Appendix E

Glossary Terms
doi: 10.7930/J0TM789P

Abrupt climate change

Change in the climate system on a timescale The total effective radiative forcing due to both
shorter than the timescale of the responsible aerosol–cloud and aerosol–radiation interactions
forcing. In the case of anthropogenic forcing is denoted aerosol effective radiative forcing
over the past century, abrupt change occurs (ERFari+aci). See also aerosol–radiation inter-
over decades or less. Abrupt change need not be action. (condensed from IPCC AR5 WGI Annex
externally forced. (CSSR, Ch. 15) III: Glossary)

Aerosol–cloud interaction Aerosol–radiation interaction (RFari)

A process by which a perturbation to aerosol The radiative forcing (or radiative effect, if
affects the microphysical properties and evolu- the perturbation is internally generated) of an
tion of clouds through the aerosol role as cloud aerosol perturbation due directly to aerosol–
condensation nuclei or ice nuclei, particularly in radiation interactions, with all environmental
ways that affect radiation or precipitation; such variables remaining unaffected. It is tradition-
processes can also include the effect of clouds ally known in the literature as the direct aerosol
and precipitation on aerosol. The aerosol pertur- forcing (or effect).
bation can be anthropogenic or come from some
natural source. The radiative forcing from such The total effective radiative forcing due to both
interactions has traditionally been attributed aerosol–cloud and aerosol–radiation interactions
to numerous indirect aerosol effects, but in this is denoted aerosol effective radiative forcing
report, only two levels of radiative forcing (or (ERFari+aci). See also aerosol-cloud interaction.
effect) are distinguished: (condensed from IPCC AR5 WGI Annex III:
Glossary)
The radiative forcing (or effect) due to aero-
sol–cloud interactions (RFaci) is the radiative Agricultural drought
forcing (or radiative effect, if the perturbation See drought.
is internally generated) due to the change in
number or size distribution of cloud droplets Albedo
or ice crystals that is the proximate result of an The fraction of solar radiation reflected by a
aerosol perturbation, with other variables (in surface or object, often expressed as a percent-
particular total cloud water content) remaining age. Snow-covered surfaces have a high albedo,
equal. In liquid clouds, an increase in cloud the albedo of soils ranges from high to low, and
droplet concentration and surface area would vegetation-covered surfaces and oceans have a
increase the cloud albedo. This effect is also low albedo. The Earth’s planetary albedo varies
known as the cloud albedo effect, first indirect mainly through varying cloudiness, snow, ice,
effect, or Twomey effect. It is a largely theoret- leaf area, and land-cover changes. (IPCC AR5
ical concept that cannot readily be isolated in WGI Annex III: Glossary)
observations or comprehensive process models
due to the rapidity and ubiquity of rapid ad- Altimetry
justments. This is contrasted with the effective A technique for measuring the height of the
radiative forcing (or effect) due to aerosol–cloud Earth’s surface with respect to the geocenter of
interactions (ERFaci) the Earth within a defined terrestrial reference

