, where he suddenly and peacefully passed
pendent worker, trusting God to supply his need. from his labors. His remains were interred at
His experiences of God's faithfulness in meeting his Chinkiang, by the side of his first wife and those of
own personal needs and the needs of a hospital at his children who had died hi China.
Ningpo, of which he had taken charge, had much to As a Bible student Taylor was unique. Holding
do with the subsequent step of founding the China firmly to the plenary inspiration of the Scriptures
Inland Mission. While at Ningpo he married Miss and putting them to daily test in his life and work,
Maria Dyer, daughter of the Rev. Samuel Dyer of he became a most helpful and remarkable expositor,
the London Missionary Society. Of the children his Bible readings being greatly appreciated at the
born by this marriage, three survive their father's various conventions held in Europe and North
decease, and two are to-day missionaries in China. America. As a leader of men and careful organizer
Invalided home in 1860, he spent the next five ho had preeminent gifts. Being convinced of his
years in England, and, in company with the Rev. duty, every detail was carefully thought out and
Taylor THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 884

arranged for, and then no subsequent difficulty or some hesitation he accepted, receiving from Crom-
opposition was allowed to daunt liim. Gifted with well papers for his protection, but in 1660 he was
the power to command sleep whenever needed, again in London, where he published his Doctor
he labored night and day, resting only when ex- dubitantium or the Rule of Conscience, favorably
"
hausted nature compelled him. No day, how- noticed by Hallam as an extensive and learned
ever, was entered upon without a period of quiet work on casuistry "; the work was dedicated to
prayer and Bible study. James Hudson Taylor was, Charles II. On the restoration of episcopacy he
to quote the pregnant words of Prof. Gustav War- was raised in 1660-61 to the bishopric of Down and
"
neck, A man full of the Holy Ghost and of faith, Connor, to which Dromore was afterward added,
of entire surrender to God and his call, of great self- but found his course difficult as a bishop, the Pres-
denial, heart-felt compassion, rare power in prayer, byterians especially furnishing trouble to which he
marvelous organizing faculty, energetic initiative, replied by frequent depositions of those who refused
indefatigable perseverance, and of astonishing in- to recognize episcopal jurisdiction. He desired
fluence with men, and withal of child-like humility." translation to an English see, but his request was
Taylor was the author of: Union and Communion passed by, and he was left to finish his life in uncon-
(London, 1893); A Retrospect (1894); Separation genial surroundings. Besides the works named
and Service (1898) ;
and A Ribband of Blue, and ottier above, special mention should be made of his Dis-
Rible Studies (1899), MARSHALL, BROOMHALL. course of Friendship (1657); he also issued a large
BIULIOOHAPHY M. G. Guinness. Story of the China Inland Mis- number of sermons. His Whole Works were edited
sion, 2 vols London, 1893, M. Broomhall, Pioneer Work
,
by Reginald Heber (15 vols., London, LS22; revised
in Hunan, ib 1906, idem, The Chine*?. Empire, a General
and Missionary Survey, ib. 1908; idem, Faith and Facts as
edition by C. P. Eden, 10 vols., 1847-52). The
Illustrated in the Hist, of the China Inland A/wswm, ib. 1909. Works, ed. T. S. Hughes (5 vols., 1831), consist of
sermons and the Holy Li ring and Holy Dying
TAYLOR, JEREMY: English bishop, theologian, Poems and Verse Translations, ed. A. B. Grosart, was
and devotional writer; b. at Cambridge Aug. 15, issued 1870.
1613; d. at Lisburn (8 m. s.w. of Belfast), Ireland, "
Taylor has been culled the Chrysostom of Eng-
Aug 13, l(i()7. He studied at Gonville and Gaius land," surpassing in brilliancy of imagination his
College,Cambridge (B.A., 1630-31; M.A., 1633-34; Greek antetype For succeeding generations his
D.D., Oxford, 1642); by doing occasional duty for fame rests on the three devotional \\orks especially
Thomas Risden, divinity lecturer at St. Paul's, noted above.
London, he attracted the attention of Archbishop BinuociRAPHY: The host of tho earlier lives, perhaps abso-
Laud, who sent him to Oxford, 1635, and procured lutely the best, is that hy Heher, U-H revised hy Kd<*n, in
for him a made him his chaplain, the Whole Works, ut sup Consult further H K Uonucy,
fellowship, 1636,
The Life of .
Jeremy Tai/lor, London. IHIJS, K K A
. .

and probably secured for him appointment as royal Willmott, Bishop Jeremy Taylor, his /'rrdeccsaorit, Con-
chaplain; he was made rector of Uppingham, Rut- temporaries, and tfu(ee*sor*, London, 1S-17, A Hanv,
land, 1638; probably in 1642 he accompanied the Jeremy Taylor, the English Chnjxontom, in J E Kempe,
Claxxic Preacher* of the English Church, 2 ser Ixnidon,
king to Oxford, and it is likely that he was then
,

1877; F. W Fnrrur, in A Barry, Master* in English The-

(though not formally till 1644) deprived of his liv- ology, London, 1878; W H
T) Abniius, Great English

ing; in 1643 he was made rector of Overstone, Churchmen, London, 1879; E. II May, Dissertation on
the Life, Theology, and Times of Jeremy Taylor, London,
Northamptonshire; in 1644 he was a prisoner with
1892; W. E. Collins, ed Typical English Churchmen,
the army of the Commonwealth. In 1645 he be-
,

London, 1902; E. Gosne, Life of Jeremy Taylor, London

came one of the principals in a school at Newton and New York, 1904; D Mernmun, Jeremy Taylor ami
Hall, Carmarthenshire, also chaplain to Richard Religious 1liberty in the English Church, Worcester, Mass ,

1906; G. Worley, Jeremy Taylor; Sketch of his Life with

Vaughan, earl of Carbcry. This period was one of a popular Exposition ofhiK Worku, new ed., London, 1907;
the most fruitful in his life; then he published his E. George, Seventeenth Century Men of Latitude. Fore-
Theologia eklcktike; a Discourse of the Liberty of runners of the new Theology, London and Now York, 1908;
Prophesying (1646), a plea for deprived Episcopal DNB, Iv. 422-429; Julian, Hymnology, p. 1118.
clergymen; his Great Exemplar Life and Death
. . .
TAYLOR, JOHN: Unitarian theologian and He-
of . Jesus Christ (1649); Rule and Exercises of
. . brew scholar; b. at Scotforth (2 m. s. of Lancaster)
Holy Living (1650); Rule and Exercises of Holy 1694; d. at Warrington (20 miles e. of Liverpool),
Dying (1651). The two last named with his Worthy Lancashire, Mar. 5, 1761. His first theological
Communicant (not published till 1660) are among studies were made in 1709, under Thomas Dixon,
the most noted and worthy devotional books in the who had just established, at Whitchaven, a non-con-
English language. A number of sermons followed, formist academy for the preparation of students for
including his Discourse on Baptism (1652); to this the Presbyterian and Congregational ministries.
period is chargeable also The Real Presence and Here he began to acquire that knowledge of Hebrew
Spirituall of Christ in the Blessed Sacrament Proved which was destined one day to bear rich fruit. Leav-
. .
against
. Transubstantiation (1654), and Po- ing Whitehavcn, he studied under Thomas Hill, near
lemical and Moral Discourses (1657). Meanwhile Derby, perfecting himself especially hi classical
he had resumed relations with London in 1653, knowledge. Before being ordained to the ministry
preached there occasionally in 1654, and for reasons he became connected, Apr. 7, 1715, with a non-
unknown, he was a prisoner in Chepstow in 1654 conformist chapel at Kirkstead, Lincolnshire; he
and again in 1655; in 1657-58 Taylor ministered to was ordained Apr. 11, 1716, by dissenting ministers
a small body of Episcopalians in London. The next in Derbyshire. In 1733 he became the colleague of
year ho was invited to accept a weekly lectureship the Presbyterian minister, Peter Finch (d. Oct. 6,
at Lisburn, County Antrim, Ireland, which after 1764), in Norwich, and in 1757 ho was appointed to
285 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Taylor

the divinity chair at Warrington Academy. Here advocates. For his labors, views, and influence in
his health broke down, owing in great part to the this direction see NEW-ENGLAND THEOLOGY. His
disputes in which he became engaged. He had most noted sermon was the Concio ad Clerum (New
serious differences with the rector, John Seddon, and Haven, 1828), though he had previously issued
wrote strongly against the scheme which the latter others, e.g., one on Regeneration (1816). After his
was advocating of introducing fixed liturgical forms death his Practical Sermons, ed. Noah Porter, were
into non-conformist worship. published (New York, 1858); also Lectures on the
It was not until Taylor had passed middle life Moral Government of God (2 vols., 1859) and Essays
;

that a radical change in his theological views seems and Lectures upon Select Topics in Revealed Religion
to have taken place. Shortly after undertaking his (1859).
new post at Norwich, he read the Scripture Doctrine BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. P. Fisher, Discussions in History and
of the Trinity, by Samuel Clarke (q.v., 4). As a con- Theology, New York, 1880; W. Walker, in American
Church History Series, iii. 355-361, New York, 1894;
sequence his belief in that central dogma suffered
idem, Ten New England Leaders, pp. 398-402 et passim,
eclipse, and in A
Paraphrase with Notes on the Epis- ib. 1901: B. N. Martin, in New Englander, vol. xvii.; N.
tle to the Romans, etc. (London, 1745, Dublin, 1746), Porter, in New Englander, vol. xviii.; F. H. Foster, Genetic
he freely discloses his Arian sentiments. Naturally Hist, of New England Theology, Chicago, 1907.

enough he abandoned the Calvinistic view of human TAYLOR, WALTER ROSS: United Free Church
nature; and his work, The Scripture Doctrine of Orig- of Scotland; b. at Thurso (80 m. n.e. of Inverness),
inal Sin (London, 1740, 4th ed., enlarged, 1767), Caithness, Apr. 11, 1838.He was educated at the
which called forth the famous reply of the elder Ed- University of Edinburgh and New College, Edin-
wards, was more instrumental than any work of burgh, from which he was graduated in 1861. He
its kind in undermining the root ideas of the Cal- was minister of East Kilbride Free Church in 1862-
vinistic system both in England and in the American 1868 and since 1868 has been minister of Kelvin-
colonies. Deviating as far as he did from the side Free Church, Glasgow. He is convener of the
forma of traditional orthodoxy, his treatise on prayer committee of the Glasgow United Free Church The-
(The Scripture Account of Prayer, London, 1761, ological College, chairman of the Glasgow United
2d ed 1762), \\ritten at the close of his life, would
, Freo Church Normal College, and vice-president of
seem to negative the description of Wesley that the National Bible Society of Scotland. His theo-
u
Taylor's views were old deism in a new dress." logical position is liberal, and he is an advocate of
Some of his other works not mentioned above are: the union of churches and the revision of the creed .

The Scripture Doctrine of Atonement (London, 1751); Ho has written Religious Thought and Church Life
and The Lord's Supper Explained upon Scripture in Scotland in Oie Nineteenth Century (Edinburgh,
Principles (London, 1756). Especially noteworthy 1900).
is Ttic Hebrew Concordance (2 vols., folio, London,
TAYLOR, WILLIAM: Methodist Episcopal mis-
1754-57), adapted to the English Bible and disposed
sionary bishop; b. in Rockbridge County, Va., May
after the manner of Buxtorf, \\hieh held first rank
2, 1821; d. at Palo Alto, Cal., May 18, 1902. He
among \\orks of its kind for almost a century, and went from his father's farm and tanyard into the
is an enduring monument to tin author's accuracy
1

ministry, 1842; was regular itinerant, 184219;

and industry.
missionary in California, 1849-56; evangelist in the
BinuooKAPHV E. Harwood, Sermon Occasioned by the Death
Eastern States and Canada until 1862, \\hon he
:

of . J. Taylor, with Some Account of hm Character and

. .

\Yntinus,London, 1761 K. Taylor, in Universal Theological

,
wont to Europe, engaging in evangelistic work; he
Magazine, July, IS04, Monthly Repository, 1826, pp 482- traveled over the continent, then to Egypt, the
4S3, L Stephen, Knulinh Tlwught \n the Kwhteenth Century,
ii 418-419, Now York, 1881; DNJ*. Iv. 439-440 (has refer- Holy Land, Australia, Africa, the West Indies, and
ences to scattering notices). India. He organized many solf-supporting churches
in India, and as a result of his work the South India
TAYLOR, NATHANIEL WILLIAM: Congrega- conference and Madras conference were organized.
tionalist preacher, teacher, and author; b.at New
Later he visited Central and South America. Ho
Milford, Conn., June 23, 1786; d. at New Haven
was elected a bishop in 18S4, and going again to
Mar. 10, 1858. He was graduated at Yale College Africa he established a chain of mission stations on
in 1807; studied theology with President Dwight,
the Congo and elsewhere. His works embrace Seven
and became pastor of the First Church in New
Years' Preaching in San Francisco (New York,
Haven in 1811, which office he resigned in 1822, to Christian
1857) ;California Life Illustrated (1858) ;
take the chair of dogmatic theology in the, theo-
Adventures in South Africa (London, 1867); Four
logical department of Yale College, whcro ho con- Years' Campaign in India (New York, 1875) Our ;

tinued to teach until his death. As a preacher he

South American Cousins (1878); and Ten Years oj
was singularly impressive, combining solidity and
Self-supporting Missions in India (1882).
clearness of thought with a remarkable eloquence.
Unusual results followed upon his sermons, espe- TAYLOR, WILLIAM MACKERGO: Congrega-
cially in connection with Revivals (q.v.). From tionalist; b. at Kilmarnock (20 m. s.w. of Glasgow),

early youth deeply interested in the problems of Scotland, Oct. 23, 1829; d. in New York Feb. 8,
theology, and endowed with metaphysical talents
1895. He was graduated from the University of
of a very high order, he worked out, on the basis of Glasgow, 1849, and from the United Presbyterian
the previous New England theology, an elaborate Theological Seminary, Edinburgh, 1852; became
system, which gained numerous adherents,
and pastor of the parish of Kilmaurs, Ayrshire, 1853;
affected theological thought and preach- of Derby Road Church, Liverpool, England, 1855;
powerfully
visited the United States in 1871, and became pas-
ing in America beyond the circle
of its
professed
 ok THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 886

tor of the Broadway Tabernacle (Congregational), Venerandum tuum verum unigenitum Filium, 13. Sanctum
New guoque paraclitum Spiritum. 14. Tu rex gloria CftriaU.
York, 1872. He was Lyman Bcecher lecturer 15. Tu Patria aempiternue ea j!ttu. 16. Tu ad liberandum
in Yale Seminary, 1876 and 1886; L. P. Stone lec- auecepturua hominem turn horruisti virgin/ie uterum. 17. Tu
turer in Princeton Seminary, 1880; and editor of devicto mortis aculeo aperuisti credentibua regna calorum.
18. Tu ad dexteram Dei aede* in gloria Patria. 19. Judex
The Christian at Work, 1876-80. He was a preacher
crederia eaae venturua. 20. Te ergo quojaumua nobia tui*
in the front rank, and enjoyed an international repu- redimiati.
famulia aubveni quoit precioao aanguine (Anti-
tation. He was compelled by a stroke of paralysis phon:) 21. Sterna Jac cum aanctia tuia in gloria numerari.
to retire in 1893. He was the author of Life Truths:
Verses 22 to the end are derived from the Scrip-
Being Discourses on Christian Doctrine and Duty
tures (Ps. xxvii. 9, cxlv. 2, cxxiii. 3a, xxxiii. 22,
(Liverpool, 1862);The Miracles: Helps to Faith, not
Hindrances (Edinburgh, 1865) The Lost Found, and
;
xxxi. 2a), and Dom Pothier believes that the verses
the Wanderer Welcomed (1870) David, King of Israel
were originally a kind of preces in the matins, such
;
as are still recited in the Roman offices at prime and
(New York, 1875); Elijah the Prophet (1876); The
Ministry of the Word (Yale Lectures; 1876) Peter ;
compline, and that only later were they incorpo-
the Apostle (1876); Daniel the Beloved (1878); Moses
rated in the Te Deum (Der gregorianische Choral,
the Lawgiver (1879) The Gospel Miracles in their Re-
;
p. 229, Tournai, 1881). If the melody of the word*
lation to Christand Christianity (Princeton lectures; dSterna fac cum sanctis tuis ceternum, as well
. . .

The Limitations of Life, and Other Sermons as the close: In te Domine, was taken from an in-
1880) ;

troit of an old Greek mass of Dionysius the Areo-

(1880); Paid the Missionary (1881); Contrary
Winds, and other Sermons (1883); John Knox, a Bi- pagite, which has been sung up to modern times at
St. Denis near Paris during the octave of the fes-
ography (1885); The Parables of our Savior; Ex-
pounded and Illustrated (1886); Joseph, the Prime
tival of this saint, to the words: Kyrie theos basileu
Minister (1886); The Scottish Pulpit from the Refor- ouranie pater pantokratdr, it would be natural to
mation to the Present Day (1887); The Miracles of seek the origin of the Te Deum in the Eastern
our Savior, Expounded and Illustrated (1890); Ruth, Church, even though no hymn has been found in
the Gleaner; Esther, the Queen (1891); Paul the the Greek language which can be determined to be
the Greek original of the Te Deum. The Greek ver-
Missionary (1892); and The Boy Jesus, and Other
Sermons (1893). sions mentioned in Julian (Hymnology, pp. 1125
sqq.) are evidently translations into Greek of the
TE DEUM: The title of the so-called Ambrosian already existing Latin hymn, made at the begin-
hymn, taken from the opening words: Te Deum ning of the sixth century. It is possible that it
laudamus. This hymn has been regarded from early
may have been present to the mind of the poet
times as the classic expression of Christian faith Prudentius (q.v.) in his Apotheosis, linos 1019-20,
and placed on a par with the liturgical confessions. where he connects the verbs susdpcre, liberare, twr-
In the Roman hymnals it bears the designation:
" " rere, precisely in the same way as in verse 1 6 of the
Hymn in honor of the Holy Trinity and " Hymn hymn. If the words of Cyprian of Carthage (De
of St. Ambrose and St. Augustine," the former in Ittic
mortalitate, xxvi.) :
apostolorum gloriosus chorus,
reference to its contents and the latter in agreement
prophetarum exultantium numerus, ittic martyr-
ittic
with the legend that, at the time of the baptism of ium innumirabilis numerus, are either an intentional
Augustine, in 387, Ambrose intoned the hymn and or unintentional allusion to verses 7-9, the original
sang it alternately with Augustine. That Am- form of the hymn must have been familiar to the
brose and Augustine were the originators of the Church of the third century. It may have been a
hymn, in the sense of the legend that, carried away psalm of thanksgiving which guided the newly bap-
by the inspiration of the incident, they improvised tized from baptism to the Eucharist. Nicetas of
it, can not be held, though it is possible that the Remesiana and Ambrose of Milan (qq.v.) may share
memory of a real event on that memorable occasion in the honor of the liturgical adaptation and the in-
endured, especially if it was a hymn new to the troduction of the hymn.
community and one that had been borrowed by The Te Deum belongs to the service of hours;
Ambrose from the Eastern Church, and was first the Benedictine rule concludes therewith the third
used in public on that occasion. nocturn on all Sundays and festivals. In the Roman
The hymn in its present form is no original and offices it has its place in the matins after the ninth
strictly uniform creation. Verses 1-21 are composed lesson, as a prayer of thanksgiving on all days
in rhythmic prose and the other verses in ordinary wherein the festival celebration is a joyous one,
prose (Lejay, in Revue Critique, 1893, i. 192). Verses therefore on all Sundays (except from Septuagesima
1-21 are therefore probably of earlier date than the to Easter), on all festivals (except the festivals of
rest. It is consequently no mistake to regard these
the Holy Innocents), on the festival octaves and
verses (as far as numerari) as the foundation of the
during the entire Easter time. Besides this, it was
Te Deum, which then appears as a psalm with an "
employed on special occasions to render thanks
antiphon, in about the following form: to God for the bestowal of great blessings." A Ger-
1. Te Deum laudaumua, te Dominum confttemur. 2. Te man translation existed as early as the ninth cen-
aternum patrem omnis terra veneratur. Tibi omnea an-
3.
tury, and there is a prose translation of 1389, and
Tibi Cherubim ct
geli, tibi cctli et universes poteslatea, 4.
Seraphim inccsaabUi voce proclamant, 5. Sanctua, aanctua, one in Low German. Poetical versions first ap-
aanctua Dominua Dew* Sabaoth. 6. Pleni aunt cadi et terra peared after Luther's example (see below). The
majeatatia tuce. (7. Te glorioaua apOBtolorum chorus, 8. Te German translation of the text gradually led to its
prophetarum laudabUia numerua, 9. Te martyrum candi-
date laudat exercitus.) 10. Te per orbem terrarum aancta transformation into the form of the song. All others
confltctur eccleaia, 11. Patrem immenao) majettatft. 12, were supplanted by the so-called German Te
887 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA ok

Deum: " Grosser Gott, wir loben Dich," which has J. Pothier, Der yrefforianische Choral, Tournay, 1881;
E. C. 8. Gibson, in Church Quarterly Review, xviii (1884),
become an ecclesiastical popular song and has found 1-27 (able and learned) ; E. Challier, Grower Lieder-Kata-
its way into the Evangelical church. The text is by log, Giessen, 1886-87; 8. Kummerle, Encyklopadie der

Ignaz Franz (b. at Prozau, in the district of Fran- evangelischen Kirchenmusik, 4 vola., Gtttersloh, 1886-
1895; J. W. Legg, Some Imitations of the Te Deum, Lon-
kenstein, Oct. 12, 1719; d. Aug. 19, 1790). Among
don, 1891; 8. A. Blackwood, Te Deum laudamus, London,
the melodies which were composed for this text that 1892; G. M. Droves, in supplement to Stimmen aus Maria
one has remained the most popular which first ap- Loach, Iviii (1893); P. Lejay, Revue critique, 1893, i. 192
" sqq.; F. Kattenbusch, Da* apostolische Symbol, i. 404
peared in Vienna in 1774, in the Catholic Hym-
nal." For Luther, the Te Deum was indispensable, sqq., Leipsic, 1894; G. Morin, Revue benldictine, Feb.,
1894 (names Nicetas of Remesiana as author); H.
since he wished to see matins and vespers preserved, Kretschmar, Fuhrer durch den Konzertsaal, ii. l f pp. 287-
and the Te Deum seemed of special value to him. 300, Leipsic, 1895; T. Zahn, in NKZ, v (1896), 106 sqq.;
Prose translations such as Luther found in the earlier A. E. Burns, Introduction to the Creeds and the Te Deum,
London, 1899; idem, Niceta of Remesiana, his Life and
hymnals did not satisfy him. He, therefore, trans- Works, Cambridge, 1905; J. Wordsworth, The Te Deum,
lated the hymn into German, and his version first its Structure, 2d ed., London, 1903; W. A. Merrill, Latin
" "
appeared in the Hymnal " of Klug, 1529, justly Hymns, pp. 6-7, Boston, 1904 (Latin text); F. Spitta,
supplanting all others, for the Latin original was Em feste Burg ist unser Gott. Die Lieder Luthers in ihrer
Bedeutung fur die evangelische Kirche, G&ttingen, 1905;
completely transformed into a German poem by KL, x. 1282-84; DCA, ii. 1949-51. Much will be found
Luther, both as to the sense and as to the form." in the literature under LITUBGXCS; and SEQUENCES.
The melody is admirably adapted, and the original TEACHING ORDERS, ROMAN CATHOLIC. See
character and form of the hymn have been rever- THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION, III.
ently preserved. In the congregational music of
the Evangelical church, the
"
Ambrosian hymn," TEELLINCK, til'link: A family of Dutch Re-
in spite of Luther's masterly rendering, was forced formed theologians, conspicuous for their labors in
later to yield its place to the hymn of Martin Rinck- behalf of Pietism.
art (q.v.)
"
Nun danket alle Gott," as the German 1. Eewoud Teellinck: The eldest member of the
Te Deum of the Evangelical church. family; b. at Zierikzcc (31 m. s.w. of Rotterdam), in
The character and contents of the Te Deum and the island of Schouwcn, about 1570; d. at Middelburg
more especially its liturgical use as a psalm of (48 m. s.w. of Rotterdam), in the island of Walche-
thanksgiving, were determining factors in the trans- ren, 1629. He studied law, in 1598 and 1602 was
formations to which it has boon so often subjected. burgomaster of his native town, and in 1603 was made
In this work musical art has, on the one hand, con- treasurer general of Zeeland. After 1607 he was elder
fined itself to increasing the brilliancy and impress- of the Reformed church at Middelburg, yet found
iveness of the Gregorian chant by means of a fuller time to write a number of devotional books. Under
the pseudonym Alexius Philopator he is said to have
harmony and the use of many voices, or by the ad-
dition of instrumental accompaniment, so that the written Qucrela patrioc: Dot t.s, Clacfite des vadcrlants
chant was either simply adapted to several voices over de teghenwoordigJie swancheden (Amsterdam,
or was made the foundation of an elaborate poly- 1617) ; his regular pen-name was Ireneus Philalethius,
phonic symphony. On the other hand, the text was signed, e.g., to his De ereupele bode brengende seeckere
treated in an entirely free and independent manner, tydingc uyt Boemen, met ecn christelycke wcerschouw-
and the single verses and the imagery presented by inge daerovcr (Amsterdam, 1621). His writings la-
them were transformed into well-rounded and con- ment the controversies of the time, which he feared
nected sentences. In this way the Te Deum was might act to the detriment of practical piety ; he urged
developed into an antiphon on a grand scale, with the necessity of a godly life, exposing himself to the
a varied combination and graduation of solo and suspicion of stressing unduly good works.
choral passages, and was also embellished with all 2. Willem Teellinck: Youngest brother of the
the splendid coloring of modern orchestration, and preceding; b. at Zicrikzee Jan. 4, 1579; d. at Mid-
so it became a magnificent musical solemnization delburg Apr. 8, 1629. He studied law at St. Andrews
of thanksgiving. In the Greek Church the place of and Poitiers, and then went to England, where he
the Te Doum is taken by the hymnos akathistos was profoundly influenced by pietistic Puritans.
" After studying theology at Loyden for a short time,
(i.e., hymn to be sung standing "), a hymn of
thanksgiving for the preservation of city and State he was installed minister of Haamstede and Burcht
from the hands of the Avars (626), addressed to (near his native town) in 1606, where he remained
until 1613, when he accepted a call to Middelburg.
Mary, to whoso supplications this preservation was
attributed. See AMBROSE, SAINT, OF MILAN; AM- Here he became a potent factor in religious life,
BROSIAN CHANT. H. A. KosTLiNf. exercising a still wider influence by his numerous
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Julian, Hymnology, pp. 1119-1134 (elabor- writings. He may be said to have begun as a Piet-
ate); W. E. Tentzel, Exercitationes sacra, Lcipnic, 1692 ist and to have ended as a mystic, as may be seen
referred to); B. Gavantus, Thesaurus ttaerorum, ed.
(still
from his Het nieuwe Jerusalem, vertoont in een 'tsam-
G. M. Merati, ii. 147-153, Venice, 1744 (discusses Am-
brosian-Augustiuian authorship); J. M. Thomasiua, ensprekingfte tusschen Christum ende Mariam, stir
Opera, ii. 345 eqq., in. 614 nqq., Rome, 1747 (givm texts tende aen sijn voeten (Middelburg, 1635). In an age
and textual variations); W. Palmer, Origines liturgica, of controversy he gave many what they needed far
i. 226 sqq., Oxford, 1832; H. A. Daniel, Thesaurus hym-
noloowus, ii. 276-299, Halle, 1844; W. Maakell, Monu-
more than dogmatic treatises, especially as his own
menta ritualia, ii. 12-14, 229-232, London, 1847 (contains orthodoxy was unimpeached, except by a few of the
early English versions); E. Thompson, A Vindication of overzealous, who accused him of caring everything
the Hymn Te Deum laudamus, London, 1858 (valuable
for life and nothing for doctrine. The theme of his
for the versions it gives); F. A. March, Latin Hymns,
pp. 20-21, 231, New York, 1874 (Latin text and notes); sermons, which were essentially simple and prac-
SBS*ok THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 288

tical,and purely Biblical in character, was re- Teellinck, Amsterdam, 1898; H. Heppe, Geschichto dee
Pietiamut und dea Mysticismua der Niederlande, pp.
pentance. He championed the cause of Sabbath
. . .

106 sqq., Leyden, 1879; Hitachi, ut sup., pp. 124 sqq.;

observance in his De rusttijdt ofte tractaet van d'onder- F. Nagtfclaa, Levensberichten van Z ecu wen, vol. ii., Middle-
houdinge des christelijken rustrdachs, die men ghe- burg, 1893. And on 4: G. Brolikhert, Vlistingtche Kerk-
meynlyck den Sondach noernt (Rotterdam, 1662), and hemel, pp. 123-130, Vlissingen, 1758.
he was the first Reformed pastor in Holland to ad-
TELEOLOGY: The term expressing the doctrine
vocate foreign missions, as shown in his Ecce Homo,
that the activity in nature is with reference to ends.
ofte ooghen-salve voor die noch sitten in blintheydt des Its interest for the religious consciousness lies in its
ghemoedts (Middelburg, 1622) and Davids danck-
bearing on the theistic proof the teleological argu-
baerheyt voor Gods weldadicheyt (Amsterdam, 1624). ment. This, the most ancient of all the theistic
Some of his sermons, etc., were translated into Eng-
proofs, received classic expression in Paloy's Nat-
lish, such as his Paulus klacht over zijne natuurlijke
ural Theology, and the Bndgcwater Treatises (see
verdorvenheid (Middelburg, 1653; Eng. transl.,
Paul's Complaint against his Naturatt Corruption,"
PALEY, WILLIAM; and BRIDGE WATER, TKEATISES).
The argument to be valid would have to run as fol-
by C. Harmar, London, 1621). He exercised an in- lows (cf. I. Kant, Critique of the Pure Reason, pp.
fluence far boy ond Holland, and with his brother
536-539, London, 1897): (1) the universe is full of
Eewoud may bo styled the forerunner of the Dutch
adjustment of parts and of adaptation of means to
pietists of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. ends unspeakably rich in content and infinite in ex-
3. Maximiliaan Teellinck: Eldest son of the
tent; (2) the various elements so coordinated and
preceding; b. at Angers (190 m. s.w. of Paris) 1606;
d. at Middelburg Nov. 26, 1653. At the age of adjusted have in themselves no tendency to tho re-
sults described, but are related and arranged by a
twenty he was made minister of the English con- rational (external) disposing principle according to
gregation at Flushing, whence he was called in the
certain ideals and aims; (3) this arrangement can
following year (1628) to Zicrikzee, while from 1640
be explained only by reference to an (external) in-
until his death he was Reformed minister at Middel-
He telligent cause acting freely; (4) the unity of the
burg many of his father's works,
published
cause can be certainly inferred from the unity of
among them De worstelinghc eencs bekeerdcn son-
the reciprocal relations involved in experience and
darrx (Flushing, 1631; with a dedication valuable
for its biographical material) and Laetstc predikatien analogy. This argument presupposes that the gen-
era and species of all living bi-ings were created \\ith
(Amsterdam, 1647). He himself was best known
and polemic writings, although men-
for his political complete organs and fixed functions, as, e g eye ,

and ear. Iri Christian theology it has been accepted

tion should be made of his Verclannghe ende toeeyg-
as the teaching of the Scriptures and hence final for
heningc over de thicn gheboden ende het ghebedt des
Herren the second edition of his father's Huys-
rational thought. The effort \\JIH made to verify
(in
the argument by appeal to existing world facts.
boeck, Middelburg, 1650) and Christelicke onderwijs-
While the principle of this proof has never been in-
inge in de lecrstukken dcs geloofs (1652).
4. Jan Teellinck: Youngest brother of the pre- validated, yet in its classical form it has been found
liable to serious if not fatal objections. (1) From
ceding; b. at Middelburg; d. at Leeuwarden (70
the changed interpretation of the Genesis story.
m. n.e. of Amsterdam) May 7, 1674. He resided for
a considerable time in England, being minister at (2) At best it proves not a creator, but an external
and arbitrary contriver (cf. J. Caird, Introduction to
Maidstone, and in 1641 was called to the church at
the Philosophy of Religion, pp. 139-153, London,
Wemeldinge, Zeoland. In 1646 -48 he was supply
to the English congregation at Middelburg, and in 1880). (3) Since every individual end is an integral
1649 he was called from Wemeldinge to Flushing, part of the final end, and the final end is hidden
where he remained until 1654, when ho became min- from thought, a perfect teleology is impossible (cf.

F. Paulsen, Introduction to Philosophy, pp. 158-

ister at Utrecht. Here he so stubbornly resisted
the right of secular authorities to interfere with 180, New York, 1898). (4) The existence of sin

church affairs, especially in the controversy over has never been reconciled with a teleological view
of the world. The theory of evolution has invali-
benefices, that in 1660 he was forbidden to remain
in the city or province of Utrecht. He at once bo-
dated the traditional form of the argument, but it
came minister in Arnemuiden, near Middelburg, and has reinstated it in a far more significant and
in the following year was called to Kampen, whence impressive form. It has infinitely increased
he wont as minister to Leeuwarden in Apr., 1674, a the evidence of ends and adaptations in nature;
month before his death. Together with his brother it has proposed a new theory of the way
Theodorus (d. 1660), he began an edition of his in which these ends are realized; it has indefi-
father's works, of which three volumes appeared nitely lengthened the processes of this adaptive
between 1659 and 1664, and wrote, besides a sermon, activity; it has transferred the scene of the
Den vrugtbaermakenden wynntok Christus (3 parts, activity from that of externality to that of im-
manence the teleology is essential and is best
Kampon, 1666-67). His spirit and tendency were
illustrated in the animal organism. Whether
essentially identical with those of his father and
tho cause thus active is infinitely self-conscious
uncle. (S. D. VAN VEEN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Material ou all named in the text IB in with purposeful forethought, can not be fully
P. de la Rue, Gehiterd Zeeland, pp. 169 sqq., 331 sqq., ascertained by the teleological argument alone.
Middleburg, 1734; and B. Ulasius, Godgeleerd Nederland, Its task is far more modest. It is not demon-
sub voce, 3 vols *s Hertogeubnach, 1851-56. In addi-
,

tion on 1 consult A. Hitachi, Getchichte des Pietismus, i.

strative but indicative. It first inquires if there
124 sqq., Bonn, 1880. On 2: W. J. M. Engelberta, Willem is evidence of cosmic activity toward ends, and
389 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA lllnok
Teller

secondly, if such evidence is forthcoming, this is ing in the Christian Church (1897), Story of the Upper
referred to intelligence. C. A. BBCKWITH. Room (1905), A Sect that moved the World: Three
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. McCosh and G. Dickie, Typical Form* Generations of Clapham Saints and Philanthropists
and Special End* in Creation, Edinburgh, 1855; J. Froh- (1907), Man's Partnership with Divine Providence
schammer, Ueber die Aufgabe der Naturphilosophie, (1908), and The Life of James Harrison Rigg (1909).
Munich, 1861; P. Wctzel, Der Zweekbegnff bei Spinoza,
Leipsic, 1873; A. Stadler, Rants Teleologie, ib. 1874; P. TELLER, ROMANUS: German Lutheran; b.
Janet, Lea Causes finales, Paris, 1876, Eng. transl., Final at Leipsic Feb. 21, 1703; d. there Apr. 5, 1750. He
Causes, 2d od., Edinburgh, 1883; R. Schcllwien, Das was educated at the university of his native city
Ueaetz der Kausalitat in der Natur, Berlin, 1876; E. F. W.
Pfl tiger, Die T eleologische Mechanik der lebendigen Natur, (1719-23), and in 1723 waa appointed catechist at
Bonn, 1877; F. V. Baerenbach, Gedanken uber die Teleo- the Peterskirche in Leipsic. In 1730 he was called
loffie in der Natur, Leipsic, 1878; Q. J. Romanes, Candid to Merseburg, but in the following year returned to
Examination of Theism, London, 1878; A. Muhry, Kntvk
und kurze Darlegung der exacten Naturphilosophie, 5th the Peterskirche as preacher and first catechist, in
ed., Gottmgen, 1882; W. B. Carpenter, in Modern Re- 1737 becoming subdeacon at St. Thomas's. He was
view, 1884; P. F. Fitzgerald, A Treatise on the Principle made deacon there in 1739, and, after again officia-
of Sufficient Jteanon, London, 1887; E. Domet de Vorgea,
Cause effitientc et cause finale, Parw, 1889; R
Flint. The- ting at the Pctcrskirche after 1740, was chosen pas-
ism, 7th ed London, 1889; B. Liebcrmann, Der Zweck-
,
tor of the Thomaskirche in 1745. Meanwhile he was
begriff bei Trendrlenburu, Momingen, 1889; F. Erhardt, also active in academic circles. He had been aj>-
Mechanismus und Teleologie: eine Abhandlung uber die
pointed associate professor of theology in 1738, and
Pnncipien der Naturforschung, Leipsic, 1890; W. M. W.
Call, Final Causes a Refutation, London, 1891, A. Kohl- had advanced to a full professorship in 1740; while
Bchmidt, Kant's titelluny zur Teleologie und Physikothc- in 1745 he was made a canon, and in 1748 assessor
ologic, Jena, 1894, J Stier, Theismus und N
aturforschung of the consistory. He is best known for his
"
Eng-
in ihrem Verbatims zur Teleologie, Frankfort, 1896; E.
lish Bible," bearing the title Die }teiliye Schrift . . .
IluiiRhton, The Evidence of Design in the Constitution of
Nature, London, 1897; C. Brockdorff, Kant* Teleologie, nebst einer volhtdndigen Erkltirung derselben t welche
Kiel, 1898; N. Kaufmann, Philosophie naturelle d'Ans- aus den auserlesenstcn Anmerkunyen verschiedener
tote ttwle de cause finale, Paris, 1898; P. N. Coasmann,
engldndiscfier Schriftsteller zusammengetragen und
Element? der empimchen Teleologie, Stuttgart, 1899; E.
zuerst in franzosischer Sprache an das Licht gestellt
Ebrillard, Etudes pfnlosophiques sur les causes premieres
it Us ojusc.s finales, Parm, 1900; E. Ferriere, La Cause (19 vols., Leipsic, 1749-70), a work of distinctly
prcmim d'aprt.\ les donnfes txperimentale*, ib 1900; J. M. Reformed tendency, but of which Teller himself
Baldwin, Development ami Evolution, New York, 1902; was able to edit only two volumes.
S Prudhomme and C. Richet, Le ProbUme des causes
finales, Pans, 1902; J B Pettigrew, Design in Nature, New (P. WOLFF )
" "
\ ork, 1908, A. R. Wallace, The World of Life, ib., 1911. BIBLIOGRAPHY: A programm of the University of Leip-
sic, Afemona Tclleri, given by
is J. E. Kapp in Actm his-
TELESPHORUS, tel"es'fer-us: Pope 127-137. 1747.
torico-ecclesiaKticis, n. 377, Weimar, number of A
Ircnams (H(pr., III., iii. 3, ANF, i. 416), followed by references to biographical lexicons and similar works is
Eusobius (Hist. vccL, IV., x., NPNF, 2 scr., i. given in Hauck-Herzog, RE, xix. 475.

182), b tat es that he was a martyr; but Eusebius TELLER, WILHELM ABRAHAM: German
contradicts himself as to the year of Telesphorus' Lutheran and at Leipsic Jan. 9,
rationalist; b.
death, saying in his Hist. eccl. (ut sup.) that it was 1734; d. at Berlin Dec. 8, 1804. He was educated
in the first year of Antoninus Pius (138), and in his at the university of his native city (1749-53), and
" "
Chronicle putting it in the eighteenth year of was Sunday evening preacher at the university
Hadrian (1H5). The tradition that this pontiff es- church (1753-55), catechist at the Peterskirche
tablished the forty days of Lonten fasting and the (1755-00), and Sunday evening preacher at the
celebration of the midnight Christmas mass is erro- Nicholaikirche (1760-61). lie had published several
neous. See Lrnmcirs, 111, 2. (A. HAUCK.) studies in textual criticism and had already mani-
BIHIJOORAPHY. Liber pontificalis, cd Moromsen, in MGH, fested a rationalistic tendency when, in 1761, he
Geitt pont Rom , i (1898), 12; Jaffa, Itegesta, p. fl; R. A.
was called to Helmsttidt as professor of theology,
Lipsiua, Chronologie der nunischen Bischofe, pp. 170, 184,
190, Kiel, 1869; J. Langen, Oeschichte der rf>mischen pastor, and general superintendent. He now drew
Kirche, i. 103 nqq Bonn, 1881; Hnrnack, Litteratur, li. 1,
, a distinction merely of degree between the Biblical
p. 144; Bower, Popes, i. 11; Platina, Popes, i. 24-25. writers and profane poets, denied verbal inspira-
TELFORD, JOHN :
English Weslcyan ;
b. at Wig- tion, and posited a twofold inspiration of matter
ton (11 m. s.w. of Carlisle), Cumberland, Oct. 6, and words, dividing the former into dogmatic, pro-
1851. He was educated at Didsbury College, Man- phetic, and historical. His reputation as a leader of
chester, and at London University, and, after hold- the Enlightenment was won by his Lehrbuch des
ing various pastorates and being, in 1904, pne of the christlichen Glaubens (Helmstedt, 1764), in which he
secretaries of the committee which prepared the prepared the way for rationalistic dogmatics. He
Methodist Hymn Book, ho became, in 1905, editor laid great stress on method and maintained that
for the Wesleyan Methodist Connection. He is also divine revelation was intelligible to man, so that
editor of the Wesleyan Methodist Magazine and of forced theological interpretations were to be re-
the London Quarterly Review. Among his numer- jected. He accordingly contrasted the " simple "
ous publications mention may be made of his Life Gospel with the teachings of the Church, and, mani-
of Ctiarles Wesley (London, 1886), Life of John festing marked Socinian influence, he referred the
Wesley (1886), Two WestrEnd Chapels: or, Sketches doctrine of God and divine perfection to natural
of London Methodism from Wesley's Day (1886), religion, treated justification somewhat synergis-
The Story of Moses and Joshua: Its Lessons for To- tically, refused to discuss the twofold nature of

Day (1893), Makers of our Missions (1895), Women Christ, and ignored the doctrines of the Trinity and
in the Mission Field (1895), History of Lay Preach- original sin. The book evoked a storm of disap-
XI. 19
 plan
Tempi
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 890

proval, so that, though he had powerful friends, he ing confiscated for the benefit of the lunatic
ceased his lectures on dogmatics and in 1767 gladly asylum. (P. WOLFF.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nova acta historico-ecclesicutica, v. 132-133,
accepted a call to Berlin as supreme consistorial
Weimar, 1764; J. E. Traschel, Gedflchtnispredigt auf
councilor and provost of Kolln. Teller, Berlin, 1805; F. Nicolai, OedttcfUniaachnft auf
At Berlin, in the reign of Frederick the Great, Tetter, ib. 1807; G. W. Mayer, Oeachichte der Schriftcr-
Teller was in his element. He was elected to the ktorung, vols. ii.-v. posaim, G6ttingen, 1809; I. A. Dor-
of Sciences in 1786, and though he was un- ner, Genchichte der protentantiachen Theologie, pp. 700, 710,
Academy 713, Munich, 1867; W. Qua*. Geschichte der protestantischen
successful as a preacher, his printed sermons influ- Dogmatik, iv. 83, 86, 206-207, 446, Berlin, 1867; M. A.
enced wide circles. In 1772 he published at Berlin Landorer, Nfuente Doffmengeschtchie, pp. 20-21, 34, 52,
the first edition of his Wttrtcrbuch dcs Neuen Testa- 97, 130, Heilbronn. 1881.

ments zur Erkldrung christlidier Lchre, in which he TEMPLARS (KNIGHTS-TEMPLARS): A military

held that Christianity was designed to be merely order founded in Jerusalem in 1119. The Tem-
"
the wisest counsel to an ever ascending blessed- plars formed under the Augustinian rule one of the
ness," and that many things must be altered to har- spiritual orders of chivalry that owed their origin
monize with riper religious concepts and changed to the Crusades (q.v.) a knightly so-
" "
conditions, so that kingdom of heaven means Rise of cicty on a spiritual basis und for spiri-
" " "
the Christian Church," to repent is "to im- the Order, tual ends. Under King Baldwin II. of
" " "
prove oneself," and atonement is the union Jerusalem, Hugo de Payens and God-
of the Jews with other peoples, and thus of all man- frey of St. Omer, along with six fellow knights,
kind in one religion." This work, which naturally united under a solemn vow to protect the pilgrims
evoked orthodox hostility, and called forth several faring from the coast to Jerusalem. Baldwin gave
"
analogous books of an opposite tendency, received to them quarters in his palace, called Solomon's
"
a supplement in his Religion der Vottkommnern Temple," whence came their designation as Poor
(Berlin, 1792), in which he urged the abandonment Knights of the Temple." During their initial years,
of a number of doctrines, including that of justifica- the knights plied their calling with unassuming
tion, and the furtherance of a practical knowledge simplicity. Expansion, firmer organization, and
of God and of his blessings for the benefit of man, papal approbation, were first obtained through the
this knowledge leading to good conduct and benefi- Synod of Troyes, in 1128. Through Bernard of
cent activity, while all dogma was to be excluded Clairvaux the order received official sanction from
from sermons, which should be devoted simply to Pope Honorius II. The draft of a new set of stat-
practical Christianity. In this same spirit Teller utes was entrusted to Bernard. According to this
edited for ten years the Neues Magazinfur Predigar, rule, the Knights were bound to observe the canon-
which he founded in 1792, and he likewise wrote ical hours, or, if pro vented, to repeat a number of

upon classical and Germanic philology, his Voll- paternosters; meals were in common, accompanied
stdndige Darstettung der deutschen Sprache in Luther s with spiritual reading; the fare was plain, and every
Bibelubersetzung (2 vols., Berlin, 1794) still being a tenth loaf was to be given to the poor. According
book of value. Special mention should also be to the oldest rule, the garb was a white cloak, in
made of his Anleitung zur Religion uberhaupt token of purity of the heart. Pope Eugenius III.
und zum Attgemeinen dee Christentums besonders supplemented the Templars' mantle with a red
(Berlin, 1792), Samndung ciniger Gcbete zum cross; the attendants wore a black robe. No
Gebrauch bei dffentlichen Gottesdiensten (1793), knight was to have more than three horses and one
and Opuscula varii argumenti (Frankfort-on-the- servant. All needs of the members were supplied
Oder, 1780). by the order; and the individual must refer his
With the death of Frederick the Great, Teller's wants to the master; the latter, in turn, was bound
position became precarious. Long before he had to punctual obedience. No brother was allowed to
tried to mold the religious views of the heir-appar- write letters or to receive them; conversation with
ent by his anonymous Vcdentinian der Erste, oder women was strictly to be avoided. The penalty for
geheime Unterredungen eines Monarchen mit seinem grave delinquency was exclusion from intercourse
Thronfolger uber die Religionsfreiheit der Unter- with the brethren; stubborn impenitence involved
thanen (Brandenburg, 1777), and when the famous expulsion. After the Synod of Troyes, Hugo de
religious edict of Johann Christian Wollner (q.v.) Payens visited France, England, and Spain in the
was issued in 1788, he sought in a pamphlet to interests of the order, receiving everywhere stately
weaken its force. For several years he was more or welcome and powerful support. As the order grew,
less involved in a controversy, which he himself had its aim became enlarged, and the Templars came
started, regarding the admission of Jews to Chris- to be the standing host of the Church in the East.
tianity with the avowed purpose of securing civic But the spiritual and monastic side of the order re-
equality with Christians, Teller's sole requirement ceded more and more into the background, ever
being that such persons should state that Christ more obtruding the predominance of the knightly
was the founder of a better religion than the one to side.
which they had formerly belonged. In 1791 he de- The most considerable manifestation of papal
fended the course of the notorious and rabid ra- favor was derived from Pope Alexander III. By
tionalist, Johann Heinrich Schulz, pastor at Giels- the bull Omne datum optimum, June 18, 1163, the
dorf, who had attacked the elements, not only of order was authorized to institute its own clergy,
Christianity, but of all religion; and for this position which was to be consecrated by any bishop what-
Teller was sentenced to suspension from office for ever. Under the papal favor, the order became
three months, his salary during this time be- a rich and powerful league of nobles. Its stations
291 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Teller
Templars

in the East were divided into five chief provinces; onset of Mohammedanism on its passage to the
Jerusalem, Tripolis, Antioch, Cyprus, and Roma- West.
nia-Morea. In the West, its head- The Templars in France were a formidable ob-
Growth, quarters were France, the Spanish struction against centralization of power in the
Power, and kingdoms, Portugal, and England. It hands of the king. After the victory of Pliilip IV.
Constitu- was not so strongly represented in (1285-1314) over Pope Boniface VIII ,

tion. Germany, nor had it any possessions Destruction the French king designed to establish
in the northern lands. The larger sta- of the himself in the opulent possessions of
" "
tions were called temple courts," preceptories of Order. an order so little to his convenience,
the Templars," priorat.es preceptories; the smaller and directly after the enthronement of
ones, commandcries and bailiwicks. Owing to the Clement V. at Lyons, in Nov., 1305, he planned
papal privileges, the order became a firmly cemented action against the Templars. On June 6, 1300, the
institution, with extensive property holdings, dy- masters of the orders of St. John and of the temple
namic organization, vast range of administration, were invited by Clement to a conference at Avig-
and its own corps of clergy, so that it aroused the non, with reference to a projected crusade. The
jealousy of bishops and the enmity of princes. AH grand master of the Templars, Jacques de Malay,
appears from extant statutes (arts. 77-685, which accepted this invitation but, in a later interview in
"date from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries), the 1307, declined a proposition to fuse the Hospitallers
order's constitution had expanded still further. and the Templars. Pope Clement then consented
According to these data, the core of the order was to an investigation of the charges against the Tem-
composed of the knights, who were to be of noble plars. But before the investigation had como to
birth, of pure wedlock, guilty of no grave crime, pass, Philip, Sept 14, 1307, resolved upon the arrest
mentally and bodily sound. Reception into the of the Templars and the seizure of their goods.
order was not subject to novitiate; it was accorded Throughout all France, the Templars \\ere therefore
by the presiding dignitary, in chapter assembled, arrested, Oct. 13, 1307. The charges against the
in solemn form, and exclusive of outsiders. The order were the denial of Christ by spitting upon the
knights wore the white mantle with an octagonal crucifix, indecent kisses, and the sufferance of re-
red cross. They were attended by the serving volting immorality. On Oct. 15, 1307, the grand
brothers, of lower rank. From the time of the bull master, with several knights, confessed to several
of Alexander III. (1103) the chaplains of the tem- accusations; then Philip felt so secure that he ad-
ple formed the third class in the order. dressed letters to the princes of Christendom urging
At the head of the order stood the grand master, them to imitate his example. Inquisitorial proc-
with princely rank, who had the power of appoint- esses went on in France under the warrant of Sept.
ment to the inferior offices. His authoritative posi- 14; those who confessed received pardon on return-
was limited by the chapter gen-
tion ing to the faith of the Church, the others were sen-
Organiza- which alone lay the right over
eral, in tenced to denth. Clement protested against the
tion and war and peace with the Saracens. king's action, Oct. 27, requesting the surrender of
Character. During a vacancy in the office of grand certain knights and their goods to himself, doubt-
master, the order was directed by the less with a selfish object. By the bull Puxtoraha
grand commander. The grand master was chosen prwcmincnte, Nov. 22, however, he made common
by majority vote of thirteen duly qualified elec- cause with the king, and commanded all princes to
tors. The knight's vocation ill consorted with the seize the Templars and heir goods But in Feb., 130S,
t

monk's task of prayer; and consequently the stat- he again attempted to check proceedings by suspend-
utes disclose a continually emphasized subordina- ing the inquisitors' po\\ers, und in May Philip con-
tion of the latter duty. What passed in the chap- vened an assembly to rally the national support to
ter had to be kept strictly secret. The penalties himself against the pope. In August, the pope and
imposed for the member's transgressions were gen- the king agreed upon measures against the order,
erally milder than in other monastic orders. Offenses, the bull Faciens miKcricardiam, Aug. 12, 1308, con-
however, such as simony, murder of a Christian, vened a council at Vienne to make final disposition

theft, sodomy, perjury, riot, cowardly flight from of the matter, the council to meet Aug.
1, 1310.
the enemy, desertion to the Saracens, involved ex- General proceedings against the order went on
clusion from the order. The order evinced both un- throughout Europe and Cyprus from Aug. 7, 1309,
selfishness and valor in the prosecution of its allotted till May 2fi, 1311 127 test questions were proposed
;

task of defending the Holy Land. Not a single real to the members; but previous admissions were re-
betrayal of the Christian cause can be brought tracted as extorted by torture. However, fifty-four
against it; though in the thirteenth century com- Templars were burned at the stake as backsliding
plaints were produced on account of arrogancies and heretics by order of the archbishop of Sens, May 12,
extravagances. Hence in 1291, when Acco, the last 1310; thereafter the spirit of the order was broken
position in the Holy Land, succumbed, this defeat and whatever was asked was admitted. Wherever
was unwarrantably charged to the rivalry between outside France governments and bishops opposed
the Templars and the Knights of St. John; and torture, the pope quashed the opposition. Confes-
Pope Nicholas V. was desirous that the two orders sion was extorted by the rack; but in Portugal,
be united. After the conquest of the Holy Land, Sicily, Cyprus, and parts of Germany the innocence
the Templars, from 1291 on, made their headquar- of the accused came to light.
ters in Cyprus, which was transformed into a The Council of Vienne, opened Oct. 16, 1311, de-
stronghold that was intended to check the clared the order entitled to vindication; but the
Templar*
Temple*
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 202

pope abrogated the order by right of his absolute vote.. Berlin, 1887; J. Y. A. Morehead, The Templars'
London, 1888; F. Naef, Recherches sur let opinions
power and as a prudential measure for the general Trials,
relwiewea det Templiers, Nlmes, 1890; J. J. I. von D6l-
good, assigning its possession to the Knights of St. linger, Akademische Vortrage, iii. 245 sqq., Munich, 1891;
John, the official orders to this effect J. A. Froudo, The Spanish Story of the Armada, pp. 260-
Final being the bulls of Mar. 22, and May 2, 310, new ed., London, 1892; J. Ginelin, ScJiuld oder Un-
schuld des Templerordens, Stuttgart, 1893; A. Grange, in
Dissolution. 1312. In France and in England the
Dublin Review, 1895, pp. 329-346; J. Miret y Sans, Car-
property of the order enriched the king iaral dels Templers de les Comandes de Garden y Barltentt,
and government. Dionysius of Portugal, a friend Barcelona, 1899; G. Salvemini, Studi storici. L'Aboli-

of the Templars, founded the Order of Christ, to tione delVOrdinc dei Templari, Firenzc, 1901; L. Roller,
Die Tempelherm und die Freimaurer, Berlin, 1905; H. C.
which the possessions of the Templars were made Lea, Hist, of the Inquisition of the Middle Aucs, i. 16, in.
over wliile the Portuguese Templars joined the new passim (consult Index), New York, 1906; H. Finkc,
order. The grand master, with other high officers, Papsttum und Untergang dea Tempelordens, 2 vols., Muti-
eter, 1907 (contains new documents from Spain); C.
was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment; but he
Perkins, in American Histoneal Review, Jan., 1910; Bower,
declared that the charges were false, and so he and Popes, iii. 66 sqq.; and literature under Cue ME NT V.; and
Godfrey de Charney, the French inspector, were PHILIP IV.
burned at the stake Mar. 11, 1314, still affirming
the order's innocence.
TEMPLE, FREDERICK: Archbishop of Can-

was terbury; b. at Leukas, in Santa Maura (one of

The motive for the annihilation of the order
the Ionian Islands), Nov. 30, 1821; d. in London
twofold; the French king's avarice, and his desire Dec. 23, 1902. lie studied at BlundeU's School,
to crush the powerful organization of the Templars
Tiverton, and at Balliol College, Oxford (H A.,
within the kingdom. lie took advantage of Clem-
1842; M.A., 184G; B.D., 1858). He was miidc
ent's weakness and of episcopal jealousy of the order.
fellow of his college and tutor in mathematics 1812,
The general guilt and sacrilege charged to the Tem- ordained deacon 184f>, and priest 1847. He became
plars as a whole are incredible, and their downfall is
the result of shameless violence on the part of the principal of Kneller Hall Training College, near
Twickenham, in 1848, government inspector of
despotic Philip V. G. GR^TZMACHBJK.
schools in 1855, headmaster of Rugby in 1858, and
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Original documents arc given in Reich, about the same time chaplain to Queen Victoria.
Documents, pp. 190-197, 311-313; and Thatcher and Under his administration Rugby regained much of
McNeal, Document*, pp. 492-496. For other basic ma-
terial consult. D Wilkms, Concilia Magn<r Britannia et the prestige which the school had enjoyed under
Hibernice, u. 313 sqq ,London, 1727; F. J. M. Ray- Thomas Arnold. In 1800 he acquired a reputation
nouard, Monument* hiatonqufs relalifs h la condamnation for rational ism by contributing an essay on The Edu-
des chevaliers du Temple, Piiris, 1813; C. Maillard do
cation of the World to the famous Essays and Reviews
Chambure, Ittylts et statut* secret des Teinpliers, ib 1840;
Documents Illustrative of English Hist, in the 13th and (q.v.). The suspicion of heterodoxy clung to him,
14th Centuries, od H Cole, pp. 139-230, London, 1844; and when Gladstone, whose Irish disestablishment
W. Dugdalo, Monasticon Anolicanum, new ed., by J.
measure he had supported, offered him the bishop-
Caley, H. Elli.s, and B Bandmcl, vi. 813-854, 6 vols ib. ,

1846; J. DolnvJle le Roulx, Documents concernant lea ric of Exeter, in 1869, a strong protest was made
Temphers, Puns, 1882; R V. Taylor, in Journal of the against the appointment. lie \\iis consecrated Dec.
Yorkshire Archeolofjical and Topographical Association,
21, 1869, was translated to the see of London in
vii. 429-452, viii. 259-299, ix. 71-98, London. 1882-86;
H. de Curcon, Rkgle.du Temple, Paris, 1886; A. Knopflcr, 1885, and was made archbishop of Canterbury in
in Histonschea Jahrbuch der QorresgescllKchaft, 1887, pp.
"
1896. By the firmness and justice of his rule as
666 sqq. (bent edition of the earliest rule "); J. Graelin,
bishop and archbishop he completely overcame the
Die Regel de* Tempelordena, in Mitthnlungen des Instituta
fur dsterrcichische Geschichtxforsrhung, xiv (1893), 193- early prejudices against, him. One of his last official
236. acts was the crowning of Edward VII. Aug. 9, 1902.
Consult further: D G. Moldenhauor, Proses* gegen den Besides the essay already referred to, single ser-
Orden der Tempelherren, Hamburg, 1792; J. Miehelot,
Proces des Temphert, 2 vols., Paris, 1841-51 W. tiavc- mons, and addresses, he published Sermons Preached
;

raaan, Geschichte des Ausyangs des Tempi rrordcnt, Stutt-

in Rugby School Chapel (3 series, London, 1861-71);
gart, 1846; C Cl Addison, Hist, of the Knights Templars, The Relations between Religion and Science (1884),
3d ed., London, 1852 (still the best in English) F. Wilke,
; the Bampton lectures for 1884; Responsio archi-
OeschicMe deft Ordens der Tempelherren, 2 vols., 2d ed.,
Halle, 1860; K Boutaric, La France sous Philippe le Bel, episcoporum Anglim ad litteras apostolicas Leonis
Paris, 1861; J. Kennck, A Selection of Papers on Archeol- Papa? XIII. (1897; Eng., French, and Gk. transls.,
ogy and Hist., pp. 1-68, London, 1864; J. Loiacleur, La 1897), an able reply by Temple and W. D. Maclagan,
Doctrine secrete des Templiers, Orleans, 1872; F. C. Wood-
house, The Military Reliaious Orders of the Middle Ages,
archbishop of York, to a papal encyclical denying
London, 1879; M. Bruguera, Historia de la Orden de loa the validity of Anglican orders; and Helps to Godly
Caballeros de Temple, vol. 1, Barcelona, 1882; F. Jacquot, Living (ed. J. H. Burn, 1898), being extracts from
Defense des Temphers contre le routine des hittoriens, Paris, various sermons.
1882; H. Hagenmeyer, Le Proces des Temphers, ib. 1885;
B. Jungmann, Dissertations selectee, vi. 79-149, Regens- BIBLIOGRAPHY: Memoirs of Archbishop Temple, by seven
burg, 1886; G Lambert, Templars. A Short Paper on Friende, ed. E. G. Sandford, 2 vols., London, 1906; W. F.
the Order, London, 1887; H. G. Pruts, Malteaer Urkunden Aitkcn, Frederick Temple, ib. 1901; C. H. Dant, Arch-
nur Geschichte der Tempelherren, Munich, 1883; idem, bishop Temple, ib. 1903 (popular); F. J. Snell, Early As-
Geschichte des Tfmpdherrenordens, Kftnigaberg, 1887; aociations of Archbishop Temple, ib. 1904; F. E. Kitchener,
idem, Entwicklung und Untergang des Tempelherrenorderu, Rugby Memoir of Archbishop Temple, 1869-69, ib. 1907;
Berlin, 1888; idem, Die geistliche Ritierorden, ib. 1908; E. G. Sandford, The Exeter Episcopate of Archbishop Tem-
K. Schottmueller, Der Untergang du Templerorden t 2 ple, ib. 1907; literature under EMAYB AND REVIEWS.
 93 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Templar
Temples

TEMPLES, HEBREW.
I. Solomon's Temple. Ornamentation (ft 4). The Table of Showbread (5 1).
Importance, Site, Arrangement Architecture (ft 5). The Candlestick ($2).
(I 1). II. Zcrubhabcl's Temple. Other Articles ( 3).
Provisions for Construction ( 2). III. The Temple of Herod. V. Other Hebrew Temples.
Structure of the Temple Proper (ft 3). IV. The Temple Furniture.

I. Solomon's Temple: Among the great services of Lebanon, lying farther south were surrounded
which David rendered to the Hebrew nation was only by the great court that embraced everything
that of securing a capital which served as a center within its walls. The palace, therefore, in accord-
not only for political life but also for ance with the topography, lay somewhat lower
i. Impor- religion. Here he placed the sacred than the Temple.
tance, Site, ark, rescued from the forgetfulness in In his building-operations David had availed him-
Arrange- which Saul's superstition had involved self of foreign workmen, sent by Hiram of Tyre
ment. it. The Bible further relates that it (II Sam. v. 11), and Solomon continued this policy,
was his purpose to provide for it a a treaty providing for this and for bar-
stately habitation, but was deterred by prophetic 2. Provi- ter of materials being compacted be-
injunction from carrying out that purpose (II Sam. sions for twcen the two kings. According to
vii ), while I Chron. xxii. sqq. asserts that he made Construe- I Kings ix. 10-14, the cost of Solomon's
provision for its erection. The building of this tion. building-operations was so great that
structure was held by Solomon to be one of his he was finally obliged to cede to Hiram
urgent duties. The question is raised here whether twenty Galilean cities, having obtained also 120
Solomon conceived it to be his duty to destroy talents of gold from the Tyriun king. Solomon im-
other sanctuaries; the answer must be that he did pressed 30,000 laborers for his undertaking, whom
not, and that such a purpose is not in evidence prior he divided into three shifts, each shift having to
to Deuteronomy (see HIGH PLACES, 5). But work one month on Lebanon and two months at
the paling of the other sanctuaries was the natural home. There were besides 70,000 burden-bearers
effect of the splendor and beauty of the Temple, and 80,000 stone-masons in the Jewish mountains
with its costly sacrifices and imposing priesthood, who worked under 3,300 overseers. These figures
and of the fact that it wns the royal sanctuary and are possibly exaggerations. The text of the passage
so gained exceptional prestige, illustrated by the describing the construction of the Temple (I Kings
number of pilgrims who soon came to worship there. vi.-vii.) is corrupt. The original account seems to
The measures of Jeroboam I. to establish rival have been written by a priest who was familiar with
sanctuaries at Bethel and Dan show how powerful the details of the structure, but this was modified
had beeome the central attraction of the Temple. or added to by editors who no longer understood
The question as to the site of the Temple must be some of his technical terras and wished, moreover,
decided from a study of the topography of the situa- to magnify the splendor of the holy building. In
tion (see JERUSALEM, V., 1-5). The location of the course of time, too, doubtless, many changes
the Temple according to unbroken tradition, sup- were made in the structure itself. As an aid to the
ported by the topographical character of the local- reconstruction of Solomon's Temple there exists,
ity, was upon the hill extending eastward between besides what textual criticism and archeology offer,
the Tyropo?on and the valley of the Kidron. This is the description by Ezekiel (chaps, xl. sqq.) of his
"
the hill of Zion." Since this hill fell away abruptly ideal temple, in imagining which he must have
t,othe south as well as on both sides, it was neces- been influenced by the Temple with which he was
sary, in order to obtain a horizontal level for build- familiar.
ing, to construct u kind of terrace. This part of the The Temple building may be described in its three
hill still shows and is known
its artificial character, chief parts: the Temple proper, its surrounding
as Haram al-Sherif. The spot where the Temple structure, and the fore-courts. The
stood is marked by the Mosque of Omar at the 3. Struc- Temple proper or house of God Was an
highest point of the hill. The Temple extended ture of the oblong sixty cubits long, twenty wide,
from east to west; the altar being in front, to the Temple and thirty high, interior measurement.
east of the entrance. The orientation does not im- Proper. The thickness of the walls is not given;
ply that Solomon's Temple was built to a sun-god, in Ezekiel's ideal temple this was six
but it is probable that a sun-temple was the model. cubits. The
partition between the holy place and
The state buildings of Solomon must have been con- the holy of holies may have been of thin wood, not-
nected with the Temple to the southward. The ro- withstanding II Chron. iii. 14. On the eastern side
maining space of the level plain toward the Kidron in front of the Temple there was a stately porch
was occupied partly by the fore-court of the Temple twenty cubits by ten and probably of equal height
(I Kings vi. 36) which surrounded the Temple
with the temple. Its side walls were in line with
proper, and partly by the great court that sur- the long walls of tho Temple and were probably of
rounded the entire Temple and palace district the same thickness. The height of 120 cubits given
Adjoining the Temple, or "in- in II Chron. iii. 4 is obviously an exaggeration.
(I Kings vii. 12).
" " "
ner court was the other court, to the south, There was probably a flight of steps rising to the
which surrounded the palace itself, while the state porch. The other three sides of the building, north,
buildings hall of justice, throne-room, and house south, and west, were not open to the view of the
Temple* THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 394

spectator, but were concealed by a structure fifteen but the pillars are probably to be related to the
to twenty cubits high. This was in three stories obelisks and pillars that were characteristic of Phe-
and contained a great number of small rooms or nician and Canaanitic temples (see ALT AH, I., 3;
cells, each five cubits high; those on the ground ASHERAH; GROVES AND THEES, SACKED; MEMORIALS
floor were five cubits wide, those on the second floor AND SACRED STONES).
six, and those on the third, seven. The approach to Solomon's Temple can hardly have been of na-
the whole was on the south side and the ascent from tive design. Solomon was obliged to import not
lower floor to upper was by means of a stairway. only material, but workmen. There was apparently
Ezckiel mentions thirty-three rooms on one floor, no native architectural art in Israel.
which would show them to have been very small 5. Architec-The bronze work was entrusted to
probably for storing paraphernalia, votive offer- tore. Huramabi, a Tynan artificer, and it
ings, and the like. The Temple proper was divided seems probable that both execution
into two chambers, the holy place and the holy of and conception of the plan of the Temple were
holies. The door to the latter was of olive wood, strongly influenced by Phcnicia. But it seems un-
the lintel above forming with the posts a pentagon. likely that the Phenicians originated the style of
The entrance door to the holy place was of cedar architecture employed; they were better imitators
and cypress, very wide, double, and each door was than inventors. The type is common iti Egypt,
in two parts. The holy place was forty cubits long where a chamber of columns corresponds to the
and twenty wide. It was the room for the officia- holy place, and the pylon to the porch, while in
ting priests and the vestibule to the holy of holies. front of the pylon stand two pillars or obelisks.
The latter, which was the real shrine, inaccessible The home of the peculiar style employing wooden
to the ordinary mortal and even to the priest, was columns must be sought in the Lebanon district,
a cube of twenty cubits and was accordingly ten in northern Syria; but it probably goes back still

cubits lower than the holy place, and there must further, to Egypt. The Temple represents, then, a
therefore have been a room ten cubits high above mixture of styles. The Temple proper with its
it, as in the Temple of Herod. From this the light firm, square construction corresponds to the native
was completely excluded, while the holy place was Phenician-Canaanitic stylo. It was essentially Phe-
but dimly lighted. Both chambers were wainscoted nician in origin, though details were borrowed from
and paneled with cedar and cypress. The windows Mycene and Egypt. The arrangement of the holy
are not described (I Kings vi. 4), but were probably of holies, cells, vestibule, and walled court is ulti-

along the upper third of the walls. Light was ob- mately of Egyptian origin, further developed in
tained from candles. In the holy of holies stood northern Syria under Phenician and Hittite influence.
the Ark of the Covenant (q.v.); in the holy place, II. Zerubbabel's Temple: The most important
the table of showbread, the candlesticks, and the source for the origin of the Temple which took the
altar of incense (see below, IV.). place of Solomon's, which was destroyed by Nebu-
The account reports ornamentation by means of chadrezzar, is the book of the prophet Huggai. This
carved chorubs, palms, and flower garlands. Every- says nothing of the opposition of the Samaritans,
thing, moreover, is said to have been covered with who, according to Ezra iii.-iv., prevented the early
gold-leaf (I Kings vi. 20 sqq., 28 sqq., completion of the structure on which a beginning
4. Orna- 35), though the texts are not in com- was made two years after the return. Haggai at-
mentation, plete accord. There is some question tributes the delay of construction to the luke-
as to whether the treasures and tro- warmness of the congregation itself. The building
phies hung on the walla were of gold. It seems likely was begun about the middle of the year 520 B.C.,
that Solomon ornamented certain parts of the in- and the corner-stone was laid on the twenty-fourth
terior with gold-leaf, though there is no positive day of the ninth month. Haggai says nothing of a
evidence of the fact. On the other hand, it seems former attempt, and it must be assumed that the
certain that there were in the time of Ezekiel figures returned exiles had merely raised an altar, as nar-
engraved on the walls. This is suggested by II Kings rated in Ezra iii. 1 sqq. Hag. ii. 14 has a similar
xii. 8 sqq., xvi. 10 sqq., xxiii. 4, 11 sqq. The roof implication. The accounts, Biblical and other, give
is not described. II Kings xxiii. 12 shows that the unfortunately scarcely any information as to the
kings of Judah had placed altars there, and a gloss character of the Temple that was built in 520 under
affirms that Ahaz built an upper story for this rea- Zcrubbabel and the high priest Joshua. It may be
son. It must be inferred that the roof was flat. In assumed that it occupied the site of Solomon's.
the porch stood two bronze pillars, eighteen cubits From Hag. ii. 4 it appears that the new building
high, twelve in circumference, and four fingers thick, made a sad impression on those who had seen the
which were surmounted by capitals five cubits high, earlier.It was, in all probability, inferior not so
covered with checkered work. The capitals were much in its dimensions, for the plan of Sofomon's
formed like lilies, and two rows of 100 pomegranates Temple was probably followed, but in its construc-
each ran along each, in the form of garlands over tion, appointments, adornment, and surroundings.
the checker-work. The description is vague, espe- But according to Ezra vi. 3-4, Cyrus ordered a build-

cially as to the relation of the checker-work to the ing sixty cubits high and sixty wide, much larger,
lilies. The pillars stood to the right and left of the therefore, tha4 Solomon's Temple. If Cyrus issued
portal, that on the right being called Jachin, and this order, it evidently was not executed. Hecateus
that on the left, Boaz. The meaning of the names isprobably right (Josephus, Apion, i. 22) in giving
and the significance of the pillars are obscure. The the dimensions of the fore-court as 475 x 142 feet.
purpose here may have been purely architectural It was entered by a folding-door. The altar for
995 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA TemplM

burntroffenngb stood inside, of the same size as farther removed than the men. Outside the men's
that of Solomon's Temple and, according to I Mace, and women's courts ran pillared halls, and, ad-
iv. 44 sqq., of unhewn stone. There must have been joining these, were chambers for paraphernalia.
an outer court in which there were the oft-men- Sentinels guarded the vestibules Levites on the
tioned cells (Ezra viii. 29, x. 6, etc.). The laity, up outside, and priests inside. The altar of burnt-offer-
to the time of Alexander Jannseus, had free access ings, in the innermost court, was 32 cubits square
to the inner court in all its parts. The ark having at the bottom, contracting to twenty-four at the
disappeared, its place in the holy of holies was taken top. The blood of the sacrifices was drained away
by a flat stone called the shetiya, upon which the through two holes, a canal conducting it to the
high-priest on the day of atonement placed the Kidron. The altar was approached by a stairway
censer. There was a curtain between the holy place sixteen cubits wide and thirty-two long, of unhewn
and the holy of holies, and the entrance to the holy stone, like the altar itself. Behind the altar was a
place seems also to have been hung with a curtain. bronze laver, approached by twelve steps, and north
In the holy place were found a golden candlestick, of the altar was the slaughtering-place, behind
the tabfe of showbread, and the gilt altar of in- which were pillars and marble tables for the prep-
cense. The Temple contained besides, at least in aration of the sacrifices.
later times, rich ornaments. The Temple proper, gleaming with gold and mar-
The absence of the ark resulted in a change in ble, was approached by twelve steps. The vestibule
the conception of the Temple; God was no longer was 100 cubits high, 100 wide, and twenty deep.
thought of as actually present in the holy of holies. Through its gateless entrance over which Herod
Although the sacrifices continued, they were not had placed an eagle, afterward torn down by the
gifts to God as present, but symbols of the heart's people, could be seen the door to the holy place,
devotion. The priesthood took on increased im- hung on the outside with a great Babylonian cur-
portance. Religion became more and more the ex- tain, and ornamented with golden vines with
clusive business of the priesthood and the (ecclesi- grapes. The holy place was an oblong forty cubits
astical) State. Of the later history of this Temple, long and twenty wide, containing the table of show-
it is reported (Ecclus. 1.) that Simon II. repaired bread, the seven-branched candlestick, and the
the Temple and raised the outer walls. Antiochus altar of incense; only the priests might enter. The
Epiphanes plundered and desecrated it; Judas holy of holies was a cube of twenty cubits.
Maccabrcus restored and purified it, after which it The high priest alone entered it on the day of atone-
was newly decorated and fortified. It was stormed ment to offer incense and place the sacrificial blood
by Pompey, who penetrated to thte holy of holies, on the stone that had taken the place of the ark.
and again by Herod. A double curtain forty cubita long and twenty wide
III. The Temple of Herod: About 20-19 n.c. separated it from the holy place. A
three-story
Herod conceived the plan of erecting a new temple structure, as in Solomon's Temple, containing thirty-
at Jerusalem; but his motives were political rather eight cells ran around three sides of the Temple, as
than religious, as he aimed to conciliate the pious high as the interior of the holy place; which con-
Jews, whom he had formerly outraged, and to rival sequently must have been dark. Over the holy
the magnificent temples of Greece. Josephus (Ant., place was an attic, and probably a double-attic
XV., x.) and the Mishna tractate Middoth are the over the holy of holies.
chief sources of information concerning this Tem- IV. The Temole Furniture: In the Hebrew of
ple. The area covered was twice that of the old. I Sam. xxi. 6 tne expression commonly rendered
The present Haram is essentially the work of Herod. " " " bread of the
showbread is face," i.e., that
"
The whole resembled a great fortress with towers placed before Yahweh; it was called also hal-
and battlements. The chief gates were on the west lowed bread," and later other names
and south sides. Josephus mentions four gates, i. The were given. This bread corresponded
one of which connected with the city by means of Table of to the food offerings in other systems
a bridge, and another by a stairway. The two Showbread. of religion, and the offering itself goes
" Hulda " back to the times when the gods were
gates were onjihe south. The great outer
court, or court of the gentiles, was surrounded by thought to need sustenance, and it might hi early
magnificent pillared halls, the most splendid of times be eaten only by persons ritually clean. At
which, the royal hall, contained 162 Corinthian Nob this bread was probably placed on a table, and
marble columns in four rows; on the other three such a table is to be assumed for the Mosaic Tab-
sides the columns were in two rows. There were, ernacle. But historically such a piece of furniture
no doubt, also rooms for the priests and a chamber is provable first for the Solomonic Temple (I Kings
for the Sanhedrin. A short flight of steps led up vi. 20), where it was an altar of cedar overlaid with
to the inner court in the northern half of the area. gold (cf. I Kings vii. 48); according to the Chron-
Bronze tablets forbade any but Jews to enter on icler (I., xxviii. 16; II., iv. 8, 19) there were ten

pain of death, and one of these was discovered in such tables in Solomon's Temple; Ezekiel (xli. 22)
1871 by Clermont-Ganneau (for the text cf. Schttrer, makes the (one) table two cubits square and three
Eng. trans!., II., 1. 266). This court was di- high. Like other altars, it probably had horns or
vided into three parts the court of women, the projecting corners. Comparison of the Solomonic
court of men, and the court of the priests, the last article with that described in Ex. xxv. 23 sqq.

surrounding the Temple. The altar stood in the shows a difference of construction, of size, and of
innermost court, the laity being allowed to view proportions. It was probably destroyed when
the ceremonies only from a distance, the women Nebuchadrezzar took Jerusalem, as it is not men-
Temple*
Temp 1

'emptation
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 996

tioned with the booty. The second Temple also finally carried to Babylon by Nebuchadrezzar. In
" "
had a table (I Mace. i. 22) which was among the the Temple of Zerubbabel no sea seems to have
costly articles that excited the cupidity of Anti- existed, though there were means for ceremonial
ochus Epiphanes, and was replaced later (I Mace, washing. In the Temple of Herod stood a fine laver,
iv. 49). For the Herodian table the directions of with brass pedestal, for the priests for the washing
Ex. xxv. were probably followed (see TABERNACLE, of hands and feet before officiating.
THE MOSAIC), though the representation on the In Solomon's Temple were ten peculiar pieces,
" "
Arch of Titus suggests some departures in details. the bases (I Kings vii. 27) not otherwise men-
The description by Josephus (Ant., III., vi. 6) of tioned. Vessels found in Cyprus seem to aid the
the table in the Tabernacle corresponds with the description, and to show that on four wheels was a
Exodus description, except that he places feet on frame, on which figures of animals and cherubim
it; Josephus places the rings differently from that were depicted. Upon this frame was a cylinder,
on the Titus Arch and from that in Exodus. into which a kettle was fitted. As these articles
At Shiloh in the night light was furnished by a were movable, they were possibly for washing the
lamp with enough oil to last till morning (I Sam. sacrificial animals. (11. KITTEL.)
iii. 3). This implies that the sanctuary must have V. Other Hebrew Temples. A new chapter in the
been adequately lighted by windows. history of Hebrew worship and temples has been
2. The Only a little natural light entered the opened by the investigations in Egypt. For the
Candlestick, holy place (ut sup.) of Solomon's Tem- Onias temple sec LEONTOPOLIB. It is now known
ple, and artificial illumination was that a temple for worship and sacrifice existed at
necessary. Accordingly, mention is made of ten Elephantine, Egypt. The Aramaic papyri discov-
golden candlesticks, placed on both sides of the ered there (see SEMITIC LA\GUAGE AND LITKHATUKK;
entrance (I Kings vii. 49). Though the passage is cf. E. Sachau, Ablwwdlungen der koniglich-preussi-
a later addition, it is not justifiable to reject these Kchen Akadcmic der Wmsenschaftcn, 1907, purtial
candlesticks as unhistorical ; they were, however, Eng. transl. and discussion in Annual Report of
probably of bronze. Josephus (Ant., III., vii. 7) the Srnittisonian Institution, 1907, pp 005-611;
makes the sevenfold candlestick consist of seventy A. H. Sayce, Aramaic Papyri Discovered at Assouan,
pieces, and sees in them seventy symbols through London, 1906) show that in the fifth century a
which the seven planets pass. The symbolism may Jewish community possessed an imposing temple,
be old and true, but applies more appropriately to which in 408-407 B.C. had already existed for a con-
seventy lights than to seventy scarcely distinguish- siderable period. The Persian control of Egypt bad
able parts of a single candlestick. It corresponds, boon favorable to the community and its temple,
moreover, to the ten candelabra of seven lights each but through the machinations of Egyptian priests
placed by Solomon in his Temple. The Chronicler the temple had recently been destroyed and its
(I., xxviii. 15; II., iv. 7, xiii. 11) varies between treasures and vessels appropriated. Two of the
one and ten in his account. It follows from the documents are an appeal for the reconstruction of
foregoing that the candlesticks were intended for this temple, while the third implies that the request
use in the daytime. The reference in II Chron. was granted. The net result of the documents is
xiii. 11 is to the time of lighting, not to its duration. to show at least two temples in which sacrifice was
The Temple of Zerubbabcl contained only one offered to Yahweh in Egypt. A suggestion which
candlestick, and that was comparatively large. It is made in connection with the critical opinions con-
was carried off by Antiochus JSpiphanes, restored by cerning Isa. xix. 18 is that in view of the known
Judas Maccabeeus, and by Herod placed in his Tem- numerous settlements of Hebrews in Egypt, the
ple. It was also carried off by Titus, and is figured discovery of other temples there would now hardly
on the arch. Vespasian placed it in the Temple of be a surprise. It is interesting to note that partly
Peace, and it can be traced till 534 A.D., when it as a result of the discovery and verification of the
was taken from Carthage to Constantinople. Sub- existence in Egypt of these Jewish temples, Ezck.
"

sequently it was taken to Jerusalem and destroyed xx. is interpreted as referring to an inquiry by the
" "
at a plundering of the city. elders of Israel (verse 1) respecting the erection
In the Temple of Solomon stood a circular basin of a temple to Yahweh in Babylonia. The answer,
(" sea ") of bronze, ten cubits in diameter, five in on this interpretation, was an emphatic negative
height, and a handbreadth in thickness; its brim (verses 39-41). GEO. W. GILMOUE.
was slightly curved, like the petals of a lily. BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the topography of the site of tho Tem-
Under the edge were two rows of bronze cucumbers ple consult the abundant literature under JERUSALEM,
and the following: G. Rouen, Der Haram von Jerusalem
as ornamentation. It stood on twelve oxen in und der Tempelplatz des Mono, Gotha, 1866; F. Adler,
groups of three, each of which groups faced to- Der Felsendom und die heutige Grabenkirche zu Jerusalem,
ward a cardinal point. It was con- Berlin, 1873; C. Schiok, Beit el Makdas oder der alte Tem-
pelplatz, Stuttgart, 1887; idem, Die Stiftthutte, der Tern-
3. Other structed out of copper taken as booty
pel in Jerusalem, und der Tempelplatz der Jetztzeit, Berlin,
Articles. (I Chron. xviii. 8). It is said to have 1896; C. Mommert, Topographic von Jerusalem, 3 parts,
served the priests in ceremonial cleans- Leipsic, 1903-05; A. Kummel, Materialen zur Topographic
aUen Jerusalem, Halle, 1904-06.
ing, but was ill adapted for such a purpose.
deft
The
On the different temples in Jerusalem consult: J. F.
expression "sea" recalls that Babylonian, Egyptian, von Meyer, Der Tempel Salomon, Berlin, 1830; C. F. Kiel,
Syrian, and Phenician temples were also provided Der Tempel Salomos, Dorpat, 1839 (still of value); C. C.
" 1
W. F. Btthr, Der salomonische Tempel, Carlsruhe, 1&48;
with seas/ symbolic of the deity subduing the
G. Williams, The Holy City, ii. 296 sqq., London, 1849;
sea-dragon. King Ahaz made use of the oxen to J. T. Bannister, The Templet of the Hebrews, ib., 1861;
pay tribute to the king of Assyria. The basin was J. Ftrgunon, The Temple* of the Jews, ib. 1875; T. H.
 97 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA fampiei
Temptation

Lewis, The Holy Place* of Jerusalem, ib. 1880; W. War- be admitted, with the design of inducing it to turn
ren, in TSBA, vii (J880), 309 sqq.; F. Spieaa, Dot Jeru-
to evil. But inasmuch as that result does not nec-
salem dcs Josephus, Berlin, 1881; idem, Der Temp el . . .
nach Josephus, ib. 1881; H. Failloux, Monographic du essarily follow, and because so long as there is
temple de Salomon, Pans, 1885; T. O. Paine, Solomon's temptation that result is not actualized, temptation
Temple and Capitol, Boston and London, 1880; T. Fried- is to be distinguished from enticement. Evident
rich, Tempel und PaJast Salomos, Innsbruck, 1887; T.
Ncwberry, The Tabernacle and the Temple, London, 1887; design or plotting may be a special mark of the
E. C Robins, The Temple of Solomon; a Review of the vari- Eph. iv. 4; II Cor.
latter (Matt. xxiv. 4, 5, 11, 24;
ous Theories respecting it* Form and . ..Architecture, ib., xi. 3). In the Lord's Prayer the relation of man to
1887; O. Wolff, Der Tempel . ..und seine Masse, Gra*. sin is presented from the standpoints of guilt and
1887; G. Pcrrot and C. Chipiez, Le Temple de Jerusalem,
Paris, 18SO, lluchlcr, m JQR, x (1898), 678 aqq., xi (1899), temptation (Luke xi. 4), and the latter is given a
46 sqq.; J2. Schmidt, Solomon's Temple in the Light of broad significance. Sin is not the consequence of
other Oriental Temples, Chicago, 1902; W. Sanday, Sacred
constraint, but occasioned, not always by the per-
Site* of the Uospels, pp. 106-117, Oxford, 1903; E. Bab-
elou, Manual of Oriental Antiquities, chap, vii., London, ceptible action of a tempting being, rather by cir-
1906; A Wunsche, Salomos Thron und Hippodrom, Leip- cumstances in which the human subject happens to
BIC, 1906; W. S Cnldeeott, Solomon'* Temple, its History be (Jas. i. 2; Matt. xxvi. 41 ; I Pet. iv. 12). Yet the
and Structure, London, 1907, idem, The Second Temple in
Jerusalem. Its History and its Structure, ib. 1908; A. peril isaccording to the constituent character of the
EderHueiin, The Temple. Its Ministry and Services as
one affected With reference to the persons tempted
.

they were at the Time of Jesus Christ, ib. 1909; Beuzinger, the New Testament speaks of disciples, but the
Archnoloflie, pp. H29 sqq ; DH, iv 695-716; ED, iv 4923- statements of Jesus do not imply the regenerate in
4956; JE, xii. SI 101, DCH, n 708-713; Hehurer, Ge-
the dogmatic sense; James (i. 13-15), who points
schichtc, i 15-17, 392 393 (for literature) and passim for
,

diHcuH.sioa, Eng transl , consult index, the Quarterly to the person's o\\n lust as the source of tempta-
Statements of PEP for the reports on the various discov-
1

tion, does not give this any special Christian appli-

eries resulting from excavation; and the commentaries
on Kings, Chronicles, and Ezra-Neheuamh. cation; and Paul looks upon the Jews as special
On the temples m Egypt consult K Sachau, Drei prototypes of tempted Christians (I Cor. x. 1-13).
aranuiischc /'u/jj/ruflAimdrn aus Elephantine, Berlin, 1908; Therefore, temptation may be assumed to have
L Belleh, An Independent Examination of the Attsuan and universal reference. It occurs in different degrees
Elephantine Aramaic Papyri, with eleven plates and two
in individual cases, coming into consciousness in
appendices on sundry items, Ijondon, 1909; JBL, xxvui.
pp 71-HJ (mi excellent article reviewing the Assouan the awakened conscience and being heightened by
papyri and recent literature on it). resistance. The Bible nowhere calls the experience
of the first parents a temptation, but rather an en-
TEMPORAL POWER. See CHURCH AND STATE;
PAPAL STATES. ticement, according to the distinction previously
made; yet quite generally and properly the fall as
TEMPTATION: The most general expression well as the trial of Jesus in the Synoptical narrative
for every motive that incites man, especially the arc held to be typos of temptation. The question
Christian, to sin (Huddcus, Institutional tfteologice arises whether the principle laid down by James
dogmatics, III., ii. 30, 1724). The Bib- applies also to them; or, in other words, wl 'ether
lical usage, however, is less definite,
Origin temptation merely brings to light bin existing al-
and 1^ the Old Testament the word is from ready before the act (Rom. vii ). Neither Gen. iii.
Meaning, nasah (Gk., parazein [Gen. xxii. 1; nor Rom. v. 12, nor the Synoptic account postulates
Ex. xvii. 2; Deut. vi. Ifij), and bahan that a perverted desire determines and defiles the
(of the people tempting God, Ps. xcv. 9; Mai. iii. inner self of the tempted. Yet the presumption of
15; Gk. dokimazcin in Ps. xxvi. 2, Ixvi. 10, Ixxxi. Scripture that sin is in no wise of God and conse-
7, inthe sense of 11 Cor. xiii. 5). The root meaning quently not necessarily due to the conditions of
of these two verbs is to test or prove, as rendered finite existence is only to be dogmatically estab-
in most of the passages. However, there is a dis- lished. Even the sinlessness of Jesus is a dogma.
tinction between proving and tempting, in the mod- The desire responds to a proffered good. Jesua
ern sense. To prove is to establish a matter of fact, reminds of the weakness of the flesh, as occasion
either known or assumed, or to augment its cer- to the tempting passion (Matt. xxvi. 41); the
tainty. To tempt means simply to make an at- tempting power of the circumstances of the passion
tempt, and this with the application of power, with is specially emphasized in the New
which is combined more or less indefinitely, in per- Social Testament (Luke xxii. 40; Matt. xiii.
sonal reference, the collateral concept of enmity Temptation; 21); yet the typical temptation of
(I Kings x. 1). A circumstance of temptation with- the Christ shows that sensuous desire and
out a personal tempter is unknown in the Old Tes- Tempter, avarice are no less prominent (cf.
tament; but this occurs frequently in the New, I Cor. vii. 5). The division into temp-
hence the perspicuity of the term peirasmos. This tations through lust and through passion is also
is implied in advance in the idea of incitement to justified. Apart from evil and temptation by pas-
sin, prepared in the New Testament by the efforts sion, which is the exercise of the moral government
to entrap Jesus unwarily into some fatal assertion. of this world, there certainly remains no proneness to
Theology limits this New-Testament term by dis- the appropriation of some
evil in the possibility for

tinguishing precisely temptation from proving and good and in the experienced stimulus. The fall,
enticement. Faith or the ethical motive is tested therefore, appears in Scripture as enticement, and
by suffering in order to come to assurance (Jas. i. not as merely arising from circumstances; and the
"
12-13; Rom. v. 3-4; II Cor. viii. 2). On the con- temptation of Christ not only presupposes the sin
"
trary the susceptible will is tempted with the pos- of the world but comes from the " tempter."
sible result that it turns to evil, or if purpose may The influence of the existent immorality is thus
Temptation THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 898
Tennent

"
joined with the inciting circumstances. This leads saults upon the Christian life. The essential
to the Biblical conception of snare or stumbling- result is the confirmation of faith (Jas. i. 2-3;
block, used in the Old Testament of idolatry (Ex. 1 Pet. i. 0-7; Heb. ii. 18; cf. Luke viii. 13). The
xxiii. 30); Jesus applies it to tin; social complexity more then becomes the background of
intelligible
"
of human life (Matt, xviii. 0-9, xvi. 23). An act the " wicked enemy against the kingdom of God
innocent of itself may by be occasion for (Matt. xiii. 39, 41; II Cor. ii. 11).
example
stumbling to another (I Cor. viii. 9-13, x. 28-29); (M. KAHLER.)
the point here is that life qualified by sin every-
TEMPUS CLAUSUM ("Closed Time"): A canon-
where confronts the insecure human being with its
ical term applied to those days on which noisy
snare, and unintentionally society is involved by
festivities, especially the merry-makings usually
reciprocal activity in occasions of guilt. This is in
incidental to marriage, are not allowed. These pro-
reference to the solidarity of human evil. The per-
hibitions had their origin, in part, at least, in the
sonal originator of temptation with reference to
theories that governed the introduction of fasts.
Christ is the devil (Luke iv. 13; John xiv. 30),
At quite an early period, prayer and continence are
represented by the serpent in paradise (cf. II Cor. commended by way of preparation for a worthy
xi. 3; Rev. xii. 9); the accuser (Rev. xii. 10) is the
observance of feast days. The Council of Trent in-
motive power of the tempting persecutions (I Pet.
v. 8-9; Rev. ii. 10), with the fear of death as means
augurated a modified restriction in this matter;
and ruled (session XXIV., chap. 10, de reform, mat-
(Heb. ii. 14-15, 18), and sinful desire (I Cor. vii. rim ): " From tho Advent of our Lord until the Day
5). None of these passages refers to an immediate
inner influence. Of Judas Satan takes possession
of Epiphany, and from Ash Wednesday until the
octave of Easter, inclusively, let the ancient pro-
not by virtue of temptation, but gradually after
hibitions of nuptial celebrations be diligently ob-
successful enticement by avarice (John xii. 6).
served by all." In Const it utio LXXX., Benedict
However, all occasions for sinning are subject to XIV. communicated a declaration of the Congre-
the omnipotence of God, and the one tempted is "
gatio concilu, stating: Even during the times ex-
prone to refer that which is tempting in his situa-
pressed in ehap 10, session XXIV., marriage may
tion to Providence and thus attempt to escape re-
be contracted before the parish priest; only the
sponsibility (Jas. i.
13). Yet it is
fundamentally
nuptial cclebm tions, feasts, escorting processions,
certain that God is not the author of evil, and does
and carnal intercourse arc forbidden." Thus it ap-
not tompt, so far as this may refer to the origina- " "
tion of evil (ut sup.). To God is only attributed
pears that so-called quiet weddings may take
place in the prohibited season, though not without
induction into the tempting circumstance brought
episcopal dispensation, save in so far as in extraor-
upon oneself (Luke xi. 4). How this fact is to be dinary instances the priest is permitted to officiate
reconciled with the Christian consciousness belongs
at a marriage even without a dispensation, as in
to theodicy. However, the dependence of sin upon
articulo mortis.
temptation conditionally mitigates its guilt, and The; German Evangelical church retained the for-
at the same time postulates the salvation of the
bidden season as a catholic custom; and the church
sinner.
orders of the sixteenth century also, to some ex-
The concept of temptation belongs, in the first
tent, recognize the same expressly. But from the
instance, to dogmatics, more, definitely, to the doc-
beginning both legislation and usage produced great
trine of sin, signifying that the origin of sin in hu-
variations. Tho Eisenach Conference (q.v.) gave
manity as a whole and in individuals some attention to this matter in the year 1857; and
Dogma is to l>e HO explained as not to uppear published, in its minutes, full particulars of the as-
and as malice, but far more as pardonable
pects of the situation as then it stood (cf. Moser,
Christian failure, without, however, canceling re-
Allgcmeincs Kircltenblatt fur das evangelische
Ethics, sponsibility. Not less important is the
Deutschland, 1857, pp. 325-326, 1858, pp. 197-198).
knowledge of temptation for theolog- Tho result of the deliberations at Eisenach was as
ical ethics, if this is not regarded as released from "
follows: The Conference recognizes the Tempos
relation to real life. On the one hand the full seri-
clausum Quadragcsimcc as a salutary instructive in-
ousness of the battle presupposes power to resist,
stitution of the Church, and must accordingly rec-
and on the other, the Christian least of all sees be- ommend the careful maintenance of what still sur-
yond the conflict. A special phase of the Christian vives of this institution in the several churches; yet
life is the conflict of the new man against the old,
can but refer the question, what may be done toward
facing the peril of relapse, bringing to the front a
bringing about a satisfactory status in this connec-
special category of sins, and necessitating sober
tion, to the discretion of the particular church
vigilance. This involves self-discipline, the soul of executives." E. SEHLING.
which is active faith. In the deepest sense tempta-
tions here become challenges to faith, and doubts TEN ARTICLES, THE: A series of articles
which cause the convictions of salvation to waver sanctioned by both English convocations, and passed
enter the moral point of view, since they under- by parliament in 1536, advancing the Reformation
mine the standpoint of the combatant. In this the in England. The first five relate to doctrine, and
temptation of Christ was again typical in that it (1) make Scripture the basis and summary of Chris-
had the denial of humble faith as its objective. tian faith, (2) affirm the necessity and regenerating
Similar temptations are those of the self-security grace of baptism, (3) declare penance (including
of the victor (Matt. xii. 43-44). To the episodes of contrition, confession, and reformation) necessary
"
this inner sphere of conflict is given the term as- to salvation, (4) take the position that the body and
899 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Temptation
Tennent

blood of Christ arc present in the Eucharistic ele- of High-churchmen, unfriendly to the Revolu-
ments, and (5) affirms that justification (remission tion (which Tenison cordially approved), and ad-
of sin and reconciliation to God) is by the merits of vocating the independence of the ecclesiastical es-
Christ, though good works are still necessary. The tablishment in a way which he condemned. Aiming
second five deal with ceremony, define images as at church reform, he manifested a steadiness of pur-
means of remembrance and not objects of worship, pose and an invincibility of calm resistance, which
"
teach that saints are patterns of living and objects won for him the name of the " rock-like Tenison.
of prayer, and hence may be invoked as intercessors, He erected the first public library in London; it
declare ceremonies to be mystically significant, and was for his parish hi Castle Street, Leicester Square.
sanction prayers for the dead. The articles are em- As archbishop he gave great support to the religious
bodied in Institution of a Christian Alan (commonly societies, and in particular to the Society for the
"
called The Bishops' Book," London, 1537). Propagation of the Gospel, of which he was the con-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. H. Overton, The Church in England, i. tinued benefactor' and to a large degree the founder.
389, London, 1897; W. Clark, The Anglican Reformation, His publications were sermons and controversial
pp. 103-104, New York, 1897. tracts.
TEN COMMANDMENTS. See DECALOGUE. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Memoirs of the Life and Times of ... T.
Tennison, late Archbishop of Canterbury, London, 1715;
TENEBIUE: The name given the matins and C. J. Abbey, The Enghxh Church and its Bishops, 1700-
1800, 2 vols., ib. 1887; J. H. Overton, The Church in Eng-
lauds usually sung on Wednesday, Thursday, and land, vol. ii. passim, ib. 1897; W. H. Hutton, The English
Friday of Holy Week. The Gloria Patri is omitted, Church . . . (1625-1714), ib. 1903; DNK, Ivi. 57-60.
as are the hymns, the antiphons of the Blessed Vir-
TENNENT: A family of ministers illustrious in
gin, etc., in conformity with the sorrowful aspect of the history of the American Presbyterian Church.
the season. When the office is begun, fifteen lighted
1. William: Presbyterian and educator; b.
candles are placed on a triangular candlestick, and
in Ireland 1673; d. at Neshaminy, Bucks County,
ono is extinguished at the end of each Psalm, only
Pa., May 6, 1746. Being graduated probably from
one being left lighted. Tho candles on the high altar
Trinity College, Dublin, in 1704, he entered the
are likewise extinguished during the singing of the
ministry of the Episcopal Church of Ireland, but
Benedictus; and at the antiphon after the Bencdic- came to America, and entered the Presbyterian
tns the one lighted candle is hidden at the epistle end
of the altar until the completion of the office, when a
synod of Philadelphia, 1718. In 1720 he settled at
Bedford, Westchester County, N. Y., and in 1726
peculiar wooden clapper is sounded. became pastor at Neshaminy, Pa., although he was
The gradual extinction of the candles in the office never formally installed. Impressed by the lack of
typifies the growing darkness of earth after Christ, educational facilities for the young men growing up
"
the Light of the World," was taken away, though
around him, he erected, in 1728, a log-house, the
the hiding and subsequent bringing out of the one
famous " Log College," \v heroin he taught three of
lighted candle shows that the divine light could not his four sons and a number of other youth, several
really be extinguished The sound of the clapper
of whom afterward rose to eminence in the church.
.

represents the confusion which followed the death

on the cross. Log College was the first of the literary and theo-
logical institutions of the Presbyterian Church in
TENISON, THOMAS: Archbishop of Canter- America. Tennent withdrew from active labor
bury; b. at Cottenham (6 m. n. of Cambridge), about 1742. His publications were mostly sermons.
England, Sept. 29, 1636; d. at Lambeth (3 m. s. of Knowledge of his life and college is in good part de-
Charing Cross, London) Dec. 14, 1715. Ho studied rived from Whitefield's journal, which shows his
at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge (B.A., 1657; apostolic character.
M.A., 16(30; fellow, 1662; incorporated at Oxford, 2. Gilbert: Presbyterian, eldest son of the pre-
1664; B.D., 1667; D.D., 1680). In 1662 he became ceding; b. in County Armagh, Ireland, Feb. 5,
tutor and in 1665 was appointed university reader 1703; d. in Philadelphia July 23, 1764. He came
at Cambridge. He was ordained about 1659; be- to America \vith his father, 1718; was educated by
came vicar of St. Andrew the Great, Cambridge, him; after a year's study of medicine he turned to
1665; preacher at St. Peter Mancroft, Norwich; theology and was licensed by the presbytery of
rector of Holywcll and Needingworth, Huntingdon- Philadelphia, 1725; lie acted as tutor in Log Col-
shire,1667; upper minister of St. Peter Mancroft, lege for a year; preached for some time at New-
1674; was rector of St. Martin-in-the-Fields, Lon- castle, Del and was ordained and installed pastor
;

don, 1680-91; minister of St. James, Piccadilly, in New Brunswick, N. J., 1726. Like his father, he
1686-92; became archdeacon of London, 1689; was an ardent admirer of Whitefield, and, at White-
bishop of Lincoln, 1692; and archbishop of Canter- field's solicitation, he accompanied him to Boston

bury, 1695. He showed great administrative power, on a preaching-tour. By his fiery zeal, deep moral
for which he was more remarkable than for pulpit earnestness, spirituality, no less than by his logic and
eloquence. He was an active Churchman, and busy his argumentative ability, he produced everywhere
in matters connected with the Revolution of 1688. a profound impression; his popularity was second
In favor with William III., he held various political only to Whitefield's. But he was lacking in ten-
posts during that reign, but his favor ended with derness and consideration for those who differed
the accession of Queen Anne, whom he crowned, from him. At that time many Presbyterian min-
1702. It was as president of the upper house of isters were conscientiously opposed to the methods
convocation that he had the most arduous duties to adopted by the revival preachers. Tennent had no
discharge. The lower house was chiefly composed appreciation of such scruples, but set them down
Tennent THE NEW SCfiAFF-fifiRZOG 300
Teraphim

to a lack of vital religion. Moreover, Log College at Log College; licensed to preach, 1736; was pas-
was openly criticized by the synod of Philadelphia, tor at Whiteclay Creek, Del., and later at Buck-
because of the type of piety there fostered, and its ingham, Md.
educational defects. Tennent naturally resented 6. William, the third: Presbyterian, and son of
these attacks, and, under what he deemed sufficient William, the second; b. near Freehold, N. J., 1740;
"
provocation, preached in 1740 his famous Not- d. at Charleston (?), S. C., Aug. 11, 1777. He was
tingham sermon," in which he dealt vigorously with graduated from the College of New Jersey, 1758;
his opponents. Largely as a result of this ser- was licensed to preach, 1762; ordained, 1763;
mon and of Tennent 's impetuous course came the junior pastor of the church in Norwalk, Conn.,
division of the Presbyterian Church. Although he 1765-72; pastor of an Independent Church in
then contributed so largely to the disruption, he Charleston, S. C., 1772-77. He was an eloquent
was as active later in effecting the reconciliation of preacher and of clear judgment.
1758. In 1743 Tennent was called to the Second BIBLIOGRAPHY The list of writings by the Tcnncnts will be
found accurately deambed in C. Evans, American Bibliog-
Presbyterian Church of Philadelphia, then just
raphy, vote, ii.-vi Chicago, 1904-10 Notices of all but
formed, made up of the admirers of Whiteficld and
,

Churles will be found m

W. B. Sprague, Annals of ifie
the friends of the revival. But, although he re- American Pulpit, pp. 23 Hqq 41 sqq 52 Hqq., 264 sqq.,
, ,

mained their pastor till his death, he did not repeat New York, 1858. Consult further. K. H Gillett, Hint of
the Presbyterian Church, vol. i. passim, Philadelphia, 1864;
in his second charge the triumphs of his first; he
C. A. Briggs, American Preabytenaniam, passim, New
was and highly useful; but his preaching
faithful
York, 1885, G. P Hays, Presbyterians, pp. 89-92, New
was quieter, and his delivery much less impassioned. York, 1892; RE. Thompson, in American Church His-
In 1753 he raised in Great Britain some 1,500 for tory Series, vol. vi. passim, New York. 1895. On 1 con-
the College of New Jersey. Besides a memoir of his
sult also A Alexander, Biographical Sketches of the
Founder and . Alumni of the Log College, Princeton,
. .

brother John (Boston, 1735), he published a volume 1845. On 2. The funeral sermon by President S Finley
"
of sermons (Philadelphia, 1743), and occasional ser- was published with a Funeral Eulogy," Philadelphia,
mons and pamphlets. 1764; Life of tht Rev William Tennent, with an Aciount
ofhis Being three Days in a Trance, New York, 1847. On
3. William: Presbyterian, and brother of Gilbert; 3. E. Boudmot, Memoir of William Tennent, New Yoik,
b. inCounty Antrim, Ireland, Jan. 3, 1705; d. near 1847. On 4. Ci. Teunent (his brother), wrote a memoir
Freehold, N. J., Mar. 8, 1777. He came to America in connection with A Discourse on Regeneration, Boston,
1735.
with his father, who gave him a preparatory course;
he then studied theology under his brother Gilbert TENT. See TABERNACLE, HEBREW.
hi New Brunswick; was licensed by the presbytery TEPHILLIN (PHYLACTERIES): Boxes contain-
of New Brunswick; ordained pastor of the church ing inscriptions in Hebrew worn by Jews for cere-
now known as "The Old Tennent Church" near monial purposes. Tho boxes are constructed from
Freehold, 1733, and held the position throughout the skin of a clean animal and sowed upon a strong
his life. He was the subject of a trance which has leather foundation; they contain definitely pre-
given him groat celebrity. While preparing for his scribed passages from the Pen ta touch. They are
examination for licensure, he fell sick, and had a worn during prayers during the week, bring fast-
trance which lasted three days, during which time ened to the forehead and the left arm by moans of
he was, as he believed and declared, in heaven, and straps. The rabbinical command to wear phylac-
"
heard unutterable things." His friends thought teries rests upon a literal construction of Deut. vi.
he was dead, and were upon the point of burying 6-8 [of. xi. 18; Ex. xiii. 9, 1G; Matt, xxiii. 1 sqq.].
him, notwithstanding the protestations of his physi- A metaphorical sense has been scon in the passage
cian, when he revived. He regained his health in a by some Jews arid by Christians, but the passage
year, but had lost all his knowledge of reading and favors a literal reading. The tephillin for the head
writing, much more, all his previous learning. After differ from those for the arm. The former consist
a time, however, his knowledge began rapidly to of four compartments, each of which contains a
"
return. For three years," he said, " the sense of passage from the Bible (Ex. xiii. 1-10, 11-16; Deut.
divine things continued so great, and everything vi. 4-9, and xi. J3-21) written on a strip of parch-
else appeared so completely vain, when compared ment, which is rolled up and tied with a hair. On
to heaven, that, could I have had the world for two sideson the outside of the phylactery is placed
stooping down for it, I believe I should not have the letter Shin, one with four and the other with
thought of doing it." Tennent was a remarkable three prongs. The arm phylacteries have but one
character, full of resource, and indefatigable in cell in which the same Biblical sections are con-
Christian labors. tained on one roll of parchment. The tephillin for
4. John: Presbyterian, and third son of William, the head during prayer are firmly placed on the fore-
the first; b. in County Antrim, Ireland, Nov. 12, head below the hair, between the eyebrows. The
1706; d. near Freehold, N. J., Apr. 23, 1732. He knot of the loop that passes around the head must
came to America with and received both
his father, lodge on the neck behind, and the straps must be
classical and theological training at the Log College; long enough to fall over the shoulders and hang
in 1729 he was licensed to preach; and was pastor down in front below the breast. The hand-tephillin
near Freehold, N. J., 1730-32. He was very earnest are so fastened that the box is turned inward toward
and successful. the heart, the seat of the feelings. Tho straps are
6. Charles: Presbyterian, and fourth son of wound seven times around the arm and then three
William, the first; b. at Colerain, County Down, times around the middle and ring finger. The single
Ireland, May 3, 1711; d. at Buckingham, Md., 1771. compartment of the hand-tephillin symbolizes the
He came to America with his father; was educated unity of God; the four compartments of those for
301 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tennent
Teraphim

"
the head, his sway over the four corners of the earth. image or idol (" my gods as above). I Sam. xix.
At the putting on of the tephillin for the head, 13-16, on the other hand, gives the impression that
"
the benediction, Blessed art thou Yahweh, our it might be as large as a man, and both passages

God, king of the universe, who hast hallowed us by seem to involve use in the household, not in a tem-
thy.commandments and hast commanded us to wear ple. From Judges xvii. 4-5, xviii. 17, 18, 20, 30, it
" "
the tephillin," is pronounced. When assuming the evidently differed from both a "graven and a mol-
"
hand-tephillin the benediction is only slightly dif- ten image, and does not appear to have been an
ferent. There are minute injunctions as to who object of worship, since Judges xviii. reports again
may wear them, where and when they may be worn, and again that the Danites set up (for worship) the
etc. They are first put on by boys at confirmation graven image which Micah had made, but of the
at the age of thirteen, but are not worn on the Sab- teraphim it alleges only that they took it from Micah
bath or on holidays. and carried it with them. The use of the object ae
The Talmud lays rcat stress on the tephillin a means of divination is settled by Kzek. xxi .21,
ceremonial, and carries its prescriptions into the where it is described as employed by the king of
minutest details, which are assumed to be Mosaic. Babylon among other means for determining the
The practise of the ceremony was looked upon as a future; and by Zech. x. 2, where the parallelism is:
"
kind of altar service. Whoever puts on the tephillin teraphim have spoken vanity, diviners have seen
and reads the Shcma (Dcut. vi. 4-5) may be con- a lie."

sidered as oue who has built an altar and laid a In I Sam. xv. 23 (R. V.; the A. V. obscures the
sacrifice upon it (Rosh ha-shanah 3, 15a). God him- original), one of the later (Deuteronomistic) por-
self is said to wear them. He himself revealed them tions of the book, the teraphim is implicitly con-
to Moses and taught him how to place the knot be- demned; according to II Kings xxiii. 24 it was
hind the head. The tephillin were supposed to guard among the things which were abolished thein
their wearer from witchcraft und sin, and were worn reformation of Josiah. It is not improbable that
as amulets. Some teachers went beyond the Bib- in Gen. xxxv. 2, 4 (by E, the writer of Gen.
lical injunction and wore them all day. Neverthe- xxxi. 19 sqq.) the tcraphim are included in the
less, there were persons and sects who discarded or "strange gods" which were to be put a\vay
made light of the articles, especially in later cen- (see DEMON, J 4). On the other hand, in Ho*,
turies. iii. 4, it is among the things (which may be
Minute directions are given for the preparation of classed as official) deprivation of which was to be
these articles. They must be made by Jews. The a part of the punishment of unfaithful Israel, viz ,

words on the parchment may bo written from mem- king, priest, sacrifice, pillar, and ephod, and it was
ory, but no letter may run into another or stand out therefore by that prophet not regarded as incon-
more than another. No erasures or corrections may sistent with the worship of Yahweh. Consequently,
be made. The name of God must be written by the the total effect of all the Old-Testament passages is
scribe with reverence and full appreciation of its to indicate that the size of the teraphim was vari-
significance. (AUGUST WT^NSCHE.) able; that it might be kept in a house or a temple
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Margoliouth, Fundamental Principles of or shrine; that it is to be distinguished both from
Modern Judaism, pp. 1-49, London, 1843; Z. Frankol, a molten and a graven image, but that its form is
Ufber den Emflut* dcr palnstininchen Exegese auf die alex-
not known; * that it was probably an importation
andnniRchf Hermenrutik, pp. 90 nqq., Leipaic, 1851; L.
Eunz, GesammeJte Xchnftcn, ii. 1711-176, Berlin, 1876; from abroad (Gen. xxxi.), both Laban and the king
G. Klein, in JPT, 1SS1, pp. 666-fi89; M. L. Rodkinson, of Babylon making use of it; that its employment
Urspruno und Entwukelung den Phylartenen-Riten, Press- came under condemnation at least as early as 621
burg, 1883; idem, Hist, of Amulets, Charm*, and Talis- 2
B.C., possibly considerably earlier, if Gon. xxxv.
mans, New York, 1893, M Friedlandor, Jewish Religion, "
pp. 331-334, London, 1900; idem, Der Antichrist intends to include it among the strange gods,"
in den vorchnstlichen judischen Quellen, pp. 155-165, though in the time of David and probably of Hosea
G6ttingon, 1901, M. Clrunbaum, Gesammrlte Aufsatze, pp. its use was regarded as legitimate; and, finally, it
208 sqq., Berlin, 1901; Schiirer, Grttchichtc, ii. 484 qq.,
Eng. traiiisl II., ii., in *qq
, ; Benzinger, Archaologie, p. does not appear, except from the mention by Hosea,
387; DB, iii. 869-874; EB, ii. 1566-67; JE, x. 21-28; to have belonged to the public official cult, but
Vigouroux, Dirtwnnairc, fa*c. xxxi. 349-353; and th rather to have been employed jn private or house-
commentaries on the Scriptural passage* cited.
hold practise in divining. To be noted is the fact
TERAPHIM: The name of an image or object that there is no statement outside of the Genesis
apparently used specifically for divination. The passages or even necessary implication
that the
term occurs in nine passages in the Old Testament. teraphim was an object of worship, although the con-
Though plural in form, the usage in I Sam. xix. 13- trary hypothesis has ruled in exegesis.
16 shows that it was, at any rate, at times singular By the best authorities the derivation of the word
in meaning, just as was (for the most part) Elohim, is still regarded as doubtful (Brown-Driver-Briggjs,
" " "
God," though the use of the plural gods by Hebrew and English Lexicon, s.v.); many connect
" "
Laban when speaking of the teraphim suggests a the word with repha'im, shades (cf. Isa. xiv. 9,
real plural. Some explain the use of the word as a R. V. margin), and regard the thing itself as asso-
it in the It is impossible to
plural of majesty; others, however, regard ciated with ancestor worship.
same way as they do Elohim, the linguistic evidence say whether the translators of the Septuagint were
being that the object connoted was at one time plural. entirely unacquainted with the object or knew so
In Gen. xxxi. 19, 34, 35 (E) the size was evidently not * It does not 'follow from I Sam. xix. that the form waa
in the camel's litter,
great, since it could be hidden more than approximately human, though its size in that
and the context (verse 30) suggests that it was an case must havt corresponded to that of a man.
Teraphlxn
Terry
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 808

well its form, etc., as not to think of it as requiring by the movement, it was nevertheless pro-
Pietistic
explanation. They usually transliterate the word, jectedby it into its full significance. Already J. C.
now as a singular, again as a plural In I Sam. xix. Dannhauer (q.v.), on the basis of Heb. iii. 7, had
" "
13, 16, they render by kenolaphia, the only possible distinguished between the times of vengeance
" "
meaning of which in the passage is image, the usual and of visitation (Hodosophia Christiana, p.
" "
sense, empty tomb," giving no adequate sense. 876, 1649), and mentions a denial of grace per-
"
Symmaehus renders by eidolon or ridola. The Vul- emptorily in the former (Katechismusmilch, vi.
gate is very varied in its rendering, sometimes sim- 206, 1657-78). From him Philip Jakob Spener
ply transliterating, sometimes translating by idola, adopted both the idea and the term, stating re-
"
idololatria,figura"idolorum, statua, simulacrum. The peatedly that although the purpose of grace com-
Syriac sometimes renders by" the word equivalent monly lasts with sinners till the end of this life,
"
to the Hcbr. zclcrn, image (Gen. i. 26), also by nevertheless it can be virtually cut off in the course
"
other words which have a connection uith sooth- of life,theby judgment of obduracy (Das Gericht
saying. Rabbinic tradition varies between some dcr Verstockung, pp. 24 sqq., Frankfort, 1701).
undefined medium used in divination, the sem- Terminism attained to greater importance first
blance of a human head, or a mummified head such through the tract of a Sorau deacon, J. G. Bose
as was reported as in use by Hauranians for oracu- (b. at Oschatz, 31 m. e.n.e. of Leipsic, about 1662;
lar purposes (cf. 1). Ch \\olson, Die Ssabicr, ii. 19 d at Sorau, 95 m. s.e. of Berlin, Feb., 1700). He
sqq, 150 sqq., St. Petersburg, 1856). This would studied at Leipsic, notably under J. B. Carpzov, and
lead naturally to the conclusion that it was em- cmne to Sorau in 1690. Here he soon experienced
ployed as an ancestral oracle, which has indeed been an inner conversion, which caused him to give much
a common method of explanation, comparison being more serious heed to his official duties, particularly
made >\ith the Roman Larcn ct penates (cf. F. the confessional. Above all he took offense at the
"
Schwally, Das Lebcn nach dcm Tode, pp. 35 sqq., frivolity of death-bed conversions." A
peniten-
Oiessen, 1892; II. Schultz, in his Old Testament tial sermon on Rom. ii. 4-5, as well as his total be-

Theology, p. 119, calls the teraphim "household havior, occasioned manifold conflicts with members
palladia "). GEO. W. GILMOHE. of the congregation, and chiefly with his clerical
BIBLIOGKAPHY Jrromo, Epmt., xxix J. Buxtorf, Lexicon
; brethren both within and without the town. The
Chaldaieum, Talmudwum, etc pp. 2660 Hqq., Hanoi 1632;
,

D. ChwoUioit, Die tisabier, n 19 8qq 150 sqq 388 sqq.

,
,
situationgrew still more acute upon the publica-
, t

St. Petersburg, 1S50; H Ewnld, Antiquities, pp. 223-225. tion of the tract, Terminus pcremptorius salutis
Boston, 1870; P Srholz, Gtitzendiermt und Zaubenvexen human OK (1698; 2d ed., Frankfort, 1701). An opin-
bn den alten IleJtrtiern, pp 127 sqq HcRnnshurfj, 1877;
,
ion from Rostock, in 1699, was unfavorable to Bose;
B. Stiidi*, Btithmhc Theologie de* alien Testaments, i. 121,
but a second Leipsic review, by the time the Pietis-
224, 262, Tubingen, 1905, UcM'hvhta de* Volkts Israel, i.
467, Berlin, 1887, II Srhult*, O. T Theology, i 93, 119, tic members had gained the control of the faculty,
149, 284, Edinburgh, 1892, CJ F. Moore, Commentary on supported him. In Jan., 1700, he was suspended and
Judges, pp 379 Hqq New York, 1895; H. P. Smith. Com-
,
died the following month. The second Leipsic re-
mentary on Samuel, p xxxiv. and at the passages cited,
ib. 1899; T. 0. Foote, m
JBL, xxi (1902), 27 sqq Nownck, ;
view was opposed at Wittenberg. Two of its es-
Archaologic, 11. 23; Henzmger, Archaologie, pp 328, 333, tablished professors became bitterest enemies and
347; DB, iv. 718; EH, iv. 4974-75; KL, xu. 108-109. chief antagonists in the dispute. The one was Adam
TERCE: The service for the "third hour" in Rechenberg (1642-1721), son-in-law of Spener; the
the Breviary (q.v.), recited normally about 9 A.M., other was Thomas Ittig (1643-1710), the local su-
usually in monastic house's immediately before the perintendent. Of outside faculties Wittenberg
community mass, and in pontifical functions just (J.G. Neumann, Johann Deutschmann), and Ros-
before the bishop goes to the altar. Its special note tock (Johannes Fecht, A. J. Krakevitz) interposed
is the commemoration of the descent of the Holy on the anti-terministic side. In a short time, the
Ghost, for whose guidance and inspiration the hymn number of controversial tracts exceeded that of any
(invariable except at Pentecost) prays. There is a previous ecclesiastical dispute, theologians from all
short general introduction, and then after the hymn quarters of Germany taking a part. After 1702, '

follow three sections of Ps. cxix., the chapter, Rechenberg and Ittig withdrew more or less from
which is the same as that for lauds and vespers of the controversy, but this continued until 1704, and
the day, a short responsory, and the collect for the was renewed occasionally thereafter.
day, sometimes (as in Lent and on vigils) preceded As with Spener in Pietism so with Bose, the mo-
by a long series of versicles and responses said tive of his tcrminism was thoroughly practical; he
kneeling. desired to have an effective weapon for shattering
the security of wanton sinners. He was led, how-
TERMINARE : A term used to designate the beg-
ever, to a position beyond this which gave grave
ging of the so-called mendicant orders. Every cause for doubt. On one occasion he affirmed that
mendicant cloister or hospice had its definite district
for every human being, and not merely for hardened
(termiiiiiK), within which it was obliged to confine its
sinners, only one defined season of grace was set for
operations. The cloistral collectors of alms were
" conversion within this present life; and then he
called terminators."
appeared to base the same wholly upon the free will
TERMINISM, TERMINISTIC CONTROVERSY: of God, without regard to human conduct. Yet in
The doctrine of a definite period of grace for man point of fact, Bose applied his theory of the denial
within which alone he can effectually achieve his of the term of grace only to those who hardened
conversion, and the controversy pertaining to the themselves; nor would it seem that he ever became
same. While the concept was not exactly created clear whether the ultimate cause for obduracy and
80S RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Teraphim
Terry

thus for the appointment of the " peremptory in the Church by virtue of a tacit or implicit com-
"
limit rests in man or God. In contrast, Rechcn- pact, yet this is allowed with the understanding
"
berg restricted the entire proposition to the utterly that the attribution conveys to the civil sovereignty,
hardened," leaving no doubt that obduracy was over and above its proper sovereign rights, the
to be referred not to an absolute decree of God, but further power of an association us such. Therefore
to the human attitude. For presentation and elu- something becomes conveyed which is extraneous
cidation both terminists and anti-terminists em- to the State's own authority, and this may be taken
ployed the scheme of the orthodox doctrine of away from it by a new compact. The territorial-
" " "
antecedent and following grace." Both agreed ists ascribe tothe State alone the right. to draw the
that antecedent grace was universal, and fixed no boundary lines between civil power and the power
definite limit. On the other hand, the terminists of associations; collcgialism claims the rights of
would have it that following grace, with vhich they association in favor of the particular association as
included reclaiming grace, becomes particular grace ultimate or original, not as derived from civil favor.
during the lifetime of man, at the moment when The eollegial system shows not only a quantitative
obduracy becomes final. I Jut on the opposing side but also a qualitative advance.
" "
it was affirmed that reclaiming grace is as uni- Every state which, assuming social problems as
"
versal as calling grace "; and that the term of such to be problems of State, subordinates itself to so-
grace appointed by God lasts with every man, irre- ciety and becomes thereby identified with the social
spectively of his actual moral and religious condi- fabric, must assume the charge of ecclesiastical
tion, until his death. R. II. GTIOTZMACHER. social tasks, as well, and is of necessity committed
BIBLIOGRAPHY: ,T. Cl Walch, Einleitung in die Rehfliona- to the territorial polity. The most pronounced
strntigkeiten tier evangclisch-luthermi hen Kirchc, ii 850-
example of this is France. The French constitution
892, 10 vols Jona, 1733-89; A (\ von Emem, Kirchcn-
,

genchichtc des 18 Jattrhunderta, 11 337, Lcipsic, 1783; of 1791 unconditionally instituted the State accord-
G. Fraiik, Ceschichte drr protentantischen Thruloyie, n 175 ing to the social points of vie\\, and, at the same
sqq., ib 1865; F H. Hesse, Der ttrnnmstische Mreit. Gies- " "
time, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy of
aen, 1877; A. Ritschl, Geschichte des Piclismus, ii. 210 Bqq.,
Bonn, 1884; A'L, xi. 1301-02. July 12, 1790, dissolved the ecclesiastical organism
in terms of the political. The proclamation of a
TERRITORI ALISM : A theory of church gov- distinct state religion was only a step further in the
ernment which came in with the Reformation accord- same course. And though the Prussian general
ing to which the ruler of a country has a natural statute law qualifies clergymen as indirect or col-
right to control the ecclesiastical affairs of the peo- lateral servants of State, it, does not. go to the length
ple. Enlightened Humanism first applied the con- of that
"
Civil Constitution," but contains, in its
cept of organized association to the State Church eollegialistic features, the germs of that constitu-
Assuming that the primary civil contract includes tional development \shirh transcended territorial-
the ecclesiastical, this theory views the adherents ism. On the other hand, both in literature and also
of the State Church as partners, the State Church as for a good while in practise, territorialism continued
nn association church, and thus shows that in course See CHURCH AND STATE, 7.
potent. 1.,
of time there may grow up in this church a repre- E SEHLINQ.
sentative constitution such as has already partly BIBLIOGRAPHY: K. S. Zachariu, Dip Einhnt dea Ktantes und
emancipated it from the State, and seems likely to der Kirche mil Rucksicht nuf die dcutsche Rrichsverfnafiung,
carry the process further. This result has come n p., 1797; H. Stephuni, Vtbcr die absolute Einhnt der
Kirrhe und deft Staatcs, Wuralmnc. 1802, R Rot lie, Die
about through collegialistic modifications (see
Anfange drr chnstluhen Kirch e und ihrcr Verfassunff, Wit-
COLLECT ALIftM). tenberg, 1837, KKchmitthrnnpi, V cbcr dnn Recht der Ke-
Territorialism, as represented by, e.g., Hugo genten IT? kirchlirhen Dingen, Ucrhn, 1838, K. W. Klee,
Orotius and Christian Thomasius (qq.v), pushed Das Recht der cincn aUfjemnncn Kirch e Jcsu Chn&ti, 2
parts, MnRdeburg, 1839-41; Schaff, Christian Church,
into the Evangelical praxis without difficulty. The vi. 683 sqq.
church had been governed through state boards of
control; only now the standpoints governing the TERRY, MILTON SPENSER: Methodist Episco-
process since the Reformation became gradually palian; b. at Coeymans, N. Y., Feb. 22, 1840. He
modified, and the alteration was unostentatiously was educated at Troy University and Yale Divin-
effected step by step. A similar process marked the ity School (graduated, 18f>2). He has held pastor-
beginning of collegialistic modifications. Collegial- ates at the Methodist Episcopal churches of Ham-
ismand territorialism are not essentially antithet- den, N. Y. (18(52-63), Delhi (1804-67), Peekskill
ical; both presuppose the primary civil contracts, ( 867-69)
1 Poughkeepsie ( 1 870-73)
, Eighteenth ,

and the distinction between them rests always in Street Church, New York City (1873-76), and
what they assume to be the measure of the respect- Kingston (1876-79). From 1879 to 1883 he was
ive concessions or reservations by the contracting presiding elder of New York City and Westchestcr
parties; indeed, both have grown up on parallel County. He has been professor of Hebrew and Old-
fundamental hypotheses. But territorialism draws Testament exegesis and theology in the Garrett
" since 1884. In
its boundary lines of the State's right in sacred Biblieal Institute, Evanston, 111.,
" "
holds the Wesloyan Arminian system
things so wide that scarcely anything is left for theology, he
"
the free play of partnership." Collegialism first of theology as against the Calvinistic system and
clearly restricted the State to its rights of general accepts the main positions of the modern critical
supremacy, and sharply distinguished from these school, but with firm adherence to the fundamentals
the rights of society. And though this theory con- of Protestant Evangelical Christianity." He has
cedes to sovereign authority the matter of regime written: Commentary on Judges, Ruth, First and
Tertullfim
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 804

Second Samuel (New York, 1873); Commentary on he became physically incapable 01 addressing large
Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther audiences. These addresses were later published
(1875); Biblical Hermeneutica (1883); Commentary as Geistliche Brosamen, von des II err n Tisch gefaUen
on Genesis and Exodus (1889) The Sibylline Grades
; (4 parts, Duisburg, 1769-73; Eng. transl. of selec-
(1890) The Prophecies of Daniel Expounded (1893)
; ; tions by S. Jackson, Spiritual Crumbs from tfo Mas-
The Song of Songs: An Inspired Melodrama (Cin- ter's Table, London, 1837). Apparently at the sug-
cinnati, 1893); Rambles in the Old World (1894); gestion of the supreme consistorial councilor, Johann
The New Apologetic (New York, 1897); Biblical Julius Hecker, Tersteegen set forth his views on
Apocalyptics (1898) Moses and tlie Prophets (1901)
; ; faith, justification, etc., in the first appendix to his
The New and Living Way (1902); The Mediation Weg der Wahrheit (1750; stereotyped ed. by J. F.
of Jesus Christ (1903) and Primer of Christian Doc-
; Steinkoff, with life, Stuttgart, 1905), and it may
trines (Cincinnati, 1906). also have been Hecker who inspired him to write his
Gedanken uber cincs Anonymi Buch, genannt: Ver-
TERSTEEGEN, ter-st'gen,GERHARD (GERRIT mischte Werke des Wcltweisen zu Sanssouci (2d ed.,
TER STEEGEN): German Reformed mystic and Schaffhauscn, 1763), in which he very aptly criti-
hymn-writer; b. at Mora (17 m. n.n.e. of Dussel- cized the attitude of Frederick the Great toward
dorf) Nov. 25, 1697; d. at Mulheim-on-the-Ruhr religion.
(15 m. n.n.c. of Dusseldorf) Apr. 3, 1769. lie early While Tersteegen was a decided mystic, and con-
came under the influence of a mysticism which was tinued to the end of his life outside the Reformed
at least indifferent to the recognized Church, and Church, he was in no sense of the term the founder
before long he renounced a mercantile career to of a sect, even his separatism being mainly due to
live asa hermit, giving to the poor all that was not his abhorrence of merely formal orthodoxy. In this
absolutely necessary for his scanty needs, yet spirit he wrote Bcwris, dass man demjenigen, der von
troubled for a time with grave doubts. Somewhat Gott in seinem Gewissen zuruckgchalten wird, mit
later he abandoned such excessive asceticism, and Weltkindern und Gottlosen nicht zum
offenbaren
was now able to devote his evenings to writing, the Abendmahl zu gehen, seine Gcwixscnsfreiheit tinge-
days being spent in ribbon- weaving. His first work kr&nkt lassen musse (1768) and Vom Scparatismus
was the U npartheiischer Abriss christlicher Grund- und der Herunterlassung (Essen, 1842) His chief
wahrheiten in Frage und Antworten (Duisburg, 1801), fame, however, is due to his hymns, which have
though his first publication was a translation of the given him an importance second to no other hymn-
Manuel de jMt of Jean de Labadie (1725). In 1727 writer in the Reformed Church. Those hymns, 111
he completed his Wahre Theologie des Sohnes Gottes in number, were first incorporated in Pietistic and
(not published until 1821), and composed his Zeug- separatistic collections, but after 1829 the regular
nis der Wahrheit, as well as his first collection of churches accepted thorn in increasing proportion.
hymns and rimed apothegms entitled Geistliches [The hymns have been oditod not only in his Ge-
Blumengartlein inniger Scelen (Frankfort, 1729) and sammelte Schriften (8 vols., Stuttgart, 1844-45), but
Der Frommen Lotterie (Eng. transl., by Lady E. A. also by W. Nclle (Gcistlichc Lieder, CJutorsloh, 1897;
Durand, The Spiritual Lottery, London, 1874). His with a and the story of his poems) and many
life ;

largest work was his Auscrlescne Lebensbeschreib- of them have been translated into English (see
ungen heiliger Seelen (3 vols., 1733-53), which con- Julian, Hymnology, pp. 1142-45), as by Mrs. F.
veyed to many the false impression that he enter- Be van in her Hymns of Tcr Stecgen, Suso, and
tained Roman Catholic tendencies. In 1730 he Others (London, 1895), and by Lady E A Durand
published at Duisburg a second edition of the Ver- in her Imitations from the German of Spit ta and Ter-
mehrte Glaubens- und Liebexuburtg of Joachim Nean- Among the bost/-known arc "Brunn
steegen (1873).]
der (the fourth and subsequent editions being en- "
alles Heils, dich ehren wir (" Thee, Fount of bless-
titled Gottgeheiligtes Harfenspiel der Kinder Zion), we adore," by Miss Catherine Wink worth),
ing,
which contained fifty-nine of his own hymns. " Gott ist "
gegenwartig (" Lo, God is here! Let
After 1725 Tersteegen became a leader in private "
us adore," by John Wosloy,) O Gott! O Geist!
devotional meetings, and three years later he found O Licht des Lebons! " (" God, O Spirit, Light of
himself obliged to give up his trade and devote him- " "
all that live by" Miss Winkworth), O Majestat!
(" O Lord our God, in roverence
self to quasi-pastoral duties, deriving his support wir fallen nieder
from the contributions of friends. He established " "
lowly "), and Verborgne Gottesliebo du (" Thou
at Otterbeck a semi-monastic community, and his hidden love of God, whose height," by John Wesley).
influence gradually extended far and wide, not only
(E. SIMONS.)
throughout Germany, but even to Denmark, Swe- BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the lives in the editions of Teretee-
den, and Pennsylvania, while after 1732 he regu- gen's Schriften and Weg der Wahrheit noted in the text,
consult: Q. Kerlen, Gerhard Teratccgen, Mtilheim. 1851;
larly visited Holland, the results of this prestige
M. Goebel, Geachichte de* chriatlichen Lebena in der rhrin-
being in part recorded in his Geisdichc und erbaur isch-weatfolisrhen evangeJiachen Kirche, iii 289-447, Cob-
liche Briefe (2 vols., Solingen, 1773-75). Toward lenz, 1860; A. Hitachi, Oeschichte des Pietiamus, i. 45&-
the Moravians his attitude was unfavorable, and 494, Bonn, 1880; S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, pp.
177-178 et passim, New York, 1886; H. E. Govan, JAfe
he was unable to sympathize with Zinzendorf In .
of Gerhard Tersteegtm, with Selections from his Writings,
1740 new legislation rendered it impossible for Ter- new ed., London, 1902; Julian, HymnoloQV, pp. 1142-
steegen to conduct his devotional meetings else- 1145; ADB, vol. xxvii.
where than in Holland, but ten years later they TERTIARIES (TERTIUS ORDO DE PCENITEN-
could again be held, and Tersteegen continued to TIA): The name of the members of a spiritual as-
address them every one or two weeks until, in 1756, sociation, men or women, who, whether in the world
305 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

or in close associations, lived according to " the Jerome says that Tertullian lived to a great age.
"
third rule of certain orders. The institution first In spite of his schism, Tertullian continued to fight
arose among the Minorites (see FRANCIS, SAINT, OF heresy, especially Gnosticism; and by the doctrinal
ASSISI, AND THE FRANCISCAN ORDER), then Was works thus produced he became the teacher of
imitated in the preaching order, and later, under Cyprian, the predecessor of Augustine, and the chief
various names, arose also in other orders, such as founder of Latin theology.
the Augustinians, Servites, and Trappists (qq.v.). H. Writings: These number thirty-seven, and
(O. ZOCKLERf.) several Latin tracts are lost (cf. ANF, iii. 12-13)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult the list* of works under the arti- as well as those written in Greek. Tertullian's wri-
cles in this work on the orders named in the text; also
" tings cover the whole theological field
J. G. Adderly and C. L. Marson, Third Order*." A 1. General of the time
Translation of an ancient Rule of the Tertiarics, together apologetics against pagan-
with an Account of some modern
"
Third Order*," Oxford, Character, ism and Judaism, polemics, polity, dis-
1902. cipline, and morals, or the whole re-

TERTULLIAN, ter-tul'i-on, QUINTUS SEPTIMUS organization of human life on a Christian basis;

FLORENS. they give a picture of the religious life and thought
of the time which is of the greatest interest to the
I. Life.
II. Writings. church historian. Their general temper is austere,
General Character (| 1). their purpose practical; they are full of life and
Chronology and Contents (J 2). freshness. In his endeavors to make the Latin lan-
III. Theology.
General Character ( 1). guage a vehicle for his somewhat tumultuous ideas,
Specific Teachings (52). the author now and then becomes strained and ob-
IV. Moral Principles.
scure; but, as a rule, he is quick, precise, and
I. Life: Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullian, pointed. He is always powerful and intrepid, com-
the first great writer of Latin Christianity and one manding, not begging, the attention of the reader;
of the grandest and most original characters of the with reference to earlier literature and customs he
ancient Church, was born at Carthage about 150 or is a master of wit and sarcasm and is always orig-

160, and died there between 220 and 240. Of his inal. He has been likened to a fresh mountain tor-
life very little is known, and that little is based upon rent, tumultuous, and making its own path.
passing references in his own writings, and upon The chronology of these writings is in part de-
Eusebius, Hist, ecd., II., ii. 4 (Eng. transl. in NPNF, termined by the Montanistic views that are set
2 aer., i. IOC, with the notes of A. C. McGiffert), forth in some of them, by the author's own allu-
and Jerome, DC vir. ill., liii. (Eng. transl. in NPNF, sions to this writing or that as ante-
2 ser., iii. Hia father held a position (centurio
Y73). 2. Chronol- dating others (cf. Harnack, Litteratur,
"
proconsularis, aide-de-camp ") in the Koman ogy and ii. 260-262), and by definite historic
army in Africa, and Tertullian's Punic blood pal- Contents, data (e.g., the reference to the death
pably pulsates in his style, with its archaisms or of Septimius Severus, Ad Scapvlam,
provincialisms, its glowing imagery, its passionate iv.). In his work against Marcion, which he calls
temper. He was a scholar, having received an ex- his third composition on the Marcionitc heresy, he
cellent education. He wrote at least three books gives its date as the fifteenth year of Severus' reign
in Greek, to which he himself refers; but none of (Adv. Marrionem, i. 1, 15). The writings may be
these arc extant. His principal study was juris- divided with reference to the two periods of Ter-
prudence, and his methods of reasoning reveal stri- tullian's Christian activity, the Catholic and the
king marks of his juridical training. He shone Montanist (cf. Harnack, ut sup., ii. 262 sqq.), or
among the advocates of Rome, as Eusebius reports. according to their subject-matter. The object of
His conversion to Christianity took place about 197- the former mode of division is to show, if possible,
198 (so Harnack, Bonwctsch, and others), but its the change of views Tertullian's mind underwent.
immediate antecedents are unknown except as they Following the latter mode, which is of a more prac-
are conjectured from his writings. The event must tical interest, the writings fall into two groups:
have been sudden and decisive, transforming at (1) apologetic and polemic, e.g., Apologeticus, De
once his own personality; he himself said that he testimonio animce, Adv. JudaoSj Adv. Marcionem,
could not imagine a truly Christian life without such Adv. Praxeam, Adv. Hermogenemy De prcescriptione
a conscious breach, a radical act of conversion: hereticarum, Scorpiace, to counteract the sting of
"Christians are made, not born" (ApoL, xviii.; Gnosticism, etc.; (2) practical and disciplinary,
ANF, iii. 33). In the church of Carthage he was e.g., De monogamia, Ad uxorem, De virginibus velan-
ordained a presbyter, though he was married a dis, De cultu fcminarum, De patientia, De pudicitia,
fact which is well established by his two books to his De oratione, Ad martyras, etc. Among the apolo-
wife. In middle life (about 207) he broke with the getic writings the Apologeticus, addressed to the
Catholic Church and became the leader and the Roman magistrates, is the most pungent defense of
passionate and brilliant exponent of Montanism Christianityand the Christians ever written against
(see MONTANUS, MONTANISM), that is, he became a the reproaches of the pagans, and one of the most
schismatic. The statement of Augustine (Hcer., magnificent legacies of the ancient Church, full of
Ixxxvi.) that before his death Tertullian returned enthusiasm, courage, and vigor. It first clearly pro-
to the bosom of the Catholic Church is very improb- claims the principle of religious liberty as an in-
able. His party, the Tertullianists, still had in the alienable right of man, and demands a fair trial for
times of Augustine a basilica in Carthage, but in the Christians before they are condemned to death.
that same period passed into the orthodox Church. Tertullian was the first to break the force of such
XI. 20
Tertnllian THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 808

pharges as that the Christians sacrificed infants at Tertullian's main doctrinal teachings are as fol-
the celebration of the Lord's Supper and committed lows: (1) The soul was not preexistent, as Plato
incest; he pointed to the commission of such crimes affirmed, nor addicted to metempsy-
in the pagan world, and then proved by the testi- 2. Specific chosis, as the Pythagoreans held. In
mony of Pliny that Christiiins pledged themselves Teachings, each individual it is a new product,
not to commit murder, adultery, or other crimes; proceeding equally with the body from
he adduced also the inhumanity of pagan customs, the parents, and not created later and associated
such as feeding the flesh of gladiators to boasts. with the body (Dc anima, xxvii.). It is, however, a
The gods have no existence, and thus there is no distinct entity and a certain corporeity and as such
pagan religion against which Christians may offend. it may be tormented in Hades (De anima, Iviii.).

Christians do not engage in the foolish worship of (2) The soul's sinfulness is easily explained by its
the emperors; they do better, they pray for them. traducian origin (Dc anima, xxxix.). It is in bond-
Christians can afford to be put to torture and to age to Satan (whose works it renounces in bap-
death, and the more they are cast down the more tism), but has seeds of good (De anima, xli.), and
" "
they grow; the blood of Christians is seed (chap. when awakened, it passes to health and at once
1.). In the De prcescriplwne he develops as its fun- calls upon God (ApoL, xvii.) and is naturally Chris-
damental idea that, in a dispute between the Church tian. It exists in all men alike; it is a culprit and
and a separating party, the whole burden of proof yet an unconscious witness by its impulse to wor-
lies with the latter, as the Church, in possession of ship, its fear of demons, and its musings on death
the unbroken tradition, is by its very existence a to the power, benignity, and judgment of God as
guaranty of its truth. The five books against Mur- revealed in the Christian's Scriptures (Dc iestimonio,
cion, written 207 or 208, are the most comprehen- v.-vi.). (3) God, who made the world out of noth-
sive and elaborate of his polemical works, invalu- ing through his Son, the Word, has corporeity though
able for the understanding of Gnosticism. Of the he is a (De pra'scriptwne, vii.; Adv. Praxeam,
spirit
moral and ascetic treatises, the De patientui and vii.). In the statement of the Trinity, Tertullian
De spectaculis areamong the most interesting, and was a forerunner of the Niceno doctrine, approach-
the DC pudicitia and De virgimbuN velandis among ing the subject from the standpoint of the Logos doc-
the most characteristic. trine, though he did not fully state the immanent
III. Theology: Though thoroughly conversant Trinity. In his treatise against Praxeas, who
with the Greek theology, Tertullian was independ- taught patripassianism in Rome, he used the \\ords,
"
ent of its metaphysical speculation. Trinity and economy, persons and substance."
i. General He had learned from the Greek apol- The Son is distinct from the Father, and the Spirit
Character. ogies, and forms a direct contrast to from both the Father and the Son (Adr /'marram,
Origen. Origen pushed his idealism in xxv ). " These three are one substance, not one
'

person; and it. is said, 1 and my Father arc one

'

the direction of Gnostic spiritualism. Tertullian,

the prince of realists and practical theologian, car- in respect not of the singularity of number but the
*' "
ried his realism to the verge of materialism. This unity of the substance." The very names Father
is evident from his ascription to God of corporeity and " Son " indicate the distinction of personality.
and his acceptance of the traducian theory of the The Father is one, the Son is one, and the Spirit is
origin of the soul. He despised Greek philosophy, one (Adv. Praxwm, ix.). The question \\hether the
and, far from looking at Plato, Aristotle, and other Son was coeternal with the Father Tertullian does
Greek thinkers whom he quotes as forerunners of not set forth in full clearness; and though he did
Christ and the Gospel, he pronounces them the not fully state the doctrine of the immanence of the
patriarchal forefathers of the heretics (Dc anima, Trinity, he went a long distance in the way of ap-
iii.). He held up to scorn their inconsistency when proach to it (B. 13. Wai-field, in Princeton Theolog-
he referred to the fact that Socrates in dying ordered ical Review, 1900, pp. .50, 159). (4) In soteriology
a cock to be sacrificed to ^Esculapius (Dc anima, i.). Tertullian does not dogmatize, he prefers to keep
Tertullian always wrote under stress of a felt neces- silence at the mystery of the cross (Dc patientia, -

sity. He was never so happy as when he had op- iii.). The sufferings of Christ's life as well as of the
ponents like Marcion and Praxeas, and, however crucifixion are efficacious to redemption. In the
abstract the ideas may be which he treated, he was water of baptism, which (upon a partial quotation
always moved by practical considerations to make of John iii. 5) is made necessary (De baptismate, vi ),
his case clear and irresistible. It was partly this we are born again; we do not receive the Holy
element which gave to his writings a formative in- Spirit in the water, but are prepared for the Holy
fluence upon the theology of the postrNicene period Spirit. We little fishes, after the
example of the
in the West and has rendered them fresh reading to
"
ichthys, (having reference to
fish," Jesus Christ
this day. He was a born disputant, moved by the the formula Jesus Christus, theou uios soler, the
noblest impulses known in the Church. It is true initials of which make up the Greek word for
that during the third century no mention is made "
fish "), are born in water (De baptismaie, i ). In
of his name by other authors. Lactantius at the discussing whether sins committed subsequent to
opening of the fourth century is the first to do this, baptism may be forgiven, he calls baptism and pen-
" "
but Augustine treats him openly with respect. ance two planks on which the sinner may be
Cyprian, Tertullian's North African compatriot, saved from shipwreck language which he gave to
though he nowhere mentions his name, was well the Church (De peniteniia, xii.). (5) With reference
read in his writings, as Cyprian's secretary told to the rule of faith, it may be said that Tertullian
Jerome. is constantly using this expression and by it means
807 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tertulllan

now the authoritative tradition handed down in great services as an ingenuous and intrepid defender
the Church, now the Scriptures themselves, and per- of the Christian religion, which with him, as later
haps also a definite doctrinal formula. While he with Luther, was first and chiefly an experience of
nowhere gives a list of the books of Scripture, he his own On
account of his schism with the
heart.
divides them into two parts and calls them the in- Church, he, like the great Alexandrian Father,
strumentum and testamentum (Adv. Marcionem, iv. Origen, has failed to receive the honor of canoniza-
1). He distinguishes between the four Gospels and tion. (P. ScHAFFt.) D. S. SCHAFP.
insists upon thoir apostolic origin as accrediting BIBLIOGRAPHY: Editions of the works of Tertullian are
their authority (De prcescriplione, xxxvi. Adv. Mar-
;
numerous. The editio princeps by Beatus Rhenanus ap-
peared at Basel, 1521, 3d ed., 1539. Others are by M.
cionem, iv. 1-5) in trying to account for Marcion's
;
Mesnarte, Paris, 1545; S. Golenius, Basel, 1550; H. L. do
treatment of the Lucan Gospel and the Pauline la Barre, Paris, 1580; J. von Wouwer, Frankfort, 1603
"
writings he sarcastically queries whether the ship- and 1612; J. Pamelius, Paris, 1608 and elsewhere later;
" J. A. Sender, Hallo, 1770-76; E. F. Leopold, Leipaio,
master from Pontus (Marcion) had ever been
1839-41; in MPL, vols. i.-ii.; one of the best is by F.
guilty of taking on contraband goods or tampering Oehler, 3 vols., Leipsic, 1853-54; another is in the CREL,
with them after they wero aboard (Adv. Marcioncm, Reiffersoheid and G. Wissowa, Vienna, 1890 sqq., con-
v. 1). The Scripture, the rule of faith, is for liim tinund by A. Kroymann in new ed., 1906 sqq., who is also
fixed and authoritative (De corona, iii.-iv.). As op- issuing editions of separate works, Tubingen, 1907 sqq.;
cf. the latter's Quasntiones Tertulliance, Innsbruck, 1898.
posed to the pagan writings they are divine (De testi- Eng. transl. of the
"
Works " in A NF, vols iii.-iv. The
monio animcc, vi.). They contain all truth (De editions of separate works are too numerous to give here.
Works dealing more or less closely with the life of Ter-
prcescriptione, vii., xiv.) and from them the Church
tullian urc Groteineyer, Ueber Tertullien' s Leben und
drinks (potat) her faith (Adv Praxcam, xiii ). The
Schriften, Kcmpen, 1863-65; J. Kaye, The Ecclesiastical
prophets were older than the Greek philosophers and History of the Second and Third Centuries, new ed., Cam-
their authority is accredited by the fulfilment of their bridge, 18H9; G. Boissier, La Fin du paganisme, i. 259
sqq, Paris, 1891; H. Leclerrq, L'Afnque chrttienne, vol.
predictions (Apol., xix.- xx ). The Scriptures and the
" i Paris, 1904; W. Walker, Greatest Men of the Christian
teachings of philosophy are incompatible. What ,

Church, Chicago, 1908; DCB, iv 818-864 (by Pusey;

"
has Athens to do \\ith Jerusalem? he exclaims, elaborate); Schaff, Christum Church, 11. 818-833 ct pas-
" "
or the Academy \\ith the Church? (De prcescrip- sim; Noander, Christian Church, vol i passim; and in
,

general the works on the church history and history of

tionc, vii.). Human philosophy is a work of demons
doctrine of the period.
(Dc anima, i.) the Scriptures contain the wisdom of
; On his writings and doctrine consult J A Nosaclt,
heaven. The rule of faith, however, seems to be De vera cetatr ac doctnna srnptorum Tertulham, Halle,
also applied by Tertullian to some distinct formula 1768; W. Munscher, Darstellung der morulischen Ideen
des Clemens von Alejcandrien und des Tertullian, Hclm-
of doctrine, and he gives a succinct statement of
stcdt, 1796; F. C. H. Schwegler, Der Montanmmus, Tu-
the Christian faith under this term (De pr&scriptione, bingen, 1841; KHosselberg, Tertullian' s Lehre entwickelt
xiii.). aus semen Schnften, vol. 1, Lebrn und Schnften, Dorpat,
IV. Moral Principles: Tertullian was a deter- 1848; J. A. W. Neander, Antignostirus odcr Ceist des
Tertulllan und Einleitung in dcsxen Kchnften, Berlin, 2d
mined advocate of strict discipline and an austere ed 1849; G. Uhlhorn, Fundamrnta chronohjiae Ter-
,

code of practise, one of the leading representatives tulhano?, Gottingcn, 1852, A. Cres, Lea Idees de Tertullien
of the Puritanic element in the early Church. These sur la tradition eccUsiastiquc, Htrosburg, 1855; P. Daur^s,
Etude sur V apologdtique de Tertullien, Stnisburg, 1855;
views led him to adopt Montanism with its ascetic
F A. Burckhardt, Die Reclenlehrc des Tertulllan, Budissin,
rigor and its belief in chiliasm and the continuance 1857; C. Viala, Tertullun consulrrf comrnc apologiste,
of the prophetic gifts. In his writings on public Strnwburg, 1857; H. Mauohon, Exposition critique des
amusements, the veiling of virgins, the conduct of opinions de Tertullien sur Tomiwie ft la nature du pecht,
Strasbxirg, 1859; V. Bordes, Expos6 critique des opinions
women, and the like, he gives expression to these de Tertullien sur la redemption, Strasburg, I860; P. Gott-
views. On the principle that we should not look wald, De montanvtmo TertuJliam, Breslau, 1862; J Don-
at or listen to what we have no right to practise, aldson, Critical Hist of Christian Literature and Doctrine,
3 vols London, 1S64-66; J Polot, Ksnai sur I' Apologeticua
and that polluted things, seen and touched, pollute ,

de Tertullien, Strasburg, 186H; C A H. Kellner, in TQt

(De spectacuhs, viii., xvii.), he declared a Christian lii (1870), 547-556, hii (1871), 585-609; K. Ronsch, Doa
should abstain from the theater and the amphi- neue Testament Tertullmns aus den Schnften des Letzteren
theater. There pagan religious rites were applied reconstruct, Loipsic, 1871; C. E Troppel, Tertullien, 2d
ed., Pans, 1872; F. Boohringor, Die Kirche Christi, 2 vols.,
and the names of pagan divinities invoked; there 2d od., Zurich, 1873; K. Lcimbaeh, Reitrage zur Abend-
the precepts of modesty, purity, and humanity were mahlslehre Tertullians, Gotlm, 1874; G. Caucanus, Ter-
ignored or set aside, and there no place was offered tullien ft le montanisme, Geneve, 1876; G. N. Bonwotsch,

to the onlookers for the cultivation of the Christian Die Schnften Tertullians, Bonn, 1878; A. Harnack, in
ZKG, ii (1878), 572-583; idem. Die gnechische Ueber-
graces. Women should put aside gold and precious setzung des Apoloyeticus Tertullians, Leipsic, 1892; idem,
stones as ornaments (De cultu, v.-vi.), and virgins Littcratur, i. 667-687, ii. 2 passim; F. Oehninger, Tertul-
should conform to the law of St. Paul for women lian und seine Auferstehungslehre, Augsburg, 1878; J. do
Soyrcs, Montanism and the Primitive Church, London,
and keep themselves strictly veiled (De virginibus 1878; F. Nielsen, Tertullian'a Ethik, Copenhagen, 1879;
vekwdix). He praised the unmarried state as the G. R. Hauschild, Die rationale Psychologic und Erkennt-
highest (De monogamia, xvii.; Ad uxorem, i. 3), nistheone Tertulhans, Frankfort, 1880; G. N. Bonwetach,
Die Geschichte des Montanismus, Erlangen, 1881; W.
called upon Christians not to allow themselves to be Belck, Geschichte des Montanismus, Loipsic, 1883; G.
excelled in the virtue of celibacy by vestal virgins Ludwig, TertuUiaris Ethik, Leipsic, 1885; L. Atzborgcr,
and Egyptian priests, and ho pronounced second Geschichte der christlichen Eschatologie der vomiranischen
Zat, Freiburg, 1886; L. Lehanneur, Le Traite. de, Ter-
marriage a species of adultery (De exhortatione cas-
tullien contre les Valentiniens, Caen, 1886; M. Klussmann,
titatis, in.). If Tertullian went to an unhealthy ex-
Curarum TertuUianearum particulce, Halle, 1887; T. Zalm,
treme in his counsels of asceticism, he is easily for- Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons, i. 51 sqq ,105

given when one recalls his own

moral vigor and his eqq., 685 aq.q. f ii. 449 sqq., Leipaic, 1889-92; P. Corasen,
Twrtullian
,politan Oonibnolon
Tetrapolifc
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 808

Die Altercate Simonia Ivdaai auf ihre Qudlen Of

. . .
conscientiousness, and the immediate use of rare
Berlin, 1890; C. A. H. Kellner, Chronologic Ter-
manuscript sources; and it is of much local interest.
priift,
tulliana aupplementa, Bonn, 1800; E. Noeldeohen, Ter-
tullian, Gotha, 1890; Q. Rauch, Die Einfluaa der atoiachen (E. SIMONS.)
Phtioaophie auf die LehrbUdung Tertulliana, Halle, 1890; BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Harleas, in Zeitschrift de* bcrgiachen Oe-
F. Cabrol, Tertullien scion M. Courdaveaux, Paris, 1891; achichtsvereina, xxviii. 207 oqq, idem, in ADB, vol. zxxvii.
; ;

H. Q. Voigt, Eine verachollene Urkunde dea antinomiatiachen E. Simons, in Theologiache Arbeiten aua dem rheiniachen
Kampfea, Leipaio, 1891; M. Klussmann, Excerpta Ter- wiaaenachaftlichen Prediger-Verein, new series, iii (1899),
tullianea in Isidori Hiapalenna etymologiia, Hamburg. 70 sqq.; A. Lorenz, Die atte reformierte und die neue evan-
"
1892; K. H. Wirth, Der Verdienst "-Begriff bei Ter- gcliache Gemeinde, pp. 68 aqq., Grevenbroich, 1005.
tuttian in der chn&tlichen Kirche cntwickcU, Leipsic, 1892;
C. T. Cruttwell, Literary Hist, of Early Chriatianity, 2 TESSEN-WESIERSKI, FRANZ VON: German
vols., London, 1893; G. Eraer, Die Seelcnlehre Tertulliana, Roman Catholic; b. at Berent (30 m. s.w. of Dan-
Paderborn, 1893; J E. B. Mayor, Tertullian'a Apology zig), West Prussia, Dec. 22, 1869. He was educated
in Journal of Philosophy, xxi (1893), 259-295; H. Gom-
at the University of Breslau (Lie. Theol., 1894),
pens, Tertullianea, Vienna, 1895; E. Rolffs, in TV, xii.
4 (1895); K. Werber, Tertulliana Schrift De epectaculia where he became privat-docent in 1895, first for
in ihrem Verfialtnia zu Varroa Rerun divinarum libri, church history and later (1897) for apologetics.
Teschen, 1896; M
Winklcr, Der Traditionabegriff dc3 Since 1899 he has been associate professor of the
Urchnatentums bei TertuUian, Munich, 1897; P. Wolf, Die
latter subject in the same institution, and in 1900
SteUung der Christen zu den Schauapielen noch Tertulliana
Schnft De apectaculia, Vienna, 1897; E. M. Gaucher, was given charge of the courses in philosophical and
L'Apologie de Tertullien, Auteuil, 1898; J. Stior, Die theological propaedeutics. He has written Die
Oottes- und Logos- Lehre Tertulliana G6ttingen, 1899;
Grundlogen des Wunderbegriffs nach Tfiomas von
t

F. Kattenbusch, Das apoatolieche Symbolum, ii. 53 aqq.,

Leipaic, 1900; P. Monceaux, Hist, litteraire de I'Afrique Aguin (Paderborn, 1899); and Der Autaritdtsbe-
chrctienne, vol. i., Paris, 1901; E. von der Golti, Das den Hauptphasen
griff in seiner histarischen Entr
Oebet in der tllteaten Chriatenheit, pp. 279 aqq., Loipsic,
wickelung (1907).
1901; A. Bigolmair, Die Beteiligung der Chnaten am
cffentlichen Leben in vorhonstantiniacher Zeit, Munich, TEST ACT: The name commonly applied to an
1902; C. H. Guigiiebert, Tertullien. fitude aur sea aen- act of parliament passed in 1673, formally entitled
}

timenta a Vegard de l empire et de to aocieti civile, Pans, "

1902; K. J Neumann, Hippolyt von Rom in seiner Sttl-
An Act to Prevent Dangers from Popish Recu-
lung zu Staat und Walt, vol. i., Leipsic, 1902, A. d'Al&s, sants," which extended the provisions of tho Cor-
Theologie de Tertullian. Paris, 1905 (oxcellenl); W. Vol-
poration Act (q.v.) to public offices in general. It
lert, Tertulliana dogmatische und ethieche Grundanachauung,
Gutoraloh, 1905; B. B. Warfield, in Princeton Theological disqualified for all offices, civil or military, those
Review, 1905, pp 529-555, 1906, pp. 1-38, 145-107; K. who had not taken the oaths of allegiance and su-
Adam, Der Kirchenbegriff Tertulliana, Paderborn. 1907; premacy, received the sacrament according to the
Kruger, History, pp. 250-280 et pasaim; Bardenhowei, rites of the Church of England, and renounced the
Geachichte, pp. 39, 41, 310 eqq., 365; idem, Patrologie, pp.
157-167, EUR. tranal., 8t. Louis, 1908; CeilHer, Auteurs
doctrine of transubstantiation. It was partly the
sacrte, ii. 1-86. result of intrigues within the Cabal, forwarded by

WERNER: Shaftesbury with the intention of driving Clifford

TESCHENMACHER, tesh'en-maH"er, from and partly aimed at the duke of York
office,
Reformed pastor and Annalist; b. at Elberfeld (25
(laterJames II.), who was then high admiral. Will-
m. n.n.e. of Cologne) Sept. 13 (old style), 1590; d. iam of Orange declared in favor of its principle, and
at Xanten (32 m. n.n.w. of DUsseldorf) Apr. 2,
it was maintained by both whigs and tones, until
1638. He was educated at the Reformed schools at
both acts were repealed in 1828 on the motion of
Ilerborn, 1601-06, and received his master's degree Lord John Russell.
at Heidelberg in 1609; was pastor of a circuit of
churches in the government of Jiilich, 1611-13; at TESTAMENTS OF THE TWELVE PATRI-
Sittard in the Netherlands, 1613-15; at Elberfeld, ARCHS. See PSEUDEFIGRAPHA.
1615-17; at Cleves, 1617-23; and court preacher TESTAMENTUM DOMINI NOSTRI JESU
at Emmerich for the government of Brandenburg, CHRISTI: A church order of the fifth century.
1623-32. After the Spanish occupation the Re- The Testament was written originally in Greek, but
formed in the vicinity of Jiilich, Berg, and Wesel is not extant in that language. A Syriac transla-
were driven from their churches in consequence of tion from the Greek was made by Jacob of Edessa
an edict of Nov. 3, 1625, and Teschenmacher was in 687. An Arabic version exists, taken from a lost
instrumental in gaining an intervention on the part Coptic translation. Analogous to the Arabic is an
of the Netherlands states-general, and the restora- Ethiopia translation. Fragments of the liturgy
tion of the churches. Two of Teschenmacher's may be looked for in many manuscripts, since a few
works were printed: Repetitio brevis catholicce et prayers were long in use, partly to the present time.
orthodoxas rdigionis (Wesel, 1635), containing brief A fragment, the description of Antichrist, exists in
historical and dogmatic parts; and Aftales divide Latin, which may, however, antedate the Testament.
Julice Montiium . . . (Arnheim, 1638). His most In the Arabic and Syriac the Testament appears
valuable work was Annales ecdesiastici reformationis as the first part of an octateuch entitled dementia.
ecdesiarum Clivi<B, Julia, Mantium. The original The division into eight books was in imitation of
manuscript, dedicated under date of 1633, has dis- the Apostolic Constitutions which apparently it
appeared, but was used by J. D. von Steinen, who was to replace, and as such found place among the
incorporated more than one-fourth into his Beschreir books of the Bible in manuscripts. Nothing cer-
bung der ReformaOonageschicfUe des Herzogthums tain is known of the age and origin of the octa-
Cleve (1727) A copy of the manuscript is preserved
.
teuch; it was received in various oriental legal col-
in the royal library at Berlin. The work, though lections.
lacking in perspective and a knowledge of political The contents of the Testament are arranged in
surroundings, yet is
distinguished by learning and three parts, loosely connected; an apocalypse, i.
809 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tertulliftn
Tetrapolitaa Oonfeiiion

3-14; directions concerning church building, i. 19; 1900, pp. 532 sqq., Freiburg, 1900; Harnack, in SBA,
and a church order, specifying the duties of the 1899, pp. 878 sqq.; Achelis, in Theoloyische LUerotur-
teitung, 1899, pp. 704 sqq.; Zahn, in NKZ, 1900, pp. 438
clergy and of the laity, i. 20-ii. 25. To instructions sqq.; Baumstark, in TQS, 1900, pp. 1 sqq.; Drews, in
for the consecration of bishops a long liturgy is TSK, 1901, pp. 141 sqq.
appended. There are other liturgical parts, e.g., i.
TETRAGRAMMATON. See JEHOVAH; YAHWEH.
32, 34-35. Noteworthy are the canons on widows,
\. 40-43; there are female clerics, ranking above TETRAPOLITAN CONFESSION: The Confession
the deaconesses. The sources of the work are as
by the four cities of Strasburg, Constance,
presented
various as its parts. The Apocalypse is no doubt
Memmingen, and Lindau to the Diet of Augsburg,
borrowed; chaps, xix.-xxii. correspond to chaps, and properly speaking the first confession of the
xxxv.-xxxviii. of the Arabic Didascalia; yet the Reformed Church. The call of the Diet by the em-
Testament is probably the prior source. From i. 1530 (see AUGSBURG
peror at Augsburg, Apr. 8,
20 there is so much resemblance to the Egyptian CONFESSION AND ITS APOLOGY, 1), declaring for an
church order that this main part may be considered
open discussion and final reconcilement, though met
as an elaboration of the same. Here and there occur with misgiving in upper Germany, where the dele-
analogies to the Apostolic Constitutions and the gates were advised rather to work for a future free
"
Canons of Hippolytus," and T. Zahn points out general council, yet encouraged electoral Saxony
verbal agreements with the prayers of the Gnostic and several imperial cities in southern Germany to
"
Acts of Peter." These desultory parts are held
prepare arguments in writing for the defense of their
together by the literary fiction to which the Tes- respective beliefs and forms. By Apr. 26, Wolf-
tament owes its name. After the resurrection, it is
gang Capito (q.v.) was at work at Strasburg. How-
represented, Christ appears to the apostles, imparts ever, the instructions to the delegates, Johannes
to them the Holy Spirit, and, at the request of Sturm (q.v.) and Matthis Pfarrer, aimed at two
Peter and John, gives them a description of the
things; the avoidance of the disunion of the Protes-
end, i.e., the Apocalypse (i. 1-15). John, Peter, tant states, and of the examination of the meaning
and Matthew wrote down the New Testament and of doctrines. When they arrived at Augsburg this
went it into the world through Dositheus (perhaps
policy proved impracticable, because Joharin JEck's
Erustus of Aristarchus), Silas, Magnus (perhaps 404 articles included the Strasburg party in its at-
M;inaen), and Aquila. Further on, the author does tack; because there were present a number of
not take pains to sustain the disguise. In the form Lutheran theologians holding themselves entirely
of the Testament of Christ may be seen the culmina- and in the opening address the demand of a
aloof;
tion of the apostolic fietion that attaches to church written presentation and defense in Latin and Ger-
orders from the beginning. In tho conviction that man was made of each constituent. Again and again
church orders were derived from the apostolic tra- the delegates sent back to Strasburg for theologians,
dition, all books on the subject since the Didache but no invitation or freedom of passage having been
were ascribed to the apostles. The fiction increases assured, the council hesitated to send Martin But-
in the Apostolic Church Order and tho Apostolic zer and Capito for fear of their arrest. Meanwhile
Constitutions, viii (see APOSTOLIC CHURCH DIREC- the two had started and arrived June 23 and 26,
TORY; APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTIONS AND CANONS) but for three weeks longer they deferred their public
\vhere each apostle in turn is made to give his di-
appearance. It was already certain that the princes
rections verbally; finally, in the Testament all is would not admit the cities dissenting on the doc-
put into the mouth of Christ himself. This form trine of the sacrament to a subscription of their
was by the apocalyptic introduction.
facilitated Confession (Augsburg) and only by the sacrifice of
;

Even the eschatological address of Mace. xiii. 5 those dissenting on the sacrament, Melanchthon
sqq., Revelation, and the Apocalypse of Peter are hoped to save the cause of the Evangelicals, since
represented as spoken or communicated by Jesus. it was known that the emperor would not submit
It can not be doubted that the falsification was gen- the corporeal presence in the Eucharist to question.
erally accepted ingood faith. The Apocalypse seems Simultaneous with the arrival of Butzer, it happened
to have originated in Syria, as this (i. 10) stands at that Landgrave Philip of Hesse, in spite of scruples
the head of the lands that are to suffer from Anti- as to the article on the sacrament, signed the Saxon
christ.Zahn suggests that it might have originated Confession. The Strasburg theologian, therefore,
in a separatist church, having first in mind the had to prepare in haste his own confession. In sub-
Audians (q.v.); A. Baumstark ascribes it to the stance it followed as closely as possible the Confes-
Monophysites; A. Harnack and P. Drews refer it sion of the princes. Accordingly, in the article on
to Egypt, as the formulas and usages are Egyptian. "
the sacrament it is declared that the Lord in this
The time of its production is assumed by most to sacrament according to his Word gives to his fol-
have been the fifth century; it is already cited in lowers his true body and true blood to eat and drink,
" "
the Theosophy of Aristocritus, at the end of the to the nourishment of their souls and to eternal life,
fifth century, as a pseudepigraphical work. that they may remain hi him and he in them."
(H. ACHELIS.) Zwingli's influence appears in the twenty-three arti-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The first edition was by Lagarde in ReKquia cles in the first place given to the Scripture-principle,
juris ecclesiaatici antiquisaimte Syrioce, Greece, pp. 2-19,
80-89, Leipsic, 1856, from a ninth-century manuscript; followed by Christ and his grace as the chief con-
and the complete edition was by I. E. Rahmani, patriarch tent and the critical measure of ecclesiastical tradi-
of Antioch, Maims, 1899. There is an Eng. transl. by tion. Zwinglian also is the stress on the Church
J. Cooper and A. Maclean, Edinburgh, 1902 (of. Nestle
J. "
invisible as the Bride of Christ." The sacraments
in AJT, vii. 1903, pp. 749 sqq.).
Consult: A. Ehrhard,
Die oUchrittliche Litterotur und ihre Erforachung 1884- are so called not only because they are visible tokens
Tetrapolitan Confeion THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 31O
Teutonic Order

of grace, but also because they are acts of homage avowed their allegiance. This unyielding firmness
to Christ; hence a reversal of the accent of the perplexed the emperor. Nothing remained but to
Augsburg Confession, viii. The use of images is re- ignore the cities till the prorogation of the diet. The
"
jected, though in themselves, when not honored decree of the emperor turned more sternly against
1
De- "
and worshiped, they are unobjectionable.' the Zwinglian cities" than against the Lutherans;
nunciation of abuses is more severe than in the Con- and he threatened to visit severe measures upon the
"
fession of the princes, the mass being termed a grave error against the sacrament as against icono-
"
horrible carding mart" and an unendurable clasm and the like. Naturally, the four cities de-
abomination." clined the decree; but they had all the more reason
While the theologians were thus busy, the dele- to sock closer relations with the Lutherans. They
gates were endeavoring to induce other cities to were present at Schmalkald, and their signatures
sign, but met with little success. Only Constance, appear in the document of the league of Feb. 27,
Memmingen, and Lindau declared themselves will- 1531 (see SCHMALKALD ARTICLES). Thus a develop-
ing, if the article on the sacrament
were abbreviated. ment arose wliich turned aside the Tetrapolitana.
After a second unsuccessful effort to present the The Swiss, to whom it was represented as a bridge
Confession in the emperor's presence, it was re- to the Lutherans, would not exchange their clear
ceived by his chancellor on July 9. The emperor doctrine on the sacrament for vague words. The
demanded next (July 14) that all protesting cities Confession of the League was the Augustana, to
should declare their faith, with the result that, be- which the Tetrapolitana became secondary, as in
sides Nuremberg and Reutlingen, also Heilbronn, substance the same; and the party of Stratfburg ad-
Kcmpten, and Windsheim joined the Saxon Con- mitted at the Diet of Sehweinfurt in 1532, that they
fession. The adherents of the Tetrapolitana, now recognized the Augustana alongside of theirs, but
more isolated, surmised correctly that they were to were not willing to abandon their own.
be pressed to a more positive avowal of the Zwing- Soon after the reading of the confutation, the
lian idea of the sacrament; hence, they made no Strasburg delegates secured a secretly taken ropy,
further statements, referring to their Confession as and Butzer set to work to prepare an apology,
neither Lutheran nor Zwinglian, but in obedience which, with the Confession, was published, Bckandt-
to Christ's command according to Scripture. For nuss der vicr Frcy- und Rrirhslatt (Strasburg, 1531;
a considerable time they heard only uncertain Zweibrucken, 1604). A Latin translation of the
rumors concerning the reception of their document. Tetrapolitana appeared (Strasburg, 1 53 ) 1 .

