Don Fishback Ofb - 80 PDF

Don Fishback
OPTIONS FOR BEGINNERS
www.donfishback.com
Table of Contents
You Can Beat The Market, If You Control The Rules ................ 1
If Making Money Trading Options Was Easy We’d All Be
Millionaires .............................................................................. 4
Putting The Probabilities On Your Side ....................................... 6
What Is An Option? ....................................................................... 9
Understanding Option Terminology ........................................... 13
Trading Options on Exchange Listed Assets ............................. 20
Selling High, Then Buying Low ................................................. 23
Review.......................................................................................... 28
Offsetting Transactions ............................................................... 29
Types of Options and Determining Their Values - Part I - Calls .. 30
Types of Options and Determining Their Values - Part II - Puts .. 34
Calculating Profits and Losses on Option Trades ..................... 38
Calculating Profit and Loss Potential on a Call Option Purchase 39
Calculating Profit and Loss Potential on a Put Option Purchase . 45
Review.......................................................................................... 51
Calculating Profit and Loss Potential on an Option Short Sale
Part I — Selling a Call .......................................................... 53
Part II — Selling a Put .......................................................... 62
Putting The Pieces Together ....................................................... 71
Taking It To The Next Level ....................................................... 73
© Copyright 2006, Donald M. Fishback, Jr.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without
the prior written permission of the publisher and the author.
This publication is designed to provide authoritative, accurate information in

regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the
author and publisher are not engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or other
professional advice.
Options involve risk and are not suitable for all investors. Past performance
does not guarantee futures results.
FISHBACK MANAGEMENT & RESEARCH PROUDLY
SUPPORTS THE AMERICAN HEART ASSOCIATION
When I first began this project, the intent was to bridge a gap
that existed in the reference books on options. There were several
terrific books on options written for those who already have an
understanding of basic option principles and option terminology.
But there was nothing for the novice—the beginner. My goal was
to bridge that gap—to create a report for beginners that would give
them the knowledge they needed so that they could take the next
step in their options education.
My original goal was to give the report away. As I created the
report, however, the information I felt my readers needed kept
expanding, and the report kept getting more and more extensive.
The next thing you know, I had written an eighty-page book. My
publisher and I realized that this wasn’t going to be something that
we could give away. But we certainly weren’t doing this for the
money. We didn’t need it. And besides, making money would
have defeated our original intent.
So we made a decision. Instead of giving the book away, we
decided to sell the book and donate all of our profits from the sale
of Options For Beginners to charity. The charity that my publisher
and I chose was the American Heart Association. So when you
read this book, realize that you’re doing a lot more than educating
yourself. Not only are you learning valuable trading information,
the money you spent to buy this book is going to a great cause.
www.donfishback.com/charity
You Can Beat The Market, If You Control The Rules
It’s shocking but true. Making money trading can be incredibly

difficult. Investment gurus will tell you that you have to be in-
vested in the stock market to truly strike it rich. But that sure
doesn’t protect you from declining markets.
And if you want a safe investment, you sure aren’t going to find
much inflation protection from a bank account paying less than
5%. Recently, it’s been even worse, as some accounts have paid
less than 1%.
The only true way to make a decent return and stay protected
when the market heads lower is to trade -- that is to buy stocks
before the market rises and sell before the market falls. But based
on the performance of most money managers, even that is extraor-
dinarily difficult.
As noted above, trading boils down to just one simple rule: Buy
low and sell high. It doesn’t matter whether you’re trading stocks,
mutual funds, real estate, collectibles, or futures or options. It’s
just that simple.
While the concept is simple, the implementation has con-

founded novice investors, academics and professional traders since
the beginning of organized financial markets. That’s because no
one has been able to accurately figure out how high is high, and
how low is low.
Sure, we’ve all seen and heard about those who have beaten the
market for brief periods at a time. But none of them, except for
maybe a handful, beat the market for extended periods. There are
numerous studies showing that investors would be far better off
simply investing in a basket of stocks mimicking a stock index and
1
then doing nothing, instead of placing money with a professional
money manager.
This should not come as a major surprise. One look at the

quarterly mutual fund statistics is evidence enough that even the
pros, with billions of dollars in financial market research at their
disposal, cannot beat the major market averages. It is a sad fact
that over the long haul, about 70% to 80% of all money managers
fail to beat the market. In other words, only 20% to 30% of all
market professionals actually earn their management fee.
As if that 20% to 30% figure wasn’t bad enough, unfortunately,

