CHAPTER 17

Problem Solving and

Data Analysis
The Problem Solving and Data Analysis questions on the SAT Math
Test assess your ability to use your math understanding and skills
to solve problems set in the real world. The questions ask you to
create a representation of a problem, consider the units involved,
pay attention to the meaning of quantities, know and use different
properties of mathematical operations and representations, and apply
key principles of ­statistics. Special focus in this domain is given to
mathematical models. You may be asked to create and use a model
and to understand the distinction between the predictions of a model
and the data that has been collected. Models are representations of
real-life contexts. They help us to explain or interpret the behavior of
certain components of a system and to predict results that are as yet
unobserved or unmeasured.

The questions involve quantitative reasoning about ratios, rates,

and proportional relationships and may require understanding and
applying unit rates. Many of the problems are set in academic and
career settings and draw from science, including the social sciences.

Some questions present information about the relationship between

two variables in a graph, scatterplot, table, or another form and ask
you to analyze and draw conclusions about the given information. The
questions assess your understanding of the key properties of, and the
differences between, linear, quadratic, and exponential relationships
and how these properties apply to the corresponding real-life contexts.

Problem Solving and Data Analysis also includes questions that assess
your understanding of essential concepts in statistics. You may be
asked to analyze univariate data presented in dot plots, histograms, box
plots, and frequency tables, or bivariate data presented in scatterplots,
line graphs, and two-way tables. This includes computing, comparing,
and interpreting measures of center, interpreting measures of spread,
describing overall patterns, and recognizing the effects of outliers on
measures of center. These questions may test your understanding of
the conceptual meaning of standard deviation (although you will not
be asked to calculate a standard deviation).

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Other questions may ask you to estimate the probability of a simple

event, employing different approaches, rules, or probability models.
Special attention is given to the notion of conditional probability,
which is tested using two-way tables and in other ways.

Some questions will present you with a description of a study and ask
you to decide what conclusion is most appropriate based on the design
of the study. Some questions ask about using data from a sample to
draw conclusions about an entire population. These questions might
also assess conceptual understanding of the margin of error (although
you won’t be asked to calculate a margin of error) when a population
mean or proportion is estimated from sample data. Other questions
ask about making conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships
between two variables.
REMEMBER Problem Solving and Data Analysis questions include both multiple-
Problem Solving and Data Analysis choice questions and student-produced response questions. The use of
questions comprise 17 of the a calculator is allowed for all questions in this domain.
58 questions (29%) on the Math Test.
Problem Solving and Data Analysis is one of the three SAT Math Test
subscores, reported on a scale of 1 to 15.

Let’s explore the content and skills assessed by Problem Solving and
Data Analysis questions.

Ratio, Proportion, Units, and Percentage

Ratio and proportion is one of the major ideas in mathematics.
Introduced well before high school, ratio and proportion is a theme
throughout mathematics, in applications, in careers, in college
mathematics courses, and beyond.

Example 1

On Thursday, 240 adults and children attended a show. The ratio of adults to
children was 5 to 1. How many children attended the show?
A)  40
B)  48
C) 192
D) 200

PRACTICE AT Because the ratio of adults to children was 5 to 1, there were 5 adults
satpractice.org for every 1 child. Thus, of every 6 people who attended the show,
5
A ratio represents a relationship 5 were adults and 1 was a child. In fractions, ​ _  ​ of the 240 who attended
6
between quantities, not the actual
1
_ 1
_
quantities themselves. Fractions were adults and ​    ​ were children. Therefore, ​    ​ × 240 = 40 children
6 6
are an especially effective way to attended the show, which is choice A.
represent and work with ratios.
3
Ratios on the SAT may be expressed in the form 3 to 1, 3:1, ​ _
1  ​, or
simply 3.

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Example 2

On an architect’s drawing of the floor plan for a house, 1 inch represents

3 feet. If a room is represented on the floor plan by a rectangle that has sides
of lengths 3.5 inches and 5 inches, what is the actual floor area of the room, in
square feet?
A)  17.5
B)  51.0
C)  52.5
D) 157.5

Because 1 inch represents 3 feet, the actual dimensions of the room are
3 × 3.5 = 10.5 feet and 3 × 5 = 15 feet. Therefore, the floor area of the
room is 10.5 × 15 = 157.5 square feet, which is choice D.