Evidently the emperor was playing arbitrary treat- (E. F KAHL M^LLEH)
ment against them in order to gain the Lutheran BIBLIOGRAPHY- T. Keim, ScJiwtibischc Reformalwnwesrhiehte,
estates. However, the first decree (Sept. 22) favor- Tubingen, IKS/i; F. Dohrl, Memminacn im Ifrformationa-
-v Augsburg, 1S7S;
parts iv Virrk, in ZKG,
ing common counsel and common cause against
zeitalter, ,

1888; A. Putzold, Die Konfutatwn den Yierstadtelfekennt-

those not holding to the real corporeal presence in
nwacs, LeipHio, 1900; J. Firker, in Theologize he Ahhand-
the sacrament and against Anabaptists, was de- lungen fur H. Holtzmann, Tubingen, 15)01*; K. Mullen
clined by the Lutheran estates with the expressed Die Bekenntmsfichriften der refurmirten Kirche, Lt-ipsic,
1003. The 404 theses of Eck are translated in Pajn r.s of
hope that the former might be reconciled in common the American Society of Church H tutor y, 2 ser., u 21-81,
with the Christian churches. This reference had in New York, 1910.J
mind, doubtlessly, the pending efforts of Butzer
and Capito to bring together Luther and Zwingli. TETRARCH: The title primarily of a military
At any rate the principal effect of the decree was to and an administrative official. In its mili-
later of
spare the cities holding the Zwinglian doctrine the tary sense it denoted the commander of a cavalry
peril of a joint Roman and Lutheran antagonism, squadron of four companies or sixty-four men In
and led to a decisive break between the emperor the administrative sense a tctrarch was the ruler
and the Lutheran estates, tending to draw the pro- of a tetrarchy, originally the fourth part of a coun-
testing groups into closer community. On Oct. 13, try; as was the case among the Thessaliaris and,
the party of Strasburg ventured to apply to the at one time, among the Galatian Celts of Asia Minor
" "
Saxons for admission into the Evangelical league (cf.also the four tribes of Attica previous to the
and were not unfavorably met. Meanwhile the time of Clcisthenes). Later he was simply a tribu-
Tctrapolitan Confession had been submitted to the tary or petty prince, and in this sense the title was
committee of theologians, which was already occu- applied by the Romans to the many princelings of
pied with a confutation of the Saxon Confession. Syria, only the most important being officially
The confutation prepared by Eck, Johannes Faber "
styled king."
(q.v.), and Johannes Cochlseus (q.v.) was in the The best example of tetrarchs is furnished by the
hands of the emperor, Aug. 10. In the confutation Herodian dynasty. In 41 B.C. Herod and his brother
of the Tetrapolitana there is less monotonous cita- Phassel received the title of tetrarch from Antony.
tion of tradition than against the Saxon and more In 40 the former had the title of king at Rome, and
reference to Biblical proof, consonant with the in 20 his younger brother Pheroras was made tet-
Zwinglian Scripture-principle. The tone is very rarch of Peraea. On the death of Herod (4 B.C.),
severe, and, without warrant, fables of mockery of his dominions were divided among his sons, Arehe-
the host are alleged, against which Sturm promptly laus having the preeminence as " ethnarch," while
replied with a brief and dignified exoneration. The his brothers Antipas and Philip were tetrarchs.
four cities declared (Oct. 30) that they were open Agrippa I. received from Caligula (37 A.D.) the title
to conviction through a general council, " accord- of king together with the tetrarchies of Philip and
ing to the divine Scripture"; and, for the rest, Lysanias; and his eon, Agrippa II., was already
311 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tetrapolitan Confession
Teutonic Order

king of Chalcis when he was given the tetrarchies of that it was purely German. The beginning of the
his father. The New Testament registers the popu- order is to be discerned in a field hospital which was
lar disregard of these official distinctions; in Matt, established during the siege of Acre, begun in Aug.,
" "
ii.
22, Archelaus is king instead of his father, 1189, which, after the conclusion of the siege?, was
and Matt. xiv. 9, as contrasted with xiv. 1, and transferred to the imperial chaplain Konrad and
Mark 14 sqq. term Herod Antipas " king."
vi. the chamberlain Burkhard; these with others united
Only Luke observes the exact nomenclature (Luke to form a fraternity after the rule of the Knights of
"
iii. 1, 19, ix. 7; Acts xiii. 1). St. John and named it the Hospital of St. Mary
(E. VON DOBSCHCTZ.) of the (iermans in Jerusalem." In its origin, there-
BIBLIOOBAPHY: W. M. Ramsay, The Church in Mr Roman fore, the order was purely a brotherhood for the
Empire, pp. 41, 45, 55, London and New York, 1H93; care of the sick, at the head of which stood an eccle-
H. Mnlhewa, Hit. of N. T Times in Palestine, pp. 145-
siastic, the above-mentioned Chaplain Konrad,
140, New York, 1899, 2d od., 1910; Srhurcr, Geschichtc,
i. 423-424, ii. 197, iii. 77-78, Eng. transl I ii. 7-8; DB, , ,
who appears in a document of 1191 as Preceptor
iv. 725-726; EB, iv. 4978; JE, xii. 120; DCG, ii. 717. hosjriialiK Alemannorum. After the conquest of
b. at Leipsie between 1450 Acre in July, 1191, the brotherhood erected there
TETZEL, JOHANN: a hospital and a church.
and 14(>(); d. there in July, 1*519. lie studied the-
Clement III. in 1191 and Celestine III. in 1196
ology and philosophy at the university of his native
gave formal sanction to the order, which found
city, entered the Dominican ordor in 1489, achieved
some success as a preacher, and was in 1502 com- powerful protectors in Duke Frederick of Swabia
missioned by the pope to preach the jubilee indul-
and the Emperor Henry VI. From the latter it re-
ceived, in 1197, a hospital at Barletta, its first pos-
gence, which he did throughout his life. In 1509
session in the West, and the wealthy monastery of
he was made inquisitor, and in 1517 Leo X. made
him commissioner of indulgences for all Germany.
the Holy Trinity at Palermo. The favor of the
Ho acquired the degree of licentiate of theology in
emperor proceeded largely from his desire to make
the University of Fiankfort-on-the-Oder, 1517, and the order an instrument for the prosecution of his
that of doctor of theology, 1518, by defending, in plans in Europe, and this led to the assumption of
two disputations, the doctrine of indulgences against the military character. In 1 1 98 the brotherhood
Luther. The impudence with which he; sold full
made military service according to the rules of the
forgiveness for sins not yet committed, caused great
Templars a part of its work, and a knight was
chosen as the first grand master. Confirmation by
scandal; and when Luther in the confessional be-
came aware of the evil effect of his doings, he began Innocent HI. followed in Feb., 1199. The insignia
of the order was a white mantle with a black cross
to preach openly against him. He was also con-
demned (though later
pardoned) for immorality. potent. Though progress under the first grand
masters was not rapid, the order gained a foothold
It became necessary
to disavow Tetzel; and, \\hen
he discovered that Miltitz was aware of all his frauds in Germany, where a number of hospitals at Halle,
and embezzlements, he withdrew, frightened, into Coblenz, Nuremberg, and other places came into
the Dominican monastery in Leipsic. He died at its possession. The oldest province was Thuriiigia;
the time of the Leipsic disputation in 1519. the province of Austria was created in 1203. The
In
C. H. H. Wright and Charles Neil's Protestant Dic- Emperor Frederick II. and Pope Ilonorius 111. gave
the knights their protection, and the latter, in a
tionary (London, 1904), pp. 294 sqq., is a facsimile
of a Tetzel indulgence. bull of Jan., 1221, placed the order on an equal

BinunaRAPHr: G. Hocht, Vita footing with the Knights of St. John and the
J. Tetzcli, Wittenberg, 1717
(Protestant); Vogcl. Leben den
J. Telsel, 2d od. . . ,
Templars.
Leipmc, 1721
(Protestant); F. (1. Hofxiuum, Lebrns- Under its fourth grand master, Hermann of Salza
bcschmkuna deft Ahlnftxprcdiurrn Tetzel, Lcipuic, 1841 (1210-39), the order entered upon a rapid develop-
(Protestant) V. Grone, Tetzel und Luther, oder f,ebens-
;
ment. In liis time occurred the most important
geschichtc und Rerhtftrttgunft des Johann Tetzel, 2d
. . .

ed Manntor, I860 (Roman Catholic); Kuyser, Genrhicht*-

,
event in the history of the order, its establishment
quellen uber den Abfassprediocr Tetzel, Annaberg, 1877; in Prussia. The planting of Christianity in that
F. KOraer, Tetzel der Ablasspredif/er, Frankeiibprg, 1880
region had been effected after many attempts by
(Protestant); E. Kolbo, Johann Tetzel, Steyl, 1882 (Ro-
man Catholic); K. W. Herrmann, Johann Tetzel, 2<1 ed ,
Christian, a Cistercian monk of Oliva, who, in 1212,
Frankfort, 1883 (Roman Catholic); G. A. Moijcr, Johann was made bishop of Prussia. A pagan reaction in
Tetzel, Utrecht, 1885 (Roman Catholic); G. Kaworau, the country induced Bishop Christian to ask aid of
Sobald das Geld im Kasten khngt, Barmen, 1890 (Protes-
the Teutonic Order, which received from pope and
tant); J. B. Rohm, Zur Tetzel-Legende, Hildeaheim, 1890;
P. Majunko, Johann Tetzel, der Ablassprediger, Erfurt, emperor the promise of the absolute possession of
1899; II. Paulus, Johann Tetzel, der Ablanxprediger, Mainz, all the lands it might conquer. In the spring of
1899; J. Janssen, Hist, of the German People, iii. 89 sqq., 1230 an army of the order entered Masovia. The
St. Louis, 1900 (Roman Catholic); Cambridge Modem
cities of Kulm, Thorn, and Marienwerder were
History, ii. 121, 130, 134, 204, New York, 1904; Srhaff,
Christian Church, vi. 151-155 ot passim, and, in general, founded and the conquest of Prussia proper was
literature on Martin Luther and on the beginnings of the
begun. Reenforcemcrits poured in from Germany,
Reformation.
where' the crusade against the heathens was being
TEUTONIC ORDER (Domus Hospitalis S. Maria* preached and there resulted the steady acquisition
Theutonicorum in Jerusalem). An order originally of the Prussian territory, the possession of which
of the hospitaler type and later chivalric, subsequent was secured by the erection of castles and the es-
in origin to the Knights of St. John and the Tem- tablishment of cities. By 1283 the power of the
plars and probably not inferior to them in lasting order was definitely established. As early as 1237
importance. It differed from these two orders in the Teutonic Order had succeeded in achieving
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG dig

what every other order failed to accomplish, the ever, hastened the end. In 1440 a part of the
erection of an independent state. After the fall of knights and the cities organized the Prussian League
Acre in 1291 the capital of the order was removed in opposition to the main order and in a civil war
to Venice, and in 1309 to Marienburg in Prussia. which followed the league gained possession of more
The spread of the Christian religion and the ger- than fifty towns and offered to place the country
manization of the land were carried on eimultane- under the suzerainty of Poland. Finally, by the
eously. Peasants from Lower Saxony and West- peace of Thorn in 1466, West Prussia was incorpo-
phalia transformed the lands into fertile grain fields, rated with Poland, while East Prussia was granted
and by the side of the castles of the order arose to the grand master as a Polish fief. In Germany,
numerous towns with a German population, which too, decay had overtaken the order so that no help
grew rich through an extensive commerce. Be- could be derived for the defense of the possessions
tween the knights and the inhabitants of the cities in Prussia. In 1525 Albert of Prussia (q.v.), elected
cordial relations prevailed and the order itself de- grand master of the order, transformed its posses-
rived great wealth from its trade. The strength of sions into a hereditary duchy, held of the king of
the order was due to its rigorous discipline and its Prussia. In 1561 Gerhard Kettler, following the
excellent organization. At its head was the grand example of Albert, received Livonia as a fief from
master, who was limited in the exercise of his powers Poland with the title of duke of Courland and
by a council of the other high officials, among them Semigallia.
the chief hospitaler and the treasurer. The su- The subsequenthistory of the order, restricted
preme power was vested in the grand chapter of the to possessions in Germany, Austria, and the
its
order which elected the grand master and exercised Netherlands, possesses little interest. By the treaty
its power of punishment and deposition. Each of Pressburg in 1805 the presidency of the order
house of the order was under the authority of a was vested in the house of Austria, and within the
commendator (Komthur) and a number of houses next few years its territories in South Germany and
constituted a province at the head of which stood on the Rhine were transferred by Napoleon to the
the Land-Komthur. Eligible to membership in the governments within which they lay. As a purely
order were Germans only of legitimate birth, show- Austrian order it was reorganized in 1809 and con-
ing the arms of four ancestors, pure in morals and firmed by Pius IX. in 1871. Its activity is now
unstained in honor. The discipline in the houses restricted to its original service, the care of the sick
was strict, the life simple. Unquestioning obedience
in war and in peace. (O.
to superiors was the highest duty and every trans- For list of periodical articles consult: O.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
gression was punished severely. Flight in battle or Rautenberg, Oat- und Weatpreuaaen. Em Weufuhrer
intercourse with the heathen was punished by ex- durch die ZeUchrifthtierotur, Lfupsic, 1807. Commit
further: E. Heunig, Die Stotutm des dcutachen Ordenn,
pulsion. The order also embraced clerical brethren
Konigsberg, 1806; Scriptorea rerum Pruasicarum, i. 3
for the performance of religious duties, and sisters, aqq., 291 sqq., Leipsic, 1861 Codex diplomatics ordinis
;

whose work lay especially in the hospitals. The S. Maria Theutonicorum, ed. J. H. Hennes, 2 vola., Mainz,
1846-51; K. von Schl6zer, Die Hanaa und dcr dcutsche
principal hospital in Prussia was situated at Elbing
Ritterorden, Berlin, 1851; J. Voigt, Oeachtchte den dfutschen
and in Germany at Nuremberg. Ritterordena, 2 vols., Berlin, 1857-59; B. Dudik, De* I*>hen
The order attained the height of power in the deutachen Ritterordena Muwaammlung in Wien, Vienna,
second half of the fourteenth century. In the peace 1858; A. L. Ewald, Die Eroberung Preuaaena durch die
of Kalisch Little Pomerania was acquired from Devlachen, 4 vols., Halle, 1872-85; F. C. Woodhouae,
Military Religious Order* of the Middle Agea, London, 1879;
Poland and with the acquisition of the Danish pos- F. de Bailee, Annoles de I'ordre teutonique. Paris. 1887;
sessions in Esthonia its authority extended along M. Perlbaoh, Die Stotitten de* Deutachordena, Halle, 1890;
the entire Baltic coast. It became also the great M. Oehler, Oeachichte dea Deutachen Ritterordena, vol. i.,
Die Anfange dea Ordena bia gum Eintritt in den Preuaaen-
power in the Baltic Sea. In 1398 its fleet took Got- kampf, Elbing, 1908.
land from the Vitalian Brethren and in 1404 it
acquired Wisby. By the purchase of Neumark its TEUTSCH, GEORG DANIEL: German Luther-
connection with the empire was established. In this an; b. at Schassburg (290 m. e.s.e. of Budapest),
very time of glory, however, powerful forces of de- Transylvania, Dec. 12, 1817; d. at Hermannstadt
cay had begun to work. In place of the rigorous (72 m. s.s.e. of Klausenburg) July 2, 1893. He
discipline and simplicity of old appeared luxury and studied at Vienna and Berlin, 1837-39; was in-
ostentation. strife sapped the strength of the structor at the Evangelical gymnasium at Schass-
Party
order and the relations of friendship between knights burg, 1842-1850; and rector, 1850-63; preacher at
and citizens had disappeared. Moreover, with the Agnetheln and dean of the ecclesiastical district of
rise of Poland appeared a formidable rival to the Schenk, 1863-67; and Evangelical bishop in Her-
German influence. In 1386 Jagello, Grand Prince mannstadt, 1867-93. Teutsch was the leader for
of Lithuania, became king of Poland. War soon German institutions among the Saxons in Transyl-
broke out with the knights, and on June 15, 1410, vania, particularly in education and religion. He
on the plain of Tannenberg the forces of the order was instrumental in defending and maintaining the
were crushingly defeated; all its great officers per- autonomy of his church and its schools against the
ished, and the power of the order was annihilated encroachments of the Roman Catholic and Greek
at one blow. It was saved from destruction by the Churches, and the Magyar influence; and he was
heroism of Count Henry of Plauen, who held Marien- active, both before and after becoming bishop, in
burg against the Poles to such good effect that the its internal organization and promotion. As a
peace of Thorn in 1411 left the possessions of the preacher he was eloquent and persuasive. He wrote
order almost unimpaired. Internal anarchy, how- Urkundenbuch der evangdischen Landeskirche in
SIS RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Teutonic Order
Thanksgiving- Day

Siebenbilrgen (Hermannstadt, 1862); Synodat-ver- at the University of Freiburg which he held till his
handlungen der cvangdischen Landeskirche in Sieben- death. CAUL MIRBT.
biirgen Ins 1600 (1883); and Geschichte der sieben- BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. W. Neander, Theobald Thamer, der
biirger Sachsen (3d ed., 1899). (F. TEUTSCH). Reprasentant und Vorganger moderner Onstesrichtung in
dem ReformationszcitaUer, Berlin, 1842; Htstorische po-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The memorial address by F. Teutsch was G. Phillips and G. Gdrres. x. 341-363,
litiache Blotter, ed.
published at Hermannstadt, and contains a list of litera- W. H. Hochhuth, De
Munich, 1842; C. Theoboldi Thameri
ture. Consult the biography by F. Toutach, Hermann-
vita et acriptis, Marburg, 1858; idem, in ZHT, 1861, part
stadt, 1909; and ADB, vol. xxxvii.
2, pp. 165-278; H. Scbreiber, Qeschichte der Albert-Lud-

TEXTUS RECEPTUS. See BIBLE TEXT, 2. tngt-Univerntat in Freiburg im Brciagau, ii. 293-296,
II., 2,
Freiburg, 1859; A. R&n, Die Convertiten rot der Refor-
THADDEUS. See JUDAS. mation, i. 236-297, ib. 1866.

THANK OFFERING. See SACRIFICE.

THAMER, ta'mer, THEOBALD German convert :

to the Roman Catholic Church; b. at Oberehnheim THANKSGIVING DAY: A

day specially ap-
(15 m. s.w. of Strasburg) at the beginning of the pointed for the expression of a sense of obligation
six1.cunth century; d. at Freiburg May 23, 1569. for divine favor, instituted in New England, in
Ho received his education at Rosheim, and at the much the same way as Fast-day (q.v.). One was
University of Wittenberg, where he studied 1535-39. often appointed to offset the other. At first a day
He then went to Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and in of thanksgiving was observed in gratitude for un-
1543 \\as caller] to Marburg by Landgrave Philip usual mercies, and became regular only in the last
of Hesse as professor of theology and preacher at half of the seventeenth century. There is evi-
St. Elizabeth's Church. Thamer had been hardly dence to show that the first Thanksgiving Day of
a year in Marburg when his bristling defense of the the Pilgrims was on Dec. 20, 1620, upon their first
Lutheran doctrine as to the Lord's Supper brought arrival, but the distinction is usually given to the
him Andreas Hy-
into collision with his colleague, thanksgiving week celebrated in company with the
pcrius; but the landgrave admonished the Mar- Indians in the autumn of 1621 after the first crops
burg theologians, Oct. 14, 1544, to refrain from strife. had been gathered in. The first civil Thanksgiving
At the beginning of the Schmalkald War, Thamer in the Massachusetts Bay colony was observed
was appointed army chaplain by the landgrave, and July 8, 1630, after all the ships of Winthrop's
thereby gained opportunity to make observations company had arrived; and other thanksgivings
that wore decisive on his subsequent life. His ex- followed special providences. On Oct. 12, 1637,
periences and the unhappy issue of the war moved all New England celebrated the overthrow of the
him to questions regarding the causes of the Refor- Pequots. The first Thanksgiving Day of the Con-
mation; and thus began his doubts touching the necticut river towns, appointed on account of an
correctness of the Evangelical doctrine of repentance abundant harvest, was held Sept. 18, 1639. The
and justification. Thamer was not the man to con- northern settlements of New England naturally
and what stirred him became
ceal these conflicts followed the example of Massachusetts. Rhode
known Marburg and set the town in commo-
to all Island thanksgivings were private affairs of churches
tion. The government at Cassel interposed, and and individuals until Governor Andros made the
summoned Thamer, Draconitas, and Adam Kraft observance of the day compulsory throughout New
to Cassel. Thamer here declared that he could not England.
"
hold the doctrine " by faith alone as sound and The annual Thanksgiving Day in celebration of
Evangelical, but promised to abstain from further harvest became regular in Connecticut after 1649,
attacks on the Lutheran teaching. At Easter, 1549, in Massachusetts Bay about 1660, and in Plymouth
however, he started the conflict anew, and was sus- in 1668. Rhode Island delayed its final adoption
pended, on Aug. 8, 1549, after the synods at Ziegen- until the time of the Revolution. It had become a
hain and Cassel, till the return of the landgrave. regular institution in all the New England states by
At the close of 1549 he became second preacher at the end of the eighteenth century. Thanksgiving
St. Bartholomew's in Frankfort-on-the-Main, but
Day has always been distinctively a home festival,
because of his sharp attacks on Lutheranism, he was but its religious character was not obscured in the
dismissed from this post; he then turned to Land- days of the fathers, especially in Connecticut and
grave Philip, and requested a regular examination Massachusetts. Until well into the eighteenth cen-
of the errors charged against him. Philip resolved tury two church services were held, sermons were
on the extraordinary step of procuring him the op- read at the family hearth, and the mercies of God
portunity of conferring in person with the most were recounted but the social functions of the day
;

eminent theologians of that age. So he journeyed in time crowded out the second church service, and
to Jena to meet Erhard Schnepf, then to Melanch- the day became a feast day, with a grand dinner
thon at Wittenberg, next to Superintendent Daniel for the united family, and with general merry-
Grosser at Dresden, and finally to Bullinger at making as its accompaniment. This latter develop-
Zurich. But none of these theologians could pro- ment became common after the Revolution.
nounce in his favor. Thamer then went to Rome, The struggle for independence drew the colonies
and there passed over to the Roman Catholic together, and they all joined in a general thanks-
Church, probably in 1553 or 1554. Two years later giving on Dec. 18, 1777, after the downfall of
he returned to Germany and was appointed preacher Burgoyne. Similar celebrations were observed
in Minden. Thereafter he obtained a canonry at regularly during the war, and on special occasions
Mainz, where he issued his Apologia in 1561. The up to 1815, but they did not become a permanent
same year he received a theological instructorship national custom. Meantime the idea was growing
Thayer
Theism THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 314

in favor through the country. In 1817 New York bull of confirmation approves the rendering of the
began its observance.
regular New England's three vows, the election of a provost for terms of
influence was felt through the emigration of its three years, administration of the daily routine,
people to the West, and by the middle* of the nine- and conveys to the order all privileges of canons of
teenth century nearly all the states of the Union the Latcran.
had adopted it. President Lincoln appointed a One of the four joint organizers owned a house in
special thanksgiving on Aug. 6, 1863, to celebrate Home, which was fitted up for the order. Material
the victory of Gettysburg, and on Nov. 20 of the subsistence was to be secured through purely vol-
same year a harvest festival was observed likewise. untary donations. High value was attached to
From that time Thanksgiving Day has become a diligent preaching; but fostering care was also given
national occasion of rejoicing, and is appointed to the sick. As the membership increased, a larger
regularly by the president for the last Thursday house wus occupied; but when the sack of Rome,
of November, and the governors of the several states in 1527, drove the Theatines away in the general
also appoint the same day HKNIIY K. HOWE. exit, there succeeded two other settlements, one in
r
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult the literature under FAST-DAY, and Venice, l, >27, and one at Naples, 1533. The Roman
E. H. Hughes, Thanksoiving Strmons, New York, 1910. settlement was renewed in 1536. The biographer of
Paul IV., Antonio Caracciolo, accounts it as chief
THAYER, JOSEPH HENRY: Congregationalist,
New Testament lexicographer; b. in Boston, Mass., merit of the Theatines that by means of their social
connections at Naples, as likewise by cleverly
Nov. 7, d. at Cambridge, Mass., Nov. 26,
1828;
1901. was graduated from Harvard College,
lie utilizing what information the confessional afforded,

Cambridge, Mass., 1850, and from Andover Theo- they discovered the evil plant of heresy, and
eradicated the same. And the measures devised by
logical Seminary, Mass., 1857; was pastor at Salem,
Gaetano at Naples, from 1538 forward, against the
Mass., 1859-64; chaplain Fortieth Massachusetts
fellow bympathi/or.s of a Juan de Vald<5s, against
Volunteers, 1862-63; professor of sacred literature
Pietro Martire Verrnigli and Bernardino Ochino
in Andover Theological Seminary, 1864-82; and
from 1884 professor of New Testament, criticism and (<1<1 v -)i he repeated at Venice, from 1511.

Caraffa, as pope, assigned to tin; order, in 1555, the

interpretation in the Harvard Divinity School. He
church and cloister of San Silvestro, and there tin*
translated the 7th ed. (Luneruann's) of Winer's
Theatines' heud<]Uartcis remained until they erected
Grammar of New
Testament Creek (Andover,
Die,
the convent and church of S Andrea della Valle.
1869); A. Buttmann's Grammar of the Greek New
Testament (1873); and with revision and enlarge- Meanwhile the order had spread over all Italy,
crossed the Alps, and found acceptance in Spain,
ment the 2d ed. of Grimm's Wilke's Clams Novi
France, Germany, and Poland (Munich, Vienna,
Testament!, under title, A Gmk-Enylinh Lex-
icon of the New Testament (New York, 1886); and Prague, Paris, etc). Its founder \\as beatified in
edited a new edition of Sophocles' Greek Lexicon: 1629, and canonized in 1660. Two sisterhoods
\\cre also organized under his name, that of the
Roman and Byzantine Periods (1887). These publi- "
cations established his reputation in the first rank in
Immaculate Conception," arid that of the" Her-
New-Testament and patristic scholarship, especially mitage." In the articles of both, emphasis is laid
He was one of the New Tes-
in textual criticism.
on the adoration, day and night, of the blessed
tament company of American revisers of the Bible sacrament. K. BENUATH.
BiiiMooitAPHv: Holyot, Ordres monastiques, iv. 71 flqq.;
BIBLIOGRAPHY C. H. Toy, in Harvard Graduated Manazinr,
IIcimhurhiT, Ordtn und Konarefjationen, in. 25H-269 (with
x (1902), 303 qq C J. H Ropes, m AJT, vi (1902), 285
vory full literature); Riiuke, /'open, i. 131-133; The Vita
;

sqq., and in Biblical World, xix (1902), 248 sqq.; W. N. of Gaetano, by A Ciiracnolo, Cologne, 1612, and Carac-
Steams, in Biblical World, ib. pp. 226 nqq. eiolo's Vita Pauh IV., ib. 1012; R. do Maiildo do la
Clavi6re, Nawt Gactan (1480-lfi47) Pans, 1902.
THEATINES: An order of regular clergy founded
t

in Italy in the beginning of the sixteenth century. THEBAN LEGION: The theme
of a legend cen-
It was in a way a precursor of the Society of Jesus tering about the town of St. Maurice (31 m. c. of
in that it compassed noteworthy results in battling Geneva), in the canton of Valais, Switzerland, but
with " heresy," in connection with the incipient found also elsewhere in Switzerland, in Italy, and on
Reformation in Italy. The Thcatine organization the lower Rhine. In its oldest and simplest form,
had its point of departure in Rome under Leo X. according to a pansio attributed to Eucherius,
and his successors, when it grew out of the Oratory bishop of Lyons (q.v.), the Emperor Maximian
of the Divine Love (q.v.), the fundamental ideas of (285-310) had under his command a legion called
which Gaetano of Tiene (b. at Vicenza in 1480; the Theban, consisting of 6,600 men sent from the
d. 1547) designed to apply in a more comprehensive East. They were all Christians and refused to obey
activity. He founded, in Verona, a fraternity
first the imperial command to take part in the persecu-
(of Hieronymites) having similar aims; he then tion of their fellow Christians. Maximian, then
returned to Rome, renounced his prebends, and encamped at Octodurum (Martigny at the foot of
joined with Bonifazio da Colle, Paolo Consiglieri, the Great St. Bernard), twice had the legion deci-
and Giovanni Pietro Oaraffa (see PAUL IV.) in mated, and when the survivors at the exhorta-
creating the order, which was confirmed by Clement tion of their leader Maurice (Mauritius) remained
VII. The name which the common people gave steadfast,had all put to death. Among the martyrs
the new order, Chietini, shows that they deemed isplaced St. Gereon, in whose honor a church existed
not Gaetano, but Caraffa to be the actual founder at Cologne in the seventh century. Later versions
or leader, their ascription referring to the see of of the legend simply add details.
Chieti, which had been occupied by Caraffa. The, The legend has given rise to a long controversy.
815 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Thaver
Theiiun

" "
The Magdeburg Centuries declared Maurice an Paris, 1888; J. B. do Montmdlian, Saint Maurice ei la
" " legion thebtenne, 2 VO!H., Paris, 1888; P Allard, Lc Per-
idol although he
the patron saint of the city,
is
secution de Dwcletien, i. 17-34, 11. 335-304, Paris, 1890;
and Protestants generally have denied the credi- F Stolle, Das Afarti/num der tlirliainchen Ltywn, Tlronlau,
bility of the story. Roman Catholics have been 189] ; R. Berg, Der hetlio* Mavrinu* vnd die thebaiKrhe
1

more inclined to accept it. It is found in the Legion, Halle, 1895; DCR, iii 641- 044 (valuable); Fried-
rich, KD, i. 101-141; Rottbcrg. A'D, i. 94-111; KL, vii.
biography of the abbot Romarius, probably written 1615-28; Lichtenberger, E8R xii. 89-91. t

shortly after his death in 460, and a monastery then

existed on the alleged site of the martyrdom and THECLA AND PAUL, ACTS OF. Sec APOCRY-
formed the goal of pilgrimage. The legend is several PHA, B, II.
times mentioned in the sixth century, and Gregory
of Tours knows it in its original form and also THEINER, tai'ner, AUGUSTIN: Roman Catholic
mentions Thebans who suffered martyrdom on the
Church historian; b. at Breshiu, Germany, Apr. 11,
lower Rhine. That it originated before the middle 1804; d. in Homo Aug. studied
10, 1874. He
of the fifth century and that the Theban martyrs theology, and afterward canon law, at the univer-
were honored thus early must be admitted. Against sity of his native city, and published, together with
his brother, Die katholische Kirche Schlesiens (Alton-
the authenticity of the legend it may bo alleged that
almost a century and a half intervened between burg, 1820), also Die Einfuhrung der erzwungenen
Ehclotsigkeit bci den ckristlichcn Gnsthchcn itnd ihre
its supposed occurrence and the oldest record of t

while contemporaries and earlier authors make Folgcn (2 vols., 1S2X; new
3 vols., Barmen, ed.,
it,
no reference to it. The tradition also suffers from 1892), which was put on the Index. In 1833 he
entered the Jesuit order; became a member of the
inherent improbability. No Theban legion is known
to have existed at that time, and it is improbable Congregation of the Oratory, and was in 18,55, by
Pius IX., appointed conservator at the papal ar-
that a general like Maximian, however great his
hatred of the Christians, w ould have put to death
r
chives. But during the Vatican Council he was ac-
cused b}r the Jesuits of procuring documents from
an entire legion at a time when he needed his
the archives for the bishop* in opposition, and was
soldiers to keep the barbarians and rebels in check.
The chief objection to the legend, however, is that removed from his position in 1870. He was a very
industrious writer; his works embrace Gcxchwhte des
it cun not be brought into harmony with the
Pontificate Clemens XfV. (2 vols., Leipsic, 1853);
history of the Diocletian persecution. The oldest
Annah's Rome, 1850); Vctera
fcclcxiustici (3 vols.,
accounts themselves are at variance as to tho time
and place. It was not until 296 or 297 that Chris- momnncnta hmtoriea Hunyan<c (2 vols., 1S59-00);
Vctera monunif'Hta PolonUv ft Lithuania: (4 vols.,
tians began to be removed from the army, thus
1800-04); Codex diplomatic us (3 vols., 1801-02);
preparing the way for the general persecution. If,
Vetcra monumcnta Slarorum mcridionalium (1803);
however, the dute be laid after 296, the presence
Yctrra monumenta llibcrnorum ct Kcotorum (1801);
of Maximian in Valais is extremely improbable,
Acta . coneihi, Tndcnttni (Leiphic, 1874).
. .

for he was then most of the time in Africa and

on the Lower Rhine. Moreover, Christian soldiers BIBLIOQKAPIIV: II Gisiger, Theiner und die Jesuiten, Mann-
hoim, 1875; II Bruok, Geschichte der katholischcn Kirrhe
were given their choice between offering sacrifice in Deutschland, in. 344, Mamz, 1896; KL, xi. 1486-88.
or being discharged, and executions were rare.
The view of Eucherius that the martyrdom took THEISM.
place during the Diocletian persecution lacks The Term ( 1). In Modern Thought ( 4).

historical support, since it presupposes that Chris- In Ancient Thought (2). Kcliitioii to Scietitilic Reason
In Medieval Thought ( :i). (5).
tian soldiers were put to death in large numbers.
" "
No such massacres occurred, however, in the West, The terms " and " theism
theibt apparently
"
where the persecutions ceased altogether with the originated as opposiles of
"
atheist and " athe-
"
abdication of Diocletian and Maximian on May 1, ism in England during the seventeenth century,
" "
305. (C. UlILIIOHNt.)
when " deistic and deisin," as general terms
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tho principal forms of tho Passio snncti indicating simply the belief in God,
MaurUii et nociorum, with commentary, are in ASB, Sept., i. The had lost their reputation with the ad-
vi. 30K-H40, 895-926, and partly in AfPL, clxxi. 1625-30. Term, herents of the Church. Ralph Cud-
A full list of editions and literature is in Potthaat, Wcy- worth (| v ), in the interest of Platonic
weiner pp 1472-73; and in A. Hirachmann's contribution
t

to Histonseheft JahrbwJt der Gorres-Geaellschaft, xiii (1892), rationalism, and Pierre Bayle (q.v.) used theism
783-798. Consult further: J. A Dubordieu, Historical in contradistinction to atheism, but as deism was
Dissertation upon the Thdbaan Legion, London, 1696 (ad-
similarly used by the latter and others, a closer
verse; thin book is usually cited in the Fr translation,
Amsterdam, 1705); J. de 1'Islo, Defense de la veritt du definition >\as required. Kant, who was also of the
martyr f de la I6gion th6b6enne, autrcment de S. Maurice ct opinion that the differentiation of deist and theist
de ses compagnons, pour rtpondre h la dissertation du min-
originated in England, gave it precision, thus:
iatrc du Rourdieu, Nancy, 1741; P. do Rivaz, fidaircisse- "
menta sur le martj/re de la Mgion th&beenne, Paris, 1779;
The deist believes that there is a God; the theist
J. W. J. Braun, Zur Geschichte der thebdittchen Legion, Bonn
1 that there is a living God." Theology he held to be
1855; E. F. Gelpke, Kirchengeschichte der Schweiz, i. 50- the knowledge of the original being, which is de-
86, Bern, 1856; O. Hunziker, in M. Budinger, Untcrsuch- rived either by pure reason or by revelation. The
ungen zur rominchen Kaiseroeachichte, ii. 117-284, and
Excursus II., 265-272, Leipsic, 1868; E. Aubcrt, Trfoor
former represents God by pure transcendental con-
M
de Vabbaye de Saint- aurice. d'Agaune, Paris, 1872; A. cepts, and is called transcendental theology, or
Allegro, Le Culte de S. Maurice a Caromb, Avignon, 1881; by a concept of supreme intelligence derived from
S. Beisscl, Geschichte der Tnerer Kirchen, i. 19-31, Troves,
nature, to be called natural theology. A deist is an
1887; Ducis, Saint Maurice et la legion th&tcnne,, Annecy,
1887; J. Bernard, S. Maurice et la legion tMbtenne, 2 vols.,
adherent of the first, and ono who, in addition,
Theism THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 816

accepts the second is a theist. More definitely, universe as the soul is in the body. His suc-
the deist concedes the rational cognizance of an cessors followed all his doctrines except the eternal
original being, but denies that a closer determina- creation.
tion is possible than the concept of a universal cause A principal representative of theism was Augus-
inclusive of all reality. The theist, on the other tine. To him God was summa essentia, and the
hand, asserts a closer determination of God, ac- various things created out of nothing were charged
cording to nature (the human soul), as a being who with being of different degrees. God created by a
by intelligence and freedom, as originator of the free act, not of necessity, only by virtue of his
cosmos, contains within himself the ground of all goodness. Nothing is opposed to him,
things. Transcendental theology gives rise to the 3. In not even the world, save nonentity
cosmological and ontological proofs of the existence Medieval and evil issuing from it. Matter he
of God; natural theology, to the teleological and Thought, made and the goodness imparted to it

moral proofs. Kant did not include the idea of constitutes its form and order. Hence
personality in the term theism, much less in deism, Augustine may scarcely be called a dualist. As crea-
a term by which later theology distinguishes theism tive substance God is in the whole world, and crea-
from other philosophies of the universe, which, tion is a continuous process by which the universe
beside self-consciousness and self-activity, is de- is upheld; but it is eternal only in the counsel of God.
manded as an attribute of God by the religious God is inconceivable, yet a long array of attributes is
man, and makes the actual relations of person with produced by Augustine, by no means exhaustible,
person seem possible. Furthermore, theism regards to give expression to his aspirations. Some of these
God not merely as the creator who, as assumed in are, finitely at least, mutually contradictory and
deism, withdrew from the world after giving it laws, even exclusive; such as always working yet- ever at
but as its ruler, perhaps even changing its course. rest, or seeking yet possessing all things. This \\ith
Theism may be monistic, dualistic, or even poly- his sense of immanence indicates a strain of mysti-
theistic; but dualism is very frequently noted as cism and resembles pure pantheism; yet Augustine
theistic. Although Plato made the idea of the good stands fast by his transcendentalism, maintaining
equivalent to reason and again to deity, which in the beginning and ending of the world and the eter-
turn from goodness creates the universe, yet his deity nity of God alone with the souls of men and angels
or nous falls short of the attributes adequate to Scholasticism was strongly theistic in spite of sun-
theism, particularly in self-conscious- dry pantheistic tendencies. Anselm taught that
2. In ness. Aristotle is often regarded as the world, as contingent existence, presupposes
Ancient the founder of scientific and specu- absolute existence which is of itself and in itself.
Thought. lative theism, although omitting in The contingent was not made of the absolute but by
form the main attribute of modern it,and of nothing. The continuous presence of God
theism, the personality of God. God he represents is necessary to sustain the world; hence in Anselm
as pure thinking spirit. He is unchangeable and, can be shown clearly neither dualism nor deism. In
as absolute energy, immutable, in contrast with the the determination of deity he approximates anthro-
absolute potency, or matter, which is able to take pomorphism. Besides metaphysical attributes are
up into itself all forms or concepts. God is one the ethical justice, mercy, and love. Love in
and indivisible. The subject of his thought is the man has its foundation in living faith which involves
best, i.e., himself, and the content is composed of submission and an aspiration toward its object with
the concepts, which as universals are immanent in the hope of its attainment. Albert the Great (see
the things of the phenomenal universe. This think- ALBERTUS MAGNUS) followed the views of Augus-
ing is the highest, best, and happiest life, and life tine. Thomas Aquinas adhered more closely to
is the energy of the spirit. It may be seen that Aristotle. The fact that the world as well as matter
self-consciousness and feeling are ascribed to deity, was created was philosophically demonstrable;
which is in effect an implication of personality. the beginning of the world in time was a matter of
God is the prime mover in the universe, but he faith. Preservation was a continuous creation.
moves without working or constructing. His ac- Following Aristotle, he considers God as absolute,
tivity is wholly in thought. As the good and the simple form, pure actuality, unchangeable. His
object of all movement, he remains unmoved. How essence is self-knowledge, implying the knowledge
the forms may be both transcendent and immanent, of all things. Therefore as the absolute good he
or how being passes over into becoming, remains must will himself; he wills not to attain a good
the unsolved difficulty, present also in most other thing, but for the sake of the good, to give it from
philosophic systems, monotheism not excluded. love. The divine joy is his supreme self-satisfac-
The dualism of Aristotle was not adopted by his tion. With reference to man's relation to God,
successors. The Christian philosophers, ancient and apart from his continuous preservation, the highest
modern, very positively represented theism from the moral goal can not be reached without divine help.
monistic point of view. God, the infinite and om- The perfect happiness of man consists in the in-
nipotent, can not be limited even by an inactive tuition of the divine being. Descartes thought that
principle, such as matter. He not only designed he had found more certain proofs for the existence
but created the world, according to the Fathers; of God than those used in mathematics. Dualism
and, according to Clement and Origen, creation is is ascribed to him either because he conceived God
by an eternal act. He did not find matter ready at in contrast with the world, or he opposed ex-
hand, but created it out of nothing. As spirit, clusively against each other the two created sub-,
according to Origen, God is active in the material stances, the thinking and the extended, needing
817 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

nothing else for their existence and maintenance attributes follow, such as eternity and omnipresence,
but God. It is evident that this is not dualism as presumptions to such a final purpose. On the
proper. If it be observed also that God is absolute side of the cognizance of God, Kant is neither deist
perfection, producing the natural light or under- nor theist; on the side of rational faith as just
standing in man, and that one of his first attributes illustratedhe is theist. Yet he disavows a personal
istruth, Descartes may seem to be a theist. God is intercourse with God as expressed in prayer. Among
transcendent, yet in the most intimate relation with his followers who inclined mostly to pantheism in
"
the world and man. Personality is also involved various forms, this view of the Critique of Judg-
with veracity; yet Descartes is more deist than ment " in the main prevailed; namely, Herbart
theist. The universe is a mechanism set in opera- and M. W. Drabisch (Rdigionsphilosophie, Leipsic,
tion by a transcendent first cause; all things are 1840). Schleiermacher, in spite of his tremendous
moved by secondary cause and effect and the religious influence, can not be considered a theist,
quantity of energy is invariable, which together but wavers between deism and pantheism. He does
with the validity and persistence of material law not represent a personal God, but a living deity; and
seems to be derived from the unchangeableness of the customary attributes appear not as properties
God. According to Leibnitz, God is the highest of his being but reflections of his activity in the
monad, which is absolutely perfect. He creates all religious consciousness. Decidedly in behalf of
the other monads, which become self-existent and speculative theism is to be reckoned the series of
have God as the object of their aspiration. The philosophers including T. Hoffman and C. H.
world is a mechanism into which God does not again Weisse, and of theologians like A. Neander and R.
interfere; otherwise it would not be the best. So Rothe (qq.v.) who withstood the pantheism of Hegel
far Leibnitz is a deist. Besides, he maintains the and united in the establishment of the Zetischrift
belief in revelation and miracle, by the doctrine fUr Philosophic und spekulative Theologie, issued
of the superrational in contradistinction to the chiefly by I. H. Fichte. The latter in his individual
counterrational. Only contingent happenings, such writings, in the interest of an ethical theism, ad-
as the natural events, can be altered by God who is vances to a doctrine of absolute personality. Lotze
their ground. With this interference in the unity replaces the metaphysical infinite by the concept of
of nature Leibnitz passed from deism to theism. God, constituting a sort of ontological proof. As
Transcendence is not sustained, but immediate di- the ground of reality for the finite, God possesses
vine contact with the universe is assumed, amount- the metaphysical attributes of wisdom, justice, and
ing to immanence in the religious and metaphysical holiness. An indispensable assumption must be
spheres. Wolff follows Leibnitz closely and the personality, since the living, self-subsisting, and
Enlightenment is deistic. self-enjoying ego is the necessary presupposition
Kant, whose definition is given above, postulates and the only possible scat of the good and of all
the existence of God from the infinite relation of good things. At all events, the contradistinction
virtue and happiness. The agreement of the latter with the external world is not essential for personal-
with the former is to be assumed a priori as neces- ity, but this is to be realized on the basis of an im-
sary, and as its ground is to be postulated a moral manent sense of self and existence for self. Other-
cause subsisting in reason and will and transcending wise the being of God is to be in a certain measure
nature, namely, the existence of God. super-personal; but by this personality itself may
4. In For the theoretical reason the assurap- disappear. With God who conditions man's being,
Modern tion of God is
merely hypothetical; he is united by the religious sense of himself as a
Thought, for the practical reason, it is purely a divine being. Here Lotze approximates Spinoza's
matter of rational faith. In moral pantheism, as also in his view that his monads are
philosophy this faith is based on conscience in the modifications of the absolute universal ground, and
form of a dual personality of defendant and judge. that reciprocal activity presupposes a common
The latter must be an omnipotent being, God; but propinquity in substance. More or less under the
whether this be an actual or ideal person remains influence of Lotze are many present-day philoso-
"
uncertain. In the Critique of Judgment," the phers. Of these G. Class represents God (Ph&no-
existence of God
postulated by the telic concep-
is menologie und Ontologie des menscMichen Geifttes,
tion. The presence of contingent design in the Erlangen, 1896; Realitdt der Gottesidee, Munich,
multiplicity of nature and its subordination by 1904) as personal and absolute spirit. Ludwig
reason to an unconditioned highest being involves Bosse (Philosophic und Erkenntnisslehre, Leipsic,
a final objective in creation which is transcendent to 1894) maintains that the inseparable constituents
nature, and its ground is in supreme intelligence. of reality rest upon a simple absolute ground, God.
Man as a moral being must be accepted as this ob- Guenther Thiele (Philosophic des SelbstbewusstseinSf
jective, affording the
main condition upon which to Berlin, 1895) affirms that the concept of God re-
observe the unity of the world, and a principle by solves itself in the absolute Ego. G. Glogau (Re-
which to consider the nature and attributes of such ligionsphiloaophie, Kiel, 1898) places the existence
a cause. With reference to the highest good, of God at the apex of philosophy; derives from it
namely, the existence of rational beings under moral the ideas of the true, the good, and the beautiful;
laws, such a primal being must be omniscient, to and, in mystical fashion, makes the sense and
whom all minds are open. He must be omnipotent, experience of God and the ideals of principal
to adapt all nature to this purpose; all-merciful importance. According to H. Siebeck (Religions
and just as conditions of a supreme cause of a world philosophic, Freiburg, 1893), God is proved by met-
under moral laws. All the rest of the transcendental aphysics and experienced as a living power in the
Theism THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 818
Theodore

religious person. English theists, like J. Martincau London, 1870; J. T. Doedea, Inleiding tot fa leer van God,
B. Upton, and E. Caird, supplement trans- 2d od., Utrecht, 1880; C. J. Ellicot, The Being of God,
(q.v.), C.
London, 1880; J. L. Diman, The Theistic Argument, Bos-
cendence with immanence, thus representing a ton, 1882; J. Hamburger, Gott und seine Offenbarungen
tncism approximating pantheism. in Natur und Geschichte, GO tendon, 1882; G. Runze, Der
On the question of its justification, it is to be ontologische Gottesbewcis, Halle, 1882; J. J. Lias, Isit pos-
sible toknow Godf London, 1883; F. Vidal, DC la croy-
admitted that a theistic view can not claim scientific
once philosophique en Dieu, 2d cd., Paris, 1883; R. Flint,
validity. Scientific thought does not yield to the Theism, 5th ed., Edinburgh, 1885; F. E. Abbot, Scien-
assumption of a personal (Jod clothed with ethical tific Theism, Boston, 1886; R. A. Armstrong, Man's Knowl-
attributes. A universal or an unconditioned being edge of God, London, 1886; idem, God and the Soul, 2d ed.,
ib. 1898; J. G. Cazcnave, Historic Aspects of the a priori
must of necessity be postulated. To the highest
Arguments concerning the Being and Attributes of God, ib.
being universal attributes, such as 1886; R. T. Smith, Man's Knowledge of Man and of God,
5. Relation omnipresence and unity, must be Edinburgh, 1880; J. 8. Van Dyke, Theism and Evolution,
to Scientific ascribed. Omniscience is doubtful London, 1880; T. V. TyrninH, Mystery of God, ib. 1887;
A. W. Momcric, Belief in God, 2d ed., Edinburgh, 1888;
Reason, inasmuch as it implies the spiritual, A. de Anglement, Dieu et Vftre universel, Paris, 1889; S.
which may not be attributed to un- Harris, The Self-revelation of God, 2d od., New York, 1889;
conditioned being without the presumption of a idem, The Philosophical Basis of Theism, 2d ed., ib. J894;
D. B. Puriuton, Christian Theism, its Claims and Sanc-
philosophic view that does not need to obtain uni- tions, ib.1889; H. H. Mooro, The Anatomy of Theism,
versal validity. However, not only reason but the London, 1890; C. A. Row, Christian Theism, ib. 1890;
yearnings of the soul crave to be satisfied. The J. G. Schurman, Belief in God, its Origin, Nature, and
devout human being requires above all things a Basis, New York, 1890; G. de Alviclla, Origin and Growth
of the Conception of God, London, 1892, Fr. ed Paris,
,

living God, not only omniscient, but also all-wise. 1892; R. F. Clarke, A Dialogue on the Existence of God,
He must be a person, who is at the same time love, ib. 1892; A. Drews, Die deutsche Speculation scit Kant

by which he is willing to make man, whose needs mit besonderer Rucksicht auf das Wesen den Abwlutcn und
he understands, contented arid happy; exercising die Personlichkcit Gottes, 2 vols., Berlin, 1892, E. Caird,
The Evolution of Religion, 2 vols., London, 1893; W. L.
at the same time justice, and being about to bring
Davidson, Theism as Grounded in Human Nature, London
happiness in agreement with virtue, either in this and New York, 1893; W. Knight, Aspects of Theism, ib.,
world or the next These are attributes that may be 1893; J. Or, The Christian View of God and the World
Centering in the Incarnation, {Edinburgh, 189.i; J. R
multiplied according as man qualifies himself to-
Illingworth, Peisonalitt/ Human and Divine, London, 1894;
ward him, and may be called ethical. They bring idem, Divine Immanent c, ib. 1898; R. Ottlry, The Doc-
deity near to man, or God down amidst the phenom- trine of the Incarnation, 2 vols , ib. 1S94, A J. Balfour,
The Foundations of Belnf, London and New York, 1895;
enal, by attributing to him qualities magnified,
H. Baynes, The Idea of God and tht Moral Sense, 2 vols.,
which are inconsistent with the nature of the infi- London, 1895, A C. Fraser, Philosophy uf T)ui*m (Gif-
nite and universal. Science, if indeed unwilling ford lectures, 1st series, 1894-95), Edinburgh and London,
to protest against the anthropomorphizing of the 1895, G W. F Hegel, Philosophy of lit Itgnm With Proof*
of Exivhncc of God, London, 1895, G Janueson, Tfu Gnat
highest, can do nothing to support, it, and can not
concur with theism in desiring to attribute these
Problem of Substance and its Attributis, ib 1895, R
A. Meincke, Die Bcweixe fur dds Dasein Goth^, Heidel-
properties to God. Faith must, therefore, maintain berg. 1895; E. Melzer, Dtr Beweis fur das Dastin Gottes,
what reason muy not afford, and thus embrace Neiase, 1895; J. R. Socley, Natural Rchuion, 4th ed ,

theism. Seo DICIHM; GOD; and RATIONALISM AND London, 1895, C. Voy.sey, Theism as a Kcitncc of Natural
Theology and Natural Religion, ib. 1895; idem, Lectures
SuPJOHNATTTltALJSM. (M. IlKINZEf.) on the Theistic Faith antl its Foundations, ib 1895; Duke
BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Clarke, A Demonstration of the Bciruj of Argyll, Philosophy of Belief. London, 1S90; (). Borgur,
and Attributes of God, London, 1705-10; I. Kant, Kntik Les Ongines dc la philosophic rtilc (I'athtisme spiritualise),
der reinen Vernunft, Riga., 17S1 (see under KANT for Eng. Brussels, 1806; L Buchner, Gutt und die Wissenschaft,
transls.); F. W. J. ScheMing, <S'//s/<>7/i tics transcendental en Lcipsir, 1896; F. T)non, Prcuve philosophujue de V exis-
Idealismus, Tubingen, 1X00; A. H. Hitter, Uiber die Kr- tence de Duu, Brussels, 1S9G; G. Allen, The Evolution of
kenntmss Gotten in dcr Welt, Hamburg, 1S36; J. U. Wirth. the Idea ufGod, London and New Yoik, 1S97; J M. Bald-
Die speculative Idee Gottes, Stuttgart, 1845; H. L. Mansel, win, Social and /'Jthical Interpretations in Mental Develop-
Limits of Rehuious Thought, London, 1S,r>(); J. Croll, Phi- ment, Now York, 1897; E. B Gamble, The (Hod-Idea of
losophy of Theism, ib. 1851; Abb6 Grotty Philosophic de
,
the Ancients, New York and I^oridon, 1897; W. James,
la connaissnncc dc Dicu, 2 vols., Pans, 1853; W. M. Gil- The Will to Believe and Other Essays, New York, 1897;
lespie, The, Necessary Existence of Cod, London, 1856; J. J. Royce, The Conception of God, New York, 1897; J.
Tullorn, Theism, Edinburgh, 1855; I. H. Fichte, Ueber Lindsay, Itecent Advances in Theistic Philosophy, Edin-
den Unterftchied zwiachen ethischen und natural istiachen burgh, 1897; R. M. Wenley, Contemporary Theology and
Theismus, HoJle, 1856; E. Steore, Essai/ on the Existence Theism, ib. 1897; P. Bard, Das Dasein Gottes, Sehwerm,
and Attributes of Cod, London, 1850; F. W. Newman, 1898; C. Bensow, Ueber die Moglichkeit cines ontologisehen
Theism, Doctrinal and Practical, ib. 1858; J. W. Hannc, Beweises fur das Dasein Gottes, Rostock, 1898; L. T. Cole,
Die Idee der altsoluten Personlichkeit oder Cott und sein The Basis of Early Christian Theism, New York, 1898;
Vcrhtiltniss zur Welt, insonderheit zur menschlichen Per- J. B. Heinnch, Der kosmologische Gottesbeweis und Kant's
sonlichkeit, 2 vols., Hanover, 1861; M. Carrierc, Oott, Kritik der reinen Vernunft, Mainz, 1898; E. Rolfos, Die
Gemuth und Welt, Stuttgart, 1862; W. Cooko, The Deity, Gottesbeweise bei Thomas von Aquin und Anstoteles,
Edinburgh, 1862; II. A. Thompson Christian Theism, Cologne, 1898; R. de C16re, Necessity mathematiquc de
new ed., London, 1863; F. Pecaut, De Vavcnir du theisme I'existence de Dieu, Paris, 1899; C. F. D'Arey, Idealism
Chretien consider* comme religion, Paris, 1864; M. Kahler, and Theology, London, 1899; J. Geyser, Das philosophisehc
Der lAendige Gott, Lcipsic, 1867; E. Herwig, Ueber den GoUesproblem, Bonn, 1899; J. Iveroch, Theism in the Lifjht
ontologiscJicn Beweis, Rostock, 1868; A. Riedel, Ueber das of Present Science and Philosophy, New York, 1899; J. P.
Dasein Gotten, AugHburg, 1869; A. Robertson, The Exist- Brisset, La Science de Dieu, Paris, 1900; L. Desera, Dieu
ence of God, London, 1870; H. von Bruoken, Das Wesen et Vhomme, Paris, 1900; J. T. Driscoll, Christian Philoso-
Gottes und der Writ, 2 voln Berlin, 1871; H. Ulrici, Gott
,
phy: God, New York, 1900; J. H. Kennedy, Gottesglaube
und die Natur, Leijisie, 1875; E. Castan, De I'idee de Dieu, und moderne Weltanschauung, Berlin, 1900; J. Martinoau,
2 vote., Paris, 1877; G J. Romanes, A Candid Examina- A Study of Religion, London, 1900; P. Schwartzkopff,
tion of Theism, London, 1878; B. P.
Bowne, Studies in Beioeis frr das Dasein Gottes, Halle, 1900; M. Valentino,
Theism, New York, 1879; idem, Philosophy of Theism. Natural Theology, or Rational Theism, New York, 1900;
rev. od., ib. 1902; C. C. Mai, Historical Sketch
of Theism, J. E. Alaux, Dieu et le monde, Paris, 1901; A. Caldeoott,
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theism
819 Theodora

The Philosophy of Religion in England and America, Edin- 1. 152-153; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iii, 180 aqq. f Eog.

burgh and Now York, 1901; idem, Selections from the transl., v. 70 aqq., Fr. tranal., m. 1, pp. 398 sqq.
Literature of Theism. Some principal Types of Religious
Thought, Edinburgh, 191)7; J. A. Leighton, Typical Mod-
2. Theodore II.: Pope 897. He occupied the
ern Conceptions of God, New York, 1901; Archibald papal chair only twenty days (Nov.-Dec.). He
.Robertson, Regnum Dei, New York and London, 1901; exerted himself to restore to the Church the peace
R. Rocholl, Dcr chnstlichc Gottesbegriff, Gottingcn, 1901; which had been disturbed by the inquest in regard
G. Spicker, Vtrsuch eines neuen Gottesbegnffs, Stuttgart,
1901; H. Walter von Walthofcn, Die Gottesidee, Vieniiu,
to Tope Formosus (q.v.). He caused the corpse
1901; J. Fiakc, Cosmic Philosophy, Boston, 1902; J. J. of that pope to be reinterred ceremonially and the
Tigert, Theism, London, 1902; A. Eleutheropulos, Gotl, consecrations performed by him to be recognized
Menschen, 2d cd Berlin, 1903; J. llulf, Wissenzchafl der
,

Goth'seinhcit, Leipuic, 1903; B. Baontsch, Altoncntalischer by a synod as canonical. (A. HAUCK.)

und israehtischer Monothcismus, Tubingen, 1900; F. J. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The tractate of Auxilius in Mabillon, Ana-
McConnell, The Diviner Immanence, New York, 1906 (dis- lecta, p. 43, Parw, 1723, and hw Libellus in defensione sa-
tinguishes theism from pantheism); K. M
Ciller, Christen' cra ordinatiunis papm Formosi, in C. Dummler, Auxilius
1

turn und Monismus, 1900; W. L. Walker, Theism and a und Jivlnarius, p. 72, Lcuptuc, 1800; Jaffa, Rcyesta, p. 441;
Spiritual Monism, New York, 1906 (proposes a spiritual F. CirrffomviiiR, History of . Rome in the Middle Ages,
. .

monism as against the material monism of liaeckel); ni 2JO, London, 1895; Mann, Popes, iv. 88-90; Bower,
R. de Bary, The Spiritual Return of Chnst within the 1'opes, 11. 302; Platma, Popes, i. 239-240.
Church. Papers on Christian Theism, London, 1907;
A. Drews, Der Monismus, vol. i Jena, 1907; B. Wilber-
,
THEODORE (THEODULUS): Local saint of
force, Neip Theology. Thoughts on the Universality and Valais and bishop of the fourth century. That
Continuity of the Doctrine of the Immanence of (fod, Ten- the Christian religion took deep root very early in
don, 1907; F. Ballard, The True God; a modem Summary
the valley of the Rhone is quite probable, especially
of the Relations of Theism to Naturalism, Monism, and
Pluralism, Ixmdoii, 1907; O. Flugel, Monismus und The- in view of the importance of the Pennine Pass for
ologie, 3d cd., Cotheu, 190S; A C. Pigou, The Problem communication between Italy and Gaul. Martigny,
of Theism, and Other Essays, New York, 1908; C. C.
situated at the point where the Alpine road first
Everett, Theism and the Christian Faith, New York, 1909;
A. D. Kelly, Rational Necessity of Theism, London, 1909. strikes the course of the Rhone, after clearing the
summit of St. Bernard, the ancient Octodurum,
THEMISTIUS, THEMISTIANS. Sec MONOPHY- was the seat of the bishopric as well as the capital
BITES, 15.
of Valais; but with the second half of the sixth

THEODORE: Name of two popes. century it lost its ecclesiastical importance by the
Theodore I: Pope 612-019. He was the son removal of the see up the valley to Sitten. Here is
1.
an inscription of the year ^77, showing the Chris-
of a bishop, born at Jerusalem; was consecrated,
tian monogram, dedicated by the first magistrate,
Nov., (J4J; and was an opponent of the Alonothehtcs
which points doubtlessly to the establishment of the
(q.v.). When Paul II. announced his election to the
imperial prflntorium. To the same period belongs
patriarchate of Constantinople, in a communica-
the first bishop, Theodore. In 381 he appears as
tion concealing Monothehte views behind orthodox
cpiKcopHR Oclodurcnxis in the documents of the
phrases, Theodore ordered him to depose his
fallen Monothelite piedecessor Pyrrhus by a synod Synod of Aquileia, among the zealous upholders of
and that the imperial ecthcsis be vacated. After orthodoxy in opposition to the Arum ism of the
accused Bishop Paladius. arid his name is included
Pyrrhus, in consequence of a disputation with the
Abbot Maximus Confessor (q v ) in North Africa, among the Gallic, not the Italian bishops. But
Throdulus Episcopus, \\lio signs at a small synod
had returned Home professing his conversion to
to
he was ceremonially recognized as held at Milan in 'W(), can not be located. The
Diothelitism,
Fassio Ai/aunenRtum martyrum, attributed to Euche-
patriarch of Constantinople by Theodore. The
rius (inASB, Sept. vi. IJ42-.'J40), represents that the
abjuration of Pyrrhus, however, proved to have
latter obtained his oral legend concerning the Theban
been only with the design of regaining his see; for
at Ravenna, after consultation with the imperial Legion (q.v.) from Bishop Iwuic of Geneva, who
received it from Theodore; and that the latter first
exarch, he espoused uneu the doctrine of the one
erected a church at Agaunum (Saint-Maurice) on
will in Christ Upon this the pope assembled a
the site of the alleged scene. A Valais legend, how-
synod at Home and excommunicated Pyrrhus
ever, tells of a Bishop Theodulus, a contemporary
(640 or 047). After summoning Paul by appeal to ''

the orthodox faith in vain, Theodore also deposed

of Charlemagne. According to Huodpert, a foreign
him, an act which was futile in effect. Paul, how-
monk," the biographer of this saint, the emperor
conferred upon Theodulus the prefecture of Valais,
ever, approached the pope half-way, if it may be
\\ith temporal authority over the entire country.
accepted that he influenced the emperor to issue the
This donation of Charles proved important to the
edict which enjoined silence on the questions in
bishopric Sitten in the later Middle Ages, on the
dispute, but at the same time vacated the ccthesis.
one hand against the House of Savoy, planted in
Theodore died May 14, 649. (A. HATTCK )
lower Valais, and on the other against the en-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liber pontificalis, cd. Mommscn in MGH,
Gest. pont. Rom., i (1S98), 178; Theophams chronogrnphia, croaching demands of a tithe on the part of the
1
i. 609, Bonn, 1839; Mansi, ( onrilia, x. 702 (the letters), people of upper Valais. However, as early as the
also catalogued in JaffVi, Regesta, i. 228 sqq.; II Bax- sixteenth century, this account came to be ques-
mann, Die Pohtik der Papste, i. 173 nqq., Elbcrfeld, 1808;
tioned by the historians of Valais. But in the eyes
B. JunRmonn, Dissertationes select ae, li. 415 sqq Rcgons-
,

burff, 1881; J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen Kirche, of the people of Valais this Theodulus, celebrated
ii. 520, Bonn, 1885; F. Grepforovius, History of City of Aug. 16 (the historic Theodore, Aug. 20), is the
Rome in the Middle Ages, ii 139, London, 1894; M. Hart- real saint of the land; he is " St. Jodcrn," around
mann, Geschichte Italiens im Miltelalter, ii. 219-220, Gotha,
1903; Mimn. Popes, i309 384; Milman, Latin Christian- whom local legend is spun. A critical illumination
of the confusion of the historical
ity, ii, 274-275; Bower, Popes, i. 441-440; Platina, Popes, personality with
Theodore of Andld* THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 890
Theodore of Hoproe

tho non-historical legendary figure was first at- the boundaries of his diocese; and he died at peace
tempted in ASB (Aug. v., vi.), after printing with the Church, though not before suffering some
Ruodpert's Vita Theoduli episcopi (iii.). individual antagonisms.
(0 MEYER VON KNONAU.) Of numerous works only a few commentaries
his
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the literature under THKBAN La- are preservedmore or less intact; of the rest only
QION, oonBult: E. F. Gelpko, Kirchengeschichte der Schweit,
E. Egli,
meager fragments are extant. A list of the works is
i. 90 sqq., 120 sqq., li. 05 sqq., Bern, 1856-61;

Kirchenyetchichtf der Hchweiz, p. 132, Zurich, 1803; M.

given by Ebed Jesu (d. 1318; cf. J. S. Assemani, Bib-
Besaon, Recherche* sur les orpines de* 6vtch& df Gentvc, III., i. 30-35, Rome
liotheca oriental
Lausanne .... Geneva, 1006. Works. 1719-28). Theodore wrote Commen-
THEODORE OF ANDIDA. See MYSTAGOGICAL taries on Genesis, Psalms, the major and
THEOLOGY. minor prophets, Job (dedicated to Cyril of Alexan-
dria), Samuel, Ecclesiastes, and on all the books of
THEODORE OF CANTERBURY. See THEODORE
the New Testament excepting Mark, the Catholic
OF TARSUS.
Epistles, and Revelation. Of those on the Pauline
THEODORE OF MOPSUESTIA: Foremost ex- Epistles an old Latin translation has been issued
egetc of tho school of Antioch; b. at Antioch c. together with the Greek fragments by Swete.
350; d. at Mopsuestia in Cilicia in 428. He was of a Of all the commentaries only that on the minor
distinguished wealthy family, brother of Bishop prophets is wholly extant in the original and a
Polychronius of Apamea. He spent Syriac version of the commentary on John has
Life. from forty-five to fifty years in teach- been issued by Chabot. De sacramentis was most
ing and was bishop of Mopsuestia, probably identical with the Liber arcanorum men-
392-428. The earliest reliable information is con- tioned by a contemporary of Ebcd Jesu, and with
tained in two letters, Ad Theodorum lapsum (MPQ, Sermones mystici (Hesychius), and Codex mysticus
Ixvii. 277-316), no doubt by Chrysostom, who a (Facundus); and De fide was probably identical
generation later, when in exile, thanks Theodore for with the Catechismus cited by Marius Mcrcator,
his tried and true friendship (MPG, Iii. 669). The Ad baplizandos cited by the council of 553, and Ad
second of these letters complains that Theodore, baptizatos citedby Facundus. The most frequently
who then had scarcely attained his twentieth year, cited dogmatic work was DC incarnatione (Peri tea
had turned his back on the ascetic life which he had enanthrdpcscos), in fifteen books, against the Apol-
commenced with such zeal, and was occupying linarians and Anomians, written while he was presby-
himself with household matters and forming plans ter (Gennadius, De vir. ill., xv ), thirty years before
of marriage. Chrysostom entreats him to return the De assumente et assumpto. This was evidently
" "
to the monastic community. The first letter ad- also on the incarnation, bearing on the two sons
dressed to one not mentioned by name represents as alleged of the Antiochians. Hence, this work
the latter as in love with a certain Hermiono and is no doubt identical with De Apollinario ct ejus
sunk in the smudge of sensuality and the depths of hceresi,from the introduction of which, dealing
That this epistle was from Chrysostom "
despair. with the reproach of the two sons," Facundus
and addressed to Theodore has been disputed, preserved a large fragment. Fragments in cita-
though not conclusively. That Theodore heard tions are preserved of two books Adversity Euno-
the rhetorician Libanius is more than probable, mium, and of two Adversus asserentem peccatum in
but that ho did so contemporaneously with Chrysos- natura insitum esse; one fragment is preserved of the
tom and renounced the world at the same time with five books of Adversus aUegoricos probably identical
the latter seems highly improbable, considering with De allegoria et historia contra Oriyenem dedica-
the difference in their ages and silence on the part ted to Cerdo; two fragments perhaps remain of the
be assumed "
of Chrysostom. It must, therefore, Liber margaritarum, in which his letters are col-
that Theodore's renunciation of the world and lected." Ebed Jesu mentions also a book Pro Basilio
" "
subsequent fall belongs to the period when which others have regarded as a part of Adversus
Chrysostom was living as a monk in the moun- Eunomium (ut sup.), the work having possibly be-
tains about Antioch. It is an old and credible come dismembered form (Fritzsche, pp.
in its Syriac
"
tradition that the counsels of Chrysostom induced 96-97). In the work entitled,
its original, In Be-
Theodore to return to the monastic life. That half of Basil, Against Eunoraius," consisted of
Theodore was a disciple of Diodorus is evident from twenty five books (Photius codex 4) or even twenty-
his theology and exegesis, as well as from the direct eight (Photius, cod. 177; cf Leontius, Adversus Euty-
.

testimony of the historians; and the testimony of chianos et Nestorianos, iii.; MPG, Ixxxvi. 1384).
Theodoret that this was in companionship with Works wholly lost are two works De spiritu sancto;
Chrysostom may, for at least a period, be credited. De sacerdotio; two books Adversus magiam, the con-
Afterward both were disciples of Flavian, bishop tent of which is somewhat discussed by Photius; Ad
of Antioch, who undoubtedly consecrated Theodore monachos; De obscura locutione; De perfectione oper-
presbyter in 383. In 394 Theodore took part in a um; and Sermo de legislation*. Ebed Jesu professed
synod at Constantinople, on which occasion possibly to give a complete catalogue, and what is preserved
it happened that the Emperor Theodosius (q.v.), as elsewhere may have been contained in the works
is said, was impressed by his preaching. During named hi this list. Such remainders are a fragment of
this period he wrote a mass of exegetical and po- Exodus, four of Canticles, and four of Mark, all of
lemical works. He entered into the Pelagian discus- which have been published, and unpublished frag-
sion and in 420 received Julian of Eclanum (q.v.) ments exist of eaten on Leviticus, Numbers, Deu-
and bis associates. His fame extended far beyond teronomy, Judges, Ruth, Kings, and the Catholic
891 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theodore of Andida
Theodore of Mopauestia

Epistles. The authenticity of the imprinted frag- Esther and the Apocrypha (Kihn, 54, pp. 64-
ments is by no means certain, and what actually 65), but scarcely credible that he excluded Chron-
comes from Theodore was not necessarily derived icles, Ezra with Nehemiah (Leontius, xvii. 1368),
from a commentary on the book to which the ca- and that he rejected from the canon Canticles and
tena refers. Thus some genuine fragments from Job (iii. 16, xiii. 1365) is improbable from the fact
Canticles may have descended from a letter; but that he wrote a commentary on Job. Theodore
that they wore taken from a commentary is im- appears to have had the ancient Syrian canon, which
probable, for Theodore regarded Canticles as a contained only the Gospels, the Acts, and the
profane love-song and, therefore, esteemed it of Pauline Epistles (see CANON OF SCRIPTURE II., 6).
littlevalue (Leontius iii. 16). He certainly did not The high recognition of Theodore did not long con-
comment on the Catholic Epistles (ib., p. 1305) and tinue undiminished after his death, although he
that he wrote a commentary on Mark is not probable had enthusiastic adherents even after the condem-
in view of the list of Ebed Jesus and his own refer- nation of Nestorius, wherever the Antiochian
ences exclusively to the interpretations of the other tradition prevailed, and his repute as exegete had
Gospels. The fragment of De interpretatione symboli not wholly subsided in the orthodox Church of the
318 patrum (MPG, Ixvi. 1016; Swete, ii. 327) and succeeding century, as proved by Photius and the
the symbol of Theodore (MPG, Ixvi. 1016-1020; catenae. Soon after the Council of Ephesus (431),
Swete, ii. 327-332) may without hesitation be re- which condemned his creed without mention or
ferred to the work De fide.
Only three printed frag- censure of him, he was included in the condemna-
ments remain unassigncd to the works mentioned tions of Nestorius. Independently of each other
by Ebed Jesu; namely, the hymn (E. Sachau, p. Marius Mercator, stirred by Theodore's attitude
58), the Lituryia Theodori (E. Renaudot, Litur- toward the Pelagian controversy, and Rabulas of
giarum orientalium collectio, ii. 616-621, Rome, Edcssa, the apostate of the Antiochians, opened the
" On the
1716), and the citation from a work attack. The latter called the attention of Cyril of
" The
Miracles (MPG, Ixvi. 1004; Swete, ii. 339). Alexandria to the charge that Theodore was the
hymn isfrom Ephraem; the citation may not be father of the Nestorian heresy. Indeed Cyril had
genuine; and the liturgy, though accepted by before 435 contracted ill-feeling toward Theodore,
I-ieontius (iii. 19) and Swete as genuine on account as is shown by his letters Ixvii.-lxviii., Ixxi.-lxxii.
of language and thought, yet may be of Nestorian (MPG, Ixxvii. 351 sqq.); further, he wrote Ad-
origin and merely referred to Theodore even as early versus Diodorum et Theodorum, of which a few
as the time of Leontius. fragments are preserved (Liberatus, Breviarium, x.,
Theodore WJLS the classical representative of the MPL, Ixviii. 991; cf. MPG, Ixxvi. 1437-1452). The
school of Antioeh. For his christology see NES- name of Theodore was henceforth involved in the
TOKIITS; for Nestorius represented the same ideas, partisan strife of the period, resulting in the final
and, apart from the incipient antagonism to the tragical transaction instigated by the polemics of
theotokos ('* mother of God "), more the Scythian monks (Maxentius, MPG, Ixxxvi. 85;
Signifi- prudently than Theodore. The exe- Leontius iii. 7 sqq MPG, Ixxxvi. 1364 sqq.);
,

cance. getical method of the

Antiochians, Justinian condemned with the Three Chapters (see
however, is best represented by Theo- THKEK CHAPTER CONTROVERSY) the person and
dore, although his most important hermeneutical writings of Theodore, and in spite of the resistance
work is lost (Ad versus allegoricos). Photius states of the West pressed this anathema through the
"
of him that avoiding the tendency of allegory, he council of 553. (F. LOOFS.)
"
made his interpretation according to history
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The moat complete collection of the "Works "
(codex 38; MPG, ciii. 72); and this statement is of Theodore ia in MPG, Ixvi. 1-1020, derived from the ear-
corroborated by theoretical discussions on the part liest of the following named works: Fragmenta patrum
of Theodore himself (Swete, i. 73 sqq.). The Old Grcpcorum, ed. F. Muntcr, vol. i., Copenhagen, 1788;
Scnptorum veterum nova colleftio, ed. A. Mai, vols. i., vi. t
Testament he treated in the way which he assumed
vii., Rome, 1825-35, and the same author's Nova patrum
Paul followed; not by discarding its history, but bibliotheca, vol. vii., ib. 1854; Theodori Antiocheni, Mop-
by setting forth the resemblance of this to New- suestini episcopi quce supersunt, ed A. F. V. von Wog-
Testament materials in order to make it profitable nern, vol. i., Berlin, 1834; Theodori episcopi Mopeues-
tini in Novum Testamentum, ed. O. F. Fritzsche, Zurich,
for the present. He recognizes few direct messianic
1847, the same scholar's ed. of the De incarnatione Filii
prophecies. The prophets and psalms are first ex- Dei, ib. 1847-48; J. B. Pitra, Spidlegium Soleamenae,
vol. i., Paris, 1852; Theodori commentarii nuper de-
plained with reference to their own times; but,
. . .

tecti, ed J. L. Jacobi, Halle, 1855-58; P. do Lagarde, Ana-

convinced of the preparatory nature of the Old- lecta Syriaca, Leipaic, 1858; Theodori Mopauestini frag-
Testament economy, he frequently asserts that mentaSvriaca ed. .
. . .
. E. Sachau, ib. 1869; Theodori
.

what was reported in the Old first reached its full in epistolas ... Pauli commentarii, ed. H. B. Swete, 2
vols., Cambridge, 1880-82; F. Boethgen, in ZATW, 1885,
meaning in the New. The complaint of Leontius
pp. 53-101; his commentary on John, ed. J. B. Chabot,
(iii. 15) that Theodore rejected the superscriptions Paris, 1897; Prologue to a possible commentary on Acts by
to the Psalms, in historical interest, is scarcely E. von Dobschutz. in AJT, ii (1898), 353-387; J. Lietz-
exaggerated. His depreciation of Canticles as mann, in SB A, 1902, pp. 334-344; G. Dittrich, ZATW,
Beihefte, vi (1902).
a profane love-song (MPG, Ixvi. 699-700) was due On the We early accounts are: Chryaostom, Epist. ad
to his aversion to allegorizing; and his inability to Theodorum lapntm; Theodoret, Hist, eccl., V., xxxix.;
appreciate the poesy of Job, to his prosaic historic Socrates. Hist. eccZ., VI., iii.; Qennodius, De vir. ill., xii.,
interest (Leontius, xiii. 1365). His attitude to the Eng. tronsl. in NPNF, 2 ser., iii. 338. Consult further:
DCB, 934-948 (minute, searching, and comprehen-
iv.
canon did not exclude the relative value of books sive);Leo Allatius, in MPG, Ixvi. 77-104; Tillemont,
(cf. MPG, Ivi. 697); it is probable that he rejected Mtmoirw, ad., xii. 433-453, 673-674; Fabricius-Harlos,
XL 21
Theodora of Andida THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 890
Theodore of Moproe

the non-historical legendary figure was first at- the boundaries of his diocese; and he died at peace
tempted in ASB (Aug. v., vi.), after printing with the Church, though not before suffering some
Ruodpert's Vita Tkeoduli episcopi (Hi.). individual antagonisms.
(G. MEYEII VON KNONAU.) Of his numerous works only a few commentaries
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the literature under THBBAN La- are preservedmore or less intact; of the rest only
OION, consult: E. F. Gelpke, Kirchengeschichte der Schweix, meager fragments are extant. A list of the works is
i. 90 sqq., 120 eqq., li. 95 sqq.. Bern, 1856-61; E. Egli,
given by Ebed Jesu (d. 1318; cf. J. S. Assemani, Bib-
Kirchcngeachichte. der Schweit, p. 132, Zurich, 1803; M.
Bemon, Recherche* sur lea onginea de* tolchte df Gentve, 30-35, Rome
liotheca orientalis III., i.

Lausanne . . . , Geneva, 1906. Works. 1719-28). Theodore wrote Commen-

THEODORE OF ANDIDA. See MYSTAGOGICAL taries on Genesis, Psalms, the major and
THEOLOGY. minor prophets, Job (dedicated to Cyril of Alexan-
dria), Samuel, Ecclesiastes, and on all the books of
THEODORE OF CANTERBURY. See THEODORE
the New Testament excepting Mark, the Catholic
OF TARSUS.
Epistles, and Revelation. Of those on the Pauline
THEODORE OF MOPSUESTIA: Foremost ex- Epistles an old Latin translation has been issued
egctc of the school of Antioch; b. at Antioch c. together with the Greek fragments by Swetc.
350; d. at Mopsuestia in Cilicia in 428. He was of a Of all the commentaries only that on the minor
distinguished wealthy family, brother of Bishop prophets is wholly extant in the original and a
Polychronius of Apamea. He spent Syriac version of the commentary on John has
Life. from forty-five to fifty years in teach- been issued by Chabot. De sacramentis was most
ing and was bishop of Mopsuestia, probably identical with the Liber arcanorum men-
392-428. The earliest reliable information is con- tioned by a contemporary of Ebed Jesu, and with
tained in two letters, Ad Theodorum lapsum (MPQ, Sermones mystici (Hesychius), and Codex mysticus
IxviL 277-316), no doubt by Chrysostom, who a (Facundus); and De fide was probably identical
generation later, when in exile, thanks Theodore for with the Catechismus cited by Marius Mereator,
his tried and true friendship (MPG, lii. 669). The Ad baptizandos cited by the council of 553, and Ad
second of these letters complains that Theodore, baptizatos cited by Facundus. The most frequently
who then had scarcely attained his twentieth year, cited dogmatic work was DC incarnatione (Peri tea
had turned his back on the ascetic life which ho had enanthrfipcseos), in fifteen books, against the Apol-
commenced with such zeal, and was occupying linarians and Anomians, written while he was presby-
himself with household matters and forming plans ter (Oennadius, De vir. ill., xv ), thirty years before
of marriage. Chrysostom entreats him to return the De assumente et assumpto. This was evidently
"
to the monastic community. The first letter ad- also on the incarnation, bearing on the " two sons
dressed to one not mentioned by name represents as alleged of the Antiochians Hence, this work
the latter as in love with a certain Hermione and is no doubt identical with De ApoUiriario et ejus
sunk in the smudge of sensuality and the depths of hasresi, from the introduction of which, dealing
That this epistle was from Chrysostom "
despair. with the reproach of the two sons," Facundus
and addressed to Theodore has been disputed, preserved a large fragment. Fragments in cita-
though not conclusively. That Theodore heard tions are preserved of two books Advcrsus Euno-
the rhetorician Libanius is more than probable, mium, and of two Adversns assercntem peccatum in
but that he did so contemporaneously with Chrysos- natura insitum esae; one fragment is preserved of the
tom and renounced the world at the same time with five books of Adversus aUegoricos probably identical
the latter seems highly improbable, considering with De allegoria et historia contra Origcnem dedica-
the difference in their ages and silence on the part ted to Cerdo; two fragments perhaps remain of the
"
of Chrysostom. It must, therefore, be assumed Liber margaritarum, in which his letters are col-
that Theodore's renunciation of the world and lected." Ebed Jesu mentions also a book Pro Basilio
" "
subsequent fall belongs to the period when which others have regarded as a part of Adversus
Chrysostom was living as a monk in the moun- Eunomium (ut sup.), the work having possibly be-
tains about Antioch. It is an old and credible come dismembered form (Fritzsche, pp.
in its Syriac
"
tradition that the counsels of Chrysostom induced 9^-97). In the work entitled,
its original, In Be-
Theodore to return to the monastic life. That half of Basil, Against Eunomius," consisted of
Theodore was a disciple of Diodorus is evident from twenty five books (Photius codex 4) or even twenty-
his theology and exegesis, as well as from the direct eight (Photius, cod. 177; cf. Leontius, Adversus Euty-
testimony of the historians; and the testimony of chianos et NestorianoB, Hi.; MPG, Ixxxvi. 1384).
Thcodoret that this was in companionship with Works wholly lost are two works De spiritu sancto;
Chrysostom may, for at least a period, be credited. De sacerdotio; two books Adversus magiam, the con-
Afterward both were disciples of Flavian, bishop tent of which is somewhat discussed by Photius; Ad
of Antioch, who undoubtedly consecrated Theodore monachos; De obscura locuiione; De perfectione oper-
presbyter in 383. In 394 Theodore took part in a um; and Sermo de legislation*. Ebed Jesu professed
synod at Constantinople, on which occasion possibly to give a complete catalogue, and what is preserved
it happened that the Emperor Theodosius (q.v.), as elsewhere may have been contained in the works
is said, was impressed by his preaching. During named in this list. Such remainders are a fragment of
this period he wrote a mass of exegetical and po- Exodus, four of Canticles, and four of Mark, all of
lemical works. He entered into the Pelagian discus- which have been published, and unpublished frag-
sion and in 420 received Julian of Eclanum (q.v.) ments exist of catena on Leviticus, Numbers, Deu-
an<} his associates. His fame extended far beyond teronomy, Judges, Ruth, Kings, and the Catholic
381 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theodore of Andida
Theodore of Mopuetia

Epistles. The authenticity of the imprinted frag- Esther and the Apocrypha (Kihn, 54, pp. 64-
ments is by no means certain, and what actually 65), but scarcely credible that he excluded Chron-
comes from Theodore was not necessarily derived icles, Ezra with Nehemiah (Leontius, xvii. 1368),
from a commentary on the book to which the ca- and that he rejected from the canon Canticles and
tena refers. Thus some genuine fragments from Job (iii. 16, xiii. 1365) is improbable from the fact
Canticles may have descended from a letter; but that he wrote a commentary on Job. Theodore
that they were taken from a commentary is im- appears to have had the ancient Syrian canon, which
probable, for Theodore regarded Canticles as a contained only the Gospels, the Acts, and the
profane love-song and, therefore, esteemed it of Pauline Epistles (see CANON OF SCRIPTURE II., 6).
littlevalue (Leontius iii. 10). He certainly did not The high recognition of Theodore did not long con-
comment on the Catholic Epistles (ib., p. 1365) and tinue undiminished after his death, although he
that he wrote a commentary on Mark is not probable had enthusiastic adherents even after the condem-
in view of the list of Ebcd Jesus and his own refer- nation of Nestorius, wherever the Antiochian
ences exclusively to the interpretations of the other tradition prevailed, and his repute as exegete had
Gospels. The fragment of De interpretatione symboli not wholly subsided in the orthodox Church of the
318 patrum (MPG, Ixvi. 1016; Swete, ii. 327) and succeeding century, as proved by Photius and the
the symbol of Theodore (MPG, Ixvi. 1016-1020; catena*. Soon after the Council of Ephesus (431),
Swete, ii. 327-332) may without hesitation be re- which condemned his creed without mention or
ferred to the work De fide. Only three printed frag- censure of him, he was included in the condemna-
ments remain unaasigncd to the works mentioned tions of Nestorius. Independently of each other
by Kbed Jesu; namely, the hymn (E. Sachau, p. Marius Mercator, stirred by Theodore's attitude
58), the Lituryia Theodori (E. Renaudot, Litur- toward the Pelagian controversy, and Rabulas of
giarum orientalium collectio, ii. 616-621, Rome, Edessa, the apostate of the Antiochians, opened the
" On
1710), and the citation from a work the attack. The latter called the attention of Cyril of
"
Miracles (MPG, Ixvi. 1004; Swete, ii. 339). The Alexandria to the charge that Theodore was the
hymn from Kphraem; the citation may not be
is father of the Nestorian heresy. Indeed Cyril had
genuine; and the liturgy, though accepted by before 435 contracted ill-feeling toward Theodore,
Leontius (iii. ID) and Swete as genuine on account as is shown by his letters Ixvii.-lxviii., Ixxi.-lxxii.
of language and thought, yet may be of Nestorian (MPG, Ixxvii. 351 sqq.); further, he wrote Ad-
origin and merely referred to Theodore even as early versus Diodorum TJieodorum, of which a few
et
as the time of Leontius. fragments are preserved (Liberatus, Breviarium, x.,
Theodore was the classical representative of the MPL, Ixviii. 991; cf. MPG, Ixxvi. 1437-1452). The
school of Antioch. For his christology see NES- name of Theodore was henceforth involved in the
TORIUS; for Nestorius represented the same ideas, partisan strife of the period, resulting in the final
and, apart from the incipient antagonism to the tragical transaction instigated by the polemics of
thcotokos (" mother of God "), more the Scythian monks (Maxentius, MPG, Ixxxvi. 85;
Signifi- prudently than Theodore. The exe- Leontius iii. 7 sqq MPG, Ixxxvi. 1364 eqq.)
, ;

cance. getical method of

Antiochians, the Justinian condemned with the Three Chapters (see
however, is best represented by Theo- THREE CHAPTER CONTROVERSY) the person and
dore, although his most important hermeneutical writings of Theodore, and in spite of the resistance
work is lost (Ad versus allegoricos) .Photius states of the West pressed this anathema through the
"
of him that avoiding the, tendency of allegory, he council of 553. (F. LOOPS.)
lf
made his interpretation according to history
BIBLIOGRAPHY The most complete collection of the "Works "
:

(codex 38; MPG, ciii. 72); and this statement is of Theodore is in MPG, Ixvi. 1-1020, derived from the ear-
corroborated by theoretical discussions on the part liest of the following named works. F momenta patrum
of Theodore himself (Swete, i. 73 sqq.). The Old Grcccorum, ed. F. Munter, vol. i., Copenhagen, 1788;
Scnptorwn veterum nova collectio, ed A. Mai, vols. i vi. f ,
Testament he treated in the way which he assumed
vii., Rome, 1825-35, and the same author's Nova patrum
Paul followed; not by discarding its history, but bibliothfca, vol. vii ib. 1854; Theodori Antiocheni, Mop-
,

by setting forth the resemblance of this to New- suentvni epiacopi qua supersunt, od. A. F. V. von Weg-

Testament materials in order to make it profitable nern, vol. i., Berlin, 1834; Theodori epiacopi Mopauea-
tini in Novum Testamentum, ed. O. F. Fritzsche, Zurich,
for the present. He recognizes few direct messianic
1847, the same scholar's ed. of the De incarnations Filii
prophecies. The prophets and psalms are first ex- Dei, ib. 1847-48; J. B. Pitra, Spicilegium Solesmense,
vol. i., Pans, 1852; Theodori
plained with reference to their own times; but,
. commentarii nuper de-
. .

tecti, cd. J. L. Jacobi, Halle, 1855-58; P. de Lagarde, Ana-

convinced of the preparatory nature of the Old- lecta Sj/riaca, Leipsic, 1858; Theodori Afopsueatini frag-
Testament economy, he frequently asserts that menta Syriaca . . . ed. . . . E. Sachau, ib. 1869; Theodori
what was reported in the Old first reached its full in epiatolaa . ..Pauli commentani, ed. H. B. Swete, 2
vols., Cambridge. 1880-82; F. Baethgen, in ZATW, 1885,
meaning in the New. The complaint of Leontius
pp. 53-101; his commentary on John, ed. J. B. Chabot,
(iii. 15) that Theodore rejected the superscriptions Paris, 1897; Prologue to a possible commentary on Acts by
to the Psalms, in historical interest, is scarcely E. von Dobnchutz, in AJT, ii (1898), 353-387; J. Lietz-
exaggerated. His depreciation of Canticles as mann, in SB A, 1902, pp. 334-344; G. Dittrich, ZATW,
Beihefte, vi (1902).
a profane love-song (MPG, Ixvi. 699-700) was due On the life early account* are: ChrysoBtom, Epiat. ad
to his aversion to allegorizing; and his inability to Theodorum laptwm; Theodoret, Hist, ecd., V., xxxix ;
appreciate the poesy of Job, to his prosaic historic Socrates, Hist, ecd., VI., iii.; Gennadius, De vir. ill., xii.,
interest (Leontius, xiii. 1365). His attitude to the Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2 Ber., iii. 338. Consult further:
DCB, iv.934-948 (minute, searching, and comprehen-
canon did not exclude the relative value of books sive); Leo Allatius, in MPG, Ixvi. 77-104; Tillemont,
(cf MPG, Ivi. 697) it is probable that he rejected Mtmoiret, zi. t xii.
. ;
433-463, 673-674; Fabricius-Harlos,
XL 21
Theodore the Btodite THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOQ 388
Theodoret

Bibliotheca Grata, x. 349-362, Hamburg, 1807; A. Mai, of his extempore addresses and the longer three
Nova collcctio, i., pp. xviii.-xxx., and vi. f pp. v.-xxii.; series of sermons. Even while in exile he maintained
idem, in MPO> Ixvi. 120-123; R. E. Klener, Symbol* lit-
tcraricB ad Thcodorum . . prrtincntcs, Gdttingen, 1836;
.
his discipline by means of letters instructing the
O, F. FritiBche, De Theodori Mopaueateni vita et acriptia administrator, showing a truly apostolic disposition
commentatio, Halle, 1836; W. C. H. toe Water, Specimen and command. His ministrations extended be-
obaervationwn de Theodora XII. prophetarum mtno-
yond the cloister, as when he organized an associa-
. . .

rum interprete, Amsterdam, 1837; F. A. Specht, Der exe-

getiache Standpunkt dea Theodor von Mopaueatia . . .
,
tion for the burial of the poor. Another activity
Munich, 1871; H. Kihn, Theodor von Mopaueatia und of Theodore was in hymnology, a large number of
Juniliua Afrikanua ala Exegeten, Freiburg, 1880; W. accredited to him, and these of high
hymns being
Sunday, in Expositor, June, 1880; T. K. Cheyne, in The
Thinker, lii (1893), 496-498; J. Fessler, Inatituttonea pa-
emotional and intellectual quality. He also re-
trologice, ed. B. Junjtmann, vol. ii., part 2, Innsbruck, vived the art of making epigrams, which he used
1896; T. Zahn, in NKZ, xi (1900), 788-806; Barden- with exceeding richness. His reputation in the
hewer, Patrologie, pp. 279-282, Eng. tranal., St. Louis, Greek Church has not equaled his capacity or his
1908; and the introductions to the various editions noted
above. desert. His was a master mind, but worked prin-
THEODORE THE STTOITB : Monk of the East- cipally in the cloister. (E. VON DoBSCHtfTZ.)
ern Church, and abbot of Studium; b. perhaps no BIBLIOGRAPHY: The " Works " are best consulted in MPG,
xcix 277 letters and a large number of discourses are
;
the paternal estate on the east coast of the Sea of
given in A. Mai. Nova patrum bibliotheca, viii.-ix., Rome,
Marmora, near the modern Brusa (57 m. s.s.e. of 1871-HS; the Parva Catecheaia, ed. Zacharias, appeared
Constantinople), in 759; d. in exile on the island of at Hermupolis, 1887, and ed. E. Auvray and A. Tougard,
at Paris, 1801; the Magna Catecheaia, ed. A. Papadopou
Chalcis Nov. 11, 826. Theodore was instructed by
loa-Kerameus, at St. Petersburg, 1904. Early sources
his uncle Plato, abbot at Saccudium, became priest are most conveniently collected in MPG, xcix. 49-328,
784 or 787, and head of the monastery in 794. A 803-850, 883-1670, 1813-49, in the shape of early lives,
raid by Arabs drove the monks to the city of Con- treatises, and his own loiters and other materials. Consult
also. Krumbacher, Geachichte, pp. 147-151, 712-715 et
stantinople, where they entered the Studium, passim; J. J. M
ullcr and J. V. Beumelhnp, De studio cocno-
which under Theodore's leadership attained great bw Conntanttnopolitano, Lcipnic, 1721; Fubricius-Harlos,
celebrity and its pinnacle of greatness. Yet Theo- Bibliotheca Grace, x. 434-474, Hamburg, 1807; J. Richter,
in Kathohic, hv. 2 (1874), 385-414; K. Schwarzlose, Der
dore passed only half of the twenty-eight years of his
Bilderstreit, pp. 123 sqq., Gotha, 1890; A. Tougard, IM
abbacy in the monastery, being in frequent exile be- Peraecutton iconocloate d'aprea la correspondance de St. Tht-
cause of his participation in the controversies of odore titudite, Pans, 1891; C. Thomas, Theodor vonXtudton
the times. und aein Zeitalter, Osnabruck, 1892; Schievitz, De S. Tfteo-
doro, Brealau, 1896; L. Vigneron, L' Image saint r. Hist,
Theodore's genius was rather practical than
byzantine du inn. aiecle, Paris, 1896; K. Holl, in Preuaai-
speculative; he had a good education, and wrote ache Jahrbuchrr, 1898, pp. 107 aqq A. Frrrudou, Dra
;

exceedingly well. The most important of his wri- Biena dea monaaterea b Hyzance, Paris, 1896; P. J. Pargoirr, in
Byzantimache Zeitachnft, viii (1899), 9S-101 G A Schnei-
tings are monastic addresses and letters. One work
;

der, Der heilive Theodor von Studion, aein Leben und Wirken,
is dogmatic that on the image controversy (MPG, Miinster, 1900; Alice Gardner, Theodore of Studium, Hia
xcix. 327-426), marked not so much by a wealth of Life and Times, London, 1905; C. Diehl, Fit/urea byzanttnea,
knowledge as by clear argumentation. Theodore's Paris, 1906; Harnack, Dogma, iv. 328 sqq.; Coilher,4u*fur
ocrfo, xii. 298-320; DCB, iv. 955-956.
significance lies rather in his ecclesiastical states-
manship, he being a worthy champion of ecclesiasti- THEODORE OF TARSUS: Seventh archbishop
cal freedom; indeed, he is the one Greek theologian of Canterbury, and the " to whom the whole
first
"
who contended for the separation of Church and English church made submission (Bede, Hist,
State. The canons were to be enforced even against ecd., iv. 2); b. at Tarsus in Cilicia, about 602; d. at
the emperor's will. This is the fundamental tone in Canterbury, Sept. 19, 690. In 667 he was in Rome
the so-called Moechianic strife over the emperor's when the pope, Vitalian, was searching for a primate
divorce and remarriage. He renewed the con- for the English Church, Archbishop Deusdedit (q.v.)
troversy after the death of Constantine when the having died in 664 and Wighard, who came to Rome
Emperor Nicephorus raised a layman to the patri- for consecration, having also died shortly after
archal chair; he felt himself, a mere abbot, the his arrival there. Theodore was recommended by
defender of the Church, sparing not even the patri- Hadrian, abbot of a monastery near Naples; Bede
"
arch. While Roman Catholics claim him as a sup- describes him (iv. 1) as well-trained in secular and
porter of papal primacy, his letters show him to sacred learning, familiar with both Latin and Greek
have regarded the pope merely as the patriarch of literature [he had studied at Athens and was really
the West. His position led to trouble later, when a learned man], of high character, and of ven-
''
the monks, after 843, were drawn into schism, under erable age, being sixty-six years old He was only a
.

the Patriarch Methodius, but were subdued on the monk at the time, but was ordained subdeacon in
principle that monks were subject to the priests. November, and was consecrated archbishop, Mar.
Theodore was essentially the abbot, and as such a 26, 668. He left Rome in May, accompanied by
reformer of monasticism. The iconoclastic controver- Hadrian and Benedict Biscop (q.v.), spent the win-
sies (see IMAGES AND IMAGE WORSHIP, II.) had im- ter at Paris with Bishop Agilbert, and reached
paired monastic discipline, and Theodore went back Canterbury, May 27, 669. The English church was
to the rule of Basil, so fastening the regulations upon much in need of organization and discipline. The
the Greek monasteries that the modern rules practi- bishoprics, with one or two exceptions, were vacant,
cally perpetuate his own, which are to-day the basis and were large, unwieldy, and shifting. The Ro-
of Russian monasticism. The two catechisms still in man party had prevailed over the Celtic at the
use in the monasteries bear witness to his pastoral Synod of Whitby (q.v.) in 664, but the result was
care of the monks, tbe smaller containing a selection yet to be made effective and ill feeling was still
888 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theodore the Stndlte
Theodoret

strong. Theodore visited all parts of the island, Synoellua in MPG, iv. 617-668, xcvii. 1504-21, and two
introduced uniformity in worship and customs, live* ofhim, ed. T. Schmidt, Kahri Djami, 1906; Ada sanc-
torum Damdis, Symeonis, et Georgii, ed. Delchaye, in Anal-
filled vacant bishoprics, created new ones, and
ecta BoUandiana, xviii. 239 sqq.; E. von Dobschutz, in By-
made Canterbury a center of learning. On Sept. 24, eantinische Zeitschrift, xviii (1908), 84-92. Consult. Fab-
673, he held at Hertford a synod, which is regarded ricius-Harlea, Biblwtheca Graeca, xi. 186 aqq., Hamburg,
as the first English national assembly; articles 1808; Krumbacher, Geschichte, pp. 73, 166, 686, 677, 707;
8. Vailhe, in Revue de I'onent chrMim, vi (1901), 313-322,
were then agreed upon for the government of the 610-642.
church. A second synod was held at Hatfield in
680. Theodore's character and ability are shown THEODORET, the-ed'o-ret :
Bishop of Cyrrhus
by the success of his plans, and his services to the and member of the School of Antioch (q.v.; see
English church and English learning can hardly be also EXEGESIS OK HERMENEUTICS, III., 3); b. at
overestimated. He is supposed to have written a Antioch in 393 (Tillemont); d. either at Cyrus or
Penitential, but if so, it is not now known. A work Cyrrhus (" about a two-days' journey
by another hand, embodying his views, is in Haddan Life. east of Antioch "; eighty Roman
and Stubbs, Councils, iii. 173-213. miles), or at the monastery near
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bede, Hist. eccL, iv. 1-3. 5, 6, 12, 17, 21, Apamea (54 m. s.s.e. of Antioch) about 457. The
v. 3, 8; Haddan and Stubbs, Councils, iii. 114-227; Will-
following facts about his life are gleaned mainly
iam of Malmesbury, Gcsta pontiftcum, book i.; Gervase of " "
from his " Epistles and his " Religious History
Canterbury, Ada pontificum, in Stubbs, ut sup.; ASB,
Sept., vi. 55-82; ASM, n. 085-993; W. F. Hook, Lives (Philotlueos historia). His mother having been
of the ArcMuthap* of Canterbury, i. 146-175, London, 1860; childless for twelve years, his birth was promised by
J. R Green, Making of England, 2 vols. passim, ib., 1897; a hermit named Macedonius onthe condition of his
J. H. Overton, The Church in England, i. 71-80 ot passim,
dedication to God, whence the name Thcodoret
ib., 1897; W. Bright, Chapters in Early Enyhith Church
History, pp 251-262, 273-284, 318 321, 357-361, 304-396, (" gift of God ") He was brought up under the care
.

3d ed ib. 1897; G. F. Browne, Theodore and Wilfnth, ib.,

, of the ascetics and acquired a very extensive
1897, W. Hunt, Engluth Church (697-1066), passim,
. .
classical knowledge, and, according to Photius, a
.

ib, 1899; DNB, Ivi. 122-126; DCB, iv. 926-932.

style of Attic purity. That he was a personal dis-
THEODORE AND THEOPHANES (GRAPTOI): ciple of Theodore of Mopsuestia and listened to
Illustrious martyrs of the iconoclastic controversies Chrysostom is
improbable. He early became a
(see IMAGES AND IMAGE-WOKSHIP). lector amongthe clergy of Antioch, tarried a while
1. Theodore was born at Jerusalem, 775 (?), and in a monastery, was a cleric at Cyrrhus, and in 423
died in prison near Clialcedon (7 m. s.e. of Constan- became bishop over a diocese about forty miles
tinople) in Ania Minor, Dec. 27, 840 (?). With his square and embracing 800 parishes, but with an
father Jonas and his brother Theophanes, he entered insignificant town as its see city. Theodoret,
the Sabaite monastery and came to Constantinople supported only by the appeals of the intimate
most probably under Michael Rhangaba, where the hermits, himself in personal danger, zealously
brothers contended and suffered in behalf of the guarded purity of the doctrine. More than 1,000
images under Leo the Armenian. Under Michael Marcionites were reclaimed in his diocese, beside
Balbus they dwelt at Soothenion on the Bosporus. many Arians and Macedonians; more than 200
Theophilus banished them to the island of Aphusia. copies of Tatian's Diatessaron he retired from the
On July 18, 836, they had their foreheads branded churches; and he erected churches and supplied
with twelve iambic verses (whence the name graptoi). them with relics. Extensive and varied were his
Theodore died in prison. The logoi of Theodore on philanthropic and economic interests: he en-
the image-cult mentioned by biographers as kuno-
?
deavored to secure relief for the people oppressed
lukcs, have not been recovered. Several writings with taxation; his inheritance he divided among the
belonging to the Patriarch Nicephorus have been poor; out of his episcopal revenues he erected
erroneously attributed to him, also a biography of baths, bridges, halls, and aqueducts; he sum-
Nicephofus (q.v.). moned rhetoricians and physicians, and reminded
2. Theophanes, brother of Theodore, was born the officials of their duties. To the persecuted
at Jerusalem, 778; and died at Nicasa, Oct. 11, Christians of Persian Armenia he sent letters of
845 or 851 (?). lie survived the restitution of or- encouragement, and to the Carthaginian Celestiacus,
thodoxy under Theodora and was made archbishop fleeing before the Vandals, he gave refuge.
of Nicsea. His remains were interred in the Chora The life of Theodoret stands out prominently in
cloister. Theophanes was one of the most prolific the christological controversies aroused by Cyril (see
and famous religious poets of the Church. W. NESTORIUS; EUTYCHIANISM). Theodoret shared
Christ counts among the mencea (menceon: a book in the petition of John
of Antioch to
containing the troparia or short hymns for the The Nestorius to approve of the term
immovable feasts of the month the name of which NeBtorian theotokos (" mother of God "), and upon
stands on the title-page) in print 151 canones Controversy, the request of John wrote against

(groups of nine odes each) of Theophanes. The anathemas.

Cyril's
authenticity of most of them awaits critical investi- He may have prepared the Antiochian symbol
gation. One of them is to his brother to be sung which was to secure the emperor's true under-
on his day. (E. VON DoascHtTZ.) standing of the Nicene Creed, and he was member
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources for a life are two biographies, and spokesman of the deputation of eight from
one by Simeon Metaphrastee and another by Theodora Can- Antioch called by the emperor to Chalcedon. To
taouiena Palaiologina, ed. A. Papadopoulos-Keraraeus, in the condemnation of Nestorius he could not as-
Annlecta Itrosolumitikes, iv. 185-223, cf. v. 397-399, Leip-
ie, 1897; of. MPG, cxvi. 663-684; the writings
of Michael sent. John, reconciled to Cyril by the emperor's
Theodoret THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 884
Theodorui

order, sought to bring Theodoret to submission by precedes Psalms; the commentaries on the prophets
entrenching upon his eparchy Theodoret was de- were begun with Daniel, followed by Ezekiel, and
termined to preserve the peace of the Church by then the Minor Prophets. Next that on
seeking the adoption cff a formula avoiding the Works: the Psalms was completed before 436;
unconditional condemnation of Nestorius, and, to- Exegetical. and those on Isaiah, Jeremiah, and
ward the close of 434, strove earnestly for the recon- the Pauline Epistles (including He-
ciliation of the East. But Cyril refused to com- brews), before 448. Theodoret's last exegetical
promise and when he opened his attack (437) works were the interpretations of difficult passages
upon Diodorus and Theodoret, John sided with in the Octateuch and QucEstiones dealing with the
them and Theodoret assumed the defense of the books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, written
Antiochian party (c. 439). Domnus, the successor about 452-453. Excepting the commentary on
of John, took him as his counselor. After the death Isaiah (fragments preserved in the catena)) and on
of Cyril, adherents of the Antiochian theology were Gal. ii. 6-13, the exegetical writings of Theodoret are
appointed to bishoprics. Irenseus the friend of Nes- extant. Exegetical material on the Gospels under
torius, with the cooperation of Theodoret, became his name in the catenae may have come from his
metropolitan of Tyre, in spite of the protests of Dios- other works, and foreign interpolations occur in his
curus, Cyril's successor, who now turned specially comments on the Octateuch. The Biblical authors
against Theodoret; and, by preferring the charge are, for Theodoret, merely the mouthpieces of the
that he taught two sons in Christ, he secured the Holy Spirit, though they do not lose their individual
order from the court confining Theodoret to Cyrrhus. peculiarities. By the unavoidable imperfection of
Theodoret now composed the Eronistes (ace below). the translations he states, the understanding is en-
In vain were his efforts at court at self-justifica- cumbered. Not familiar with Hebrew, Theodoret
tion against the charges of Dioscurus, as well as the uses the Syrian translation, the Greek versions, and
countercharge of Domnus against Eutyches of the Septuagint. In principle his exegesis is gram-
Apollinaritmism (see APOLLINARIS OF LAODICEA). matical-historical; and he criticizes tho intrusion of
The court excluded Theodoret from the council the author's own ideas. His aim is to avoid a one-
at Ephesus (449) because of his antagonism to sidedness of literalness as well as of allegory. Hence
Cyril. Here, because* of Epist. cli. against Cyril and he protests against the attributing of Canticles to
his defense of Diodorus and Theodore, he was con- Solomon and the like as degrading the Holy Spirit.
demned without a hearing and excommunicated Rather is it to be said that the Scripture speaks
" "
and his writings were directed to be burned. Even often figuratively and " in riddles." In the Old
Domnus gave his assent. Theodoret was compelled Testament everything has typical significance and
to leave Cyrrhus and retire to the monastery of prophetically it embodies already the Christian
Apainea. He made an appeal to Leo the Great, but doctrine. The divine illumination affords the right
not until the death of Theodosius II. (450) was his understanding after the apostolic suggestion and tho
appeal for a revocation of the judgments against him New Testament fulfilment. Valuable though not
granted by imperial edict. He was ordered to par- binding is the exegetical tradition of the ecclesias-
ticipate in the Council of Chulcedon (451), which tical teachers. Theodoret likes to choose the best
created violent opposition. Ho was first to take among various interpretations before him, prefer-
part only as accuser, yet among the bishops. Then ably Theodore's, and supplements from his own.
he was constrained (Oct. 26, 451) by the friends lie is clear and simple in thought and statement;
of Dioscurus to pronounce the anathema over and his merit is to have rescued the exegetical heri-
Nestorius. His conduct shows (though hindered tage of the school of Antioch as a whole for the
from a statement to that effect) that he performed Christian Church.
this with his previous reservation; namely, with- Among apologetic writings was the Ad quces-
out application beyond the teaching of two sons in tiones magorum (429-436), now lost, in which he
Christ and the denial of the tft&otokos. Upon this justified the Old Testament sacrifices as alterna-
he was declared orthodox and rehabilitated. The in opposition to the Egyptian
tives
only thing known concerning him subsequent to the Works: idolatry (question 1, Lev., MPG, Ixxx.
Council of Chalcodon is the letter of Leo charging Apologetic, 297 sqq.), and exposed the fables of
him to guard the Chalcedonian victory (MPG, Historical, the Magi who worshiped the ele-
Ixxxiii. 1319 sqq.). With Diodorus and Theodore ments (Hist. ecd. v. 38). De provi-
he was no less hated by the Monophysites (q.v.) dentia consists of apologetic discourses, proving
than Nestorius himself, and held by them and their the divine providence from the physical order (cap.
friends as a heretic The Three Chapter Controversy
.
i.-iv.), and from the moral and social order (cap. vi.-
(q.v.) led to the condemnation of his writings x.). The " Cure of the Greek Maladies or Knowl-
against Cyril in the second Council of Constanti- edge of the Gospel Truth from the Greek Philos-
1
nople (553). ophy,' of twelve discourses, was an attempt to
In literature Theodoret devoted himself first of prove the truth of Christianity from Greek philoso-
all to exegesis. The Scripture was his only author- phy and in contrast with the pagan ideas and prac-
ity, and his representation of orthodox doctrine tises. The truth is self-consistent where it is not
consists of a collocation of Scripture passages. obscured with error and approves itself as the
The genuineness and relative chronology of his power of life; philosophy is only a presentiment of
commentaries is proven by references in the later to it. This work is distinguished for clearness of ar-
the earlier. The commentary on Canticles, written " "
rangement and style. The Church History
while he was a young bishop, though not before 430, which begins with the rise of Arian-
of Theodoret,
325 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theodoret
Theodora*

ism and closes with the death of Theodore (429), gar or Multiform ") in three dialogues, representing
fallsfar behind those of Socrates and Sozomen. the Monophysites like beggars passing off their
It contains many sources otherwise lost, specially doctrines gathered by scraps from diverse heretical
letterson the Arian controversy; but it is defect- sources and himself as the orthodox.
ive in historical sense and chronological accuracy, God is immutable also in becoming man, the two
and on account of Theodoret's inclination to em- natures are separate in Christ, and God the Logos is
bellishment and miraculous narrative, and prefer- ever immortal and impassive. Each nature re-
"
ence for the personal. Original material of Anti- mained " pure after the union, retaining its
ochian information appears chiefly in the latter properties to the exclusion of all transmutation and
books. Thoodoret's sources are in dispute. Ac- intermixture. Of the twenty-seven orations in de-
cording to Valesius these were mainly Socrates and fense of various propositions, tho first six agree in
Sozomen; A. Guldenpenning's thorough research their given content with Theodoret. A few extracts
placed Rufinus first, and next to him, Eusebius, from the five orations on Chrysostom were preserved
Athanasius, Sozomen, Sabinus, Philostorgius, by Photius (codex 273). Most valuable are the
Gregory Nazianzen, and, least of all, Socrates. numerous letters (Eng. transl., NPNF, 2 ser., iii.
N. Glubokovskij counts Eusebius, Rufinus, Philos- 250-348). (N. BONWETBCH.)
torgius, and, perhaps, Sabinus. The " Religious BIBLIOGRAPHY : The editions of the works of Theodoret to
History," with an appendix on divine love, con- be noted are: P. Manutius (Latin only), Rome, 1556;
tains the biographies of thirty (ten living) ascetics, J. Birckman, Cologne, 1573 (also Latin); J. Sinnondi, 4
vols., Paris, 1642 (Greek and Latin), vol. v. by J. Gamier,
held forth as religious models. Upon the request of
1684, reissued with corrections and additions by L.
a high official named Sporacius, Theodoret com- Schulte and J. A. Nosselt, 5 vols., Halle. 1769-74, re-
" "
piled a Compendium of Heretical Accounts produced in MPG,
Ixxx.-lxxxiv.; Eugcnius Diaconus, 5
vols., Halle, 1708-78 (Greek only). His " Church His-
(// asreticarum fabularum compendium), including "
" tory was first edited by Frobenms, Basel, 1535; after-
a hcresiology (books i.-iv.) and a compendium of ward by R. Stephens, Pans, 1544, Geneva, 1612; by H.
"
divine dogmas (v.), which, apart from Origen's VaJesius, Paris, 1673-74; by Reading, Cambridge, 1720;
De prindpiis and the theological work of John of and by T. Gaisford, Oxford, 1854; En transls. have been
issued in London, 1612, 1843, in Ifohn'n Ecclesiastical
Damascus, is the only systematic representation of Library, 1854, and (best) in NPNF, 2 ser vol. iii. His
,

the theology of the Greek Fathers. Sermonea de providentia also appeared in English as The
Among dogmatic treatises Theodoret mentions Mirror of Divine Providence, London, 1602.
cxiii. cxvi.) having written against Arius
Consult: DCS, iv. 904-919 (detailed); Tillemont.
(Epist.
Memoirea, xv. 207-340; J. G Walch, Hittone der Ket-
and Eunomius, probably one work, to which were zereien, vols. v.vii Leipsic, 1770 sqq.; Fubncius-Harles,
,

adjoined the three treatises against the Mace- Bibliotheca Grctca, vii 277 sqq Hamburg, 1802; F. A.
,

donians. There were, besides, two Holzhauaen, De fontibus quibua Socrates ac Theo-
. . .

doretua . ujri aunt, Goltmgrn, 1825; J G Dowling,

Works works against the Apollinarians, and of
:
. .

Introduction to the Critical Study of Ecclesiastical Hiat. t

Dogmatic, the Opus adversus Mardonem noth- pp. 34 sqq., London, 1838, F. C. Baur, Die Epochen der
ing has been preserved. The treatises kirchlichen Genchichtaachrethung, pp. 7-32, Tubingen,
"
On the Trinity " and " On tho Divine Dispensa- 1852; F. A. Specht, Der exegetische Standpunkt des . . .

" Theodor von Kyros, Munich, 1S71; J. H. Newman, Hia-

tion Peri theologias kai tes theias enanthro-
(cf. torical Sketches, 111. 307 -362, London, 1873; A Bertram,
pcseds; Epist., cxiii.), assigned by A. Ehrhard to Theodoreti . doctrina chnatolof/ica, Hildesheim, 1883;
. .

the work
"
On the Holy and Life-giving Trinity " C. Rooa, De Theodoreto Clemcntm et Kuscbu compilatore,
" Halle, 1883; A Ehrhard, in TQS, 1888; A. GuMenpen-
and " On the Incarnation of the Lord of Cyril of
ning, Die Kircfienoesthichte des Theodor von Kyrrhon,
Alexandria, certainly belong to the Antiochian Halle, 1889; N. Glubokovskij, in Russian. Moscow, 1890;
School and to Theodoret. To the same belong cap. G. Rauschen, Jahrbucher der chnstlichm Kirche untef
Theodonus, pp 559 sqq., Freiburg, 1897; J. Rainier,
xiii.-xv., xvii., and brief parts of other chapters
. . .

in RheiniachcR Museum, Ivii (1902), 449 sqq F. Loofe, ;

of the fragments which J. Gamier (Auctarium)
" Neatoriana, Halle. 1905; Harnack, Dogma, vols. m.-iv.
included under the title, Pentology of Theodoret passim; Ncander, Christian Church, vol. ij. passim; Schaff,
"
on the Incarnation as well as three of the five Chnatian Church, iii. 881-883 et passim; Hefelo, Concilien-
geachichte, ii., passim, Eng. transl., vol. iii. passim, French
fragments referred by Marius Mercator to the fifth transl., vol. ii. passim.
book of some writing of Theodoret. They are
and Apollinarianism. THEODORIC: Antipope, 1102. See PASCHAL II.
polemics against Arianism"
"
Theodoret's Refutation of the twelve anath-
THEODORUS ASCIDAS. See OHIGENISTIC (CON-
emas of Cyril is preserved in the antipolemic of
TROVERSIES; and THREE CHAPTER CONTROVERSY.
Cyril (MPG, Ixxvi. 392 sqq.). He detects Apol-
linarianLsm in Cyril's teaching, and declines a THEODORUS, thO-o-do'rus, LECTOR (ANAG-
" " Greek That he
church historian.
contracting into one of two natures of the only NOSTES):
begotten, as much as a separation into two sons lived in the sixth century is known from the fact
"
(Epist. cxliii.). Instead of a union according to that he brought his history down to 527. Of his
"
hypostases," he would accept only one that man- authorship it is known only that, at the suggestion
ifests the essential properties or modes of the of a friend in Gangra, he compiled a work of ex-
natures." The man united to God was born of cerpts from the church histories of Sozomen,
Mary; between God the Logos and the form of a Socrates, and Theodoret in four books entitled,
servant a distinction must be drawn. Only minor Ekloge ek tdn ekklesiastikon historidn, commonly
fragments (cf. Epist. xvi.) of Theodoret's defense of known as Historia tripertita (manuscript, first part
Diodorus and Theodore (438-444) have been pre- mutilated, in library of St. Mark, Venice). The
served (Glubokovskij ii. 142). His chief christolog- history covers the period from the twentieth
ical work is the Eranistte etoi polymorphos (" Beg- year of Constantino to tho death of Constantiiuis
TheodoBiua of Alexandria THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 386
Theodulf of OrlSn.

II. (361).The work was never printed, but an Sapor was dispatched to the East to eject the Arian
extract was much used by later chronographers. bishops. On July 19, the heretics were forbidden
Theodorus' method was to select, with verbal faith- to build new churches. These two edicts were also
fulness, from the narratives in common the clearest incisively summarized in a third edict of July 30, the
and best in style and note the agreements in the same year, while decrees were issued against the
margin, while the parts peculiar to each were also Manicheans. These measures may probably be
used and as such specially pointed out. Theo- taken as threats intended to have restraining effect.
dorus continued this work in a church history of To this period belongs the ecumenical Council
his own, beginning with the death of Theodosius II. of Constantinople (381), at which the Praetor
and ending with the reign of the elder Justin (518) ; Nectarius, a layman, was elected bishop of Con-
but this work is lost with the exception of a few ex- stantinople, after Gregory Nazianzen had abdicated
cerpts and citations in the works of subsequent that see. This incident sealed the downfall of the
authors and in the acts of the seventh council (cf. Arians in the East (see ARIANISM, I., 4, 8; COUN-
MPG, Ixxxvi. 157-2280). CILS AND SYNODS, 3). In the prosecution of the
(En WIN PREUSCHEN.) religious policy, Theodosius from the outset deemed
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The earlier literature is indicated in U. it important to act independently of the West. In
Chevalier, Repertoire dea source* h\atonque* du moyen Age, the year 382, there was a pause in legislation adverse
i. 2171, Paris, 1894 aqq.; cm the MSS. consult De Boor, in
to heretics. Thereafter, in June 383, according to
7. KG, vi (1883-84), 489 sqq., 573 aqq. Consult further:
i*. Allatius, in MPG, Ixxxvi. 1, cols. 157 sqq Fabriciua-
;
Socrates and Sozomen, Theodosius undertook to
Harlee, Biblwtheca Graca, vii. 435 sqq., Hamburg, 1801; settle matters by means of a religious conference at
G. Dangers, De fontibus Theodon Lectori* et Evagrii,
Constantinople, whereto invitations were issued to
. . .

Gottingon, 1841; Noltc, in TQS, xliii (1861), 569; Bar-

denhewor, Pctfrologve, pp. 486-487, Eng. transl., St. Louis, leaders of both orthodox and heretical parties. But
1908; DCB, iv. 954; Ceillier, Auteura aocrto, xi. 103-105. the conference proved fruitless, and decrees of July
25 and Sept. 25 resumed interdiction of religious
THEODOSIUS OF ALEXANDRIA. See MONO
13. assemblings of heretics; including the Apollinarists
PHYSITES,
and the Macedonians, while ordination of heretical
THEODOSIUS I., tht"o-do'shi-us, FLAVIUS: ecclesiastics was forbidden. In the autumn of 383,
Roman emperor (379-395); b. probably at Cauca the emperor was wholly preoccupied with the
(29 Roman miles from Segovia), Spain, in 346; treacherous assassination of Gratin, at Lyons, on
d at Milan Jan. 17, 395. His father, Count Theo- Aug. 25, and the usurpation of the Spaniard
dosius, was one of the last of the great generals of Maximus in Gaul, who
was not fully conquered
the western empire, and to him the future emperor until the summer Thereupon legislation to
of 388.
owed his military training. Theodosius early had strengthen the Church was vigorously resumed, and
a command of his own in Moesia; but he renounced sharp measures were passed against paganism.
public service upon the execution of his father Probably in 388 the Pretorian Prefect Cynegius was
through intrigue, after the death of Valentinian I. dispatched to Egypt and Asia Minor with the com-
(373), and lived with his wife, a woman of noble mission of effacing Hellenism by destruction of the
family, both being orthodox Christians. In 375 Gra- pagan temples and inhibition of idolatrous rites.
tian, in dire straits by reason of a new inundation of As a result, in many places, bloody tumults arose,
barbarians, recalled Theodosius from private life especially in Alexandria, where Bishop Theophilus,
and in 379 proclaimed him Augustus of the East. in cooperation with the civil power, demolished the
Theodosius thereupon made Thessalonica the Serapium. Also on Semitic soil vehement conflicts
center of his operations against Goths, Alans, and occurred; and though the detailed facts have not
Huns. Early in 380 he fell ill and desired baptism, been transmitted, the elegy of Libanius, Peri tdn
which was administered by the venerable Bishop of hierdn, discloses a great devastation in which the
Acholios. Theodosius then issued at Constantinople, monks played a leading part. After the emperor's
Feb. 27, 380, the explicit Edictum defide catholica as sojourn at Milan (389 or 390), his religious policy
a law of the empire, wherein the catholic faith is against the believers in the gods was exercised with
solemnly acknowledged and heretics are threatened great firmness, finding distinct expression in a ruling
with incisive penalties. This edict strikes the key- addressed to the pretorian prefects on Feb. 24, 391 :
"
note of the emperor's religious policy, clearly in- No one shall pollute himself with sacrifices. No
dicating the course of its further activities. one shall slaughter an innocent sacrificial beast.
The war with the Goths came to an end at the None shall set foot in a heathen sanctuary, nor visit a
close of 380, and Theodosius triumphantly entered pagan temple. None shall look up to an idol made
Constantinople Nov. 24. The ecclesiastical situa- with human hands." A law of Nov. 8, 392, places
tion was then controlled by the Arians, and the animal sacrifice and soothsaying on a footing with
emperor's immediate effort was to convert them in high treason. While the edict was running its
the spirit of his edict. Bishop Demophilus forsook course, the West had once again fallen into a dan-
the city two days after the emperor's arrival, decli- gerous which required the emperor's prompt
crisis,
ning to acknowledge the Nicene Creed as the indis- intervention. Theodosius, on leaving the West, had
pensable condition to his further activity. The appointed the Prankish Arbogast as mentor to the
emperor appointed as his successor Gregory Nazian- youthful Augustus. But this gave rise to difficulties
zen (q.v.), and the same policy was pursued in a which culminated in the assassination of Valentinian
series of edicts. On Jan. 10, 381, the pretorian at Vienne, May 15, 392. Arbogast elevated in his
prefect, Eutropius, was directed to expel the anti- place Eugenius, who reluctantly assumed the
Nicene heretics from the towns and cities, while hazardous dignity, and was soon constrained,
337 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

against his Christian conviction, to make con- ii.94-99 et passim; and in general the works on the hit-
cessions to the importunate friends of the gods. tory of the period. The Theodosian Code waa edited by
Mommsen, Berlin, 1906.
Thus paganism revived once more. But on Sept.
6, 394, Eugenius was slain in a fierce battle along
THEODOSIUS ZYGOMALAS: Greek theologian
the Frigidus, near Aquileia. There duly followed of the sixteenth century; b. in 1644. He held the
the suppression of pagan superstition: Theodosius position of first secretary to the Constantinopolitan
himself took direct control of the imperial sovereign- patriarch, Jeremias II. Considerable is known of
ty and found it possible to carry out a stronger him through Stephen Gerlach, who at that time was
policy of action. It was under him, especially, that chaplain to the German embassy at Constantinople.
the religion of antiquity vanished from public life Gerlach brought about a literary intercourse be-
and came to be styled " paganism." And with all tween Theodosius and certain scholars at Tubingen.
this went regard for the advancement of the moral The Turcogrcecia (Basel, 1584) of Martin Crusius, a
and religious tasks of the Church. The emperor also valuable source of information regarding the
Christian orient of the sixteenth century, is largely
upheld firmly the cause of the State, and made
it the means of control of ecclesiastical abuse. His compiled from communications of Theodosius.
policy toward the Jews opposed mixed marriages
From the literary remains of Gerlach, Crusius copied
between Christians and Hebrews, and forbade the the two brief works entitled Geographica de monte
latter to hold Christian slaves. But he insisted on Sinai, Atho, aliisqiLe Grcecice locis. In 1578 he sent
the observance of the law which insured religious Gerlach communications containing information re-
freedom to the Jews, and threatened severe penalties garding the bishops, priests, and monasteries col-
lected from almost the entire domain of the orthodox
against any violence to their synagogues.
Some significance attaches, in the life of the churches. His position under the ecumenical
emperor, to his relations with Ambrose. According patriarch as collector from the dioceses of the
to the account of Ambrose the following was the alms by which the poll-tax for the Greek Christians
course of events. (1) The assassination, by the in- living under the Turkish yoke was paid to the sultan,
furiated rabble, of the local commander, Rotherich, afforded him exceptional opportunities for gather-
moved Ambrose to intercede with the emperor, who ing reliable information. He is important for the
could not be induced to commit himself to a definite West chiefly as the author of the replies of the
promise. (2) On the contrary, under the influence patriarch to the Wurttemberg theologians (see
of his counselor Rufinus, Theodosius ordered a JEREMIAS II.). (PHILIPP MEYER.)
rigorous chastisement. (3) The brutal and under- BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the Turcogracia of Crusius named
in the text, consult: Stephen Gerlachs des Aelteren Tage-
hand manner whereby the sentence was executed
buch, ed. S. Gerlach, Frankfort, 1674; E. Le Grand, No-
does not permit the emperor to be held accountable tice bibliographique sur Jean et Theodosi Zygomalas, Paris,
for this feature of the case. (4) Ambrose failed to 1889; P. Meyer, Die theologische Litteratur der griechi-
make allowances and demanded penance. The schen Kirche im 18. Jahrhundert, Leipsic, 1890.
(5)
emperor thereupon submitted to public penance THBODOTION. See BIBLE VERSIONS, A, L, 2, { 3.
before the assembled congregation.
THEODOTUS THE TANNER. See MONARCHIAN-
The name of Theodosius is linked with an event-
ISM, HI., 1-2.
ful period in the final stage of the Eastern and
Western Roman Empire. He was a leader who com- THEODULF, thi'6-dulf, OF ORLEANS: Poet
bined clear insight with determination and energy. and theologian at the court Charlemagne; b.
of
The combination of prince and soldier in Roman apparently in Spain, c. 760; d. in exile at Angers
imperial history found its last successful embodiment (190 m. s.w. of Paris) Sept. 18, 821. Of Gothic de-
in the person and deeds of Theodosius. What scent, unable on account of troubles to remain in his
seemed the impossible task of pacifying the Goths own country, he was received by Charlemagne, and
was accomplished. A benevolent plan of legislation the king made him bishop of Orleans, a dignity
was prosecuted consistently to counteract evils of which he occupied as early as 798. To this several
chronic transmission within the political fabric and abbeys were added, probably St. Mesmin and St.
the social organism. The piety of Theodosius was Fleury on the Loire, and at least Aignan. He
deep and sincere, and strongly independent as proved himself worthy of the trust. A collection
against hierarchical pretensions. In all his imperial of ecclesiastical regulations has come down in a
dealing he had the conscience of a Christian prince. twofold series of forty chapters and a longer capitu-
VICTOR SCHULTZE. lary, relating to the duties of priests and synods
and the welfare and discipline of the laity, and,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. 8. Le N. de Tillemont, Histoire des 0m-
pereurs, vol. v., 6 vote., Paris, 1700-38; J. H. Stuffken, particularly, to the Carolingian policy of public
Dissertatio de Theodosio Magno, Leyden, 1828; M. Fle- schools in villages and towns. To secure co-workers
chier, Hist, de Theodose le Grand, Paris, 1860; W. Frdhner, he peopled St. Mesmin with Benedictines and in-
Les MedaiUons de V empire remain, Paris, 1878; A. QUl-
troduced monastic reforms, and he established a
denpexming and J. Island, Der Kaiser Theodosius der
Grosse, Halle, 1878; W. linger, QueUen der byzantinischen hospice for strangers. In 798 he was entrusted by
Kunstgeschichte, vol. i., Vienna, 1878; H. Schiller, (70- Charlemagne with a mission to Septimania and
achichte der rtomischen Kaiserzeil, vol. ii., Qotha, 1887; Provence. He described this journey hi a worthy
V. Schultae, Geschichte des Unterganges des . . Heiden-
.

tums, 2 vols., Jena, 1887-92; Q. Rauschen, Jahrbucher poem. He offers a word of solemn warning to the
der christlichen Kirche unter dem Kaiser Theodosius dem Prankish judges against official temptations (Car-
Grossen, Freiburg, 1897; W. K. Boyde, The Ecclesiastical men xxviii.), and adds that in comparison with the
Edicts of the Theodosian Code, New York, 1905; Gibbon,
Decline and Fall, chaps, xxvi.-xxvii.; Schaff, Christian
Mosaic, the Prankish law was exceedingly strict.
Church, iii. 63 aqq. et passim; Neander, Christian Church,
His leniency in the judgment of Leo III. secured him
Theoloffioal Bduofction THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 328

the pallium. The relation between Theodulf and supplementary sources use J. Mabillon, Vet era analecta,
i. 383 sqq., Paris, 1723, Sirmond, Opera varia, ii. 665-
Alcuin was cordial, but Alcuin made an effort to
892, Venice, 1728, and Dumznler, in MGH, Poet. Lot.
secure Theodulf 's aid in the Adoptionist controversy cevi Carol., i (1881). 437-681. Consult: J. C. F. Bahr,
(see ADOPTIONISM) against Felix of Urgel. Theodulf Geschichte der romiachen Litteratur im karolingiachen Zeit-
became more prominent in theology after Alcuin 's alter, pp. 01-95, Carlsruhe, 1840; L. Bannard, Theo-
dulphe eveque d' Orleans, 1860; B. Haurdau, Singularity
death, following in the lattcr's scientific method and hiatoriquea et litterairea, Paris, 1861; S. Abel, Jahrbucher
taking part in the dispute over the procession of the dea frankiachen Reicha unter Karl dcm Groasen, ed. B.
Holy Spirit, being prompted by the commission of Simson, passim, Munich, 1866; B. Simeon, Jahrbucher
the emperor. His proof of the Western doctrine dea fr&nkiachen Reichea unter Ludwig dem Frommen, i. 114
sqq., Munich, 1874; . Rgehulka, Theodulf Biachof von
was a series of citations from the Fathers, later en- Orleana, Breslau, 1875; A. Ebert, in Bcrichte uber die
titled, De spiritu sancto veterum patrum sententice, Verhandlung der koniglichcn aachaischen Qeaellachaft der
quod a patre filioquc procedat. His reply to Charle- Wiaaenachaft, ii (1878), 95 sqq.; idem, Allgemnne Ge-
achichte der Literotur dea Mitteloltera, ii. 70-84, Lcipsic,
magne's circular inquiry of 812, concerning the 1880; E. Diiinmler, in NA, iv (1879), 241-250; C. Port,
faithful administration of baptism, manifests solid L'Hymne Gloria laus, Angers. 187U; idem, Encore Vhymne
learning and thorough and skilful familiarity and Gloria laua, ib. 1879; Lierach, Die Gedichte Theodulfa
thoughtfulness regarding his official duties. What Biachofa von Orleana, Halle, 1880; C. Cuissard, Theodulphe
tveque d' Orleana, Orl6ans, 1892; S. Bcrgor, Hist, de la
especially commended him to the emperor and to Vulgate, pp. 145-184, Paris, 1893; L. Delisle, in Biblio-
posterity was his esthetic endowment. He was an thlque de I'ecole dea chart es, xl. 1-47; Hiatotre litt&rairc de
industrious student of the Fathers, the philosophers, la France, iv. 459-474; Hauck, KD, ii. 491 sqq. et passim.

the grammarians and poets, and the Latin classics

THEOGNOSTUS, thi"eg-nos'tus: Alexandrian
in particular. For a much admired church building catechist of the second half of the third century.
at Germigny in Neustria he brought the model from
According to an anonymous excerpt from the
Aix-la-Chapclle. The Bible manuscripts illustrated "Christian History" of Philip of Side (q.v ),
under his direction arc still admired as rarities of art.
Theognostus was the successor of Pierius in the
He was wont to preface a valuable codex with a conduct of the Alexandrine catechetical school;
personal autograph in verse. but the information in the excerpt is subject to seri-
Along this lino he had masterful descriptive ous doubts, which are in part capable of substantia-
powers; and he was easily the first poet of the Caro- tion. Gcorgius of Corcyra named Theognostus
lingian period. Only fragments remain of his great as one of the distinguished teachers, and from tho
didactic poem on the revelation and acts of Christ, time of Dionysius and Pierius it has been concluded
on rewards and punishments beyond, the battle on that he was more probably the predecessor of the
earth with evil, and on the duties of bishops (i., ii.)- latter. His time of activity may be presumed to
Most charming of all, even to the present day, are have been between 247-248 and c. 280. Theognos-
his epistolary poems; they penetrate the society
tus was author of a kind of compendium of dog-
at the court, attach striking characteristics to friend
matics in seven books, no doubt intended for use
and foe, reflect on every hand the historical events in the school and entitled Hypotypdscis. A bare
of the day, and continue tireless in their praises of
work was given by Photius (Bibliothcca,
report of the
the overtoworing greatness and the peculiar services codex 116). Fragments have been preserved, two
of Charles in State and Church (xxv., xxvii.). The
by Athanasius, accompained with lavish praise for
great monarch liked to avail himself of the poet's Theognostus, one by Gregory of Nyssa, and one in
muse, when, for instance, at the death of the queen, the Venetian Codex of St. Mark. The work fol-
794, Theodulf composed the epitaph; and likewise lowed closely the Origenistic views, and defended
upon the death of Pope Hadrian I. The confidential against Neoplatonism the non-eternity of matter,
relations between him and the emperor were never the possibility of a Son of God, and the incarnation.
interrupted. He was honored as one of the wit- Of the time of its issue nothing can be proximately
nesses to the emperor's will in 811. He himself determined. (EnwiN PRKUSCHEN.)
lauds eloquently the latter's zeal for the moral
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The remains are in MPG, x. 235-242; and
promotion of the whole people. Upon the king he with commentary, ed. F. Diekamp, in TQS, Ixxxiv (1902),
looks as the lord of the Church (xxxii.). After 481 nqq.; as well as by Haraack, in TU, ut inf. An Eng.
the death of Charlemagne he hastened by courier to transl. is to be found in ANF, vi. 155-166. Besides the
literature under ALEXANDRIA, SCHOOL OF, consult: II.
offer his homage to Louis the Pious, and received
Chevalier, Repertoire dea aourcea hiatonquea du moycn-Age,
him with great pomp. From 818, however, his favor i. 2182, Paris, 1894-99, and ANF, Index volume p. 70
waned. Theodulf was among the bishops who sup- (for older authorities); L. B. Radford, Three Teachera of
Alexandria, Cambridge and New York. 1908; Barden-
ported the insurrection of King Bernard of Italy hewer, Geachichte, ii. 196-198; Harnack, Litteratur, i. 437
against his uncle. With its suppression, Theodulf's sqq., ii. 2, pp. 66 sqq.; idem, Dogma, iii. 96 sqq., 134, iv.;
fate was removal from his see and retirement to the idem, 46, 331; idem, in TU, xxiv. 3 (1903); Kruger,
monastery. He wandered to Angers, giving poetic Hiatory, p. 217.
vent to the protesting of his innocence and to wrath THEOLOGIA GERMANIC A: A mystical work
against the incompetent judgment. The Palm- of theend of the fourteenth century. It has attained
"
Sunday hymn, Gloria, laus et honor," is ascribed its fame chiefly because it was discovered and first
to him (many versions in English, one by J. M.
" published by Luther. First he came into possession
Neale, All glory, laud and honor "). of a small fragment which he published under the
(FRFEDRICH WIEQAND.) Bin geysilich edles BuMeyn (1516). After-
title,
BXBIIOGBAPHT: The first collection of the writings of Theo- ward he obtained a complete manuscript which
dulph was by J. Birmond, Paris, 1646; the moat conve-
nient source to consult is MPL, cv. 187-380; the Vereu* he published under the title, Eyn deutach Theo-
contra judicea, ed. H. Hagen, appeared Ben, 1882; for logia (Wittenberg, 1518), reprinted under the title,
339 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theodulf of Orllani
Theological Education

Theologia Tcutsch (Augsburg, 1518). The edition tive mystical Anabaptist ideas, the same on ac-
of Luther found a large circulation. In the earliest count of which Calvin warned the Frankfort church
years there were eight known reprints, and in the in 1559; to the Pietists Spener and Arndt; and
sixteenth century at least fourteen further editions to Luther for its Evangelical motives, particularly,
in High German, the moat important among which the yearning for God and the fundamental tone of
was that of Johann Arndt (1597), appended by P. J. humility as well as the denial of self, by sub-
Spencr to the Predigien (Frankfort, 1681, and often) mission to God and union with him through Christ.
of Johann Taulcr (q.v.). In the next three cen- (FERDINAND Conns.)
turies, until 1842, there were at least twenty- BIBLIOGRAPHY B. M. Mauff, Der Religionaphiloaophiache
:

eight known editions in High German. Besides, Standpunkt der deutachen Theologie, Jena, 1890;
. . . K
there were translations into Low German, Flemish, Jiirgens, Luthers Leben, iii. 267 sqq., Ixsipsic, 1847; F. G.
Lisco, DieHeilalehre der Theologia deutscfi, Stuttgart, 1857;
English, Latin, and French. The two manu- F. Rcifenrath, Die deutache Theologie dea Frankfurter Got-
scripts which Luther used are unfortunately lost, teafreundea, Halle, 1863; J. Bach, Meiater Eckhart, Vienna,
but another manuscript, dating from 1497, came to 1864; C. Ullmann, Reformers before the Reformation, ii.
213-232, Edinburgh. 1867; L. Keller, Die Reformation
light in the middle of the last century, on the basis of und die alteren Reformparteien, Leipsio, 1885; idem, Jo-
which F. Pfciffer published what is regarded as the hann von Staupitz und die Anfange der Reformation, ib.
standard edition, Theologia deutsch (Stuttgart, 1851 ;
1888; W. Kohlcr, Luther und die Kirchengeschichte, i. 242
sqq., Erlangen, 1900; J. Kdsthn, Martin Luther, i. Ill
Eng. transl., Theologia Germamca, London, 1854,
sqq., Berlin, 1903; Schaff Christian Church, vi. 141-143.
,

1874, and 1893). In the preface to the fragment

Luther had advanced the supposition that Johann THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION.
Tauler was the author of the work, an assumption I. History.
which has boon refuted by the complete edition, Before the Rise of Monasticiam ( 1).
in which Taulcr is quoted as authority. In the Monastic Schools (2).
The Middle Ages ( 3).
complete edition Luther appended a note to his Lutheran Methods ( 4).
preface according to which the author of the work The Reformed Church (5 5).
was " a priest and custodian in the house of the Effects of Piotism and Rationalism ( 6).
Present Lutheran Requirements ( 7).
Teutonic masters at Frankfort." The same note is
Practical and Advanced Training (5 8).
found also in the manuscript published by Pfeiffer Theological Seminaries ( 9).
and hence proved authentic. From a passage an- Types of Seminaries (J 10).

nouncing his purpose it is evident that the author Roman Catholic Training in Germany (5 11).
II. Supplementary.
belonged to the so-called Friends of God (q.v.), Ante-Niceue Practise (51).
and that he wrote at a time when this community The Middle Ages ($2).
had to clear itself from the charge of connection with The Renaissance and Reformation (S 3).
" " America (4).
the fleet of the false free spirits \\ho tried to
III. Roman Catholic Teaching Orders.
protect themselves with the name of the Friends of
God, i.e., toward the end of the fourteenth century. I. History: The rise of theological education in
The work purports to be a guide to the perfect the early Church was slow, even being excluded so
life, \\hich in a mystical way is to be found in the long as the heads of congregations were chosen sim-
"
union with God. Opening with the passage, When ply for their spiritual gifts. Up to the end of the
that which is perfect is come, that which is in part second century religious teachers seem
"
shall be done away (I Cor. xiii. 10), the work i. Before to have been self-appointed, laymen
points out that this unity is conditioned by the the Rise of speaking in divine worship and also
coming of God into human nature in the manner of Monasti- promulgating their teachings elsewhere,
the incarnation of Christ and by suffering in human cism. The first official required to possess a
form. On man's part the will and desire of the modicum of learning appears to have
creature, which produce a false freedom, must been the reader. This neglect of theological train-
be thoroughly repudiated; and by love and obedi- ing, due to confidence in the divine choice of suit-
enee the true freedom must be attained, which is able men to teach the churches and in their spiritual
God's \\ill in man, and the vision of the eternal. equipment with the requisite gifts and knowledge,
Thus man moves out of self into blessed union with would doubtless have been otherwise had the bishop
God. The booklet is a compound of various ele- been considered, from the first, the proper and nec-
ments: alongside of deeply religious practical essary teacher of his people. Though he was gen-
thoughts lie occult speculations of a decidedly erally so regarded, he did not actually acquire this
pantheistic color; alongside of suggestions of Evan- dignity generally until the third century, and he
gelical impulses, there are relics of medieval piety. was not necessarily a learned man. Christian schools
The work was placed on the Index in 1621 ; but this appear after the close of the second century, such
as well as the claim that its author was a fore- as the catechetical school at Alexandria; yet even
runner of the Reformation was wholly superfluous, they were devoted rather to apologetics than to the
since it is now conceded as containing nothing education of clergy, nor were those intending to
antagonistic to the Roman Catholic Church. It enter clerical ranks either required or accustomed
originated in a transition period when the germs of to attend such institutions. The first conscious
the new were sprouting in the old, and when, beginnings of a regular clerical training were con-
therefore, in individual personalities, there oc- nected with the rise of the clerical orders (see APOS-
curred a singular mixture of simple faith with TOLIC CONSTITUTIONS) in the third century, wherein
obscure speculation. Hence, it appealed to a variety the lower orders became schools of preparation for
of men: to Johann Denck, to fructify his specula- the higher. Zosimus (Epist., xi.) required five years
 Education THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 330

for the lower orders, four years for the sub-deacon, and into the quadrivium of arithmetic (including the
and five for the deacon; and the African Church, reckoning of the church calendar), geometry (which
following Cyprian (Epist., xxix.), advanced no one would now rather be termed geography), music, and
from one order to another without examination. astronomy (often including the mystic properties
The practical training thus afforded was supple- of numbers). Side by side with these arts, which
mented, doubtless even at an earlier date, by the individually were reckoned un-Christian except in
diatribe, or close personal association with the bishop so far as they bore directly upon theology, were
for the instruction of the younger clergy. By the patristic, canonical, and (above all) exegetical
end of the fourth century this practise had become studies, Augustine, the Canones conciliorum, and the
more definitely organized, especially in Africa, Decreta pontificum being widely read.
where, with the help of monasticism, Augustine After the rise of Universities (q.v.) in the twelfth
formed a sort of clerical school, though designed for and thirteenth centuries, it became more and more
the further perfection of clergy already officiating customary to seek theological training in them. The
rather than for the training of candidates for the monastic orders were rivals in their
priesthood. The school of Augustine was the model 3. The desire for learning, and many princes
for the schools of his pupils, bishops Alypius of Middle and cities made certain benefices de-
Tagaste, Evodius of Uzalis, Profuturus of Cirta, Ages, pend upon the possession of academic
Severus of Mileve, and Urbanus of Sicca, as well as degrees. Thus, although the highest
for similar institutions in Spain and southern Gaul offices were filled rather by the influence of personal
in the fifth and sixth centuries, such as Lerinum favor or money, the chief officials and counselors
and Aries. of bishops and other prelates were mostly men
These institutions, of whose courses, organiza- trained in theology and canon law. Attempts to
tion, and history little is known, which must, how- rectify a tendency to neglect the practical require-
ever, have varied greatly according to local condi- ments of pastoral care through absorption in theo-
tions, were in great part destroyed by the inroads retical scholastic studies appear in homiletic aids
of the barbarians; and what prepara- and compends for the sacrament of confession, and
2. Monastic tions were still made for clerical train- in such works on pastoral theology as the Mani/ni-
Schools, ing harked back to older usages. A lus curatorum of Guido de Monte Rotherii (written
radical change, however, came about in 1330) and the writings of Ulrich Surgant of Basel
through the monasteries, whether primarily from (about 1500). In the fifteenth and sixteenth cen-
the Benedictines or from Cassiodorus (qq.v.), when turies, through the influence of humanism, theolog-
the cloisters came to consider as a part of their ical education was endowed with new life, and the
duties the training of recruits for the Church, and study of the Bible increasingly supplanted scholas-
began the foundation of monastic schools for boys. ticism.
While sporadic beginnings may have been made With the rise of a new church system after the
here and there, especially as the reception of ob- Reformation came the demand that pastors should
lates, or children brought to the monasteries in submit to an examination to prove their fitness.
tender years, presupposed religious training, the Thus the Lutheran Unterricht der Visitatoren (1527)
first certain traces of systematic monastic schools required each candidate for the minis-
are to be found in the English Church, whence 4. Lutheran try to be examined by the superin-
Boniface and Alcuin (qq.v.) transplanted the plan Methods. tendent. This provision, however,
to Germany and France, thus leading Charlemagne, was only temporary, and the articles
about 790, to issue his Constitutio de scholia per in- of visitation of the electorate of Saxony (1529;
guta episcopia et monasteria instituendis. Instruc- 1533) directed that the prospective pastor be ex-
tion began with the Psalter, which was committed amined at the court, while the Reformatio Witte-
to memory, as were the Apostles' Creed and the bergensis (1545) entrusted the examination to the
Lord's Prayer. This was followed by the Athana- theological faculty. The church order of the Saxon
eian Creed, the exorcism, penitential office, etc., as electorate (1580) made the chief ecclesiastical au-
well as by the evangelary and the homilies for Sun- thorities the examining board, a system adopted by
days and holy days. Instruction in reading was the majority of the Lutheran national churches.
supplemented by a knowledge of writing, church Both Luther and Melanchthon, themselves univer-
music, calculation of religious festivals, and Latin sity men and teachers hi universities, desired the
grammar. Those more advanced studied the Regida clergy to have university training. In the first
pastoral of Gregory the Great, the De offidis eccle- decades of the Reformation this often proved im-
siasticis of Isidore, and the pastoral epistle of Ge- practical, owing to the lack of a sufficient number
lasius, canons being required also to study the Reg- of educated candidates for ordination, so that it
via de vita canonica and monks the Benedictine rule. became necessary to employ those possessed of but
Such was the chief ecclesiastical training, which meager attainments. In the earliest period, in-
might be acquired, if need be, in the parish schools. deed, the examination seems to have been essen-
Those who desired still further knowledge might tially the exaction of a promise to preach pure
"
study the seven liberal arts," which were divided Evangelical doctrine. But the insistence on a
into the trivium of grammar (including the reading trained clergy soon became more pressing, and in
" "
of the Distichs of Cato and the poems of Vergil 1544 Leipsic required all candidates for the ministry
and Ovid, or of the Christian Juvencus and Sedu- to study at least for a time at a university, except
lius), rhetoric (based chiefly on Cicero's De invert in rare cases where practical training had been re-
tiane, but little used except in law), and dialectics; ceived. The least training of the average pastor was
331 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Education

that of the Latin schools, but in these religious and insistence on the practical side, which was to be
theological instruction were important factors, and kept in mind throughout. In consequence of the
the lectures of the teachers in these schools, who views thus advanced, several national churches re-
were even termed professors of theology, gradually vised their examination requirements, among them
developed into compends of dogmatics. In fact, Prussia (1718), electoral Saxony (1732), and Han-
dogmatics was the dominant subject in the theo- over (1735). The examination was placed at the
logical education of the period, even to the relative termination of the student's university career,
neglect of the Bible. Wurttemberg occupied a dis- though it might be held by the faculty, the consis-
tinct position in the Lutheran lands. In 1547 Duke tory, or a special committee. Many churches re-
" " at his
Ulrich, in establishing the stipendium tained also the examination on the candidate's en-
national university, gave it the Augustinian monas- trance upon his ministry, the second examination
tery at Tubingen; and Duke Christopher trans- usually being held by the consistory. If from the
formed thirteen monasteries into cloister schools in Prussian requirements it may be seen how great
which boys of fourteen or fifteen were received after emphasis was laid both on a wide range of theolog-
passing the necessary examinations at Stuttgart. ical knowledge and on personal faith, as well as on
There they were trained in the usual courses of the homiletic, pastoral, and catechetic ability and de-
Latin schools and in the rudiments of Greek, made votion, rationalism likewise was careful for the
thoroughly acquainted with the New Testament in training of its ministers. Thus the requirements
Latin translation, introduced into the Psalter and for candidates for the ministry in Baden-Durlach,
the pericopes, and trained in singing. They then drawn up in 1756, exact not only a trial sermon,
entered one of the four monastic schools of Beben- but also a technical thesis in Latin, besides a knowl-
hauscn, Herrenalb, Hirschau, and Maulbronn, where edge of theology, church history, logic, metaphysics,
they studied in addition the Old Testament, dia- philosophy, ethics, and languages. Despite these
lectics, and rhetoric. At the age of sixteen they careful and exacting requirements, theological ed-
entered the 11 Diversity of Tubingen, passing through ucation declined during the second half of the
the arts course in two years, and in the third de- eighteenth century; but though the reaction of ra-
voting themselves entirely to theological training. tionalism against Pietism contributed to this decline,
From the very first the Reformed laid equal stress it was rationalism which earnestly labored to raise
on theological education, Zwingli changing the the standard of the clergy.
Grossmilnsterstift into a theological The present general conditions governing Lu-
5. The seminary and creating his so-called theran theological training in Germany are as fol-
Reformed " prophecy," whereby he hoped to lows. Two theological examinations arc required:
Church, revive the mutual prophetic instruction the first, pro licentia concionandi or pro candidature,,
of the early Church recorded in I Cor. at the close of the candidate's term of study; and
" "
xiv. This prophecy was held twice almost daily, the second, pro ministerio, pro munere,
Zwingli presiding over the interpretation of the Old 7. Present or pro ordinationc, before appointment
Testament in the Grossmunsterkirche in the morn- Lutheran to a church, though in practise it is
ing, and Myconius over New Testament exegesis Require- now taken a year or two after the first
at the Frauenmunsterkirche in the afternoon, while ments. examination. Three years' study in a
the canons, theological students, and all the clergy university is everywhere required,
of the city attended. By 1532, however, more strin- except in Wurttemberg, Bavaria, and Strasburg,
gent rules for theological education were adopted where four years are demanded, and in Baden,
at Zurich, these serving as models for the Reformed where five semesters is considered sufficient. The
generally. The examining-board consisted of the first examination is generally conducted by repre-
antistes as president, four members of the council, sentatives of the faculty, and the second by mem-
the theological professors, and two pastors; and bers of the consistory or of the active clergy. The
more stress was laid than by the Lutherans on a first examination is, on the whole, technical, and

thorough knowledge of the Bible, the Reformed the second practical, though in the former exam-
system of training being decidedly more practical ination a specimen sermon and catechizing are also
from the start. required, while the final examination includes homi-
The Thirty Years' War brought anarchy into letics, catechetics, liturgies, and often music. The
theological education, and conditions remained al- universities have recognized in increasing measure
most unchanged from the Reformation period dur- the practical side of theological training, while the
ing the seventeenth century. But after peace had development of theology itself has made additional
again been secured, special attention was accorded demands on the students, as in the augmentation
the problem of the training of the clergy. It was of exegesis by introduction and Biblical theology,
Pietism which most insisted on better or of dogmatics by the history of dogma. An im-
6. Effects education of the ministry, a demand portant place is also taken by the written portion
of Pietism reiterated by Philipp Jacob Spener of the examinations; only rarely, as in Baden, is
and Ra- (q.v.), and most fully developed by there a simple oral examination, except for the
tionalism. August Hermann Francke (q.v.) in his specimen sermon and the catechetical exercise.
Idea studiosi theologies (Halle, 1712), in The Lutheran Church pays little heed to candidates
which he emphasized the necessity of a knowledge for the ministry before they have passed their double
of Greek and Hebrew for true understanding of the examination, but from that time on, especially in
Bible, dogmatics, polemics, symbolics, and church recent years, more adequate provision is made for
history. Most important of all, however, was the the furtherance of their special training. In Luther's
 fiduofttion THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 882

opinion the best preparation for a clerical career Evangelical seminary, that of Hiddagshausen near
was pedagogy, and, as a matter of fact, the early Brunswick, whose constitution is dated Sept. 27,
Lutheran pastors had invariably been teachers, a 1690. Though its statutes contain nothing specifi-
profession to which many of them returned when cally Pietistic, the close relations of the content
better salaries were offered, while many more were porary duke of Brunswick, Rudolf August, with
employed in both professions simultaneously. In Spener, as well as passages in the writings of Veit
Hesse pedagogy was a necessary step to the min- Ludwig von Seckendorf (q.v.) and Spener, imply
istry, but such a system became impractical with that Riddagshauson was essentially a foundation
the increasing demands on the clergy and the de- of Pietism. The seminary contained twelve candi-
velopment of public school teachers. Nevertheless, dates of superior ability, who were to remain at
the close connection between the two professions least a year, and, if proved suitable, two or three
still continues, and the pedagogic activity of young years. The canonical hours were observed regu-
theologians from early times is now represented by larly, time was given daily to Biblical exegesis, and
their employment as private tutors or instructors each Tuesday evening was devoted to disputations,
in private schools. while sermons alternated with catechizings. The
The earliest recognition of the fact that the in- seminary lived on, with many vicissitudes, until
terval between the completion of study and instal- 1809, when
it was destroyed by the French inva-
lation should be devoted to practical work was con- sion. Another seminary was founded at Dresden
tained in the Saxon church order of in 1718 by Valentin Ernst Loscher (q.v.), but it
8. Practical 1580, which required of all pastors a succumbed in the troublous period of the Seven
and preliminary deaconate under regular Years' War. In 1735 yet another pietistic seminary
Advanced pastors for securing practical training was established at Frankfort under the supervision
Training, in the various forms of pastoral care. of the senior of the clergy.
A like purpose was the object of the Rationalism, with its love for the practical, ac-
" " " "
preachers' societies or
preachers' colleges cepted the seminary; and its influence is apparent
after the beginning of the seventeenth century. It in the rescript of Charles Frederick of
was not, however, until the commencement of the 9. Theo- Baden (1769), in which provision is

eighteenth century that institutions were seriously logical made riot only for thorough study of
organized in behalf of theological candidates. In Seminaries, the Bible with the help of antiquities
"
1735 the consistory of Hanover directed that sem- and church history and for preaching
"
inaries be established for theological candidates and catechizing, but also for classics, the history of
who had passed their first examination, their duties Baden, mathematics, physics, agriculture, and
there being essentially those of the deaconate. In botany. The transformation of Loccum into a
like manner the Dresden consistory, in 1788, placed seminary for preachers and the foundation of the
the candidates for the ministry under the super- seminary in Hanover also date from the rationalistic
vision of the superintendent. This led to the pres- period. In 1800 the courses in the former institu-
ent Saxon system whereby the candidates are formed tion were revised by Abbot Salfeld, who placed a
into a society over which the superintendent pre- " "
director of studies at the head of the seminary
sides, meetings being held at which assigned sub- and organized the criticism of the exercises partly
jects are discussed. Another method of theological by the director and partly by the students them-
training is the vicariatc, a system peculiar to Wiirt- selves. This reorganization was taken as the basis
temberg. Immediately after passing their first ex- of the courses drawn up in 1820, when the modern
amination, candidates are employed in practical development of the institution began. After long
church work, being first ordained. They are now negotiations the seminary at Hanover was estab-
called vicars and are made assistants to some pas- lished in 1816, its model being Loccum, though it
tor, who is required to supervise their theoretical contained at most only five members and had a
and practical progress. They then receive parishes director for only a brief time. It was reorganized
of their own, under the supervision of an older pas- in 1854, and in 1891 was transferred to Erichsburg
tor, or are appointed assistant pastors in larger near Markoldendorf. While opposition to sem-
churches with a relative degree of independence, inaries was not lacking, doubtless due in part to the
though required, until they receive definite charges, rationalistic interest in such institutions, many of
to report regularly on their progress to the ecclesi- the conservatives favored them. Thus Frederick
astical authorities. This system has been imitated William III., in a special cabinet order of May 27,
in other branches of the Lutheran Church, as in 1816, insisted on the need of such seminaries and
Baden, Hesse, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Prus- urged the establishment of additional ones. The
sia, and Hanover. The vicariate lasts a year, and sole result of his appeal, however, was the founda-
usually ceases with the second examination. In tion of the seminary at Wittenberg, in part com-
addition to these two systems, a number of national pensation for the city's Toss of its university, in 1817.
churches have established special preachers' sem- It was not until 1854 that the matter of seminaries
inaries for the further training of candidates for the was again taken up in Prussia, when the royal
ministry. The first traces of these institutions date Domkandidatenstift was founded at Berlin. This
from the time of Pietism. As early as 1677 a num- was followed by the establishment of the Kandida-
ber of theological candidates were received at the tenkonvikt at Magdeburg in 1857 for the training
hospice of Loccum, where they were to assist in of teachers of religion in secondary schools, and by
the cloister school and occasionally in preaching. the seminaries of Soest (1892), Naumburg-on-the-
This aided in the establishment of the oldest true Queis (1898), and Dembownlonka (1899; now called
333 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Education

Wittenburg), the ultimate intention being that each Helvetic seminary at Milan, and two seminaries at
province of Old Prussia shall have at least one Venice. The Jesuits, however, relieved the Church
seminary. in great measure of the burden of theological edu-
Other national churches have founded seminaries. cation, nor was it until the suppression of the order
To this number belong the seminaries of Herborn that the ruling of the Council of Trent required
in Nassau (1818), Munich (1833), Wolfenbuttel in earnest attention. In Germany Roman Catholic
Brunswick (1836; a revival of the seminary at clergy are either trained from boyhood in episcopal
Riddagshausen), Friedberg in Hesse- seminaries, where they may remain until their or-
10. Types Darmstadt (1837), Heidelberg (1838), dination, or they first attend a public gymnasium,
of the Prfidigerkollegiuin of St. Paul's in then complete the three years' course at a univer-
Seminaries. Leipsic (1862), Altenburg (1883; with sity, and, finally, before ordination, take a course
courses in practical theology as early in a seminary, the latter institution being essen-
as 1834), Hofgeismar in Hesse-Kassel (1891), Preetz tially dependent on the sanction of the State. Prus-
in Sleswick-IIolstein (1896; a similar institution sian seminaries for Roman Catholic priests now exist
had existed at Hadersleben since 1870 to train pas- in Treves, Kulm, Gnesen, Ermland, Hildesheim,
tors for Danish-speaking churches), and Schwerin Osnabruck, Fulda, and Limburg. Cologne, Mini-
in Mecklenburg (1901). These seminaries fall into ster, Paderborn, and Breslau have each two semi-
three groups: obligatory of the old type (Herborn, naries; there are theological faculties in Bonn,
Friedberg, and Heidelberg); optional (all the sem- Paderborn, and Breslau, lyceums in Braunsberg,
inaries of Old Prussia and Hanover, the Prediger- Fulda, and Gnesen, and an academy in Munster.
kollegium at Leipsic, and the seminaries of Munich, Saxony has a Wendish seminary in Prague, while
Altenburg, Hofgeismar, and Wolfenbuttel); and the province of the Upper Rhine and Alsace-Lor-
obligatory of the new type (Preetz with Haders- raine have one seminary each in Mainz, Strasburg,
leben and Schwerin) Attendance at the seminaries
. and Metz, and two each in Freiburg and Rotten-
of the first and thirl groups is required of all candi- burg. There are theological faculties in Freiburg
dates for admission to the second examination, the and Rottenburg. Each of the Bavarian dioceses
difference between the two groups being that those possesses a seminary for priests, while Munich-
of the old type treat those who attend them essen- Freising has two; there are royal lyceums in Frei-
tially as pupils, while those of the new type, like sing, Dillingen, Regensburg, Passau, Bamberg, and
the optional institutions, allow wider scope for in- Eichstatt, and theological faculties in Munich and
dependent practical work and substitute confer- Wurzburg, as well as a large number of seminaries
ences of the candidates for lectures. In consequence for boys, mostly connected with seminaries for
of their more elastic organization seminaries of the priests.
second, or optional, group may also admit such The development of Roman Catholic theological
theological candidates as have already passed their education gained fresh impetus from the reform of
second examination. In Wittenberg and Hofgeis- studies in Austria in the eighteenth century. The
mar it is the rule to include candidates for pastor- various departments of church history and the an-
ates among their members, while the Domkandi- cillary Biblical sciences were then introduced into
datenstift in Berlin and the Predigerkollegium in theological education, pastoral theology was sepa-
Loipsic accept, generally speaking, only those who rated from moral theology and canon law, and sys-
arc awaiting a call to a parish, this being adopted tematic lectures on dogmatics and moral theology
as a principle at Wolfenbuttel. In Sleswick-Hol- were inaugurated. The Austrian course of studies,
stein, since 1906, all candidates are required, after covering three years, has been adopted everywhere
completing their courses at Preetz or Hadersleben, in Germany and is still in force.
to officiate for a year as vicars. (FERDINAND COHRS.)
In the Roman Catholic Church theological edu- II. Supplementary: The earliest Christian train-
cation received a new impulse in the sixteenth cen- ing was by means of personal contact and instruc-
tury when the Council of Trent decided upon the tion, such as Jesus gave to his disciples and Paul
training of future clergy in ecclesiastical institu- to his companions. Not until the simpler faith
tions, thus requiring the establish- crystallized into doctrine and a canon
ii. Roman ment of seminaries for priests. The i. Ante- of Scripture called for interpretation
Catholic future clergy were to attend these Nicene did it become necessary to establish
Training seminaries from the age of twelve, and Practice, Before the end of
theological schools.
in Germany, in them were to receive their entire the second century the debates with
most elementary,
training, except the Gnostics and pagan philosophers made it clear that
which was required as a condition of entrance. The the leaders of Christianity must be well-trained in
establishment of such seminaries was made the theology and interpretation. Catechetical schools
special duty of bishops, and many institutions of became the nurseries of Christian converts and
this character were soon erected, probably the first seminaries for the clergy. The oldest and most
being those founded by Cardinal Amulio de Rieti prominent of these was that of Alexandria. Pan-
and by Bishop Martin of Schaumberg in 1564. taenus (q.v.) was its first known teacher (c. 180),
Others soon followed in Benevento, Verona, Larino, and the school was made famous by Clement and
Brixia, and Osimo. The pope often gave funds for Origen (qq.v.). A school was begun at Cajsarea by
"
establishment, thus giving rise to the papal sem- Origen (231). Antioch had its school about 290,
inaries," Gregory XIII., for instance, founding six where some of the most illustrious of the Church
seminaries at Rome for the Eastern Church, the Fathers received their training. Cyril of Jerusalem
Theoloffio*! Education THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 334

has left a treatise on catechetical instruction that all quickened and broadened men's minds; and
has made him famous as a teacher. Other renowned when the spiritual awakening liberated thought
schools of that day were Edessa and Nisibis in the from its time-worn channels theology
East, and the Patriarchum at Rome in the West. 3. The received a new impulse that has not
The germs of episcopal schools for prospective clerics Renaissance ceased to be felt. After the Roman
are also found in the instruction given by leading and Refor- Catholic Church saved itself by the
presbyters or bishops to young men of promise. mation. Counter-Reformation, the education of
The disorders of the fourth and fifth centuries its priesthood passed largely into the
altered many established customs. Theological hands of the Jesuits, and they established numerous
students of the Middle Ages came to depend for their seminaries all over Europe. Its educational system
education on the cloister schools of the of to-day includes both theological faculties in the
2. The monasteries and the episcopal schools universities and separate theological seminaries.
Middle of the bishops. Cassiodorus in Italy, Scores of these seminaries are to be found all over
Ages. Cassian and others in Gaul, and un- Europe, and even in England there are nearly thirty.
known founders in England and Ire- German humanism became transformed into a spir-
land established monastic schools in the fifth and itual reform, and it was natural that most of the
sixth centuries; the Benedictine order made famous German universities should proceed to teach Lu-
such schools as St. Gall (q.v.) and Bobbio on the theran theology. Melanchthon at Wittenberg im-
continent, and lona and Lindisfarne in Great Brit- pressed his ideas upon all Germany. The study of
ain; and the missionaries of the periotf, both Irish Biblical interpretation in the original languages
and Saxon, accomplished for learning by the found- formed the basis of educational work. Time brought
ing of monasteries what modern missionaries achieve a decline in spirituality, and philosophy assumed a
by the founding of schools. It became customary larger place in the universities. The Pietist move-
for each cathedral also to have its episcopal school, ment and the founding of the University of Halle
and in 814 this was made compulsory. Education (1694) were a protest against this. Unfortunately
was on the decline in the seventh and eighth cen- the influence of the Pietists was not in favor of a scien-
turies,but Charlemagne encouraged both episcopal tific theology, and it is not strange that the reaction
and monastic schools, and at his own palace school against them went to the extreme of rationalism.
set an example which inspired others. The episco- Gftttingen (1731) is a representative of the latter
pal schools of Orleans and Reims became far-famed tendency. Nineteenth-century theology in Ger-
in the ninth century. In the tenth century Liege many has been dominated by modern scientific
was the most renowned school; in the eleventh cen- thought. Ferdinand Christian Baur (q.v.) at TO-
tury LeBec in Normandy held that position. In bingen, Eduard Reuss (q.v.) at Strasburg, and
such schools as these the few great scholars of that Albrecht Ritschl (q.v.) at Bonn have each made a
era, such as Alcuin, Bede, Lanfranc, and Anselm marked impress upon the theological education of
(qq.v.), studied and taught. None of these institu- their time. All departments of instruction have
tions did much more than give elementary instruc- felt new force; church history has had to be
the
tion; higher education, when there was any, was rewritten; dogma has been thoroughly reviewed and
directed to the Scriptures and the Fathers. Many in some measure recast. Thorough and scientific
pupils were so poor that they were forced to receive investigation is constantly demanded of students.
aid. The rationalistic tendency stimulated learn- Not alone among Germans has this influence gone
ing in the twelfth century, and resulted in the dis- forth, but to the other Protestant countries of
putations of the Schoolmen and the establishment Europe and to America the ideas and expressions of
of the universities. Theological schools became a the German lecture-rooms have made then- way.
part of the university system from the thirteenth All northern Europe felt the impulse of the Renais-
century. The Universities (q.v.) sprang up inde- sance of the fifteenth century, and everywhere Prot-
pendently of the monastic and cathedral schools, estant universities are to be found in the sixteenth
but they became the centers of all learning, and with their theological faculties. Among the older
theological faculties took their place in them beside universities are Upsala in Sweden (1477), Copen-
the faculties of medicine and law. Several of the hagen in Denmark (1479), Basel in Switzerland
greatest universities, like Paris and Oxford, became (1460), Groningen (1614) and Utrecht (1634) in the
most renowned for their theological instruction. At Netherlands, Glasgow (1451) and Edinburgh (1583)
Paris in the twelfth century ten years were required in Scotland, and Oxford and Cambridge in England,
for the completion of the theological course. Bib- both dating back to the twelfth century. Theolog-
lical and dogmatics made up the bulk
interpretation ical strife has more than once stamped itself upon
of the instruction, and the methods used included their history. Calvin made Geneva the center of
lectures and disputations. Among other famous French Protestant education; Calvinism main-
theological schools founded before 1500 were Rome tained itself in the Netherlands at Groningen and
(1303), Prague (1347), Padua (1363), Erfurt (1379), Utrecht against Arminianism at Leyden; in Soot-
Heidelberg (1385), Leipsic (1409), Louvain (1431), land, St. Andrews, Glasgow, and Aberdeen have
Freiburg (1457), and Tubingen (1477). clung to the same Calvinism, while Edinburgh has
The Renaissance and the Reformation had a great been more open to liberal influences. In England
influence on theological education. The revival of Oxford and Cambridge have regularly offered theo-
the classical Latin and Greek, the new knowledge
logical instruction, but they have no separate theo-
of the East, especially of the
Semites, and the ex- logical department. Cambridge has been more
pansion of the realms of science and philosophy, progressive, feeling the influence of Puritan and
835 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Education

rationalisticmovements, while Oxford has preserved tion of children. During the upheaval of the French
its peaceful way, little aroused until the Tractarian Revolution the congregation was suppressed, several
movement began. Besides the universities, the of the sisters being guillotined during the reign of
Anglican church has more than twenty theological terror. The order was restored in 1807 under Napo-
seminaries. The national churches of European leon, and so rapid was the increase in its numbers
Protestantism have made no provision for the theo- that it soon extended its activities, not only into
logical education of Non-conformists, so that sepa- other countries of Europe, but even into Africa and
rate schools have sprung up of necessity. Baptists, Asia. The first foundation in America was made in
Methodists, and Congregationalists have their own 1836 at Carondelet, a town near St. Louis, Mo., by a
institutions in Germany and Scandinavia, and also colony of nuns from the mother house at Lyons,
in Great Britain. France. The community is now engaged in all
In America the need of theological education forms of educational work in every part of the coun-
made itself felt acutely as soon as the first genera- try. The Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur were
tion of university men passed on. Harvard (1636) founded in 1803 at Amiens, France. Their first es-
"
was founded for Christ and the tablishment in America, made at Cincinnati, Ohio,
4. America. Church," and
half its graduates during in 1840, readily became the center of an extensive
century entered the ministry.
its first system of schools and academies throughout the
In the eighteenth century several colleges were west. The sisters conduct schools also in the east-
founded along the Atlantic seaboard, and the pre- ern states, including Trinity College in Brookland,
vailing motive was the preparation of an educated D. C. A branch of the Notre Dame sisters was in-
ministry. Chairs of divinity were established at troduced in Coesfeld, Germany, in 1851, but the
Harvard in 1638 and at Yale in 1741, but the most members were forced by the Prussian Government
practical training that students for the ministry to form themselves into a separate community, in-
received was the experience and individual instruc- dependent of any foreign authority. When the
tion gained in the homes of the leading ministers of Kulturkampf (see ULTRAMONTANISM) broke out,
the colonies. The first theological school estab- the sisters were expelled. They emigrated to the
lished was that of the Dutch Reformed Church at United States in 1874 on the invitation of the bish-
New Brunswick, N. J. (1784). The early years of op of Cleveland. The community now conducts
the nineteenth century produced seminaries of near- schools and academies in several dioceses. It is a
ly all denominations, and before 1860 these num- fact worthy of mention that the accession to this
bered more than fifty. The growth of the West and country of many religious communities has been
the necessity of teaching the freedmen in the South due to the estrangement between Church and State
have increased the number rapidly in the last half- in the old countries. New institutes have been in-
century. See THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES. The troduced thus arid those already established have
schools that form a department of a university are had their ranks recruited by members exiled from
most popular to-day, and the present tendency is their native lands.
toward the affiliation of separate schools with a The School Notre Dame are a branch
Sisters of
neighboring university when practicable. The regu- of the Congregation of Notre Dame, founded in
lar course of instruction is offered to those who are France by St. Peter Fourier in 1597. They were
qualified, preferably to college graduates, and occu- introduced into the United States in 1847. The
pies three years. The fundamentals of theological Presentation Nuns and various congregations bear-
instruction are the literature of the Bible and its ing the title of Sisters of Providence conduct numer-
interpretation, systematic theology, homiletics, and ous schools in different parts of the country. Other
church history; but the present emphasis on a congregations mentioned under WOMEN, CONGRE-
practical Christianity has resulted in the addition of GATIONS OF, have found a home in the United States,
courses in ethics, sociology, missions, and religious such as the Daughters of Jesus. A full list of the
pedagogy. The tendency of the age toward special- communities engaged in teaching is given with sta-
ization has made it necessary to introduce seminary tistics in The Official Catholic Directory and Clergy
and post-graduate courses; and America may be ex- List (Milwaukee and New York, 1911, pp. 794-
pected continually to increase her contributions to 835).
scientific theological literature. H. K. HOWE. In regard to the United States it is to be noted
in. Roman
Catholic Teaching Orders: The great that conditions have rendered it imperative for con-
orders and congregations which had their origin in gregations which were not originally intended for
the old world and were founded with the express pur- the purpose to engage in the labor of education.
pose of engaging in the work of education are now The Sisters of Charity, although originally founded
conducting schools, academies, colleges, and theolog- by St. Vincent de Paul (q.v.) to minister to the
ical seminaries in the United States. The rise and needs of the sick and the poor, are principally en-
aim of many of these communities are described gaged in this country in conducting parochial
elsewhere in the pages of this Encyclopedia (see schools. As the communities that were modeled
ROMAN CATHOLIC PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS and special upon the older foundations of Europe found it in-
articles on the separate orders).In addition to cumbent to adapt their work to different condi-
those which receive separate treatment may be tions, so in like manner have somo new congrega-
mentioned several congregations of women, having tions spontaneously arisen here and there to meet
numerous establishments in several states. The the demands of the time and place. The teaching
Congregation of the Sisters of St. Joseph was founded institute of the Sisters of Loretto at the Foot of the
in 1650 at Le Puy, France, for the Christian educa- Cross had its rise in an effort made in 1812 by Misa
Theological Education THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 886
Theological Libraries