460
U.S. Global Change Research Program Climate Science Special Report
 Appendix E | Gossary Terms

frame (geocentric sea level). (IPCC AR5 WGI Biological pump

Annex III: Glossary) The suite of biologically mediated processes
responsible for transporting carbon against a
Anticyclonic circulation concentration gradient from the upper ocean to
Fluid motion having a sense of rotation about the deep ocean. (Passow and Carlson, 2012)
the local vertical opposite to that of the earth’s
rotation; that is, clockwise in the Northern Blocking
Hemisphere, counterclockwise in the Southern Associated with persistent, slow-moving high
Hemisphere, and undefined at the equator. It pressure systems that obstruct the prevailing
is the opposite of cyclonic circulation. (AMS westerly winds in the middle and high latitudes
glossary). and the normal eastward progress of extratrop-
ical transient storm systems. It is an important
Atlantic meridional overturning circulation component of the intraseasonal climate variabil-
(AMOC) ity in the extratropics and can cause long-lived
See Meridional overturning circulation weather conditions such as cold spells in winter
(MOC). and heat waves in summer. (IPCC AR5 WGI
Annex III: Glossary)
Atmospheric blocking
See Blocking. Carbon dioxide fertilization
The enhancement of the growth of plants as a
Atmospheric river result of increased atmospheric CO2 concentra-
A long, narrow, and transient corridor of strong tion. (IPCC AR5 WGI Annex III: Glossary)
horizontal water vapor transport that is typical-
ly associated with a low-level jet stream ahead Carbon dioxide removal
of the cold front of an extratropical cyclone. A set of techniques that aim to remove CO2 di-
The water vapor in atmospheric rivers is sup- rectly from the atmosphere by either (1) increas-
plied by tropical and/or extratropical moisture ing natural sinks for carbon or (2) using chem-
sources. Atmospheric rivers frequently lead ical engineering to remove the CO2, with the
to heavy precipitation where they are forced intent of reducing the atmospheric CO2 concen-
upward—for example, by mountains or by tration. CDR methods involve the ocean, land
ascent in the warm conveyor belt. Horizontal and technical systems, including such methods
water vapor transport in the midlatitudes occurs as iron fertilization, large-scale afforestation and
primarily in atmospheric rivers and is focused direct capture of CO2 from the atmosphere using
in the lower troposphere. (AMS glossary). engineered chemical means. (truncated version
from IPCC AR5 WGI Annex III: Glossary)
Baroclinicity
The state of stratification in a fluid in which Climate engineering
surfaces of constant pressure (isobaric) intersect See geoengineering.
surfaces of constant density (isosteric). (AMS
glossary). Climate intervention
See geoengineering.
Bias correction method
One of two main statistical approaches used to Climate sensitivity
alleviate the limitations of global and regional In Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
climate models, in which the statistics of the (IPCC) reports, equilibrium climate sensitivity
simulated model outputs are adjusted to those (units: °C) refers to the equilibrium (steady state)
of the observation data. (The other approach is change in the annual global mean surface tem-
empirical/stochastic downscaling, described perature following a doubling of the atmospheric
under downscaling). The rescaled variables can equivalent carbon dioxide concentration. The
remove the effects of systematic errors in climate effective climate sensitivity (units: °C) is an esti-
model outputs. (derived from Kim et al., 2015) mate of the global mean surface temperature re-

461
U.S. Global Change Research Program Climate Science Special Report
 Appendix E | Gossary Terms

sponse to doubled carbon dioxide concentration tative Concentration Pathways. (edited from
that is evaluated from model output or observa- IPCC AR5 WGII Annex II: Glossary).
tions for evolving non-equilibrium conditions.
It is a measure of the strengths of the climate Compound event
feedbacks at a particular time and may vary with An event that consists of 1) two or more extreme
forcing history and climate state, and therefore events occurring simultaneously or successively,
may differ from equilibrium climate sensitivity. 2) combinations of extreme events with under-
The transient climate response (units: °C) is the lying conditions that amplify the impact of the
change in the global mean surface temperature, events, or 3) combinations of events that are
averaged over a 20-year period centered at the not themselves extremes but lead to an extreme
time of atmospheric carbon dioxide doubling, in event or impact when combined. The contrib-
a climate model simulation in which CO2 increas- uting events can be of similar or different types.
es at 1% per year. It is a measure of the strength (CSSR, Ch. 15, drawing upon SREX 3.1.3)
and rapidity of the surface temperature response
to greenhouse gas forcing. (IPCC AR5 WGI Critical threshold
Annex III: Glossary) A threshold that arises within a system as
a result of the amplifying effects of positive
Cloud radiative effect feedbacks. The crossing of a critical threshold
The radiative effect of clouds relative to the commits the system to a change in state. (CSSR,
identical situation without clouds (previously Ch. 15)
called cloud radiative forcing). (drawn from
IPCC AR5 WGI Annex III: Glossary) Cryosphere
All regions on and beneath the surface of the
Clouds can act as a greenhouse ingredient to Earth and ocean where water is in solid form,
warm the Earth by trapping outgoing long- including sea ice, lake ice, river ice, snow cover,
wave infrared radiative flux at the top of the glaciers and ice sheets, and frozen ground
atmosphere (the longwave cloud radiative (which includes permafrost). (IPCC AR5 WGI
effect [LWCRE]). Clouds can also enhance the Annex III: Glossary)
planetary albedo by reflecting shortwave solar
radiative flux back to space to cool the Earth (the Cyclonic circulation
shortwave cloud radiative effect [SWCRE]). Fluid motion in the same sense as that of the
The net effect of the two competing processes earth, that is, counterclockwise in the Northern
depends on the height, type, and the optical Hemisphere, clockwise in the Southern Hemi-
properties of the clouds. (edited from NOAA, sphere, undefined at the equator. (AMS glossary).
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory)
Denitrification
CMIP As used in this report, refers to the loss of fixed
The Coupled Model Intercomparison Project is a nitrogen in the ocean through biogeochemical
standard experimental protocol for studying the processes. (CSSR, Ch. 13).
output of coupled atmosphere–ocean general
circulation models (AOGCMs). Phases three and Deoxygenation
five (CMIP3 and CMIP5, respectively) coordi- See hypoxia.
nated and archived climate model simulations
based on shared model inputs by modeling Downscaling
groups from around the world. The CMIP3 A method that derives local- to regional-scale
multi-model data set includes projections using (10–100 km) information from larger-scale
the SRES scenarios drawn from the Intergov- models or data analyses. Two main methods
ernmental Panel on Climate Change’s Special exist. Dynamical downscaling uses the output
Report on Emissions Scenarios. The CMIP5 of regional climate models, global models with
dataset includes projections using the Represen- variable spatial resolution, or high-resolution
global models. Empirical/statistical downscal-