Another classic example of ratio is the length of a shadow. At a given

location and time of day, it might be true that a fence post that is 4 feet
high casts a shadow that is 6 feet long. This ratio of the length of the
shadow to the height of the object, 6 to 4 or 3 to 2, remains the same for
any object at the same location and time. This could be considered a
unit rate: the ratio of the length of the shadow to the height of the object
3 3
would be equivalent to ​ _  ​ : 1 or the unit rate ​ _  ​ feet change in height for
2 2
every 1 foot change in length. So, for example, a tree that is 12 feet tall
3
would cast a shadow that is ​ _  ​× 12 = 18 feet long. In this situation, in
2
which one variable quantity is always a fixed constant times another
variable quantity, the two quantities are said to be directly proportional.

Variables x and y are said to be directly proportional if y = kx, where k is a

nonzero constant. The constant k is called the constant of proportionality.

In the preceding example, you would say the length of an object’s

shadow is directly proportional to the height of the object, with
3
constant of proportionality ​  _  ​. So if you let L be the length of the
2
3
shadow and H be the height of the object, then L = ​  _  ​ H.
2

Notice that both L and H are lengths, so the constant of

L 3
proportionality, ​  _  ​ = ​ _  ​, has no units. In contrast, let’s consider
H 2
Example 2 again. On the scale drawing, 1 inch represents 3 feet. The
length of an actual measurement is directly proportional to its length
on the scale drawing. But to find the constant of proportionality, you
3 feet 36 inches
need to keep track of units: ​  _  = ​  _
 ​   ​ 
= 36. Hence, if S is a
 
1 inch 1 inch
length on the scale drawing that corresponds to an actual length of R,
then R = 36S, where R and S have the same units.

Many of the questions on the SAT Math Test require you to pay
attention to units. Some questions in Problem Solving and Data
Analysis require you to convert units either between the English
system and the metric system or within those systems.
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Example 3

Scientists estimate that the Pacific Plate, one of Earth’s tectonic plates, has
moved about 1,060 kilometers in the past 10.3 million years. What was the
average speed of the Pacific Plate during that time period, in centimeters per
year?
A) 1.03
B) 10.3
C) 103
D) 1,030

PRACTICE AT Since 1 kilometer = 1,000 meters and 1 meter = 100 centimeters, you get
satpractice.org 1,060 kilometers 1,000 meters 100 centimeters centimeters
​  __
   ​ × ​     —    ​ × ​  __
      __
 ​ = 10.3​     year ​ .
 
Pay close attention to units, 10,300,000 years 1 kilometer 1 meter
and convert units if required by Therefore, the correct answer is choice B.
the question. Writing out the
unit conversion as a series of Questions may require you to move between unit rates and total
multiplication steps, as seen amounts.
here, will help ensure accuracy.
Intermediate units should cancel
(as do the kilometers and meters
Example 4
in Example 3), leaving you with the
desired unit (centimeters per year). County Y consists of two districts. One district has an area of 30 square miles
and a population density of 370 people per square mile, and the other district
has an area of 50 square miles and a population density of 290 people per
square mile. What is the population density, in people per square mile, for all
of County Y?

REMEMBER (Note that this example is a student-produced response question and

13 of the 58 questions on the Math has no choices. On the SAT, you will grid your answer in the spaces
Test, or 22%, are student-produced provided on the answer sheet.)
response questions for which you’ll
grid your answers in the spaces The first district has an area of 30 square miles and a population
provided on the answer sheet. density of 370 people per square mile, so its total population is
people
30 square miles × 370 ​ —     ​= 11,100 people. The other
square mile
district has an area of 50 square miles and a population density of
290 people per square mile, so its total population is 50 square miles ×
people
290 ​  —
     ​= 14,500 people. Thus, County Y has total population
square mile
11,100 + 14,500 = 25,600 people and total area 30 + 50 = 80 square
25,600
miles. Therefore, the population density of County Y is — ​   ​  
 = 320
80
people per square mile.

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Problem Solving and Data Analysis also includes questions involving

percentages, which are a type of proportion. These questions may
involve the concepts of percentage increase and percentage decrease. PRACTICE AT
satpractice.org
Example 5 Percent is a type of proportion
that means “per 100”; 20%, for
instance, means 20 out of (or per)
A furniture store buys its furniture from a wholesaler. For a particular table, the
100. Percent increase or decrease is
store usually charges its cost from the wholesaler plus 75%. During a sale, the calculated by finding the difference
store charged the cost from the wholesaler plus 15%. If the sale price of the table between two quantities, then
was $299, what is the usual price for the table? dividing the difference by the original
A) $359 quantity and multiplying by 100.
B) $455
C) $479
D) $524

The sale price of the table was $299. This is equal to the cost from the
wholesaler plus 15%. Thus, $299 = 1.15(cost from the wholesaler), and
$299
1.15 ​ = $260. The usual price is the cost
the cost from the wholesaler is ​ —
from the wholesaler, $260, plus 75%. Therefore, the usual price the
store charges for the table is 1.75 × $260 = $455, which is choice B.