Mary Rhodes of Maryland to establish a school at Origin and Early Hist, of the Universities, London and
Hardin's Creek, Marion County, Ky. The school-
New York, 1893; G. Schmidt, Die Notwendigkeit und
Mbglichkeit einer praktischen Vorbildung der evangelischen
house was a log cabin. She gathered about her a Geistlichen, Berlin, 1893; G. R. Crooks and J. F. Hurst,
small band of companions who were organized into Theological Encyclopaedia and Methodology, pp. 46 sqq.,
a religious community by Father Ncrinckx, a Bel- New York, 1894; H. Zschokke, Die theologischen Studien
der Kirche in Osterreich, Vienna, 1894; A. Cave, Introduc-
gian priest, who fled to the United States in 1804 tion to Theology, pp. 1-46, 2d ed Edinburgh, 1896; F.
,

in order to elude the order of arrest issued against Paulsen, Geschichte des gelehrten Untemchts, 2 vols., Leip-
him by the French Directory. The institute was sic, 1896-97; E. Sachsso, Die Lehre von der kirchlichen
Erziehung, Berlin, 1897; H. Bavinck, Theologische School
approved by the pope in 1816. The community en vnje Unirersiteit, Kampen, 1899; E. W. Blatchford,
prospered, and at an early period established The Theological Seminary from a Layman's Standpoint,
branches in neighboring and distant states. Its Chicago, 1899; W. Moeller, Hist, of the Christian Church,
activities extended to missionary labor among the iii. 421-427, London, 1900; M. Siebengartnor, Schnften
und EinncfUungen zur Bildung der Geistlichen, Freiburg,
Indians of Kansas and New Mexico. Another com-
1902; A. GrOllich, U nacre Seminararbeit, Meissen, 1904;
munity having its origin in Kentucky was the Sis- W. Diehl, Die Schulordnungen des Grossherzogtums Hes-
ters of Charity of Nazareth. Under the supervision sen, 3 vols., Berlin, 1905; P. Drews, Der evangehsche
of Father David, a Sulpician, an institute was Gemtliche, Jena, 1905; H. Hering, Die Lehre von der Pre-

formed in 1813 with Catherine Spalding as its

digt, Berlin, 1905; F. X Eggersdorfer, Der heilige Augus-
tinus als Plidagoge, Freiburg, 1907; C. L. Drawbridge,
Mother Superior. Its members were composed of Religious Education, how to Improve it, London, 1908;
the daughters of pioneer settlers. The institute H. Schreibcr, Die religiose Erziehung des Menschen, Leip-
sic, 1908; C L. Drawbridge, The Training of the Twig
eventually adopted the rules of the Daughters of St.
Religious Education of Children, London, 1909; A. C.
Vincent de Paul. It prospered and spread from Flick, Rise of the Mediaeval Church and its Influence on
Kentucky into other western states. The Sisters the Civilization of Western Europe, pp. 317, 356, New York,
of Charity of the Blessed Virgin were organized in 1909; L. H. Jordan, The Study of Religion in the Italian
Universities, London, 1909; Robert, Les ficoles et I'en-
Philadelphia in 1834. In the early forties they re- seignement de la theologie pendant la premiere moitit du
moved to Dubuquc, la.-, and have had an important xii. siecle. Pans, 1909, T. F Gailor, The Christian Church

part in educational work in the west. Especially and Education, New York, 1910, F P Graves, A History
of Education during the Middle Ages and the Transition to
noteworthy is a recent institute known as the Sis- Modern Times, New York, 1910; Hchuff, Christian Church,
ters of the Blessed Sacrament, founded at Philadel- v. 2, chaps, viii.-n.
phia in 1889 by Miss Katherine Drexel and formally
approved in 1907. The sisters devote themselves THEOLOGICAL LIBRARIES.
exclusively to the needs of the Indian and colored I. Early and Medieval Libraries.
II. In Germany.
races, and besides many other forms of activity
III. Iii the United States and Canada.
conduct schools, academics, and orphanages. The
income which the foundress derives from her father's I. Early and Medieval Libraries: The causes
estate is employed in maintaining the projects of which originated ancient Christian literature, viz.,
the institute. The influx into the United States of "
the regulation of the increasing disciplinary,
so many foreigners who do not speak English organizing, and dogmatic needs, the struggle with
demands that special provision be made for the in- heresy, the necessity of defending religion, and the
struction of their children, and sometimes new teach- ineradicable desire for knowledge," led to the found-
ing communities are formed to provide for their ing and enlarging of ecclesiastical libraries in ancient
religious as well as secular training. The Sisters of Christendom in all periods of the Church's history,
St. Casimir, for instance, were established at Chicago
especially after periods of decay. Through the in-
in 1908 for the education of children of Lithuanian strumentality of Origen the library at Caesarca was
birth or descent. founded, enlarged by Pamphilus, and given to the
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature on the history of the Church church there. From the end of the fourth century
and that on the principal figures in the development of the larger churches had their archives and libraries,
church life contains much in scattered form which would and for many centuries there was no difference be-
repay perusal. See also that under UNIVERSITIES; also
THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES. A very large and useful tween archives and libraries of the churches, though
literature on the subject of education at large is indicated it arose later. In the Middle Ages the church li-
also in G K. Fortescue's Subject Index . .to the Library
.
braries differed from those of earlier times in that
of the British Museum, London, 1902, 1906. Consult: 8.
M. Vail. Ministerial Education in the M. E. Church, Boston, they included Greek and Roman heathen classics;
1853; Augusta T. Drane, Christian Schools and Scholars, the keen Christian opposition had moderated, and
or Sketches of Education from the Christian Era to the Coun- men perceived that there was much in claspical
cil of Trent, 2d ed , London, 1881, new ed., New York, literature which ministered to knowledge, particu-
1010; O. Ritschl, Cypnan von Karthago und die Verfas-
sung der Kirche, Gottingen, 1885; F. A. Specht, Ge- larly to theology. These classics, therefore, found a
schichte des Untcmchtswescns in Deutschland . . bis zur
.
place alongside the literary productions of the teach-
MiUe des IS. Jahrhundert*. Stuttgart, 1885; A. Harnack, ers of the Church. Yet by the end of the Middle
in TU, ii. 5 (1886); H. J. Icard, Traditions des prHres de
Saint Sulpice pour la direction des ffrands seminaires, Ages, many church and monastic libraries had fallen
Paris, 1886; G. Uhlhorn, Die praktische Vorbereitung der into decay. This is illustrated by the remark of
Kandidaten der Theologie, 2d ed.. Stuttgart, 1887; C. Pohle (KL t ii. 790) that with the general neglect of
Braun, Geschichte der HeranbUdunff des Klerus in der
Diocese Wirzburg, Wuraburg, 1889; D. Cuny, Christian literary studies in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen-
Education, New York, 1889; P. Durieu, TraiU de fad- turies ignorance and indolence had taken hold of
ministration temporelle des seminaires, Paris, 1890; J. B. the monks of St. Gall.
Aubry, Essai sur la methode des etudes eccUsiastiques en II. In Germany:Luther, in the last part of his
France, 2 vols., Lille, 1891-92; A. de Sylvia. Seminaires
et seminaristes, Paris, 1892; F. A. Bourne, Diocesan Sem- Schrift an und Ratsherrn otter Stddie
die Bftrger
inaries, London, 1893; G. Compayre, Abelard and the Deutschlands, doss vie chrMiche Schtden aufrichten,
 387 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Education
Theological Libraries

remarked that neither care nor money should be of the denomination with which they are affiliated
spared to establish good libraries, especially in the will be moat strongly represented in their libraries.
large cities. This admonition was particularly taken As a rule, in the following only those collections
to heart by Johann Bugenhagen (q.v.) in the church have been regarded as special which have retained
ordinances for congregations; he discovered ways their identity as collections, though in a few cases
and means for bringing about these objects. Rules the exigencies of library administration have led to
for the care of libraries are found in the Evangelical distribution. The institutions which possess these
church ordinances of the sixteenth and seventeenth special collections are noted in alphabetical order.
centuries, and the libraries were often most liberally Alfred Theological Seminary, Alfred, N. Y:
supplied through the free-will offerings of the peo- The Sabbath Collection contains 450 volumes on
ple. The general decline of national and ecclesias- the Sabbath question, with books and pamphlets on
tical self-consciousness in Germany in the last half the Seventh-day Sabbath, and rare tracts on Al-
of the eighteenth century caused not only a neglect bigensian and Waldensian doctrines; a copy of the
and a partial decay of the larger public archives and Rogers Bible, 1549.
, libraries, but also the dissolution of church libraries Auburn Theological Seminary, Auburn, N. Y.:
and archives. With the newly awakened church The Porter Collection of rabbinic and patristic litera-
life after the war of liberation (1813-15) interest in ture contains the Greek and Latin Fathers in orig-
church libraries was again aroused, and this interest inal and translation, the Migne Patrology; quarto
has not abated. When the Reformers of the six- edition of Erasmus, 11 vols.; Ugolini's Thesaurus
teenth century espoused the cause of libraries, they in 34 vols., and the Acta concttivrum, 13 vols., Paris,
had in mind the benefit not only of clergy and 1715.
teachers, but of the congregations, as may be in- Cambridge Episcopal Theological School, Cam-
ferred from, e.g., the Hessian church ordinances, of bridge, Mass.: There is here a special collection of
1 537. This demand was fully in harmony with the pamphlets relating to the Tractarian Movement.
general tendencies of the Reformers, who advocated Chicago Theological Seminary, Chicago, 111.:
the establishment of schools for the general educa- In this institution are a collection of works on mis-
:

tion of the people. The church ordinances of the sions; facsimiles of the leading codices; Gunsaulus
sixteenth century, in advocating the founding of Collection on the Rise of Congregationalism, about
libraries, only supplemented the general principles 175 volumes, chiefly of seventeenth and eighteenth
of the Reformation, which demanded general edu- centuries, includes Baylie's Certamen religiosum
cation. On this account, the church libraries of the (1649) and Metamorphosis Anglorum (165)?); the
sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries Curtiss Collection on Old Testament and Semitics,
were mostly public for the benefit of clergy and rich in Old-Testament criticism and exegesis and
laity. The necessity for establishing people's or philological material, contains J. Bartoloccius, Bib-
parish libraries, in the narrower sense, was occa- liotheca magna rabbinica, 1675-93, the London Poly-
sioned, especially aft-er the middle of the nineteenth glot, Poole's Synopsis criticorum (1684-86), Ugo-
century, by the newer legislation which granted to lini's Thesaurus (1769), the Surcnhusius Mishna,
the people a larger share in public and ecclesias- and S. Hieronymi Stridonensis Opera, 11 vols.,
. . .

by the need of education and reading

tical affairs, 1734-43; Egyptology collection presented by E. M.
which this participation and the growing success of Williams; Africa Collection of manuscripts of papers
national education awakened, and in no small de- prepared for the Chicago Congress on Africa, 1893.
gree also by the effort to erect a bulwark against Chicago, Divinity School of the University of, Chi-
the intrusion of literature destructive of the best in cago, 111.: a large number of libraries or collections
State, Church, and society. In this development have been purchased and distributed through the
of the library the leading position has been main- departments, especially the 280,000 volumes and
tained in England and America. 120,000 pamphlets purchased from S. Calvary <fe
T. O. RADLACH. Co., Berlin. Besides this there are: The Hengsten-
m. In the United States and Canada: The un- berg Collection, from the library of Ernst Wilhelm
usually rich development of theological institutions Hengstenberg (q.v.),strong in theology, commen-
in America, many of them possessing large endow- Jews, of the Middle Ages, and
taries, history of the
ments, and having a large roll of alumni among of the modern period, the Church Fathers, and
whom have developed in some instances special in- Medieval and Reformed theologians, also in German
terests which have fostered the collection of books hymn-books; The Anderson Collection of Hymnol-
upon particular topics that have eventually come ogy of 200 volumes; The Northrup Collection in
into the possession of the institutions all this, systematic theology and ethics, 1,050 volumes and
together with special needs, has led to the forma- 350 pamphlets; Library of the American Bible
tion in many cases of libraries which have been Union, approximating 6,000 volumes, collected
highly specialized, which consequently afford the largely by T. J. Conant (q.v.), rich in Biblical texts,
very best opportunities for investigators in particu- versions, and commentaries. Among the note-
lar lines of theological work. The data given be- worthy items in the last are the Complutensian,
low are the result either of inquiries in person or Paris, and London polyglots, the Psalterium Sex-
of information from the librarians of the institutions tuplex (1530), Psalterium Octaplum (Geneva, 1516),
named. It may be said, in general, that theo- and David Wolder's Biblia sacra (Hamburg, 1596);
logical seminaries usually possess fairly adequate Hebrew Bibles are the Bomberg (Venice, 1521), the
resources for the pursuit of the studies in the Basel edition (1546), Pentateuchus et Megilloth

curriculum, while in addition the history and polity (Venice, 1551), Planting Hebrew-Latin (1571),
XI.-22
Theologio&l Libraries THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 838

Buxtorf (4 vols., Basel, 1618-20), and J. Leusden's imprints, and about 60 volumes of missionary
(Amsterdam, 1667), besides many eighteenth and Bibles. The Tyerman Collection of Pamphlets on
nineteenth century editions of the Hebrew, inclu- Early Methodism approximates 10,000 pamphlets
ding that of J. H. Michaelis (Halle, 1720). New- bound in about 300 volumes, collected by Luke
Testament texts found are one of Erasmus (3d ed., Tyerman for his works on the Wesleys, Whitefield,
" "
1522), the O
mirificam
"
of R. Stephens (Paris, and Fletcher. The Osborn Collection of Pamphlets
" editio The Osborn Col-
1646), the regia (1550), and an edition by relates chiefly to John Wesley.
the younger Stephens (24mo, 1569), several of lection Relating to British Methodism is rich in rare
Beza's texts, one by Joseph Scaliger (Geneva, 1620), editions of John Wesley's works, and in Wesleyan
an Elzevir of 1624, and two of Curcellacus (Am- biography, as well as in literature on the minor
sterdam, 1658 and 1675). Of notable Bible ver- Methodist denominations. These three last-named
sions are a Coburger Latin (1520), a Stephens (1546), collections are the nucleus of a literature on Meth-
Die Bibel in Niedersachsischen (doubtless the first odism numbering about 10,000 volumes, including
of its kind), Das neuw Testament recht grilntlich very complete files of minutes of conferences and
teutscht (Strasburg, 1524), and a Roman Catholic works on discipline. The Sprague collection of
version from the Latin into Dutch (1548). There pamphlets was gathered by William B. Sprague for
are also a largo number of modern English versions, his Annals of the American Pulpit, and of this
versions for use in modern mission fields, and those about 30 bound volumes are found hero (see below,
in Indian dialects. PRINCETON THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY). The Collec-
Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y.: The Col- tion of Books on Missions numbers about 6,400
gate Baptist Historical Collection is perhaps the volumes, while related is the Bishop Hartzell Col-
most complete collection of Baptist historical ma- lection on Africa, the Africans, and Slavery.
terial in the country. It is rich in historical arti- General Theological Seminary, New York, N. Y.
cles, pamphlets, catalogues, reports, addresses, his- Especially noteworthy are the collections of patris-
tories of local churches, anniversary sermons and tics, the history of the councils, the histories of the
addresses, biographical material, minutes of con- Protestant Episcopal Church, and a very complete
ventions, the transactions of missionary and benev- collection of diocesan journals. The library of the
olent societies, and the like. The Davis Collection Assyriologist Eberhard Schrader (q.v.) was ac-
on Baptism consists of about 500 volumes. quired in 1909. The Collection of Liturgies con-
Crozer Theological Seminary, Upland, Pa.: This tains about 3,000 volumes, including a complete set
institution possesses a large number of unique and of the standard editions of the American Book of
valuable books and pamphlets on Anabaptist and Common Prayer. The Collection of Bibles includes
Baptist History. the Copinger Collection of Latin Bibles (the largest
Cumberland University, Theological Seminary of, in the world), over 1,200 editions in about 2,400
Lebanon, Tenn.: The Murdock Library consists of volumes, 93 polyglots, 96 editions of the Hexapla,
over 1,000 volumes relating to church history, in- 302 editions of the New Testament, and missionary
cluding Erasmus' first edition of Ambrose, the ag- M versions, including John Eliot's Indian Bible (Cam-
num bullarium Romanum, and Breithaupt's Latin bridge, Mass., 1685), a Mazarin Bible (1453; cost
translation of Solomon Jarchi's commentary on the $15,000; and an ed. of 1483, believed to be unique
Old Testament. so far as public libraries are concerned), and many
Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, N. J.: other rare fifteenth-century editions; the copy of
The Creamer Collection of Hymnology contains the Antwerp Polyglot is perfect, and there is a
about 1,000 volumes and is particularly strong in Hutter Polyglot. Of 124 known editions of Latin
Wesleyan and Methodist hymnals; there are a fifteenth-century Bibles 86 are in this collection,
Sterahold and Hopkins (1579), Buchanan's para- and of 562 from the next century, 438 are here. Of
phrase (1648), a first edition of Toplady's Psalms first editions of English Bibles worthy of note arc

(1759), and a copy of Perronct's poems, supposed the Coverdale (1535), Matthew's (1537), Great
to be the only copy outside the British Museum; Bible (1539; also the rare ed. of 1541), Genevan
there is a supplementary collection on the history (1560), Bishop's (1568), and the two issues of the
of hymns, with books on liturgies. There is also a King James's (1611). There are also numerous edi-
Collection of Bibles, of nearly 900 volumes, including tions of the Greek Testament.
a Latin Bible (Venice, 1478), the Antwerp and Lutheran Theological Seminary, Gettysburg, Pa.:
London polyglots, a Stephen Hebrew Bible (Paris, The Collection on Symbolics is noteworthy for its
1548), and copies of the editions by Hutter (1599 comprehensiveness and for its rare volumes on Lu-
and 1603) in this collection are a number of early
;
theran symbolics, dealing with the history of the
Greek New Testaments, e.g., an Elzevir (1633), Augsburg Confession, the Lutheran symbolical
Bcza (1642), Mills (1707), Wetstein (1751), and, books and commentaries on them, Schlusselburg's
notably, an Erasmus (3 vols., Paris, 1540), one of Catalogi haereticorum (13 vols.), the Corpora doc-
Thomas Anshelmi Badensis (The Hague, 1521; not trines from 1560, Augsburg Confession and Apology
usually noted in lists) and one of Strasburg, 1526,
; (1st ed., 1531, the second ed. of the same year;
which must be the fourth (not, as usually called, also ed. of 1540), the Concordienfonnel (1st ed., 1580),
the third). Among English versions are the Bish- and a first Latin edition of the Formula (1580).
" "
op's Bible (1575), Breeches (Genevan) Bible Hillsdale College, Hillsdale, Mich.: The Hull
(1589, 1601, 1602, 1610), King James's (1611), Collection of Bibles includes over 100 volumes
and the Macklin Bible (1800, a fine example of the the Geneva (1599, 1613), Bishop's (1600), a Latin
printer's art). There are a number of American Bible of 1547, a Beea New Testament (1599); also
839 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Libraries

numerous seventeenth and eighteenth century ords since the founding of the ministerium in 1748,
editions. besides correspondence and journals of leaders of
Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn.: Lutheranism and transcripts of documents in the
The Arabic Collection includes the Muller Semitic archives at Halle. Though not in a special collec-
Library of about 1,100 Arabic books and several tion, the works on the early history of Lutheranism
hundred pamphlets besides 200 other volumes added in America are worthy of mention. Lutherana are
and 150 Arabic manuscripts. There are many specially represented by many first editions of
editions of the Koran, great strength in native Luther's sermons, the program of the Leipsic dis-
" Bio- "
lexicography and grammar, Ibn Challikan's putation, controversial tracts, Eck's Four Hun-
"
graphical Dictionary," and other rarities. The Col- dred and Four Theses (1530), the first English
" "
lection of Bibles is wealthy in Hebrew and Greek edition of the Harmony of" the Confessions "
printed texts; in polyglots it has the Compluten- (1586), a first edition of the Book of Concord
sian, Antwerp, Heidelberg, Paris, and London; in (Dresden. 1580). The Bible collection is strong in
Hebrew Bibles it has a Bomborg ed., Felix Pratensis German and English editions, including the Lon-
(Venice, 1517-18), a Minister's Hebrew-Latin (2 don Polyglot. Of Latin Bibles there is a Nurem-
vols., Basel, 1546), four Plantin Bibles (three edi- berg (1483), Basel (1491), and four volumes of the
tions of 1566; and Hebrew-Latin, 1571), a Hutter 6-vol. edition, 1498-1502. Of English Bibles there
(Hamburg, 1596), a Buxtorf Rabbinic Bible (1618- are two (mutilated) Matthews (1549, 1551), Ge-
1619), Athias edition (1661) imd Leusden edition neva (1st ed., 1560)also later editions, Cranmer's
;

(1667), a Jablonski (Berlin, 1699), Van der Hooght's (1562 and later), Bishop's (1572). Luther's ver-
(2 vols., 1705), Opitz's (Kiel, 1709), the Mantuan sion is in several editions (a 1st ed. of the Penta-
(1742-44), Foster's Oxford quarto (1750), and the teuch, 1523); and of the second part of the Old Tes-
leading critical texts of the last fifty years. Of tament (1524); Dietenberger's Roman Catholic
Greek New Testaments it has an Erasmus (of Basel, version (1534 and 1567), and Bibel Teutsch (Augs-
1516) and a third edition (1522), two of Robert burg, 1518). Erasmus is represented (editions of
Stephens (1546, 1550), Beza's of 1565, 1589, 1598, 1519, 1522, 1527), also Beza (1st ed., 1565). There
Elzevirs of 1624 and 1633, and Bengel's first edi- are fascimiles of the principal codices, and of Wyc-
tion (1734). The Paine Hymnological Collection, HPs and Coverdale's Bibles and Tyndal's New Tes-
as made by Silas H. Paine, contained over 5,000 tament. Catechisms are represented by about 200
titles (to which constant additions are being made volumes, besides a very complete set of American
in all branches of hymnology), besides first-hand editions of Luther's catechisms. The liturgical
information, including manuscript correspondence, collection is made up of several collections brought
gathered by the collector. The annotations of the together, and is particularly rich in materials on
hymnologists David Creamer and Daniel Sedgwick the Lutheran liturgy, German church orders and
in the collection at Drew (see above) arc transcribed. agenda. There are about 1,000 volumes, which in-
The principal modern works on hymnology are in- clude Durand's Rationale divinorum officiorum
cluded, while of rarities mention may be made of (1493), Manuals parochialum sacerdatum (1494),
Tiiuotheus Gateensis, In Hymnos ecclesiasticos Ordo rerum sacrarum agendarum in orthodoxa Christi
brcvis ducidatio (Venice, 1582), Pseaumes de David ecdesia (1553), Casalius' De veteribus sacris Chris-
(Paris, 1562), several editions of Marot's Pseaumes tinnorum ritibus (1647), and works in this depart-
de David (e.g., 1668, 1680); and Latin hymnals of ment by Duranti, Martenc, Renaudot, Burius,
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. There is Muratori, Cavalieri, and Zaccaria. Breviaries are
a large number of English and American hymn- well represented, missals (Nuremberg, 1484; Barn-
books, including a Sternhold and Hopkins of 1584, berg, 1499), facsimiles, and more modern works.
an Ainsworth Book of Psalmen or Hymnes (Amster- German liturgies give the distinctive character to
dam, 1611), a copy of Knox's Liturgy (1615), G(eo.) this collection, among them a manuscript (illumi-
S(andys), A Paraphrase upon the Psalms of David nated) of the fifteenth century, Luther's first litur-
(London, 1636), and many rare first editions. A gical work, Ordnung des Gottesdicnst in der Gemeinde
collection of Lutherana includes a very complete (1523), Bugenhagen's Mass (1524), Osiander's Tauf-
set of editions of Luther's works, among them the ordnung (1524), and Spangenberg's Cantiones eccle-
standard editions and first and other rare editions of siasticcs (1545). The development of the American

fugitive writings, and the collection is probably not Lutheran service is traceable from the material here.
exceeded in value by any other in America. The In this department musical settings have received
collection on Missions is of prime importance be- attention.
cause of its wide range and the wealth of auxiliary Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton, N. J.:
collections on ethnology, comparative religion, and The Library of the Society of Inquiry is the nucleus
travel. (1,092 volumes, 1,200 pamphlets) of a selection of
McCormick Theological Seminary, Chicago, 111.: works on missions. In the general library there are
The Collection on Patristics is worthy of mention collections on Semitics, patristics, and also fac-
because of completeness, including the Migne
its similes of the leading codices of the Bible. The
Patrology and Mansi's Concilia. The Warrington Sprague Collection of Pamphlets consists of about
Collection of Hymnology consists of about 450 20,000 pamphlets collected by William B. Sprague
volumes, chiefly modern. (q.v.) for his Annals of the American Pulpit, bound
Lutheran Theological Seminary, Mt. Airy, Phila- in 1,093 volumes, with additions. Sermons on elec-
delphia, Pa.: The archives of the Ministerium of tion and fast days in Massachusetts, Connecticut,
Pennsylvania are located here, and contain the rec- and Vermont before the governor and general
Theological Xdb
Theological Sci
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 840

court, before the Ancient and Honorable Artillery pecially valuable is that part which contains the
Company (1701-1829), before other bodies, ordina- religious and controversial works of the Puritan
tion sermons, funeral addresses and sermons, and and Westminster divines and those which deal
many other varieties of pulpit discourse are here. with the deistic and ecclesiastical controversies of
Controversial tracts are abundant, such as those on the eighteenth century. The Hymnological Collec-
the Trinitarian-Unitarian controversy, on baptism, tion has for its nucleus the library of the late
episcopacy, Quakerism, Roman Catholicism, the Frederic Mayer Bird (q.v.) and now numbers over
Calvmistic-Armiman controversy, and the like. 5,000 volumes, accessible through a card cata-
Local church disputes are also registered by en- logue. It embraces foreign worship collections,
tries, and the anti-slavery movement. The collec- in which are found the Herrnhut Gesangbuch of
tion of contemporaneous pamphlets on the Synod 1741, the French Psalm books of Marot and Beza
of Dort contains over 500 pamphlets, and furnishes (Geneva, 1607); Greek paraphrases of the Psalms;
perhaps the best collection of sources in America. a line of Latin hymnals among which may be noted
The Hinschius Collection on Kirchenrecht (" Church the Poemata sacra of L. Torrentius (1594), the
law ") consists of over 2,000 numbers. The Agnew Enchiridion scholasticorum of F. Le Tort (1586),
Collection on the Baptist Controversy consists now Lyricorum libri (1645), Jacob Balde's Sylvce lyrica
of over 2,000 volumes and 3,000 pamphlets, and (1646) as well as George Buchanan's Poemata qua
the range of selection is very wide. The collection extant (1687) and Psalmorum Davidis paraphrasis
of Puritan literature comprises about 2,000 volumes poetica (1725). The department of English wor-
of English and American Puritan writings of the ship collectionsis classified according to denomina-
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, theological, tions,and has many early specimens, some of them
controversial, biographical, and exegetical, very exceedingly rare. The minor denominations are
many of the numbers being rare if not unique in well represented. Of very high value is that
this country. part which contains the Psalm versions, in which
Protestant Episcopal Divinity School, Philadelphia, are a first and several later editions of the Bay
Pa.: The liturgical collection comprises over 500 Psalm Book (q.v.), a copy of the editw princeps of
volumes for the most part on Anglican and Protes- Tate and Brady (1696), and many other rarities.
tant Episcopal usage, but includes such works of General treatises are well represented, of anthem
wider scope as those of Goar, Renaudot, Martin books an unusually rich assemblage, nearly one
Gerbert, and Bartolomeo Gavanto, as well as the hundred by Lowell Mason, and about sixty by
Missale Romanum. It contains the publications of Thomas Hastings. Sources are also richly pres-
the Henry Bradshaw Society and the Surtees So- ent, noticeable among which is a first edition of

ciety, editions of the Book of Common Prayer, and Toplady's Poems on Sacred Subjects (1759).
pamphlets on the revision of the American Book of Wesley Hall, Nashville, Tenn.: This institution
Common Prayer. has a collection of Methodist disciplines, from the
Rochester Theological Seminary, Rochester, N. Y. : first (1784) up to the present.
The general library contains the library of Neander, Western Theological Seminary, Chicago, 111.:

the church historian, including the manuscript of The Hibbard Egyptian Library comprises about
"
his Church History." The Baptist history col- 1,500 volumes, to which additions are constantly
lection is perhaps the richest in America on the made, on Egyptology, comparative religion, arche-
Anabaptists, and on the English and continental ology of the Bible and the orient.
Baptists since the early sixteenth century it has Yale Divinity School, New Haven, Conn.: The
very many works. Lowell Mason Library of Church Music is a collec-
Union Theological Seminary, New York, N. Y.: tion of about 8,000 titles in about 4,000 volumes
This institution has a wealth of collections in many gathered by Lowell Mason, unusually complete
departments, among which may be named in gen- in early publications in America, and presenting
eral 430 incunabula, 37 valuable manuscripts, 1,246 the development of American musical taste up
titles of Reformation literature in original editions, to the time of Dr. Mason's death. The Foreign
over 4,200 volumes in church history, patristics, Mission Library approximates 8,000 volumes, the
"
and canon law, the comprehensive Samuel Macauley hope being to assemble the entire foreign mission-
Jackson collection on Zwingli and the Reformation ary literature of the Protestant nations of the
at Zurich, a selection on the dogma of the immac- world." The nucleus consists of copies of all trans-
and a large number of editions
ulate conception, lations of the Scriptures published or sold by the
of Greek New Testaments. The Gillett Collection American Bible Society. It therefore includes:
of American Theology and History abounds in translations of the Bible or parts of it made by
genera] and local history, ecclesiastical and secu- missionaries, with dictionaries and grammars in
lar, and in biography. The Field Collection con- the various languages, with other works prepared
sists of a large number of pamphlets on early by missionaries; histories of missionary organiza-
American religious history. The McAlpine Col- tions and encyclopedias; histories of modern mis-
lection of British Theology and History is rich in sions, including early Jesuit missions; missionary
material from the seventeenth century, its materials biographies and autobiographies; files of the re-
being surpassed in this department only by the ports of many of the Protestant missionary societies,
Bodleian and British Museum; there are rare and of the principal American and European mis-
volumes from the Roman Catholic controversies of reports of work among Jews
sionary periodicals;
the Reformation period, on the early Baptists, and Mohammedans.
Brownists, Independents, and obscure sects; es- In Canada may be named: Presbyterian College,
341 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Libraries
r
Theological Soienoe
L

Montreal: The Sieveright Collection contains old terian Standards (Richmond, 1896); R. V. Foster,
and curious books, including a few incunabula. Systematic Theology (Nashville, 1898); E. D. Morris,
The Bibaud Collection contains 25 volumes of his- Theology of the Westminster Symbols (Columbus,
torical and biographical manuscripts. The institu- 1900); W. A. Brown, Christian Theology in Outline
tion possesses, besides, theHampton Lectures (q.v.), (New York, 1906). Protestant Episcopalian: F. J.
the Migne Patrology, the Complutensian and London Hall, Dogmatic Theology, 10 vols. (New York, 1907
Polyglots, the Bomhcrg Rabbinic Bible, and a small sqq.; in progress). Unitarian: M. J. Savage, Our
collection of other Bibles. Unitarian Gospel (New York, 1898); E. Emerton,
Wesleyan Theological College, Montreal: The Unitarian Thought (New York, 1911). For works
Ferrier Collection consists of the works of Samuel, on the Trinity, see TRINITY.
John, and Charles Wesley. The contributions of American thought to theo-
McMaster Theological Seminary, Toronto, pos- logical science even from the beginning have been
sesses collections of patristics, and classic editions mainly anthropological. Until the latter part of
of history and theology of the medieval and Ref- the eighteenth century the prevailing
ormation periods. The Early theology of New England was strict
Victoria Toronto, has a collection of
College, Period. Calvinism (q.v.) with its five points:
pamphlets, reports, and minutes of conferences, and unconditional election, limited atone-
of manuscript material on the history of Canadian ment, total impotence of the fallen will, irresistible
Methodism. W. H. ALLISON. grace, and perseverance of the saints. The younger
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Literature on general libraries is indicated Jonathan Edwards declared that his father, Presi-
in G. K. Fortescue, Subject Index of the . . . Bntith dent Edwards, and those associated with him had
Museum, London, 1903, 1906 Consult further: M. made no less than ten improvements in the Cal-
Faucon, La Librairie dc* papea d' Avignon, vol. i., Paris,
1886; E. Muntz, and P. Fabre, La Biblioth&que du Vati- vinism of the time: (1) concerning the ultimate end
can au xv. mlclr, Paris, 1886; T. Gottlieb, Ueber mittet- of the creation; (2) as to liberty and necessity,
alterliche Bibliothdcen, Lfipsic, 1890; F. A. Gasquet,
Note* on Mediaeval Monastic Libraries, Yeovil, 1891; J. W.
against Arminians, Pelagians, and Soeinians where-
Libraries in the Medieval and Renaissance in natural is distinguished from moral ability;
Clark, Periods,
Cambridge, 1894; T. G Jackson, The Libraries of the (3) as to true virtue or holiness conceived as benevo-
Middle Ages, London, 1898; K. O. Meinsma, Middel- lence; (4) as to the origin of moral evil; (5) as to
eeuwsche ttihhntheken, Zutphon, 1903; F. Simpson, Sylla-
the atonement not as payment of a debt, but as
bus for a Course of Study in tfie Hist of the Evolution of
ttie Library in Europe and America, Champaign, 111., 1903, maintenance of the divine government; (6) as to
J. W. Clurk, The Care of Books; an Essay in the Develop- imputation of Christ's righteousness and Adam's
ment of Libraries from the earliest Times to the End of the
sin; (7) as to the state of the unregencrate, use of
Eighteenth Century, New York, 1909; D. Cuthbertson,
The Edinburgh University Library, An Account of its means, and exhortations to be addressed to the im-
Origin, with a Description of its rarer Books and Manu- penitent; (8) as to the nature of experimental re-
scripts, Edinburgh, 1910; Schaff, Christian Church, v. It (9) as to disinterested affection in religion;
ligion;
pp. 543 eqq.
(10) as to regeneration (J. Edwards, Works, i. 481-
THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE, AMERICAN CON- 492, Boston, 1842). These so-called improvements
TRIBUTIONS TO: For books embodying contri- are significant not so much for what they contain
butions on religion, see supplement to RELIGION; as forwhat they suggest and prophesy. They are
on the doctrine of God, see supplement to GOD; a symbol of a constant condition of American theo-
for particular systems of theology, see DOGMA, logical thought. Whatever the theme of discussion,
DOGMATICS, also supplement to THEOLOGY; for the real subject is less theological than anthropo-
"
New England Theology until 1870 see NEW ENG- logical. The " five points might be true, and it
LAND THEOLOGY. A classification of treatises on was believed they were, but, if so, they must stand
theology since 1890 according to denominational or fall not by way of authority, even that of the
point of view is here added. Baptist: E. H. John- Scriptures, but as able to maintain themselves
son, Outline of Christian Theology (Philadelphia, through the most rigorous rational and psycholog-
1891); E. G. Robinson, Christian Theology (Roches- ical inquiry. It was also inevitable that a thorough-

ter, 1894); W. N. Clarke, An Outline of Christian going endeavor be made to reconcile Calvinism with
Theology (New York, 1898); A. H. Strong, Sys- the demands of the ethical consciousness. Further-
tematic Theology (New York, 1907 sqq.). Congre- more, conclusions had to be adjusted to the facts of
^ationalist: J. H. Fairchild, Elements of Theology Christian experience.
Pberlin, 1892); L. F. Stearns, Present Day Theology The main discussion centered in the doctrine of
(New York, 1893); W. DeW. Hyde, Outlines of So- sin, and for a hundred years the high debate con-
cial Theology (ib. 1895); C. A. Beckwith, Realities of tinued. According to Samuel Hop-
Christian Theology (Boston, 1906); J. W. Buckham, Sin, kins (q.v.) every man's sin is an effect
Christand the Eternal Order (ib. 1906); W. D. Mac- of Adam's sin by a divine constitution,
kenzie, The Final Faith (New York, 1910). German and yet it is his own free act. Nathanael Emmons
Reformed: E. V. Gerhart, Institutes of the Christian (q.v.) held that, on account of Adam's sin, when
Religion (ib. 1894). Lutheran: H. E. Jacobs, A God forms the souls of infants he produces in them
Summary of the Christian Faith (Philadelphia, 1905). by divine efficiency those moral exercises in which
Methodist: J. Miley, Systematic Theology (New moral depravity essentially consists. He agreed
York, 1892-94); H. C. Sheldon, System of Christian with Edwards in the assertion that God is not thus
Doctrine (ib. 1903); O. A. Curtis, The Christian made the author of sin, since sin lies not in its cause
Faith Personally Given in a System of Doctrine (ib. but in its nature, but differs from him in holding
1905). Presbyterian: F. E. Seattle, The t^at infants have knowledge of moral law as condi-
Theological Soienoa
Theological Beminarle* THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 342

"
tion of moral action. According to Timothy Dwight Dignity of Human Nature seen in its Ruins " in
God permits but does not create sin. Leonard
(q. v.) Sermons for theNew Life, New York, 1858). More-
Woods (q.v.) in distinction from the Westminster over, the previous development of the doctrine of
Catechism (Letters,Boston, 1822) denies the impu- sin and the general advance in humanitarian spirit,
tation of any sinful disposition or act to man which quickened partly by the lofty ethical idealism of
is not strictly his own; this may, however, begin Kant (q.v.), partly by the spiritual philosophy of
with the life of the soul (ib. p. 305). The other Coleridge (q.v.), and partly by the great moral re-
aspect of sin discussed was the divine permission of forms which agitated the first six decades of the
sin. Here the fundamental position was that sin nineteenth century, raised the entire conception of
is the necessary means of the greatest good. This man to a higher level. From the point of view of
is the position of Hopkins, Bellamy, Emmons, and evolution two contributions of great value have
Wood. Nathaniel William Taylor (q.v.) assumed been made, neither by theologians, but both uniting
divine decrees in the Calvinistic sense, and, on the in the religious interest, J. Le Conte, Evolution and
other hand, natural ability to obey God as the basis its Relation to Religious Thought (New York, 1894),
of accountability, together with a propensity to sin and J. Fiske, The Destiny of Man Viewed in the
which was in some sense sinful; he, however, denied Light of his Origin (Boston, 1884) The works which
.

imputation. According to him, there is no heredi- deal with immortality, including conditional im-
tary but only voluntary sin, arising in a disposition mortality, are among the most fruitful additions to
which becomes sinful only when the soul yields to it. American thought on this subject (see IMMORTALITY,
Looking back over the course of this discussion, it VIII.). Outside of the writings of Universalism
is seen to issue in four great affirmations, all of (see UNI VERSA LISTS) future probation was advo-
which modified the strict Calvinism of an earlier cated in Progressive Orthodoxy by professors in An-
day: (1) original sin is incompatible with the nature dover Theological Seminary (ib. 1886), who main-
of infants, and with adult accountability. (2) Moral tained that since the final judgment is Christian
action is certain, but is coupled with " power to the judgment, the opportunity to accept this must come
contrary." (3) Concerning the divine permission of consciously to every soul.
sin, or whether sin was the necessary means of the The person of Christ has received attention from
greatest good, the affirmation was that God could two different interests his character and his essen-
not wholly prevent sin in a moral world; and that tial nature. Chief among the treatises
sin was never either a good or necessary. (4) Sin Christology. on his character are, W. TC. Charming,
"
may be forgiven by reason not of Christ's payment Works, The Imitiiblc ness of the
of a debt but of his maintenance of the divine gov- Character of Christ" 1875), II. BushneJI, A'a-
(ib.
ernment. Here are indeed great gains over the ture and the Sujxrnatural,
"
The Character of Jesus "
positions of Edwards, but in the reasonings by (New York, 1858), J. A. Broadus (q.v.), Jesiis of
which they are reached one is reminded of the Nazareth (ib. 1890), C. E. Jefferson (q.v.), The. Char-
Judaic, medieval, and Lutheran scholasticism. acter of Jesus (ib. 1908), N. Schmidt, Prophet of
In the following presentation of more recent Nazareth (ib. 1907). The principal attempts to re-
thought it is not assumed that contributions of the construct the doctrine of the inner nature of Christ
same nature and even of similar value have not have been made by H. Bushnell, God in Christ (ib.
been made by English and continental 1849), in which the content of Jesus's consciousness
Anthro- writers. Attention is, however, di- is declared to be divine, the form human, and by

pology. reeled to the American field. Taking H. M. Goodwin, Christ and Humanity (ib. 1875),
up in order the subjects which have which finds the eternal humanity in God the princi-
been enriched by American scholars, outside of ple of the incarnation a view not unlike that pre-
those to which reference has been made in the first sented by G. A. Gordon (q.v.) in The Christ of To-
paragraph above, there is first the doctrine of man. day (Boston, 1895). The consubstaritiality of God
Expansion has taken place in three directions, two and man offers a clue to other presentations of the
of which are diametrically opposed to each other, person of Christ: H. Van Dyke (q.v.), The Gospel for
while a third, although unpremeditated, has not an Age of Doubt, lect. IV. (New York, 1896); T. De
been less effective. More than to any other source Witt Hyde (q.v.), Social Theology, p. 60 (1895); F.
the conception of the inherent, immeasurable, and Palmer, Studies in Theologic Definition (1895).
indefeasible worth of the soul has owed its initiative Significant contributions have been made to the
and defense to Unitarian thinkers, to W. E. Chan- doctrine of the atonement. In addition to those re-
"
ning (q.v.) first (cf. Works, Sermon Preached at ferred to in the articles on atonement and satisfac-
the Installation of Jared Sparks in Baltimore, 1819," tion which defend traditional positions,
Boston, 1875). On the other hand, Calvinism, even Atonement five works require attention: H.
the most extreme, tended to the same result by a Bushnell, The Vicarious Sacrifice (ib.
wholly different path. It ostensibly robbed manof 1865), in which love is suggested as the secret of
his essential glory and abased his pride in the dust; Christ's sacrifice; H. C. TrumbuU (q.v.), The Blood
but since it made him the highest creature in the Covenant (ib. 1885), which presents sacrifice as an
universe, subject of the divine decrees, in whose original form of blood-covenanting, blood-brother-
interest the entire machinery of redemption was set hood between God and man effected by transfusion
in operation, thus engrossing the whole conscious- of blood, and God and man united in the blood of
ness and purpose of God, he was inevitably exalted Christ; professors in Andover Theological Seminary,
to a position of the highest significance (cf. J. Ed- Progressive Orthodoxy (Boston, 1886), in which God
wards, Freedom of the Witt; also H, Bushnell, q.v,f is seen to be propitiated by man's repentance, and
843 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

" "
Christ's in his work is
sympathetic repentance lotions of Faith and Philosophy (New York, 1877);
"
a humanity plus Christ for human-
substitution of Horace Bushnell, Nature and the Supernatural (ib.,
ity minus Christ "; C. C. Everett, The Gospel of 1858); John Fiske, The Idea of God (Boston, 1886),
Paul (ib. 1893) which represents the curse on sin as and Through Nature to God (ib. 1899);
removed on account of Paul's view of Christ's death Apologetics. W. A. Brown, The Essence of Christian-
on the cross outside of the walls of the Holy City; ity (New York, 1902); G. W. Knox
and E. D. Burton and others, The Biblical Idea of the (q.v.), The Direct and Fundamental Proof of the
Atonement (Chicago, 1909), where the atonement is Christian Religion (ib. 1903); G. B. Foster, The
for the first time brought into line with the social Finality of the Christian Religion (Chicago, 1906);
consciousness of sin and salvation. and G. A. Gordon, Religion and Miracle (Boston,
For contributions on the Spirit of God see SPIRIT 1909).
OF GOD; on conversion and religious experience, The foregoing presentation has not aimed to be
see CONVERSION, also Supplement to RELIGION, exhaustive, some subjects having been omitted and
PSYCHOLOGY OP. only few books on each subject named, but the main
In Apologetics (q.v.) the most notable contribu- lines have been indicated and leading works sug-
tions have been by Henry B. Smith (q.v.), The Re- gested. C. A. BECKWITH.

THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES.
I. Baptist. 9. Hartwiok. 2. Columbia.
1.Divinity School of the Univer- 10. Luther. 3. Kentucky.
sity of Chicago. 11. Mount Airy. 4. Southwestern.
2. Colgate. 12. Columbia (formerly Mount 5. Union (Richmond, Va.).
3. Crozer. Pleasant). XII. Reformed Presbyterian.
4. Kansas City. 13. Saint Anthony Park. 1. Pittsburg.
5. Newton. 14. Susquehanna. XIII. United Presbyterian.
6. Rochester. 15. Wartburg. 1. Xenia.
7. Southern. 16. Wauwatosa. XIV. Protestant Episcopal.
8. Southwestern. 17. Western. 1. Berkeley.
Q. Virginia Union. VIII. Methodist Episcopal 2. Cambridge.
II. Free Baptist. 1. Asbury. 3. General.
1. Hillsdale. 2. Boston. 4. Nashotah.
III. Congregational. 3. Drew. 5. Pacific.
1. Andover. 4. Garrett Biblical Institute. 6. Philadelphia.
2. Atlanta. 5. German. 7. Seabury.
3. Bangor. 8. Nast. 8. Virginia.
4. Chicago. 7. Swedish. XV a. Reformed (German).
6. Hartford. 8. Taylor. 1. Central.
6. Oberlin. 0. Vanderbilt. 2. Lancaster.
7. Pacific. XX. Methodist Protestant. 3. Plymouth.
8. Yale. 1. Adrian. XV b. Reformed (Dutch).
IV. Disciples of Christ. 2. Westminster (Tehuacana, Tex). 1. New Brunswick.
1. Bible. 3. Westminster (Westminster, 2. Western.
2. Drake. Md.). XVI. Christian Itaformed.
3. Eugene. X. New Jerusalem Church. 1. Grand Rapids.

V. Evangelical Association. 1. Cambridge. XVII. Roman Catholic.

1. Naperville. XI a. Presbyterian (Northern). 1. St. Patrick's.
VI. Jewish. 1. Auburn. 2. St. Thomas of Villanova.
1. Hebrew Union College. 2. Bloomfield. VIII. Unitarian.
Jewish Theological Seminary of
2. 3. Lane. 1. Meadvffle.
America. 4. Lincoln. 2. Pacific.
VII. Lutheran. 5. McCormick. XIX. Unity of the Brethren.
1. Augsburg. 6. Northwest. 1. Bethlehem.
2. Augustana. 7. Omaha. XX. Univerealist.
3. Chicago. 8. Princeton. 1. Canton.
4. Columbus. V. San Francisco. 2. Crane.
6. Concordia (St. Louis). 10. Union (New York). 3. Ryder.
6. Concordia (Springfield, I1L). 11. Western. XXI. Undenominational.
7. Gettysburg- XI b. Presbyterian (Southern). 1. Harvard.
8. Hamma. 1. Austin.
"
[In the preparation of the present article every founded by The Baptist Theological Union, located
possible effort has been made to secure complete-
at Chicago," when, in 1865, W. W. Cook of White-
ness, and to that end a letter was sent by the edi- hall, N. Y., and Lawrence Barnes and Mial Davis of
tors to some person of authority in each theological Burlington, Vt., subscribed an annual joint sum of
seminary of every religious communion in the $1,500 for five years, thus making possible the
United States. In the interests of strict accuracy it organization of the work of instruction. Some
has been deemed best to give accounts of those preliminary work was done in 1865-66, when a few
institutions only from which replies were received. students received training from Dr. Nathaniel
Accordingly, non-mention of a seminary in the Colver and Rev. J. C. C. Clark, but organized
article implies that the editors received no response teaching was not actually begun until 1867, when
to their request for information.] Dr. George W. Northrup, professor of church history
I. Baptist 1. Di vinity School of the TTniTerity in Rochester Theological Seminary, was made pro-
of Ohioaro: This institution, formerly known as fessor of systematic theology, and Dr. John B.
"The Baptist Union Theological Seminary," was Jackson, pastor in Albion, N. Y., was made pro-
Theological Sem&UbriM THE NEW SCHAFP-HERZOQ S44

fessor of church history. The number of students in the school year the summer, autumn, winter,
the first year was twenty, and the first building of and spring quarters of approximately twelve
the seminary, including lecture-rooms, dormitories, weeks each. Students may take their vacation in
and four residences for professors, was dedicated in any one of these quarters, or, by taking no vaca-
July, 1869, in which year Dr. G. W. Northrup was tions, except the annual one in September of a full
made president of the institution. In 1873 a Scan- month, maycomplete the three-years' course in
dinavian department was organized which later two years.Students may, with the approval of
developed into the Swedish Theological Seminary the dean, take courses in other departments of the
and the Danish-Norwegian Theological Seminary, university, and so close is the union that the oppor-
these two seminaries in 1910 having sixty-three tunities of a great university are thus open to
students. Aften ten years of work in the city, the students of the divinity school. The libraries
during which the annual attendance of students had belonging to the divinity school are that of Prof.
increased from twenty in 1867-68 to above eighty in E. W. Hengsteuberg (q.v.), late of the University
1876-77, the seminary was transferred from its loca- of Berlin, that of Dr. George B. Ide, the Colwell
tion in Chicago to the suburb of Morgan Park, library of the American Bible Union, and other
where it remained until 1892, prospering during collections of books of history, science, sociology,
these fifteen years in all departments of its work. literature, and theology, to which a thousand or
Beginning with endowment funds of $50,000 in more volumes are added yearly, while the libraries
1877, it had increased these to 5250,000 in 1892, of the university, containing 400,000 volumes, are
while the number of students so grew that in 1891- also open to divinity students. The two men who
1892 it reached 190. have made the greatest financial contributions to
The University of Chicago opened its doors to the institution are E. Nelson Blake and John D.
students Oct. 1, 1892, and by an agreement be- Rockefeller, who have made possible the securing
tween the boards of trustees of the university and of the present productive endowment funds of the
of the seminary the latter became
" The
Divinity school, which, including $100,000 held for it by the
School of the University of Chicago," so that, on university, aggregate $350,000. The income of this
the opening of the university, it transferred its fund being insufficient to carry on the work
of the
work to the buildings of that institution in the city. school, a large sum
appropriated annually by the
is
In connection with this transfer Dr. G. W. Northrup, university toward the current expenses.
who had conducted the affairs of the seminary with The more prominent of the professors who have
distinguished ability, resigned the presidency and been connected with the school are the following:
was succeeded by Dr. Wm. Rainey Harper (q.v.), Drs. George W. Northrup, John B. Jackson, A. N.
president of the university, whose incumbency Arnold, Wm. Hague, Edward C. Mitchell (q.v.),
continued until his death in 1906, when he was suc- R. E. Pattison, Thomas J. Morgan, James R. Boise,
ceeded by Dr. Harry Pratt Judson, the new presi- Wm. R. Harper (q.v.), Ira M. Price (q.v.), Eri
dent of the university. On the union of the semi- B. Hulbert (q.v.), Justin A. Smith, John A. Edgren,
nary with the university in 1892 and the retransfer Nels P. Jensen, Galusha Anderson (q.v.), Franklin
" The
of its work to Chicago as Divinity School of Johnson (q.v.), Adoniram Sage, Ernest D. Burton
the University of Chicago," Dr. Eri B. Hulbert (q.v.), Charles R. Henderson, Shailer Mathews
(q.v.), who had occupied the chair of church history (q.v.), George B. Foster (q.v.), John W. Moncrief,
for eleven years, was made dean of the school, and Edgar J. Goodspeed, Henrik Gundcrsen, Carl G.
continued to fill this position until his death in 1907. Lagergren, Harry P. Judson, Andrew C. McLaughlin,
By the terms of the union of the two institutions, Theodore G. Soares, Edward Judson, Alonzo K.
under which the divinity school has prospered Parker, Gerald B. Smith, Allan Hoben, Shirley J.
greatly, the seminary became the sole divinity school Case, and Benjamin A. Greene. Dr. Shailer Mathews
of the university, the president of the university be- was appointed junior dean of the school in 1899,
came the president of the school, the board of the and was made sole dean in 1908. The board of
school turned over to the university the conferring trustees consists of fifteen members, divided into
of degrees, the department of Old Testament and three classes of five members each, and holding
Semitic studies was transferred to the university, office three years, when successors are elected by the
"
the board of trustees of the school retained the super- corporation of The Baptist Theological Union,
vision and direction of matters pertaining to instruc- located at Chicago."
tion, and the university agreed to confirm the elec- Among the principles for which the divinity school
tion of all professors and instructors in the school of the University of Chicago has stood are liberty of
when and to the extent that the funds available for teaching, the historical method in the study of the
the school should admit. Ample dormitories have Bible, and the practical application of Christianity to
been built for the divinity school on the university the immediate needs and problems of modern social
grounds, and its work has been conducted in the life. In methods of work it has introduced the four-
buildings of the university, except that the Scan- quarter system and the employment during the sum-
dinavian departments have occupied one of the mer quarter of eminent professors from other institu-
former buildings of the school at Morgan Park. tions of this and other countries, thus affording to
The number of students has rapidly increased, and pastors and teachers of other institutions large op-
during the year 1909-10 was 423, this large attend- portunities for additional study and training. It has
ance being in part accounted for by the four-quarter issued two periodicals, The Biblical World since 1893,
system which was instituted on the union of the and The American Journal of Theology since 1896.
school with the university. There are four quarters THOMAS WAKEFIBLD GOODSP&BD.
 45 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological SemiaariM

2. Colgate: This institution, the oldest Baptist vested funds amounting to $275,000, and on Apr. 4,
theological seminary in America, had its historic 1867, the institution was incorporated by act of
" and faculty are
beginning in thirteen men, thirteen prayers, and legislature. Its trustees Baptists,
thirteen dollars," and the resulting organization, in but students of any denomination are admitted.
Sept., 1817, of the Baptist Education Society of the Its earliest instructors were Henry G. Weston (q.v.;
State of New York, incorporated in 1819, with the president and professor of pastoral theology), G. D.
purpose of establishing an institution which should B. Pepper (q.v.; professor of theology), Howard
afford opportunity for a thorough theological educa- Osgood (q.v.; professor of Hebrew and church
tion, including a full literary and scientific course of history), and Lemuel Moss (professor of New-Testa-
training and culture. The student, Jonathan
first ment literature). The seminary was formally
Wade, later renowned in missionary annals, was opened Oct. 2, 1868, and graduated its first class of
received in 1818, but it was not till 1820 that the eight students in June, 1870. Since then 696 men
school was definitely organized, at Hamilton, N. Y., have been graduated, including the class of 1910,
which became known as " The Hamilton Literary and 437 others have pursued studies without
and Theological Institution." Rev. Daniel Hascall, graduation. Though the youngest of Baptist
one of the founders, was the first professor, while theological schools, Crozer's roll of alumni includes
among other members of the faculty in the earlier many of the foremost men in the denomination. It
years, Nathanael Kendrick, Barnas Sears (q.v.), has always stood for the best possible training of
Joel S. Baron, George W. Eaton, and Thomas J. every man who is called to the ministry, and among
Conant (q.v.) acquired national reputations as its prominent instructors have been George R. Bliss,
scholars and educators. Of the present faculty, the professor of Biblical interpretation; John C. Long,
following, who have rendered fifteen or more years professor of church history; Elias H. Johnson (q.v.),
of service, are well known in the Baptist world: professor of systematic theology; and James M.
William II. Maynard, Sylvester Burnham, Arthur professor of New-Testament exegesis.
Stifler,
Jones, David F. Estes (q.v.), George 11. Berry, and The seminary has a faculty of twelve professors
William Newton Clarke (q.v ). In 1839, the insti- and instructors and a board of twenty trustees who
tution admitted students not having the ministry elect their successors; is empowered to confer de-
in view, which led naturally to the organization of grees in theology; and confers the degrees of B.D.
a college, which in 1840 was incorporated under the and Th.M. for work done (no honorary degrees).
title of Madison (since 1890, Colgate) University. The first president, Henry G. Weston, died Feb. 6,
The attempt, finally defeated in 1850, to remove the 1909, after a service of forty-one years, and Prof.
two institutions from Hamilton created a perilous Milton G. Evans was chosen his successor in June
crisis out of which both moved into increasing of the same year. In 1910 there were eighty-nine
prosperity. Three successive compacts (1847, 1853, students enrolled (among them being one Methodist
1893) between the Education Society and the uni- and one Disciple), including six resident graduates
versity have been the basis of the administrative and one special student. The productive endow-
and educational control of the seminary. While the ment is $600,400, and the number of books in the
no funds, it is the chief beneficiary
latter has itself library is nearly 23,000. HENRY C. VEDDER.
of the Education Society, the productive endowment BIBLIOGRAPHY Historical Sketch of Crozer Theological Semi-
:

of which at the present time (1910) exceeds $770,000. nary, Chester, Pa., 1898. A bnef history of the institu-
Its library is merged in that of the university, tion is prefixed to its catalogue each year.

which contains over 55,000 volumes besides periodi- 4. Kanas City: The Kansas City Baptist
cals and pamphlets; and the Samuel Colgate Baptist Theological Seminary, located at Kansas City,
Historical Collection, which is endowed, is the most Wyandotte Co., Kan., was founded in 1901 to meet
complete of any in this country in materials relating the need of the Baptists of the Middle West for
to the history of the Baptists in England and an institution devoted exclusively to ministerial
America. Already the Theological Seminary of education, none such then existing west of Chicago
Colgate University, to use the present name, has sent and Louisville. Rev. E. B. Meredith, missionary
out nearly 1,400 students and graduates, of whom secretary of the Kansas Baptist State Convention,
nearly 100 have rendered missionary service on was president of the board of trustees, and on his
foreign fields. The courses of instruction at present retirement in 1902, Rev. S. A. Northrop, of Kansas
cover three years; the senior class spends one term City, Mo., took his place. Rev. B. W. Wiseman
in New York City where it studies the religious was financial secretary, and others influential in the
and social problems of the large city and methods founding of the school were Rev. I. N. Clark and
of religious In 1907, an Italian department
work. Rev. S. M. Brown, both of Kansas City, Mo., Rev.
was opened in Brooklyn for the training of Chris- J. F. Wells, of Kansas City, Kan., and Prof. M. L.
tian workers among the Italians in America. Ward, of Ottawa University, Kan. Mrs. Charles
WILLIAM H. ALLISON. Lovelace, of Turner, Kan., gave 115 acres of land as
" Merrick K.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jubilee Volume: Firitt Half Century of the Barber Foundation," in honor of
Madison Univernlu, n.p. f n.d. (probably published at her deceased husband, and this property, now
Hamilton, N. Y.. 1872). worth from $75,000 to $115,000, formed the nucleus
3. Crozer: Crozer Theological Seminary is located of the school's resources. The seminary is under
just outside the limits of Chester, Pa., in the borough the control of the Baptist denomination; seven-
of Upland, Delaware Co. On Nov. 2, 1868, the eighths of its trustees must be Baptists, and the Con-
widow and seven children of John Price Crozer en- vention of each contributing state may nominate
dowed the seminary with land, buildings, -and in- At least one trustee to represent it on the board, and
 Seminaries THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 846

may appoint yearly a visiting committee. Instruc- Henry J. Ripley was associated in 1826; in 1834
tion began Oct., 1902, with five students and the Rev. James D. Knowles was added to the faculty;
following faculty: Rev. James F. Wells, acting and in 1836 Rev. Barnas Sears (q.v.). Professor
executive and professor of church history and Knowles died in 1838, after a short period of brilliant
English scriptures; Rev. A. C. Rafferty, systematic service; and in 1839 Ilev. H. B. Hackett (q.v.) was
theology; Rev. F. L. Streeter, New-Testament made professor of Biblical literature and interpreta-
Greek; and Rev. P. W. Crannell, homiletics and tion. All of these were eminent scholars and teach-
pastoral theology. In May, 1903, Dr. Crannell ers; and the institution, though financially weak,
became president, and in Sept., 1903, the chairs prospered under their care. From 1839 to 1846 the
of Hebrew (Prof. Henry T. Morton) and public number of professors was four; in 1846 an assistant
speaking (Prof. P. K. Dillenbeck) were added, instructor in Hebrew was added; and from 1868 to
while in 1908 the departments of Christian sociology 1908 there were five regular professors, one of them
and religious pedagogy (Prof. W. E. Raffety) were the president, and a teacher of elocution. After
created. The seminary seeks, on the basis of an years of service as a professor, Rev. Alvah Hovey
intelligent conservatism, and a profound faith in the (q.v.) was chosen president of the seminary in 1868,
deity of Christ and the inspiration of the Scriptures, and continued in that office for thirty years. With
to furnish a broad, scholarly, well-balanced, and the inauguration of President George E. Horr (q.v.)
emphatically practical training for the pastorate. in 1908, the curriculum was enlarged to include
While its curriculum covers all phases of the min- instruction in sociology, religious psychology and
ister's preparation, special attention is paid to the pedagogy, and church music. The permanent
English Bible, homiletics, pastoral theology, evan- board of instruction includes: in the Biblical de-
gelism, pedagogy, and sociology, in which latter partments, Professors Charles R. Brown (q.v.),
departments it is one of the pioneers, wltile missions Frederick L. Anderson, and Winfred N. Donovan;
is also one of its specialties. It seeks to supply in church history and sociology, President Horr and
especially the Middle West, although its student Prof. Henry K. Rowe (q.v.); in theology, Prof.
body is drawn from every part of the Union and George Cross; in homiletics, Prof. John M. English
from several foreign countries. Of its hundred grad- (q.v.); and in elocution, Prof. Samuel S. Curry.
uates and former students, chiefly settled in Kansas, Additional lecturers are appointed from year to year
Missouri, and Oklahoma, many are found in other to supplement the regular staff, and a weekly con-
states, principally in the West. Its classes are vocation of faculty and students brings many other
freelyopen to women, either as special or as regular speakers to the seminary.
students. It has (1910) twenty-one trustees, from There are registered in the present year (1910)
Kansas, Missouri, Oklahoma, Iowa, Colorado, and ninety-two students, of whom thirteen are post-
Nebraska; seven instructors (six regular, one graduates (candidates for the degrees of B.D. and
special); two field secretaries; and fifty-one S.T.M.), seventy-four are undergraduates, and five
students from nine colleges and from thirteen are young women preparing for foreign missionary
states and countries. Its resources are $170,000, service after a year's resident study. Students
including an endowment of $97,000, and its library come from all parts of the United States and Canada,
contains 3,500 volumes. Rev. Philip Wendell from England, Germany, Sweden, and the Far East,
Crannell is president, and Rev. B. R. Downer (pro- and thirty-seven colleges and universities are repre-
fessor of Hebrew) is secretary of the faculty, while sented. A summer school is held in June of each
Rev. J. F. Wells is field secretary, and Rev. B. W. year, and in 1910 fifty-seven students were in at-
Wiseman is associate. E. T. JILLSON. tendance. The Gordon School, a training-school for
5. Newton: Newton Theological Institution is Christian workers, with twenty years of history and
located on the summit of a beautiful hill in Newton with sixty students in attendance, is affiliated with
Centre, Mass., and occupies fifty-two acres, in- the institution, although located in Boston. The
cluding well-kept paths, lawns, shrubbery, and institution has a well-selected library of about 30,000
athletic grounds. The institution was founded in volumes, and a commodious reading-room. The
1825, and is the oldest seminary established exclu- library is open to students fourteen hours every day,
sively as such by American Baptists for the purpose except Saturday evening and Sunday, and has an
of providing college graduates with a suitable course income of approximately $16,000 for the purchase
of theological instruction occupying three years. of books and periodicals. To meet other expenses
Courses are offered in the oriental and Greek lan- the institution has an endowment of $800,000, be-
guages, the history and interpretation of the Old sides forty-six scholarships involving a total of
and New Testaments, church history, theology, $120,000 for the benefit of indigent students. It has
homiletics and pastoral duties, sociology and social six principal buildings: Colby Hall, containing the
reform, missions, religious psychology and Sunday- chapel and lecture-rooms, Farwell Hall and Sturte-
school pedagogy, and church music. While the vant Hall, which are heated by steam and have
privileges of the institution have been intended rooms comfortably furnished for seventy students,
primarily for college graduates, students who can besides the dining-hall and the reception rooms, the
present evidence of equivalent training and of Hills Library and Hartshorn Reading-room, a
maturity of mind are received in special instances. President's house, and a gymnasium. Aliout 1,500
The institution is controlled by a board of forty- students have been connected with the institution,
eight trustees, including both ministers and laymen. although some of them have not taken the full
The work of the seminary began with a single course. One hundred and twenty have gone from
professor, Rev. Irah Chase (q.v.), with whom Rev. it to be missionaries in foreign fields, and more than
347 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Seminaries

half as many have been made presidents and tion a step which had been decided in May, 1857,
professors in colleges and theological seminaries, at an educational convention of Southern Baptists
though most of its graduates have become pastors at Louisville. The leading spirit in the foundation of
in America. HENRY K. HOWE. the seminary was James P. Boyce (q.v.), who was
6. Hocherter: The Baptist theological seminary ably assisted by John A. Broad us (q.v.), these two
in Rochester, N. Y., was established in 1850 by together with Basil Manly, Jr., and William Williams,
"The New York Baptist Union for Ministerial constituting the first faculty. The seminary was
Education." A fund of $130,000 was raised, largely started at Greenville, S. C., but during the Civil
through the efforts of Rev. Pharcellus Church and War it was forced to close, its professors supporting
John N. Wilder, and Oren Sage, while five pro- themselves by preaching and other religious work.
fessors, accompanied by many of their students, In the fall of 1865 the institution, badly crippled
transferred their from Hamilton (now
activity in finances, reopened its doors and maintained a
Colgate) University and Seminary to Rochester, precarious existence in Greenville until 1877, when
two of the professors, Thomas J. Conant (q.v.) and in hope of endowment from states that had suf-
John S. Maginnis, joining the faculty of the new fered less from the war, and in receipt of overtures
seminary, while the others became instructors in from Kentucky Baptists, it was removed to Louis-
the equally new University of Rochester, which, ville. Here its tenure was equally uncertain until
though also under Baptist influence, has no organic 1880, when a large donation from Joseph E. Brown,
connection with the seminary. The first class of Georgia, put it on a footing which assures it life
graduated from the seminary numbered six, and in and growth.
1851-52 there were two professors and twenty-nine The seminary stands for the highest conservative-
students. Among the distinguished members of its progressive scholarship in the education of the
faculty have been Ezekiel G. Robinson (president, ministry, and its curriculum is designed to make its
1868-72), John H. Raymond, George W. Northrup, graduates practically efficient in pastorates, in the
Howard Osgood Albert Henry Newman
(q.v.), pulpit, and in all forms of denominational leader-
(q.v.), Benjamin O. True, and Henry E. Robins ship. It was the first theological institution to
(q.v.). In 1852 a German department was added to adopt the elective system in its course of study, and
the seminary, its curriculum being entirely distinct the first to open its doors to men without college
from that of the seminary itself, since it is designed training, as well as among the first to include Sun-
especially for the training of German Baptists who, day-school pedagogy in its regular curriculum.
without full college education, may desire to enter Among the prominent members of the faculty in
the ministry of their denomination. Apart from the the past may be mentioned Rev. William H. Whit-
early years, when the difficulties naturally inherent sitt (q.v.) and Rev. E. C. Dargan (q.v.; resigned)
in the nascent undertaking were increased by some and Rev. F. H. Kerfoot (deceased). All the present
tension with the older sister institution, Hamilton, faculty, nine in number, are prominent in denomina-
the record of the Rochester seminary has been one of tional life, and include Edgar Y. Mullins (q.v.;
steady growth. Its aim has been to make its grad- president and professor of theology), John R.
uates not merely students and preachers, but men Sampcy (Old-Testament interpretation), A. T.
and practical force, and it has
of thinking ability Robertson (q.v.; New-Testament interpretation),
done much to give an aggressive, independent tone W. J. M'Glothlin (church history), W. O. Carver
to the Baptist ministry. (comparative religion and missions), George B.
In 1910 the seminary had a faculty of eleven Eager (Biblical introduction and pastoral theology),
(Augustus H. Strong, president) and a board of B. H. De Ment (q.v.; Sunday-school pedagogy),
thirty-three trustees, eleven of whom are elected C. S. Gardner (homiletics and ecclesiology), and
each year by the New York Baptist Union, which T. M. Hawes (elocution). The trustees, elected from
from the very first has maintained and controlled three nominations made for each vacancy by the
the institution. It had in 1910, 167 students, of Southern Baptist Convention, number sixty-seven,
whom seventy-seven were in the German Depart- and represent the southern states, the number from
ment, and its courses are open to members of all de- each state depending on the amount of money con-
nominations. Its total assets in 1 9 1 were estimated tributed to the endowment fund of the institution
at $2,117,242, and its productive endowment at from the state in question. This board of trustees
$1,689,095, from which sums generous provision is meets annually in connection with the meeting
made for scholarships for needy students, as well as of the Southern Baptist Convention, and an execu-
for fellowships. The library contains over 3,700 tive committee elected by the board has general
volumes, including the entire collection of the charge of affairs between the annual meetings. The
church historian J. A. W. Neander, which was pre- management of endowment funds is vested in a
sented to the seminary by Roswell S. Burrows in financial board elected annually by those who have
1853, and the beginnings of a museum of Biblical contributed $1,000 or more toward the endowment,
geography and archeology have been made. this election being ratified by the board of trustees.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. H. Strong, Historical Discourse, Deliv- The majority of the students, who in 1910 num-
ered as a Part of the Fiftieth Anniversary of
. . .
bered upward of 300, come principally from the
Rochester Theological Seminary, Rochester, N. Y., 1000;
Sixtieth Annual Catalogue of the Rochester Theological Semi- southern states, though many are from the North,
nary, pp. 76-84, Rochester, 1900. and some every year are from foreign lands. The
7. Southern: The Southern Baptist Theological great majority of the students are Baptists, but the
Seminary, located in Louisville, Ky., was es-
now classes of the seminary are open to members of any
tablished in 1859 by the Southern Baptist Conven- denomination who are properly recommended. The
Theological Stminaxiea THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 848

invested funds now amount to about $625,000, apart In Oct., 1009, the trustees of the seminary ac-
from grounds and buildings; the library contains cepted the offer of the Baptists and others in Fort
about 23,000 bound volumes. Worth to contribute $100,000 or more for the erection
EDGAR YOUNG MULLINS. of a building with ample grounds, if the authorities

BIBLIOGRAPHY: John R. Sampey, Southern Baptist Theolog-

would choose Fort Worth as its habitat. A building
ical Seminary, The first Thirty Yean. Baltimore, 1890; F. H. costing nearly $150,000 has been erected, and lands,
Kerfoot, Southern Baptist Theoloffical Seminary. The first in addition to the site, supposed to be worth at least
Forty Years, Louisville, Ky., 1900.
$100,000 have been deeded to the trustees.
8. Southwestern: The permanent home of this As already intimated, the seminary is under the
institution since Oct., 1910, hasbeen Forth Worth, control of the Baptist denomination and aims to
Tarrant Co., Tex. The seminary was founded in 1901 assist in providing a thoroughly educated, reverent,
as the Theological Department of Baylor University, conservative, consecrated ministry for the home
Waco, Tex., and originated in the desire of Dr. B. and foreign field. The trustees, twenty-five in num-
II. Carroll, one of the most eminent preachers, ber, appointed by the state convention, with pro-
denominational leaders, and theologians of the vision for additional members to be appointed by
Southern Baptists, to supply the 1,000,000 Baptists other southwestern state conventions, constitute
of the Southwest with an educated ministry. Dr. the governing body, but the internal management
Carroll had been for nearly thirty years pastor of is almost entirely in the hands of the faculty.
the First Baptist Church, Waco, and president of The charter provides also for a Woman's Training
the board of trustees of the university, and was at School, and provision has been made for the im-
that time secretary of the educational commission mediate inauguration of this department of work, the
of the Texas Baptist Convention. To aid in the seminary professors being the chief instructors, and
development of this department of the university a number of special courses by other lecturers hav-
Prof. Albert Henry Newman (q.v.), at that time a ing been arranged for. The number of students
member of the theological faculty of McMaster enrolled for the session 1909-10 was 201. With few
University, Toronto, Canada, was induced to ac- exceptions the students are Baptists, though the
cept a position in Baylor University, and with him institution is freely open to Christian students of all
was associated Prof. R. N. Barrett. Dr. Carroll evangelical denominations. Thirteen states and
soon became dean of the theological faculty and four foreign countries (England, Persia, Portugal,
began giving comprehensive courses of lectures on and Mexico) were represented in the student body.
the English Bible, and a reasonably full course of Besides the Fort Worth building lots mentioned
theological studies was provided from the beginning. above, a cash endowment of over $200,000 and a
Dr. Barrett died in 1903 and was succeeded by considerable sustentation fund have been sub-
Dr. B. H. De Ment (q.v.; now professor in the scribed through the efforts of Drs. Carroll and
Southern Baptist Theological Seminary), who in Scarborough, and others. A. H. NEWMAN.
turn was succeeded in 1904 by Dr. L. W. Doolan. 0. Virginia TJnion: Tin's school, which is, prop-

By 1905 it had become practicable, through the erly speaking, the theological department of Virginia
efforts of Dr. Carroll, to enlarge the faculty. Dr. Union University, is located at Richmond, Va., and
Calvin Goodspeed, an eminent Canadian theologian, is a union of three schools established for freedmen
was called to the chair of systematic theology, immediately after the Civil War: Dr. Edward Tur-
apologetics, and polemics, and Dr. C. B. Williams ney's school, opened in Washington, D. C., in 1865,
to that of New-Testament Greek, while Dr. Carroll and sustained for the most part by the National
retained the chair of English Bible, Dr. Newman Theological Institute and University; Wayland
that of church history and history of doctrines, and Seminary, opened in Washington, D. C., in 1866 by
Dr. Doolan that of Hebrew and cognate languages the American Baptist Home Mission Society, and
and literatures. In 1907 Dr. J. D. Ray was ap- united with Dr. Turney's school in 1869 under the
pointed professor of homiletics, missions, and pas- name of Wayland Seminary and under the presi-
toral duties, and in 1908 Dr. L. R. Scarborough dency of Dr. G. M. P. King; and a school in Rich-
became professor of evangelism and field secretary, mond, Va., first conducted for a year (1865-66) by
and Dr. J. J. Reeve succeeded Dr. Doolan. From Dr. J. G. Binney under the American Baptist Home
1905 the designation "Baylor Theological Semi- Mission Society, reopened in 1867 by Dr. Nathaniel
"
nary was employed. Colver under the National Theological Institute and
By the autumn of 1907 the conviction had been University, but transferred to the American Baptist
reached that the interests of both seminary and Home Mission Society in 1869, presided over for
university demanded the separation of the two thirty years (1868-98) by Dr. Charles H. Corey, and
institutions and the removal of the former to another called successively Colver Institute (1867-76),
city, and university and seminary officials coope- Richmond Institute (1876-86), and Richmond
rated in securing the concurrence of the State Con- Theological Seminary (1886-99). In 1899 it was
vention in measures to that end. The Convention united with Wayland Seminary under the name of
(Nov., 1907) appointed a board of trustees and Virginia Union University, and entered a group of
arranged fpr securing a charter from the state fine granite buildings on the northern borders of
of Texas, and this was accomplished in March, Richmond. Gen. T. J. Morgan, Secretary of the
"
1908, the title Southwestern Baptist Theological American Baptist Home Mission Society, and Dr.
Seminary having been previously adopted. The Malcolm Me Vicar, the first president of the univer-
sessions 1908-09 and 1909-10 were, however, con- sity, were the chief agents in securing the union of
ducted in the buildings of Baylor University. the schools And the erection of the buildings.
849 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Seminaries

All three original schools were established primari- for the cultivation of the moral and spiritual life on
ly for the training of negro preachers, and sec- a foundation of thorough scholarship and efficient
ondarily for the training of other negro Christian Christian service. Believing that the Bible is the
workers, especially teachers. The very elementary supreme source for the religious life, the department
instruction of the early years was gradually supple- aims to make its students earnest, devout, and
mented by more and more advanced studies, secular scholarly interpreters of the word. At the same
and theological, until in 1897 Wayland Seminary be- time, recognizing the activity of the Spirit of God
gan regular work in a Bachelor-of-Arts course, and in in the history of the world, this source of divine
1886 Richmond Theological Seminary limited itself truth is not neglected in the endeavor to trace the
entirely to students for the ministry, and inaugu- unfolding purpose of God, all of which helps the
7
rated a full three-years theological course, although student better to solve the problem of to-day in the
a very elementary ministers' course, extending over light of history. Mere acquisition is considered of
two years, is still provided for those who can not less value than training and a correct method, and

prepare for a more thorough course. An English the class work is conducted with a view to interest
theological course, and a fulltheological course, in- the student in independent investigation and to
cluding Hebrew and Greek interpretation, are also develop a capacity for it.
given. The department has exerted a wide-spread and
The institution stands for a moral, intelligent, highly beneficial influence upon the Free Baptist
evangelical Christian ministry among the negroes. denomination. Its graduates are found as pastors of
It aims to give the negro preacher who is prepared many of the most influential churches of the de-
for it practically the same theological training as nomination, and more than half of the Free Baptist
that which is given to white men, believing that a workers in the mission fields are graduates of Hills-
broad and thorough education will be needed by the dale, while a considerable number of its alumni are
religious leaders to meet all kinds of errors, to guide to be found in important positions in other denomi-
the people to a higher life, and to win the respect nations. Prominent among its instructors have
of the increasingly intelligent young negro people. been the Rev. Ransom Dunn, the Rev. J. J. Butler,
A board of sixteen trustees, about equally divided the Rev. A. T. Salley, the Rev. Charles D. Dudley,
between Northern white men, Southern white men, and the Rev. J. S. Copp; and its present corps of
and negroes, controls the school. The theologi- instructors is composed of the Rev. Delavan B.
cal department has five professors, whose salaries Reed, the Rev. J. T. Ward, and the Rev. Leroy
arc partly paid by an endowment of about $85,000, Waterman. The seminary is under the supervision
the American Baptist Home Mission Society paying of thirty-five trustees, assisted by a theological ad-
the rest. Of the university library of 12,000 books, visory board of nine, nominated by the executive
about 7,000 may be said to belong to the theological committee of the General Conference of Free Bap-
department. The students enrolled in 1910 number tists and elected by the trustees. In 1910 the num-

thirty, and there are seventy others in the university ber of students was twenty-six, coming from New
looking forward to the ministry who have not yet York, Ohio, Wisconsin, and Michigan, and in-
entered upon their theological course. About 1,000 cluding, besides Free Baptists, Methodists, United
negro preachers have received their training in this Brethren, and Congregationalists. The endowment
school from 1865 to 1910. GEORGE RICE HOVET. is about $83,000, and the library contains some
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. H. Corey, Reminiscenscs of Thirty Years
9
2,000 volumes, the students also having access to
Labor in the South, Richmond, Va., 1895; Jubilee Volume the general college library of 17,000 volumes.
of the American Baptist Publication Society New York,
, DELAVAN B. REED.
n.d.
ffl. Congregational 1. Andover: In the year
II. Free Baptist.!. HilUdale: This seminary 1807 a plan was formed for the establishment of a
forms one of the departments of Hillsdale Col- theological seminary in Andover, Mass., which
lege, situated in Hillsdale, Mich. It was founded in should be connected with Phillips Academy, where
1870, and is affiliated with the Free Baptist denom- for years students had been trained for the ministry
ination. In 1869 the Free Baptist Education Society by resident pastors. While the projectors of this
gave to Hillsdale College the sum of $17,000, on school were maturing their plans, they heard of
condition that a theological department be organized another and similar institution which was to be es-
in accord with certain requirements accompanying tablished at Newbury, less than twenty miles dis-
the gift, and these stipulations having been satis- tant. Eliphalet Pearson (q.v.) was most prominent
factorily met upon the part of the board of trustees, among the promoters of the Andover institution,
the seminary was opened on Sept. 1, 1870. The and Samuel Spring (q.v.) among the Newbury
"
principal agent in itsfoundation was the Rev. group; the Andover men were moderate Calvin-
Ransom Dunn (q.v.), and he and the Rev. J. J. ists," so called, and the Newbury men styled them-
"
Butler were the first teachers. From the time of its selves consistent Calvinists," though they were
"
establishment until the present the department has usually called Hopkinsians." It was so obviously
been continuously at work, and with no little de- undesirable that two Calvinistic theological schools
gree of success, when one considers the small amount should be founded so near together that efforts were
of its endowment and the relative size of its denomi- at once made to combine them, and after prolonged
national constituency. It has strengthened its strugglesa union of the two projects was effected.
courses of study, has disbursed thousands of dol- To provide a theological platform for the seminary,
lars to needy students, and has imparted instruction the two parties united in a creed, representing in its
to hundreds of young men, The department stands modifications from the Westminster Assembly's
Theological Seminaries THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 850

Catechism a compromise of the two wings of Cal- HsU had prominent place in the organization of the
vinism, and destined to constitute what has been A. B. C. F. M., while the American (now Congrega-
known as the Andover theology. This creed has tional) Education Society, the American Temper-
remained unaltered from the first, but since 1900 ance Society, the American (now Congregational)
formal subscription to it has not been demanded Home Missionary Society, the American Tract
of the professors, either at their inauguration or at Society, the Andover House (now the South End
five-year intervals, as formerly. The seminary was House, a social settlement in Boston), and the plan
established at Andover, as a branch of Phillips for the first religious newspaper in the U. S., had
Academy, and under the management of its Board their origin in whole or in large part on Andover
of Trustees; and a Board of Visitors was established Hill. The Andover press was noted for nearly
which should represent the theological views and a century in the publication of religious works.
protect the interests of the Associate Founders, The American Biblical Repository was published here
as the Newbury men were called. At the formal from 1831 to 1838, and the Bibliotheca Sacra from
opening, Sept. 28, 1808, thirty-six students were in 1844 to 1883; and the Andover Review was edited by
attendance, and the summary of the attendance Andover professors during the ten years of its pub-
during one hundred years is as follows: graduates in lication, 1884-93.
the regular course, 2,170; non-graduates, 1,066; In the eighties there were several changes in the
students in the special course (1869-82), 45; resi- faculty, and prolonged theological controversies,
dent licentiates, 509; advanced class (1882-93), involving questions as to the prerogatives of the
108; graduate students (1901-07), 11; or a total Board of Visitors in the administration of the
of 3,538 students, of whom 1,082 are supposed to be seminary. The legal questions were carried to the
living. Of the total number, 3,031 were ordained, supreme court of the commonwealth in a protracted
2,378 of them as Congrcgationalists, 373 as Presby- trial, and the controversies extended, in a train of
terians. Foreign missionaries numbered 247; col- deplorable results, to the relation of the seminary
lege presidents, 96; college professors, 271; semi- and its students to the churches, and especially to
nary professors, 132. The seminary, always holding the A. B. C. F. M. During the same decade, and
graduation from college as a condition of gradua- later, the classes became very uneven, with marked
tion, has made exception only in the cases of ninety- diminution in numbers, until from 1900 (when
nine men. A special examination of the figures of several other faculty changes occurred) they
the second fifty years shows that three-fourths of the numbered no more than six men. It became in-
graduates of that period, entering the service of the creasingly difficult to secure men to fill the vacan-
churches as pastors, remained directly and technical- cies in the teaching force, for reasons obvious from
ly in their service for life, or until the present. In- the recital above, and from the isolated situation of
cluding the professions for which a seminary training the seminary. After prolonged deliberation cover-
is the natural preparation, ninety-five per cent of the ing several years, and in the exercise of powers ex-
graduates have carried out faithfully the purpose pressly vested in the trustees, in the year 1908 the
which brought them to the seminary. Since the seminary was removed to Cambridge. Already in
year 1899, the degree of S.T.B. has been conferred 1907 the general feeling on the part of friends of
upon the graduates. academy and seminary, that the interests of both
The list of the faculty contains many noted names, schools demanded separate boards of control, had
some of which may be mentioned. Eliphalet led to the incorporation of the seminary as a separate
Pearson was the first professor of sacred literature, institution, with gradual changes in the membership
but only for a year (trustee until 1826). Leonard of the board of trustees. The extensive, though
Woods (q.v.) was the first professor of theology, somewhat antiquated, plant at Andover was readily
holding the position for thirty-eight years, and his sold to the academy, which needed the buildings.
theological attitude and personal influence were im- The relations established between Harvard
portant factors in securing the union of the two en- University and the seminary, and especially be-
terprises at the outset. Other well-known names of tween the divinity school and the seminary, are as
men now deceased are Moses Stuart (q.v.), Edward novel and as interesting as was the establishment of
Robinson (q.v.), Bela Bates Edwards (q.v.), Calvin the seminary a century previous. The terms of affil-
Ellis Stowe (q.v.), Elijah Porter Barrows, and iation provide for the maintenance of the seminary
Joseph Henry Thayer (q.v.), in the department of as a separate organization, with its own trustees,
Biblical literature; Edwards A. Park (q.v.) in the- faculty, buildings, registration of students, catalogue,
ology; in history, James Murdock (q.v.), Ralph and degrees. The two institutions agree to avoid
Emerson, William G. T. Shedd (q.v.), and Egbert rivalry and unnecessary duplication, and to develop
Coffin Smyth; and in sacred rhetoric, Edward Dorr the resources of each in such way as to offer to stu-
Griffin (q.v.), Ebenezer Porter (q.v.), Thomas dents the best possible training. Vacancies in the
Harvey Skinner (q.v.), Austin Phelps (q.v.), and faculty have been filled, and a building is in process
Charles Orrin Day (q.v.). Prof. J. Wesley Churchill, of erection, to be occupied in 1911. More recent
serving the seminary for thirty years in the depart- negotiations in the spirit of the terms of affiliation
ment of elocution, occupied a unique and enviable provide for the combination of the libraries of the
position among teachers of his art. The history of two schools in the new Andover building, as the
the seminary has been identified with many religious Andover-Harvard Theological Library, comprising
9
and philanthropicmovements of the country. The at the outset over 100,000 volumes.
students secret missionary society, " The Brethren,"
1
OWEN H. GATES.
And the insistent zeal of Judson, Newell, Nott, and & Atlanta; This divinity school is situated in the
851 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Seminaries

southern suburbs of Atlanta, Ga., with a beautiful F. Stearns (q.v.), a worthy occupant of the same
campus of thirteen acres on the crown of a large chair, whose early death was a loss to the country at
hill overlooking the city. It was founded in 1901, large. The names just given indicate that, although
when a company of ministers, under the lead of the the seminary is Congregational, it has never been
Rev. Frank .
Jenkins, purchased the property that partizan in spirit. Its position is fairly comprehen-
has since been its home. The institution was es- sive, as indicated by the denominations represented
tablished, and has since been sustained, by the Con- by its student body. According to its latest cata-
gregationaiists, although its privileges have always logue, of its 44 students, 28 were Congregational,
beenoffered, without charge, to all denominations. 11 Methodist, 2 Baptist, 2 Presbyterian, and 1 Lu-
Funds for its maintenance have come largely from theran, and of these 31 came from the United States,
the North, and its control hands of a board
is in the 7 from Canada, 3 from Great Britain, 1 from Mace-
of trustees, thirty in number.
During the first four donia, 1 from Asia Minor, and 1 from Japan. At
years, Rev. J. Edward Kirbye was its president; present its staff numbers 7 professors, 5 giving in-
and from the beginning leading educators of the struction, 2 instructors, and 7 lecturers, and it is
South have been represented among its teachers. governed by a self-perpetuating board of trustees,
At present (1910) there are forty-one men enrolled, whose number is usually fifteen. It has productive
coming from a dozen states, and eight are to be funds amounting to $300,000, and the value of the
graduated, from as many commonwealths. The buildings is set at $100,000, while its library numbers
seminary-extension work has increased in even more than 27,000 volumes. F. B. DENIO.
larger measure, this being an effort to reach by BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Pond, Historical Address, Bangor, Me.,
1870; Historical Catalogue, Bangor, Me., 1901.
home-study students who can not attend. The
library of 10,000 volumes is free to all teachers and 4. Chicago: The Chicago Theological Seminary,
pastors in the South, the beneficiaries paying postage. located at 20 North Ashland Boulevard, Chicago,
An effort is being made to increase the endowment, 111., was organized Sept. 27, 1857, by delegates from
now amounting to $10,000. The faculty consists Congregational churches in Michigan, Indiana, Il-
of five professors, the Rev. E. Lyman Hood being linois, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Missouri, was incorpor-
president. Their purpose is to train consecrated ated Feb. 15, 1855, and begun work Oct. 6, 1858. Its
"
men to become spiritual interpreters of the Scrip- fullcorporate name is The Board of Directors of
tures, forceful preachers of the Gospel, and helpful the Chicago Theological Seminary." Among the
pastors of the churches. E. LYMAN HOOD. names of its founders were Stephen Peet, Philo
3. Banff or: Bangor Theological Seminary is Carpenter, Truman Post, A. S. Kedzie, and G. S.
located in Bangor, Penobscot Co., Me., and was F. Savage, and the earliest professors were Joseph
chartered by Massachusetts in 1814. The persons Haven, Samuel C. Bartlett (q.v.), and Franklin W.
named in the charter as trustees were Revs. John Fisk. Among their successors were G. N. Board-
Sawyer, Kiah Bailey, Eliphalet Gillet, William man (q.v.), S. I. Curtiss (q.v.), H. M. Scott (q.v.),
Jenks, Mighill Blood, Asa Lyman, David Thurston, E. T. Harper, and W. D. Mackenzie (q.v.), while
Harvey Loomis, Hon. Ammi R. Mitchell, and Sam- among the present professors are President Ozora S.
uel E. Dutton. The first president of this board was Davis, Graham Taylor (q.v.), C. A. Beckwith (q.v.),
Rev. Edward Payson (q.v.), and the first instruc- and F. W. Gunsaulus (q.v.). The institution is
tors were Mr. Jehudi Ashmun (afterward colonial organized as the seminary and its institutes, and its
agent in Liberia) and Rev. Abijah Wines. The administration consists of the triennial convention,
seminary was designed to provide an evangelical the board of directors, the faculty, the board of in-
ministry for the state (then the district) of Maine, struction (consisting of all regularly appointed
for at that time Andover was the only other Con- teachers in the institution and the librarian), and
gregational seminary in existence, and it could not the board of examiners. The seminary is unique in
supply the needs of the region. Bangor Seminary its relation to the churches of the Middle West,
was originally located at Hampden, but in 1819 it since it has continued to be governed as at first by
was removed five miles up the Pcnobscot^River to its a Triennial Convention, composed of delegates
present location. During the ninety-four years of from each of the sixteen states west of Ohio and east
its existence the seminary has sent out 879 gradu- of the Rocky Mountains, and including the board of
ates and has educated, for one or more years, 300 directors and the faculty. The Triennial Conven-
other students. It has numbered among its in- tion elects the twenty-four directors who are chosen
structors men eminent for piety, scholarship, and for six years, half appointed each three years, from
influence. Not to name any still living, mention may members of the Congregational or other evangelical
be made of Enoch Pond (q.v.), to whom, more than churches within the constituency. The faculty are
to any other man, the success of the institution was elected by the board of directors, while the board
due, who for fifty years was connected with it of examiners are appointed annually from the same
as professor and president; Dr. Pond's successor in states which send delegates to the Triennial Con-
the chair of history, Levi L. Paine (q.v.), a stimula- vention. Associated with the seminary are three
ting master of his classroom; the scholarly Leonard institutes: German, established 1882, Danish-
Woods, Jr. (q.v.), afterward president of Bowdoin Norwegian, founded 1884, and Swedish, begun in
College; and his successor in teaching Biblical liter- 1885, all of which were reorganized as institutes
ature, Daniel Smith Talcott, a ripe scholar; George in 1893, their aim being to provide a trained ministry

Shepard, eminent as a pulpit orator; Samuel Harris for foreign-speaking peoples. In 1902 the Chicago
(q.v.), who began his career of teaching theology by
School of Church Music was established, to give
twelve years of instruction in Bangor; and Lewis practical training in the conduct of music in public
Theological Semlnarlo THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 352

worship, and in 1909 the Department of Seminary been arranged under five main groups of prescribed
Extension was organized, which, through corre- studies, varied so as to give
emphasis respectively to
spondence and lectures, offers training in theological the Old Testament, the New Testament, church
study to ministers and others. The plant consists of history, systematic theology, and practical theology,
Fisk Hall, with administration offices, lecture-rooms, and amounting in each case to two-thirds of the
parlor and reception room, dormitories, and gym- 1,260 hours required for graduation; the remaining
nasium; Keyes Hall, with lecture-rooms and dormi- one-third is open to elective choice from a very
tories; Carpenter Memorial Chapel and Hall with large list of courses in all departments. Since 1901
music and other rooms; and Hammond Library. the Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy (see
The library contains 30,000 volumes, collections on RELIGIOUS PEDAGOGY, HARTFORD SCHOOL OF) has
Egyptology and on the rise of Congregationalism, been closely affiliated with the seminary, and many
and a museum of Christian antiquity, while within of its courses are taken by seminary students. In-
easy access of the students are the city libraries, struction is provided, especially in polity, to stu-
aggregating 900,000 volumes. dents of other denominations than the Congrega-
As defined by its charter of incorporation, the aim tional, and among many lectures annually given are
" to those provided by the Carew Foundation, on various
of the seminary is furnish instruction and the
means of education to young men preparing for the subjects, and those on the Hartford-Lamson Foun-
Gospel ministry, and ... be equally open to all dation, on the religions of the world. There are two
" for this
denominations of Christians purpose. iellowships for foreign study, and two for graduate
Accordingly, the seminary is a high-grade institu- study at Hartford. The library at present (1911)
tion providing training along approved lines to numbers about 95,000 volumes and over 5(),(X)()
meet the demands of the churches for an educated pamphlets, being specially strong in apparatus for
ministry. Located in the heart of a great cosmo- textual criticism, patristics, Reformation history,
politan city, it offers through its department of Arabic and other Semitic literatures, missions of
social economics an unequaled opportunity for first- every class, liturgies, hymnology, current period-
hand observation of actual conditions and for per- icals, etc., so that it is one of the largest and most
sonal conferences with specialists at work. Under serviceable theological libraries in the world. The
the leadership of the head of the department of seminary is the custodian of the large missionary and
social economics is the Chicago Commons, a settle- ethnological museum of the American Board of For-
ment for social arid civic betterment, and the eign Missions, which, with its own valuable collec-
Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy. In 1910 tions, is adequately arranged for study. Tho total
there were 24 directors arid 2 honorary directors, 2 number of full graduates (to 1910) is 070, besides
professors emeritus, 21 instructors and teachers, about 285 v ho have taken less than the full course.
r

and 72 students, while in addition there were 43 About 75 of the more than 550 living alumni are
students in seminary extension courses. The in- engaged in foreign missions. Since 1889 women have
stitution has a productive endowment of about been admitted on the same terms as men, going forth
$800,000. C. A. BECKWITH. as missionaries, Bible teachers in colleges, leaders
Hartford:
6. Hartford Theological Seminary, in Y. W. C. A. work, and the like. The present roll
which until 1885 was entitled " the Theological of students numbers 65, including 5 fellows and 10
Institute of Connecticut," the fourth Congregational graduate students.
seminary established in the United States, was After the resignation of President Tyler in 1857
founded in 1834 at East Windsor Hill, Conn., the the leadership of the institution devolved upon Prof.
organizing body being a voluntary association William Thompson (q.v.) as dean of the faculty,
known as the Pastoral Union of Connecticut, and until in 1888 Prof. Chester D. Hartranft (q.v.) was
the leading spirit in the enterprise being Rev. Bennet made president. He continued in office for twenty-
Tyler (q.v.), who served as first president until 1857. five years, profoundly stimulating the entire life
In 1865 the institution was removed to Hartford, of the institution by his varied scholarship, his lofty
where, after a period in temporary quarters, in 1879 ideals, and his practical enthusiasm. In 1903 he was
itreceived from Mr. James B. Hosmer the gift of its succeeded by Dr. William Douglas Mackenzie (q.v.),
present large and convenient buildings, including who came from Chicago Theological Seminary, and
chapel, recitation-rooms, dormitories, etc., besides immediately proved himself a worthy successor.
a separate gymnasium. To the main building, Hos- Among the professors who have won distinction by
mcr Hall, was added in 1893 a superior fireproof long service, and usually through publication as well
library building, the gift of Mr. Newton Case, and as instruction, are the following: Bennet Tyler,
called, in memory of his wife, the Case Memorial 1834-57 (systematics), William Thompson, 1834-81
Library. The government of the seminary is in the (Hebrew), Robert G. Vermilye, 1858-75 (sys-
hands of thirty trustees, one-third chosen annually tematics), Matthew B. Riddle (q.v.), 1871-87 (New
for three years, elected by the Pastoral Union. Testament), Chester D. Hartranft, 1878-1903
This latter body is self-perpetuating, and comprises (history), Edwin C. Bissell (q.v.), 1880-92 (Hebrew),
about 175 ministers (not limited to Connecticut or Ernest C. Richardson 1883-90 (librarian),
(q.v.),
to Congregationalists), who, with the trustees and Williston Walker (q.v.), 1889-1901 (history), Alfred
the professors, give assent to the creed which is part T. Perry, 1890-1900 (librarian), and, of those in the
of the constitution of the Union. present faculty who have served ten years or more,
The present faculty (1911) includes eleven full Waldo S. Pratt (q.v.), from 1882 (music and hym-
professors, the Ubrarian, two associate professors, nology), dark S. Beardslee (q.v.), from 1888
and nine instructors, Wnce 1900 the curriculum has (Biblical dogmatics and homiletics), Arthur L.
353 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Seminaries

Gillett, from 1888 (apologetics), Melanchthon W. to all races and to both sexes. Largely through the
Jacobus (q.v.), from 1891 (New Testament), Edwin influence of President Finney, its life has been
K. Mitchell, from 1892 (early church history), Alex- characterized by keen interest in the philosophical
ander K. Merriam (q.v.), from 1892 (homiletics and aspects of theology, together with a deep and con-
sociology), Lewis B. Paton (q.v.), from 1892 (Old- stant devotion to practical evangelism, and large
Testament literature), Duncan B. Macdonald (q.v.), numbers of its graduates have been missionaries.
from 1892 (Semitic languages), Edward E. Nourse During anti-slavery days Oberlin was so strongly
(q.v.), from 1895 (Biblical theology), and Curtis committed to the anti-slavery movement that its
M. Geer, from 1900 (history). graduates were not acceptable to the board of
The only general catalogue of the alumni is one foreign missions that would naturally have com-
issued in 1881, which naturally includes accounts of missioned its missionary graduates. Consequently
the earlier graduates only. There is no general there was founded in Oberlin a missionary organiza-
history of the seminary, but at the fiftieth anni- tion which later merged with others to form the
versary, in 1884, there was published a Memorial American Missionary Association, and for many
of the tiem'irCi'ntenary Celebration of the Founding years the latter drew largely upon Oberlin students
of the Theological Institute of Connecticut which ,
for its teachers and preachers. In the early decades
contains considerable historical matter. In 1890 the of its history the theology of Oberlin was considered
Hartford Seminary Record began to be issued, at first radical, and its general trend has always been what
"
as a bimonthly, and later as a quarterly, under the its friends like to call progressive orthodoxy."
editorship of a committee of the faculty; this The following are the teachers whose terms of
periodical, which completed its twentieth volume service were longest, not including those now
in 1910, regularly contains a large number of articles actively connected with the work of the seminary:
on theological, critical, and practical topics, and Charles G. Finney, John Morgan, Asa Mahan, Henry
also includes much information about the current Cowles, James H. Fairchild (q.v.), Elijah P. Bar-
life of the institution and of its alumni. In con- rows, Henry E. Peck, Judson Smith (q.v.), Hiram
nection with the seventy-fifth anniversary in 1909 a Mead, Albert H. Currier, George F. Wright (q.v.),
sort of Festschrift was published under the editorship William B. Chamberlain, William G. Ballantine
of Prof. L. B. Paton, with the title Recent Christian (q.v.), Frank H. Foster (q.v.), and Owen H. Gates,
Progress (New York), to which trustees, professors, while among those connected with the faculty for
arid alumni of the seminary contributed a scries of shorter periods were John Henry Barrows (q.v.),
over eighty succinct summaries of the advances in George S. Burroughs, arid Julius A. Bewer. At pres-
all principal branches of theological scholarship and ent (1911) Henry Churchill King (q.v.) is president
practical effort since 1834. The annual series of of the college and professor of systematic theology in
Hurtford-Lamsoii Lectures is also being published the theological seminary. The seminary has eight
in uniform style. WALDO S. PRATT. professors, and in addition has the use of certain
6. Oberlin Oberlin Theological Seminary is the
: courses in the College of Arts and Sciences; twenty-
post-graduate department of Oberlin College, the four trustees (who act for all departments); and
term " College " being used to cover all the work of eighty students, including ten in the Slavic depart-
the various departments of the institution. It is ment, wlu'ch trains preachers for the Slavic peoples
located in Oberlin, Lorain Co., O., and was founded in the United States. These students, who are
in 18,'W by the first settlers of the town, who pro- members of fifteen denominations, come as gradu-
posed to found at the same time both a town and ates from forty-one colleges, and represent nineteen
a college. The college, including the theological states and four foreign countries. The theological
seminary, has never had organic connection with library is a part of the general library of the col-
any ecclesiastical although during
organization, lege, which numbers about 200,000 bound and
most of its history it has been associated more unbound volumes. The seminary shares in the
largely with Congregationalists than with the mem- general endowment of the college, which amounts
bers of any other denomination. The purpose of its to about $2,000,000 of productive endowment and
founders was to establish a Christian institution for $1,000,000 invested in grounds and buildings, while
the evangelization of the Mississippi Valley and the the amount of productive endowment specifically
regions beyond, and the originators of the idea were set apart for the seminary is about $400,000. The
Rev. John J. Shipherd, pastor of the Presbyterian seminary is governed by its faculty, whose action is
church of Elyria, O., and Philo P. Stewart, who had subject to the approval of the general faculty of the
been a missionary to the Indians in Mississippi. entire college, while in certain cases its authority
The first president was Asa Mahan (q.v.), and the is limited to the power of recommendation to the

earliest instructors in the theologicalseminary general council of the college and to the board of
wore Charles G. Finney (q.v.), John Morgan, John trustees. EDWARD INCREASE BOSWORTH.
P. Cowles, Henry Cowles (q.v.), and the president. BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. H. Fairchild, Oberlin, it* Oriffin, Progress,
and Results, Oberlin, 1871. and Oberlin, the Colony and
The original plan of the founders in 1833 included the College, ib., 1883; D. L. Leonard, Story of Oberlin,
a theological department, a scheme which was un- Boston. 1808; W. G. Ballantine, ed., Oberlin Jubilee
expectedly developed in 1835 by the arrival of a 18SS-8S, ib., 1884.
considerable number of students from Lane Theo- 7. Pacific: This theological seminary is located
logical Seminary in Cincinnati, who brought with in Berkeley, Alameda Co., Cal., the seat of the
them Professor Morgan, and induced Charles G. state university, and originated in view of the dif-
Finney to come from New York City to be their pro- ficulty of obtainingan educated ministry sufficient
fessor of theology. The seminary was very early open in numbers and adapted to meet the conditions of
XI. 23
Theoloeloal Seminar!** THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOQ 354

a new country. Effort was first made by a number department of Yale University, located in New
of leading Congregationalists to secure an interde- Haven, Conn., and is undenominational in charac-
nominational institution; but this plan failed, and ter. It was organized as a distinct school of the
a denominational institution was projected, among university in 1822, though one main purpose of
its notable founders being Rev. J. A. Benton, Rev. Yale from its foundation, in 1701, had been train-
George Mooar, Rev. I. E. Dwinell, Rev. W. C. Pond, ing for the ministry, and definite graduate in-
Mr. Edward Coleman, Dr. J. C. Holbrook, Mr. struction had been given since the establishment of
Edward Smith, and Mr. Enos Sargent. The founda- a professorship of -divinity in Yale College in 1755.
tions were laid by the General Association of the The earliest professors of the divinity school were
Congregational Churches of California, in 1866, Nathaniel W. Taylor (q.v.), Eleazar T. Fitch, Josiah
in which year a, theological association was in- Willard Gibbs, Chauncey A. Goodridge, and James
corporated, a board of trustees elected, and the L. Kingsley, the four first named constituting its
beginning of an endowment secured. In 1869 Rev. faculty for more than thirty years. The school was
J. A. ttenton assumed the first professorship, and founded in a period of wide-spread theological dis-
instructional work opened in San Francisco, and cussion, in which its first professor of theology,
in 1871 a spacious property was secured in Oakland. Nathaniel W. Taylor, was a leader. It represented
In 1870 Rev. George Mooar was elected professor, the modified Edwardsean Calvinism known as the
"
and in 1884 Rev. Israel E. Dwinell. In 1901 the New Haven Theology." Originally well at-
seminary moved to Berkeley and was established tended, the deaths of its early instructors and the
beside the state university. During the earlier scanty endowment of the school led to a groat
period of its history the seminary was chiefly dis- diminution in the number of its students; still it re-
tinguished by the personalities of its three leading newed its strength during the period from 1858 to
instructors, Drs. Benton, Mooar, and Dwinell, men 1870 by the growth of a new faculty, eminent in
of unusual strength of character, breadth of culture, which were Timothy Dwight (q.v ), George P.
and influence. In 1894 Rev. John Knox McLean Fisher (q.v.), Leonard Bacon (q.v.), and George E.
was elected president, and under his administration Day, to whomSamuel Harris (q.v.) was soon after
the seminary has advanced chiefly in the line of added. Under their leadership large increase in
higher standards of scholarship and of more efficient endowment was obtained, the present buildings of
service to the churches and the community, an the school were begun, in 1870, and the number of
important factor in this direction being the estab- students rapidly and permanently grew. The
lishment of the E. T. Earl Lectureship, through theological position of the school now became
which men wide reputation and influence have
of broadly and progressively mediating. Without
made important contributions to the thought and being controversial, as in the earlier period, the
life of the Pacific Coast. Among the most signifi- school emphasized, and has continued to illustrate,
cant acts in its life is the seminary's unreserved an earnest evangelical type of faith, in hearty
committal to the policy of close affiliation with the sympathies with what it deems the more progressive
life of the university, thereby influencing other developments of theological and Biblical science in
denominations to take the same step, and thus this countryand in Europe.
creating a circle of theological schools closely co- The course of study was originally three years,
operating with one another and affording oppor- the successful completion of which has led, since
tunity for broad and varied theological education. 1866, to the degree of Bachelor of Divinity. Since
Four institutions are now associated with Pacific 1879 a fourth-year study has been offered, and con-
Seminary, representing the Congregational, Disciple, stantly increasing cooperation with other depart-
Baptist,and Unitarian denominations. ments of the university, notably the graduate school,
Prominent among the instructors of Pacific has led to a great broadening of the field of instruc-
Seminary have been Prof. Frank H. Foster (q.v.), tion. In 1910, the school was divided into four de-
now of Olivet, Mich.; Prof. Charles Sumner Nash, partments, each having a specific type of Christian
since 1891 professor of homiletics; Prof. John activity in view those of pastoral service, mis-
Wright Buckham; and Prof. William Frederic sionary service, religious education, and practical
Bade. The institution has at present the largest philanthropy. The school stands for efficient
number of studentsand most promising outlook practical training, thorough scholarship, and un-
in its liistory. It has a faculty of five professors trammeled investigation of truth. It is under the
and three instructors, and an associate faculty conduct of the Corporation of Yale University, by
consisting of professors in the university and in which its instructors are appointed and its interests
other seminaries, beside two annual lecturers. It administered, though its immediate government is
has a governing board of sixteen trustees, of which by the faculty. At the present time (1910) it is
the president of the seminary is ex-officio president, served by eleven professors, three instructors, and
and it has forty-six students, of whom sixteen six lecturers, with the cooperation of twenty-three
come from affiliated seminaries. The creedal affilia- additional instructors more immediately connected
tions of the students are: Congregationalists 22, with other departments of the university. There
Baptists 13, Methodists 4, Presbyterians 2, are 106 regular students enrolled in the school, and
Disciples 2, Unitarian 1, Episcopalian 1, and Men- 131 under instruction. Of the regular students
nonite 1. The Seminary has an endowment of Connnecticut is the homeof 35, Massachusetts of 6,
$528,000 and a library of 10,000 volumes. Nebraska of 7, Canada of 5, Ohio of 5, Indiana,
JOHN KNOX MCLEAN. Wisconsin, and Pennsylvania of 4 each, Turkey of 3,
8. Tale: Yale Divinity School is a coordinate Georgia, Maryland, Missouri, New Hampshire,
351 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Seminaries

New New York, Virginia, Tennessee, and

Jersey, school known as Oskaloosa College from Oskaloosa,
Sweden 2 each, while one student each is from
of la.,to Des Moines, and it owed its foundation chiefly
Alabama, Arkansas, British Guiana, England, to the late Gov. F. M. Drake, aided by his brother-
Illinois, Iowa, Italy, Japan, Michigan, Minnesota, in-law, George T. Carpenter (formerly president of
Mississippi, North Carolina, Oregon, West Virginia, Oskaloosa College), and D. R. Lucas, then pastor
and Washington. Its students represent a wide of the Central Church, Des Moines. The early in-
variety of Protestant religious bodies, though a structors in the seminary were George T. Carpenter
majority are Congregationalists, as might be ex- and Norman Dunshee, and its student body has
pected from the historic affiliations of the school. grown until in 1910 it reached nearly 175. Drake
The endowment amounts to about $833,000. The Seminary stands for a thorough knowledge of the
library is principally merged in that of Yale Univer- Bible and all lines of Christian work, and maintains
sity, though the separate departmental collections that denorainationalism is an abnormal condition,
of the school, largely of the nature of a working contrary to New-Testament standards. While it
reference library, contain 18,500 volumes. does not see its way clear to follow the so-called
WILLISTON WALKER. assured results of modern Biblical study, it criticizes
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Semi-Centennial Anniversary of the extreme conservatism, and strives to reconstruct the
Divinity School of Yale College, New Haven, 1872; W. L.
old lines of thought with the purpose of eliminating
Kingsley, Yale College, New York, 1879, ii. 15-60.
errors and incorporating new truth. Probably the
IV. Disciples of Christ. 1. Bible College: The
most important movement connected with the sem-
College of the Bible, affiliated with the Disciples
inary is the Bell Bennett Mission (so named from
(Christian) Church, and the oldest theological
an intending foreign missionary student, who was
seminary of that body, is located in Lexington,
accidentally drowned), which has been instrumental
Fayctte Co., Ky. It was founded in 1865 as a de-
in sending out many to the foreign mission field.
partment of Kentucky University (now Transyl-
vania University), but in 1875 it was severed from Among the more prominent of the seminary's
that institution and was reorganized under separate instructors, besides the two already mentioned, are
Dr. D. R. Dungan, B. J. Radford, A. I. Hobbs,
management. In that year it had three professors
and thirty-seven students, while it has now (1910) a Robert Mathews, H. W. Everest, Oscar Morgan,
Dr. Clinton Lockhart, Walter Stairs, A. D. Vealch,
faculty of seven professors, and during the session
of 1909-10 enrolled 180 students, of whom nine
Sherman Kirk, Dr. F. O. Norton, W. S. Atheiirn,
were women. It was founded by Robert Milligan
and A. M. Haggard. In 1910 the seminary had five
and John W. McGarvey (q.v.), the former of whom instructors, and its trustees, about twenty in num-
was its first president, while at the time of its re- ber, were the same as those of the university. The
government of the seminary consists of a dean, re-
organization Robert Graham became its president,
and John W. McGarvey, and Isaiah B. Grubbs sponsible to the president of the university, who, in
he,
constituted its faculty. The institution is devoted turn, is responsible to the board of trustees. The
larger number of the students are from Iowa, Mis-
entirely to the training of preachers, missionaries,
and religious workers, and has exerted a wide in- souri, and the neighboring states, and eight or ten

fluence, more than half of the prominent preachers

usually come each year from the Pacific Coast, as
of the Disciples Church having received instruction
well as from Colorado. In 1910 there were about
in its classrooms. Its students during the session thirty students from Australia and New Zealand,
of 1909-10 came from twenty-two states of the
about ten from England, six or eight from the
United States and from England, Japan, Canada, Philippines, and a few from Canada, China, and

Denmark, and Australia. Its present faculty is Japan. As a rule other denominations than the
John W. McGarvey, president; Isaiah B. Grubbs, Disciples are represented among the btudent body.
The endowment fund amounts to $100,000.
professor emeritus; W. C. Morro, dean, and profes-
sor of Christian history and doctrine; Benj. C.
ALFRED MARTIN HAGGARD.
Dewesse, professor of Biblical introduction and
8. Eugene: Eugene Bible University (known,
"
exegesis; Samuel M. Jefferson, professor of philos-
until 1908, as Eugene Divinity School "), located at
Eugene, Lane Co., Ore was founded by Eugene C.
ophy; Hall L. Calhoun, professor of Hebrew and
,

Old Testament; and Wm. P\ Smith, professor of Sanderson in 1895, largely through the generosity
of Judge J. W. Cowles and Hon. T. G. Hendricks.
Bible-school pedagogy. It has eighteen trustees,
Its first instructors were Eugene C. Sanderson and
all of whom are members of the church with which
the institution
is affiliated. Its present profit-bear-
Morton L. Rose. The institution was opened in a
rented building, Oct. 6, 1895, but within a year the
ing endowment is $1 75,000, with an additional $100,-
000 not now yielding the institution an income, but foundation of the Bushnell Library had been laid
which will be available within the next few years. and land had been purchased, on which have been
now has a erected three buildings adjacent to the University
It library of 4,000 volumes.
of Oregon, with which its relations are most cordial.
WILLIAM C. MORRO.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. W. McOarvey, The College of the Bible, More recently a branch, the Pullman Bible ("hair,
Lexington, Ky., 1905. has been established adjacent to the campus of the
2. Drake: Tliis seminary, located at Des state college at Pullman, Wash. Besides this chair,
Moines, la., and founded in 1881, forms part of the university comprises the Bible college, schools of
Drake University, which, although considered music and oratory, the department of art, the chair
undenominational, was built up and is supported of Bible-school science and pedagogy, and a pre-
by the Disciples of Christ. It had its origin in an paratory department; and its students are also en-
unsuccessful attempt to remove the denominational titled to all courses offered in the University of
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 356

Oregon. The purpose of the school is to give ita twenty-five, five of whom were graduated at the clos*
pupils a proficiency which shall be both scholarly of the seminary year. S. J. GAMEUTBFELDER.
and practical for all departments of Christian work. VL Jewish.!. Hebrew Union College: This
Among its more prominent instructors have been institution was founded by Isaac Mayer Wise,
Eugene C. Sanderson, David C. Kcllems, James S. rabbi of Congregation Bene Jeshurun, at Cincin-
McOallum, and Ernest C. Wigmore. In 1910 the nati, O., hi 1875, after several unsuccessful attempts
institution had, in all departments, twelve instruc- at creating theological schools for the Jewish com-
tors. The number of trustees is nineteen, elected munities in America had been made in Philadelphia
partly by the board in annual meeting, and partly and New York, and also in Cincinnati. Finally,
by the denominational conventions of Oregon, convinced that only through a union of congrega-
Washington, and Idaho. The executive board con- tions could a college be permanently established
sists ofthe president of the university and the presi- which would meet the demands of progressive
dent, vice-president, treasurer, and secretary of the American Israel for American-bred rabbis imbued
board of trustees. The number of students has in- with the spirit of American life and liberty, Dr. Wise
creased from seven the first year to seventy-four agitated for the formation of such a union. In 1873
(117 in all departments) in 1910. The value of the the Union of American Hebrew Congregations was
school property is about $80,000, and its endowment organized with the view of establishing an institu-
is about $50,000, while its library contains 3,400 tion for the training of ministers for the Jewish
volumes. J. A. BUSHNELL. pulpit and for the promotion of Jewish learning,
V. Evangelical Association. 1. Naperville: The and on Oct. 3, 1875, the Hebrew Union College was
Evangelical Theological Seminary is located at Na- opened with an enrolment of seventeen students who
perville, Du Page Co., and was founded in 1873
111., formed the first preparatory class. After four
"
as the Union Biblical Institute/' a name which years the collegiate department was opened with
it retained until 1909, when its name was changed Dr. Moses Mielziner of New York as professor
"
to The Evangelical Theological Seminary." The of Talmud; in 1881 a permanent home for the col-
institution was established by several Western con- lege was acquired and dedicated; and in 1883 the
ferences of the Evangelical Association, Illinois first four rabbis were graduated and ordained Dr.
taking the lead, other conferences gradually joining, Wise, the first president, remained in office until his
until thoir number now is thirteen. The first prin- death on Mar. 26, 1900, when Dr. Mielziner, the
cipal of the seminary was Bishop J. J. Eshcr (1876- senior member of the faculty, was appointed to
1879), and the senior
professor, S. L. Umbach, has take his place. After the latter's death, and for
occupied the chair of historical and practical theol- some time during his illness, Dr. Gotthard Deutsch
ogy since 1878. Two courses of study arc offered became the acting president. On JYb 26, 1903,
in the seminary: a diploma course and a degree Dr. Kaufmann Kohlcr (q.v) of New York \\as
course, the latter emphasizing the study of the elected president with the express understanding
"
Bible in the original, presupposing a college course that the Hebrew Union College shall forever eon-
with at least three years of preparatory Greek, and tinuc to be the exponent of American Reform Juda-
leading to the degree of B.D. In 1910 a graduate ism as taught and expounded by its immortal
school was established under the direction of the founder, Isaac M. Wise, and his illustrious co-
seminary faculty. The courses offered in this school workers," and on Oct. 18, 1903, he was inducted
may be taken in non-residence, and on completion into office.
the degree of S.T.D. is conferred. Women desiring The institution is administered by a Board of
a theological training for Christian work of any kind Governors consisting of twenty-four members (ten
or for the foreign mission field are admitted to the of whom are residents of Cincinnati), appointed by
seminary on the same terms as men. The institu- the executive board of the Union of American
tion holds that theology is a growing science, and Hebrew Congregations. The college is composed of
that the sources of knowledge are nature, human two departments, the preparatory, which extends
consciousness, and the Bible and it maintains that,
; over a course of four years, into which high-
although the Bible is the ultimate authority, there school students are admitted; and the collegiate,
is need of all the light of nature and of human which extends over a course of five years, into
reason to interpret it properly. which only university students or graduates are
In 1910 the seminary had three regular profes- admitted. Graduates from the preparatory de-
sors: S. J. Gamertsf elder (principal and professor of partment receive the degree of bachelor of Hebrew
exegetical and systematic theology), S. L. Umbach literature, while the rabbinical diploma is con-
(historical and practical theology), and C. B. Bow- ferred upon the graduates from the collegiate de-
man (apologetics and Biblical instruction); and in partment, though only after they have been grad-
addition to their instruction, prominent men from uated from the University of Cincinnati or some
this and other denominations are secured as lecturers other university of recognized standing. The post-
on various subjects before the students. The in- graduate course leads to the degree of D.D., which
stitution is controlled by thirteen trustees, one from is also conferred honoris causa on theologians of
each of the annual conferences interested in the distinction. The subjects taught are Hebrew and
seminary, together with one member of the board of Aramaic Bible exegesis with Hebrew commentators
; ;

bishops of the denomination. The latter, appointed Midrash and Targum; Mishnah and Talmud with
by his board, holds office for four years, the others, some of the medieval codes; apocryphal, apocalyp-
elected by the members of their respective confer- tic, and Hellenistic literature; Jewish philosophy,
ences, for three. The number of students in 1910 was chiefly of the middle ages; Jewish liturgy; history
367 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological SeminariM

and literature of the Jewish people from Biblical the greatest collection of Jewish works in any Jewish
to modern times; the history of Judaism and its institution in the world. This includes the libraries
sects; systematic and practical theology, and of the late M. Steinschneider, David Cassel, and
comparative religion; Jewish ethics and pedagogy; M. Halberstam, and a large number of works
homiletics and applied sociology. The faculty as presented by Judge Mayer Sulzberger.
at present constituted consists of the following The number of students is at present about
members: Dr. Kaufmann Kohler (president and seventy, of whom thirty-two are in the senior class,
professor of theology, homiletics, and Hellenistic all graduates of American colleges or possessing an

literature), Dr. Gotthard Deutsch (Jewish history equivalent degree. The course of study extends
and literature), Dr. Louis Grossmann (q.v.) ethics over a period of four years, and includes training in
and pedagogy), Dr. David Neumark (Jewish Bible, Talmud, Jewish history and literature, theol-
philosophy), Dr. Jacob Z. Lauterbach (Talmud), ogy, homiletics, and Semitics. Connected with the
Dr. Moses Buttenwieser (Biblical exegesis), Dr. seminary is a teachers' institute, which provides
Julian Morgenstcrn (Bible and Semitic languages), training for teachers of Sabbath and religious
Dr. Henry Englander (Bible exegesis and Biblical schools. The seminary publishes a series of scientific
history), and Dr. Boris B. Bogen (special instructor works on Jewish literature entitled Texts and
in sociology with relation to Jewish philanthropy). Studies of the Jewish Tfieological Seminary, and three
Tho Hebrew Union College library has grown volumes have already appeared, edited by Prof. L.
steadily from small beginnings, and now com- Ginzberg (New York, 1910 sqq.).
prises about 30,000 volumes extending over the JOSEPH JACOBS.
entire range of Biblical and Rabbinical Hebrew, VII. Lutheran: 1. Augsburg: Augsburg Semi-
and modern Jewish, Hellenistic, philosophical, Sa- nary, the oldest Norwegian Lutheran divinity
maritan, Karaite, English, German, and French school in America, is controlled by the Norwegian
literature, besides periodicals and pamphlets. It Lutheran Free Church of North America, was or-
includes the libraries of Dr. Samuel Adler, M. ganized in 1809, and began its work at Marshall,

Kayserling, and others; and contains many rare Wis., whence it was moved, in 1872, to its present
editions. One hundred and thirty rabbis have been situation in Minneapolis, Minn. Prof. A. Weenaas
graduated from the college, most of whom occupy was the first president, and he was succeeded in
prominent pulpits in the various Jewish communi- 1876 by Prof. George Sverdrup, who served up to his
ties of America. The present college building be- death in 1907, when Prof. Sven Oftedal, the senior
ing no longer adequate to its demands, the ground professor of the seminary, who had been connected
for a new college edifice and an adjoining
library with it since 1873, became its president. On the
building has boon purchased in the vicinity of the death of Prof. Oftedal in 1911, Prof George Sver-
University of Cincinnati. The corner-stone has just drup succeeded him in the presidency. In the
been laid, and it is expected that by the close of the forty years of its existence, 346 young men have
scholastic year of 1912 the two massive structures graduated from its theological department, almost
will be completed. KAUFMANN KOHLEK. all serving as ministers in Lutheran churches in New
2. Jewish Theological Seminary of America: York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin,
This is a rabbinic seminary of conservative tendency Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota,
founded in New York City in 1886, mainly through North Dakota, Washington, Oregon, and British
Dr. Sabato Morais of Philadelphia, and conducted Columbia, while many of its theological graduates
by him until his death in 1899, when for a time Dr. have been, and are, engaged in missionary work,
A. Kohut, the professor of Talmud, conducted the principally in Madagascar. The aim of Augsburg
institution. Upon his death the position of the Seminary is to educate pious and devoted minis-
seminary became precarious, until it was recon- ters qualified for the hard and self-sacrificing life
stituted in 1902 by a new organization which was of the pioneers of a free church for a free people.
endowed with a fund of over $500,000, to which While adhering strictly to the Lutheran confession,
contributions were made by Leonard Lewisohn, and laying great stress on personal Christian expe-
Daniel Guggenheim, and others, including Jacob rience, Augsburg Seminary takes a view of the edu-
H. SchifT, who also donated a special building on cation of ministers different from what is considered
University Heights. It received a charter from the standard in the European state churches with
the State of New York in the same year, with the their Latin schools and universities. The govern-
right to confer the degrees of rabbi, doctor of ing ideas of the seminary are as follows: Ministers
divinity, and doctor of Hebrew literature, where- should be Christian workers trained for their calling
upon Dr. Solomon Schechter (q.v.), reader in in religious institutions, not in secular colleges;
rabbinics in the University of Cambridge, England, they should be so educated as not to become a
and the well-known discoverer of the Hebrew caste estranged from the people in general, and
original of Ecclesiasticus, was elected president of especially not from the believers in the Church;
the faculty, and a number of scholars were brought the essential medium for the spiritual development
over from Europe to carry on the work of the of young men being educated for the ministry
seminary under the new direction. The seminary should not be the Greco-Roman classical literature,
moved, in 1903, into is new building at 531-635 imbued as it is with pagan ideas and immorality,
West 123d Street, which contains in its highest but the Word of God.
story ample room for th fine library which has been Augsburg Seminary is not, therefore, a combina-
collected since that date, and which now (1911) tion ofa secular college and a theological seminary,
amounts to 39,000 books and 1,500 manuscripts, but a strictly religious institution for the education
Theological Seminaries THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 358

of ministers through a seven-years' course, of which of the Lutheran Seminary at Chicago). The regu-
the four are preparatory for theological study
first lar professors are four in number: C. E. Lindberg
proper. In the theological course much more time (acting president and professor of systematic
is given to Biblical and historical than to dogmatic theology, liturgies, and church polity), N. For-
theology, the idea being that Christianity is not a sander (q.v.; historical theology, Swedish homi-
philosophical system, but a personal life. The his- letics, and pastoral theology), S. G. Youngert
tory of Augsburg Seminary has been one of continual (philosophy, Greek New Testament, exegesis, New-
struggle, partly on account of the financial diffi- Testament introduction, and catechetics), and C.
culties with which an institute of this kind must A. Blomgren (Hebrew, Old-Testament introduction
contend among poor and struggling immigrants, and and exegesis, propaedeutics, and English homiletics) .

partly because the principles of the seminary have There are eighteen trustees of the institution, which
been the object of many and persevering attacks is governed by the Evangelical Lutheran Augustana

from those who were more or less interested in con- Synod; and it had in 1910 fifty-eight students, all
tinuing in the new country the ideas prevailing hi of whom are Lutherans, from almost every state in
the state churches in regard both to the education the Union. The endowment is about $380,000, this
of ministers and to the relation between the clergy being for the entire institution of Augustana College
and the common people in the churches. and Theological Seminary, and the library of 24,000
GEORGE SVERDRUP, JR. volumes likewise belongs to the institution as a
2. AturuBtana: Augustana Theological Seminary, whole. A library building known as the Denk-
new
under the control of the Evangelical Lutheran mann Memorial Library, costing over $200,000, was
Church, was established in 18(M) at Chicago, whence dedicated in 1911. Since 1901 the president has
it was removed, three years later, to Paxton, 111., been Dr. Gustav Andreen, who for some years has
and thenee, in 1875, to Rock Island, 111., where it is been relieved from teaching in order to raise addi-
now permanently located. It had its origin in the tional funds for the college and seminary.
need of providing ministers for the Swedish immi- CONRAD EMIL LINDBERQ.
grants, and among its founders were Rev. L. P. 3. Chioag-o: This seminary, officially known as
"
Esbjorn, Rev. T. N. Hasselquist, and Rev. Erland The Theological Seminary of the
Evangelical
Carlsson, while its earliest professors were the two Lutheran Church at Chicago, 111 ," received its
first named and Dr. A. R. Cervin, T. N. Hassel- charter July 29, 1891, was opened Oct. 1 of the
quist being also first president until his death in same year, and is now located in May \\ood, a suburb
1891. In 1890 two additional professors were of Chicago. The directors, originally appointed by
appointed, and the course of study was changed the officers of the General Council of the Evangelical
on the adoption of the university plan, the courses Lutheran Church, are self-perpetuating, and elect
offered now numbering twenty. The number of their successors from synods in strict harmony with
graduates of the seminary, inclusive of the year the doctrinal position of the seminary " as set forth
1909, is 698, and the instruction corresponds to the in the Fundamental Principles of Faith and Church
best requirements of well-equipped seminaries, Polity as declared by the General Council (18G7) at
the diploma being recognized by the Church of Fort Wayne, Ind." The first president of the
Sweden. The seminary has also a post-graduate board (to 1894) was the Rev. W. A. Passavant
department offering twenty-four courses. Students (q.v.), by whose zeal and liberality the seminary
may receive the B.D. degree, and all who have ac- was founded. So far but five professors have been
quired A.B. and B.D., and pass satisfactory exami- connected with the seminary: Rev. R. F. Weidner
nations in eight subjects of the post-graduate courses, (q.v.; dogmatics and exegesis since 1891; elected
receive the degree of C.S.T. by continued studies president in 1893), Rev. H. W. Roth (practical
and on the completion of an accepted and printed theology and church history, 1891-97), Rev. G. H.
thesis on some theological subject. The degree D.D. Gcrberding (practical theology since 1894), Rev.
m?,y be conferred if the scholarship of the candidate E. F. Krauss (New-Testament exegesis since 1900),
and his standing are such that he may be recom- and Rev. Alfred Ramsey (historical theology since
mended. The seminary stands for Lutheran 1904). The aim of the institution is to prepare
orthodoxy, evangelical Christianity, and higher men for the ministry of the Gospel, especially in con-
theological culture, and its influence on its own nection with the Evangelical Lutheran Church, and
denomination has been to extend the work of Augus- is open to all students of the Evangelical Lutheran
tana Synod throughout the United States and to Church and to all pastors thereof, as well as to any
encourage missionary activity in foreign lands. others, whether students or pastors, who, having
Standing for true conservatism, true liberalism, and the proper gifts and education, give evidence of
faithfulness to the Augsburg Confession, it has done Christian character and experience. All the sciences
much to strengthen the Lutheran Church in the included in theology, some thirty or more, are
United States. There are, however, no special logically arranged so as to be comprised in twenty-
movements that have originated in the seminary one distinct and independent courses covering
except the Augustana Foreign Mission Society. seventy-two hours' instruction weekly, and each
All the professors of the seminary have been more subject, except Greek and Hebrew exegesis, may
or less prominent, and among them special mention be completed in one year. A
student of average
should be made of T. N. Ilasselquist (who was also ability can graduate in three years (sixteen courses),
one of the founders of the Augustana Synod), O. and in four years can take the degree of B.D.
Olsson (q.v.; president of the institution from 1891 (twenty-one courses) Twenty-four different courses
.

to 1900), and R. F. Weidner (q.v.; now president are also offered to post-graduates by correspondence.
869 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Seminaries

In addition to the regular professors, five or more 5. Oonoordia, (8t. Louis): This institution, the
instructors are appointed each year to give instruc- largest of its denomination in the United States,
tion from three to twelve hours weekly. On an was founded as a classical college and school of
average forty students have been enrolled as resi- theology in 1839 by Lutheran emigrants from
dent students for the last fifteen years, and on an Saxony, who were fleeing from the persecutions of
average over a hundred as non-resident students a rationalistic state-church to the land of religious
since 1000. There are about 10,000 carefully liberty. Its first home was in the forests of Perry
selected books in the library. Co., Mo., at the village of Altenburg, and its first
REVERB FRANKLIN WEIDNER. building was a log-hut constructed by members of
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Student's Handbook of the Theological Semi- the first faculty, which consisted of the candidates
nary of the Evangelical Lutheran Church at Chicago, IU., of theology C. F. W. Walther (q.v.), J. F. Buenger,
Chicago, 1908.
O. Fuerbringer, and Th. Brohm. After the organiza-
4. Oolnmbus: The Evangelical Lutheran Semi- tion of the German Evangelical Lutheran Synod of
nary at Columbus, O., the oldest educational insti- Missouri, Ohio, and Other States in 1847, the in-
tution of the Lutheran Church west of the Alleghany stitution was, in 1849, removed to St. Louis, and the
Mountains, was established in Canton, O., in 1830 synod elected Walther, at that tune pastor of the
by the Lutheran Synod of Ohio and Adjacent Lutheran congregation at St. Louis, its first profes-
States, generally known as the Joint Synod of Ohio, sor of theology. He remained with the institution
an organization of German and English Lutheran as its foremost teacher and president until his death
pastors and congregations dating back to the year in 1887. In 1861 the classical (preparatory) depart-
1818. About two years after the founding of the ment was removed to Fort Wayne, Ind., while the
school, it was removed to Columbus, O., where it "Practical Theological Seminary," \\ith Professor
has since, with some slight interruptions, continued Craemer, was transferred from Fort Wayne to St.
its work of furnishing a goodly percentage of Ger- "
Louis, and was united with the Theoretical Semi-
man and English pastors to the Lutheran con- "
nary under the presidency of Professor Walther.
gregations of Ohio and states farther west. It The two seminaries remained united until 1875,
represents doctrinally the status of the Joint Synod, when the " Practical Seminary " was removed to
which is that of conservative and confessional Springfield, 111. During Walther's presidency the
Lutheranism, and is an exponent of the theological teachers were A. Biewend, G. Schick, Alex. Saxer,
thought of the Lutheran Church of Germany during G. Seyffarth, R. Lange, Laur. Larsen, A. Craemer,
its orthodox period. Its first instructor was Prof. E. A. Brauer, Th. Brohm, E. Preuss, F. A. Schmidt
Wilhelm Schmidt, a graduate of the University of (q.v.), G. Schaller, M. Guenthcr, and F. Picpcr (q.v.).
Halle, who for ten years remained its only teacher, By synodical action Professor Pieper, after the
and among his successors the most influential have death of Walther, succeeded to the presidency and
been Prof. Wilhelm H. Lehmann and Prof. M. Loy, the chair of systematic and pastoral theology, and
now professor emeritus. The institution has been with him the following have been holding theological
largely influential in making Western Lutheranism professorships since 1887: G. Stoeckhardt (exe-
confessional and orthodox, and hundreds of its gesis), A. Graebner (d. 3904), E. A. W. Krauss
graduates have been, and still are, active in the (history), O. Fuerbringer (isugogics), F. Bcnte
work of establishing congregations especially among (symbolics), G. Mezger (homilctics), and W. Dau
the settlers throughout the West who come from (English dogmatics). With the number of resi-
the Lutheran countries of Europe. A unique dent students steadily growing, the capacity of the
feature is that its instruction is bilingual, theological college buildings had to be increased from time to
lectures in German alternating with those in English, time. The erection of a large muin building in 188:;,
and perhaps seventy-five per cent of its graduates at the cost of $150,000, raised the capacity to 200,
are able to preach in both languages. The trustees, and an annex, built in 1907, to 300 resident students.
eleven in number (eight clergymen and three The doctrinal position of Concordia Seminary
laymen), are all selected from the membership of is understood from the position to which its founders
the Joint Synod, and are elected at the biennial were led under severe struggles of an awakened con-
convention of this body. The faculty numbers five science crying for sure grace and truth. Its founders
of whom one, as emeritus, is no longer engaged in had emerged from the rationalism of a degenerated
active work. The dean is Prof. F. W. Stellhorn state-church, and had overcome very pronounced
(q.v.) and the secretary is Prof. George H. Schodde hierarchical tendencies in their own midst: they
(q.v.). The student body, which in some years had firmly grasped, and they deeply impressed
runs up to fifty, was in 1910 thirty-eight, namely, upon their students, the principle that, as regards
eighteen in the senior, ten in the middle, and ten in doctrine and discipline, there is only one conscience-
the junior class. Although originally incorporated binding authority, viz. the Word of Christ, which
" The German
as Theological Seminary," by act of is given to the Church in the Holy Scriptures. All
legislature this name was changed several years ago matters not determined by this Word (adiaphora)
are to be adjusted, not by the rulings of " church
1 '
to "Theological Seminary, as both German and
English are entitled to exactly the same rights in the authorities," but by the mutual consent of Chris-
work of the school. GEORGE H. SCHODDE. tians themselves, church councils, synods, etc.,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: O. H. Sohodde. The Lutheran Seminary at having only advisory power in such matters. As
Columbia, Ohio, Columbus, O., 1905; P. A. Peter and regards doctrine, in particular, Concordia Seminary
W. Schmidt, Geechichte der attgemeinen evangelifch- inculcates in its students the following principles:
lutherbchen Synod* von Ohio und anderer Staaten, Colom-
bo*, 1900.
The doctrine to be taught in the Church must be
 Theological Seminaries THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 360

"
divine doctrine, not only in the sense that it treats entitled Concordia College/' owes its origin to Rev.
of divine matters, but, above all, in the sense that it J. C.W. L6he (q.v.) of Neuendottelsau, Bavaria,
exhibits God's own thoughts, to the exclusion of all who, touched by the religious distress among the
human views and opinions. Christian doctrine is emigrated Germans, founded a seminary for prac-
nothing but what God himself thinks and pro- tical preparation for the ministry at Ft. Wayne,
claims about these matters in Holy Scripture, and Ind., in 1846. Lone sent over eleven young men,
Christian doctrine regarding Holy Scripture is not together with a talented candidate of theology,
what men hold it to be, but what Christ and his Roebbelen, as instructor, and, under the super-
apostles taught us that it is, viz., the infallible Word vision of Dr. W. Sihler (q.v.), the school was
of God, given by inspiration. The various parts of opened in an upper chamber of the parsonage. The
"
Christian doctrine form a harmonic whole to such earliest instructors of this Practical Seminary of
"
an extent that an aberration in one doctrine af- the Missouri Synod were Dr. W. Sihler and Profs.
fects, by consequence, the whole body of doctrine, A. Wolter and A. Biewend (1846-50). The va-
especially the doctrine of justification, and what- cancy caused by Biewend 'a call to the St. Louis
ever lacunae appear in the body of Christian Seminary was filled in 1850 by Prof. A. Craemer,
doctrine are not to be filled up by human specula- who for forty-one years was an untiring and zealous
tion, but must be left open, to be filled by the per- laborer in behalf of the "Practical Seminary." A
fect knowledge of eternity. This principle explains radical change occurred in 1861, when the classical
the position which Concordia Seminary occupies department of Concordia Seminary, St. Louis, was
over and against Calvinism on the one hand and removed to Ft. Wayne, while the " Practical Theo-
Arminianism or Synergism on the other. Concordia logical Seminary," with Professor Craemer, was
Seminary retains both the teaching of univcrsalis transferred from Ft.Wayne to St. Louis to be united
"
gratia and sola gratia, claiming that Scripture with the " Theoretical Seminary under the super-
teaches both, and it finds a correct restatement of vision of Dr. C. F. W. Walther (q.v.). Until 187.5
Biblical doctrine over against error in the Confes- all the professors lectured to the students of both
sions of the Lutheran Church, while holding that seminaries, but now another important change was
laterLutheran theologians have in some points de- to take place. In Springfield, 111., the Illinois State
viated from the accuracy of Scriptural teaching, as University had passed into the hands of the General
on the relations of Church and State, Sunday, con- Council. This synod was desirous of selling the in-
version, and predestination. By rigidly adhering to stitution, and, largely through the agency of Rev.
these principles the institution has been instrumen- W. A. Passavant (q.v ) and of Rev. II. Katt (now
tal in educating a homogeneous Christian ministry, of Terre Haute, Ind then assistant pastor at
;

which is modern in only graduates of

equipment Springfield), it was purchased by the Missouri Synod
classical colleges are admitted and acquainted with in 1873. The following year the " Proseminary "
modern doctrinal liberalism, while rejecting and (established in 1852), with Professor Kmcning,
combating doctrinal looseness in every form as was removed from St. Louis to Springfield, and in
" "
unbiblical and unscientific. Its graduates are at 1875 the Practical Seminary followed, with Pro-
work in all the states of the Union, and in Canada, fessor Craemer as president. Here the seminary has
South America, Australia, India, and Europe (Lon- found a permanent home. Prof. H. Wyneken was
don, and the Lutheran Free Churches in Germany called in 1876, and Prof. J. S. Simon in 1881.
and Denmark). Wynckcn resigned in 1890 on account of failing
Concordia Seminary registered in 1910 285 stu- health, Craemer died in 1891, and Kroening was
dents, and seven professors, who lecture in German, called to Milwaukee in. 1892, their successors being
English, and Latin, It is governed by a board of Prof. R. Pieper (elected to the presidency in
trustees of three lay and two clerical
composed 1891), Prof. J. Herzer, and Prof. F. Strockfuss
members who are elected by the Missouri Synod for a (1892). In 1892 an English theological professor-
term of three years. All the students are Luther- ship was founded and filled by the appointment of
ans and, with some few exceptions, are graduates of Prof. L. Wessel. Professor Simon resigned in 1904,
the Synod's classical schools at Bronxville, N. Y., and was succeeded first by Prof. T. Schluetcr (now
Fort Wayne, Ind., Milwaukee, Wis., St. Paul, Minn., at Watertown, Wis.) and then by Prof. O. Boeder
Concordia, Mo., and Winfield, Kan. The supply of (1909). As quite a number of Slovak students
young men upon whom the Synod may levy for pursue their studies here, Prof. S. Tuhy was ap-
making up losses in, and for enlarging, its ministry pointed in 1910 to instruct them in their mother-
is practically unlimited, since 2,123 parochial schools tongue.
are in operation within the Synod. Concordia Sem- The whole course embraces two departments:
inary carries no endowment, and all expenses are the proseminary (two years) and the seminary
defrayed from the synodical treasury, which is kept (three years), in the latter of which the usual
solvent by voluntary contributions of the congre- branches of exegetical, systematic, historical, and
gations and by the proceeds of the Synod's book practical theology are taught. Since the ministers
concern, the Concordia Publishing House. The must be enabled to officiate in German and in Eng-
number of books in the library of the seminary is lish, instruction imparted in both languages.
is

15,000. FRANZ A. O. PIBPBB. The sound Lutheranism, and

institution stands for
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Der Lutheraner, xxxviii.-rcxix.; F. Pieper, no teaching contrary to the Book of Concord is toler-
Lehntettung dcr Missouri- Synode, St. Louis, Mo,, 1807. ated, and for a thoroughly conservative position
Conoordia (Springfield, This "
6. 111.) :
institu- in respect to Biblical criticism and scientific the-
tion, now situated in Springfield, 111., and officially ology." Over 700 ministers have graduated here.
381 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological 8etnin*ri*

The campus comprises eight and one-half acres with entine (q.v.), E. J. Wolf, C. A. Stork, and J. W.
modern and commodious buildings, and the semi- Richard. In 1910 the number of professors was
nary is entirely sustained by the Missouri Synod. five, besides whom there are occasional lecturers on
The student body (1910) numbers 216, and comes doctrinal and practical subjects. The institution is
from all parts of the United States and Canada, governed by a board of directors, whose maximum
while six are from Australia, two from Brazil, number does not exceed fifty, chosen by district
and one from New Zealand. The library contains synods which contribute toward its support. There
about 4,500 volumes. Louis WESBEL. are now fifty-three students in attendance, all of
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F ttnfziaiahriges Jubil&um des Concordia- whom are Lutherans, all except two being college
Seminars zu Springfield, III., 1846-06, St. Louis, Mo., 1869. Three-fourths of them are from Penn-
graduates.
7. Gettysburg: This institution, officially desig- sylvania, one from Germany, and the rest from
nated " The Theological Seminary of the General adjacent states. The endowment amounts to about
Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the $260,000, and the real estate is worth $250,000.
United States," is located in Gettysburg, Adams The libraries contain 20,000 volumes, including the
Co., Pa., where it occupies a site of over forty acres valuable collection of 3,000 of the Lutheran His-
on the historic Seminary Ridge, overlooking the torical Society. J. A. SINQMASTER.
town. It was founded in 1826 by the General BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. J. Wolf, The Lutherans in America, New
Synod, which at its first meeting in 1820 appointed York, 1889; H. E. Jacobs, History of the Evangelical Lu-
a committee to report on the feasibility of establish- theran Church in the United States, Now York, 1893; Lu-
theran Quarterly, vi., ziv.
ing a theological school. The project was doomed
impracticable, but it was revived, chiefly through a 8. Haznma: Thisinstitution is located in Spring-
sermon preached by the Rev. S. S. Schmucker field,Clark Co., O., and was known as the Witten-
(q.v.) of New Market, Va., at the meeting of the berg Theological Seminary until, in 1905, its name
Maryland and Virginia Synod, Oct. 17, 1824, and was changed to Hamma Divinity School in recogni-
the General Synod in consequence reconsidered tion of Dr. and Mrs. M. W. Hamma, who had just
the matter a year later, taking steps at once for given almost $200,000 for the endowment and
the organization of the seminary. Rev. S. S. extension of the institution. The school was
Schmucker was elected the first professor in 1826, established in 184/5, and has always been affiliated
and for forty-six years he remained its head, during with and controlled by the General Synod of the
the greater part of this period being the most potent Evangelical Lutheran Church, its founder being
factor in the building of the Lutheran Church, and the Rev. Ezra Keller, who had come from Mary-
for the first four years of the existence of the semi- land at the call of the scattered Lutherans in Ohio.
nary being its only professor. During the great Among the early teachers were Dr. Keller (presi-
battle of July, 186)5, the old seminary building was dent of both college and seminary), Dr. Samuel
considerably damaged by shells, besides being used Sprecher (q.v.; for twenty-five years president and
as a hospital, and the institution also passed through for thirty-five years instructor), Dr. F. W. Conrad
the stress of ecclesiastical controversy in the sixties, (afterward editor of The Lutheran Observer], Dr.
resulting in the resignation of several professors, the J. II. W. Stuckenberg (q.v.;, and Dr. Samuel A.
establishment of another Lutheran seminary in Ort, for eighteen years president and for thirty
Philadelphia in 1804, and the organization of the years instructor. The school stands for the con-
General Council in 1866. servative theology of the historic Lutheran Church.
The seminary has been attended by 1,100 stu- It believes strongly in the creeds of the church, is

dents, most of whom have entered the Lutheran opposed to all the so-called liberalizing tendencies
ministry, though a small minority have become of radical theology, and teaches heartily that the
ministers in other denominations. It has also pre- Bible is the Word of God, but at the same time it is
pared many professors for colleges and seminaries, progressive, and looks forward hopefully to the time
as well as missionaries for the home and the foreign when there may come a union of the Lutheran forces
field. The doctrinal basis is the Word of God as in America. The influence of the school has been
contained in the canonical Scriptures of the Old strongly felt throughout the general body to which
and the New Testaments as the only infallible rule of it belongs, it is safe to say that no other theo-
and
faith and practise, and the Augsburg Confession as logical school has had more influence during the last
a correct exhibition of the fundamental doctrines of twenty years in shaping the policies and affecting
the divine word. The institution occupies a con- the development of the General Synod.
servative, orthodox position, in accord with the The present faculty is made up as follows: Charles
evangelical character of the Lutheran Church in G. Hcckcrt (president), Leander S. Keyser (Chris-
America. This seminary, being the oldest purely tian theology and ethics), David H. Bauslin (q.v.;
theological Lutheran institution in America, and ecclesiastical history), V, G. A.Tresslcr (q.v.; New-
the largest in the General Synod, has exerted a Testament philology), Loyal H. Larimer (Old-
correspondingly wide influence, and during the Testament language and exegesis), and J. L. Neve
first half of its existence, before other Lutheran (symbolics and practical theology). The board of
seminaries were founded, nearly all the leading directors numbers forty-two, and is the same as that
ministers and educators were trained there. Among controlling Wittenberg College. The student body
be mentioned: has been slowly increasing in numbers during the
past instructors the following may
Drs. S. S. Schmucker (q.v.), E. L. Hazelius, H. I. past five years, and the enrolment for 1910, in
Schmidt, C. A. Hay, Charles P. Krauth (q.v.), which Germany and Norway are represented, is
Charles F. Schaeffer (q.v.), J. A. Brown, M. Val- thirty-four. The endowment is about $300,000,
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO 668

much of which has been given during the last ten but in its very first year it was transferred to Afton,
years, and there is also a special endowment for Minn., and from this year, in which the prosemi-
library and art purposes. The library contains nary was also established, Dr. H. Ernst has been
about 18,000 volumes. The only printed history of president. The growth of the institution created a
the seminary is that contained in a history of necessity for more commodious quarters, and in
Wittenberg College published in Springfield in 1887 1892 it was accordingly removed to its present loca-
by Rev. G. G. Clark. CHARLES G. HBCKEBT. tion in St. Paul, Minn., where its further develop-
9. Hartwiok: This institution, which is the oldest ment has resulted in plans for additional buildings
Lutheran classical and theological school in America, now being under consideration. The seminary has
is located near Cooperstown, Otsego Co., N. Y., thus far sent out 200 graduates, who have formed
where it was founded in 1797 by Rev. John Christo- the nucleus of several districts of the Joint Synod,
pher Hartwick, for the purpose of educating the particularly those of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Kansas-
American Indians who at that time occupied a Nebraska, and Canada. In 1910 the institution had
*arge portion of the state of New York, and to five instructors and seventy students (all Lutherans)
furnish missionaries to labor among those tribes. coming from fifteen states, as well as from Germany,
Funds were secured by Hartwick from the sale of Canada, Australia, Russia, and Austria-Hungary;
some 16,000 acres of land which he had bought and under the supervision of a board of seven
it is

from the Indians in 1754. The first instructor in trustees. The endowment is about $15,000, and
theology was Dr. John A. Kunze, and this depart- the library contains some 2,000 volumes.
ment has been maintained uninterruptedly from K. G. BUHCH.
1797 to the present time. In 1815 the first seminary 11. Mount Airy: This institution, officially en-
"
building on the present site was erected, and Dr. titled The Theological Seminary of the Evangelical
E. L. Hazelius was elected principal and professor Lutheran Church at Philadelphia," is situated
of theology. Though Hartwick's Indian scheme at Mount Airy, a suburb of Philadelphia, and was
proved a failure, his seminary has been a factor in established in 1864. As early as 1749 Henry Mel-
Lutheran theological education for more than a cen- chior Muhlenberg had purchased ground for such
tury. For twenty-nine years it was the only school an but its foundation was delayed until
institution;
of its denomination in the United States, and in its 1864, when the Minister] um of Pennsylvania elected
early history it frequently had students from Rev. Drs. C. F. Schaeffer (q.v.), W. J. Mann (<\.v.),
all parts of the country between Canada and South and Charles Porterfield Krauth (q.v.) full professors,
Carolina. It met a distinct need in American and Rev. Drs. C. W. Schaeffer (q.v ), and G. F.
Lutheranism by furnishing English-speaking pas- Krotel (q.v.) associate professors, all beina: in-
tors for the Anglicized descendants of the Palatines stalled Oct. 4, 1864. In 1889 the seminary removed
who oarly settled in the Hudson, Schoharie, and from the center of Philadelphia to its suburbs at
Mohawk and the existence of the older
valleys, Mt. Airy, north of Germantown, where, on a plot
English-speaking Lutheran congregations in New of five acres, an administration building, a large
York State may be traced directly to Hartwick dormitory, a church, and five residences now stand,
Seminary. besides the Krauth Memorial Library, for whose
The institution is under the control of the General erection and equipment a friend has contributed
Synod of the Lutheran Church, and has always over $100,000. The Ministerium of New York, the
stood for the pietistic type of Lutheran theology, Synod of New York and New England, and the
two of its most distinguished professors being of Pittsburg Synod (all belonging to the General
Moravian ancestry. Among its prominent instruct- Council) have united with the Ministerium of Penn-
ors have been Drs. John C. Kunze, E. L. Hazelius, sylvania in its support and control. Previous to
(1. B. Miller, William D. Strohil, William N. Scholl, 1893 its property was held under the charter of the
and James Pitcher. At present (1911) three pro- Ministerium of Pennsylvania, but since then it has
fessors give instruction in theology, and there are been constituted a separate corporation. It is ad-
eight students who are candidates for the ministry. ministered by a board of thirty-six members, and
The faculty is composed of J. G. Traver (principal), its professors, upon nomination by the directors,
Alfrod Killer (q.v.; theology), J. L. Kistler (Greek are elected by the Ministerium of Pennsylvania.
and mathematics), G. B. Hiller (natural sciences), The charter declares: " The seminary shall rest on
and two assistant teachers. The school is governed the Divine Word of the Old and New Testament
by a board of twelve trustees elected (since 1911) Scriptures, as the absolute Rule of Faith, and the
by the Lutheran Synod of New York for the terra confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church
of four years. The amount of endowment is $63,000, set forth in the Book of Concord, as in conformity
and the library contains 6,300 volumes. with that Rule, and all its teachings shall be in
ALFRED HILLER. accord with said Rule." The standard of educa-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hartwick Seminary Memorial Catalogue, tional preparation for admission is that of college
Cooperatown, N. Y. f 1888, 1897; Hartwick Seminary graduation, exceptions being possible only by a
Monthly, 1909. unanimous vote of the faculty. The instruction is
10. Luther: This institution, the "Practical
"
through the medium of the English language, sup-
Seminary of the Lutheran Joint Synod of Ohio plemented by special courses in which German is
and Other States, was founded in 1884 under the used for those less familiar with English.
direction of Rev. E. Bohme, who was also its first The faculty consists at present of Drs. H. E.
instructor. It originally formed part of what is Jacobs (q.v.; chairman, 1883), J. Fry (1891), G. F.
now the " Theoretical Seminary " at Columbus, O., Spieker (q.v.; 1894), Henry Offerman (1910), E. T.
363 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theoloffioal Seminarian

Horn, T. E. Schmauk, and L. D. Reed (all 1911), from the states of Virginia, North Carolina, South
and there are also two instructors and four lecturers, Carolina, and Georgia. The amount of endowment
while the library is administered by a librarian and is$50,000, and the library contains 5,000 books.
three assistants. The alumni list numbers 80S, A. G. VOIGT.
while about 200 have taken partial and post-grad- BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. F. Schirmer, Historical Sketches of (to
Evangelical Lutheran Synod of South Carolina, Charleston,
uate courses. The number of students in attend-
8. C., 1875; W. B. Sprague, Annals of the American Pulpit,
ance during 1910-11 is 55. Dr. Adolph Spaeth "
vol. ix., New York, 1869; Century Memorial Number"
(q.v.), for thirty-seven years a professor, and for of The Lutheran Vititor, 1900.
fourteen years the chairman of the faculty, died 13. Saint Anthony Park: This seminary, which
June 25, 1910. Graduates of the seminary are is affiliated with the United Norwegian Lutheran
serving in all parts of the Lutheran Church, all Church, is located in St. Anthony Park, St. Paul,
parts of the country, and in many languages, as Ramsey Co., Minn., and was founded in 1890. It is
well as in other denominations. The Lutfieran under the direct control of the Annual Meeting of
Church Review, a theological quarterly, published the United Norwegian Lutheran Church, which
by the alumni, is edited by Rev. Theodore E. elects the professors and the board of trustees of the
Schmauk, president of the board of directors, as- seminary, prescribes the course of study, holds title
sisted by the faculty. HENBY E. JACOBS. to all real estate, and has control of all funds. The
12. Columbia (formerly Mount Pleasant): This institution was originally known as "Augsburg
theological seminary of the United Synod of the Seminary," and was located, from 1890 to 1893, in
Evangelical Lutheran Church in the South was lo- the buildings of the older institution of the same
cated at Mt. Pleasant, Charleston Co., S. C., until name, at Minneapolis, Minn., which have remained
1911, when it was removed to Columbia, S. C. It under the auspices of the Norwegian Evangelical
was founded in 1831 as a classical and theological Lutheran Synod of North America, and which still
institute to provide ministers for Lutheran churches, constitute Augsburg Seminary. From 1893, the
especially in South Carolina and the adjacent states. new seminary occupied temporary quarters until
It \\as created by the action of the Evangelical Jan., 1902, when it was removed to its present per-
Lutheran Synod of South Carolina, under impulse manent home. The aim of the institution is to edu-
given by the Rev. John Bachman, of Charleston, S. cate men in the various branches of theology so as
C., and the first professor was the Rev. John G. to fit them for the public ministry of the Gospel in
Schwartz, who died shortly after the inception of the Norwegian Lutheran Church of America, and
the institution. Temporarily located in Newberry for the foreign mission field. The confessional basis
County, S. C., the classical and collegiate institute is the same as that of the United Norwegian Lu-
was more permanently situated, in 1833, at Lexing- theran Church: "The canonical books of the Old
ton, S. C., with Ernest L. Hazelius as the chief pro- and New Testament are tbc revealed Word of God,
fessor. In 1859 it was removed to Newberry, S. C., and, therefore, the only source and rule of faith, doc-
and became Newberry College, but its operations trine, and life "; and it also holds that the Apostles',
\vere crippled by the war, and the theological depart- Niccne, and Athanasian Creeds, and the unaltered
ment was separated from the college and became Augsburg Confession and Luther's Smaller Cate-
the Theological Seminary of the General Synod chism, are true and clear embodiments of the doc-
(South) of the Lutheran Church in 1867. Its work trine of the Word of God. Both the Norwegian
was carried on at various places until, in 1872, and the English language are used in instruction,
it was located at Salem, Va., with Rev. E. A. Repass and the seminary course takes three years, the pre-
and Rov. T. W. Dosh as professors. In 1884 the paratory training for admission being the usual col-
seminary was discontinued, but two years later it lege course with the classical languages, although
resumed its life as the theological department of this latter requirement may exceptionally be waived.
Newberry College, under the control of the South The equipment of the seminary consists of about
Carolina Synod. In 1892 it was adopted as the nine acres of land, on which are the main building
theological seminary of the United Synod of the (erected at a cost of nearly $100,000), the Muskego
Evangelical Lutheran Church in the South, which Church (the first church erected, at Muskego, Wis.,
was formed in 1886, and which superseded the Gen- in 1844, by Norwegian Lutherans in the United
eral Synod (South). The institution continued at States; removed to the seminary grounds in 1905;
Newberry, S. C., until 1898, when it was removed and serving to house articles of interest from Nor-
to its present location at Mt. Pleasant, in the vicinity wegian church history in America), and two pro-
of Charleston, S. C. It stands for confessional fessors' houses. In 1910 there were five professor-
Lutheranism according to the basis of the United ships, four held by M. O. Bockman (New-Testament
Synod, and its chief influence has been to strengthen exegesis and isagogics; president since 1893), E. K.
Lutheran consciousness and to promote homoge- Johnsen (Old-Testament exegesis and Hebrew),
neity in the Lutheran Church in the South Atlantic F. A. Schmidt (q.v.; dogmatics and symbolics),
States. The most prominent of its instructors was C. M. Weswig (church history and homiletics), the
Dr. E. L. Hazelius, although Dr. J. P. Smeltzer and professorship of practical theology and missions
Dr. E. A. Repass were also men of note. being vacant. There are also four instructors.
In 1910 the teaching force of the seminary con- There have thus far been 363 graduates, and the
sisted of two regular professors and three lecturers, enrolment in 1910 was 62. The total value of the
and it is governed for the United Synod by a board property of the seminary its $140,000, and its endow-
of fourteen directors, elected by that body. In 1910 ment is $121,600, besides which it receives an-
fourteen students were in attendance, all Lutheran, nual appropriations from the United Norwegian
 Marie* THE: NEW SCHAFF-HEIWSCXI 364

Lutheran Church. Its libmry contains about 5,000 and the graduates are entitled to positions in the
volumes. CABL M. WBSWIO. synod. The course of instruction provides for three
"
14. Buwiuehaima: The School of Theology of years' work in a " theoretical section for college
" "
Susquehanna University, at Selinsgrove, Pa., is a graduates, and a practical section for others. All
part of the school founded in 1858 by Rev. B. Kurtz. branches of Lutheran theology are taught in the
It has always been under Lutheran control, and was curriculum, partly in German, and partly in English
" For its support the institution depends upon the
known as Missionary Institute," until its incor-
poration with Susquehanna University in 1894. Its liberality of the Iowa synod congregations, although
special object as the Institute was to prepare men an endowment fund of $73,214 has accumulated.
for both home and foreign mission work, and stu- The present student body comes from the following
dents were received without regard to age or do- states and Germany (7), Bohemia (1),
countries:
mestic ties, and ordinarily with less than a college Illinois (7),Iowa (17), Kansas (1), Michigan (1),
education. The course was three years, and was Missouri (2), Nebraska (4), North Dakota (4), Ohio
practical rather than theoretical, but since 1894 it (4), Wisconsin (1), and Texas (7). The library has
has required as preparation a full college training. about 12,000 volumes, among which a collection on
Among its theological teachers have been Drs. B. Lutheran polemics and ircnics, bequeathed by Prof.
Kurtz, H. Ziegler, P. Born, J. B. Fochh, C. M. Sigmund Fritschel, is worthy of mention, being the
Heisler, and J. Zutzy. In 1910, the faculty num- most complete in its line on this continent.
bered four: C. T. Aikens, F. P. Manhart, D. B. GEO. J FKITHCHEL
Floyd, and H. M. Follmer, and there were twelve BIBLIOGRAPHY*: J. Deind&rfer, Geachwhte dcr cvanycliach-
students, while the library of the entire university lutheritchen Rynode Iowa, Chicago, 1897; G. J Fntwchel,
contained 11,500 volumes. FBANK P. MANHART. Gfsrhichtc der luthenschen K\rchc in Amenka, Guteraloh,
1896-07.
16. Wart burg- : This seminary, which is situated
at Dubuque, la., is the theological institution of the 16. Wauwatosa: The Lutheran theological sem-
Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Iowa and Other inary, now located at Wauwatosa, Milwaukee Co.,
States. was founded by Rev. George Grossmann,
It Wis., was founded in 1865 by the Evangelical Lu-
at Dubuque, la., in Sept., 1853, supported by the theran Synod of Wisconsin and Other States, at
Lutheran church of Germany, under the leadership Watcrtown, Wis as part of the Northwestern Uni-
,

of Rev. Wilhclm Lo'he, of Neuendettelsau, Bavaria, versity established at that place, its purpose being to
after Grossmann had withdrawn from the Bavarian train young men for the ministry of the Lutheran
settlements, near Saginaw, Mich., to prevent schism Church. Rev. E. Moldehnke \\as the first teacher
in that territory because the cooperation of Lohe of the seminary, but was succeeded in 18(17 by Rev.
was no longer desired by the Missouri Synod. A. Hocnecke, who was thereafter connected \Mth the
From 1858 to 1876 the faculty consisted of George seminary until his death in 1908 When, in 1870,
Grossmann, Sigmund Fritschcl, and Gottfried Frit- Iloenecke accepted a call to one of the churches of
schel. In 1857 the seminary was removed to St. Milwaukee, the work of the seminary was suspend-
Scbald, la., where the necessities of life were raised ed until 1878, when the institution was reestab-
on a farm, but in 1874 it found more spacious quar- lished at Milwaukee, still under the charter of the.
ters at Mendota, 111., whence it was transferred, in Northwestern University. Hoenecke wan appointed
1889, to its permanent home at Dubuquc, la. It to the presidency, and Prof. A. L. Gruobncr ,'ind
stands for the principles represented by the Iowa Prof. E. Notz were the other members of the new
synod, namely, a conservative, positive Lutheran- faeulty. When Prof. Graebner, in 1887, accepted
ism, avoiding, on the one hand, a laxity which sur- a call to Concordia Seminary, at St. Louis, Mo.,
renders the peculiarities of the Lutheran tenets, Rev. G. Thicle \v as chosen as his successor. In 1901,
and, on the other hand, a rigorous extreme which Prof. J. P. Kochler took the chair of church history
makes no distinction between essentials and non- made vacant by Prof. Thielc's resignation, and
essentials. emphasizes the absolute superiority
It Prof. Notz having died in 1903, Rev. A. Pieper was
of the Scriptures in all matters of faith, and finds appointed in his place. In the mean time, the sem-
these expressed in the Lutheran confessions. No inary had been moved from the city of Milwaukee
new movements have originated in this seminary, to its present suburban location within the limits of
but the old Lutheran methods of preaching the Wauwatosa, and the new building was dedicated in
Gospel purely have been practised. The brothers 1893. Soon after, the Synod of Wisconsin trans-
Fritschel mentioned above, two of the leading Lu- ferred the control of the institution to the Joint
theran theologians, have exerted an influence far Synod of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, and Other
beyond the bounds of the Iowa synod, Sigmund States, then newly formed, of which the Wisconsin
especially as the representative at the meetings of synod had become an integral part on its establish-
the General Council, and Gottfried also as author. ment. The faculty continued unchanged until Dr.
In 1911 there were four professors and sixty- A. Hoenecke died on Jan. 3, 1908, his place being
eight students. A
board of trustees elected at the taken, in September of the same year, by Prof. J.
triennial sessions of the synod controls the financial Schaller.
affairs, while the professors are elected by a special The seminary stands for positive Lutheran theol-
board. The students live together in the seminary ogy in the strictest sense, as closely following the
building, and \x>ard is furnished by the institution. teachings of the Bible, which, being verbally in-
The internal affairs are regulated by the students spired by the Spirit of God, is the last and only
and the faculty. The nine months' work closes authority in questions of doctrine. Among the in-
with final examinations before a synodical board! structors who have been attached to the institution,
865 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Seminarian

Professor Hoeneeke stands preeminent for far-reach- of trustees. The school emphasizes the Wesleyan
ing influence as a dogmatician. In the year 1910 type of experimental religion conversion and en-
the faculty of the seminary consisted of Prof. J. as conscious experiences of grace
tire sanctification
Schaller (president, and professor of dogmatics, pas- and holy living in all walks of
life and each year
toral theology, and homiletics), Prof. J. P. Koehler of its history has witnessed a revival of religion.
(church history, and New-Testament exegesis), and Any use of liquor or tobacco is forbidden its pupils,
Prof. Aug. Pieper (Old-Testament exegesis, sym- as are card-playing and intercollegiate games. High-
bolics, and isagogics). The enrolment of students er criticism is frowned upon. The institution be-
for 1910 was fifty-one, with fifteen graduates who lieves hi the inspiration and authenticity of the
entered the ministry, and most of the students are Scriptures and a full Gospel; it endeavors to build up
drawn from the territory covered by the Joint clean manhood and womanhood; it strives to pro-
Synod above named. A board of managers is the mote civic righteousness and the speedy evangeliza-
connecting link between the institution and the tion of the world; and it stands for prohibition. It
synod, and the school is supported by voluntary has, accordingly, exercised an influence on many
contributions from the church-members of the en- churches for a more definite Christian experience
tiro body embraced in the Joint Synod, excepting and life, and its alumni may already be found in
a small endow mcnt, the proceeds of which are used Korea, Japan, Persia, India, the Philippines, Cuba,
to defray the expenses of indigent students in the the West Indies, Africa, and other fields. In 1910,
way of board, etc. The library contains some 5,000 Asbury College had seventeen instructors (Rev. II.
volumes. J. SCHALLEK. C. Morrison, president) and during recent years its
17. Western: The Western Theological Seminary, student body, of both sexes, has averaged 250, about
the first and only seminary of the General Synod one-half of whom are from Kentucky, and the re-
west of the Mississippi, is located at Atchison, At- mainder from some twenty or thirty states. The
chison Co., Kan., where it was founded, in 1895, by attendance was reduced by a disastrous fire in Mar.,
the Board of Education of the General Synod of the 1909, but new and better buildings have since been
Evangelical Lutheran Church in the United States erected, and an effort is now being made to add an
of America, by the authority of the General Synod industrial plant. The library contains about 2,000
held at Ilugerstown, Md., in June, 1895; and it orig- volumes, but the college is entirely without endow-
inated in the urgent demand to secure the full equip- ment. L. L. PICKETT.
ment of young men for the Gospel ministry in the BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Johnson, A Glimpse of Twenty Yean,
territory where they expected to labor. Rev. Frank in preparation.