462
U.S. Global Change Research Program Climate Science Special Report
 Appendix E | Gossary Terms

ing methods develop statistical relationships has two phases: the warm oceanic phase, El
that link the large-scale atmospheric variables Niño, accompanies high air surface pressure
with local/regional climate variables. In all in the western Pacific, while the cold phase, La
cases, the quality of the driving model remains Niña, accompanies low air surface pressure in
an important limitation on the quality of the the western Pacific. Each phase generally lasts
downscaled information. (IPCC AR5 WGI for 6 to 18 months. ENSO events occur irregu-
Annex III: Glossary) larly, roughly every 3 to 7 years. The extremes of
this climate pattern’s oscillations cause extreme
Drought weather (such as floods and droughts) in many
A period of abnormally dry weather long regions of the world. (USGCRP)
enough to cause a serious hydrological im-
balance. Drought is a relative term; therefore, Empirical/statistical downscaling
any discussion in terms of precipitation deficit See downscaling.
must refer to the particular precipitation-related
activity that is under discussion. For example, Equivalent carbon dioxide concentration
shortage of precipitation during the growing The concentration of carbon dioxide that would
season impinges on crop production or ecosys- cause the same radiative forcing as a given
tem function in general (due to soil moisture mixture of carbon dioxide and other forcing
drought, also termed agricultural drought), components. Those values may consider only
and during the runoff and percolation season greenhouse gases, or a combination of green-
primarily affects water supplies (hydrological house gases and aerosols. Equivalent carbon
drought). Storage changes in soil moisture and dioxide concentration is a metric for comparing
groundwater are also affected by increases in radiative forcing of a mix of different green-
actual evapotranspiration in addition to reduc- house gases at a particular time but does not
tions in precipitation. A period with an abnor- imply equivalence of the corresponding climate
mal precipitation deficit is defined as a meteo- change responses nor future forcing. There is
rological drought. (IPCC AR5 WGI Annex III: generally no connection between equivalent
Glossary) carbon dioxide emissions and resulting equiva-
lent carbon dioxide concentrations. (IPCC AR5
Dynamical downscaling WGI Annex III: Glossary)
See downscaling.
Eutrophication
Earth System Model Over-enrichment of water by nutrients such
A coupled atmosphere–ocean general circu- as nitrogen and phosphorus. It is one of the
lation model in which a representation of the leading causes of water quality impairment. The
carbon cycle is included, allowing for interactive two most acute symptoms of eutrophication
calculation of atmospheric CO2 or compatible are hypoxia (a state of oxygen depletion) and
emissions. Additional components (for exam- harmful algal blooms. (IPCC AR5 WGII Annex
ple, atmospheric chemistry, ice sheets, dynamic II: Glossary).
vegetation, nitrogen cycle, but also urban or
crop models) may be included. (IPCC AR5 WGI Extratropical cyclone
Annex III: Glossary) A large-scale (of order 1,000 km) storm in the
middle or high latitudes having low central
Effective radiative forcing pressure and fronts with strong horizontal
See radiative forcing. gradients in temperature and humidity. A major
cause of extreme wind speeds and heavy precip-
El Niño–Southern Oscillation itation especially in wintertime. (IPCC AR5 WGI
A natural variability in ocean water surface Annex III: Glossary)
pressure that causes periodic changes in ocean
surface temperatures in the tropical Pacific
Ocean. El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