Interpreting Relationships
Presented in Scatterplots,
Graphs, Tables, and Equations
The behavior of a variable and the relationship between two variables
in a real-world context may be explored by considering data presented
in tables and graphs.

The relationship between two quantitative variables may be modeled REMEMBER

by a function or an equation. The function or equation may be found The ability to interpret and
by examining ordered pairs of data values and by analyzing how the synthesize data from charts, graphs,
variables are related to one another in the real world. The model may and tables is a widely applicable skill
in college and in many careers and
allow very accurate predictions, as for example models used in physical
thus is tested on the SAT Math Test.
sciences, or may only describe a general trend, with considerable
variability between the actual and predicted values, as for example
models used in behavioral and social sciences.

Questions on the SAT Math Test assess your ability to understand and
analyze the relationships between two variables, the properties of the
functions used to model these relationships, and the conditions under
which a model is considered to be an appropriate representation of the
data. Problem Solving and Data Analysis questions focus on linear,
quadratic, and ­exponential relationships.

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Example 6

190
180
170
160

Number of pints sold

150
140 y = 233 – 32x
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Price per pint (dollars)
PRACTICE AT A grocery store sells pints of raspberries and sets the price per pint each week.
satpractice.org The scatterplot above shows the price and the number of pints of raspberries
A line of best fit is a straight line sold for 19 weeks, along with a line of best fit for the data and an equation for
that best represents the association the line of best fit.
shown on a scatterplot. It’s often
written in y = a + bx form. There are several different questions that could be asked about this
context.

A. According to the line of best fit, how many pints of raspberries

would the grocery store be predicted to sell in a week when the price of
raspberries is $4.50 per pint?

Because the line of best fit has equation y = 233 − 32x, where x is the
price, in dollars, for a pint of raspberries and y is the expected number
of pints of raspberries sold, the number of pints the store would be
predicted to sell in a week where the price of raspberries is $4.50 per pint
is 233 − 32(4.50) = 89 pints.

B. For how many of the 19 weeks shown was the number of pints of
raspberries sold greater than the number predicted by the line of best fit?

For a given week, the number of pints of raspberries sold is greater

than the number predicted by the line of best fit if and only if the point
representing that week lies above the line of best fit. For example, at
the price of $5 per pint, the number sold in two different weeks was
approximately 80 and 90, which is more than the 73 predicted by the line
of best fit. Of the 19 points, 8 lie above the line of best fit, so there were
8 weeks in which the number of pints sold was greater than what was
predicted by the line of best fit.

C. What is the best interpretation of the slope of the line of best fit in
this context?

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On the SAT, this question would be followed by multiple-choice answer

options. The slope of the line of best fit is −32. This means that the correct
answer would state that for each dollar that the price of a pint of raspberries
increases, the store is predicted to sell 32 fewer pints of raspberries.

D. What is the best interpretation of the y-intercept of the line of best fit
in this context?

On the SAT, this question would be followed by multiple-choice

answer options.

In this context, the y-intercept does not represent a likely scenario, so

it cannot be accurately interpreted in this context. According to the
model, the y-intercept means that if the store sold raspberries for $0 per
pint — that is, if the store gave raspberries away — 233 people would be
expected to accept the free raspberries. However, it is not realistic that the
store would give away raspberries, and if they did, it is likely that far more
people would accept the free raspberries. Also notice that in this case, the
left-most line on the graph is not the y-axis. The lower-left corner shows
the x- and y-coordinates of (1.5, 70), not (0, 0).

The fact that the y-intercept indicates that 233 people would accept
free raspberries is one limitation of the model. Another limitation is
that for a price of $7.50 per pint or above, the model predicts that a
negative number of people would buy raspberries, which is impossible.
In general, you should be cautious about applying a model for values
outside of the given data. In this example, you should only be confident
in the prediction of sales for prices between $2 and $5.

Giving a line of best fit, as in this example, assumes that the

relationship between the variables is best modeled by a linear function,
but that is not always true. On the SAT, you may see data that are best
modeled by a linear, quadratic, or exponential model.