D. Altman, the first president, was installed in 2. Boston: The school of theology attached to
Nov., 1895, and other instructors have been Drs. Boston University is the oldest theological seminary
Jacob A. Clutz, J. Howard Stough, J. L. Neve, of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and dates from
Holmes Dysinger, and M. F. Troxell. The doctrinal the action of a convention of New England friends
"
basis of the seminary is the Word of God, as of improved theological training, held in Boston,
contained in -the canonical Scriptures of the Old Apr. 24-25, 1839, the first centennial anniversary of
and New Testaments, the only infallible rule of faith universal Methodism. In the absence of endow-
and practise, and the Augsburg Confession, a correct ments it was started by the small gifts of a large
exhibition of the fundamental doctrines of the number of interested parties, and until I860, the
Divine Word, and of the faith of our Church year of the first centennial of American Methodism,
founded upon that word "; and it is the purpose of was wholly maintained by small donations and by
the seminary to provide the churches with pastors collections in the churches of the adjacent annual
in harmony \\ith the above basis. The seminary conferences. Instruction was first provided in 1841,
has a productive endowment of about $21,000, and when it was offered as a distinct course in connec-
.3,500 volumes in its library. It has thus far been tion with an older Conference academy at Newbury,
attended by 127 students, 72 of whom have satis- Vt., but six years later this theological department
factorily completed the course of instruction and of the academy was transferred to Concord, N. H.,
have received their graduation diploma. In June, and by charter was independently incorporated as
1910, the government was assumed by the trustees "The Methodist General Biblical Institute." In
of Midland College, and Dr. M. F. Troxell is presi- 1867 the institute was removed to Boston, and was
dent of the combined institutions. reorganized under a Massachusetts act of incorpora-
" Boston 1 '
FRANK D. ALTMAN. tion as the Theological Seminary, and
VHI. Methodist Episcopal. 1. Asbury: This col- four years later, by a new act of the Legislature, it
lege is situated at Wilmore, Jessamine Co., Ky., became the earliest department of the then newly
where it was founded in Sept., 1890, by Rev. J. W. chartered Boston University. In Newbury, for lack
Hughes for the promotion of true education and, of funds, the school had no independently organized
through it, of Christian holiness for all the world. faculty, but at Concord, under considerable personal
The institution is affiliated with the Methodist Epis- sacrifice, instruction was given by John Dempster
copal denomination, although its trustees, fifteen (1847-52), Charles Adams (1847-49), S. M. Vail
in number, are selected with regard to their moral, (1849-67), David Patten (1853-67), Bishop O. C.
spiritual, and business fitness rather than with re- Baker (1854-67), and J. W. Merrill (1854-67). At
spect to their church relations. It began its work Boston, the seminary teachers have been David'
with two teachers and eleven pupils in a four-room Patten (1867-80), W.
F. Warren (q.v.; since 1867),
cottage, but in 1903 it was deemed best for it to L. T. Townsend 1867-93), J. W. Lindsay
(q.v.;
pass from personal control into the hands of a board (1868-84), J. E. Latimer (1869-85), H. C. Sheldon
Theological Seminaries THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 366

(q.v.; since 1874), H. G.Mitchcil (q.v.; 1883-1906), 8. Brew: This seminary, which ia situated at
M.D. Buell (q.v.; since 1884), M. J. Cramer (1885- Madison, Morris Co., N. J., was founded in 1866 by
1886), Daniel Steele (q.v.; as supply, 1886-89, 1892- Daniel Drew, who gave $250,000 to purchase the
1893), O. A. Curtis (1890 95), G. K. Morris (1894- Gibbons property, consisting of ninety-six acres and
1900), M. B. Chapman (1S98-1905), J. M. Barker a fine old colonial mansion, and who proposed to
(since 1898), S. L. Boiler (since 1905), A. C. Knudaon give an equal amount for endowment, though finan-
(since 1906), and G. C Cell (since 1908). The school cial reverses prevented the consummation of his
was the first in this country to employ upon its staff plans. Under the presidency of Dr. John McClin-
representatives of differing Christian confessions, tock (q.v.), the seminary was opened in 1867, and
so that, between 1870 find 1878, Presidents Woolsey under the care of his successors, Drs. Foster and
(q.v.), of Yale; McCosh (q.v.), of Princeton; Hop- Hurst (q.v.) passed successfully through the forma-
kins (q.v.), of Williams; Robinson, of Brown; Harris tive period, and also sustained the trial of the great
(q.v.), of Bowdoin; and Anderson (q.v.), of Roches- financial panic in which the founder's private for-
ter; with other scholars of non-Methodist affiliations, tune disappeared. After the election of Drs. Foster
gave courses of lectures in the institution. It was and Hurst to the bishopric, Dr. Henry A. Buttz
the first to have a permanent chair of comparative (q.v.) became president in 1880, continuing also to
religion, and also the first to employ annually a lec- fill the chair of New-Testament exegesis. During
turer to give a course on the history, theory, and his administration the productive endowment of the
practise of Christian missions. As early as in 1868- seminary has increased to $600,000, and buildings for
1860 it offered courses of lectures in five different library, administration, dormitories, and gymna-
languages Latin, English, French, German, and sium have been erected to the same amount. The
Italian. It was the first to open to men and women library contains 114,000 volumes, and more than
alike the advantages of a full and free Biblical and 100,000 pamphlets. The seminary is under the con-
theological education with promotion to the appro- trol of the Methodist Episcopal Church, whose bish-
priate degrees after full qualification. Up to the year ops constitute a board of supervision, and nominate
1911 about 3,000 candidates for the ministry have its professors, who are elected by a board of trustees
been trained here. These, graduates have served consisting of thirty-nine members, all of whom, both
nineteen different denominations, and a large number lay and clerical, must bo members of the same
have become foreign missionaries. In the enrolment church. The faculty consists of seven professors, who
of 1910 1712 of the 217 students were college gradu- are assisted by two instructors and a librarian. The
ates, and the graduating class of 1909, believed to be professors must be members of the Methodist Epis-
the largest ever sent out by any American theological copal Church, and are required to subscribe annually
seminary, numbered fifty-eight, all but four of whom to its doctrines. The number of its students (1910)
were college graduates. Six graduates have been is 175, and it has over 1,300 graduates engaged in
elected bishops; twelve, presidents of universities or pastoral or mission work throughout the world.
colleges; and at least half a hundred, professors in The seminary was fortunate in its early professors,
theological and collegiate institutions. who filled large r61es in the Church, and made many
The present number of instructors is fourteen ; of contributions to its literature, among them being
trustees, thirty-four, these governing the school as John McClintock, James Strong (q.v.), John Miley,
one department of the university; and of students and George R. Crooks (q.v.). Though closely at-
210, of whom seventeen arc pursuing post-graduate tached to the Methodist Episcopal Church, the
courses. The present student body comes from seminary has exercised much influence upon other
twenty-seven states of the Union, and from the fol- denominations, and has always freely admitted to
lowing countries: Armenia, Bulgaria, Canada, its student body members of any Evangelical

China, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Syria, and church, being never without representatives of other
Turkey. They represent fifty-nine colleges and Protestant bodies. ROBERT W. ROGERS.
universities, and four
theological seminaries, and, 4. Garrett Biblical Institute: This institu-
as usual, several nationalities and religious denom- tion is located at Evanston (a suburb of Chicago),
inations are reported. The endowments of the Cook Co., 111., and was incorporated by the general
school are an undivided part of the general en- assembly of the state as a theological seminary of
dowment of the university, the university having the Methodist Episcopal Church, the incorporators
covenanted to support the seminary at the tune it named hi the charter being Orrington Lunt, John
accepted it in 1871 as its earliest organized depart- Evans, Philo Judson, Grant Goodrich, and Stephen
ment. The library of the school, and the collection P. Keyes. More than a year before the charter
of the adjoining general theological library (the was obtained, a building was secured sufficient
latter subsidized by the university and open to the to accommodate forty students, and the school
students), include 40,000 volumes, while the Boston opened Jan., 1854, under charge of Rev. John
Public Library, located but a short distance away,
Dempster, Rev. William Goodfellow, and Rev. Will-
gives access to nearly a million more. iam P. Wright. Four students were present at the
WILLIAM FAJBFIELD WARREN. beginning of the first term, but sixteen were enrolled
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. W. Cummings, Early School* of Method- before the close. In 1857, Rev. Daniel P. Kidder,
inn, New York, 1886, pp. 369-379; W. F. Warren, " His- Rev. Henry Bannister, and Rev. Francis D. Hemen-
torical Address," in Tirat Quorter-CentennioZ of Boston way were added to the faculty. The control of the
University, Boston, 1898, pp. 30-49. An illustrated his- institute is with a board of six trustees, three lay-
tory of the Institution during its Concord period, by J. W.
Merrill, is preserved in manuscript in the archives of the men and three ministers, elected by the annual con-
New England Methodist Historical Society, Boston. ference within the bounds of which the school is
867 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Seminarian

located. The trustees have power to elect and re- of Central Wesleyan College, located at Warrenton,
move the teachers as they see fit, and the board of Warren Co., Mo., and founded by German Method-
instruction may, with the trustees, elect a president. ists in 1864, for the purpose of educating the youth

During the first twenty-five years the senior pro- of the land and of training young men for the min-
fessor acted as president, but hi 1879, Dr. William istry. J. L. Kessler was appointed pro-
In 1878, Dr.
X. Ninde was elected to that office and served until fessor theology; in 1884 two professors were
of
1884, when he was elected bishop. In 1885, Dr. elected; and since 1900 there has been a faculty of
Henry B. Ridgaway was made president, and upon four, with Otto E. Kriege as president. In this year
his death, in 1895, Dr. Charles J. Little, the present the theological department, reorganized as Central
incumbent, succeeded him in office. There were Wesleyan Theological Seminary, was recognized by
in 1910 seven professors and one assistant pro- the bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church as
fessor. The property of the institute consists of an official seminary. In 1909 the German College at
a portion of the campus of the Northwestern Uni- Mt. Pleasant, la., was united with Central Wesleyan
versity which is leased in perpetuity. Two build- College at Warrenton, Mo., and the theological de-
ings at present occupy this ground, Heck Hall, a partment is now known as German Theological
dormitory capable of accommodating 100 students, Seminary. There arc two three-year diploma
and Memorial Hall, which contains tho chapel, the courses, a four-year classical-theological course,
lecture-rooms and studios of the professors, and the leading to the B.A. degree, and a three-year theo-
library annex. This annex is a fire-proof building, logical course, leading to the B.D. degree. The
the gift of William Deering, and contains, besides number of students is about forty. Of the 657
the library, a museum of Christian archeology, alumni of Central Wesleyan College, 197 entered
given as a memorial of the late Prof. Charles W. the ministry, and 157 became teachers, while prob-
Bennett. The library has over 27,000 volumes, ably a hundred more, who did not graduate, are
including probably the most extensive and valuable serving the church as ministors or missionaries. It
collection of tho literature of Methodism in the has been the aim of the seminary to meet the new
world. The productive endowmont of tho institute conditions of the German Methodist Episcopal
is not far from $750,000, and consisted at first of a Church by supplying well-equipped bilingual min-
large property, improved and unimproved, in the isters, since many Gorman churches to-day need
city of Chicago, given by the will of Mrs. Eliza Gar- men who can use the German language in the morn-
rott, after whom the institute is named. ing services and the English tongue equally well in
Garrott Biblical Institute stands for thorough in- the evening services. The two patron German
struction in all those studies which are usually taken conferences depend almost wholly upon the output
in theological seminaries, and which are deemed of the German Theological Seminary for their new
necessary to an accomplished ministor of the gospel, supply of ministers, and the supply does not equal
and the doctrines taught conform to the acknowl- the demand. A number of graduates have entered
edged standards of the Methodist Episcopal Church. English conferences, and a few are serving with
While urging the great importance of a thorough honor in other denominations. A board of trus-
collegiate training as a condition of admission to tees elected by two German conferences of the Meth-
its classes, this institute has never rejected any odist Episcopal Church governs both the college
candidate for the Christian ministry who, upon and the seminary. The endowment of the seminary
examination and trial, evinced a sufficient prepara- is $50,000, and its library contains 2,000 volumes.

tory training to pursue one of its courses of study OTTO E. KRIEGE.

with a fair measure of success. The total number 6. Nast:
Nast Theological Seminary is located
of graduates is over 1,000, and three times that num- at Berea, Cuyahoga Co., O., and is in reality a part
ber have for a time enjoyed the privileges of tho of German Wallace College, since there is no special
school. For no considerable period has there ever charter nor trustee-board for the seminary, the
been a noteworthy falling off in the numbers in at- charter of the college including the seminary. The
tendance. The registration for the last four years institutionwas founded in the year 1863, the names
has been 173 in 1907, 199 in 1908, 221 in 1909, and of the members of the first board of trustees and in-
194 in 1910. These students have come from all corporators of the college and seminary being: Dr.
parts of the United States, and not a few from for- W. Nast, Rov. W. Ahrens, F. Fischer, R. A. W.
eign lands. They have gone forth to minister in Bruehl, Rev. E. Wunderlich, P. Pinger, D. Mallow,
nearly every state and territory of the Union, and J. Kraft, Rev. F. Schuler, J. Wettstein, W.
more than ninety of the graduates have gone as Mack, J. C. Schupp, and Anton Hasenpflug. Among
missionaries to South America, Africa, India, the the earliest instructors were Dr. W. Nast, Rev. J.
Philippine Islands, China, and Japan. Most of tho Rothweiler, P. W. Mosblech, Dr. Albert Nast, Miss
graduates are still living and acting as pastors of Mary Hasenpflug, Rev. A. Loebenstein, Rev. C. F.
churches, many of them occupying conspicuous Morf, Dr. C. Riemenschneider, Rev. P. Wacker,
pulpits with marked ability, while not a few have Rev. J. O. Berr, Rev. C. F. Paulus, and Prof. V. Wil-
been chosen editors of religious journals, secre- ker. The seminary was founded by, and is affiliated
taries of benevolent organizations, professors and with, the German Methodist Church, and its purpose
presidents of colleges, and bishops of the Methodist is the education of the sons and
daughters of German
Episcopal Church. MILTON S. TERRY. Methodism, and the training of ministers for the
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Memorial Volume of Semicentennial of German Methodist Church. The seminary is strong-
GarreU Biblical Institute, 1906.
ly conservative in its theology, and aims to be very
5. German : This seminary forms a department thorough in its methods and courses. A very large
Theological Seminaries THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 368

percentage of the ministers of the German Method- theological and historical works), and 500 pam-
istChurch were educated in this seminary. The phlets. C. G. WALLENIUB.
names of some of its professors are well known BIBUOCAATBT: 0. O. Walleniut, Svtmka Metoditmcn i
throughout this country and in other countries, as, Ammfta, Chicago, 1805.
for example, Dr. C. F. Paulus, Dr. C. Riemenschnei- 8. Taylor: Taylor University, under the control
der, Prof. V. Wilker, and Bishop John L. Nuelsen of the Methodist Episcopal Church, is located at
(q.v.). Upland, Grant Co., Ind., and had its origin in 1846
Theschool has been enabled to do its excellent through the union of Fort Wayne College and Fort
work partly through its connection with Baldwin Wayne Female Academy, its first president being
University, also located at Berea, O. A contract Hon. Alexander C. Heustis. The institution re-
with this university permits students of German mained at Fort Wayne until 1893, when, largely
Wallace College and Nast Theological Seminary to through the efforts of Rev. John C. White, of Logans-
pursue, without payment of tuition, class-work in port, Ind., it was removed to Upland, its name now
Baldwin University, and students of Baldwin Uni- being changed to Taylor University. The seminary,
versity are permitted to do the same in German which forms part of the university, stands for the
Wallace College. The institution has now (1911) old Bible, full salvation, sanctification as a work of
250 students, 23 instructors, 24 trustees, $300,000 grace subsequent to regeneration, and for every
endowment, and about 9,000 volumes in the library, truth taught in the Bible, and it is opposed to do-
while the campus and buildings are valued at about structive criticism and to every form of worldlincss
$150,000. A magazine, Zeitschrift fiir Theologie and sin. It has been largely influential in helping
und Kirche, is published bimonthly by the faculty to uphold the Wesleyan doctrine of entire sanctifi-
of the seminary. ARTHUR L. BRESLICH. cation, and it is a noteworthy missionary center,
7. Swedish: The Swedish Theological Seminary not only sending many into the foreign mission field,
of the Methodist Episcopal Church, now located at but also training many from foreign lauds to return
Evanston (a suburb of Chicago), 111., was organized to their native countries as missionaries. Among its
in Galesburg, 111., in Jan., 1870, for the purpose of prominent instructors have been T. C. Keade, C. \V.
educating ministers for the Swedish Methodist Winchester, H. N. Herrick, and B. W. Ayers. In
churches in America; and the pastor in Galesburg, 1910 the university had thirteen professors and
Rev. N. O. Westergreen, being elected its teacher, four instructors, and about 160 students, coming
began his work with three students. Some years from twenty states and from eleven countries, in-
afterward the school was moved to Galva, 111., where cluding the West Indies, Russia, Bulgaria, Persia,
it was located two years, with Rev. C. A. Wiren as Africa, and Canada, and representing not only the
teacher, until Jan., 1875, when it was moved again, Methodist denominations, hut also the United
this time to Evanston, III., where it is still located, Brethren, Friends, and Baptists. The institution
and where it became affiliated with Garrett Biblical is governed by twenty-one trustees elected by the
Institute of the Northwestern University. National Local Preachers' Association of the United
Rev. Wm. Henschen, of Upsala, Sweden, now States. It possesses no endowment, but receives
became its and served in this capacity till
president, annually a considerable sum from regular and vol-
1883, when he was succeeded by Rev. Albert Eric- untary contributions of friends. The library con-
son, who was its president until 1909. In the year tains 6,000 volumes. M. VAYIIINCIEU.
1883 a suitable building was erected, at a cost of 9. Vanderbilt: This seminary constitutes one of
$8,000, on the shore of Lake Michigan, near the the seven departments of Vanderbilt University, at.
Northwestern University, but since this building Nashville, Tenn., which derives its origin from a
stood on leased ground the trustees of the seminary gift of$500,000 by Cornelius Vanderbilt, of New
bought, in the year 1908, a half block of land on York, to an institution just projected and chartered
"
Orrington Ave. and Lincoln St., in Evanston, and as The Central University of the Methodist Epis-
erected a commodious building, at a cost of $35,000. copal Church, South." He later doubled this gift,
The institution is now owned and maintained by and when the university was opened in Sept., 1875,
the five Swedish conferences in America through a the name was changed to Vanderbilt University.
"
board of directors consisting of eleven members. The " Central University had beon chartered June
The current expenses are raised by an annual col- 29, 1872, by several ministers and members of the
lection in the different conferences and by interest Methodist Episcopal Church, South, and the first
from an endowment fund of about $50,000. In board of trust represented eight annual conferences
1910 the faculty consisted of three professors, C. G. of the denomination, located in Tennessee, Ken-
Walienius (president), J. E. Hillberg, and F. A. tucky, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Alabama, these
Lundberg, and for the last ten years the registration conferences being termed "patronizing conferences,"
has varied between twenty-five and thirty. The and each having representatives on the board. In
course of study extends through a period of four 1898 these conferences transferred their rights in the
years, the first two comprising an academic course ownership and government of the university to the
for those who have not completed their academic General Conference of the denomination, and the
education, while the last two years are devoted to a institution has since been regarded as connectional in
thorough study of the theological branches. Since character, being held in trust by its board for the
its organization the school has graduated more than entire denomination, from any part of which this
two hundred students who are ministers in different board of trust, thirty-three in number, is chosen.
parts of America and Sweden. The seminary has The leading motive in the founding of the university
a library of about 1,500 bound volumes (chiefly was to provide the best possible equipment for train*
360 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Seminar!**

ing men for the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal the school, aiming to meet the needs of the denomi-
Church, South, and since it was deemed wise that nation with which it is now associated. Promi-
such students should not be separated from those nent among its instructors have been the late Rev.
preparing for other avocations, the seminary was de- Asa Mahan (q.v.), and Rev. G. B. McElroy and Rev.
signedly made a department of the university itself. Luther Lee. The school, until recently, was under
During the history of the university over a thousand the management of the president of Adrian College
students for the ministry have been enrolled, the (Rev. B. W. Anthony), but had its own dean (Rev.
number in the seminary (or Biblical department) H. L. Feeman), who was responsible for the course of
being 110 in 1910 (the largest attendance thus far study, etc. In the year of 1909-10 the school offered
reached), and seventeen in the academic department. a full seminary course, but hi the spring of 1910
Nearly 700 alumni are in the active work of the President Anthony recommended that it be placed
ministry, chiefly in the Methodist Episcopal Church, under separate and distinct management, and be
South (forming at least a tenth of the entire minis- known as the Adrian Theological Seminary, with
try of the denomination), as well as in the foreign its former dean as its president. This recommenda-
mission fields of Mexico, Cuba, Brazil, China, Japan, tion was unanimously adopted by the board of trus-
and Korea. In 1902, a correspondence school, un- tees, and the school now has only an affiliated rela-
der the direction of the theological faculty, was or- tion to its former college. It is a graduate school,
ganized, which in 1910 had about 1,000 students, receiving none excepting those who have the bach-
chiofly young ministers of the Methodist Episcopal elor's degree.
Church, South. Work done in this school may be study has been chosen after the most
Its course of
credited to the extent of oue-third of the total careful examination of the courses offered by the
amount required for a diploma or degree, residence best seminaries in the country, and it is governed by
being required for the remainder, and degrees being a board of three directors chosen by the board of
given only to those already having the B.A., those trustees of Adrian College. The school is without
not having it receiving merely diplomas. endowment, but has a very good working library.
The first chancellor of the university was Dr. L. Prof. H. C. Ren ton is associated \\ith Dr. Feeman
C. Garland, who was succeeded in 1893 by the in the management of the institution. The classes
present chancellor, Dr. James H. Kirkland; while are naturally small, owing to the fact that it is a
the first dean of the theological faculty was Dr. graduate school; but the seminary has opened \\ith
Thomas O. Summers (q.v.), who was succeeded, at great promise for future success.
his death in 1882, by Dr. A. M. Shipp (q.v.). Among B. W. ANTHONY.
the other noteworthy members of the faculty have &. Westminster (Tehuaoana, Tex.) The West-
:

been Bishops John J. Tigert (q.v.) and J. C. Gran- minster College of Theology, located in Tehuacana,
bery (q.v.). The work of the Biblical department Limestone Co., Tex., was founded in' the fall of 1895
is now organized in nine schools, each under one of under the supervision of the Methodist Protestant
the following faculty: J. H. Stevenson (q.v.; Old- Church, largely through the efforts of Rev. J. L.
Testament language and literature), Thomas Carter Lawlis, assisted by Rev. T. L. Garrison, both mem-
(New-Testament language and literature), H. B. bers of the Texas Annual Conference of the Meth-
Carr6 (Biblical theology and English exegesis), O. E. odist Protestant Church. In the early years of the
Brown (Biblical and ecclesiastical history), Wilbur work, Dr. Laxvlis was assisted in the theological
F. Tillctt (qv.; systematic theology; dean), J. A. department by Prof. C. O. Stubbs. The institution
Kern (q.v.; practical theology), G. W.
Dyer (prac- was established to meet a need of the Methodist
tical sociology), A. M. Harris (public speaking), and Protestant Church in the Southwest, and its found-
J. L. Cuninggim (religious education). The de- ers were especially desirous that young men who
partment is supported partly from the original gen- were called to the ministry should have an oppor-
eral endowment of the university, and partly from tunity to prepare themselves for their lifework in
the income of about 5150,000, especially contributed the section in which they resided and expected to
to the department, the whole income available for it labor. The seminary is evangelical in faith, and
being about $20,000 annually. Besides this, the stands on the broad doctrines of the church which
general conference at Asheville, N. C., in May, 1910, has it under its supervision. It was opened in con-
inaugurated a plan whereby the department may re- nection with the College of Arts and Sciences in the
ceive the additional sum of $12,000 or $15,000 an- town of Westminster, Collin Co., Tex., and in the
nually from a general assessment levied on the entire summer of 1902 both colleges were moved to Tehua-
denomination. The library contains about 10,000 cana, where they are now located. Dr. Lawlis died
volumes, and the department publishes an annual in the fall of 1902, and in 1903, Rev. Harry Heffner
bulletin. The correspondence school issues a similar Price was elected to the presidency of the College
bulletin, and, in addition, a small monthly journal, of Theology. In 1906, the College of Theology and
entitled The Correspondence Reporter. the College of Arts and Sciences were united under
WILBUR F. TILLETT. one president, the Rev. Mr. Price, and the theologi-
IX. Methodist Protestant.!. Adrian: This cal work was arranged as a department of the main
theological school is connected with Adrian College, college work. Professors H. H. Price and R. F. Day
which is located at Adrian, Lenawee Co., Mich., have been most prominent in developing the course
where it was founded in the year 1860 or 1861. It of instruction.
was at with the Wesleyan Methodist
first affiliated The department has throe instructors and several
Church, but in 1867 it was transferred to the Meth- assistants, while eight members, elected by the Texas
odist Protestant Church, which continues to operate Annual Conference, constitute the board of regents,
XL-24
Theoloffioal StmlnarUi THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 870

which is the governing body and determines the gen- ence i.e., each conference appropriating a col-
eral policy of the institution. The executive officer lection to the seminary. In 1910 there were forty
of the board is the president of the faculty, who has students from thirteen annual conferences, all Meth-
authority to act in matters that pertain to the policy odist Protestants excepting one. The endowment
and government of the institution in the interval be- amounts to about$8,000, and the number of books
tween the board meetings. In the year 1900-10 about 2,500.
in the library is H. L. ELDERDICE.
ten students were enrolled in the theological depart- X. New Jerusalem Church. 1. Cambridge: The
mentall Methodist Protestantstwo from Okla- New Church Theological School was established in
homa, one from Arkansas, and seven from Texas. the year 1866, and was incorporated May 17, 1881,
The endowment amounts to $4,000, and the number by members of the General Convention of the New
of books in the library is about 500. Jerusalem in the United States of America. Dur-
HARRY HEFFNER PRICE. ing the first twelve years it was located at Waltham,
8. Westminster (Westminster, Kd.) : This semi- Mass., but in 1878 it was removed to Boston, and in
nary was founded in 1882 at Westminster, Md., and 1889 to Cambridge, Mass., where a convenient and
had its inception in a resolution adopted by the ample property was secured in the immediate neigh-
Maryland Annual Conference of the Methodist Prot- borhood of Harvard University. The first presi-
estant Church in March, 1881, appointing a commit- dent and instructor in theology was the Rev.
tee to mature some plan by which systematic Thomas Worcester, and others early connected with
theology might be taught those graduates of Wes- the school were the Rev. Samuel F. Dike and the
tern Maryland College who were preparing for the Rev. T. O. Paine (q.v.). Among its more recent
Christian ministry. This committee reported to instructors have been the Rev. John Worcester
the conference in 1882, recommending that a depart- (q.v.) and the Rev. T. F. Wright (q.v.). The pur-
ment of theology be established in the college and pose of the school and its distinctive work is the
that a minister of the conference be placed at the preparation of ministers for the New Church, giving
head of that department, to be styled the principal them thorough instruction in the Sacred Scriptures
of the School of Theology. The conference adopted and in the doctrines of the New Church as unfolded
this recommendation, but at a special meeting of from the Word in the writings of Emanuel Sweden-
the board of trustees, held in May, 1882, to confer borg. Twelve managers and fourteen directors,
with the principal upon the organization of the de- with the president and treasurer, care for the spir-
partment of theology, and upon the recommenda- itual and material welfare of the school, which had
tion of the principal (Dr. T. H. Lewis), it was in 1910 five professors, four students, and an en-
resolved that it was impracticable to establish such dowment of $266,825.74.
a department in the college, and that an inde- WILLIAM L. WORCESTER.
pendent theological institution should be organized. XI a.
Presbyterian (Northern) . 1.Auburn: This
To aid in this design the board purchased and institution is located in Auburn, Cayuga Co., N. Y.,
presented to the school of theology a tract of land where it was founded in 1818. The proposal to es-
adjoining the college, and offered to indorse a loan tablish such a seminary under the control of the local
for the purpose of erecting a building thereon for presbyteries was made in the Presbytery of Cayuga,
the use of the school. This was carried out, and in Jan., 1818, was adopted in the same year by the
work was begun in 1882, while in Jan., 1884, at the Synod of Geneva, and, after approval by the Gen-
recommendation of the principal, the institution eralAssembly in 1819, was chartered in 1820 and
was incorporated by the Maryland Legislature. The opened for students in the following year. Its
earliest instructors of the seminary were Drs. J. T. work has since been continuous, except in 1854-55.
Ward, T. H. Lewis, J. T. Murray, and L. W. Bates, The seminary had its origin in the religious revivals
while other prominent teachers on its faculty have that swept through the new settlements early in the
been Drs. B. F. Benson and J. D. Kinzer. The last century, and in the consequent quickening of
institution stands for evangelical Christianity with missionary work and the increasing demand for min-
a progressiveness that is not radicalism, and a con- isters. Foremost among the founders of the institu-
servatism that is not stagnation; and among its tion was Rev. Dirck C. Lansing, and the first faculty
alumni are pastors of prominent churches, pro- consisted of him and of M. L. Perrinc, H. Mills, and
fessors and presidents of Methodist Protestant col- J. Richards. Originally there were four chairs of
leges, and missionaries in China and Japan. In instruction, one for each of the departments now
1910 there were five instructors (Rev. Hugh Latimer known as exegetical, historical, dogmatic, and prac-
Elderdice, president), and a governing board of ten tical theology. In 1867 the exegetical department
(five ministers and five laymen). To this board was enlarged by establishing the chair of Hebrew
three ministers and two laymen are elected by the language and literature, and in 1893 the faculty was
Maryland Annual Conference of the Methodist Prot- strengthened, especially in the department of prac-
estant Church every fourth session succeeding the tical theology, by the election of a president, who is
session of 1884, while two ministers and three lay- also professor of pastoral theology, church polity,
men are elected by the General Conference of the and sacraments. In 1903, the assistant professor-
Methodist Protestant Church, and hold office for ship in the New-Testament department was created,
four years. This board holds the property, elects hi 1904 the chair of theism and apologetic, and in
the faculty, and exercises general supervision -over 1907 the assistant professorship in the Old-Testa-
the interests of the seminary. There is also a ment department. In 1909, the assistant professor
board of visitors, composed of one minister and one in the New-Testament department became professor
layman, appointed by each patron Annual Confer- of New-Testament language and criticism! and the
871 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theolofioal

assistant professor in the Old-Testament depart- the efforts of the Rev. D. W. Poor, and the school
ment became professor of Semitic languages and was organised by the Presbytery of Newark, among
religions. The seminary stands for the largest and whose members were two German pastors, the Rev.
best scholarly, practical, and spiritual preparation J. U. Guenther and the Rev. George C. Seibert,
and character of young men for the work of the who clearly saw the necessity of establishing an in-
ministry. It encourages liberty of investigation stitution for educating clergymen to labor in the
and expression, both in professors and students, and American spirit among the German immigrants. The
aims to equip its students in all respects for the earliest instructors were the Rev. George C. Seibert
skilful and efficient discharge of the duties of their and the Rev. J. U. Guenther in German, and the
high profession. It was in this institution that Rev. Joseph Fewsmith and the Rev. Charles A.
many of the ministers received their training who Smith in English branches. At its inception the
were exscinded from the Presbyterian Church in school had nine students living in a dormitory next
1837-38 and formed the New School Presbyterian to the parsonage of the First German Presbyterian
Church, and it was one of the chief sources of supply Church of Newark and a faculty of four teachers had
of ministers for that church until the reunion of the been provided, giving a total of twenty-two lectures
Old and New School churches in 1870. Since then per week, instruction in German preponderating.
it has been recognized as one of the foremost of the The outline of studies comprised an academic
first
seminaries of the reunited denomination. It was and theological course, and the faculty were re-
here that the Auburn Convention was held, on quired to subscribe annually to the standards of the
Aug. 17, 1837, which framed the Auburn Declara- Presbyterian Church. In 1872 the institution, then
tion (q.v.), which played such an important part in having twenty students, was transferred to Bloom-
the division of the church at that time, and which field, N. J., where it has since been located, and
furnished a basis for the reunion in 1870. As this where 149 ministers of the Gospel have been gradu-
seminary has always emphasized the importance ated and a number of lay workers have been edu-
of preparing its students for the active work of the cated. In the fall of 1873 the Rev. Chas. E. Knox,
ministry, it has been generally recognized as the secretary of the board of directors since its organiza-
leader in all those modifications of seminary cur- tion, was elected president and professor of homi-
ricula wliich tended toward making more practical letics,church government, and pastoral theology,
such training; and it was the first of the seminaries and remained in that position until his death in
to introduce, among other subjects, the teaching 1900, and the Rev. George C. Seibert was elected
of English Bible, missions, Sunday-school, and peda- professor of Biblical exegesis and theology, and held
gogy. Prominent in its faculty, in addition to its that position until his death in 1902. In 1895 the
original professors, arc found the names of Samuel Rev. Henry Weber, now chairman of the faculty,
J.
Hanson Cox (q.v.), Laurens P. Hickok (q.v.), Sam- was elected professor of Hebrew exegesis and church
uel Mills Hopkins, William G. T. Shedd (q.v.), Ezra history, and he and the Rev. Chas. T. Hock have
A. HuntinRton, Eduiii Hall, Willis J. Beecher (q.v.), remained members of the faculty to date, while in
Herrick Johnson (q.v.), Ransom B. Welch, Anson 1902 the Rev. Arnold W. Fismer was electeu pro-
J. Upson, Henry M. Booth. In 1910 its faculty fessor of New-Testament exegesis and ethics. In
numbered ten, and it is governed by twenty-eight 1890 a special course for Bohemian and Italian
directors, eighteen of whom are elected by the students was added to the German course, but, for
eighteen presbyteries in the state of New York, one lack of support, was discontinued in 1895. In 1904,
from each, the remaining ten being elected by the however, at the suggestion of the General Assem-
board itself, the president of the seminary being ex bly, the institution undertook polyglot work, ex-
officio one of the ten. All of these directors, except tended the course to nine years, and adopted a
the president, are elected for a term of three years. curriculum to impart instruction to students of
This board isan independent and self-governing other nationalities in addition to the German. The
body, and its acts are not re viewable.
There were, seminary has at present (1910) eleven instructors
in 1910, seventy-one students, twenty-eight from and twenty-three directors, who are elected by the
New York State, with representatives from sixteen Presbytery of Newark, the General Assembly having
other states, as well as from Asia Minor and Japan, a veto power as regards the election of directors and
these students being attached to the following de- professors. The number of students in 1910 was
nominations: Presbyterian (52), Baptist (1), Christ's fifty-seven: 25 Germans, 12 Magyars, 11 Italians,
Church in Japan (6), Union Church in Japan (1), 5 Hebrews, 3 Ruthenians, and 1 Syrian. Of these
Congregational (2), Armenian Presbyterian (1), students, one is affiliated with the Lutheran Church,
Methodist (4), Italian Presbyterian (1), A. M. E. one with the Evangelical Synod, two with the Re-
Zion (1), and Disciples (2). The endowment of the formed, and fifty-three with the Presbyterian
institution is $550,000, and its library contains Church. The endowment of the school amounted
33,472 volumes. GEORGE B. STEWART. in 1910 to $200,826.46, and the library consists of
2. Bloomfleld: This German Presbyterian theo- 7,350 books. HENRY J. WEBER.
logical seminary was established at Newark, N. J., BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. E. Knox, The German Problem and the
in 1869, by the Presbytery of Newark, and is regular- Solution Offered by the German Theological School of New-
ark, N. J., New York. 1874; G. C. Seibert, The Germans
ly affiliated with the Presbyterian Church of the in America and their Need, ib. 1874 (these appeared aa
United States of America. Its charter was granted Addressee at the Inauguration of the German Theological
in 1871 and amended in 1873; and by a general act School of Newark).
of the legislature of New Jersey it received collegiate 8. Lane: This institution, which is located at
(Standing in 1909. Its foundation is largely due to Cincinnati, O., was founded in 1829 through the ef-
rheoloerioal Seminaries THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOQ 879

forts ofa number of Presbyterian ministers and lay- Pennsylvania in 1854 as Ashmun Institute. On
men interested in providing an adequately educated Jan. 1, 1857, a small three-story building opened its
ministry in and for the West. Its original endow- doors to four students, and from 1857 to 1865 Rev.
ment consisted of several thousand dollars donated JohnPym Carter, and, following him, Rev. John
by Ebenezer Lane and his brother, who were Bap- Wynn Martin, combined president and faculty each
tists, and of sixty acres of land on Walnut Hills, hi his own person, while during this time the Board
given by members of the Kemper family. It was of Foreign Missions established a presbytery in
at first proposed to establish an academic as well as Liberia with three missionaries from the school.
a theological institution, and a preparatory school In 1865 Dr. Martin resigned, and was succeeded by
was opened in Nov., 1829; but, after an experiment Rev. Isaac N. Kendall, who presided over the institu-
of five years, this department finally closed. The tion until 1906, when Rev. John B. Kendall was
theological institution was established in Dec., 1832, elected president. In 1866 the legislature approved
when Drs. Lyman Beecher (q.v.) and T. J. Biggs the petition of the trustees, amended the charter,
were formally inducted into office. Dr. Calvin E. and changed the name to Lincoln University. From
Stowe (q.v.) entered its service in the following July; 1865 both a college and seminary course have been
and Baxter Dickinson hi Oct., 1835, retiring in 1839. in operation, and in 1871 the charter was again
Dr. Beecher resigned in 1850, and Professor Stowe amended, placing the seminary under the oversight
shortly after. Among those who have served the of the General Assembly. During its existence the
seminary since its organization the most distin- institution has graduated 674 ministers of all de-
guished, next to Beecher, was D. Howe Allen, and nominations, twenty-seven of whom have been mis-
others of note have been George E. Day, J. B. Con- sionaries to Africa.
dit, Llewelyn J. Evans (q.v,), E. Ballantine, Henry Among the earliest instructors were Drs. Isaac N.
A. Nelson (q.v.), Thomas E. Thomas, Henry Pre- Rendall, Ezra E. Adams, Edwin R. Bower, Lorenzo
served Smith (q.v.), Z. M. Humphrey, James Eells, Wescott, Gilbert T. Woodhull, Aspinwall Hodge,
John Do Witt (q.v.), A. C. McGiffert (q.v.), H. M. and Benjamin T. Jones. In 1910 there were nine
Hulbert, D. Schley Schaff (q.v.), Henry Goodwin professors, twenty-one trustees, and sixty-two stu-
Smith (q.v.), J. A. Craig (q.v.), Kemper Fullerton, dents, chiefly from North and South Carolina,
William Henry Roberts (q.v.), D. P. Putnam, and Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Maryland, together
Edward D. Morris (q.v.). with eight from the West Indies and three from
Lane has always been, in a broad and free sense, South America, while in 1909 three South Africans
Presbyterian, and its charter provides that all pro- and in 1908 three Zulus were graduated and re-
fessors, tutors, teachers, and instructors ''hall be turned as missionaries to their native lands. The
members of the Presbyterian Church in good stand- students in 1910 are chiefly Presbyterians (28),
ing. After 1837 it sided with the New-School Baptists (14), and Methodists (11), with nine of
branch, but entered heartily into the union of 1869. various other denominations. The property and en-
It has a spacious campus, commodious buildings, dowment of the seminary amount to $419,783, and
a fair though inadequate endowment, considerable the institution also shares in the use of some of the
scholarship and library funds, and an excellent li- public buildings of the university, while the library
brary of nearly 20,000 volumes, and is well equipped of 18,000 volumes is used likewise jointly by both
for useful service to the Church. Its present faculty university and seminary. J. B. RENDALL.
consists of William McKibbin (q.v.; president and 5. MoOorxniok: This theological seminary, now

professor of systematic theology), Alexander B. located at Chicago, 111., was founded in 1829 through
Riggs (q.v.; New-Testament exegesis and introduc- the efforts of Rev. John Finley Crowe, at Hanover,
tion), Edward Mack (Hebrew and Old-Testament Ind. Partly as a result of the revival of 1827-28,
literature), and Selby Frame Vance (church his- Hanover Academy, on its own initiative, was adopt-
tory). The Theological Seminary of the South ed as a synodical school by the Synod of Indiana
(Cumberland), having lost its location hi Lebanon, on condition that a theological department be con-
Tenn., through an adverse legal decision, is by nected therewith. Agreeably to this provision, Rev.
advice of the General Assembly (1910) transferred John Matthews was called to the chair of theology,
to Lane for the present, two of its professors, J. and with him Rev. John W. Cunningham, Rev.
V. Stephens and F. H. Fair, being added to the George Bishop, and Rev. James Wood served at
faculty. About fifty students are enrolled. different times as professors. The institution was
E. D. MORRIS. then called the Indiana Theological Seminary, but
4. Lincoln: This theological seminary, the first in 1840 it was moved to New Albany, Ind., and re-
to be founded in the United States for the higher named the New Albany Theological Seminary, with
Christian education of negroes, is located at Lincoln the hope that it would thereby have an increased
University, Chester Co., Pa. Its germ thought was constituency, while in addition Mr. Elias Ayers
an ordination service in 1849, hi New London, Pa., offered for endowment what was then considered
when Rev. John Miller Dickey, while assisting in the a large sum of money. Its success in this location
ordination of James L. Mackey, a white man, as a was not great, and it became manifest that removal
missionary to Africa, determined to establish an in- was essential to its growth. In 1857 the last class
stitution where negroes could be trained for a like at New Albany was graduated, and for the next two
purpose. Four years later the New Castle Presby- years the question of its future home was actively
tery requested and secured the approval of the Gen- discussed, until the General Assembly received a
eral Assembly for the establishment of such a school, proposition from the board of directors by which the
which took legal form in a charter from the State of seminary was to be transferred from synodical to
878 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Seminaries

assembly supervision, the matter of location being developed, a second teacher, Rev. Godfrey Moery,
left to the assembly. Mr. Cyrus H. McCormick was secured, and a building adjoining the church
had offered an endowment of $100,000, on condition was purchased and fitted up for the school,
that the seminary be moved to Chicago, and the for which the Presbytery of Dubuque, in Iowa,
assembly accordingly voted for this site and elected and the Presbytery of Dane, in Wisconsin, both
new professors and a board of directors of what was under the care of the old School General Assem-
now called the Presbyterian Theological Seminary bly of the Presbyterian Clurch, became responsi-
of the Northwest. From 1 859 to
1881, the seminary ble. When the Old School and New School
maintained its position in spite of difficulties and churches united, the German Seminary came
limited endowment, but in the latter year recon- under the care of the General Assembly of the
struction took place, and from that date onward Presbyterian Church in the United States of
new professorships were established and enlarged America, and in 1871 a well-appointed school
endowments obtained, new dormitories and a library building was bought. Among other early pro-
building were erected, and a large increase was se- fessors may be mentioned Rev. Jacob Conzett,
cured in the number of books. In 1886 the name Rev. A. J. Schlager, Rev. Adam McClelland, Rev.
was changed to the McCormick Theological Semi- A. Van der Lippe, and Rev. N. M. Steffens. The
nary of the Presbyterian Church. The institution seminary has for its object the education of a minis-
stands for the largest and broadest theological cul- try of foreign speech for the immigrant population,
ture, the deepening and strengthening of the intel- and in this work it is the pioneer in the Presbyterian
lectual and spiritual life of the students, and the Church. It was found that it was impossible to
promotion of all that will fit them for efficient work supply the churches with an imported ministry, and
both at home and abroad. The men who have that where such ministers were secured they were
chairs or boon prominent in its board of
filled its not desirable. Hence Van Vliet planned to send
directorshave been leaders in the councils of the out young men of immigrant families, trained as
church in many important crises. The first theo- the American minister is trained to take the gospel
logical student association in the country was or- to their countrymen; and as this necessitated not
ganized at McCormick in 1897, and became one of only theological, but classical and scientific educa-
the important factors in the development of the tion, the school was organized into three depart-
theological soction of the Student Department of ments, academy, college, and seminary. This plan
the Y. M. C. A. Prominent among its instructors, has met with the cordial approval of the Assembly,
now deceased, were Drs. John Matthews, E. D. Mac- and the work for foreign-speaking people is under-
Master, Nathan L. Rice, R. W. Patterson, Charles taken on this method, its success being witnessed by
William M. Blackburn, and Leroy J. Halsey.
Klliott, over a hundred churches organized by its graduates
The number of instructors in 1910 was fifteen, among the Germans. This aspect of the activity of
and there are forty directors, consisting of an equal the seminary has so extended that a well-equipped
number of ministers and elders, who control all Bohemian department has been added, while the
affairs pertaining to the institution, and have school has many other races among its students
not only the choice and election of professors, Dutch, Slovak, Russian, Mexican, Jewish, Ru-
but also of trustees who are responsible for the care manian, Bulgarian, Hungarian and Japanese.
of the property. An annual report is made to the In 1907 the growing work entered a new and large
General Assembly, which has the right of veto on building with an extensive campus. Already the
appointment to board or faculty. The number of collegiate department had been erected into the
students in 1910 was 141, coming principally from German Presbyterian College, and the scope had
the states west of the Allcghanies, although Brazil, been broadened so that a classical education is of-
Canada, Cuba, Italy, Mexico, Persia, and Syria are fered to those who do not intend to enter the minis-
also represented. The great majority are Presbyte- try. The number of students in the year 1911
rian by training, with a few of other denominations. was 119, coming from all parts of the United
The amount of endowment is $1,981,234, and the States as well as from Germany, Russia, Austria-
number of books in the library is 34,290. Hungary, Servia, Monaco, Japan, and Mexico. The
A. S. CARRIER. present faculty numbers twelve: C. M. Steffens
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. J. Halsey, History of the McCormick The- (president), W. O. Ruston (q.v.; dean), Albert Kuhn,
ological Seminary, Chicago, 1893; D. W. Fisher, McCor- W. C. Laube, John Zimmerman, Daniel Grieder,
mick Theological Seminary, Historical Sketch, Chicago, 1910. Alois Barta, F. T. Oldt, John A. McFadden,
6. Northwest: This institution, formerly known H. S. Ficke, Paul A. Walz, and Justus H. Brandan.
"
officiallyas The German Presbyterian Theological The school is governed by twenty-four regular and
School of the Northwest," reincorporated in 1911 four life directors, who are nominated by the
as the Dubuque German College and Seminary, is board and approved by the General Assembly, and
located in Dubuque, la., where it was founded in who operate under the care and with the review of
1852 by the Rev. Adrian Van Vliet. The German the General Assembly. The interest-bearing en-
immigrants had begun to pour into the Mississippi dowment amounts to $200,000, and the amount in-
Valley, and large numbers of them were cut off from vested in campus and buildings is $129,000, a total
religious services because they could not understand of $266,000, while the library contains 5,000 volumes.
the preaching in the American churches. The school W. O. RUSTON.
commenced in a small way in the pastor's study, 7. Oxnahax This seminary, located at Omaha,
where a few German boys were trained for work Neb., was founded Feb. 17, 1891, by clergymen and
among their countrymen. The enterprise rapidly laymen from the Synods of Nebraska, Iowa, Mis-
Theological Seminaries THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOtt 374

"
aouri, KftTiBM; and South Dakota, and is the only officialname is The Theological Seminary of the
theological institution of the Presbyterian Church, Presbyterian Church in the U. S. A." The assembly
"
for English-speaking students, between Chicago and of 1810 decided immediately to attempt to estab-
San Francisco. The first board of directors con- lish a seminary." That of 1811 adopted a plan or
sisted oftwenty ministers and twenty laymen, and constitution for the seminary. That of 1812, after
the faculty of Drs. Win. W. Harsha (systematic an agreement with the trustees of the College of
theology), Stephen Phelps (homiletics and pastoral New Jersey, located the seminary in Princeton.
theology), Matthew B. Lowrie (New-Testament lit- On May 3, 1812, the assembly elected the first
erature), John Gordon (q.v.; ecclesiastical history), board of directors, consisting of twenty-one minis-
and Charles G. Sterling (Hebrew). The seminary ters and nine ruling elders, as at present, and on

opened in Sept., 1891, with nine students, and has June 2 the Rev. Dr. Archibald Alexander (q.v.)
thus far enrolled 200 students and graduated eight- was elected professor of didactic and polemic
een classes. Many of these men have become leaders theology. On
Aug. 12 the seminary was formally
in the religious movements of the west and south, opened with one professor and three students. The
and several of the classes have representatives in classes were first held in Dr. Alexander's house.
the foreign field. By the provisions of its charter Those most influential in the inception of the semi-
the institution is under the control of the General nary were Rev. Drs. Ashbel Green (q.v.), who wrote
Assembly of the Presbyterian Church, U. S. A., and the plan; Archibald Alexander, Samuel Miller (q.v.),
stands for the inculcation of the cardinal doctrines Jacob J. Janeway, and President Timothy D wight
of the Presbyterian Church, although, while the in- (q.v.), of Yale College. The General Assembly of
stitution is distinctly Presbyterian, and was estab- 1813 made Princeton the permanent site of the
lished for the purpose of teaching the doctrines and seminary, and the Rev. Dr. Samuel Miller was added
the polity of the Presbyterian Church, its doors are to the faculty. The number of students increased
open to all young men, whatever their theological rapidly, and it was found necessary to hold the
opinions, who desire training for the ministry. Free classes in the college buildings. The first seminary
discussion is allowed, and none are compelled to building was occupied in 1817. In 1822 Dr. Charles
adopt Presbyterian views. Its professors seek to Hodge (q.v.) was elected a professor In a largo
know and teach the results of the best modern schol- measure the seminary owes what it has been and
arship. Nothing is retained just because it is old. what it has always stood for to its three earliest
The changing conditions of society receive special teachers.
consideration, and such methods of service are com- In 1822 the trustees were incorporated by the
mended as these conditions seem to demand. The New Jersey legislature, with control over the mate-
seminary was established to increase the supply of rial interests of the seminary. The original eharter
ministers for the great mission field within the fixed the number at twenty-one, twelve of whom
bounds of which it is located. Its founders have should be laymen and citizens of New Jersey. In
not been disappointed in the results, for more than 1877 the board was authorized to add twelve to its
half of its graduates have entered that field, and number. This it has not yet done. The division
through their labors thousands have been added to of the Presbyterian Church, in 1837, into two
the membership of the Church. The opportunities branches raised the question to which branch the
and advantages of the institution are also extended seminary should belong. The courts decided in
to laymen who desire to equip themselves for Chris- favor of the Old School branch [and to that branch
tian work. the seminary adhered]. Until 1835 the faculty
The development of the institution has been grati- consisted of three professors. The next most im-
fying to its founders and friends, and it has always portant additions were J. Addison Alexander (q.v.)
had the hearty commendation of the Presbyterian in that year, William Henry Green (q.v.) in 1851 ,

Genera] Assembly. At the present time its student and Caspar Wistar Hodge (q.v.) in 1800. In 1871
body represents ten synods and four denominations. a new chair of Christian ethics and apologetics
The faculty consists of Albert B. Marshall (president was erected. In 1877 Archibald Alexander Hodge
and professor of methodology), Matthew B. Lowrie was associated with his father in the chair of
(homiletics, pastoral theology, and English Bible), dogmatics, and in 1880 Francis Landey Patton
Joseph J. Lampe (Hebrew and Old-Testament liter- (q.v.) was called to the chair of the relation of phil-
ature), Daniel E. Jenkins (didactic and polemic osophy and science to the Christian religion. In
theology), Charles A. Mitchell (New-Testament this latter year there were seven professors and
literature), and Charles Herron (ecclesiastical his- two instructors in the faculty. Dr. Charles Hodge
tory, church polity, and missions). Through the celebrated his professorial jubilee in 1872, and Dr.
generosity of friends, especially Mrs. William Thaw, William Henry Green celebrated his in 1806. A
Thomas McDougall, and John H. Converse, the semi- new chair of Biblical theology was founded in 1891.
nary possesses a desirable site and a modern build- In 1836-37 there were 137 students, the high-water
ing ample for all its present requirements. Its en- mark of the early period; in 1858-59, 181; and 263
dowment fund, with other holdings, amounts to in 1894-95, the largest number in any one year.
$225,000, and its library contains 6,000 volumes. The total number of students, up to 1910, was
A. B. MARSHALL. 5,742, of whom 3,076 were living, while 367 have
8. Princeton: This seminary, which is located become foreign missionaries.
at Princeton, Mercer Co., N. J., was founded in 1812 Princeton Seminary has always stood for a di-
by the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church vinely inspired Bible and its perfect authority in
in the U. S. A., which created it and controls it. Ita all matters of faith and practise. It has maintained
875 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

and inculcated the doctrines of the reoogniied stand- tal and Old-Testament literature; John DeWitt
ards of the Presbyterian Church, believing them D.D., LL.D., Archibald Alexander professor of
(q.v.),
to be contained in the Scriptures. It has always church history; William Brenton Greene, Jr. (q.v.),
practised and encouraged a reverent and scientific D.D., Stuart professor of apologetics and Chris-
study of the Bible, and has been ready to subject it tian ethics; Qeerhardus Vos (q.v.), Ph.D., D.D.,
to the keenest scrutiny in the spheres of the lower Haley professor of Biblical theology; Robert Dick
and the higher criticism. Wilson, Ph.D., D.D., William Henry Green, pro-
As the oldest of the Presbyterian seminaries in fessor of Semitic philology and Old-Testament
the United States, it has largely influenced the char- criticism; William Park Armstrong, A.M., professor
acter of the others. Of its students, 108 have be- of New-Testament literature and exegesis; Charles
come teachers in the Presbyterian schools of theol- Rosenbury Erdman, professor of practical theology;
ogy in the United States, and fifty-five have been Frederick William Loetscher, Ph.D., professor of
moderators of the General Assembly. The Biblical homiletics; James Oscar Boyd, Ph.D., assistant pro-
Repertory and Princeton Review, founded by Charles fessor of oriental and Old-Testament literature;
Hodge in 1825, wielded a powerful influence upon Caspar Wistar Hodge, Ph.D., assistant professor of
the theological thought of its time. Its successors didactic and polemic theology; Henry Wilson Smith,
have continued, except during the years 1877-80, A.M., instructor in elocution; Kerr Duncan Mac-
until the present Princeton Theological Review. Some millan, instructor in church history; John Gresham
seventeen other religious weeklies and quarterlies Machen, instructor in the New Testament; Oswald
have been controlled or edited by alumni of the Thompson A.M., instructor in Semitic phil-
Allis,
seminary. The publications of its professors ology; Joseph Heatly Dulles (q.v.), A.M., librarian;
have been noteworthy and most influential, Paul Martin, registrar and secretary of the faculty;
particularly the Systematic Theology of Dr. Charles William Boyd Sheddan, assistant librarian.
Hodge, and his other works, and those of Archibald JOSEPH HEATLY DULLES.
Alexander, Samuel Miller, J. Addison Alexander, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Charter and plan of the Theological Seminary
William Henry Green, and Archibald Alexander of the Presbyterian Church, Princeton, N. J., etc. (with all
changes up to date); Minutes of the General Assembly of
Hodge (q.v.). the Preibytcrian Church, 1808 eqq.; A Brief Account of the
The faculty in 1910 consisted of ten professors, Rise, Progress, and Present State of Princeton Theological
"
two assistant professors, and five instructors. There Seminary, Philadelphia, 1822; J. H. Dulles, Princeton
are a librarian and an assistant librarian. There are Theological Seminary," ch. 25 of United States Bureau of
Education Contributions to American Educational History ,
two endowed lectureships, six fellowships, and five no. 23, Washington, 1899; J. F. Hageman, History of
prizes. Besides a broad curriculum there arc extra Princeton and its institutions, 2 vola., Philadelphia, 1879;
courses leading to the degree of B.D. The govern- The Princeton Book, Boston, 1879; A. Nevin, Encyclo-
paedia of the Presbyterian Church in the U. S. A., Phila-
ing boards are a board of directors and a board of delphia, 1884; Addresses before the Alumni Association of
trustees, the one electing the professors and assign- Princeton Theological Seminary, Philadelphia, 1876; C.
ing their duties, and controlling the educational Hodge, Princeton Theological Seminary- a discourse, etc.,
interests of the seminary, subject to the revision of Princeton, 1874; J. H. Dulles, Biographical Catalogue of
Princeton Theological Seminary, Trenton, 1909; Nccrolog-
the General Assembly, the other having the care of ioal Reports and Annual Proceedings of the Alumni Associa-
its material interests and the appointment of the tion of Princeton Theological Seminary, 1876-1909, 3 vols.,
librarian. Until 1902 the senior professor was the Princeton, 1891-1909; C. A. Salmond, Princetoniana.
Charles and A. A. Hodge, etc.. New York, n. d.; The Life of
recognized head of the faculty; but in that year Ashbel Green, New York, 1849; J. W. Alexander, The Life
provision was made for a president of the seminary, of Archibald Alexander, New York, 1854; Samuel Miller.
and Dr. F. L. Patton was elected to this office, and The Life of Samuel Miller, 2 vols., Philadelphia, 1869;
still retains it. The president is ex officio a member H. C. Alexander, The Life of Joseph Addison Alexander,
2 vols., New York, 1870; Proceedings Connected with the
of both the governing boards. Semi-Centennial Commemoration of the Professorship of
There were 151 students in the seminary in the Rev. Charles Hodge, April 24, 1872, New York, 1872;
A. A. Hodge, The Life of Charles Hodge, New York. 1880;
year 1909-10, coming from thirty-three states and
Celebration of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the Appointment
territories, from Canada, Brazil, Ceylon, China, Ire-
of William Henry Green as an Instructor in Princeton Theo-
land, and Japan. As to denomination, there were logical Seminary, May 6, 1896, New York, 1896; F. L.
111 Presbyterian, 9 Reformed, 4 United Presby- Patton, Caspar Wistar Hodge. A Memorial Address, New
terian, 3 Reformed Presbyterian, 3 Methodist, 3 York, 1892; idem, A Discourse in Memory of Archibald
Alexander Hodge, Philadelphia, 1887; William Miller Pax-
Congregationalist, 3 Lutheran, 3 United Evangelical, ion. In Memoriam, 1894-1904: Funeral and Memorial
3 Church of Christ in Japan, and 9 scattering. The Discourses, New York, 1906; Catalogue of the Theological
library contains 87,700 bound volumes and 32,500 Seminary . .at Princeton, 1909-10, Princeton, 1910.
.

pamphlets, distributed in two buildings. The real 0. San Francisco: This seminary is located in
estate of the seminary is valued at $628,000, and the San Anselmo, Cal., and was founded in 1871, being
total value of all its other holdings is $3,225,000. placed under the care of what was then known as the
There are on the campus three dormitories, two Synod of the Pacific of the Presbyterian Church. It
library buildings, a recitation building, a chapel, a sprang from a conviction that the peculiar needs of
1

gymnasium, a power house, and nine professors the Pacific Coast demanded a ministry trained upon
houses. The present faculty is as follows: Francis the field, and its founders were the Rev. William A.
Landey Patton, D.D., LL.D., president and profes- Scott and Rev. William Alexander (q.v.), who, with
sor of the philosophy of religion; Benjamin Breckin- the Rev. George Burrowes and Rev. Daniel W. Poor,
ridge Warfield (q.v.), D.D., LL.D., Charles Hodge were its earliest instructors. It was located for
professor of didactic and polemic theology; John D. years in the oity of San Francisco, where the old
Davis (q.v.), D.D., LL.D., Helena professor of orien- City College and St. John's Presbyterian Church
Theological Seminaries THE SCHA#F-HEROG 376

furnished a temporary habitation. More permanent first meeting Jan. 18, 1836, when it chose its officers,

quarters were secured by the erection of a suitable appointed its committees, adopted the preamble,
building in 1880, and in 1890 the present site at and proceeded to further business. Jan. 18, 1836,
San Anselmo was presented by Mr. A. W. Foster, is, therefore, regarded as the official date of the

of San Rafael. Here, through the munificence of founding of the seminary The seminary was opened
.

Mr. Alexander Montgomery, of San Francisco, and for instruction on Monday, Dec. 5, 1836. The
others, there were erected, in 1892, two spacious Legislature of the State of New York passed the
stone buildings, one the library and recitation hall, act of incorporation Mar. 27, 1839, and this was
the other the dormitory. To these was later added accepted by the board of directors Dec. 20, 1839.
the beautiful Montgomery Memorial Chapel, and The founders of the seminary were Presbyterians
there are also commodious residences on the grounds of the broader type represented in the New-School
for all the professors. The location is sufficiently branch of the church, and had many affiliations
near the city to enable the students to avail them- with New England Congregationalism. They had
selves of its advantages and to engage actively in in view a service of wider boundaries than those of

missionary and other church work. The aim of the the Presbyterian Church alone. They not only be-
seminary is to prepare men for a practical and effi- lieved in freedom of thought, but in the widest pos-
cient ministry and for missionary work in other sible cooperation with other Christians in the prac-
lands. For nearly twenty years of its history the tical work of the church. The Old-School men, on
endowment was small, and the professors wore pas- the other hand, were advocates of strict control both
tors, giving to the seminary such time as they could in matters of thought and practise. These differ-
spare from their pastoral duties. The number of ences were reflected in the training given in the semi-
students during this period was small. For the past naries of the church, all of which were at. this time
twenty years, owing to the increase in endowment, under ecclesiastical control. Union Seminary owes
which now amounts altogether to about $500,000, its origin to the dissatisfaction of the New-School
the faculty have devoted their entire time to semi- men with this state of affairs, and to the desire to
nary work, and the number of students has in- create a new institution which should more perfectly
creased. Its graduates constitute twenty-five per reflect their own ideals. The seminary has been
cent of the active Presbyterian ministry of Cali- from the outset independent of any ecclesiastical
fornia, and they are also ministering in considerable control, except for a period of twenty-two years.
numbers in other coast and eastern states, and in On May 16, 1870,"a few months after the reunion of
nearly every large missionary field of the world. the Old- and New-School wings of the Presbyterian
Among the eminent men who have served as in- Church in the United States of America, it con-
structors have been Rev. William A. Scott (q.v.), ceded to the General Assembly of that church the
Rev. James Eells, and Rev. Henry C. Minton (q.v.), right of veto on the election of its professors. This
each of whom was moderator of the General As- action was taken in the interests of harmony within
sembly of the Presbyterian Church. the church and in order to secure similarity of stand-
The seminary is at present in excellent condition. ing for all its theological seminaries. This conces-
There are six full professors and one instructor, and sion was withdrawn on Oct. 13, 1892, as a result of
its library contains 18,000 volumes. The board of the difference of opinion which arose between the
management consists of twenty-six directors, an seminary and the General Assembly in connection
equal number of ministers and laymen, eighteen of with the transfer of Dr. Briggs (q.v.) to the newly
whom are elected by the Synod of California, six by established Edward Robinson chair of Biblical
the Synod of Oregon, and two by the Synod of Wash- theology. The General Assembly interpreted this
ington. The directors elect five of their number as transfer as a new appointment, and, under the in-
a board of trustees, in compliance with the laws of fluence of the excitement caused by Dr. Briggs's
California, who direct the financial affairs of the in- inaugural address, by an overwhelming majority
stitution. While it is under the immediate control disapproved the action of the board. The directors
of the Synod of California, it bears the same rela- on their part maintained that the appointment of
tion to the General Assembly as all the other semi- Dr. Briggs was a simple transfer involving no change
naries of its denomination. The average number of duties, and hence was not subject to review by
of students is twenty-five. They are all connected the Assembly. This led to an examination by the
with the Presbyterian Church, and about sixty per seminary authorities of the legal aspects of the
cent of them come from Pacific Coast churches. matter, and they were advised that the concession
WARREN HALL LANDON. had been ultra vires. On all grounds, therefore, they
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Cuny, History of the San Francisco Theo- felt that they must reconsider their action. Since
logical Seminary of the Presbyterian Church, Newark, Gal., 1892 Union Seminary has been ecclesiastically inde-
1907.
pendent, according to the plan of its founders and
10. Union (Hew York) i Union Theological Semi- the provisions of its charter. For many years the
nary, in the City of New York, was founded by a directors and professors gave their assent to the
group of Christian ministers and laymen of the Pres- Westminster Standards, the exact formula varying
byterian Church, who believed that it was wise to from time to time. Since 1905 this requirement has
plant a training-school for ministers in a great city. ceased, and a new form of declaration has been pro-
They first met Oct. 10, 1835, and, after three inter- vided, which secures the Christian character of the
mediate meetings, constituted a board of directors institution in more comprehensive terms. At the
by the election of ten ministers and fourteen laymen, present time the board of directors and the faculty
Nov. (M6, 1835. This board of directors held its include representatives of the Presbyterian, Con-
8*77 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA titaminariei

gregational, Protestant Episcopal, Baptist, and time, to its present quarters on Morningside Heights.
Methodist Episcopal Churches. This removal was made possible through the princely
The principles underlying the foundation of the generosity of D. Willis James, then vice-president
seminary were expressed by the preamble composed of the board, to which, after his death, Mrs. James
by Dr. Erskine Mason and adopted by the board at made large additions. The work of constructing
its first meeting on Jan. 18, 1836. They were as fol- the building was begun in 1908; the building was
lows. In the first place, the founders expressed opened for instruction in Sept., 1910; and the
their belief that a great city furnishes peculiar facili- formal service of dedication took place Nov. 29,
ties and advantages for conducting theological edu- 1910. The buildings, which are of English perpen-
cation. In the second place, while providing for dicular Gothic, occupy the double block bounded
instruction in the doctrine and discipline of the Pres- by Broadway, Claremont Avenue, 120th and 122d
byterian Church, of which they were members, they Streets, and form a large rectangle enclosing a quad-
declared their purpose to furnish the means of a full rangle of approximately 360 feet long and 100 feet
and thorough education in all the subjects taught in wide. They consist of an entrance tower, an ad-
the best theological seminaries in this and other ministration building, a library building, a memo-
countries. In the third place, they emphasized rial chapel given by Mrs. James in memory of her
the importance of practical training for an efficient husband, a dormitory for students, a house for the
ministry. They believed that it was not enough to president, and an apartment house with accommo-
be pious and scholarly; one must know how to ex- dations for ten professors.
press his faith and apply his knowledge in action. The library of the seminary, on account both of
Accordingly, they proposed that their students its great size and the value of its collections, offers

identify themselves with the various churches of the unusual opportunities to scholars and investigators.
city, actively engage in their services, and become On May 1, 1909, it contained about 97,000 volumes,
familiar with all the benevolent efforts of the city 55,000 pamphlets, and 186 manuscripts. The be-
and of the time. In the fourth place, they proposed ginning of it was the library of Leander Van Ess,
to train men not only for the Christian ministry, but consisting of over 13,000 volumes, including such
for every form of Christian service, whether educa- rare and valuable works as 430 incunabula, from
tional, philanthropic, or religious. Finally, they 1469 to 1510 A.D.; 1,246 titles of Reformation liter-
wished to provide an institution of truly catholic ature, in original editions; 37 manuscripts; 4,209
spirit, or, in other words, to use their own memor- volumes in church history, patristics, canon law,
able language, one around which "all men of mod- etc.; and about 200 editions of the Vulgate and of
erate views and feelings, who desire to live free German Bibles (the earliest being 1470). Valuable
from party strife and to stand aloof from all ex- additions have been made from the collections of
tremes of doctrinal speculation, practical radicalism, the late Drs. Robinson, Field, Marsh, Gillctt, Smith,
and ecclesiastical domination, may cordially and af- Adams, Hatfield, Hitchcock, Schaff, Prentiss (qq.v.),
"
fectionately rally. The charter provides that " equal and others.
privileges of admission and instruction, with all Special mention may be made of a collection of
the advantages of the institution, shall be allowed nearly 800 Greek Testaments gathered by the late
to students of every denomination of Christians." Dr. Isaac H. Hall (q.v.), and presented in 1898 by
In fact, instruction is given not only in the doctrine Mr. David H. McAlpin; of the hymnological library
and polity of the Presbyterian Church, but also in of Prof. Frederick M. Bird (q.v.), consisting of some
those of other leading Protestant churches. The 5,000 volumes, presented in 1888 by the late Henry
student body at the present time is made up of Day, Esq., and of an almost exhaustive collection
members of eighteen different Christian bodies. All of Zwingliana presented in 1901 by the Rev. Prof.
of these are urged to retain their original connec- Samuel Macauley Jackson, D.D., LL D. The Gil-
tion, and to enter the ministry of their respective lett Collection of American History (endowed in
churches. The endeavor is made to provide them 1884 by the late David H. McAlpin), and the Field
all with what they need for effective service to their and other collections of pamphlets contain useful
own people. material for the study of the civil and religious his-
The first seminary building was at No. 9 Univer- tory and the theology of America. Most valuable
sity Place, and was dedicated Dec. 12, 1838. Four of all is the McAlpin Collection of British History
professors' houses were also erected on Greene and Theology (endowed in 1884 by Mr. McAlpin),
Street, but, owing to the financial embarrassments gathered under the supervision of Professor Briggs.
of the institution, these houses were sold some four It contains thousands of rare and important books
years later. Two of these, together with the house and pamphlets relating to the early Puritans, to the
and lot adjoining at the corner of Greene and Eighth Westminster Assembly, and to the deistic, trinita-
Streets, were subsequently acquired in order to rian, and ecclesiastical controversies of the eight-
provide the students with dormitories. In 1884 the eenth century, as well as a large collection Of general
seminary moved to its second home on Lenox Hill, and local histories of Great Britain and her
where its important group of buildings, with the churches.
main entrance at 1200 (afterward 700) Park Avenue, The original plan of the seminary contemplated
was dedicated Dec. 9, 1884. The generous bene- the meeting of the necessary expenses by an annual
factions of ex-Governor Edwin D. Morgan, sup- subscription from the friends of the institution, but
plemented by large gifts from D. Willis James, this proved impracticable. The first permanent
Morris K. Jesup, and others, made this move pos- fund was obtained in 1843 by the gift of $25,000
sible. In 1910 the seminary moved, for the third from Mr. James Boonnan for the endowment of the
 THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG 878

theological chair.A further sum of $30,000 was re- has commanded the services of such men as Henry
ceivedsome five or six years later by a bequest of B. Smith (q.v.), and W. G. T. Shedd (q.v.) in theol-
Mr. James Roosevelt. During the years from 1853 ogy, Philip Schaff (q.v.) and Roswell D. Hitchcock
to 1871 the funds of the institution were further in- (q.v.) in church history, Thomas H. Skinner (q.v.),
ereased by $650,000, of which the greater part was William Adams (q.v.), George L. Prentiss (q.v.), and
obtained by general subscription. Three years later Charles Cuthbert Hall (q.v.), in practical theology.
the institution was further strengthened by a gen- Thomas McAuley, the first president of the board,
erous gift of $300,000 from Mr. James Brown, as a acted also as president of the faculty. He was
result of which the original corps of professors was succeeded in 1840 by the Rev. Joel Parker, D.D.
increased from three to seven, and the funds of the In 1842 the presidency of the faculty lapsed, but
professorships from $25,000 to $80,000 each. These was revived in 1873, when William Adams, pastor
funds were subsequently increased by gifts from Mr. of the Madison Square Church, and chairman of the
D. Willis James, Mr. William E. Dodge, Jr., Mr. New School Committee of Reunion, became presi-
Morris K. Jesup, and Mr. John Crosby Brown. At dent. He was succeeded in 1880 by Roswell D.
the present tune the seminary has ten professorships Hitchcock, who was followed in 1887 by Thomas S.
fully endowed, most of which bear the names of Hastings (q.v.). On his resignation in 1897, Dr.
their several founders or of funds designated by Charles Cuthbert Hall was chosen president and
them. In the order of their foundation they are served until his death in 1908, when he was suc-
the following: The Davenport Professorship of ceeded by Dr. Francis Brown (q.v.).
Hebrew and the Cognate Languages, the Roosevelt From the first the faculty have recognized their
Professorship of Systematic Theology, the Wash- responsibility to the cause of productive scholar-
burn Professorship of Church History, the Baldwin ship. In the long list of their publications mention
Professorship of Sacred Literature, the Brown Pro- may be made of Robinson's monographs on the
fessorship of Homiletics, the Skinner and McAlpin geography of Palestine, and his translation of
Professorship of Practical Theology, the Edward Gesenius' Dictionary; Schaff's edition of the Creeds
Robinson Professorship of Biblical Theology, the of Christendom, and his Church History; the Inter-
Jesup Graduate Professorship of Practical Theology, national Tfaological Library and Critical Commen-
the Marcellus Hartley Professorship of Philosophy tary, edited by Dr. Briggs, in cooperation with Dr.
and the History of Religion and Missions, and the Salmond, and with Canon Driver and Dr. Plummer
Professorship of Christian Ethics. In addition to respectively; and the Hebrew Lexicon of Drs.
these there is an endowment for the Department of Francis Brown and Briggs, in cooperation with
Applied Christianity, at present used for the direct- Canon Driver; also of McCiiffcrt's Apostolic Age, W.
or of Christian work and headworker of the Union Adams Brown's Christian Theology in Outline, and
Settlement. Other professorships and associate and Thomas C. Hall's History of Ethics within Organized
assistant professorships are not yet endowed. The Christianity. The spirit of the teachers has de-
endowment of the seminary includes provision also scended upon the scholars, and among the 3,501
for certain instructorships and lectureships, the most alumni of the seminary no less than 74 have been
important of which are the Harkness Instructor- college presidents, 222 teachers in colleges, and 99
ship in Vocal Culture and Elocution and in Sacred in seminaries. In the curriculum of the seminary
Music, the Ely Lectureship on the Evidences of the original languages have always held a prominent
Christianity, the Morse Lectureship on the Rela- place, and were formerly required of all grad-
tions' of the Bible to the Sciences, and the Parker uates. A distinction is now
customarily made
Lectureship on the Laws of Health. between the diploma and the degree of the seminary,
On the rolls of the seminary may be found the an acquaintance with the original languages being
names of many men prominent in philanthropic and required only of candidates for the latter. In re-
religious life. Its founders were actively interested cent years the range of subjects included in the
in, and many of them officers of, the leading curriculum has greatly increased, and the freedom
missionary societies of the country. Among its of election has been widely extended. At the pres-
directors were such clergymen as Absalom Peters, ent time no less than 141 courses are offered by the
Erskinc Mason, Albert Barnes (q.v.), Samuel Han- faculty, the division by departments being as fol-
son Cox (q.v.), Edwin F. Hatfield (q.v.), and Jona- lows: Old Testament, 22; New Testament, 21;
than French Stearns; and such laymen as Knowles church history, 17; philosophy of religion, 10; apolo-
Taylor, Richard T. Haines, William M. Halsted, getics, 4; systematic theology, 6; Christian ethics,
Charles Butler, the Hon. William E. Dodge, Nor- 11; practical theology, 25; religious education, 6;
man White, D. Hunter McAlpin, D. Willis James, theological encyclopedia and symbolics, 11; vocal
John Crosby Brown, William E. Dodge, Jr., and culture, 3; sacred music, 5. In thirty years the cur-
Morris K. Jesup. The first president of the board riculum has been increased threefold. In addition
was the Rev. Thomas McAuley, D.D., who was suc- to its own courses, through an arrangement entered
ceeded in 1840 by Richard T. Haines, who served into with Columbia and New York Universities,
until 1871 Charles Butler was president from 1871
. the seminary is able to offer to its students the ad-
to 1898, and John Crosby Brown from 1898 until vantage of university courses in philosophy, so-
1909. The present president is Robert C. Ogden. ciology, and other subjects of value for the student
No less notable is the roll of the faculty. The of religion. A graduate department of the semi-
first professor of sacred literature was Edward nary which now embraces some forty students has
Robinson (q.v.), the Nestor of American Biblical for some years been in operation. The scholarships
scholarship, and in other departments the seminary of the seminary are administered on a merit basis.
879 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theolofical

Through two fellowships the seminary offers to the when the need for such an institution for the West
best student in each class the opportunity of two had been felt for several years, to establish a train-
years of graduate study under the direction of the ing-school for Presbyterian ministers. The first in-
faculty in this country or abroad. In addition, the structors were Rev. Joseph Stockton and Rev.
seminary offers the degree of D.D. to advanced Elisha P. Swift, and among the distinguished mem-
students. bers of its faculty have been Luther Halsey, John
From the first the students have been active W. Nevin (q.v.), Alexander T. McGill, Melanchthon
workers in the churches, Sunday-schools, and other W. Jacobus (q.v.), William S. Plumer (q.v.), Will-
religious and philanthropic institutions of the city iam M. Paxton, A. A. Hodge (q.v.), S. J. Wilson,
and its vicinity. The supervision of these activities S. H. Kellogg, B. B. Warfield (q.v.), David Gregg
has recently been entrusted to the Department of (q.v.), and M. B. Riddle (q.v.). The spirit and
Christian Work, through which students are as- policy of the seminary are admirably expressed in
signed to different fields and counseled as to the the fundamental principle which was incorporated
" " "
best methods of dealing with the problems they by its founders in the plan : That learning with-
present. In this connection attention may be out religion in ministers of the Gospel will prove in-
called to the Union Settlement in East 104th Street, jurious to the Church, and religion without learning
founded in 1895 by a group of Union Seminary will leave the ministry exposed to the impositions
alumni. While not officially connected with the of designing men, and insufficient in a high degree
seminary, the settlement is an expression of its for the great purposes of the Gospel ministry." In
social spirit. The seminary's director of Christian accordance with tliis, a combination of learning and
work is at the same time head worker of the settle- piety, of erudition and earnestness, of intellectual
ment, and many of the students are engaged in its discipline and practical efficiency, is the standard
activities. The practical interest of the seminary which has been set up, while the institution has al-
appears further in its provision for university ex- ways been distinguished for its strong missionary
tension. The Department of Religious Education, spirit. While the seminary is a Presbyterian insti-
recently organized under the leadership of Professor tution, it is not sectarian; students of all denomina-
Coe, offers especial facilities for the training of lay tions are cordially welcomed and are entitled to
workers. The foundation lectureships of the semi- scholarship aid; and representatives from bodies
nary are open to the general public, and many of the other than the Presbyterian Church are always
courses deal with topics of popular religious interest. found among the students. Recently the curricu-
A Sunday service is maintained in the chapel for the lum was thoroughly revised to meet modern de-
residents of the neighborhood, and the Union School mands, by the introduction of the elective system
of Religion provides a model Sunday-school for their and by laying greater emphasis on sociological
children. In addition, attention should be called studies. The regular course extends over three
to the various conferences organized by the seminary years, a fourth year of study entitling a student to
from time to time, such as the Conference on an the degree of B.D. In 1902 a special department
Efficient Ministry, held in 1908 for the pastors of was organized for the training of ministers for the
the neighboring churches; the Conference on the immigrant peoples among whom the Presbyterian
Training for the Ministry, conducted by the stu- Church labors, and extension courses of lectures are
dents of the seminary in cooperation with the stu- conducted by the faculty in the churches of Pitts-
dents of Hartford and Yale seminaries; and the burg and vicinity.
Quiet Day for social workers. Specially noticeable The total number of matriculants is 2,126, of
has been the strong missionary interest among the whom 117 have been foreign missionaries, and the
students. From the first a large number of its average number of students for the last five years
graduates have found their way to the foreign field, has been eighty, the enrolment for 1911 being
and the number of foreign missionaries now on the seventy-nine. The faculty consists of seven pro-
seminary roll amounts to 251. This missionary fessors and four instructors, all of whom, with the
interest was greatly stimulated by the two visits exception of the instructors in music and elocution,
of the late President Charles Cuthbert Hall to the must be ministers of the Presbyterian Church in the
East as Barrows Lecturer. Provision has recently United States of America. On induction into office
been made by a friend of the seminary for a similar the professors are required to subscribe to the West-
lectureship, to be filled in 1911-12 by Prof. George minster Catechisms and Confession.
William Knox (q.v.). WILLIAM ADAMS BROWN. The government of the seminary is vested in a
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. L. Prentisa, Union Theological Seminary board of directors and a board of trustees; the for-
in the City of New York: Historical and Biographical mer members (twenty-eight min-
consisting of forty
Sketchet of its First Fifty Years, New York, 1889; idem, and twelve ruling elders), one-fourth of whom
isters
Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York: lie
Design and another Decade of its History, Asbury Park,
are chosen annually. The board of directors have
N. J., 1899; General Catalogue of the Union Theological power to elect, suspend, and remove professors, such
Seminary in the City of New York (four editions; 1870, election and removal being subject to the veto of
compiled by E. F. Hatfield, 1886, 1898, 1908, compiled by the General Assembly. They superintend the cur-
C. R. Oillett); The Seminary: Its Spirit and Aims (ad-
Jrossoo by Dr. Thomas C. Hall, Dr. Francis Brown, Rev. riculum, inspect the fidelity of the professors, and
Henry Sloane Coffin, President Charles Cuthbert Hall), watch over the conduct of the students. The board
New York, 1907. of trustees, incorporated by the legislature of the
11. Weitarn: This seminary was founded at state of Pennsylvaniaon Mar. 29, 1844, consists of
Allegheny (now part of Pittsburg), Pa., hi 1827, twenty-one members, "nine of whom shall at all
after the General Assembly had determined in 1825, times be laymen citizens of the State of Pcnnsyl-
Theological Seminaries THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 880

vania," and to them is committed the management veloping home-mission territory of the Southwest.
and disbursement of the funds of the institution. Among its instructors the best-known, perhaps
Each board elects its own members, subject to the have been the Rev. Robert L. Dabney, the Rev.
approval of the General Assembly. Thomas Carey Johnson, the Rev. Samuel A. King,
The institution now has two halls, a library, and the Rev. R. K. Smoot, and the Rev. T. R. Sampson.
four professors' houses, and plans have been laid In the year 1910 the seminary had five instructors,
for a complete new plant, to consist of a dormitory, thirty-four students, a library of about 2,500 vol-
administration building, and chapel. The buildings umes, buildings to the value of $100,000, and en-
are valued at $250,000, and the endowment is dowments to the value of $200,000; it is governed
$733,807, the chief benefactors being Rev. C. C. by a board of fifteen trustees, appointed by the
Beatty, James Laugh lin, James Laughlin, Jr., 3. P. three controlling synods. In the student body
Harbison and his estate, S. S. Marvin, and David there are four denominations represented: Presby-
and John Robinson. JAMES A. KELSO. terian (31), Disciples of Christ (1), Baptist (1), and
XI b.Presbyterian (Southern). -1. Aurtin: This Episcopalian (1). ROBERT E. VINSON.
institution is located at Austin, Travis Co., Tex., 2. Columbia: The Theological Seminary of the
where it was founded in 1884, practically as an Synods of South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and
independent movement, under the control of no Florida, popularly known as Columbia Seminary, is
ecclesiastical body, though it was recognized and located in Columbia, Richland Co., S. C., and was
indorsed by the Synod of Texas of the Presbyterian founded in 1828 by the Presbyterians of the then
Church in the United States. Under the title of Synod of South Carolina and Georgia. The institu-
"The Austin School of Theology," it continued in tion had its origin in the conviction that if the Pres-
operation until 1895, when it was compelled to byterian churches of the cotton belt were to have
suspend because of lack of sufficient funds with an adequate supply of educated ministers, they
which to carry on the work. The actual revival must not only be raised up from the churches them-
of its activity took place in 1898, when the Synod selves, but must be trained for the ministry some-
of Texas appointed a board of trustees, with full where within this territory. From 1S28 to 18,'U the
power to open the institution, and ordered that its faculty of the seminary consisted of but a single
name should be "The Austin Presbyterian Theo- professor, Dr. Thomas Goulding, but in IS.'H Dr.
logical Seminary," and that it should be regarded George Howe and in 18H3 Dr. A. W. LeUind ^ore
as the successor to the Austin School of Theology. added to the faculty. While it has had its share of
The Synod of Texas adopted a constitution in Oct., vicissitudes, Columbia Seminary has a record of
1901, and ordered the board to open the institution service not only to the churches of the cotton
for students as soon as $100,000 should have been belt, but to the entire Presbyterian Church in the
raised. This was done at once, and the seminary United States, popularly known as the Southern
resumed its work in Oct., 1902. The founders of Presbyterian Church. It has numbered among its
the seminary, in 1884, were the Rev. Richmond K. faculty such men as James Henry Thormvell (q.v.),
Smoot and the Rev. Robert L. Dabney (q.v.), while B. M. Palmer (q.v.), J. B. Adger, James Woodrow
its revival was under the administration of the Rev. (q.v.), William S. Plummer (q.v.), J. R. Wilson,
Thornton R. Sampson, its first president, the first John L. Giradeau, and Samuel Span- Laws. Its
faculty consisting of the Rev. Samuel A. King, as alumni took a conspicuous part in organizing the
professor of systematic theology, and the Rev. Presbyterian Church in the United States, and were
Robert E. Vinson, as professor of Old-Testament largely influential in determining its distinctive char-
languages and exegesis. Later, the Rev. Dr. Smoot acter and in shaping the lines along which its life and
was added to the faculty. The institution is now activities have developed. Dr. J. Leighton Wilson
under the control of the Synods of Texas, Arkansas, (q.v.), one of the first graduates of the seminary,
and Oklahoma of the Presbyterian Church in the shaped the foreign-mission policy of the Southern
United States, and during the last period of eight Presbyterian Church, while its home-missionary ac-
years the seminary has given to the ministry of the tivities have been largely under the direction of
Presbyterian Church in Texas, Oklahoma, and Ar- alumni of the same seminary, and its interest in and
kansas about thirty men, trained in whole or in part work for the negroes have been stimulated and di-
under its instruction. The office of the first presi- rected by such alumni as Dr. C. C. Jones, John L.
dent of the seminary having terminated, according Giradeau, and Charles A. Stillman (q.v.). In ad-
to the constitution, when the faculty reached the dition to supplying the denomination with many of
number of four, from 1904 to 1908 the institution its best preachers, Columbia Seminary has given it
was governed by the faculty under the direction of a considerable number of its theological professors,
the board of trustees, appointed by the controlling not to mention its other educators. Of the thirty-
synods. In 1908 the board, with the consent of nine moderators of the General Assembly, nineteen
the controlling synods, determined to make the have been alumni of this institution.
office of president a permanent part of the adminis- The faculty in the year 1910 consisted of four
tration of the seminary, and elected to this position professors, with two chairs vacant those of natural
the Rev. Robert E. Vinson, D.D. science in its relation to revelation, and of pastoral
This seminary stands for the type of theology theology, English Bitile*; and homiletics. The insti-
which is presented in the Westminster Confession of tution is owned and controlled by the Synods of
Faith and Catechisms, and was founded for the South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Florida,
avowed purpose of furnishing an adequate ministry their control being exercised through a board of
in both supply and equipment for the rapidly de- directors, six of whom are elected from the Synod
381 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theoloffioal Seminaries

of South Carolina, four from the Synod of Georgia, rian] churches, and with such modifications thereof,
four from the Synod of Alabama, and two from the if any, as may hereafter be made and adopted by
Synod of Florida. From year to year the directors both of said churches." The synods of both the
submit their minutes to the synods for approval, and Presbyterian denominations concerned represent the
also send to the General Assembly a report for its same type of theology and ecclesiology, and the
information. There were in 1910 twenty students faculty are divided almost equally between the two,
in attendance, nine of whom were from South agreeing thoroughly in making the teaching and
Carolina, four from Georgia, five from North Caro- spirit of the institution conservative in theology
lina, and two from Tennessee. All of these were and in Biblical criticism. The faculty of instruc-
candidates for the Presbyterian ministry. The en- tion consists of eight professors: Charles R. Hemp-
dowment of the seminary amounts to $275,000, hill (q.v.; president and professor of New-Testa-
and its library contains 2,400 volumes. ment exegesis and practical theology), John M.
W. M. McPHEETERS. Worrall (practical theology, emeritus), William H.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Memorial Volume of the Semicentennial Marquess (Biblical introduction, English Bible, and
Volume of the Theological Seminary at Columbia, S. C., Biblical theology), Henry E. Dosker (q.v.; church
Columbia, 1884.
history), Robert A. Webb (q.v.; apologetics and sys-
8. Kentucky: This institution, located at Louiu- tematic theology), Jesse L. Cotton (Old-Testament
villc, Ky., was formed in 1901 by the consolidation exegesis), and Thompson M. Hawes and J. G. Mc-
of the Danville (Ky.) and the Louisville (Ivy.) theo- Allister (assistants).
logicalseminaries. The Danville seminary was The courses of study are organized into distinct
founded at Danville, Ky. in 1853, by the General
; schools, and cover all the subjects of theological
Assembly of the Presbyterian Church (Old School), discipline, with special attention to preparation for
and had a notably successful career until the begin- the practical demands made on the modern minister.
ning of the Civil War, attracting a large number of Students are received from any Evangelical Church,
students. Its most widely known professors were and are ordinarily expected to have a literary de-
Robert J. Breckenridge (q.v.), Edward P. Hum- gree from a reputable college. The only degree con-
phrey, Stuart Robinson (q.v.), Stephen Ycrkes, and ferred is B.D given after examination on the
,

Nathan L. Rice (q.v.), and its influence on the completion of a three-years' course. In 1910 the
Southwest through its alumni has been marked institution had an attendance of fifty-eight, twelve
and enduring. In 1893, the Synods of Kentucky of whom were ministers pursuing special graduate
and Missouri, in connection with the Presbyterian courses. The grounds and buildings of the seminary
Church in the United States, founded the Louis- represent an outlay of $220,000, >\hile the invested
ville Seminary at Louisville, Ky., and by reason of funds embrace $500,000 for endowments, $40,000
its strong faculty and its location in a large city the for scholarships, and a small library fund. The
institution at once took high rank, and in its fourth principal benefactor of the seminary was Mr. Will-
session enrolled sixty-seven students. The original iam T. Grant, of Louisville, a director of the institu-
endowment was $100,000, mostly in subscriptions, tion, who left a bequest of $300,000 to the semi-
and for three years the instruction was given in the nary, probably the largest gift ever made in the
rooms of the Second Presbyterian Church. In the South to theological education. The library includes
first session Mr. A. J. Alexander gave real estate to about 20,000 volumes, and nearly 6,000 unbound
the value of $75,000 to endow a chair in memory of pamphlets. CHARLES R. HEMPHILL.
his son, while temporary endowment by annual sub- Southwestern: This institution, which is lo-
4.
scriptions and the gift of their services as professors cated at ( "larks ville, Montgomery Co., Tenn,, and is
by three pastors of the city enabled the seminary under the control of the Presbyterian Church in the
tomeet its expenses. By the generosity of Mr. W. United States, was founded in 1885 through the
N. Haldeman, proprietor of the Courier-Journal, a combined efforts of the Synods of Alabama, Missis-
permanent location was secured in 1896, and in sippi, Arkansas, Texas, Memphis, and Nashville,
1901 the Danville and Louisville seminaries were to establish a school for the education of young men
united at Louisville, under the name of the Presby- for the ministry within their bounds. Its earliest
terian Theological Seminary of Kentucky. Under instructors were Drs. John L. Waddel (chancellor
the terms of the agreement for consolidation the and professor of church polity), Joseph R. Wilson
seminary is under the control of the Synod of Ken- (theology and homiletics), J. B. Shearer (Hebrew and
tucky in connection with the Presbyterian Church New-Testament Greek), and Robert Price (eccle-
in the United States of America, and of the Synods siastical history) The history of the seminary from
.

of Kentucky and Missouri in connection with the its foundation has been one of uniform, uninter-

Presbyterian Church in the United States, this con- rupted, and successful work. It stands for the con-
trol being exercised through a board of twenty-four servative interpretation of the standards of the
directors, who elect the professors. Annual reports Calvinistic system of doctrine, for the Presbyterian
of the work of the seminary are submitted to the form of church government, and for the highest
controlling synods and to the two General Assem- standard of sacred learning and personal piety in
blies, and the election of directors and the election the ministry. It has supplied a large number of the
or transfer of professors are subject to veto by the most useful ministers of the Southern Presbyterian
respective assemblies. Under the charter and con- Church, both in home and in mission fields.
"
stitution of the seminary the instruction shall at In 1910 the seminary had four instructors and
all times be in accordance with those standards twelve trustees. It constitutes a department of the
which are now common in both of said [Presbyte- Southwestern Presbyterian University, and its stu-
Theolotfoal Seminaries THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 889

dents are subject to the government and discipline (adjunct professor, 1904-05), and A. D. P. Gilmour
of the university. Its support is derived from the (associate professor, since 1908); in Biblical litera-
university endowments, and for its library it de- ture and New-Testament interpretation, William J.
pends on that of the university, which contains Hoge (1856-59), Henry C. Alexander (1809-91),
some 15,000 volumes. WILLIAM DINWIDDIE. Charles C. Hersman (1891-1908), and Thomas R.
5. Union (Richmond, Va.): This institution, English (since 1908) ; in English Bible and prac-
officiallyknown as " Union Theological Seminary in tical theology, Thomas C. Johnson (1891-92),

Virginia," islocated at Richmond, Va., and was Thomas R. English (1893-98), and Theron H. Rice
founded in 1812. In April, 1806, the Presbytery of (since 1908). There were in 1911 seven instruct-
Hanover resolved to establish at Hampden-Sidney ors and ninety-four students, representing twenty
states and countries, and three religious denomina-
College a theological library and a fund for the edu-
cation of young men for the ministry, and appointed tions, though the great majority are Presbyterians.
Rev. John Holt Rice a special agent to solicit The total attendance of students from the beginning
books and money for this purpose. In 1807 Rev. to the present time has been 1,489. This seminary
Moses Hoge was elected president of Hampden- has educated more of the ministers of the Presby-
Sidney College, and in accordance with the plan of terian Church in the South than any other, having
the presbytery began at the same time to instruct furnished about three-fourths of all the ministers in
in theology the candidates for the ministry, although the Synod of Virginia, about one-half of those in the
it was not till 1812 that the Synod of Virginia Synod of North Carolina, and a goodly proportion
of those in the other Southern synods as well, be-
officially adopted the infant seminary and formally
sides about half of all the missionaries who have
appointed Dr. Hoge its professor of theology. He
continued the work for the remaining eight years been sent by this branch of the church to foreign
of his life, sending about thirty young men from lands.
his classes into the ministry. When he died in 1820, The seminary is under the care of the synods of
the synod, after trying in vain for two years to fill Virginia and North Carolina, and the board of di-
his place, transferred the seminary with its funds rectors is composed of twenty-four members, twelve
to the Presbytery of Hanover. This presbytery from each of the synods to which the board reports.
in 1822 reorganized the seminary, appointed a new The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church
board of trustees, and elected as professor of theol- in the United States also has a right of general super-

ogy Rev. John Holt Rice, pastor of the First Pres- intendence, and may advise and recommend, but
byterian Church of Richmond, to whom, more than may not originate, measures for the management of
to any other man, the success of the institution is the institution. The plan of the seminary is thor-
due. Dr. Rice began his instructions on Jan. 1, oughly Biblical, and the Bible is the chief class-
1824, with three students. There were as yet no book in all departments, while the institution stands
for the theology of the Westminster Confession of
buildings for the seminary, and its whole endow-
ment amounted only to about $10,000, but funds Faith. Although insisting upon thorough scholar-
for both purposes were now rapidly raised. In ship, and requiring for its degree of B.D. a grade
1826, the seminary was placed under the care of equal to that of the professional schools of the Uni-
the General Assembly, the trustees of that body versity of Virginia, the chief aim of the seminary
is to give men practical training for the actual work
taking charge of the funds; and in 1827 the Pres-
bytery of Hanover surrendered the institution to of the ministry, and especially to make them ef-
the joint management and control of the Synods fective preachers. Throughout its history it has
of Virginia and North Carolina. In commemora- been characterized by a remarkably strong and
tion of this copartnership its name was changed to steady missionary spirit. Its Society of Missionary
Union Theological Seminary. By 1831, the year Inquiry was organized in 1818, and in 1831 its
in which Dr. Rico died, the institution had acquired founder, Dr. Rice, dictated from his deathbed the
buildings sufficient for its needs at that time, had overture to the General Assembly which led to the
gathered a fair library, and had secured three in- organization of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign
structors and about forty students. A fourth pro- Missions.
fessorship was added in 1856, and a fifth in 1891. In 1898, by order of the controlling synods, the
The seminary has had the following professors: seminary was removed from Hampden-Sidney to
hi theology, Moses Hoge (1812-20), John Holt Rice Richmond. Its property now consists of forty-five
(1824-31), George A. Baxter (1831-41), Samuel B. acres of land in Ginter Park, Richmond, nine sub-
Wilson (1841-59), Robert L. Dabney (q.v.; 1859- stantial buildings, all erected within the last twelve
1883), Thomas E. Peck (1883-93), Clement R. years, valued at $261,000, and productive endow-
Vaughan (1893-96), and Givens B. Strickler (q.v.; ments of $533,000, besides unproductive assets of
since 1896); in ecclesiastical history and polity, $25,000. Its principal benefactors have been Cyrus
Stephen Taylor (1833-38), Samuel L. Graham H. McConnick of Chicago, Henry Young of New
(1838-39, 1849-50), Robert L. Dabney (1853-59), York, Joseph Blah- Wilson of Rockbridge Co., Va.,
Thomas E. Peck (1860-83), James F. Latimer William W. Spence of Baltimore, and George W.
(1884-92), and Thomas C. Johnson (q.v.; since Watts of Durham, N. C. The library, which is un-
1802); in Hebrew and Old-Testament interpreta- usually select, numbers 23,307 volumes, carefully
tion, Hiram P. Goodrich (1830-39), Samuel L. housed in a fireproof building. W. W. MOORE.
Graham (1839^19), Francis S. Sampson (1849-54), BtBUOORAnnr: Centennial Catalogue of Union Theological
Seminary in Virginia, 1807-1907, Richmond, 1907 (con-
Benjamin M. Smith (q.v.; 1854-59), Walter W.
taining a history of th* fefttaitjon *acj jkQtob* of *U itt
Moore (q.v.; since 1884), James Gray McAllister
383 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Seminaries

Reformed
Presbyterian. 1. ing was erected and a library of about 800 volumes
This institution located in Pittsburg, Pa., in the
is was and Rev. John Anderson was elected
collected,
North Side, formerly Alleghany, and was founded professor of theology, the first and only teacher for
in 1810, although it has been in its present site some twenty-five years. For 117 years it has la-
only since 1856. It is in connection with the bored to equip men for the ministry of the Gospel.
Reformed Presbyterian Church (Old School), and It is probably the oldest Protestant theological
was formed by the action of that body. The pur- seminary on the continent. Professor Anderson
pose of the denomination to institute a seminary resigned, 1819, and soon thereafter the Associate
goes back to 1807, but it was not formally organ- Synod decided to remove it from Service to Canons-
ized until May 25, 1810, with a board of super- burg, Pa., which was done, and Rev. James Ram-
intendents consisting of Rev. John Black, Rev. say was chosen professor of theology. In due time
Alexander McLeod, and Rev. Gilbert McMaster; other professors were added to the teaching force
and with Rev. Samuel Brown Wylie as teacher of and the course of study was enlarged. In 1855 the
theology. The seminary then constituted was in synod agreed to another removal of the seminary,
Philadelphia, and Dr. Wylie continued as professor and it was transferred to Xenia, O., where it has
of theology till 1827, with some years of intermis- prosecuted its work now for fifty-six years.
sion from 1817 to 1823, during which time the The Associated Reformed Church, one of the
students were taught by pastors, four years' instruc- two branches forming the United Presbyterian
tion being required. There was a similar interrup- Church, established a theological seminary at Ox-
tion from 1827 to 1836, but from this period on, ford, O., in 1839, and Rev. Joseph Claybaugh, a
with break, the students of theology were
little local pastor, was appointed professor of theology.
taught by professors elected by the synod, though In 1857 this institution was removed from Oxford,
the location was changed several times from East O., to Monmouth, 111,, where it remained till 1874,
to West, until, in 1856, it came to its present place. when itwas consolidated with the Xenia Seminary,
The professors during this shifting period were James its library and funds forming a part of Xenia 's
Renwick Willson and Thomas Sproull (q.v.). The equipment.
seminary stands for the Reformed theology as em- The amount of endowment, including the value
bodied in the Westminster standards, and in the Act of buildings and grounds, is about $200,000, and
and Testimony of the Reformed Presbyterian the library contains between 7,000 and 8,000 vol-
Church, which covenanted in 1871 at Pittsburg, umes, besides a large collection of pamphlets and
Pa., and is bound to witness politically against periodicals. The faculty consists of the following
national atheism, to seek a Christian constitution, members: Joseph Kyle (systematic theology, his-
to testify against secret oath-bound orders, and to tory of doctrine, homiletics), Jesse Johnson (eccle-
promote total abstinence and other reforms. siastical history and apologetics), John E. Wishart
There arc four instructors in the seminary, and (Hebrew exegesis, O. T. literature, pastoral theol-
eight members of the board of superintendents, ogy), J. Hunter Webster (Greek exegesis and N. T.
who meet annually at the close of the session and literature), Melvin G. Kyle (permanent lecturer on
pass upon the work, and hear discourses from the Biblical theology as illustrated by archeological re-
students. They report annually to the synod, who search), Peter Robertson (voice culture), and
control the election of professors. The number of William G. Moorehead (English Bible).
students enrolled in 1909-10 was ten, all in the mem- WILLIAM G. MOOREHEAD.
bership of the denomination. One came from Massa- XIV. Protestant Episcopal. 1. Berkeley: This
chusetts, two from New York, two from Pennsyl- divinity school is located in Middletown, Middlesex
vania, one from Illinois, two from Iowa, one from Co., Conn., and had its beginning in a theological
Missouri, and one from Colorado. The endowment department informally organized in Trinity College,
of the seminary is about $90,000, and the number Hartford, in 1851, by the president of the col-
of books in the library is about 3,600. lege, the Rt. Rev. John Williams (q.v.), assistant
D. B. WILLSON. bishop of the Episcopal Church in Connecticut.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. B. Sprague, Annals of the American Pul- Three years later a charter was granted for the
pit, vol. ix., New York, 1869; J. M. Wilson, Presbyterian school as a separate institution under its present
Historical Almanac, vol. ix., Philadelphia. 1867; W. M.
Glasgow, Historical Catalogue, of the Theological Seminary
name, to be located at Middletown, where a large
of the Reformed Presbyterian Church in America, Beaver building, which had been the residence of the Rev.
Falls, Pa., 1898. Dr. Jarvis, was given for its use. Bishop Williams
Zm. UnitedPresbyterian. !. Xenia: This removed his residence to that city, and was dean of
seminary located at Xenia, Greene Co., O., and
is the school for forty-five years, until his death in
is an institution of the United Presbyterian Church, 1899. The first resident professors were Rev. Ed-
under the control of the Second Synod of the West win Harwood and Rev. Thomas F. Da vies; and the
and of the synods of Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, and bishop was also assisted by Rev. Dr. Thomas W.
Nebraska of the United Presbyterian Church. Its Coit and other lecturers. The Jarvis House, earlier
immediate control is committed to a board of man- called the Washington Hotel, served as a residence,

agers, twenty-five in number, and a board of nine dormitory, chapel, and library for several years, but
trustees, while the terms and course of study are in 1860 another dormitory was built; in the next year
determined by the General Assembly. The sem- a beautiful stone chapel, erected by Mrs. Mary W.
inary was founded by the Associate Presbyterian Alsop Mutter, in memory of her husband, was conse-
Synod of North America in 1794, and was at first crated; and in 1868 an adjacent colonial dwelling
located at Service, Beaver Co., Pa., where a build- was purchased which serves as a refectory. la 189Q
Theological Seminaries THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 384

a handsome and spacious library, with provision for Hall in honor of the founder of the school, who, in
lecture-rooms, was built, bounding another side of addition to his initial gift, made the institution the
the grounds and serving as a special memorial of the residuary legatee of his estate. Thus established,
founder of the school. Generous provision has been the school has ever since stood for liberal and pro-
made from time to time for the support of the in- gressive scholarship in the Episcopal Church.
stitution in the form of professorial and scholar- The seminary in 1910 had seven full professors and
ship endowments, as well as gifts to the general two instructors, and is governed by a board of seven
funds; and the alumni have provided a fund of lay trustees, originally appointed by the founder,
$10,000 for the maintenance and enlargement of the and self-perpetuating, who manage the finances of
library. Under the guidance of Bishop Williams the school, the responsibility for the teaching rest-
and of his successors, the Berkeley Divinity School ing upon the faculty. Thus the school in its govern-
has had a strong and widely extended influence in ment follows the plan which prevails in the American
the life of the Episcopal Church for more than half parish, the trustees corresponding to the vestry.
a century. Among its most eminent instructors There are forty students, of whom fifteen belong to
have been the Rev. Dr. John Binney, who still holds Massachusetts, and eight to New York, others being
the professorship to which he was called in 1874, from Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Maine, Michigan,
and who was dean from 1899 to 1908; Rev. Dr. Washington, Tennessee, Texas, Canada, and China.
Samuel Fuller, professor for thirty-six years; Rev. The endowment is $1,000,000, half of which is in
Dr. Frederic Gardiner (q.v.), whose professorship land and buildings, and the other half in productive
covered twenty-one years, and Rev. Dr. John Hum- funds. There are 12,000 books in the library. A
phrey Barbour, who died at the end of eleven years second dormitory was added to the original group of
of service. The number of its students has never buildings, and named for Hon. Robert C. Winthrop,
been very large; in fifty-five years it has graduated then president of the board of trustees; and Mrs.
about 500 men, all of whom have taken holy orders. George Zabriskie Gray, widow of the second dean,
Of these twenty-two, \\ith three non-graduates, gave a deanery, while a library building, now in
have been consecrated bishops, and five have been process of construction, is the gift of John G.
called to the headship of other theological semi- Wright. GEORGE HODGES.
naries The living alumni, ,'$41 in number, arc about 3* General: This seminary, by
far the largest un-
one-seventeenth of all the Episcopal clergy of the der the jurisdiction of the Protestant Episcopal
country, while of the members of the House of Church, is loeated in New York City, where it was
Bishops one-fifth are graduates of Berkeley. founded in 1817. Soon after the opening of the
The corporation consists of thirteen trustees, eight nineteenth century there became manifest, in vari-
clergyman and five laymen, vacancies in their num- ous parts of the American Episcopal Church, a
ber boing filled by the Diocesan Convention or by strong desire for, and belief in, a more systematic,
the remaining trustees. There are, in 1910, five full thorough, and disciplined training for the ministry,
professors and several instructors and lecturers. The as opposed to the previous isolated classes of candi-
number of students, including graduates engaged in dates under the tuition of a single clergyman, or the
advance work and some special students, is thirty- inconvenient recourse to English universities. This
five; nine are undergraduates in full standing, all of feeling manifested itself in diocesan resolutions, pas-
these, with one exception, having college degrees. toral addresses of bishops, and the formation of such
The students come from different parts of the coun- societies to promote and aid theological education
try, and the alumni arc widely distributed, about as the Protestant Episcopal Theological Society
one-fifth being in Connecticut and one-fifth in the founded in New York in 1806. Bishops Bo wen of
State of New York. The endowment funds amount South Carolina, Hobart (q.v.) of New York, and
in all to about $485,000, and there are about 28,000 White (q.v.) of Pennnylvania were especially active
volumes in the library. SAMTTEL HART. in the movement, and as a result of the agitation the
2. Cambridge: This theological school, which is General Theological Seminary was founded by the
located in Cambridge, Mass., was founded in 1807 General Convention of the church on May 27, 1817,
by Benjamin Tyler Reed, a wealthy merchant of and instruction began in New York two years later.
Boston, who was much interested in the progress of It was the intention of the founders, as expressed in
the Episcopal Church, of which he was a member, their resolutions of 1817, that the seminary should
"
and was strongly desirous that it should remain true have the support of the whole Church in these
to its evangelical traditions. He accordingly found- United States, and be under the superintendence
ed this school, making only one requirement of its and control of the General Convention." This
instructors, that they should maintain the doctrine breadth of plan became, and still is, a characteristic
of justificationby faith. Dr. John S. Stone was of the seminary, part of its governing trustees being
made the first dean of the school, and associated still chosen by the General Convention, and its pro-
with him in the work of instruction were Dr. A. V. G. fessors and students representing all sections of the
Allen (q.v.), and Dr. P. H. Steenstra (q.v.), who country as well as foreign missionary districts. In
composed for a time the teaching force, Dr. Francis 1819 when the seminary opened, there were but two
Wharton and Dr. Elisha Mulford (q.v.) being added professors, Rev. S. F. Jarvis, and Rev. S. H. Turner
later. Friends of the founder and of the dean (q.v.), and six students. Among the latter, how-
erected buildings. Amos Adams Lawrence built a ever, were two men G. W. Doane and Manton East-
dormitory, John Appleton Burnham a refectory, burn who by their distinction later, as bishops of
and Robert Means Mason a chapel, while a building New Jersey and Massachusetts respectively, fore-
for a library and for lecture-rooms was called Reed shadowed the future work of the institution in train-
385 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Seminaries

ing leaders of the church as well as the rank and file a series of volumes issued since 1881, contain the
of the clergy; and with the passing of fourscore years lectures delivered annually at the seminary by well-
and ten nearly seventy bishops had been students known scholars and theologians, among the more
at the seminary almost a fourth of the entire recent lecturers being Rt. Rev. A. C. A. Hall (q.v.),
American episcopate from 1784 to 1910. In the bishop of Vermont; Rt. Rev. C. H. Brent (q.v.),
same period had been graduated 1,722 men, of whom bishop of the PhihYpines; Rt. Rev. G. H. 8. Wai-
over 1,000 arc living and in the ministry to-day pole, bishop ofEdinburgh; Rev. F. J. Hall (q.v.),
almost a fifth of the present total number of the Rev. W. P. Du .dose (q.v.), and Rev. W. R. Inge (q.
American Episcopal clergy. v.), of CamJ/ridge University, England. The pres-
Despite the encouragement with which the semi- ent endon merit of the seminary is $2,112,115.81,
nary opened, it temporarily languished, and even for exclushe of the site occupied by the institution, its
a brief period (1820-22) removed to New Haven, buildings, and adjoining land owned by the semi-
Conn. It received new material life, however, with nary valued at $2,138,263.25. The faculty at pres-
tho bequest, in 1821, of about $00,000 from Jacob ent is as follows: W. L. Robbins (q.v.; dean), W.
Sherred, and the gift of an extensive tract of land J. Seabury (q.v.; ecclesiastical polity and law),
in what was then the upper part of New York City, J. C. Roper (dogmatic theology), H. M. Denslow
from C. C. Moore (q.v.). In this location was erected (pastoral theology), C. N. Shepard (Hebrew and
the first building in 1825, and there now stand cognate languages), C. C. Edmunds (New Testa-
the present seminary buildings, (lifts to thr insti- ment), L. W. Batten (Old Testament), A. P. Hunt
tution during its first half-century wore many, but (Christian ethics), A. W. Jenks (ecclesiastical his-
its present admirable equipment of buildings, etc , tory), F. B. Blodgett (adjunct professor of Old
may be said to date very largely from the beginning Testament), W. H. P. Hatch (adjunct professor of
of the deanship of the late-, Very Rev. E. A. Hoffman New Testament), and C. IT. Boynton (adjunct pro-
((1 v ), in 1879. The buildings occupy what is fessor of homileticH and pedagogy). The professor-
known as Chelseu Square, the block bounded by ship of Christian apologetics is at present vacant by
Ninth and Tenth Avenues, and 20th and 21st death. In addition to the regular faculty, there are
Streets, and are a very notable group architecturally, tliree special lecturers, three resident instructors,
harmonious and dignified in their outward fabric as and a librarian. EDWAKD HAKMON VIKCJIN.
\\ell as distinctive in the quiet and reserve of their 4. Nashotah: This seminary, officially known as
"
old-world atmosphere. Tho library contained in Nashotah House," is situated at Nashotah, Wau-
1910 51,.'>&(> volumes and several thousand pam- kesha Co., Wis., and was founded in 1841 by James
phlets and especially strong in the history of the
is Lloyd Breck, William Adams, and John Henry llo-
Anglican and the American Episcopal Church, pa- bart (q.v ), under the Rt. Rev. Jackson Kemper,
tnstios, liturgies, and conciliar history. It contains Episcopal bishop of the Territories of the North-
the Copmger Collection of Latin Biblical texts, pre- west. At first it was an associate mission, but very
sented in 189.'i by Dean IIofTman and Cornelius shortly it became a training-school for men desiring to
Vanderbilt, which at the time of its acquisition was give themselves up to missionary \\ork hi the great
one of the three largest collections of Latin Biblical Northwest. From this point of departure Nashotah
texts in the world, and also the private library House soon became a recognized seminary of the
of the eminent Assyriologist Eberhard Schrader. Protestant Episcopal Church, and after its incorpo-
Among its other treasures arc a valuable collection ration in 1847 it grew until, to-day, it is the second
of Babylonian tablets, and several Biblical manu- largest training-school for priests in tho American
scripts. Church. Among the earlier instructors, besides
Entering students are presupposed to have been those whose names have already been mentioned,
admitted as candidates for orders in the Episcopal were the Hev A. D. Cole, Rev. Lewis A. Kemper,
Church or to have boon graduated at a " recognized Rev. T. M. Riley, R,ev. A. W. Jenks, and Rev. H. E.
university or college." Under the terms of an W. Fosbroke. The seminary has always stood un-
affiliation agreement with Columbia University, qualifiedly for the principles of the Catholic revival
they may take courses in the latter institution and as championed by the leaders of the Oxford move-
use its library. With the purpose of elevating and ment in England, and firmly holds to that position
broadening the standard of theological education, at the present time. Though the institution has
especial effort has been made to foster advanced never mothered any great movement, it has, each
and graduate work. The five fellowships now main- year since its incorporation, sent out men strong
tained, with provision for study abroad or at the champions of Catholic faith and practise, who, work-
seminary, and the certainty of an increase in their ing as they have in nearly every diocese and mis-
number at a later date have served to sustain this sionary district of this country and in almost every
effort, and the number of graduate students has part of the world, can not but have done much to
largely increased in the last decade. In addition, push forward that great movement which arose at
a number of scholarships are available for worthy Oxford in the middle of the last century.
undergraduates. The total number of students at At the present time the institution numbers sixty
the seminary in the year 1910-11 was 126, exclusive students, eight professors and instructors, and a
of several non-resident graduate students. board of trustees of twenty-one members. The
The publications of the seminary include, in ad- buildings, including three houses used as homes for
dition to its catalogues and proceedings of trustees, members of the faculty and a new library building,
a series of alumni publications issued by the asso- number ten. The endowment of the institution is
ciate alumni and the Paddock Lectures. The latter, at present $450,000. The library, already rich with
XI. 25
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 386

material in certain directions, and consisting of has been adopted, these exchangeable credits falling
about 15,000 volumes, has now the possibility of a within the departments of Hebrew, New-Testament
brilliant future, due to recent bequests. Greek, and ecclesiastical history. Students who
GEORGE T. LASCELLE. desire to become acquainted with the missionary
5. Pacific: The
" and institutional features of the Church's work
Church Divinity School of the
" have an excellent opportunity through their services
Pacific is located at San Mateo, San Mateo Co., Cal.,
and was founded in 1893 through the generosity of as lay readers in the institutions, churches, and
George W. Gibbs of San Francisco and J. Pierpont missions in Philadelphia. The library contains
Morgan of New York City. It is under the charge over 20,000 volumes, including valuable theological
of Rt. Rev. William Ford Nichols (q.v.), bishop of works that are daily consulted by students from
California, who is also its dean and sole trustee. It the neighboring seminaries and institutions of
possesses at present (1910) three buildings, but it is learning; and students of the divinity school may
hoped that it will ultimately be possible to remove also use the extensive library of the University of
the whole institution to San Francisco and there Pennsylvania. THOMAS J. GARLAND.
make it part of the quadrangle of the cathedral close. 7. Seabury: This divinity school, the corporate
The present faculty consists, in addition to Bishop name of which is "Bishop Seabury Mission," is
Nichols, of J. O. Lincoln, H. H. Powell, F. C. Mur- located in Faribault, Rice Co., Minn., and was
gotten, and two lecturers, E. L. Parsons and A. B. founded in 1858 by Rev. James Lloyd Breck. It
Shields. To the end of 1908 the seminary had had was and is affiliated with the Episcopal Church, and
forty-seven students, of whom seventeen were spe- confines itself to the training of men for that
cials. The enrolment for 1908-09 was twelve, the church's ministry. It originated in the desire to
great majority being from the diocese of California, found a school which would send forth clergymen
with two from Los Angeles, and one each from West- equipped to meet the pioneer condition of the new
ern Colorado and Tonga. The library contains over Northwest, which was then just opening to settle-
6,000 volumes, and the institution is characterized by ment. Among its earliest instructors, in addition
a strong missionary spirit. JAMES OTIS LINCOLN. to its founder, \\ere Bishop II. B. Whipple (cj.v ),
6. Philadelphia This school, officially designated
: Rev. Solon W. Manney, Rev. (later bishop) E. S.
"
The Divinity School of the Protestant Episcopal Thomas, Rev. Thomas Richoy, and Rev. J. S.
Church in Philadelphia," is located in Philadelphia, Kedney (q.v.). In the second year of the school's
Pa., and was incorporated in 1862 after an informal existence, Bishop Whipple came to Faribault, and
training-school for candidates for holy orders had made it his residence, this not only bringing the
already existed for some years previously under the students into personal contact with the great "apos-
direction of Bishop Alonzo Potter (q.v.). This prel- tle tothe Indians," but also enabling him to keep a
ate, who must be regarded as the real founder of the close watch over the school and to provide for its
'*
school, set forth its purpose as follows: The divin- needs. Dr. Brcck began the school in the most
ity school is founded upon a national and Catholic primitive way, by the erection of a frame dormitory
basis and doctrine. Its object is to raise up large- for the students who attended recitations in his
hearted, earnest-minded, well-instructed, and com- home. Later on a stone building was built, but thio
mon-sense ministers of the Word and sacraments, was burned in 1872, and the present main building
and to send them forth, trained practically as well as (named Seabury Hall) was erected in 187.'*, near the
theoretically, to fill up the ranks of our foreign and site of Dr. Breck's former residence. Dr. Breck
domestic missionaries, and to sorve as men of power moved to Benicia, Cal in 1807, and after a brief
,
1
and godliness at home.' The present buildings of interval Dr. Richey became head of the school, a
the seminary were erected in 1882, and to them position which has since been held by eight other
were added a chapel in 1885 and a library in 1907. clergymen. In 1886 a second building for the li-
The faculty consisted in 1910 of six professors: of brary and recitation-rooms was built and named
systematic divinity; of liturgies, church polity, and Johnston Hall, after the father of the donor, Mrs.
canon law; of New-Testament literature and lan- Shumway.
guage; of Old-Testament literature and language; During the years of the school's existence, more
of homiletics and pastoral care; and of ecclesiasti- than 300 men have received their theological edu-
cal history; and there is also an instructor in voice cation, wholly or in part, within its walls. It has
culture and elocution. The faculty is well equipped contributed largely to the growth of the Episcopal
for itswork and offers instruction in Semitic, Greek Church in the Northwest, the majority of its alumni
and Latin, German, French, and Italian. The giving their best years to missionary work in that
school has had students from Canada, the West In- part of the country. It stands for conservative
dies, China, Japan, Haiti, and Liberia, and from all churchmanship, sound learning, and practical train-
parts of the United States. Out of over 500 stu- ing. In the year 1910 there were seven instructors
dents matriculated, its graduate alumni number in active work; the trustees are twenty in num-
nearly 400, of whom three are bishops, while two ber, and are a self-perpetuating body; and the
others have declined the episcopate. The number administrative officer is the warden. There are at
of students living in the building is between thirty present twenty-eight students in attendance (the
and forty, and an average of about fifty additional school's capacity being thirty-one), coming from
pursue post-graduate work for degrees. Arrange- eleven different dioceses in eight different states.
ments have been made whereby students of theology The seminary has an endowment of about $450,000,
can take courses of special study at the University of and a library of about 11,000 volumes.
Pennsylvania, and a system for exchange of credits F. A. McELWAiN.
887 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Seminaries

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Q. 0. Tanner, History of the Diocese of Min- president being the bishop of Virginia. This is a
nesota, St. Paul, 1009.
self-perpetuating body, chosen from the three dio-
8. Virginia: This divinity school, officially ceses within the limits of the states of Virginia and
termed " The Protestant Episcopal Theological Sem- West Virginia, with the exception of two who
inary in Virginia," is situated in Fairfax Co., Va., are called alumni trustees, elected by the alumni,
overlooking the Potomac River, three miles west of and permitted to be residents of other dioceses.
Alexandria. It was founded in 1823, and was at The government of the seminary is vested in the
first located in Alexandria, whence it was removed board of trustees while the general administration
to its present site in 1827. It owes its inception to a as relating to the students is in the hand of the dean
resolution of the Diocesan Convention of Virginia, and faculty. The present number of students is
which met in 1815, recognizing the groat neces- forty-six, coming from twenty dioceses. Of these,
sity for a supply of candidates for holy orders, and of twenty-seven are from the South, ten from the Mid-
a school for training them. A theological class was, dle States, one from the North, six from the West,
accordingly, established in the college of William and one from Hankow, China. The seminary has
and Mary at Williarnsburg, Va in 1821, but the
,
a well-selected library, containing about 35,000
students were transferred to Alexandria in 1823, volumes. The buildings are of brick, with a beau-
when the history of the seminary really begins. tiful chapel, the choir arid chancel of which were
Chief among its founders were the Rev. William given by the late Bishop Henry C. Potter (q.v.).
Hawley of Washington, D. C., the Rev. William H. SAMUEL A. WALLIS.
Wilmer of Alexandria, the Ilov. William Meade XV a. Reformed (German). 1. Central: This
(q.v.; afterward bishop of Virginia), Dr. Thomas institution of the Reformed Church in the United
Henderson of Washington, and Francis Scott Key, States (formerly the German Reformed Church) is
"
the author of The Star-Spangled Banner." Its located at Dayton, O., and was formed by the union
first professors were the Revs. Rivel Keith, William of two theological seminaries, Heidelberg Theologi-
H. Wilmer, and Oliver Norris. The seminary has cal Seminary (formerly located at Tiffin, O ), and
had a, most interesting history, centering to a large Ursinus School of Theology (formerly located at Col
extent around the missionary life of the Episcopal legeville, Pa., and later at Philadelphia, Pa ). The
Church. Ecclesiastically it has stood, from the be- former institution was founded by the Ohio Synod
" "
ginning, for the principles known as evangelical of the Reformed Church in the United States, after
in the Episcopal Church, and for simplicity in ritual several efforts had already been mad to establi h k

and in the appointed forms of worship. Rut it a theological seminary, as at Canton, O., in 1838,
maintains its position in no spirit of narrow cx- with Rev. J. G. Buettncr as professor, and at Colum-
"
rlusiveness, and recognizes that evangelical," in its bus, O in 1848, under Rev. A. P. Freeze.
, Finally,
best sense, refers to the historic faith as contained in 1850, the synod decided to found Heidelberg
in the New Testament and set forth by the ancient College, at Tiffin, O and also, in connection \\ith if,
,

creeds; so that clergymen of all schools of thought a theological seminary which should bear a simi'ar
have been educated within its walls. The influence name. For ten years there nas only one professor
of the seminary has been unquestionably great as a at a time, Rev. E. V. Gerhart (q.v.; 1851- 55) ami
conservative and spiritual force throughout the Epis- Rev. Moses Kieffer (1855-fll), but in 1801 another
copal Church, holding fast, as it does, to the essential professor, Rev. Herman Rust, was added, arid in
principles of the English Reformation. Its chief 18(>9 Rev. J. II. Good was elected professor in Dr.
glory, however, is the great contribution it has Kieffer 's place. Later other professors were added,
made to the development of missionary work in the among them Rev. A. S. Zerbe, Rev. D. Van Home
Episcopal Church. It has founded all its foreign (q.v.), Rev. E. Herbruck, Rev. J. I. Swander, and
missions except where, in recent years, that church Rev. H. J. Christman, and the faculty usually had
with other communions has followed the flag in the four professors. From 1853 to 1907 the seminary
colonial possessions of the United States. had graduated 345 students, the attendance being
The seminary has a list of more than l ()00 alumni,
y usually from twelve to twenty. Its plan contem-
many of whom have held, and now hold, distin- plated five professors, and it had an endowment of
guished positions in all parts of the United States. about $90,000, but it had no buildings of its own
About seventy-five have become foreign mission- as long as it was at Tiffin.

aries, and thirty have been consecrated bishops. The Ursinus School of Theology was part of Ur-
Among the most noted of these are the Rt. Rev. sinus College, which was located at Collegeville, Pa.,
William J. Boone of China, the first missionary and which had three departments theological, col-
bishop sent forth by the Episcopal Church in 1844; legiate, and academical. Instruction began about
Bishops Henry C. Potter (q.v.), of New York; Phil- 1871, and the first class was graduated about 1873.
lips Brooks (q.v.), of Massachusetts; Thomas U. It was organized and controlled by that element
Dudley (q.v.), of Kentucky; and James Addison in the Reformed Church of the United States which
Ingle, of Hankow, China. Among living bishops, was opposed to the liturgical tendencies of the theo-
Rt. Rev. A. M. Randolph (q.v.), of Southern Vir- logical seminary established first at Mercersburg,
ginia, holds a prominent position in his Church. Pa., and later at Lancaster, Pa. Though it was not
The most noted professors have been the Rev. Revel under the direct control of any synod of the de-
Keith, the Rev. Joseph Packard, and the Rev. Will- nomination, was
officially recognized by the Gen-
it

iam Sparrow (q.v.). The seminary had in 1910 six eral Synod Church in 1872, and in 1878 the
of the
five of whom
professors and seventeen trustees, Eastern Synod, within whose bounds it was located,
arc bishops, five presbyters, and seven laymen, the gave it a vote of recommendation. Its first pro-
Theological Seminarian THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 888

fessor was Rev. J. H. A. Bomberger (q.v.; president erick A. Rauch (q.v.; 1832-41), Philip Schaff (q.v.;
of Ursinus College), with whom
were associated 1844-62), Elisha E. Higbee (1865-71), and Thomas
Rev. H. Super, J. Van Haagen, M. Potcrs, G. Stibitz, G. Apple (1871-98). In 1857 a theological tutor-
J. I. Good, J. H. Sechler, and W. Hinke. In 1898 ship was founded, and during the twelve years of
it was removed to Philadelphia, Pa., where it re- its actual existence (1861-73) there were three tutors
mained until 1907, during which time Revs. Ph. William M. Roily, Jacob B. Kerschner, and Fred-
Vollraer and E. R. Bromer joined its faculty, the crick A. Cast (q.v.). In 1873 the tutorship was
number of active professors being usually four. At abolished, and in its stead the chair of Hebrew and
College ville it used the buildings of the college as Old-Testament theology was established, to which
dormitories and for recitations, and never had any Professor Gast was chosen in May, 1874. In 1891
endowment separate from that of the college, but the Synod of the Potomac endowed a fourth
while in Philadelphia it purchased a building of its professorsliip, New-Testament which
exegesis, of
own. The number of its students ranged from ten John C. Bowman was the first incumbent (1891-
to thirty-five, ami from its beginning to 1907 it had 1904). A fifth professorship, practical theology,
about 800 graduates. waa added by the Pittsburg Synod in 1893, and
In 1906 negotiations were begun between the Ohio was first occupied by William Hupp (1893-1904).
Synod and the board of directors of Ursinus College, By the concurrent action of the three synods John
looking to\\:ml a union of these seminaries, and the I. S wander \\as appointed Associate Professor of

plan uas consummated in 1907. The united semi- Systematic Theology. In 1893 the original charter
nary was lorn ted at Tiffin for one year (1907-08), uas amended so as to vest the control of the sem-
but in 1908 Dayton, <), was made its permanent inary in the three eastern (English) synods of the
location. composed of the united
Its faculty is Reformed Church the Eastern Synod, the Pitts-
faculties of both seminaries, and numbers seven. It burg Synod, and the Synod of the Potomac, each
has an endowment of about $100,000, and property synod being represented on the two boards, the
worth $U5,000, on which a theological building is board of visitors and the board of trustees, in
soon to be built, costing about $.iO,000. Its course proportion to its numerical strength. The board
is that which is usually presented in the theological of visitors consists of twelve ministers and super-
seminaries of the United States, and its aim is to be vises the instruction and the internal affairs of
both scholarly and Biblical, and to combine the the institution, while the board of trustees, com-
fixed theological course with the elective by grant- posed of eighteen laymen, holds and controls the
ing a number of electivcs each year. It now has a property and funds.
large constituency, and its students, \sho como from The faculty for 1910-11 is constituted as follows:
all over the church, usually number from thirty John C. Bowman (president, and professor of prac-
to thirty-five. A post-graduate course has also been tical theology), William C. Schaeffer t (New-Testa-
arranged \\ hich usually has a dozen students. Since ment science), George W. Richards (church history),
1908 the seminary has graduated twenty-eight. The Theodore F. Herman (systematic theology), John I.
theological position of the seminary is that of the & \\ander (associate professor of systematic theol-
Heidelberg Catechism mildly Calvinistic, but over ogy), Frederick A. Gast (emeritus professor of He-
against the modern higher critical movement it brew and Old-Testament science), Irwin Hoch
stands for the old Evangelical orthodoxy. DcLong (Hebrew and Old-Testament science), and
JAMES I. GOOD. John M. Chambers (instructor of sacred oratory).
2. Lancaster: This seminary, which located at
is The number of students enrolled for the year 1910
Lancaster, Pa., was established by the Synod of the is 46 seniors 13, middlers 1C, and juniors 13, with 4
Reformed (German) Church convened at Bedford, graduate students; 43 arc members of the Re-
Pa., in 1824, and at the same time Rev. Lewis Mayer, formed Church, and 3 of the United Evangelical
then pastor at York, Pa., was elected as the first Church. The students come from the following
professor of theology. The synod accepted the gen- states: Pennsylvania, 42; Maryland, 1; West Vir-
erous offer of accommodations from the authorities ginia, 1; Iowa, 1; and North Carolina, 1. The es-
of Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., and the first ses- timated value of buildings and grounds is $200,000;
sion of the seminary opened in a room in that in- the endowment fund is $200,000; and the library
stitution on Mar. 11, 1825, with a class of five stu- contains 12,500 books, besides pamphlets and peri-
dents and one professor. It was the first institution odicals.
of higher learning founded by the Reformed Church the
first professors of the seminary the dis-
By
in the United States, and has been ever since under tinctive genius and doctrines of the Reformed
the supervision of one or more of its synods and con- Church in the United States, formerly the German
ducted in its interests. Since its foundation the Reformed Church, whose confessional standard is
seminary has been located successively in Carlisle, the Heidelberg Catechism, were interpreted and
Pa. (1825-29), York, Pa. (1829-37), Mercersburg,
promulgated in American Protestantism; and the
Pa. (1837-71), and Lancaster, Pa. (1871 to date).
system of philosophy and theology originated and ex-
The following have occupied the several professor-
pounded under the leadership of Drs. Rauch, Nevin,
ships up to the present time: Systematic theology, and Schaff came to be known as the " Meroersburg
Lewis Mayer (1825-39 , John W. Nevin (q.v.; 1840- "
Theology (q.v.).
1851), Bernard C. Wolf (1854-64), Henry Harbaugh
(q.v.; 1863-f>7), Emmanuel V. Gerhart (q.v.; 1868- BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Appel, Beginning* of the Theological Semi-
nary, Philadelphia, 1886; J. H. Dubba, Reformed Church in
1904), and Christopher Noss (1904-09); church his-
Pennsylvania, Lancaster, Pa., 1002; Mercersburg Review,
tory and exegesis, Daniel Young (1830-31), Fred- Jan., 1876.
889 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Seminaries

" and
3. Plymouth: This seminary, or, rather, mis- professorship he held until his death in 1825, his
sion house," is located near Plymouth, Sheboygan students attended his lectures in New York for
Co., Wis., and was founded by the Sheboygan twelve years, when, on account of the expense to
Classis of the Iteformed Church in the United States students of city life, he removed them to Flatbush,
in 1860, to provide ministers for the settlers who L. I though the next synod directed their return
,

emigrated to Wisconsin and the Northwest from to New York. After having graduated about ninety
Switzerland and Germany, for whom it was im- students there, the' seminary was removed to New
possible to procure ministers either from Europe or Brunswick, N. J., in 1810, where its work was car-
from the eastern part of the United States through ried on in the buildings of Queens College (since
the board of missions of this church. The first in- 1825 Rutgers College), an institution founded by the
structors were liev. H. A. Muchlmeier and Rev. J. Dutch churches, and at that time under the control
Bossard. The seminary has, from the beginning, of their General Synod. In 1850 a separate and
been an integral part of the mission house, but its spacious campus was acquired by the synod, which
formal organization as a school separate from the is the present home of the institution, and now

preparatory departments, college and academy, did contains three large halls and six residences. The
not occur till 1875, when the Synod of the North- first professor of languages, Rev. H. Meyer, was

west, to which the school had been transferred by appointed by the synod also in 1784, and in 1812
Sheboygan Classis in 1867, passed resolutions to that liev. John M. Van Ilarlingen became the first pro-
effect, and founded the various chairs of theology. fessor of ecclesiastical history, \\ liile in 1815 pastoral
In 1881 the Central Synod was organized in Ohio, theology was formally provided for, in connection
and this new German synod, us also, in 188fJ, the with the historical chair. In 1805 practical theology
German Synod of the East, received a proportional became a distinct department under Rev. D. D.
interest in the institution, so that the mission house Deruarest, and in 1881 the department of languages
is now the property of the three German synods of was divided. In 1905 a, lectorship in Biblical his-
the Reformed Church in the United States. The tory und theology \\ as established, and instructors
seminary has adhered faithfully to the confession of in oratory and music are also regularly employed.
the church, the Heidelberg Catechism; arid in the The seminary has had a large influence in the life
liturgical conflict- of the sixties and early seventies it, of the church to A\ lucli it belongs, and has sent many
together with the great majority of the German strong men into the pulpits, the seminaries, and the
ministers of the church, occupied a middle ground, missions of other churches. It is the birth-place
inclining neither to ritualism nor to tho so-called of the Arabian Mission. Its average number of stu-
new measures. Among the instructors Dr. Hossard dents is thirty-five, of whom one-third are from
(b. 1885) was kno\\n and acknowledged in Germany the Middle West. It has five professors, a lector,
us an authority in phiJolo especially in Greek and
^y, and two instructors, an endowment, aside from
Hebrew grammar; Rev. (d. 1889) was an
11. Kurtz scholarships, of $525,000, and a library of 49,000
authority in classic church music, and many of his volumes. There is no corporate body apart from
anthems and other compositions, published by the that of the General Synod, which o\\ns the property,
Central Publishing House, Cleveland, O., arc sung chooses the professors, supervises their work through
throughout the church; arid Dr. II. J. Ruetenik, a board of superintendents, and dictates the curricu-
still living, ranks high as editor and author. lum. The institution thus stain Is, in fact and in
The seminary is under the control of a board of principle, for the complete control by the Church of
trustees elected by the synods. Tn 1010 there were the training of the Church's ministry. In its actual
three professors and twenty-six students, all of this work, it stands for a theology resting on Holy Scrip-
church and from various states. The endowment, ture as a positive and authoritative revelation, which
which is slowly increasing, amounts to $40,000, and centers around the doctrine of the gracious sover-
annual collections from the congregations affiliated eignty of God, and it aims to produce a scholarly
\\lth the school cover the running expenses. The and evangelical ministry of catholic and aggressively
library of the mission house contains 16,000 vol- missionary spirit. J. P. SEARLE.
umes, of which about half are theological. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Centennial Discourses, New York, 1877;
FRANK GRETHER. E. T. ConMii, Manual of the Reformed Protestant Dutch
BIBIJOORAPHT: D. W. Vriesen, Geschichte dea Mission- Church in North Amrrica, 4th od New York, 1902; D. D.
,

Hauses, Cleveland, O., 1885; L. Praikschatis and H. A. Demurest, Reformed Church in America, New York, 1880.
Meier, Das Mission-Haus, ib., 1897.
Western This seminary,
2. : \\ hich is under the
XV b. Reformed (Dutch). 1. New
Brunswick: control of the Reformed Church in America, is lo-
"
This institution, officially designated The Theolog- cated at Holland, Ottawa Co., Mich., and was for-
ical Seminary of the Reformed (Dutch) Church in mally organized by the General Synod of the church
America at New Brunswick, New Jersey," is located, in 1809, after special instruction had already been
as its name indicates, in New Brunswick, Middlesex given in theology for three years in connection with
Co., N. J. Its origin was due to the need of the Hope College, and a class of seven was ready to
Dutch churches inNew York and New Jersey for ed- graduate. The necessity for such a school grew
ucated ministers when conditions made it no longer largely out of conditions arising from the settle-
possible to obtain them in Holland.
In 1784, ment of a large colony from the Netherlands, whose
" attachment to the Reformed Church in their native
the General Body," afterward the General Synod,
appointed as its professor of theology the Rev. John country led to their uniting with the Reformed
H. Livingston (q.v.), minister of the Protestant Church in America. The desire to extend its own
Reformed Dutch Church of New York City. This influence in the West, where many of its members
Theological Seminaries THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 390

were settling, and the appeal of those fellow Chris- Rev. G. E. Boer, who opened the school with seven
tians resulted in the organization of Hope College students, while the course was divided into a liter-
in 1866, and of the Western Theological Seminary ary department of four years and a theological de-
in 1869. In 1867 the Synod elected the Rev. C. E. partment of two years. In 1884 Rev. G. K. Hemkes,

Crispell professor of didactic and polemic theology, and in 1888 Rev. Geerhardus Vos, was elected, and
and invited other professors in Hope College to act the theological course was extended to three years,
as lectors; but the lack of endowment and the heavy while in 1900 the literary course was made five
demands made upon the teachers, who were giving years (an additional year being added in 1906), and
instruction in both college and seminary, proved was opened to students aiming at other vocations
too great a burden, and in 1877 the synod resolved than the ministry. Among other instructors of the
to suspend its operation, at the same time assuring seminary have been H. Beuker (1894-1900), W.
the churches that it would be resumed as soon as Heyns (1902-06), F. M. Ten Hoor (since 1900), L.
the necessary endowment could be secured. In Berkhof (since 1906), and G. D. De Jong (since
1884 the work of endowment had so far advanced 1908). All instruction in the institution must be in
that the synod elected the Rev. Nicholas M. Steffens harmony with Reformed principles, and the vari-
professor of didactic and polemic theology, with the ous branches of study are considered in the light of
Rev. Peter Moerdyke as lector in Greek and the Calvinism as a life and a world-view.
Rev. Henry E. Dosker (q.v.) as lector in church In 1910 the seminary had four instructors and
history. Work was resumed the following Decem- thirty-one students, few outside the Christian Re-
ber, with one student in the middle class and four formed denomination being found either in semi-
in the junior class. Other professorships have been nary or in college. The entire institution is eon-
"
established as follows: in 1888 exegetical theology, trolled by a curatorium," or board of trustees,
with the Rev. John W. Beardslee as professor; in twenty-two in number (two from each of the eleven
1894 historical theology, with the Rev. Henry E. classes), who supervise the whole school and im
Dosker as professor; and in 1907 practical theology, empowered to declare graduates of the seminary
with the Rev. James F. Zwemer as professor. In eligible for the ministry. The instructors both in
1895 Mr. Peter Semelink erected a fine brick build- college and in seminary are elected by the synod
ing containing lecture-rooms, a chapel, and room for The endowment amounts to $40,000, and additional
"
a library. The " Chambers Library had its be- support is secured by an assessment laid on tin* con-
ginning in a small donation of money and the li- gregations by the synod. The Jilirnry contains
brary of the Rev. Anson DuBois, and has been sup- 4,000 volumes. (JABTUKT.. DOOITZKM DK JON<;.
plemented by the valuable donations of many BIBUOORAPHY Gfdcnkhoek van hct rtftifjjaritj jubileum dfr
Kerk, (jiuml Mirli
others, until it has become a good working library. Chnntelijke Gereformeerdr llupida, ,

1907, pp 49 71, 87-125.

The seminary stands for the great principles, doc-
trinal and ecclesiastical, so strenuously contended XVII. Roman Catholic.* 1. St. Patrick's: This
for in the Reformation in the Netherlands, seeking training-school for the Roman Catholic priesthood
is located at Menlo Park, San Mateo Co CaJ and
always to follow the leading of God's Spirit and , ,

providence in adapting those principles to present was established in 1898 through the efforts of the
conditions. It insists upon an educated ministry Most Reverend Patrick William Riordan, Arch-
and a vigorous missionary effort at home and bishop of San Francisco The institution is con-
abroad, and seeks to commend the Gospel as the ducted, under the archbishop, by the Sulpician
only adequate basis for the individual, society, and Fathers, and is intended solely for boys and young
the State in their efforts to reach the best results in men who desire to devote their lives to the service
life. In organization it is directly subject to the ofGod in the Roman Catholic priesthood. It takes
General Synod, which controls its finances and elects the boy from the parochial school and leaves him a
its professors and board of superintendents, who priest at the altar. The period of preparation is
make annual reports to the synod. Its present twelve years: first, a classical course of six years,
status (1910) is four professors, twenty-six students, then two years given to the study of mental philoso-
a board of superintendents consisting of twenty phy and the natural sciences, and, finally, four
members, building and real estate worth $50,000, years devoted to theology and the other branches
an endowment of $120,000, and a library of about which are special in clerical training, such as Sacred
10,000 volumes. J. W. BEA.RDBLEE. Scripture, Hebrew, canon law, church history,
BIBLIOGRAPHY. E. T. Corwin, Manual oftfte Reformed Prot- homiletics, liturgies, apologetics, and sacred music.
estant Dutch Church in North America, 4th eel., New York,
In the intention of its founder, Saint Patrick's is to
1902; idem, History of the Reformed Church in America,
New York, 1895. serve as the ecclesiastical training-school for all the
XVI. Christian Reformed. Grand Bapida:
1. Roman Catholic dioceses of the Pacific Coast. It
This seminary is located at Grand Rapids, Mich., has at present a corps of sixteen professors and a
and was founded in 1876, its origin lying in the dif- roster of about one hundred students, principally
ficulty of obtaining ministers from the Netherlands,
from the states of California, Oregon,and Washing-
ton. It has already educated students for the dio-
especially as the people were poor, and some of the
leaders of the churches in the Netherlands did not ceses of San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Sacra-
approve of what was termed the secession of 1857. mento, Cal.; Portland and Baker City, Ore.; Seat-
In 1865 the classis appointed a local minister, D. J. tle, Wash; Pittsburg, Pa.; Victoria, B. C.; Helena,
Van der Werp, instructor, and he served without a Mont.; Bois6 City, Ida., and Santa Fe*, New Mex.
fixed salary, using his study as a classroom. On his The present institution represents the third at-
resignation in 1876 the synod elected as professor * See the
paragraph at the head of this article,
891 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Seminaries

tempt to establish a school of this kind in California. theological curriculum, through the establishment
The first attempt was made at the old Mission Do- of the Hackley professorship of sociology. This
lores in San Francisco in 1853, soon after the close chair is held by Prof. Nicholas P. Gilman, and the
of the war with Mexico and the ceding of California school has in recent years sent a number of its
to the United States; and the second attempt was graduates into the field of religious philanthropy.
made in 188.') at the old Mission San Jose*; but in The school was also a pioneer among American
both instances events proved that conditions were seminaries in applying, under Dr. Cary, the meth-
not yet ripe for such a foundation. The present in- ods of the higher criticism to the study of the New
stitution faces brighter prospects, and gives every Testament. In all, the school has sent out 307
promise of permanence and success. graduates, of whom 163 are now in the Unitarian,
H. A. AYRINHAC. 16 in the Universalist, 9 in the Episcopal, and-fTin
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. M. Guinn, History of the State of California, the Christian Connection ministry, and it has also
Chicago, 1904, pp. 1435-1436; San Francisco Monitor, sent 127 students into the ministry after a partial
" "
Seminary Number," Sept. 17, 1898, and Jubilee Num-
ber," Jan. 23, 1904.
course.
At present the school has seven professors, one
2. St. Thoma* of Villanova: This seminary,
professor emeritus, a librarian, and instructors in
officially known as " The House of Studies of the
elocution, music, and physical culture. Its govern-
Brotherhood of Hermits of the Order of Saint
ing body is a self-perpetuating board of thirty
Augustine for the American Province of St. Thomas
trustees, and the alumni association has the privi-
of Villanova," was established by brief of Pope
lege of making nominations to fill vacancies in the
Gregory XVI., Dec. 22, 1843, and is located at Vil- board. The school is, and has been from the begin-
lanova, Delaware Co., Pa. The studies are under
ning, entirely free from ecclesiastical control, and
the direction of a regent, who is subject immediately "
it isprovided in the charter that no doctrinal test
to the prior-general of the order at Rome. Among
shall ever be made a condition of enjoying any of
tht' earliest instructors were Fr. William Harnett,
the opportunities of instruction." It assures abso-
Fr. Patrick Stanton, and Fr. Peter Crane. The pur-
lute freedom of inquiry both to teacher and student,
pose of the study house is to train members of the
and applies the same canons of criticism and inter-
brotherhood in Scripture, theology, history, and
pretation to sacred Scriptures as to secular, ap-
canon law for parish, mission, arid college work, the
proaching the problems of theology in the same
field mainly of the order's activities in the United
spirit in which it would approach problems of sci-
States. In 1910 there were four professors, tliirty-
ence. The students number twenty-eight, and repre-
eight professed cleric students, and seven novice sent eight different nationalities and thirteen differ-
cleric students. FRANCIS E. TOUHSCHER.
ent states in the Union; and though the majority of
BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. C. Middleton, Historical Sketch of Vil-
lanova College, Villunova, Pa., 1893- idem. Directory of the them are Unitarians, they come from five different
Auynstmians in the United titatea, il>., 1910. church fellowships. The German Evangelical Prot-
XVIII. Unitarian. 1. Mead ville Tin's school was
: estant churches of the Central West are establish-
established in 1844 in Meadvillo, Crawford Co Pa., , ing (1911) a German professorship at the school,
its founders being Harm Jan Huidekoper, a native of for the special training of their own ministers. On

Holland, and his son Frederic (see HUIDEKOPER, the Cruft traveling fellowship one graduate may be
FRKDKRIC), who became its first professor. Dr. Rufus sent abroad each year for further theological study.
P. Stebbins was its first president; and associated The school has an endowment of $792,800, and a
\\ith Dr. Stebbins and Mr. Huidekoper, as members library of 35,000 volumes.
of its first faculty, were Elder David Millard and FRANKLIN C SOUTHWORTH.
Dr. George W. Hosmer. Founded and endowed by BIBLIOGRAPHY : G. W. Cooko, Unitarianism in A merica,
Unitarians for the special purpose of providing min- Boston, 1902; F. and F. B. Tiffany, Harm Jan Huide-
koper, Cambridge, 1904.
isters for the new western Unitarian churches, the
nchool has always received students from all de- This institution, officially designated
2. Pacific:
nominations on equal terms, and during its early
14
Unitarian School for the Ministry," is
Pacific
years had among its trustees, faculty, and students located at Berkeley, Alarneda Co., Cal., and was
many representatives of the Christian Connection. founded in 1904 (chartered 1906) by Mr. and Mrs.
Dr Stebbins' successors in the presidency have been Francis Cutting of Oakland, and Mr. and Mrs.
Dr. Oliver Stearns (1856-63), Dr. Abiel A. Livermore Horace Davis of San Francisco. During its first
(q.v.; J 863-90), Dr. George L. Cary (q.v.; 1890- two years it was located at Oakland, but in 1906 it
1902), and Dr. Franklin C. Southworth (q.v.; removed to Berkeley in order to take advantage of
since 1902). The number of students at the open- opportunities for cooperation with the University
ing was five, and it increased the second year to of California and with three other divinity schools
twenty-three. In 1872 the comparative study of located there. It was organized by Dr. Earl Morse
religion was introduced by Prof. H. H. Barber (q.v.), Wilbur, who is president and professor of practical
and this work has since been carried on under the theology, while the Rev. William Sacheus Morgan
direction of Profs. George R. Freeman and Henry is professor of systematic theology. The instruc-
Preserved Smith (q.v.). The Clarke professorship tion given in the school itself is supplemented by
of church history was established in 1899, with Dr. that offered in the Pacific Theological Seminary and
Francis A. Christie (q.v.) as incumbent of the chair, other divinity schools at Berkeley, and in the Uni-
and the Ballou lectureship of practical Christian versity of California; and its courses are recipro-
sociology was founded in 1892. In 1895 the school cally recognized by the other schools, as well as for
became a pioneer in introducing sociology into the higher degrees at the university.
Theological Seminarian THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 392

The school is affiliated with the Unitarian do- Biblical, and the Bible is the chief class-book in all
nomination, and was originally designed for the departments, while tho principle of the fathers of
"
training of Unitarian ministers on the Pacific coast; the Unitas Fratrum, or the Moravian Church, In
but it receives students of both sexes from all essentials unity, in non-essentials liberty, in all
sources without distinction, and it stands for free things charity," has ruled from the beginning.
and progressive scholarship of high order, with an Every professor is pledged to faithfulness to the
especial view to the practical requirements of the doctrinal and disciplinary standards of the church.
modern ministry. It offers a three-year degree Since 1858, the official title of the head of the insti-
"
course for college graduates, and a four-year cer- tution has been president," and Rev. L. F. Kamp-
tificate course for others, and furnishes excellent mann, Rev. Lewis R. Huebencr, Rev. Edmund
opportunities for post-graduate study. The school de Schweinitz (q.v.), and Rev. Augustus Schultze
is governed by a board of fifteen trustees, whose ap- (q.v.) have, in the order named, worn this dignity.
pointment must be approved by the directors of the The number of students connected with this in-
American Unitarian Association. It had in 1911 stitution during the first century of its existence
three professors and two instructors, and six regu- (1807-1907) was 500, a large proportion of whom
lar and cloven special students. Its library con- have been ministers and teachers of the church and
tains about 7,500 volumes and about 3,000 pam- professors in this and other institutions of learning,
phlets, and is especially rich in the history and while an uncommonly large percentage have been
literature of the Unitarian movement. It o\\ns missionaries to the heathen. In 1910 the number
property valued at $50,000, but until its endowment of students was fifty-six, five of \\horu came from
of $300,000becomes available, its support is derived northwestern Canada, five from southern states,
chiefly from annuities. EARL MOUSE WILBUR. and the remainder equally from the eastern and
XIX. Unity of the Brethren. 1. Bethlehem: western states in which the Moravian Church is rep-
This institution is situated in Bethlehem, Northamj)- resented. With few exceptions the students \vero
ton Co., Pa. The founding of a school for training members of the Moravian Church, and about sixty
teachers and ministers to serve in the schools and per cent were candidates for the ministry Fi ve pro-

congregations of the Moravian Church in America fessors devote their entire time to teaching, each in
engaged the attention of a conference held in 1802, both the college and seminary department of the
composed mainly of ministers representing tho work institution. The faculty is organized, and, together
of the Moravian Church in five states of the Union. with the board of trustees, composed of sixteen
Such a project had previously boon urged by leaders members representing the northern province of the
of the church, particularly by Rev. Jacob Van Vleck, Moravian Church in America and five advisory
principal of Nazareth Hall, an academy for boys at members representing the Southern Province of the
Nazareth, Pa., and Rev. Christian Lewis Benzien, Church, controls the institution Both bodies are
stationed at Salem, N. C ,
but the plan was not responsible to the Synod of the Northern Province
actually realized until Oct. 2, 1807, when the insti- of theMoravian Church in America and to the gov-
tution was formally opened for the reception of stu- erning board which that synod elects. Tho endow-
dents. The origin of the institution is attributable ment fund of the institution amounts to $1 125,207,
to the devotion of Moravians to their church, and and tho special endowments, including real estate
to their conviction that the Moravian Church, whose and buildings, total $100, 794. The library numbers
activity in America had begun in 1738, had function 10,000 volumes and many hundreds of unbound
and opportunity in the United States. The first pamphlets. W. N. SCHWARZE.
professors were Ernst Lewis Hazelius, later prom- BIBLIOGRAPHY: \V. N. Schwarze, History of th? Moravian
inent in Lutheran theological seminaries, and John College and Theological Seminary, Bethlehem, Pa., 1910.