463
U.S. Global Change Research Program Climate Science Special Report
 Appendix E | Gossary Terms

Feedbacks sides. A glacier is maintained by accumulation

An interaction between processes in the climate of snow at high altitudes, balanced by melting
system, in which the result of an initial process at low altitudes and/or discharge into the sea.
triggers changes in a second process that in turn An ice mass of the same origin as glaciers, but of
influences the initial one. A positive feedback continental size, is an ice sheet, defined further
magnifies the original process, while a negative below. (IPCC AR5 WGI Annex III: Glossary)
feedback attenuates or diminishes it. Positive
feedbacks are sometimes referred to as “vicious” Global mean sea level
or “virtuous” cycles, depending on whether The average of relative sea level or of sea surface
their effects are viewed as harmful or beneficial. height across the ocean.
(CSSR, Ch. 15)
Global warming potential (GWP)
Geoengineering An index, based on radiative properties of
A broad set of methods and technologies that greenhouse gases, measuring the radiative forc-
aim to deliberately alter the climate system in ing following a pulse emission of a unit mass
order to alleviate the impacts of climate change of a given greenhouse gas in the present-day
(also known as climate intervention (National atmosphere integrated over a chosen time hori-
Academy of Sciences) or climate engineering). zon, relative to that of carbon dioxide. The GWP
Most, but not all, methods seek to either 1) represents the combined effect of the differing
reduce the amount of absorbed solar energy times these gases remain in the atmosphere and
in the climate system (Solar Radiation Man- their relative effectiveness in causing radiative
agement) or 2) increase net carbon sinks from forcing. (truncated from IPCC AR5 WGI Annex
the atmosphere at a scale sufficiently large to III: Glossary)
alter climate (Carbon Dioxide Removal). Scale
and intent are of central importance. Two key Gravimetry
characteristics of geoengineering methods of Measurement of the Earth’s gravitational field.
particular concern are that they use or affect Using satellite data from the Gravity Recovery
the climate system (e.g., atmosphere, land, or and Climate Experiment (GRACE), measure-
ocean) globally or regionally and/or could have ments of the mean gravity field help scientists
substantive unintended effects that cross nation- better understand the structure of the solid
al boundaries. (adapted from IPCC AR5 WGI Earth and learn about ocean circulation. Month-
Annex III: Glossary) ly measurements of time-variable gravity can be
used to study ground water fluctuations, sea ice,
Glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) sea level rise, deep ocean currents, ocean bottom
The deformation of the Earth and its gravity pressure, and ocean heat flux. (modified from
field due to the response of the earth–ocean NASA Earth Observatory on the GRACE project)
system to changes in ice and associated water
loads. It includes vertical and horizontal defor- Greenhouse gas (GHG)
mations of the Earth’s surface and changes in Greenhouse gases are those gaseous constituents
geoid due to the redistribution of mass during of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropo-
the ice–ocean mass exchange. GIA is currently genic, that absorb and emit radiation at specific
contributing to relative sea level rise in much of wavelengths within the spectrum of terrestrial
the continental United States. (IPCC AR5 WGI radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, the
Annex III: Glossary) atmosphere itself, and by clouds. This property
causes the greenhouse effect. Water vapor (H2O),
Glacier carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O),
A perennial mass of land ice that originates methane (CH4), and ozone (O3) are the primary
from compressed snow, shows evidence of past greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere.
or present flow (through internal deformation Moreover, there are a number of entirely hu-
and/or sliding at the base), and is constrained man-made greenhouse gases in the atmosphere,
by internal stress and friction at the base and such as the halocarbons and other chlorine- and