Example 7

Time (hours) Number of bacteria

0 1.0 × 103
1 4.0 × 103
2 1.6 × 104
3 6.4 × 104
The table above gives the initial number (at time t = 0) of bacteria placed in a
growth medium and the number of bacteria in the growth medium over 3 hours.
Which of the following functions best models the number of bacteria, N(t), after
t hours?
A) N(t) = 4,000t
B) N(t) = 1,000 + 3,000t
−t 
C) N(t) = 1,000(4 )
t 
D) N(t) = 1,000(4 )

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PART 3 | Math

The given choices are linear and exponential models. If a quantity

is increasing linearly with time, then the difference in the quantity
PRACTICE AT between successive time periods is constant. If a quantity is increasing
satpractice.org exponentially with time, then the ratio in the quantity between
To determine if a model is linear or successive time periods is constant. According to the table, after each
exponential, examine the change in hour, the number of bacteria in the culture is 4 times as great as it was
the quantity between successive 4.0 × 103 1.6 × 104 6.4 × 104
the preceding hour: ​  —3   ​ 
= ​  —3   ​ 
= ​  —4   ​ 
= 4. That is, for
time periods. If the difference in 1.0 × 10 4.0 × 10 1.6 × 10
the quantity is constant, the model each increase of 1 in t, the value of N(t) is multiplied by 4. At t = 0, which
is linear. If the ratio in the quantity corresponds to the time when the culture was placed in the medium,
is constant (for instance, 4 times
there were 103 bacteria. This is modeled by the exponential function
greater than the preceding time t
N(t ) = 1,000(4  ), which has the value 1,000 at t = 0 and increases by
period), the model is exponential.
a factor of 4 for each increase of 1 in the value of t. Choice D is the
correct answer.

The SAT Math Test may have questions on simple and compound
interest, which are important examples of linear and exponential
growth, respectively.

Example 8

A bank has opened a new branch and, as part of a promotion, the bank
branch is offering $1,000 certificates of deposit at simple interest of 4% per
year. The bank is selling certificates with terms of 1, 2, 3, or 4 years. Which of
the following functions gives the total amount, A, in dollars, a customer will
receive when a certificate with a term of k years is finally paid?
A) A = 1,000(1.04k)
B) A = 1,000(1 + 0.04k)
k
C) A = 1,000(1.04)
k
D) A = 1,000(1 + 0.04  )

For 4% simple interest, 4% of the original deposit is added to the

original deposit for each year the deposit was held. That is, if the
certificate has a term of k years, 4k % is added to the original deposit
to get the final amount. Because 4k % is 0.04k, the final amount
paid to the customer is A = 1,000 + 1,000(0.04k ) = 1,000(1 + 0.04k ).
Choice B is the correct answer.

The general formula for simple interest is A = P (1 + rt ), where P is the
­amount, in dollars, of the original deposit, called the principal; r is the
annual interest rate expressed as a decimal; and t is the time, in years,
the deposit is held. In Example 8, P = 1,000, r = 0.04, and t  = k ; so A,
in dollars, is given by A = 1,000[1 + (0.04)k ].

In contrast, compound interest is an example of exponential growth.

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 Chapter 17 | Problem Solving and Data Analysis

Example 9

A bank has opened a new branch and, as part of a promotion, the bank branch
is offering $1,000 certificates of deposit at an interest rate of 4% per year,
compounded semiannually. The bank is selling certificates with terms of 1, 2, 3,
or 4 years. Which of the following functions gives the total amount, A, in dollars,
a customer will receive when a certificate with a term of k years is finally paid?
A) A = 1,000(1 + 0.04k)
B) A = 1,000(1 + 0.08k)
C) A = 1,000(1.04)k
D) A = 1,000(1.02)2k

The interest is compounded semiannually, that is, twice per year.

At the end of the first half year, 2% of the original deposit is added
to the value of the certificate (4% annual interest multiplied by
1
the time period, which is ​  —  ​ year, gives 2% interest). When the
2
interest is added, the value, in dollars, of the certificate is now
1,000 + 1,000(0.02) = 1,000(1.02). Since the interest is reinvested
(compounded), the new principal at the beginning of the second
half year is 1,000(1.02). At the end of the second half year, 2% of
1,000(1.02) is added to the value of the certificate; the value, in
dollars, of the certificate is now 1,000(1.02) + 1,000(1.02)(0.02),
which is equal to 1,000(1.02)(1.02) = 1,000(1.02)2. In general, after n
compounding periods, the amount, A, in dollars, is A = 1,000(1.02)n.

When the certificate is paid after k years, the value of the certificate
will have been multiplied by the factor (1.02) a total of 2k times.
Therefore, the total amount, A, in dollars, a customer will receive when
a certificate with a term of k years is finally paid is A = 1,000(1.022k).
Choice D is the correct answer.