Christian Bechler, later i

bishop of the church. XX. Universalist. 1. Canton: This institution
Originally connected with Wazareth Hall academy, forms the theological school of St. Lawrence Uni-
the institution bore the character of a normal school versity, which is located at Canton, St. Lawrence
as well as that of a theological seminary; but in Co., N. Y. It was founded in 1856 by an organiza-
"
1838 the connection with Nazareth Hall was severed, tion called The Educational Society," appointed
and thenceforward the institution has enjoyed in- by the New York Universalist State Convention,
dependent existence. Gradual development of the which still elects its trustees. The first president
two departments made reorganization possible in was Rev. Ebenezer Fisher, and among its earliest
1858, under the name of Moravian College and The- instructors were Rev. Masscna Goodrich, Rev. J. S.
ological Seminary, the college offering complete Lee, and Rev. Orello Cone (q.v.). The students of
classical and, since 1896, Latin-scientific courses, the seminary have numbered about 360, tliis figure
and the theological seminary affording a curriculum being due to the establishment of other theological
of studies that does not materially differ from that schools in the denomination. Its work has gone on
of other theological schools. The institution was steadily without marked crises. Founded for the
chartered by tho legislature of Pennsylvania in purpose of supplying Universalism with an edu-
1863, and, after having led a somewhat migratory cated ministry, it has from the first devoted special
existence for half a century, was finally located in attention to fitting men for intelligent pulpit work
Bethlehem, Pa., in 1858. The relation between and practical pastoral administration. Its pro-
the institution and the Moravian Church in America fessorships have been filled by men representative
has always been vital as regards aggressive, educa- of progressive tendencies, and it has exerted a dis-
tional, home-missionary, and foreign-missionary tinctly liberalizing effect upon the opinions of its
activity. The scheme of the seminary is thoroughly denomination.
393 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Seminaries

In 1910 the seminary had four instructors and the relations of the school to the college bring the
fifteen students, all Universalists, and coming from students under instruction of the teaching force of
states as remote as Maine and Louisiana. It is the School of Liberal Arts, twenty-three in number.
governed by a board of nine trustees. Its invested The school is under the absolute control of the thirty
funds and property have increased to about $300,- trustees of Tufts College, twenty of whom are self-
000, while the separate endow ment of the seminary perpetuating, while ten are elected by the graduates.
is $105,000; and it also shares an undivided interest No other supervision or control exists. The presi-
in grounds and buildings with the College of Letters dent of the college has the general direction of the
of St. Lawrence University. The library contains school, which is organized with a dean and a depart-
12,000 volumes. ALMON GUNNIHON. ment faculty. There were in the school in 1910
2. Crane: This theological school is a depart- fifteen students, all Uriiversalists, the majority from
ment of Tufts College, wliich is located at Tufts the New England states, and one Englishman. The
College, Middlesex Co., Mass. It was recognized as separate endowment of the seminary, including
a separate department in 18(59, and arose from per- grounds and buildings, amounts to $345,000, al-
ception of the fact that a general college training though its close relations to the college are of great
needed to be supplemented by specific professional financial advantage to it, and it also uses the col-
work for the proper training of ministers. The first lege library, which numbers 61,000 volumes and
foundation was given by Mr. Sylvanus Packard, 46,000 pamphlets.
and the largest gift was made in 1906 by Mr. Albert FREDERICK WILLIAM HAMILTON.
Crane, of Stamford, Conn., in fulfilment of the ex- 3. Ryder: Tin's divinity school constitutes the
pressed intention of his father, Mr. Thomas Crane, theological department of Lombard College, Gales-
of New York. The school is not under denomina- burg, Knox Co., 111., and was opened Sept. 5, 1881,
tional control, but is Universalist in sympathy. being established to meet the needs of the Univer-
The first instructor was Rev. Thomas J. Sawyer. versalistdenomination in the Middle West. In
The history of the institution has been entirely un- 1890 trustees voted to change its name to
its
eventful so far us matters of outside change or con- Kyder Divinity School in honor of the late Rev.
troversy are concerned. It has stood steadily for William Henry Ryder, whose gifts to the institution
the application of sound scholarship to the materials amounted to more than $50,000, another generous
of religious knowledge, for serviceable and prac- benefactor being lion. A. G. Throop, of California,
ticable preaching, and for a type of religious think- The school is open to all candidates for the Christian
ing in close contact with the realities arid problems ministry, although its main w ork has been training
T

of daily life It has always held scholarship above men and women for the Universalibt denomination.
convention, truth above tradition, and fife above Among its noteworthy instructors have been Ne-
creed, but at the same time it has realized the im- hemiah Wliite, E. II. Chapin (q v ), and Isaac
portance of orderly find well-regulated thought as Parker. It has never been a large school, having
the basis of right living. It has emphasized the had but about 150 students throughout its entire
human relations of the minister's work, and has history. Of these about forty have graduated with
sought to strengthen the hold of its students upon a degree, and about fifty are now engaged in active
reality by identifying them as closely as possible ministerial work. LEWIS B. FISHER.
with the general life of the college, so that the theo- XXI. Undenominational. 1. Harvard: This sem-
logical students are not a class apart, but are asso- inary is located in Cambridge, Mass., and was so
ciated with the general student body as an integral closely associated with Harvard College that no
part of the college community. The Crane Theo- special year can be named as that of its foundation,
logical School has shared with the sister school at since one of the objects of Harvard from the very
St Lawrence; University the intellectual leadership beginning was the training of men for the ministry.
of the Universalist denomination, not in rivalry The earliest instruction for theological students
but in generous emulation; and it has done much apart from the regular college courses, however,
to prevent the thinking of the denomination from was in 1811, and classes were conducted in this way
becoming stereotyped and to keep its life thoroughly until 1819, when a distinct faculty of theology was
modern. The special movement of most significance established. With this establishment J. T. Kirkland
which originated under its influence was that which (q.v ), then president of Harvard, had probably
made Universalism a creedless church, by trans- more to do than any other man, and the original
forming the Winchester Profession and its later faculty consisted of Henry Ware, Sr. (q.v.), Sidney
alternative, the Boston Declaration, into simple Willard, Levi Frisbie, and Andrews Norton (q.v.).
statements of things commonly accepted among The initial constitution of the school, as made in
"
Universalists, and abrogating all subscription re- 1816, provided that every encouragement be given
quirements. Its more prominent instructors have to the serious, impartial, and unbiased investiga-
been Or. Thomas J. Sawyer, its first dean; his suc- tion of Christian truth; and that no assent to the
cessor, Dr. Charles II. Leonard; Dr. Hinckley G. peculiarities of any denomination be required either
Mitchell (q.v.), in Old Testament; Dr. William G. of the students, or professors, or instructors." The
Tousey, a teacher of ethics and logic; Dr. George distinct organization of the school was legally due
M. Harmon, its professor of New-Testament litera- to the formation in 1816 of the Society for the Pro-
ture and criticism; and Dr. George T. Knight (q.v.), motion of Theological Education in Harvard Univer-
professor of systematic theology. sity,and from 1824 to 1830 the school was under
The number of professors directly assigned to the direct oversight of the directors of this society,
the school by the catalogue for 1909-10 is five, but though they acted under the corporation of Harvard
Theological Bemlnariei THE NEW SCHAFF-HER20G S64
Theology ai a Science

College, to which it transferred its property in Dec., In Aristotle's " Metaphysics " (VI., i. 19, cf. XI.,
1830. This society, however, which was later in- vii. 15) there are distinguished three branches of
corporated, still exists and holds property in trust theoretical philosophy mathematical,
for the divinity school. In 1869 the previous re- i. Early physical, theological. In Clement of
quirements for admission to the school were lowered Use and Alexandria the expression " metaphys-
"
to accommodate the students of the short-lived Meaning ics is identified with theology as con-

Boston School for the Ministry, but they were soon of the ceived
by Aristotle (Strom, i. 28).
raised, and since 1899 no student has been admitted Term. Aristotle appears to have thought of
to the school who has not already received a degree the doctrine of God as among
in arts or its equivalent. No degree was conferred the questions of fundamental philosophy: " The
for graduation in the school until 1870, and then terms theologos, thcologein (theologia) have in Aris-
only to those v\ ho passed special examinations, but totle . . . the fixed meaning ... of poetical
since 1875 there has been no graduation without (mytliical) narratives of the gods (Gtittersage), cor-
tlu's degree. Throughout its history the school has responding to the expressions mythologos, mythol-
stood for the principles already quoted from its ogia, mythologcin (Natorp, in Philosophische Monats-
constitution; and it has maintained the impartial, hefte, no. xxv., 1888); thus it was a prescientific
critical, and scientific study of theology in its broad- stage of reflection concerning things. According to
est sense. Among best-known instructors have
its Natorp, the Stoa was the creator of the idea of a
been the two Henry Wares, Andrews Norton, John science of theology. With the theology of the poets
G. Palfrey, George K. Noyes (q.v.), Ezra Abbot came their philosophical (physical) interpretation
(q.v.), Charles Carroll Everett (q.v.), and Joseph as philosophical theology. Neoplatonism (q.v.),
Henry Thayer (q.v.). Although formally com- of importance for the theology of Christianity, was
mitted to non-sectarianism, the institution was for the first to impress the Platonic and Aristotelian
many years practically identified with Unitarian philosophy upon theology. At the outset Neopla-
Congregationalism, since as a rule its graduates were tonism developed a view of the world on the foun-
welcomed by no other denomination; but in 1878, dation of religious notions in philosophical form and
in connection with an appeal for increased endow- with philosophical methods. Before Scholasticism
ment, the undenominational aspect of the school (q.v.), however, there were only side movements
was emphasized anew, and at the present time its ruled by Neoplatonism. It was common even into
faculty contains three Trinitarian and throe Unita- the fifth century to designate the ancient poets
rian Congregationahsts, and one Baptist. In 1910 (Orpheus, Hesiod, Musieus, Homer) as theologians.
" "
it had a faculty of eleven and a student attendance Atheiiagoras distinguishes between a worldly
of fifty-one, sixteen of whom were graduates. In and a " theological " wisdom (tfuppl., x.). For
addition the institution has conducted, since 1899, a Clement of Alexandria the " philosophy which really
" " "
brief summer school, attended in 1909 by fifty-nine is philosophy is identical with true theology
"
men and five women. The elective system is carried (Strom., v. 9). Augustine speaks of a natural
throughout the course, and the seminary students theology," i.e., especially in distinction from my-
have the right to attend lectures in other depart- thology (City of God, viii. 1, Kng. transl., NPNF, 1
ments of Harvard University, and in Andover ser., ii. 144). For Christian reflection, the men of
" "
Theological Seminary now located at Cambridge the Bible took the place of the poets and as-
and affiliated with Harvard University. The spe- sumed the r61c of " theologians." To Philo, Moses
cial library of the school contains about 38,000 was the theologian par excellence. How early and
"
volumes and 11,000 pamphlets, besides which the in what respect John became specifically the the-
"
general university library is also available. ologian is not certain (cf. G. A. Deissmann, Lichi

ROBERT SWAIN MOHIBON. von Oaten, pp. 252-253, Tubingen, 1908). The an-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Quinoy, History of Harvard University ,
cient Church's allegorical science of the Bible influ-
Cambridge, Mass., 1840; The Harvard Book, Cambridge, enced by Philo belongs with the ancient (Stoic)
1875 pp. 197-211; G. G. Bush, History of Higher Educa-
tion ^n Massachusetts, Washington, 1891, pp. 137-147.
myths which the theologians of an earlier time
used. The theology of the philosophers became the
THEOLOGY AS A SCIENCE. foundation of the apologists. Whether the apolo-
I. History of the Idea. gists or the Gnostics are to be regarded as the
Early Use and Meaning of the Term ( 1). creators of a peculiar Christian theology may be
Development till Schleiennocher ( 2). left undecided.
Schleiermurhcr, l)e Wette, and Strauss ( 8).
II. Scientific Presentation.
Hamack with justice repeatedly indicates (cf.
Relation to Religion (5 1). Dogmenyeachichte, 123 sqq., Freiburg, 1898, Eng.
Christianity, Other Religions, the Individual (I 2). transl. of earlier ed., vol. i., Boston, 1895) that the
Philosophy of Religion, Apologetics (ft 3).
Lines of Advance ( 4). establishing of a specific religious doctrine is a singu-
III. British and American Theology. lar and at bottom a surprising act of the Christian
Three Divisions (1). community. This is ultimately con-
Tendencies in Dogmatics (f 2). 2. Develop- nected with the influence of Paul. For
I. History of the Idea: The name and even ment It was this apostle who necessarily had
till

the notion of theology, to some extent, extends Schleier- theories in order to render the Gospel
back into the scientific usage of the Greeks. In the macher. intelligible and who in particular had
Christian Church it appears first not in the New to create a Christology. By an inner
Testament but in the apologists. Taken over necessity piety was impelled to fashion a view of
from Greek science it soon won features of its own. the world which corresponded to itself. Here the
896 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theological Seminaries
Theology a a Science

"
facts, especially of the life of Jesus, could not be has always a "given object, wherein he agrees
drawn out to mere allegories, for this depended too with the orthodox conception. There lie in the
much on the actuality of the same as events. Chris- background conceptions as to faith and dogma
tology and soteriology took account of realities in which require examination before his theory of the-
the life of Jesus. But how Jesus as the Christ was ology can be accepted. Of real importance for this
essentially to be considered was a problem in which is the final section of the introduction to Der Chrisl-
"
allegory had no place. The solution was found in liche Glaube with the heading Of the Relation of
the use of a theologizing on the person of the Lord Dogmatics to Christian Piety," especially 15.
which never Bubmitted itself to mere " philosophy." In 17 Schleiermacher expressly discusses the worth
In Justin's consideration of the predicate theoa as of the dogmatic propositions and affirms that these
belonging to Jesus as Messiah (Dialogue 5, 6) is the are of a double nature ecclesiastical and scientific,
foundation for that religious doctrine which became but points out only the scientific. As the founda-
the religious center of Christian dogmatics, com- tion of theology he laid down a discipline which he
"
pleting itself in the doctrine of the Trinity which in named philosophical theology." This can take its
the early Church received the title of thAologia in point of departure only with reference to Christian-
the restricted sense. With this came as a second ity in the general notion of the pious community.
foundation of Christian doctrine the incarnation of With this proposition Schleiermacher unites theol-
the Logon for the redemption of man. In the early ogy and general science. W. M. L. de Wette 's Ueber
" "
Church, however, the term theology was not Religion und Theologie (Berlin, 1815) presents
used as in present custom to designate all Christian thoughts which are really not far from those of
doctrine. In the Middle Ages sacra doctrina was Schleiermacher, yet they have a peculiarity which
the name for Christian doctrine as a whole; theologia is not without subsequent influence. Schleier-
was and remained the term for the doctrine of God macher points back to Kant, Spinoza, and Goethe,
"
in the narrow sense. Gradually the title theol- De Wette to Fries and Herder; yet both are inde-
"
ogy came to include the complex of the church pendent theologians. The view of De Wette (q.v.)
disciplines which are in any way concerned with concerning the nature of theology as science is
God. The Reformation brought no discussion con- founded on a double or threefold way of persuasion
cerning the scientific idea or scope of theology (see the understanding which produces science; the
ENCYCLOPEDIA, THEOLOGICAL, 4). Granted that ideal-esthetic which presents itself as faith and as
the doctrine was drawn from legitimate sources and feeling. Religion is faith and likewise feeling. Re-
rightly defined, it remained only to ask what doc- ligion is an inner life which has been historically
trine meant and did not mean for the faith, but formed for us through Christ in a long process of
this was not condensed into a theology. At the spiritualchurch dogmas. It rests on revelation,
time of the consolidation of Evangelical doctrine which theology conceives in ideas and esthetic sym-
inlo :i new orthodoxy, in another tendency was es- bols. De Wette reflected on a philosophical theol-
sentially reproduced what the Middle Ages had ogy which was to be nothing else than a description
already worked out in the universities (cf. E. of human nature or anthropology. D. F. Strauss
Troeltsch,Vernunft und Offenbarung bei Johann (q.v.) as scholar of Hegel formed a type of theology.
Gerhard und Melanckthon, Gbttingen, 1891; E. In his closing discussion of his Life of Jesus, and es-
Weber, Die philosophise he Scholastik dcs deutschen pecially in his introduction to his Dogmatic (1840),
Protestantisms s im Zeitaltcr der Ortftodoxie, Lcipsic, he allots to theology no other task than its trans-
1907; O. Hitachi, Dogmengeschicftie des Protestantis- formation into a philosophy of religion. Bieder-
in us, vol. i., Leipsic, 1908). What was new as in- mann with affecting love for Christianity as such
troduced by the period of the Enlightenment (q.v.) has more completely than Strauss sought to realize
was Jit first weighty and fruitful when rationalism his program for dogmatics. Recently F. R. Lipsius
und with it the mere recourse to the reason and (Kritik der theologischen Erkenntnis, Leipsic, 1904),
natural religion retreated. with other means than Strauss, presented as aim
The significance of Schleiermacher (q.v.) for the- for theology that it transform itself into (monistic)
ology consists in tlu's, that relying on philosophy philosophy.
which had outgrown dogmatism, after long critical II. Scientific Presentation: Every theory of
disintegration of the idea of the Bible theology is accompanied by presuppositions. To
"
3. Schleier- as the sure book of God's revelation," Gottachick ecclesiastical Christianity appears as a
macher, he prepared an end for the remainder simple reality, and he undertakes to prove that this
De Wette, of dogmatism in dogma, and for faith is both an undoubted and an unde-
and Strauss, in certain
universal religious ideas, i. Relation rived fact of consciousness which must
anchored in the reason, innate, in toReligion.be scientifically isolated; hence the-
such a way, however, that he established for faith ology may be set forth as a science sui
a separate spiritual function a new basis for the- generis. But as yet a scientific understanding of
ology from which the character of all modern the- the nature of Christianity has not been attained, and
ology is determined. Theology originates in a sci- this is beset by greater difficulties than were former-
ence of God and of faith; and theology ceased to ly conceived (cf. Kattenbusch, Die Lage der /-
believe in philosophy. For his method of organi- tematischen Theologie in der Gegenwart, in ZTK,
"
zing theology with reference to Encyclopedia," 1905, pp. 103-146; idem, in Christliche WeU, no.
see ENCYCLOPEDIA, THEOLOGICAL, 4 (cf. Schleier- 22, 1901). The most
significant factor in the re-
macher's Kurze Darstellung des theologischen Stu- cent history of theology must be seen in the widen-
diums, Berlin, 1811). For Schleiermacher theology ing of the perspective for the historical considera-
 a a Science THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 896

tion of Christendom. Few will object if theology be tematische christliche Theologie, Leipsic, 1906). Pious
" men could agree only concerning what religion or
defined as science of Christianity." But it is per-
haps more difficult than ever to answer the ques- faith is and by what means it is established. For

tion, What is the essence of Christianity as religion? every man the inner meeting with the Christ of the
All theologians will so far agree in the designation New Testament is the moment where he learns to

of Christianity simply as religion. But the question know the ethical power which can indeed bring him
immediately arises what religion is and what notes to full subordination in perfect freedom and so to
in particular characterize the Christian religion, both faith in God. Faith need not renounce fixing in
as piety and as content of the Church; it is debated thought every thing which it experiences, but no one
" " of the individual should declare the result as normative; since every
in what degree the experiences
or of the community come into consideration; one experiences the same tiling differently.
whether the foundation of religion is reached by the Another series of questions emerges in a compari-
" " of son of theology with the philosophy of religion. In
simple observation of the being religion or at
"
the same time if not instead of this of the ob- whatever sense one sets up a formula for the essence
" in il whether a determination of what is of religion or of Christianity, he touches
ligation ;

empirical in piety or of the self-judgment of the 3. Philoso- the problems of epistemology, psy-
same according to a norm must take the lead. One phy of chology, metaphysics, ethics. Natural-
may perhaps say that all are to be combined. With Religion, ism and idealism, monism and dualism,
Schleiermacher (certainly with De Wette) it was Apologetics, pantheism and personal theism are as-
always a common conviction that religion and the- sociated with theology and philosophy.
ology were to be held apart. This has led to regard- The notions of the soul, freedom, and immortality
ing theology as a specific discipline only a branch vibrate between theology and philosophy. Within
of general science, hence as not belonging to the theology itself, in the questions concerning methods
church (cf. G. Krueger, Die unkirchl it-he Thcoloyie, and legitimate theological judgments all kinds of
in Christliche Welt, no. 34, 1900; F. Traub, Kirch- points of view meet. The complexity of the present
liche und unkirchliche Theologic, in ZTK, vol. xiii., situation is evinced by the premature reemergence
pp. 39 sqq , 1903; J. F. Gottschick, Die Entstchung of the apologetic problem now indeed the ruling
" "
der Losung dcr Unkirchlichkcit dcr Tfieologic, in the one. The so-called modern positive theology is
same, pp. 77 sqq.). It is admitted that theology as a predominantly apologetic (cf. K. Beth, Die Mo-
university study should serve the Church, hence no dcrnc und die Prinzipien dcr Theologie, Berlin, 1907;
one will deny a pedagogical place to theologians G. Wobbermin, Tlwologic und Mcttipht/mk, Berlin,
in its instruction. One must, however, make it 1901; G. Vischer, 1st die Wahrhftt dcs Chrixtcntums
" "
clear to himself that the expression church has zu bfwciscnf Tubingen, 1902; II. Otto, Naturaliftt-
two strata the legal, the religious community, and iiichc und religiose Weltanschauung, ib. 1904; A.
the religious, not only believing individuals, but a Titius, Religion und Nattirunftsfnwhaft ib. 1901;
t
" "
society of faith and of the Holy Spirit. The task A. W. Hunzingcr, Zur apoloyetischcn Aufgabc div
of theology concerns the latter. emngeliM'hcn Kirrhc in dcr Gegenwart , Leipsic, 1907;
To many the religious historical method appears idem, Problrrnc und Aufgabcn dcr gegrrnoartigcn
to involve the treatment of Christianity by theol- 8i/stemati*chen Theologie , ib. 190S). The discussion
ogy on the same lines as all religions. As a religion of the theses of religious faith and the ethical con-
Christianity does indeed belong with sciousness, especially those theses which are Chris-
2. Chris- the other religions in some one sense tian with opposing antitheses, will be carried on
tianity, under a common thought, and it has under favorable auspices only when the theses at
Other Re- been realized in the hearts of men in least arc plainly formulated. That this is now the
ligions, the wholly distinct historical connections. case no one will nssert.
Individual. But it is a prejudgment that it is there- When theology seeks to be fundamental, it moves
fore to be treated as all religions are., under much uncertainty in three directions.
If one will be taught by Christianity how it regards (1) Schleiermacher's psychological conception of
and judges itself, he can not help admitting that it religion as a purely natural datum in the human
knows itself as over against the other religions and spirit is still influential. This feeling of " absolute
ascribes to itself a suprahistorical basis. "
Science dependence is a perceptible element
can neither simply accept nor simply ignore the self- 4. Lines of of the soul, but it is no more than just
judgment of Christianity; it tests the matter even Advance, The religious feeling can be com-
this.
if it ends with a non'liqueL In this way it may bined with the other feelings and ele-
perhaps be convinced that Christianity and the ments of the soul; in itself it can be only " clearer,"
other religions have at bottom even common expe- not richer in content, than it is, so far as it points
riences and perceptions. The Church will not deny to a source. It is involved in the notion of absolute
the reference to Rom. i.
19-20, yet this does not dependence that it works out in the consciousness
" " of man together with the all
prevent the Christian religion from perhaps as a piece of it, not
to live " as
" "
standing by itself according to its essence and truth so much being lived." Religion is
(cf. S. Dunkmann, NZ, xix. 255 sqq., 1908; H. the profoundest, though it is a mere, aspect of be-
Mulert, in ZTK, xviii. 325 sqq., 1908). A peculiar coming conscious. Thus it is fundamentally rational.
turn of the discussion concerning the character of Theology will be formed in the concrete commu-
theology in relation to religion has lately been occa- nity partly positively, partly philosophically.
sioned by W. Herrmann (cf. Kultur der Gegenwart, Naturally the psychology of religion can be scien-
Teil I, Abt. 4, Die Chrisdiche Religion, 2d half, Sys-
tifically developed in a far more concrete manner
807 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theoloflry as a Science

than by Schleiermacher, and religious historical pel is not supported by an investigation which is
investigations will be of great service especially if due from a theologian. The next task of theology
coupled with religious psychopathology (for the re- lies in a comprehensive consideration of the Gos-
lation of the confessional school of theology to pel which naturally shall not be partial.
Schleiermacher, F. Katteiibusch, Von Schleier-
cf. (F. KATTENBUSCH.)
macher zu Ritscld, 3d
ed., Giessen, 1903). In the III. and American Theology: In Great
British
Erlangen school, the feeling of absolute dependence Britain and America until a recent period Protes-
has been reinterpreted by the thought of " expe- tant theology followed the Reformation program
" " " Faith " as a
rience of regeneration." special both in its point of view and in its order of topics.
" "
organ of the spirit reminds of De Wette. Finally, The three doctrinal divisions have
endeavors to press theology on the path of psychol- 1. Three been the Calvinist, the Arminian, and
ogy can appeal to Schleiermacher (cf . W. Vorbrodt, Divisions, the Socinian. To whatever school of
Zur Religions psychologic: Prinzipien unit Pathologic, philosophy theologians belonged, they
in TSK, 1906, pp. 237 sqq.; W. James, Varieties of never doubted that metaphysics was a valid hand-
Religious Experience, New York, 1902; J. (). Scheel, maid of theology. For the Calvinists and Armin-
Die Moderne Religion psychologic, in ZTK, xviii. 1
it ians the Scriptures were the supreme authoritative
sqq., 1908; E. W. Mayer, Ueber Religionspsycho- source of doctrine and their principles of interpre-
logic, in the same, pp. 293 sqq.). (2) Over against tation were in agreement. A secondary authority,
the mere psychological conception of religion, A. often scarcely less than the first, was attributed to
Hitachi's can bo conceived as merely historical. creeds and great names. Among the earlier Socin-
Hitachi's idoa, however, orients itself not in one's ians the Scriptures were accepted as authoritative,
own " feeling " or even " experience," but in a the difference between them and the Calvinists
closed revelation, i.e., the objective content of the and Arminians being in the method of interpre-
(
Jospel or the person of Jesus. With the making of tation; gradually, however, the Trinitarian and
the personal quality of God as strong as possible, other traditional views came to be regarded as
there is affirmed a contact of the human spirit with extra-Biblical and greater reliance was placed on
a supramundune reality susceptible of personal ex- the reason as an independent source of religious
perience but never universally demonstrable. Be- truth. During the eighteenth century the previous
cause rationalizing has been avoided, the reproach distinction between Soeinians and Arminians was
of idiosyncrasy has had to be met-. The absoluteness obscured and Socinian notions appeared under the
"
of Christianity has gained a sharpness which is often general name of Arminian." During the last cen-
conceived as a return of the old "dogmatism." tury these were again differentiated, the Soeinians
The followers of Rilschl have tried to guard against being gradually identified with the Unitarians and
misunderstanding of his thought (cf. W. Herr- Universalists (qq.v.), the Arminians swinging back
mann, Die Religion im Vcrlialtnis zum Welterkennen into the Evangelical ranks under the lead especially
und zur tfittlichkeit, Halle, 1879; idem, Der Glaube of the Methodist church, and becoming a powerful
an Gott und die Wissenschuft unscrcr Zeit, in ZTK, leaven even in the Calvinist bodies (see ARMIMANS
1905, pp. 1 sqq.; C). Kirn, Glaube und (iescMchie, AND ARMINIANISM; NEW ENGLAND THEOLOGY).
Leipsic, 1900; J. Kaftan, Die Einheit des Erkcnnens, Two general characteristics of English and Amer-
Tubingen, 1908). (3) For Troltseh it is a postulate of ican theology are to be noted: first, laok of thor-
historical science to regard even religion as a stead- oughgoing systematizing or strict unfolding of doc-
ily developing reality. Even Christianity will not trine from an ideal principle. This is due in part
be the final form of religion, but only a contribution to a practical interest; the Anglo-Saxon mind cares
to its history. The epochs of Christianity are more less for absolute theoretic consistency than for the
or less different aspects of it which have to bo con- pragmatic value of ideas. Secondly, during the last
sidered when one discusses its nature (cf. Die Abso- three-quarters of a century perhaps the most quick-
lutheit des Christcntunis und die Religionsgeschichte, ening and influential contributions to theology have
Tubingen, 1902; idem, Psychologic und Erkenntnia- been not the systematic presentations of theologians
theoric in dcr Rc1igwnserkcn?itnistheorie, 1905). All but suggestions lodged in sermons or embodied in
religions have an absolutely fixed point in mystical discussion of particular subjects (cf. works by F. W.
"
experiences," but Troltseh attempts no formula Robertson, Horace Bushnell, Henry Drummond,
for these as did Schleiermacher; to the pious it is John Fiske, and Joseph LeConte).
a vital certainty of experience, but for others it is The past century, like other ages of the Church,
and debatable. God's influence
in itself irrational has been a transitional one. Many endeavors have
on the spirit is always combined with the entire been made to unite the old and the new in varying
content of the spirit in contemporary culture. proportions in one presentation. Some
Christian theology has three essential tasks: (1) the 2. Tend- have indeed continued steadfastly in
purely historical psychological reception of Chris- encies mthe traditional paths, making the least
tianity in the frame of its development and of uni- Dogmatics, possible concessions to modern thought
versal religious history; (2) the treatment of its and with only a polemic interest in its
experiences and notions in connection with all ele- conclusions (C. Hodge, Systematic Theology, Phila-
ments of the spiritual life, especially with the high- delphia, 1865; W. G. T. Shedd, Dogmatic Theology,
est ideals and convictions to be reached in philoso- New York, 1888). Others, although yielding a mod-
phy, therein confirming its right; (3) the thorough ified assent to evolution, to the
sufficiency but not
blending of its world-view with that of modern the inerrant infallibility of the Scriptures, and to
science. Troltsch's judgment concerning the Gos- some form of divine immanence, still represent
Theology as a8<
a Science THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 398
Theology* Moral

essentially the traditional positions (cf. J. Orr, The dence, but also in redemption, and have made it
Christian View of God and the World, New York, the key to their entire presentation (L. Abbott, The
1893; H. C. Sheldon, System of Christian Doctrine, Theology of an Evolutionist, Boston, 1897; E.
ib. 1903; J. A. Beet, A Manual of Theology, London, Griffith Jones, Ascent through Christ, London, 1901).
1006; M. S. Terry, Biblical Dogmatics, New York, (6) Psychology occupies a far more definite and
1907; A. H. Strong, Systematic Theology, Phila- influential place in theology than at any previous
delphia, 1907-08). On the other hand, several period. While Augustine and Edwards had un-
tendencies have appeared which propose modifica- equaled insight into the nature and workings of the
tions in the traditional modes of conceiving the religious consciousness and expressed themselves
realities of the Christian faith. (1) A Christocen- with a subtilty and force never surpassed, yet as
tric basis fortheology has been advocated from two theology has busied itself with the human side of
points of view, either constituting Christ as the divine grace, it has been compelled to make a greater
heart and controlling principle of interpretation use of psychology in its discussions of man and sin,
(advocated but not carried out by H. B. Smith, of the person and work of Christ, of conversion and
System of Christian Doctrine, New York, 1890, and sanctification, of future punishment, and riot least
by L. F. Stearns, Present Day Theology, ib. 1893), of all in its determination of the character of God
or regarding the consciousness of Christ as the norm (for a single aspect of this subject, see CONVERSION,
of theological construction (A. M. Fairbairn, The supplement; and in addition to the works there in-
Place of Christ in Modern Theology, New York, dicated, cf. G. B. Cutten, The Psychological Ptu>-
1803; W. N. Clarke, An Outline of Christian Theol- nomena of Christianity, New York, 1908). (7) The
" "
ogy, ib. 1898; idem, The Use of the Scriptures in so-called positive theology has for its key-note
" "
Theology, ib. 1905). (2) A reconstruction of theol- the primacy of the given. There is an objective
ogy has been indicated which rises out of the content of revelation. Christ was in relation to God
Ritschlian background and has for its immediate what he himself and his first disciples thought him
aim a fresh evaluation of faith, especially as affected to be. In him, in his cross God redeemed the world.
from tho historical and social side (H. C. King, Re- This action was not merely a saving influence but a
construction in Theology, New York, 1901; idem, saving deed; it changed Clod's relation to men ob-
Theology and ttte Social Consciousness, ib. 1902). jectively and once for all. This fact, is creative of
(3) Among the attempts to relate theology to a vital Christian experience. It is not, however, mediated
religious experience as interpreted through its his- by the Bible us authoritative, nor is it assured by
tory both in the Scriptures and the Church may be historical criticism. A present-day experience which
mentioned G. B. Stevens, The Christian Doctrine of involves the supernatural offers a firm basis for the
Salvation (New York, 1905); (). F. Curtis, The existence of the supernatural in the New-Testa-
Christian Faith, Personally Given in a System of ment times and in the New Testament itself. With
Doctrine (ib. 1905); C. A. Beckwith, Realities of reference to tins objective gospel faith is not some-
Christian Theology (Boston, 1906); W. A. Brown, thing which the Christian shares with Christ in imi-
Christian Theology in Outline (New York, 1906). tation of him, but is directed to him as the one in
This method finds in experience its immediate source whom the objective revelation centered and was de-
of theology and in history the form which that ex- clared (cf. D. S. Cairns, Christianity in the Modern
perience has taken in its rational development, and World, New York, 1906; P. T. Forsyth, Posit iw
accordingly devotes particular attention to these Preaching and the Mwtcrn Mind, ib. 1907, S.
two aspects of life. (4) In the doctrine of the im- Mathews, The Church awl the Changing Order, ib.
manence of God lies the basis for several discussions 1907; R. Seeberg, The Fundamcntfil TriUfna of tlic
"
by R. J. Campbell, The New
in theology, as, e.g., Christian Religion, London, 1908). (8) The crit-
"
Theology (London, 1907), and by Sir Oliver Lodge, ical theology seeks the revelation of God in the
The Substance of Faith Allied with Science (ib. orderly processes of the natural world and in the
1907). The point of view is that of an essentially rational consciousness. The supernatural is the
pantheistic monism, characterized by two signifi- natural regarded from its divine causative ground;
cant bearings a tendency to eliminate the fact of the natural is the regular method of God's activity.
sin, and a firm emphasis on the social aspect of Hence no conflict arises between the scientific and
Christianity. Endeavors to adjust the claims of the religious view of the world. The traditional
monism to the ethical demands of consciousness apologetic in defense of miracles is thus unnecessary;
have been made by J. Caird, An Introduction to the the true apologetic is the actual adaptedness of
Philosophy of Religion (London, 1880), by J. Royce, Christianity to the social needs of men. Redemption
The World and the Individual (vol. ii., Boston, 1901), emptied of its miraculous content is an ethical eman-
and by B. P. Bowne, Theism (ib. 1902), and The cipation. The power of the cross lies in its capacity
Immanence of God (London, 1905; cf. GOD, IV.). to quicken in the souls of men a spirit of sacrifice
(5) Evolution has been accepted by most recent and service like that of Jesus (cf. G. B. Foster, The
theologians as on the whole the method of God in Finality of the Christian Religion, Chicago, 1906).
his cosmic action. Some have so described the re- In the foregoing description no attempt is made
demptive purpose as to isolate this from the uni- at an exhaustive account of any one of the various
form activity of God in the creation (cf. C. Hodge, treatises referred to. In all of these the lines of
ut sup.); others, as W. N. Clarke and A. H. Strong, tendency cross and recross and each shares to some
have admitted evolution but with reservations; degree in all the features of the modern spirit. The
while others have adopted this as the constant mode purpose is to indicate only the dominant notes in
of God's working, not only in creation and provi- the respective presentations- The aim of theology
309 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theology as a Science
Theology, Moral

to-day, whether consciously or not, is, as it has al- Roman Catholic theological schools is based on the
ways been, to relate its findings to the actual as conviction that nothing is so practically essential
well as the ideal Christian life; in this endeavor it to the Christian as a right knowledge of his duty
is powerfully aided by many interests which have toward God and his fellow men, on the proper dis-
not been available at any previous time. charge of which depends his eternal salvation.
C. A. BECKWITH. Moral theology is generally divided into two
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The subject is discussed in the works named parts. In the first are treated the general or funda-
in tho article on ENCYCLOPEDIA, THEOLOGICAL. 80, too, mental questions pertaining to man's ultimate? end,
the manuals and treatises on systematic theology (see
the true nature and norm of right and
under DOGMA, DOGMATICS) treat the matter. The most
important literature in named in tho text. Consult fur- 2. Di- wrong, the morality of human acts,
ther: A. E. Biedcrmann, Christliche Dogmatik, 2d ed. t vision. law and authority, conscience, and
2 vols., Berlin, 1H84-85; A. Ritschl, Theologie und Meta- the like. In the second, which is called
physik, 2d ed., (lottingon. 1887; C. A. Bernoulli, Die wis-
sennchaftlichen und die kirehliehen Methoden in der Theol- special, various categories of means are discussed,
ogie, Tubingen, 1897; P. Lobstcin, Einleitung in die evan- viz.,the different Christian virtues (theological and
gelische Dogmatik, Freiburg, 1897; G. Wobbcrmin, in moral, with the precepts of the Decalogue, q.v.),
Zeitschnft fur Theologie und Kirche, x (1900), 375 sqq ,
the obligations pertaining to particular occupations
and O. RitHchl, in thr name, xn (1902), 202 sqq., 255 nqq.;
J Kaftan, Zur Dogmatik, Tubingen, 1904; M. Reinchlo, or states of life, and likewise the sacraments, since
Theologie und Religionttgenchichte, Tubingen, 1904; N. H. they arc the recognized sources of the graces neces-
Marshall, Theology and Truth, London, 1906; K. Beth,
sary for the proper (i.e., supernatural) fulfilment
Die Moderne und Prinziuien der Theologie, Berlin, 1907;
of all Christian duties.
M. Schian, Zur lieurtheilung der modemen positivcn Theo-
logie, GioHsen, 1907, 1*. Wenile, Einfuhrung in das theo- The sources of moral theology are in the main
logiaehe Mudium, Tubingen, 1908, A. Eckort. Einfuh- the same as those of Roman Catholic theology in
rung in die Prinzipien und Methoden der evangelischen
Theologie, Lripsic, 1909; A W. Hunzmger, Probleme und
general, viz.,Holy Writ, ecclesiastical
Aufffahen der gegenwnrtigen ityRtemotithfn Theologie, 3. Sources, tradition and authority, and reason.
Leipmc, 1909; A. Miller, The Problem of Theology in Mod- Scripture being the chief depository of
ern Life and Thought, New York, 1908; R Socbcrg, Zur divine revelation is naturally the most important
8UntematiRchen Theologie, Leipuir, 1909, F. Trnub. Theo-
source of moral science, for "all Scripture, inspired
logie und Philosophic Kine [JnterRuchung after das Ver-
hultnin der theoretic hen Phihwophie sum Grundproblem of God, is profitable to teach, to reprove, to correct,
der Theologie, Tubingen, 1910, E. Melzer. Der Meu*H8 fur to instruct in justice, that the man of God may be
das Dam in und m-me Ptt \nnhehkeit mit Ruckncht auf die "
perfect, furnished to every good work (II Tim.
herk/tmrn lichen (totttxltrweibe, Neisse, 1910; KL, xi. 1555-
1571. iii. 16, 17). The Scriptures indeed abound in moral
instruction in the form of both precept and exam-
THEOLOGY, MONUMENTAL. Sec MONUMENTAL
ple. It goes without saying that in making use of
THEOLOGY.
the Old Testament for the purposes of moral as well
THEOLOGY, MORAL, ROMAN CATHOLIC as dogmatic theology, account must be taken of
VIEW OF. the constantly progressive character of divine rev-
Notion ( 1). elation, and, consequently, isolated texts and pie-
Division
cepts, to be of real value, must be considered in the
( 2).
Sources ( 3).
History till Thirteenth Century light of this doctrinal and ethical evolution. More-
(5 4).
Till the Renaissance ( 5). over, the ceremonial and judicial precepts of the
Th? Modem Period ( 6) Jewish law, being of a temporary nature, are con-
Pi vino revelation has at all times contained, in sidered as abrogated under the new dispensation,
addition to truths to be believed and accepted as and, while the moral precepts and the concrete ex-
coming from God, certain precepts to amples of virtue retain a true value, they must
i. Notion, be submitted to as the expression of nevertheless be used with discretion and with due
his \\ill. These divine commands, em- regard for the higher ideals of Christian ethics.
phasizing the natural law and supplementing it in Even as regards the New Testament, a certain doc-
view of the higher condition to which man has been trinal and ethical progression must be admitted,
raised and of the means vouchsafed for the attain- though naturally in a far less degree; and, finally,
ment of his ultimate supernatural end, constitute, the principle of progressive development, under the
when arranged in logical and systematic order, the guidance of the Holy Ghost abiding in the Church,
science of Christian ethics (see ETHICS; MORALISTS, is recognized during the ages that have elapsed

BRITISH; MORALITY, MORAL LAW), or, as it is com- since the close, with the death of the apostles and
monly called in the schools, moral theology. It in- inspired writers, of what may be termed the final
cludes in principle, besides the precepts of the nat- era of authentic or official revelation. It should be
ural and divine law, the ordinances emanating from noted also in connection with the ethical significance
ecclesiastical and civil authority, and covers the of the New Testament, that it contains, besides
entire field of moral and religious duty. In a broad formal precepts which oblige under pain of sin,
sense it is sometimes made to include what is known counsels of perfection (e.g., Matt. xix. 16-21), and,
as ascetic and mystic theology, but, strictly speak- although these are sometimes set forth in mandatory
ing, it has for its object the laws of right and wrong terms, they should not be confounded with the
that should govern the Christian life, while ascetic former; hence in moral theology the distinction be-
and mystic theology deal with the laws of Christian tween evangelical precept and counsel. The final
perfection and with the higher processes of the spir- determination of what belongs to each of these lies
itual union of the soul with God. The importance with the authority of the Church, and the general
attached to this branch of ecclesiastical science in consensus of tradition and of the theologians. In
Theology, Moral THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 400

likemanner is also determined which of the New- In outlining the history of moral theology in the
Testament precepts have a universal and permanent Christian Church it is customary to distinguish be-
binding force, and which are only of a temporary tween the period of the Fathers and that of the
or local character (cf. Acts xv. 28-20). Here, as in theologians. The first extends from the earliest
matters of faith, the Scriptural data are interpreted moral treatises down to the time of
officially, when necessary, by the teaching Church, 4. History Bernard of Clairvaux (q.v.), who is
aided by the testimony of tradition and by the ex- till called the last of the Fathers. The
pert opinions of recognized theologians. Thus papal Thirteenth ethical history of this period, however,
and conciliary decrees, condemned propositions, Century, belongs rather to the history of the
and similar authoritative pronouncements become patristic sources of moral theology, for
sources of moral theology. Chief among the Roman the Fathers made no attempt to expound either doc-
Catholic congregations which, with the approval of trine or morals in a systematic or scientific manner,
the pope, render decisions bearing on the subject- and further reference to it may be omitted here (cf.
matter of moral science, are the Congregation of the A. Tanquerey, Synopsis theologian moralis, vol. ii.,
Council, the Congregation of the Inquisition, and pp. xxx.-xl New York, 1906)
,
. The period of moral
the Sacra Penitcntiarui. The first is empowered to theology properly so called begins with the early
interpret officially the decrees of the Council of schoolmen in the twelfth century. Their work \\ as
Trent (q.v.) in disciplinary matters. Its decisions preparatory to the great development of scholastic
relative to the meaning of these decrees are binding science in the century following called the golden
and apply to all cases which they cover, but its ap- age of scholasticism. Suffice it to mention the mo-
plication of a decree to a particular case does not nastic school of Bee in Normandy (see BKC, ATJBKY
necessarily oblige in all similar contingencies. The OF), founded by Lanfranc (q.v ) and made illustri-
Congregation of the Inquisition has jurisdiction in ous by Anselm (q.v.), who was one of the first to
matters of heresy and schism, apostasy, abuse of introduce the scholastic methods; the school of
the sacraments, and the like, and it has issued many Abelard (q.v.), w ho, in his Introductio ad thcologiam
T

decrees bearing on the moral as well as the dog- sets forth a summary of theology in general, and in
matic aspect of these questions. The doctrinal au- his Scito teiftxiiffl traces a compendium of ethics from
thority of this congregation is very great, but its the standpoint of human reason; the school of St.
decisions are not considered irrefonnable unless Victor in Paris, which though more mystical than
so indorsed by the pope as to make them his didactic, contributed not a little to the progress of
own in a special bull or brief. The Sacra Pcnitcn- moral science. Foremost among the writers of this
tiaria does not deal with speculative moral ques- school is Hugo of St Victor (q v ), who in his trea-
tions or controversies. Its function is to settle tises DC sucrunwnlis embodies
:i brief discussion of

practical arid concrete cases of conscience, and its nearly topics pertaining to moral theology. The
all

decisions, while useful, do not of themselves possess most famous doctor, however, of tins period was
a legal binding force. The place occupied by the Peter Lombard (q v.) professor of theology and
f

writings of the Church Fathers and theologians as later bishop of Paris. In the Quatuor librt scntcu-
sources of moral theology is much the same as in tiarum he discusses in scholastic form the entire
doctrinal matters. Their consensus as witnesses of cycle of moral as well as dogmatic theology derived
a constant tradition is more important than as ex- from the Scriptures and the writings of the Fathers.
ponents of their own views, and their testimony is, In the thirteenth century the monastic schools
in all cases, subject to the authoritative rulings of were superseded by the great universities, and a
the official Church. Finally, since God is the au- powerful impetus was given to the
thor of human reason as well as of revelation, and 5. Till the study of theology which in its compre-
since even the revealed precepts should be reason- Renaissance. hensive treatment absorbed nearly all
ably understood, moral theology makes extensive the other branches of knowledge. Its
use of the ethical principles of natural law by way practical or moral aspect was not yet so sharply dif-
of comparison, illustration, and proof. Indeed, these ferentiated from the speculative as in later times,
principles can never be in real opposition to the and thus the great dogmatic theologians of the
revealed expressions of the divine will, though they epoch were also the great masters of moral science.
are supplemented and elevated by them. Like- This period was marked by the rise of the great
wise the enactments of civil authority are utilized rival theological schools of the Dominicans (sec
as remote and secondary sources of moral science .
DOMINIC, SAINT) and the Franciscans (sec FRANCIS,
While the value of human reason is duly recog- SAINT, OF ASSISI). Among the Dominican theo-
nized by theologians and the teaching Church in logians two deserve special mention Albertus Mag-
:

questions of moral science, its independence in the nus (q.v.) and Thomas Aquinas (q.v.). The former,
rationalistic sense is consistently denied; it remains who was professor successively in Paris and Cologne,
amenable to the higher light of divine revelation besides discussing many of the fundamental ques-
properly understood or interpreted by church au- tions pertaining to moral theology in his Sumrna
thority. Besides the great utility of rational ethics theologicc, has much bearing on the same subject in
in the study of moral theology, other branches of his Summa dc creaturis. Thomas Aquinas, who
science have an important though less direct bear- taught philosophy and theology in Paris and in
ing on its various problems. Among these may be some of the Italian universities, is considered the
mentioned psychology both speculative and experi- greatest of all the medieval theologians. He was the
mental, sociology, political economy, civil jurispru- to apply successfully the Aristotelian philosophy
first
dence, and history. to the systematic elucidation of revealed truths, and
401 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theology, Moral

his lucid logical order and clearness of exposition as a moral theologian, Cardinal Johannes de Lugo
have never been equaled by any of the Schoolmen. (d. 1660). Among the moralists of the Benedictine
His greatest work is the Summa theologica, which order were Ludovicus Blosius (d. 1566), J. Graffius
has remained a classical standard in Roman Cath- (d. 1620), and Joseph Saenz de Aguirre (q.v.). The
olic theological schools down
to the present time. secular clergy was represented during this period of
The second part of the Summa is devoted to moral revival by such writers as Carlo Borromeo, bishop
theology in its highest and broadest as well as its of Milan (q.v.), and St. Francis de Sales, bishop of
more practical aspects. In treating of the virtues Geneva (q.v.), who labored so strenuously for the
he does not confine the discussion merely to what reform of ecclesiastical discipline and Christian
constitutes right or wrong (sin), but deals equally morals. Toward the end of the seventeenth cen-
with the higher ideals of Cliristian perfection, thus tury and onward the science of moral theology again
combining moral and ascetic theology. Among the declined, because of the prevailing tendency in the
illustrious masters of the Franciscan school may be schools to reduce it to mere casuistry. Discussion
mentioned, besides Alexander of Hales (q.v.), who of the underlying principles was lost sight of and
joined the order when already advanced in years, undue attention was given to the solution of con-
the mystical St. Bonaventura (q.v.) and Johannes crete cases of conscience with the result that this
Duns Scotus (sec DUNS SCOTUS), whoso moral as branch of theology lost much of its dignity and sci-
well as doctrinal principles, speculatively consid- entific character. It was now completely separated
ered, are often divergent from those of Aquinas, from ascetic theology and was almost exclusively
whence many animated and subtile controversies occupied in drawing a line between what should be
between the representatives of the Dominican and considered sinful and what could be tolerated as
Franciscan schools. The secular clergy of this epoch free from sin, and in defining the degree of sin
is well represented by writers such as William of (mortal or venial) involved in a given act of trans-
Paris (d. 1249), who composed divers treatises on gression. Discussion of the virtues and the princi-
monil subjects, e.g., Summa virtutum et vitiorum, ples of Christian life and perfection was passed over
DC fide et legibus, De remcdiis tentationum, De claus- as pertaining to either dogmatic or ascetic theology.
Ira animat, De pamitcntia, and others. During the Not a few of the casuists were accused of laxity in
ensuing period covering the fourteenth and fifteenth their decisions, and the situation was not helped by
centuries scholasticism suffered a marked decadence the long and bitter controversies between rigorists,
due to various causes, chief among which may be probabiliorists, and probabilists (see PHOBABIL-
reckoned the rivalry and controversies between the ISM). Hence the obloquy that has come to be at-
schools, particularly the disputes concerning nom- tached to the word casuistry. During this last pe-
inalism and realism, and the great schism with its riod of the history of moral theology no writer has
demoralizing influences. The broad, synthetic treat- arisen comparable with the great masters of previ-
ment of theological questions was abandoned and ous epochs. The one who comes nearest to this
scholastic discussion became overcharged with in- standard, though yet far distant, is Alphonso Maria
ane subleties and hair-splitting distinctions. Moral di Liguori (q.v.), the founder of the Redemptoiist
theology shared in the general decadence and no order. His works comprise a complete treatise of
works of importance were produced during these moral theology and other practical treatises for the
two centuries. use of confessors, viz., Praxis confessarii, Homo
Roman Catholic theologians were again aroused apostolicus, Examen ordinandorum, etc. Seeking a
to activity by the satire of the Humanists and still media via between the probabiliorists and the ultra
more by the aggressive doctrinal controversies in- lax exponents of probabilisra, he evolved a system
cidental to the Protestant Reformation. Moral known as equiprobabilism. On this account and
science also received a fresh impetus because of the recognition bestowed on his works
6. The which lasted until nearly the close of by the official Church, liis writings and their inter-
Modern the seventeenth century. Among the pretation have been the subject of not a little con-
Period, distinguished writers on this and other troversy. The last half-century has been fertile in
subjects during this period may be the production of condensed manuals of moral the-
mentioned Cardinal Thomas Cajetan (q.v.), Fr. de ology chiefly of the practical or casuistic type for
Victoria (d. 1546), Bartholomew Medina (d. 1581), the use of confessors and theological students.
Domingo de Soto (q.v.), Petrus de Soto (q.v.), Jo- Among the more popular may be mentioned those
annes a S. Thoma (d. 1664), J. B. Gonet (d. 1681), of Jean Pierre Gury (q.v.), Augustinus Lehmkuhl,
and Joannes Martinez Prado (d. 1668), all Domin- Edward Genicot, and two remarkable treatises, De
icans. The Franciscan school was represented by theoloyia morali fundamentals and De virtutibus theo-
Antonius Cordubcnsis (d. 1578), Em. Rodriguez (d. logids, by Thomas J. Bouquillon (d. 1902), profes-
161.3), Martinus de S. Joscpho (d. 1649), J. M. de sor at the Catholic University of America.
Castilento (d. 1653), and Petrus Marchant (d. 1661). JAMBS F. DRISCOLL.
The order of the Jesuits produced many illustrious BIBLJOGRAHT: J. B. Hogan, Clerical Studies, pp. 197-249
f

theologians and moralists, among whom may be Boston, 1898; A. Tanquerey, Synopsis theohyice moralis]
vol. ii., pp. xxi.-lii., New York, 1906; 8. Alphonsus Liguo-
mentioned Petrus Canisius (q.v.), Francis Tolet
ri, Theologia morctiis, pp. xxvii.-cxlviii., Mechlin, 1845; T.
(q.v.), E. Sa (d. 1596), Luis Molina (q.v.), Greg- Bouquillon, Theologia moralis fundamental^}, Introductio,
ory of Valentia (d. 1603), Johannes Azor (d. 1608), 1-14, Bruges, 1893; Paul de Broglie, La Morale sans
Francisco Suarez (q.v.), Gabriel Vasquez (d. 1604), DtVu, Paris, 1886; Catechiamua Cone. Trident, Tournai,
1890; Charles Gay, La Vie et lea verttts chretiennes, Paris,
Thomas Sanchez (d. 1610), Johann Martinez de 1876; J. Perrone, De virtutibus fldei, apei et cantata,
Ripalda (d. 1648), and, perhaps the greatest of afl Regensburg, 1865.
XL 26
Theonai THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 402
Theophany

THEONAS, th-5'nas (THEON) Arian bishop of :

thoughts were directed to the consummation of
Mannarica, in the Egyptian province of Cyrenaica, union with Rome. After the stoppage of negotia-
in the fourth century. He is mentioned in the tions under Anastasius, Justinian did not rest until
synodal letter of Bishop Alexander (given in Ath- he had reached an agreement with Hormisdas; at
anasius, Select Works and Letters, in NPNF, 2 ser., the time of the monks' coming, the pope's legates
iv. 69 sqq.) as an adherent of Arius. He and Se- were expected, and after their arrival on Mar. 25,
cundus of Ptolemais were the only two Egyptian 519, the schism ended. The monks alienated in
bishops who sided with Arius; and it is probable various ways the sympathy of the papal legates,
that their line of conduct was regulated by political who, however, acted upon the direction of the pope
rather than by theological reasons. At all events, not to become involved in anything except that
they absolutely refused at the Council of Nica a which was their only concern, the matter of union.
i

(325) to condemn Arius, and were consequently de- The legates also took the position that they could
posed and banished. receive only what the four councils had settled arid
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Theodoret, Hist, eccl., i. 7, Eng. transl. what Leo's letters contained; their leader, Dios-
in NPNF, 2 iii. 43-46;
ser., Socrates, Hut. eccL, i. ix. t
cuniH, expressed his opinion against the formula of
Enfc. transl., ut sup., ii. 12-17; Epiphanius, HOT., Ixix. 8; the monks. But these despatched to Rome par-
Tillemont, Mtmoires, vi. 2.
tizans to plead their case before the pope Johannes
THEOPASCHITES, the-o-pas'kaits: A term desig- Maxentius, Leontius, Achilles, Mauritius, and per-
nating in its widest sense all Christiana who recog- haps others. Their leader, in a writing directed to
nize as correct the formula
"
God has suffered " or the legates, had traversed the position of Dioscurus
" God
has been crucified." In very early times cutting off additions to statements of belief, and
(Ignatius, Ad Eph., i. 1, Ad Rom., vi. 3; Tertullian, supporting the monks' position by citing Cyril,
DC carne Christi, v.) naive expressions like the Augustine, Flavian, Proclus, and others. He saw
" " "
blood of God," the suffering of God were used. neither a triiiitarian nor a christological problem;
Then came Modalism (q.v.) and Patripassianism but sought to illustrate u long-fixed article of faith.
(see CHRISTOLOGY, II. ,
MONARCIIIANISM),
1-2; Letters from the legates and .Justinian to the pope,
and terms became suspicious
finally theopaschitic however, put the monks in sin unfavorable light,
to pious ears since they could be used in a Sabel- and Justinian demanded that they be sent homo.
lian sense. They had some attractiveness, how- The pope found himself in a dilemma; ho did not
ever, for those who spoke of Mary as theotokos; if care to disavow his legates in favor of the monks
God could be born, why could he not die? What nor to come to a disagreement with Justinian; on
from the standpoint of the Trinity was unendurable the other hand, lie did not care to dismiss the monks.
was not so from a christological point of view. As He therefore temporized; a letter from Justinian in
an ecclesiastical matter occasion for controversy July he answered on Sept. 2 to the effort that he
came from Peter the Fuller's (see MONOPHYSITES, was awaiting the return of the legates, and to the
4 sqq.) addition to the Trisagion (q.v.), making latter he said that he was referring the matter to
"
it read Holy God, Holy the Mighty One, Holy the John of Constantinople, while the legates repeated
Immortal One who was crucified for us." The Pa- thoir accusations (of the monks). Meanwhile Jus-
triarch Calandion attempted to relieve the baldness tinian was coming to think that the monks wore
of the expression by preceding it with the words being treated badly, but did not wish to mix in a
" ()
Christ the King." Of the preceding events in dogmatic affair and anew wrote the pope to decide,
Antioch no reports have come down, since the let- for the matter was one of words or terms only, and
ters of Felix from Rome, of Acazius from Constan- the monks need not fear to return home. In Decem-
tinople, and of other bishops, to Peter are falsified, ber the pope wrote his legates, and letters from Jus-
though they have value as showing how in certain tinian (Jan. 19, 520) and from the pope (end of
circles the new expression was decided; the situation March) show that the whole question was triiiita-
both with reference to the Trinity and to incarna- rian/ The monks appealed to the senate and also
tion was missed. The history of the Monophysitic sought support outside Rome, where they gained a
controversy shows that the unionists decided other- point in confirmation of the orthodoxy of their posi-
wise, and they are justified from the point of view tion. In a letter to the African Bishop Possessor,
of the Henoticon (q.v.). But Harnack is right in then in Constantinople, the pope expressed his de-
"
asserting (Dogma., iv. 231) That attempt (to ex- jection over the querulous spirit manifested, which
tend the Trisagion in a theopaschitic sense) was drew a bitter reply from Maxentius and is the last
rejected because it involved an innovation in wor- trace of the Scythic monks. On July 9, 520, Jus-
ship and because it could be interpreted in a Sa- tinian had appealed again for a decision from the
bellian sonse." pope, calling the attention of the pope to the fact
"
After the death of Anastasius the theopaschitic that it was ambiguous to speak of one of the
" without name Christ. Not
controversy broke out again. At the beginning of Trinity prefixing the of
the year 519 there appeared in the capital many till Mar. 25, 521, did Hormisdas reply, and then
monks (called in the sources Scythic monks, who avoided committing himself on the point in con-
in the great schism between Rome and Constanti- troversy; yet he asserted that according to the con-
"
nople had held with Rome) with the motto one clusions reached in the synods against Nestorius
of the Trinity has suffered in the flesh," which seems and Eutyches and according to the pronouncements
to have called forth opposition. But they found of Pope Leo, new dogmatic distinctions were not
support for their formula in the sentences of the feasible. While this was the pope's last word, Jus-
Henoticon, At Constantinople at that time all tinian, did not give the case up; the monks' formula.
408 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Th<

seemed to him worthy, he used it as a means to pearance of a god (as at the festivals at Delphi); in
win over the Severians and received the sentence the broader sense, every sensuous sign whereby
into the confession of faith incorporated into the deity revealed its approach, particularly its benefi-
codex which in 533 he sent to Pope John II., which cent proximity. In the ancient Church the term
that pope (534) and his successor Agapetus I. (536) theophaneia, the same as epiphaneia, was almost ex-
confirmed, while the Acoimetes monks were excom- clusively restricted to the manifestation of God
municated by John, and the fifth ecumenical coun- and the divine glory in Christ. The application of
cil at Constantinople pronounced excommunication theophania or epiphania to designate Jan. 6, is proof
" the Lord
against those who did not confess that that by the above was implied principally the mani-
Jesus Christ, crucified in the flesh, was true God festation of God in the incarnation of the Logos.
and lord of glory and one of the holy Trinity." The Indeed, h8 theophania was occasionally applied to
right to the admission of the now widely accepted sen- the baptism of Christ; yet decisive was the distinc-
tence in the trisagion was not expressed. The exten- tion between the epiphanies as the manifestation and
sion of the trisagion remained a peculiar possession of self-witness of God at the baptism of Christ (height-
the Monophysites, and in 092 the Trullan council ened to the impartation of deity by some of the
anathematized it (canon 81). (G. KR( QER.) Gnostics), arid the theophanies, namely, the festival
V

BIBLIOGRAPHY- The literature of DOCTRINE, HISTORY or, of the birth of Christ. The latter name was main-
and MONOPHYHITEB discusses the matter also that under tained, even after the removal of the festival of the
the articles to which cross reference is made in the text.
birth to Dec. 25, while for Jan. G, as the festival of
Consult further. H. de N orris, Histona Pelayianti, appen-
dices, Louvnin, 1702; C W. F. Walch, Hutiorif der Ket-
the baptism, and, further, the manifestation of the
zrrncn, vii 232-261, Leipsir, 1770; F. Loofs, in TU, ni. glory of Christ to the heathen, the name of epiphany
3-4 (1885); A Kuecht, Die Relwwnspolitik Kaiser Jua- was retained. F. L. Steinmeycr in Christologic
timans I pp 71-91, Wiinsburg. 1896; Harnack, Dogma,
,

vol. iv. passim; and the literature on the church history (vols. ii.-iii., Berlin, 1881-^82) restores the order of
of the period. the ancient Church by designating, as epiphanies in
the life of the Lord, the baptism, the temptation,
THEOPHANES, the-ef'a-mz, OF BYZANTIUM. and the transfiguration; while as theophanies in
1. Theophanes the Confessor: Byzantine chronog-
the life of the Lord he names the cleansing of the
rapher; 1). c. 75S; d. in Samothrace c. 817. On the
temple, tho walking on the sea, and the entrance
eve of his marriage ho bound himself and his bride
into Jerusalem. A third instalment follows on the
to continence, then became a monk, and soon after
" " christophanies of the glorified Christ. From the
founded the monastery of the great field near
New Testament the restriction of the concept of
Signane on the Sen of Marmora. He advocated the theophany to the incarnation of the Logos is
image worship at the Second Council of Nicaa in
amply justified by such passages as John i. 14, xiv.
7*7, and as a partizan of image worship was im-
9, Col. i. 15, 19, ii. 9. Not less did the testimony of
prisoned in Constantinople under Leo the Armenian
Paul, I Cor. x. 4, and the practise of the Greek
in 81 4-81.') and then was banished to Samothrace.
Fathers from Justin Martyr, who identified the
lie wrote his chronography between 810-811 and " "
angel of the Lord with the Logos, furnish ex-
814-815 at the request of Georgius Syncellus (d.
cuse for conceiving also the theophanies of the Old
810), continuing the latter 's chronicle. It com-
Testament as christophanies. The Logos thus be-
prises the years 284-8 13 and incorporates material
came universal as medium of manifestation. The
from Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret as found
later Biblical theological as well as the secular
in an epitome by Theodorus Lector; also a Constan-
scientific terminology has, however, returned to the
tinopolitan chronicle. Theophanes' work has the
conception of theophariy in the wider sense, every
faults of an ascetic turned historian and writing in
extraordinary manifestation of God reported by the
haste, yet it is better than most of the Byzantine Biblical authors, apprehensible by the human
chronicles. A Latin translation by Anastasius
senses; but especially, in the narrower sense, those
Bibliothecarius made between 873 and 878 was much manifestations of God in which, equipped with the
used in the West during the Middle Ages.
attributes of his divine glory, he appears upon
2. Theophanes Prokopovich: Bishop of Pskov and
earth, to command, aid, or punish. In the widest
archbishop of Novgorod; d. 1736. He was Peter the
possible sense, according to the above, within the
(treat's right hand in his ecclesiastical reforms and
scope of theophanies would come generally all the
wrote theological text-books which were long in use manifestations of God which result in a direct im-
in Russia. He was opposed to Rome and had sym- and Word. The
partation of lu's will illustrations of
pathies with Lutheranisra. (N. BONWETSCH.)
theophanies would then coincide with the modes of
" "
BIUUOORAPHY On 1 The Chronography was edited by
.
revelation. Such an extension of the conception
J.CJoar and issued by (-ombefis, Paris, 1655; is inCSHB,
2 vote., 1839-41 in MPG, cviii.; and ed. C. d Boor, 2 vols.,
;
would be inapplicable, since in the innumerable
Lcipnic, 1883-85. Consult C. de Boor, m
Hermes, xvii manifestations of God by Word and spiritual opera-
(1882), 489 490, xxv (1890), 301 sqq.; in ZKG, vi (1884), tion the entrance of his person into the sphere of
489-490, 573 sqq J. N. San-asm, De Theodora Lectors
;
human realization is out of question. Theophany
Thcophanift fontc prcecipue, Jena, 1881; H. Gelzor, Sextua
Julius Afnrnnuti und die byzantinmche Chronographif, ii. in reality presupposes that somehow the person of
1, pp. 176 sqq., Leipsio, 1885; E. W. Brooks, in Byzan- God man in terms of space.
enters into relation with
tinische Zeitachnft, viii (1899), 82-97; Krumbacher, Qe-
of literature). Assuming this, classes of
theophanies appear in the
echichte, pp. 342-347 (contains list
Biblical accounts; those reported as historical facts,
THEOPHANY: A manifestation or appearance those depending on prophetic vision or announce-
of deity. The pagan Greeks understood by theoph- ment, and those which serve simply as literary in-
any (thcophania) ,
in the narrower sense, the ap- tegument or introduction to religious truths.
Theophtny
Theophilus) of Alexandria
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 404

Of the historically reported are, first, those where (Ex. xxiv. 9-10) in which no mention of conceal-
the fact is simply stated without elaboration (Gen. ment or mediate manifestation of the divine majesty
xii. 7, xxvi. 2). To this category belong also the occurs. The writer, aware (verse 11) of the injunc-
accounts of dreams (xv. 1, xx. 3, 6), where there is tion that no man shall see God and live, seems to
an underlying suggestion of God's form (further have been under the impression that at this most
Ex. iv. 24; I Sam. iii. 21; I Kings iii. 5). Next pregnant moment of the history of the theocracy,
follow the manifestations more or less in human immediately after the sprinkling with the blood of
form (Gen. xviii. 1 sqq.; cf. ANGEL). The Biblical the covenant (verses 6 sqq.), an exception, though
narrators were here conscious of the distinction be- indeed relative, was granted.
tween the real being of God unapproachable to man, Beside those in connection with the account of
and his temporary manifestation; thus, in the the journey through the desert, only two other the-
passage Ex. xxxiii. 20, whatever of the person of ophanies receive special mention; the covenant
God enters the visible represents only a partial sacrifice of Abraham (Gen. xv. 17 sqq.), and the
revelation of his being as adaptable to human weak- episode on Horeb, where the presence of God is an-
ness and limitation. In Ex. xiv. 19, the angel, nounced to Elijah (I Kings xix. 11 sqq.). In both
though distinct from God, is yet representative of cases the representation is restricted to the outer
" "
him, inasmuch as he bears the name with its form of the appearance.
peculiar efficacy (see NAMES). In a similar sense in In the prophetic theophanies a distinction must
Ex. xxxiii. 14, the face of God is to guide the peo- likewise be drawn between general announcements
ple. Here a distinction is implied between the com- of the appearance of God for judgment (Isa. ii. 21 ;

plete personality and the outward appearance, just Zech. ii. 8) or redemption (Isa. xl. 10), and such
as in the more definitely detailed historical theo- proclamations as involve a closer proximation to
phanies, the majority of which occurred in the legis- an actual appearance; such as for judgment on
lation of Sinai and the journey through the wilder- the heathen (Isa. xix. 1, xxx. 27 sqq., Ixiii. 1; Nah.
ness, the pillar of fire or of cloud, which is an outward i. 3
sqq.), of desired vengeance (Isa. Ixiv. 1 sqq.),
accident of the inner fire, is employed to hide the even on Israel (Mic. i. 9). In almost all the in-
full majesty of God (Ex. xix. 9, 16, 21, cf. xxiv. 12 stances the accompaniment is some element of a
sqq., and xxxiv. 29 sqq.). Upon the erection of the storm, as lightning or hail, or the earthquake; and
tabernacle, thisbecame the scene of the theoph- the glory of God is always enveloped in the cloud.
anies. Only here the accounts vary. According to Instruments of war and weapons of God are sug-
one the cloud descends immediately after its com- gested (Nah. ii. 4-6; Isa. Ixvi. 16), and in further
pletion to prevent the entrance of Moses, because detail (Hab. iii. 8-9, 11, 15), with the representa-
the glory of God filled the tabernacle (xl. 34 sqq.). tion of Yahweh as a man of war (Ex. xv. 3; Isu.
According to other and older passages the cloud xlii. 13; Ps. xlvi. 8-9; cf. II Kings vi. 17; Ps. Ixviii.
descends when Moses enters and it remains station- 17). Among prophetic theophanies relating to vi-
ary at the door (xxxiii. 9; cf. Lev. ix. 23; Num. xi. sions some are sparing of detail (I Kings xxii. 19
25, xiv. 10). Although the theophany is referred to sqq.; Amos vii. 7, ix. 1), while others afford more
in Ex. xvi. 10, xxiv. 17, and again on extraordinary elaborate delineation (Isa. vi. 1 sqq.; Ezek. i. 4 sqq.;
occasions (Lev. ix. 6, 23; Num. xiv. 10, xvi. 19), cf. iii. 12 sqq., viii. 4 sqq., x. 1 sqq., 18, xliii. 2
as the appearance of the glory of Yahweh, yet this sqq.). In Dan. vii. 9 sqq., the Ancient of days is
is not to be understood ns an advance beyond the pictured in human form.
concealment of the divine majesty in the cloud. Theophanies in literary description (always in
" "
Originally the glory of Yahweh referred to the the introduction of the descriptions of God's works
halo visible to sight and emanating from Yahweh of redemption and judgment) almost invariably
himself when he appeared in the storm or cloud at appear in some form of the storm symbol; to sus-
"
Sinai; but this, like angel of God," was afterward tain his own against foes (Judges v. 4; Ps. xviii.
reduced to apply to the revelation of his being, to 7-8, Ixviii. 7-9, Ixxvii. 16 sqq.), and for vengeance
the majesty of God in its operations which was to desired (cxliv. 5 sqq.); likewise to judge his peo-
fill all the earth (Num. xiv. 21-22; Ps. Ixxii. 19). ple (Ps. 1. 3), or reason with his accuser (Job xxxviii.
That this was not to be absolutely identified with 1). As point of departure for the theophanies in the
the fulness of the divine majesty is apparent from instances quoted the heavens are sometimes express-
I Kings viii. 11; the glory of Yahweh in the form ly named as the permanent location of the throne of
of a cloud filled the house when the ark was brought God (Ps. xviii. 9, cxliv. 5), and sometimes Sinai as
in, yet the heaven and heaven of heavens (verse the mountain of God and the scene of his earlier
27) can not contain God, much less the house. No revelations to Israel (Deut. xxxiii. 2; cf. Judges v.
more can a theophany of another sort, i.e., of the 4-5 and Hab. iii. 3). For the post-Biblical construc-
absolute disclosure of the divine being, be inferred tion of theophanies, namely, of the efforts in the
from the passages which represent Moses as con- times of the Septuagint and of Philo to replace the
versing with God face to face (Deut. xxxiv. 10; immediate operation of God by secondary causes, and
"
as a man speaketh unto his friend/' Ex. xxxiii. thus get rid of anthropomorphisms, see Jftdiache The-
"
11; mouth to mouth," Num. xii. 8). ologie by F. Weber (issued by F. Delitzsch and G.
That only an intermediate intercourse is meant in Schnedermann, Leipsic, 1897). (E. KAUTZSCH.)
these instances is shown in Ex. xxxiii. 18 sqq.,where BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the commentaries on the passages
direct vision of the glory is denied and only an after cited in the text, consult: C. J. Trip, Die Theophanien in
den Cfachichttibuchm dw A. T., Leyden, 1858; Hosiers,
glimpse is permitted when Yahweh has passed by. in ThT, 1875, pp. 360-415; C. A. Briggs, Study of Holy
The more remarkable is therefore the one instance Scripture, pp. 337, 542 sqq., New York, 1889; H. Grew-
405 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA of Alexandria

mann, Der Vrsprung der iaraelitiach-judieehen Eachatologie, by the Emperor Theodosius with regard to the ad-
pp. 8 sqq., Gattingen, 1905; P. Volz, Der Grist Gottes und
der vcrwandten Eracheinungen im A. T. wnd im antchliea- justment of the differences between the Alexandrine
aenden Judentum, Tubingen, 1010; SB, iv. 5033-36; and Roman reckonings of Easter, 387, a matter
JE, xii. 137-138; also the works on the Biblical theology which Theophilus was able to arrange to the emper-
of the O. T. or's satisfaction, especially as he prepared a paschal
THEOPHILANTHROPISTS: A French religious cycle for 418 years, besides reckoning the days on
organization of the Revolutionary period. In Sept., which Easter would fall for the century 380-480.
1796, during the reign of the Directory, a small About 389 Theophilus either obtained permission
pamphlet appeared in Paris, under the title Manuel from Theodosius to destroy the pagan temples at
de,8 Theophttanthropes, by Chemin. The divine Alexandria, or, according to other accounts, was
worship described in that book had originated as granted the privilege of building a church on the
a kind of family worship. During the period when site of a temple of Dionysus. At all events the
all religious service was positively prohibited, five patriarch incurred the bitter hostility of the pagans
house fathers used to gather together their families by public insults to their sacred emblems, and,
forcommon prayer, singing of hymns in honor of after working vengeance on the Christians, they
God, and listening to moral and patriotic speeches. made a stand in the famous Scrapeum of the city.
The basis of the whole organization was pure deism, When the pagans surrendered in terror at the shouts
the last trace left of true religion among the aberra- acclaiming the receipt of an imperial edict for the
tions of atheism. The first public meeting took destruction of all pagan shrines, Theophilus and his
place on Jan. 5, 1797, in a house in Rue St. Denis. followers were enabled to enter the Serapeum,
God, virtue, and the immortality of the soul formed where he caused the image of Serapis to be cut
the three articles of the Theophilanthropist creed; down, this being followed by wide-spread demoli-
and any one who agreed on those three points could tion of temples of the ancient faith, only one image
become a member of the association, even though (that of an ape, preserved for obvious uncompli-
he belonged to some special sect with respect to the mentary reasons) being spared.
further details of his creed. In 391 or 392 Theophilus was appointed by the
The movement met at first with great success; Council of Capua to arbitrate in the controversy
Thomas Paine was a member, while Reveillere Le- between Flavian of Antioch (q.v.) and Evagrius,
peaux of the Directory was its leader; and the which he ultimately decided, following the lead of
Directory granted it the use of ten churches in Paris. Chrysostom and some time after the death of Evu-
The service it instituted was very simple; the walls grius, in Flavian's favor in 398 (see MELETIUS OF
of the churches were ornamented with some few ANTIOCH). In 394 he was at Constantinople, at-
moral maxims; the altar was a plain table covered tending a council in which he urged that deposi-
with flowers or fruit; the ministering officer was tions from the episcopate should be pronounced
any one who felt disposed; and the ceremonies were not merely by three bishops (the number required by
reduced to a minimum of forms. The Christian bap- the canons of the Council of Nicaca for a consecra-
tism became a mere presentation and naming of the tion), but, if possible, by all bishops of a province.
child; Christian wedding, a mere announcement of With the year 395 the character of Theophilus, un-
the civil marriage contracted, accompanied with der the sinister influence of the Origenistic Contro-
congratulations and admonitions. New members versies (q.v.), underwent a lamentable change.
were admitted after a short catechization upon the He had himself been in sympathy with Origcn's
three articles above mentioned. As the Theophilan- revolt against anthropomorplusm, and in his
thropists considered their religion the only true uni- paschal letter of 399 had insisted sharply that the
versal religion, because the only true natural relig- divine nature must not be construed in anthropo-
ion, they were averse to all kinds of propaganda, morphic fashion. This aroused the violent antag-
but they took much care of the education of their onism of the Scetic monks, and before their open
children, and their instruction in good morals. threats the patriarch descended to ambiguous
During the first and second years of their exist- phrases more politic than honorable. With this
ence the Theophilanthropists formed associations change of attitude there would even seem to be
also in the provinces. But by degrees, as the Chris- connected personal antipathy for certain of his old
tian feeling became reawakened in the French people, friends, notably Isidore, whom he had proposed for
the Theophilanthropist movement died away, and in the see of Constantinople in 398, and some of the
" "
1802 the First Consul Bonaparte deprived them of Long Brothers all these being in sympathy

their churches, which he restored to the Roman with Origenism. Late in 399 or early in 400 he
Catholics. convened a synod at Alexandria at which Origen-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Grdgoire, Hint, dea aecta religieuaea, 2 ism was condemned, following up his attack in his
1810; N. M. D. t La Mart dee Theophilantropee,
vote., Paris, paschal letter of 401. In this same year, fortified
ib. 1799; RecueU de cantiquea, odea, et hymnea . . . dea
TheophHantropea, ib. 1797; Hymns on Natural Moral, and
by an imperial edict forbidding any monk to read
Theological Subjects, for ... the Theophilanthropiat So- Origen, Theophilus proceeded to Nitria and se-
ciety, Glasgow, 1816; R. Carlile, The Deist; or, Moral cured the expulsion of all those monks who would
Philoeopher, vol. i.. London. 1819. not subscribe to entire anthropomorphism. The
THEOPHILUS OF ALEXANDRIA: Patriarch accounts of this procedure are, unfortunately, so at
of Alexandria from 385 to 412; d. at Alexandria variance that it is difficult to say whether it was
Oct. 15, 412. Of the events of his life before his carried out with violence, as Theophilus bitter
1

elevation to the archiepiscopate nothing certain is enemy, Palladius (q.v.), asserts, or, as Theophilus
known, but soon after this event he was consulted himself declared in a synodical letter (transl. by Je-
Theophilus of Alexandria THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 408
Theosophy

romo, Epist. xcii., Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2 ser., vi. THEOPHILUS, the-ef'i-lus, OF ANTIOCH: Bishop
185-18G), after a further weighing of the obnoxious of Antioch in the second century. His birthplace
tenets of Origen. Late in the year some of the was not far from the Euphrates and Tigris and he
exiled monks made their way to Chrysostom at did not become a Christian till he had reached
Constantinople, entreating him to use his good mature years, while his mother tongue and educa-
offices in their behalf that they might be per- tion were Greek. He was sixth bishop of Antioch,
mitted to return to Egypt. Chrysostom accord- successor of Eros and predecessor of Maximinus or
ingly wrote to TheophiluH, but the result of the Maximus (Eusebius, Hist. eccL, IV., xx., xxiv. 3).
correspondence, still further complicated by the The only determined chronological datum is

injudicious activity of the monks, was that the that he wrote his third book to Autolycus not
patriarch of Alexandria became bitterly hostile to before 181 (cf. A. Harnack, Die Zeit den lynatiu*
his fellow patriarch of Constantinople. Theophilus und die Chronologic der antiochenittrtwn Binchofr,
accordingly urged Epiphunius to secure a synodal pp. 42-43, Leipsic, 1878; idem, Littcratur, ii.
condemnation of Origcnism, and the reading of 208 sqq.).
any of the writings of Origen was accordingly for- Theophilus developed a many-sided literary ac-
bidden in Cyprus. Meanwhile, however, the exiled tivity and for a time his works (sometimes ascribed
monks at Constantinople had not been idle, but to Theophilus of Alexandria) were much read and
had induced the emperor, Arcadius, to summon used. After the fourth century they wen; forgotten.
Theophilus for trial before the patriarch of Con- They included (Eusebius, Hist. eccL, IV., xxiv.)
stantinople, while the charges lodged against the three books to Autolycus, polemical writings against
monks were pronounced baseless. After a delib- Hermogenes and Marcion, and certain books of in-
erate delay in obeying the summons, Theophilus struction and edification; further (Jerome, DC vtr.
finally landed at Constantinople late in June, ill., xxv.), commentaries on the Gospels (see GCcu-

403, and, after floutingChrysostom openly, prac- MENIUS) and Proverbs, and a work in several books
tically secured deposition and banishment at
liis of which Theophilus himself cites the first as Peri
the synod ad Quercum, then accepted a perfunc- historian. Only the three books to Autolycua are
"
tory apology from the Long Brothers," the most preserved and these in but a single manuscript.
important of whom were dead. But the people The first book is apologetic, defending the Chris-
would have none of Theophilus, and soon Chrysos- tian faith against the derision of Autolycus, an old
tom was recalled, while Theophilus sailed in haste heathen friend of Theophilus. The second is po-
for Egypt. Within two months the patriarch of lemic, declaring the popular religion of the heathen
Constantinople was again in imperial disfavor, and as well as the specuations of philosophers and pools
his old enemy was urged to make a fresh attack upon absurd or, in so far as true at all, taken from the
him. He declined, however, to come in person, but prophets. The third book compares the Christian
his creatures worked his will, and Chrysostom was
Scriptures with heathen literature to the disparage-
again sent into banishment, from which he was ment of the latter. The genuineness of this work is
never to return (for further details see CHRYSOS- commonly acknowledged. On the other hand, the
TOM, 45). commentary on the Gospels is regarded by later
In his paschal letter of 404 Theophilus, while not scholars with the exception of Zahn (Forschunycn,
mentioning Chrysostom's name, returned to his at- vol. ii., Erlangen, 1883) as not the work of the
tack upon Origenism. He now informed Pope Inno- Antiochian bishop of the second century. Harnack
cent that he had deposed Chrysostom, but the pontiff assigns the work to the early Middle Ages (c. 500)
ignored the sentence and directed that a new synod and thinks it consists of excerpts from the older
be convened to try the entire case with fairness. All Latin Fathers (cf. Bornemann in ZKG, x., 1889, pp.
was in vain the commands of the pope and the ap- 169 sqq., and Hauck in ZKW, v. 501 sqq.). The
peal of Honorius, emperor of the West, to his brother commentary docs not belong to Theophilus of An-
Arcadius, who stubbornly upheld Theophilus. tioch and is a compilation from older writings
Of the remainder of Theophilus' life little is made before 700. (A. HAUCK.)
known, and of his writings comparatively scanty BIBLIOGRAPHY: The text was edited by J. Friaius-Gesner,
portions have survived, the most convenient edition Zurich, 1646; by J. Fell, Oxford, 1684; and by C. Otto,
in Corpw Apologetarum, vol. viii., Jena, 1861; and there
being in MPG, Ixv. 33-68. Here belong the paschal
is an Eng. transl. with introductory note in ANF, ii. 85
letters of 401, 402, and 404, preserved only in Latin
sqq. Consult: P. Pasquot, Essai HUT leu trots livres a
translation by Jerome and sharply attacking Ori-
" " Autolycus de Theophilc d'Antioche, Strasburg, 1857; L.
genism, as well as ten canons dealing with ordi- Paul, in JPT, 3875, pp. 546-559; A. Harnack, Die Zeit
nation and the sexual relations of the clergy; but des Ignatius von Antiochcn, pp. 42-44, Leipsic, 1878;
his most important work, the treatise " Against idem, TU, i. 1-2 (1882), 282-298, and 4, pp. 97-175;
" idem, in ZKG, xi (1889), 1-21; idem, LiUeratur, i. 496-
Origen," like his "Against the Anthropomorphites
602, 845, ii. 2, pp. 208-213, 319-320, 634-535; C. Erhcfl,
(both recorded by Gennadius, De vir. ill., xxxiv.,
in JPT, v (1879), 464-485, 618-653, xiv (1888), 611-632;
Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2 ser., iii. 392), has dis- W. Sunday, in Studio. Biblica, i (1885), 89-101; W. Borne-
appeared. mann, in ZKG, x (1888), 169-292; Q. Karabangeles, Die
BIBLIOGRAPHY: DCS, iv. 099-1008 (detailed, indispensa-
GoUeslehre de* Theophilus von Antiochen, Leipsic, 1891;
ble); A Gallandi, Bibliotheca veterum patrwn, vii. 601- A. B. Cook, in The Classical Review, 1894, pp. 246-248;
602, 14 vote.,Venice, 1766-81; Fabriciiw-Harlea, Bib- O. Gross, Die Weltentstehungslehre des Theophilus von
liothecn Graca, vii. 108 sqq., Hamburg, 1801; B. Czapla, Antiochen, Jena, 1895; idem, Die Gotteslehre des Theo-
GcnnadiuH alt LiUerarhistorikcr, p. 73, M Ouster, 1898; philus von Antiochen, Chemnitz, 1896; A. Pommrich, Die
Ceiilier, Auteunt sacres, vii. 438-447 (also consult Index); Gottes- und Logoslehre des Theophilus von Antiochia, Leip-
MPG, Ixv. 33-68; KL, xi. 1579-81. sio, 1904; Bardenhewer, Patrologie, pp. 68-60, Eng.
407 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theophilus of Alexandria
~

Diophy
Theoio;

"
transl., St. Louis, 1908; idem, Geschichte, i. 278-290; form, positive and negative, the two poles of na-
T. Zahn, Kanon, vole, ii.-iii.; Kruger, History, pp. 132- ture between which the universe is woven." Those
136; DNB, iv. 993-999 (detailed); Cefflier, Auteun two aspects are inseparably united,
sacrts, i. 475-480. A very full list of literature la given
by Richardson in ANF, Bibliography, pp. 36-36. i. The therefore all matter is ensouled by
Universe, life while all life seeks expression
THEOPHYLACT, the-ef'Makt:
Archbishop of
Achrida (the modern Ochrida in Albania, 100 m. through forms. All life being funda-
n. of Janin). He was a native of Euboea and for mentally one with the life of the Supreme Existence,
his great learning was chosen teacher of the young it contains in germ all the characteristics of its

Prince Constantino, son of Emperor Michael Ducas source, and evolution is only the unfolding of those
divine potentialities brought about by the conditions
(1071-78), to whom he dedicated a treatise on the
"
Education of a Prince
" afforded in the various kingdoms of nature. The
(Opera, iii. 529-548).
About 1078 he became archbishop of Achrida and visible universe is only a small part of this field of

he survived the accession of Alexius Comnenus evolution. As ether interpenetrates the densest
so matter,
(1081), but by how many years is not known. The- solid, still subtler, interpenetrates ether,
and these different grades of matter constitute seven
ophylact was a many-sided representative of the
distinct regions, spoken of as the seven great planes
Byzantine churchman. He was a disciple of Michael
Psellus (q.v.) and learned from his master no small of the universe. The physical the densest; the
is
one next to it is called astral; subtler than the
still
degree of classical culture. As archbishop he ruled
in large measure independently of Constantinople astral plane is the mental. The four higher spiritual

and he grappled faithfully with the difficulties of planes are as yet mere names to all except initiates
an arduous position; in his letters he often com- and adepts. The materials being thus prepared,
the divine life begins the evolution of consciousness,
plains of the rude ways and the wickedness of the
rough Bulgars who composed his flock. He was far building for itself forms on the various planes, pass-
from narrow-minded and judged leniently in the ing slowly through the elemental, mineral, vegetable,
controversies between East and West. As exegete and animal kingdoms, and finally reaching self-con-
ho was skilful and sensible; though dependent in sciousness arid individualization, when it passes into
his views on the earlier Fathers like all medieval the human stage.
(I reek commentators, he conceived rightly the aim Man, being a part of the whole, is also evolving
arid of exegesis, and the precision of his in-
method toward the perfect manifestation of the divine
characteristics latent in him. That perfection, how-
terpretation makes his commentaries still worthy
of consideration. They treat of the entire New Tes- ever, implies not only the attainment
2. Man. of sainthood, but also the possession
tament with the exception of the Apocalypse, and
of portions of the Old Testament. An edition of of divine power and full knowledge of
" the universe, visible and invisible. As he needs a
Theophylact's Works," in Greek and Latin, was
published in four volumes at Venice, 1754-63 (re- physical body to work with on the physical plane,
so does he need bodies composed of the matter of
printed in MPG, cxxiii.-cxxvi.). It includes, be-
sides the commentaries and part of those higher planes, in order to cognize them, and
(vols. i., ii.,

certain homilies, of which those on the adora- the organizing of such bodies is the task upon which
iii.),
tion of the cross and the presentation of Mary in the men are engaged, consciously, in the more advanced
Temple (iii. 460 sqq.) are the best. An account of members of the race, but unconsciously in the vast
the fifteen martyrs of Tiberiopolis (iii. 477 sqq.) majority. The physical body,then, is not the only
uses old sources. There are also a noteworthy pane- one man even during this physical life. In
uses,
connection with it and interpenetrating it, even as
gyric on the Emperor Alexius (iii. 549 sqq.) and 130
letters (iii. 559 sqq.) to important and well-known the planes of the universe interpenetrate each other,
he has an astral body, by means of which he feels
personages of his time. (PHILIPP MEYER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fabricius-Harles, Bibliotheca Graca, vii. and desires, a mental body, by means of which he
586-598, Hamburg, 1801; Krumbacher, Geschichte, pp. thinks. The higher four spiritual bodies are still un-
133-135, 463-405; K. Pneohter, in Byzantimsche Zt\t-
organized at the present stage of evolution, save in
schnft, i. 399-414, and J. Draseke, in the same, x. 515-
529; and the dissertation by B. M. de Rubeia, moat ac-
rare instances. But the three just mentioned are
cessible in MPG, cxxiii. 9-137. already fairly developed and constitute the normal
THEOSOPHT. working instruments of man. This does not mean
X. Doctrines.
that the astral and mental bodies are as yet organ-
The Universe (fi 1). ized so as to take direct cognizance of the planes to
Man ( 2). which they belong by constitution; in the majority,
Reincarnation (S3).
Karma (ft 4).
they work only in connection with the physical
Liberation (5 5). body. But some individuals have already de-
II. Theosophical Society in America. veloped the senses belonging to those higher bodies.
III. Universal Brotherhood and Theosophical Society. The phenomena of clairvoyance, telepathy, pro-
I. The main teachings of Theosophy
Doctrines: phetic dreams, etc., are merely manifestations of the
"
(Gk. theosophia, divine wisdom "), which are at activity of those finer senses. Unreliable at first,
the same time religious, philosophic, and scientific, like the infant's vision, they can be developed and
may be summed up as follows: it postulates one trained, until the subtler worlds stand as an open
eternal, immutable, all-pervading principle, the root book before the man. This constitutes the evolu-
of all manifestation. From that one existence tion of the form, which proceeds pari passu with
comes forth periodically the whole universe, mani- the evolution of the consciousness, the activities of
festing the two aspects of spirit and matter, life and which in the subtler bodies mav be termed the soul.
TheoBOphy THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 406

As the soul grows in power, love, and wisdom, it tions. By controlling his desires, purifying them,
needs a better form in which to manifest itself; as turning them toward spiritual things, man refines
the form grows in perfection, it becomes a better his astral body and rises above his animal instincts.
instrument for the soul. Here again evolve side by Actions, speaking broadly, determine future phys-
side the two poles of the universe, life and form, ical surroundings; those surroundings are favor-
spirit and matter. able or unfavorable, according as the man has made
This unfoldment of man's powers is slow and others happy or unhappy. Reincarnation and karma
gradual; hence the necessity of repeated incarna- explain the apparent injustice in the world, the
tions, each life on earth being like a day in school. mental and moral differences among men, and the
At death, man drops his physical body, inequality of mental, moral, and physical conditions
3. Reincar- and, clothed in his subtle bodies, lives amid which men are placed.
nation, a of purification, rest, and bliss,
life But a time will come when man, having reached
rich and full in proportion to his stage the full perfection attainable in the human stage,
in evolution and the deeds of the life just ended. shall need no longer these earth-experiences, ami
This is the time when he assimilates the experiences shall pass on to spheres of usefulness
of that life, changing them into faculties. As this 5. Libera- whose glory is beyond our conception.
work is being done, he drops one after the other his One of the missions of theosophy is to
tion.
worn-out astral and mental bodies, and, finally, hav- proclaim anew the possibility of tread-
" ancient narrow "
ing enjoyed all the bliss to which his achievements ing the path which leads to
entitle him, he clothes himself in new bodies and adeptship and liberation, when a man need not re-
returns to earth to take up the work where he had turn to earth unless he choose to remain and help
left it, each life being thus a progress on the pre- his less-advanced brothers. The more advanced
ceding one. The fact that man does not remember members of humanity, a mere handful as yet., have
his past incarnations is no proof against their real- already reached that level, and from their lodge
ity, forthe memory of those lives is stored up in come forth from time to time the great founders of
the soul and not in the brain, which belongs to the religions, the spiritual teachers of the race. This
present
incarnation only and therefore can not have common source explains the oneness of fundament al
kept the record of experiences it never went through. teachings in all religions; the form only varies,
But man is so absorbed by earthly interests and according to the needs of the times and peoples.
ambitions that he identifies himself with the body Now, as in olden times, these Elder Brothers tire
and has no time to listen to the " still small voice " willing to accept as pupils those who possess the
within. As soon as he turns his attention inward necessary qualifications. Those qualifications are:
and knows himself as the soul, then his long past a conviction of the impermanence of mere earthly
will lie unrolled before his vision, as it has done in aims, a perfect indifference to the fruit of one's own
the case of the sages of all times. But even at the actions; perfect control of mind and conduct tol- ;

present stage, that past shows itself in the accu- erance; endurance; confidence in the master and
mulated faculties and powers of the man and the himself; balance, and desire for liberation. But
voice of conscience, which is but the effort of the his motive for seeking liberation must be an intense
soul to guide its lower nature along lines found by desire to help humanity, for only when this com-
experience to be the best. plete forgetfulness of self is attained, can a man's
Evolution proceeds under a law as unerring as powers be safely developed. So long as selfishness
any well-established scientific law, namely, that of lurks in his heart, there is danger of his becoming
karma or the law of cause and effect. Each action, a curse to the race, instead of the helper he should be.
each desire, each thought, produces its result with II. Theosophical Society in America: The
unfailing certainty. "As a man teachings are not new; they represent a body of
4. Karma, soweth, so shall he also reap." This traditions preserved from time immemorial. Re-
makes perfection possible, for knowl- incarnation was taught in the earliest history of
edge is power, and when man knows the law and India and Egypt, in Greece even before Pythagoras;
works with it, he can produce any result he chooses, it is found in the teachings of Plato, Plotinus, the
he becomes master of his destiny. Thought is the Cabala (q.v.), the early Christians, the Alexandrian
most potent factor in the creation of causes. Each Gnostics, Ncoplatonists (see NEOPLATONISM), Par-
thought affects the mental body for good or evil, acelsus, and Giordano Bruno (q.v.). During the
and as mental faculties are the powers of the soul Middle Ages traces of it appeared in Freemasonry
working in the mental body, the mentality shown and among the Rosicrucians. In modern times, this
in any one life is the result of repeated thinking in wisdom-tradition was revived by Helena Petrovna
past li^es. Hence the splendid mental apparatus Blavatsky (q.v.), who had been for years the pupil
of the man of genius is not a gratuitous gift, but is of great oriental adepts or sages. Aided by Henry-
due to hard work in the past. Thought is also the Steel Olcott, she founded the Theosophical Society
parent of action, and its subtle vibrations, travel- in New York City, Nov. 17, 1875. For the develop-
ing through space, affect others, awakening similar ment see III., below.
thoughts in the minds attuned to the same key. The three objects of the society are: (1) to form
Many a thought has thus urged other men to ac- a nucleus of the universal brotherhood of human-
tions, good or evil, in which the thinker has his ity, without distinction of race, creed, sex, caste,
share of responsibility. As thoughts evolve the or color; (2) to encourage the study of compara-
mental body, so desires evolve the astral body, and tive religion, philosophy, and science; (3) to inves-
also influence others by their far-reaching vibra- tigate the unexplained laws of nature and the powers
406 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theoiophy

latent in man. Assent to the first of these objects is throughout the world concurring in this action,
required for membership, the remaining two being which relieved the society of those who had joined
"
optional. The Society has no dogmas or creed, is it for purposes other than the furtherance of uni-

entirely non-sectarian and includes in its member- versal brotherhood. One year later, 1896, Judge
ship adherents of all faiths and
of none, exacting died, leaving as his successor Katherine Tingley,
only from each member the tolerance for the be- who had been associated in the work for some years.
liefs ofothers that he would wish them to exhibit Mrs. Tingley put into actual working practise the
toward his own." In 1895, William Quan Judge, ideals of theosophy for which Madame Blavatsky
then vice-president of the society, led a secession and Judge had laid the foundations. To safeguard
movement which resulted in a separation therefrom the work, a further reorganization of the society was
of a large number of the American and some of the adopted at the annual convention at Chicago, 1898.
European members. The seceding body, however, The full title of the organization is now the Univer-
soon divided into two bodies, one of which is known "
sal Brotherhood and Theosophical Society. The
as the Universal Brotherhood and Theosophical principal purpose of this organization is to teach
Society (see III., below). The other body, known brotherhood, demonstrate that it is a fact in nature
as the Theosophical Society in America, again sub- and make it a living power in the life of humanity.
divided; one division located at 244 Lenox Avenue, The subsidiary purposes are: to study ancient and
New York City, now
publishes The Word, a monthly modern religion, science, philosophy, and art; to
magazine, and the other division, headed by Charles investigate the laws of nature and the divine powers
Johnston, 159 Warren Street, Brooklyn, N. Y., pub- in man."
lishes the Theosophical Quarterly. The parent society In 1898 Mrs. Tingley established the Interna-
is international, with headquarters at Adyar, Mad- tional Brotherhood League, the department of the
nis, India. The last yearly report of its president, Universal Brotherhood for practical humanitarian
Mrs. Annie Besant, shows in Dec., 1907, a total of work, and under its auspices rendered aid to sol-
r
(i. )5 branches all over the
world, 77 of which are in diers at Montauk after the close of the Spanish-
America. A large literature has grown up within American war. Later she took a relief expedition
the .society, including the regular publication of into Cuba, the United States government affording
forty-seven magazines. The general secretary of her free transportation for physicians, nurses, and
the American section is Wellcr Van Hook, 103 supplies. Thus began her work in Cuba, which re-
State Street, Chicago, 111. MARIE POUTZ. sulted in the establishment of Raja Yoga schools at
III. Universal Brotherhood and Theosophical Santiago and Pinar del Rio and now on San Juan
Society: The original name of the society founded battlefield, which she has recently purchased. Other
by Madame Blavatsky in New York, 1875, was Raja Yoga schools besides that at Point Loma have
The Theosophical Society. In this she held no been established by her in the New Forest, Eng-
officialposition except that of corresponding sec- land, also on the Island of Visingso, Sweden. In
retary, but nevertheless she possessed the highest 1900 the headquarters were moved from New York
authority, and was the inspiration and heart of the to Point Loma, which is now the international cen-
movement Through her the teachings of theosophy
. ter of the theosophical movement throughout the
were given to the world, and without her the theo- world. This organization is unsectarian and non-
sophical movement could not have been. In 1878 political; none of its officers or workers receives any
she visited Great Britain and India, in both of which salary or financial recompense. J. H. FUSSKLL.
countries she founded branch societies. The parent
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The authoritative writings of modern the-
body in New York became later the Aryan Theo- osophy are the following by Madame H. P. Blavatsky, all
sophical Society and has always had its headquar- published in London unless otherwise noted, and edi-
ters in America; and of this William Quan Judge tions, some of them noteworthy, of the principal works
of Blavatsky and Judge have been issued at Point Loma,
was president until his death in 1896. In 1888 Cal., 1907-10: Isis Unveiled. 2 vols., New York, 1877;
Madame Blavatsky, then in London, on the sug- Voice of the Silence, 1899; The Secret Doctrine, 3 vols.,
gestion of Judge, founded the Esoteric School of new od., 1897, index to vols. i -ii.. 1899; The Key to The-
osophy, 1893; and Studies in Occultism (an edition at
Theosophy for students, of which she wrote that it Point Loma, 1910); by Annie Bosant, all published in
"
was the heart of the Theosophical Movement," London: Building of the Kosmos, 1894; Path of Disciple-
and of this sheappointed Judge her sole represen- ship, 1895; The Ancient Wisdom, 1897; Four Great Relig-
tative in America. This is only one of the evidences ions, 1897; Reincarnation, 3d ed , 1898; Evolution of Life
and Form, 1899; Man and His Bodies, 2d ed., 1900; Re-
of Madame Blavatsky's regard for Judge, a regard
ligion Problems in India, 1902; Thought Power, its Control
which continued undiminishcd until her death, in and Culture, 1903; A Study in Consciousness, 1904; The-
1891, when he became her successor. In 1893 there osophy and the New Psychology, 1904; Changing World,
and Lectures to Theosophical Students, 1909; and Popular
openly began what had been going on beneath the Lectures on Theosophy, 1910; by Annie Basant and C. W,
surface for some time, a bitter attack ostensibly Leadbeater, Thought Forms, London, 1905; by C. W. Lead-
against Judge, but. in reality against Madame Bla- beater, all published in London except the lost; Clairvoy-
vatsky. This attack threatened to disrupt the whole ance, 1699; Invisible Helpers, 1901; Dreams, 2d ed., 1903;
The Astral Plane, 4th ed., 1904; The Christian Creed, 2d
society and to thwart the main purpose of its exist- ed., 1904; and Man Visible and Invisible, New York, 1903:
ence, the cause of universal brotherhood. Finally, G. R. S. Mead, Fragments of Faith Forgotten, London,
the American members decided to take action and, 1900; A. P. Sinnett, The Occult World, London, 1882;
at the annual convention held in Boston in 1895, idem, Esoteric Buddhism, ib. 1888; idem, Growth of the
Soul, ib. 1896. Also Mabel Collins, Light on the Path.
reasserted the principles of theosor hy as laid down
London, new ed., 1890; H. 3. Oloott, Old Diary Leaves, 1
by Madame Blavatsky, and elected Judge presi- series, New York, 1895-1904; Katherine Tingley, Mysteries
dent for life, the majority of the active members H
of the tart Doctrine, 2d ed., Point Loma, 1903; idem and
Theotokea
Theremin THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 410

others, Pithand Marrow of Some Sacred Writings, ib. 1905; Prince Ghikas and another manuscript of the year
and W. Q. Judge, Echoes from the Orient, 3d ed. New York,
f
1104 which he obtained from Constantinople. An-
1893; idem, Epitome of Theosophy, Point Loma, 1908;
J. H. Fussell, Incidents in the Hist, of the Theosophicol
other work more widely known in the West is Theo-
Movement, Point Loma, 1910; Theoaophicol Manuals, ib., tokes' edition of the Greek translation of the ascetic
1910 (18 numbers). works of Isaac of Nineveh (q.v.; cf. Fabricius-
Other works, for and against, are. J. C. F. Zoelmer,
Transcendental Physics, London. 1882; W. J. Colville, Harles, xi. 120) made by the monks Patricius and
Universal Theosophu, Chicago, 1888; J. H. Dewey, The Abraamius (Leipsic, 1770). He also translated the
Way, Truth, and the Life, Buffalo, 1888; C Behre,
tlie
"
Golden Book " of Rabbi Samuel (Leipsic, 1769).
tipintistcn,Myntiker und Theosophen, Leipaic, 1890; J. L. This work, said to have been written in Arabic and
Harder-Hickey, La Theosophie, Paris, 1890; W. R. Old,
What is Theosophy f London, 1891; J. Murdoch, Theosophy translated into Latin by a Spaniard, Alfonsus Bono-
Kxposed: or, Mrs. Hesant and her Guru, Madras, 1893; BUS, presents Samuel, a rabbi of Morocco, writing
ideui, The Theosophic Craze its History; how Mrs. Besant to Rabbi Isaac and expressing his fear that Jesus
wan befooled and deponed, Madron, 1894; J. A Anderson,
was the Messiah, basing the apprehension on the
Reincarnation, San Francisco, 1894; L. L. do Roany, Le
Kouddhwne eclertique, Paris, 1894; C. F. Wright, Outline thousand years' duration of the oppression of the
of the Principle* of Modem Thfosophy, Boston, 1894; H. Jews, the Old Testament, and the Talmud. It was
(loe ring, Theosophische Schnften, 30 parts, Brunswick, as preacher, however, that Theotokes was best
1894-96; W. Kmnsland, The Exoteric Basis of Christian-
ity, London, 1895; A. Lillie, Madame Blavatsky and her
known to his contemporaries, and his influence on
" the future development of Greek preaching was
Theosophy," London, 1895; J. W. Boisaevain, Inleiding
tot de Theosophie, Amsterdam, 1902; C. Bleibtrou, Die His sermons have been collected (5 vols.,
great.
Vertreter des Jahrhunderts, vol. in., Theoaophy, Berlin,
vol. i., Leipsic, 1766, vols. ii.-v., Moscow, 17l)(>-
1904; W. Bruhn, Theosophie und Theologie, Ghlckstadt,
1907; A B. Kmgsford and E. Maitland, The Perfect Way 1808). Theotokes' general repute was such that
or the Finding ofChnst, New York, 1908; G. Sulzer, Mo- questions of dogmatics and practical problems in
derne indische Theosophie und Chnstentum, Leipsic, 1909; the cure of souls were often referred to him for
C. Bragdon, Theosophy an<l the TheosophicoJ Society,
answer. In this way a number of minor writings
Rochester, N. Y.. 1909; J H. Fussell, Mrs. Annie Besant
and the Moral Code, Point Loma, 1909; G. F. Moore, Notes arose which are highly esteemed by the orthodox and
from India, Theosophy and Co-Masonry, ib. 1910; R exist in both Greek and Russian translation. A col-
Sterner, Theosophy; an Introduction to the supersensible lection of letters of this sort was published
Athens at,
Knowledge of the World and the Distinction of Man, New "
York and Chicago, 1910. in 1890 by Johannes Sakkelion under the title Un-
published Works." He also left works on mathe-
THEOTOKES, the-ot'o-kiz (THEOTOKIS), matics and geography. \A?i Evany fliral and Njrryct-
NICEPHORUS: Greek scholar and distinguished ical Commentary upon Select Portions of the AYir
preacher, archbishop of Catharinoslav [Slavensk Testament Founded on the \Vrtiinys of Nicephoras
and Kherson] and of Astrachan; b. on the island of Theotoces, by S. Nicolaides, was published in Lon-
Corfu Feb., 1731 (ao Strahl; others 1736); d. in don in I860.] (PHILIPP MEYKR.)
Moscow May 31, 1800. He began his studies at a BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Strahl, Das gelfhrt? Kufutland, Loipsio,
school of his native island, and continued them in 1828; A. C. DemotracopuloH, Grcpna vrthodoxa, ib 1X72;
A. D. KyriakoH, Geachichte der oncntalischen Kirchen, ih.
Bologna and Padua. After returning to his father- 1002. The literature in Greek is given m Hauck-Horaog,
land ho became hierodiakonos in 1748 and hiero- RE, xix. 673.
monachos in 1753. Until 1765 he was preacher and
teacher in the school of Corfu, where he had studied. THEOTOKOS, thi-et'6-kos ("Hod-bearing"): A
He was then preacher in Constantinople and re- term applied in the earlyChurch to Mary the mother
sided in Germany for some years from 1770; school- of Christ in order to lay the strictest emphasis upon
director at Jassy, 1774-77, after which he joined his the incarnation in opposition to those who taught
friend Eugenios Bulgaris (q.v.) in Russia, whom that God could not be born of a human parent and
he succeeded as archbishop of Catharinoslav in 1779, in defense of the doctrine that the birth of Christ in-
and in 17X6 was translated to Astrachari. In 1796 volved his two natures. It was adopted at the
he was removed and thenceforth lived in retirement Councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451)
in the Danielovski monastery in Moscow. against Nestorianism (see NESTOUIUS; also NES-
Theotokes' most cherished wish was to elevate TORIANS). The term is now a favorite designation
his people religiously and spiritually. He therefore in the Greek Church for the Virgin Mary.
cultivated learning and used the modern Greek
speech in his writings, with no slight literary skill. THERAPEUT^B, ther"a-piu'ti or pu'tfl: Name
He is to be classed with Adimantios Korias and of a reputed sect of ascetics. A treatise attributed
Eugenios Bulgaris and among the most influential to Philo has come down, entitled Peri biou theo-
Greeks of the eighteenth century who prepared the rStikon (F. C. Conybeare, Philo: about the Contem-
way for Hellenic independence, though he differed plative Life, Oxford, 1895), in which the Therapeutse
from these in that he held more closely to the are represented as ascetics, learned in Scripture,
traditional orthodoxy. In the West he is known dwelling in colonies, and following the contemplative
chiefly in connection with the modern interest in life. Though scattered in many parts of the world,
the Catena) (q.v.). He edited, though not critically, the majority were said to be in Egypt with head-
the so-called Catena lApfdensia (2 vols., 1772-73; quarters near Alexandria beyond Lake Mareotis.
cf H. Karo and J Liezmann, Catenarum Orcecarum
. . There they dwelt securely in separate huts collected
catalogue, Nachrichten der Oeaettschaft der Wissen- in villages; and in each dwelling there was a sacred
achaften zu Gottingen, phit.-hid. Klasse, 1902) from chamber (semnclon or mona&terion), where, wholly
a manuscript of the eleventh century containing the secluded from the world, the mysteries of the per-
entire Oktateuch which he found in the library of fect life were realized. Into these they took neither
411 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theotokes
Theremin

food nor drink, but only the law, the prophecies, Quod omnis probus liber. Not only the details but
songs of praise, and the like. All day they con- the philosophic-ascetic ideals of the author with
templated the (Old Testament) Scriptures, deci- their rude attacks upon Plato and Hellenism are
phering the hidden sense from the words assumed inconsistent with Philo's sympathy for Hellenic
as symbols. As models they had also the writings of culture. That it was a Christian work of about the
"
ancient men," or the memorials of their founders. year 300 was shown because (1) Eusebius, who
Besides, they had songs and hymns in different knew Christian monasticism, rediscovered Christian
meters. Their devotional chambers they left monks in the Therapeuta*; (2) sects based on the
only after sunset for food and sleep, without cross- Old Testament but who stripped off the Jewish na-
i7ig, as a rule, the threshold of the house. Fasting tional character are unknown in Judaism; (3) if
was curried on from three to six days in the week. Christian monks are at the basis, the writing can
On the seventh day as well as the forty-ninth and not be earlier than the middle of the third century.
fiftieth, after anointing themselves with oil, they In conclusion, Lucius, from his thorough acquaint-
assembled in common celebration, the sexes being ance with nioriasticism before Constantine, was
separated by a partition. On such days, they able to point out the detailed correspondence of the
arrayed themselves in white garments and partook Therapeuta) to Christian monks, even after the
of a common meal, prescribed to consist of bread, author had veiled unequivocal Christian marks.
salt, hyssop, and water. The leader delivered a Nevertheless, if this prove conclusive, yet the wri-
discourse, which was followed by philosophizing on ting would open glimpses in many points into an
the part of the members, interspersed with singing. ancient Christian monasticism hitherto unknown.
Then the holy table was brought in, containing the At least riot in every respect would it stand isolated
most sacred viands, leavened bread and salt. The to modern knowledge (see HTERACAB, HIEHACITES) ;
allegorical significance referring to the table in the it would locate itself in some offshoot from Origen,
temple and the distinction of the holy ones (priosts) but in detail would contain much that is new and
from others is obscure. Thou followed an all-night striking, since reference to Gnostic communities is
vigil, consisting of exhilarating choral song and not to be thought of. But new light has been
dunce, in imitation of lhat of Miriam upon the de- brought to bear on the work by F. C. Conybeare,
liverance from the Rod Sea (Ex. xv. 1-21). and by Wendland (Die Thf^apcuten, Leipsic,
P.
The first to mention this writing was Eusebius 1896). The
latter showed that the work accords
(Hist. eccl., IT., xvi -xvii.; Eng. transl., NPNF, philologically with the genuine tracts, and points
'Jd sor., i. 116-119), who, professing to quote from out, from traditional historical considerations, that
Philo, regarded the Therapeutic as the oldest Alex- it was already in existence by the middle of the
andrine Christians, and they and their practises third century. He made it seem probable, further,
were to him the weightiest proof that the Christian that the inconsistency with other works of Philo
asceticism of his day, the philosophizing monas- does not necessarily invalidate unity of authorship;
(irism, was original Christianity itself. This was a and that the tract was a continuation of the de-
strong support to the conception of Christianity scription of the Essenes, and therefore a part of the
which prevailed in the Church at the time. Philo lost He hyper Judaion apologitij which is identical
rose in estimation and Jerome placed him among with the Hypothctika. If, until further proof to the
the illustrious men of the Church, a dignity which
contrary, the work is to obtain as genuine, then
remained unchallenged for a thousand years. Prot- the Therapeutip arc to be recognized as a circle of
estant criticism easily overturned this assumption, Jewish contemplative students of Scripture settled
and declared the Therapeutip to have been a society on Lake Mareotis. If the whole is literally true,
of philosophizing Jews. Until recently this verdict Philo has introduced much that is extra-Jewish
prevailed, and the appearance of the Therapeutop in and strange; and that he is silent about them
the time of Christ was industriously employed to elsewhere remains striking. With the Essenes the
illustrate the diversification of the Jews in Alexan-
Therapeutsr have no connection.
dria. They were presumed to be the Alexandrine (A. HARNACK.)
parallel to the Palestinian Essenes. H. Graetz first BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tho completeness of tho edition of Philo's
pointed out that they must be Christian monks of Df vita contemplatioa by F. C. Conybeare noted in the
the third century (Geschicktc der J \ulen, iii. 463 sqq., 1ext, including tho commentary and a most comprehen-
2d The result of the reinvesti- sive series of excursuses coveringall questions respecting
ed., Leipsic, 1882).
the Thcrapeuta-, together with the annotated bibliography
gation of P. F. Lucius (Die Thcrapeuten und ihre (pp. 301-399), makes unnecessary here a list of works.
Stelluny in der GescMchte der Askese, Strasburg, Investigation of this subject should not be undertaken
1879) was as follows: the work was produced not without a mastery of what Conybeare has offered. Later
discussions do little beside traverse his work. Cf. W.
long before the two of Eusebius by a literary philo-
Boussot, Die Religion des Judentums, pp. 443 sqq., Berlin,
sophic author of ascetic temperament c,s a pane- 1903; DCS, iv. 368-371.
gyric of asceticism; and to secure the weight of an-
tiquity and authority he attached PhuVs name. THEREMIN, LUDWIG FRIEDRICH FRANZ:
That the existence of the sect was most improbable Distinguished preacher and professor in Berlin; b.
among the Jews of the Alexandrine period was at Gramzow (55 m. n.e. of Berlin) Mar. 19, 1780; d.
shown on internal grounds. Besides, although rep- in Berlin Sept. 26, 1846. He studied at Halle, and
resented to be scattered world-wide no writer be- was ordained in Geneva in 1805. From 1810 he
fore Eusebius mentioned them, nor did Philo in lived in Berlin, first as French preacher of a Re-
any other of his writings. Philo could neither have formed congregation, after 1814 as (German) court
intended nor composed it as an appendix to the preacher. He became superior consistorial coun-
Theresa THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 412

cilor and member of the department of education upon her, she came upon the secret of the awful
in 1824 and professor of homiletics in the Univer- terror of sinful iniquity, and the inherent nature of
sity of Berlin in 1839. His preaching was charac- original sin. With this was correlated the conscious-
terized by scrupulous adherence to purity and cor- ness of utter natural impotence and the necessity
rectness of form, with earnest striving to enforce of absolute subjection to God. The intimation on
the truth by all the arts of eloquence; its content the part of various of her friends (c. 1556) of a dia-
was the Biblical Christ, the pure Evangelical truth. bolical, not divine, element in her supernatural
Ten volumes of sermons (Berlin, 1818 sqq., in re- experiences led her to the most horrible self-inflicted
peated editions and various forms) preserve his dis- tortures and mortifications, far in excess of her
courses, and Die Beredsamkeit eine Tugend, oder ordinary asceticism, until Francisco Borgia, to
Gnindlinien eincr systematischcn Rhetorik (Berlin, whom she had made confession, reassured her. On
1814; Eng. transl. by W. G. T. Shedd, Eloquence a St. Peter's Day of 1559 she became firmly con-
Virtue, Andovcr, 1850, new ed., 1872) expounds vinced that Christ was present to her in bodily
his horailctical principles. In Die Lehre vom gdtt- form, though invisible. This vision lasted almost
lichen Reiche (Berlin, 1823) Theremin seeks to de- uninterruptedly for more than two years. In an-
velop the entire moral and dogmatic basis of Chris- other vision, a seraph drove the fiery point of a
tianity from the concept of the kingdom of God. golden lance repeatedly through her heart, causing
Adalberts Bekenntnisse (Berlin, 1828; Eng. transl., an unexampled, as it were, spiritual-bodily pain.
Confessions of Adalbert, London, 1838) is apologetic The memory of this episode served as an inspira-
in character, presenting the story of a life long rest- tion in determining her long struggle of love and
less and troubled because of devotion to the world Buffering, from which emanated her life-long pas-
and unbelief, then by providential leading and sion for conformation to the life and endurance of
subjective receptivity brought to faith and Chris- the Savior, to be epitomized in the cry usually in-
tian fellowship. Abendstunden (3 vols., Berlin, "
scribed as a motto upon her images: Lord, either
1833-39) was Theremin's most popular work; it is lot me suffer or let me die."
a collection of religious poems, stories, letters, and The incentive to give outward practical expres-
the like, often showing more rhetoric than true sion to her inward motive \vas inspired in Theresa
poetic form, yet containing many meritorious pro- by Peter of Alcantara (q \O. Inoi-
ductions. His last publication was Demosthenes Activities dentally, he became acquainted \\ith
und MassUlon, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Bered- as Founder her early in 15(K), and became her spiri-
samkeit (Berlin, 1845). (C. VON PALMER^) and Re- tual guide and counselor. She IIO\N re-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: ADB, xxxvii. 724. former, solved to found a Carmelite* monastery
THERESA, te-ri'sa or te-re'sfl (TERESA DE for nuns, and to reform the laxity

JESUS), SAINT: Spanish mystic and monastic which she had found in the Cloister of the Incarna-
reformer; b. at Avila (53 m. n.w. of Madrid), Old tion and others. Giumara de Ullon, a woman of
Castile, Mar. 28, 1515; d. at Alva Oct. 4, 1582. The wealth and a friend, supplied the funds. The al>-
deeply pious and ascetic ideal after the example of solute poverty of the new monastery established
saints and martyrs was early instilled in her by her in 1562 and named St. Joseph's, at first exeited a
father, the knight Alonso Sanchez de scandal among the citizens and authorities of Avila,
Cloister Cepeda, and especially by her mother, and the little house with its chapel was in peril of
Life. Beatrix d' Avila y Ahumada. Leaving suppression; but powerful patrons like the bishop
her parental home secretly one morn- himself, as well as the impression of well-secured
ing in 1534, she entered the monastery of the In- subsistence and prosperity, turned animosity into
carnation of the Carmelite nuns at Avila. In the applause. In Mar., 1563, when Theresa removed
cloister she suffered much from illness. Early in her to the new cloister, she received the papal sanction
sickness she experienced periods of spiritual ecstasy to her prime principle of absolute poverty and re-
through the use of the devotional book, Abecedario nunciation of property, which she proceeded to
" " "
espirttual, commonly known as the third or the formulate into a Constitution." Her plan was
" " the revival of the earlier stricter rules, supple-
spiritual alphabet (published, six parts, 1537-
1554). This work, following the example of similar mented by new regulations like the three disciplines

writings of the medieval mystics, consisted of di- of ceremonial flagellation prescribed for the divine
rections for tests of conscience and for spiritual self- service every week, and the discalceation of the
concentration and inner contemplation, known in nuns, or the substitution of leather or wooden san-
mystical nomenclature as oratio recottectionis or dals for shoes. For the first five years Theresa re-
oratio mentalis. Besides, she employed other mys- mained in pious seclusion, engaged in writing. In
tical ascetic works; such as the Tractatua de ora- 1657 she received a patent from the Carmelite gen-
tione et mcditatione of Peter of Alcantara (q.v.), eral, Rubeo de Ravenna, to establish new houses of
and perhaps many of those upon which Ignatius her order, and in this effort and later visitations
Loyola based his Exercitia, and not improbably this she made long journeys through nearly all the
Exercitia itself. She professed, in her illness, to provinces of Spain. Of these she gives a descrip-
"
rise from the lowest stage, recollection," to the tion in her Libro de las Fundaciones (a late ed.,
" " "
devotions of peace or even to the devotions of Madrid, 1880; Eng. transl., Book of the Foundations,
union/' which was one of perfect ecstasy. With London, 1871). Between 1567 and 1571, reform
"
this was frequently joined a rich blessing of tears." convents were established at Medina del Caxnpo,
As the merely outer and void Roman Catholic dis- Malagon, Valladolid, Toledo, Pastrana, Salamanca,
tinction between mortal and venial sin dawned and Alba de Tonnes. After her spirit and example,
413 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA There**

a similar movement for men was begun by Juan de the higher soul faculties, a conscious rapture in the
"
la Cruz. Another friend, Geronimo Gracian, Car- love of God. The fourth is the devotion of ec-
1
melite visitator of the older observance of Andalusia stasy or rapture' a passive state, in which the
and apostolic commissioner, and later provincial of consciousness of being in the body disappears
the Theresian reforms, gave her powerful support (II Cor. xii. 2-3). Sense activity ceases; memory
in founding convents at Segovia (1571), Veas de and imagination are also absorbed in God or in-
Segura (1574), Seville (1575), and Caravaca in toxicated. Body and spirit are in the throes of a
Murcia (1576), while the deeply mystical Juan, by sweet, happy pain, alternating between a fearful
fiery glow, a complete impotence and unconscious-
his power as teacher and preacher promoted the
inner life of the movement. In 1576 began a series ness, and a spell of strangulation, intermitted
of persecutions on the part of the older observant sometimes by such an ecstatic flight that the body
Carmelite order against Theresa, her friends, and is literally lifted into space. This after half an hour
her reforms. Pursuant to a body of resolutions is followed by a reactionary relaxation of a few hours

adopted at the general chapter at Piacenza, the in a swoon-like weakness, attended by a negation
" "
definitors of the order forbade all further of
1
ah the faculties in the union with God. From
founding of convents. The general condemned her this the subject awakens in tears; it is the climax
to voluntary retirement to one of her institutions. of mystical experience, productive of the trance.
She obeyed and chose St. Joseph's at Toledo. Her Theresa's writings, produced for didactic pur-
friends and subordinates were subjected to greater poses, stand among the most remarkable in the
trials. Finally, after several years her pleadings by mystical literature of the Roman Catholic Church:
letter with Philip II. secured relief. As a result, in
"
the Autobiography," written before
1579, the processes before the Inquisition against Her 1567, under the direction of her con-
her, Gracian, and others were dropped, and the Writings, Padro Ibanez (La Vida de la
fessor,
extension of the reform was at least negatively per- Santa Madre Teresa de Jesus, Madrid,
mitted. A brief of Gregory XIII. allowed a special 1882; Eng. transl., The Life of 8. Teresa of Jesus,
provincial for the younger branch of the discalceate London, 1888); Camino de Perfecion, written also
nuns, and a royal rescript created a protective before 1567, at the direction of her confessor (Sala-
board of four assessors for the reform. During the manca, 1589; Eng. transl., The Way of Perfection,
last three years of her life Theresa founded con- London, 1852); El Castillo Interior, written in 1577
vents at Villanueva de la Xara in northern Andu- (Eng. transl T)\e Interior Castle, London, 1852),
,

lusia (1580), Palencia (1580), Soria (1581), Burgos, comparing the contemplative soul to a castle with
and at Granada (1582). In all seventeen nunneries, seven successive interior courts, or chambers, anal-
all but one founded by her, and as many men's ogous to the seven heavens; and Reladones, an
cloisters \vero due to her reform activity of twenty extension of the autobiography giving her inner and
years. Her final illness overtook her on one of her outer experiences in epistolary form. Two smaller
journeys from Burgos to Alba de Tormes. Forty works arc Conceptos del Amor and Exclamation ex.
years after her death she was canonized, and her Besides, there are the Cartas (Saragossa, 1671), or
church reveres her as the " seraphic virgin.'
1
The correspondence, of which there are 342 letters and
Cortes exalted her to patroness of Spain in 1814, 87 fragments of others. Theresa's prose is marked
and the university previously conferred the title by an unaffected grace, an ornate neatness, and
Doctor ecclesicp, with a diploma. The mysticism in charming power of expression, together placing her
her works exerted a formative influence upon many in the front rank of Spanish prose writers; and her
theologians of the following centuries, such as rare poems (Todas las pocstas, Munster, 1854) are
Francis of Sales, Fe*nelon, and the Port Royalists. distinguished for tenderness of feeling and rhythm
The kernel of Theresa's mystical thought through- of thought. Of complete editions of Theresa's
out all her writings is the ascent of the soul in four works should be noted: Obras, novisima edicion (6
stages (" Autobiography," chap, x.-xxii.). The vols., Madrid, 1881), by V. de la Fuente; and for
"
first, or heart's devotion," is that of devout con- beauty and accuracy of style, the French transla-
templation or concentration, the withdrawal of the tion by Amauld d'Andilly, Les (Euvres de Sainte
soul from without and specially the devout ob- Therese (Paris, 1855, new ed., 1867-69).
servance of the passion of Christ and penitence. (O. ZftCKLERt.)
The second is the " devotion of peace," BIBLIOGRAPHY: The
"
Life
"
by Theresa's father confessor,
Her Mysti- in which at least the human will is F. de Ribera, was first issued, Madrid, 1590, exists in Fr.
transls. issued at Paris, 1632, 1645, 1867, 2 vols., 1884.
cism. lost in that of God by virtue of a char-
Her autobiography, preserved in the monastery of S.
ismatic, supernatural state given of Lorenzo in the Esuurial, was issued anew, Madrid, 1882,
God, while the other faculties, as memory, reason, and is in Fr. transl., Paris, 1691, 1857, 1880, Germ, trnnsl.,
Aachen, 1868, Regensburg, 1868, Eng. transl., London,
and imagination, are not yet secure from worldly 1905. A very full collection of early material is in ASB,
distraction. While a partial distraction is due to Oct., vii. 109-790. Later lives are by Diego Yepes, Ma-
outer performances such as repetition of prayers drid, 1599; Juan de Jesus Maria, ib. 1605; Q. Gracian, ib.
and writing down spiritual things, yet the prevail- 1611; A. de S. Joaquin, 12 vols., ib. 1733-66; F. a 8.
Antonio, Venice, 1754; M. de Traggia, Madrid, 1807;
ing state is one of quietude. The " devotion of J. B. A. Boucher, 2 vols.. Paris, 1810; F. B. Colloinbct,
"
union is not only a supernatural but an essentially Lyons, 1837; J. H. Hennes, 2d ed., Frankfort, 1866; Luis
ecstatic state. Here there is also an absorption of de Leon, BiograpHieen aus der Oeschichte der spanischen
Inquisition, p. 356, Halle, 1866; Ida. Countess Hahn-
the reason in God, and only the memory and imag-
Hahn, Mainz, 1867; P. Rousselot, Lea Mystiques eapa-
ination are left to ramble. This state is character- OnoU, pp. 308-378. Paris, 1867; E. Hofele, Regensburg.
ized by a blissful peace, a sweet slumber of at least 1982; J. Loth, Rouen, 1883; Mme. Eatienne d'Orves,
 There** THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG

cilor and member of the department of education upon her, she came upon the secret of the awful
in 1824 and professor of homiletics in the Univer- terror of sinful iniquity, and the inherent nature of
sity of Berlin in 1839. His preaching was charac- original sin. With this was correlated the conscious-
terized by scrupulous adherence to purity and cor- ness of utter natural impotence and the necessity
rectness of form, with earnest striving to enforce of absolute subjection to God. The intimation on
the truth by all the arts of eloquence; its content the part of various of her friends (c. 1556) of a dia-
was the Biblical Christ, the pure Evangelical truth. bolical, not divine, element in her supernatural
Ten volumes of sermons (Berlin, 1818 sqq., in re- experiences led her to the most horrible self-inflicted
peated editions and various forms) preserve his dis- tortures and mortifications, far in excess of her
courses, and Die Beredsamkeit eine Tugend, oder ordinary asceticism, until Francisco Borgia, to
Grundlinien einer systematischcn Rhetorik (Berlin, whom she had made confession, reassured her. On
1814; Eng. transl. by W. G. T. Shedd, Eloquence a St. Peter's Day of 1559 she became firmly con-

Virtue, Andover, 1850, new ed., 1872) expounds vinced that Christ was present to her in bodily
his homiletical principles. In Die Lehre vom gdtt- form, though invisible. Tins vision lasted almost
lichen Reiche (Berlin, 1823) Theremin seeks to de- uninterruptedly for more than two years. In an-
velop the entire moral and dogmatic basis of Chris- other vision, a seraph drove the fiery point of a
tianity from the concept of the kingdom of God. golden lance repeatedly through her heart, causing
Adalberts Bekenntnisse (Berlin, 1828; Eng. transl., an unexampled, as it were, spiritual-bodily pain.
Confessions of Adalbert, London, 1838) is apologetic The memory of this episode served us an inspira-
in character, presenting the story of a life long rest- tion in determining her long struggle of love and
less and troubled because of devotion to the world suffering, from which emanated her lifo-lorig pas-
and unbelief, then by providential leading and sion for conformation to the life and endurance of
subjective receptivity brought to faith and Chris- the Savior, to be epitomized in the cry usually in-
tian fellowship. Abendstunden (3 vols., Berlin, "
scribed as a motto upon her images: Lord, either
1833-39) was Theremin's most popular work; it is let me suffer or let me die."
a collection of religious poems, stories, letters, and The incentive to give outward practical expres-
the like, often showing more rhetoric than true sion to her inward motive was inspired in Theresa
poetic form, yet containing many meritorious pro- by Peter of Alcantara (q v.). Inei-
ductions. His last publication was Demosthenes Activities dentally, he became acquainted with
und Massillon, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Bered- as Founder her early in 15GO, and became her tspiri-
samkeit (Berlin, 1845). (C. VON PALMER!.) and Re- tual guide and counselor She now re-
BIBLIOGRAPHY; ADB, xxxvii. 724. former, solved to found a Carmelite monastery
THERESA, te-ri'pd or te-re'sd (TERESA DE for nuns, and to reform the laxity

JESUS), SAINT: Spanish mystic and monastic which she had found in the Cloister of the Incarna-
reformer; b. at Avila (53 m. n.w. of Madrid), Old tion and others. Giurnara de Ullon, a woman of
Castile, Mar. 28, 1515; d. at Alva Oct. 4, 1582. The wealth and a friend, supplied the funds. The al>-
deeply pious and ascetic ideal after the example of solutc poverty of the new monastery established
saints and martyrs was early instilled in her by her in 1562 and named St. Joseph's, at first excited a
father, the knight Aionso Sanchez dc scandal among the citizens and authorities of Avila,
Cloister Cepeda, and especially by her mother, and the little house with its chapel was in peril of
Life. Beatrix d'Avila y Ahumada. Leaving suppression; but powerful patrons like the bishop
her parental home secretly one morn- himself, as well as the impression of well-secured
ing in 1534, she entered the monastery of the In- subsistence and prosperity, turned animosity into
carnation of the Carmelite nuns at Avila. In the applause. In Mar., 1563, when Theresa removed
cloister she suffered much from illness. Early in her to the new cloister, she received the papal sanction
sickness she experienced periods of spiritual ecstasy to her prime principle of absolute poverty and re-
through the use of the devotional book, Abecedario nunciation of property, which she proceeded to
" " or the "
espiritual, commonly known as the third formulate into a Constitution." Her plan was
" " the revival of the earlier stricter rules, supple-
spiritual alphabet (published, six parts, 1537-
1554). This work, following the example of similar mented by new regulations like the three disciplines
writings of the medieval mystics, consisted of di- of ceremonial flagellation prescribed for the divine
rections for tests of conscience and for spiritual self- service every week, and the discalccation of the
concentration and inner contemplation, known in nuns, or the substitution of leather or wooden san-
mystical nomenclature as vratio recollectionis or dals for shoes. For the first five years Theresa re-
oratio mentalis. Besides, she employed other mys- mained in pious seclusion, engaged in writing. In
tical ascetic works; such as the Tractates de ora- 1657 she received a patent from the Carmelite gen-
tione et meditatione of Peter of Alcantara (q.v.), eral, Rubeo de Ravenna, to establish new houses of
and perhaps many of those upon which Ignatius her order, and in this effort and later visitations
Loyola based his Exercitia, and not improbably this she made long journeys through nearly all the
Exercitia itself. She professed, in her illness, to provinces of Spain. Of these she gives a descrip-
rise from the lowest stage,
"
recollection," to the tion in her Libro de las Fundaciones (a late ed.,
" "
devotions of peace or even to the " devotions of Madrid, 1880; Eng. transl., Book of the Foundations,
union," which was one of perfect ecstasy. With London, 1871). Between 1567 and 1571, reform
"
this was frequently joined a rich blessing of tears." convents were established at Medina del Campo,
As the merely outer and void Roman Catholic dis- Malagon, Valladolid, Toledo, Pastrana, Salamanca,
tinction between mortal and venial sin dawned and Alba de Tonnes. After her spirit and example,
413 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Thereaa

a similar movement for men was begun by Juan de the higher soul faculties, a conscious rapture in the
"
la Cruz. Another friend, Geronimo Gracian, Car- love of God. The fourth is the devotion of ec-
melite visitator of the older observance of Andalusia stasy or rapture" a passive state, in which the
and apostolic commissioner, and later provincial of consciousness of being in the body disappears
the Theresian reforms, gave her powerful support (II Cor. xii. 2-3). Sense activity ceases; memory
in founding convents at Segovia (1571), Veas de and imagination are also absorbed in God or in-
Segura (1574), Seville (1575), and Caravaca in toxicated. Body and spirit are in the throes of a
Murcia (1576), while the deeply mystical Juan, by sweet, happy pain, alternating between a fearful
his power as teacher and preacher promoted the a complete impotence and unconscious-
fiery glow,
inner life of the movement. In 1576 began a scries ness, and a spell of strangulation, intermitted
of persecutions on the part of the older observant sometimes by such an ecstatic flight that the body
Carmelite order against Theresa, her friends, and into space. This after half an hour
is literally lifted
her reforms. Pursuant to a body of resolutions isfollowed by a reactionary relaxation of a few hours
adopted at the general chapter at Piacenza, the in a swoon-like weakness, attended by a negation
" "
definitors of the order forbade all further of all the faculties in the union with God. From
founding of convents. The general condemned her this the subject awakens in tears; it is the climax
to voluntary retirement to one of her institutions. of mystical experience, productive of the trance.
She obeyed and chose St. Joseph's at Toledo. Her Theresa's writings, produced for didactic pur-
friends and subordinates were subjected to greater poses, stand among the most remarkable in the
trials. Finally, after several years her pleadings by mystical literature of the Roman Catholic Church:
letter with Philip II. secured relief. As a result, in
"
the Autobiography," written before
1579, the processes before the Inquisition against Her 1567, under the direction of her con-
her, Gracian, and others were dropped, and the Writings, fessor, Padro Ibanez (La Vida de la
extension of the reform was at least negatively per- Santa Madre Teresa de Jesus, Madrid,
mitted. A brief of Gregory XIII. allowed a special 1882; Eng. transl., The Life of S. Teresa of Jesus,
provincial for the younger branch of the discalccate London, 1888); Camino de Perfecion, written also
nuns, and a royal rescript created a protective before 1567, at the direction of her confessor (Sala-
board of four assessors for the reform. During the manca, 1589; Eng. transl., The Way of Perfection,
last three years of her life Theresa founded con- London, 1852); El Castillo Interior, written in 1577
vents at Villnnueva de la Xara in northern Andu- (Eng. transl., T)ie Interior Castle, London, 1852),
lusia (lf>80), Palencia (1580), Soria (1581), Burgos, comparing the contemplative soul to a castle with
and at Granada (1582). In all seventeen nunneries, seven successive interior courts, or chambers, anal-
all but one founded by her, and as many men's ogous to the seven heavens; and Relaciones, an
cloisters were due to her reform activity of twenty extension of the autobiography giving her inner and
years. Her final illness overtook her on one of her outer experiences in epistolary form. Two smaller
journeys from Burgos to Alba de Tonnes. Forty works arc Conceptos del Amor and Exclama^iones.
years after her death she was canonized, and her Besides, there are the Cartas (Saragossa, 1671), or
church reveres her as the " seraphic virgin." The correspondence, of which there are 342 letters and
Cortes exalted her to patroness of Spain in 1814, 87 fragments of others. Theresa's prose is marked
and the university previously conferred the title by an unaffected grace, an ornate neatness, and
Doctor ccdesi(K with a diploma. The mysticism in charming power of expression, together placing her
her works exerted a formative influence upon many in the front rank of Spanish prose writers; and her
theologians of the following centuries, such as rare poems (Todas las poesias, Munster, 1854) are
Francis of Sales, Fe"nclon, and the Port Royalists. distinguished for tenderness of feeling and rhythm
The kernel of Theresa's mystical thought through- of thought. Of complete editions of Theresa's
out allher writings is the ascent of the soul in four works should be noted: Obras, novisima edidon (6
u
stages ( Autobiography," chap, x.-xxii.). The vols., Madrid, 1881), by V. de la Fucnte; and for
"
first, or heart's devotion," is that of devout con- beauty and accuracy of style, the French transla-
templation or concentration, the withdrawal of the tion by Amauld d'Andilly, Les (Euvres de Sainte
soul from without and specially the devout ob- Therese (Paris, 1855, new ed., 1867-69).
servance of the passion of Christ and penitence. (O. ZocKLERf.)
"
The second is the " devotion of peace," "
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Life by Theresa's father confessor,
Her Mysti- in which at least the human will is F. de Ribera, was first issued, Madrid, 1590, exists in Fr.
transls. issued at Paris, 1632, 1645, 1867, 2 vols.. 1884.
cism. lost in that of God by virtue of a char- Her autobiography, preserved in the monastery of K.
ismatic, supernatural state given of Lorenzo in the Escurial, was issued anew, Madrid, 1882,
God, while the other faculties, as memory, reason, and is in Fr. transl., Paris, 1691, 1857, 1880, Germ, transl.,
Aachen, 1868, Regensburg, 1868, Eng. transl., London,
and imagination, are not yet secure from worldly A
1905. very full collection of early material is in AXK,
distraction. While a partial distraction is due to Oct.. vii. 109-790. Later lives are by Diego Yepes, Ma-
outer performances such as repetition of prayers drid, 1599; Juan de Jesus Maria, ib. 1605; Q. Gracian, ib.
and writing down spiritual things, yet the prevail- 1611; A. de S. Joaquin, 12 vols., ib. 1733-66; F. a 8.
Antonio, Venice, 1754; M. de Traggia, Madrid. 1807;
ing state is one of quietude. The " devotion of J. B. A. Boucher, 2 vols., Paris, 1810; F. B. Collombet,
"
union is not only a supernatural but an essentially Lyons, 1837; J. H. Hennes, 2d ed., Frankfort, 1866; Luis
ecstatic state. Here there is also an absorption of de Leon, Biographieen aus der Gcschichte der ttpanischen
Inquisition, p. 356, Halle, 1866; Ida, Countess Hahn-
the reason in God, and only the memory and imag-
Hahn, Maini, 1867; P. Rouaselot, Les Mystiques espa-
ination are left to ramble. This state is character- ffnolt, PP. 308-378, Paris, 1867; E. Hofele, Regensburg,
ized by a blissful peace, a sweet slumber of at least 1982; J. Loth, Rouen, 1383; Mme. Estienne d'Orves,
Thessalonio
Tbieraoh THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 414

Paris, 1890; Print von Oettingen-Spielberg, Regensburg, The apostle Paul introduced Christianity into
1899; H. Joly, 2d ed., Paris, 1901; M. G. Lia*t, Munster, Thessalonica upon his second missionary journey.
1901; W. Fairweather, London, 1907; Helen H. Colvill,
Saint Teresa of Spain, London, 1909. Consult further:
He came with Silas and Timothy, preached for three
O. Z&ckler, Petrus von Alcantara, Teresia von Ao\la, und Sundays in the synagogue there, and, as the result
Johannes de Cruce, in Zeitschrift ftir lutherische Theologie of the work, a church was gathered, principally
und Kirchf, xxvi (1865), 68-106, 281-303; H. Heppe,
Getchiehte der quietistischen My stiff in tier katholischen composed, however, of Gentiles. Among the con-
Kirche, pp. 9-22, Berlin, J875; G. Hahn, Les PMnomenes verts were Caius, Aristarchus, Secundus, and per-
hy&tenques ft les revelations de 8. Thtrese, Brusflels, 1883, haps Jason (Acts xvii. 1-13, xx. 4, xxvii. 2; cf. Phil,
Germ, trannl l^eipsic, 1906, A. Barine, in RDM, Ixxv
,
iv. 16; II Tim. iv. 10). Paul wrote to the Thesas-
(1886), 549-579; L. dc Sau, fitude pathologico-thtologique,
lonian Church two epistles from Corinth (see PAUL,
sur S. There**; Louvain, 1886 (answers Hahn); H. Dela-
croix, Etudes d'hiRt et dc psychologic du mysticism?, Paris, II., 2, 1-2). In striking proof of the minute
1908; Saint Theresa, the History of her Foundations. accuracy of Luke, upon the arch of the Vardar gate,
Transl. from Spanish by Sister Agnes Mason, London, so called because it leads to the Vardar, or Axius,
1909.
there occurs the word Tro^ra/^oiVruv (politarchs)
TEESSALONICA, fheH"a-lo-nai'ca: A city of as the designation of the seven magistrates of the
Macedonia, the modern Saloniki, situated at the city, a word unmentioned in ancient literature, yet
northeast corner of the Thennaic Gulf. Its original the word which Luke employs to designate them
name was Thcrma, or Therme, " Hot Bath," so (Acts xvii. 8).
called from the hot salt-springs found about four From Thessalonica the Gospel spread quickly all
Its later name was "
miles from the present city. around (I Thess. i. 8). During several centuries
probably given to it by Cassander, king of Mace- this city was the bulwark, not simply of the later
donia, who rebuilt it in 31f> B.C., and called it after Greek Empire, but of Oriental Christendom, and
his wife. Being well situated for commerce, it was was largely instrumental in the conversion of the
a own of importance from very early times. It
i Slavonians and Bulgarians. Thus it received the
"
was taken from the Macedonians, and occupied by ' '

designation of the Orthodox City (Howson).

Athenians, about 432; restored soon after; re- Its see had well-nigh the dignity of a patriarchate;
peopled by Cassander, 315; became the great Mace- and it was because Leo the Isaurian severed the
donian naval station; surrendered to the Romans trans-Adriatic provinces, which had been under its
after the battle of Pydna, 168, and was made the immediate jurisdiction, from the Roman see, that
capital of the second of the four divisions of Mace- the division between the Latin and Greek was in
donia, or Macedonia tfccunda, between the Strymon great measure caused. It was the see-city of Kusta-
and the Axius; and when the four were reduced to thius of Thessalonica (q.v). From 1205 to 1418
one province, under the jurisdiction of a proconsul, there were Latin archbishops in Thessalonica. At
it uas the virtual metropolis, and there the pro- the present day it is the sent of a Greek metropoli-
consul lived. There Cicero lived from April till tan, and contains numerous churches and schools
Nov., 58, during his exile; and there the party of of different denominations. Many of the mosques
Pompey and the senate had their headquarters were formerly churches.
during the first civil war, 49. It took the side of BIBLIOOKAPIIV: T. L. F. Tafel, Disscrtatio de Thensalnnna,
Octavius (Augustus) against Sextus Pompeius (42- Berlin, (the ehief authority); Ci. F. Bowen, Mount
1S,'J9
r
Athos, ThcHHaly, and Epirus, Ixmdon, 18. >2; H. F. Tozor,
39), arid in reward was made a free city. At the
Geography of Greece, p 204, Ixnidon, 187H; W. Smith,
opening of the Christian era it was the capital of Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, h. 117O-1174,
the whole country between the Adriatic and the London, 1878; W. M. Ramsay, Church in the Roman Em-
" pire, passim, Ix>ndon, 181)8; idem, *S/ Paul the Travelhr
Black Sea, and the chief station on the great
and the Roman Citizen, chap x., ih 181)6; Abbe Bellev,
Roman road, called the Via Egnatia, which con- in M moires de V academic aes inscriptions, xxxvm. 121-
nected Rome with the whole region to the north of 146; DH, iv. 749-750; KB, iv. 5046-48; A'L, x. 6f>8-
the ^Egean Sea." Before Constantinople was built, 660; and, in general, the works on Paul the Apostle, the
introduction to the commentaries on Thcsaalonians und
it was virtually the capital of Greece and Illyricum,
the commentaries on Acts.
as well as of Macedonia, and shared the trade of the
-#!gean with Ephesus and Corinth. In the middle THEUDAS, thu'das: A Jewish factionary named
of the third Christian century it was made a Roman by Gamaliel, Acts v. 34-39. A Thcudas is named
colony, soldiers being settled there in order to in- also by Josephus (Ant., XX., v. 1), who states that
crease its strength as a bulwark against the Gothic this man was a magician who in the time of Fadus
hordes. In 390 A.D., in a sedition there, the prefect the procurator (44-46 A.D.) claimed to be a prophet,
Botericus was murdered; in dreadful revenge, near- drew many people after him, promising to divide
ly 7,000 persons were massacred by Theodosius I. the waters of the Jordan for their passage, but that
(q.v.; cf. AMBROHE, SAINT, OF MILAN). From the his company was dispersed by a troop which Fadus
fourth to the eighth century Thessalonica withstood sent against them; many of them were killed, while
many attacks from Goths and Slavs. On July 30, Theudas was caught and beheaded. This Theudas
904, it was taken by the Saracens; on Aug. 15, was anterior in time to Judas, according to Gamaliel,
1 185, by the Normans of
Sicily, and by the Turks in therefore before 6-7 A.D., so that Gamaliel could
1380; it was ceded to the Greek Emperor Manuel, not on this basis have meant the same person as
1403, sold to the Venetians by Andronicus, and Josephus, whose affair took place ten years later
finally taken by the Turks from the Venetians, 1430. than Gamaliel's speech. Since the time of Origen
The modern city had in 1907 a population of 150,- (Contra Celsum, i. 6) many have sought to see two
000. Its commerce is extensive, and it retains its Theudases, though a Theudas of the period indi-
ancient importance. cated by Gamaliel is not known, and arbitrary iden-
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Theasalonica
416 Thiersch

tifications of others with the Theudas of Acts fail (1900); Der Offenbarungsglaube im Streit uber Bibd
to convince. Blass conjectures a father or grand- und Babel (1903); Die ckristliche Demut (vol. i ,

father of the Josephan Theudas and of the same 1906) Jesus und seine Predigt (Giesscn, 1908)
;
Die ;

name, relying upon ancient custom, but without any Theologie der Heilstatsachen und das Evany eh urn
testimony to the fact. Again Blass conjectures that, Jesus (1909); and Zu Wundte Relig writs psychologic
wliile many regard Josephus as the basis of Luke in (Leipsic, 1910).
Acts, some one has inserted Theudas in the text of
Josephus, basing his supposition in part upon a THIERSCH, ttrsh, HEINRICH WILHELM
variant reading in Codex D. Some scholars like JOSIAS: German Irvingite; b. at Munich Nov. 5,

B. Weiss, Clemen, and Hilgenfeld suppose the ref- 1817 d. at Basel Dec. 3, 1885. He studied philology
;

erence to time in Acts is due to an editor whose at Munich (1833-35; chiefly under his father, but
also heard Schelling and Gorres), theology at Er-
chronology was wrong.
Recently the passage is newly adduced to show langen (1835-37, where he heard Olslmuscn and
Luke's dependence upon Josephus. Josephus fol- Harless), and at Tubingen (1837-38); became rep-
lows his report of Theudas with one of the revolt etcnt at Erlangen (1839), privat-docent (1840) and
of the sons of Judas under Quirinius. Moreover, professor of theology at Marburg (1843); mean-
thore are verbal coincidences between the narra- while, as early as 1836 he had become interested
tive of Luke and that of Josephus; both also name in Irvingism, and received that faith (1847),
Judas, though Josephus knows his origin; both
and resigned his professorship in 1850 in order to
labor in the interests of the Catholic Apostolic
speak of Quirinius' taxing. These lead to the con-
clusion of interdependence. On the other hand, Church (q.v.) which was then being organized in
" "
Luke knows the number of the adherents of Theu- Germany by evangelists from England. Among
" these the Apostle Carlyle exercised the deepest in-
das, Josephus speaks of a great part of the people,"
his narrative shows that a squadron of fluenee upon him. Thiersch received ordination
though
from the Irvingites, and subsequently resided suc-
cavalry (about 500 men) broke up the combination;
Luke has employed little of the detail of Josephus. cessively in Marburg, Munieh, Augsburg, and Basel,
In that ease Luke must have misunderstood Jo- exercised a general ministry over the scattered Ir-
was privat-docent at Mar-
sephus, assumed the relative order in Josephus' vingite congregations,
narrative as historical, and transferred the events burg (1853-58), but in general his university life
from Judas' sons to the father. Schmiedel supposes was closed with his acceptance of Irvingite prin-
that Luke had made notes, meager, however, from ciples. During the later years of his life he cor-
Josephus, not noting the dates of the events, in- responded frequently with Dollinger and other Old
deed reading hastily the account of Joscphus, and Catholic leaders.
bo misplaced the events. But this is all conjecture. Thiersch was a man of sincere and profound piety,
Acts does not show traces of such a method. While of rare classical, theological, and general culture, an
the notice of Judas goes back upon Ant., XVIII., i. enthusiastic teacher, and might have become the
1 other events mentioned by Luke come from other
,
successor of Ncander in Berlin but, in obedience to
;

sources, and follow other traditions than those of

what he believed call, he sacrificed a,
to be a divine

Josephus.
brilliantacademic career to his religious convic-
It is better to consider that in the case under tions. He lived in poverty and isolation. He \\as
consideration Luke was not dependent upon Jo- lame; but had a very striking, highly intellectual
sephus, that the coincidences of the two writers
and spiritual countenance, :iml an impressive voice
depend upon the common tradition of the period, and manner. He was the most distinguished Ger-
that the two cases were connected in Luke's mind man convert to Irvingism. lie sineerely believed
as those of revolts, and that the chronological coin- that the Lord had restored the apostolic office and
cidence in order is accidental. (P. FEINE.)
the prophetic gifts of the Apostolic Church in the
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Konutag. T8K, 1837, pp. 622-652; K. T. Irvingite community; and, notwithstanding the
Keim, ,1 UK dem. Urchnrtenthum, i. 1-27, Zurich, 1878; (J. C. apparent failure of the movement, he adhered to it
Clemen, Chronttlagie der paulmischen Bnefc, pp. 66-69, till his death.
Halle, 1893; M Krenkel, JoRephus und Lucas, pp 162-
174. Leipsic, 1894; A. Hauaralh, Neutestamentliche Zeit- His chief writings are: Vcrsuch zur Herstettung des
geschichtc, iv. 239-243, Heidelberg, 1877, Eng. transl., historischen Standpunkts fur die Kritik der ncu-
London, 1895; W. M. Ramsay. Was Chnst born at Bethlc- testamentlichcn ftchnften (Erlangen, 1845; against
htm, pp. 252-260, London, 1898; Cross, in Expository
the Tubingen school of Baur, who answered in
Times, 1899-1 9(X), pp. 538-540; P. Feme, Theoloaischea
Literaturblatt, 1900, pp. 60-61; DB, iv. 750; EB, iv. Der Kritiker und der Fanatiker, in der Person dcs
5049-57; JE, xii. 140; and commentaries on the Acts. Herrn H. W. J. Thiersch. Zur Charaktcristik der
THIEME, tf'me, KARL: German Protestant; neuesten Ttwologic, Stuttgart, 1846); Vorlesungen
b. atSpremberg (53 m. s.s.w. of Frankfort), Saxony, uber KatJiolieismus und Protestantismus (2 vols.,
July 20, 1862. He was educated at the Univer- Erlangen, 1846; able, written in an ironic spirit, and
sity of Leipsic (Ph.D., 1887; lie. theol., 1889), in elegant style); Die, Kirche im apostolischen
where he became privat-docent in 1890, and as- Zeitaltcr (Frankfort, 1852; Eng. transl. by Carlyle
sociate professor of systematic theology in 1894. the Irvingite, London, 1852); Ueber christtichrs
In theology he is a moderate liberal, and has writ- Familienleben (1854); Dollingcr's Auffaxxuw/ den
ten, Glauben und Wissen bei Lotze (Leipsic, 1888) ; Urchristenthumi* beleuchtet (1861); Die Glcichin'NNc
Die sittliche Triebkraft des Glaubens (1895); Eine Christi (Frankfort, 1867); Die Bergpredigt Chrixti
kaiholische Beleuchtung der augsburgischen Kon- (Basel, 1867); Die Strafgesetze in Bayern zum
(1898); Luthers Testament wider Rom Schutz der SitUichkeit (1868); Luther, Gu'xtav Adolf
feswm
Thietmar THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 416
Thirty-Nine Articles

und Max I. von Bayern (NGrdlingen, 1868); Das comprehensive edition of the entire series of writings
Verbot der Eke innerhalb der nahen Verwandtschaft with two volumes of comment; but in spite of much
nach der heiligen Schrift und nach den Grundsdteen labor he published only the Acts of Thomas (Leipsic,
der christlichen Kirche (1869); Die Genesis (Basel, 1823), Peter and Paul (1838), Andrew and Matthew
1869; Eng. transl., The Book of Genesis, London, (1846), fragments of the Acts of John by Leucius
1878); Ueber den christlichen Stoat (1875); Chris- Charinus (1847), and Codex apocryphus Novi
tian Heinrich Zetter's Leben (2 vols. Basel, 1876); Testamenti, vol. I., containing the gospels (1832).
Die Anfdnge der heiligen Geschichte, nach dem 1. His a Bibliotheca patrum
last great undertaking,
Buche Mosis betrachtet (1877); Ueber die Gefahren Oracorum dogmatica, also remained incomplete,
und die Hoffnungen der christlichen Kirche (1877); only one volume (Sancti Athanasii opera dogmatica
Blicke in die Lebensgeschichte des Propheten Daniel selecta,Leipsic, 1853) having appeared. Certain
(1884); Inbegriff der christlichen Lehre (1886; pos- dissertations (Eusebii Alexandrini oratio, Halle,
thumous, contains a manual of Christian doctrine 1834; De coeloempyreo commentationes iii, 1839-40;
and Christian life which he used in his catechetical Commentationes in Synesii hymnum ii, 1842-43)
instruction). (P. ScHAPrf.) D. S. SCHAFF. were the fruit of deep studies of the Neoplatonists.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Wicwmd, H. W. J. Thierach'a Leben, In German Thilo published a Kntiscfics Sendschrei-
Basel, 1888 (partly autobiographical); Hauok-Herzog, ben an Augusti ubcr die Schriftcn des Euscbuis von
RE, xix. 684-692; ADB, zxxviii. 17. Alexandrien und des Eusebius von Emixa (1832)
THIETMAR, tit'mflr (DITHMAR): Bishop of and an introduction to an edition of Knapp's
Merseburg; b. July 25, 975; d. Dec. 1, 1018. He Vorlesungen (2 vols., 1827). He belonged to none
was a Saxon, son of Count Sigefrid of Walbeck, and of the theological parties of the first half of tho nine-
related to the imperial family. lie studied in the teenth century, though he often pronounced
abbey of Quedlinburg and in Magdeburg, and be- Schlciermacher the greatest theologian of the Ger-
came bishop of Merseburg in 1009.Starting with
man Church since Luther, arid he maintained cordial
the intention of writing a history of his diocese, he relations with the two schools into which teachers
" " and scholars in Halle were dividing in his time,
produced a Chronicle (ed. J. M. Lappenberg,
MGH, Script., iii., 1839, pp. 723-871; re-cd. F. desiring most of all to study with mind ever open to
Kurze, Script, rer. Germ., 1889) which is in fact a receive new truth. (E TlENKKf )
history of the empire with the neighboring Ger- BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tho funeral oration by H. L. Dryander
manic and Slavic states, and forms the most im- wan published at Halle, 1853. Consult further ADB,
xxxviii. 40 sqq.
portant source for the later Saxon emperors. A
manuscript preserved in Dresden [published in THIRLWALL, thorl'wOl, CONNOP: Eitfclwh bish-
facsimile by L. Schmidt, Dresden, 1905] written by op and historian; b. in London Feb. 11, 1797;
Thietmar himself shows how he worked, amending d. at Bath July 27, 1S75. He displayed such re-
and adding to the original draft with untiring indus- markable precocity, that in 1809 he published, under
his father's direction, a volume of essays ami poems
try. Naturally this method creates the impression
that Thietmar did not fully master his subject; entitled Primiticc. He was educated at the Charter-
his judgment and opinions are narrow, and his style house and Trinity College, Cambridge (B A 181 S; ,

is dry. But he knew and saw much, was a lover of fellow, 1818); entered Lincoln's Tun, 1820, und was
truth, and was devoted to his fatherland. For the called to the bar 1825; abandoned law and returned
manners and customs of his time he has almost the to Cambridge, 1827; was ordained deacon, 1827,
same importance as Gregory of Tours for the and priest 1828. He then took a full share* of
Merovingian period. (A. HAUCK.) university and college work, and was assistant tutor,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Maurenbrecher, De hiatoria detimi seculi 1832-34; was vicar of Over, 1829; rector of Kirby
scriptoribus, Kdnigsberg, 1870; idem, Forachungen der Underdale, Yorkshire, 1835-40, and bishop of St.
deutschen Getchichte, xiv. 347 sqq.; Kurze, in NA, xiv.
593 sqq., xvi. 459 sqq.; W. Grundlach, Heldenliedcr, i. David's, 1840-74. He was an active member of
114 sqq., Innsbruck, 1894; Hauck, KD, iii. 949-060; the Old Testament Revision Company. He trans-
ADB, xxxviii. 26. lated with J. Hare from Niebuhr vols. i. and ii. of
The History of Rome (London, 1828 sqq.); and was
THILO, ti'lo, JOHANN KARL: Professor in the author of A History of Greece (8 vols., 1835-47);
Halle; b. at Langensalza (19 m. n.w. of Erfurt), Our Works (1845; vol. i. of Watson and Cros-
Thuringia, Nov. 28, 1794; d. in Halle May 17, 1853. thwaite's Practical Sermons, 1845-^6); The Irish
He studied at Schulpforte 1809-14, then in Leipsic, A
Church. Speech delivered in the House of Lords
and a final semester in Halle. In 1817 he became Remains Literary and Theological (3 vols.,
(1869);
teacher in the Latin school of the Halle orphan
1877-78); and Letters Literary and Theological
asylum and also in the Royal Pedagogium of (1881).
Franke's foundations, and filled the position five BIBLIOGRAPHY: A Memoir by Rev. Louis Stokes is prefixed
years. From 1819 he was privat-docent in theology to the Letters, ut sup.Consult further: F. W. Cornish,
in the university and in 1822 became professor. The English Church in the 19th Century, passim, London,
1910 (quite full); DNB, Ivi. 138-141 (gives references to
Thilo lectured on the history of dogma, church
scattered allusions).
history, symbolics, patristics, and the
Testa-New
ment, taking up the last-named subject after the THIRTLE, JAMES WILLIAM: English Non-
death of his father-in-law, G. C. Knapp (q.v.). conformist; b. at Lowestoft (40 m. n.n.e. of Ips-
He early gave attention to the New Testament wich), Suffolk, Jan. 23, 1854. He was privately
apocrypha, to elucidate which his studies and educated and was on the editorial staff of the
peculiarly fitted him, and planned a Staffordshire Sentinel (1875-84) and the Torquay
417 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Thietmar
Nine Article*
Thixty-NJ

Times (1885-87). Since 1888 he has been one of the reduced to thirty-nine, and brought into the form
editors of The Christian, and has written Titles of which they have retained ever since in the Church
ttie Psalms (London, 1904) and Old Testament of England. The Latin edition was prepared under
Problems: Critical Studies in the Psalms and the supervision of Archbishop Parker, with the aid
Isaiah (1907). of Bishop Cox of Ely (one of the Marian exiles) and

THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES, THE. Bishop Guest of Rochester, approved by con-

vocation, and published by the royal
Earliest Attempts to Formulate an English Creed ($ 1). 3. Formula- press, 1563, but with art. xxix. stricken
The Forty-two Articles 2).
(
Formulation and Adoption of the Thirty-nine Articles
tion and out by Elizabeth. The English edi-
( 3).
Content and Character of the Articles ( 4). Adoption of tion, slightly differing from the Latin,
Interpretation ( 5). the Thirty- and containing the omitted urt. xxix.,
The Protestant Episcopal Church (50). nine Articles, was adopted by the two convoca-
The Thirty-nine Articles differ from the more tions in 1571, and issued under the
elaborate confessions of the sixteenth century in editorial care of Bishop Jewel of Salisbury the same
form, but agree with them in spirit. As com- year. Seven of the forty-two articles were omitted
pared with the later canons of the synod of Dort (those bearing on the descent of Christ into Hades,
and the Westminster Confession, they are more the blasphemy against the Holy Spirit, the Millen-
genial in tone and lack the metaphys- arians, the sleep of the soul after death, etc.)-
i. Earliest ical element so prominent in the latter. Four new articles concerned the procession of the
Attempt to The Ten Articles of 1536 (q.v.), and the Holy the administration of the cup to the
Spirit,
Formulate Six Articles of 1539 (q.v.) issued in laity, the failure of the unworthy to partake of
an English the reign of Henry VIII., prepared Christ's body in the Lord's Supper, and a list of
Creed. the way for a final statement of homilies. They were made binding on all min-
doctrinal controversies. King Henry isters and teachers of religion, and students in the
VIII. was hardly a Protestant, but he advanced the universities, but subscription was not always en-
English Information by abolishing the jurisdiction forced with rigor. The Non-conformists, who had
of the pope in England and pronouncing his au- objections to the political articles, complained
thority to be no greater than that of any other bitterly. The Act of Uniformity (see UNIFORMITY,
bishop, as well as by suppressing a large number of ACTS OF) under Charles II. (1062) imposed greater
English monasteries and sequestrating their reve- stringency than ever; but the Toleration Act (q.v.)
nues The positive Reformation was first fairly of William and Mary gave some relief by ex-
introduced during the reign of Edward VI. empting dissenting ministers from subscribing to
(1547-5,'5) under the lead of Archbishop Cranmer. arts, xxxiv., xxxvi., and a portion of xxvii. Sub-
1
( ranmer at first entertained the noble but pre- sequent attempts to relax or abolish subscription
mature project of framing an Evangelical catholic resulted at last in the University Tests Act of 1871,
creed, in which all the Reformed churches could which exempts all students and graduates in the
agree in opposition to the Church of Rome, then universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham,
holding the Council of Trent, and he invited the except divinity students, fellows, professors, and
surviving continental Reformers Melanchthon, heads of colleges, from subscription, and throws
Calvin, and Bullinger to London for the purpose. these institutions open to Dissenters.
Calvin uas willing to cross ten seas for such a work The Thirty-nine Articles are among the most
of Christian union, and so replied to Cranmer in important doctrinal formulas of the Reformation
1552 (the correspondence is in Cranmer 's Works, period. They cover nearly all the heads of the
Parker Society ed., ii., 43CM33, 1846). But political Christian faith, especially those which were then
events prevented the conference, and so the formu- under dispute with the Roman Catholics. They
lation of the doctrinal consensus of the Reformed affirm (1) the catholic doctrines of the
churches. 4. Content Trinity and incarnation, and the three
Failing in this scheme, Cranmer framed, with the and Charac- early creeds the Apostles', Nicene,
aid of his fellow Reformers, the Forty-two Articles ter of the and Athanasian; and (2) the Protes-
of Religion for the English reformed church. As Articles. tant doctrines on the authority of the
"
early as 1549 he had drawn up a series Scriptures, justification by faith
2. The of articles which were submitted to only," the distinction between the visible and in-
Forty-two licentiates before licensure. These he visible Church, and the sacraments of baptism and
Articles, revised and the council submitted them the Lord's Supper. In common with other Protes-
to a commission consisting of Grindal, tant formularies, they condemn the doctrine of
Home, John Knox, and others for examination. supererogatory works, purgatory, the worship of
They were completed in their final form Nov., 1552, relics, the invocation of saints, clerical celibacy, the
"
and published in 1553 by royal authority." The adoration of the host, and the mass. The errancy
title-page states also that they had the official of general councils is affirmed.
"
The
bishop of Rome
sanction of convocation. But Cranmer stated at a is declared to have no jurisdiction in England."
later time that this was not true (cf. Dixon, 514 They are borrowed, in part, from Lutheran stand-
sqq. ;
J. Gairdner, A History of the English Church ards; namely, the Augsburg Confession (1530) and
from Henry VIII to Mary, p. 311, London, 1903). the Wurttemberg Confession (1552); but on the
The reestablishment of the papacy under the short sacraments, especially the much-disputed doctrine
reign of Mary (1553-58) set them aside. of the real presence in the Eucharist,
they follow
Under Elizabeth (1558-1603) the Articles were the Swiss reformers, Bullinger and Calvin. The
XL 27
Thirty-Nine Article*
Tnobum THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 418

" nine Articles, Cambridge, 1835; E. H. Browne, An Ex-

doctrine of transubstantiation is declared to be re-
The 1
position of the Thirty-nine Articles, London, 1850 and
pugnant to the plain words of Scripture.' often (the most useful commentary, Am. ed. by J. Will-
decree of reprobation is not referred to and in the iams, Bishop of Connecticut, New York, 1869) ; C. Hard-
statement of the decree of election the more mild wick, A History of the Articles of Religion, Cambridge,
form of the Second Helvetic Confession is imitated. 1851, rev. ed. by F. Procter, London, 1876; W. 8. Perry,
Journals of the General Convention of the Protestant
In the political sections they teach the Erastian
Episcopal Church in the United Stales, 1785-1836, i.
doctrine of the spiritual as well as temporal suprem- 279 sqq New York, 1861; A. P. Forbes, An Explanation
,

acy of the sovereign as the supreme governor of the of the Thirty-nine Articles, 2 vols., London, 1867-68;
Church of England They have, therefore, an eclec- W. White, Memoirs of the Protestant Epwcopal Church in
the United States of America, Philadelphia, 1820, od. B. F.
tic and comprehensive character, which distin- Da Costa, New York, 1880; R
W. Dixon, Hi*tory of the
guishes the Anglican Church from the Lutheran and Church of England, iii. 520 sqq. London, 1885; E. T.
the strictly Calvinistic churches of the continent Green, The Thirty-nine Article* to the Age of the Reforma-
tion, London, 1896; E. F. K. Mullcr, Die Bekenntnis-
and Scotland, and from the dissenting denomina- schnften der reformierten Kirche, pp. xl.-xhii., 505-522,
tions of England. Leipmc, 1903 A. J. Tait, Lecture Outlines on the Thirty-Nine
;

The Thirty-nine must be understood in

Articles Articles, London, 1910.
their plain grammatical sense; and, when this is THIRTY YEARS' WAR, THE: The great relig-
doubtful, the private writings of Cranmer and ious struggle of the seven teenth century (1618-
other English Reformers and the Elizabethan 1648) between the Protestants and the Roman
divines must be called to aid. The Catholics, Germany being the chief area of conflict.
5. Interprc- leaders of the tractarian movement Of how mixed a character the whole affair was, may
tation. disparaged the Thirty-nine Articles, be seen from the circumstance that, though Roman
and John Henry Newman in Tract 90, Catholics on the one side (headed by Austria, Spain,
Remarks on Certain Passages in the Thirty-nine and Bavaria), and Protestants on the other aide,
Articles, tried to show that art. xi., on justification under various leaders (Bohemia, Denmark, and
by faith only, does not exclude the doctrine of Sweden), always formed the groundwork of tho
justification by works, that art. xxv. does not deny party position, Roman-Catholic powers, as, for
that the five sacraments are sacraments in some instance, France, would at times ally themselves
sense, that arts. vi. and xx., on the authority of with the Protestants, and Protestant princes \\ith
Scripture, do not exclude the doctrine of the au- the Roman Catholics, as, for instance, the electors of
thority of Catholic tradition, etc. The doctrinal Brandenburg and Saxony.
decisions in the Gorharn (see GORIIAM CASK), The war began in Bohemia. In 1017 Ferdinand
Bcnnet, and other controversies, favor great latitude of Styria, a brother of the Emperor Matthias,
in their interpretation. High-churchmen give to a pupil of the Jesuits, and a fanatical enemy of
the Articles a place subordinate to the Book of Protestantism, was crowned king of Bohemia; and
Common Prayer, which is followed when the Articles persecutions were immediately instituted against
really are, or seem to be, in contradiction to it, the Protestants. But the Protestants, under the
as in the implications it allows in the doctrines of leadership of Count Thurn, penetrated into the
baptismal regeneration, the real presence in the castle of Prague, threw the imperial commissioners
Eucharist, and the sacerdotal character of the out of the window (May 23, 1618), organized a gen-
ministry. eral rising throughout the country, entered into al-
The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United liance with Bethlen Gabor, prince of Transylvania,
States, after effecting an independent organiza- and the Evangelical Union in Germany; arid as
tion and episcopate in consequence of the American Matthias died on Mar. 20, 1619, and Ferdinand
Revolution, formally adopted the Thirty-nine shortly after succeeded him as emperor, they de-
Articles of the mother-church at the clared the Bohemian throne vacant, and offered
6. The general convention held in Trenton, it to the young elector-palatine, Frederick V., a

Protestant N. J., Sept. 12, 1801, but with sundry son-in-law of James I. of England. He accepted the
Episcopal alterations and omissions in the politi- offer, but was very unfortunate. The Protestant
Church. cal articles (xxi., xxxvii ) which the army was completely routed in the battle at the
separation of Church and State made White the walls of Prague, Nov.
Hill, just outside
necessary. The American revision omits all allu- 8, 1620, by Tilly, the commander
of the imperial
sion to the Athanasian Creed (Art. viii.), which is army, which chiefly consisted of the contingent of
also excluded from the American edition of the the Holy League; and Bohemia was speedily re-
Prayer-Book. By this omission the Episcopal duced to order; that is, more than thirty thousand
Church in the United States has escaped the agita- families belonging to the Lutheran or the Re-
tion of the English Church on that creed. formed denomination were driven out of the country,
(PHILIP ScHAFFf.) D. S. SCHAFF. and their property, valued at more than forty
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The text (Latin and English, with the million crowns, was confiscated. Next year the
American changes) in Riven in Schaff, Creeds, iii. 486-516, Palatinate was invaded by a Spanish army under
cf. 592-657. Thomas Rogers, Exposition of
Consult
Spinola; and at the diet of Regensburg, March 6,
i.

the Thirty-nine Articles,

London, 1579, Cambridge, 1854,
Gilbert Burnet, History of the Reformation of the Church 1623, Frederick V. was put under the ban of the
of England, London, 1679-1715 and often; idem, Ex- empire, and the Palatinate was given to Maximilian
position of the Thirty-nine Articles, Oxford, 1715 and of Bavaria. In 1625 the Protestant princes of
often; R. Laurence, An Attempt to Illustrate those Articles
of the Church of England which the Calvinists improperly Germany again rallied under the head of Christian
consider as Calvinistical, Bampton Lectures, 3d ed., Ox- IV., king of Denmark; but he was utterly defeated
ford, 1838; J. Lamb, An Historical Account of the Thirty- in the battle at Lutter, Aug. 27, 1626, by Tilly. The
 419 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Thirty-Nine Articles
Thobnrn

Danish peninsula was flooded with imperial troops; und Akten zur Oeschirhtc des dreissigjahriaen Kriegs, be-
and the peace of LUbcck, May 22, 1629, made an gun in Munich in 1873, the 2d series issued at Leipsic and
end of the direct participation of Denmark hi the Mumch (vol. viii. mid xi 1910). The best book for the
,

English reader IH the volume in the Cambridge Modern

war. History already referred to. Consult further. A. W. Ward,
In June, 1630, Gustavus AdoJphus, long of The Thirty Years' War, London, 1869 (popular); S. R.
Gardiner, The Thirty Years' War, ib. 1874 (admirable sum-
Sweden, landed in Germany; and in a very short
time conquered Pomorania and Mecklenburg. Gua- mary); E. Shobok, Die Lusung der Wallensteinfrnge, Berlin,
1881; F. Des Robert, Campagnes de Charles IV., due de
tavus Adolphus was a Christian hero, a great general, Lorraine, 2 vols., Paris, 1883; J. W. De Peyster, The Thirty
and a great statesman. The hope of conquest, of Years' War. With Reference to the Operations of the
Swedes, Philadelphia, 1884; A. Gindely, llluntnrte Ge-
making the Baltic a Swedish sea, was, no doubt, one schichte des drussigjahngen Knegen, 3 vols., Prague, 1884,
of his motives in taking up the cause of the Protes-
Eng. transls., History of the Thirty Years' War, 2 vols.,
tants in Germany, but his conviction of the justice London, 1885 (based on original documents); G. B. Mal-
of that cause was as surely another, and perhaps leson, Battlefields of Germany from the Outbreak of the
Thirty Years' War, London, 1884; J. C. F. von Schiller,
the stronger one. His army was a model of an Histoire de la guerre de trente arm, Paris, 1884; J. Buchring,
army, infinitely superior in moral character to the Vrnrilig, Gutav Adolf und Rohan, Halle, 1885; A. Gaodeke,
armies of Tilly and Wallenstein. The Swedish Wallensteins V crhandlungen mit den Schweden, Frankfort,
soldiers of Gustavus Adolphus resembled the Iron- 1885; T. V. Bilek, Jicitrage zur Geschichte Waldsteins,
Prague, 1886; R C. Trench, Gustavus Adolphus in Ger-
sides of Cromwell. Tilly was defeated at Brietenfeld,
many, London, 1886 (gives social aspects); A. C. Hennc-
and on the Lech. In the lattor battle ho was killed qum, Tilly, Iff IS a 16.12, Lille, 1887; G. Droysen, Da*
and his army scattered. But Ferdinand charged Zcitaltrr des dnissigjahrigcn Krieges, Berlin, 1888; A.
Ledieu, Exquiswit dc la guerre de trente ans, Lille, 1888;
Wallenstein with the formation of a new army, M Ritter, Deutsche Get>rhi(htc im Zeitalter der Gtgcnrefor-
which encountered that of Gustavus Adolphus at mation und deft drcistsigjfihntjcn Kriegex, 3 vols., Stuttgart,
Lutzcn. Wallenstein was defeated; but Gustavus 18S9-190S (authoritative); A. Weskamp, Das Heer der
Liga in Westjalcn, W2&-23, Minister, 1891; O. Klopp,
Adolphus fell, and the emperor found breathing- Der dnisxigjdhrige Kneg bis zum Tode Gustav Adolfs,
room again. Though Wallonstoin remained inactive 1632, 3 vofc Pnderborn, 1891 96; G. Winter, Geschichte
,

in Bohemia, where he finally was assassinated at des drtmmgjnhngfin Kricgev, Berlin, 1893; W Leinung
and R Stuiuvoll, A un Magdeburg* Sage und Geschichte,
Eger, Feb. 25, 1634, the standard of the Swedish
Magdeburg, 1894; W. Struck, Johann Georg und Oxen-
army rapidly sunk after the death of Gustavus slierna. Von dem Tode Guatav Adolfs, Nov. 16J4, bis
Adolphus; and the Protestant army suffered a IfiJX, Stralsuud, 1899; G. Kgelhant, Gustav Adolf in
severe defeat at Nordlingen, Sept 6, 1634, after Deutschland, 16,>0-32, Halle, 1901; F. Lipport, Genchuhte
which the electors of Brandenburg and Saxony der G eg enr i for mat ion tm Oberpfulz-Kurpfalz zur Zcit den
dicissifjjnhrigen Kneges, Freiburg, 1901; J. Wagner, Die
deserted the Protestant cause, made peace with the C/iront/i des J Wagner uber dte Zeit der st hwcdischen Ok-
emperor, and turned against the Swedes. kupahon in Augsburg, 16.3J-,16, Augsburg, 1902; C Jahnel,
Nevertheless, the position of the emperor con- Der drciwigjuhrigr Kncg in Aussig, Prague, 1903; C.
Jacob, Von Lutzen nach Nordhngen 10.-i-i-,-i4, Stnwburg,
tinued to be very critical, and his prospects of final
1904; W. Stubhs (Bp. of Oxford), Lectures on European
success were very small. Richelieu, \\hose uhole History Europe during the. Thirty Yearft' War, London,
foreign policy turned upon the humiliation of the 1904; H Teitga, Die Frage nach dem Urheber der Zer-
house of Austria as its true pivot, and who for that storung Magdeburgs 16,11, Hulle, 1904; J. B. Mehler,
Gemral Tilly, der Sicgrnchc, Munich, 1905; F. Pict.h, Die
very reason had subsidized the Swedes from the Feldzngc des Herzogs Rohan ?w Velthn und in Graubunden
very beginning, now took the army of Duke Bern- 1636-37. Bern. 1905; E. Noel, Gustav Adolf, King of
hardt of Saxe- Weimar into the French service; and Sweden, London, 1905.
the war against Austria and her allies was carried
THISTED, WALDEMAR ADOLPH: Danish poet;
on with a and cruelty hitherto unheard
fierceness b in Aarhus (100 m. n.w. of Copenhagen), Denmark,
of. In 1646 no less than a hundred villages \\ero Feb. 28, 1815; d. in Copenhagen Oct. 14, 1887.
burned down in Bavaria, and the inhabitants driven He became a teacher in 1845; a minister in Sles-
away. And at the same time the Swedish general \\ick, 1855; and, in 1802, in Tommerup, Zealand.
Torstenson developed an activity which seemed His romances and stories were very popular; he
to threaten the very existence of the Hapsburg was the author, under pseudonym of Rowel, of Breve
dynasty. He defeated one Austrian army under fra Hclvedc (Copenhagen, 1806; English translation,
Piccolomini at Brietenfold, Nov. 2, 1642, and Letters from Hdl, 2 vols., London, 1800; 1 vol., New
another, under Hatzfeld, at Jankow, Mar. 6, 1645; York, 1885); and, under the pseudonyms of Em.
and he actually approached Vienna in order to form Saint Herrnidad and Hcrodion, of many other pub-
a connection with Prince Rakoczy of Transylvania, lications
and laid siege to the city. The immediate danger
drifted away by the somewhat peculiar proceedings THOBURN, JAMES MILLS: Methodist Episcopal
of Rakoczy. But Austria was completely exhausted bishop; b. at St. Clairsville, O., Mar. 7, 1836. He
and the peace of Westphalia (see WESTPHALIA, was educated at Alleghany College, Meadvillc, Pa.
PEACE OF), Oct. 24, 1648, was as necessary to her as (A.B., 1857); was circuit preacher in Ohio (1857-
it was welcome to Germany, which lay prostrate, 1859) went to India as a missionary, being stationed
;

and cruelly devastated from one end to the other. successively at Naini Tal, Pauri, Moradabad, Luck-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The best bibliography is that in Dahlmann- now, Calcutta, and Simla from 1859 to 1886. He
Waite, Qudlenkunde der deutschen Geschichte, 7th ed. by was then presiding elder of the Indian conference in
E. Brandenburg, Lcipsic, 1005-06. On the bibliography the United States (1886-88), and in 1888 was elected
consult B. Erdmannsdorfer, in Historische Zeitschnft,
missionary bishop of his church, with residence at
xiv (1865). Note also the very extensive classified list
in Cambridge Modem History, iv. 801-953, New York,
Calcutta until 1896 and subsequently at Bombay.
1906. The most important collection of sources is Briefe His jurisdiction extends over the Philippines. He
Tholuok THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 480
Thomas the Apostle

isthe author of My Missionary Apprenticeship (New Romans (1825; Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1834-36,
York, 1884); Missionary Sermons (1888); India 1848), the first exegetical fruit of the new Evan-
and Malaysia (1893); The Deaconess and her Voca- gelical theology; on John's Gospel (Hamburg,
tion (1893); Light in the East (1894); The Chrislless 1827; Eng. transl. Edinburgh, 1836, Philadelphia,
Nations (1895); The Church of Pentecost (1899); 1859), less thorough and permanent, but more popu-
Life of Isabella Thoburn (1903); The Christian Con- lar, and better adapted for students, than his other

guest of India (1906); and India and Southern Asia commentaries; on the Sermon on the Mount (1835;
(1907). Eng. transls., 2 Edinburgh 1834-37, 1860), his
vols.,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. H. Crawford, ed., Thoburn and India, most learned, and valuable exegetical
elaborate,
New York. 1909. production; on Hebrews (1836; Eng. transl.,
THOLUCK, to'luk, FRIEDRICH AUGUST GOTT- Edinburgh, 1842); and on Psalms (1843; Eng.
REU: German divine and pulpit orator; b. at transl., Philadelphia, 1858); Die Glaubwurdigkeit der
Breslau Mar. 30, 1799; d. at Halle June 10, 1877. evangelischen Geschichte (1837), a vindication of the
Descended from very humble parentage, he first Gospels against the mythical theory of Strauss; and
learned a trade, but by the assistance of friends at- Stunden christlichen AndacJd (1840; several Eng.
tended the gymnasium of his native city, and the transls., Hours of Devotion, London, 1853, 1870,
university of Berlin. When he left college, ho de- Edinburgh, 1873), containing several original hymns.
"
livered an address on The Superiority of the In this book he pours out his fervent Evangelical
Oriental World over the Christian," which was piety with all the charm of fresh enthusiasm. He
chiefly a eulogy on Mohammedanism. But during was one of the most eloquent German preachers of
his university course he was thoroughly converted his day, and published a series of university ser-
from liis pantheism and skepticism, under the in- mons (collected in 5 vols., 3d ed., Gotlia, 18G3--64,
fluence of the lectures of Schleiermacher and Eng. transl. of one volume, Light from the Cross,
Neander, and more especially by personal inter- Sermons on the Passion of our Lord, Philadelphia,
course with Baron Ernst von Kottwitz, a member 1858). He issued also two very interesting vols. of
"
of the Moravian brotherhood, who combined Miscellaneous Essays" (1839). His last works
high social standing and culture with an amiable were contributions to German church history since
type of piety. In 1821 he was graduated as licen- the Reformation, derived in part from manuscript
tiate of theology, and began to deliver lectures as sources; namely, Lutherische Theologen \Vittenberys
privat-docent; hi 1824 he was appointed extra- im 17. Jahrhundert (Hamburg, 1852), Das akade-
ordinary professor of oriental literature. In 1825 mische Leben des 17. Jahrhundert (2 vols., Hamburg,
he made a literary journey to Holland and England 1852, 1854), and Geschichte des Rationalismus (part
at the expense of the Prussian government, and in i.,Berlin, 1865, never finished). A
complete edition
1826 was called to the university of Halle as ordi- of his works appeared 1863-72, in 11 vols. He also
nary professor of theology, which position he occupied republishcd the commentaries of Calvin on the
tillhis death, with the exception of a brief period Gospels and Epistles, and his Institutio Christiana*
(1827-29), which he spent in Rome as chaplain religionis. Ho conducted for several years a literary
of the Prussian embassy. In Halle he had at first periodical, and contributed largely to the first edi-
to suffer much opposition and reproach from the tion of the Hcalcncyklopadie fur protestantischc
prevailing rationalism of his colleagues (Gesenius Theologie und Kirche of Herzog.
and Wegscheider), but succeeded in effecting a radi- Tholuck was one of the most fruitful and in-
cal change; and the whole theological faculty of fluential German theologians and authors during the
Halle later became decidedly Evangelical. On Dec. second and third quarters of the nineteenth century,
2, 1870, his friends celebrated the jubilee of his and better known in England and America than any
professorship. The university and magistrate of other. He was original, fresh, brilliant, suggestive,
Halle and delegates of several universities and of all eloquent, and full of poetry, wit, and humor. He
schools of theology took part in it; and his pupils in can not be classed with any school. He was in-
Europe and America founded a seminary adjoining fluenced by Pietism, Moravianism, Schleiermacher,
his own home, for beneficiary students of theology, Neander, and even Hegel. His elastic mind was
as a perpetual memorial of his devotion to students. ever open to new light; and his heart was always
He was always in delicate health, but by strict right, and never shaken from faith and love to
temperance and great regularity of habits he man- Christ. He had an extraordinary talent for lan-
aged to do an unusual amount of work till within guages, studied nineteen foreign tongues before he
the last years of his life. He was incessant in his was seventeen, and spoke English, French, Italian,
lectures, preached regularly as university chaplain, Greek, Arabic, and several other tongues, ancient
and found time to write many books. and modern, almost like a native. His learning
His principal works are as follows: Die Lehre von was extensive rather than thorough and exhaustive.
der Sunde und dem Versdhner, oder die wahre He was one of the regenerators of German theology,
Weihe des Zweiflers (Berlin, 1823, and often; Eng. leading it from rationalism to the Scriptures and the
transl., Guido and Julius. The Doctrine of Sin and literature of the Reformation. His commentaries
the Propitiator, London, 1836; and The Two Students, broke a new path. His personal influence was as
Guido and Julius, 1855), written in answer to De great and good as that exerted by his works, and
Wette's Theodor, oder des Zweiflers Weihe (Ber- yields only to that of Neander among his contem-
lin, 1822); Bluthensammlung aus der morgenl&nd- poraries. He was gifted with personal magnetism,
ischen Mystik (1825), a collection of translations and brilliant powers of conversation. Having no
from the mystic poets of the East; Commentary on children, he devoted all his paternal affection to his
421 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tholuok
Thomas the Apostle

students, and was nobly assisted by his second Since 1880 he has been professor of German and
wife, a most amiable, refined Christian lady. He history at the normal school in Carlsruhe. In theol-
loved, as he said, candidates for the ministry more ogy his position is liberal. Among his numerous
than the ministers, and students more than candi- writings mention may be made of his Geschichte der
dates, because he was more interested in the process christlicken Sittenlehre in der Zeit des Neuen Testa-
of growth than in the results of growth. His life ments (Haarlem, 1879); Die Genesis des Jofiannes-
was a life with the young, fruitful in blessings. He Evangeliums (Berlin, 1882); Dr. Luthers Leben furs
was in the habit of taking long walks with two or Haus (1883); Ein Ritt ins Gelobte Land,
deutscfie
three students every day from eleven to twelve, and Land und Leute in Paldstina vor 3,000 Jahren (1887) ;

from four to five: he invited them freely to his Das Leben Gustav Adolfs furs deutsche Volk (Carls-
house and table, tried experiments on their minds, ruhe, 1894); Unterm Ckristbaum, Weinachtsge-
proposed perplexing questions, set them disputing on schichten (1895) Philipp Melanchthons Leben (1897)
; ;

high problems, inspired and stimulated them in Geschichte des Klosters Frauenatb (Freiburg, 1898);
the pursuit of knowledge, virtue, and piety. He had Katharina von Bora (Berlin, 1900) Konrad Wider- ;

great regard for individuality, and aimed to arouse holt, der Kommandant von Hohentwiel (Munich,
in every one the sense of his peculiar calling rather 1903); Bernhard von Weimar (Weimar, 1904);
than to create a school. His chief aim was to lead Der Stemensohn. Geschichtliche Erzdhlung au8 der
them to humble faith in the Savior, and to infuse Zeit des Kaisers Hadrian (Bielefeld, 1908); and
into them that love which was the ruling passion of Jesus und die Apostel (Gotha, 1910).
Iiis own heart. He adopted, as he says, Zinzcndorf 's THOMAS A BECKET. See BECKET, THOMAS.
"
motto, I have but one passion, and that is He, and
He alone." His lecture-room was truly a school of THOMAS A JESU: Portuguese Augustinian
Christ. And herein lies his chief significance and ascetic, brother of Didacus (Diogo) Andrada (q.v.);
merit. Thousands of students from different lands b. at Lisbon 1529; d. among the Moors in North
owe to him their spiritual life. To Americans ho Africa Apr. 17, 1582. He entered the Augustinian
was especially attached, and a most useful guide in order in 1548; studied philosophy and theology at
the labyrinth of German theology. He was very Coimbra, and then went to Lisbon, where he became
intimate with Edward Robinson, Charles Hodge master of novices; he developed a tendency toward
(who studied at Halle in 1827, and was daily in his extreme asceticism, for the furthering of which he
company), Henry B. Smith, George L. Prcntiss proposed to found a monastery under stricter rules,
(\\ho studied there in 1840), and Edwards A. Park though this met with opposition; he carried out
of Andover. He was invited to the General Con- his own ideal in person at Penhaferma, where he
ference of the Evangelical Alliance in 1873, and became a preacher; he was taken as field chaplain
promised to come (with the humorous remark, to Africa by King Sebastian in his campaign against
" the Moors, by whom he was wounded and taken
1 urn afraid of your American mobs,
your hot cakes
for breakfast, and especially of your kindness ") prisoner, and in prison wrote his Trabalhos de Jesus
Hut his fcoble health prevented him; and he sent (Lisbon, 1602), which was translated into several
one of his favorite pupils, Leopold Witte, as his European languages. He was sold as a slave, but
representative, with a modest sketch of his labors was released through the efforts of the Portuguese
and the condition of theology in Germany. It is ambassador, but preferred to stay in Morocco to
the last public document from his pen (except minister to the needs of other prisoners and the
some? letters), and gives a faithful idea of this lover poor, for the accomplishment of which he sought
of youth, who loved them for Christ's sake. and obtained the help of the wealthy. His last ill-
(PHILIP SrHAFFf.) D. S. SCHAFF. ness was contracted while engaged in these works
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His Lehre von der Siinde, ut sup., is in part of mercy. He wrote also a " Life " of Louis de
autobiographical, Guido representing him. Letters will Montroya (Lisbon, 1618); Praxis verce fidei (Co-
be found in the biography of Charles Hodge by A. A.
logne, 1629); and also DC oratione Dominica (Ant-
Hodge, New York, 1880, in that of H B. Smith, by Mrs.
II B. Smith, ib, 1880, cf. that of Philip Schaff by D. S. werp, 1623).
" " "
Schaff, passim. The authorized Life is by L. Witte, BIBLIOGRAPHY. His Life" by A. de Menecea is prefixed
2 vols., Bielefeld, 1884-86; an autobiographical sketch to an edition of the Trabalhos, published at Lisbon, 1733.
with a paper by Witte is in the Proceedings of the Evan- Cf. KL, xi. 1671-73.
gelical Alliance Conference of 1878, pp. 85-89, New York,
THOMAS A KEMPIS. See KEMPIB.
1874. Consult further: P. Schaff, Germany; its Univer-
sities, Theology, and Religion, chap, xxvi. t Philadelphia, THOMAS THE APOSTLE: In the Synoptic lists
1857; idem, in Presbyterian Review, 1871, pp. 205-300; Mark
of the apostles (Matt. x. 3; iii. 18; Luke vi.
M. Tholuck, Erinnerungen an Tholuck'a Heimgang, Leip-
sic, 1892; M Kahler, August Tholucks Gedfichtnia, ib. 15) Thomas paired with Matthew,
is but in the Acts
1899; idem, Erinnerungen an August und MathUde Tho- (i. 13) with Philip. The name (translated into the
luck, ib. 1899. Greek Didymus, John xi. 16, xx. 24, xxi. 2) means
"
" twin and was
THOMA, tS'mQ, ALBRECHT: German Protes- doubtless the personal name of the
tant; near Wertheim,
b. at Dertingen (a village apostle, most likely as recalling the facts at his birth,
20 m. w. of Wttrzburg), Baden, Dec. 2, 1844. He possibly given after the death of the other twin.
was educated at the universities of Heidelberg It surely was not given by Jesus on account of
(1865-67) and Jena (1867-68), and at the seminary Thomas's native disposition toward doubt. Thomas
for preachers at Heidelberg (1868-69); after which does not figure in the Synoptic Gospels outside of the
he was curate in Baden (1869-71), Bremen (1871- lists of the apostles, while in the Fourth Gospel he

1872), Neunkirohen (1872), Freiburg (1872-73), stands out clearly with marked characteristics
Lb'rrach (1873-75), and Mannheim (1875-80). (xi. 6, xiv. 5, xx. 25-28). His nature is positive,
Thoma* the Apostle THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 422
Thomas Aquinas

like Peter's, but with contrary leanings, since Peter Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles, London, 1871; T. Scher-
was optimistic and Thomas He is mann, Propheten und Apostellegenden, Leipsio, 1907; F.
pessimistic. Wilhelm, Deutsche Legenden und Legendary ib. 1907.
noted for his desire for certain and experiential Tho apocryphal Gospel according to Thomas was edited
knowledge, without which he was uncertain and un- by C. Tischondorf in Evangelia Apocrypha, Leipsic, 1853,
determined (cf. John xiv. 5), as when he wished 2d ed., 1876, and an Eng. transl. is furnished by B. H.
Cowper, The Apocryphal Gospels, pp. 118-170, London,
personal and irrefutable experience of the fact of 1867; and by A. Walker, Apocryphal Gospels, Acts, and
Jesus' resurrection (John xx. 25-28). Revelations, pp. 78-99, ib. 1873. who gives also transl. of
All extra-Biblical reports are untrustworthy, the Actw of Thomas, pp. 389-422. The text of the Aote
of Thomas arc in C. Tischendorf, Acta Apostolorum apoc-
including those \\ hich identify him with other Bibli-
rypha, pp. 190 -234, cf. pp. Ixiii.-lxix., 235-242. For Eng.
cal personages especially in the Syrian Church. The transl. of the
" "
and " Martyrdom of St.
Preaching
Curctonian and Sinaitie Syriac furnish examples of Thomas " cf. Agnes Smith Lewis, Horce Semiticce, iv. 80-
identification \\ ith Judas in John xiv. 22, others are 99, London, 1904. B. Pick, in Apocryphal Acts, pp. 222-
362, Chicago, 1909, gives Eng. transl. of the Acts of
in the Syriar Diduche, Abulfaraj (Chron. eccl., iii. 2),
Thomas. Consult also A. E. Medlycott, India and the
Ephraem Syrus (cf. Burkitt, in TS, vii. 2, 4), Euse- Apostle Thomas: an Inquiry; with a critical Analysis of
bius (Hist, ecc/., i., xiii., Syriac text). The defense the Acta Thomas, London, 1905.
of this identification by Resch (TU., x. 3, pp. 824
THOMAS AQUINAS.
sqq.), who explains Judas-James as brother of James
Life (5 1).
and sees the other twin in James-Alpheus and dis-
and Character
Personality (5 2).
tinguishes Lebbieus-Thaddcus from Judas-James, Writings ( 3).
has no foundation. Still more startling is the The Summa, part ; Theology (4).
i

identification of Thomas \\ith Judaa son of Joseph The Summa, part a ; Ethics ( 5).
and brother of Jesus, which makes him the twin
The Summa, part in.; Christ ( 6).
Thr Sacraments (7).
brother of Jesus; this occurs first in the Acts of Estimation (5 8).
Thomas [ 31], at the basis of \\hich is probably a
The birth-year of Thomas Aquinas is commonly
Syriac original, but outside the Syrian Church is
found only in Priscillian, who in this twin brother given as 1227, but he was probably born early in
sees the apostle (John xx. 26 sqq.) and the author
1225 at his father's castle of Roccasecca (75 m.
of I John (cf. Zahn, Forschungcn, v. 116, 123, vi. 346
e.s.e. of Rome) in Neapolitan territory. He died at
the monastery of Fossanova, one mile from Son-
sqq ). As untrustworthy as these suppositions is the
statement that Thomas was a native of Paneas in nino (01 in. B.C. of Rome), Mar. 7, 1274.
i. Life. Ilia father was Count Landulf of an
Galilee (cf. R. A. Lipsius, Apokryphen, Apostel-
old high-born south Italian family,
gesMchten und Apostellegeuden, i. 246, Brunswick,
and his mother was Countess Theodora of Theate,
1883). Similarly the reports of ecclesiastical
of noble Norman descent. In his fifth year he was
tradition are pure fiction. The earliest form of this
sends him to work in Parthia (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. sent for his oarly education to the monastery of
Monte Cassino, where his father's brother Simbald
111., i., and often elsewhere), and his grave \\iis
was abbot. Later he studied in Naples. Probably
sought in Edcssa (S. J. Assemani, Bibliotheca
in 1243 he determined to enter the Dominican
oricntalis,i. 49, Rome, 1719) and his death naturally

was located there (Clement of Alexandria, Strom., order; but on the way to Rome lie was seized by
his brothers and brought back to his parents at the
IV., ix. 73), while this report brings him into con-
nection also with the Abgar legend (sec ABGAR). castle of S. Giovanni, where he was held a captive
for a year or two and besieged with prayers, threats,
A later development in the beginning of the fourth
and even sensual temptation to make him relinquish
century sends him to India, where he suffers a
martyr death. This is brought into relation with
his purpose. Finally the family yielded and the or-
the Eclessa story by reporting the carrying of his der sent Thomas to Cologne to study under Albertus
body back to Edessa, a story without historical Magnus (q.v.), where he arrived probably toward
foundation (in spite of W. Germann, Die KircJie the end of 1244. He accompanied Albcrtus to Paris
der Thomaschristen, pp. 20 sqq., Gutersloh, 1877). in 1245, remained there with his teacher, continuing
The source of these later stories is the Gnostic Acts his studies for three years, and followed Albertus
of Thomas (ed. M. Bonnet, Supplementum codicil at the latter's return to Cologne in 1248. For
A later redaction several years longer he remained with the famous
apocri/phi, vol. i., Leipsic, 1883).
of this legend dates from the seventh century, philosopher of scholasticism, presumably teaching.
This long association of Thomas with the great
affirming that Thomas converted Parthians, Medes,
Persians, and Indians and died a martyr in Calaminc polyhistor was the most important influence hi his
in India (J. J. Grynaus, Monumenta patrum or- development; it made him a comprehensive scholar
thodoxagraptta, ii. 589, Basel, 1569). The Thomas and won him permanently for the Aristotelian
Christians (see method. In 1252 probably Thomas went to Paris
NESTORIANS) have a tradition, con-
ditioned for the master's degree, which he found some dif-
by the Gnostic Acts of Thomas, which
makes him a martyr in Mailapur. ficulty in attaining owing to attacks, at that time,
(E g raFFBBT j on the mendicant orders. Ultimately, however, he
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources are quite fully indicated in the received the degree and entered ceremoniously upon
text. The reader is referred to the Bible dictionaries,
notably: DH, iv. 753-754; EB, iv. 5057-59; DCG, ii. his office of teaching in 1257; he taught in Paris for
728-729. McGiffert discusses the early accounts in his several years and there wrote certain of his works
transl. of Eusebius, Hist. erd. in NPNF,
t 1 ser., i. 100, and began others. In 1259 he was present at an
101, 104, 132, 156, 171. The fullest account of the leg-
ends concerning Thomas are in the work of Lipsius named important chapter of his order at Valenciennes.
in the text, i. 225-347. Consult further W.
Wright, At the solicitation of Pope Urban IV. (therefore
423 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA the Apostle

not before the latter part of 1261), he took up his reportata: Expositio angelicas salutationis; Trac-
residence in Rome. In 1269-71 he was again active tatus de decem prceceptis; Orationis dominicos ex-
in Paris. In 1272 the provincial chapter at Florence positio; Sermones pro dominicis diebus et pro
empowered him to found a new studium generate sanctorum solemnitatibus; and L. Pignon knows
at such place as he should choose, and he selected Sermones de angelis, and Sermones de quadragesima.
Naples. Early in 1274 the pope directed him to at- Of his sermons only manipulated copies are extant.
tend the Council of Lyons and he undertook the In the second division were: In quatuor sententiarum
journey, although he was far from well. On the libros, of his firstParis sojourn; Questiones dis-
way he stopped at the castle of a niece and there pututce, written at Paris and Rome; Qucestiones
became seriously ill. He wished to end his days in a quodlibetales duodecim; Summa catkoliccB fidei
monastery and not being able to reach a house of contra gentiles (1261-64); and the Summa theo-
the Dominicans he was carried to the Cistercian logian. To the dogmatic works belong also certain
Fossanova. There, first, after his death, his re- commentaries, as Expositio in librum
follows:
mains were preserved. beati Dionysii de divinis nominibus; Expositiones
Thomas made a remarkable impression on all primce et secundce decretalis; In Boethii libros de
who knew him, as represented in contemporary helMlomadilws; and Prceclarce qucestiones super librum
biographies. He was
placed on a level with Paul Boethii de trimtate. A
large number of opuscula also
and Augustine, receiving the title doctor angelicas. belonged to this group. Of philosophical writings
In 1319 the investigation preliminary there are calatogued thirteen commentaries on
2. Person- to canonization was begun and on Aristotle, besides numerous philosophical opuscula
ality July 18, 1323, he was pronounced a
and of which fourteen are classed as genuine.
Character, saint by John XXII. at Avignon. The greatest work of Thomas was the Summa
Thomas is described as of large stature, and it is the fullest presentation of his views. He
corpulent, and dark-complexioned; he had a large worked on it from the time of Clement IV. (after
head and was somewhat bald in front. His manners 12f55) until the end of his life. When he died he had
and bearing accorded with his noble birth; he was reached question ninety of part iii., on the sub-
refined, affable, and lovable. In argument he ject of penance. What was lacking was afterward
maintained self-control and won his opponents by added from the fourth book of his commentary on
"
his superior personality and great learning. His the " Sentences of Peter Lombard as a supple-
tastes were simple and his requirements few. His mentum, which is not found in manu-
associates were specially impressed by his power of 4. The scripts of the thirteenth and four-
memory; but the passion of his soul was the search Summa, teenth centuries. The Summa was
for the truth involving the inner struggle for the Part i.; translated into Greek (apparently by
knowledge of God. Absorbed in thought he often Theology. Maximus Planudes, c. 1327), into Ar-
forgot his surroundings. His admirers honestly be- menian, into many European tongues,
lieved him to be inspired, and it was reported that and even into Chinese. It consists of three
Peter, Paul, and Christ instructed him in visions. parts. Part i. treats of God, who is the " first
"
What he attained by such strenuous absorption he cause, himself uncaused (primum m ovens im-
knew how to express for others systematically, mobile) and as such existent only in act (actu), that
with remarkable clearness and simplicity. In his is pure actuality without potentiality and, therefore,

writings he does not, like Duns, make the reader without corporeality. His essence is actus purus
his associate in the search for truth, but he teaches el pcrfectus. This follows from the fivefold proof
it authoritatively. Thomas became the teacher for the existence of God; namely, there must be a
of his church and has always remained such. The first mover, unmoved, a first cause in the chain of
consciousness of the insufficiency of his works in causes, an absolutely necessary being, an absolutely
view of the revelation which he believed to have perfect being, and a rational designer. In this con-
received was often to him an oppressive burden. nection the thoughts of the unity, infinity, unchange-
The writings of Thomas may be classified as, ableness, and goodness of the highest being arc de-
(1) exegetical, homiletical, and liturgical; (2) duced. The spiritual being of God is further de-
dogmatic, apologetic, and ethical; and (3) philo- fined as thinking and willing. His knowledge is
sophical. Among the genuine works of the first absolutely perfect since he knows himself and all
class were: Commentaries on Job (1261-65); things as appointed by him. Since every knowing
on Psalms i.-li., according to some a being strives after the thing known as end, will is
3. Writings, reportatum, or report of oral deliver- implied in knowing. Inasmuch as God knows him-
ances furnished by his companion self as the perfect good, he wills himself as end.