464
U.S. Global Change Research Program Climate Science Special Report
 Appendix E | Gossary Terms

bromine-containing substances, dealt with Irreversible

under the Montreal Protocol. Beside CO2, N2O, Changes in components of the climate system
and CH4, the Kyoto Protocol dealt with the that either cannot be reversed, or can only be
greenhouse gases sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), hy- reversed on timescales much longer than the
drofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons timescale over which the original forcing oc-
(PFCs). (adapted from IPCC AR5 WGI Annex curred. (CSSR, Ch. 15)
III: Glossary)
Longwave cloud radiative effect (LWCRE)
Hydrological drought See cloud radiative effect.
See drought.
Meridional overturning circulation (MOC)
Hypoxia Meridional (north–south) overturning circula-
Deficiency of oxygen in water bodies, which tion in the ocean quantified by zonal (east–west)
can be a symptom of eutrophication (nutrient sums of mass transports in depth or density
overloading). Deoxygenation (the process of layers. In the North Atlantic, away from the sub-
removing oxygen) leads to hypoxia, and the ex- polar regions, the Atlantic MOC (AMOC, which
pansion of oxygen minimum zones (IPCC AR5 is in principle an observable quantity) is often
WGII Annex II: Glossary supplemented with identified with the thermohaline circulation
other sources). (THC), which is a conceptual and incomplete
interpretation. It must be borne in mind that the
Ice sheet AMOC is also driven by wind, and can also in-
A mass of land ice of continental size that is clude shallower overturning cells such as occur
sufficiently thick to cover most of the underly- in the upper ocean in the tropics and subtropics,
ing bed, so that its shape is mainly determined in which warm (light) waters moving poleward
by its dynamics (the flow of the ice as it deforms are transformed to slightly denser waters and
internally and/or slides at its base). An ice sheet subducted equatorward at deeper levels. (adapt-
flows outward from a high central ice plateau ed from IPCC AR5 WGI Annex III: Glossary)
with a small average surface slope. The mar-
gins usually slope more steeply, and most ice Meridional temperature gradient
is discharged through fast flowing ice streams North–South temperature variation
or outlet glaciers, in some cases into the sea or
into ice shelves floating on the sea. There are Meteorological drought
only two ice sheets in the modern world, one on See drought.
Greenland and one on Antarctica. During glacial
periods there were others, including the Lau- Mode water
rentide Ice Sheet in North America, whose loss Water of exceptionally uniform properties
is the primary driver of glacial isostatic adjust- over an extensive depth range, caused in most
ment in the United States today. (adapted from instances by convection. Mode waters represent
IPCC AR5 WGI Annex III: Glossary) regions of water mass formation; they are not
necessarily water masses in their own right but
Ice wedge contribute significant volumes of water to other
Common features of the subsurface in perma- water masses. Because they represent regions
frost regions, ice wedges develop by repeated of deep sinking of surface water, mode water
frost cracking and ice vein growth over hun- formation regions are atmospheric heat sourc-
dreds to thousands of years. Ice wedge forma- es. Subantarctic Mode Water is formed during
tion causes the archetypal polygonal patterns winter in the subantarctic zone just north of
seen in tundra across the Arctic landscape. the subantarctic front and contributes to the
(adapted from Liljedal et al., 2016) lower temperature range of central water; only
in the extreme eastern Pacific Ocean does it
Instantaneous radiative forcing obtain a temperature low enough to contribute
See radiative forcing. to Antarctic Intermediate Water. Subtropical

465
U.S. Global Change Research Program Climate Science Special Report
 Appendix E | Gossary Terms

Mode Water is mostly formed through enhanced position. In nitrogen mineralization, organic ni-
subduction at selected locations of the subtrop- trogen from decaying plant and animal residues
ics and contributes to the upper temperature (proteins, nucleic acids, amino sugars and urea)
range of central water. Examples of Subtropi- is converted to ammonia (NH3) and ammonium
cal Mode Water are the 18°C water formed in (NH4+) by biological activity. (IPCC AR5 WGI
the Sargasso Sea, Madeira Mode Water formed Annex III: Glossary)
at the same temperature but in the vicinity of
Madeira, and 13°C water formed not by surface Ocean acidification
processes but through mixing in Agulhas Cur- The process by which ocean waters have
rent eddies as they enter the Benguela Current. become more acidic due to the absorption of
(AMS glossary). human-produced carbon dioxide, which inter-
acts with ocean water to form carbonic acid and
Model ability/model skill lower the ocean’s pH. Acidity reduces the capac-
Representativeness of the ability of a climate ity of key plankton species and shelled animals
model to reproduce historical climate observa- to form and maintain shells. (USGCRP)
tional data.
Ocean stratification
Model bias The existence or formation of distinct layers or
Systematic error in model output that over- or laminae in the ocean identified by differences
under-emphasizes particular model mechanism in thermal or salinity characteristics (e.g., densi-
or results. ties) or by oxygen or nutrient content. (adapted
from AMS glossary).
Model ensemble
Also known as a multimodel ensemble (MME), Oxygen minimum zones (OMZs)
a group of several different global climate The midwater layer (200–1,000 m) in the open
models (GCMs) used to create a large number ocean in which oxygen saturation is the lowest
of climate simulations. An MME is designed to in the ocean. The degree of oxygen depletion
address structural model uncertainty between depends on the largely bacterial consumption of
different climate models, rather than parametric organic matter, and the distribution of the OMZs
uncertainty within any one particular model. is influenced by large-scale ocean circulation. In
(UK Met Office, Climate Projections, Glossary) coastal oceans, OMZs extend to the shelves and
may also affect benthic ecosystems. OMZs can
Model independence expand through a process of deoxygenation.
An analysis of the degree to which models are (supplemented version of IPCC AR5 WGII
different from one another. Also is used as an Annex II: Glossary).
interpretation of an ensemble as constituting
independent samples of a distribution which Pacific Decadal Oscillation
represents our collective understanding of the The pattern and time series of the first empirical
climate system. (summarized based on Annan orthogonal function of sea surface temperature
and Hargreaves, 2017) over the North Pacific north of 20°N. The PDO
broadened to cover the whole Pacific Basin is
Nationally determined contributions (NDCs) known as the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation.
See Paris Agreement. The PDO and IPO exhibit similar temporal evo-
lution. (IPCC AR5 WGI Annex III: Glossary)
Negative feedbacks
See feedbacks. Parameterization
In climate models, this term refers to the tech-
Nitrogen mineralization nique of representing processes that cannot be
Mineralization/remineralization is the conver- explicitly resolved at the spatial or temporal
sion of an element from its organic form to an resolution of the model (sub-grid scale process-
inorganic form as a result of microbial decom- es) by relationships between model-resolved