The general formula for compound interest is A = P​​( 1 + ​ —

r nt
n  ​  )​ ​, where P PRACTICE AT
satpractice.org
is the amount, in dollars, of the principal, r is the annual interest rate
expressed as a decimal, t is the number of years the deposit is held, Know the formulas for simple and
compound interest.
and n is the number of times the interest is compounded per year. In
Simple interest: A = P (1 + rt)
Example 9, P = 1,000, r = 0.04, t = k, and n = 2; so A, in dollars, is given
r nt
Compound interest: A = ​P ​ 1 + ​ _
(  )
n  ​  ​​ ​
(  0.04 2k
by A = 1,000​​ 1 + ​ —
2 )
 ​​ ​ = 1,000(1.02)2k.
 ​  
A is the total amount, P is the principal,
NOTE: Although the stated interest rate is 4% per year in Example 9, the value of the r is the annual interest rate expressed
account increases by more than 4% in a year, namely 4.04% per year. (You may have as a decimal, t is the time period, and
seen banks offer an account in this way, for example, 5.00% annual interest rate, n is the number of times the interest is
5.13% effective annual yield.) If you take calculus, you will often see a situation in compounded per year.
which a stated rate of change differs from the actual change over an interval. But on
the SAT, other than compound interest, the stated rate of change is always equal to
the actual rate of change. For example, if a question says that the height of a plant
height of the plant now
increases by 10% each month, it means that ___
​      ​  = 1.1
   
height of the plant a month ago

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PART 3 | Math

(or if a question says that the population of a city is decreasing by 3% per year, it
population of the city
means that ___
​      ​  = 0.97). Then, if the question asks by
   
population of the city a year ago

what percentage the height of the plant will increase in 2 months, you can write

height of the plant in 2 months

___ height of the plant in 2 months height of the plant in 1 month
​  height
       
of the plant now
  ​ = ___
    ​ × ​ ___
​    
height of the plant in 1 month
      
height of the plant now
  ​

   = 1.1 × 1.1 = 1.21

Therefore, the answer is that the height of the plant increases by 21% in
2 months.

An SAT Math Test question may ask you to interpret a graph that
shows the relationship between two variables.

Example 10

9
8
Speed (miles per hour)

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (minutes)
Each evening, Maria walks, jogs, and runs for a total of 60 minutes. The graph
above shows Maria’s speed during the 60 minutes. Which segment of the graph
represents the times when Maria’s speed is the greatest?
A) The segment from (17, 6) to (19, 8)
B) The segment from (19, 8) to (34, 8)
C) The segment from (34, 8) to (35, 6)
D) The segment from (35, 6) to (54, 6)

The correct answer is choice B. Because the vertical coordinate represents

Maria’s speed, the part of the graph with the greatest vertical coordinate
represents the times when Maria’s speed is the greatest. This is the
highest part of the graph, the segment from (19, 8) to (34, 8), when Maria
runs at 8 miles per hour (mph). Choice A represents the time during
which Maria’s speed is increasing from 6 to 8 mph; choice C represents
the time during which Maria’s speed is decreasing from 8 to 6 mph; and
choice D represents the longest period of Maria moving at the same
speed, not the times when Maria’s speed is the greatest.

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 Chapter 17 | Problem Solving and Data Analysis

More Data and Statistics

Some questions on the SAT Math Test will assess your ability
to understand and analyze data presented in a table, bar graph,
histogram, line graph, or other display.

Example 11
A store is deciding whether to install a new security system to prevent
shoplifting. Based on store records, the security manager of the store estimates
that 10,000 customers enter the store each week, 24 of whom will attempt
to shoplift. Based on data provided from other users of the security system,
the manager estimates the results of the new security system in detecting
shoplifters would be as shown in the table below.

Alarm Alarm does

Total
sounds not sound

Customer attempts to
21 3 24
shoplift
Customer does not attempt
35 9,941 9,976
to shoplift
Total 56 9,944 10,000

According to the manager’s estimates, if the alarm sounds for a customer, what
is the probability that the customer did not attempt to shoplift?
A) 0.03%
B) 0.35%
C) 0.56%
D) 62.5%

According to the manager’s estimates, the alarm will sound for

56 customers. Of these 56 customers, 35 did not attempt to shoplift.
Therefore, if the alarm sounds, the probability that the customer did not
35 5
attempt to shoplift is ​ —  ​ = ​ —  ​  62.5%. The correct answer is choice D.
56 8
Example 11 is an example of a conditional probability, the probability
of an event given that another event occurred. The question asks for
the probability that a customer did not attempt to shoplift given that
the alarm sounded.

You may be asked to answer questions that involve a measure of center REMEMBER
for a data set: the mean or the median. A question may ask you to draw Mean and median are measures
conclusions about one or more of these measures of center even if the of center for a data set, while
exact values cannot be calculated. To recall briefly: range and standard deviation are
measures of spread.
The mean of a set of numerical values is the sum of all the values
divided by the number of values in the set.