it’s actually a lot worse. That’s because the 20% to 30% that beat
the market one year usually aren’t the same 20% to 30% that beat
the market the next year. In other words, if you happened to have
placed money with a pro who was a top performer in 1999, there is
a high probability that you and your money manager were slaugh-
tered during the bear market. (Well, at least you were slaughtered.
The money manager still got his fee.) This rotational aspect to
managers means that, over a five year span, the probability that a
money manager will beat the market during the entire five year
span is less than 1/5th of one percent! There are nearly 5,000 stock
mutual funds. During the five-year period from the beginning of
1998 through the end of the year 2002, there were only five mutual
fund managers that beat the S&P 500 each year.
With so many people, many of them with millions of dollars in

research resources, trying to beat the market, and only a select few
actually achieving their objective, that should tell you how difficult
buying low and selling high truly is.
So how is it, if buying low and selling high is so simple to

understand yet so difficult to implement that virtually no one can
do it consistently, that anyone could honestly expect to master any
aspect of trading from this introductory book?
The key is that we’re going to CHANGE THE RULES! No

longer will you simply buy and sell an asset (an asset would be a
stock, a mutual fund or a bond, or even a futures contract) based on
what you think is going to happen. Rather, we’re going to make an
incredible departure from trying to predict the future.
Instead, this book will introduce you to a way to make money

when you think something will not happen. You’ll learn one
simple way to put the odds in your favor every time you trade.
You’ll also learn how to invest just a little to earn a tremendous
amount of money if you’re right, but lose just a little if you’re
wrong. To do this, we need a totally different investment tool,
something that gives us the flexibility to change the rules of invest-
ing. The goal of this book is to introduce you to that tool, and
show you how you can use it to make money far more consistently
than you ever thought possible.
3
If Making Money Trading Options Was Easy
We’d All Be Millionaires
You’ve probably heard of options. They’ve been traded on

exchanges for decades. You’ve also probably heard stories of those
who trade options. Those stories run from one extreme to the
other. That’s because the leverage one can get from options is
incredible.
In some cases, people have made millions using options. Top

notch professional option traders can literally earn millions of
dollars in profits each and every year. I personally know of several
whose trading operations regularly earned profits in the millions of
dollars.
Success is not isolated to the pros. Even novices can hit the big
one. Perhaps you know of someone who bought an option and had
it quadruple in value in a matter of days.
At the other extreme, however, it is a fact that many people have

lost millions trading options. You see, options are a zero-sum
game*. What that means is, for every dollar someone wins, some
other trader loses a dollar. So when you hear about someone
buying an option for $100 and selling it for $1,100 you can also be
assured that someone sold the option to that particular buyer for
$100. That option seller is also probably looking at a $1,000 loss!
If that same trader sold 100 options instead of just one, then his
loss would be about $100,000! As this example shows, if you
don’t control your losses, you could be ruined financially while
someone else prospers.
* - There are, of course, exceptions to every rule. When options are used in a strategy that combine
options with the underlying asset, such as a covered call, it is not a zero-sum game.
Another common practice on the path to financial ruin is repeti-

tive losing. I just briefly described to you how someone could lose
selling options. Unfortunately, just reversing the process — buying
options – does not guarantee success. You see, buying options that
are likely to triple and quadruple in price guarantees that the odds
are against you. [More on that later when we learn how options
gain and lose value.] In other words, if you focus exclusively on
buying cheap options, you will “hit a home run” every now and
then. But more often, you’ll “strike out”. The problem is that few
investors have the patience or tolerance to sustain a long string of
losing trades while waiting for a monster winner. What typically
happens is that they give up before hitting it big.
Both of these latter scenarios are, unfortunately, far more com-

mon for individuals than those “get rich” stories. The sad fact is
that most people lose money, and in some cases, they lose big. But
that’s because most option traders simply buy a call if they think
the market is going up, or buy a put if they think the market is
going down.
The dismal performance of individuals trading options should

come as no surprise. Very few people know the name of the
formula that professional traders use to correctly value an option.
Even less actually know the precise formula itself. And virtually
no one understands the probability implications in the formula. Is
it any wonder, then, that novices would lose big if they’re buying
and selling something that they couldn’t put a value on?
5
Putting The Probabilities On Your Side
As we noted earlier, trading options has its ups and downs. For
most traders, the wild swings are just too much for most to handle,
both mentally and financially. But there are some very attractive
aspects inherent in options.
First, the leverage available with options is enormous. The