Raynaldus; on Isaiah; the Catena aurea (1475, But in that everything is willed by God, everything
and often; transl., ed. by J. H. Newman, 4
Eng. is brought by the divine will to himself in the re-

vols., Oxford, 1841-45), which is a running com- lation of means to end. Therein God wills good to
mentary on the four Gospels, constructed on every being which exists, that is he loves it; and,
numerous citations from the Fathers; probably a therefore, love is the fundamental relation of God
Commentary on Canticles, and on Jeremiah; and to the world. If the divine love be thought of

wholly or partly reportata, on John, on Matthew, simply as act of will, it exists for every creature in
and on the epistles of Paul, including, according to like measure: but if the good assured by love to
one authority, Hebrews i.-x. Thomas prepared for the individual be thought of, it exists for different
Urban IV., Officium de corpore Christi (1264); and beings in various degrees. In so far as the loving
the following works may be either genuine or God gives to every being what it needs in relation
Thorn** Aquinas THE NEW SCHAFP-HERZOG 434

"
to the whole, he is just: in so far as he thereby does practical reason," affording the idea of the moral
away with misery, he is merciful. In every work law of nature, so important in medieval ethics.
of God both justice and mercy are united and, in- The first part of the Summa is summed up in the
"
deed, his justice always presupposes his mercy, thought that God governs the world as the uni-
since he owes no one anything and gives more versal first cause." God sways the intellect in that
bountifully than is due. As God "rules in the world, he gives the power to know and impresses the
"
the plan of the order of tlungs preexists in him; species intettigibiles on the mind, and he sways the
i.e., his providence and the exercise of it in his will in that he holds the good before

government are what condition as cause every- 5. The itas aim, and creates the virtus volendi.
"
thing which comes to pass in the world. Hence Summa, To
will is nothing else than a certain
follows predestination: from eternity some are Part ii.; inclination toward the object of the
destined to eternal life, while as concerns others Ethics. volition which is the universal good."
"
he permits some to fall short of that end." Repro- God works all in all, but so that things
bation, however, is more than mere foreknowledge; also themselves exert their proper efficiency. Here
"
it is the will of permitting anyone to fall into sin the Areopagitic ideas of the graduated effects of
and incur the penalty of condemnation for sin." created things play their part in Thomas's thought.
The effect of predestination is grace. Since God The second part of the Summa (two parts, prima
is the first cause of everything, he is the cause of secundcc and secumhv secundd) follows tliis complex
even the free acts of men through predestination. of ideas. Its theme is man's striving after the
Determinism is deeply grounded in the system of highest end, which is the blessedness of the vimo
Thomas; things with their source of becoming in beata. Here Thomas develops his system of ethics,
God are ordered from eternity as means for the which has its root in Aristotle. In a chain of acts
realization of his end in himself. On moral grounds of will man strives for the liighest end. They are
Thomas advocates freedom energetically; but, free acts in so far as man has in himself the knowl-
with his premises, he can have in mind only the edge of their end and therein the principle of action.
psychological form of self-motivation. Nothing In that the will wills the end, it wills also the ap-
in the world is accidental or free, although it may propriate means, chooses freely and completes the
appear so in reference to the proximate cause. From consensus. Whether the act be good or evil depends
"
this point of view miracles become necessary in on the end. The " human reason pronounces
themselves and are to be considered merely as judgment concerning the character of the end, it is,
inexplicable to man. From the point of view therefore, the law for action. Human acts, how-
of the first cause all is unchangeable; although ever, are meritorious in HO far as they promote the
from the limited point of view of the secondary cause purpose of God and his honor. By repeating a pood
miracles may be spoken of. In lu's doctrine of the action man acquires a moral habit or a quality
Trinity Thomas starts from the Augustinian system. which enables him to do the good gladly and easily.
Since God has only the functions of thinking and This is true, however, only of the intellectual and
willing, only two processiones can be asserted from moral virtues, which Thomas treats after the manner
the Father. But these establish definite relations of Aristotle; the theological virtues are imparted
"
of the persons of the Trinity one to another. The by God to man as a disposition," from \\hich the
relations must be conceived as real and not as acts here proceed, but while they strengthen, they
merely ideal; for, as with creatures relations arise do not form it. The " disposition " of evil is the
through certain accidents, since in God there is no opposite alternative. An act becomes evil through
"
accident but all is substance, it follows that the deviation from the. reason and the divine moral law.
relation really existing in God is the same as the Therefore, sin involves two factors: its substance
essence according to the thing." From another or matter is lust; in form, however, it is deviation
side, however, the relations as real must be really from the divine law. Sin has its origin in the will,
distinguished one from another. Therefore, three which decides, against the reason, for a " change-
persons are to be affirmed in God. Man stands able good." Since, however, the will also moves
opposite to God; he consists of soul and body. The the other powers of man, sin has its seat in these
" "
intellectual soul consists of intellect and will. too. choosing such a lower good as end, the
By
Furthermore the soul is the absolutely indivisible will is misled by self-love, so that this works as
form of man it is immaterial substance, but not one
; cause in every sin. God is not the cause of sin,
and the same in all men (as the Averrhoists as- since, on the contrary, he draws all things to him-
sumed). The soul's power of knowing has two sides; self. But from another side God is the cause of all
a passive (the intettectus possibilis) and an active things, so he is efficacious also in sin as t,ctio but
(the iniettectu8 agens). It is the capacity to form not as ens. The devil is not directly the cause of
concepts and to abstract the mind's images (species) sin, but he incites by working on the imagination
from the objects perceived by sense. But since and the sensuous impulse of man, as men or things
what the intellect abstracts from individual things may also do. Sin is original. Adam's first sin
is a universal, the mind knows the universal passes upon himself and all the succeeding race; be-
primarily and directly, and knows the singular cause he is the head of the human race and " by
only indirectly by virtue of a certain reflexio virtue of procreation human nature is transmitted
(cf, SCHOLASTICISM). As certain principles are im- and along with nature its infection." The powers
manent in the mind
for its speculative activity, of generation are, therefore, designated espe-
"
so also a special disposition of works," or the cially as "infected." The thought is involved
synderesis (rudiment of conscience), is inborn in the here by the fact that Thomas, like the other
425 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Aquinai

scholastics, held to creationism, therefore taught will respecting sin, and the remission of sins." It
that the souls are created by God. Two things is a " transmutation of the human soul," and takes
" A
according to Thomas constituted man's righteous- place instantaneously." creative act of God
ness in paradise thejustitia originaliK or the harmo- enters, which, however, executes itself as a spiritual
ny man's powers before they were blighted by
of all motive in a psychological form corresponding to the
desire, and the possession of the gratia gratum nature of man. Semipelagian tendencies are far
faciens (the continuous indwelling power of good). removed from Thomas. In that man is created
Both are lost through original sin, which in form is anew he believes and loves, and now sin is forgiven.
the '*
loss of original righteousness." The con- Then begins good conduct; grace is the " begin-
sequence of this loss is the disorder and maiming of ning of meritorious works.'* Thomas conceives
man's nature, which shows itself in " ignorance, of merit in the Augustinian sense: God gives the
malice, moral weakness, and especially in con- reward for that toward which he himself gives the
cupiscrntia, which is the material principle of power. Man can never of himself deserve the prima
original sin." The course of thought here is as fol- gratia, nor meritum de congruo (by natural ability;
lows: when the first man transgressed the order of cf R. Seeberg, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, ii. 105-
his nature appointed by nature and grace, he, and 106, Lcipsic, 1898) After thus stating the principles
.

with him the human race, lost this order. This of morality, in the secunda seciindce Thomas comes
negative state is the essence of original sin. From to a minute exposition of his ethics according to the
itfollow an impairment and perversion of human scheme of the virtues. The conceptions of faith and
nature in which thenceforth lower aims rule con- love are of much significance in the complete sys-
trary to nature and release the lower element in tem of Thomas. Man strives toward the highest
man. Since sin is contrary to the divine order, it is good with the will or through love. But since the
gmJt and subject to punishment. Guilt and punish- end must first be " apprehended in the intellect,"
ment correspond to each other; and since the knowledge of the end to be loved must precede love;
41 44
apostasy from the invariable good which is in- because the will can riot strive after God in perfect
finite," fulfilled by man, is unending, it merits ever- love unless the intellect have true faith toward him."
lasting punishment. Inasmuch as this truth which is to be known is
But (Jod works even in sinners to draw them to practical it first incites the will, which then brings
the end by "instructing through the law and aiding the reason to " assent." But since, furthermore,
"
by grace." The law is the precept of the prac- the good in question is transcendent and inacces-
tical reason." As the moral law of nature, it is the sible to man by himself, it requires the infusion
"
partiripation of the reason in the all-determining of a supernatural " capacity or "disposition" to
eternal reason." But since man falls short in his
11
make man capable of faith as well as love. Ac-
appropriation of this law of reason, there is need of a cordingly the object of both faith and love is God,
"
divine Jaw." And since the law applies to many involving also the entire complex of truths and com-
complicated relations, the practices dispositiones of mandments w hich God reveals, in so far as they
r

the human law must be laid down. The divine law in fact relate toGod and lead to him. Thus faith
consists of an old and a new. In so far as the old becomes recognition of the teachings and precepts
divine law contains the moral law of nature it is of the Scriptures and the Church ("the first sub-
universally valid; what there is in it, however, be- jection of man to God is by faith "). The object
yond this is valid only for the Jews. The new law of faith, however, is by its nature object of love;
"
is
"
primarily grace itself and so a " law given therefore faith comes to completion only in love
"
within," a gift superadded to nature by grace," ("by love is the act of faith accomplished and
but not a " written law." In this sense, as sacrp- formed ").
mental grace, the new law justifies. It contains, The way which leads to God is Christ: and
" "
however, an ordering of external and internal Christ is the theme of part iii. It can not be as-
conduct, and so regarded as a matter of course, serted that the incarnation w as absolutely neces-
r
is,
"
identical with both the old law and the law of nature. sary, since God in his omnipotent
The consilia (soc CONSILIA EVANGELICA) show how 6. power could have repaired human
The
"
one may attain the end better and more expedient- Summa, nature in many other ways": but it
"
ly by full renunciation of worldly goods. Since Part iii.; was the most suitable way both for
man is sinner and creature, he needs grace to reach Christ the purpose of instruction and of
" "
the final end. The first cause alone is able to satisfaction. The Unio between the
" " "
reclaim him to the final end." This is true after Logos and the human nature is a relation be-
the fall, although it was needful before. Grace is, tw een the divine and the human nature which
r

" 1
on one side, the free act of God/ and, on the comes about by both natures being brought to-
other side, the effect of this act, the gratia infusa gether in the one person of the Logos. An incarna-
or gratia crcata, a habitus infusus which is instilled tion can be spoken of only in the sense that the
" "
into the essence of the soul," a certain gift of human nature began to be in the eternal hypostasis
something
disposition, supernatural proceeding of the divine nature. So Christ is unum since his
from God into man." Grace
a supernatural
is human nature lacks the hypostasis. The person of
ethical character created in man by God, which the Logos, accordingly, has assumed the impersonal
comprises in itself all good, both faith and love. human nature, and in such way that the assumption
Justification by grace comprises four elements: of the soul became the means for the assumption
11
the infusion of grace, the influencing of free will of the body. This union with the human soul is the
toward God through faith, the influencing of free gratia unionis which leads to the impartation of the
Thomai Aquinaa THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 424

to the whole, he "

is just: in so far as he thereby does practical reason," affording the idea of the moral
away with misery, he is merciful. In every work law of nature, so important in medieval ethics.
of God both justice and mercy are united and, in* The first part of the Summa is summed up in the
"
deed, his justice always presupposes his mercy, thought that God governs the world as the uni-
since he owes no one anything and gives more versal first cause." God sways the intellect in that
bountifully than is due. As God "rules in the world, he gives the power to know and impresses the
"
the plan of the order of things preexists in him; species inteUigibiles on the mind, and he sways the
i.e., his providence and the exercise of it in his will in that he holds the good before

government are what condition as cause every- 5. The as aim, and creates the virtus volcndi.
it
"
thing which comes to pass in the world. Hence Summa, To
will is nothing else than a certain
follows predestination: from eternity some are Part ii.; inclination toward the object of the
destined to eternal life, while as concerns others Ethics. volition which is the universal good."
"
he permits some to fall short of that end." Repro- God works all in all, but so that things
bation, however, is more than mere foreknowledge; also themselves exert their proper efficiency. Here
"
it is the will of permitting anyone to fall into sin the Areopagitic ideas of the graduated effects of
and incur the penalty of condemnation for sin." created things play their part in Thomas's thought.
The effect of predestination is grace. Since God The second part of the jSumma (two parts, pntna
is the first cause of everything, he is the cause of secundce and secundce secuiida) follows this complex
even the free acts of men through predestination. of ideas. Its theme is man's striving after the
Determinism is deeply grounded in the system of highest end, which is the blessedness of the ??<MO
Thomas; things with their source of becoming in beata. Here Thomas develops his system of ethics,
God are ordered from eternity as means for the which has root in Aristotle. In a chain of acts
its
realization of his end in himself. On moral grounds of will man strives for the highest end. They are
Thomas advocates freedom energetically; but, free acts in so far as man has in himself the knowl-
with his premises, he can have in mind only the edge of their end and therein the principle of action.
psychological form of self-motivation. Nothing In that the will wills the end, it wills also the ap-
in the world is accidental or free, although it may propriate means, chooses freely and completes the
appear so in reference to the proximate cause. From consensus. Whether the act be good or evil depends
this point of view miracles become necessary in on the end. The " human reason " pronounces
themselves and are to be considered merely as judgment concerning the character of the end, it is,

inexplicable to man. From the point of view therefore, the law for action. Human acts, how-
of the first cause all is unchangeable; although ever, are meritorious in so far as they promote the
from the limited point of view of the secondary cause purpose of God and lus honor. By repeating a good
miracles may be spoken of. In his doctrine of the action man acquires a moral habit, or a quality
Trinity Thomas starts from the Augustinian system. which enables him to <lo the good gladly and easily.
Since God has only the functions of thinking and This is true, however, only of the intellectual and
willing, only two processiones can be asserted from moral virtues, which Thomas treats after the manner
the Father. But these establish definite relations of Aristotle; the theological virtues are imparted
of the persons of the Trinity one to another. The "
by God to man
as a disposition," from \\liich the
relations must be conceived as real and not as acts here proceed, but while they strengthen, they
" "
merely ideal; for, as with creatures relations arise do not form it. The disposition of evil is the
through certain accidents, since in God there is no opposite alternative. An act becomes evil through
"
accident but all is substance, it follows that the deviation from the reason and the divine moral law.
relation really existing in God is the same as the Therefore, sin involves two factors: its substance
essence according to the thing." From another or matter is lust; in form, however, it is deviation
side, however, the relations as real must be really from the divine law. Sin has its origin in the will,
distinguished one from another. Therefore, three which decides, against the reason, for a " change-
persons are to be affirmed in God. Man stands able good." Since, however, the will also moves
opposite to God; he consists of soul and body. The the other powers of man, sin has its seat in these
"intellectual soul" consists of intellect and will. too. By choosing such a lower good as end, the
Furthermore the soul is the absolutely indivisible will is misled by self-love, so that this works as
form of man; it is immaterial substance, but not one cause in every sin. God is not the cause of sin,
and the same in all men (as the Averrhoists as- since, on the contrary, he draws all things to him-
sumed). The soul's power of knowing has two sides; self. But from another side God is the cause of all
a passive (the intettectus possibilis) and an active things, so he is efficacious also in sin as c^ctio but
(the intellectus agens). It is the capacity to form not as ens. The devil is not directly the cause of
concepts and to abstract the mind's images (species) sin, but he incites by working on the imagination
from the objects perceived by sense. But since and the sensuous impulse of man, as men or things
what the intellect abstracts from individual things may also do. Sin is original. Adam's first sin
is a universal, the mind knows the universal passes upon himself and all the succeeding race; be-
primarily and directly, and knows the singular cause he is the head of the human race and " by
only indirectly by virtue of a certain reflexio virtue of procreation human nature is transmitted
(cf. SCHOLASTICISM). As certain principles are im- and along with nature its infection." The powers
manent in the mind for its speculative activity, of generation are, therefore, designated espe-
"
so also a special disposition of works," or the cially as "infected." The thought is involved
synderesis (rudiment of conscience), is inborn in the here by the fact that Thomas, like the other
425 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA aB Aquinae

scholastics, held to creationism, therefore taught will respecting sin, and the remission of sins." It
that the souls are created by God. Two things is a " transmutation of the human soul," and takes
according to Thomas constituted man's righteous- place "instantaneously." A creative act of God
ness in paradise thejuntitia ori-ginalis or the harmo- enters, which, however, executes itself as a spiritual
ny man's powers before they were blighted by
of all motive in a psychological form corresponding to the
desire, and the possession of the gratia gratum nature of man. Semipelagian tendencies are far
faciens (the continuous indwelling power of good). removed from Thomas. In that man is created
Both are lost through original sin, which in form is anew he believes and loves, and now sin is forgiven.
"
the loss of original
righteousness." The con- Then begins good conduct; grace is the " begin-
soquenoc of this loss the disorder and maiming of
is ning of meritorious works." Thomas conceives
man's nature, which shows itself in " ignorance, of merit in the Augustinian sense: God gives the
malice, moral weakness, and especially in con- reward for that toward which he himself gives the
cupiscentia, which is the material principle of power. Man can never of himself deserve the jtrima
original sin." The course of thought here is as fol- gratia, nor meritum de congruo (by natural ability;
lows: when the first man transgressed the order of cf R. Seeberg, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, ii. 105-
.

his nature appointed by nature and grace, he, and 106, Leipsic, 1898). After thus stating the principles
with him the human race, lost this order. This of morality, in the secunda secundce Thomas comes
negative state is the essence of original sin. From to a minute exposition of his ethics according to the
it follow an impairment and perversion of human scheme of the virtues. The conceptions of faith and
nature in which thenceforth lower aims rule con- love are of much significance in the complete sys-
trary to nature and release the lower element in tem of Thomas. Man strives toward the highest
man. Since sin is contrary to the divine order, it is good \\ith the will or through Jove. But since the
guilt and subject to punishment. Guilt and punish- end must first be " apprehended in the intellect,"
ment correspond to each other; and since the knowledge of the end to be loved must precede love ;
" "
apostasy from the invariable good which is in- because the will can not strive after God in perfect
"
finite," fulfilled by man, is unending, it merits ever- love unless the intellect have true faith toward him
lasting punishment. Inasmuch as this truth which is to be known is
But God works even in sinners to draw them to practical it first incites the will, which then brings
<l
the end by instructing through the law and aiding "
the reason to assent." But since, furthermore,
"
by grace." The law is the precept of the prac- the good in question is transcendent and inacces-
"
tical reason As the moral law of nature, it is the sible to man by himself, it requires the infusion
" "
piiitiripation of the reason in the all-determining of a supernatural capacity or "disposition" to
"
eternal reason." But since man falls short in his make man capable of faith as well as love. Ac-
appropriation of this law of reason, there is need of a cordingly the object of both faith and love is God,
"
divine la\\." And since the law applies to many involving also the entire complex of truths and com-
complicated relations, the practice? dispositiones of mandments which God reveals, in so far as they
the liuniun law must be laid down. The divine law in fact relate to God and lead to him. Thus faith
consists of an old and a new. In so far as the old becomes recognition of the teachings and precepts
divine law contains the moral law of nature it is of the Scriptures and the Church (" the first sub-
universally valid; what there is in it, however, be- jection of man to God is by faith "). The object
yond this is valid only for the Jews. The new law of faith, however, is by its nature object of 'love;
"
and so a " law given
"
is primarily grace itself therefore faith comes to completion only in love
"
within,"
"
a gift superadded to nature by grace," ("by love is the act of faith accomplished and
but not a, written law." In this sense, as sacra- formed ").
mental grace, the new law justifies. It contains, The way which leads to God is Christ: and
u "
however, an ordering of external and internal Christ is the theme of part iii. It can not be as-
conduct, and so regarded is, as a matter of course, serted that the incarnation was absolutely neces-
"
identical with both the old law and the law of nature. sary, since God in his omnipotent
The consilia (sec CONSILIA EVANGELJCA) show how 6. power could have repaired human
The
"
one may attain the end better and more expedient- nature in many other ways": but it
Summa,
"
ly byfull renunciation of worldly goods. Since Part iii.; was the most suitable way both for
man sinner and creature, he needs grace to reach
is Christ the purpose of instruction and of
" "
the final end. The first cause alone is able to satisfaction. The Unio between the
" " "
reclaim him to the final end." This is true after Logos and the human nature is a relation be-
the although it was needful before. Grace is,
fall, tween the divine and the human nature which
"
on one the free act of God," and, on the
side, comes about by both natures being brought to-
other side, the effect of this act, the gratia infu&a gether in the one person of the Logos. An incarna-
or gratia create, a habitus in/usus which is instilled tion can be spoken of only in the sense that the
" "
into the essence of the soul," a certain gift of human nature began to be in the eternal hypostasis
something
disposition, supernatural proceeding of the divine nature. So Christ is unum since lu's
from God into man." a supernatural
Grace is human nature lacks the hypostasis. The person of
ethical character created in man by God, which the Logos, accordingly, has assumed the impersonal
comprises in itself all good, both faith and love. human nature, and in such way that the assumption
Justification by grace comprises four elements: of the soul became the means for the assumption
" of the body. This union with the human soul is the
the infusion of grace, the influencing of free will
toward God through faith, the influencing of free gratia unionis which leads to the impartation of the
Thomas Aq,"fiiftif
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 426
Thomas of Oelano

gratia habitualis from the Logos to the human in sensuous form, moreover, is inevitable because
nature. Thereby all human potentialities are made of the sensuous nature of man. The res sensi-
perfect in Jesus. Besides the perfections given by are the matter, the words of in-
biles
the vision of God, which Jesus enjoyed from the 7. The form of the sacraments.
stitution the
beginning, he receives all others by the gratia habi- Sacraments. Contrary to the Franciscan view that
tualis. In so far, however, us it is the limited human the sacraments are mere symbols
nature which receives these perfections, they are whose efficacy God accompanies with a directly fol-
finite. This holds both of the knowledge and the lowing creative act in the soul, Thomas holds it not
"
will of Christ. The Logos impresses the species unfit to say with Hugo of St. Victor that a sacra-
intelligibiles of all created things on the soul, but ment contains grace," or to teach of the sacraments
"
the intcllectus ay ens transforms them gradually into that they cause grace." The difficulty of a sensu-
the impressions of sense. On another side the soul ous thing producing a creative effect, Thomas
of Christ works miracles only as instrument of the attempts to remove by a distinction between the
Logos, since omnipotence in no way appertains to causa prindpalis et instrumentalis. God as the
this human soul in itself. Furthermore, Christ's principal cause works through the sensuous thing
"
human nature partook of imperfections, on the one as the means ordained by him for his end. Just
side to makehis true humanity evident, on another as instrumental power is acquired by the instru-
side because he would bear the general consequences ment from this, that it is moved by the principal
of sin for humanity. Christ experienced suffering, agent, so also the sacrament obtains spi ritual power
but blessedness reigned in his soul, which, however, from the benediction of Christ and the application
did not extend to his body. Concerning redemp- of the minister to tho use of the sacrament. There is
tion, Thomas teaches that Christ is to be regarded spiritual power in the sacraments in so far as they
as redeemer after his human nature but in such have been ordained by God for a spiritual effect."
way that the human
nature produces divine effects And this spiritual power remains in the sensuous
as organ of divinity. The one side of the work of thing until it has attained its purpose At the sumo
redemption consists herein, that Christ as head of time Thomas distinguished the yratut Kacrtimentahs
humanity imparts ordo, pcrfectio, and virtus to his from the gratia virtutum et donor urn, in Unit the
members. He is the teacher and example of hu- former in general perfects the essence and tho
manity; his whole life and suffering as well as his powers of the soul, and the latter in particular
work after he is exalted serve this end. The love brings to pass necessary spiritual effects for the
wrought hereby in men effects, according to Luke Christian life. Later this distinction \\as ignored.
vii.47, the forgiveness of sins. In a single statement the effect of the sacraments is
This is the first course of thought. Then follows to infuse justifying grace into men. What Christ
a second complex of thoughts which has the idea effects is achieved through the sacraments. Christ's
of satisfaction as its center. To bo sure, God as the humanity was the instrument for the operation of
highest being could forgive sins without satisfaction; his divinity; tho sacraments are the instruments
but because his justice and morcy could be best re- through which this operation of Christ's humanity
vealed through satisfaction he chose this way. As passes over to men. Christ's humanity served his
little, however, as satisfaction is necessary in itself, divinity as instrumcntum conjunctum, like* the
so little does it offer an equivalent, in a correct hand: the sacraments are irmtrumcnta separata,
" like a staff; the former can use tho latter, as the
sense, for guilt; it is rather a superabundant sat-
isfaction," since on account of the divine subject in hand can use a staff. For a more detailed ex-
Christ in a certain sense his suffering and activity position cf. Seeberg, ut sup., ii. 112 sqq. Of Thomas'
are infinite. With this thought the strict logical eschatology, according to the commentary on tho
"
deduction of Ansclm's theory is given up. Christ's Sentences," only a brief account can here be
suffering bore personal character in that it proceeded given. Everlasting blessedness consists for Thomas
11
out of love and obedience." It was an offering in the vision of God: and this vision consists not in
brought to God, which as personal act had the char- an abstraction or in a mental image supernaturally
" "
acter of merit. Thereby Christ merited salva- produced, but the divine substance itself is beheld,
tion for men. As Christ, exalted, still influences and in such manner that God himself becomes im-
men, so does he still work in their behalf continually mediately the form of the beholding intellect;
in heaven through the intercession (interpellation . that is, God is the object of the vision and at the
In this way Christ as head of humanity the
effects same time causes the vision. The perfection of the
forgiveness of their sins, their reconciliation with blessed also demands that the body be restored to
God, their immunity from punishment, de- the soul as something to be made perfect by it.
liverance from the devil, and the opening of heaven's Since blessedness consist in operatic* it is made
,

gate. But inasmuch as all these benefits are al- more perfect in that the soul has a definite operatic
ready offered through the inner operation of the with the body, although the peculiar act of blessed-
love of Christ, Thomas has combined the theories ness (i.e., the vision of God) has nothing to do
of Anselm and Abelard by joining the one to the with the body.
other. For two gifts before all others is Thomas to be
The doctrine of the sacraments follows the Chris- praised; namely, his great talent for systematizing
"
tology; for the sacraments have efficacy from and his power of simple and lucid exposition. To
the incarnate Word himself." The sacraments are be sure the work of preceding generations, especially
signs, which, however, not only signify sanctification of Alexander of Hales, had lightened his task as
but also effect it. That they bring spiritual gifts concerns the selection and ordering of the material ;
427 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Thomas Aquinai
Thomas of Oelano

but on the other hand it had added to the number Dante, ib. 1836; H. R Feugcray, Essai sur lea doctrines
of problems and expanded the learned apparatus politiques de 8. Thomas, Pans, 1857; C. Jourdam, La
Philosophic de S. Thomas d'Aquin, 2 vols., ib. 1858;
enormously, thereby impairing the J. N. (3. Oinchinger, Die speculative Theologic, des Th. v.
8. Estima- unity and clarity of the progress of Aquinas, Laudshutt, 1858; H. E. Plassrnaim, Die Lehre
tion. thought. It was Thomas who made a dea heiligen Thomas von Aquin ubcr die Biseheidenheit und
Demuth, Paderborn, 1858; A. Rietter, Die Moral des
single connected and consistent whole
heiligen Thomas von Aquinas, Munich, 185S; C. M. G.
of all this unwieldy mass of stuff. Next his decided
Brechillet-Jourdaiu, La Philosophic de S. Thomas d'Aquin,
Aristotolianism, not without an admixture of Paris, 1858; J. Walker, Essay on the Origin of Knowledge
Neoplatonic elements, must be noted. He owed according to the Philosophy of St Thomas, I/mdon, 1858;
E. Naville, fitude sur I'usuvre de St. Thomas d'Aquin, Paris,
not only his philosophical thoughts and world-
1859; A. Schmid, Die thommttsche und scotistische Ge-
conception to Aristotle, but he also took from him wissheitslehre, Dillingen, 1859; A. Goudm, Philosophic
the frame for his theological system; Aristotle's suivant les prinripes de S. Thomas, Paris, 1864; J. De-
htzsch, Die Gotteslehre des Thomas von Aquino kntisch
metaphysics and etlu'cs furnished the trend of dargestellt, Leipsie, 1870; A. Reali, S. Thomas d'Aquin et
his system. Heroin he gained the purely rational I'infaillibilitG des pontifes romains, Paris, 1870; M GIoss-
framework for his massive temple of thought, ner, Die Lehre des heiligen Thomas vom Wesen der gottli-
chen Gnade, Mainz, 1871; F. X. Loitner, Der heilige
namely of God, the rational cause of the world, and
Thomas von Aquin ubcr das unfchlbare Lehramt des Papstes,
man's striving after him. Then he filled this in with
Freiburg, 1872; A. Murgue, Questions d'ontologie: etudes
the dogmas of the Church or of revelation. And sur S. Thomas, Lyons, 1876; E Lecoultre, La Doctrine de
at all points he succeeded in upholding the church Dieu d'apres Anstote et Thomas d'Aquin, Lausanne, 1877;
doctrine as credible and reasonable. This is the F. A. R. de la Bouillcrie, L'Homme, sa nature, son dme
etc d'apres la doctrine de S. Thomas, Paris, 1880; A. L. C.
final characteristic of Thomas to be noted, lu's
,

Bourquard, Doctrine de la connaissancc, d'apres la doc-

blameless orthodoxy. For opposition to Thomas trine dc Thomas, ib. 1880, A. Ottcn, Allgemeine Erkennt-
and the reaction in the fifteenth century, see SO-HO- nitfslchre des heiligen Thomas, Paderborn, 1882; J. As-
tromoff, Introductw ad intelligensiam doctnnam Angelici
LASTirjHM, III., 2, 2. This position as the teacher
Doctonx, Rome, 1884; A. Farges, Etudes philosophiques
of the church has grown ever stronger from Leo X
pour uulgarmer les theories d'Anstote et de 8 Thomas, 8
to Leo XIII.; arid even to-day the Roman Catholic vols Pans, 1887-1902; E C Lesserteur, S. Thomas et
,
1

Church preserves the inheritance of the ancient la predestination, Mayenuc, 1888, (i Feldncr, Die Lehre
des heiliyen Thomas ubcr den Kinjluns Gottes auf die Hand-
world-conception arid the old church dogmas in lungen der vemunftiqtn (feschupfe, Grass, 1X89; B. An-
the form which Thomas Aquinas gave them. For tomades, Die tftaatiUhrc dis Thomas ab Aquino, Leipsic,
the relation of theology to philosophy and the 1890; G Feldner, Die Lehre des heiliyen Thomas v Aquin
ulier die Willrntfrcihcit, Gniz, 1890; V. Lipperhcide,
sphere of the former ami its sources, see SCHOLAS- Thomas von Aquino und die platoTiische Idtcnlchrc, Munich,
TICISM. (R. SEKHEJK; ) 1890; P E Nctimayer, Thrttnr dca Strcbcns narh Thomas
BIBUOORAJ'HY: Editions of the Opera may
be noted as fol- von Aquin, 2 parts, Leipsie, 1890; \\ H Nolens, De, leer
lows: 17 vols, Rome, 1570-71; 17 vols, Venice, 159M- van dtn h. Thomat* von Aquin over het rciht, Utrecht, 1890;
1594; 19 vols Antwerp, 1612; 211 vols Puns, 16*0-41;
, , F. J. Van do Groot, Summa apologctna de rcflesia catholica
20 vols., Venice, 1775-78; 25 vols Parma, 1852-72; 34
, ad mentcm S Thorn or Aquinativ, 2 vols Regcushurg, 1890;
,

vola ,Puns, 1871-80; arid the new ed begun under the J. Gardicr, Philosophic de ,S Thomas, 4 vols ,Paris, 1892-
auspices of Leo XIII., Rome, 18H2 sqq For a compact 1890, J J Uerthiei, De Vitutie dc la tfomme thcologi^ue,
statement of the principal editions of single worlds con- Freiburg, 189,'i; A Port maun, Das <S'j/*/rm der theologi-
sult Baldwin, Dictionary, lii. 1, pp 51.'1-514. Eng trans- srhen tfummce des heihgen Thomas von Aquin, Lucerne,
lations to bo mentioned are Doctunes of Aquinas. . . 1894; F. T. Es&or, /)< Lehre des hnhnen Thomas von
on the J{ ulers and Members of Christian tftatcx, London, Aquino uber die M ogluhhcit einer anfanglosen Kchnpfung,
I860; Memoranda of Angelical Doctrine, from Lady Day Manster, 1895; H. (iayraud, N. Thomas et le prfdeter-
to the Astension, ib. 1867; Homilies of S'f Thomas . . . miniame, Paris, 1895; Guillemin, S'. Thomas et le predeter-
upon the Epistles ami Gospels, ib 1867, 187.i, 8t Thomas minismc, ib. 189.'); A Cappclhizzi, Persona nrlla dottrina
Aquinas on the Two Com.mandm.entn of Charity and the di S. Tommaso d' Aquino, Sicim, 1900; C. Ahbert, La
Ten Commandments of the Law, ib. 1880; his commentary Psychologic thorniste et les theories modcrnes, Lyons, 1902;
on the Lord's Prayer, ib. 1880 and 189;i; The Maxims of J Gottler, Thomas von Aquin und die vortnd(ntmischen
St Thomas Aquinas and the t'rai/crs, ib. 1890; The Yen- Thomisten uber die Wirkungcn des Buftxsakraments, Frei-
eraltle Sacram ent of the Altar, ib. 1871, 1890, 189H, Aquinas burg, 1904, F. Brommcr, Die Lehre vom sakramentalen
Ethicus; or, the moral Teaching o/A'f Thomas. A Trant.1. Charaktcr in der Scholastifc bis Thomas v Aquin inklusive
of the principal Portion of the second Part of the Humma nuch gedruckten und ungedruckten Quellen dargestellt, Pader-
Theologia with Notes by J. Rickaby, vols i -n., ib. 1896; born, 1908; A Ott, Thomas von Aquin und das Afendi-
The Relif/ious State, the Episcopate and the Pntstly Office, kantentum, Freibuig, 1908; P. Roussclot, L' Intellectual'
ib. 1902; An Apology for the Religious Orders by St Thomas isme de Saint-Thomas, Pans, 1908; W. Walker, Greatest
Aquinas, ib. 1902; New Things and Old in St. Thomas Men of the, Christian Church, Chicago, 1908; R. Eucken,
Aquinas. A Translation of various Writings and Treatises Die Philosophic des Thomas von Aquinc und die Kultur der
of the Angelic Doctor, ib. 1909. Neuzeit, 2d cd , Bad Sachsa, 1910; A. D. Sertillanges, St.
For the earliest accounts of the life of the saint (e.g., Thomas d'Aquin, 2 vols., Paris, 1910; P. Mandonnot, Des
that by Bernard Ouido), miracles, etc., consult the col- cents authentiques de S. Thomas d'Aquin, Freiburg, 1910.
lection in ASH, March, i. 657-747, and cf. Histoire lit-
tiraire de la France, xix. 238-266. Biographies are by THOMAS OF CELANO: Franciscan author
A. Pietro, Venice, 1543; P. Fngerio, Rome, 1668; A. Of his life little
(thirteenth century). known;
is
Touron, Paris, 1757; K. J. de Lecluze, Gr6goire VII.,
Saint Francois d'Assise et Saint Thomas d'Aquin, 2 vols.,
ho is supposed to have lived last at the monastery
Paris, 1844; M. Carle, Paris, 1846; H. Hortel, Augsburg, of Tagliacozzo (44 m. e.n.e. of Rome) . The one thing
1846; E. D. Hampden, London, 1848; D. Mettenlciter, certain is that in 1221 he took part in the mission to
Regensburg, 1856; K. Werner, Regenaburg, 1858; J. F.
Bareille, Paris, 1859; R. B. Vaughan, 2 vols., Hereford,
Germany that was prompted by Francis of Assisi;
1871-72; F. J. V. do Groot, Utrecht, 1882; Mmo. E Des- and that in Germany he had charge of the stations
mousseaux de Givro, Paris, 1888; R. Majocchi, Modena, at Mainz, Worms, and Cologne. lie returned to
1889; P. Gavanagh, Ixjndon, 1890; M
Didiot, Lou vain, He can hardly have boon one of
Italy after 1223.
1894; J. Jansen, Kevelaer. 1898.
On his philosophy, theology, etc., consult: G. H. Bach, the most intimate disciples of Francis; it is accord-
De Vital da dmcs apres la mort. d'apres S. Thomas el ingly remarkable that Gregory IX. detailed him to
Thoum* of Oelano
ThoxnaaiuB
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 428

write the legend of the founder of that order, which i. 15; Ps. xcvi. 13, xcvii. 3, cii. 26, may have been
was officially confirmed, Feb. 25, 1229. The value suggested by similar judgment-hymns of an earlier
of this legend, Vita /., has latterly become stoutly date, like the Libcra me Domine a responsory in a
t

contested, and the upshot of the controversy may manuscript in the British Museum. It was written
be summarized fairly as follows: (1) its main de- in three-line stanzas and intended for private de-
fect is its rhetoric, which clouds the portraiture of votion. In its time it was remarkably impressive
the saint. As a writer under official commission,
(2) by its solemn grandeur and awful majesty. Cf H. .

Thomas had to assume a certain politic reserve; A. Daniel, TJvesaurus hymnologicus, ii. 103-131,
hence ho silently ignores the crisis of 1219-20, v. 110-1 16 (Leipsic, 1855); Abraham Cole, Dies Irce
the friction within the order, and the warnings of the in Thirteen Original Versions (4th ed., New York,
saint against privileges, while he lavishes exuber- 1866). The best English translations are by W. J.
ant praise on Gregory IX. and Elias of Cortona. Irons, H. Alford, A. Cole, and R. C. French. There
(:*) Nevertheless
he meant to tell the truth, and so is a fivefold translation in verse of various meters,

wrote without conscious opposition to the intimate issued with the text, by President M. W. Stryker
disciples of Francis. For its contemporary proxim- (privately printed, Clinton, N. Y., 1910)].
ity as well as for the author's conscientiousness, the E. LEMPP.
Vita I. remains a source of the first rank. In 1230, BIBLIOGRAPHY: The best edition of the Opera BO far as they
Thomas was in a position to entrust some precious relate to St. FranciH is by Edward d'Alonvcm, Rome,

St Francis (hair and articles of clothing) to 1906; and the beat discussion is W. Gotz, Die Quellen zur
relics of
Oeschichte dea heilioen Franz von Assisi, Uotha, 1904.
Jordanus de Giano; it is, therefore, not impossible Consult also KL, xi. 1668-70.
that he wrote also the legend of St. Anthony of
Padua (12:^2). This hypothesis was held to be THOMAS CHRISTIANS. See NKSTOKIANH, 2,8.

probable by Ferdinand Marie d'Araules (La Vie de

St Antoine par Jean Rvgauld, Paris, 1899); yet this
THOMAS, GOSPEL OF. See APOCRYPHA, B, 1., 5.

probability may scarcely be maintained, because the THOMAS OF VILLANOVA: Spanish Koman
style as a whole is distinctly different in the two Catholic; b. at Fuenlana, near Villanueva (40 rn
legends (cf. Lon de Kerval, S. Antomi de Padua n.w. of Valladolid), in the diocese of Leon, 1488, d
vita* ducr, in Collection d* etudes et des documents, v at Valencia Sept. 8, 1555 He studied at Alcala;
7-8, Paris, 1904). Thomas himself made an ex- lectured on moral science at the University of Sala-
tract from Vita I. for liturgical use, after 1230, manca, 1513-15; entered the order of the Augus-
Lcgrnda in usum chon; but without new matter. tinian hermits in 1517; became the provincial of
The chapter general of 1244 commissioned the his order for Andalusia and Castile; was confessor
founder's associates to supplement the previous leg- to Charles V., and bishop of Valencia, 1544-55.
ends; and they then compiled their materials as In 1658 he was canonized by Alexander VII. Frag-
directed by the letter, which, at all events, is surely ments of the beginnings of his Commentaries on
genuine, and prefaces the so-called legend of the Canticles, Job, and Revelation were collected and
three associates (" not according to the usual manner
published (best ed., with biography, Laurentius
of a legend, but, as if from a lovely meadow, have a Sancta Barbara, 2 vols., Milan, 1760). Opera
we culled some flowers "). There is no small dispute omnia was edited and published (5 vols., Sala-
as to what this garland is; but the probability at manca, 1761-64; another ed Augsburg, 1757).
,

least is, as a later source reports, that the General

BIBLIOGRAPHY: ASB, Sept., v. 799 sqq.; F. Posl, Ltben dea
Crescentius delivered the material to Thomas, on heilioen Thomas von Villanova, Munster, 1860; Bruder
which basis he produced the Vita II. This legend Bernards A phorismen librr katholische Handlung der Bibel,
was composed in 1247, and purports to supplement pp. 19 sqq., Freiburg, 1862; Thomas von Vittanova Bttch-
lein von der Qottlichen Liebe, i&eraeUt von F. Kaulcn, Frei-
Vita I. It takes account of the progressive devel-
burg, 1896; KL, xi. 1692-94.
opment of the order, suppresses the name of the
deposed General Elias, and combats the relaxing
THOMAS WALDENSIS. See NETTEB (WALDEN-
tendencies within the order. On the other hand, sis), THOMAS.
there is silence on the testament of the saint, his
THOMAS, ALLEN CLAPP: Friend; b. at Balti-
admonition concerning privileges, and the care of
more, Md., Dec. 26, 1846. He was educated at
lepers. Yet here the author appears to be subject- Haverford College, Hriverford, Pa. (A.B., 1865),
ively honest, and only a man of politic reserve. It and after engaging in mercantile pursuits, 1869-78,
is further supposed that
by command of General became professor of history and librarian of Haver-
Giovanni da Parma Thomas wrote a tractatus de ford College, which position he still holds. He has
jniraculis. Such a document has been recently dis- written Edward Lawrence Scull, a Memoir (privately
covered and issued by F. d'Ortroy; but no compel-
printed, Cambridge, Mass., 1891); A History of
ling proof can be adduced that it was the work of the United States for Schools and Academies (Boston,
Thomas. Whether the legend of St. Clara, com-
1894) History of the Society of Friends in America
;

posed between 1255 and 1261, was written by (in collaboration with R. H. Thomas; New York,
Thomas, as Paul Sabatier supposes, is doubtful. 1894, 4th ed., 1905); and Elementary History of the
According to the Liber conformitatum, a work dating United States (Boston, 1900).
from the close of the fourteenth century, Thomas
also composed the Dies irce, dies ilia (cf. Julian, THOMAS, DAVID: Congregationalist; b. at
Hymnology, pp. 1559, 1629). Hollybush-Vatson, near Tenby (10 m. e. of Pem-
[The Dies irce, one of the most celebrated hymns broke), South Wales, Feb. 1, 1813; d. at Ramsgate
of the Middle Ages, based on such passages as Zeph. (15 m. n.e. of Canterbury), England, Dec. 30, 1894.
429 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Thomas of Oelano
Thomasiua

After following a mercantile course for some years, THOMASIUS (THOMAS), to-md'si-us, CHRIS-
he turned to theology, and studied at Newport TIAN: German Lutheran; b. at Leipsic Jan. 1,
Pagnel, now Cheshunt College, Buckingham, under 1655; d. at Halle Sept. 23, 1728. He studied philos-
T. B. and J. Bull; was minister of the Congrega- ophy at Leipsic (M. and jurisprudence at
A., 1672),
tional Church at Chesham, 1841-44; of Stockwell Frankfort, 1675-78; was lawyer and privat-docent
Independent Church, London, 1844-77. He founded at Leipsic, advocating with great boldness the na-
in 1855 the National Newspaper League Company, tural law of Samuel Pufendorf (q.v.). In a dis-
for cheapening and improving the daily press, putation, De crimine bigamies (1685), he asserted
which numbered ten thousand members; also the that polygamy was not contrary to nature. In
Working Men's Club and Institute, 1861, and was the footsteps of Pufendorf he published Institutiones
originator of the University of Wales, at Aberyst- jurisprudentice divince (1688), in which he advanced
with, 1862. He was a man of broad ideas. In all his views on natural right, disclaiming that it was
his writings he recognized the fact that as Christ is derived from the primitive state of nature. His
the only revealer of absolute truth, he is not to be caricature of the pedantry of the scholars and the
interpreted by the Old-Testament writers or by the intolerance of the theologians, as well as personal
apostles, but they areall to be interpreted by him attacks, led to many complaints and finally to an
He conducted The Homilist (50 vols., London, 1852 order, in 1690, from the superior consistory forbid-
K(jq.); contributed to various volumes of The Pulpit ding him to lecture or to publish. Cut off from all

Commentary (London and New York, 1880 sqq.); self-support, he went to Berlin, where Elector
and was author of a homiletical commentary on Frederick appointed him to the council and to lec-
Matthew (London, 1864), and on the Acts (1870); ture at Halle. Thomasius quickly gathered a large
The Crisis of Being. Siz Lectures to young Men on number of students, and laid the foundation for the
religious Decision (1849); The Core of Creeds, or St. University of Halle, which was dedicated in 1694,
Peter's Keys (1851); The Progress of Being. Six of which he became second professor of juris-
Lectures on tfa true Progress of Man
(1854) Profc- ; prudence, and first professor in 1710.
lemata Mundi. Ttie Book of Job exegeticaUy con- Thomasius was not a creative spirit, but with a
sidercd (1878); and his complete works appeared firm grasp he seized the progressive thoughts of his
as the Hmniltstic Librari/ (1882 sqq.). time and stood for them with intrepid courage.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: English Cnnfjregational Year Book, 1896, Endowed with a thorough, open, warm-hearted
pp 237-2M; DNB, Ivi 177-178. nature, he, too impulsively sometimes, combated
and ridiculed the current prejudices, faith in au-
THOMAS, JESSE BURGESS: Baptist; b. at
and intolerance, thus becoming
Edwardsville, 111 July 29, 1832. He was educated
,
thority, pedantry,
at Kenyon College, (). (A.B., 1850). After prac- the first successfulchampion of the Enlightenment
tising Jaw for a number of years, he held pastorates (q.v.) in Germany. His weapon was reason; but he
at Waukegan, 111. (1862-64), First Baptist Church was not a profound thinker going back to ultimate
(now the Baptist Temple), Brooklyn, N. Y. (1864- principles; his reasoning was that of common sense.
1869), First Baptist Church, San Francisco, Cal. He held the syllogism in contempt and the mathe-
;

matical method of Christian Wolff Thomasius re-

(1869-70), Michigan Avenue Baptist Church,
Chicago, 111. (1870-74), and was recalled to the garded as merely a revised scholasticism. He was
First Baptist Church, Brooklyn, in 1874, serving an empiricist, mentally related to Locke, by whom
until 1888. From 1888 to 1905 he was professor he was influenced in more than one respect. He
of church history in Newton Theological Institute, was a typical representative of the practical ten-
Newton Center, Mass., and in 1905 he was made dency of the Enlightenment, the highest aim of
In theology he is a progressive which was common utility and happiness. Against
professor emeritus.
conservative. He is the author of The Old Bible speculation and logic in religion he defines faith as
"
and the New Science (New York, 1877) ; and The trust of the heart in God," and is fond of lauding
Mould of Doctrine the influence of providence in the incidents of his
(Philadelphia, 1885).
life. He depreciates the Fathers, rejects the dicta-
THOMAS, NATHANIEL SEYMOUR: Protestant tion of the creeds, regards the churches as sects,
Episcopal missionary bishop of Wyoming; b. at and scourges the heresy-hunting and domineering
Faribault, Minn., June 20, 1867. He was educated theologians. He was long regarded as a colleague
at the University of Minnesota (B.A., 1889), the of the Pietists at Halle. Agreeing with Pietism in his
University of Cambridge, and the Theological opposition to theological systems and the philosophy
School of the diocese of Kansas, and was ordered of the schools, the emphasis upon practical piety,
deacon in 1891 and advanced to the priesthood in recourse to Scripture, and liberality on the creeds,
1893. After being stationed at Ottawa, Kan. and choosing Francke as his confessor, and ad-
(1891-93), and Topeka, Kan. (1893-94), he was miring Spener very highly, yet he was not in touch
professor of New-Testament exegesis in the Theo- with the central points of Pietism, sin and grace.
logical School of the diocese of Kansas, dean of His efforts hi behalf of the Enlightenment were
the Atchinson deanery in the same diocese, and untiring. His services to learning were in the fields
priest-in-charge of St. John's and St. Paul's, Leaven- of jurisprudence and philosophy. His only basic
worth, Kan., until 1897, when he became rector of philosophical activity was his psychological ground-
St. Matthew's, Wheeling, W. Va. From 1900 until work; the investigation of man's nature is to him
1909 he was rector of the Church of the Holy the basis of all science. Otherwise his philosophy is
Apostles, Philadelphia, and in 1909 was conse- popular, practical. Testimonies of his practical
crated missionary bishop of Wyoming. tendency are, Einteitung zu der VernunfOehre (1691) ;
ThomaaiuB THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 430
Thomson

Ausubung der Vernunftlehre (1691); Einleitung zur as teacher. An early work, Origenes. Ein Beitrag
Sittenlehre (1692); and Ausubung der Sittcnlehre zur Dogmengeschichte des dntten Jahrhunderts
(1696). Between the spheres of revelation and (Nuremberg, 1837), helped to pave the way for his
philosophy Thomasius drew a sharp distinction. transition from the pulpit to the professor's chair.
In his specialty, he further upheld the principle of Three preliminary treatises (Beitrage zur kirchlidwn
natural right in Fundawcnta juris naturce (1705). Chrixtologie, Nuremberg, 1845; Dogmatis de obedien-
In a series of works on church law, he recognizes the tia Christi acliva historia ft progression inde a
State as purely secular and the Church as a society confcssioncAugustana adformulam usque concordiac,
within its domain. The power of the sovereign 3 parts, Erlangen, 1 845-46; Das Bekenntnis der
is supreme over the theologians and the Church, evanyeliscMuthcrisdwn Kirche in der Konsequenz
limited only by revelation. He opposed certain urines Prinzips, Nuremberg, 1848) preceded his
forms of severity, such as those against Witchcraft greatest work Christi Ptrrson und Werk. Dar-
(q.v.), which he denied (De crimine rnagia', 1701), stdlung der cvangelisch-luthcrischen Dogmatik vom
and the rack (De tortura ex forte, 1705); and he Mittclpunkte der Christologie aus (3 parts, Erlangen,
favored the exercise of the right of pardon on the 1852-01), which treats the whole field of dogmatics
part of the sovereign, in cases of homicide. in comprehensive expositions which are always
(HEiNTuni HOFFMAN.) bused on the Scriptural proof and the consensus of
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Walch, Rcliaionsstreitigkeiten der
J. the Church. For Thornasius's development of the
evangehsch-lutherinchm Kirche, ui. 1-78, 10 vol., Jena. doctrine of Kenosis (q.v.), see CUHISTOIXJGY, X., 4,
1733-89; H. Luden, Christum Thomasius nach ttnncn 4. His exposition of the doctrine of the Trinity
SchicLsalr und Kchnften dargcytdlt, Brrhn, 1805; It E.
Prutz, Gesrhuhte des dcutuchen Journalismuti, Hanover, was criticized, but his teaching concerning the
1845; F. C. Diedermann, Drutsrhland im IS. Jahrhundert, work of Christ is complete and satisfactory, com-
Leipsic, 1854; A. Tholuck, Das kinhliche Leben des 17.
bining tho truth in the view of Anselm and in the
Jahrhundrrtx, n. 71-70, Hamburg. 1854; J. C. Bluutnchh,
Gcschwhte dcs allnrmeincn Staaturechts, Munich, 1864; old-Lutheran doctrine into the i rue conception of the
H. Dcrnburg, Thomanus und die Stiftung der Univernttit atonement. The final treatment of the theme is to
Halle, Halle, 1865; B. A. Wagner, Christian 7'Aomrmu.s be sought in the third part of the Dwjmatik; an
ein Beitrag zur W urdwuna seiner Vcrdienste urn die dcutfuhe earlier work, Drcx Bckrnntnis der lulhmxchrn Kirche
Litteratur, Berlin, 1872;Klemperer, Christian Thomasiux,
ein Vorkampfcr der Votkxauflduntno, Lanrlsberg, 1877; von der Versohtiung und dm Ycrsohnungsh'tire D.
A. Hitachi, Geschirhte des Pietismus, 11. 545 nqq Bonn,
, von H
ofwan us (Krlangen, 1857), treats the same
1884; A. Nicoladoni, Christian Thomasiut> ein Beitrag
zur Geschichte der Aufklltrung, Berlin, 1888; E. Lands- questions less conclusively. Die chribtliche Do</nirn-
berg, Zur Lebensgcschichte des Chr. Thomasius, Halle, gtwhirhtc ah Eiitwit'ktJungsgcxchichtF des kirchlichen
1894; idem, ADB, xxxvni. 98-103; A. Ruuch, Christian Lchrbegnff* (2 vols. Erlangen, 1874 7f>; 2nd ed
t ,

Thomasius und A H. Francke, Halle, 1898; R. Kayser,

Thomasiujt und der Pielismus, Hamburg, 1900; idem, in
by N. Bonwetsch and K. Secborg, Loipsic, lX8(>-88)
\va,s Thomasius's last publication. It. combine* the
Monatshefte der Comeniun-Gescllschaft, 1900.
enthusiasm of youth and the maturity of age with
THOMASIUS, GOTTFRIED: Professor in Er- learning, keen judgment, clearness of presentation,
langen; b. at
Egenhausen (circuit of Nagold, and thoroughness of investigation. The first
Wurttemberg, 16 m. w. of Tubingen), Bavarian volume treats of the ancient Church; the second,
Franconia, July 26, 1802; d. at Erlangen Jan. 24, comprising the Middle Ages and the Reformation,
1875. He was a lineal descendant of Christian was not fully completed at the author's death and
Thomasius (q.v.). He attended the gymnasium in was published posthumously by (5. L. Plitt.
Ansbach, entered the University of Erlangen in For thirty years from 1842 Thomasius was uni-
1821, removed to Halle after a year and a half, and versity preacher. A deep and conscientious de-
finished his academic studies in Berlin, where he pendence upon Scripture, a joyous and powerful
was attracted by Schleicrmacher, Hegel, Mar- faith, a clear and comprehensible form elevated
heineke, and Tholuck. Leaving the university in by its content and even poetically inspired, are the
1825, Thomasius spent seventeen years in the ac- characteristics which win attention in his published
tive work of the pastorate, first in a village between sermons (5 vols., Erlangen, 1852-60). His con-
Erlangen and Nuremberg, after 1829 in Nuremberg. fessional point of view and inner development ap-
Here his preaching attracted the intellectual men of pear most clearly in Wiedererwachen des evangel-
the city and his success as religious instructor in the iscfwn Lebens in der lutherischen Kirche Bayerus.
gymnasium led to his call to Erlangen as professor Ein Stuck s-iiddeutscher KircJiengeschichte, 1800- 1840
of dogmatics in Mar., 1842. He had previously (Erlangcn, 1867). (A. VON STAHLiNf.)
published his Grundlinien zum Religionsunterricht BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. von St&hlin, Lhc, Thomasiuit, Harlesa.
an den mittleren und oberen Klassen gelehrter Schulen Drei Lebens- und Geschichtsbilder, Leipsic, 1887; F. Frank,
Geschichte und Knttk der neueren Theologie, p. 244, Er-
(Nuremberg, 1839), which met with wide approval
langen, 1894; G. Frank, Die Theologie, des 19. Jahrhun-
(8th ed., 1901). Thomasius contributed his share to derts, pp. 460 aqq., Leipsic, 1905; ADB, xxxviii. 102 sqq.
a development at
Erlangen which combined strict
adherence to the standards with the truly scientific THOM ASSIN, LOUIS : French cleric and canonist;

spirit and genuine theological progress. The sub- b. at Aix (17 m. n. of Marseilles), Provence, Aug. 28,
jects on which he lectured were dogmatics and 1619; d. in Paris Dec. 24, 1697. He was educated in
church history, and he excelled in the deep and the Congregation of the Oratory, entered the con-
lasting character of the impression he made. For gregation in 1632, and taught successively at Lyons,
almost thirty-three years he exerted an influence Saumur, and in the Seminary of St. Magloire at
equalled by few teachers of his time. Paris. In 1668 he retired and devoted himself to
His influence as writer was hardly less than that study, supported by the French clergy. His chief
431 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Thomaaiua
Thomson

work was the Ancienne et nouvette discipline de studies, political, social, and scientific discussions,
I'eglisetouchant les benefices et les bentficiers (3 vols., and in various foreign societies. In 1875 he went to
Paris, 1678-79; Lat. transl., by himself, 1688), England to explain publicly Germany's attitude
which is still one of the chief sources for the sub- in regard toUltramontanism. His personal in-
ject and made so great an impression on Pope In- fluence secured the insertion, in the Berlin Treaty
nocent XI. that he would have called the author to of 1878, of a clause favoring religious liberty; and
Home and made him a cardinal had not Louis XIV. among his last works was the preparation, for the
refused to allow so great a scholar to leave France. Evangelical Alliance at Basel (1879), of a memorial
Besides many minor writings, Thomassin pub- in behalf of religious liberty in Austria. He was the
lished Dissertationcs in concilia generalia et particu- author of Man in Genesis and Geology (New York,
laria (Paris, 1667); Memoirs sur la grace (1668); 1869); Theology of Christ, from his own Words
Dogmata theologica (3 vols., 1680-89; ed. F. Ecalle, (1870): Home Worship (Boston, 1871); Jesus of
6 vols., Paris, 1864-70); and a Glossarium unir Nazareth: his Life for the Young (1875); and The
versale Hebraicum (1697), in which he tried to prove Workman (New York, 1879).
thai the Hebrew was the original language and the
mother tongue. (E. FniEDBKRaf.) THOMPSON, RALPH WARDLAW: English
Congregationalist b. at Bellary (270 m. n.w. of
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. E. Dupin, Nouvelle biblioth&que, xviii. ;

187-196, 5 vola., 1689-1711; C. Thomassin, Louis dk Madras), South India, Aug. 28, 1842. He was
Thomassin, der grosse Theoloye Frankretcha, Munich, 1892. educated at South African College, Cape Town,
(B.A., University of the Cape of Good Hope)
THOMPSON, CHARLES LEMUEL: Presbyte- and at Cheshunt College, England (1861-65). He
rian; b. at Allentown, Pa., Aug. 18, 1839. He was
entered the Congregational ministry and was
educated at Carroll College, Wis., (A.B., 1858), minister of the Ewing Place Congregational Church,
PrincetonTheological Seminary (1858-60), and
Glasgow (1865-70), and of the Norwood Con-
McCormick Theological Seminary, Chicago (1860-
gregational Church, Liverpool (1871-80). Since
1861). Ho held pastorates in his denomination at 1881 he has been foreign secretary of the London
Juneau, Wis. (1861-62), Janesville, Wis. (1862-67),
Missionary Society. In 1908 he was chairman of the
First Presbyterian Church, Cincinnati, O. (1867-72),
Congregational Union of England arid Wales. He
Fifth Presbyterian Church, Chicago (1872-78),
has at various times made official visits to the
Third Presbyterian Church, Pittsburg, Pa. (1878-
society's stations in India, China, South Africa,
1882), Second Presbyterian Church, Kansas City, New
Madagascar, Guinea, and tho South Seas. His
Mo. (1882-88), and Madison Avenue Presbyterian
publications embrace, My Trip in the John Will-
Church, New York City (1888-98). Since 1898 he
iams (London, 1900); and Griffith John, Story of
has been secretary of the Presbyterian Board of
Fifty Years in China (1906, new ed., 1908).
Home Missions. He was editor of The Interior
(Chicago) in 1877-79, and has written: Times of THOMPSON, ROBERT ELLIS: Presbyterian; b.
Refreshing: A History of American Revivals near Lurgan (19 m. s.w. of Belfast), County Ar-
(Chicago, 1877); Etchings in Verse (New York, magh, Ireland, Apr. 5, 1844. He left Ireland for
1890); and The Presbyterians (1903). the United States in early life, and was educated at
the University of Pennsylvania (A.B., 1865) and
THOMPSON, JOSEPH PARRISH: Congrega- the Reformed Presbyterian Theological Seminary,
tionalist and Egyptologist; b. in Philadelphia, Pa.,
Philadelphia (1868). He was licensed to preach by
Aug. 7, 1819; d. in Berlin, Germany, Sept. 20, the Reformed Presbytery of Philadelphia in 1867
1879. He wasgraduated from Yale, 1838; studied and was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in
theology at Andover Theological Seminary and at 1874. From 1868 to 1892 he was connected with
Yale, 183K-40, when he was ordained; was pastor of the University of Pennsylvania, where he was pro-
Chapel Street Church, New Haven, 1840-45; in fessor successively of Latin and mathematics
1843 was a founder of the New Englander; pastor of
(1868-71), social science (1871-81), and history and
the Broadway Tabernacle, New York, 1845-71; in
English literature (1881-92). In 1894 he became
1848 helped to establish The Independent, of which
president of the Central High School in Philadelpliia.
he was also an editor for many years. He visited He was editor of The Penn Monthly (1870-81), and
Palestine and Egypt, 1852-53, and wrote much on
of The American Weekly (1881-92). Since 1892 he
that branch of study. During the whole period of
has been a member of the staff of The Sunday-
the civil war he labored with assiduity for the main- School Times. His writings of theological interest
tenance of national unity on principles of universal are: De civitate Dei: The Divine Order of Human
freedom. Because he found in Germany a state of
Society (Stone lectures; Philadelphia, 1891); The
things which seemed to call for a defense of American National Hymn-Book of the American Churches
institutions, and an exposition of American ideas,
(1893); History of the Presbyterian Churches of
he took up that line of work, and became a link be- America (New York, 1895); The Hand of God in
tween the United States and Germany. During the Human History (1902); Harvard University Lectures
" "
centennial year, 1876, he vindicated his native on Protection to Home Industry (1908) The Apostles
;
land against European prejudices by a course of six as Everyday Men (1910); and The Historic
Epis-
philosophical lectures on American political history, copate (Philadelphia, 1910).
which he delivered in Berlin, Florence, Dresden,
Paris, and London, and published as The United THOMSON, ANDREW MITCHELL: Presbyte-
States as a Nation (Boston, 1877). Ho resided in rian; b. at Sanquhar (50 m. s.w. of Edinburgh)
Germany, 1872-79, where he was active in oriental July 11, 1779; d. at Edinburgh Feb. 9, 1831. He
Thomi THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 432
Thorn.well
1

was educated at the University of Edinburgh; was the representatives of the three Christian con-
schoolmaster at Markinch, Fife, 1800-02; became fessions to a religious conference at Thorn on the
parish minister at Sprouston, Roxburghshire, in Vistula, beginning Aug. 28, 1645. The dissidents
1802; of East Church, Perth, in 1808; of Greyfriars, were permitted to procure foreign speakers. The
Edinburgh, in 1810, and of St. George's in the same Polish Lutherans secured Johann Hulsemann (q.v.),
city in 1814, where he remained till his death. Soon orthodox professor of theology at Wittenberg, and
after he took up his work at Greyfriars he was rec- Abraham Calovius (q.v.), rector of the gymnasium
ognized as one of the strongest preachers in the in Danzig. For the Konigsberg Lutherans, the
city, and his labors for the enrichment of the service great elector of Brandenburg sent Georg Calixtus
were well recompensed, especially in the depart- (q.v.), but the two former secured his rejection as
ment of music, to which ho was a contributor, com- a Lutheran representative (see SYNCRETISM, SYN-
posing several tunes for hymns. His influence con- CHETISTIC CONTROVERSIES). The king sent the
tinued to increase, and he became leader of the grand chancellor of the crown, George of Teezyn,
evangelical party in the Church of Scotland. He duke of Ossolin, as his deputy and conductor of the
was also active in the work of education. The proceedings. The Roman Catholics chose twenty-
" "
Apocrypha controversy was in part excited by six theologians for the conference, Professor (Jregor
him when, in 1827, he gave up his membership in Schonhof being their most prominent speaker.
the British and Foreign Bible Society and assailed The Reformed party was represented by twenty-four
that organization for binding the Apocrypha with theologians, among them Johannes By timer,
the Bible. He edited The Christian Instructor, in superintendent of the congregations of Greater
which his attack upon the Bible Society appeared; Poland, who was joined by Amos Comenius (q.v.),
wrote a Catechism for the Instruction of Communi- Johann Berg, court preacher of the Elector Frederic
cants (Edinburgh, 1808); Lectures Expository and William of Brandenburg-Prussia, and Professor
Practical (1816); Lovers of Pleasure more than Lovers Reichel of Frankfort-on-the-Oder. The Lutherans,
of God (1818; ed. Dr. Candlish, 1867); The Doc- numbering twenty-eight, were under (he leadership
trine of Universal Pardon (1830); and issued several of Hulsemann and Calovius. In an instruction
volumes of sermons. issued by the king it was required that each of the
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A Memoir was prefixed to his Srrmons and three parties first give a statement of its doctrine;
Sacramental Exhortations, Boston, 1832; cf. DNB, Ivi. 234. not then should the correctness or incorrectness
till

of the doctrines be (amicably) discussed, and,

THOMSON, WILLIAM McCLURE: Presbyte-
The
finally, a statement of customs and usages
rian missionary; b. at Springfield (now Spring
Roman Catholics evidently tried to prevent from
Dale), ()., Dec. 31, 1806; d. in Denver, Col., Apr. 8,
the beginning every criticism of their official church
1894. He was graduated from Miami University,
doctrines. Kach party deliberated in a special room
Oxford, ()., 1826; studied at Princeton Theological
of the town-hall, and conferred \\ith the others only
Seminary, N. J., 1826-27; was ordained an evangel-
ist, 1831 was missionary in Syria and Palestine under through the exchange of documents or through
;

the A. B. C. F. M. and the Presbyterian Board of deputies. The conference consisted of thirty-six
sessions, which only four wore public. After
of
Foreign Missions, 1833-49, 1850-57, and 1859-76.
the formal preliminaries the Reformed on Sept
He then resided in New York City. He was an 1

drew up a general confession of faith; on the same

authority in the department of archeological Biblical
research, and was the author of Tlw Land ami the
day the Roman Catholics followed their example,
and after these had presented their confession to the
Book, or Biblical Illustrations Drawnfrom the Manners
Lutherans on Sept. 7, the latter answered with a
and Customs, the Scenes and Scenery, of the Holy Land
(2 vols., New York, 1859; new ed. revised and re- reply that essentially referred to the unchanged
written, with numerous illustrations, 3 vols., 1880-86,
Augsburg Confession. After that there was to fol-
vol. i., Southern Palestine and Jerusalem, vol. ii., Cen-
low a detailed representation of the doctrine of the
different parties. Such a document was issued first
tral Palestine and Phceniria, vol. iii., Lebanon, Damas-

cus, and Beyond Jordan; reissue, 1 vol., 1911).

by the Roman Catholics, on Sept. 13, repeating only
the teachings of the Council of Trent with plain
THORN, CONFERENCE OF: A
Polish con- ultramontane additions concerning the power of
ference of 1645 held to prevent religious strife be- the pope. The Reformed presented their doctrine,
tween Roman Catholics, Lutherans, and Reformed. a statement which later obtained great fame as the
About the middle of the seventeenth century in Dedaratio TJiaruniensis, more accurately Suecialior
Poland party spirit was rife, and religion played an declaralio doctrines ecclesiarum Rcformatorum Cath?-
important part in the political struggles; the olicce de prcecipuis fidei controversiis (original printed
Roman Catholic party and in it especially the in Scripta partis Reformat&) . The Lutherans pre-
Jesuits possessed the greatest influence while the sented Kurzer Iribegriff der Lehre der augsburgischen
Protestants, Reformed, Lutherans, and Bohemian Konfession. The Roman Catholics were so embit-
Brethren (q.v.) were not in harmony, and not a few tered over the Lutheran document, as indeed they
were antitrinitarian Socinians. Officially, Protes- had been over the Reformed before, that they refused
tantism had enjoyed political toleration since 1573, to receive it, much less to permit its reading, and the
but the Roman Catholic party tried by every presiding grand chancellor Ossolinski had himself
means to lead the Protestants back, after the Jesuits recalled. Count Johann Lesczinski, his successor,
had gained ascendency over Sigismund III. (1587- tightened the reins in behalf of his party, and stated,
1632) and his successor. This was the chief and Sept. 25, that no progress had been made because
final reason why King Ladislaus IV. issued a call to of wandering from the king's instructions. To ex-
433 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tho;
Tho:
hornwall

plain these he called upon the Jesuit Schonhof, who Danaiff, 1736. The literature under CALIXTUB, GEORO,
The and CALOVXUS, ABRAHAM, is to be consulted, as well as
attempted intimidation of the Protestants. the writings of those men. Consult further: C. Hart-
third public session, Sept. 26, was passed in re-
knooh, Preuttitche Kirchen-ffittoria, pp. 934 sqq., Frank-
criminatory debate. The fourth, on Oct. 3, con- fort, 1686; J. Lukassewics, Geschichie der reformicrUn
tinued the same way, the more energetically on the Kitchen in Lithauen, i. 157 sqq., Leipsio, 1848; Ikaer, D<u
Colloquium Charitativum, Halle, 1889; F. Jacobi, Das
part of the Protestants, who regarded the presiding ~liebreich* ReKgiontgetprach nu Thorn 1646, Gotha, 1895;
officer as the advocate of the Roman Catholic party. ZKG, vol. xv., part* 3-4 (best).
The many speeches that were delivered developed
into personal abuses. Allusions to Charles V. and THORNDIKE, HERBERT: Church of England;

the elector of Saxony aroused the national pride of

b. probably in Lincolnshire in 1598; d. at Chiswick
the Poles, and their lay representatives now refused (6 m. s.w. of Charing Cross, London) July 11, 1672.
In 1613 he became a pensioner at Trinity College,
to speak except in the Polish language. As the
Protestants adhered firmly to their demands, Schon- Cambridge (scholar, 1614; B.A., 1617; minor fel-
hof stole a march by a personal journey to the king, low, 1618; M.A., and major fellow, 1620). He was
from whom he obtained a "declaration of his will prebendary of Layton Ecclesia in Lincoln cathedral,
in regard to the instruction for the conference of 1636-40; held the crown living of Claybrook, Leices-
tershire, 1640-42; was Hebrew lecturer to Trinity
Thorn," containing about everything that the Ro-
man Catholics had hitherto demanded. The king College, Cambridge, 1640-44 (-46, officially); rector
of Barley in Hertfordshire, 1642-44. Being a stanch
instructed that the declarations of the Lutherans
and Reformed be received after being purged of the churchman of the Anglo-Catholic type, he was

offensive and the superfluous; and that the confer- ejected from his preferments during the civil wars,
ence was to be restricted to his representative, the but, with the Restoration, he regained them as well
as his fellowship at Trinity. He, however, resigned
presiding heads of the parties, and, respectively,
two speakers and alternates, the scribe, and seven them on being appointed to a stall at Westminster
hearers of each. Consequently the Lutherans sent Abbey in 1661. He assisted at the Savoy Confer-
ence (q.v.) in 1661, and had a share in the revision
(Juldenstern and the Reformed their confidant Rey
to the king in order to present the situation from
of the Prayer-Book the same year, being then a
tho standpoint of the Evangelicals. Two Roman member of convocation. He resumed his residence
at Cambridge, 1G62, and afterward divided his time
Catholics, however, arrived a day ahead, Oct. 16,
and were joined by Schonhof on the 18th. The king, between the university and the abbey. The plague
drove him from Cambridge in 1666; and in 1667 he
aiming to show an attitude of fairness, had the
two Protestant positions of doctrine submitted in vacated his fellowship, retiring to his canonry at
Westminster. He was a most learned, systematic,
writing, and, summoning all three representatives,
Oct. 20, asked that his first instructions be carried
and powerful advocate of Anglo-Catholic theology
and High-church principles in the seventeenth cen-
out, and, in the written replies to the Lutherans
and Reformed, they were directed to prove their tury. The book which most succinctly unfolds his
obedience by expunging from their doctrinal posi- scheme is entitled An Epilogue to the Tragedy of the
tion the disputed theses for later consideration.
Church of England (1659), in which he treats of the
principles of Christian truth, the covenant of grace,
Upon the return of the deputies on Oct. 23, the
and the laws of the church. The covenant of grace
Evangelicals rejoiced over the freedom of conscience
is his central idea. He dwells upon the condition of
guaranteed by the king in his domain, but declined
to revise their doctrinal presentations, which the the covenant as being baptism, the necessity of the
Roman Catholics now demanded. During Novem- covenant as arising out of original sin, the mediator
ber tho Reformed entered into private conferences of the covenant as the divine Christ, and the method
of the covenant as an economy of grace. In tho
with the Roman Catholics, drawing on themselves
the suspicion of the Lutherans, who were excluded. treatment of this branch, he brings out the Anglican
These conferences, though without result, proved doctrines of salvation as distinguished from those
that the Roman Catholics wished to create the im- of Puritanism. His trains of thought were prolix
and excursive, and his style was crabbed and un-
pression that they would have been willing to con-
fer upon material considerations on the rule of faith. readable; his works could never be popular, but
The conference broke up unceremoniously. The they are of value to theological scholars. He was
the author of a Hebrew, Syriac, and Arabic lexicon
Lutherans tarried a few days to draw up fifty griev-
ances against their treatment and a revision of the (London, 1635); The Due Way of Composing the
Differences on Foot (1660); Just Weights and Meas-
protocol as it should have been from their point of
The con- ures (1662); and Theological Works (6 vols., Ox-
view, both of which were officially filed.
ference was a failure. In Poland the lot of the ford, 1844-56). He also assisted Walton in the
Evangelicals became less favorable, and in preparation of his Polyglot (see BIBLES, POLYGLOT.
was the embittennent of the IV.).
Germany a result
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Life by A. W. Haddan is in vol. vi. of
Lutherans against the Reformed, bearing fruit in the the Theological Works, ut sup. Consult DNB, Ivi. 290-
syncretistic controversies (see SYNCRETISM, SYN- 292, where references to scattering notices are given; W.
CBETISTIC CONTROVERSIES, I., 2; II., 1, 1). H. Hutton.TAe English Church (16X6-1714). pp. 179, 329,
330, London, 1903.
(P. TsCHACKERTt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The official Acia convening Thorunaensia THORNWELL, JAMES HENLEY: American
was published at Warsaw, 1646, and repeated in the tfw-
toria syncrctittica of A. Caloviua (q.v.), and in Scripta
Presbyterian^and educator; b. in Marlborough Dis-
trict, S. C., Dec. 9, 1812; d. at Charlotte, N. C., Aug.
parta Reformats in colloguio Thoruniensi, Berlin, 1646.
The Confestio fldei in Latin and German was printed at 1, 1802. He obtained the elements of a good educa*
XL 28
Thorold
Thuring
ffia
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 434

tion, and was graduated from South Carolina Col- the school of Antioch, which was especially obnox-
lege, 1829; studied law for a while, but turned to ious to the Monophysites. Theodorus Ascidas, who
theology; alter teaching for two years he studied had been bishop of Ccesarea in Cappadocia from 537, a
at Andover Theological Seminary, and at Harvard zealous Origenist, hoped by thus advising the emperor
Divinity School. Returning to the South he was at the same time to divert attention from the Ori-
licensed to preach, 1834; ordained, 1835; was pas- genistic controversy (see OBIGEN, ORIGENISTIC CON-
tor of the Presbyterian church at Lancaster, 1835- TROVERSIES). In 544 (according to F. Diekamp, in
1837; professor of logic and belles-lettres in South 543) Justinian issued an edict in which he condemned
Carolina College, 1837-39; pastor at Columbia, the so-called Three Chapters (the term kephalaia, or
1839-41; professor of sacred literature and evi- capitula, is used for formulated statements, then for
dences of Christianity at South Carolina College, special points mentioned hi them, or even for per-
1841-51; pastor of Glebe Street Church, Charleston, sons or writings directly designated by them):
1851; president of South Carolina College, 1852-55; namely, (1) the person and writings of Theodore of
professor of theology in the Presbyterian Theological Mopsuestia (q.v.) (2) the writings of Theodoret of
;

Seminary, and pastor of the church at Columbia, Cyrus (q.v.) in defense of Nestorius and against
1855-62. He took a leading part in the organiza- Cyril; and (3) the letter of Ibas of Edessa (q.v.) to
tion of the Southern General Assembly in 1861. He the Persian Mares. As Theodore had died at peace
had high logical and metaphysical faculties, and with the Church, while Theodoret and Ibas had been
was a champion of the old school Presbyterian the- expressly recognized as orthodox at Chalcedon, the
ology. concession to the Monophysites contained in the im-
He was the author of Romanists from the Infalli- perial edict appeared to undermine the authority of
bilityof the Church and Testimony of the Fathers on the council. There was, however, very little oppo-
Behalf of the Apocrypha, Discussed and Refuted (New sition to it in the Greek Church. In the West the
York, 1845); Discourses on Truth (1854); and his controversy became the more violent, though the
collected writings, ed. John B. Adger, appeared (4 Roman Bishop Vigilius yielded to the wishes of the
vols Richmond, 1871-73).
, emperor in a way which aroused great scandal. In
BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. M. Palmer, Life and Letters of James a synod held at Constantinople under Vigilius (548),
Henley Thornwell, New York, 1876. the bishops were prevailed upon to give written
THOROLD, ANTHONY WILSON: Church of verdicts for the condemnation of the Three Chap-
England, bishop; b. at Hougham (17 m. s. of Lin- ters, and Vigilius did the same in his Judicatum of
coln), England, June 13, 1825; d. at Winchester Apr. 11, 548, at the same time insisting on the au-
July 25, 1895. He was educated at Queen's Col- thority of the Council of Chalcedon. In the West
lege, Oxford (B.A., 1847; M.A., 1850; D.D., 1877); the opposition found a leader in Bishop Facundus
ordained deacon, 1849; priest, 1850; was curate of of Hermiane (q.v ), and an African synod excom-
Wittington, Lancashire, till 1854; at Holy Trinity, municated Vigilius For a while he continued his
Marylebone, 1854-57; rector of St. Gilos-in-the- uncertain policy; but when the emperor by a
Fields, London, 1857-67; minister of Curzon Chapel, second edict (homologia pisteos) pushed things to
Mayfair, 1868-69; vicar and rural dean of St. Pan- extremes, he arose in decisive opposition and had
eras, London, 1869-74; resident canon of York, repeatedly to take sanctuary from the wrath of Jus-
1874-77; bishop of Rochester, 1877-90; and of tinian. He refused to be present at the fifth gen-
Winchester, 1890-95. lie was also examining chap- eral council (Constantinople, May, 553), which con-
lain to the archbishop of York for a number of years sidered the heresies of Theodore and the writings of
ranging about 1874; and select preacher at Oxford, Theodoret, and tried to prove that only individual
1878-80. He had a faculty for grasping detail and members of the council of Chalcedon and not the
for organization. He was the author of The Pres- coi ncil itself had approved of the epistle of Ibas.
ence of Christ (London, 1869); The Gospel of Christ The Constitutum de tribus capitulis (May 14, 553)
(1881); The Claim of Christ on the Young (1882); drawn up by Vigilius and signed by many Western
The Yoke of Christ in the Duties and Circumstances bishops, which energetically opposed the condem-
of Life (1883); Questions of Faith and Duty (1892); nation of the Three Chapters, was not accepted by
The Tenderness of Christ (1894); and a volume of the emperor, who acquainted the synod with the
sermons, The Gospel of Work, included in Preachers terms in which Vigilius had formerly pledged him-
of the Age (1891 sqq.). He had a rare spirituality self in secret to the emperor's position. On June 2,
and great felicity of expression, so that his practical 553, the council decided in accordance with the
writings are much-admired books of devotion. wishes of the emperor. The Greek Church yielded
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. H. Simpkinson, Life and Work of Bishop without succeeding in whining the Monophysites.
Thorold, London, 1896; DNB, Ivi. 312-313. The resistance of Vigilius was soon broken, and the
THREE-CHAPTER CONTROVERSY: One of opposition of the African Church was overcome by
the most important, though least edifying, episodes the endeavors of Primasius of Carthage after 559.
in the ecclesiastical policy of Justinian I. (q.v.), in- But llie churches of northern Italy, with Aquileia
timately connected with the Monophysite move- and Milan at their head, broke off communion with
ment (see MONOPHYSITES). The conditions made Rome, on account of the recognition of the fifth
it desirable to retain the powerful
Monophysite party council by Vigilius and his successor, and this sep-
for the church by concessions, if it could be done aration lasted, under the peculiar conditions caused
without abandoning the position of the Council of by the Lombard conquest, till Gregory the Great
Chalcedon. For this purpose it was thought ad- succeeded in winning over Milan and Theodelinde,
visable to take some action against the doctrines of queen of the Lombards, who was under the arch-
435 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Thorold
Thuringia

bishop's influence; though he attained this end by conducting a campaign against the Quadi in Hun-
completely casting into the shade, or virtually re- gary about 174 A.D., was surprised with his forces
pudiating, the fifth general council, of which the by a superior number of the enemy. At the same
West had taken but little notice. The patriarchate time his army was suffering so greatly from the
of Aquileia, which as a result of the Lombard con- lack of water that annihilation seemed imminent.
quest had been transferred to Grado, resumed com- The emperor prayed to the gods for rain, but no re-
munion with Home, under Greek rule, soon after sponse was forthcoming. A legion, consist! ng wholly
the death of Gregory in 604; but the Roman Catho- of Christians, was summoned to the cmj>eror's aid,
lic bishops under the Lombard kings and the duke the soldiers of which prostrated themselves in
of Friali set up an opposition patriarchate, which prayer, and the response was a cold rain upon the
remained separated from Rome till Coward the end Romans, which took the form of severe hail as it
of the seventh century. G. KROGER. reached the Quadi, whom it discomfited. In con-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources are easily accessible in MPL, sequence of this, the legion received the name
521-878, 921-928, 1167-1254, Ixviii. 956-960, 1049- 1 ' ' '
bcvii.
Legio fulminatrix .

1096; MPG, Ixxxiv. 455-548. Consult: H. Nona, Opera, The story has received the attention of many
ed. Ballerini, i. 550-820, cf. iv. 985-1050, Verona, 1729
(highly necessary); J. G. Walch, Histone der Ketzereien, writers of church history, and its difficulties have
viii. 4-468, Leipsic, 1778; J. M. Schroeckh. Chnstliehe been summarized as follows: A legion with this
Kirchengeschichte, xviii. 570-608, Loipsic, 1793; Schaff, name was known before the time of Marcus Aure-
Christian Church, iii. 768-772; J. Schwane, Dogmenge-
Bchichte der patristischcn Zeit, pp. 874-378, Freiburg, 1895;
lius (Dio Cassius, Iv. 23), though the exact form of
A. Knecht, Die Relit/ions politik Kaiser Justinians /., pp. the name was Legio fidminata; the proper station
125-140, WUrzburg, 1896; H. Hutton, The Church of the of this legion was in the East, not in Hungary. It
6th Century, pp. 162-179, London, 1897; F. Diekamp, Die
is seen, however, that these data are not decisive
ongenistischen Streitigkeiten im 6. Jahrhundert, Munster,
1899; A. do Meiasas, in Annales de philosophic chrttienne, against the story, wince the legion might have been
July, 1904; Ilcfclc, Conciliengeschichte, iii. 1 sqq., Eng. present owing to the emergency, such transfers not
tranal, iv. 258 sqq., Fr. Iranal., iii. 1, pp. 1 sqq. (valuable
for the discusHion of literature and notes); Haniark,
being unknown, and the slight change in the form
of the name is not decisive. The prineipal ineident
Dogma, iv. 245 sqq., 346-349, v. 283; Mann, Popes, vol.
i. passim. is shown not to be improbable by the sculptures on

THREE CHILDREN, SONG OF THE. See APOC- the Antonine column at Rome, erected not long
RYPHA, A, IV., 3. after, showing Jupiter Fluvius, from whose beard
streams of water are caught in the soldiers' shields,
THUEMMEL, tum'mel, WILHELM: Evan-
while the enemy are overwhelmed by lightning.
gelical theologian; b. at Barmen (27 m. n.n.e. of
The least probable element in the story is that a.
Cologne) May 6, 1850. He received his education
whole legion was composed of Christians, in favor
at the universities of Bonn and Leipsic; became as-
of a substantial basis of the legend is that it is first
sistant preacher at Geldern, and later at Lohne then
mentioned by Claudius Apollinaris (q.v ), who ad-
ncarSoest; returned as pastor at Geldern in 1881,
dressed his apology to Marcus Aurelius, while a eon-
went in the same capacity to Remscheid, where, be-
cause of a harsh criticism of the Roman Catholic temporary of the assumed event who mentions it
was Tertullian (ApoL, v.; Ad Scapukrm, iv.). It is
doctrine of transubstantiation, he was subjected to
a three-weeks' term of imprisonment, on the ter- only miraculous through the interpretation, the
event is not at all improbable.
mination of which he wrote the sharply worded
Bin LI oa HA PHY. Besides the reference to Tertullian in tho
tract in self-justification: Rheiniscfie Richter und text (Kng. trnnsl. in ANF, in 22, 107), and Dio COSHIUH,
rdmische Priester. Eine trostreicfie Belehrung uber Ixxi. 8-9, consult Eiuwbius, Hist reel V v., in NPNF,
, ,

die rbmische Messe (Barmen, 1888) he later brought

;
2 ser i 219-220;
, W Moyle, De miraruln quod Legw Ful-
himself under police jurisdiction through a lecture minatruc fecisse dit itur, m
Moshoim, Dixbrrtatio, (Jorl tz,
on the pilgrimage to Aachen, and once again because
1733; W Whiaion, Of the Thundering Let/ion, London,
1726; T. Woolston, A Defence of the Miracle of the Thun-
of his Antwort an der pApstlichen Priesterschaft in denng I,effum against . \V Mojjle, ib. 1720; T Hearno,
.

Breslau (1894); he became privat-docent in church An Apology for the Writings of W. Mnutr, ib 1727 (aRfimst
Winston and Woolston); B. Aube, Hist, dc# persecutions
history at Berlin, 1900; extraordinary professor in de 1'e.glise, i., chap, via Paris, 1875; J. B. Lightfoot,
,

1901; and professor of practical theology at Jena Apostolic Fathers, II i 469-476, London, 1885; Schaff,
,

in 1903, where he is also director of the homiletical Christian Church, li 56; Neuiidcr, Christian Church, i. 116^
and catechetical seminary. Besides the works al- 117; DNB, iv. 1023-24.

ready mentioned, he has issued: Offener Brief an THURIBLE. See CENSEB.

dem Herrn Erzbischof Kremente von Coin (1889); THURIFICATL See LAPSED.
Die Asche Clarenbactis, des Martyrers der bergischen
Kirche (Berlin, 1890); Zur Beurtheilung des Dona- THURINGIA: A collective name applied to a
tismus (Halle, 1893) Der Versagung der kirchlichen
;
group of small duchies and principalities situated
between Prussian Saxony on the north and Ba-
Bestattungsfeier, ihre geschichtliche Entvrickelung und
varia on the south, and between the
gegenwdrtige Bedeutung (Leipsic, 1902); and Der
General kingdom of Saxony on the cast and
Religionsschutz durch das Strafrecht (1906); besides a
considerable number of polemic tracts directed
Statistics. Hesse-Nassau on the west. The duchies
are
against the Roman Catholic Church or its doctrines. Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Meiningen,
Saxe-Altenburg, and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha; the prin-
THUMB BIBLE. See BIBLE VERSIONS, B, IV., 9.
cipalities are Reuss-Schleiz, Reuss-Greiz, Schwarz-
THUNDERING LEGION: Name of a Roman burg-Rudolstadt, and Schwarzburg-Sonderslmusen.
legion about which a celebrated legend arose. The The combined area is 4,744 square miles, and the
story is that the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, when population (1905) 1,503,125. Of these 1,455,949
Thnrinffia
Tiohonmi THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 436

were Evangelical; 38,045 Roman Catholic; and Reuss-Greiz; to it was added in 1880 limited local
4,143 Jews. The church year-book of 1907 shows a church rule with governing council. Generally! the
Roman Catholic increase, by immigration, in Wei- churches have no representative functions. Only
mar of 27 per cent, and a Protestant increase of 6 per in Weimar and Meiningen are there synods in which

cent; in Rudolstadt, Roman Catholic increase 57 the local churches and the government have repre-
per cent, and Protestant, only 4 per cent. Thurin- sentatives. With the exception of four delegates
gian Roman Catholics are distributed among five out of thirty-five in Weimar and two out of twenty-
bishoprics; Weimar (with 9 parishes) belongs to two hi Memingen appointed by the dukes, and in
Fulda, Meiningen (5) to WUrzburg, Altenburg (1) the former one representative of Jena University, all
and the two principalities of Reuss (3) belong to the are elected by the larger elective unions composed of
apostolic vicariute of Saxony at Dresden, Gotha (1)
the dioceses of the superintendents. These synods,
and the two Schwarzburga (3) to Paderborn, and however, have only advisory power; they have no
Coburg (1) belongs to Bambcrg. In the cities of voice in the levy of taxes or adoption of measures.
Weimar church schools are maintained mostly The church government of Thuringia may be de-
"
through the Society of Boniface," except in the scribed, on the whole, as episcopal under strict con-
Eisenach Highlands, where state schools prevail. trol by the heads of the states, with a presbyterial
The Unity of the Brethren have a settlement at appendage for local purposes. The
official designa-

Ebersdorf, Reuss-Schleiz, with female seminary and tion in Weimar and Meiningen Evangelical State
is

mission-school, and a locution at Neudietondorf near Church; in Altcnburg, Evangelical Protestant; and
Gotha. There is a small scattering of Mcnnonites, in the Schwarzburgs and Reuss-Greiz, Evangelical

Baptists, Methodists, and Irvingites. At Blanken- Lutheran. The church governments of Thuringia
burg the Evangelical Alliance of Germany has a are all represented at the Eisenach Conference (q.v.).
great hot/el and auditorium where the radical wing All except Meiningen have assumed part in the
of that society assembles the last week of August Evangelical church union (see BUND, EVANGELI-
every year. The history of the church government HCHEK) .In common the Thuringian church govern-
in the various states is practically the same. There ments have a loose affiliation and enter into mutual
existed consistorial governments until conference as occasion may require.
Govern- the period of 1848-06, when they were The grand-duchy of Weimar, with 21 diooeses,
ment of the abolished and their functions assigned having each a superintendent and adjunct and a,
State to a department of the territorial min- judge inspector of the circuit on the secular side,
Church. istry of public worship and education. had (1905) 3112 clerical positions with
Under these departments there is a su- Parochial c. 270 pastors and vicars. Many pas-
pervision of the churches by ephors or superintend- Statistics, torates, in the cities chiefly, are filled
ents of respective districts. At the same time a by choice of the governing council,
local church government was instituted consisting about one-fourth by the patron, usually by virtue
in church meetings and church councils; in Mein- of his patronage a member of the council, and the
ingen the former have, besides the election of the majority by the civil church government. Exam-
church council, to decide upon the raising of funds, ination of candidates takes place lief ore the council
alterations in the liturgy, the use of catechisms and at Weimar and is participated in by a few Jena pro-
hymnals, the change of the parish, and the like. The fessors. Visitations take place at stated periods on
local church councils, of which the pastor and local the part of the general church council and membern
magistrate arc generally cx-officio members, have to of the synodal committee. In Meiningen, where the
see after good morals and church order, the admin- order of appointment and visitation is the same as
istration of property, legal representation, and local in Weimar, the State Church counts 14 ephories, 144
charity, in cooperation with civil boards, if such parishes, and about 130 clergy; in Altenburg 8
exist. In Altenburg and the two Schwarzburgs they ephories, 116 parishes, and about 130 clergy; in
exercised the votum negativum, or right of protest Gotha 12 ephories, about 100 parishes, and about
against the doctrine, conduct, or person of the pas- 120 clergy; in Coburg 4 ephories, 37 parishes, and
tor. In the Schwarzburgs (as also in Weimar) there about 35 clergy; in Sondcrshausen, 4 ephories, 58
arc general church councils under the department parishes, and about 60 clergy; and in Rudolstadt,
of the ministry of public worship and education, 5 ephories, 65 parishes, and about 60 clergy. There
\\hich presides over them; its functions are ex- is throughout a graduated
system of ground in-
nmination of candidates, supervision of official con- come with increment, of retiring allowances, and
duct, and introduction of measures looking to the widows' pensions. In catechetics, liturgy, and use
appointment and promotion of the clergy. To the of hymnals there is much diversity; the system of
local church councils belongs the prerogative of re-
pericopes is still firmly prevalent, limiting the min-
moving deficits by taxation. In Coburg the admin- ister in the use of Biblical material and in renewing
istration under the ministry of public worship and interest. The church attendance is small, more so
education is exercised through the division of the in the country and towns than hi the cities. Char-
State Church into six ephories, each under the joint itable orders and institutions are semi-philanthropic
control of the local state councilor, or magistrate if and semi-ecclesiastical, owing to the close historical
in the city, and the magistrate's councilor, and the connection of Church and State. A network of
ephor; in Gotha each of the eight official church women's associations overspreads Weimar, feder-
dlistricts is under a board composed of the councilor "
ated in the Patriotic Institute of Women's Soci-
or city magistrate, a senator, and the ephor. Ex- eties "; but, although possessing the Church as
ceptionally the old consistorial order yet exists in their main support, yet
they do not constitute an
 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Thurinffia
487 Tiohonius

ecclesiastical army of deaconesses. Orphanages have College for a Boy (1899); College Administration
everywhere a firm footing; in Weimar this institu- (1900); The Youth's Dream of Life (Boston, 1900);
tion is an organic link of the State Church. Chanty God in His World (1900) // / were a College Student
;

is hi the hands of the local churches. The churches (New York, 1902); A Liberal Education and a
are devoting increasing attention to the Innere Liberal Faith (1903) College Training and the Busi-
;

Mission (q.v.); and in all the states are juvenile ness Man
(1904); History of Higher Education in
asylums, hospices, houses for the fallen, and insti- America (1906); and History of Education in the
tutions for the feeble-minded and convalescent. U. S. Since the Civil War (1910).
Two institutions of deaconesses have been planted; THYATIRA. See ASIA MINOR, IV.
one, the Sophia House in Weimar, with 146 Bisters
TIARA. See VESTMENTS AND INSIGNIA, ECCLE-
(1905), and the other the mother-house at Eisenach,
SIASTICAL.
with 115. The outer mission centers in the compre-
hensive annual Thuringian mission conference. Be- TIBERIAS. See GALILEE, 4.

sides, there is a special Evangelical Lutheran mis- TICHONIUS (TYCHONIUS), African

tik-6'nf-Os:
sionary union. The University of Jena representing Donatist of the late fourth century. He is first men-
Thuringia as a whole reached its flourishing state tioned by Gennadius, who places him between
in the nineteenth century, when K. A. Hase (q.v.) llunnus (d. 410) and Sulpicius Severus (d. after
taught church history and R. A. Lipsius (q.v.) dog- 420), and states that he was learned in the Scrip-
matics. After their death, the general decline of tures, history, and profane sciences, that he was
theological study of the time specially affected the full of zeal for the Church, and that he wrote De

university. Recently there has occurred some in- bello intestino, Expositiones diversarum causarum,
crease in attendance, although the duchies are capa- and also a book containing seven rules for exegesis
ble of furnishing but a small number of theological and a spiritual interpretation of the Apocalypse.
students, and the principalities prefer to send theirs He denied the future thousand-years' reign of the
elsewhere. For the promotion of the clergy, the righteous on the earth after the resurrection, hold-
Thuringian Church Conference assembles at Paulin- ing that the twofold resurrection described in the
zelln in the autumn for addresses and discussions, Apocalypse denoted, on the one hand, the growth
and theologians take the autumn vacation course of of the Church, where those \vho were justified by
three days at Jena conducted by the faculty, while faith were awakened by baptism from the dcadness
in all state churches arc conducted the diocesan and of their sins to the service of eternal life, and, on
other monthly or quarterly free conferences. the other hand, the general resurrection of all flesh.
(F. W. THUMMEL.) Gennadius furthermore states that Tichonius was a
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. T (impel, Die Gotteadienatordnung der
contemporary of Rufinus, and that he flourished
thunnffiachen Kirchcn, Gotha, 1861; W. Rein, Thuringia
sacra, 2 vols., Weiinar, 1803-65; C. A. H. Burkhardt, during the reign of Theodosius and his sons. The
Geschichte der s&cftsischen Kirchen- und Schulvwitationen, only later writer to add information concerning
Leipsic, 1879; H Gebhardt, Pfarrer in Mohlschleben bei Tichonius is Johannes Trithemius (q.v.), who gives an
Gotha.33 vola., Gotha, 1881; O. Fusslcm, Amtshandbuch fdr
extended list of the Donatist's writings, mentioning
(rristltthe und Lehrer des Hcrzogtums Sachsen-Meiningen,
Hildburghausen, 1883, E. Friedberg, Die geltenden Vcr- three books of the De bello intestino and also alluding
"
fastiungageaetee der evangelischen deutschen Landeskirchen, to numerous letters to divers persons, and many
2 vols Freiburg, 1885; A. Gillwald, Thuringen in Oe- "
,
other things (De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis, xcii.).
schichte, Eisenach, 1887; G. Eimcke, 20 Jahre schwarz-
burgiache Reformationagenchichte, 1621-41, part 1, Nord-
The oxcgetical rules of Tichonius (MPL, xviii. 15-
hausen, 1904; J. Frewen, Stoat und katholutche Kirche in 66) were given in detail and exhaustively criticized
den deutechm Bundesstaaten, Stuttgart, 1906; O. Holder- by Augustine in De doctrina Christiana (iii. 30-37;
Egger, Studim zu thunngischen Geschichtsquellen, m NA,
MPL, xxxiv. 81-90; best by F. C. Burkitt, in TS,
vol. xxi ,E. Sehling, Die evangeliachen Kirchenordnungen
dca W. Jahrhunderte, 2 parts, Leipsic, 1902-04; P. Glaue, iii. 1, 1894, superseding entirely former editions;
Das kirchliche Leben der evangeliachen Kirchen in Thurin- Eng. transl. of the chapters ofAugustine in NPNF,
aen, Tubingen, 1910. 1 ser., ii. 568-573), and they thus received an ap-
THWING, CHARLES FRANKLIN: Congrega- proval which secured them long influence. The first
b. at New Sharon, Me., Nov. He " on the Lord and
tionalist; 9, 1853. rule, his body," shows how, when
was graduated from Harvard (A.B., 1876) and An- the head and the body (or Christ and the Church)
dover Theological Seminary (1879). He was then are set forth under one person, one may accurately
pastor of North Avenue Congregational Church, determine what is said of each. Thus, the " stone
Cambridge, Mass. (1879-86), and Plymouth Church, that smote the image," according to Dan. ii. 35, is
" "
Minneapolis, Minn. (1886-90), and since 1890 has Christ, and the great mountain which it became
been president of Western Reserve University and is the Church. The second rule, " on the twofold
Adclbert College, Cleveland, O. He was editor of body of the Lord," deals with the division into right
The Chicago Advance in 1888-91 and is now asso- and left, so that when the Church is described as
" "
ciate editor of the Bibliotheca Sacra, and has written black, but comely (Cant. i. 5), the first adjective
American Colleges: Their Students and Work (New refers to her left side and the second to her right.
"
York, 1878); The Reading of Books: Its Pleasures, The third rule, on the promises and the law,"
Profits, and Perils (Boston, 1883); The Family: shows how, though no one is justified by the works
Historical and Social Study (in collaboration with of the law, some have fulfilled the law and have
wife; 1887); The Working Church (New York, been justified. The fourth rule, " on species and
1888); Within College Watts (1893); The College genus," deals with those passages of Scripture in
Woman (1894); The American College in American which there is a transfer from species to genus or vice
"
Life (1897); The Best Life (1898); The Choice of a versa. Thus, the words of Christ, the dead . . .
TichoniuB
Tikhon THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 438

" which text represents in each instance not only the

that hear shall live (John v. 25), refer to the first,
"
or spiritual, resurrection, while all that are in the thoughts, but also the words, of Tichonius.
"
tombs .
. . shall come forth (John v. 28) alludes (J. HAUBSLEITER.)
to the second, or general, resurrection. The fifth BIBLIOGRAPHY: The " Introduction " to Burkitt's ed. of
"
" on The Rules," ut sup.; F. Ribbeck, Donotua und Augus-
rule, times," gives the mystic measure of time tinua, pp. 198-206, Elberfeld, 1858; J. Hausaleiter, in
in the Bible either by synecdoche or by formulaic ZKW, vii (1880), 239-257; idem, in T. Zahn, Forachungen
numbers. In the case of synecdoche, the three days zur Geschichte des nenteatamcntlichcn Kanons, iv. 1-224,
between the death and resurrection of Christ (Matt. Leipaic, 1891; F. W. Farrar, Hist, cf Interpretation, pp.
24-26, 276, 279, New York, 1886; T. Hahn, Tyconiius-
xii. 40) imply that the hour of his burial stands for
Studien, Lcipsic, 1900; M. Schanz, Geachichte der rbmischen
the entire day and the preceding night, while the hour LiUerotur, iv. 350-353, Munich. 1904; W. Bousset, in his
of the night at \\hich he arose stands for the entire commentary on Revelation, pp. 56-60, 65-72, 461, G6t-
tingen, 1906; Ceilher, Auteurs aocrta, v. 100-105; KL, xii.
night and the following day, a whole day and a whole 153-156; DCB, iv. 1026-26.
night intervening between the two parts. The
"formulaic numbers" include seven, ten, and twelve, TIDEMANN, JOHANN. See TIMANN.
together with their squares and tenth powers. The TEEFTRUNK, JOHANN HEINRICH: German
Bixth rule, "on recapitulation," affirms that what theologian; b. at Stove near Rostock 1759; d. at
eeems to be a continuation of a narrative in reality Halle Oct. 7, 1837. He studied theology and phi-
refers either to what has recently taken place or to lology at the University of Halle, became private
what will occur in the future; and the seventh rule, tutor, and in 1781 rector of the town school and
"
on the devil and his body," stresses the importance preacher in Joachimstal in Uckermark. In 1792 he
of determining in every case \vhether what is said was appointed professor of philosophy at Halle.
concerning the devil refers to himself or to his body. His importance lies in his works on the philosophy
These rules \verc practically applied by Tichonius of religion, through which he became one of the
in his commentary on Revelation, which was pre- first and most effective mediators between Kant
served in manuscript in the library of the monas- and the theology of his time. Tieftrunk energetical-
tery of St. Gall as late as the ninth century. It has ly advocated the assertion of reason in the sphere
disappeared, however, and must be constructed of religion. Like Kant, he banes religion upon
from the extracts from it preserved by later exegetcs ethics. The religious objects can not be proved by
of the Apocalypse. Here belong the five books of theoretical reason, but by practical reason in ad-
the commentary on Revelation by Primasius, bishop vancing from the a priori law of morals to the con-
of Hadrumetum (MPL, Ixviii. 79U-93f>); and these ditions under which alone this can be thought pos-
1

are supplemented in part by the ten books of the sible. Tieftrunk is firmly convinced that the moral
commentary of Ambrosius Autj>ert (q.v.), who was faith established in this way is a faith based on
by Alcuin (MPL, c. 1086-1156) and Haimo
followed reason. Knowledge of God obtained in this way is
of Halberstadt (MPL, cxvii. 937-1120), the latter symbolical. To make any assertions regarding the
serving hi his turn as the source of Walafried Stra- essential being of God in view of the limitations of
bo's Olossa ordinaria (MPL, cxiv. 710-752). Cas- reason is vain; hence all speculation is to be re-
siodorus, in his Complcxiones in epistolas et Acta nounced. Tieftrunk's own contribution to this
Apostolorum et Apocalypsin, also cites briefly from Kantian platform was to apply this rational faith
Tichonius; and Bede, in his Explanatio Apocalypsis to Christianity.The sole fundamental law of the
(MPL, xciii. 130-206), explicitly cites the com- is love to God and neighbor; but
religion of Jesus
mentary of Tichonius on a number of passages. this is identical with the religious principle of reason,
Jerome likewise incorporated certain passages from "Act in accordance with the law of freedom as the su-
Tichonius in his revision of the commentary of Vic- preme sanctity of the will." Prophecy, miracle, and
torinus of Petau. The pscudo-Augustinian homilies revelation admit neither proof nor dogmatic denial.
on the Apocalypse (MPL, xxxv. 2415-52) are de- Revelation affords no new truths transcending rea-
Donatized extracts from Tichonius with additions son, but only sensualizes the religious truths and
from Victorinus; and all Donatism has likewise hastens conscious apprehension. To interpret the
been expunged from the fragments on Rev. ii. 18- rational moral content of the dogmas was the purpose
iv. 1 and vii. 10-xii. 6, preserved in a Turin manu- of Tieftrunk's main work, Zensur des christiichen pro-
script and edited
in Spicilegium Casiticnse, III., i. tesfantischen Lehrbegriffs (3 vols., Berlin, 1791-95).
261-;m (Monte Cassino, 1897). One of the most In his Religion der Mundigen (1799-1800) he ad-
important sources for a reconstruction of Tichonius' vances further to the liberation of all religion from
commentary is the commentary of Beatus, a Span- the statutory and historical and to the pure religion
ish presbyter of Libana (ed. H. Florez, Madrid, of reason rising above all authority, even that of
1770), who wrote in 776 and united in his work the Jesus. It is a broad transcription of the Kantian
most divergent tendencies of the earlier Latin exe- philosophy of religion, without regard for Christian
gesis of the Apocalypse. Finally, the heterogeneous dogmas. (HEINRICH HOFFMANN.)
production entitled Etherii et Beatii adversus El- BIBLIOGRAPHY: Q. Kertc, Die Reliffionaphiloaophie J. H>
pandum (MPL, xcvi. 894-1030) contains not only Tieftrunks, Berlin, 1907; F. C. Baur, Die chrittliche Lehre
von der Versdhnung, pp. 568 sqq., Tubingen, 1838; idem,
fragments from the commentary of Tichonius, but
Drcicinigkeit und Menschwerdung, iii. 782 sqq., ib. 1843;
also, to all appearance, from his De betto inteatino, W. QMS, Oeachichte der proteatantischen Dogmatik, iv. 300
a fact which is the more important since the latter qq., Berlin, 1867; O. Frank, Oetchichte der proteatanfachen
work is otherwise unknown. The difficulty of the Theoloffie, iii. 180 aqq., Leipsic, 1875.

reconstruction of the commentary of Tichonius from TIBLB, tile, CORNELIS PETRUS: Dutch
the sources enumerated lies in the determination theologian; b. at Leyden Dec. 16r 1830; d. there
480 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tiohoninft
Tikhon

Jan. 11, 1902. He received his education at the truth of evolution as applied to religion. The vari-
Remonstrants' Seminary and the Athenaeum Illus- ous processes of evolution he discovered in the
tre at Amsterdam; became Remonstrant pastor at growth of religion in general. Thus a unity is dis-
Moordrecht, 1853; and at Rotterdam, 1856; pro- covered in his life and accomplishments which is not
fessor at the Remonstrants' Seminary, 1873, which diminished when the many contributions to period-
was moved in that year to Leydcn, dealing with ical literature are examined. His life was a singu-
practical theology, homiletics, and history of the larly happy one, to which his own cheerful disposi-
Remonstrant Church. The classes were small and tion and continuous and conscious unity of direction
he had abundant leisure for study. From the be- made its own contributions. His worth arid emi-
ginning he displayed a remarkable literary activity. nence were recognized in his own lifetime by suit-
His pastoral work earned for him a reputation as a able academic and other honors, and especially by
brilliant and eloquent preacher, and to this was the position which was accorded him in his o\\n
added the impression made by his dignified but country. S. CRAMER.
gracious personal bearing. But his type was rather BHILIOGHAPHY: P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, in Joar-
bock der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Am-
intellectual than emotional; he avoided easily the
sterdam, 1902; De Gocjo, in Eigen Hoard, 1898; W. B.
ecclesiastical dissensions of his times. He was the Kristensen, in Woord en Beeld, 1899; Mannen en Vrou-
venerated leader of the Remonstrants of his day, wen van beteekenis, pp. 358-364, Haarlem, 1902; M. Jaa-
the number of whom was greatly increased by the trow, in The Independent (New York), liv (1902), 510 sqq.;
L. H. Jordan, Comparative Religion, its Genesis and Growth,
ecclesiastical measures in the great Dutch Re-
passim (commit Index), New York, 1905; idem, in Bibli-
formed Church. cal World, xxi (1903), 32 sqq., 124 sqq.
His chosen field was the science of religions, in
TIFFANY, CHARLES COMFORT: Protestant
which he gamed high repute at home and abroad,
Episcopalian; b. at Baltimore, Md., Oct. 5, 1829;
a repute deserved by the pioneer work which he did. d. at Northeast Harbor, Mt. Desert, Me., Aug. 20,
Much of his work was path-breaking. The national 1908. He was educated at Dickinson College, Car-
" "
University Act (1877) gave him an opportunity lisle, Pa. (A.B., 1850), at the universities of Halle,
to express his belief as to the place in the curriculum
Heidelberg, and Berlin, and at Andover Theological
of the science of theology, and while the results were
Seminary (1854). He was a curate at Germantown,
only a partial embodiment of his ideas, the total Pa. (1866-68), rector of St. James', Fordham, N. Y.
effect was the establishment at Amsterdam and
(1868-71), curate on the Green Foundation, Trinity
Leyden of chairs in this branch; that at Leyden Church, Boston, Mass. (1871-74), rector of the
naturally and rightly went to him. He had long be- Church of the Atonement, New York (1874-80), and
fore begun work in his De Godsdienst van Zarathustra of Zion Church, New York (1880-90); examining
van hoar onstaan in Baktrie tot den val van het Oud-
chaplain to Bishop Potter (1882-1902), and arch-
Perzische Rijk (Haarlem, 1864), continued in Ver- deacon of New York (1894-1902). During the last
gdijkende Geschiedenis van de Egyptischc en Meso- year of the Civil War he was chaplain of the Sixth
potamische Godsdiensten (Amsterdam, 1872; Eng. Connecticut Volunteers, and at the taking of Fort
transl., Comparative History of the Egyptian and Fisher he was aide to General Terry. He is the author
Mesopotamian Religions, London, 1882). This was of Modern Atheism (New York, 1874) History of tht
;

intended as the first part of a work Vergelijkende Protestant Episcopal Church (New York, 1895); and
Geschiedenis der oude Godsdiensten, of which the T)w Prayer Book and the Christian Life (1898).
second part came out only in 1891-1902. In 1876
TIGERT, JOHN JAMES: Methodist Episcopal
appeared Geschiedenis van den Godsdienst tot aan de
he Church, South; b. at Louisville, Ky., Nov. 25, 1856;
heerschappij der Wereldgodsdiensten, in which d. at Tulsa, I. T., Nov. 21, 1906. He was educated
characterized the religions of antiquity. This was
at Vanderbilt University (A.B., 1877); was tutor
translated into most of the continental languages
and professor of moral philosophy there (1881-90);
(Eng. transl., Outlines of the History of Religion to was a pastor in Kansas City, Mo. (1890-94), and
the Spread of the Universal Religions, London, 1877). book editor of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
"
In 1886 he issued a History of Babylonia and
"
Between 1891 and 1902 South, and editor of the MetJiodist Quarterly Review
Assyria in two volumes.
(1894-1906). In 1906, only six months before his
appeared Geschiedenis van den Godsdienst . . . tot
death, he was elected bishop. He wrote Handbook
op Alexander den Groote, which treated the Asiatic
of Logic (Nashville, Tenn., 1885); Theology and
religions, including those of the Aryan group, and
was enriched by a bibliography. The crown of his Philosophy (1888); The Preacher Himself (1889);
work in this direction was his Gifford Lectures on
A Voice from the South (1882); Constitutional His-
tory of American Episcopal Methodism (1894); The
Elements of the Science of Religion, published at the
Journal of Thomas Coke (1894); The Making of
same time in English and Dutch. This publica-
Methodism (1898); Theism A Survey of the Paths
tion reveals both Tide's strength and his weakness
that Lead to God (1901); and The Doctrines of the
his talent for analyzing religious life and the lesser
Methodist Episcopal Church in America (2 vols.,
degree of aptitude for philosophy. In all his liter- New York, 1902). He edited T. O. Simmer's Sys-
ary work he proved himself a master in methodical tematic Theology (2 vols., Nashville, 1886); H. N.
arrangement and clearness of style.
The aim which Tiele set himself at the outset was McTyeire's Passing through the Gates (1889); and
J. S.Banks' Manual of Christian Doctrine (1897).
not the investigation of particular religions, but to
learn the history of religion as a universal historical TIGLATH-PDLESER. See ASSYRIA, VI., 3, 6, 9.
fact. To this purpose he held steadfast throughout TIKHON. First Russian archbishop of America;
his life. Underlying this was profound belief in the I
b. in the Hussion province of Pskov in 1865. He
Tiuuum THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 440

graduated from the St. Petersburg Theological (Franeker, 1712) contains some of the material of
Academy, and was immediately appointed profes- his homiletical lectures. Solents vreede in Liefde,
sor in the seminary at Cholm. In 1897 he was con- Trmiw en Waarheit behartigt (Dort, 1680) testifies
secrated bishop of Lublin, assistant to the bishop to the author's hatred of dissension and desire to
of Warsaw; was transferred to San Francisco as promote the peace of the Church. He was a man
bishop of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, 1899; of moderate powers of thought but great learning,
became the presiding bishop of the Russian church open-hearted, simple in his manner of life, and of
in America, 1904, when that year the number of upright piety. (S. D. VAN VKEN.)
bishops of the Russian church in America increased BIBLIOGRAPHY: A Vita by H. van do Wall ia prefixed to
to three, and in 1905 was elevated to be archbishop Til's commentary on the Tabernacle, Amsterdam, 1714.
Consult further: G. D. J. Schotel, Kerktlyk Dordrecht, li.
of North America with his see at New York. His
16-60, Utrecht. 1845; B. Glasius, Qodoeleerd Nederland,
relations with the Episcopalians were friendly till iii. 431-437, Bois-le-Duc, 1856; C. Sepp, Het godocleerd
the ordination to the priesthood of the Russian Onderwijs in Nederland. vol. ii. passim, Leyden, 1874.
church of a deposed Episcopalian minister. In 1905
Archbishop Tikhon introduced a new departure, in
TILLEMONT, tfl"mOn', LOUIS SEBASTIEN LE
NAIN DE: French Roman Catholic church his-
holding at the New York cathedral the Sunday eve-
torian; b. of noble family in Paris Nov. 30, 1637;
ning service in English. He was succeeded In 1907
d. at his estate, Tillemont, near Paris (between Vin-
by Dr. Platon as archbishop of North America. His family
A. A. STAMOULI. cennes and Montreuil) Jan. 10, 1698.
name was Le Nam, but he called himself Tillemont
SALOMON VAN: Dutch preacher and after his estate and is commonly so known. He was
TIL,
educated in the school of Port Royal and through-
professor; b. at Weesp (8 m. s.e. of Amsterdam)
Dec. 26, 1643; d. in Leyden Oct. 31, 1713. He out his life shared the views and fortunes of the
studied theology in Utrecht and under the influence Port Royal Janaenists. He first took orders in 1676.
of Frans Bunnan became a moderate adher- Historical studies were always his chief delight and
(q.v.)
ent of Cocceianism. Later he studied at Leyden he furnished material, notes, and even entire chap-
under Cocceius, who soon entertained great hopes ters for historical works by his friends, including
of the promising disciple. In 1666 Van Til became biographies for editions of several of the Church
preacher in Huisduinen, in 1676 in De Rijp, in 1682 Fathers. Not until the fifty- third year of his life
in Medemblik, and in 1683 in Dort, where he more did he publish (anonymously) the first volume of
than fulfilled the high expectations caused by his his first great work, Histoire dcs cmpereurs ct des
faithful service in smaller places. In 1684 he was autres princes gui ont regne durant les six premiers
siecles de I'eglise, des persecutions qu'ils ont faites
appointed professor of sacred history and languages,
contre les Chretiens, de leur guerrea contrc les Juifs,
retaining his office as preacher, and in 1685 profes-
sor of theology. In 1702 he went to Leyden as pro- des tcrivains profanes et des personnes ittustres de
fessor of theology. Here his lectures on the proph- leur temps (Paris, 1690). Three more volumes fol-
ets, on Cocceius' Def&dere, and on homiletics were lowed during the author's lifetime and the fifth and
heard by crowds of students, who welcomed him as sixth after his death (1701, 1738), bringing the his-
a teacher and loved him as a personal friend. tory down to Anastasius I. in the beginning of the
In philosophy Til was a Cartesian and he rec- sixth century. This work was intended as part of
ognized the right of reason even in the domain another which is Tillemont's greatest achievement,
of theology. This led him to distinguish between the Memoires pour servir d I'histoire ecclesiastique
natural and revealed theology (cf. his Theologia des six premiers siecles justifies par les citations des
utriuaque, cum naturalis turn revelatce, compendium, auteurs originaux; avec une chronologic et des notes.
Leyden, 1704). He had a good knowledge of orien- The first three volumes appeared (Paris, 1693 sqq.)
tal languages and used it especially in studies of the during Tillemont's life; thirteen more were pub-
Old-Testament prophets, publishing a commentary lished from his manuscripts after his death (1698-
on the song of Moses and the prophecy of Habak- 1712; Eng. transl. by T. Deacon, Ecclesiastical
kuk (Leyden, 1700), Malachias ittustratu* (1701), Memoirs of the First Six Centuries, 2 vols., London,
and Commentaria analytica in varios libros pro- 1733-35; The History of the Arians and of the Coun-
pheticos (3 vols., 1744), in which he proved himself cil of Nice, translated from Tillemont's Memoirs, 2
more than mere exegete or federal theologian. Other vols., London, 1721), extending to the year 513.
exegetical works treated of the Psalms (4 books in A Vie de Saint Louis, roi de France, was published
Dutch, Dort, 1693, 1696, 1699), the Gospel of Mat- from Tillemont's manuscript preserved in the Royal
thew (Dort, 1683), the Epistles to the Romans and Library by J. de Gaulle in six volumes at Paris,
Philippians (Haarlem, 1721), and I Corinthians, 1847-51. Tillemont's church history was the first
Ephesians, Philemon, and Colossians (Amsterdam, to be produced in France with faithful reference
1726). An archeological treatise on the tabernacle directly to the sources. It consists for the most part
(Dort, 1714) belongs in the same class of works. A of a chronological arrangement of citations from
series of apologetic lectures delivered in Dort was ancient writers without critical examination. Tille-
published under the title Net Voorhofder Heidenen mont's remarks are included in parentheses, and
voor atte ongeloovigen geopent enz (Dort, 1694; con- such investigations as he made into difficult ques-
tinued 1696), and two collections of sermons (Dutch, tions are added in notes. The method of presenta-
Leyden, 1714; Latin, Utrecht, 1714) preserve tion is dry, but such a collection of the older sources
specimens of his preaching, which was considered was of great use in its time for the study of church
masterly in his time. A Methodu* concionandi history, and while Tillemont's criticism does not
 Til
441 KELIQIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Timann

meet the requirements of modern standards, in no of sermons that he became most distinguished; his
small number of cases he refuted error and opened plain, almost colloquial style, free from learned
the way to sound judgment. (C. PFENDER.) quotations, artificial arrangement, and endless sub-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Tronchay, Idte de fa vie et de V esprit de divisions, made him popular with the middle classes,
Le Nain de Tillemont, Nancy, 1706; Fontaine, Memoiret while his good sense and cultured mind made him
pour servir d I' hist, de Port-Royal, vol. ii., Utrecht, 1736;
B. Racine, Abrege de I' hist, eccUsiastique, xii. 382-403, 13 acceptable also to the learned. He was a thorough
vols., Paris, 1748-56; J. Besoigne, Hist, de Vabbave de Protestant, and at home in the Roman Catholic con-
Port Royal, v. 75-101, Cologne, 1853; Liohtenberger, ESR, troversy, and appealed to reason as well as to revela-
xii. 164-166.
tion in support of his opinions. He was a V'hig in

TILLETT, WILBUR FISK:

Methodist Episco- politics,opposed to the despotism of the Stuarts, and
an advocate of ecclesiastical comprehension. He
palian, South; b. at Henderson, N. C., Aug. 25,
1854. He was educated at Trinity College, Dur- welcomed the Revolution of 1688; and took part, in
ham, N. C. (1871-73), Randolph-Macon College, 1689, in the ecclesiastical commission for revising the
Ashland, Va. (A.B., 1877), and Princeton Theo- Prayer Book. He showed moderation to non-
logical Seminary (1880); was pastor of the church jurors and non-conformists, though hearing their
of his denomination at Danville, Va. (1880-82). animosity, and exercised a liberal hospitality. T.
Since 1882 he has boon connected with Vander- Birch's edition of his works with his life appeared
bilt University, Nashville, Tenn., where he has (3 vols., London, 1752; best ed., 12 vols., 1757).
been chaplain and instructor in systematic theology BIHLIOORAPHY: Besides the Life by Birch, ut sup. consult:
G. Buraet, A Sermon . at the Funeral of John, Arch-
. .
in the Biblical department (1882-83), adjunct
bishop of Canterbury, London, 1604: N. Tate, An Elegy on
professor of the same subject (1883-84), and full . John
. . Archbishop
. . of Canterbury, ib. 1695; L.
professor of systematic theology (since 1884). Atterbury, A Vindication of Archbishop Tillotson'a Ser-
Since 1886 he has also been dean of the theological mons, ib. 1709; F. H., The Life of . .
. John Tillotson,
ib. 1717; G. Whitefield, Three. Letters from G Whiteficld,
faculty and ex-ojjicio vice-chancellor of the univer- ib. 1740; J. Hunt, Religious Thought in England, vols ii.-
sity. In 1886-89 he was the secretary of the com- iii., ib. 1871-73; W. G. Humphry, in J. E. Kempe, The
mittee which prepared a new hymn-book for his Classic Preachers of the English Church, 2 ser., ib. 1878;
W. H. Button, The English Church . . . (1626-1714). ib.
denomination and was the editor of that publica-
1903; DNB, Ivi. 392-398.
tion, \\ hile in 1902-05 he was a member of the joint
committee of the Methodist Episcopal Church, TIMANN, JOHANN (JOHANNES AMSTERDAMUS
South, and the Methodist Episcopal Church which TTDEMANN): Lutheran Reformer; b. at Amster-
prepared a new hymnal for the two bodies, being dam before 1500; d. at Nicnburg (30 m. n.w. of
"
again the editor. In theology he terms himself a Hanover) Feb. 17, 1557. In 1522 he came to Wit-
liberal and progressive conservative," and has tenberg and the next year, accompanied by Jakob
written Discussions in Theology (Nashville, 1887); Propst (q.v.), he went to Bremen, and on the recom-
Our Hymns and their Authors (1889); Personal mendation of Heinrich von Zutphcn (q.v.) was
Salvation : Studies in Christian Doctrine pertaining called as pastor to the Church of St. Martin. After
to the Spiritual Life (1902) ; and Doctrines and Polity the departure of Ztitphen, Nov., 1524, Timann and
of Hie Methodist Episcopal Church, South (1903). Propst led the Reformation in Bremen, and in 1525
German hymns and the administration of both
TILLOTSON, JOHN: Archbishop of Canterbury; elements of the Eucharist were introduced. With
b. at Sowerby, Halifax, England, 1630 (baptized Johann Pelt, pastor of St. Ansgar, Timann was
Oct. 10, 1630); d. in London Nov. 22, 1694. He called to Emden in 1529 by Count Enno II. of East
studied at Clare Hall, Cambridge (B.A., 1650; Friesland to counteract the influence of the Anabap-
fellow, 1651; M.A., 1654; and D.D., 1666), where tists. Having accomplished little, they returned to
Puritan principles were inculcated, but he did Bremen, 1529-30. On account of an uprising of the
not imbibe Puritan doctrines, leaning rather in a
peasants in 1532, Timann and Propst removed for a
latitudinarian direction. Chillingworth, through his month to Brinkum, after which they returned to
writings, is also said to have molded Tillotson's their congregations. Timann had prob-ibly a
opinions. Early in 1657 he went, as private tutor, prominent part in the drafting of the church order
to London; he was ordained, and was preaching which, after submission to Luther and J. P. Bugen-
in 1661, apparently for the Presbyterian party, but
hagen, was adopted by the council. Ho represented
in 1662 he submitted to the Act of Uniformity (q.v.), Bremen at the convention at Hamburg which took
and in 1661 became curate to Thomas Hacket, who measures against the Anabaptists, and also at
was vicar of Cheshunt, Hertfordshire. He was the conference at Schmalkald, and at the Colloquy
rector of Kedington, Suffolk, 1663-64; preacher at Worms (1540-41), and ho attended the Confer-
at Lincoln's Inn, 1663-91; Tuesday lecturer at ence of Regensburg (q.v.) as ecclesiastical adviser of
St. Lawrence Jewry, 1664-91 ; as chaplain to Charles the councilors of Bremen. In the Hardenberg con-
II. he became second prebend at Canterbury, 1670,
troversy on the Eucharist he wrote the pamphlet,
and dean 1672; was also prebend at St. Paul's, Farrago sententiarum amsentientium (Frankfort,
1675-77; became clerk of the closet to the king, 1 555) For his part in that controversy see HABDEN-
.

1689; dean of St. Paul's, 1689; was appointed to BEBQ, ALBERT RIZAEUS. (CABL BEBTHEAU.)
exercise archiepiscopal jurisdiction, 1689; and be- BIBLIOGRAPHY: Letters by Timann are in C. H. W. Sillem's
came archbishop, 1691. He began as an author in Bnefaammlung de* Joachim Westphal, pp. 98, 172, 197,
1664, by publishing a sermon on The Wisdom of being 239, Hamburg, 1903. Consult: AUes und Neues aua dm
Hertogthumem Bremen und Vcrdtn, iv (1771), 99-128;
Religious (London, 1664), and The Rule of Faith (2 H. W. Rotermund, Lexikon oiler GeUhrten, 216 sqq. t
ii.

parts., 1666) It was as a preacher and as an author

.
Bremen, 1818; ADB, xxxviii. 352 oqq.
Time THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 449

TIME, BIBLICAL RECKONING OF.

I. The Chronological System. Lack of a Basal Era (ft 1). Chronology of P (ft 1).
Creation to the Flood ( 1). Synchronisms in I -II Kings (ft 2). Chronology Based on the Exodus
The Flood till the Exodus (ft 2). Results from Assyrian Sources (ft 3). (ft 2).
The Exodus to Solomon (ft 3). General Result (ft 4). Ussher's Basis (ft 3).
Solomon till the Return (ft 4). III. The Abrahamic Date. 2. Egyptian Chronology.
II. The Historical Data. 1. The Hebrew Chronology. 3. Babylonian Chronology.

I. Chronological System: There is doubtless a attached to the Babylonian system have long been
system of chronology in the Old Testament, indeed known. The names of the patriarchs correspond
more than one, and these cross each other; the age to those of some of the Babylonian kings; the reigns
and origin are unknown, though in the nature of the latter covered long world-periods, correspond-
of things such systems are relatively late. It is a ing to the lives of the patriarchs, except that the
special and significant peculiarity of the Hebrew latter are systematically abbreviated. In the Baby-
spirit that the Hebrews earlier than lonian system from the creation to Alexander the
x. Creation any other people conceived the idea of Great was 215 myriads of years; from the beginning
to the a common relationship of the nations to the end of creation 168 myriads, in the Bible 24 x
Flood, and of a definite ordering of all events 7 (* 168) hours; the Babylonians reckon from the
to a common purpose, leading them to first king Alorus to the flood 432,000 years (i.e.,
orient their own history in universal history. The 72 x 6,000), in the Bible from Adam to Noah covers
Hebrew chronological system comes out of this idea. 1656 years (i.e., 72 x 23 years or 72 x 1,200 weeks).

For the period before the flood (Gen. v.) the system Other relationships might be discovered. The
works out in the above table, each item con- Biblical author has leaned upon the Babylonian
taining the years of a patriarch's life before the exemplar, but has subordinated his material to his
begetting of his first son, the years after that till his own idea.
death, and the sum. It is to be noticed, however, For the period between the flood and Abraham the
that the Masoretic text, the Samaritan text, and the following table of the three chief types of text
Septuagint have each its own tradition. results (Gen. xi. 10 sqq.)-
Correspondences between this system and that While one may question whether the figures in
443 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Kline

the first table under Masoretic text represent the c. Minor judges
Tola, Judges x. 2 23 yean
original tradition, those in the second table claim
Jair, x. 3 22
attention because of their modesty; 6
2. The Jephthah (ut sup.)
Flood some, however, think those of the Sa- Ibzan, xii. 9 7
maritan text earlier, according to which Eton, xii. 11 10
till the Abdon. xii. 14 8
Exodut. Methuselah, Jared, and Lamech died
in the year of the flood. It is to be re- Total 76 yean
marked that 100 years of Shem may be deducted
d. Before and after the judges.
from the last table, and this results in the following: 40 yean
Moses in the wilderness
Joshua x "
"
Eli, 1 Sam. iv. 18 (LXX. 20) 40
"
Samuel y
"
Saul
"
David, 1 Kings n. 11 40
"
Solomon till building of Temple . . 4

Total 124(104)

The item concerning Elon is doubtful, since he is

absent from the prehexaplaric Septuagint, in Euse-

The figures from Abraham on arc in Gen. xii. 4,
bius, and perhaps also from Clement of Alexandria;
xxi. 5, xxv. 26, xlvii. 9, xii. 40-41.
this would leave 66 years for the minor judges. But
Age of Abraham at his call 75
the omission in the Septuagint may be accidental.
Age of Abraham at Isaac's birth 100
Age of Isaac at Jacob's birth 60 The placing of Jephthah a matter of judgment;
is
Age of Jacob on entering Egypt 130
his period, of course, is to be counted but once.
( 25
After Abraham's call { 60 To get the period between the exodus and the build-
(130
ing of the temple the totals of the four tables above
215 must be added, deducting the repeated item: 226+
111 + 70+124-531 (or 534, in case Abimelech with
3 years is counted in; Judges ix. 22). But this is
far beyond the 480 years of I Kings vi. 1. To relieve
this it has been noted that it is usual to reckon the
years of a usurper's reign in with the rightful kings,
and the years of oppression constitute a sort of
usurpation; then the reckoning would give 531
111 = 420, and 60 years are left for x+y+z. But
an objection to this is that in certain cases, those of
" "
Jephthah and Samson, the usurpation is longer

These last figures give the lapse of time from crea- than the reign. But this argument is deceptive,
tion till the exodus. What the second and third since in the case of Samson it is reasonable to sup-
columns mean is doubtful, but it has long been seen pose that the Philistine oppression is reckoned into
that the number 4,000, a " world-number," repre- the time of Eli. Similarly the reckoning with regard
senting 100 generations of 40 years each, is repre- to Jephthah doubtful (note the wording of Judges
is
sented in the Masoretic column by two-thirds of that x. 8). At any rate, the foregoing shows that merely
number, 2,606. This leaves the remainder of 1,333 mechanical handling of the tables is not to be at-
years to be accounted for. tempted. Another method of shortening the period
But first it must be noted that in I Kings seemingly indicated in the book of Judges is that of
vi. 1 the number 40 appears in the Noldeke, who regards the tables a and 6 as so
3. The number 480 (40 x 12), which last interlocked as to show the idea of the historian of
Exodus to represents the period from the exodus the period of the judges; that would leave no room
Solomon, to the building of the temple. The for the table c, dealing with the minor judges. In
book of Judges does not easily work that case they were not in the original book and not
into this scheme, as the following tables show. in the chronological scheme, and that scheme calls
a. Major judges; times of peace. for 441 years. But even this seems to allow too
Othmel, Judges ni. 11 40 yean much time for x+y+z. Then it is helped by the
Ehud, iii. 30 80 fact that the oppression of the Philistines' rule in-
"
Deborah-Barak, v. 31 40 cluded the period of Eli's government, so that
"
Gideon, via. 2H 40
(Jephthah, xii. 7 6 "
)
Samson's 20 years and Eli's make up the 40 of
"
Samson, xv. 20 20 Judges xiii. 1, leaving 79 (a round 80) for x+y+z,
Total 220 or 226 allotting 40 to Joshua, and 20 each to Samuel and
Saul. That makes the scheme from the exodus
6. Times of oppression.
as follows:
Under Mesopotamians, iii. 8 8 yean
Moab, iii. 14 18
" Yean Years
" " Moses 40 Jephthah 6
Canaan, iv. 3 20
" " Joshua 40 (20?) Samson 20
Midian, vi. 1 7
" Othniel 40 Eli (Septuagint, 20) .... 40
Ammon, x. 8 18
"
Philistines, xiii. 1 40 Ehud 80 Samuel 20
Deborah-Barak .. 40 Saul 20
Total Ill yean Gideon 40 David 40
Time THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 444

In this scheme there are two omissions; the minor upon the number 260, giving a total of 3,166, com-
judges are not taken into account. Then Jephthah posed of 260x12+46, from creation to the conse-
has no place among the major judges, the 6 years cration of the Temple. The first is a popular reck-
being placed among the count of the minor oning, the second is purely theoretical and under
judges (cf. Judges xii. 7 with x. 8). This leaves 76 foreign influence.
years to account for, which vitiates the entire n. The Historical Data: It has already been
calculation. The sum of the twelve "reigns" noted that the use of an artificial chronological
noted, if either Jephthah or Eli receive only 20 system does not exclude the presence of historical
years, gives 406 years, 74 short of the 480 called for. data, which were probably taken from tradition and
But the governance of the number forty appears brought together and arranged or changed. How
especially in the first six periods of the last table. far this was the case may be seen by comparison
And this predominance of the number 40 (cf. the of, e.g., the Book of Judges with other parts of Scrip-
confirmation in I Chron. v. 29-34, vi. 35-88) il- ture. If such a combination appears

lustrates the Masoretic chronology. To the 2,666 i. Lack of a in the Books of Kings, it would amount

years between creation and the exodus (66 genera- Basal Era. to proof that two systems were brought
tions) 480 (12 generations) are now to be added. together, one systematically chronolog-
For the next step assurance is not in our posses- ical and one based on traditionally transmitted
sion. Yet it seems significant that from the time of numbers. In attempting to fix the dates of events
Solomon's ascent to the throne (c. 1Q15) to the re- the one essential thing lacking is a date of reckoning,
turn from exile (536 B.C.) almost ex- an "era," in the earlier period; the attempt is not
4. Solomon actly covers 480 years; and it is note- made to connect events with a recognized and fixed
till the worthy that from Zadok's son Ahimaaz date. The reference to Adam or to the flood can
Return, to the beginning of the exile are eleven not, in the nature of the case, give a definite start-
generations (I Chron. vi. 8-15). This ing point. More promising appears the reference in
scheme may have arisen just before or just after the I Kings vi. 1to the exodus; but, apart from the fact
end of the exile. In that case, the chronologist that the event itself has been called in question, n
had before him the 66J generations +12-1- 12, fixed date for that is not yet determined. Only
leaving 9J generations, if he was reckoning on the in very late Biblical times did an era come into use,
world era of 4,000 years; he must then have ex- that of the Seleucidae (I Mace. xiii. 41-42). The
pected Messianic times about 157 B.C. The fore- lack of a fixed date within Tsraelitic chronology
going attempt at solving the scheme of Masoretic forces a complete dependence upon foreign data, so
chronology, based upon the 2,666 years, is not the far as contemporaneity can be established; and this
only one. Bousset starts from the data given in the comes first in comparatively late times in the As-
Apocalypse of Ezra ix. 38 sqq. and Joaephus, Ant., syrian period. Above all regrettable is the fact that
VIII. 61-62, and X. 147-148 (Greek text), no connection exists such that a starting point may
and reaches the conclusion that the beginning of the be derived from Egypt. For there a calendar ex-
temple cult (twenty years after the beginning of the isted which carries one back to July 19, 4241, the
building of the temple) fell in the year 3000 from oldest fixed date in history, depending upon the
creation. Bousset holds that the Septuagint sys- fact that the Egyptian new year's day (in a year
tem is secondary to the Masoretic, arranged in the of 365 days) theoretically began on the day when
time when the Hebrews began to compare their Sinus (Sethis) rose with the dawn at Memphis.
chronology with that of Egypt and Babylon and so The year being fixed for 305 days, every four years
discovered that their own was too short. This a day was lost, and 1,460 Julian years 1,461 Sothio
system would work out thus: years. The coincidence of the Sothic and the Julian

A new attempt by Bosse (Die chronologischen Sya- new year's day occurred 2781 and 4241 B.C., and at
teme im A.T. und bei Joaephus, in MittheiluTigen der the earliest of these the Egyptian calendar must have
vorderaxiatischen Geaeltechaft, 1908) to unravel the begun. In early Babylonia an early fixed date is
chronological basis of reckoning results in Bosse's lacking, and the dating of events depends upon data
belief that he has discovered two systems worked afforded by Nabonidus (see ASSYRIA, VI., 1, 1;
together. The first uses the generation-number of BABYLONIA VI., 1, 1-2) which are seriously called
forty yean, reckoning from the birth of Shem to the in question. The dating of Sargon is, according to
end of the exile, giving 40X60+2,000 years (omit- the shorter reckoning, brought down to about 2700
ting Terah); the second is a great solar cycle based B.C. instead of c. 3750. But even were early Baby*
445 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Time

Ionian dates assured, they would be usable for tempt has probability behind it, though nothing
Biblical chronology only were definite points of more. As to the manner of reckoning the length of
chronology (synchronisms) settled. Such synchro- reigns, it is assumed that the first full year was
nisms are practically entirely lacking. No stringently reckoned to a king, the preceding year being given
binding connection exists with a fixed date for the to his predecessor, though it has been otherwise
contacts of Abraham or Joseph with Egypt; even assumed that the last year of a king
for the entrance into and exodus from Egypt the 3. Results should be given also to his successor,
reigning Pharaoh is not known with absolute cer- from As- this leading to a doubling and re-
tainty assuming tho historicity of these events. syrian quiring a subtraction of one year
Similarly with Babylonia; the wandering of the Sources, from each except the first of the series.
patriarchs in the East, the stay of Abraham in For assured reckoning points the
Babylonia or Haran, his stay in Canaan once more Assyrian chronology furnishes a means, through
granting the historicity of these events none of the Eponym Canon and the eclipse of 763 B.C.
these permit of connection with fixed early Baby- (see ASSYRIA, VI., 1, 1). Synchronisms rule as
lonian history. Even Qen. xiv. with the kings there follows:
mentioned docs not afford a relationship, since it is
ShalmaneMr II. ruled 859-825
not certain that Amraphel is the Hammurabi (see Shalmaneser fought at Karkar 854
HAMMURABI AND HIS CODE) whose date is ap- Shalmaneser fought with Damascus, Jehu's tribute 842
proximately fixed. All of earlier Biblical chronology Tiglath-Pileser ruled 746-727
Tiglath-Pileser received Menahem'i tribute 738
depends upon conclusions from later Biblical events Tiglath-Pileser fought Aram and Israel 734
so far as earlier and later events can be connected. Tiglath-Pileaer took Damascus 732
The first real synchronisms occur in the regal Shalmaneser IV. ruled 727-722
period, when certain settled events are related with Sargon ruled 722-705
Sennacherib ruled 705-681
Assyrian events. A supposed synchronism with the Sennacherib moved on Judah 701
founding of Carthage and the list of Phenician
(Tyrian) kings is only apparent. In addition to these data there is the Canon of
2. Synchro- Josephus (Apion, i. 18) gives from Ptolemy which gives a survey of Babylonian and
nisms in Menander a list of ten kings of Tyre, Persian rulers of Babylon, and from Alexander of
I-II Kings, and also (Ant., VIII., iii. 1) says that the Ptolemies in Egypt. Usable here are the data
Solomon began the Temple in Hiram's that
eleventh year. But both sets of data are inconclu-
Nabopolassar ruled 825-605
sive. For the founding of Carthage Tinueus as- Nebuchadrezzar ruled 604-562
signs the year 814, but without corroboration and Nebuchadrezzar took Jerusalem 587-586
definite knowledge of the source this can not be
From these numbers can be gained
certain dates
accepted as basis for chronology. In the books of
for Israel. From
the last the dates of at least tho
Kings there appears what looks like an extraordi-
latest kings can be obtained in the battle of Karkar
narily exact system of reckoning, in which are two
;

which seem to support and guarantee

series of figures
Ahab or Jehoram took part, while Jehu's tribute
one another, though as a matter of fact they do not year was 842 when he must have been on the
agree. The one series gives the lengths of the reigns
throne; 734 or 733 was Pekah's last regnal year and
of the rulers of both kingdoms, tho other gives
722 Hoshea's last. There are several synchronisms
between Israel and Judah: Jeroboam and Reho
synchronisms, stating in what regnal years of the
contemporary monarch of the other kingdom the boam, Jehu and Athaliah, respectively, entered upon
their reigns in thesame year. Mesha records (see
kings of the one began their reigns. Were the sys-
tem correct and the figures correctly transmitted, MOABITE STONE) that Israel during forty years, i.e ,

this would have high value. But the two systems during Omri's reign and half of the days of his sons
are not by the same hand, the books having under- (Ahab, Ahaziah, Joram), oppressed Moab. But,

gone a double redaction, the second at the earliest Ahab, Ahaziah, and Joram reigned only 36 years,
toward the end of the exile, probably after the exile. hence Omri's 12 -f half of 36 - 18 are only 30
This second naturally used, at least for the later years, and the 40 of Mesha is a round number. It
furnishes, however, an example of the reckoning by
parts, traditional numbers, though it may have
altered them to fit into the system. Benzinger hi generations or forties. Remembering the inaptitude
his commentary on Kings has sought to show that of modern orientals for exactness in figures, it is easy
to see how in the absence of written
the period of 480 years (cf I Kings vi. 1) rules for the
.

time between Solomon and the end of the exile, 4. General records the exact numbers become
Result lost and a system of round num-
that between the division of the kingdom and the
Samaria is half of this, 240 years (according bers grows up, illustrated also by the
fall of
to another reckoning 263 years). If between the
number in Judges.

fall of Samaria and of Jerusalem be reckoned 136

A
general but provisional scheme as the result of
the foregoing investigation results as follows.
years, for the exile a duration of 50, and for Solo-
mon's reign after beginning the Temple 36 years, the Exodus c. 1850 (1400)
sum is 240 (263) -1-136 +50 +36 -462 (485) years. Judges' period 1250-1120
Simple numbers to Hoshea
addition of the Biblical Philistine rule, Eli. c. 1120
Samuel c. 1080
gives in the Judean series 260 and in the Israelitic
. .

Saul .... 1037-1017

series 242 years, with a total to end of exile of 464 David . . . 1017- 977
and 482 yean. This suggests that Bemanger's at- Solomon 977- 937
Time THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO 446

Rehoboam 937-920 Jeroboam 1 987-015 Itseems to be perfectly clear that these figures are
Nadab 915-914
Abijah 920-917 all artificial;they are the result of elaborate com-
AM 917-876 Baaaha 914-890
putations and theorizing carried on by the priests
Elah 890-889
Zimn 889 of Israel for centuries. But the most searching in-
Omri 889-877 vestigation of modern scholars has failed to find the
Jehoshaphat .... 876-851 Ahab 877-855 ultimate basis on which they rest the point from
Jehoram 851-843 Ahaziah 855-854
843-842 Joram 854-842 which they were calculated and the processes by
Ahaciah
Athaliah 842-836 Jehu 842-814 which they were finally determined. The difficulty
Joash 836-796 Jehoahax 814-797 of dealing with them is enormously enhanced by the
Amaziah 796-78? Joash 797-781
... 781-740
differences between the three recensions of the text.
Uwiah 7787-740 Jeroboam II
Zachanah 740 These can not be explained by the old device of ac-
Shallum 740 cidental corruptions by copyists. Some of them
Jotham 740-735 Menahem 740-737 must represent the labors of editors. Some of the
Pekahiah 737-735
Pekah 735-734-3 older chronologists in modern times have taken
Ahaz .......... 735-719 Hoshea 733-725 freely and indifferently from either recension what-
Herekiah ...... 719-6S6 ever figures might seem to them to bo most agree-
.....
Manaaaeh 686-641
able to the system they were constructing. The
Amon ....... 641-639
Jo^iah .... 639-308 more scrupulous investigations of recent times
Jehoahaz ...... 608 have unfortunately yielded no certain test for the
Jehoiakim .... 608-597 determination of the relative value of these recen-
[Jehoiachm . . 597]
.

Zedekiah .... 597-587-6 sions. Several of the most eminent modern scholars
have presented arguments to show that the Samar-
For the time between the return from exile and itan text has preserved the moat probable list of
Christ only one date is seriously in question, viz.,
figures, among them Budde, Dillmann, and Hol-
the time of Ezra's visit to Jerusalem (see EZRA- But their reasoning has carried but little
zinger.
NEHEMIAH). In spite of Kosters' attack on the Bib- conviction and the majority of critical students con-
lical reports, Ezra's visit must be placed 458 and the
tent themselves with a general adherence to the
giving of the law 445 or 444. (R. KITTEL.) Masoretic computations. If now these last be ac-
m. The Abrahamic Date: The determination of
cepted, the conclusion is reached that Abraham's
the date of Abraham is one of the most difficult call fell in the year of the world 2021. But this is a
problems which the chronology of the ancient orient most unsatisfying conclusion; it must be rodunod
has left. For its complete solution the chronologi- to a known era, and one must ascertain to what
cal data of three oriental peoples must be brought
year B.C. it corresponds For the solution of this
into agreement, the Hebrews, the Egyptians, and
problem the book of Genesis affords no data of any
the Babylonians. Each of these systems affords kind. A fixed datum must be sought elsewhere by
own sufficiently complicated to tax
difficulties of its
which a reckoning may bo guided.
the resources of the greatest experts, and no one of The greatest event in Israel's history was the
them is thoroughly scientific, though of the three the eXOC* US * rom ^WP*' to ^ tho poets
Babylonian presents more scientifically based data 2 Chronol-
ogy Based"
anc* P 1 ?^ 6*
^
continually hark back.
than cither of the others. It will be well to take
on the Perhaps a point of departure may
these in the order in which they have been named.
Exodus, there be secured.
1. The Hebrew Chronology : The Book of Genesis Years
contains in those portions of the book which were From the call of Abraham to the birth of Isaac (of. Gen.
compiled and edited by the priestly historiographer xii. 4 with Gen. xxi 5) ................... 25
Isaac's age at the birth of Jacob and Esau iGen. xxv. 26) 60
(P) a most elaborate chronology in which families Age of Jacob when he went down into Egypt (Gen. xlvii.
1 Ohr n 1 "
cnviduals are k n ft U P ^ a com-m 9)............................... 130
"plete and self-contained system, every The length of the sojourn in Egypt (Ex xii. 40, 41) 430 . .

birth, marriage, and death receiving a From the call of Abraham to the Exodus ,
.645
proper note. Unhappily this system can not in some now
If these figures could all be accepted as
places be reconciled with the data given by the other certain and if data could be discovered in the Bible
chief authors whose works have found a place in
itself for locating the exodus in terms of the
Genesis, the Judaistic ( J) and the Ephraimitic (E)
Christian era, it would be possible at once to deter-
sections of the book. For the present purpose the
mine the date of Abraham; but unfortunately
J and E portions may safely be left out of account as
neither of these suppositions is true, as will ap-
they do not materially affect the computation.
pear upon a brief examination. In the first place the
Taking, then, P alone the dates down to Abraham
430 years (Ex. xii. 40, 41), while in substantial
from the creation may be summarized as follows: "
agreement with the words of the promise: thou
shalt sojourn in a land that is not theirs, and . . .

they shall afflict them 400 years" (Gen. xv. 13), is

hopelessly at variance with the passages which as-
sign only four generations from Jacob's children
to Moses (Ex. vi. 16-20; Num. xxvi. 5-9, cf. Gen.
xv. 16) or five to Joshua (Josh. vii. 1). This dif-
ficulty was evidently observed in antiquity, for an
endeavor to meet it appears in the text of both the
Samaritan and the Septuagint which read in Ex,
447 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Time

"
xii. 40, The sojourning of the children of Israel in king of this dynasty about 1580 B.C. [J. H. Breasted,
the land of Egypt, and in the land of Canaan was Hist, of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 426, New York,
430 years." This reduces the sojourn in Egypt 1908], there is substantial agreement among Egypt-
from 430 to 215 years, which is exactly equal to the ologists and the error is demonstrably small in any
sojourn in Canaan, and this was, as shown above, case. It was during this dynasty that the corre-
25 + 60 -f 130 years. It is quite evident that this spondence between the kings of Egypt and various
can not be genuine chronology based on ancient rulers and governors of western Asia occurred.
data, for it is higlily improbable, to say the least, (See AMARNA TABLETS.) The two Egyptian kings
that the sojourns in Canaan and in Egypt should Amenophis III. and Amenophis IV. are by Breasted
be of exactly the same duration. These figures are located at 1411-1375 and 1375-1350, and other
the result of computation and reckoning, not the Egyptologists would but slightly change these fig-
result of exact records. But, in the second place, ures. The correspondence shows quite clearly that
there are no data for locating the exodus chrono- during these reigns Egypt was completely master of
logically in the book of Exodus or Numbers. To Palestine, and only during the latter are there signs
find its date according to the priestly compilers and of a breaking of Egyptian supremacy through the
computators it is necessary to come farther down in attacks of small bodies of peoples seeking new
the Biblical books. homes. Among these the JXabiri find frequent men-
The passage used for this purpose by Archbishop tion, and efforts have been made by some scholars
"
Ussher is found in as follows:
I Kings Andvi. 1 to identify them with the Hebrews under Joshua,
to pass in the four hundred and
it came but without success (see AMARNA TABLETS, IV.,
Baals! eightieth year after the children of 1). They are indeed probably of the same or of a
Israel were come out of the land of closely related stock, but they are not the Hebrews
Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon's reign over of the Old Testament. Indeed the very allusions
Israel, that he began to build the house of
. . . to these marauders, the IJabiri, show quite plainly
Jehovah." This passage, far from easing the dif- that the conquest described in the summary in
simply increases them. In the first place
ficulties, Judges i. was not taking place. The date of the
the number 480 seems to be nothing else than a exodus at 1491 is, therefore, shown to be impossi-
computation made by the writer of books of Kings ble, for down to 1350 Egypt was still mistress of
who, about the beginning of the exile, compiled the whole territory of Canaan. If now this date
books with the object of presenting a complete be thus disposed of, one has next to ask whether
chronology of Israel's historical life. There are a
"
any more suitable date may be discovered by the
"
good many appearances of forty in the work of help of the Egyptians. For such a search Exodus
chronologists like him, for example in Judges, and i. 11 reports that the Israelites, before the exodus,

it is probable that the number forty is either a built two store cities, Pithom and Rameses, for
round number or more likely the computed length of the Egyptians. Now the excavations of Edouard
a generation. On this latter supposition 480 would Naville have proved that Pithom was built by
mean twelve generations, a suggestion which finds Rameses II. of the next, or the nineteenth, dynasty,
support, if not confirmation, in the list of names with and the very name of the city Rameses supports
which he was operating, namely Moses (in the wil- this deduction. Unless, therefore, the Hebrew his-
derness), Joshua, Othniel, Ehud, Deborah, Gideon, torical recollections concerning these two cities are
Jcphthah, Samson, Eli, Samuel, Saul, and David. in hopeless error, it follows that Rameses II. was
His method would seem to be plain. He computes the Pharaoh of the oppression and his successor
twelve generations between the exodus and the Merneptah tho Pharaoh of the exodus (see EGYPT,
Temple, and then simply translates these into 480 I., 4, 3). Breasted dates these two kings at
years. But even if it be assumed that the 480 was 1292-1225 and 1225-1215 B.C., Petrie locates the
an exact number, the goal would still be no nearer, former at 1300-1234, Maspero at 1320-1255, and
for the book of Kings gives no certain method of Meyer 1310-1244. The differences between the ex-
determining the fourth year of Solomon. To secure perts are small, and according to those it is required
that it would be necessary to go on down through to date the exodus at about 1230 instead of 1491.
the book of Kings, hoping somewhere to find a king If now this date be taken as a point of departure
who could be located through his contemporaneity and the 645 years be added, it is necessary to locate
with some ruler or some event known from tho out- the date of Abraham's call at 1875 B.C., and adding
side world. This was Ussher's method, and it led the seventy-five years of his life before that date,
him to date the fourth year of Solomon at 1012 Abraham's date would be given as 1950-1775.
B.C., and the exodus at 1491 if now to this be added
;
8. Babylonian Chronology: This date must now
the 645 years, the result would be 2136 B.C. as the be tested by the data to be derived from Babylonia.
date of Abraham's call, and this would give as the Gen. xiv. 1 makes Abraham the contemporary of a
real Biblical date of Abraham's life 2211-2036 B.C. certain Amraphel, king of Shinar. Schrader was the
This date must now be tested by the application first to suggest that Amraphel was a corruption of
to it of such comparisons and checks as Egypt and the name of the well-known Babylonian king
Babylonia may be able to furnish. It is best to Hammurabi. The difficulties in this identification

begin with Egypt. felt at gradually vanished as other forms, more

first
2. Egyptian Chronology: Prior to the begin- closely approximating the Hebrew form of the name,
ning of the eighteenth dynasty Egyptian chro- were found in Babylonian documents. There re-
nology provides many and complicated questions mained, however, a very great difficulty in bringing
and few certainties, but from Abwoae I., the first Hammurabi far enough down, or Abraham far
 Time THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Timoithy 448

enough back, in the chronologies of the two peoples Chronohgie der hebraischen Konige, Bonn, 1883; V. A.
tomake an identification at all probable. Prior to Dumax, Revision et reconstitution de la chronohgie biblique
ft profane, Paris, 1886-92; .
Mahler, Biblische Chrono-
1907 Assyriologists generally dated Hammurabi to logie und Zeitrechnung der Hebraer, Vienna, 1887; C.
the twenty-third or twenty-fourth century, as will Lederer, Die biblische Zeitrechnung, Erlangen, 1888; J.
Orr, in Presbyterian Review, Jan., 1889; M. Macdonald,
appear from the following figures as given by
several writers: 2376-2333 (Sayce), 2342-2288 Harmony of Ancient Hist, and Chronology of the Egyptians
and Jews, Philadelphia, 1891; A. A. van Hoonaoker,
(Rogers), 2286-2242 (Johns). These dates can not, Zorobabel et le second temple, Ghent, 1892; H. Winckler,
on any hypothesis, be brought into even approxi- AUteetamentliche Untersuchungen, pp. 77 sqq., Leipsic,
mate relationship with any of the calculated Biblical 1892; W. H. Kosters, Het Herstel van Israel, Leyden,
1893; . Kautcsch, Die heilige Schrift des A. Ts., Bei-
dates. But in 1907 Dr. L. W. King made a most
lagen, pp. 110-135, Freiburg, 1894; E. Meyer, Entstehung
happy discovery in the British Museum of new des Judentums, Halle, 1896; idem, in SB A, 1904 and 1907
chronicles of early Babylonian kings which at once (on Egyptian chronology); C. Niebuhr, Die Chronohgie
der Oeschichte Israels, Aegyptens, Babyloniens und Assyr-
set the chronology of the first Babylonian dynasty
iens f000-700 vor Christi, Leipsic, 1896; C. C. Torrey, in
in quite a new light. It had been supposed that the ZATW, 1896; C. F. Lehmann, Zwei Hauptproblemc der
second dynasty followed upon the first and the third altorientalischen Chronologic, ib. 1898; W. Boussot, in
ZATW, 1900, pp. 136 sqq ; J. Urquhart, How Old is
upon the second, but these new chronicles showed Mant Some misunderstood Chapters in Scripture Chronol-
conclusively that the second dynasty was partly ogy, London, 1904; J. H. Breasted, Hist, of Egypt from
contemporaneous with the third, and that, there- the Earliest Times, New York, 1905; idem, Short Hist of
fore, the date of the first dynasty must be much the Egyptians, ib. 1907; W. T. Lynn, Bible Chronology,

reduced. The most probable date for Hammurabi, London, 1905; L. W. King, Chronicles concerning early
Babylonian Kings, 2 vols., ib. 1907; O. A. To fifteen, An-
yielded by this reduction, is 213(^-2088 B.C. (so cient Chronology, Chicago, 1907, new ed., 1909 (cornea down
Thureau-Dangin and Ungnad), though King would to 1050 B c ) ;\V. J. Beecher, The Dated Kvents of the Old
date the beginning of this dynasty not much earlier Testament being a Presentation of Old \Teatament Chro-
nology, Philadelphia, 1908; 1). II. Fothenngham, The
than 2000 or 2050, which would make Hammurabi's
Chronology of the Old Testament, Camliiidge. I DOS, 11.
date 1938-1883 or 1888-1833 B.C. These dates are Schram, Kalendanographische und chronologische Tafcln,
almost certainly too low and the dates 2130-2088 Leipsic, 1908; S. Euringer, Die Chronolovie der bihluulwn
B.C. may safely be regarded as a much closer ap- Urgeschichte (Gen. v., xi ), Munstpr, 1900, F. A. Herzog,
Die Chronologie der benlen Ktimgabucher, M winter, 1909;
proximation. If King's date were correct there F. A. Jones, The Dates of Genesis. A Comparison of the
would a most striking correspondence be-
result Biblical Chronology with that of other Nations, Ixiudoii,
tween and the date of Abraham's call 1875 B.r.
it 1909; F. Westberg, Die biblische Chronologic nach Joaephus
as reckoned above from the exodus date at 1230 und das Todesjahr Jesu, Loipsic, 1910; Smith, Prophets,
pp. 145-151, 401-404, 413-419; Schroder, KAT; DB, i.
B.C. King is himself so much struck by this that 397-403; EB, \. 773-799; JE, iv. 64-70.
"
he remarks: We may conclude that the chron-
TIMOTHEUS JELURUS. See MONOPHYSITES,
ology of the Pentateuch, with regard to the length
3 sqq.
of time separating Abraham from Moses, exhibits
far greater accuracy than we have hitherto had
reason to believe
" TIMOTHY THE DISCIPLE OF PAUL.
(Chronicles concerning Early
In the Chief Pauline Epistles (5 1).
Babylonian Kings, i. 25). Considered in the light of In Acts ( 2).
all that is said above, this statement should prob-
In the Pastoral Letters and Hebrews (3).
ably be regarded as stronger than is warranted. If Other Supposed or Apocryphal References ( 4).
the date circa 2100 be the date of Hammurabi and
Timothy may bo called Paul's disciple, com-
1875 the date of Abraham's call, the discrepancy
panion, and fellow worker before all others. In six
between them is two centuries and a quarter, and of the New-Testament epistles (II Cor., Phil., Col., I
there appears to be no means of bringing them and II. Thess., Philemon) his name is joined with
closer together. This, of course, does not prove Paul's in the superscription. In the superscrip-
that Hammurabi is not Amraphel ; it also does not tions to I and II Thess. (also in
prove that Gen. xiv. 1 is in error in making Amra- i. In the II Cor. i. 19) Timothy is named after
phel and Abraham contemporaries. It merely Chief Silvanus, which implies that the latter
proves that the chronological system of the Priest Pauline held a position of precedence and was
code is subject to the same errors as appear so abun-
Epistles, probably the older; but too great stress
dantly in the chronological synchronisms which must not be laid on Timothy's youth.
the books of Kings have worked out for the kings
To be two epistles addressed to Timothy
sure, the
of Israel and Judah. ROBERT W. ROGERS.
represent him as the type of a youthful bishop (I
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Many of the commentaries on the books
Tim. iv. 12; II Tim. ii. 22; cf. the Gk. teknon in I.,
of Genesis, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, and Eira-Nehemiah
contain important discussions concerning the chronology, i.18; II., i. 2). But this is one reason among many
and the same is true of the works on the history of Israel for suspecting the genuineness of these epistles;
(under AHAR; and ISRAEL, HISTORY OF). Besides this the representation does not fit the man entrusted
literature, consult: M. Niebuhr, Geschichte Assura und
Babels, Berlin, 1857; W. B. Galloway, Egypt'* Record of by Paul with difficult duties. The Timothy of the
Time to the Exodus .
critically Investigated; with .
. . . .
genuine epistles is by no means Paul's personal
Survey of the patriarchal Hist, and the Chronology of Scrip- " "
attendant or amanuensis, but his workfellow
ture, London, 1860; T. Noldeke, Unteraurhung fur Kritik
de9 A. Ts., pp 173-198, Kiel, 1869; H. Brandes, Abhcmd-
and helper Aquila and Priscilla (Rom. xvi. 3,
like

lung zur Geschirhte dfs Orients im Altertum, Halle, 1874; 21), a man competentto establish in the faith and
E. de Bunsen, Chronology of the Bible, connected with Con- strengthen the young congregation in Thessalonica
temporaneous Events in the Hist, of Babylonians, Assyrians,
(I Thess. iii. 2) and to repeat Paul's preaching for
and Egyptians, London, 1874; B. Neteler, Zusammenhang
der alttestamentlichen Zeitrechnungen mit der Profanqe- the Corinthians (I Cor. iv. 17; cf. Phil. ii. 19-23).
schichte, 3 parts, M
Ouster, 1879-86; A. Kamphausen, Timothy seems to have hesitated to undertake
440 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Time
Timothy

the mission to Corinth and Paul sent Titus to help him in his Roman imprisonment (I Tim. i. 2, 18;
him. But the Timothy of the genuine Pauline II Tim. i. 2, 6, ii. 1, iii. 10-12, iv. 9-11, 13, 21); and
letters was clearly a fellow worker on equal terms various similar personal details (1 Tim.
with Paul an apostle, in the language of the later 3. In the i. 3, 18, iv. 14). But in these two
Church and, therefore, no doubt from the begin- Pastoral epistles, as in the one to Titus, the per-
ning old enough to undertake religious instruction Letters and sonal notices are merely a framework
according to current Jewish notions; furthermore Hebrews, for a catechism on the duties of a
he was devoted to Paul as a child to its father and in bishop. The three epistles are evi-
Paul's estimation was the most trustworthy inter- dently by one hand, and weighty external as \\ell
preter of his gospel. Probably he studied in no as internal grounds are adduced to show that it
other school than that of Paul; from Paul he was not Paul. The three epistles were not known
learned Christianity, and he was free from all desire to Marcion and have points of contact with the
" "
to develop a theology of his own. older apostolic fathers only in a coincidence of
The Acts adds but few details to this picture. certain pastoral expressions. In content they lack
From xvii. 14-15, xviii. 5, xix. 22, xx. 4, it appears all specifically Pauline ideas and present rather the
that Silas and Timothy were with Paul on the post-Pauline Church. The style sometimes reminds
second missionary journey in Macedonia and Achaia, of Paul's, it is true, for the author had doubtless
afterward on the third journey in Ephesus, and still read Paul's epistles; but more often a discrepancy
later Timothy and others accompanied is evident both in vocabulary and syntax. Even
2. In him in Macedonia. It is noteworthy if fragments of genuine Pauline writings are in-

the Acts, that in these passages Timothy is

all corporated in these letters, it can not be assumed
mentioned as member of a pair and in that all the personal notices of those to whom the
subordinate position; the Acts does not present letters are addressed are such. Indeed it is in these
Timothy as the trusted friend of the apostle. The personal notices that the address appears most
most considerable notice of Timothy in the Acts clearly as purposed. The pastoral letters present
is found in xvi. 1-3. He appears there as a Chris- the Timothy of the Acts only a little altered. From
tian (Gk. mathctes; of. Acts xxi. 16) of either the Acts and the genuine epistles of Paul they draw
Derbe or Lystra, who was highly spoken of by the their historical material (see Paul, II.). The last
brethren in Lystra and Iconium, and on tliis recom- New-Testament passage which Timothy is named
in
"
mendation Paul chose him as companion on the is Hob. xiii. 23, said that he
where it is is set at
"
second missionary journey. Presumably he was liberty," and the writer adds with him, if he come
converted on the first journey (Acts xiv.). Whether shortly, I will see you." Nothing is known from any
his home was in Dcrbe or Lystra has been much other source of an imprisonment of Timothy.
disputed, and the question seems hardly worth the Certain hypotheses by which it has been thought
controversy it has occasioned; the connection in to increase knowledge of Timothy are mentioned
Acts xvi. 1-2 favors Lystra (cf. Wohlenberg's here only for the sake of completeness; all are more;
commentary, p. 1, note 2; for Derbe, K. Schmidt, or less fantastic and none of them can be accepted.
Apostelgcschichte, p. 42, note). It is learned further Ilengstenberg identified Timothy \\ith the Perga-
from Acts xvi. 1, that Timothy's father was mcnian martyr Antipas of Hev. ii. 13; D. Voltcr
" "
n " Greek and doubtless not a Christian, as the with the "true yokefellow of i'liil.
fact is not mentioned and his mother a believ- 4. Other iv. 3; Spitta thinks he was responsible

ing Jewess. Verse 3 says that Paul circumcised Supposed for the form of II Thess. and that
"
Timothy because of the Jews which were in those or Apocry- ii. 1 -12 is a fragment of the eschato-
quarters; for they all knew that his father was a phal logical speculation of this half-Greek
Greek." If Acts is entirely from the hand of Luke, References, disciple; Sorof makes him the redactor
this statement must be accepted, for it is incredible of the Acts and assumes that he fol-
that Luke did not know the fucts or that he mis- lowed written sources, for the Pauline parts chiefly
stated them. But if it be admitted that the text has the journal of Luke. Others who distrust the tra-
been worked over by a redactor, there may be here a dition of Luke's authorship (e.g., De Wette and
" we "
mistake or at least a clumsy statement of fact. The Bleek) ascribe the portion of Acts (chaps,
djitum of verse 3 can not be reconciled with the xvi. sqq.) to Timothy. The oldest church tradition
epistle to the Galatians. It is not necessary to deny concerning Timothy is an inference from the epistles
that Timothy was circumcised, or that he was cir- addressed to him: he is named " the apostle," is
cumcised after he became a Christian but it must be
;
counted as one of the seventy disciples, and ap-
denied that Paul, immediately after the Apostolic pears in the lists as first bishop of Ephesus, con-
Council at Jerusalem (q.v.) and after his rebuke of secrated by Paul. In 356 Constantius transferred
Peter (Gal. ii. 11 sqq.), required a Christian to be Timothy's remains from Ephesus to Constantinople
circumcised before he would accept him as a com- and placed them beneath the altar of the Church of
panion in missionary labor. the Apostles built by his father. In the next year
The two epistles to Timothy, even if they be the relics of Andrew and Luke were added. The Acts
genuine, add nothing of importance to knowledge of Timothy contain no reference to these well-known
of the man to whom they were addressed his events and say nothing concerning Timothy's doc-
mother was named Eunice, his grandmother Lois trine and miracles. The author relates that Pnul
(II Tim. i. 5); from a child he had known the made his favorite disciple bishop of Ephesus under
Scriptures (II Tim. iii. 15) he was Paul's faithful
;
Nero and in the consulship of Maximus. In Ephesus
and trusted disciple, whom he wishes to be with he was associated with the Apostle John, who lived
XL 29
Timothy
TlBchandorf THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 450

there after Nero's persecution. Domitian ban- and Moral Conduct of Matthew Tindal, ib. 1735; J. Hunt,
Hist, of Relioiow Thought in England, ii. 431-462, ib.
ished John to Patmos, and during John's absence 1871; L. Stephen, Hist, of English Thought in the 18th Cen-
Timothy openly rebuked the excesses of the Ephe- tury, i. 134-163. New York, 1881 ; DNB, Ivi. 403-405. The
sians at a heathen feast, was stoned by the mob, controversial literature called out by his works is well sum-
marised in the British Museum Catalogue under his name.
died on the third day (Jan. 22, under Nerva, when
Peregrinus was proconsul of Asia), and was bur- TINGLEY, KATHERINE: Theosophist; b. at
" where
ied on the hill now stands the holy church Newburyport, Mass., July 6, 1852. She was edu-
of his martyrdom." After his death John returned cated privately, and, becoming interested in theo-
to Ephesus and filled the bishopric till the time of sophy, made in its interest two tours of the world
Trajan. Usener, the first editor of these Acts, in 1896-97 and 1904. In 1897 she established the
dated them before 356 and, probably wrongly, International Brotherhood League, and among the
thought that they were based on a veritable history many homes and educational institutions founded by
of the Ephesian church. In the time when the her are the School of Antiquity and the Raja Yoga
traditions of both John and Timothy in Ephesus at Point Loma and San Diego. Since
Academy
were current, an Ephesian may well have tried to 1898 she has been the official head of the Universal
utilize both traditions to exalt the greatness of his Brotherhood and Theosophical Society throughout
" "
city. The defini c data are suspicious because the pro-
t
the world, as well as the outer head of the
consuls of Asia named are not known from any other Inner School of Theosophy (see THEOSOPHY). Be-
source; the author of the Acts introduced them sides editing the Century Path, the organ of her
probably imitating Luke, as he did in his prologue. branch of the theosophical society, she has written
Actual knowledge of Timothy is not preserved except
Mysteries of the Heart Doctrine (2d ed., Point Loma,
in the New Testament. (A. J^LICHKR.) Cal., 1903) and Pith and Marrow of Some Sacred
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The chief sources are of course the Pauline
Writings (1905).
epistles. For the Ada Timothei consult: R. A. Lipsius,
Die Apokryphen, A postelyeschtchten, und AposteUegenden,
TIPHSAH,tif'sO: 1. A proper name found in I
ii. 2, pp. 372-400, Brunswick, 1884; idem, Acta Aposto-
lontm apocrypha, vol. i., Leipsic, 1891; and cf. the ed. by Kings 24 (Heb. text, v. 4), indicating with (jaza
iv.
"
H. Usener, Bonn, 1877. The principal discussions are to (A. V., Azzah ") the boundaries of the district
be found in the common tanes on the Pauline epistles, par-
(properly the Persian province) called in certain
ticularly the pastoral epistles; in the works on the life of
Paul; and those on the history of the Apostolic Age, e.g.,
Assyrian documents and in Persian times after
" "
A. C. McGiffcrt, 1897. Consult further: M. Sorof, Die Darius I. Beyond the River (ITeb. 'cbher hun-
JKnMehung der Apostelgwhwhte, Berlin, 1890; F. J. A. nahar; Ezra viii. 36; Neh. ii. 7, 9, iii. 7; I Kings
Hort, Judaistic Christianity, London, 1894; idem, The v. 4). As Gaza evidently marks the southwest limit,
Christian Eccletia, ib. 1897; E. KauUsch, Die Apokryphen
und PKcudvpiyraphrn <iett N Tft., pp. 46, 48, 102-103. 106- Tiphsah is to be sought in the northeast and (of. 1
107, 110-111, Tubingen, 1900; W. Wrede, Das hUeransche Kings iv. 21 [v. 1]; II Chron. ix. 26) on the Eu-
Ciottmgcn, 1906; O. Pfleiderer, Das
RatKt-l den Hebrtierbnefs,
phrates. It was doubtless the classical Thapsacus
Urchristenthum, 2d ed Berlin, 1902, Eng. transl., Primi-
,

(Xenophon, Anabasix, I., iv. 11; Arrian, Ana&osis,

tive Christianity, 2 vols., New York, 1906-09; DB, iv.
767-768; EB. iv. 5074-79. ii. 7; Strabo, ii. 79-80, xvi. 741 ; cf. C. Ritter,
13, iii.