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PART 3 | Math

The median of a set of numerical values is the middle value when

the values are listed in increasing (or decreasing) order. If the set has
an even number of values, then the median is the average of the two
middle values.

Example 12

18
16

Number of workers
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time worked (in hours)

REMEMBER The histogram above summarizes the distribution of time worked last week,
The distribution of a variable in hours, by the 40 employees of a landscaping company. In the histogram,
provides the possible values of the the first bar represents all workers who worked at least 10 hours but less than
variable and how often they occur. 20 hours; the second represents all workers who worked at least 20 hours but
less than 30 hours; and so on. Which of the following could be the median and
mean amount of time worked, in hours, for the 40 employees?
A) Median 5 22, Mean 5 23
B) Median 5 24, Mean 5 22
C) Median 5 26, Mean 5 32
D) Median 5 32, Mean 5 30

(Note: On the SAT, all histograms have the same type of boundary condition. That is,
the values represented by a bar include the left endpoint but do not include the right
endpoint.)

If the number of hours the 40 employees worked is listed in

increasing order, the median will be the average of the 20th and
the 21st numbers on the list. The first 6 numbers on the list will
be workers represented by the first bar; hence, each of the first
6 numbers will be at least 10 but less than 20. The next 17 numbers,
that is, the 7th through the 23rd numbers on the list, will be workers
represented by the second bar; hence, each of the next 17 numbers
will be at least 20 but less than 30. Thus, the 20th and the 21st
numbers on the list will be at least 20 but less than 30. Therefore,
any of the median values in choices A, B, or C are possible, but the
median value in choice D is not.

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 Chapter 17 | Problem Solving and Data Analysis

Now let’s find the possible values of the mean. Each of the 6 employees
represented by the first bar worked at least 10 hours but less than
20 hours. Thus, the total number of hours worked by these 6 employees
is at least 60. Similarly, the total number of hours worked by the
17 employees represented by the second bar is at least 340; the total
number of hours worked by the 9 employees represented by the third
bar is at least 270; the total number of hours worked by the 5 employees
represented by the fourth bar is at least 200; the total number of hours
worked by the 1 employee represented by the fifth bar is at least 50;
and the total number of hours worked by the 2 employees represented
by the sixth bar is at least 120. Adding all these hours shows that
the total number of hours worked by all 40 employees is at least
60 + 340 + 270 + 200 + 50 + 120 = 1,040. Therefore, the mean number of
1,040
hours worked by all 40 employees is at least ​ —  ​ 
 = 26. Therefore, only
40
the values of the mean given in choices C and D are possible. Because
only choice C has possible values for both the median and the mean, it
is the correct answer.

A data set may have a few values that are much larger or smaller than
the rest of the values in the set. These values are called outliers. An
outlier may represent an important piece of data. For example, if a
data set consists of rates of a certain illness in various cities, a data
point with a very high value could indicate a serious health issue to be
investigated.

In general, outliers affect the mean more than the median.

Therefore, out­l iers that are larger than the rest of the points in
the data set tend to make the mean greater than the median, and
outliers that are smaller than the rest of the points in the data set
tend to make the mean less than the median. In Example 12, the
mean was larger than the median due to the unusually large amount
of time worked by a few employees. One graphical display used to
identify outliers is the box plot.

The mean and the median are different ways to describe the center REMEMBER
of a data set. Another key characteristic of a data set is the amount You won’t be asked to calculate the
of variation, or spread, in the data. One measure of spread is the standard deviation of a set of data
range, which is equal to the maximum value minus the minimum on the SAT Math Test, but you will
value. Another measure of spread is the standard deviation, which is a be expected to demonstrate an
measure of how far away the points in the data set are from the mean understanding of what standard
deviation measures.
value. On the SAT Math Test, you will not be asked to compute the
standard deviation of a data set, but you do need to understand that a
larger standard deviation corresponds to a data set whose values are
more spread out from the mean value.

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Example 13

Class A
0 1 2 3 4 5
Quiz score

Class B
0 1 2 3 4 5
Quiz score
The dot plots above show the distributions of scores on a current events quiz
for two classes of 24 students. Which of the following correctly compares the
standard deviation of the scores in each of the classes?
A) The standard deviation of quiz scores in Class A is smaller.
B) The standard deviation of quiz scores in Class B is smaller.
C) The standard deviations of quiz scores in Class A and Class B are the same.
D) The relationship cannot be determined from the information given.