466
U.S. Global Change Research Program Climate Science Special Report
 Appendix E | Gossary Terms

larger-scale variables and the area- or time-av- Petagram

eraged effect of such subgrid scale processes. One petagram (Pg) = 1015 grams or 1012 kilo-
(IPCC AR5 WGI Annex III: Glossary) grams. A petagram is the same as a gigaton,
which is a billion metric tons, where 1 metric
Parametric uncertainty ton is 1,000 kg. Estimated 2014 global fossil
See uncertainty. fuel emissions were 9.855 Pg = 9.855 Gt = 9,855
million metric tons of carbon. (CDIAC – Carbon
Paris Agreement Dioxide Information Center: Boden et al., 2017)
An international climate agreement with the
central aim to hold global temperature rise this Positive feedbacks
century well below 2°C above preindustrial See feedbacks.
levels and to pursue efforts to limit the tem-
perature increase even further to 1.5°C. For the Proxy
first time, all parties are required to put forward A way to indirectly measure aspects of climate.
emissions reductions targets, and to strengthen Biological or physical records from ice cores, tree
those efforts in the years ahead as the Agree- rings, and soil boreholes are good examples of
ment is assessed every five years. Each country’s proxy data. (USGCRP)
proposed mitigation target (the intended nation-
ally determined contribution [INDC]) becomes Radiative forcing
an official nationally determined contribution The change in the net (downward minus
(NDC) when the country ratifies the agreement. upward) radiative flux (expressed in W/m2) at
The Paris Agreement was finalized on Decem- the tropopause or top of atmosphere due to a
ber 12, 2015, at the 21st Conference of Parties change in an external driver of climate change,
(COP 21) of the United National Framework such as a change in the concentration of carbon
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). dioxide or in the output of the Sun. Sometimes
“Paris” entered into force on November 4, 2016, internal drivers are still treated as forcings even
after ratification by 55 countries that account for though they result from the alteration in climate,
at least 55% of global emissions). The agreement for example aerosol or greenhouse gas changes
had a total of 125 national parties by early 2017. in paleoclimates. The traditional radiative forc-
(summarized/edited from UNFCCC) ing is computed with all tropospheric properties
held fixed at their unperturbed values, and
Pattern scaling after allowing for stratospheric temperatures, if
A simple and computationally cheap method to perturbed, to readjust to radiative–dynamical
produce climate projections beyond the scenar- equilibrium. Radiative forcing is instantaneous
ios run with expensive global climate models if no change in stratospheric temperature is
(GCMs). The simplest technique has known accounted for. The radiative forcing once rapid
limitations and assumes that a spatial climate adjustments are accounted for is the effective
anomaly pattern obtained from a GCM can be radiative forcing. Radiative forcing is not to be
scaled by the global mean temperature anomaly. confused with cloud radiative forcing, which
(Herger et al., 2015) describes an unrelated measure of the impact
of clouds on the radiative flux at the top of the
Permafrost atmosphere. (truncated from IPCC AR5 WGI
Ground that remains at or below freezing for at Annex III: Glossary)
least two consecutive years. (USGCRP)
Relative sea level
Permafrost active layer The height of the sea surface, measured with
The layer of ground that is subject to annual respect to the height of the underlying land.
thawing and freezing in areas underlain by per- Relative sea level changes in response to both
mafrost. (IPCC AR5 WGI Annex III: Glossary) changes in the height of the sea surface and
changes in the height of the underlying land.