Erdkunde, x. 11 sqq., 1114-15, Berlin, 1843; M.

TIMOTHY, EPISTLES TO. See PAUL, II., 5;
Hartmann in ZDPV, xxii., 1899, p. 137), which was
and TIMOTHY.
an important center of trade and intercourse in
TINDAL, MATTHEW: English deist; b. at Beer Persian times and has been identified with the vil-
Ferrers (5 m. n. of Plymouth), England, probably lage of Dibsah on the Euphrates two and one quarter
about 1653; d. in London Aug. 16, 1733. He studied hours below Balis (cf. Mordtmann in Petermanns
;t Lincoln and Exeter Colleges, Oxford (B.A., 1676; Mittheilungen, 1865, pp. 54-55; B. Moritz in Ab-
B.C.L., 1679; D.C.L., 1685; and law fellow at All handlungen der Berliner Akademie, 1880, Anhang,
Souls', 1678) Under James II. he joined the Roman
.
p. 31; J. P. Peters, Nippur, i. 96-99, New York,
Catholic Church, but returned to the Church of 1897). Extensive ruins of the ancient city lie about
England, 1688. He was admitted as an advocate at one quarter of an hour from the modern village.
Doctor's Commons, 1685. His principal work, The common derivation from the Hebrew pasah,
" " "
Christianity as Old as the Creation, or the Gospel a giving the meaning ferry or ford," does not
Hepublication of the Law of Nature (vol. i., London, fit well with the meaning of pasah (" to leap "), and

1730), marks the culminating point of the deist Lagarde's suggestion (Uebersicht uber die im aramd-
controversy. The second volume of this work was ischen, arabischen, und hebrdischen ubliche BUdung
withheld by Bishop Gibson, to whom the author der Nomina, p. 131, Go'ttingen, 1889) of the As-
had intrusted the manuscript. (For a discussion "
syrian tapshahu, resting-place," is better. The
of the work see DEISM, I, 6.) Conybeare, James passage in I Kings iv. 24 (v. 4), which gives to Solo-
Foster, Leland, and others attacked Tindal's work; mon's realm a fabulous extent, is late; the words
and it was to it, more than to
any other, that Bishop
"
from Tiphsah even to Gaza " seem not to have
Butler's Analogy was meant to be a reply. Tin- been in the original Septuagint text.
dal's otherworks were The Rights of the Christian 2. A town named in II Kings xv. 16. From the
Church Asserted (2d ed., 1706), an attack upon reading of the Lucianic Septuagint-text (TaphOe), the
" "
High-church assumptions; A Defence of the Rights Tappuah of Josh. xvii. 7-8 is probably meant, sit-
of ike Christian Church, in Two Parts (1709); and uated on the boundary between Ephraim and Ma-
some essays and pamphlets. nasseh; cf. the commentaries. (H. GTJTHE.)
BTBLTOOBAPHY: E. C., Memoirs of the Life and Writings of BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. P. Peters, in The Nation, May 23, 1880;
Matthew Tinddll, London, 1733; The Relioioue, Rational idem, Nippur, L 06 0qq., New York, 1807; B. Morits, in
451 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Timothy
Titchendorf

the BericMe of the Berlin Academy, July 25, 1880; DB t most eminent sources and the personal good-will
iv.778; EB, iv. 5097. of the pope, he was allowed only six hours in which
EZRA SQUIER: Methodist Episco- to search the Codex Vatican**, on account of the
TIPPLE,
palian; b. at Y., Jan. 23, 1861. He was
Camden, N. opposition of Angelo Mai, who had himself prepared
educated at Syracuse University (A.B., 1884) and an edition. Yet he was able, in this short time, to
Drew Theological Seminary (1887). He then held ascertain much for its correcter determination, and
later obtained also certain renderings from Mai.
pastorates in New York City at St. Luke's (1887-
1892), Grace (1892-97), and St. James' (1897-1901), However, he was well compensated for hi? dis-
after which he was executive secretary of the Metro- appointment at the Vatican by obtaining rich
Thank-Offering Commission until 1904. treasures in the Angelica at Rome, and in Naples,
politan
He was again pastor of St. Luke's (1904-05), and Florence, Venice, Modena, Milan, and Turin; and
was appointed to his present position of professor of it is impossible to estimate the number of manu-

practical theology in Drew Theological Seminary scripts that he examined, one of which was the
in 1905. He has written The Heart of Asbury's Codex Amiatinus in Florence. His work now ex-
Journal (New York, 1904); The Minister of God tended to the New-Testament Apocrypha and Pseu-
(1905); Drew Sermons: First Series (1906); Drew depigrapha; and he completed his collection for
Sermons on the Golden Texts for 1909 (1908); and Philo. In Apr., 1844, he entered upon an extensive
Freebom Garrettson (1910). journey by way of Egypt, Sinai, Palestine, tht;
Orient, Italy, Vienna, Munich, making researches in
TISCHENDORF, tish'en-derf LOBEGOTT (JENO-
, libraries, and discovering and gathering treasures
THEUS) FRIEDRICH CONST ANTIN VON: German from unknown manuscripts, in Greek, Arabic, ('/op-
textual critic; b. at Langenfeld (53 m. s. of Leipsic), tic, Hebrew, Ethiopian, arid other languages, many
in the Saxon Voigtland, Jan. 18, 1815; d. at Leipsic of which he brought home with him. Keise in den
Dec. 7, 1874. He studied theology at the University Orient (2 vols., Leipsic, 1845) is an account of this
of Leipsic, 1834-38. To his theological journey, and in Anecdota sacra et profana (1855) he
Early professor at the university, Johann G. tells of the acquired manuscripts. Foremost among
Career. B. Winer (q.v.), he owed the impetus to these were the forty-three leaves of an old Greek
theological criticism of the fundamental Bible on parchment (later called the Codex timaiti-
text of the New Testament, in which he was aided cus), containing portions of the Old Testament,
hy his thorough philological training, the founda- which were given to him in the Catherine Convent at
tion of which was laid at the gymnasium of Plauen, the foot of Sinai. Eighty-six other leaves \\hirh he-
1829-34 and he dates his critical study of the Bible-
; saw there, he could not obtain. He published a lith-
text from 1837. He was instructor in a school at ographic facsimile of the leaves which he had
Grosstadeln near Leipsic, 1838-39; and then re- brought, named Codex Friderico Auyvstanus (18-10),
turned to Leipsic to qualify in the theological in honor of the king of Saxony. Soon after his return
faculty. His essay De recensionibus quas dicunt in Jan., 1845, Tischendorf was made associate pro-
Ni. Ti. ratione potis&imum habita Scholzii appeared fessor of theology at Leipsic; and in 1859 regular
also as prolegomena to an edition of Novum professor of the same and of Biblical paleography.
Testamentum Greece (Leipsic, 1841). In his work His literary labors are, however, of more value to
on the edition of the New Testament he came to theological science than his lectures. lie furnished
realize the necessity for a new investigation of the the treasures brought from European libraries, and
Greek New-Testament manuscripts and other textual the orient, in two lines of publications; first those
sources. Accordingly he went to Paris, Oct. 30, 1840, works to which ho afterward gave the collective
where, until 1843, he continued his original stud- name of " Library of Christian Monuments," and his
ies. He compared seven of the eight uncials, tran- editions (twenty) of the Greek New Testament.
scribing the greater part of their contents; and by Among the former are the Monumenta sacra inedita
means of the Giobertine tincture he was able to read (1846; nova collectio, vols. i.-vi., ix 1855-70), con-
,

not only almost the entire codex Ephraemi Syri, also taining fragments of New-Tentament manuscripts;
the fragments of the Old Testament, but to distin- the Evangelium Palatinum (1847); the Codex Ami-
guish the original characters from those made by atinus (only the New Testament, 1850); and the
two later correctors. He then published an edition, Codex Claramontanus (1852). The Anecdota sacra
Codex Ephraemi Syri rescriptus (Leipsic, 1843-45). etprofana (1855) may be considered as a comple-
Three editions of the Greek New Testament were ment of these works.
also published in Paris (1842). The so-called editio At the same time Tischendorf prepared a new
catholica always prefers the readings lying pre- edition of the Greek New Testament, the Editio
sumably at the basis of the Vulgate, and is printed Lipsiensis secunda (1849). Among all his editions,

parallel with the Vulgate. Another was the editio this, although antiquated after the octavo, was the
non catholica. The text of this was practically the epoch-making one, so far as the labor of
same as that of the Leipsic edition of 1841, but in Editio the author is concerned, and was so
some places, especially the Gospels, other readings Lipsiensis considered by Tischendorf s contempo-
J

were preferred. The prolegomena were rewritten. Secunda. raries. The text derived from it, witli
In the mean time Tisohendorf had visited Utrecht, a few changes, had the most extensive
Cambridge, Oxford, and London, where he exam- circulation at the time, and of the twenty Greek
ined the libraries. In Feb., 1842, he went to Rome, New-Testament editions that appeared in Germany
wh^re he spent four months and thirteen in during his lifetime, under his name, thirteen,
Italy; but in spite of his recommendations from tho including this one, contain the text of the edition
TUohendorf
Tithe* THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 458

of 1849, the Harmony not included. An octavo In Jan., 1859, Tischendorf entered upon his third
edition (1850) followed without commentary, oriental journey, under the auspices of the Russian
with five changed readings, and with variations government. After a fruitless search of the library
from the textus receptus. The Triglottum Greece of the Convent at Sinai he was about
Latine Germanice (1854) deviates, in the Greek text, Codex to depart, when, on the evening of
from the edition of 1849 more frequently than that Sinaiticus; Feb. 4, the young econome produced
of 1850, especially in Matthew (sixteen times). Editio from a corner of his cell, wrapped in a
Under the texts are variants of the textus receptus as Octava red cloth, not only the eighty-six leaves
well as noteworthy readings of other editors. The Major. but 1 12 in addition on the Old Testa-
text of the Vulgate is critically revised according to ment, besides a complete New Testa-
the best manuscripts, in particular, Codex Amiatinus ment, the Epistle of Barnabas, and fragments of
and Codex Fuldensis, the variations hi the editio Hennas. The Codex Sinaiticus, first loaned to
Clementina and in the above codices being given make a copy at Cairo, then for publication, was
under the text. Special care is given to the edi- finally (1869) presented by the monks to Czar Alex-
tion of Luther's translation; the edition of 1545 ander II. Returning in 1859 to St. Petersburg with
is followed but earlier editions are also considered. the Codex and a large number of other manuscripts,
A Synopsis evangelica (harmony) appeared (1851). among which were twelve palimpsests, twenty
Soon after completing the edition of 1849, Tischen- Greek uncials, eight minuscules, and many oriental
dorf undertook a version of the Septuagint, and the manuscripts, Tischendorf devoted himself for the
apocryphal New Testament. He went in the au- next two and a half years to the preparations for the
tumn of 1849 to Paris, London, and Oxford, and publication of the codex. He published Notitia
besides comparing anew the Codex Claramontanus, editionis codicis bibliorum Sinaitici (Leipsic, 1860);
and making a transcript of the papyrus fragments and Aus dem hciligcn Lande (1862), an tic-

of the Psalms in*London, he devoted himself in par- count of his latest journey. The Bibhorum codex
ticular to a comparison of the manuscripts of the Sinaiticus Petropolitanus (4 vols., Leipsic, 1862),
New-Testament Apocrypha. He did not venture to with prolegomena, commentary, and facsimile
give his own recension of the text of the Septuagint; plates, now appeared; and the first edition was
but contented himself with appending to a much presented to the czar. The Novum Testamentum
improved reprint of the text of the Sixtine the Sinaitieum cum epistula Barnalttp et fragmentis Pan-
variants of the Codex Alexandra nits, the Codex Eph~ toris (1863), with prolegomena and commentary,
raemi, and the Codex Friderico-Augustanus (1850). was also produced, as well as a Novum Testamentum
The prolegomena contained valuable studies on Greece. Ex Sinai tico codice (1865), with later cor-
the history of the text of the Septuagint. While rections and variations of the Codex Vaticanus and
waiting on the king of Saxony for the means to make the textus receptus. The complete recension of the
a three-years' journey for the discovery and study of Greek New Testament based on the Codex Sinaiticus
sources for the Septuagint, he published the De is the famous editio octava major (2 vols., 1864-72).

evangelicorum apocryphorum origine et usu a prize

t
On a journey to Rome, in 1866, he was permitted,
" The
essay for Hague Society for the Defence of by the grace of Pope Pius IX., to compare for forty-
the Christian Religion," published in Verhandelin- two hours the Codex Vaticanus with Mai's edition;
gen, part xii. (Leyden, 1851); Acta apostolorum but he was enabled to issue a new Novum Testamen-
apocrypha (Leipsic, 1851); and Evangelia apoc- tum Vaticanum (1867). Meanwhile he published
rypha (1853). Tischendorf undertook a second ori- Apocalypses apocrypha (1866); Philono? incdita
ental journey in Jan., 1853. He at once visited the altera (1868); and TVw? New
Testament (1869), the
Convent of St. Catherine on Sinai, but could not find authorized English version with the variants from
the manuscript seen in 1844, and concluded that it the Codex Sinaiticus, the Codex Vaticanus, and
had been taken to Europe, probably England. He the Codex Alexandrinus. The last three years of
found only a of the codex, containing a few Tischendorf 's activity, 1870-72, were devoted
scrap
verses of Gen. xxiii. as a book-mark in a codex of mainly to further work on the octava. Vol. ix. of
a history of the saints. He brought back with him the Monumenta (1870) contained the important
sixteen palimpsests, some of considerable extent, Codex Laudianus of the Acts. A fourth edition of the
several Greek uncial manuscripts, and a series of Synopsis (1871) followed the text of the Sinaiticus;
papyrus fragments in various languages, all of which and a special reprint of the Epistles of Clement,
were noted hi the Anecdota and most of them de- based on the first edition in the Appendix (1867),
posited later at St. Petersburg and published in was issued (1873). The prolegomena of the octava,
Monumenta, nova cottectio. In the introduction to which he expected but was unable to prepare as
vol. i., he announces the lost manuscript and claims, vol. i., were elaborated by Caspar Ren 6 Gregory,
if found, the credit of its recovery. The vacations Prolegomena (3 vols., 1884-94). S. P. Tregelles
of 1854-57 were spent in researches in European (q.v.; BIBLE TEXT, II., 2, 7) had the use of the
libraries. A new edition of the Greek New Testa- text of Codex Sinaiticus in the preparation of that
ment was under way. His aim was not only to part of the New Testament following the Gospels,
construct consistently his critical apparatus which and Ezra Abbot is of the opinion that " Tischen-
was more nearly perfected since 1849, but also a new dorf must have derived great advantage from the
critical elaboration of the Greek New
Testament, publication of the successive parts of Tregelles'
the editio septima major (1859), accompanied by a elaborate edition." The opponents of his critical
septima minor. This recension deviates least from work have censured Tischendorf for departing so
the textus receptus. copiously from the septima. F. H. A. Scrivener
 Ti
453 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA ti the.

notes that the text has been changed in 3,369 places the Seleucidffi levied a secular tithe from the Jews,
11
to the scandal of the science of comparative which was afterward remitted (I Mace. x. 31, xi. 35).
criticism"; but, after the issue of the aeptima, The tithe imposed by the Maccabees was rather n
Tischendorf had become thoroughly familiar not sacred tax in virtue of their liigh priesthood. The
only with the Sinaiticus and Vaticanus, but with sacred tithe was common to many Semitic peoples,
manuscripts, translations, and the Fathers to such and may have combined the ideas of tribute, gift,
an extent that he could well undertake to determine upkeep of the cultus, thank-offering, or consecration-
the text alone according to the material results of offering (Lev. xx vii. 30; Num. xviii. 24). The
the proofs of the witnesses, eliminating all personal history among the Hebrews is far from clear;
prejudice. Though he may not infrequently have two situations appear, that in Deuteronomy and
followed the Codex Sinaiticus more than was proper, that in P.
yet the correspondence to the texts of Tregelles Deut. xiv. 22 sqq. requires a tithing of agricul-
and Westcott and Hort (unknown to Tischendorf tural products and of the products of pastoral life,
during the recension of the octavo) is so great that the to be devoted to a communal meal at the central
result may be taken as gratifying to New-Testa- sanctuary. In case the home was too distant, the
ment criticism. This is above all essentially ad- tithe might be commuted and material
vanced by the octavo, upon the way recognized since i. In Deu- for the meal purchased at the sanc-
Carl Lachmann (see BIBLE TEXT, II., 2, 5) as, on tcronomy tuary. The purpose of the tithe in tliis
the whole, the correct one, because leading to . and the case was not the support of the serv-
relatively sure results. The enormous critical Priest ices at the Temple, but. a joyous meal
apparatus of the octava continue to maintain will Code. of the agriculturist and his establish-
its great value. An edition octava minor followed ment with the Levites of his locality,
(1872-77) and three hand editions of the major. the latter being included because they had no
Two were reprints of the octavo edition (1850, landed possessions. It did not go to the priests or
1862), of the secunda and of the editio academica temple officers. Purity of the participants was
(the Greek text of the trigloltum separately; 1855, required. Deut. xiv. 28-29, xxvi. 12-15 require that
and often) as editio stereotypa tertia (1873) and in the third year the tithe shall be deposited at the
editio academica septima (1873), both characterized home (not at the sanctuary) for the benefit of the
as ad editionem viii. criticam majorem conformata. Levite, stranger, fatherless, and \\idow; this is not
The last of the three and the last directed by a second tithing but a special employment of the
Tischendorf himself was the reprint of the text of tithe of the third year for charitable purposes. It
the octava (1873) which with an edition of the may have been a sort of compensation for abolition
Septuagint was to form the entire Greek Bible. of the early public offering and meal of which the
He issued also the edition of the Vulgate (1873) needy partook. Of a second tithing expressly for
begun by Theodore Heyse; and furnished the text the Levites Deuteronomy knowH nothing. The rela-
of the translation of Jerome, Liber Psalmorum tion of the tithe to the offering of first-fruits in Deu-
(1874), for the commentary on that book by S. teronomy is not clear; possibly the two are identical,
Baer -and Franz Delitzsch. See also BIBLE TEXT, as it seems unlikely that each generation of the
II., 2, 6-7. [The death of Tischendorf was herd should be subjected to a double tax, and Deut.
caused by paralysis.] (CARL BERTHEAU.) xxvi. 1-15 puts first-fruits and the tithe in close con-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. E. Volbeding, Conxtantin Tischendorf in nection. In this case the basket of first-fruits brought
seiner 86-jahrigen Wirksamkeit, Leipsic, 1802; E. Abbott, to the priest is simply a part of the tithe \\hich is
in Unitarian Review and Religion* Magazine, March, 1875;
devoted as a whole to the joyous meal. Against
P Schaff, Companion to the Greek Testament, passim, New
York, 1883; C. R. Gregory, Novum Testamentum Grace. this Deut. xviii. 4 is no objection, even as a later
. .
Prolegomena, i 3-22, Leipsic, 1884; idem, Text-
. insertion. And with this conception many difficul-
kntik de& N. Ts., i. 18-29, ii. 975-980, ib. 1900-02; idem, " "
ties vanish. Tithe becomes an expression for
Canon and Text of the N. 7 ., pp. 329-340, 455-459 et 1

the entire offering of first-fruits, over which a sort

passim. New York, 1907; G. Salmon, Historical Introduc-
tion to the Books of the N. T., 8th ed., London, 1892;
. . . of control is introduced (by supplementary provi-
F. H. A. Scrivener, Plain Introduction to the Criticism of The early law omits mention of the tithe,
sions).
the N. T., 2 vols., passim, 4th ed., London, 1894; C. A.
then, because it is identical with the offering of
Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, passim, New York, 1899;
ADB, xxxviii. 371 sqq. first-fruits. The treatment of the tithe in P must be
considered an extension of the situation in Deute-
TITHES.
ronomy. Num. xviii. 25-28 gives the whole tithe
I. Hebrew.
to the Levites, and this was again tithed for the
In Deuteronomy and the Priest Code (fi 1).
Attempt* to Reconcile the Two Codee (fi 2). Aaronites (Neh. x. 38). Lev. xxvii. 31-33 requires
II. Ecclesiastical. the addition of a fifth of the tithe of the first-fruits
Doctrine and Practise till 1517 ( 1). when it is commuted, and aims to procure honesty
Change after the Reformation ( 2).
Classification (S 3).
in payment of tithes of cattle. This law is first
Tithe Law (ft 4). mentioned in II Chron. xxxi. 5-6; it is not found in
Methods of Payment ( 5). Neh. x. nor Mai. iii., hence it is deduced that it arose
L Hebrew: The tithe as a secular tax is men- between the time of Nehemiah and that of the
tioned in the Bible (Gen. xlvii. 24, a double tenth Chronicler.
for Pharaoh; I Sam. viii. 15, 17, and Amos vii. 1 In attempting to reconcile D and P William
imply a tax on the first-fruits); but that it was Robertson Smith supposes that the support of the
levied originally for the king and only later for the sanctuaries was undertaken by the court while in
deity is opposed by Gen. xxviii. 22. In late times connection with the sanctuaries! but when the
Tithe* THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 454

former removed or fell, other arrangements were synagogue to the Church at a time when the latter's
necessary. The one pre-Deuteronomic sanctuary, officiant came to be viewed as priest and the priest-
it is noticeable, was the royal one at hood of the Church as the continuation and fulfil-
a. Attempts Bethel (Gen. xxviii. 22; Amos vii. 13). ment of that in the Old Testament. Hence it was
to Reconcile Smith stresses the fact that the tithe of now required of all Christians to pay tithes as a
the Two D is different from the tribute
gifts to religious obligation (cf. Apostolic Constitutions, II.,
Codes. the northern sanctuaries; the feasts xxv., xxxv., VII., xxix., VIII., xxx., ANF, vii. 408,
of Amos are not the joyous feasts 413, 471, 494; Apostolic Canons, IV., v., etc.; for
of the Deuteronomic agriculturists, they are the the history of the introduction and extension of the
luxurious banquets provided from the tribute tithes consult L. Thomassin, Vetua ac nova ecclesice
wrung from the people, in which Smith sees the disciplina, part III., book I., chaps, i.-x., cf. xii.-
original character of the tithe. But there is no xiv., Paris, 1728). However, some time elapsed
hint that in Judah the tithes were handed to the before this requirement was generally recognized.
headmen, and that abuse arose from this which D The tithes actually paid bore the appearance of a
attempts to correct. Smith seems to think the tithe voluntary contribution, and so continued till the
for the poor is the only officially required tenth, sixth century. On the other hand, the second Synod
while that for the other two years was a free-will of Macon (585) commanded payment under threat
offering, and this does not correspond with the of excommunication, and from that time forth pay-
presentation of D. The ordinary Semitic tenth for ment was enjoined in various ways, especially
the cultus seems to have existed among the Hebrews through the confessional, where the omission to pay
with adaptations to their own religious genius. tithes was treated as a sin. Moreover, the liberality
Some have thought that D
had in view a second of princes had its effect, and when this fell short,
tenth, which came to light first after the tenth of the recourse was had to legislation. The provision was
tithe had been deducted (ut sup.), though mention made that of the goods of the Church which the
of such a thing seems to fail entirely. Even though State leased as benefices subject to reversion to the
in P earlier legislation than in D
may be found, the Church, the tithe, and, furthermore, a niath of the
law for the tithe is clearly a step in advance and remaining ninety per cent, or two tithes in all, were
later. The later practise (Tob. i. 6-8) seems to to be contributed. On this point, chap. xiii. of the
show the tithes of P and of Dboth claimed by the Capitulare Ilaristallense (779 A.n.) reads as follows:
"
Levites. Theoretically there were three tithes, ac- Of church property now under assessment, let
cording to P for the Levites, according to D
for the the tithe and the ninth be paid conjointly with the
public meal, and that each third year for the poor^ rating itself." This ruling was afterward often re-
The first accrued wholly to the Levites and covered peated, and the obligation to pay tithes, as the
all that came from the earth (cf. Matt, xxiii. 23); Church affirmed it, was recognized on principle,
the second was for the offerers* meal, though Philo even apart from these benefice arrangements, e.g.,
"
gives it to the Levites, and so raises the question King Pepin's letter to Bishop Lul of Mainz: You
whether the twofold or threefold tithing was merely may provide and ordain by our mandate, that every
theoretical. man, willing or not, shall pay his tithe." And
How the system worked out is not known. From Charlemagne repeated this in chap. vii. of the Cap-
II Chron. xxxi. 4 it has been inferred that till the itvlare cited above. The bishops were thereby em-
time of Hezekiah the tithes were too small for the powered to receive and to distribute tithes. The
support of the personnel of the cultus, and from obligation was transferred to the newly converted
Deut. xii. 17 a misuse of the tithes is deduced. Saxons, the so-called Capitulatio de partibu*
in
Evidently the people did not like the tithes (cf. Saxonias, chap. xvii. This position was thencefor-
Neh. xiii. 5 sqq.; Mai. iii. 8). But there is no report ward stoutly maintained, and the mandate was
of the actual exaction of both the tithes of P and enforced under threat of severe penalties. From
D, and Josephus mentions only the Levitical tenth that time onward, the tithes were in continual use
which was converted into money on the spot (Life, in Germany and France, also in other countries,
xii. 15) so at the second temple a second tenth does
;
coming hi with the introduction of Christianity,
not appear. But the Jews who were true to the law though often fiercely opposed. Thus they were
seem to have recognized loyally their duty in the established in Portugal not until the close of the
mutter of tithes (Ecclus. xxxv. 11; I Mace. iii. 49; eleventh century, about the same time in Denmark
cf. Matt, xxiii. See PRIEST, PRIESTHOOD, I., and Iceland, and in Sweden not till the beginning
23).
6. of the thirteenth century.
(R. ZEHNPFUND.) Moreover, the Church
H. Ecclesiastical: Tithes ("tenths") are in confirmed the tithe right by means of special pro-
general contributions of the tenth part or of some visos, many of which occur in the canonical collec-
other defined portion of the yield of a Some of these last aim to insure to the
piece of land tions.
or active property paid to the lawful claimant as Church such tithes as had been withdrawn through
ground rental. These are customary alienation or otherwise. Possession of tithes by the
i. Doctrine in connection with both
spiritual and laity was pronounced a sin. All attempts to con-
and Practise temporal domains, and are subject to test the claims of the Church to tithes were op-
till 1517. both public and private law. As a rule, posed by the Council of Trent (session XXV., chap,
however, the term tithes is confined xii., De reformatione).
to contributions payable to the
Church, with which In consequence of the Reformation, the Church
alone this article is concerned. The tithe Rome
customary of suffered momentous losses in the tithes
with the Hebrews (see I., above)
passed from the which she had hitherto drawn, which now were ap-
465 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tithe*

plied to Evangelical objects. For the point was becomes known as natural, sheaf, or almond tithe.
hardly anywhere affirmed, that the exaction of the Distinct from this is the sack, bushel, or village
tithe is reprehensible. Only the Ana- tithe, which is paid from grain already threshed
2. Change baptists in Switzerland maintained that and sacked, or is commuted, including therefore
after the Christians owed neither interest nor the money tithe as a cash equivalent.
Reforma- tithes; even the turbulent [German] Certain other frequently mentioned subdivisions
tion. peasants, in their twelve articles of of tithes belong more properly to the survey of the
1525 A.D., did not deny the obligation. tithe law and obligation as follows: The tithe right
Luther generally approved the payment of tithes is based either on canon or other law,

and, in view of their practical convenience, regarded 4. Tithe or on tradition, contract, or custom.
them as the most expedient form of taxing (Werke, Law. legal definition, the tithes generally
By
ed. Walch, x. 1006, xvii. 40, 85). In Luther's opin- accrue to the Church, and modes of
ion, tithes were to be paid to the temporal sover- tithe payments were subject to the same principles
eignty; but in this he was not seconded. In the as governed other ecclesiastical revenues. The bish-
Evangelical State Churches, the tithes were re- op received the tithes for distribution to the several
tained, though with readjustments, and were more churches; but where the parish pastors drew the
strictly defined. In the duchy of Prussia and in tithes, they were expected to transact the distribu-
Saxony the church-inspectors were directed to de- tion in the presence of witnesses. The tithes paid
vise the necessary measures for tithe payments (cf. to parish churches and baptisteries were to be em-
the regulations of 1527 and 1528, in E. Sehling, Die ployed for these alone, without any partial transfer
evangelischen Kirclwnordnungen, i. 144, 145, 172, to the cathedral or to the bishop. Subsequently,
Leipsic, 1902). Contributions in kind were fre- the traditional division of the church property into
quently commuted, although the natural tithe con- four portions, as observed at Rome, was also applied
tinued legally hi practise. But in the course of to the tithes, and the fourth part was assigned to
time, there grew up a dislike of tithes, partly on the bishop, although this payment gradually lapsed
economic grounds, partly because of alienation from and survived only locally. The bishop is therefore
the Church; e.g., in France it provoked formal re- no longer entitled to the quarter of the tithes ac-
peal of the tithes without indemnity (cf. art. 5 of cruing to the parishes, though he may claim the
the National Assembly's decrees, from Aug. 4 to tithes of such districts in his diocese as are not
Nov. 3, 1789). In other countries there was re- especially referred to some parish church. In all
peal with compensating indemnity, and only cer- other cases the collection of tithes appertains to the
tain peculiar kinds of tithes were abolished. Even parish churches by ordinary law. In this matter
at present either the tithes direct, or some substitute canon law proceeds from the premise that the par-
ratings, are much in vogue, thus calling for a state- ish pastors are entitled to demand tithes within the
ment of the principles governing the application. entire parish bounds, except as exemptions exist.
Originally viewed, the tithes are either temporal Hence new tithes (those yielded by hitherto virgin
(for civil needs) or ecclesiastical (for the Church). soil) are also accredited to the parish church. The
A further distinction is into Jay and tithe right has its corresponding circumscriptions,
3. Classifi- clerical tithes, which distinction turns and, within a given district, may cover either all
cation. on the question whether the recipient or only certain particular fields, may embrace all
of the tithe is a layman or a cleric. fruits, or only stated kinds of produce, and the
Laymen may chance to be in possession of church amount of the contribution itself may vary, except
and clerics in possession of temporal tithes,
tithes, that there is a strong presumption to fix it as the
a change in ownership having been brought about actual tenth part. Concurrently with the tithe
Wliile legislation
through alienation or other circumstances. Theo- right goes the tithe obligation.
retically this was forbidden, and the possession of once ruled that the duty to pay tithes was univer-
ecclesiastical tithes by laymen was pronounced sal, this ruling fell short of unqualified expressness
criminal. Thedistinction has continued to be of and eventually became a dead letter. Accordingly,
practical moment since certain obligations devolv- the legal presumption in favor of the tithe obliga-
ing upon the originally ecclesiastical tithes still rest tion is not everywhere in force, and usually evi-
upon the holder. The tithe is either paid from the dence is required of one who affirms that right.
proceeds of some industry and other personal prof- Another consideration qualifies the tithe obligation,
its, as a personal tithe (less frequently),
or it is viz., the distinction between real and personal
"
paid on the basis of other increments, as the real tithes, as well as the religious Belief of the persons
tithe." But from time immemorial, the real tithe obligated. Wherever the obligation attaches to
appears generally in practise, whether based on real estate, the personal ownership is immaterial,
field, grain, sheaf or fruit, or on cattle. There also since the real tithe is payable even by non-Christian
exist subdivisions into great and small tithes. Nor- owners. But the personal tithe is paid only by the
mally, the great natural tithe includes the so-called actual parishioners. According to the maxim,
"
major fruits of the field, and the great live-stock tithes are to be paid from the natural yield,"
tithe includes domestic and farm animals. Pope tithes are due from the fruits produced, and from
Alexander III. defines as articles under the small these directly. Hence the obligation attaches to
tithe fodder and garden products. The same cate- the fruits, even when these are alienated, so that the
tithe can be required of the third party who con-
gory also includes the so-called small cattle sheep,
lambs, foals, calves, poultry, bees, etc. When the trols the produce. Where a release from the tithe
produce tithe is paid in kind from the soil itself, it obligation is affirmed, such release must be proved
 ithe
1
S'odd
To THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 466

by exceptional as by appealing to laws,

ruling, TITIUS, or ti'tzi-Qs, ARTHUR BENEDIKT
ti'tf-Os

privileges, or inveterate usage.

contract, More- WILHELM: German Protestant; b. at Sensburg
over, the clergy never tithe one another. (67 m. s.e. of Konigsberg) July 28, 1864. He was
Methods of payment are controlled by legal educated at the universities of Konigsberg (1883-
provisos, custom, contracts, and the nature of the 1885) and Berlin (1885-90; lie. theol., 1890), and in
transaction. Personal tithes are paid, as a rule, at 1891 became privat-docent for systematic theology
the close of the year. In case of ani- at Berlin. In 1895 he was appointed associate
5. Methods mals, usually the tenth head is taken, professor of systcmaticltheology and New-Testament
of Payment, just as it comes, nor is selection al- exegesis in the University of Kiel, and full professor
lowed. Of tithes in produce it is gen- five years later. Since 1 906 he has been professor of

erally provided that so soon as the same is ready for systematic theology at Gottingen, and since 1910
division, the tithe-payer notifies the receiver, so that one of the chief editors of the TJieologische Literatur-
the division may bo accomplished. The removal zeitung. He has written Die neutcstamentlicJie Lehre
of the tithed portion devolves on the payer, al- von der Seligkeit und ihrc Bedeutung fur die Gegen-
though in practise the opposite custom has very wart (4 parts, Freiburg, 1895-1900); Das Ver-
generally grown up. The holders of tithes are ca- haltms dcr Herrnworte zu den Logia des Matthceus
nonically subject to various customary duties, such (Gottmgen, 1897); Religion und Wissenschqft
as that of contributing toward the building and (Tubingen, 1904); and Der Brcmer Radikalismus
maintenance of ecclesiastical edifices. Redemption (1908).
of the tithes by means of fixed payments was usual TITTMANN, tit/man, JOHANN AUGUST HEIN-
even medieval times; and the Curia sanctioned
in
RICH: Professor in Lcipsic; b. in Langonsalza
this custom in so far as it benefited the Church. On
(10 rn. n. of Gotha) Aug. 1, 1773; d. in Leipsic Doc.
political and economic grounds the State promoted He
studied in Wittenberg (M.A., 1791),
30, 1831.
the repeal of tithes, though not always with due
whore his father was professor, and from 1792 in
regard to the weal of the institutions which en- where ho became bachelor of theology und
Loipsic,
joyed the tithes and were partly founded thereon,
morning preacher at the university in 179.5, at the
as in France, some parts of Germany, and in Switzer-
same time beginning to deliver lectures in theology.
land. Canon law views the tithes as objects col- He was made professor extraordinary in philosophy
lateral to things spiritual, and accordingly claims
in 1796 and in 1800 was transferred to a like posi-
that any disputes in the matter must come before
tion in the theological faculty, becoming professor
spiritual tribunals. This ruling, however, proved not
primarius in 1818. A Ciceronian gift of oratory and
to be permanently tenable against the State, and
market! ability in practical matters enabled him to
was modified at least in part-. E. SKHLJNO
render valuable services to his city and university
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For the Biblical tithe the best discussions in his various honorable and responsible positions in
are to be found in the commentaries 011 the passaKPH cited Church and State. His theological position was that
and in the works on O. T theology and antiquities. Con-
of a rationalistic supernaturalism, which in his time
sult particularly: L. SaalMchdtz. Das mosaische Recht,
Berlin, 1853; S. R. Driver, Commentary OI1 Deuteronomy, passed for orthodoxy. Of his numerous publica-
pp. 160-173. New York, 181)5; H. Lanwlell, The fiarred tions the most noteworthy were a theological en-
Tenth, 2 vola., fxindon, 1906; idem, The Tithe in Scrip-
ture. Meing Chapter* from the Kacred Tenth. With a re- cyclopedia (Leipsic, 1798); a text-book of homileties
vised Bibliography on Tithe Paying and systematic and (1804); Pragmatische Geschirhte dtr Theologie und
proportionate Giving, ib. 1908; Smith, ltd. of firm, 2d Religion in dcr prole*tantwrfien Kircltc, wflhrrtid dcr
ed., pp. 245-253; SchQrer, GexchicMe, ii. 244-246, 251- zwviten Halfte des 18. Jahrhwiderts (Breslau, 1805) ;
252 et passim, Eng transl., II, i. 233, 239 et passim;
Institutio syntbolica ad sentcntiam ecclesia? evangel-
Nowack, Archaoloaie, ii. 257-259; Bcnzinger, Archaologie,
pp.384sqq., 397; DH, iv. 780-781; EB iv. 6102-05; JE,t
icoe (Leipsic, 1811); Ueber Supra natural"ismus, Ha-
xii. 150-152. tionalismus, und Athcismus (1816) an edition of the
;

For the
symbolical books (1817); an edition of the New
ecclesiastical tithe consult:
Bingham, Origines,
V., v.~vi. (gives full and exact references to the earlier
literature); J. Seldcu, The Hist, of Tithes, in Works, iii.
Testament (1820); and a series of programs on
1069-1298, London, 1726; W. H. Hale, The Antiquity of New-Testament synonyms (1820-29; collected into
the Church-rate System, London, 1837; R Swan, The book i. 1829; book ii. cd. G. Boecher, 1832; Eng.
Principle of Church-rates, from ttie Karhe*t Evidence of their
Existence to the Present Time, London, 1837; W. Goode, transl., vols. iii. and xviii. of Tlte Biblical Cabinet,
A Brief Hist, of Church-rates, 2d ed London, 1838; E.
,
Edinburgh, 1833-37). (E. ScHWAiizf.)
Loiiing, (feschichte des deutschcn Kirchenrechts, ii. 676 sqq., BIBIJOURAPHY: Allgemeinc Kirch enzeitung, 1832, no. 9;
Strasburg, 1878; K. Larnpreeht, DeiUsches Wirtschafts- G. W. Frank, Geschichte der protcstantischen Theologie, iii.
leben im Mittelalter, i. 113 sqq., 608 sqq., Leipsic, 1885; ADB, xxxviii. 385.
394, Loipsic, 1875;
A. L Richter, KirchenrecM, 8th ed., by W. Kahl, pp.
1313 sqq Leipsic, 1886; W. Easterby, The Hist, of the
,
TITULAR BISHOP. See BISHOP, TITULAB.
Law of Tithes in England, Cambridge, 1888; M. J. Fuller,
Our Title Deeds, London, 1890; P. Fabrc, Kechcrchea aur
TITUS: A
prominent personage in the circle of
le dernier de S. Pierre en Angleterre, in Melanges G. B. de Paul's disciples, known solely from the Pauline
Rossi, pp. 159-182, Paris, 1892; Roundell Palmer, Earl letters. From Gal. ii. 1-5, it appears that he was
of Selborne, Ancient Facts and Fictions concerning
the son of heathen parents, that ho was not cir-
Churches and Tithes, 2d ed London, 1892; H. W. Clark,
,

A Hist, of Tithes, 2d od., London, 1894; C. Meurer, Zehnt cumcised on becoming a Christian, and that he re-
und Bodeminsrecht in Bay em, Stuttgart, 1898; E. Perefc, mained uncircumcised after the Apostolic Council at
Kirchliche Zehnten im karolingischen Reiche, Berlin, 1904; Jerusalem (q.v.). It is not stated that he was con-
E. Hennig, Die papstlichen Zehnten aus Deutachland im
des
verted by Paul, but such an assumption is natural;
Zeitalter avignonesischen Papsttums und wahrend des
if it be true, Titus came from one of the
grossen Schismas, Halle, 1910; Hauck, KD, L 137 sqq., ii. provinces
222 sqq.; Pastor, Popes, iv. 83. where Paul preached before the Apostolic Council,
457 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

i.e., Syria or southeastern Asia Minor; most com- Epist., hex.,both in Eng. transl., in NPNF, 2 ser., iii.,
mentators think that his home was in Antioch. vi. Consult: J. Sickenberger, hi 777, xxi. 1 (1901);
Qallandi, Bibliotheca patrwn maona, pp. 415-477, Leyden,
Paul's taking him to Jerusalem implies that he was
1677; Ceillier, Auteurs aocr&, iv. 339-345; DCB, iv.
competent to help in pleading the cause which called 1035-36.
them thither and Titus can hardly have been new in
TO REMAIN BIBLE. See BIBLE VERSIONS, B,
the faith at that time; that he was a young man is
IV, 9.
pure imagination. In 11 Cor. (ii. 13, vii. 6-16, viii.
23, xii. 18) Titus appears as Paul's trusted friend TOBAGO. See WEST INDIES.
and fellow-worker, who reconciled the Corinthian TOBIT: Apocryphal book. See APOCRYPHA, A,
congregation to Paul when it was estranged from IV, 7.
him; evidently Titus possessed both tact and
energy. Paul sent him back to Corinth from TOBLER, TITUS: Authority on Palestinian
Macedonia to collect the contributions for Jerusalem geography; b. at Stein (26 m. n.c. of Zurich),
(II Cor. viii. 6, 16-17). To
these data the epistle to Switzerland, June 25, 1806; d. in Munich Jan. 21,
Titus (i. 4-5, be genuine (see TIMOTHY,
iii. 12), if it 1877. He studied medicine at Zurich and Vienna,
3), adds that Titus organized the churches in Crete
and undertook for medical purposes a journey in
founded by Paul. The Acts of Paul tell nothing Palestine, 1835-36; the result of which was Luatreise
that is not founded on II Tim. iv. 10, and the later im Morgenland pts, Zurich, 1839). Having be-
(2
Church has no independent tradition of Titus. come interested the geographical and topograph-
in

One can not help asking why Titus is not men- ical investigations of the holy land, he made three

tioned in the Acts and where he was between the more journeys to Palestine, the first in 1845, and as
the literary results of this journey appeared, Bethle-
Apostolic Council and his sudden appearance at
Ephcsus about years later. Both questions are
six hem (St. ({all, 1849); Golgotha (1851); Die Siloah-
answered if ho the same as Silas or Silviinus, as
is quelle und der Oelberg (1852); Denkbldtter aus Jeru-
assumed by some (e.g., by F. Ziinmer; against the salem (1853) Topographic von Jerusalem und seinen
;

assumption, cf. JPT, 1882, 538 sqq ), and one at Umgebungcn (2 vols., Berlin, 1853-54); Reitrag zur
least if he completes the
"
we " of Aetsxvi., xx., xxi., medizinisclwn Topographic von Jerusalem (1K55).
xxvii., xxviii. (so e g., Krenkel). lie can not be the After the second he published Planographie von
red sw tor of the Acts because of Acts xv. Possibly Jerusalem (Ootha, 1858); and Dnttc Wanderung
Titus did not belong to the number of Paul's steady nach PalffRthia (1859). In 1865 ho undertook his
companions, but like Barnabas and Apollos went last journey to Palestine, and published Bibliogra-
own He phia geographica Pala'stina (Leipsic, 1867); Naza-
1

his own way and chose his fields of labor.

is not mentioned in the Acts because interest there reth in Palastina (Berlin, 1868); Palest ina^ deserip-
is concentrated on Paul. So far as is known Titus tiones ex swculo iv., v. et vi. (St. Gall, 1869); and
t

\\as the first purely (iroek missionary. He may Descriptiones terra? sancttr ex swculo v-iii., ix., xii ,
well have; carried the Gospel to Crete and to Dalma- et xv. (Leipsic, 1874). In 1871 ho went to Munich,
tia, perhaps to other provinces in the neighborhood where he became active in the French society
u
of Achaia and Macedonia, and have labored in Orient latin." lie was the first authority of his
these regions after the death of Paul. Herein nuiy be day on the topography of Palestine, und although
the historical kernel of the pastoral letters; probably some of his results have boon superseded by exca-
too, it was not pure invention which transferred vations, yet he remains unexcelled as a systematic
Timothy to Ephosus (see TIMOTHY, 5). investigator in archeology and topography from
(A JitTjrnEiO the sources.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: BasideH the articles in the Bible diction- BIBLIOGRAPHY; II. J. Hcim, Dr. Titus Tcbler, der Palaa-
anas, the ) cited under Timothy is to bo consulted.
it-era tn re tinafahrrr, Zurich, 1879; R. Rohncht, Bibliutheca geo-
graphica Palopstinv, uo. 1824, Bcilin, 1890.
TITUS OF BOSTRA: Bishop of Bostra in the
Hauran; d. about 370. He had a severe conflict TODD, HENRY JOHN: Church of England; b.
with Emperor Julian, apparently not. of his seeking. about 1763 (baptized at Britford, 2 ra. s.e. of Salis-
At the Synod of Antioch (1363) he signed a letter to bury, Feb. 13, 1763); d. at Settrington (18 m. n.e. of
Emperor Jovian which contained a new Niecno York) Dec. 24, 1845. He studied at Magdalen Col-
formula of faith. According to Jerome he died under lege, Oxford (B.A., 1784); became fellow tutor and
Valens. His discourses against the Manicheans, lecturer at Hertford College, M.A., 1786; in 1785 he
which originated doubtlessly soon after the death of wtis ordained deacon as curate at East Lockinge,
Julian, treat of the barbaric and illogical character Berkshire; took priest's orders, 1787; was curate
of their writings, the and providence, of sin of St. John and St. Bridget, Beckermet, 1787-1803;
problem
the Old and Now Testament, and
the relation of the became a minor canon in Canterbury Cathedral;
Manicheans to the latter. These orations manifest was sinecure rector of Orgarswick, 1791-92; vicar
a rich culture, and Titus furnished the best anti- of Milton, near Canterbury, 1792-1801 rector of All
;

Manichcan polemic from a literary point of view. Hallows, Lombard St., London, 1801-10; rector of
The extant fragments from his exegetical writings Woolwich, 1803-05; vicar of Edlesbrough, Bucking-
show that he followed the Antiochian traditions. hamshire, 1805-07; rector of Coulsdon, Surrey,
(J. LEIPOLDT.) 1807-12; vicar of Addington 1812-20; royal chap-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources are Titus' own works ed. from lain in ordinary 1812-45; rector of Settrington,
the Greek and the Syriac by P. do Lagarde, 2 vols., Ber-
1820-45; prebendary of York, 1830-45; and arch-
lin, 1859; Socrates, Hist, eccl, iii. 25, and Sozomen, Hiat.
eccl., iii. 14, vi. 4, both in NPNF, 2 ser. vol. ii.; Epipha-f
deacon at Cleveland, 1832-45. He was also keeper
niufl, HOT., Ixvi. 21; and Jerome, De vir. ill., cii., and of manuscripts at Lambeth Palace, 1803-07, and in
ttodd
Toledo THE NEW SCHAFF-HER2OG 458

1824 became a member of the Royal Society of ful morality of Christianity," while it rejected the
Literature. He
edited the poetical works of Milton positive dogmas of the Church as untenable, in-
(London, 1801); and the works of Spenser (1805); different, or morally worthless. He regarded creeds
wrote the life of Brian Walton (2 vols., 1821); and as a necessary evil; the Church or the papacy
of Archbishop Cranmer (2 vols., 1831); also Some might set forth its system, but no one has the right
Account of the Deans of Canterbury (Canterbury, to propound a system for all time and it is unreason-
1793); Illustrations of the Lives and Writings of able and unchristian to reproach anyone for devia-
Oower and Chaucer (London, 1810); A Catalogue of tion from orthodoxy in merely theological matters.
the Archiepiscopal Manuscripts in the Library of He makes inspiration assistance from God, but in
Lambeth Palace (1812); Original Sin, Free-Witt, no way extraordinary. The doctrine of the Trinity
Grace, Regeneration, Justification, Good Works, and involves so much that is improbable and contra-
Universal Redemption (1818) ;
A
Vindication of our dictory that one does best to disregard it. Original
Authorized Translation and Translators of the Bible sin is opposed to both reason and Scripture. Of
(1819); An
Account of Greek Manuscripts, chiefly Tollner's many books, all dry and prolix, yet show-
Biblical, of the Late Professor Carlyle (1823); A ing dogmatic acuteness and independence of judg-
History of tfie College of Bonhommes, at Ashridge ment, the following are most noteworthy: Predigten
(1823)'; Of Confession and Absolution (1828); and (Frankfort, 1755) ; Das Abendmahl des Herrn gegen
Kepertorium Theologicutn (1838). alle VerOchter desselben (1756); Leiden des Erloscrs
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Nichols, Literary Anecdotes of the 18th (1757); Ein Christ und Held oder Nachrichten von
Century, ii. 672, iii. 192, 9 vols., London, 1812-15; idem, Feldmarschall Schwerin (1758); Gedanken von der
Illustrations of Vie Literary Hist, of the 18th Century, vi. 620,
wahren Lehrart in der dogmatischen Theologie (1759),
681-686, vii. 54, 58-59, 8 vols., ib. 1817-58; DNB, Ivi.
428-430. which best presents his views on the controversies of
his time; a translation and continuation of Turre-
TODD, JOHN: American Congregationalist ;
tin'schurch history (1759); manuals of dogmatic
b. at Rutland, Vt., Oct. 9, 1800; d. at Pittsfield,
theology (1760), moral theology (1762), hermeneu-
Mass., Aug. 24, 1873. He was graduated from Yale Der
tics (1765), and pastoral theology (1767);
College, 1822; taught for a year; studied four years Gehorsam Jesu untersucht (Breslau, 1768),
thdtige
at Andover Theological Seminary; was pastor in
and Zuaatze (Berlin, 1770), which raised much
Groton, Mass., 1827-33; Northampton 1833-36;
of the First Congregational Church, Philadelphia, controversy because of its departure from orthodox
teaching Meine Uebcrzvugutiyen (1769); Unter-
1836-42; and Pittsfield, 1842-72. He was a man of
;

richt von symbolischcn Buchcrn (Zullichau, 1769);

national reputation, and took an active interest in
Gottliche Eingcbung der heiligen Kchnft (Mit.au, 1772),
educational progress. He was the author of Lectures
toChildren (Northampton, 18154-58), translated into important for his doctrine of inspiration (cf. also an
various languages, printed in raised letters for the
earlier treatise, Vom Unterschied der hnligen Schrift
undoes Wortes Gottes, 1767), Afeine Vorsatze (1772);
blind, and used as a school-book for the liberated
Versuch vines Beweises der christlicfien Religion (1772) ;
slaves in Sierra Leone; the Student's Manual (1835),
which had a wide circulation and large influence; Theologische Unterttuchungen (2 vols., Riga, 1772-
and numerous stories for the young. A collected 1774); Commentatio de potestate Dei legislatoria non
mere arbitraria (Frankfort, 1775). A System der
edition of his books appeared (London, 1853, new
dogmatischen Theologie (2 vols., Nuremberg, 1775),
ed., 6 vols., 1882).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Todcl, The Story of his Life claiming to have been published from a manu-
told mainly by
himself. New York, 1876. script of TSllner's, is thought by many not to be his
work or, if so, not to present his mature views
TOELLNER, tOl'ner, JOHANN GOTTLIEB: Pro- (cf.Gass, 189 sqq.). (J. A. WAOENMANNf.)
fessor in Frankfort-on-the-Oder; b. in Charlotten-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. C. G. Hireching, Hittorisch-litterarischen
burg (a suburb of Berlin) Dec. 9, 1724; d. in Handbuch berilhrnter . . Personen, xiv. 2," pp. 5 sqq.
. f

Frankfort-on-the-Oder Jan. 26, 1774. He entered 17 vote., Leipsic, 1794-1815; C. W. F. Walch, Neueste Re-
the University of Halle in 1741, living in the house- liffionsgeachichte, iii. 300 sqq 9 parts, Lomgo, 1771-83;
,

hold of S. J. Baumgarten (q.v.) and having the

W. Gara, Geschichte der protestantiachen Dogmatik, iv. 188
sqq.,270 sqq., Berlin, 1867; M. A. von Landerer, Neueate
care of his library. After being tutor in Pomerania Dogmengeachichtc, Tubingen, 1881; ADB, xxxviii. 427.
and in Berlin, in 1748 ho became chaplain of Count
Sch worm's regiment at Frankfort; in 1756 professor TOFFTEEN, OLAF ALFRED: Protestant Epis-
of philosophy and theology in the
university, copal, orientalist; b. in the parish of Sproge, Island
\\here he endeared himself to the students of Gotland, Sweden, June 26, 1863. He received his
by the
warm personal interest he took in all their affairs. education at the higher State College of Visby,
His health was never robust; and an extreme devo- Sweden (B.A., 1885), the University of Upsala,
tion to work brought on a complete breakdown and Johns Hopkins University, and Chicago University
led to his death at the
early age of forty-nine. (fellow in Semitics, 1903-05; Ph.D., 1905); served
After Semler and J. D. Michaelis, To'llner was the as rector of St. Angarius' Church, Minneapolis,
most important representative of the semirationalis- 1892-1901; was made priest, 1893; docent in
tic tendency in Protestant
theology of the eighteenth Assyriology, University of Chicago, 1906; became
century, theoretically founded by Wolf but prac- professor of Semitic languages and Old-Testament
tically the outcome of Hallensian Pietism, which literature in the Western Theological Seminary,
strove to retain the supernatural character of Chris-
Chicago, 1906; curator of the Oriental Society of
tianity as a divine revelation, to hold fast to the the same institution in the same year; and librarian
divine mission of Jesus and above all to the " beauti- of the Hibbard Egyptian Library of that institution
450 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

in 1907. He is the author of Vdra Fdders Kyrka Mysterious (1696; 2d. enlarged ed., London, 1696),
(Minneapolis, 1897); Myths and the Bible (1899); which made a great sensation (see DEISM, 5). The
Ancient Chronology, part i. (Chicago, 1907); Re- book was burned by the hangman at Dublin, Toland
searches in Assyrian and Babylonian Geography, being in the city at the time. The rest of his career
part i. (1908) ; and Tfie Historic Exodus (1909). isobscure. He spent much of his tune on the con-
tinent receiving favors. He engaged in miscellane-
TOGARMAH. See TABLE OF THE NATIONS, 4.
ous literary work and in writing pamphlets, lapsing
TOKEN, COMMUNION: A small plate of lead into distress. Other works were, An Apology for
marked on one side with one initial or more or with Mr. Toland (London, 1697); Nazarenus, Containing
Homo do vice, referring to the place or the minister the History of the Gospel of Barnabas, the Gospel of the
or the date of the congregation, given to intending Mahometans. Also the Original Plan of Christianity
communicants and collected from them just prior to (1718). Pantheisticon (1720); and Tetradymus, con-
their receiving the communion. Such articles, taining Mangoneutes (1720).
differing very much in size, in workmanship, and in BIBLIOGRAPHY: To A Collection of Several Pieces of Mr.
intrinsic worth, were at one time in general use in John Toland, 2 vote., London, 1726, there ifl prefixed a
Life by Dea Maixeaux. Consult further: An Historical
Presbyterian churches, but probably now they are Account of the Life and Writings of . Mr. John Toland,
. .

not used at all. Their origin has been traced to the London, 1702; J. L. Mosheim, in Vindicics antique* Chris-
earliest times of the Christian Church and even be- tianorum disciplines, 2d ed., Hamburg, 1722; V. Lechler,
Geschichte des englischen Deismus, pp. 180-209, Stuttgart,
foreand beyond it. It is well known that the initiates
1841; J. Hunt, in Contemporary Review, viii (1808), 178-
in theGreek and Latin mysteries had marked stones 198; idem, Religious Thought in England, ii. 236-262,
or other articles as means of proving their member- London, 1873; J. F. Nourrisson, Philosophies de la nature,
Paris, 1887; DNB, Ivi. 438-442; and literature under
ship in such brotherhoods, also that the primitive DEISM.
Christians had similar means of identification and
that by showing these they were sure of reception TOLEDO, CITY, BISHOPRIC, AND SYNODS OF.
and kind treatment from their fellow Christians. I. City and Bishopric.
Such articles would be of particular value in times History and Remains (1).
The Bishopric ( 2).
of persecution. It is probably not possible to write II. Synods.
a consecutive history of the token but it can be The Three Ecclesiastical Synods (5 1).
shown that its use was known from time to time. The Semi-Political Synods ( 2).
At the present day printed cards with emblems on I. City and Bishopric: Toledo, one of the most
them are in use among the Roman Catholics of Italy, ancient and famous of the cities of Spam, is situated
Bavaria, and other countries. So the use of similar in the central part, 41 m. s.s.w. of Madrid. It rises
means of evidence of membership in Protestant com- on a bold promontory surrounded on three sides by
munions can be shown to have existed in England a deep gorge of the river Tagus. Under the name
in Reformation times. They were once much used Toletum it is mentioned by Livy in connection with
"
in France among the Huguenots. But the Scotch the year 192 B.C. as a small town but
Presbyterians and their children in Ireland, Canada, i. History strong in its situation." After the
and the United States were the first to adopt as a and Roman time it fell to the Visigoths,
regular practise the use of tokens in connection with Remains, becoming their capital under King Leo-
the Lord's Supper. The tokens for such use were vigild (568-586)). Under the Moors
part of the church outfit. Those who intended to (from 714) it was the center of Mohammedan power
commune and were entitled to do so applied for in Spain and enjoyed a long period of prosperity.
them on a specified day before the communion and On May 25, 1085, Alfonso VI. the Valiant, of Leon
brought them with them when communion-day and wrested the city from the Mohammed-
Castile,
came. It was the common practise for the com- ans and gave the name of New Castile to the region.
municants to sit at long tables and be served by The city thenceforth was a favorite residence of the
the church officers, but before the elements were dis- Castilian monarchs; it became the political and in-
tributed the officers went along the tables and col- tellectual center of old Spain and no less important
lected the tokens. It was a rare and thrilling ex- ecclesiastically. Its churches, convents, chapels,
perience to discover a person who had not the token. and hospitals occupied more than half of its area,
This offender was denied the sacrament. There are while the archbishops of Toledo with title of pri-
several large collections of these communion tokens mate of all Spain wielded a powerful influence.
in private hands and some on public exhibition. Their names are connected with the weightiest
BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Shields, The Story of the Token, New York, events in Spanish history; they commanded armies;
1891 ;2d ed.. Philadelphia, 1902; R. Dick, Scottish Com- with their immense wealth they built schools, hos-
munion Tokens other than those of the Established Church, and public works; and, representing the best
pitals,
Edinburgh, 1902.
and highest civilization of their tune, they fostered
TOLAND, JOHN: English deist; b. near London- art and science. The cathedral of Toledo is an
derry, Ireland, Nov. 30, 1670; d. at Putney (Lon- enormous structure occupying the site of a Christian
don, W.) Mar. 11, 1722. He was born of Roman- church of the Visigothic period and dedicated to the
Catholic parentage, changed his original name, Virgin by King Recared Apr. 12, 587. The Moors
Junius Janus, at school, and became a Protestant at made this church their principal mosque. The
the age of sixteen. From 1687 he studied at the uni- foundation of the present structure was laid in 1227,
versities of Glasgow, Edinburgh (M.A., 1690), and and the work of building went on till 1492, when it
Leyclen, 1692-94. He spent several years at Oxford, was completed as at present: of the two projecting
and published his principal work, Christianity not towers the southern is still unfinished. The style is
Toledo THE NEW SCttAFF-HER2OG 458

1824 became a member of the Royal Society of ful morality of Christianity," while it rejected the
Literature. He
edited the poetical works of Milton positive dogmas of the Church as untenable, in-
(London, 1801); and the works of Spenser (1805); different, or morally worthless. He regarded creeds
wrote the life of Brian Walton (2 vols., 1821); and as a necessary evil; the Church or the papacy
of Archbishop Cranmer (2 vols., 1831); also Some might set forth its system, but no one has the right
Account of the Deans of Canterbury (Canterbury, to propound a system for all time and it is unreason-
1793); Illustrations of the Lives and Writings of able and unchristian to reproach anyone for devia-
Oower and Chaucer (London, 1810); A Catalogue of tion from orthodoxy in merely theological matters.
the Archiepiscopal Manuscripts in the Library of He makes inspiration assistance from God, but in
Lambeth Palace (1812); Original Sin, Free-Witt, no way extraordinary. The doctrine of the Trinity
Grace, Regeneration, Justification, Good Works, and involves so much that is improbable and contra-
Universal Redemption (1818); A
Vindication of our dictory that one does best to disregard it. Original
Authorized Translation and Translators of the Bible sin is opposed to both reason and Scripture. Of
(1819); An
Account of Greek Manuscripts, chiefly Tollner's many books, all dry and prolix, yet show-
Biblical, of tfa Late Professor Carlyle (1823); A ing dogmatic acuteness and independence of judg-
History of the College of Bonhommes, at Ashridge ment, the following are most noteworthy: Predigten
(1823); Of Confession and Absolution (1828); and (Frankfort, 1755); Das Abendmahl des Herrn gegen
Repertorium Theologicum (1838). aUe Verachter desselben (1756); Leiden des Erldsers
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Nichols, Literary Anecdotes of the 18th (1757); Bin Christ und Held oder Nachrichten von
Century, il. 672, iii. 192, 9 vols., London, 1812-15; idem, Feldmarschatt Schwerin (1758); Gedanken von der
Illustrations of the Literary Hist, of the 18th Century, vi. 620,
wahren Lehrart in der dogmatischen Theologie (1759),
681-686. vii. 54, 58-59, 8 vols., ib. 1817-58; DNB,Ivi.
428-430. which best presents his views on the controversies of
his time; a translation and continuation of Turre-
TODD, JOHN: American Congregationalist ;
tin's church history (1759); manuals of dogmatic
b. at Rutland, Vt., Oct. 9, 1800; d. at Pittsfield,
theology (1760), moral theology (1762), hermeneu-
Mass., Aug. 24, 1873. He was graduated from Yale
tics (1765),and pastoral theology (1767); Der
College, 1822; taught for a year; studied four yeans
thdtige Gehorsam Jesu untersucht (Breslau, 1768),
at Andover Theological Seminary; was pastor in
and Zusatze (Berlin, 1770), which raised much
Groton, Mass., 1827-33; Northampton 1833-36;
of the First Congregational Church, Philadelphia, controversy because of its departure from orthodox
teaching; Meine Ueberzeugungen (1769); Unter-
1836-42; and Pittsfield, 1842-72. He was a man of richt von symbolischen Buchern (Ziillichau, 1769);
national reputation, and took an active interest in
Gdttliche Eingebung der heiligen Schrift (Mitau, 1772),
educational progress. He was the author of Lectures
toChildren (Northampton, 1834-58), translated into important for his doctrine of inspiration (cf also an.

various languages, printed in raised letters for the

earlier treatise, Vom
Unterschied der heiligen Schrift
unddesWortes Gottes 1767); Meine Vorsdtze (1772);
blind, and used as a school-book for the liberated
}

Versuch eines Beweises der chrisilichen Religion (1772) ;

slaves in Sierra Leone; the Student's Manual (1835),
which had a wide circulation and large influence; Theologische Untersuchungen (2 vols., Riga, 1772-
and numerous stories for the young. A collected 1774); Commentatio de potestate Dei legislatoria non
edition of his books appeared (London, 1853, new
mere arbitraria (Frankfort, 1775). A
System der
dogmatischen Theologie (2 vols., Nuremberg, 1775),
ed., 6 vols., 1882).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Todd, The Story of his Life
claiming to have been published from a manu-
told mainly by
himself. New York, 1876. script of Tdlhier's, is thought by many not to be his
work or, if so, not to present his mature views
TOELLNER, tfll'ner, JOHANN GOTTLIEB: Pro-
(cf. Gass, 189 sqq.). (J. A. WAGENMANNf.)
fessor in Frankfort-on-the-Oder; b. in Charlotten-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. 0. Q. Hireching, Hiatoriach-liUerariachea
burg (a suburb of Berlin) Dec. 9, 1724; d. in Handbuch bertihmter . . Peraonen, xiv. 2,' pp. 5 sqq.,
.

Frankfort-on-the-Odcr Jan. 26, 1774. He entered 17 vols.. Leipsic, 1794-1815; C. W. F. Waloh, Neueate Re-
the University of Halle hi 1741, living in the house- liffionageachichte, iii. 309 sqq., 9 parts, Lemgo, 1771-83;
hold of S. J. Baumgarten (q.v.) and having the
W. Qasa, Oeachichte der proteatantiachen Dogmatik, iv. 188
sqq.,270 sqq., Berlin, 1867; M. A. von Landerer, Neueate
care of his library. After being tutor in Pomerania Dogmengeechichte, Tubingen, 1881; ADB, xzxviii. 427.
and in Berlin, in 1748 he became chaplain of Count
Schwerin's regiment at Frankfort; in 1756 professor TOFFTEEN, OLAF ALFRED: Protestant Epis-
of philosophy and theology in the
university, copal, orientalist; b. in the parish of Sproge, Island
where he endeared himself to the students by the of Gotland, Sweden, June 26, 1863. He received his
warm personal interest he took in all their affairs. education at the higher State College of Visby,
His health was never robust; and an extreme devo- Sweden (B.A., 1885), the University of Upsala,
tion to work brought on a complete breakdown and Johns Hopkins University, and Chicago University
led to his death at the early
age of forty-nine. (fellow in Semitics, 1903-05; Ph.D., 1905); served
After Semler and J. D. Michaelis, TOllner was the as rector of St. Angarius' Church, Minneapolis,
most important representative of the semirationalis- 1892-1901; was made priest, 1893; docent in
tic tendency in Protestant
theology of the eighteenth Assyriology, University of Chicago, 1906; became
century, theoretically founded by Wolf but prac- professor of Semitic languages and Old-Testament
tically the outcome of Hallensian Pietism, which literature in the Western Theological Seminary,
strove to retain the supernatural character of Chris-
Chicago, 1906; curator of the Oriental Society of
tianity as a divine revelation, to hold fast to the the same institution in the same year; and librarian
divine mission of Jesus and above all to the " beauti- of the Hibbard Egyptian Library of that institution
459 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Trtrto

in 1907. He is the author of Vara Faders Kyrka Mysterious (1696; 2d. enlarged ed., London, 1696),
(Minneapolis, 1897); Myths and the Bible (1899); which made a great sensation (see DEISM, 5). The
Ancient Chronology, part i. (Chicago, 1907); Re- book was burned by the hangman at Dublin, Toland
searches in Assyrian and Babylonian Geography, being in the city at the time. The rest of his career
part i. (1908); and The Historic Exodus (1909). isobscure. He spent much of his tune on the con-
tinent receiving favors. He engaged hi miscellane-
TOGARMAH. See TABLE OF THE NATIONS, 4.
ous literary work and in writing pamphlets, lapsing
TOKEN, COMMUNION: A small plate of lead into distress. Other works were, An Apology for
marked on one side with one initial or more or with Mr. Toland (London, 1697) ; Nazarenus, Containing
some device, referring to the place or the minister the History of the Gospel of Barnabas, the Gospel of the
or the date of the congregation, given to intending Mahometans. Also the Original Plan of Christianity
communicants and collected from them just prior to (1718). Pantheisticon (1720); and Tetradymus, con-
their receiving the communion. Such articles, taining Mangoneutes (1720).
differing very much in size, in workmanship, and in BIBLIOGRAPHY: To A Collection of Several Pieces of Mr.
intrinsic worth, were at one time in general use in John Toland, 2 vola., London, 1726, there is prefixed a
Life by Des Maiaeaux. Consult further: An Historical
Presbyterian churches, but probably now they are Account of the Life and Writings of . Mr. John Toland,
. .

not used at all. Their origin has been traced to the London, 1702; J. L. Moaheim, in Vindicia antigu* Chris-
earliest times of the Christian Church and even be- tianorum disciplines, 2d ed., Hamburg, 1722; V. Lechler,
Geschichte des englischen Deismus, pp. 180-209, Stuttgart,
foreand beyond it. It is well known that the initiates
1841; J. Hunt, in Contemporary Review, viii (1868), 178-
in theGreek and Latin mysteries had marked stones 198; idem, Religious Thought in England, ii. 236-262,
or other articles as means of proving their member- London, 1873; J. F. Nourrisson, Philosophies de la nature,
Paris. 1887; DNB, Ivi. 438-442; and literature under
ship in such brotherhoods, also that the primitive DEIBM.
Christians had similar means of identification and
that by showing these they were sure of reception TOLEDO, CITY, BISHOPRIC, AND SYNODS OF.
and kind treatment from their fellow Christians. I. City and Bishopric.
Such articles would be of particular value hi times History and Remains (1).
The Bishopric (2).
of persecution. It isprobably not possible to write II. Synods.
a consecutive history of the token but it can be The Three Ecclesiastical Synods (J 1).
shown that its use was known from tune to tune. The Semi-Political Synods (ft 2).
At the present day printed cards with emblems on I. City and Bishopric: Toledo, one of the most
them are in use among the Roman Catholics of Italy, ancient and famous of the cities of Spain, is situated
Bavaria,, arid other countries. So the use of similar in the centra] part, 41 m. s.s.w. of Madrid. It rises
moans of evidence of membership in Protestant com- on a bold promontory surrounded on three sides by
munions can be shown to have existed in England a deep gorge of the river Tagus. Under the name
in Reformation times. They were once much used Toletum it is mentioned by Livy in connection with
"
in France among the Huguenots. But the Scotch the year 192 B.C. as a small town but
Presbyterians and their children in Ireland, Canada, i. History strong in its situation." After the
and the United States were the first to adopt as a and Roman tune it fell to the Visigoths,
regular practise the use of tokens in connection with Remains, becoming their capital under King Leo-
the Lord's Supper. The tokens for such use were vigild (568-586)). Under the Moors
part of the church outfit. Those who intended to (from 714) it was the center of Mohammedan power
commune and were entitled to do so applied for hi Spain and enjoyed a long period of prosperity.
them on a specified day before the communion and On May 25, 1085, Alfonso VI. the Valiant, of Leon
brought them with them when communion-day and wrested the city from the Mohammed-
Castile,
came. It was the common practise for the com- ans and gave the name of New Castile to the region.
municants to sit at long tables and be served by The city thenceforth was a favorite residence of the
the church officers, but before the elements were dis- Castilian monarchs; it became the political and in-
tributed the officers went along the tables and col- tellectual center of old Spain and no less important
lected the tokens. It was a rare and thrilling ex- ecclesiastically. Its churches, convents, chapels,
perience to discover a person who had not the token. and hospitals occupied more than half of its area,
This offender was denied the sacrament. There are while the archbishops of Toledo with title of pri-
several large collections of these communion tokens mate of all Spain wielded a powerful influence.
in private hands and some on public exhibition. Their names are connected with the weightiest
BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Shields, The Story of the Token, New York, events hi Spanish history; they commanded armies;
1891 ;2d ed., Philadelphia, 1002; R. Dick. Scottish Com- with their immense wealth they built schools, hos-
munion Tokens other than those of the Established Church, and public works; and, representing the beat
pitals,
Edinburgh, 1902.
and highest civilization of their tune, they fostered
TOLAND, JOHN: English deist; b. near London- art and science. The cathedral of Toledo is an
derry, Ireland, Nov. 30, 1670; d. at Putney (Lon- enormous structure occupying the site of a Christian
don, W.) Mar. 11, 1722. He was born of Roman- church of the Visigothic period and dedicated to the
Catholic parentage, changed his original name, Virgin by King Recared Apr. 12, 587. The Moors
Junius Janus, at school, and became a Protestant at made this church their principal mosque. The
the age of sixteen. From 1687 he studied at the uni- foundation of the present structure was kid in 1227,
versities of Glasgow, Edinburgh (M.A., 1690), and and the work of building went on till 1492, when it
Leydcn, 1602-94. He spent several years at Oxford, was completed as at present: of the two projecting
and published his principal work, Christianity not towers the southern is still unfinished. The style is
Toledo THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 460

early Gothic with later features corresponding to the lected by A. Schott in

Hispanic, illustrata, vol. ii.,
long period of building. The forty chapels, pro- Frankfort, 1603-08).Cardinal Ximenes (see
fusely decorated and rich in art treasures, are of XIMENES DE CISNEROB, FRANCISCO; 1495-1517),
later date than the main structure. In the chapel as archbishop and statesman, exerted a mighty in-
of the Holy Sacrament the Mozarabic Liturgy (q.v.) fluence; he was chief inquisitor and a promoter of
is still used, and the Capilla de la Virgen del Sagra- science and art. Bartolome Carranza (q.v.) is said
rio contains an ancient wooden statue of the Virgin to have expended more than 1,000,000 ducats in
overlaid with silver which is considered the pal- charitable foundations. Fernandez de Cordova
ladium of the city. Many of the former churches (1755-71), whose philanthropy was inexhaustible,
and convents of Toledo are now in ruins; or, like was expelled from court because of sympathies with
the palace of the inquisition, have been converted the Jesuits. The revenues of the archdiocese have
to secular uses. The population, once estimated at greatly declined and its influence has been weak-
200,000, had fallen to 23,375 in 1900, but the city ened. The suffragan bishoprics at present are
is rich in historical remains. Its surviving churches, Coria, Cuenca, Madrid, Plasencia, and Siguenza.
not a few of them formerly Mohammedan mosques The chapter consists of sixty-four members, the
or Jewish synagogues, its hundred towers and lofty number of priests is 600, of parishes 445, and of
walls, its narrow tortuous streets with houses open- souls, 508,250.
ing within on spacious courts and gardens, and the II. Synods: The usual official reckoning of eighteen

like, make it the most medieval city in modern synods of Toledo is incorrect and arbitrary; since,
Europe and the most Moorish city in present-day on the one hand, not all were Spanish- Visigothic
Spain. The provincial library of 70,000 volumes national synods; and, on the other hand, two which
and numerous manuscripts is preserved in the archi- met in the city on the Tagus are not
episcopal palace. The university, founded in 1490, i. The included. Naturally the Arian synod
was discontinued in 1845. The manufacture of Three discussed in connection with that of
ecclesiastical vestments is still, as formerly, one of Ecclesias- 589 [see (3) below] would be passed by
the most important of the city's industries. tical with silence. (1) Of a Spanish national
According to tradition the first bishop of Toledo Synods, synod, of the year 400, twenty canons
u as Eugenius, a disciple of Dionysius the Areopagite, and two documents concerning the
by whom he was sent from Paris. The bishopric was reinstatement of Priacilliamst bishops arc preserved.
certainly in existence in the early fourth century, Canons i., iii., iv., and viii. expressly contend for the
since Bishop Melantius of Toledo was at the Synod celibacy of the priesthood. (2) The acts of the
of Elvira (300). Bishop Montanus (522-531) was national synod of 447 contain eighteen anathemas
proclaimed metropolitan at the synod against the Priscillianists and a symbol of faith
2. The of 527 [or 531; see (3), below], not- (wrongly attributed to the first synod of Toledo),
Bishopric. withstanding the claim of the bishop of noteworthy since it first pronounces the orthodox
Carthagena to the dignity. Under doctrine of the Trinity, and thus early emphasizes
Aurasius (603-615) the influence of Toledo began the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father
to increase owing to the residence of the Viaigothic and the Son (see FILIOQUE CONTROVERSY). (3) The
kings in the city. From 653 its archbishops pre- third synod in 527 or 531 is not included in the
sided at synods and were the first to sign their can- official list, being a provincial, not a national, synod.

ons, and canon vi. of the synod of 681 [sec (12), be- Two letters of Archbishop Montanus concerning the
low] attests that the archbishop of Toledo had at- consecration of the chrism are an appendix to this
tained the primacy, triumphing over his rivals, the synod. The third officfoJ synod, May 8, 589, was
metropolitans of Seville and Tarragona. Ildephon- the most important of the synods of Toledo, since
sus (q.v.), archbishop 657-667, is honored in the the religious policy of Leander and Recared I.
Spanish church for his zeal for the veneration of (586-601) here reached its highest point. The
Mary. Sindered (707-721) made little effort to check disciplinary decrees (capitula) degraded the State
the corruption which found entrance among clergy to the position of mere beadle of the Church, exalted
as well as laity in the latter days of the Gothic rule the hierarchy above the crown, made the higher
and fled from his see to Rome before the Arabs. clergy princes, and transformed the national synods
Elipandus (c. 783-808) became involved in the into diets of the realm in which the bishops had
Adoptionist controversy (see ADOPTIONISM, 24). the decisive voice. The synod was preceded by a
King Alfonso, after he had regained the city, conference of Arian and Catholic prelates, in the
exerted himself to increase its Christian population, course of which Kecared went over to the Catho-
and was ably seconded in the restoration of the dio- lics and induced a considerable part of his peo-
cese by Bernard, a French monk whom he caused to ple to abjure Arianism. The first thirteen canons
be chosen archbishop in 1086. Bernard received are condemnatory of Arianism. The third is note-
the pallium from Pope Urban II., and was declared worthy as the first decided repudiation by a great
primate of all the Spanish realm at Rome in 1088. western synod of the Greek view of the procession
Rodrigo Ximenes de Rada (1209-47) was one of the of the Holy Spirit. Canon xiv., at least indirectly,
most learned and zealous of the archbishops of disapproves of the semi-Arian doxology, gloria patri
Toledo. He fought against the Moslems, won the per filium in spiritu sancto. Canon xv. condemns
affection of the poor by his benevolence, helped to the Arian practise of rebaptizmg converts. Canon
found and build the new cathedral, stoutly defended xvi. condemns the semi-Arianism adopted by the
his right to the primacy against the other arch- Arian synod of 580, namely, of receiving proselytes
bishops, and wrote several historical worka (col- from the Roman Church by the laying on of hands,
461 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Toledo

the acceptance of the Lord's Supper (Arian), and the metropolitan Eugenius II., adopted seventeen
the above-mentioned doxology. Canons xx.-xxiii. canons mostly in favor of the bishops. Celibacy of
concern the acceptance of the first four ecumenical the clergy is enforced, and the last canon requires
councils. Happily the decisions of the fifth ecu- the baptized Jews always to be present at divine
menical council (Second Constantinople, 553) were service conducted by the bishop, under penalty of
not submitted, and by tacitly rejecting them, the beating or fasting. (10) A national synod, Dec. 1,
Spanish- Visigothic church was still in latent schism 656, decreed the deposition of clerics tainted with
with Rome at the time of the Arab incursion in 711. high treason, and forbade the clergy to sell Chris-
The first of the twenty-three disciplinary chapters tian slaves to the Jews. (11) A provincial synod,
declares the old canons, the ordinances of the Nov. 7, 675, called by King Wamba, revised the
councils, and the synodal letters of the Roman Apostles' Creed, and issued sixteen canons, which
bishops valid. Chapter v. enjoins the celibacy of the testify to the unexampled coarsening of the clergy,
clergy. Chapter xiii. forbids clerics to bring suit including the bishops. Canon i. forbids boisterous
against their fellows before a secular tribunal Chap-
. irreverent conduct at the synod. Canon ii. relates
ter xiv. excludes Jews from judicial positions and to the ignorance of the Scriptures on the part of the
offices with power of inflicting punishment on clergy. Canon v. is directed against bishops who
Christians, and
prohibits marriage or concubinage commit murder and other acts of violence or seize
with a Christian woman, and possession of Chris- the property of others. Canon vi. forbids the clergy
"
tian slaves. Chapter xvi. reads: Spiritual and to pronounce a sentence of death or impose a mutila-
secular judges shall work together to uproot the tion (12) A national synod, Jan. 9-25, 681, pre-
idolatry [i.e., old heathen practises retained by sided over by Archbishop Julian, adopted thirteen
Christians] so wide-spread in Spain and Gaul [Septi- chapters, the first of which shows that Julian knew
mania]." Chapter xvii. is directed against abortion, of the perfidy of the reigning king, Ervig, against his
and shows the same tendency to make civil officials predecessor and benefactor Wamba. Chapter vi.,
aid and serve the ecclesiastical. Chapter xviii. contrary to the existing canon law, invests the
requires annual instead of semi-annual synods and metropolitan with the primacy, doubtless in reward
makes judges and fiscal agents mere tools of the for Julian's support of the usurper. Chapter ix.
bishops. In like manner chapter xix., placing the approves of the twenty Antiseraitic laws of Ervig,
care of all church property in the hands of the a codification of all legislation against the Jews since
episcopal consecrator, and chapter xxi. exalt the the time of Recared and Sisebut. Chapter xi. pre-
episcopal power. scribes very severe measures against the remnants of
(4) A national synod of Dec. 5, 633, was called by heathenism. (13) A national synod, Nov. 4, 683,
King Siscnand and presided over by Isidore of likewise presided over by Julian, aimed to protect
Seville. Seventy-five chapters were issued, the the royal family against assassins. With an aston-
most noteworthy (Ivii.-lxvi.) relating to the Jews. ishing simulation of regard for continence the widow
Chapter Ivii. forbids the compulsory baptism of of Wamba is forbidden to marry. Chapter ix. re-
Israelites, but declares that the Jews already con- affirms the primacy of Julian. (14) A synod, Nov.
verted by force during the reign of 9, 684, officially provincial but national by repre-
2. The Sisebut (612-620; see SIBEBUT) must sentation and validity, again presided over by
Semi- remain Christians. Chapters Iviii.- Julian, was aimed to secure the ratification, by the
Political Ixvi.imposed the harshest penalties Spanish church, of the acts of the sixth ecumenical
Synods, upon Jews who returned to the faith council (Third Constantinople, 680-681), in partic-
of their fathers after baptism. (5) A ular the condemnation of the Monothelites (q.v.)
national synod in 636, convened by the new King and their doctrine. To secure this Pope Leo II.
Chintila, and presided over by Archbishop Eugenius had sent four letters to Spain in 682. The chapters
I., adopted in eight chapters what was merely a approved of the acts, including the teaching of the
stronger repetition of chapter Ixxv. of the preceding two wills and two energies in Christ, and accepted
council in confirmation of the power of the throne. the council as ecumenical. (15)A national synod,
(6) Another national synod, 638, under King Chin- May 11, 688, was called by King Egiza. Two years
tila reviewed, in the nineteen chapters, all the anti- previously the Spanish bishops had sent to Rome
Jewish decrees of the fourth synod. Chapter iii. a memorial, composed by Julian, expressing their
orders the expulsion of all Jews who refused bap- agreement with the orthodox doctrines of the sixth
tism. Chapter xv., against the greed of the bishops, ecumenical council. Pope Benedict II. asked for
orders that the Church retain whatever the kings or changes in certain dogmatic passages. The Span-
others have donated. (7) A national synod, Oct. 18, iards,however, led by Julian, resented this interfer-
646 was called by King Chindasvinth, who by the ence of the Curia and now adopted a second apology
deposition of Tulga had gained the throne. After drawn up by the militant primate and sent by him
suppressing a revolt he summoned the synod, and to Benedict's successor, Sergius, who seems to have
his purpose of drastic retaliation against the spirit- been discreet enough to treat the matter with silence.
ual and temporal nobility appears in the Draconian (16) A national synod, called by King Egiza in 693,
measures and penalties of the first of the six chap- after a renewed condemnation of Monothelitism
ters. (8) A national synod, Dec. 16, 653, called by set up thirteen disciplinary chapters. Chapter i.
Recesvinth, son of Chindasvinth, relaxed the harsh reaffirms the old Antisemitic laws, but provides for
penalties provided by the preceding synod but Jewish converts exemption from the special taxes
reenacted the anti-Jewish laws of the fourth synod. and almost equality with other subjects. Canon ii.
(9) A provincial synod, Nov., 655, presided over by enjoins bishops, priests, and judges to exterminate
Toledo
Tolstoy
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 469

heathenism under penalty of a year's suspension and plication of laws against non-conformity passed in
excommunication. Chapter iii. decrees for sodomy the reigns of Elizabeth, James I., Charles I., and
the penalties of deposition and banishment for life Charles II. (see ENGLAND, CHURCH or, II., 1-6;
upon clericals; and the old law in general for that UNIFORMITY, ACTS
OF). Protestant dissenters,
offense enforcing exclusion from all communion upon taking the oaths of allegiance and supremacy
with Christians, scourging with rods, and banish- (which might be required by any justice of the
ment, is retained. Chapter ix. deposes, excom- peace), were not to be subject to legal action, either
municates, strips of property, and banishes
all civilor ecclesiastical, under the laws noted above
"
Archbishop Sisbert of Toledo, who plotted against against attending conventicles." But meetings
the life of the king and his children. (17) On Nov. behind locked doors were forbidden, and the pay-
9, 694, a national synod met under the same king, ment of tithes and parochial duties was still obliga-
on account of a Jewish conspiracy. Of its eight tory. Even those who refused the oaths named
chapters, the fifth imposes anathematization and might hold certain offices, but the duties were to
excommunication on priests who said masses for be performed by deputies. Dissenting ministers
the dead in behalf of the living that they might soon who took the oath were exempt from jury duties
die. Chapter viii. ordains that Jews who had ac- and from holding parochial offices. Quakers might
" "
cepted baptism, as it proved by appearance only, make affirmation of loyalty; but Papists and
and revolted should lose their property and become those who denied the doctrine of the Trinity wcr^
slaves forever; their children must be taken from excepted from the benefits of the act. Protection
them at the age of seven and later be married to to the worship of dissenters was furnished by pro-
"
Christians. (18) The acts of a general synod about viding penalties for those who should disturb or
"
701 are lost; they are probably destroyed by clerical disquiet such worship. But the place of worship
fanatics through hatred of Witiza, a king of the was to be certified to the bishop of the diocese, the
grossest licentiousness, who declared the law of archdeacon of the archdeaconry, or the justice of
celibacy abolished, and whose sons afterward the peace having jurisdiction in the place. Thus a
brought in the Saracens, which terminates this good beginning was made toward liberty of worship
/eriod. (FRANZ GORRES.) and conscience, though a long list of legislative acts
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Helfferich, Entttchung und Oeschichte was required to attain the present degree of liberty
des Weatgothen-Rechto, Berlin, 1858; C. Perec Pastor, La
enjoyed by English subjects. The statute known as
Imprenta en Toledo, Madrid, 1887; Simomet, El Concilia 53 George III., chap. 160, extended the benefits of
III. de Toledo, ib. 1891; J. Moraleda y Esteban, Leyendas
histdricas de Toledo, Toledo, 1892; J. Jacobs, Sources of the Act of Toleration to Unitarians; 18 George 111.,
Spanish-Jewish Hist., London, 1895; H. Lynch, Toledo, chap. 60, 31 George III., chap. 32, and 43 George
London, 1898; J. Ldpez do Ayala, Toledo en el siglo xvi. t III., chap. 30, removed the disabilities of Roman
Madrid, 1901; L. Williams, Toledo and Madrid, London, "
Catholics; the Catholic Emancipation Act," 10
1903; F. Gorres, in ZWT, ad. 2, pp. 284-296, xli. 270-322,
xlv. 41-72, xlvi. 524-553, xlviii. 1, pp. 96-111; Hefele, George IV., chap. 7, restored to Roman Catholics all
Conciliengeschichte, vols. ii.-iii. passim, and the Eng. and civil and 2-3 William IV., chap. 115, put
rights;
Fr. transls.; DCA, ii. 1966-72; JE, xii. 176-182; and
the literature under SPAIN, particularly the works of
Roman and Protestant dissenters on the
Catholics
Gams, Lembke, and Lecleroq. same footing. Roman Catholics and Jews were ad-
mitted to full constitutional rights by 7-8 Victoiia,
TOLEDOTH YESHU (" Generations [i.e., History]
chap. 102, and 9-10 Victoria, chap. 59. Still other
of Jesus ") : A
Jewish anti-Christian medieval statutes were required for various details, such as
apocryphal polemic made up of fragmentary Tal- regulation of marriages performed by dissenting
mudic legends, which pretends to be a life of Jesus, ministers (19-20 Victoria, chap. 119).
but is in reality a clumsy and stupid fiction of un- BIBLIOGRAPHY: The text of the act is in Goo and Hardy,
known authorship. There are two widely different Documents, pp. 654-664. Consult J. H. Overton, The
recensions. J. C. Wagenseil published a Latin Church in England, ii. 178-179, London, 1807.
translation of one in his Tela ignea Satance (Altdorf ,
TOLET, FRANCIS: Jesuit writer; b. in Cordova
1681), and J. J. Huldrich of the other, in his His- Oct. 1532; d. at Rome Sept. 14, 1596. After
4,
toria Jeschua Nazareni a Judceis blaspheme cvr-
studying at Salamanca, he became, in 1555, doctor
rupta (Leyden, 1705). According to the first, Jesus of theology, and teacher of philosophy there, and
was b. in the reign of Janneeus (106-179 B.C.); ac- later at Rome. He entered the Jesuit order in
cording to the second, 74-70 B.C.
1558; became court preacher to Pius V., in 1569, and
BIBLIOORAPHT: R. Clemens, Die geheimgehaUenen oder so-
remained such till 1593. A succession of popes held
genannten apokryphischen Evangelien, part v., Stuttgart,
1850; R. Aim, Die Urtheile heidnischer und judischer him in the highest esteem, and employed him in
SchriftsteUer der vier ersten chrietlichen JahrhunderU uber diplomatic offices. Clement VIII. made him car-
Jesus und die ersten Christen, Leipsio, 1864; O. Rosch, in
dinal, 1593; he was the first Jesuit to receive this
TSK, 1877, pp. 77-115; 8. Baring-Gould, The Lost and
Hostile Gospels, pp. 76-115, London, 1874; JB, vii. 170- honor. Sixtus V. and Clement VIII. appointed him
173. one of the laborers upon the new edition of the
TOLERATION. See LIBERTY, RELIGIOUS. Vulgate. Among Tolet's numerous commentaries
and philosophical works are Introductio in dialecticam
TOLERATION, ACT OF: A statute passed by Aristotdis (Rome, 1561); Instructio sacerdotum dc
the English parliament in the first year of the reign septem peccaHs mortalibus (1601), which was trans-
of William and Mary (May 24, 1689) to relieve the lated into French and Spanish, and has frequently
legal disabilities of Protestant dissenters. The appeared under the title Summa casuum cvnscientite.
stated purpose of the act was to bring about union A collection of philosophical works appeared (Lyons,
of English Protestants. It first restricted the ap- 1587).
463 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tolsto;
itoy

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the prefaces prefixed to various (130 m. s. of Moscow), Aug. 28 (O. S.; Sept. 9. N. S.),
editions of Tolet'a writings, consult: G. VeroeUone, Varia He
Uctiones Vulgata Latinos bibliorum, vol. i., prolegomena, 1828; d. at Astapova, Russia, Nov. 20, 1910.
Rome, 1860; Der Katholik, i (1864), 408 sqq.; F. Kaulen, studied at Kazan University, but left without taking
Gesehicfoe der Vulgaia, Maine, 1868; A. and A. De Backer, a degree. In 1851 he entered the army
Bibliothtqws de la compagnie do Jtnu, 64 sqq., Paris,
Early Life; in the Caucasus, became a lieutenant;
viii.
1808; KL. xi. 1870-72.
Religious in 1853-54 he served in Turkey and
"
TOLLIN, HENRI GUILLAUME NATHANAEL: Views, then in the Crimea. His Sevastopol
German Reformed pastor and church historian; Sketches," written at the time, may
b. in Berlin, where his father was pastor of a French be considered precursors of all that he subsequently
colony, May 5, 1833; d. in Magdeburg May 11, 1902. wrote against war. After the end of hostilities he
He studied at the universities of Berlin and Bonn, retired from the army. In 1861-62 he devoted him-
and then taught hi the French gymnasium in Berlin self to work in peasant schools which he established
where he had received his early education. In 1862 at and near Y&snaya Polyana. In 1862 he married
he became pastor of the French congregation at Sophia Behrs, and during the next fifteen years
Frankfort-on-the-Oder. Thence after several years managed his estates and wrote his great novels
he was transferred to a peasant congregation at
"
War and Peace " (describing Napoleon's invasion
"
Schulzendorf (circuit of Ruppin), a post little suited of Russia) and Anna Xare"nina," a story of con-
to his scholarly tastes and attainments. After a temporary life. A great change in his activities oc-
stormy pastorate of five years, in 1876 he went to the curred from 1880 onward. He carefully examined,
French Church in Magdeburg. The congregation and ended by totally rejecting, the claims of
there was small but wealthy, so that the new pastor the Russo-Greek Church, and incidentally those of
found time and liberal support for the historical the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches also.
studies to which he devoted himself. He became For some years he devoted himself to an ardent
preeminently the historian of the Huguenot refugees study of the Gospels, rejecting the miraculous ele-
in Germany and a specialist on the life and time of ments as well as all that seemed unreasonable or in-
Michael Servetus. In his many publications relating comprehensible in them. From what remained, he
to Servetus he sought to apportion praise and blame constructed a consecutive narrative, which his vivid
with fairness, but recognizing that blame belongs insight into the great problems of life renders inter-
often to the age rather than to individuals. His esting and suggestive, though his rendering is not
views concerning the story of Servetus are sum- always justified by the text. His object was to
marized in a preface which he wrote for the drama, rescue what he believed to be the real teaching of
Krrvet, by his friend, Professor Hamann of Potsdam Christ, and to combat what he thought the Church's
(od. Tollin). With all his devotion to study and false interpretations a process which ho has com-
"
science he was a faithful pastor. During the war pared to depolarizing a magnetized watch."
between Prussia and Austria in 1866 he served the Following this, he produced a series of works in
wounded in the hospitals of Frankfort with self- which he elaborated his theory of non-resistance,
sacrificing faithfulness, undeterred by an epidemic inspired by abhorrence of physical violence, detesta-
of cholera which added to the horrors of war. He tion of the legalized exploitation of the poor, and
founded a society in Magdeburg for the education antipathy to the autocratic and bureaucratic
of poor children and was active in Sunday-school government. The same theory is held in a fluid
and home-mission work. He was first president and state by many Russian peasant sects, and traces of
"
founder of the " German Huguenot Society and it can be found among the early Chris-
wrote many of the articles hi its yearly Geschichts- Theory tians, the early Protestant Reformers
bldtter. Other noteworthy publications were: of Non- (especially Peter of Chelci5 see Bo-
Biogrnphische Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Toleranz Resistance. HEMIAN BRETHREN, I., 1 and some
(Frankfort, 1866); Geschichte der framdsichen of the Anabaptists), as well as among
Kolonic in Frankfurt-an-der-Oder (1868); H. W. the Quakers, and more recently in the writings of
Becchcr's gcistliche Reden nebst Biographie (Berlin, Adin Ballou and William Lloyd Garrison. In the
1870); Dr. Martin Luther und Servet (187 5); Philipp extreme form to which Tolstoy ultimately reduced
Melanchthon und Servet (1876); Charakterbild it, it comes to this: all use of physical force employed
Michael ServeVs (1876); Die Entdeckung des Blutr by one man to restrain another, is a sign of malev-
kreiafaufs durch Michael Servet (1876), for which the olence and is immoral. Starting with this (which
"
author received the degree of doctor of medicine is hisreading of the text Resist not him that is evil ;
from Bern; Das Lehrsystem Michael Servets (3 vols., but whosoever smiteth thee on thy right cheek, turn
Giltersloh,1876-78); Servet und Martin Butoer to him the other also ") as an axiom, Tolstoy de-
(Berlin, 1880); Geschichte der franztisischen Kolonie duces the conclusion that all civil and criminal law,
von Magdeburg (vols. i.-ii., Halle, 1886-87; vol. iii., as well as the prison system and executions, are hu-
part 2, Halle, 1889; vol. iii., parts 1, 3, Magdeburg, moral. No man, he says, has any right to condemn
1802-94). (F. H. BRANDES.) another to suffer any penalty. More than that, all
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dr. Brandes gives an account of the life police force, as well as all armies and navies, are,
of Tollin, based on original and autographic sources, in on the same ground, immoral; as also are all war
Gwchichtabtotter des deutschen Huoenotom-Vereint, vol.
and all governments (imperial, federal, or local)
ii., Magdeburg, 1902.
which employ a policeman. To hold property which
TOLSTOY, tel-stei', COUNT LEO: Novelist, anyone wishes to take he also considers unmoral.
dramatist, essayist, and religious reformer; b. on Without defending the Tolstoyan theory of non-
his mother's estate, Yasnaya Polyana, near Tula resistance, it may be pointed out how admirably it
Toll
Too
toy THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 464

served to undermine the moral prestige of a brutal labor out of doors, doing all the field work during
government and a persecuting church. Tolstoy one summer for a peasant woman who could not
" afford to hire a laborer.
practically said: There are two kinds of people:
the good, who rely on example, persuasion, exhor- Of no modern writer, probably, is it so difficult to
tation; and the bad, who rely on physical force: compile a correct bibliography as of Tolstoy. Many
police, gendarmes, and soldiers." Had the govern- of his works were forbidden in Russia and had to ap-
ment banished him to Siberia, by so doing it would, pear abroad (in Switzerland, Germany,
apparently, have confirmed his indictment. Hesita- Writings, and England), and in addition to this,

ting to crush him by brute force, it had to endure his rejection of copyrights led to many
from him a continual stream of scathing criticism of his works being published with littleattention to
which the partizans of the Church and the autocracy their proper sequence. With regard to the immense
were quite unable to meet. In another aspect number of translations that have appeared in all
Tolstoy's theory of non-resistance served a useful languages, the case even worse. Some of them
is

purpose. A curious superstition exists which causes have appeared with titles selected at the fancy of
people to assume that any amount of slaughter and the publisher or translator. The following is a list of
destruction are justifiable provided they are under- the chief of Tolstoy's works dealing with religion,
taken for national aggrandizement. As a direct with the year in which each work was completed:
challenge to this came Tolstoy's proposition that to A Criticism of Dogmatic Theology (1881); My Con-
slay a man (or even to coerce a man) is always im- fession (1882; written as an introduction to tho
moral and harmful. It served also as a challenge to preceding); Four Gospels Harmonized and Trans-
what is brutal and vindictive in the criminal codes. lated (1882); Gospel in Brief (1883); What I Be-
Tolstoy popularized his views in a series of short lieve (1884); Wtiat Then Must We Do f (1880);
"
stories (" What Men Live By," Ivan the Fool," On Life (1887); The Kingdom of God is Within You
etc.) which had an immense circulation among all (1893); Patriotism and Christianity (1895); What
classes,and carried the germs of his teaching far and is Art f (1898); The Christian Tmching (1898); The
wide. From about 1888 he commenced a series of Slavery of Our Times (1900) Patriotism and Govern-
;

interesting essays on a variety of questions: manual ment (1900); A Reply to the jSi/nw/' Decree of
labor, stimulants and narcotics, the Excommunication (1901); What is Religion, and
Publication famine, vegetarianism, war, the sex- Wherein lies its Essence f (1902). Two colloc-tod
of his Views, problem, religionand morality, patriot- editions of Tolstoy's works have appeared in tho
ism, corporal punishment, the agrarian United States: an earlier one published by T. V.
question, etc. He gave his views of the connection Crowell& Co. (also by Chas Scrilmer's Sons), and a
" " later ono (more nearly complete* to 1902) by Dana
between art and religionin What is Art? a work
which at first met with a storm of hostile criticism, Estes. Neither of these supplies a version which at
but the true value of which is gradually being recog- all reproduces the mastery \\ith which Tolstoy states
" The booklets issued by the
nized. In 1899 appeared his novel Resurrection," his case in Russian.
in which he incidentally gave a scathing description Free Age Press, Christchurch, Hampshire, England
of the head of the Holy Synod (M. Pobiedonostzeff ; (though the versions of different works are, by dif-
q.v.). After a preliminary threat, a decree of ferent hands and of unequal quality), are generally
excommunication was launched at Tolstoy in 1901, fairly reliable. In the World's Classics *SVnVx, the
to which he retorted with an outspoken " Reply to Oxford University Press has published excellent
the Synod," and followed this up by a bold letter versions (specially commended by Tolstoy) of his
"
To the Czar and his Assistants." tales for the people: Twenty-three Tales, and a se-
Concerning Tolstoy's simplification of his own life lection, including the last three works in the above
there has been much exaggeration. The plain facts list,of his Essays and Letters. The latter volume
are these. After some friction with his wife, whose is published in the United States by tho Funk &
views did not agree with those he adopted, he handed Wagnalls Company, which has also an edition of an
over to her, and to his children, the whole of his es- authorized translation of What is Art? Of his
tates, as well as the copyrights in all his works pub- works of fiction, the best versions of Sevastopol and
lished before 1880. His own position Resurrection, and also of his Plays, are by Louise
Manner of in the house became that of a guest who Maude, and the best versions of War and Peace and
Life. is very much at home. He declined to Anna Karenina are by Constance Garnett.
accept payment for his later works or to AYLMEK MAUDE.
retain any rights in them. To this rule he made an
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature on Tolstoy is voluminous,
exception when he accepted money for Resurrec- and the following is but a neloction: A. Maude, The Life
tion, in order to assist the Dukhobors to migrate of Tolstoy: first 60 Years, London and New York, 1908,
to Canada. Before this, in 1891-92, with several and Later Years, ib. 1010; idem, Tolstoy and his Problems,
ib. 1901; C. A. Behrs, Recollections of Count Tolstoi, Ten-
members of his family, he spent many months in
don, 1893; G. H. Ferris, Leo Tolstoy, the Grand Muj'ifc,
the famine district to organize soup-kitchens and to London, 1898; Alice B. Btockham, Tolstoi; a Man of
administer the famine-relief funds which were sent to Peace, London and New York, 1900; J. C. Kou worthy,
him with great liberality from all parts of Europe Tolstoy, his Life and Works. London, 1902; D. Merejkow-
ki, Tolstoi as Man and Artist, London and New York,
and America. Wishing to master a handicraft, he 1902; J. A. Hutton, Pilgrims in the Region of Faith, Lon-
learned to make boots, but never devoted much time don and New York, 1907; E. A. Hteiner, Tolstoy, the Man,
to this occupation. Even in early life he had been a biographical Interpretation, New York, 1907; idem, Tol-
stoy, the Man and his Message, ib. 1909; J. A. T. Lloyd,
fond of plowing; and for about ten years (1880-90) Two Russian Reformers: Ivan Twrgenev, Leo Tolstoy, Lon-
he devoted a good part of each summer to manual don, 1910.
465 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tol.toy
Toorenenbenran

TOMBES, JOHN: Baptist; b. at Bewdley them as early as the middle of the fourth century.
(13 m. n.n.w. of Worcester), England, 1603 (or The practise spread rapidly and from the monastic
1602?); d. at Salisbury May 22, 1676. He studied discipline was transferred to both penitents and the
at Magdalen Hall, Oxford (B.A., 1621; M.A., 1624; clergy, leading in the latter case to the tonsure.
B.D., 1631); became catechism lecturer; gained a Originally clerics were merely forbidden to let the
reputation as a tutor; took orders, 1624, and was a hair grow long. The tonsure proper first appears
lecturer of St. Martin Carfax, 1624-30. He quickly in Christian monuments at the beginning of the fifth
came into note as a preacher, and was for a time, in century. It was usual in Rome in the time of Greg-
1630, preacher at Worcester, but from 1630 to the ory I. (d. 604) and was conferred there not only on
Restoration, except for the interval of 1643-54, clerics and monks but also on laymen who performed
he was vicar of Leominster, Herefordshire; of All any sort of church service. The custom became
Saints, Bristol, 1643; rector of St. Gabriel, London, general in the Prankish realm about the same time.
1643-45; master of the Temple, 1645-47; curate The Fourth Synod of Toledo in 633, canon xii., at-
of Bewdley, 1647-50. While at Bewdley he was for tests it for Spain. Aldhelm (d. 709) and Ceolfrid
awhile rector of Ross, Herefordshire, and later (d. 716) are witnesses for England. For the East,
master of St. Catherine's Hospital, Ledbury. In cf. canon xxxiii. of the Trullan Synod of 692 (Mansi,
1654 he became one of Cromwell's triers. In 1660 Concilia, xi. 958-959).
he went to London and wrote in favor of the royal There were three kinds of tonsure: (1) The
supremacy in both ecclesiastical and civil matters. Roman or coronal tonsure, that described above,
He conformed in a lay capacity there, and had which leaves a circle of hair around the head. Since
Clarendon for a friend. After 1661 he lived chiefly Peter, according to legend, wore this tonsure, it is
at Salisbury. He was a vigorous, learned, and un- called also St. Peter's crown or tonsure. This was
wearied opponent of infant baptism. He had public the prevalent form in Italy, the Frankish kingdom,
debates upon this topic with Baxter and others, and England, and Spain. During the Middle Ages the
wrote numerous treatises upon it. Of his writings size of the shorn spot tended to become smaller, not
may be mentioned Two Treatises and an Appendix to without opposition, which led to attempts to regu-
them Concerning Infant Baptism (2 parts, London, late the matter. Gradually it became customary
1645); Apology for the Two Treatises (1646); Anti- for the size of the spot to increase by regular grades
paedobaptism (3 parts, 1 652-57) A Public Dispute
; with the rank of the wearer from subdeacon to
Touching Infant-Baptism (1654); Emmanuel, Con- bishop. (2) The Iro-Scottish or British tonsure,
cerning the Two Natures in Christ (1669); Animad- called also tonsure of St. John or of St. James by
versiones in librum G. BuUi> Harmonia apostolica its opponents, who regarded it as heretical (the
(1676). tonsure of Simon Magus), differed from the Roman
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. & Wood, Athena Oxonientes, ed. P. Bliss, tonsure in that the ring of hair about the head was
iii. 1062-63, and Fasti, ii. 397, 415, 401, 4 vols., London,
broken, the shaven spot being continued forward
1818-20; DNB, Ivii. 2-4 (where references to scattering
notices are given).
to the forehead. It was general in the old British
Church until the seventh century and later, and
TONGUES, GIFT OF. See SPEAKING WITH was introduced here and there on the continent by
TONGUES. British missionaries (see CELTIC CHURCH IN BRITAIN
TONSURE: In Roman Catholic usage, a round- AND IRELAND). (3) The Greek tonsure or St. Paul's
shaven spot on the top of the head which serves to tonsure (cf. Acts xxi. 24, 26) consisted originally in
distinguish clerics from laymen. It is regarded as shaving the entire front of the head. The Greek
"
a " preparation for receiving orders (Roman Church, in which entrance into clerical rank is sig-
catechism, de ordinibus sacris, iii.), hence is con- nified by the tonsure, has now modified the custom
ferred previous to ordination, at present usually in into cutting the hair short over the whole head.
connection with the lower grades. Bishops, car- The earliest mention of St. Paul's tonsure as dis-
dinal priests (for their titular churches), and ab- tinguished from St. Peter's is in Bede (Hist, eccl.,
bots (for regular members of their houses) have IV., i.), who remarks of Theodore, archbishop of
"
the right to confer it. No special time or place is Canterbury, that he wore the oriental or St. Paul's
prescribed for the ceremony. The recipient must tonsure." (A. HAUCK.)
be confirmed, must know the elements of the faith, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bingham, Origines, VI., Iv. 16-17, VII.,
and must be able to read and write; hence the ton- iii. Q. Chamillard, De corona, fonaura, Paris, 1659; L.
6;
Thomossin, Vetus et nova erclesice dieciplina, I., ii. 34, Paris,
sure can not be conferred before the completion of
1728; E. Martonn, De antiques ecdesiae rttibtut, ii. 14, Bas-
the seventh year. Some Roman Catholic liturgical sani, 1788; P. Hinaohius, KirchenrecM, i. 104 sqq., Berlin,
writers conjecture without proof that it was intro- 1869; E. Lftning, Geschichtc des deuischen Kirchenrechts,
duced by Peter, and symbolizes the crown of thorns, ii. 275 sqq., Strasburg, 1878; N. Milasoh, Kirchenrecht der
morgenlandiachen Kirche, p. 270, 2d ed., Mostar, 1905;
the royal dignity of the priesthood, renunciation of DCA, ii. 1989-1990.
the world and its vanities, and the like. It guaran-
tees to the recipient the rights and privileges of a TOORBNENBERGBN tu'ren-en-b&rH"en, JOH AN
,

must always be retained, and is renewed

cleric, JUSTUS VAN: Dutch Reformed; b. at Utrecht
monthly except for good reason, but clerics of Feb. 12, 1822; d. Dec. 12, 1903. He was educated
lower grade without benefice may neglect renewal. at the university of his native city; was pactor at
Tonsure is a heathen custom which entered the Elspeet (1844-48); and Flushing (1848-64); di-
Church by way of monasticism. The priests of Isis rector of the missionary society at Utrecht (1864-
n.nd Serapis shaved the head, and Christian ascetics, 1869) and gave instruction in dogmatics and othei
both male and female, in Egypt and Syria imitated subjects; pastor at Rotterdam (1869-80); and pro-
XL 30
Toorenanberfen THE NEW SCHAFF-HEEZOQ 466
Tosftanua

lessor of church history at Amsterdam (1880-92). at Broad Hembury, he removed to London, where
Theologically he was Evangelical and confessional. he ministered in the French Calvinist Reformed
In dogmas he emphasized the ethical side, being church in Orange Street. Toplady's talent and
thus akin to A. R. Vinet (q.v.) whom he greatly earnestness were great. He and Wesley clashed in
admired. The historical creeds he regarded as his- Calvinism and Arminianism, and as a result his
torical memorials and as binding only in so far as works, filled with the most advanced doctrine, also
they were in harmony with the Gospel. The main contained the most conscientiously acrimonious
thing in the Gospel was what was essentially vital controversy. His poetry was better than his po-
to salvation. His views on the creeds are presented lemic. He was the author of the noted hymn
"
in the introduction to his Eene bladvijde uit de ge- Rock of Ages/' published in the Gospel Magazine
schiedenis der nederlandsche geloofsbelijdenis (The (London, 1776); and Poems on Sacred Subjects
Hague, 1862), in which he published the original (Dublin, 1759); Historic Proof of the Doctrinal Cal-
edition of such a confession. With it was connected vinism of the Church of England (London, 1774);
his edition of De symboliscke schriften der neder- collected Psalms and Hymns (1776) and wrote A ;

landsche H
error mde Kerk (Utrecht, 1869). In criti- Course of Prayer (1790?). A new edition of his
cism of J. H. Scholten (q.v.) on the doctrine of the works with a memoir appeared (6 vols., 1825); and
Netherland church, he published his Bijdragen tot his Hymns and Sacred Poems (reprint, 1860).
de verklaringj toet&ing en ontwikkeling van de leer der BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the Memoir in the Works and a
Hervormde Kerk (1805), a storehouse of dogmatic sketch of the the Hymns and Sacred Poems, ut sup.,
life in

and historical learning. His dogmatic point of view consult: Memoir of Some Principal Circumstances in the

may be studied best in his De christelijke geloofsleer Life . of

. . A. . . . M
Toplady, London, 1778; Memoir*
.

of the Rev. Mr. Toplady, ib. 1794, Boston, 1817; W. Win-

(Culemborg, 1876; 2d improved ed., 1893). Too- ters, Memoirs of the Life and Writings of the Rev. A. M.
renenbergen was most important, however, as a Toplady, London, 1872; DNB, Ivii. 57-59.
church historian. In 1870 he was one of the founders
of the Marnix-Vereeniging, and among his contri- TO REMAIN BIBLE. See BIBLE VERSIONS, B,
IV., 9.
butions to its publications of noteworthy documents
for the history of the Reformed Church were A den :
TORGAU ARTICLES. See AUGSBURG CON-
van colloquia der nederlandsche gemeenten in Enge- 1.
FESSION,
land 1575-1609. 2de stuk 1612-24 (Utrecht, 1872),
with appendix containing selected acts till 1706; TORGAU, BOOK OF. See FORMULA OP CON-
Gheschiedenissen ende handelingen die voorneme- CORD, 3.

lick aengaen de nedcrduytsche natie ende gcmeynten

TORM, FREDERIK EMANUEL: Danish
woonende in Engelant ende int bysonder tot London
theologian; b. at Chcfoo, China, Aug. 24, 1870. In
(1873); Stukken betreffcnde de diaconie der vreem- 1874 his parents moved to Copenhagen, and he was
delingen te Emden
(1876); Handelingen van den
graduated from the Metropolitan school there
kerkeraad nederlandsche gemeente te Keulen
der
(1888), and from the University of Copenhagen
1571-91 (1881); and Acten van classicale en synodah
(candidate in theology, J894); and continued his
vergaderingen der verstrooide gemeenten in het land studies in Italy, Germany, and England (1895-97).
van Cleef, Sticht van Keulen en Aken, 1571-89 (1882; He published En kritisk Fremstilling af Novatianus
the latter two in collaboration with H. Q. Janssen).
Liv og Forfattermrksomhed (1901), and in the same
He specially devoted himself to the study of the
year Vcdentimanismens Historic og L&re, for which
works of Philips van Marnix (q.v.), and produced he was granted the degree of Lie. theol. In 1899 he
an admirable edition, Philips van Marnix godstien-
became a coeditor of Theologisk Tidsskrift, for
stige en kerkelijke gcschriften (3 vols., The Hague, which he has written many articles and reviews;
1871-91), followed by his Marnixiana anonym a and in 1903 was made professor of New-Testament
(1903). Toorenenbergen was also the editor of Het
exegesis in the University of Copenhagen. He is
oudste nederlandsche verboden boek 1523. (Econ- on the Danish Board of Missions which works among
omica Christiana. Summa der godliker schrifturen
the Jews. JOHN O. EVJEN.
(Leyden, 1882). (S. D. VAN VEEN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 0. F. Brioka, Dansk biografiik Lexikon,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A life by L. W. Bakhuizen van den Brink zvii. 463, 19 vols., Copenhagen, 1887-1905.
ifl in Levensberichten der afgestorvene medeleden van de Moat-
Khappij der Nederland. Letterkunde te Leiden, pp. 133-159,
Leyden, 1906. TORQUEMADA, tor"k6-m<Tda, JUAN DE
(JOHANNES DE TURRECREMATA) Spanish :

TOPLADY, AUGUSTUS MONTAGUE: Calvinist theologian; b. at Valladolid 1388; d. at Rome Sept.

and hymnist; b. at Farnham (20 m. s.w. of Wind- 26, 1468. He entered the Dominican order, and, be-
sor), England, Nov. 1740; d. in London Aug. 11,
4, ing distinguished for piety and learning, accompanied
1778. He was for a while at Westminster school; the Dominican superior, P. Luis, to the Council of
removed to Ireland, 1755, and studied at Trinity Constance. He obtained the doctor's degree at Paris
College, Dublin (B.A., 1760; M. A., later); was con- in 1423, and appeared next as prior of his cloister
verted, 1755; turned to extreme Calvinism, 1758; at Valladolid, later at Toledo. Eugenius IV. called
was ordained deacon, 1762; licensed to the curacy him to Rome in 1431, appointed him magister sacri
of Blagdon, 1762; ordained priest, 1764; was palatii, and sent him as theologian to the Council
curate of Farleigh, Hungerford, 1764-66; held of Basel, where he appeared as indefatigable cham-
the benefice of Harpford with Venn-Ottery, 1766- pion of the curialists. He was among those who
1768; and that of Broad Hembury, 1768-78. In left Basel to hold an opposing council at Ferrara.
1775, under leave of non-residence from his living He became cardinal in 1439. Most of his writings
467 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Toorenenbergen
ToManui

are devoted to the vindication of curialism, though TORKBY, JOSEPH: American Congregationalist;
they include, as well, an exposition of the Psalms b. at Rowley, Mass., Feb. 2, 1797; d. at Burling-
(Rome, 1476; Mainz, 1478), and Queationes spiri- Nov. 26, 1867. He was graduated from
ton, Vt.,
tuolea super evangdia totius anni (Rome, 1477; Dartmouth College, 1816, and from Andover Theo-
Brixen, 1498; and often). K. BENRATH. logical Seminary, 1819; preached for a time as a

BIBUOOBAPHT: For exact knowledge of Torquemada'a wri-

missionary; was pastor at Royalton, Vt., 1819-27;
tings use N. Antonio, Bibliotheca Hispana vetwt, ii. 288- professor of Latin and Greek in the University of
203, Rome, 1696. Consult further: S. Lederer, Der Vermont, 1827-42; of intellectual and moral phi-
spanische Kardinal Johann von Torquemada, Freiburg,
losophy, 1842-67; and president of the university,
1879; J. Quetif and J. Echard, Scriptorea ordinis prndica-
1862-66. He edited with memoirs, the Remains of
torwn, i. 837-843, Paris, 1719; H. C. Lea, Hist, of the
Inquisition of Spain, vols. i.-iii., New York, 1906-07; H. President James Marsh (1843); and the Select Ser-
Qaultier de Saint- Amand, Torquemada. E&sai sur I' inqui- mons of President Worthington Smith (Andover,
sition d'Evpagne en 1488, St. Denis, 1910; Pastor, Pope*,
vols. iii.-iv.; Creighton, Papacy, iii. 46-85; KL, xi. 1883-
1861); wrote A Theory of Fine Art (lectures, New
1885; Schaff, Christian Church, v. 2, passim; and Hterature York, 1874) and finished a masterly translation of
;

under INQUISITION. Neander's General History of the Christian Religion

and Church (9 vols., Edinburgh, 1847-55; 12th ed.,
TORQUEMADA, TOMAS DE: Spanish inquis- 6 vols., Boston, 1881-82).
itor; b. at Valladolid 1420; d. in a monastery at
Avila (53 m. n.w. of Madrid) Sept. 16, 1498. He TORRE Y, REUBEN ARCHER: Congregational-
belonged to the Dominican order, was prior of the ist, Hoboken, N. J., Jan. 28, 1856.
evangelist; b. at
cloister at Segovia for twenty-two years, and gave He was graduated from Yale University (B.A.,
himself up wholly to the organization of the Spanish 1875) and from the theological department there
Inquisition, introduced in 1478 (see INQUISITION, (B.D., 1878), and studied at the universities of Leip-
II., 5). In 1483 the pope appointed him general sic and Erlangen. He was pastor of the Congrega-
or grand inquisitor of Castile and Aragon. He set tional O.
Church, Garretsville, (1878-82), Open
up four tribunals at Seville, Cordova, Jaen, and Door Church, Minneapolis (1883-86); superintend-
Villa Real (later removed to Toledo), and the laws ent of the Minneapolis City Missionary Society
and methods pursued there were his work. The laws (1886-89); pastor of People's Church, Minneapolis
were published under the title, CopUadon de las in- (1887-89); superintendent of Chicago Evangeliza-
struciones del officio de la santa inquisidon, hechas par tion Society and Moody Bible Institute (1889-1908),
el muy revcrendo senor Fray Thomas de Torquemada
having meanwhile been pastor of the Chicago
(Madrid, 1576). At his instance Ferdinand and Avenue Church, Chicago (1894-1905); and since
Isabella issued, Oct. 31, 1492, an edict by which all Dec., 1901, has been engaged in evangelistic work,
Jews who refused Christianity were to leave Spain. part of the time in a tour of the world, preaching in
Many professed conversion but secretly practised China, Japan, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand,
their old religion, and the inquisition long directed India, Germany, in the United Kingdom, and at
"
its operations against these Maranos." Equal home. He holds to the divine origin and absolute
sternness was manifested against all others who inerrancy of the Scriptures, to the virgin birth and
were mistrusted of lack of fidelity to the Church. bodily resurrection of Jesus Christ, to the doctrine
Naturally Torquemada's name became a byword that men are saved only through the* atoning death
among opponents of the inquisition, and stood for of Christ and on condition of faith in him, to the
fanatical persecution. Toward the end of his life resurrection of the body at the second coming of
Torquemada retired to the monastery near Avila, Christ, to the endless blessed consciousness of those
where he died. who accept Christ in this life and the endless con-
scious misery of those who in this life reject Christ.
TORRE Y, CHARLES CUTLER: Congregation- He has written among other works How I Bring
alist; East Hardwick, Vt., Dec. 20, 1863. He
b. at Men to Christ (New York, 1893); Baptism with the
was educated at Bowdoin College (A.B., 1884), Holy Spirit (1895); How to Study the Bible with
where he was tutor in Latin in 1886-86; he studied Greatest Profit (1896) Wliat the Bible Teaches (1898)
; ;

also at Andover Theological Seminary (1889), and Divine Origin of the Bible (1899); How to Promote
for three years at the University of Strasburg and Conduct a Successful Revival (1901); How to
(Ph.D., 1892). He was instructor in Semitic lan- Work for Christ (1901); Revival Addresses (1903);
guages at Andover Theological Seminary (1892- Talks to Men (1904); Anecdotes and Illustration R
1900), and since 1900 has been professor of the same (1907); Studies in the Life and Teachings of our
subject in Yale University. He was director of Lord (1909) ; The Person and Work of the Holy Spirit
the American School of Oriental Research in Pales- as Revealed in the Scriptures and Personal Experience
tine in 1900-01, and since 1900 has been associate (1910); and commentaries and helps on the Inter-
editor of the Journal of the American Oriental So- national Lessons Series.
ciety. He has written The Commercial-Theological
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. T. B. Davis, Torre]/ and Alexander; the
Terms in the Koran (Leyden, 1892); The Composi- Story of a World- wide Revival, New York, 1905; J. K.
tionand historical Value of Ezra-Nehemiah (Giessen, Maclean, Triumphant Evangelism, London, 1905.
1896); a translation of Ibn 'Abd-al-Hakim's "Mo-
hammedan Conquest of Egypt and North Africa in TORTOSA. See PHBNICIA, PHBNICIANS, I., 9.

the Years 643 to 705 A.D." in Biblical and Semitic TOSEPHTA. See TALMUD.
Studies (New York, 1901); and Ezra Studies
(Chicago, 1910). TOSSAHTJS. SeeToussAjN.
Total THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 468

TOTAL ABSTINENCE. from everything that contains alcohol, but from

I. The Term and its Use. everything which so contains alcohol that one might
Meaning of the Term (5 1). get drunk upon it; not abstinence from such liquids
n. History of the Total-Abstinence Idea. for all purposes, but abstinence from them as a
The Modern Problem Versus the Ancient 1).
beverage. The historical total-abstinence position
(ft

Opinions Changed with the Problem (J 2).

Nineteenth-Century Movement ($ 3). distinguishes the medicinal and other uses of alcohol
Results of the Movement (4). from its use as a beverage, though it demands that
HI. Good and Bad Reasons for Total-Abstinence. it shall not be recklessly or needlessly used for these
Argument from the Evils of Drunkenness (ft 1).
other purposes. It does not place the very light
From the Evils of Moderate Use ( 2).
The Ethical Argument ( 3). wines and beers on the same footing with those
Arguments from the Scriptures ( 4). that will intoxicate, though it disapproves them as
IV. Total Abstinence and Temperance Laws. a matter of prudence, on account of their relations
I. The Term and Its Use: Human society can to the stronger beverages.
not hold together, much less be prosperous and II. History of the Total- Abstinence Idea: In-
tolerable to live in, unless most persons voluntarily toxicants, hi the form of wine and beer at least,
practise total abstinence from the grosser forms of have been known from the earliest historical times;
crime, and an abstinence more or less stringent and the vice of drunkenness has also
from many other possible acts and habits. Noth- I. The been known. This is evident from the
ing is more essential to successful living, either in- Modern familiar Biblical instances of Noah and
dividual or social, than the exercise of this form of Problem Nabal and others, from the figures and
the virtue of self-control. Opportunities for it Versus the inscriptions on the Egyptian and Meso-
occur in all regions of our experience; but the term Ancient. potamian monuments, from the Greek
is especially associated with the use of certain drugs myths concerning Dionysos, and from
which affect the nerves and the brain, and result many other sources. But the conditions of the
in disastrous habits. Intoxicating alcoholic bever- problem of drunkenness have been very materially
ages are the best-known of these, and with them changed within the last few centuries by the extent
this article will mainly concern itself. But similar to which the art of distillation has developed. This
dangers arise, and the same principles apply in the art has long been known and practised; but it was
case of opium, cocain, tobacco, hashish, and many not until a comparatively recent period that it came
other substances. to be the powerful means it now is for increasing
The term " total abstinence " has a history, and and cheapening the world's stock of intoxicating
a meaning. There is an advantage in
historical beverages. According to Theodore W. Dwight (In-
employing it in this historical mean- dependent, Apr. 27, 1882) the earliest recognition
X. Meaning ing, and guarding against the perver- of the existence of distilled liquors to be found in
of the sions that have naturally crept in. English legislation is in the year 1629; and it was
Term. The taking of the pledge was an im- not until much later in the seventeenth century that
portant item in the temperance reform these came to be recognized as hi general use. As
movements, and several different pledges were in might have been expected, their introduction great-
use. They were alike in that they applied, with pos- ly increased the evils of intemperance. Says the
"
sible rare exceptions, only to liquids that might Encyclopedia Britannica, in its article on Gin ":
produce intoxication, and to these solely in their " In the early part of the eighteenth century, gin-shops
" "
use as a " beverage or common drink." The multiplied with great rapidity in London; and the use of the
" " beverage increased to an extent so demoralizing that retail-
substitution, in the pledges, of alcoholic for
11 " ers actually exhibited placards in their windows, intimating
intoxicating came later; and whatever the re-
that there people might get drunk for a penny, and that
formers thought concerning alcoholic wine in the clean straw, in comfortable cellars, would be provided for
sacrament, for example, or the use of alcohol as customers."
medicine or in flavoring-extracts, they ordinarily Contemporaneously with these changes in the
left these uses outside the pledge. But there were the practise of drunkenness occurred
facilities for
other particulars in which the pledges differed, and certain other changes in men's habits of living,
sometimes two or three different pledges were offered which also greatly affected the question of the use
at the same meeting, the people being invited to of alcoholic drinks. Coffee was known as early as
choose which pledge they would sign. One pledge 875 but it was first brought from Abyssinia
A.D.,
was against the excessive use of intoxicants, as dis- into Arabia early in the fifteenth century. Coffee
tinguished from the so-called moderate use. Another houses were established in Constantinople about
was against distilled liquors as distinguished from the middle of the sixteenth century, and in London
wine or beer or cider. Another was against all use in 1652; and, before the close of the seventeenth
as beverages of drinks that can intoxicate, whether century, coffee was a customary beverage in Europe.
distilled or fermented. This third was the total-ab- Chocolate and tea came to be generally used, among
stinence pledge total as including all intoxicants Europeans, within a few years of the same time. In
and not some only, and total as being against all both these directions, throughout Europe and Amer-
use of intoxicants as a beverage, and not against ica and parts
of Asia and Africa, the generation of
excessive use only. There was a longer form of this men who were of middle age about the year 1700
pledge in which one promised not to sell or give witnessed a radical revolution in the conditions of
away intoxicating drinks for beverage purposes, as human life. In their childhood, fermented alcoholic
well as not to drink them. Total abstinence, tee- drinks were the one resource of men, not only for
totalism, is therefore, historically, not abstinence purposes of intoxication, but for all the purposes
469 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Total Abstinence

for which tea, cocoa, and coffee are now employed. under the direction of physicians "; and the wis-
They lived to see the fermented beverages largely dom of those who frequented these resorts, not for
"
superseded, in the one use of them by distilled swilling themselves with wine, but ... for the
liquors, and hi the other use of them by the hot decent and economical amusement of drinking
drinks which have ever since been on our tables. warm water " (Adventures of Gil Bias, book ii.,
In their childhood, however relatively plentiful chap. 4). This sarcasm must have been aimed at
wine and ale may be said to have been, they were opinions held by respectable contemporaries of the
yet so scarce that habitual drunkenness was beyond author. In 1743 John Wesley, in his General Rules,
the reach of any except those who had access to mentions as sinful, " drunkenness, buying or selling
the cellars of the rich. Befo^ they died anybody spirituous liquors, or drinking them, unless hi cases
could get drunk for a penny. It should be added to of extreme necessity." It is said that hi 1733 the
this, that the use of tobacco became general during trustees of the colony of Georgia, who were living
the seventeenth century. And as having a real, "
in London, enacted that the drink of rum in
though less direct, connection with the temperance Georgia be absolutely prohibited, and that all which
problem, account must be taken of all the marvel- shall be brought there be staved." In the colonies
ous discoveries and inventions which have rendered and in Great Britain, during that century, there
human life in those later centuries BO much more were several instances of similar legislation. Sam-
complicated and strenuous than it was before. uel Pepys, in his Diary, 1659-69, figures as an in-
These radical changes of condition naturally led consistent total abstainer. Going back with a bound
to corresponding changes in the convictions of men to the times of Philo, he asserts (Treatise on Drunk-
"
in regard to the use of alcoholic drinks. enness, ii.) that great numbers of persons, who,
2. Opinions To trace the development of these con- because they never touch unmixed wine, look upon
Changed victions would be to sketch the history themselves as sober," yet display the same foolish-
with the of the modern temperance reform hi ness, senselessness, lack of self-control, and the like,
Problem. America and the Old World. Until the as are displayed by a drunken person. Still earlier
nineteenth century, the general opinion familiar instances are those of the Rechabites and
of mankind certainly did not condemn the use of the Nazirites (q.v.), of Samuel, and Daniel. Nearly
intoxicating drinks, nor even occasional drunken- up to the present time, therefore, the world has been
ness, provided the drinker kept himself prudently aware of the dangers and evils attendant upon the
guarded from further bad results. Philo the Jew, use of inebriating beverages, has been in possession
just before the Christian era, wrote extensive trea- of the idea of total abstinence from them, and has
tiseson " Drunkenness " and " Sobriety." These in- been compelled to look upon total abstainers with
" Whether
clude a formal discussion of the question, high respect, but has, on the whole, approved the
the wise man will get drunk." Philo replies by use of such beverages, not merely in what is now
citing the expressed opinions of men, as well as evi- sometimes called moderation, but up to the line of
dence of other sorts, on both sides of the question. occasional and discreet drunkenness.
He says that " the sons of physicians and philoso- The revolution of opinion, at least as a great and
phers of high repute . have left behind 10,000
. .
controlling movement, began in America. A repr"-
commentaries entitled treatises on drunkenness," sentativeincident will indicate its
and censures these for the narrowness of their treat- 3. Nine- nature. The incident is taken from
ment of the subject. He insists on the difference teenth- the Collections of the Cayuga County
between the drinking of " unmixed wine," which Century Historical Society, 1882. Joseph Tall-
will produce intoxication, and that, of lighter or di- Movement, cot was a member of the Society of
luted wines. He calls unmixed wine a poison and Friends, living a fow miles south of the
a medicine, and condemns the drinking-contests town of Auburn, N. Y. In all that vicinity, in 1816,
which were common in his day. But he none the the crops were so short that poor people found it
loss indorses what he represents to be the current difficult to procure breadstuffs for food. At the
opinion, namely, that a wise man may occasionally same tune, Tallcot noticed, the distilleries kept in
get drunk. His helplessness when drunk no more operation. He says:
disproves his wisdom than if it resulted from a bil- "
The circumstances affected me not a little, and induced
ious attack, from sleep, or from death. Philo inti- me to write an address to the sober and influential part of
mates that the opposite opinion is quite respectably the community, inviting them to a serious consideration of
the melancholy situation, and the evils and calamitous con-
defended, but proves, to his own complete satisfac-
sequences of intemperance. I insisted that nothing short of
tion, that it is indefensible. His opinions concern- the example of that part of society which gives habita to the
ing the drinking-habit are certainly those which have world, of abstaining altogether from the use of ardent spirits,
been commonly held until the last century. But, as except for medical purposes, would correct thii alarming
evil."
far back as traces exist, there is found a highly rep-
utable line of opinion hi favor of total abstinence It occurred toJoseph Tallcot to offer his views
from intoxicating beverages. Of this, in the eight- members of the Presby-
for the consideration of the
eenth century, the distinguished Samuel Johnson terian Synod of Geneva. In his narrative he says:
is an instance. Earlier in the century, Le Sage sar- " I found my way to the house of Henry Artoll, the Pres-
"
castically admires the patriotic forecast of those byterian clergyman, . His brethren from the surround-
. .

ancient politicians who established places of public ing country soon began to come into the village, and call on
him for instruction where they might find entertainment
resort, where water was dealt out gratis to all cus-
among their friends. The master of the house appeared
tomers, and who confined wine to the shops of the very hospitable, inviting them to partake of his brandy;
apothecaries, that its use might be permitted but which they did, with what would be thought moderation.
Total Abstinence THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 470

He turned '
to me. and pleasantly said he supposed it would 1846 A.D. Very seldom has a movement gained
be useless to invite me to partake*' considering my business. so complete control over public opinion. Among
I as pleasantly replied, that we had been in the same habit,
'

but, seeing the evil of it, we had abandoned it/ and I hoped other forms of organization the tem-
they would do the same." 4. Results perance knightly orders appealed to

Joseph Tallcot read his paper, first before a com- of the the imagination of the young people;
mittee, and afterward before the synod, and went Movement the order of the Sons of Temperance
his way. The synod, after duly considering it, pub- being founded in New York in 1842,
" that of the Rechabites being introduced from Great
lished it, with resolutions fully approving it, and
solemnly declaring, that from that time they would Britain about the same time, and that of the
abandon the use of ardent spirits, except for med- Good Templars originating in 1851. Temperance
ical purposes; that they would speak against its organization reached every hamlet, and the churches
common use from the pulpit, and use their
. . . and Sunday-schools. Bands of Hope and the like
influence to prevail with others to follow their were organized for the children. The habitual use
example." Similar incidents were occurring in dif- of inebriating drinks became so rare among the
ferent parts of the country and among people of members of the Protestant churches that those who
various religious persuasions. In 1789, 200 farmers used them attracted attention thereby, though this
of Litchfield, Conn., pledged themselves for that was more the case in the country than in the large
season not to use distilled liquors in their farm cities. was easy to pass prohibitory laws, and
It
work. In 1794 Dr, Benjamin Rush of Philadelphia many were passed. They did not, however, prove
published his Medical Inquiry, in which he insisted as successful as their advocates had hoped. Most
that the use of distilled liquors as a beverage ought of them were either pronounced unconstitutional,
to be entirely abandoned. In 1812 the Presbyterian or were repealed, or became a dead letter. Then the
"
general assembly made a deliverance not only temperance interests were overshadowed by those
against actual intemperance, but against all those that led to the Civil War. Since the war elaborate
habits and indulgences which may have a tendency organizations have appeared, notably political
to produce it." In the same year the General Asso- prohibition parties, the Women's Christian Temper-
ciation of Connecticut recommended entire absti- ance Union, the Anti-Saloon League. Novel tom-
nence from ardent spirits; while the Consociation perance movements have at times made great
of Fairfield County adopted the principle of total headway blue-ribbon movements, " white-ribbon
"
abstinence from all intoxicating drinks whatever, movements, and praying crusades in the places
" where liquors are sold. There have boon recurring
especially for those whose appetite for drink is
strong and increasing." The Temperate Society, waves of success and defeat in the matter of prohib-
formed at Moreau, N. Y., 1808, and the Boston So- itory and local-option laws. The total-abstinence
ciety for the Suppression of Intemperance, 1813, tradition has been generally maintained by the de-
were not total-abstinence bodies. In 1818 the Pres- scendants of those who originally accepted it. There
byterian Assembly planted itself squarely on the have been sermons and addresses, the circulation of
"
principle that men ought to
'
abstain from even temperance literature, regular temperance lessons
the common use in the Sunday-schools, and compulsory temperance
'
of ardent spirits." In 1823
President Nott of Union College published his Ser- instruction in the public schools. A little has been
mons on the Evils of Intemperance. In 1826 the done in the providing of substitutes for the saloon.
American Temperance Society was organized, The .
Business interests have more or less rigidly insisted
National Philanthropist was started, and Lyman upon total abstinence as the condition of responsible
Beecher published his Six Sermons on Intemper- employment. Athletic interests have powerfully in-
ance. In the same year Rev. Calvin Chapin, in The fluenced young men by requiring abstinence during
Connecticut Observer, advocated abstinence from all the period of training; however, this may have
intoxicating drinks, and not from distilled spirits been neutralized by the debauch that has too often
merely. From about 1836 this principle came to be followed the contest. In the navies of the world it
is recognized that temperance is the condition of
generally accepted by the reformers.
The spread of the movement was very rapid in efficiency. Sociological and charitable interests are
Great Britain, and marvelously rapid in the United allies of temperance.
States. Societies, local and were organ-
general, HL Good and Bad Reasonsfor Total Abstinence:
ized. Temperance books, pamphlets, and news- Nevertheless, present temperance convictions have
papers were published in great numbers. Public less dynamic vitality than they ought to have. In-

meetings were held. The pledge was circulated. temperance is rife, and the public is apathetic. Un-
Total abstainers came to be counted by millions. enforced temperance laws do harm by fostering dis-
In 1840 six hard drinkers in Baltimore suddenly respect for law. The dominance of the saloon is
" not checked except locally and temporarily. So far
signed the pledge, and started the Washingtonian"
movement. In a few months, about 1838, the Irish as this is due to weak elements in the temperance
Roman Catholic priest, Father Mathew (see propaganda, the remedy is in the hands of the ad-
MATHEW, THEOBALD) administered the pledge to vocates of temperance; for it is in their power to
nearly 150,000 persons in Cork alone. He was emi- search out and eliminate such elements.
nently successful in temperance-work in different The argument which experience has shown to be
parts of Great Britain, as well as in the United the moat effective is that from the evils of drunk-
States. enness. These evils, moral and economical, indi-
In the United States the movement may be said vidual and social, are monstrous, and total absti-
to have culminated hi the decade that began about nence from the use of intoxicants as a beverage
471 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Total Abstinence

provides the only known adequate remedy. This and the churches. Such instances attract atten-
argument is sound, and is by itself sufficient. It tion mainly because they are exceptional. The
appeals to common experience. Its movement being religious, both its ad-
z. Argu- facts are facts which all intelligent per- 4. Argu- vocates and its opposers appeal to the
ment from sons know. But many advocates of ments from Scriptures. In relatively few passages
the Evils of temperance are not satisfied with this the the Scriptures speak of wine and
Drunken- commonsense presentation. They arc Scriptures, strong drink as being good, and of
ness. fascinated with the idea of making the their strength as being a good quality
argument scientific, and so they rein- in them. They commend them for medicinal and
force it with statistics, and with theories of social for sacrificial uses. Very likely the writers of Scrip-
science. This is admirable provided they use ture thought of them as being, in forms too diluted
sound theories and correct statistics; but when to be intoxicating, the natural drink of all who
men advocate temperance on the basis of crude could afford them. Different from this is the ques-
social theories and fake statistics, intelligent persons tion of the moderate drinking of liquids of intoxica-
hear and disbelieve and become apathetic. ting strength; whether the Scriptures for their o\\n
The experience of some generations of total ab- times approve this is a matter of uncertain inference,
stainers proves that alcohol is not necessary as food. and is an academic question. In interpreting these
Total abstainers live longer than moderate drink- utterances of the Scriptures the facts adduced in
ers. It is an established fact that intoxicants injure the earlier part of this article are important. One
one who uses them habitually, even if who approved the use of the light fermented bever-
2. From the he never gets drunk. This is in itself ages in the ancient world might now disapprove
Evils of a valid and sufficient argument for them, substituting such drinks as tea or coffee.
Moderate total abstinence; but the temperance Before intoxicants were made cheap by the art of
Use. advocate misuses it if, in his laudable distillation the evils and risks from them were im-
ambition to be scientific, he deals in mensely less than now. Most of the hundreds of
facts which he only half understands, and which passages in which the Scriptures mention or imply
he fails to state correctly. If one makes his fight wine or strong drink are unsparing condemnations
against the chemical agent called alcohol rather of the social drinking usages which then prevailed
than against intoxicants as such; if instead of using (e.g., Matt. xxiv. 49; Rom. xiii. 13; Gal. v. 21;
incontrovertible facts he insists mainly on propo- I Cor. vi. 10; Isa. v. 11, 12, 22, xxviii. 7; Amos. iv.
sitions that are in dispute, for example, the proposi- 1; Prov. xx. 1, xxiii. 30, 31). As a remedy they
tion that alcohol has no food value, or the propo- sometimes prescribe total abstinence, but never
sition that the character of alcohol as a poison is moderation in drinking. In their avoidance of any
unaffected by dilution, he injures the cause which explicit approval of moderate drinking they are in
he is advocating. Such false reasonings are none significant contrast with such ancient literature as
the less weak for the fact that persons are some- Ecclesiasticus or the writings of Philo. One should
times convinced by them; when persons so con- read these passages and observe that they contem-
vinced discover their error they become either luke- plate habitual drunkenness as exclusively the vice
warm or hostile. Another misuse of this argument of the rich and the aristocratic. They especially
consists in putting it into the principal place. To scathe the men and women who arc the natural
do this is to treat the drink problem as if it were on leaders of the people, and who through drink are
the same footing as the question of a pork diet, or ineffective in their public duties. In contrast with
of ill-cooked food; and this involves a disastrous this the drunkenness of the twentieth century is
belittling of the moral and social issues. especially prevalent among the poor. It is not now
The ethical principle in the case is that a person a question of relatively a few aristocrats drinking
has no right to degrade himself, to injure others or themselves to death, but of a drink curse affecting
the community, or to run undue risks of injuring the millions of the common people, and bringing
himself or others. And there is always with it starvation and squalor and crime and whole-
3. The a double reply to the person who thinks sale race deterioration. The modern problem differs
Ethical that he is so strong that there are for from the ancient. Supposably the teaching of the
Argument, him no risks in moderate drinking. prophets and apostles may be that total abstinence
First, no one knows oeforehand what is a duty for our time and environment, even though
risks the drink-habit may have for him; second, it could be proved not to be a universal duty for all
even if he knew, he might still be under the obliga- times and environments. It can not be proved that
tion which rests upon the strong to deny themselves Jesus drank beverages that would intoxicate, nor
for the sake of the weak. Probably all advocates of that the apostles and prophets approved even the
total abstinence agree as to the existence of these limited common drinking of such beverages; but
obligations, and regard them as sufficient to cover if this could be proved for the conditions then exist^

the whole case. They should never be left in the ent, the proof would not apply in the different
background while weak though specious substi- conditions that now exist. The Scriptures either pre-
tutes are pushed to the front. scribe or commend total abstinence from intoxi-
From the beginning the total-abstinence move- cants as a practise that should be followed in a good
ment has been deeply religious. This is true not- many cases (e.g., Num. vi.; Lev. x. 9; Jer. xxxv.;
withstanding the fact that some of its advocates Dan. i.; Prov. xxiii. 31; Luke i. 15; I Tim. v. 23).
have been irreligious, and have even used temper- They thus by implication prescribe total abstinence
ance doctrines for venting their dislike to the Bible in all cases that are parallel to these. Are there now
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 470

any cases that would not come under this prohibi- the Prohibition Agitation, New York, 1891; J. N. Steams,
Temperance in all Nations. History of the Cause in att
tion? Finally, the Scriptures emphasize the prin- Countries of the Globe, together witti the Papers, Essays,
ciples on which the doctrine of total abstinence Addresses, and Discussions of the World's Temperance So-
rests, particularly the principle of abstinence when ciety in Chicago, III., June. 1893, ib. 1803; A. F. Fehlandt,
A Century of Drink Reform in the U. S., Cincinnati, 1904;
indulging might result in harm to persons weaker Katherine L. Stevenson, Brief Hist, of the Woman's Chris-
than him who indulges (e.g., Rom. xiv.; I Cor. viii., tian Temperance Union, Evanston, 111., 1907; W. F. Craft*
x.). It is this that defines the position of the Scrip- and others, Intoxicating Drinks and Drugs in All Lands
tures on the subject. Particular statements may and Times: a Twentieth Century Survey of Intemperance ;
based on a Symposium of Testimony from one hundred Mis-
refer to local and temporary conditions, but these
sionaries and Travelers, Washington, 1909.
ethical principles are universal. For the legal aspects consult: F. A. McKenzie, Sober
As the Scriptures, rightly understood, are thus by Act of Parliament, New York, 1896 (compares the
the strongest bulwark of a true doctrine of total liquor laws of various countries); A. Shad well, Drink,
Temperance and Legislation, ib. 1902; E. A. Pratt, Li-
abstinence, so false exegesis of the Scriptures by censing and Temperance in Sweden, Norway and Den-
temperance advocates, including false theories of mark, ib. 1907. The medical aspect is treated in. W. B.
unfermented wine, have done more than almost Carpenter, On the Use and Abuttc of Alcoholic Litjuora in
Health and Disease, London, 1850; A. Gustufsou, The
anything else to discredit the good cause. The full
Foundation of Death: a Study of the Dnnk Question, Bos-
abandonment of these bad premises would strength- ton, 1884; C. A. Story, Alcohol: its Nature and Effects,
en the cause immeasurably. New York, 1874; J. S. Billings, Physiological Aspects of
the Liquor Problem, Boston, 1903; T. N. Kelynack, Drink
IV. Total Abstinence and Temperance Laws: It
Problem in its Medico-sociological Aspects, by Fourteen
is a mistake to think that the effort to secure the Medical Authorities, New York, 1907.
legal suppression of the liquor traffic is a later and On the moral and social sides consult: E. C. Delevan,
more advanced stage of the temperance movement Consideration of the Temperance Argument and History,
than the efforts for total abstinence. The leaders New York, 1865; J. Parton, Will the Coming Man Drink
Winet in Atlantic Monthly, Aug., 1868; J. T. Crime, Arts
of the great movement attempted to restrict the use
of Intoxication: the Aim and Results, ib. 1870; W. Har-
of liquors by moral suasion, but they accompanied greaves, Our Wasted Resources; the Missing Link in the
this by demands for legislation. Lyman Beecher's Temperance Reform, ib. 1881 ; R. B. Gnndrod, The Nation's
Vice; the Claims of Temperance upon the Christian Church,
Six Sermons, for example, emphatically declare that
" ed. by his son, London, 1884; H. W. Blair, The Temperance
the remedy for intemperance includes the banish- Movement; or, the Conflict between Man and Alcohol, 4th
ment of ardent spirits from the list of lawful arti- ed., Boston, 1888; E. J. Wheeler, Prohibition the Princi-
ple, the Policy, and the Party, New York, ISS'J; J. (\
1
cles of commerce/ and invoke the interference of
Fernald, The Economics of Prohibition, ib. 1894; J. \{ own-
legislation to this end, as well as that of public tree and A. Sherwoll, Temperance Problem and tfocial lie-
sentiment (ed. of 1828, p. 64) As noted above, that
.
form, 4th ed., ib. 1899; H. C. Trumbull, Harder Lines in the
movement led to the general passing of prohibitory Field of Doubtful Practices, ib. 1899; It. Gallons, SubnUtutes
for the Saloon, Boston, 1901; S. H. Manrvul, Prohibition
laws. But no conceivable legislation can do away
of Intoxicating Liquors, Canton, O., 1UUH; G. B. Culten,
with the need of voluntary self-control in this mat- Psychology of Alcoholism, New York, 1907; A. A. Hopkins,
ter. The greatest thing that restrictive laws can Profit and Loss in Man, ib. 1909; H. S. Warner, Social
Welfare and the Liquor Problem; A Series of Studies in
possibly accomplish is to facilitate correct practise by the Sources of the Problem and hovj they relate to its Solution,
individuals. To regard total abstinence as mainly Chicago, 1909. The varioua temperance societies are con-
a mere incident to prohibitory law is perhaps the tinually issuing tracts, pamphlets, and books, lists of
most fatal mistake that can be made in the tem- which can bo obtained on applications to the societies.
perance propaganda. W. J. BBECHER. TOTEMISM. See COMPARATIVE RELIGION, VI.,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature on total abstinence (and 2-6.
1, b.,
temperance reform) very large and very uneven in
ia
quality, much of it in fiction. Some of the states have
graded text-books for use in the schools. The reviews TOULMIN, JOSHUA: English Unitarian, and
have many articles on the subject, e.g., Presbyterian biographer; b. in London May 11, 1740; d. at Bir-
Quarterly, vol. i. f Presbyterian Review, vote, i.-iii.,North mingham July 23, 1815. He studied at St. Paul's
American Review, vol. cxli., and Forum, vol. i. Consult
further with reference to the Biblical side: E. Nott, Lectures school, 1748-55 (or -56) ; prepared for the ministry
on Biblical Temperance. With an Introduction by T. Lewis, at the independent academy supported by the
London, 1863; G. Duffield, The Bible Rule of Temperance; Coward trust, 1756-61; was minister of the Pres-
total Abstinence from all Intoxicating Drink, New York,
byterian congregation of Colyton, Devonshire,
1868; L. 0. Field, Oinos: a Discussion on the Bible Wine
Question, ib. 1883; O. W. Samson, The Divine Law as to 1761-64; of Mary Street General Baptist chapel,
Wines, Established by the Testimony of Sages, Physicians Taunton, 1765-1803; and colleague to John Ken-
and Legislators, new ed., Philadelphia, 1884; G. G. Brown, tish at the New Meeting, Birmingham, 1804-15.
The Holy Bible Repudiates " Prohibition "; Compilation of
all Verses containing the Words
"
Wine " or " Strong Drink "
He was a founder of the Western Unitarian Society,
proving that the Scriptures commend and command the tem- 1792. He was a voluminous writer, and is of note
perate Use of alcoholic Beverages, Louisville, Ky., 1910. for his biographical and historical work. He pub-
On the history consult: 8. Couling, History of the Tem- lished Sermons, principally addressed to Youth
perance Movement in Great Britain and Ireland, with bio-
graphical Notices of departed Worthies, London, 1862; (Honiton, 1770); Dissertations on the Internal Evi-
Centennial Temperance Volume, Philadelphia, 1876; W. dences and Excellence of Christianity (London, 1785) ;
H. Daniels, The Temperance Reform and its Oreat Reform- The Practical Efficacy of the Unitarian Doctrine
en, New York, 1878; G. F. Clark, History of the Tem-
perance Reform in Massachusetts, 181S-SS, Boston, 1888; (1796); Sermons (Bath, 1810); Four Discourses on
D. Burns, Temperance History: a Consecutive Narrative the Nature, Design, Uses, and History of the Ordi-
of the Rise, Development and Extension of the Temperance nance of Baptism (London, 1811); An Historical
Reform, with an Introductory Chapter, London, 1889; View of the State of the Protestant Dissenters in Eng-
Cyclopedia of Temperance and Prohibition. A Reference
Book of Facts, Statistics, and general Information in att land (Bath, 1814); the lives of Faustus Socinua
Phases of the Drink Question, the Temperance Movement and (London, 1777), J. Biddlo (1789), S. M. Savage
 Total Abstinent*
473 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA TouMain

(1796), Charles Bulkley (London? 1802), and S. churches, oratories, and the administration of hos-
Bourn (Birmingham, 1808); and edited with mem- pitals. As late as 1850 a provincial synod was held
oir a new edition of Neal's History of the Puritans under the presidency of Archbishop d'Astros, which
(5 vols., Bath, 1793-97), declared against the tendencies of modern thought,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The funeral sermons by J. Kentish and I. indifferentism, and socialism.
Woreley were published London, 1815-16. A Memoir BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. R. Vincent, In the Shadow of the Pyre-
by the former is in Monthly Repository, 1815, pp. 665 aqq. nees, pp. 211-232, New York, 1883; J. de Lahondfea,
Consult further: J. R. Wreford, Sketch of the Hist, of Pres-
L'Eglise Saint Btienne, Toulouse, 1890; L. Ariste and L.
byterian Nonconformity in Birmingham, pp. 59, 89 sqq., Braud, Hist, populaire de Toulouse, ib. 1898; L. V. De-
Birmingham, 1832; DNB, Ivii. 82-83. lisle, La Pretendue Celebration d'un concile h Toulouse en

tu"10z': Important town of southern 1160, Paris, 1902; Hefele, Concilienoeschichte, vols., iv.-
TOULOUSE, v. passim.
France, and seat of a number of synods. The an-
(TOSSANUS), DANIEL:
7
cient Tolosa, it was the sacred capital of the Tec- TOUSSAIN, tutsan
French Reformed; b. at Montb&iard (36 m. w. of
tosages; was taken by the Romans 106 B.C.; wan
the capital of the Visigoths, 419-507; came under Basel) July 15, 1541; d. at Heidelberg Jan. 10,
the power of the Franks, 507, but later regained its 1602. His father was Pierre Toussain (q.v.), and
the son was educated at Basel and Tubingen. Re-
independence; was a county of hereditary princes,
778-1271, enjoying prosperity up to the Albigen- turning to France he preached for six months in his
sian wars, after which it was united to France, 1271 native town, and went to Orleans, 1560, where, after
;

it came under the influence of the Inquisition, and being a teacher of Hebrew, he was ordained minis-
ter of the local Reformed church in 1561. In 1568
later became notorious for intolerance, in gross con-
trast to its earlier attitude. Its university, founded
he was forced to flee with other Protestants, but
in 1229, is, after that of Paris, the oldest in France.
was soon discovered and imprisoned over two weeks.
It is also the seat of an archbishopric. At the sug-
He then fled with his family to Montargis, where he
was protected by the duchess of Ferrara until the
gestion of Louis, a synod was convened in Toulouse,
829, but the decrees are lost. One was held hi 883 king of France demanded the expulsion of all Hu-
to adjust the complaint which Jews had made to guenots. He now sought refuge in Sanc6rre, and,
Charles the Fat of being abused by clergy and laity. after one year, returned to Montbe*liard. Here he
m was charged with teaching Calvinistic and Zwinglian
One 1056, summoned by
Pope Victor II., con-
sisted and passed thirteen
of eighteen bishops, heresies, his reply being an affirmation of his Lu-
canons forbidding simony, insisting upon the rule theran belief. In 1571 he was recalled to Origans,
of celibacy, and placing the ago of ordination to
and held services in the castle Isle, a few miles
1

priests' orders at thirty, and to deacons orders at

away, but at the news of the massacre of St. Bar-
tholomew's Day, he fled just in time to escape the
twenty-five. The synod of 1118 was concerned with
total massacre and pillage of Isle the next day; and
the inception of a crusade against the Moors in
he was concealed by a Roman Catholic nobleman
Spain. The synod of 1119, which Pope Calixtus II.
at Montargis and later by the duchess in a tower of
presided over in person, reiterated the laws against
her castle. In Nov., 1572, he was able to return to
simony, confirmed the right of the bishops to tithes,
lu's father at Montbeliard, but Lutheran intolerance
and in three of the ten canons teachers of false
doctrine were anathematized. The synod of 1160, again drove him out, and he accepted a call of the
at which the kings of France and England, 100 French refugees at Basel. In Mar., 1573, he was
bishops and abbots, and legates of Pope Alexander appointed chaplain to the Count Palatine Frederick
III. at Heidelberg, but in 1576 the Calvinistie
III. and his rival, Victor III., were present, declared
Alexander pope, and pronounced excommunication Frederick was succeeded by his son, the Lutheran
Victor. The synod of 1219 forbade the con-
Louis VI., and the Reformed were expelled. They
upon
ferment of offices upon the Cathari (see NEW MANI- found a Calvinistic patron, however, in John Casi-
mir, the brother of the count, at Neustadt, where
CHEANS, II.), and forbade all work upon church-
festival days which were mentioned by name.
Toussain became inspector of churches and also
The synod of 1229, in the pontificate of Gregory helped found an academy in which he was one of
the teachers. After the death of Zacharias Ursinus
IX., important. It obligated archbishops and
is
(q.v.) he was also preacher to the refugees' church
bishops, or priests, and two or three laymen, to
of St. Lambert. In 1583 Louis VI. died, and John
bind themselves by oath to search out heretics, and
A Casimir became regent. Calling Toussain into his
bring them to punishment. heretic's house was
to be destroyed. Penitent heretics were to be council, he expelled the Lutherans from Heidelberg,
and Toussain later became professor of theology,
obliged to wear a cross on their right and left side,
and might not receive an office until the pope or and, in 1584, rector. As an author he was prolific,
his legate should attest the purity of their faith. All being credited with no less than thirty-three works,
for a list of which and his correspondence cf F. W.
men of fourteen years and over, and all women of .

twelve years and over, were to be required to deny Cuno, Daniel Tossanus (Amsterdam, 1898).
allconnection with heresy and heretics. This oath (JOHN VI*NOT.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Tossanus, Vita et obitua D. Toasoni . . .
was to be repeated every two years. Laymen were
norratfo, Heidelberg, 1003; A. Mtiller, Daniel Tossanus,
also forbidden the possession of the Old and the Leben und Wirken, 2 vola., Ftensburg, 1884; F. W. Cuno,
New Testament; and the suppression of vernacular Daniel Tossanus, Amsterdam, 1898; J. Vienot, Hist, de
la riforme dans le pays de MontMliard, Montbeliard, 1900.
translations was especially commended. In 1590 a
synod under Archbishop Francis II. of Joyeuse de- TOUSSAIN (TOSSANUS), PIERRE: French Re-
clared the Tridentine decrees binding, and took up former of Montbeliard, and father of the preceding;
various subjects, such as relics, the consecration of b. at St. Laurent, near Marville (145 m. e.n.e. of
TttuMin THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG 474
Tract

Paris), 1499; d. at MontWliard (36 m. w. of Basel) the Methodist Episcopal ministry, 1864; was pro-
Oct. 5, Educated at Metz, Basel, Cologne,
1573. fessor of Hebrew, Chaldee, and New-Testament
Paris, and Rome, he became a canon of Metz in Greek at Boston University, 1868-70; of historical
1515, where he first heard of Protestant doctrines, theology there, 1872; of practical theology and
and, being suspected of adherence to them, he was sacred rhetoric, 1872-93; and since then emeritus
forced to flee to Basel. After a sojourn at Paris, he professor. Of his works may be mentioned Credo
attempted to introduce the new doctrines into Metz, (Boston, 1869); The Sword and Garment (1871);
only to be imprisoned at Pont a Mousson. On Mar. God-Man (1872); Lost Forever (1874); Arena and
11, 1526, deprived of his benefice, he was expelled Throne (1874) The Supernatural Factor in Religious
;

from Metz. He now returned to Paris, where he Revivals (1877); The Intermediate World (1878);
became an almoner of Margaret of Navarre, but in Bible Theology and Modern Thought (1883); Evolu-
1531 was again obliged to flee from France. After tion or Creation (Chicago and New York, 1890);

visiting Zwingli in Zurich, Gillaume Farel in Grand- Story of Jonah in the Light of Higher Criticism (1897)
;

son, and Simon Sulzer in Basel, he went to Witten- Anastasis (1902); God's Goodness and Severity, or
berg. While in Tubingen on his return, he gladly Endless Punishment (1903); A dam and EveHis-
accepted the invitation of Duke Ulrich of Wurt- tory or Myth (1904); Collapse of Evolution (1905);
temberg to continue the Reformation begun by God and the Nation (1905); The DelugeHistory
Johann Gayling and Farel in Montbe*liard. Within or Myth (1907); and Bible Inspiration (1909).
four years (1535-39) Protestantism was definitely
established, the mass was abolished, and the most
TOWNSEND, WILLIAM JOHN: English Meth-
odist; b. atNewcastle-upon-Tync Jan. 20, 1835.
of the canons retired to Besancon. Toussain be-
came the head of the new ecclesiastical organiza- He was educated at Percy Street Academy in his
native city, and was then engaged in business for
tion, which, being French and Swiss in character,
several years, after which he studied for the min-
became involved in serious controversies with the
German chaplains of Count Christopher of Wtirt- istry of the Methodist New Connection for a year
(1859-60) under James Stacey, of Sheffield. He
temberg, who took up his residence at Montbe'liard
in 1542. As a result he retired to Basel, 1545-40,
was minister of various churches of his denomina-
tion in Birmingham, Manchester, Leicester, Ches-
but returned to Montbdliard when the difficulty
was finally adjusted. He was one of the few clergy ter, Halifax, Stocki>ort, and Newcastle until 1880,

undisturbed during the interim (1548-52), and on when he became president of the Methodist New
the second suppression of the Roman Catholics in Connection Conference, as \\ell as general mission-
Montbe'liard in 1552 he resumed his position as su- ary secretary of the same body, a position which lie
held until 1891. In addition to the pastoral v*ork
perintendent at the head of the Protestant clergy.
In 1559, under the guardians of the new count, which he then resumed in Birmingham and Ixmdon,
he was editor of the Methodist New Connexion in
Frederick, the Wiirttemberg agenda were intro-
1894-97 and was reappointed in 1902. In theology
duced, but the stubborn resistance of Toussain and
his clergy forced the count's guardians to make
he " holds generally by Evangelical Christianity
as expounded by leading modern Methodist theo-
concessions, especially to permit the use of Toussain 's "
logians," and has views on inspiration and the
liturgy for the time being. In 1568, however, all
last things which differ from a hard and mechanical
pastors who refused to adopt the Wttrttemberg
Jakob An- view of inspiration, or an arbitrary view of future
agenda were deposed. When, in 1571,
drea (q.v.) was sent by the Wurttemberg govern- retribution." He has \\ritten The Great Schoolmen

ment to Montbe'liard, the clergy were strictly ex- of the Middle Ages (London, 1880); Robert Morri-
son, the Pioneer of Chinese Missions (1888); Alex-
amined, Daniel Toussain (q.v.), the reformer's son,
was banished, and his father was pensioned and ander Kilham the First Methodist Reformer (1890);
t

Reminiscences and Memorials of Rev. James Stacey,

replaced by a Lutheran. All the clergy who pro-
fessed either Zwinglianism or Calvinism were grad-
D.D. (1891); Madagascar, its Missionaries and
ually removed, and the Tubingen dogmas were
Martyrs (1892); Strength perfected in Weakness
enforced. Strict in life, Evangelical in spirit, Tous- (1893); Handbook of Christian Doctrine (1897);
sain was a model pastor and wise organizer. His Handbook to the Methodist New Connexion (1899);
sole literary production was L'Ordre qu'on tient en Life of Oliver Cromwell (1899); The Great Symbols
Veglise de Montbeliard en instruisant Us enfans, et (1901); History of Popular Education in England
administrant lea saints sacramens avec la forme du and Wales (1903); As a King ready to the Battle
manage des prieres (1559), of which only a single
et (1904); The Story of Methodist Union (1906); and
copy seems to exist. (JOHN VINOT.)
A New History of Methodism (1909; in collaboration
with others).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Vi6not, Hist, de la rtfarme dam le pays
de Mortibtlwrd, 2 vols., MontMliard, 1903. TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL: Theist; b. at
Norfolk, Va., Mar. 23, 1836. He was educated at
TOWHSEND, LUTHER TRACY: Methodist the University of Virginia (A.M., 1856) after which
Episcopal; b. at Orono, Me., Sept. 27, 1838. He he taught three years (1856-59), and studied for a
spent his early life in New Hampshire; studied at year (1859-60) at the Southern Baptist Theological
New Hampshire Conference Seminary; was grad- Seminary, Greenville, S. C. He was professor of
uated from Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H., Greek hi Richmond College, Richmond, Va., hi
1859; from Andover Theological Seminary, Mass., 1861, but left to enter the Confederate Army, in
1862; served as private and adjutant of the Six* which he served until 1863. In 1864-65 he was
teenth New Hampshire regiment, 1862-63; entered professor in the University of Alabama, and after
476 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tract

two years at the University of Berlin (186&-68), commanded that Trachonitis, Batanea, and Aura-
was professor of Greek in Furman University, nitis be assigned to the interests of Herod the Great
Greenville, S. C., in 1868-69. From 1869 to 1879 he (23 B.C.), to whom he also gave the domain of Zeno-
was professor of Hebrew in Southern Baptist Theo- dorus at his death (20 B.C.). Attempts to make the
logicalSeminary, which was located first at Green- nomads of the country an agricultural people
ville and
after 1877 at Louisville, Ky., and since meeting with scant success, Herod settled 3,000
1880 has been professor of Hebrew and oriental lan- IdumflDans there (10-9 B.C.). A few years later he
guages at Harvard University. Besides his work as likewise placed a colony of 600 Babylonian Jc\\ s in
editor of the Hellenistic department of the Jewish Trachonitis, and built for their leader Zamaris the
Encyclopedia, he has written History of the Religion fortress of Barthyra (probably the modern Bait Ari
of Israel (Boston, 1882); Quotations in the New Tes- in the Jaulan). On the death of Herod (4 B.C.),
tament (New York, 1884); Judaism and Christian- Augustus made his son Philip ruler of Trachonilis,
ity (Boston, 1890); and Commentary on Proverbs Batanea, Auranitis, and a part of the territory of
(New York, 1899), and likewise prepared the He- Zcnodorus (hence tetrarch of Trachonitis). At
brew text and English translation of Ezekiel for the Philip's death (34 A.D.), his territory was incorpo-
Polychrome Bible (New York, 1899). rated with Syria, but in 37 was given by Caligula to

TRACHONITIS, trac"o-nai'tis (TRACHON): A King Agrippa, a grandson of Herod, who ruled it

until his death in 44 A.D. (see HEROD AND His FAM-
district ofPalestine belonging to the Tetrarch
ILY). The district then came under the control of
Philip, son of Herod the Great (Luke iii. 1). The
"
name, which is Greek and signifies rough country,"
Roman procurators until, in 53 A.D., Claudius gave
it to Agrippa II., who seems to have held it until
is sometimes used in the Targums and other Jewish
his death (100 A.D.) Under Roman rule Trachonitis
writings to render the Argob of Deut. iii. 4, 13-14;
.