PRACTICE AT In Class A, the mean score is between 3 and 4. The large majority of
satpractice.org scores are 3 and 4, with only a few scores of 0, 1, 2, and 5. In Class B,
When asked to compare the the mean score is 2.5, and scores are evenly spread across all possible
standard deviations of two scores, with many scores not close to the mean score. Because the
data sets, first locate the mean scores in Class A are more closely clustered around the mean, the
approximately. Then, ask yourself standard deviation of the scores in Class A is smaller. The correct
which data set has values that are answer is choice A.
more closely clustered around the
mean. That data set will have the A population parameter is a numerical value that describes a
smaller standard deviation. characteristic of a population. For example, the percentage of
registered voters who would vote for a certain candidate is a parameter
describing the population of registered voters in an election. In another
example, the average income of a household in a city is a parameter
describing the population of households in that city. An essential
purpose of statistics is to estimate a population parameter based on
a sample from the population. A common example is election polling,
where researchers will interview a random sample of registered voters
to estimate the proportion of all registered voters who plan to vote
for a certain candidate. The precision of the estimate depends on the
variability of the sample data and the sample size. For instance, if
household incomes in a city vary widely or the sample is small, the
estimate that comes from a sample may differ considerably from the
actual value for the population parameter.
For example, a researcher wants to estimate the mean number of
hours each week that the 1,200 students at a high school spend
on the Internet. Interviewing all 1,200 students would be time
consuming, and it would be more efficient to survey a random

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sample of the students. Suppose the researcher has time to interview

80 students. Which 80 students? In order to have a sample that is
representative of the population, students who will participate in
the study should be selected at random. That is, each student must
have the same chance to be selected. Random selection is essential
in protecting against bias and increases the reliability of any values
calculated. The researcher can select students at random in several
different ways; for instance, write each student’s name on a slip of
paper, put all the slips in a bowl, mix up the slips, and then draw
80 names from the bowl. In practice, a computer is often used to
select participants at random.

If you do not select a random sample, the sampling method used

may introduce bias. For example, if you found 80 students from those
attending a game of the school’s football team, those people would
be more likely to be interested in sports, and in turn, an interest in
sports might be related to the average amount of time the students
spend on the Internet. The result would be that the average time those
80 students spend on the Internet might not be an accurate estimate
of the average amount of time all students at the school spend on
the Internet.

Suppose you select 80 students at random from the 1,200 students

at the high school. You ask them how much time they spend on the
Internet each week, and you calculate that the mean time is 14 hours.
You also find that 6 of the 80 students spend less than 2 hours each
week on the Internet. Based on these results, what conclusions should
be made about the entire population of 1,200 students?

Because the sample was selected at random, the mean of 14 hours

is a plausible estimate for the mean time spent on the Internet for all
1,200 students. Also, we can use the sample data to estimate how
many students spend less than 2 hours on the Internet each week. In
6
the sample, the percentage is ​ —  ​ , or 7.5%. Applying this percentage to
80
the entire population of 1,200 students, it is plausible that 90 students
at the school spend less than 2 hours per week on the Internet.

However, estimated population parameters need to be interpreted REMEMBER

carefully. An essential part of statistics is accounting for the variability You won’t need to calculate margins
of the estimate. The estimates above are reasonable, but they are of error on the SAT Math Test, but
unlikely to be exactly correct. Statistical analysis can also describe you should understand what the
concept means and be able to
how far from the estimates the actual values are expected to be, at
interpret in context.
most. To describe the precision of an estimate, statisticians use
margins of error. On the SAT, you will not be expected to compute a
margin of error, but you should understand how sample size affects
the margin of error and how to interpret a given margin of error in
the context.

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If the example above were an SAT question, you might be given survey
results indicating that, for a random sample of 80 students, the estimated
mean was 14 hours with an associated margin of error of 1.2 hours.
An appropriate interpretation of these data is that a plausible population
parameter, or the mean number of hours for all 1,200 students in the
population, is greater than 12.8 hours but less than 15.2 hours.

There are some key points to note.

1. The value of the margin of error is affected by two factors: the

variability in the data and the sample size. The larger the standard
deviation, the larger the margin of error; the smaller the standard
deviation, the smaller the margin of error. Furthermore, increasing
the size of the random sample provides more information and
reduces the margin of error.

2. The margin of error applies to the estimated value of the population

parameter only; it does not inform the estimated value for an
individual. In the example, plausible values for the population
parameter are in the interval from 12.8 hours to 15.2 hours. The
time, in hours, that an individual spends on the Internet may or
may not fall in this interval.