467
U.S. Global Change Research Program Climate Science Special Report
 Appendix E | Gossary Terms

Representative Concentration Pathways Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale

Scenarios that include time series of emissions A classification scheme for hurricane inten-
and concentrations of the full suite of green- sity based on the maximum surface wind
house gases and aerosols and chemically active speed and the type and extent of damage done
gases, as well as land use/land cover. The by the storm. The wind speed categories are
word “representative” signifies that each RCP as follows: 1) 33–42 m/s (65–82 knots or 74–95
provides only one of many possible scenarios mph); 2) 43–49 m/s (83– 95 knots or 96–110
that would lead to the specific radiative forcing mph); 3) 50–58 m/s (96–113 knots or 111–129
characteristics. The term “pathway” emphasizes mph); 4) 59–69 m/s (114–134 knots or 130–156
that not only the long-term concentration levels mph); and 5) 70 m/s (135 knots or 156 mph) and
are of interest, but also the trajectory taken over higher. These categories are used routinely by
time to reach that outcome. RCPs usually refer weather forecasters in North America to charac-
to the portion of the concentration pathway terize the intensity of hurricanes for the public.
extending up to 2100. Four RCPs produced from (adapted from AMS glossary).
Integrated Assessment Models were selected
from the published literature for use in the Saturation
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s The condition in which vapor pressure is equal
Fifth Assessment Report: RCP2.6, a pathway to the equilibrium vapor pressure over a plane
where radiative forcing peaks at approximately surface of pure liquid water, or sometimes ice.
3 W/m2 before 2100 and then declines; RCP4.5 (AMS glossary).
and RCP6.0, two intermediate stabilization
pathways in which radiative forcing is stabi- Scenarios
lized at approximately 4.5 W/m2 and 6.0 W/m2, Plausible descriptions of how the future may
respectively, after 2100; and RCP8.5, a high pathway develop based on a coherent and internally
for which radiative forcing reaches greater than consistent set of assumptions about key driv-
8.5 W/m2 by 2100 and continues to rise for some ing forces (e.g., rate of technological change,
amount of time (truncated and adapted from prices) and relationships. Note that scenarios are
IPCC AR5 WGI Annex III: Glossary, excluding neither predictions nor forecasts, but are useful
discussion of extended concentration pathways) to provide a view of the implications of devel-
opments and actions. (IPCC AR5 WGI Annex III:
Rossby waves Glossary)
Rossby waves, also known as planetary waves,
naturally occur in rotating fluids. Within the Sea level pressure
Earth’s ocean and atmosphere, these waves The atmospheric pressure at mean sea level,
form as a result of the rotation of the planet. either directly measured or, most commonly,
These waves affect the planet’s weather and empirically determined from the observed sta-
climate. Oceanic Rossby waves are huge, un- tion pressure. In regions where the Earth’s
dulating movements of the ocean that stretch surface is above sea level, it is standard obser-
horizontally across the planet for hundreds of vational practice to reduce the observed surface
kilometers in a westward direction. Atmospher- pressure to the value that would exist at a point
ic Rossby waves form primarily as a result of the at sea level directly below if air of a tempera-
Earth’s geography. Rossby waves help transfer ture corresponding to that actually present at
heat from the tropics toward the poles and cold the surface were present all the way down to
air toward the tropics in an attempt to return sea level. In actual practice, the mean tempera-
the atmosphere to balance. They also help locate ture for the preceding 12 hours is employed,
the jet stream and mark out the track of surface rather than the current temperature. This
low pressure systems. The slow motion of these “reduction of pressure to sea level” is responsi-
waves often results in fairly long, persistent ble for many anomalies in the pressure field in
weather patterns. (adapted from NOAA Nation- mountainous areas on the surface synoptic
al Ocean Service) chart. (AMS glossary).

468
U.S. Global Change Research Program Climate Science Special Report
 Appendix E | Gossary Terms

Shared Socioeconomic Pathways can exceed the global mean value by up to about
A basis for emissions and socioeconomic scenar- 30%. (draws on Hay et al., 2012)
ios, an SSP is one of a collection of pathways that
describe alternative futures of socioeconomic Structural model uncertainty
development in the absence of climate policy See uncertainty.
intervention. The combination of SSP-based
socioeconomic scenarios and Representative Teleconnection
Concentration Pathway (RCP)-based climate A statistical association between climate vari-
projections can provide a useful integrative frame ables at widely separated, geographically fixed
for climate impact and policy analysis. (updated spatial locations. Teleconnections are caused
from IPCC AR5 WGIII Annex I: Glossary). by large spatial structures such as basin-wide
coupled modes of ocean–atmosphere variability,
Shortwave cloud radiative effect (SWCRE) Rossby wave-trains, midlatitude jets and storm
See cloud radiative effect. tracks, etc. (IPCC AR5 WGI Annex III: Glossary)

Snow water equivalent Thermohaline circulation (THC)