I Kings iv. 13. Josephus, who repeatedly mentions

and the surrounding territory seems to have reached
a high degree of prosperity, which was apparently
Trachonitis, beside Auranitis (the Hauran) and
Batanea (Bashan), describes it (Ant., XV., x. 1) destroyed by the Persian invasions about 615.
as a rocky inaccessible region, abounding in arti- (II. GUTHE.)

ficial reservoirs and caves and infested \vith robbers. BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of Pales-
tine, pp. 629 sqq., London and New York, 1896; J. L.
It evidently lay to the east and northeast of Bashan,
Porter, Five Years in Damascus, 2 vola., London, 1855;
and an inscription found at al-Mismiyah, the site of idem, Giant Cities of Bashan, pp. 12 sqq New York, 1871; ,

the ancient Phtena, between twenty-five and twenty- J. G. Wetzstein, Reiscbencht ilbrr Hauran und die Tra-
choncn, Berlin, 1860; M. de Vogue, Syne Centrale, 2 vols.,
eight miles south of Damascus, describes the place
" Pnris, 1866-77; P. Ix> Bas and W. H. WaddinRton, In-
as tlie chief village of Trachon." This point is scriptions grecques et latines, vol. iii., nos. 2524, 2396,
situated on the northern edge of the Lejjah. The Paris, 1870; S. Merrill, East of the Jordan, pp. lOaqq., new
Onomasticon of Eusebius locates Trachonitis be- ed.,New York, 1883; H. Hildeaheimer, fieitrdge zur Geo-
graphic Palastinas, pp. 55-57, Berlin, 1886; A. Stubels,
yond Bostra in the desert south of Damascus, and "
Journey to Tulul and Hauran, 1882" ed. H. Guthe, in
Ptolemy (V., xv. 26) places the Arabs of Trachonitis ZDPV, xii (1889), 225-302; Maj.-Gen. A. Heber-Peroy,
east of Batanea. In 1858 J. G. Wetzstein studied A Visit to Bashan and Argob, London, 1895; G. Rind-
the two Trachons, or rugged tracts, to the southeast fleisoh, in ZDPV, xxi (1898), 1-46; Schurer, Geschichte,
i. 425 sqq., Bag. tranal., I., ii. 11 sqq.; DB, iv. 801; EB,
and south of Damascus mentioned by Strabo (II., iv. 5142-46.
ii. 755-756). Of these only the latter has any con-
nection with Bible history. It is now called al- TRACT: [In general literary use, a small work in
"
Lejjah, or place of refuge," and is a lava plateau, which some subject of small range, or some aspect
"
extending for twenty-eight miles northwest from of a subject, is discussed (Lat. fracture, to treat a
the range of the Hauran. The upper surface, whose subject "). It is distinguished from a treatise by
outer edge averages thirty-three feet above the sur- being shorter, and by its persuasive as distinguished
rounding region, is a sharply undulating plain of from its pedagogical aim. In its religious sense its
lava-stones, covered with heaps of basalt blocks. Latin equivalent was much used in the Middle Ages,
The jagged surface is rent by abrupt ravines. The and continued to be used after the Reformation. In
intense humidity has made vegetation possible, its modern use the word designates a brief exhorta-
while the winter rains are preserved in subterra- tion to a religious life (see TRACT SOCIETIES)].
nean reservoirs easily concealed. The entire region Liturgically it is an extension of the Gradual (q.v.)
corresponds closely to the description of Josephus, by a number of verses, especially from the Psalms,
the name Trachon itself being possibly an equiva- used from Septuagesima to Easter on Sundays and
"
lent of the Arabic wa'r, stony, inaccessible dis- festivals, and also after Ash Wednesday on Mondays,
trict," which is applied to the $afah in the east and Wednesdays, and Fridays, except in masses for the
the Lejjah in the west. dead. The tract, like its name, seems to date back
After the death of Lysanias, king of Itursea (36 to the early Church. It essentially implies
humility,
B.C.), Zcnodorus leased the southern parts of his and its explained (as by the Pseudo-
designation is

domain from Cleopatra, and seems to have remained Alcuin, De divinis officiis, ix., in MPL, ci. 1186) as
tributary ruler after her death in 30. They were due to the fact " that it is sung or slowly sadly
located between Trachonitis and Galilee, and in- (tractim), and signifies the groaning of holy mother
cluded Ulatha and Panias (Ant., XV., x. 3). To Church." (A. HAUCK.)
increase his revenues Zenodorus had the inhabi-
tants of Trachonitis make forays, especially against TRACT AND COLPORTAGB SOCIETY OF
the people of Damascus. Augustus accordingly SCOTLAND. See TRACT SOCIETIES, III., 3
Tract Societies THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG 476

TRACT SOCIETIES.
X. Origin and Character. Origin and Development (| 1). 2. Society for Promoting Christian
II. In Germany, Ita Tract* (f 2). Knowledge.
m. In Great Britain. Ita laaues of Books (ft 3). 3. Other Societies.
1. The Religious Tract Society. Aids to Foreign Minions (ft 4). IV. In America.

L Origin and Character: Tract societies are land und Westfalen (Cologne, 1882); and the
associations for the dissemination of brief popular Deutsche Zentralstelle zur Fttrderung der Volks-
religious treatises, especially on present-day prob- und Jugendlektttre (Hamburg, 1905), and the pop-
lems and questions of personal life, among wider ularly scientific Lehr und Wehr furs deutsche Volk
circles than are immediately reached by the Church, (Hamburg, 1904 sqq.). The chief problems of Ger-
thus seeking to counteract the circulation among man tract societies at the present time are, on the
the masses of tenets and principles either meager one hand, popular demonstration of the applica-
in faith or hostile to Christianity. The tract may bility of the Gospel to the problems of social and
be said to begin with the Reformation, as in Lu- economic to controvert the false glamour of So-
life

ther's ninety-five theses of 1517, which he followed cial Democracy, and, on the other hand, the de-
with a long series of pamphlets, being imitated in fense of Christianity against rationalistic criticism
this respect by other German, Swiss, and French and the theories of evolutionistic monism. The
Reformers. Later, English Puritans and Method- circulation of tracts is carried on chiefly by branch
ists, German pietists, and Moravians affected the establishments of the societies and by colporteurs;
circulation of tracts; but it was especially the Augs- and the desired results are best attained on the
burg senior Johann Urlsperger and the English basis of personal acquaintance and with regard to
Hannah More, in the latter part of the eighteenth the requirements of each case, inferior results being
century, who were responsible for the formation of gained by promiscuous distribution of religious
tract societies. In 1782 the former established at literature. (H. RAHLENBECK.)
Basel the Deutsche Christcntumsgescllschaft to HI. In Great Britain. 1. The Religious Tract
unite Christians against the rationalism of the peri- Society: The great development of missionary in-
od; while the latter, after having combated French terestwhich marked the last years of the eighteenth
atheism by tracts which reached a circulation of century led in 1799 to the formation by George
2,000,000, found her work carried on by the Edin- 1
B urd er n ^ others of the Religious
Orlai
-

burgh Tract Society (founded in 1796) and the and De* Tract Society. Their act was the more
London Religious Tract Society (established in velopment. fruitful in the case of Christian litera-
1799). On the model, and partly with the aid, of ture as, in 1804, its founders also orig-
the latter organization, associations were soon inated the British and Foreign Bible Society. Start-
formed in a number of places for the circulation of ing with the production of simple tracts for home
tracts, their work being carried on more or less in use, the society's work rapidly developed. The
connection with home missions. production of books and periodicals was added;
II. In Germany: The most important tract work was undertaken for Roman Catholic countries
societies in Germany are as follows: Christlicher on the continent of Europe; and, as early as the
Verein im nordlichen Deutschland (Eisleben, 1811); year 1814, assistance was given to Christian litera-
Wupperthaler Traktatgesellschaft (Wupperthal, ture for China on the appeal of Drs. William Milne
1814); Hauptverein fUr christliche Erbauungs- and Robert Morrison (qq.v.); while other parts of
schriften in den preussischen Staaten (Berlin, 1814) ; the heathen and Mohammedan world rapidly came
Niedersachsische Gesellschaft zur Verbreitung under the society's influence. Its present opera-
christlicher Erbauungsschriften (Hamburg, 1820); tions extend to every quarter of the globe, the so-
Evangelische Gesellschaft (Stuttgart, 1832); Evan- ciety continuing to be an agency for producing Chris-
gelische BUcherstiftung in Stuttgart, or Calwer tian literature in or for the mission fields of the
Vcrein (Calw, 1833); Evangelische Gesellschaft in world. So far it has used 272 languages and dia-
Strassburg (Strasburg, 1834); Verein zur Verbreit- lects in the course of this work, and every year sees
ung christlicher Schriften (Basel, 1834); Agentur some addition to this total.
des Rauhen Hauses (Hamburg, 1842); Evangel- Placing first its original work of producing Eng-
ischer Bticherverein (Berlin, 1845); Evangelische lish tracts, the society still provides literature of
Gescllschaft fur Deutschland (Elberfeld, 1848); this type for all classes of the community. Its Pres-
Evangelischer Yerein fttr die protestantische Pfalz ent **ay Tracts and its Tracts fa ti*
8 Ita
(1848); NUrnberger evangelischer Verein fttr Times, written by men of learning and
innere Mission (Nuremberg, 1850); Schxiftenab- position in the churches, address them-
teilung der Gesellschaft fttr innere Mission im selves to the greater problems of theological criti-
Sinne der lutherischen Kirche (1850); Christlicher cism and social life. In its biographical series the
Kolportageverein hi Baden (1867); Naasauischer lives of men and women eminent in the Christian
Kolportageverein (Herborn, 1873); Deutsche Church of all ages are treated by writers of position.
evangelische Traktatgesellschaft (Berlin, 1879); The necessity of producing special tracts for dis-
and Christlicher Zeitschriftenverein (Berlin, 1880). tribution among men originated its series of Letters
The circulation of pfennig sermons begun by the to The Men's Own. Much of tract
My Brothers and
Berlin city mission in 1881 serves a like purpose; distribution being conducted upon a regular sys-
the Verein fttr christliche Volksbildung fttr Rhein- tem, requiring a constant supply of new tracts,
477 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tract Societies

several series providing these at low prices are reg- L. Watkinson, John Henry Jowett, and Dr. Eugene
ularly issued. Special provision is made of tracts Stock.
for women and children; and in the arrangement In general literature features in recent years have
of the various series, regard is had to the particular been the provision of full biographies of distinguished
needs of such classes as soldiers, sailors, and rail- missionaries such as James Chalmers, Griffith John,
way men. The work of providing tract literature and George Grenfell, and of finely illustrated works
happily has the sympathy of men distinguished on natural history by Richard Kerr and others. No
both for scholarship and for position in the Christian recent British artist engaged in illustration work
Church. Thus modern authors of tracts published is now more widely known than Harold Copping,
by the society include Bishop Handley Moule, the whom the society sent to the East in order to pro-
Earl of Northbrook, Sir William Muir, Alexander vide Bible illustrations. The society has accord-
McLaren, Henry Wace, Griffith Thomas, Robert ingly produced a Bible illustrated from Copping's
Forman Horton, Arthur Tappan Pierson, John Wat- sketches and in addition two finely illustrated works
son (Ian Maclaren), and Robert E. Speer. The The Gospel in the Old Testament and Scenes in the
method of the committee in choosing tracts is to- Life of our Lord, the letterpress of which was con-
day what it was when the society began its work. tributed by Bishop Handley Moule. In fiction the
Each tract is read by every member of the commit- society has continued to produce books for adult
tee and a vote taken upon it. It is still required readers as well as for the young, retaining old favor-
that the evangelical message be definite, and it is ites and adding later authors of repute.
satisfactory to know that perhaps never in the his- The periodicals of the society have always been
tory of the society have there been more frequent a distinctive part of its work. The Child's Com-
and more remarkable evidences of direct spiritual panion, begun in 1824, is still issued. The Sunday
blessing through the reading of tracts than have at Home has now more than fifty years of work be-
been received during the last few years. It is clear hind it. The Girl's own Paper, started in 1880, has
that, although from time to time inexperienced ob- recently been entirely recast. The Boy's own Paper
servers allege that the day of the tract is past, the is still perhaps the most widely known publication

Evangelical and pastoral use of tracts has suffered of its kind. Other periodicals appealing to various
no check. classes continue the work originated nearly a cen-
In book publication the society has continued tury ago.
along the lines followed for many years. While The work has, from the
aid of Foreign mission
primarily anxious to produce that which definitely earliest days of teen an intimate con-
its existence,

conveys the Gospel message, or in some way illus- cern of the society. As early as the year 1814, Mor-
trates or suPP01"^8 fts claims, the society rison and Milne applied to it on behalf of China and
3 It I u
of Boc3uii!*
naB * e ^ focreasingly tne nee^ f Pro- promptly received aid. In the previous year, the
viding literature which, though not so first application for help in vernacular
4.Aids to wo,rk came from
definitely religious in its message, is decisively India, and the first
Christian in tone and character. The provision of Foreign aux iii ar tract
* on "" y society was formed at
such literature has again and again been pressed Bellary in 1817. Nearer home the so-
upon the society as a public duty in the face of the ciety began to publish in Italian as early as 1800,
overwhelming development of literature, low or and in Russian in 1814. The first effort on the part
even debasing in moral tone, or, if otherwise beyond of France was made in 1819, and the work in Austria
criticism, still anti-Christian in its influence. In re- was begun ten years later. The society now main-
cent years the more definitely theological part of tarns its own book and tract depot at Madrid for
the society's catalogue has been widely known for Spain; at Lisbon for Portugal; at Vienna for Aus-
its series By-Paths of Bible Knowledge, to which tria; at Budapest for Hungary, and at Warsaw for
authors of the standing of Professor Archibald Poland. In France it assists the Paris society, the
Henry Sayce, Wallace Budge, Sir William Dawson, McAll Mission (q.v.), and the Toulouse society; in
" "
and others contributed; by such helps to Bible Belgium, the work of the Evangelical Mission
study as were furnished by Alfred Edersheim's vol- of Brussels; in Switzerland, the colportage work of
umes on Bible History and on The Temple, by Dr. the "Evangelical Society of Geneva"; in Italy,
"
Samuel Gosnell Green's Handbook to Old Testament that of the Evangelical Publication Society of
Hebrew, and Handbook to the Grammar of the Greek Florence "; in Turkey and Bulgaria, tho publica-
Testament; and by devotional works from the pens tion work of the American Board of Commissioners
"
of such authors as Newman Hall, John Angell James, for Foreign Missions; in Greece, the Evangelical
"
and Canon Edward Hoare. Still more recent ad- Society's work; and hi Russia, Norway, Sweden,
ditions include the volumes of a Devotional Com- and Denmark, the publication and distribution of
mentary by Bishop Handley Moulc, Frederick Christian literature through various societies and
Brotherton Meyer, Griffith Thomas, and other individual workers. The Religious Tract Society
authors; an important scries of works dealing with has thus for many years been a powerful supporter
the controversy with Rome, including a translation of those Protestant communities which, on the con-
with notes, of Karl August von Hase's Protestant- tinent of Europe, are struggling against the power
ische Polemik by Dr. Annesley William Streane; the of Rome. It has continued this work in the face of
Handbook of the Bible, of Dr. Joseph Angus, thor- many obstacles, but has gradually seen the liberty
oughly revised by Dr. S. G. Green; together with of the press and of the individual more and more
practical and devotional works from the pens of freely conceded. By the aid and operations of the
such men as Bishop Welldon, Dr. Horton, William American Presbyterian press the society has pro-
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 478

duced at, and distributed from, Beirut in Syria, a issue of popular fiction. Its tract catalogue is rich
largeand varied amount of Arabic literature, both in tracts dealing with Anglican church doctrine,
definitely Christian in its message as well as some church seasons, and the defense of the church. The
amount of general literature (see SYRIA, VI., 1, 2). Report for 1908 gives the total number of works sold
In Egypt it has lent important aid to the publica- during the year (other than Bibles and prayer-books)
tion work of the Church Missionary Society, period- as a little over 13,000,000. For the mission field,
icaland otherwise. Elsewhere in Africa, the mission twenty-four works were produced in London and
of the Church Missionary Society in Uganda has aid was given to thirty-two published abroad. For-
received important help, while many other missions eign publications were granted to the value of
in different parts of that continent have been helped 1,360; and the total grants of publications (ex-
to produce Christian literature in various forms or cluding half-price libraries) amounted to 5,815.
have received grants of publications from home. 8. Other Societies: The Stirling Tract Enter-
In India the work is mainly carried on through prise was originated by Peter Druinmond, of Stir-
subsidiary societies at Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, ling, in the year 1848, in order to meet a purely
Lahore, Allahabad, Kottayam, and Nagercoil, while local need. The work met with so much local suc-
help has also been given to the Christian Literature cess that it was gradually extended. The British
and Religious Tract Society of Ceylon. Grants have Messenger (formed on the model of the American
been made, as in other fields, to individual work- Messenger) was started in 1853, the Gospel Trumpet
ers among non-Christians as well as those working in 1857, and Good News in 1862. On the death of
among the British soldiers and civilians. In China, Drummond in 1877, the Enterprise passed under
as in India, the work is mainly done through the the care of a body of trustees. It now produces
subsidiary tract societies organized at Shanghai, books as well as magazines and tracts, and tracts
Hankow, Chungking, Peking, Foochow, Amoy, and are published in several continental languages as
Mukden. But here, too, individual grants arc also well as in English. The circulation amounts to
made. The society has its own agent in China for about 10,000,000 publications per annum. The
the supervision of its work, more especially for that Tract and Colportage Society of Scotland, founded
of the special China Fund started in the year 1908. in 1793, and the oldest Bible, tract, and col-
In Japan, its chief agent is the Japan Book and Tract portage agency, is rather an evangelistic and
Society, Tokyo; and in Korea the Korean Tract distributing society than a publishing house.
Society. Scarcely a year passes in which one or Its colporteurs are mainly employed in Scotland,
more new languages is not added to the society's but a few work in England. They sell the Scrip-
list, and it has already assisted to publish the Pil- tures, evangelistic literature, and wholesome publi-
grim's Progress in 112 languages and dialects. cations popular in type. There is also a depository
The missionary operations at home consist in in Edinburgh. About 700,000 tracts were distrib-
the supply of literature free, or at reduced prices, for uted in the year last reported on. The Children's
pastoral and evangelistic work, for the help of min- Special Service Mission, which began its work in
isters and students; for the encouragement of 1867 as an agency for holding seaside services for
Evangelical missions, and for the instruction of in- children, while continuing its home work, now has
mates in hospitals and other institutions. In the ten an office and missioncr in India, with native evan-
years ending 1911, a special fund of 20,000 was gelists in India, Ceylon, and Japan. Its leaflets arc
also expended in the distribution of literature more now published hi several continental languages, and
especially directed against the claims of the Church are also issued for use in China, Japan, and other
of Rome. mission-fields.
Society for Promoting: Christian Knowledge:
2. Any survey of tract work done by British socie-
This not exclusively a tract society. Founded in
is ties would be incomplete without reference to the
1698, it justly claims (Report, 1908) that its origina- Christian Literature Society for China, and the
"
tors were the first to care for settlers and colonists, Christian Literature Society for India. These or-
the heathen in India and the Mohammedans in the ganizations confine their work exclusively to the
Far East." But its grant operations have included fields stated in their titles, but, as missionary organ-
help in founding bishoprics, in aid of church build- izations, are large producers of tract and other
ing and of education, as well as in providing Chris- literature. A
fuller account of their work would
tian literature for the home and the mission fields. more properly belong to a review of missionary en-
Its constitution confines its control and its opera- terprise in these two fields. A. R. BUCKLAND.
tions to the Church of England and churches in IV. In America: Tract societies are voluntary
communion with her. For these it has been a associations of Christians to publish and circulate
Bible society, a Christian literature society, and a religious tracts, including volumes. The impor-
tract society. It has been of great help to mission- tance of adding to the influence of spoken truth
aries in its readiness to print works connected with and the permanent effectiveness of the printed page
the study of various languages used in their fields; were early felt by Christians. What a good book
in its generous provision for the printing of prayer- can do and how its influence may germinate is
books and definite church literature; and in its shown in the history of Baxter's conversion aided
aid of tract work. Its catalogue of English books by reading Dr. Gibbs's book entitled, The Bruised
is especially strong in works explaining and defend- Reed, and Baxter's instrumentality in the conver-
ing the faith and the position of the Anglican church. sion of Doddridge, by whose Rise and Progress Wil-
Great attention has been given to Christian evi- berforce was led to embrace the truth. It became
dence and to devotional literature, as well as to the evident that much good would be wrought by short!
479 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tract Societies
Social
Traotarianii

earnest! and strong tracts. Consequently efforts that the nation's greatest need is the need of the
were early made by individuals to furnish these nation's homes, and that this need lies in the ne-
cheaply in such forms and quantities that they cessity of the moral and spiritual uplift of both
could be widely diffused. parents and children unreached by saving influences.
One of the first American societies was the The one essential lesson yet to be learned is that
Connecticut Religious Tract Society at Hartford, national transformation can be effected only through
founded as early as 1808; in 1812 the New York the nation's homes. The Society, therefore, has
Religious Tract Society arose, and in 1814 the never failed to prosecute this line of work to the full-
New England Tract Society of Andover, afterward est extent of its ability, and during seventy years of
transferred to Boston, which in 1823 changed its colportage has made 17,361,611 family visits and cir-
name to the American Tract Society. The friends of culated 17,002,881 volumes. Its publications issued
thisform of Christian activity, however, were soon at the home office during eighty-four years are 456,-
convinced that the needed work could be carried 154,267 tracts, 34,206,914 volumes, and 285,634,668
forward advantageously and effectively only by a periodicals, making a grand total of 775,995,849, not
national association, centrally located, and securing including the millions of tracts published at the
the confidence and support of all Evangelical Chris- mission stations abroad by aid of the society's ap-
tians and denominations. Hence, there was organ- propriations. Its foreign work has been indispensa-
ized in May, 1825, the American Tract Society at ble through the supplying of grants in money to
New York City. The movement received general create Christian literature in the vernacular at
approval and rapidly expanded, and took rank with mission stations in the Orient. The total now
the Bible Society among the chief interdenomina- reaches $779,267.43, not including thousands
many
tional Christian charities of the nation. The socie- of dollars in electrotypes. Special mention should
ty's first publications were tracts, and at the end be made of the publication of Christian literature in
of two years volumes were issued; hand-bills, leaf- Benga, Bulu, Buluba-Lulua, Fan, Umbundu, and
lets, Christian tracts, illustrated cards, wall-rolls, Mpongwe for missionary work in Africa, and the
etc., followed in quick succession. Publications much-needed literature in the Portuguese language.
have been issued in 174 languages, dialects, and The gratuitous distribution of literature has reached
characters. two and a half millions of dollars, more than
Its publications are for all ages and classes, and $30,000 worth being sometimes distributed in a
treat all ordinary phases of truth and duty. As single year. The society has issued over 300 distinct
early as 1843 the publication of periodicals began. publications in Spanish, which have been indispens-
These have varied in number from time to time able in successfully prosecuting missionary work in
The American Messenger, Amerikanischer Botschafter t all Spanish-speaking countries. Its operations arc
Apples of Gold, and Manzanas DC Oro being the peri- directed by an executive committee, composed of
odicals now issued. The society furnishes large constituent committees, known as publishing, dis-
quantities of its publications either gratuitously or tributing, and finance, six members each. The pub-
at reduced prices in order to aid missionaries and lishing committee represents six different denom-
Christian workers in their efforts to reform and save. inations, which assures the interdenominational
Its publications go to soldiers, sailors, to freedmen character of its publications, and the action of its
and immigrants, to hospitals, prisons and asylums, committee must be unanimous. There is one gen-
to neody mission-churches and Sunday-schools, to eral secretary with assistants and helpers to carry
the destitute and neglected in cities, and throughout forward the work.
the entire country. The society's work is wholly dependent upon
A large number of colporteurs have been employed donations and legacies. It makes an earnest ap-
to visit from house to house, supplying some of its peal to all people for sufficient offerings to carry the

publications to all, either by sale or grant, conversing Gospel truth into every non-Christian home through-
with the household, holding meetings for prayer, and out the land. The Western Tract Society of Cin-
organizing Sunday-schools. The importance, neces- cinnati (1851) cooperates with the American Tract
sity,and efficiency of this plan of evangelization has Society of New York. JUDSON SWIFT.
been only partially recognized. The time undoubt- BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature ia to be Bought in the Re-
edly must come when it will be fully understood ports, etc., of the different societies.

TRACTARIANISM.
I. Preliminary Influences. m. Puseyism. Practical Influences (f 1).
II. The Tractarian Development. Doctrinal Controversy ( 1). Doctrine; The Church (f 2).
The Oxford Group ( 1). Papal Interference ( 2). Apostolic Succession (f 3).
The Tracts ( 2). IV. Ritualism. The Sacraments; Baptism (| 4).
John Henry Newman ( 3). V. The Ecclesiastical Services of The Real Presence (f 6).
Repression ( 4). Oxford Movement. Sacred Art (J 6).

By Tractarianism commonly understood the

is such as the conversion of the creedal faith into de-
ecclesiastical-theological movement starting out vout mysticism, and an inner approximation to
from Oxford hi 1833 and profoundly affecting the Roman Catholic principles. Following its course hi
Church of England. It was an effort to overcome the three forms of Tractarianism, Puseyism, and
the religious decline of the beginning of the eight- Ritualism, the new movement turned, on the basis
eenth century not by recourse to the deeper native of the Old Anglican theology, against the voiding
resources, but to th$ older ecclesiastical traditions} of valuable religious assets, undertaken
by the ag-
Traotarlanlnn THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 480

gressive liberalism of the time, and against the en- came power and, hi deference to a violent na-
in
croachments of the State upon the rights of the tionaldemand, proceeded to press the parliamen-
Church. Theologically, it was an attempted an- tary reforms against the house of lords and the
swer to the inquiry concerning the nature of the bishops. They succeeded in transferring appeals in
Church and its attributes. Practically, itwas an from a spiritual court nominated
ecclesiastical cases
effort worthily to constitute the Christian life, and by the king to a lay committee of the privy council,
to elevate divine worship. whereby the voice of the bishops was silenced also
L Preliminary Influences: The English Refor- in parliament and in the higher instance of the
mation of the sixteenth century had been political privy council even on fundamental church questions.
and ecclesiastical rather than religious. Deism two The doom of the Established Church was not only
centuries later was sterile and depressing upon in- announced in parliament, but the passion of the
tellectual life in the Church. John Wesley and the populace vented various acts of violence in
itself in

Evangelical movement exerted a great redeeming London and The drift away from the
elsewhere.
power; however, their emotional one-sidedness church spread over all the land. The Reform Bill
forestalled the requisite influence upon the eccle- had placed the power in the hands of those most
siastical theology. The undercurrent in the change inimical to the church and most friendly toward
of ideas which now set in was due to the idealism of dissent. The Church of England, it was said, was
Kant, Fichte, Coleridge, and Carlyle. A part of the about to wrap itself in its shroud to die with dig-
wave of liberation which swept over Europe in the nity. The climax for a final rally to resistance was
eighteenth century meant the annihilation of eccle- reached when the parliament of 1833 abolished
siastical despotism and the rising desire for the sep- one-half of the bishoprics of Ireland, professedly as
aration of Church and State, even a menace to the an act of justice.
place of the Church itself. This was attended by a n. The Tractarian Development: This counter-
reaction on the soil of romanticism that rallied to movement came forth from Oxford, the High-
the aid of the Church. Everywhere in Europe the church citadel. The call proceeded from Oriel Col-
order was the same; the hunger for freedom, which lege, where, under the guidance of Richard Whately
promised to make the individual absolutely self- (q.v.), of young men, including Thomas
a group
dependent, turned into doubt and philosophic an- Arnold, R. D. Hampden, J. H. New-
guish,and resulted for many in the swallowing up of i. The man, R. H. Fronde, John Keblo, and
personality by the strongly authoritative spirit-life Oxford E. B. Pusey (qq.v.), had become, as it
of the Roman Catholic Church. This gave rise in Group. were, tho spiritual leaders of the uni-
England to the new ecclesiastical devotion of the versity. The attacks of Whately on
cultured. Following the tide back to nature which the orthodox doctrines of election and justification,
had borne along Wordsworth and Shelley, Walter and the theses of Arnold affirming the idea of a
Scott's revival of medieval romanticism included national church, in which tho distinction between
its picturesque piety and ecclesiastical enthusiasm. clericals and laity would be obliterated, and wLich
In Samuel Taylor Coleridge (q.v.), defender of the relegated dogma, ritual, and organization to second-
faith of the Church against rationalistic voidance, ary importance, broke the group into two camps.
and advocate for the freer establishment of the The right wing of Keble, Froude, Newman, and
traditional theology, the two tendencies which Pusey forthwith espoused a church reform looking
marked the English theology of the early nineteenth for relief beyond the sixteenth century. About
century were as yet combined. A new valuation this time Newman returned from a trip to the Medi-
came to be placed by the English national spirit, terranean, Rome, and Paris in the ferment of al-
particularly at Cambridge, upon the heritage of the tering views. Breaking with Whately and even
Church, that of faith exercised in love. Creed made with the High-church Edward Hawkins, to whom
way for personal faith; sacrament for preaching. he owed his teachings of baptismal regeneration
The dividing-line between state church and dissent and Apostolic Succession (q.v.; see also SUCCES-
became dim, and the sole right of the state church SION, APOSTOLIC), he reentered Oriel, now more
as such came into question. With the beginning of congenial to him, and became more and more op-
the third decade, the ecclesiastical-political liberal- posed to his old friends, the Evangelicals. Herein
ism, following in the wake of the individualism of he was aided by his close association with Froude,
the French Revolution, endeavored to enforce its from 1826, the fanatical protagonist of the new
demands for freedom and equality. Leading the High-church ideas. The most gifted of the Oxford
attacks on the historic rights of the Established circle, intolerant and uncompromising, and pos-
Church by means of parliamentary measures was sessing an ardent passion for truth and an ascetic
the ministry of John Russell, which represented the purity of life, Froude had early seen the impossibility
principle of freedom of conscience in the repeal of of reaching the truth by reason alone, and had
the Test Act (q.v.). This meant not only the ad- consequently turned to the Church. Reverting to
mission of Non-conformists (q.v.) to parliament, the past, he was repelled by the subjectivity of the
but their participation in measures
ecclesiastical advocates of the Reformation of the sixteenth cen-
and reforms. The following year (1829) Robert
Sir tury, kindling particularly in his Remains (London,
Peel, to pacify Ireland, introduced the Roman Cath- 1838) his fevered animosity against it. Turning
olic relief bill despite High-church opposition. Re- first to his own church of the period of Laud, he
form of the Church or disestablishment was generally presently passed to the medieval Roman Church as
expected as a consequence of political reform. Still the standard and type of all others, by its " always,
more perilous became the situation when the Whigs "
everywhere! and by all and doctrinal fulness. In
481 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA TraotarUnim

England he hoped for a restoration of the Roman as Oxford. The method must be by tracts or
Church with a revival of medieval piety, fasting, pamphlets, the favorite form of religious propa-
good works, asceticism, celibacy, and the virgin ganda in that country. As history
cult. To this end he advocated the separation of a. The proved, Newman was the one pecul-
Church and State. As late as the beginning of the Tracti. iarly gifted to prepare the brief theo-
fourth decade, Froude held reunion with Rome logical reviews. Of his own accord he
possible and desirable, but his journey to Rome issued Tract 1 (Sept. 9, 1833), followed by eighty-
changed his view and convinced him that the Ro- nine others (seventy before Nov., 1835) under the
man Church likewise must be transformed to the title of Tracts for the Times (6 vols., Oxford, 1833-
model of the primitive Church. The spirit of a man 1841). These, seldom over eight or ten pages in
who hated Protestantism and combated Rome, a length, treated primarily of organization, discipline,
Roman Catholic without a pope, and an Anglican and worship, of the nature of the Church and her re-
without Protestantism, yet was the prophetic ante- lation to the primitive Church, on historic objections
cedent of the Tractarian system in all its phases. to the privileges, doctrines, and liturgy of the Angli-
On their return from the south of Europe, Froude can Church, her forms of prayer and her burial serv-
and Newman found Oriel in ferment. John Keble, ice, proposed changes in the liturgy, lax discipline,
then a member of Oriel and a man of deep piety and andthe needs of the individual churches. The Ro-
gentleness, had published his famous Christian man Catholic problem, however, had not yet become
Year (1827), a collection of poems which profoundly prominent. Newman was the author of nos. 1, 2, 6-8,
influenced Newman, who about this time broke 10, 11, 19-21, 34, 38, 41, 45, 47, 71, 73, 75, 82, 83, 85,
with Whately. On the Sunday after Newman's 88, and 90. Next to him was Keble, and then Pusey
return Keble preached before the university the (no. 18, on fasting; nos. 40, 67-69, on baptism);
Assize Sermon, published under the title On the Froude contributed but one (no. 63). The Tracts
National Apostasy, which became the alarm-cry were supplemented, after 1833, by a series of ex-
for the assembling of the associates. A few days tracts from such Church Fathers as Ignatius, Jus-
later Hugh James Rose, rector of Hadleigh, Suf- tin, and Irenaeus, prepared by the other Oxford
folk,of his own accord, invited Froude, William leaders under the title Records of the Church; while
Palmer, and A. P. Perceval to the famous Hadleigh in 1838 Pusey, Keble, Newman, and Charles Mar-
Conference to consider the best means to avert the riott began a translation of all the Fathers, which
threatening liberalizing dangers. Keble and New- appeared as the Library of tft& Fathers of the Holy
man, though invited, were unable to be present. Catholic Church, Anterior to the Division of the East
The result of the conference was the formation of and West (50 vols., 1838-85). All three works were
the Association of Friends of the Church, and polemical, and passed beyond the initiative of Keble
Palmer was directed to frame two addresses to the and Rose, in demanding not only religious but
primate, Archbishop Howley, one of which, within ecclesiastical and ecclesiastico-political reform, the
a few weeks, was signed by 7,000 clergy (more than return development of the present Church to the
half the total number in the country) and the other Church of the first three centuries, before the rise
(drawn up by Joshua Watson) by 230,000 heads of the cult of images, angels and saints, purgatory,
of households. The Scottish and American episco- transubstantiation, the restriction of the cup to the
pates likewise subscribed, and the former requested clergy, auricular confession, indulgences, and papal
archiepiscopal sanction, though in vain. The only infallibility. By Newman's presentation of the doc-
point of difference was that of the separation of trine of the visible Church as the source of all spir-
Church and State, which Keble and Froude strongly itual giftsand the channel of all grace, set forth in
urged, while Newman wavered. In the interests of the teaching and usage of the early English Church,
peace the point was not debated. Early in Septem- the Tracts at first gained a most cordial welcome, fur-
ber Keble set forth the program of the new move- nishing the bishops with the argument of divine right
ment as follows: (1) the sole way to salvation is to through apostolic succession, in their struggle with
eat the flesh and drink the blood of Christ; (2) the parliament, and the High-churchmen with a weapon
means ordained is the Holy Eucharist; (3) the right against Evangelicals and Dissenters. Later Tracts,
administration of the sacrament is guaranteed by however, began to exceed the demand for the resto-
the apostolic commission given to bishops and ration of the system represented by the great An-
priests; (4) all possible means must be taken to im- glican divines of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-
press and perpetuate the inestimable prerogative turies, and were deemed suspiciously akin to Roman
of communion with the Lord through the succes- Catholic tenets, by their fogging of words and ideas
sors of the apostles, to strive for daily communion and submerged sense becoming transparent (see
and worship and oppose every al-
in the churches, below, High-church Doctrines). The Evangelical
teration of the established liturgy. This was fol- organ, The Christian Observer, clearly perceived the
lowed by The Churchman's Manual (Oxford, 1834) issue and began battle against the manifest tendency
by Perceval, as the expression of the conservatives. toward Rome. The old popular cry of the eighteenth
"
A new phase opened with the tracts undertaken century, no popery," resounded again from press
by Newman, fixing a name upon the entire devel- and thoroughfare.
opment. Newman was averse to organisation and In reply Newman, undisputed leader from 1834,
committees, preferring a wide popular movement came forward (Tracts 38, 41) with his doctrine of
stirred by personal sacrifice. The fitting points of the via media. He maintained that it was the glory
dissemination were the universities, centers of in- of the Anglican Church to have taken the middle
tellectual and religious influence in England, such course between the so-called Reformation and
XI. 31
Timotariani mm THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 48ft

Roman Catholicism. The later English Church had senting the native national faith. Meanwhile the
fallen from the faith the sixteenth century, had
of-' Tracts pursued this tendency, leaving behind the
disregarded the Prayer-Book, neg- via media. Tract 75 recommended the Roman
3. John lected the sacraments, and forsaken Breviary as a book of devotion, and in Tracts SO,
Henry the church discipline. The teaching of 87 Isaac Williams advocated the doctrine of reser-
Newman, the apostles and the early Church was vation, holding that the holiest subjects should not
the rule of faith, not the Thirty-nine be discussed before every one and on every occa-
Articles, which were no more than protests against sion. Such reserve had been observed by Christ
grots errors. As the first Reformation retained the and the apostles; and the indiscriminating revela-
principles of the ancient Church shorn of their un- tion of all truths of doctrine before the indifferent
sound accretions, so now the Thirty-nine Articles and unbelieving, like the general distribution of
were not to bo revolutionized, but interpreted, Bibles and tracts, was to be rejected as contrary to
amended, and amplified, and the fundamental esoteric Christianity. Religious truth was revealed

primitive ideas at their basis were to be revived only to obedient faith, not to speculative investiga-
and further unfolded, as an effective protest tion; and religious character was formed by the
against the amalgamation of Church and State discipline of the Church, not by preaching, study,
and the modern latitudinarianism. Alas, how- or piety of life. In Tract 89 Keble defended the
ever, the via media was nothing else than the old mystical exegesis of Scripture employed by pa-
road to Rome and proved repugnant specially to tristic allegory, and in Tract 90 Newman, with a
the religious sensibility of the nation. The first subtle sophistication and legal dialectic, advanced
blow was dealt by Hampden in 1834, demanding the view that Roman Catholic convictions did not
that subscription to the Thirty-nine Articles by preclude subscription to the Thirty-nine Articles.
members of the university be dispensed with. The problem was not what the Articles teach, but
Newman, supported by High - churchmen and what they do not reject. What the authors had in
Evangelicals alike, violently opposed the recom- mind is immaterial, for they are no authorities.
mendation, which the university declined. When Thus the Articles were neither refuted, attacked,
two years later Hampden was appointed regius nor was their binding authority denied; but the
professor of divinity, the Tractarians again assailed meaning of their accessories was skilfully changed,
him, charging that he was a freethinker. He was, and they were supplemented from what they did
accordingly, condemned by the heads of the col- not state. The supplements were strained to prove
leges with a vote of no confidence, but the two that the Articles were directed purely against doc-
proctors of the university vetoed the condemna- trinal opinions and not against the essential im-
tion. At the same time Thomas Arnold, the leader port, and under this view subscription was to be
of the liberal theology at Oxford, sided with Hamp- permissive. This tract marked Newman's inner
den, and brought the menace to freedom of con- break with his Church.
science to the attention of the lay public, with the All Oxford was in commotion, the friends of the
result that in press and pamphlet the dissimulated movement rejoicing that Roman tenets could find
"
aims of the " Malignants and " Oxford Conspira- place in the Anglican Church, and its foes filled with
tors," were held up to public opprobrium. A tre- indignation that the Thirty-nine Articles, the chief
mendous gain was made when, in the latter part of bulwark of the English Church against Rome, were
1834, Pusey, one of the most distinguished profes- broken down. The terror spread over the whole
sors of the university, finally gave the weight and country, and the old cry of malignancy or moral
influence of his name to the party composed hither- depravity was again raised. Both
to of young men. A power in high ecclesiastical 4. Repres- sides urged that the matter be decided,
circles, a scholar of renown, and descendant of a sion. and finally, in the middle of March,
noble house with wide social connections, he was 1841, the vice-chancellor, heads of col-
eminently fitted for leadership
by character, serv- leges, and proctors declared their condemnation of
ices, and position. The effort
became an organ- the Tracts. Bishop Bagot, of Oxford, hitherto well
ized movement and the adherents were from this disposed toward the Tractarians, likewise wrote
time styled Puseyites. Moderated zeal, dignity, and Newman that Tract 90 was offensive and perilous
discreetness in scientific presentation took the place to the peace of the Church, and that the series could
of the extravagances and vagaries of the earlier not be continued. To the authority of his bishop
tracts. His Scriptural Views on Holy Baptism Newmann yielded. The unity of the Oxford school
(Tracts 67-f>9; 1835) was a solid doctrinal treatise was broken by the stern consequences of Tract 90,
instead of a series of flighty appeals; and the and in the summer of 1841 Newman, feeling that
Catena patrum (nos. 71, 76, 78, 81) was designed to the Tractarian cause was defeated, and convinced
prove .the historic continuity and the authority of that he must seek peace and truth elsewhere, re-
the early Church. The Roman Catholic Church was tired to Littlemore. The proposed Anglo-Prus-
not to be declined as such, since its doctrines were sian bishopric of Jerusalem brought the struggle
Scriptural and not contrary to the Thirty-nine within him to an end, and in 1845 he entered the
Articles, but because it had violated the spirit of Church of Rome. Individual conversions to the
the Gospel, and had been materialized by the lust Roman Catholic Church had begun in 1840, and in
for power. On the other side the matter hi hand 1842 the real exodus commenced. The more mod-
was not Romanism, nor even reformulation, but erate drew back, others modified their views by ex-
simply the recognition and securing of the Anglican cluding Romanizing ideas, and others still sought
doctrine and cult, in their pristine purity, as repre- peace in labors in country parishes. W. G. Ward,
488 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA TraotarianUm

"
the fanatical advocate of private judgment/' until approval of convocation, then in abeyance, an act
he followed Newman in 1845, led the extreme right, of parliament in 1832 transferred the jurisdiction
Keble and Williams the right center, and Perceval of the delegates to the privy council, and in the
the left. The leadership of the Oxford Movement, following year to a committee of the privy council,
as a whole, however, devolved, after 1841, on Pusey, the judicial committee, a purely civil body whose
partly in consequence of the need of giving a scien- members were not necessarily drawn from the
tific and historical basis to the concepts of the clergy. Pusey, deeply incensed, threatened the sep-
Tractarians to remedy the weakness resulting from aration of Church and State, and he and his follow-
their loss of unity. ers, including Manning, Keble, and the bishops of
HI. Pusey ism: The second period of the Oxford Oxford, London, and Salisbury, showed their disap-
Movement was characterized, 1840-00, by the proval by the sensational dedication of the Church
scientific foundation of the system, and, 1860-70, of St. Barnabas with the display of a considerable
by the struggle for the recognition of Roman pomp. Throughout the country associa-
z. Doctrinal Anglo-Catholic doctrine and liturgy in tions were formed for the defense of the church,
Controversy, the Established Church. Under Pusey's supported by Non-tractarians and Tractarians alike.
guidance the movement assumed more A second exodus to Rome began, including H. E.
moderate forms, and, gradually leaving dogmatics, Manning (q.v.), R. J. Wilberforce, H. Dodsworth
zealously advocated the use of older rituals, closely (Pusey's assistant), and sixty members of a single
akin to the Roman, and in the effect of which some London church (from 1833 to 1876, 385 clergy).
rather precipitately with Carlyle foresaw the disso- In the latter part of August more than 600 High-
lution of the State Church. The rejection by Ox- churchmen, many of them belonging to distin-
" "
ford of Ward's advocacy of the non-natural sense guished families, migrated to New Zealand, that
of the Articles upon individual conjecture was a they might realize their ideal in the Canterbury
decisive blow to the Tractarians; a result was that Settlement.
some retired, and others went over to the opposi- A deep sense of fear and hope seized the nation,
tion, thus swelling the High-church nucleus. About like the presentiment of an impending fate, threat-
150 clerics, among them F. W. Faber (q.v.), and ening, perhaps, a transformation of the religious and
distinguished laymen followed into the Roman moral conditions of life, when, suddenly, in Oct.,
Catholic Church in 1845-46. On this turn of events 1850, the news came to England that Pius IX., in
followed energetic efforts to effect Romanizing con- private consistory, had created the Vicar Apostolic
sec juences also in the matter of ritual; namely, to Wiseman cardinal and archbishop of Westminster,
replace the wooden communion-table with the and had provided England with a Ro-
stone altar, and, against the spirit if not the letter 2. Papal man Catholic hierarchy of twelve dio-
of the English Prayer-Book, to introduce crucifixes, Inter- ceses.The land echoed with agitation
candles, the piscina, and the like ; and as the Anglo- ference. and protests, demanding national
Catholic leaders stood by without protest, the old interference and forcing the Tracta-
" "
cry of no popery arose again. While on the rians to declare against the hierarchy, while Lord
one hand the Evangelicals were driven to closer Russell, who could not but regard the reestablish-
union, the spread of this movement not only over ment of Roman Catholicism in England as a result
England but into Wales and Scotland threatened of his Roman Catholic emancipation, attempted to
the disorganization of the State Church. The doc- meet the papal advance by the futile Ecclesiastical
trinal battles, beginning with 1847, turned upon the Titles Act of Feb., 1851. A scries of High-church
Holy Church Catholic and
essential character of the bishops, like Pusey himself, opposed the Roman
its and whether the doctrines
relation to the State, presumption sharply. The restoration of convoca-
of the same are adequately reflected in creed and tion, at first declined by the government, was
catechism to answer the necessity of the times. In granted in 1852, at least so far as the permission to
Dec., 1847, the prime minister, Lord Russell, ap- receive petitions was concerned, which served as a
pointed Hampden to the diocese of Hereford. He first step toward its complete reestablishment.
was accused by his old opponents of holding un- This was the first triumph for the Oxford movement,
sound doctrines, was opposed by them and thirteen which subsequently, by the pure separation of the
bishops, and rejected by the dean and the chapter, powers of Church and State, proved a great benefit
but was triumphantly sustained by the Court of to both. In the Denison controversy, it did not
Queen's Bench. The Gorham Case (q.v.), which, in fare so well. G. A. Denison (q.v.), archdeacon of
contradiction of the Thirty-nine Articles, involved Taunton, was accused of teaching the real presence
the denial of spiritual regeneration in connection by virtue of consecration. A decision against him
with baptism, despite the remonstrance of Bishops by the archbishop's court was reversed by the Ju-
Philpotts and Blomfield and of more than 1,500 dicial Committee on a formal technicality.* The
distinguished clergy and laymen, representing the verdict of the archbishop's commission, however,
Tractarian trend, resulted in the assertion of the denied the Tractarian claim to read between the
final authority of the crown (the lay instance of lines of the Thirty-nine Articles and appeal to the
the privy council) in matters purely ecclesiastical. Fathers of the English Church. Thus, a second
[Gorham and his Evangelical supporters maintained time, the contention nearest to the heart of Trac-
that his denial of baptismal regeneration was in tarianism, the independent jurisdiction of the
accord with the letter and the spirit of the Thirty- Church over its own affairs, was set at naught by
nine Articles, and in this contention they were the interference of the highest temporal court, a
sustained by the courts. A. H. N.] Without the blow from which, on the dogmatic side, the Oxford
TraotaxianiBin THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 484

movement never recovered. From about I860, the former. In 1862 was founded the Confrater-
therefore, it turned into the channels of ritualism, nity of the Blessed Sacrament, with its thousands
IV. Ritualism: See separate article, RITUALISM. of members, including bishops, priests, and laity,
V. The Ecclesiastical Services of the Oxford Move- leagued for the ritual adornment of the services
ment: So long as the Oxford School preserved and the churches, fasting, prayers for the dead,
its prime object in its original purity, the war upon the exaltation of the Eucharist, and daily confession
a liberalism which sought to encroach upon the and mass. The Association for Promoting the
rights of the church to control its own affairs, it was Unity of Christendom, whose membership is not
a power hi the national church; but Newman's published, seeks the reunion of the Anglican, Ro-
subtle dialectic proved fatal to further man, and Greek communions; and there are, be-
x. Prac-development, the Puseyites gained a fu- sides, the Order of Corporate Reunion, which re-
tical In- tile triumph in the vain battle against ordains the clergy of the State Church and holds
fluence. a state power of splendid heritage, and the Roman pope to be the first bishop and visible
the ritualists diverted their strength head of the Church, the Gild of All Souls, the Alcuin
in their special aim. Though stirring the English Club, and the Church Extension Association. The
Church profoundly, yet in theological science, dog- English Church Union has The Church Union Ga-
matic, historical, and excgetical, it proved lament- zette, The Church Times, and The Church Review,
ably fruitless. It, however, paved the way for as organs for the public defense and promotion of
patristics in Pusey's Library of the Fathers (ut sup.) the Anglo-Catholic cause. To these agencies must
followed by Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology (89 be added the network of gilds, orders, brotherhoods,
vols., Oxford, 1841 sqq.), consisting of the writings and sisterhoods, among them the English Bene-
of fifty-six great Anglicans of the school of Laud. dictines, the founder of whom, Father Ignatius
"
Both works being " tendency productions, they (see LYNB, JOSEPH LBYCESTER) founded a monas-
can not be regarded as scientific contributions. tery in Wales for the training of missioners; and
Unquestioned results, however, stand to the credit the English Order of St. Augustine, preparing candi-
of the Anglo-Catholics in the field of practical the- dates for ordination in strict seclusion and disci-
ology. They succeeded where the first Oxford pline. The sisterhoods, of which the first was es-
movement of Wesley and Whiteficld had failed, viz., tablished by Pusey, devote themselves to the care
in converting the torpid church into a vital national of the sick and now control nearly all the great
power. Methodism the church expelled; Anglican- hospitals of London, aided by the money and the
ism it could not shake off. To the Oxford move- services of thousands of women of the upper and
ment is due largely the awakening in the Established middle classes.
Church of profound devotion to the Catholic Church Absorbed in ecclesiastical antiquity, where of
of the Fathers, which was abundantly fruitful in necessity it planted its main standard of apostolic
modern labors of love. Its crowning merit is the succession, and proceeding no further than the
revived church spirit in the Establishment. By revival and adaptation of the body
fifty years of labor in the cure of souls, its represent- 2. Doctrine; of dogmas of the sixteenth and seven-
atives created a new epoch. Not only have they The teenth centuries, the Oxford movement
won many of the higher circles that had become Church, added no new thoughts and revealed no
estranged from the Church, but by their unselfish new facts or laws. Purely historical,
work among the poor, the sick, and the outcast, the it owed a great deal of its impetus to the contem-
lower levels of society, too, were induced to love porary rise of scientific historical method and, by
the Church. They built hospitals, asylums, schools, its doting upon the past, contributed no little to the
and missions; to them are due nine new English revival of romanticism. Without a creed or doc-
dioceses; and the number of foreign sees under the trinal writings of its own, except those of the An-
archbishop of Canterbury rose from 23 in 1877 glican Church, and having for its objects of conten-
to 170 in 1900. In London and throughout Eng- tion far-reaching fundamentals affecting the right
land model parishes arose in which this new energy of ecclesiastical autonomy and outlying ritualistic
flourished, and developed a multiple variety of adjustments rather than specific dogmas, it is dif-
philanthropic organization and effort, flowing even ficult properly to present its teaching. To the pri-
beyond parish boundaries. All these agencies are the vate Tractarian literature, predominantly ascetic,
result of an organization which, rivaling in refine- belong, J. Purchas* Directorium Anglicanum (Lon-
ment that of the Roman Catholic Church, scarcely don, 1858; 4th enlarged ed., by F. G. Lee, 1879);
has its like in
anything else in all practical England. T. T. Carter's Treasury of Devotion (London, 1869);
The center of this organization, which embraces William Gresley's Ordinance of Confession (Lon-
Great Britain and the colonies, is the priestly don, 1851); The People's Hymnal (1867) by R. F.
Society of the Holy Cross, founded in 1853, but Littledale; besides a formidable array of breviaries,
known publicly only since 1873. Its work, which is manuals, and ordinances, to be treated with pre-
carried on secretly, is to supervise home and foreign caution against their subjective, unwholesome modes
missions, questions of ritual, the distribution of of thought. A picture of the Tractarian teaching in
.

tracts and books of devotion, the confessional, outline therefore narrows itself to the deviations
public assemblies, and gilds and societies. The from the Thirty-nine Articles, and a consensus of
Cowley Fathers (Society of St. John the Evangel- the promulgations of the Oxford .school; namely,
ist; see PBOTBBTANT EPISCOPALIANS, II., J 7), who on the sources of religious knowledge, the means of
work among the imperiled and Protestants, and grace, the Church, the apostolic succession, the
are bound by the triple vow, seem to be allied to real presence, and the derivative ideas from these
485 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Traotarlanioia

subjects. The absolute truth is given objectively; tial significance (Froude). Whoever is not a link
the function of thought or spirit is not speculative in this chain has no right either to the office or to
inquiry but the interpretation of authoritative dog- the administration of the sacrament. Inasmuch as
ma given by the primitive Church. The Scriptures the commission of Christ alone gives efficacy to
are held in a general sense only to be the rule of Word and sacrament, this teaching leads further to
faith; but they require exegesis because of their the doctrine of the sole and necessary mediatorship
manifold meaning, and supplementing because of of the priesthood between Christ and believers, and
their incompleteness. Valuable for right doctrine, to the distinction between the clergy and the laity.
they contain practically nothing concerning church The Oxford school sought to demonstrate also the
discipline, liturgy, and government, and must be historical continuity of the State Church from the
explained by which preceded the New
tradition, apostles. The proof \n individual detail being re-
Testament and formed the canon. They must be linquished as impossible, it was replaced, histori-
supplemented by the uniform consensus of the cally, by the argument of probability found to be
Fathers, the Roman Catholic bishops, and the ecu- in the ratio of 8,000 to one, and dogmatically by
menical councils. For example, the witness of the Newman's theory of knowledge, that theoretical,
entire Church at Nicroa determined the doctrine of inadequate probability becomes certainty by the
the Trinity as true according to Scripture for the supplement of the assumption of faith. Admitting
entire Church, whether understood or not. Tho that away from the proofs of reason and the facts of
Church is the sole divinely appointed authority for history and experience, the argument of emotional
the interpretation of the Scriptures, the mediator probability lends itself alike to faith and supersti-
of the doctrine and grace of the sacraments, and tion, Newman finally converts it to one of positive
the total organic spring and norm of all its activ- authority, construing I Cor. xi. 23-24 in the sense
ities in liturgy, organization, and discipline. Pre- that Christ conferred on the disciples as priests the
sented as the original, generic, prophetic type, the gift of consecration. Linking this with the pro-
Church is to be an object, like Word and sacrament, motion of Titus and Timothy as bishops and the
of reverent awe, the absolute foundation of all truth, episcopate in the primitive Church, he thought that
even in the deeper mysteries and symbolic inter- he had established the absolute necessity of episco-
pretations in which the entire teaching is not al- pal consecration, falling back on the authority of the
ways revealed, thus loading, among the more ad- Church where Scripture was insufficient. To sum
vanced wing, to a distinction between exoteric and up, the sacrament is the material principle to
esoteric truth. Established on the apostolic foun- which the Church is the correlate means or formal
dation in faith and practise, the Church is the source principle, representing the mediatorship of Christ.
of grace for all ages. This grace is communicated Fundamental and supreme is the principle of the
alone through the objective power of the sacra- sacrament as the sole means of saving grace. The
ments. The only way to salvation is through the visible Church assures participation in the invisible,
acceptance of the Eucharist, the efficacy of which and without the former thorp is no salvation; but,
depends on its ministration by the priest in virtue in turn, the essential mark of the true Church, in-
of his power derived by the succession of the bish- clusive of catholicity, apostolicity, and autonomy,
ops from the apostles, whereby the perpetuation is the apostolic succession. Hence the Anglican is
and right dispensation of the sacrament are guar- the most perfect on earth. The Roman Catholic
anteed. has the apostolic communion but has departed from
This doctrine of the apostolic succession was the apostolic tradition (papal power and infallibil-
central to all the factions of the movement in com- ity). The Greek Church has preserved this com-
mon, from its inception to its ultimate issues. Pro- munion and doctrine more purely. Other episcopal
nounced the arch-pillar of the priestly office, the churches, beside the Anglican, are healthy branches,
defense against the encroachment of while the non-episcopal churches, or sects, are am-
3. Apostolic the power of the State upon the Church putated limbs, which may have retained the apos-
Succession, made it of necessity the ecclesiastical tolic teaching or not, yet possess no apostolic office
bulwark. Assumed to be implied in and no means of salvation.
the ancient Anglican formula of ordination, it was The sacramental doctrine of the Oxford move-
brought to the front by the Tractarians in their re- ment starting upon the basis of the Anglican Con-
sistance to the State. The gift depends on the lay- fession is an attempt to extend and deepen the
ing on of hands and not on any formula attending Roman Catholic by strong emphasis upon regenera-
the act, nor is it necessarily involved in the over- tion. To the Calvinistic conception denned in the
seeing function of the episcopate, seeing that the catechism, that the sacraments are effectual testi-
apostles conferred it upon priests and deacons also. monies of divine grace, was opposed that they were
Therefore, to avoid, hi consequence of this state- the channels which conduct divine grace to the soul,
ment, the claim advanced by non-episcopal com- closed by unbelief and opened by faith. Both sacra-
munions, the Oxford school maintained that history ments are essentially one, natural man being regen-
shows that from the apostolic age to the Refor- erated through baptism, and this new
mation, and from that time hi all true churches, 4. The life being developed by the Eucharist,
ordination has been given by bishops. Nor is this Sacraments; so that, as Pusey and Newman state,
succession merely a following in preaching, minis- Baptism, they form the eole means or rites of
tration of the sacraments, and the power of the justification for atonement. Those
keys, but a holy gift (Keble), preserved through who allege that the new spiritual life is due to the
time by the apostolic succession alone and its essen- act of faith, not to the gift of God in the sacrament*
Tractarianimm THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 486
Tradition

are met by the declaration of the objective reality To him all centers upon the consecration, com-
of grace in the sacrament (ex opere operate). Peni- mitted by Christ to authorized persons, through
tent faith that justifies is a divine act in the sub- the apostolic commission to the bishops and under
ject,impotent without prevenient and cooperating them to the priests. Without the act of the right
grace. Man is justified before works, but potentially priest there is no consecration and no sacrament.
the future new obedience is contained through the It is the Roman conception and the sacrament is
grace of God
in the justifying faith. God gives an opus operatum. As to the manner, most of the
eternal according to one's works and not as a
life Tractarians represent a consubstantiation or con-
free gift according to his good pleasure. The An- junction of the elements with the body and blood
glican Confession had represented baptism as a of Christ objectively created by Christ's words of
testimony invariably associated with profession consecration. In view of the thorough adherence
and regeneration, but prominent theologians of to the real objective presence in the elements, this
the State Church, under the influence of the West- consubstantiation can be regarded only in the sense
minster Confession, had departed from this teach- of transubstantiation, though in a more refined and
ing, holding that the baptism of the Spirit was spiritual way, as also Newman would have it. The
restricted to the elect, not in virtue of the sacra- doctrine of the real presence develops into the fur-
"
mental act, but of the absolute decree," while the ther concept of the Eucharist as a sacrifice. This
non-elect were merely sprinkled with water. In the is not, however, a repetition of the sacrifice on the

Gorham Case the judicial committee has declared cross, for Christ was sacrificed once for all time, but
this modification admissible, despite the Tractarian by the sacrifice at the altar are appropriated the for-
protests. I*usey opposed the new construction on giveness of sins and the justification and reception
the basis of John iii. 5; Titus iii. 5; I John iii. 9; of the sinner in the sight of God, rendered possible
I Pet. i. 23, as well as a strong array of patristic and by the sacrifice on Calvary. This is involved in the
creedal authority. Regeneration is instantaneous larger thesis that not only is Christ offered as the
with baptism, by an act of God, contrary to the subject of the sacrament, but the Church as the
opinion of Evangelical parties that it takes place mystical body is included. The Eucharist, there-
through the life of repentance, faith, prayer, and fore, represents the offered collective Church and
love. Several in the heat of emphasis, like New- Christ, as well as the offering Christ and mystical
man, Ward, and Carter, advanced to extremes with body, the Church. Finally, from the doctrine of
difficulty to be distinguished from the Roman Cath- the real presence followed the conclusion, on the
olic; while admitting imputation in baptism, they one hand, upon the objective real efficacy of the
laid main stress on the infusion of the Holy Spirit. Eucharist, when it came to be generally held that
According to the Thirty-nine Articles, the Eu- not only the elements, but also the present Christ
charist is not only a token of love among Christians, is received by worthy and unworthy alike, by the
but a sacrament of redemption by Christ's death former to salvation and the latter to damnation.
(xxviii.); the body of Christ is given and eaten in On the other hand, the doctrine led to the adora-
a heavenly and spiritual manner by tion of the body and blood of Christ, which were
5. The faith. The Catechism, on the other said to be really and truly present in the species of
" "
Real hand, distinguishes between the sign bread and wine; though to the elements themselves
" no adoration may be paid (Denison). Confession,
Presence, (bread and wine) and the thing sig-
"
nified(the body and blood of Christ). in the Church of England, is left to the discretion
Tractarianism strongly emphasized the element of of the individual. Tractarianism, however, made
imparting and based its Eucharistic views on the both confession and absolution sacraments and in-
Fathers and early Anglicanism. The consecrated dispensable aids to salvation, ascribing to both the
elements become truly, though mystically, the body restoration of baptismal regeneration lost by sin,
and blood of Christ; and Christ really present com- and the perfecting of the spiritual life. Absolution
municates himself to the believing unto salvation, was not to be a declaratory act, 'but the judicial act
but to the unbelieving unto damnation. This is of the priest. (The man who confesses to God may
the doctrine of the real presence, represented as th* be forgiven, but who confesses to a priest must be
essential in the sacrament by all Tractarians in forgiven. Tract for the Days, 1.) Since, moreover,
common, amid all the variants of opinion as to the the priest, to give absolution, must have the con-
manner or means. Perceval declares that he and fession not alone of the general sinful state of the
his colleagues take the real presence as sacramental, penitent, but also of his individual sins, auricular
spiritual, and mystical, while the Roman Catholics confession, not required by the official Church, neces-
regard the same as substantial, corporeal, and mir- sarily follows. It was also zealously promoted by
aculous. According to Wilbcrforce the sacrament the ritualists, calling forth a rich ascetic literature
is an objective fact, independent of the cooperation (cf. William Gresly, ut sup.; T. T. Carter's Doctrine
and assent of the recipient and carrying out the re- of Confession, London, 1865; and the anonymous
demption begun in the incarnation of Christ. Pusey The Priest in Absolution, part i., 1866, and part ii.,
(The Presence of Christ in the Holy Eucharist, Ox- 1886, as guide for the clergy only).
ford, 1853; Doctrine of the Real Presence as Con- In historical retrospect the Tractarian movement
tained in the Fathers, 1855; The Real Presence, 1857) signifies the attempted logical conclusion of the
sums up his view that the consecration elements be- uncompleted reaction on the part of the great
come by virtue of the words of consecration of Christ Anglicans from Bishop Andrewes to Bishop Ken
(not the priests') truly and actually, though in a against the non-Catholic elements of the Reforma-
spiritual and inexpressible way, his body and blood. tion of the sixteenth century; or the restoration of
 467 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

the national Church according to the tendency of J. Pridham, The Church of England, as to her Excellencies
the reign of Edward VI. On the claim of histori- and Defects, ib. 1842; W. Palmer, Narrative of Events
Connected with the Publication of the Tracts for the Times,
cal, dogmatic, and organic continuity ib. 1843; I. Taylor, Ancient Christianity and the Doctrines
6. Sacred from the primitive Church and the re- of the Oxford Tracts for the Times, ib. 1844; W. 8. Brick-
Art pudiation of Roman medieval abuses, nell, The Judgment of the Bishops upon the Tractarian The-
ology, ib. 1845; H. H. Beamish, Truth Spoken in Love; or
it insisted upon both names of re-
Romanism and Tractarianism refuted by the Word of Ood,
formed and Catholic. Dogmatically, the Oxford ib. 1853; Hare, The Contest with Rome, in Charges
J. C.
movement signified the transmutation of the ideal to the Clergy, vol.iii., Cambridge, 1856; E. G. Browne,
Annals of the Tractarian Movement, 1848-60, London,
subjective life values into objective sensible facts;
1861; C. H. Collette, Dr. Newman and his Religious Opin-
of inner experience into outer representation, of
ions, ib. 1866; J. J. Overbeck, Catholic Orthodoxy and
faith into works. Its aim was a church of outer Anglo-Catholicism, ib. 1866; Sir J. T. Coleridge, A Memoir
realities, for which, as a final organism, it cherished of the Rev. John Keble, 2d ed., 2 vola., ib. 1874; J. Tul-
loch, Movements of Religious Thought . . during the 19th
.
the control of all activities, religious, educational,
Century, now ed., Edinburgh, 1874; T. Mozloy, Remi-
domestic, economic, and political. The wide and niscences chiefly of Oriel College and the Oxford Movement,
varied influence of the Oxford movement is in the 2 vola., Boston, 1882; N. Pattison, Memoirs, London,
1885; E. A. Abbott, The Anglican Career of Cardinal
highest degree apparent in a revival and deepening
Newman. 2 vols., ib. 1892; R. W. Church, The Oxford
of the church spirit. It redeemed the Establishment Movement 1843-66, new ed., London and New York,
. . .

from barren inactivity, spiritless superficiality, the 1892; W. Ward, William George Ward and the Oxford
ease of indulgence, and slavish formalism. It Movement, 2d ed., London, 1890; idem, William George
Ward and the Catholic Revival, ib. 1893; G. Worley, The
charged it with the priestly spirit, and spurred it Catholic Revival of the 19th Century, ib. 1895; G. Wake-
to those heroic deeds that spring from the depths ling, Oxford Church Movement, London and New York,
of the soul and lead to the heights of the passion 1895; J. Hunt, Religious Thought in the 19th Century,
for eternity. The truth and goodness that it London, 1896; G. H. F. Nye, Story of the Oxford Move-
ment, ib. 1899; J. H. Rigg, Oxford High Anglicanism and
contained worked on, while only its extreme Romani- its chief Leaders, ib. 1899; W. Walsh, Secret Hist, of the

zing tendencies were lost behind. Undisputed re- Oxford Movement, ib. 1899; idem, Hist, of the Homeward
sults appear on the field of social effort and redemp- Movement in the Church of England, ib. 1900; G. W. E.
Russell, The Household of Faith, ib. 1903; W. S. Lilly, in
tion. In its elevation of art Tractarianism created his Studies in Religion and Literature, London and St.
an ecclesiastical esthetic which served to reclaim Louis, 1904; F. Moynck, Memories of Life at Oxford,
many from the upper strata of society estranged London, 1905; Sir S. Hall, Short. Hist, of the Oxford Move-
from the Church. The danger of " perversion to ment, ib. 1906; A. B. Donaldson, Five Great Oxford Leaders,
new ed., ib. 1908.
Rome," so feared in the fifth and sixth decades of
the last century, no longer exists, and it is now per- TRACY, CHARLES CHAPIN: Presbyterian;
ceived that the Tractarians give to those of a mys- b. at Smithfield, Pa., Oct. 31, 1838. He was edu-
tical craving the satisfaction the lack of which cated at Williams College (B.A., 1864) and Union
would lead them to the faith of Rome. The results Theological Seminary (1867). In 1867 he went to
of the Roman propaganda have been brought to Marsovan, Turkey, as a missionary of the American
abeyance, and in the High-church party, into which Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. With
it infused its cultus and cure of souls, ritualism has the exception of three years (1870-73) spent in
obtained a broad footing in the life of the Church. Constantinople, he has since remained at Marsovan,
The Tractarian love for the early Catholic period where, in 1884, he established a high school that
has likewise influenced ecclesiastical architecture, developed into Anatolia College, of which he has
painting, and music. Largely through its members, been president since 1886. Of his English works
anticipated, as they were, by the Church Building the most important are Myra: or, A Child's Story
Society in 1818-33, many ancient cathedrals and of Missionary Life (Boston, 1876) and Talks on the
parish churches have been restored to their early Veranda in a Far- Away Land (1893).
"
beauty and stripped of hideous improvements."
New churches have been erected according to the TRADITION: In present-day Protestant usage,
best ancient models, and the interiors have been the body of faith and practise resting upon oral tes-
richly and tastefully decorated. In religious paint- timony in distinction from the written record of
ing they have been pioneers, and it is no mere coin- Holy Scripture. This limitation of the term was
cidence that the Pre-Raffaelites found their inspi- not known to the early Church. Primitive Chris-
ration in tho days of Tractarianism, seeking their tians received the apostolic message by word of
ideal, like the Oxford movement, in the past, when mouth as well as by pen and passed it on orally
all things visible confessed Christ, and when art, from generation to generation by public preaching
the handmaid of the Church, endeavored to express and catechetical instruction (cf Irenceus, Hair., III.,
.

first truth, and then beauty. In music, by return- iii., iv. G. Thomasius, Dogmengeschichte, i. 37
1-2;
ing to the classics and by the formation of admir- sqq., Erlangen, 1874). Naturally, therefore, they
able choirs, the Tractarians checked the spreading considered and called the entire and complete mes-
" " "
dilettanteism, and, as in other instances, they sage tradition (traditio from tradere, to hand
transmitted their wholesome influence to all church on ") regardless of the form in which it was deliv-
circles. (RUDOLPH BuDDENsnjat.) ered or preserved. The manner of transmission was
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult the articles in this work on the par- rather that of free reproduction, yet the matter re-
ticipants in the movement, the literature named in and ceived early more or less of a fixed form; and a
under those articles, and further, the following: Tracts
noteworthy agreement in essential content, which
for the Times, bv Members of the University of Oxford, 6
vola., and Index, London, 1833-42; J. B. Motley, Re-
had its beginnings at least before the controversy
mains of Richard HurreU Froude, 4 vols., ib. 1838-39; with Gnosticism (cf. Iremeus, Hcer., I., x. 2), is at-
Tradition
Trajan
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 488

tested almost contemporaneously and for widely ure out loose from tradition (cf . the edicts of the
separated sections of the Church by Irenffius, Ter- councils of Toulouse in 1229 and Tarragona in 1234;
tullian,and Origen (cf. Thomasius, ut sup., p. 38). texts in Munscher, ut sup., ii. 1, p. 109). It was the
There no express statement of the content of this
is so-called reformers before the Reformation who first
current oral tradition; but beyond doubt it is challenged tradition clearly and boldly as a second
summed up in the baptismal confession (the so-called source of Christian truth (cf. Wyclif, Trial, iv. 7,
" " Ixxii. 5) ; and it was in the
Apostles' Creed) and the Rule of Faith (see p. 199; Loofs, ut sup.,
BEGULA FIDEI). The third century also makes no Reformation that the doctrine of Scripture was
distinction between oral and written tradition. thoroughly and earnestly developed.
Church Fathers who defended the authenticity The Reformation started with no special theory
and validity of tradition nevertheless warned against of Scripture. But as Luther developed his doctrine
setting too high a value upon it (Tertullian, De vir- of justification by faith he found himself constantly
ginibus velandis, i.; Cyprian, Epist. Ixxiv. [Ixxv.]). compelled to appeal more and more to the written
They acknowledged the adequacy of Scripture
also word of God and to discard all traditions of the
(Athanasius, Oratw adv. genies (vol. i., part, i.; Au- Church. That sure testimony to the revelation of
gustine, De doctrina Christiana, ii. 9). Yet Augus- salvation is offered only in the Bible became the
" I would
tine declared not believe Scripture if the fundamental doctrine of the Reformation (cf.
"
authority of the Church catholic did not impel me Thomasius, ut sup., ii. 197). Since Protestantism,
(Contra epist. Manichcei, v.), meaning that the opin- however, believes that the Holy Spirit has always
ion of the Church catholic determined the books been present in the Church, it does not reject indis-
properly belonging to Scripture (cf. F. Loofs, Dog- criminately all tradition. It retains whatever of
mengeschickte, xliv. 1, Halle, 1906). The Church doctrine has the certain support of Scripture (cf P. .

settled the New-Testament canon by means of tra- Tschackert, Polemik, pp. 3, 96, Gotha, 1885) and in
dition; and, being regarded as apostolic, tradition matters of rite and ceremony it keeps what is not
came to be the test of apostolicity, and this easily contradictory to Scripture. The Roman Church,
led to an overestimation of it. It became a source on the other hand, decreed at Trent (session iv.) that
of Christian truth by the side of the Scriptures and divine truth is derived from two sources, Scripture
was appealed to in support of propositions which and tradition, and that the latter is to be regarded
are not found in the Bible or are found there only with the same reverence as the former. It prac-
"
doubtfully. Chrysostom regarded the unwritten tically made tradition the first source by declaring
"
deliverances of the apostles as much matter of that the Bible is to be interpreted by it (cf Loofs, .

faith as their letters (on II Thess., Homilia iv., in ut sup., Ixxiv. 2), the reason being that certain of
Opera, xii. 385, cited in W. Munscher, Handbuch its dogmas and rites the mass and its ceremonies,
der .
Dogmengeschichte, iii. 137, 4 vols., Mar-
. . the consecration of priests, the tonsure, the marriage
burg, 1809-18), and, before him, the orthodox Epi- sacrament, extreme unction, purgatory have no
phanius expressly taught the validity of tradition Biblical ground and must be justified by extra-Bib-
by the side of the Scriptures (Hcer., Ixi. 6). This lical tradition. In promulgating the two latest Ro-
became the doctrine of the Eastern Church (John of man dogmas the immaculate conception and the
Damascus, De fide orttiodoxa, iv. 12; Loofs, ut sup., universal episcopate of the pope the Roman Church
xliv.). Augustine, as already quoted, represents has departed from Vincent of Lerins, and to cover
the same tendency in the West; and his opponent, the infallibility dogma, the Jesuitical theology has
"
Vincent of Lerins, declared that the line of inter- made a new definition " tradition is what has been
pretation of prophets and apostles must follow the taught as such in the Church of Rome." Further,
"
opinion of the Church catholic (Commonitorium, the pope becomes the Church. Pius IX. declared
" I
ii.), and formulated the canon of catholicity (" that am tradition/' and wrote to the archbishop of
is catholic which has been believed always, every- Cologne (text in Tschackert, ut sup., p. 407, note
where, and by everybody," ib. iii.). 16) that the mere fact that a dogma is defined by
Throughout the Middle Ages was orthodox doc-
it the pope is sure and sufficient proof for all that it
trine that divine revelation flows in two streams isfounded in Scripture and tradition.
Bible and tradition. There was no advance in the (P. TSGHACKERTf.)
teaching concerning revelation in general except BIBLIOGRAPHY: The subject is often treated in Protestant
that in the West, after Aristotle was made known works on systematic theology (see DOGMA, DOGMATICS),
and in all complete treatises of that subject by Roman
by Mohammedan scholars, the natural reason was Roman Church
Catholics, since in the it is so important
added as a third source of some knowledge of God a theme. The works on the history of doctrine also deal
(e.g., of his existence and unity; cf. Thomas Aquinas with it. Consult especially: van Ess, Chryaoitomw
.

cited in Munscher, ut sup., ii. 1, p. 100). In the oder Stimmen der Kirchenvater tiber dot nwtoliche und
East the tendency was steadily to make the Bible erbavliche Bibelleten, Darmstadt, 1824 (Roman Catholic);
J. L. Jaoobi, Die kirchliche Lehre von der Tradition und
secondary to oral tradition. It is true that individ- heilioen Schrift, Berlin, 1847; J. H. Friedlieb, Schrifl,
uals here and there hi the West, influenced by widely Tradition und 8ckriftavlegung t Breslau, 1864 (Roman
different motives, raised a voice of protest against Catholic); A. Neander, Christliche Doomenyetchichte, ed.
J. L. Jacobi, i. 75 sqq., 286-293, ii. 196 sqq., Berlin, 1867;
the supremacy of tradition; but they failed to pro-
idem, Christian Church, consult Index; H. J. Holtimann,
duce any far-reaching or abiding effect. Abelard Kanon und Tradition, Ludwigsburg, 1869; J. Sohwane,
set contradictory utterances of the Fathers side by Doomenyetohichte, 2 vols.. Monster, 1862-90 (Roman
ride in 157 rubrics in his Sic et non, and was con- Catholic); F. Spoil Die Lehren der katholiechen Kirch*
oeoentiber der protettanfachen Polemik, Freiburg, 1866
demned for it. The Waldenses fared still worse (Roman Catholic); F. N'tssch, Qrundrw der chrietliehen
when they promoted Bible reading and so in a meas- DoffmenguchicMi, i. 243-268, Berlin, 1870; K. Has*
466 HELIGIOUS EMCYCLOMD1A

Poltmik, pp. 64-94, 3d ed., Leipdo, 1871; J. Bach, Dog- tlePaul once purposed to visit it, but was hindered
menoeechichte dee MitteloUere, 2 parts, Vienna 1873-75
by the Spirit (Acts zvi. 7 sqq.); Christians are in-
(Roman Catholic); C. Ullmann, Reformers before the Ref-
ormation, paaaim, 2 vote., Edinburgh, 1874-77; H. Reu-
cluded for Pontus and Bithynia among those ad-
ter, Oeechichte der religiose*. Aufkl&rung im Mittelalter, 2 dressed in I Pet. i. 1. Only in the eastern districts,
vols., Berlin, 1875-77; J. B. Heinrich, Dogmatieche The- perhaps at Amisus, was Pliny confronted with the
Mainz, 1870 (Roman Catholic); P. Tschack-
ologie, vol. ii.,
Christian issue, and the situation is described in his
ert, Evangelieche Polemik gegen die rvmieche Kirche, pp.
01 sqq., Gotha, 1885; 3. J. Hunter, Outline* of Dogmatic famous letter no. 96. Trajan incisively adopted the
Theology, 77-85, 93-109, 339, 795, 3 vols., New York,
ft
policy of surveillance of corporate life as inaugurated
1896; F. Kropatecheck, Das Schriftprimip der luther-
itchen Kirche, vol. i., Leipeic, 1904; Harnaok, Dogma, by Julius Caesar, especially in turbulent districts, and
passim, consult Index (well worth noting) ; KL
t ad. 1933-
enforced a rigorous execution of the prohibition of
1971; Lichtenberger, ESR, xii. 191-199. collegia. It was in this sense that Pliny received a
strict command with regard to the province in his
TRADUCIANISM. See SOUL AND SPIRIT.
charge.
TRAJAN, trepan, MARCUS ULPIUS: Roman Pliny perceived himself face to face with a wide
emperor (98-117); b. at Italica (6 Roman m. n.w. extension of Christianity in town and country. Both
of Seville), Spain, Sept. 18, 52; d. at Selinus on the sexes and all ages and ranks were implicated in the
west coast of Cilicia, Asia Minor, about Aug. 7, 117. new faith; consequently, the worship of the gods
His father was a high provincial officer of Latin was in neglect. Pliny felt that his responsibility
origin; the son adopted his father's martial career, embraced the right maintenance of the state relig-
and was long posted at various points occupied by ion, and interfered by virtue of his office. Capital
the Roman army both east and west. In the year sentence was executed upon persons confessing their
91 he obtained the consulate, but first came signifi- charge when duly brought to trial and found guilty,
cantly into public notice in 97, when Nerva put him save that Roman citizens were to be transported to
in command Upper Germany, and adopted him
of the metropolis. But the situation grew more com-
in the same Trajan came to the throne Jan.
year. plex, and doubts possessed Pliny concerning the ex-
27, 98. He proved himself equal to the imminent pediency or the justice of acts of repression. In
military dangers that menaced the realm, and di- view of the difficulties, from which Pliny saw no
rected his energy to the task of girdling the Roman exit, an appeal was made to the emperor's decision.
JOmpire with secure defenses. He was distinguished The imperial answer recognized the fundamental
by sober judgment and maturely weighed action. correctness of the course pursued by Pliny. Trajan
While ho veiled the strong sense of his imperial sov- regarded the Christian confession as an offense
ereignty under the semblance of freedom, his firm- worthy of capital sentence. The matter of supply-
ness and strength of will left ample room for per- ing standards of procedure for treating concrete
sonal affability and the practical exercise of contem- forms and instances was declined on grounds of im-
porary modes of benevolence. The latter trait found possibility; but secret inquisition and attention to
particular expression in comprehensive provision anonymous reports were forbidden. Lastly, those
for orphan children (cf. G. Uhlhorn, Die christliche who renounced their adherence to Christianity by
Licbestdtigkeit in der alien Kirche, i. 16 sqq., Stutt- sacrificing to the gods were to go clear. Where such
gart, 1882; Eng. transl., Christian Charity in the allegiance was judicially proved, the death sentence
Early Church, p. 18, New York, 1883). His edu- was to follow.
cation was of average compass, and he highly Two points are significant in this rescript the
cherished intercourse with poets and scholars. The preconceived culpability of the nomen Christianum
weal of the realm in equity and good order was the and the offsetting legal alleviations. Opinions long
unselfish goal of his policy. Under him the classic diverged in respect to the import and bearings of this
Roman Empire stands forth, for the last time, in decision; but Theodore Mommsen's basic study, Der
the entire fulness of its political magnitude. Rdigionsfrevel nach rdmischem Recht (Historische
Trajan's religious views appear in thorough har- Zeitschrift, 1890), has cleared up the subject. The
mony with conventional popular piety. But formal entire procedure rests in the so-called coerdtio or
piety was restricted within the general bounds of his official repression, not tied down to any defined

personal and imperial ideals; hence not his religion forms of trial, but administered with reference to
but his political judgment was the root of that im- the maintenance of public order (see PERSECUTION
perial decision which immediately connects his OF THE CHRISTIANS IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE). Among
name with the Christian Church. eminent martyrs during Trajan's administration
After Trajan had brought the province of Bithynia were Ignatius of Antiocn and Simeon of Jerusalem
Pontus under control of the imperial government, (qq.v.).
he sent thither to restore order the Younger Pliny, Trajan came into conflict with the Jews, who
a man stirred, like his chief, by the philanthropic started a furious insurrection in Egypt and Gyrene
ideas of that age. In the progress of a journey (115 A.D.), which soon spread to Cyprus. The em-
through the province, and dating down to the be- peror, just then detained in Mesopotamia, succeeded
ginning of the year 113, he wrote sixty letters to only after a severe campaign in mastering the situa-
Trajan, wherein he communicated his observations, tion through his field commander, Marcus Turbo
and requested advice on all possible questions that (117). VICTOR SCHULTEE.
crossed his path. These letters, together with Tra- BIBLIOGRAPHY: An extensive literature, much of which is
jan's answers, are extant in chronological order (best pertinent, may be found under PBMBOUTXON OP CHRIS-
TIAN*. Consult further: H. Franeke, Zur Oeschichte
edition with notes by Hardy, London, 1889). This
Trojan*, Leipaio, 1840; J. Dierauer, BeiMtge *u em* krit-
province had a strong Jewish population. The Apos- itohen Oeechichte Trajan*, fb. 1868; F. Overbook, Studien
ttrani THE NEW SCfiAFF-flR20d 406

HIT Geechichtc der alien Kirch*, vol. i., Schloss Chemniti, views, essays (produced from 1827 onward), Signs
1875; T. Keim, Rom und da$ Chrietenthum, Berlin, 1881; of the Times, Characteristics, later, Sartor Resartus
H. Schiller, Qttchichte der r&miechen Kaieerteit, vol. i.,
were eagerly read in American editions. So far as
part 2, Ootha, 1883; V. Duruy, Hist, of Rome and the
Roman People, 6 vote., London, 1883-86; T. Mommsen. this goes, Transcendentalism was of foreign extrac-
The Roman Provinces, ib. 1887; F. Arnold, Stvdien tur tion, an invasion of the German intellect.
Geachichte der plinianiachen Chrietenverfolgvng, Konigs-
It would be a serious and unpardonable mistake,
berg, 1887; P. Allard, Hist, dea persecutions pendant lee " to
deux premiere eieclee, ohap. iii., Paris, 1892; W. . Addia, however, regard the transcendental movements
Chrittianity and the Roman Empire, pp. 69-71, London, as a simple importation from abroad, a servile imi-
1893; W. M. Ramsay, The Chwrch in the Roman Empire, tation of English, French, or German
passim, New York, 1893: . Q. Hardy, Christianity and
2. Prepara- ideas. It was," says a somewhat recent
the Roman Government, pp. 102-124, London, 1894: " at
Schaft, Christian Church, vol. U., ohap. ii., and in general tory writer on the subject, the last re-
works on the history of the Church and the history of Movements, move from this, and was full of the
the Empire of the period; Gibbon, Decline and Fall,
chap. iii.
sap of a spontaneity and freshness all
its own. . . . Nine-tenths of the early transcen-
TRANSCENDENTALISM IN NEW ENGLAND. dentalists rubbed but slightly against Kant, Fichte,
Goethe, Schleiermacher, Schelling; but it was fruc-
Philosophical Background (f 1).
Movements (f 2). tifying pollen they bore away from the contact, and
Preparatory
The " Transcendental Club "(53). by it their own minds were vitally impregnated."
" "
The Atmosphere of Reform (fi 4). The whole movement was a spiritual outburst, a
Relation to Reforms and Religion (ft 5). vital sense of newness, a local or New England
Influence of Transcendentalism ({ 6).
renaissance, the roots of which reached far back into
Toward the end of the eighteenth century and the the past, but its flowers bloomed with a richness and
beginning of the nineteenth, a strong reaction took a fresh luxuriance such as were possible nowhere
place against materialism. As philosophy, it began else so well as on the shores of this new world. The
in Germany. Voltaire brought from London to Paris had been carefully prepared. Materialism
soil for it
the ideas of Hume. From Paris they was abroad in New England, sometimes implicitly,
z. Philo- went with him to the court of Freder- sometimes by formal statement. Unitarianism, from
ick, king of Prussia, and became ruling
BOphical which transcendentalism was an offshoot, if not in-
Background, principles of thought. Kant subjected deed an outgrowth, was itself a protest, on the
" "
them to searching analysis in his fa- ground of common sense, against Orthodoxy
mous Critique of Pure Reason, and became the and " Evangelicalism," and was infected with the
leader in a great philosophical reform. Materialism metaphysics of John Locke. It was a system of ra-
took no deep root in the German mind. The great tionalism prosaic, critical, unimaginative. Its
names in German idealism are Kant, Fichte, Schel- teaching, like most of the religious teaching of the
ling, and Hegel; and the sequence of their doctrine, day, was formal, and its worship at the time was
so far as it can be conveyed in few words, is as fol- becoming uninspiring. It was, in the main, a nega-
lows: Kant sounded the depths of the human mind; tive system, its forms mechanical, its beliefs tradi-
Fichte imparted reality to the idea of the human tional, its associations conventional. The elder men,
person; Schelling combined the inward and the like Channing and Lowell, retained the sentiments
out-vard by supposing an Absolute, which he called of piety which they had brought with them from
reason; Hegel transformed what was to him the un- the faith they had left, but the new movement had
substantial reason into a being, thus completing, as begun to lose something of its original enthusiasm.
" "
is claimed, the fundamental categories of Kant. Meanwhile a spirit of individualism was in the air,
"
The word " transcendentalism is of Kantian origin. running occasionally into deism and even atheism.
It means that which is valid beyond the experience In 1832 Abner Kneeland founded The Investigator;
of the senses, though present to the knowledge of in 1836 he was prosecuted for blasphemy. There
the mind. It describes a form of idealism. In the was a general interest in clairvoyance, mesmerism,
"
judgment of James Hutchison Stirling, The tran- and kindred doctrines. As early as 1824 F. H.
scendental philosophy is a philosophy of the merely Hedge, a Unitarian minister, raised the banner of
speculative pure reason; for all moral practise, so revolt (in The Christian Examiner for November)
far as it involves motive, refers to feeling, and feeling against the materialism implied in phrenology,
" I
is always of empirical origin." Again: call all which even then was getting possession of the pub-
cognition transcendental which is occupied not so lic mind. There was a rage for the expositions of
much with objects as with the process by which Gall. The popular lectures of Spurzheim were at-
we come to know them, in so far as that process has tended by crowds. Later, Combe's book on the
an a priori element. A system of such elements " "
Constitution of Man was hailed as a gospel. Re-
would be a transcendental philosophy." In France, generation by bread was proclaimed in the name of
materialism was represented by Condillac, Cabanis Graham. Every kind of medicament was called in
"
(author of the saying that brain secretes thought, to do the work of the Holy Spirit.
as the liver secretes bile "), and others; idealism, by At this juncture, idealism appeared in the shape
Marie de Beran, Destutt de Tracy, Cousin, Jouffroy, of a protest against the drift of the tune toward
and others. In England, not to mention the poets animalism and externalism. The soil was prepared
who are always idealistic, Coleridge reflected Schel- "
by orthodox mystics, who
"
proclaimed the life of
ling, and Carlyle, Goethe and Richter. Coleridge's God in the soul of man by the spiritualism taught
;

Aids to Reflection and Friend were early reprinted by Jonathan Edwards; by the Reformed Quakers,
in America. The writings of Carlyle articles, re- with their doctrine of an all-sufficing " inner light ";
401 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tran oendentalimi

by the traditions of Abby Hutchinson, Mary supposed to carry with it ridicule or opprobrium.
Dwyer, and the apostles of soul-freedom. Not The meetings were and
hastily prearranged.
fitful,
that the positions taken by these men In ten years there were scarcely more than as
3. The and women were the same as those many convocations. Some members remained in
"Tran- assumed by the transcendentalists. the Church, attempting to combine transcendental
scendental They were indeed quite different, in ideas with ecclesiastical forms : others left the Church
Club. " fact precisely opposite for those all rec-
;
for other vocations. Each followed the leading of
ognized some supernatural authority, the individual disposition. The short-lived Dial and
whereas the transcendentalists as a class were pure the shorter-lived Massachusetts Quarterly were results
" " "
intuitionalists," believers in the inspiration of the of the transcendental spirit.
individual soul; but they looked only at apparent At the time when the transcendental movement
results, disregarding adjacent beliefs. The leaders was at its height, the atmosphere of New England
were young men, almost without exception, edu- was filled with projects of reform. Every land of
cated for the ministry, Unitarians, members of the innovation on existing social arrange-
best class in and talkers, The ments had
its advocate, its newspaper,
society, eloquent speakers 4.
" Atmos-
scholars, men of liberal culture, outspoken in the meetings, its convention. Temper-
its
declaration of their opinions. Of these Ralph Waldo phere of ance, non-resistance, woman's rights,
Emerson was chief, most seraphic and persuasive, Reform." anti-slavery, peace, claimed attention
most uncompromising, too, in his ecclesiastical ac- from those concerned for the progress
tion. He resigned his charge as a Unitarian minister of mankind. Some of these projects were wild, vi-
"
in 1832, because of scruples in regard to the com- sionary, and, hi the eyes of some observers, gro-
munion service," which he regarded as a spiritual tesque. It is not unlikely that they owed their
rite and was willing to continue as such, but not as origin to the same impulse which produced tran-
an ordinance imposed by Church or Scripture. scendentalism, though the historical and logical
Later, he was unwilling to offer public prayer, except connection has not been discovered. That a large
when so disposed, and retired from the pulpit alto- part of the ridicule which was vented on the tran-
gether, making the secular platform his sole visible scendentalists was owing to their presumed affilia-
elevation above the multitude an elevation not of tion with these summary iconoclasts is more than
authority, but of convenience. A few young men probable. Nor was such a presumption unreason-
gathered around him. In September of 183fi, at the able; for the transcendentalists not merely took
celebration of the two-hundredth anniversary of the no pains to correct the impression, but rather gave
foundation of Harvard (College, four persons Emer- it encouragement. Emerson's lecture on " Man the
son, Hedge, Ripley, and Putnam met together in Reformer " was an eloquent arraignment of society.
Cambridge, and, after discussing the theological and
11
One day all men will be lovers," he wrote, " and
ecclesiastical situation, agreed to call a meeting of every calamity will be dissolved in the universal
a few like-minded, with a view to strengthen each "
sunshine." In his lecture on The Times," deliv-
other in their opposition to the old way, and sec ered the same year (1841), he says:
what could be done to inaugurate a better. At a 44
These reformers are our contemporaries; they are our-
preliminary meeting at the house cf George Ripley, selves, our own light and night and conscience they only ;

in Boston, there were present Emerson, Hedge, name the relation which subsists between us and the vicious
institutions which they go to rectify. The reforms
. . .

Alcott, Bartol, Brownson, and Bartlett (a young have their high origin in an ideal justice; but they do not
tutor at Cambridge). Then and there it was re- retain the purity of an idea. .The reforming movement
. .

solved, on invitation of Emerson, to hold a conven- is sacred in its origin in its management and details, timid
;

tion at his house in Concord during the same month and profane. These benefactors hope to raise a man by im-
proving his circumstances: by combination of that which
of September. Invitations were sent to as many as is dead, they hope to make something alive. In vain. By
were known or supposed to be in sympathy with the new infusions, alone, of the spirit by which he is made and
From fifteen to twenty directed, can he be remade and reenforced."
objects of the meeting.
came, among them, William Henry Channing, John The transcendentalists by virtue of the very
Sullivan Dwight, James Freeman Clarke, Ephraim principles which underlay their philosophy, and as
Peabody, Chandler Robbins, George P. Bradford, the foregoing quotations indicate, were interested
Mrs. Samuel Ripley, Margaret Fuller, Elizabeth Pea- in reforms of all kinds, some of which were none
body, perhaps Theodore Parker. Convers Francis too sane or sober. Most of them were
and Caleb Stetson were the only men of the older 5. Relation Abolitionists, many of them were
generation who took a practical interest in the to Re- Woman Suffragists, and all of them
movement. Channing was in sympathy with its forms and were free and radical thinkers in one
general aims, but took no active part at the time. Religion, direction or another. On the practical
His contemporaries either did not appear, or im- side movement took interesting
the
mediately withdrew. The public got intelligence shape in the Brook Farm community, where a brave
of the Concord meeting, and gave to the little fel- and self-sacrificing attempt was made to put into
"
lowship the name of the Transcendental Club," practise the principles of a social brotherhood.
why, it is not easy to discover; for a club it was not George Ripley, who had been settled over a Uni-
in any sense of the word. There was no organiza- tarian parish, was the leading spirit. Channing was
tion, there were no officers, there was no stated time deeply interested, and his hopes, though not ex-
or place for assembling, there were no topics for dis- travagant, were very high. Nathaniel Hawthorne
cussion: in fact, there appears no good reason for was a member of the community for a time. He
" "
calling it transcendental," unless that term was found, however, that a man's soul may be buried
Tranftoendftntaliom
Transfiguration
THE NEW 80HAFF-HER2OQ

under a dung-heap as well as under a pile of money." Transcendentalism, ib. 1877; H. C. Ooddard. Studies in
New England Transcendentalism, New York, 1908.
He asked himself on leaving, " Is it a praiseworthy
matter that I have spent five golden months in pro-
" TRANSFIGURATION, THE: The history of the
viding fodder for cows and horses ? In religion the transfiguration of the Savior (Mark ix. 2-10 and
typical transcendentalist might be a sublimated parallels) is under severe fire. Schmieders han-
theist; he was always an idealist, and essentially a dling of it (EB IV., 45-70) may be taken as repre-
t

mystic. He believed in no spiritual authority ex- senting a pronounced tendency in contemporary

cept that of his own soul. He was humanitarian criticism. The study of the sources ends in the dis-
and optimistic. His faith had no backward look; solution of literary unity. Thus Schmiedcl treats
its essence was aspiration, not contrition. He had a the transfiguration as a part of the Petrine legend.
living and a glowing
faith in the reality of spiritual Along with this process of literary dissolution goes
" All are able to detect the
insight. supernatural," the depreciation of the historical reality in the life
" because
wrote Orestes Brownson, all have the su- of Christ which is seen dimly, through the dust
pernatural in themselves." The divine"
was every- raised by the study of the sources. The result
where. The " Immanence of God was not a doc- reached is that no considerable reality adheres to
"
trine; it became a reality. the story of the transfiguration. It can make no

"Tell me, brothers, what are we? claim to historicity."

Spirits bathing in a Sea But this critical method, apparently objective
Of Deity." and judicial, starts with a false bias. The Synoptic
So wrote a lesser, but a fervid poet of the faith. Gospels are taken apart by themselves, dissected,
It follows, therefore, that the transcendental be-
and reduced to separate sources. Then, to explain
"
the assembling of the sources into a so-called Life
liever was impressed with the glory of life, its privi-
of Christ," the corporate messianic consciousness of
leges, its beauty. Very remarkable was his confi-
the Apostolic Age is summoned into court. Strauss
dence in nature in natural powers and capabilities,
in the results of obedience to natural law, in spon-
and the analytical literary critic join forces. The
His love of transfiguration becomes a personification and ob-
taneity, impulse, unfolding, growth.
j edification
of the genius of the messianic commu-
childhood, flowers, landscape, was proverbial. Emer-
son called transcendentalism " the Saturnalia, or nity. But, before the analysis of the sources begins,
there is a fundamental fact that calls for explana-
excess of faith." But the faith was in human nature
tion. It is, first, the existence of the mewsianic
as a possible realization of the divine. It was a new
consciousness in question; second, it is the pe-
and joyous birth of the spirit. No strictly " rea-
" " culiar quality of that consciousness. Without rais-
soned doctrine it was rather a spiritual ferment,"
a wave of mysticism, which found expression in ing the question of the supernatural, students of
and history may rightly insist that vast reality must bo
social, intellectual, esthetic, chiefly religious
channels. assigned to the person and work of Jesus in order
to account for the corporate Christian messianism
The movement, according to T. W. Higginson, "
" which is supposed to account for the Life of
provided an ardent, effusive social atmosphere.
It was," he added,
"
a fresh, glowing, youthful, Christ." The ultimate source of knowledge con-
cerning Christ is the Christian consciousness which
hopeful, courageous period, and those
he created. That consciousness drew upon Jewish
6. Influ- who were its children must always re-
messianism for all its raw material. But an im-
ence of joice that they were born before it
Transcen- faded away. ... To its immediate
mense twofold revolution must have been carried
dentalism. offspring it bequeathed a glow and a through hi order to make Christian consciousness
possible. In the first place, it is the consciousness
joy that have been of life-long perma-
of a triumphant messianic community, a thing
nence. The material achievements, the utilitarian
without real parallel in the history of Judaism. In
philosophy of later years, may come or go, leaving
their ideal, their confidence, their immortal hope
the second place, Christian raessianism was com-
pletely freed from the appeal to force which was
unchanged. And now that much which transcen-
inherent in all forms of Jewish messianism. Conse-
dentalism sought is fulfilled, and that which was
ecstasy has as Emerson predicted become daily quently, a sound historical method demands a pro-
bread, its reminiscences mingle with all youth's en- digious spiritual and moral force and reality in the
life of the founder.
chantment, and belong to a period when we too
'

toiled, feasted, despaired, were happy.'

" One can not, therefore, enter on the study of the
Except life of Christ with a predisposition to believe that
for a few local and incidental extravagances, the in-
Christian messianism accounts for the main ele-
fluence of the movement was noble, inspiring, and
ments in the portrait. The truth in such a position
beautiful, and the idealism which was the essence
of it is the foundation of all spiritual belief. As one must be admitted. But, taken as a controlling prin-
form of the great intuitive school of philosophy, it ciple, it invites history to stand on its head. The
has, perhaps, seen its best days; but its elements ordinary predisposition of the Christian is in the
will render vital other faiths, which will endure other direction. In approaching the account of the
when it is transfiguration, the normal Christian bias is the
forgotten.
O. B. FROTHiNOHAMf. Rev. by P. R. FROTHIXGHAM. direct opposite of SchmiedeTs. One is prepared to
believe that the story may be substantially his-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: O. B. Frothingham. Transcendentalism in
toric.
New England, a History, New York, 1876; F. Tiffany,
Tranvxndentolism: the New England Renaissance, in Uni- The threefold report at this point presents the
tarianism,' its Origin and History, Boston, 1800. J. Cook, same phenomena of agreement in the main joined
403 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Transcendentalism
Tranoflffuration

to incessant difference in detail that characterizes preme authority in spiritual matters and Moses the
itin its whole course. Mark gives a simple, straight- great lawgiver. But in Mark and Luke also the in-
forward narrative. In describing the effects of the terpretative element appears.
transfiguration on the Savior's person, he takes his None the less the threefold report makes the fact
illustration from the fuller's art. The disciples, the necessary presupposition of the interpretation.
speaking to Jesus, address him in the current Ara- The transfiguration was an event of vital moment
maic as " Rabbi." Luke (ix. 28-36) differs consid- in the experience of the Savior. In its importance
erably. He changes the order of apostolic names, for knowledge of his life and mind, it comes fairly
John taking precedence of James. The transfigura- near the level of the baptism. To find its meaning,
tion comes upon Jesus while he is praying. The dis- the larger context, as sketched by Mark, will serve.
" "
ciples address Jesus as Epistata, Master pos- The Galilean ministry lay behind him. Jerusalem
sibly a deliberate avoidance of the Palestinian is calling him to his passion and death. The tragedy
"
Rabbi." He adds verses 31-32. In the voice inherent in every great life whose purpose both
from heaven " my chosen " takes the place of " my transcends its time and place and yet seeks intimacy
beloved." The solemn and detailed injunction of with its time and place, is at its height in the life of
Jesus that the disciples should keep silent regarding Jesus. He had utterly failed to convert his own
the event is condensed into the simple statement, people. His deepening experience of his nation's
"they held their peace." Matthew (xvii. 1-13) incompetence and unbelief leads him to appropri-
abounds in his own sense. The Christology is more ate Isa. liii. as the word of Holy Scripture that
conscious and more advanced. The divine majesty makes his experience clear and intelligible to him.
of the Savior isbrought out in every possible way. But the tragic strain of the situation can be relieved
"
He addressed as
is Lord." His face and person in only one way. In the intensity of communion
" "
shine as the sun and " like the light." In ad- with the Father, his will and nature are taken up
"
dressing him Peter says, If thou wilt." The dis- into the will and being of God. On his mental side,
ciples fallon their faces in fear. The words from the Savior must be described as the supreme pro-
heaven are identical with the words used at the phetic mystic. So he realizes the divine being and
baptism. In brief, Matthew's molding of the event purpose as every ancient mystic realized it, in terms
" "
is deeply characteristic, in close keeping with the of the light within the light. The experience of
purpose and method of his Gospel. his soul shines out through his face and transfigures
In the light of the threefold narrative, the account it. Science has nothing to say at this point which
of the transfiguration has quite as strong right to be can justly interfere with the believer's rights.
considered historical as the happenings at Ctesarea The place where the transfiguration took place
Philippi, with which it is connected. Possibly its has been the subject of much learned discussion.
right is a shade better, for the variations are less A tradition as early as the fourth century fastened
substantial. The account may even be compared on Mt. Tabor. But modern investigation, begin-
with the baptism and come off well. Unless, out- ning with Robinson, has made that site impossible.
side the Synoptists, some reason can be found for P. Schaff (Dictionary of the Bible, Philadelphia,
impugning the historicity of the narrative, it must 1880) with other scholars fixed on some high peak
be accepted as a solid part of the very earliest tradi- in the Anti-Lebanon range. If justification exists
tion regarding the Savior. By the test of position for searching for a definite mountain-peak, no other
also, it shows up well. It is fixed near the end of the inference seems possible. The context in the Syn-
Galilean ministry. Contrasted with the Sermon on optists points in this direction. But it is to be re-
the Mount or with the materials which Luke groups membered that the Synoptists, aside from vague
under the so-called " Peraoan ministry," it holds a suggestion, give no real help. Mark and Matthew
" "
position that does not vary. It is fixed as solidly as say a mountain." Luke writes the mountain."
the baptism or the crucifixion. Tested, then, by All that the three make it safe to say is that the
such standards as an undogmatic criticism is able transfiguration took place in close connection with
to provide, the account of the transfiguration is the the events recorded in Mark viii. 27-33 (Caesarea
" "
report of a real event in the life of Jesus. Beyond Philippi). The phrase high mountain does not
doubt the facts have been interpreted and molded. justify thinking of some very high peak. The lan-
The " Life of Christ," as the Gospels give it, is not guage is relative and mystical, not scientific and
a scientific history, but a religious history. It came exact. The habit of climbing high
mountain-peaks
into literature out of the life, the spiritual warfare, is distinctly modern. no reason to sup-
There is
the unwritten memory and faith of Christians in the pose that the Savior did what no other ancient
Apostolic Age. Unless God had worked an incon- ever did. The attempt at identification should be
ceivably immoral miracle, suspended all mental abandoned. The geography of the episode concerns
laws, then, under the conditions of Christianity in the ways of the Spirit rather than the map made
the first century, it could not but happen that the with hands. HENRY 8. NASH.
facts in the life of the Savior and the Church's in- BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. F. Strauss, Leben Jetu, ii. 252 sqq.,
Tubingen, 1836, Eng. transl., iii. 1*21, London, 1846,
terpretation of the facts should blend in the record.
and Life ofJeeut for the People, ii. 281-285, ib. 1879; C.
Therefore the fact of the transfiguration, like the Weinaoker. Untereuchwtoen Vber die evangelieche Ge-
other main facts in the Savior's life, has been inter- schichU, pp. 480-484, Gotha, 1864; K. T. Keim, Jeewt o
preted, and the interpretation has fused itself with NaMara. vol. iv., 6 vote.. London, 1876-83; F. W. Farrar.
the fact reported. Matthew gives the most marked Life ofChritt, ii. 34-41, 13th ed. London and New York.
t

n.d.: 8. J. Andrews, Life of our Lord, pp. 351-350, New

evidence of this process, particularly in the direction York, 1801; A. Edenbeim, Jenu the Measiah, ii. 94-101,
of developing the likeness between Jesus the su- ib. 1806; A. Kevilte, Jeeve de Ncuareth, vol ii.. Paris.
 >tion THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ 494

1807; A. Mensies, Earliest Ooapd, London, 1901; W. J. iscommon among primitive peoples, has had a large
Moulton, in Biblical and Semitic Studies (Yale University),
part in the philosophy of India, and in the West has
pp. 157-210, Now Haven, 1901; J. deQ. Donehoo, The
furnished the theme for a large body of folk-lore;
Apocryphal and Legendary Life of Christ, New York, 1903;
O. Holtcmann, Life of Jesus, London, 1904; W. Sanday, in Greece it was advocated by Pythagoras and was
Outlines of the Life of Christ, 2d ed. Edinburgh, 1906;
t held by the Orphics; it reappeared in the Cabala
Q. D. Barry, The Transfiguration of our Lord, London and
New York; 1911; DB, iv. 807-808; EB, iv. 4570-71; (q.v.), reminiscences of it are to be discovered
DCG, ii. 742-745; B. W. Bacon, in AJT, 1902, pp. 236- in early obscure Christian sects, and even in the
265; and the commentaries on the passages in the Gos- Middle Ages it was not altogether banished from
pels. On the location consult Robinson, Researches, ii. thought. But nowhere else has the conception had
357-359.
so large and abiding influence as in India, where it
TRANSMIGRATION: A phase of metempsy- is practically the key to almost all theological sys-

chosis (seeCOMPARATIVE RELIGION, VI., 1, 6) tems and furnishes the reason for the fundamental
which assumes the rebirth of a soul into another hope of the Indian of nearly every faith escape
body (reincorporation). Belief in transmigration from the samsara or cycle of births.

TRANSUBSTANTIATION.
I. Rise of the Concept. Duration of Presence (3). Priestly Function; Communion in
Earliest Evidence* ( 1). Unity of Celestial and Sacramental One Kind ( 2).
Early Medieval Development Body ( 4). IV. Doctrine in the Greek Church.
(52). III. Practical Results of the Dogma- V. Roman Catholic Arguments in De-
II. Scholastic Development. tixation. fense of the Doctnne.
Nature of the Change (J 1). Sacrifice; Adoration; Reserva- Exegotical ( 1).
Concomitance ($2). tion (fi 1). Historical (5 2).
VI. Opposition to the Doctrine.

I. Rise of the Concept: The doctrine of tran- come to expression cither in the " Sentences " of
substantiation (namely, that in the Eucharist the Peter Lombard, who represented the simple realis-
substance in the elements of bread and wine is tic idea of the Eucharist, or other text-books of that
changed into the real substance of the body and period. Apparently the term emerged unobserved,
blood of Christ, though retaining the accidents of but may have been in circulation before the twelfth
the elements) was the result of four centuries of century. For indications discovered in a writer,
development. It was fixed as a dogma by the fourth Haimo, probably of Halberstadt (d. 8515), or possi-
Lateran Council in 1215, during the pontificate of bly of Hirschau (abbot, from 1091), shows the idea
"
Innocent III. The creed then adopted, a revision in its nascent stage. He employs the words: There-
of the Apostolic, and promulgated against all here- fore we believe . that that substance, namely,
. .

tics, forms the first chapter of the decrees, and is of bread and wine, that is, the nature of
. . .

sometimes called the fourth symbol. It declares as bread and wine, [is] substantially changed into an-
"
follows: There is verily one universal Church of other substance, that is, into flesh and blood ";
the faithful, outside which no one at all is saved, and again " The invisible priest changes his visible
:

"
in which the same priest is himself the creatures into the substance of his flesh and blood
i. Earliest sacrifice, Jesus Christ, whose body and (MPL, cxviii. 815-816). Among twelfth-century
Evidences, blood are truly contained in the sacra- authors, however, Peter of Poitiers (d. 1205) alone
ment of the altar under the species of seems to consider or justify the use of the term
bread and wine, the bread being transubstantiated transsuhstantio for the change here indicated. Close-
into the body, and the wine into blood, by divine ly following Peter Lombard, he considers the proc-
power." The term itself had already long been in ess effected by consecration under the general cate-
" "
use among theologians, and the concept longer still. gory of change (conversio). The Lombard had
" "
The first authentic use of the term seems to have already debated whether the change was formal
been in the Tractatus de sacramento altaris, xiii., xiv. or substantial, or of some other species. Totally
(MPL, clxxii. 1291, 1293), a treatise assigned by denying the first, he, however, went no further as
Jean Mabillon to the first Stephen of Autun (d. 1139 to the second than to cite the approval of previ-
or 1140), the former of the two bishops of Autun
" "
ously named authorities and to reply to others
known as Peter in the twelfth century. The term, who objected against it. He does not protest against
further employed by various theologians during the the accepted statement that through the priest
twelfth century, seems to have been freely current bread is made into flesh, but how this takes place
previous to the council of 1215. Innocent himself is to him a mystery which is more wholesome to be-

frequently used it as a current term in his De sac~ lieve than to investigate. He classifies known views
ramenti altaris mysterio; and a citation from Alanus as follows: (1) not the substance of bread becomes
of Lille (MPL, ccx. 359) shows that it played a part the body, except as bread is made out of flour, when
specially in the controversy with the Cathari or Al- it may be said that flour is made, not is, bread;

bigenses (see NEW

MANICHEANB, II.), against whom (2) what was bread and wine was afterward body
the first chapter of the decree of the council was and blood, so that the bread is no longer substance,
aimed. William of Auxerre (d. c. 1230) deals in his and hence no longer bread; (3) " after consecration
Summa with the special title De transsubstantia- there is the substance of body and blood under those
tione, followed by such scholars as William of Paris accidents under which there was formerly the sub-
(or of Auvergne; d. 1249), Alexander of Hales, and stance of bread and wine "; (4) the substance of
Albert the Great. As to the concept it does not bread and wine remains, but in the same place, after
495 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Trjnjml^tion
arabstantiatlon

the consecration, are the body and blood of Christ. the existing substance, both of bread and wine, is
The latter doctrine is evidently consubstantiation; changed into the coexisting substance of the body
the first, or theory of transformation, is the one of Christ." He holds that " the whole host is so
widely held in the Greek Church; while the combi- the body of Christ that, nevertheless, each separate
nation of the second and third (the annihilation particle is the whole body of Christ." In this latter
doctrine), scarcely to be identified against the statement are contained four axioms of subsequent
second, unmistakably represents, virtually, the theologians: (1) not a part of the body of Christ
doctrine of transubstantiation. Peter Lombard re- (as the flesh), but the whole body, the whole Christ,
frains from criticizing only the third, which doubt- is present in the Eucharist in virtue of the change;
less holds the mystery forbidding investigation, but (2) the whole body, the whole Christ, is not only
it is uncertain whether he accordingly does not dare in the entire host, but no less entirely in each part;
to venture for conciseness upon the term transubstan- (3) even though a thousand masses are celebrated
tiation, or that term had not yet appeared as avail- simultaneously at different places, the whole body
able for the conception. Peter of Poitiers expressly of Christ is present in each individually and entirely
introduces the term transsubstantiatio for the out- in all; (4) by the breaking of the host and its crush-
lined conception, with the apology that no adequate ing by the teeth the indivisible body of Christ is
term was previously afforded. not divided. The views of Guitmund were further
A new epoch in eucharistic doctrine had its in- systematized by Peter Lombard (d. 1064 or 1060 ?),
ception with Paschasius Radbertus (q.v.), who, Anselm of Canterbury (d. 1109), Hugo of St. Victor
surpassing his predecessors in the earnestness and (d. 1141), and Robert Pulleyn (d. about 1150); and
thrust by which he asserted the identity of the his- by these pushed to their logical conclusions. An-
toric body of Christ with the Eucharist, without selm, in De corpore et sanguine Domini (MPL, clix.
any intentional innovation on his part, furnished 255), denied that with the blood only the soul of
the impulse for a scientific theological treatment of Christ is received and with the body only the body,
the eucharistic problem by his De corpore et san- but maintained that the entire Christ, both God
guine Domini (MPL, cxxi. 125 sqq.). His work and man, is received in each. Henceforth it was a
"
was the first monograph in the West on the Eucha- standing formula that the entire Christ exists and
rist, preceded only by the homily of Faustus of is received under either species," and though the
Riez (q.v.), De corpore et sanguine conception of the Eucharist as spiritual sustenance
2. Early Christi (MPL, xxx. 271 sqq.). At prevailed later, yet the argument was repeatedly
Medieval bottom the Christological and so- recalled. Guitmund also made an advance in a
Dcvclop- teriological problem was at stake, closer determination of the process in the sacra-
ment. which at the outset of the dogmatic ment. Of four alternative species of change (mu-
development was thus afforded a tatio) the one in which one thing becomes another
symptomatic interest beyond mere formal spec- that already exists, like the sacramental bread
ulation. The first real eucharistic controversy of changed into the body of Christ existing already in
the West was that conjured up against Berengar heaven, pertains exclusively to the Eucharist.
of Tours (q.v.) by his opponents, practically the Raising the question how this is possible, Alger of
authors of the doctrine of transubstantiation. Of Lige, declining the view that this takes place by
these there were four: Hugo, bishop of Langres, flight from heaven through space, affirmed that the
Tractatus de corpore et sanguine Christi (c. 1048; human nature now exalted was capable by virtue
MPL, cxlii. 1325 sqq.) Durand of Troarn (q.v.), De
;
of omnipotence to remain undivided and substan-
corpore sanguine Christi (MPL, cxlix. 1375 sqq.);
et tial where it is and at the same time to be at every
Lanfranc, De corpore et sanguine Domini (1069 or other place where it will. Guitmund applied the
1070; MPL, cl. 407 sqq.); and Guitmund, later logical categories of substance and accident to the
archbishop of A versa, De corporis et sanguinis Eucharist, in so far as he termed the surviving sense
Domini veritate in Eucharistia (between 1073 and qualities of the changed substance accidents, and
1078; MPL, cxlix. 1427 sqq.). Lanfranc was the Alger further deduced the consequence that God
first to teach that the body of Christ is received made the accidents to continue without a subject.
also by the unworthy, a view essentially implying Both affirmed that as the substance of the bread was
the reality of the change of the bread. He appar- no longer present, any disturbance of the inherent
ently wavers, however, when he affirms that in the substance (the body) was not only impossible but
sacrament the flesh of Christ is daily sacrificed, dis- a disturbance of the accidents was merely illusory.
tributed, and eaten, notwithstanding that accord- The latter, however, seemed to their successors,
ing to another mode of speech the whole Christ is Hugo, Robert, and Thomas, to impair the verity of
eaten, i.e., when he is longed for as eternal life by the sacrament, and it was assumed that much could
spiritual desire. Both kinds of communion he deems occur to the accidents not affecting the body in
essential, the physical and the spiritual, though the which they inhere, being not, according to Anselm
latter is impossible without the former. Most im- and the rest, spatially circumscribed, gnawed by
portant was the work of Guitmund, amended by mice, or taken into the abdomen like the elements.
Anselm and compiled and further developed by A loose integration of the substance of the body
Alger of Lie"ge (d. 1132) in his De sacramentis cor- and the accidents of the bread was thus postulated,
poris et sanguinis Dominid (MPL, clxxx. 743 sqq.). yet it is to be taken as the first expression of a
The latter stated: " In the sacrament, the sub- thought which was to remain an integrating factor
stance, not the form, being changed, the bread and in the Roman dogma. Radbertus had already rep-
wine do not become new flesh and new blood, but resented the bread and wine as types or figures of
Tr*nttbfttanti*tion THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 496

the body and blood into which they are changed, new place (adductiva). The body does not succeed
but he restricted the body to a spiritual sustenance the bread according to the absolute existence of the
in which the unworthy and unbelieving had no part; body, but the bread is changed into the body ac-
this involved a self-contradiction, since a conse- cording to the local existence of the same with ref-
quence of the reality of transformation is that these ence to the preexisting bread. Here emerges to
also partake, though without the blessing. This view the element broadly underlying the growth of
view promulgated by Lanfranc was further devel- the dogma from the beginning, namely, the presence
oped by Guitmund, teaching that the body present in the Eucharist of the preexisting body of Christ.
in the Eucharist is again a symbol of the regenera- Inasmuch as the body gains the new presence with-
tion of believers from the bosom of the Church, or out losing the old, while the bread undergoes a mu-
of the Church itself, the mystical body; and that it tation of loss without gain, it would follow that the
is a sign by which the members testify to their question at first hand would be only one of local
spiritual birth. The unworthy, thus, do not par- presence or non-presence, and it would be concluded
take of the spiritual communion in Christ, though that the bread did not lose its substantial but only
partaking physically of the body and blood. Hugo its local existence, and so far did not undergo de-
of St. Victor formulated these views into the dogma struction. If, however, the bread does not remain
that became permanent for scholasticism and the in its substantial existence and from the above
Church. To him, (1) the species are merely a type, would appear not destroyed, it must cease in some
not a fact; (2) the eucharistic body is at once fact, other way, and this is a change from simple exist-
and in turn type of (3) the blessing of the sacra- ence to non-existence, which would virtually be
ment, i.e., the spiritual content of being members annihilation, only this term must not apply beyond
"
in Christ, provided by faith in his body and blood; the terminus from which," i e., the bread. As
and objective fact, and type of noth-
this, finally, is further developed by the nominalists, the Scotist
ing else. In this
sense the unworthy receive the view appears in the Roman catechism as follows:
"
species and the body as born of man, in substance, The substance of bread and wine is BO changed
but not in efficacy, i.e., participation in the mystical into the very body of the Lord that the substance
union. of bread and wine entirely ceases to be." Still more
n. Scholastic Development: Scholasticism gave sharp is the definition of Bellannin, who holds (Dc
the doctrine of transubstantiation the final form, eucharistia, iii. 18) that the concept of true transub-
as it appeared in the Roman Catholic catechism stantiation presupposes four things: that something
and the works of Cardinal Bellannin. The matter ceases to be (desitio); that something takes the
on which the change is effected is unleavened wheat place of what has ceased to be (succKittfio) that de-
;

bread and wine somewhat diluted with water. The sistance and succession have a telcological causal
" "
form of the sacrament consists of the words Hoc nexus, one thing ceasing to bo that another may
" "
est carpus meum, hie eat calix sanguinis mei. The ef- take its place; and that both the end from which
" "
fect of the form upon the matter is to and the end to which are positive in nature.
i. Nature change it in the Aristotelian sense into The body of Christ, besides its presence in heaven,
the new, for which it possesses an in-
of the obtains a new presence in the Eucharist; and tran-
Change. herent capability. But just as regards substantiation depends not on a twofold but a single
the operation of the sacrament one act of the divine will whereby the bread is made to
tendency was to consider the efficacy as immanent cease and the body of Christ takes its place under
and the other as concomitant, so Albert and Thomas the accidents.
taught a created virtue residing in the words of con- The one effect of consecration is that the body
secration, while others like Bonaventura and Ga- and blood of Christ, and therefore their real pres-
briel Biel held to a mere assistance by divine om- ence under the accidents of the elements, have their
nipotence to the words of consecration in virtue of inception in the sacraments. Thomas Aquinas con-
the institution. The application of the form to the tents himself with the fact of the real presence, to
matter is effected by the consecration of the priest, be grasped by neither senses nor reason, but only
with transubstantiation as the immediate result. by faith depending on divine"
authority. Sometimes,
"
The use of the word, with its philosophic substruc- however, he refers to the true body as it exists
ture, was yet open to scholastic disputes. Alger in heaven in contrast with its sacramental presence.
represented that the substance of the bread ceases, Biel, following Occam, reasserts more strongly the
but his contemporaries, Hugo of St. Victor, Robert absolute identity of the two as taught by Radbertus.
Pulleyn, and Peter Lombard, insisted that the The body of Christ is thus said to be
substance of the elements only ceases to be what a. Concern- present in the Eucharist the same as
it was and becomes something which it had not itance. enthroned at the right hand of the
been previously. Duns Scotus brings the idea of Father, a living, divine, immortal, and
transubstantiation under the third form of the glorified body, with all celestial qualities and acci-
Aristotelian category of " mutation." While the dents. From this there issues a series of deductions,
first form is from negative to positive (creation), abroad since Anselm and now grounded by Thomas
and the second vice versa (annihilation), transub- on his theory of " real concomitance." By virtue
stantiation demands both positive termini, and its of the sacramental change not only the basic sub-
transition is from subject to subject or substance to stance or the flesh, but the entire body is in the
substance. This transition is not to be conceived Eucharist; this must imply Christ as living in
as though the substance of the " end to which " heaven, possessed of a soul, and joined with God.
was first originated; but as beginning to exist in a However, both soul and deity are not present by
407 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Tranftubstantiattan

virtue of the sacramental change but of natural stantiation is drawn from the hoc; for if the sub-
concomitance. And because living body and blood stance of bread had remained, Christ would have
"
are inseparable the concept of real concomitance said, Hie panis eat corpus meum"
affords the conclusion that blood is under the bread The most difficult question concerned the quan-
and body under the wine as well, or the entire body tity of the eucharistic body and its relation to the
of Christ is under each. This, too, became a fixed host. Since the celestial body of Christ is in all
tenet of scholasticism, receiving very full elabora- points the same as it was on earth save its impassi-
tion at the hands of Biel. That the body of Christ bility and immortality, it must quantitatively fill a
amount of space in " dimensive or " cir-
"
may be present under the species of the host, the certain
"
substance of the bread must cease to be and only cumscriptive fashion, so that the whole occupies
its remain.
accidents Scholasticism could not, its entire allotted room or space, and each part its
therefore, avoid the problem whether these acci- specific exclusive space; and apparently this heaven-
dents could continue to exist without their subject. ly body as such can not be present in the host. This
Thomas affirmed such possibility, proposing as objection could be met only by the
analogous proof that the divine omnipotence as the 4. Unity doctrine that the sacramental body of
first cause could sustain the effect of a terminated of Celestial Christ, though one and the same with
second cause, and assuming that after the substance and Sacra- his celestial body, has another mode
of the bread had ceased the accidents continued in- mental of existence in the sacrament; name-
hering in the dimensive quantitativeness of the Body, ly, without
quantitativeness. The
bread as a quasi-subject. The validity of this view earlier scholasticism attrib-
realistic
was denied by Duns and by the nominal-
specially uted to quantitativeness, like other absolute acci-
ists, who answered Thomas that such quantitative- dents, a real existence independent of substance
ness, after the change, belonged to the accidents and of qualities, holding that through the union of
themselves; and they found less difficulty on their quantitativeness with unquantitative substance or
theory in presuming the accidents to be self-sub- quality the latter first become quantitative things
sisting after the change. It may be said that acci- gaining definite area and capacity. This quantita-
dents that may subsist without a subject can have tiveness was, according to realism, thus separable
but a very lax connection with the body after con- from material things without alteration to their
secration. They do not inhere in or affect the body, real entity. Realists could therefore affirm, as some
and the latter may not be accessible to transactions did, that the accident of quantitativeness existed
affecting the accidents, such as the breaking of the only in the celestial body of Christ, not in the sac-
bread, where the body as a whole or as entirely in ramental body. As to how this would be it was
each and every part not affected.
is proposed that God can provide that one part of the
The question of how
long the body of Christ is body is entered by another, and this in turn by an-
present in the host was not answered conclusively other (subintrarc), so that each exists not under or
by the older scholasticism. Thomas maintained beside but only in the other, and the whole has the
that the presence continued in the species so long smallest imaginable natural quantity. This was
as they would not undergo such change the subintration theory, and was objectionable;
3. Dura- as would alter the substance of the because if non-quantitative in the Eucharist, the
tion of bread and wine were that substance body can not be living and organic and therefore
Presence, existent. This view was repeated by not identical with the celestial body; or as Albert
Biel, who supplemented it by the con- and Duns questioned, without collateral parts there
clusion of Occam, that when the body of Christ was no form and consequently no real soul-pos-
ceased to be present in the host, its place was taken sessing body in the Eucharist. The problem now
either by the returning substance of bread or by assumed the shape of proving quantity without
some new substance, thus giving rise to the paradox spatial extension not self-contradictory, as Bona-
that
*'
from non-substances," the substanceless ac- ventura assumed. The first to attempt a dialectic
"
cidents, substance may arise." When the process solution along these lines was Thomas on the basis
of digestion begins, the presence of the body of of transmutation and concomitance. The former
Christ in the accidents ceases, and its place is taken, has for its termini not dimensions, but substances,
by an absolute act of God, by a surrogate which has and accordingly only the substance of the bread is
the nutritive power lacking to the accidents as such. changed into the substance of the body of Christ.
The question likewise arose how the words, " this Since, however, the body of Christ is present in the
is my body," were to be interpreted. The followers sacrament as it exists in heaven, its dimensive

of Berengar explained them, like Zwingli afterward, quantity must also be present. But since this is in
as representative; Richard of St. Victor substituted the sacrament only " concomitantly " and some-
the future for the present; Bonaventura paraphrased what as an accident, it is present only according to
" the mode of substance, i.e., the body is present not
the words into, this which is as yet present under
these species as bread will be transubstantiated into as a dimensive quantity in dimensive space, but
my body "; Alexander of Hales paraphrased the like a substance under its own dimensions. Ac-
words as " this which is designated by the symbol cordingly, the nature of the substance is contained
is my body "; Thomas, followed by Biel and Bel- wholly in the entire body and wholly in each part,
larmin made hoc refer to a substance qualitatively analogous to the air. To the objection that the
undetermined, but considered present under the spatial capacity of the species would thus be con-
species, and then more closely defined by the predi- ceived as empty, he asserted that such was occupied
cate as the body of Christ. The proof of transub- only by the species of bread retaining after the
XI, 3?
Tr*nubtanti.tlon THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 498

transmutation of its former substance, its former feasible. This doctrine termed " condensation "
dimensions. The mediating thought of this theory takes the place of that of eubintration, though the
is, that that which is in the sacrament by virtue
of result is the same. The body exists in the sacra-
the change is there of necessity, although owing its ment without extension as a mathematical point.
presence merely to concomitance, thus assuring The contradiction of corporeity, or organic form,
only an incidental existence, and liable to sacrifice without dimension is also referred to divine om-
its individuality, if the sacrament requires it. The nipotence. Even in the bloom of ecclesiastical
dialectic fallacy is the confusion of substance with scholasticism it was felt that the doctrine of tran-
the abstract nature of substance in the course of substantiation was not beyond question, and such
the argument. As a consequence the idea of an men as Duns Scotus, Occam, and Pierre d'Ailly
organic body in the sacrament is emptied and re- (q.v.) entertained alternative or modified views,
duced to a mathematical point. Thomas gets no though accepting and defending the orthodox doc-
further than the subintration theory; nevertheless, trine because of the authority of the Church. The
the Thomistic theory was adopted by the Roman Council of Trent sanctioned it officially as did Pius
catechism. VI. in his " Constitution," 1794.
Duns Scotus, besides his objection to the organic III. Practical Results of the Dogmatization:
disintegration of the body, insisted that bread and With the establishment of the dogma of transub-
body must bo present, each in all the attributes stantiation, 1215, it became more and more evi-
essential to its concept. Accordingly, he distin- dent that the Eucharist was a sacrament utterly
guishes in the quantitative existence of an object different in kind from all others. They were effica-
" "
between a logical intrinsic position of the quan- cious only in their administration to such a degree
tity considered absolutely, by which there is a that (with the exception of marriage)
differentiation and a correlation of distinct exclu- i. Sacrifice; their form came to consist only in the
sive parts in the whole, and an
" "
extrinsic position Adoration; words of their exercise by the priest.
with reference to space; which is again differenti- Reservation. In the Eucharist, on the contrary, the
ated into the occupancy of space in general, and the consecration itself was the sacramen-
coextensive collocation of the parts respectively tal act, and the object of this consecration was not
with their spaces. The second distinction refers communion, which remained a mere incident, but
more specifically to the mere coexistence of two the transubstantiation of the elements, or the crea-
quantities, over against their coexistence together tion of the presence of Christ and of his body. The
with the coextension of the parts. In application, purpose of the consecration, moreover, is tho sacri-
the body is present in fact in its organic unity ac- fice, the act of the priest, not of the congregation;
cording to the intrinsic position, but, by a miracle, this sacrifice was believed to be commanded in the
"
in the manner of coexistence without the coexten- words: " This do in remembrance of me This
"
sion of parts. Hence, the presence is of the whole development was of gradual growth, the original
in the whole and entirely in any part whatsoever." intention, as manifest from lladbert to Pulleyn,
The fallacy lay in abstracting space from its integral being to assure the faithful of the real presence for
relation,and in its realistic treatment as a quantity; cucharistic communion; but when tho perfection
nevertheless, the doctrine was thus assumed by of the sacrament came to subsist in the consecra-
Bellarmin. tion, the conclusion of the real identity of the sacri-
Occam attacked the realistic conception of quan- fice of the mass with the sacrifice on Calvary from

tity. He rightly asserted that, since the concep- the real presence proved inevitable. Bcrengar
tion of space is derived from the collocation of points out that the solemn relebration is not the
plural objects or spaces, the order of parts in the passion of the Lord but its symbolic commemora-
whole necessarily implies each part in its corre- tion. Though Thomas holds to the fact and sym-
sponding space. The fiction of the coexistence of bol, yet he not only identifies the real effects of the
quantities without coextension was thus exposed. original act of atonement with the symbolic cere-
In place he now denied that quantitativeness or mony but explains that by the real presence, and
extension was a thing, real and distinct, and inter- not merely by symbol and significance, the sacrifice
mediate between substance and quality, but he of the new law is to tower above the shadowed
affirmed that it was one and the same with the sacrifices of the old; and containing Christ in real-
substance or quality to which it belongs as accident, ity it is the culmination of all other sacraments,
and denoted the thing itself so far as it was a quan- through which alone the power of Christ is im-
"
tity; or it was the thing circumscriptively in parted. If Christ be present from the moment
place/' whether this, more definitely, were sub- that the sacrament is completed by consecration,
stance or quality. If, then, a substance or quality and if he be present both in his humanity and
coincided with space throughout, whole with whole his divinity, then veneration is due him, present
and part \vith part, it was a quantum; and in- in the host. Thomas emphasizes already that
versely, a substance or quality coexists with space,
if no bread substance must remain in the sacra-
whole with whole and the whole with every part, ment, lest anything created may hinder worship.
"
it must be a non-quantum. This he terms de- Veneration presupposes the reservation of the
finitive existence," which he asserts may also be host. It is at least certain that in the ancient
applied to material, corporeal, divisible things, and Church not only were the consecrated elements
necessarily thus to the body of Christ. As to the taken by the deacons to the houses of the sick, but
mode Occam points to concentration in digestion, that many took with them some of the consecrated
holding that to divine omnipotence both are equally bread; and it is also known that penitents, when
499 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA TranubtantJ>tioH

insudden danger of death, received the consecrated part of the laity of frequently refraining from the
bread as a viaticum, thus rendering probable the cup. This usage led finally to the canonical with-
practise of reservation in the churches, and conse- drawal of the cup from the laity (see MABH, II., 5).
quently the assignment of some place for preserva- The fear of spilling some of the contents of the
tion. In the sixth century the vessel for retaining chalice early led many communicants to refrain
the host was called turns. With the rise of the doc- from the cup, though not only teachers of the
trine of transubstantiation, however, the conse- Church but popes, such as Gelasius I. (cf. MPL,
crated host was reserved for the adoration of the lix. 141), opposed the practise of refraining. When,
worshipers, and to this end was placed in the mon- however, Ansclm of Canterbury declared that the
strance (see VESSELS, SACRED). The Roman ritual eucharistic body was not without the blood, the
requires that some consecrated particles must al- practise was sustained by a new dogmatic basis.
ways be reserved for the communion of the sick Nearly all the great church teachers of the twelfth
and other believers prevented from attending mass, century, as Bernard, Hugo, Peter Lombard, and
in a well-covered receptacle in the tabernacle, either Peter of Blois, speak of communion in both kinds
on the high altar or some other altar suitable for as the right form, though their views were preceded
the veneration and worship of so high a sacrament. by many exceptions; and Alexander of Hales de-
Veneration at the elevation of the host in the mass, manded that the laity "be free to receive only the
as well as when the host was borne through the bread, though he held that communion under both
streets to the sick, was first required at Cologne in kinds is more perfect and efficacious than under
1203 by the papal legate Cardinal Guido; and in one. The general chapter of the Cistercians of 1261
1217 the elevation of the monstrance was required restricted the chalice to the priests, and the Lam-
by canon law. Shortly afterward the feast of Cor- beth Synod of 1281 allowed the laity only the
pus Christi (q.v.) was established, and the Council chalice of ablution. Albert the Great declared
of Trent directed that latria, the worship due only communion in one kind imperfect, since the blood
to God and to Christ as God and man, be paid the is not in the body in virtue of the sacrament but
"
blessed sacrament (Setwio xiii., De eucharistia, v.). through natural union." Thomas Aquinas, de-
" "
A further consequence of the dogma of transubstan- veloping this natural union into the theory of
tiation is the increased care taken of what remains concomitance, did not regard the cup as superflu-
over from the communion. Tertullian already ous, because it represents the shedding of blood
states that the Christians took extreme pains to and its redeeming power; but as absolutely neces-
prevent any of the consecrated bread from falling sary only for the priest. Deeming that the laity
on the ground. In Constantinople, on the other should not receive the cup for reasons of expediency,
hand, the remaining particles of consecrated bread he answered the charge that communion in one
were given the small school-children, and in Gaul in kind is imperfect by declaring that the perfection
585 it is known by the Synod of M&con that the of the sacrament depends on the consecration by
remnants were used in a children's communion (see the priest, not on reception by the faithful. Bona-
LORD'S SUPPER, V.). Elsewhere it was the custom ventura decided that communion in one kind was
to burn what was left, fire being regarded as a pure as efficacious as in both, only that the symbolism
element. The Roman Missal, in the chapter De de- is less complete, a defect compensated by the com-

fectibus in celebratione missarum occurrentibus, x., munion of the priest representing the Church. After
gives an entire scries of rules in case a drop of con- him Dominicans and Franciscans alike advocated
secrated wine falls from the chalice. the withdrawal of the cup from the laity, a prac-
That the sacrament of the altar is the office of the tise finally sanctioned by the Council of Constance
priest, and of him alone, is a maxim of the Church, (1415) and the Council of Trent.
unalterable from the days of Cyprian. Even in the IV. Doctrine in the Greek Church: The Greek
ancient Church " to consecrate " and " to produce term corresponding to the Latin transsubstantio is
the body of the Lord " were synonymous, though metoiisidsis, older(and less orthodox) appellations
the latter phrase then implied merely that through being metaboti, metapoi&sis, and occasionally meta-
consecration the elements received an rythmisis (equaling the Latin transformatio, muta-
2. Priestly importance and dignity for faith which tio, and transjiyuraiio) The transit from
conversio t .

Function; they had not previously possessed. a dynamistic to an essentially realistic interpreta-
Commu- With the rise of transubstantiation, tion of the effect of consecration on the relation
nion in one however, the expression came to mean between the elements and the body of Christ was
Kind. the specific change wrought by the accomplished, largely through the concept of meta-
priest by moans of the consecrating bole, especially after Gregory of Nyssa. John of
words and their divine efficacy, so that he, in a real Damascus taught a real change of the elements of
sense, creates the body of Christ and produces his bread and wine, and through him this doctrine
presence. This power, combined with the Power of became the common property of the Greek Church.
the Keys (q.v.), forms the material significance of The teaching of earlier Greek theologians presup-
the priestly office, and at ordination is solemnly " "
poses that the substance
of the bread remains,
conferred on the candidate as inseparable from his " "
and that only its form changed; whereas in
is

person. The dogma of transubstantiation has thus transubstantiation it is essential that the bread be
led to an increased distinction between the clergy replaced. The doctrine of metowifisis (the idea
and the laity, so as to exalt the priest as a media- is also expressed by metastoicheidsis), as well as
tor between God and Tn^. The doctrine of real that of consubstantiation, never became an intense
concomitance served to promote the practise on the problem among the Greeks, because the idea of
Tranaubstantiation THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 600
Trftppi&t*

communion remained uppermost. That by this terpretation and application to the first celebration,
process the substance of the bread was affected (c) The literal interpretation can not be carried out,
was more or less self-evident to their realistic minds; inasmuch as the Lord himself (Matt. xxvi. 27; Luke
" "
but whether this was by " change or transub- xxii. 19-20) and the Apostle Paul, in quoting the
" "
stantiation was to them of comparative indiffer- words of institution (I Cor. xi. 25, this cup," etc.;
ence. The latter has repeatedly been sanctioned by x. 16, "the cup of blessing," etc.), substitute the
" "
the authorities of the Greek Church, and is doubt- cup which contains the wine, for the wine itself,
" 1
less official/ though conveying an outer rather i.e., they use the figure of synecdoche, the container
than inner view of the miracle. The earliest pas- for the contents, and yet no Roman Catholic as-
sage in which metousidsis occurs is the letter, or sumes the transubstantiation of the vessel. (2) The
confession of faith, sent by the Emperor Michael mysterious discourse of our Lord in the synagogue of
Palaeologus to Gregory X. in 1247, and based on Capernaum, about eating his flesh, and drinking his
Roman dictation. True appreciation of the doc- blood (John vi. 52-59). To this may be objected,
trine of transubstantiation was shown, about 1360, that this discourse serves theologians as basis for
by the devoted Thomist Manuel Calecas, though he different theories of the Lord's Supper; that the
translates substantia not by ou&ia, but by hypokei- reference of this section to the Lord's Supper is not
menon (" substratum "), thus not arriving at the certain; that in any case the words of John vi. 63,
4 '
term. Such important theologians as Nicolaus It is the spirit that quickeneth; the flesh profiteth
Cabasilas and Symeon of Thessalonica (qq.v.) do nothing: the words that I have spoken unto you
1
not use the term metousiOsis, but content themselves are spirit and are life/ point to a spiritual
with metabolS and the like. Yet it was evidently reference in the preceding figures (so Ratramnus
prominent at the Council of Florence (1438-39), as early as the ninth century); and that, finally,
though it is not used by Marcos Eugenicos (q.v.). if any theory of the Lord's Supper is favored by
In the fifteenth century Johannes Plusiadenus, de- that discourse, it is one which confines the fruition
fending the Council of Florence, declares it proper of the Lord's flesh and blood to the believer, since
"
to teach a metabolS from out of substance into every ono that eateth his flesh and drinketh his
" "
substance "; but in the next century the expression blood is said to have eternal life," to abide in
" "
makes its frequent and pronounced appearance. Christ and Christ in him," and to live forever
The controversies roused by the " Calvinism " of (vi. 54, 56, 58), all of which can be said of believers
Cyril Lucar (q.v.) after 1629 led to the official sanc- only; while the Roman Church teaches that un-
tioning of the term metousidsis, which was dog- worthy as well as worthy communicants partake
matized by the synods of Constantinople (1638, of the literal body and blood of Christ, though \\ith
1691), Jassy (1642), and Jerusalem (1672), which opposite effect.
in a sense revised the entire doctrinal system of the The Roman Church appeals to the Fathers, es-
Greek Church, especially the sacraments, and set pecially Cyril of Jerusalem, Chrysostom, Cyril of
forth the documents which the Greeks are wont to Alexandria, and Ambrose. As has been already in-
"
call their symbolical books." However, the de- dicated, the conceptions of the real
crees of these synods do not occupy the eminence 2. His- bodily presence of Christ and its ma-
nor exercise the authority of the one symbol erected torical. terialistic fruition are easily drawn
by the ancient Church, and deviation from those from the writings of Ignatius, Justin
not embraced in that symbol is not necessarily Martyr, and Irenseus. But it must be remembered
a breach of orthodoxy. It seems that the doctrine that these writers had in mind chiefly, if not alto-
of metousidsis may to this day be declined, provided gether, the gracious effect the Eucharist had, rather
the concept of metabolZ, the full and unconditioned than the nature of the elements. On the other hand,
reality of the real presence, be retained. it is equally true that the representations of the

(F. KATTENBUSCH.) Fathers differ. The African divines, Tertullian,

V. Roman Catholic Arguments in Defense of Cyprian, and Augustine, teach a symbolical and
the Doctrine, with their Refutation: (1) A
literal spiritual, rather than corporeal, presence; and the
interpretation (beginning with Paschasius Rad- Alexandrian school of Clement and Origen put the
"
bertus, q.v.) of the words of institution, This is whole design of the Eucharist in feeding the soul on
my body ";" " this (which, however, refers to the
"
the spiritual life and the divine word of Christ.
preceding cup," the wine not being mentioned) Hence the Fathers have been appealed to for the
" is
my blood of the covenant " (Matt. xxvi. 26, 27). Lutheran, Calvinistic, and Zwinglian theory, as well
The Lutheran symbols agree with this as for the Roman Catholic. Ratramnus already ap-
x. Exeget- exegesis, but nevertheless
reject tran- peals to Augustine for the spiritual interpretation.
icaL substantiation. The Reformed sym- VL Opposition to the Doctrine: This was begun
bols reject it for the following reasons: by the forerunners of the Reformation, especially
" " "
(a) the word is may indicate a figurative as well by Wyclif. He called transubstantiation a doc-
as a real relationship between the subject and the trine of the moderns." In 1381 he issued twelve
" " sets
predicate, and often means represents," or theses against the doctrine, which he followed up
forth," in the Septuagint and the Greek Testament with an elaborate treatise on the Eucharist, De
(e.g., Gen. xli. 26, 27; Matt. xiii. 38, 39; Gal. iv. 24; euchartitia (ed. J. Loserth for the Wyclif Society,
Rev. i. 20). (b) The surrounding circumstances of London, 1892), and he returned to the subject again
the institution of the Holy Supper (the living Christ and again in his writings, pronouncing the doctrine
amidst his disciples, his body not yet broken, his idolatry and a lying fable. He taught the spiritual
blood not yet shed, etc.) forbid a strictly literal in- though real presence of Christ's body. In its di-
501 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Transubrtantiatioa
TrappUt*

mensions in heaven. In the host it is present

it is and the literature under BEBENOAR; RADBBRTUS, PAS-
" OHASIDB; and RATRAMNUS.
efficaciously but in a symbol; the symbol repre-
11 For the Greek Church consult: I. R. Kiealing,, Hist,
sents (vicarius eat) the body. Christ is in the j
concertationis Qrmcorum Latinorumque de transsubstan-
bread as a king is in all parts of his dominions and j
tione, Leipsio, 1754; G. E. Steitz, in Jahrbucher fur
as the soul is in the body. The doctrine of transub- deutsche Theologie, xiii (1868), 649-700; M. Jugie, in
Echos orient, x (1907), 5 sqq., 65 sqq.
stantiation is subversive of logic, grammar, and all
natural science (De eucharistia, p. 11; Trialogus, TRAPP, JOHN: Church of England; b. at
ed. Lechler, pp. 248; 261, Oxford, 1869). The words Croome d'Abetot (6 m. s.s.e. of Worcester), Eng-
of institution are to be taken figuratively, just as land, June 5, 1601; d. at Weston-on-Avon (30 m.
"
are the words I am the vine." Transubstantia- n.e. of Gloucester) Oct. 16, 1669. Ho studied at
tion would necessarily demand transaccidentation Christ Church, Oxford (B.A., 1622; M.A., 1624);
(a word Wyclif used before Luther); for if acci- became usher of the free school of Stratford-upon-
dents can be separated from the thing itself, one Avon, 1622, and headmaster, 1624; was made
can not tell what a thing is or even whether it exists. preacher at Luddington, near Stratford; became
With reference to the discussion concerning the vicar of Weston-on-Avon. He sided with the par-
mouse which partakes of the host, he affirmed the liament in the civil war, and took the covenant of
first assumption to be because Christ is not
false, 1643; acted as chaplain to the parliamentary sol-
in the host in a corporealmanner. The chief charge diers in Stratford for two years; was rector of Wei-
brought against Wyclif by Gregory XI. and at the ford in Gloucestershire and Warwickshire, 1646-
Council of Constance (q.v.) was that he denied this 1660; and again vicar of Weston, 1660-69. He was
doctrine. The Reformers were unanimous in re- most industrious, and an excellent preacher. Bo-
jecting transubstantiation as a fundamental error, sides God's Love Tokens (London, 1637), he issued
contrary to Scripture, to reason, to the testimony of a Commentary on the Old and New Testaments (5
the senses, to the very nature of the sacrament, and vols., 1654 sqq.; reprinted and ed. H. Martin and
leading to gross superstition. There was, however, W. Webster, with Memoir by A. B. Growart, 5 vols.,
a serious difference among the Reformers in the ex- London, 1867-68). It is in some respects the best
tent of opposition. Luther, adhering to the literal of the Puritan commentaries.
interpretation of the words of institution, taught BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the Memoir by Grosart, ut sup.,
" "
Consubstantiation (q.v.); while Zwingli and consult: A. a Wood, Atfience Oxomenses, ed. P. Bliss, iii.
Calvin gave up the literal interpretation, and the 843-844, 4 vols.. London, 1813-20; DNB, Ivu. 155.
latter substituted for the idea of a corporeal pres- TRAPPISTS (REFORMED CISTERCIANS): A
ence the idea of a spiritual real presence, and for Roman Catholic order distinguished by extreme
manducation by the mouth and the teeth a spiritual severity and renunciation of learning. It was
real fruition by faith alone. See LORD'S SUPPER, II. founded in the Cistercian abbey of Notro Dame do
(P. SrHAFFf.) D. S. SCHAFF. la Maison-Dieu (80 m. s.w. of Paris) established

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pertinent literature will be found under about 1140 in an unhealthy valley of Normandy
EUCHARIST;' LORD'S SUPPEU; and MASS. For the Ro- accessible by a narrow defilo, hence
man Catholic side consult: Paschasius Radbertus, De The called La Trappe (" The Trap "). The
corpora et sanguine Domini, in MPL, cxx.; J. do Lugo,
Founder, abbey, increasing in luxury, gradually
De venerabtli eucharistice sacramento, in Migue's Cursus
theologies completus, xxiii. 10 sqq. (" the profoundest and
declined in morality and popularity
"
moat thorough on the scholastic side); N. P. S. Wise- until, by the early part of the seventeenth century,
man, Lectures on the Real Presence of the Body and Blood it had but seven monks. In 1636 it came as a bene-
of our Lord Jesus Christ in the Blessed Eucharist, new ed.,
fice to Armand Jean le Bouthillier de Ranc (b. at
London, 1852; F. X. Wildt, Explanatio mirabilium qua
divina potentia in eucharistice sacramento operatur, pp 29 Paris Jan. 9, 1626; d. at La Trappe Oct. 27, 1700),
sqq., Bonn, 1868; J. H. Oswald, Die dogmatische Lehre who was to become its Before he was
reformer.
von den hetiigen Sakramenten der katholischen Kirche, i.
eleven years old he was canon of Notre Dame at
376-427, Munster, 1870; G. Roinhold, Die Lehre der
ortlichen Gegenwart Christi in der Eucharistie bei Thomas Paris, abbot of La Trappe, and prior of other mon-
von Aquin, Vienna, 1893; F. Schmid, in Zeitschnft fur asteries, and, distinguished no less for scholarship
katholische Theologie, 1894, pp. 108-128; J. Ernst, Die and a preacher than for his lax mode of
ability as
Lehre des Paschasius Radbertus von der Eucharistie, Frei-
life, he was ordained priest in 1651. The sight of
burg, 1896; 8. J. Hunter, Outlines of Dogmatic Theology,
iii. 249-262, New York, 1896; P. H. Batiffol. fitude* the severed head of a companion in 1660 and a nar-
oThistoire, Paris, 1906; F. W. D.. Elucidation of the Doc- row escape from death in 1662 exercised so pro-
trine of Transubstantiation, Littleborough, 1904; KL, zi.
found an influence on him that in 1664 he entered
1977-1996.
For the Protestant side consult: T. Cranmer, Wri- upon a life of the most rigid asceticism. Surren-
ting* and Disputations Relative to the Sacrament of the dering all his other benefices or applying them to
Lord's Supper, ed. J. E. Cox for Parker Society, pp. 239-
pious uses, he retired to La Trappe, restored the
343, Cambridge, 1844; J. Jewel, Works, ed. J. Ayre for
Parker Society, i. 445 sqq., Cambridge, 1845; J. Coain, buildings, and began a reform of the discipline, but
Hist, oj Popish Transubstantiation, London, 1679, new was driven away, and retired to Perseigne in 1663,
ed., 1850; P. E. Marheineke, Chriatiiche Symbolik, 3 vols., but, becoming a professed hi the following year, he
Heidelberg, 1810-14; H. E. F. Querioke, AUgemeine assumed the abbacy of La Trappe (1664), and with a
chrisiliche Symbolik, Leipsio, 1839; Q. S. Faber, Christ's
Discourse at Capernaum Fatal to the Doctrine of Transub-
fanatical zeal enforced the original sterner rules. In
stantiation, London, 1840; K. F. A. Kahnis, Die Lehre wm 1664 and 1665 he visited Rome to secure the neces-
Abmdmahl, Leipaic, 1851; T. B. Strong, The Doctrine of sary papal concessions for his plans, which were
the Real Presence, London, 1899; Harnaok, Dogma, pas-
sanctioned by Innocent XI. in 1678. The Trappist
urn (consult Index); the works on the history of doctrine
rule (Constitution* et reglements de la Trappe, 2 vols.,
by H. C. Sheldon, New York, 1886, R. Seeberg, 2d ed.,
Leipaic, 1907 sqq., F. A. Loofa, new ed., Halle, 1908; Paris, 1701) binds the monks to arise at two o'clock
 THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 500

in the morning from their beds, which consist of a Le Mans, and in 1844 founded a house in Algiers,
sack of-straw and a straw pillow laid on a planjc and besides sending a number of monks to North Amer-
covered with a rug. Eleven hours daily are de- ica in 1848. In 1851 a branch of the Trappists was
voted to prayer and masses, the remainder of the established at Pierrequi-Vire (near Avallon) by
"
day being given in silence to labor either on the the Trappist Preachers," which differs from the
field or within the monastery. All literary work is main order only in omitting the vow of silence with
forbidden, since the monks arc required to concen- the permission of the superior, and of acting as mis-
trate their thoughts on penance and death; and, sioners. In 1870 there were some eighteen Trap-
except for prayers and hymns, and the greeting, pist monasteries, mostly in France; but ten years
" later 1,450 monks of the order were driven from
Remember that we must die," absolute silence is
"
enjoined, wishes and needs being communicated by France. Though they soon returned, the Associa-
"
signs. The midday meal consists oi
roots, vege- tions' Law of 1901 compelled them again to retire,
tables, fruit, bread, and water, though in special at least in part.
cases the sick may have meat and eggs. The order At present the Trappists have 56 monasteries (37
comprises lay brothers, professed (choir monks), and abbeys and 19 priories), with 3,700 members. Of
fibres donnte (those connected with the monastery these 44 monasteries with 2,500 monks
only temporarily for penance). The habit of the Statistics, are in Europe. The abbot general re-
choir monks is a coarse, grayish, woolen cassock sides at Rome. In 1869 the Bosnian
with wide sleeves, a cowl of black wool with two monastery of Mariastern was established, which
broad strips hanging to the knee, a black leathern now conducts Kafir missions in Natal with 20 prin-
girdle with a rosary and a knife (emblems of med- cipal stations, 50 substations, and 13,000 Roman
itation and labor), and wooden shoes. The lay Catholics. Trappists are likewise to be found in
brothers have brown cassocks. Great philanthropy Asia Minor, Palestine, China, Japan, Algiers (sup-
has been exercised; for instance, in one year of pressed in 1904), tho Kongo State, German East
famine, 1,500 dependents were lodged, and 4,000 Africa, Ireland, England, tho United States, Can-
guests were entertained annually. The founder of ada, and Brazil. A branch of Trappist nuns was
the order was the object of many criticisms because founded by Princess Louise de Cond6 in the nun-
of his severity and his disapproval of learning, as set nery of Les Clairets, near Chart res, receiving its
forth in his TraiM de la saintete et des devoirs de la rule from De Ranee". The nuns number about
vie'monastique (Paris, 1683), which led to a contro- 900, with nine nunneries in France, and four else-
versy that lasted until the second quarter of the where, with a priory in Japan. An order of Ter-
eighteenth century. He resigned as abbot in 1695. tiary Trappists nuns was likewise founded for mis-
Trappist monasteries were founded near Florence sion-work by Abbot Franz Pf aimer in 1881. They
"
(1705) and at Casamari (1777), and with the expul- are called Missionary Sisters of the Precious
sion of the Trappists from France by the Revolu- Blood," and number some 400 in Natal, German
tion, they received a new home in Val- East Africa, and Belgian Kongo. The union of the
History. sainte, Switzerland, which Pius VI. Trappists of all lands into a single Congregation in
made the abbey in 1794, destroyed 1834 was broken in 1847, and for many years there
four years later by the French. Meanwhile the were five congregations, each with its own vicar
Trappists had founded monasteries at Poblat (Cata- general, who was subject to the general of the Cis-
lonia), near Antwerp, in the diocese of MUnstcr, tercians. Since 1892, however, all the congrega-
and in Piedmont. On the destruction of Valsaintc, tions have been reunited, and their abbot general
they found a refuge through Paul I. of Russia in has been made independent of the Cistercians. This
Poland, only to be expelled in 1800. Wandering by new constitution was confirmed by Leo XIII. in
way of Danzig to Altona, and by way of Paderborn 1894, and in 1902 a papal decree declared the mon-
and Driburg to Freiburg and Sion in the Swiss can- astery of Citeaux (acquired by the Trappists in
ton of Valais, they reestablished a monastery at 1898) the mother-house. ^
(EUGEN LACHENMANN.)
Valsainte, as well as houses at Rieddray and Ra-
In 1804 a monastery was In the United States the Trappists have (1911)
pallo (near Naples).
founded near Rome by Louis Henri de Lestrange three houses: Gethsemane Abbey, in Nelson Coun-
(Dom Augustin), but it was destroyed in the French ty, Ky., with 79 in tho community; New Melleray
invasion. Germany, like France, expelled the Trap- Abbey, near Dubuque, la., with 35 members; and
pists, from the vicinity of Paderborn in 1802, from Monastery of our Lady of Jordan, Scio, Linn
Freiburg in 1811, from Darfeld (near Milnster) in County, Ore., with 8 members. In Ireland they
1812. On the restoration of the Bourbons in 1827, are at Mt. Melleray (30 m. n.e. of Cork) and num-
the Trappists were permitted to reenter France and ber 70; also at Roscrea.
"
again to possess their old home, La Trappe; and, BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Rule " was published Paris, 1671,
2 vols., 1701, and Graz, 1887. Consult: L. D[u] Bfois],
by the time of the death of Dom Augustin (1827), Hist. . . . de Vabbaye de la Trappe, Paris, 1824; E. L.
they numbered there about 700. In 1829 all the Ritfort, Der Orden der Trappiaten, Darmstadt, 1833;
Trappist monasteries were ordered closed by royal C. Oaillardin, Lea Trappiatea . . . au 19 aiecle, 2 vols.,
Paris, 1844; C. Tallon, Notices . . . /mr lei monaaterea
decree, but at the Revolution of July there were
de Vordre de la Trappe, ib. 1855; La Trappe, origine,
still nine houses. The order received new impetus esprit, organisation, ib. 1870; E. Friedlander, Oeachichte
in 1834 by a papal decree uniting the Trappists of der Trappiaten im M tonsterlande, Paderborn, 1874; F.
all lands into the Congregation d6s
religieux Cis- Pfannenschmidt, Oeachichte der Trappiaten, ib. 1874;
terciens de Notre Dame de la Trappe. They then Frans, Die Trappisten- Mission in Siidafrika, Lint, 1880;
F. Bttttgenbach, Mariawald, ein fiild dee Trappiaten-
increased rapidly, especially in the archdiocese of ordenc, Aachen, 1897; K. Ruff, Die Trappistenabtei Oeltn-
603 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA

berg, Freiburg, 1808; De Lottrange et lea Trappistes, La in accord with what he regarded as the best author-
Trappe, 1898; Lea Trappiates pendant la revolution, ib. and proposed a plan for a new text, being in
ity,
1898; A. Hecker (Schneider), Ein Sesuch bei den Trap-
puten auf Oelenbery, M6rishofen, 1004; Suohier, Der unconscious agreement with the principles of- Lach-
Orden der Trappisten und die vegetariache Lebensweisc, 2d mann, finally setting himself to prepare one. Ac-
ed., Munich, 1906; Holyot, Ordrea monaatiquea, vi. 1 sqq.;
cordingly in 1844 he edited critically in Greek the
Heimbucher, Orden und Kongrcgotionen, i. 460-473! book of Revelation, with a new English version,
Currier, Religious Orders, pp. 135-140; KL, xi. 1996-2008.
the favorable reception of which confirmed him in
TREACLE BIBLE. See BIBLE VERSIONS, B, IV., his determination to carry out his project. He then
9.
began a systematic examination of the uncial manu-
TRECHSEL, trek'sel, FRIEDRICH: Swiss theo- scripts then available, both in England and on the
logian; b. at Bern Nov. 30, 1805; d. there Jan. 30; continent, failing, however, to get permission to
1885. He studied in the university of his native collate Codex Vaticanus, though his journeys in

city, then in Paris, Gottingen, Halle, and Berlin. 1845-46, 1849-r50, and 1852 resulted in correction of
'
In 1829 he became chaplain of the city hospital at collations of important manuscripts, among them the
Bern, and privat-docent in the
academy; pastor at noted Codex Colbortinus, a difficult manuscript the
Vechigen, 1837; of the Minster at Bern, 1859; re- work upon which endangered his eyesight. At this
tired on a pension, 1876. He was the author of period he made the acquaintance of Lachmann and
Ucber den Kanon, die Kritik und Exegese der Afani- Tischendorf. While Tregelles edited only 'Codex
chder (Bern, 1832); Die protestantisctien Antitrini- Zacynthius, and did not, like some others, discover
tarier vorFaustus Socin, nach Quetten und Urkunden numbers of manuscripts, he so carefully collated

geschichUich dargestellt (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1839- practically all of the uncials and important min-
1844); Beitrdge zur Geschichte der schweizeriftrh- uscules then known that his labors have lasting
reformirten Kirche, zundchst derjenigen dvs Kantons
and permanent value. He also examined anew the
Bern (Bern, 1841-42); and Bilder aus der Geschichie citations of the Church Fathers down to Eusobius,
der protestantischen Kirche (1889), which included as well as the ancient versions. Before issuing any
a sketch of the author. prtrtion of a new text, however, he prepared his
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the sketch noted above, consult Account of the Printed Text of the New Testament
Zeitschnft aus der Schwriz, ii (1885), 312-314. (1854), which served to expound his critical prin-
TREES. See FRUIT-TREES IN THE OLD TESTA- ciples, and rewrote that part of Home's Introduction

MENT.
to the Study .
of the Holy Scriptures which re-
. .

lated to the textual criticism of the New Testament

TREES, SACRED. See GROVES AND TREES, In 1857 the first part of his New-Tostumont
(1856) .

SACRED. text appeared, containing the Gospels of Matthew

TREGELLES, tre-gel'es, SAMUEL PRIDE AUX: and Mark, which contained, beside also the text of
Textual critic of the New Testament; b. at Wode- Codex Amiatinus, a number of important variant
housc Place, near Falmouth (44 m. s.w. of Plym- readings and other critical apparatus, including the
outh), Jan. 30, 1813; d. at Plymouth Apr. 24, 1875. notation of the Euscbian Canons. The second part
He attended the Falmouth classical school, 1825-28, followed in 1861, and contained the Gospels of Luke
when ho was compelled to earn his living, and was and John. In that year an attack of paralysis com-
engaged in the iron works at Neath Abbey, Gla- pelled him to suspend his labors, and the third part
morganshire, 1829-35; he then returned to Fal- did not appear till 1865, and contained the Acts and
mouth and taught privately. All this time he was Catholic Epistles. The fourth part, making avail-
zealous and intensely diligent in pursuing his own able lu's edition of the Pauline Epistles down to
education, was earnest in his desire to contribute to II Thessalonians, was issued in 1869. Early in 1S70
knowledge of the Bible, and from his twenty-fifth a second stroke of paralysis fell while ho was revi-
year seems to have settled upon the New Testament sing the final chapters of Revelation; the fifth part,
as his sphere of labor. His first book was Passages containing the rest of the Pauline Epistles, was
in the Old Testament Connected with the Revelation issued that year as he had prepared it, and Revolu-
(1836). The well-known piece of work was an
first tion in 1872, but without the prolegomena, this last
account of the English versions which served as in- being issued posthumously with addenda and cor-
troduction to The English Hexapla (London, 1841). rigenda through the labors of Ilort and Stroune.
He sought to further the study of Hebrew by a His edition remains as a work of abiding merit and
scries of text-books Hebrew Reading Lessons ( 1 845)
:
; worth, being the fullest in critical apparatus after
a translation of Geseniutf Hebrew and Chaldee Lexi- the eighth edition of Tischendorf 'B work, his exact-
con to the Old Testament (1847); Heads of Hebrew ness being extraordinary.
Grammar (1852); and The Interlincary Hebrew and Tregclles regarded his labors upon the text, un-
English Psalter (1852). Meanwhile he had taken dertaken out of pure love for the Word of God, as a
part in the publication of the Englishman's Hebrew work of worship, and this was the spirit in which
and Chaldee Concordance to the Old Testament and his entire labors were carried on. His life was sim-
the Englishman's Greek Concordance to the New Tes- ple, homely, and charitable. In his last years he
tament (1839-13), and.had issued Remarks on the receiver! a pension on the civil service account of
Prophetic Visions in ... Daniel (1847), and De- 200 a year. Tregelles was known also as a poet,
fence of the Authenticity of . . Daniel (1852).
. and the Lyra Britannica and Schaff 's Christ in Song
In his work on the New Testament in the study contain poems by him. (CARL
of Griesbach's New Testament he found the latter BIBLIOGRAPHY. His own Account of the Printed Text, lit
to agree too closely with the textus receptus to be up., ia of high viUuo for statement of his pnnnplw of
 THE NEW SCHABtf-KERZGG 904

4
feork. Consult further: Abbot, in (New York) /n-
. the royal court at Orleans, following the death of
dqfadjti, Miy 3, 1875; P. Sohaff. Companion to the
, 0r0b r*feim*n*, pp. 262-266 et passim, New York, 188$; King^FranqiB of France,, in Jan., 1661, the result
G. 'Salmon, historical Introduction to the Study offa'lMoki being that the Huguenots of Metz were, permitted
of the' N. T.. pp. 43, 150, 283, London, 1892; FT H. A.. to use a "house of prayer outside the city.
Scrivener, Introduction to the Criticism of the tf. T, f il* On .Mar. 4, 1561, the Palatine Elector Frederick
238-241 et passim, London, 1894; C. It. Gregory, Text-
III. (see FREDERICK III., THE Pious) called him to
kritik dea N. T., pp. 980-981, Leipsic, 1902; idem, Canon
and Text of N. T., pp. 346, 460, 461, New York, 1007; the high .school at Heidelberg. There, on June 22,
'
DNB. Ivii. 170-174. '1561, Tremellius was graduated doctor in theology,
and, in full accord with Boquin, Olevianus, and
TREMELLIUS, tre-mel'i-us, EMAHtJEL:~fIebrew
Ursinus, exhibited a fruitful academic industry,
scholar; b. at Ferrara, Italy,, in 1510; d: at Sedan, He
finding leisure also for larger literary works.
France, Oct. 9, 1580. His parents being Jewish,
issued JButzer's lectures (Basel, 1562), which he had
Tremellius was thoroughly instructed in .the He-
heard and copied at Cambridge; a Latin translation
brew language; after 1530 he -was. in 'contact with
of Jonathan's Aramaic paraphrase of the twelve
Christians, and about 1540 was baptizeciin the house
Minor Prophets (Heidelberg, 1567) and an edition
of Cardinal Reginald Pole (q.v.). *In 1541 he be-
of the Old Syriac translation of the New Testament
came teacher of Hebrew in the ploister school newly
vvliich he supplemented with a Latin translation, as
instituted at Lucca by Pietro Martire Vermijeli
also with an Aramaic and Syriac grammar (1569),
(q.v.), and published his first professional work,
.
About 1570 he began his most important work, and
Meditamenta (Wittenberg,. 1541). Compelled to continued -it from 1575 to 1579 in company with his
flight by the .introduction of the Inquisition, he
subsequent son-in-law, Francis Junius, a Latin
found, in 1542, a new field of labor as teacher of
translation of the Old Testament, issued in five
Hebrew at the flourishing school in Strasburg, then
directed by Johann Sturm. When driven away by
volumes, and received with well-deserved favor (see
BIBLE VERSIONS, A, II., 3). During his labors in
the Schmalkald War, he accepted from Archbishop
Cranmer an invitation to England, and received ap- Heidelberg, Tremellius remained in close corre-
spondence with his friends in England, though he
pointment tp the Hebrew chair at Cambridge, in
1549. But in 1553, . upon the accession of Mary gratefully declined a professorship there that was
offered him in 1565.
Tudor, he and his family again hud to flee. He then
It was not permitted the aging TromelJius to end
went, on invitation from t)uke Wolfgang of the Bi-
his days at Heidelberg. After the death of F^ltd*
pontine Palatinate, as preceptor to the duke's three erick IIT., he was dismissed Dec. 5, J577, and. rjirier
children. When Calvin, in 1558, sought to attract
a short sojourn at Mctz, was called by Henri -de la
him to the Old-Testament professorship in Geneva,
Tour d'Auvergnc as professor to the newly erected
he would gladly have accepted that offer. But
academy at Sedan, where he devoted his powers to
Wolfgang refused to let him go, and made -him di- the service of the French youth with the same ardor
rector of the new school in the former cloister of
that he had shown toward those of Italy, Germany,
Hornbach, which waa opened Jan. 16, 1559. Here and England. He was one* of the most learned
he served till Mar. 7, 1561, when ho took leave of
orientalists of his times. J. NET.
Wolfgang in peace. Before his departure, Tremel- BIBLIOGRAPHY Biographies have been written by F. Butters,
.

lius rendered a service to the oppressed Evangelical

Zweibrilcken, 1H59, M. Becker, Breslau, 1887; and A. Neu-
believers at Metz by taking part in a deputation to bauer, in Weetpfabische Getchicht&latter, 1902. noa. 9 sqq.

END OF VOL. XI.

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