return you can earn on your investment is enormous, whether you
are a buyer or a seller.
Also, buyers of options have limited risk. This is one of the

most attractive aspects of options.
And sellers of options automatically put the probability of profit

in their favor when they implement a position.
Our goal in this book is to show you the “hows” and “whys” of
option trading. As you’ll learn, once you master the options mar-
ket, you will be in a position to change the rules of the game so that
guessing market direction is no longer a concern.
Think of the following scenario. The stock market has just

dropped 10% in the last two weeks. Should you buy more stocks
or should you sell everything? If you buy more, the only way to
make money is if it goes up. In other words, your investment pays
off only if you guess that market’s future direction correctly. If you
guess wrong, you lose. The problem is, as noted earlier, most
people, including the pros, guess wrong! Thus, when it comes to
guessing market direction, most traders are losers.
Let’s look at another scenario. During a recent two-year period,

the market has gone up or down more than 5% in a month (mea-
sured from one option expiration to the option expiration the
following month) only two times! In other words, if the S&P 500
was at 1000 at the beginning of the month, in order for it to move

up or down more than 5% in a month, it would have to be above
1050, or below 950. Of the 24 months during that two-year time
frame, such a move above or below that range occurred only two
times! That’s only 8.3% of the time. That means the S&P 500
stayed within a 5% range 91.7% of the time!!
Figure 1
Expected Range
of S&P 500
1080
1 The dark area represents a range of
+ or -5%, assuming that the S&P
1040 500 is at 600. During the past 24
months, the month-to-month change
in the S&P 500 has been less than
five percent 91.7% of the time. The
1000 month to month change has ex-
ceeded five percent only 8.3% of the
time.
960
920
That final figure is critical. Because it means, if we can find a

strategy that makes money as long as the market stays within that
range, we will automatically have a strategy that has, historically,
made money 91.7% of the time!
By utilizing a strategy of this sort, we’ve changed the rules of

the game! No longer are we concerned about the market’s trend,
its cycle wave, its chart pattern or any other factors. All we’re
concerned about is its expected range, or the magnitude of the
market’s move. [I’ve given you the statistics for a recent two-year
7
period. But we didn’t stop there. I performed the analysis all the
way back to 1952, when the markets stopped trading on Satur-
days.]
This is how we change the rules. We don’t care if the market

goes up or down. We only care about the size of the market’s price
fluctuations1.
To implement a strategy that profits from market magnitude

instead of market direction, you need a new tool: OPTIONS. The
purpose of this book is to help you understand how options work.
That’s where our next chapter begins.
I think you’ll agree with me that the journey will be well worth
it. Because once you understand how options work, you will be
able to automatically improve your probabilities, and put the odds
of winning in your favor.
1
It is important to note that we are using the S&P 500 as an example. This
methodology can be applied to any market, to any stock or to any stock index.
Each market, however, needs to be individually analyzed for prior historical
price fluctuations.
What Is An Option?
What is an option? Whether it is in the financial world or any

other domain of our existence, quite simply, an option is exactly
what its name implies – a choice. Anyone who has an option has a
choice. The only thing that differentiates one option from another
is defined by the possible choices. For example, a person that
arrives at a fork in the road can turn right or left. They have the
choice. They have an option.
In the financial world options give the owner of the option

the right to buy or the right to sell at a pre-determined price
during a preset time period. As the owner of the option, you
have the choice of actually buying or selling, or doing nothing.
You pay someone for those rights.
In this introductory section, we’re going to make extensive use

of real estate as an example because of most people’s familiarity
with it. Later on, we’ll get into another “financial asset” aspect of
trading options, including options on stocks, options on stock
indexes, and options on futures. But first, let’s master the basics
using something so common, nearly everyone is accustomed to it.
Let’s say there is a vacant piece of farm land. The land is worth
about $100,000 now. But you think there is going to be a real
estate boom in the area during the next few months. You think that
the land is going to be worth far more than $100,000. You go to
the owner and say, “I want the right to buy this land for $120,000 at
anytime during the next year.” The owner says, “Okay, but I
require $10,000 to grant you the option to buy my property at that
price.”
The reason the owner requires compensation is because he is

giving up the potential for a huge profit while still carrying the
9
bulk of the financial risk during the next 12 months. Here’s why
that asset owner feels he deserves compensation:
Let’s say that there is a real estate bonanza, and a highway