The depth of liquid water that would result if Large-scale circulation in the ocean that trans-
a mass of snow melted completely. (IPCC AR5 forms low-density upper ocean waters to high-
WGI Annex III: Glossary) er-density intermediate and deep waters and
returns those waters back to the upper ocean.
Solar radiation management (SRM) The circulation is asymmetric, with conversion
The intentional modification of the Earth’s to dense waters in restricted regions at high
shortwave radiative budget with the aim to latitudes and the return to the surface involving
reduce climate change according to a given slow upwelling and diffusive processes over
metric (for example, surface temperature, much larger geographic regions. The THC is
precipitation, regional impacts, etc). Artificial driven by high densities at or near the surface,
injection of stratospheric aerosols and cloud caused by cold temperatures and/or high salin-
brightening are two examples of SRM tech- ities, but despite its suggestive though common
niques. Methods to modify some fast-respond- name, is also driven by mechanical forces such
ing elements of the longwave radiative budget as wind and tides. Frequently, the name THC
(such as cirrus clouds), although not strictly has been used synonymously with the Meridi-
speaking SRM, can be related to SRM. See also onal Overturning Circulation. (IPCC AR5 WGI
geoengineering. (edited from IPCC AR5 WGI Annex III: Glossary)
Annex III: Glossary)
Thermokarst
Static-equilibrium (sea level change) The process by which characteristic landforms
fingerprint result from the thawing of ice-rich permafrost or
The near-instantaneous pattern of relative sea the melting of massive ground ice. (IPCC AR5
level change associated with changes in the WGI Annex III: Glossary)
distribution of mass at the surface of the Earth,
for example due to the melting of ice on land. Threshold
Near a shrinking ice sheet (within ~2,000 km of The value of a parameter summarizing a
the margin), sea level will fall due to both crust- system, or a process affecting a system, at which
al uplift and the reduction of the gravitational qualitatively different system behavior emerges.
pull on the ocean from the ice sheet. Close to the Beyond this value, the system may not conform
ice sheet, this fall can be an order of magnitude to statistical relationships that described it previ-
greater than the equivalent rise in global mean ously. For example, beyond a threshold level of
sea level associated with the meltwater addition ocean acidification, wide-scale collapse of coral
to the ocean. Far from the ice sheet, sea level will ecosystems may occur. (CSSR, Ch. 15)
generally rise with greater amplitude as the dis-
tance from the ice sheet increases, and this rise

469
U.S. Global Change Research Program Climate Science Special Report
 Appendix E | Gossary Terms

Tipping elements statements (for example, reflecting the judgment

Systems with critical thresholds, beyond which of a team of experts) (cut from IPCC AR5 WGII
small perturbations in forcing can—as a result of Annex II: Glossary).
positive feedbacks—lead to large, nonlinear, and
irreversible shifts in state. In the climate system, a Given that no model can represent the world
tipping element is a subcomponent of the climate with complete accuracy, structural model uncer-
system (typically at a spatial scale of approxi- tainty refers to how well the physical processes
mately 1,000 km or larger). (CSSR, Ch. 15) of the real world are represented in the structure
of a model. Different modeling research groups
Tipping point will represent the climate system in different
The critical threshold of a tipping element. ways, and to some extent this decision is a
Some limit its use to critical thresholds in subjective judgement. The use of climate model
which both the commitment to change and the ensembles can address the uncertainty of differ-
change itself occur without a significant lag, ently structured models. (adapted from UK Met
while others also apply it to situations where a Office, Climate Projections, Glossary)
commitment occurs rapidly, but the committed
change may play out over centuries and even In contrast, parametric uncertainty refers to in-
millennia. (CSSR, Ch. 15) complete knowledge about real world processes
in a climate model. A parameter is well-speci-
Transient climate response fied in that it has a true value, even if this value
See climate sensitivity. is unknown. Such empirical quantities can be
measured, and the level of uncertainty about
Tropopause them can be represented in probabilistic terms.
The boundary between the troposphere and the (adapted from Morgan and Henrion, 1990, pp
stratosphere. (IPCC AR5 WGI Annex III: Glossary) 50-52)

Uncertainty Urban heat island effect

A state of incomplete knowledge that can result The relative warmth of a city compared with
from a lack of information or from disagreement surrounding rural areas, associated with chang-
about what is known or even knowable. It may es in runoff, effects on heat retention, and chang-
have many types of sources, from imprecision es in surface albedo. (IPCC AR5 WGI Annex III:
in the data to ambiguously defined concepts or Glossary)
terminology, or uncertain projections of human
behavior. Uncertainty can therefore be repre- Zonal mean
sented by quantitative measures (for example, Data average along a latitudinal circle on the
a probability density function) or by qualitative globe.

470
U.S. Global Change Research Program Climate Science Special Report