Example 14

A quality control researcher at an electronics company is testing the life of the

company’s batteries in a certain camera. The researcher selects 100 batteries
at random from the daily output of the batteries and finds that the life of the
batteries has a mean of 342 pictures with an associated margin of error of
18 pictures. Which of the following is the most appropriate conclusion based
on these data?
PRACTICE AT A) All the batteries produced by the company that day have a life between
satpractice.org 324 and 360 pictures.
When a margin of error is provided, B) All the batteries ever produced by the company have a life between 324 and
determine the value to which the 360 pictures.
margin of error applies. The margin
C) It is plausible that the mean life of batteries produced by the company that
of error concerns the mean value
of a population and does not apply day is between 324 and 360 pictures.
to values of individual objects in the D) It is plausible that the mean life of all the batteries ever produced by the
population. company is between 324 and 360 pictures.

The correct answer is choice C. Choices A and B are incorrect

because the margin of error gives information about the mean life of
all batteries produced by the company that day, not about the life of
any individual battery. Choice D is incorrect because the sample of
batteries was taken from the population of all the batteries produced by
the company on that day. The population of all batteries the company
ever produced may have a different mean life because of changes in
the formulation of the batteries, wear on machinery, improvements in
production processes, and many other factors.

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 Chapter 17 | Problem Solving and Data Analysis

The statistics examples discussed so far are largely based on

investigations intended to estimate some characteristic of a group:
the mean amount of time students spend on the Internet, the mean
life of a battery, and the percentage of registered voters who plan
to vote for a candidate. Another primary focus of statistics is to
investigate relationships between variables and to draw conclusions
about cause and effect. For example, does a new type of physical
therapy help people recover from knee surgery faster? For such a
study, some people who have had knee surgery will be randomly
assigned to the new therapy, while other people who have had knee
surgery will be randomly assigned to the usual therapy. The medical
results of these patients can be compared. The key questions from a
statistical viewpoint are

§ §Is it appropriate to generalize from the sample of patients in the

study to the entire population of people who are recovering from
knee surgery?

§ §Is it appropriate to conclude that the new therapy caused any

difference in the results for the two groups of patients?

The answers depend on the use of random selection and random

assignment.

§ §If the subjects in the sample of a study were selected at random PRACTICE AT
from the entire population in question, the results can be satpractice.org
generalized to the entire population because random sampling In order for results of a study
ensures that each individual has the same chance to be selected for to be generalized to the entire
the sample. population, and for a cause-and-
effect relationship to be established,
§ §If the subjects in the sample were randomly assigned to treatments, both random sampling and random
it may be appropriate to make conclusions about cause and effect assignment of individuals to
because the treatment groups will be roughly equivalent at the treatments are needed.
beginning of the experiment other than the treatment they receive.

This can be summarized in the following table.

Subjects Selected Subjects Not Selected

at Random at Random
Subjects • Results can be generalized • Results cannot be generalized
randomly to the entire population. to the entire population.
assigned to • Conclusions about • Conclusions about
cause and effect can cause and effect can
treatments
appropriately be drawn. appropriately be drawn.

Subjects not • Results can be generalized • Results cannot be generalized

randomly to the entire population. to the entire population.
assigned to • Conclusions about cause and • Conclusions about cause and
effect should not be drawn. effect should not be drawn.
treatments

The previous example discussed treatments in a medical experiment.

The word treatment refers to any factor that is deliberately varied in an
experiment.

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PART 3 | Math

Example 15

A community center offers a Spanish course. This year, all students in the
course were offered additional audio lessons they could take at home. The
students who took these additional audio lessons did better in the course than
students who didn’t take the additional audio lessons. Based on these results,
PRACTICE AT which of the following is the most appropriate conclusion?
satpractice.org A) Taking additional audio lessons will cause an improvement for any student
Be wary of conclusions that claim who takes any foreign language course.
a cause-and-effect relationship
B) Taking additional audio lessons will cause an improvement for any student
or that generalize a conclusion
to a broader population. Before who takes a Spanish course.
accepting a conclusion, assess C) Taking additional audio lessons was the cause of the improvement for the
whether or not the subjects were students at the community center who took the Spanish course.
selected at random from the
D) No conclusion about cause and effect can be made regarding students at
broader population and whether
the community center who took the additional audio lessons at home and
or not subjects were randomly
assigned to treatments. their performance in the Spanish course.

The correct answer is choice D. The better results of these students

may have been a result of being more motivated, as shown in their
willingness to do extra work, and not the additional audio lessons.
Choice A is incorrect because no conclusion about cause and effect is
possible without random assignment to treatments and because the
sample was only students taking a Spanish course, so no conclusion
can be appropriately made about students taking all foreign language
courses. Choice B is incorrect because no conclusion about cause
and effect is possible without random assignment to treatments and
because the students taking a Spanish course at the community center
is not a random sample of all students who take a Spanish course.
Choice C is incorrect because the students taking the Spanish course
at the community center were not randomly assigned to use the
additional audio lessons or to not use the additional audio lessons.

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