interchange gets built. Fast food restaurants and hotels start
searching for building sites. They go to the owner of the land.
McDonald’s steps up and says, we want your land, we’ll pay you
$500,000. The farm land owner says, “Fine, I’d like to sell it to
you. But I’m sorry, I have granted someone an option on the land
for the next 12 months. I am obliged to sell it to him for $120,000
during that time. You need to talk to him.” McDonald’s then
contacts the option holder (you) and they tell you that they want to
buy the land for $500,000. You can then exercise your right to buy
the land for $120,000, paying the farmer the agreed upon price, and
then instantly sell the land to McDonald’s for $500,000. Your
profit in the deal: $380,000. Your cost: $10,000. As you can see,
the return potential is astronomical.
Figure 2
Option Value vs. Property Value
$200,000 As you can see,

the option value
$150,000 increases …
Option value
$100,000
… as the value
$50,000
of the property
increases.
$0
$0 $50,000 $100,000 $150,000 $200,000 $250,000 $300,000
Property value
Let’s now take a look at what happens if things don’t go pre-

cisely as planned.
Let’s say that the interchange gets built, but while they’re
digging, they come across a toxic waste dump that nobody knew
about. The land is now worthless. The owner now comes to you
and says, “I want you to buy the land for $120,000.” But you say,
“I don’t care to buy it. And I have the right, but not the obligation
to buy it. I choose not to exercise my right at this time.”
As you can see, the land owner, at this point, is stuck with
worthless property. Sure, you’ve lost your $10,000. But the
landowner has seen his property value drop by $100,000.
This is a classic example of how options give the option buyer

incredible leverage with limited downside risk. As an owner of an
option, you can control an asset worth an enormous amount of
money for only “pennies on the dollar”. By only putting down
$10,000, you can control an asset that has unlimited profit poten-
tial. Because you have so little capital tied up, yet having complete
control of the asset, you can earn extraordinary returns on your
money. Better still, your risk is limited to the amount of money
you put up. As the example illustrates, someone who actually
owns the asset has much more risk than the option owner.
You might think, based on the following examples, that option

buyers are destined for riches when they’re right, and lose only a
little when they’re wrong. In essence, that is correct. The key,
however, is how often they are right.
For example, how often is a piece of property you buy suddenly

on McDonalds’ real estate wish list? And how often do people
discover hidden toxic waste dumps on land they wish to buy? Not
very often, in either case.
11
Instead, the most likely scenario is that the land will increase in
value, perhaps as much as 10% over the next year. That means, 12
months from now, the land will be worth $110,000. That being the
case, you would not want to exercise the option, because you have
the right to buy the property for $120,000. Since it is worth only
$110,000, you choose not to exercise the option. [Why buy any-
thing for $120,000 when it is only worth $110,000?] In this in-
stance, you, the option buyer, have just lost the $10,000 you gave
the option seller for the right to buy the property.
The person who sold you the option, on the other hand, has just
pocketed an extra $10,000 for doing nothing more than selling you
a right to do something that was unlikely to happen.
This is why, more often than not, option buyers tend to lose
money.
Figure 3
Option Profit/Loss vs. Property Value
$20,000
$15,000
$10,000
Option value
$5,000 Note that the range

in which profits are
$0
generated …
-$5,000
-$10,000
$50,000 $62,500 $75,000 $87,500 $100,000 $112,500 $125,000 $137,500 $150,000
Property value
… is very small
compared to the
range in which
losses are
generated.
Understanding Option Terminology
The best way to understand option market jargon is to look at

and understand each component as we go along. In our real estate
example, you can tell that there are certain factors that influence
the price we’re willing to pay for the right to buy a piece of prop-
erty. Here are those factors:
1. The duration of the option.
2. The agreed upon price at which the option can be exercised

(known as the strike price).
3. The current value of the asset.
4. The cost of money (i.e., interest rates).
5. The risk potential and the reward potential of the asset.
Let’s look at each one of these factors individually.
The duration of the option is a factor for logical reasons. If you

want to control an asset for five years instead of one year, it would
naturally cost more to control it for a longer period of time. Con-
versely, if you wanted to control the asset for only a day, it would
naturally cost less.
The reason for this is due to the fact that the longer you control
the asset, the more likely it is that something can happen (there’s
that word again) to influence its price. For example, if you con-
trolled the property for a day, it isn’t too likely that a big real estate
deal involving your property will be announced that day. Thus it
isn’t too likely that the price will change while you control the
property with your option. If you controlled the property for ten
years, however, it is quite possible that during a ten-year span some
13
sort of real estate deal could develop. Therefore it is possible for
the property to have a significant price change during the period
you control it with your option. For that reason, as the duration of
the option increases, the value of the option also increases.
The price at which an option can be exercised is a factor for the

following reason. Let’s say that you want to acquire an option to
buy a piece of property. You can agree to buy the property at
$100,000, or you can agree to buy the property at $200,000. If
both options cost the same, which one would be more attractive?
The option with the $100,000 exercise2 price. The reason is
simple.
Let’s assume that the property increased in value to $150,000.

If you had the right to buy the property for $100,000, you could
“exercise” your right, purchase the property for $100,000, and then
sell it for $150,000, thus earning a profit of $50,000. If, however,
you had the right to buy the property for $200,000 and you “exer-
cised” your right, you’d purchase the property for $200,000, sell it
for $150,000, creating a loss of $50,000. Needless to say, you
would not “exercise” your right to buy if you owned the option
with a $200,000 exercise price. You’d do nothing because there
would be no profit in it.
The fact that there would be a $50,000 profit on the option with
a $100,000 “exercise” price and no profit on the option with a
$200,000 “exercise” price illustrates how an option’s value should
increase or decrease, depending upon the agreed upon price at
2
An option’s exercise price (also known as its strike price) is the price agreed
upon by both the option buyer and the seller at which the option buyer can
exercise his or her right to buy the asset (or sell, in the case of a put option [more
on that later]).
which the option can be exercised.
The current value of the asset is an obvious factor, and here’s

why. Let’s say that you wanted an option to buy a piece of property
for $100,000 (Hint: Remember, the $100,000 figure is also known
as the exercise price, or strike price) sometime during the next
year. The property you’re looking at is worth $20,000. During the
year you own the option, property values double. The property is
now worth $40,000. As the owner of the option, you still would
not make money, even though real estate prices double. That’s
because you would never exercise your right to buy the property
for $100,000 when it is worth only $40,000.
On the other hand, if the property was worth $80,000 to start,

and property values doubled, the property would now be worth
$160,000. As the owner of the option, you have the right to buy
the property for $100,000. Therefore, you could exercise your
right, buy the property for $100,000, and then sell it for $160,000,
earning $60,0003.
What this illustrates is how the current price of the asset impacts
the value of the option. In both instances, the price of the asset
doubled in value. But because one asset’s price was higher, and,
therefore, closer to the exercise price, the option had value
($60,000 at expiration). In the other instance, where the price was
lower, and, therefore, further away from the exercise price, when
the asset price doubled, the option had no value. Consequently, in
the case of options that give you the right to buy an asset, the
higher the asset’s price, the more valuable the option.
3
Note: The $60,000 figure, the amount you would earn if you exercised
your option, is called the “INTRINSIC VALUE” of an option.
15
Thus far, the factors we have covered are not all that startling,
even to relative newcomers. The fact that time and price influence
an option’s value should come as no surprise. The other two
factors, however, are somewhat esoteric.
The cost of money, while esoteric, is not difficult to understand.

By the way, the cost of money is nothing more than the prevailing
interest rate. Here’s what we mean. Let’s say you are contemplat-
ing buying an option on a piece of land. You are considering
giving someone $10,000 for a right to buy the property over the
next year. If you hold the option for a year, your $10,000 is tied up
with the option seller for the entire year. That means, if your
money is tied up somewhere besides an interest-bearing bank
account, you are not collecting the interest on the $10,000 that you
could, if you didn’t buy the option. Thus, buying an option costs
you lost income. If the prevailing interest rate on a one-year
Treasury bill was 5%, then you’d be passing up a guaranteed $500
by buying the option. As you can see, the current rate of interest is
important when valuing an option, because it represents what’s
known as “opportunity cost”. That is, the opportunity cost of
money represents how much of a guaranteed return you are passing
up by investing in an option instead of a T-bill. As interest rates
vary, so does that opportunity cost.
Also, from a different point of view, options allow you to

control an asset without actually paying for the asset. What that
means is that you don’t tie up a lot of money to buy the asset itself.
Instead, you can use that money to invest in an interest bearing
account and earn income on those proceeds. Thus, by buying an
option, you eliminate the “opportunity cost” of owning the asset.
The final factor is the reward and risk potential of the underly-
ing asset. In our example, we were buying an option on a piece of
real estate. That piece of property in our example is called the
underlying asset.
In this next example, we’re going to look at two different pieces

of property. Property One is in the middle of a major metropolitan
area; prices have already climbed substantially and the whole area
is still experiencing rapid growth. Its current value is $100,000.
Property Two is in the middle of the forest; there are no cities
anywhere near, no roads for mining or timber equipment, and no
development opportunities in the immediate future. Its current
value is also $100,000.
If you could lock in a price, controlling either property and

profiting from further price appreciation, while limiting your risk
to an identical amount in the event real estate suddenly fell on hard
times, on which property would you like to have an option?
Well, ask yourself this, “Which one is likely to climb from

$100,000 to $200,000 in the next few years?” The answer to that
question is obvious – the metropolitan property is more likely to
double in value. That likelihood of gaining in value directly
impacts an option’s price.
Remember, if you buy an option, you are acquiring the right to

buy an underlying asset (in this case, property) at a preset, agreed
upon price during a preset, agreed upon time span. Therefore, if
both properties are currently priced at $100,000, and the options on
both properties are five years in duration, and in both cases, the
exercise price at which the property can be purchased is $130,000,
then the amount of money you would be willing to pay to control
the metropolitan property should be higher than the amount you
would be willing to pay in order to control the forest land.
That’s because the reward potential on the metropolitan prop-

erty is higher than the reward potential of the forest land. Also, the
17
probability of reward is higher on the metropolitan property than it
is on the forest property.
You see, it is reasonably certain that a good piece of commercial

property will increase in value by 30% during the next five years.
Therefore it is highly probable that you will be able to exercise
your option for some value during the next five years, as it is
highly probable that the property would be worth more than
$130,000 (the price at which you have the right to buy the property,
no matter how high its actual market price) during the next five
years.
It is much less certain that a piece of forest land with no access

roads, and with little development potential, would increase in
value by 30% over the next five years. [Certainly it’s possible, but
not nearly as probable as the commercial property.] Therefore, it is
less probable that you would want to exercise your option on the
forest property than on the commercial property.
Because it is more likely that the option on the forest property

will be worthless in five years, one would not want to pay as much
for that option as they would for the option on the commercial
property, which is almost certain to have value in five years.
Therefore, it can be stated that, all other factors being equal,

options on assets with high reward potential will tend to have more
value than options on assets with low reward potential. That is, the
higher the reward potential (and, likewise, the higher the risk
potential) of the underlying asset, the higher the price of the option.
This example illustrates how the reward potential of an underly-

ing asset directly impacts the value of an option. Which is just one
of five factors that impact the value of an option.
In review, the five factors that impact an option’s value are:
1. The duration of the option.
2. The agreed upon price at which the option can be exercised.
3. The current value of the asset.
4. The cost of money (i.e., interest rates).
5. The risk potential and the reward potential of the asset (in
the world of options on stocks and futures, this is known as
volatility)
These “value factors” hold true for any option on any underly-
ing asset, whether it is real estate, stocks or commodities. This
leads us into our next topic, and that is options on “listed4” assets.
So far, we’ve talked about options on real estate. While options on
real estate are quite common, they are hard for the average person
to “trade” because real estate is relatively “illiquid”.
4
Listed simply means that an asset is available for trading on an exchange.
19
Trading Options on Exchange Listed Assets
What we mean by “illiquid” is that it is often a time-intensive

process for a seller of real estate to find a buyer. The same thing
goes for buyers trying to find sellers of property they want to
purchase. Often, you have to search far and wide, using an agent,
and then you have to spend time with attorneys and bankers, not to
mention the negotiating process with the seller to finally come up
with a transaction price.
There just isn’t any centralized marketplace where you can

simply pick up the phone and say “sell” and have your house
instantly sold.
When it comes to stocks and commodities, however, there are

centralized locations to buy and sell instantly. Those locations are
called exchanges. Most people have heard of Wall Street. That’s
the location of the New York Stock Exchange and the American
Stock Exchange.
Chicago is the location of the biggest exchanges for commodity

traders — The Chicago Board of Trade and the Chicago Mercantile
Exchange. Back in the early-1970s, traders at the Chicago Board
of Trade got together and decided to begin trading options on
stocks. This eventually led to the world’s busiest options ex-
change, The Chicago Board Options Exchange.
Currently, there are six U.S. exchanges that trade options on

stocks, stock indexes, interest rate products and currencies. Those
exchanges are: The Chicago Board Options Exchange, The Ameri-
can Stock Exchange, The Philadelphia Stock Exchange, The
Pacific Exchange and the newcomers, The International Securities
Exchange and The Boston Options Exchange.
One reason that exchanges can provide you with instantaneous

purchase and sale transactions is because the products available for
purchase and sale are identical. That is, one share of IBM is
identical to another share of IBM.
Obviously, this could never be true of real estate. That’s be-

cause each property is different, with its own set of individual
advantages and disadvantages. Because no property is identical,
you simply can’t buy and sell, sight unseen.
But with exchange-traded products, you can buy and sell sight
unseen, because you know that every share of Ford is going to be
exactly like every other share of Ford. So when you want to sell,
someone else can buy with confidence.
A market that offers the ability to instantly enter and exit posi-
tions at a reasonable price is said to have “liquidity”.
The other advantage to exchanges is that they eliminate counter-

party risk. Take for example the real estate transaction. Typically,
you’ve got to set up a meeting, with an attorney present, sign
dozens of contracts and forms, and make payments only with bank-
certified checks. Then and only then does the property change
ownership. The reason for all of this is to prevent, as much as
possible, one party to the transaction from defrauding the other
party to the transaction.
The bank certified check is a classic example of this. It protects

the seller by reducing the chance that the buyer might present a
bogus check.
Needless to say, when you pick up the phone to buy or sell a

stock, you aren’t being asked to present a certified check. That’s
because the brokerage firm instantly acts upon your request, and
21
the exchange guarantees the trade.
Let’s say a trader places an order to buy an option. What hap-

pens is that the order goes to the exchange, and then someone sells
that trader the option. If the buyer then backs out of the trade, the
seller has still sold the option. That’s because the exchange and the
broker guarantee that the trade has been executed and both will
stand behind it. Essentially, the trader has bought the option. But
if the option buyer suddenly backs out of the trade, the brokerage
firm has become the buyer of the option. If for some unforeseen
reason the brokerage firm can’t meet the obligation, then the
exchange itself and its many members stand behind the trade.
This multiple level of redundancy on “listed” stocks, futures and

options is one of the key ingredients to having a successful market-
place. Many traders take it for granted, but it is the one critical
factor that gives traders around the globe enough confidence, so
that when they pick up the telephone to place an order, they know
that they are getting exactly what they ordered. And they don’t have
to worry about the performance of the person taking the other side
of their trade.
A classic example occured in 1987. The stock market crashed

in October of that year and many option traders got wiped out. It
was so bad that these traders were unable to meet their commit-
ments. That left the brokerage firms to make up the difference.
Some smaller firms were unable to handle the financial stress,
which meant that the exchange members had to meet the commit-
ment individual traders were unable to meet. The next day, the
Federal Reserve Board stepped in and strongly hinted, in a very
carefully worded, prepared statement, that banks go ahead and loan
as much money as needed to exchange member firms, so that the
exchange members could meet the financial obligations of all
traders. With those words, counterparty risk was eliminated and a
crisis was averted.
Selling High, Then Buying Low

How to reverse the typical transaction process
and make money from falling prices
Some of you may have heard of this before, some of you may
not have heard of it. In the world of finance, there is a transaction
you can implement known as “selling short”. It is a way of profit-
ing from falling prices. You can sell short stock, and you can even
sell short options. At this stage, we’re going to look at selling short
stock. Here’s how it works:
Let’s say that you were looking at a company – some high flier
called ABC Tech. You felt ABC stock had gone up too far, too fast.
You also noticed in the company’s annual report that there were
some shenanigans going on that were unnoticed by others. You felt
that the company’s shares, now priced at $80, were likely to fall
sharply. You wanted to make money as the price of the stock fell.
What you do is “sell short”. To do that you first borrow the

shares, usually from your broker. You then sell the shares you
borrowed in the open market, in this case at $80. Remember,
whenever you sell something, you collect money. In this case, you
collect $80.
At this point, we need to ask a simple question in order to

understand how we make money. That question is, what is our
risk?
The answer is, if we’ve borrowed the shares, the person who
loaned the shares to us may ask for them back. And that’s how we
make or lose money.
Think of it this way: if the price of ABC Tech drops to $50 and
the brokerage firm that loaned us the stock asks for it to be re-
23
turned, we’ve got to give it back to them. Since we already sold it
at $80, then to return the stock, we’ve got to buy it in the open
market. We buy it back for $50. But remember, we’ve already
collected $80. So our net profit is $30!
Let’s go through this one more time. It may help to visualize a

checking account to better understand this.
1. First, you borrow the shares. This shows up as neither a

debit or a credit.
2. Next, you sell the shares in the open market and collect the
money. Whenever you sell anything, you receive money.
Money given to you shows up as a credit on your checking
account statement and your brokerage statement.
3. Later, you buy back the shares that you borrowed. When-
ever you buy anything, money comes out of your pocket.
This shows up as a debit to your account.
4. Finally, you return the shares to the person from whom you
borrowed the stock.
Here’s how the arithmetic of a typical short sale transaction
looks, using a round-lot of 100 shares:
Transaction Result
Borrow 100 shares of ABC Tech (price 80) 0.00
Sell 100 shares of ABC Tech at 80 +8,000.00
Buy 100 shares of ABC Tech at 50 -5,000.00
Return the 100 shares of ABC Tech you borrowed 0.00
Net Profit or Loss +3,000.00
That’s what it looks like if things go right and the stock drops.
But what if the stock price rises. Let’s say you borrowed the stock,
sold it at $80, thus collecting $80, which shows up as a credit to
your account. At some point, the person who loaned you the stock
will call and say, “I want my stock back.” You then have to buy the
shares in the open market, and return the stock to the person who
loaned you the stock. If the ABC Tech went up to $100, you will
have to pay $100. The purchase shows up as a debit. So your
account has a credit of $80 and a debit of $100. The net result is
that you have a total net debit of $20, which means $20 has been
debited from your account. In other words, the stock went up and
you lost. Here’s how the arithmetic looks, using a round-lot of 100
shares:
Transaction Result
Borrow 100 shares of ABC Tech (price 80) 0.00
Sell 100 shares of ABC Tech at 80 +8,000.00
Buy 100 shares of ABC Tech at 100 -10,000.00
Return the 100 shares of ABC Tech you borrowed 0.00
Net Profit or Loss -2,000.00
Let’s look at a couple of more examples. Let’s say you are

looking at a toy company. You hear that the Christmas selling
season is going to be a disaster. You also hear that video games are
stealing thunder from traditional toy makers. Plus, this particular
toy company, XYZ Toys, makes toys your kids don’t like. You
think that the stock is going to go down. XYZ Toys is currently
trading at 25. You sell short 200 shares.
A few weeks later, the market proves you right. XYZ Toys is
now trading at 15. You take profits of $2,000.
Here’s the arithmetic:
Transaction Result
Borrow 200 shares of XYZ Toys (price 25) 0.00
Sell 200 shares of XYZ Toys at 25 +5,000.00
Buy 200 shares of XYZ Toys at 15 -3,000.00
Return the 200 shares of XYZ Toys you borrowed 0.00
25
Let’s look at one more example. Let’s say you suspect that
inflation will be benign for the next several months. You think that
gold, being an inflation hedge, will decline in price. You also think
that the weakness in gold will spill over into gold stocks. Right
now ABX Gold, one of the biggest gold producers, is trading at
$30. You decide to sell short 500 shares.
A few weeks later, the latest inflation data is released. It shows

that inflation is virtually non-existent, and the price of gold drops,
taking most gold stocks with it. ABX Gold is now trading at $20.
You decide to exit your “short” position, at a tidy profit of $5,000.
Transaction Result
Borrow 500 shares of ABX (price 30) 0.00
Sell 500 shares of ABX at 30 +15,000.00
Buy 500 shares of ABX at 20 -10,000.00
Return the 500 shares of ABX you borrowed 0.00
One final example — this one will show us why short selling is
so dangerous.
Let’s say there is an airline, L-M Air. L-M Air is experiencing

some problems. There are safety concerns, their planes are old,
they’re deep in debt, all of which is causing a public relations
nightmare and near-empty planes. You think that the company is
headed for bankruptcy, so you sell 500 shares short. L-M Air
shares are trading for $10.
One evening, a few weeks later, Goliath Air announces that they
want to buy the company. Goliath needs the gate space desper-
ately. Goliath has agreed to sell the older airplanes to an air-freight
shipper once the purchase of L-M Air is finalized. Goliath doesn’t
want any other airline to get in the way, and they don’t want L-M’s
Board of Directors to reject the bid, so they offer an extremely high
price: $30.
The next day, before the market opens for trading, Leviathan Air
announces that they don’t want to see their arch-rival, Goliath,
succeed in acquiring those gates. The market suspects that Levia-
than will make a competing offer for L-M Air. Later that morning,
L-M Air shares open for trading at $35. Your brokerage firm, the
one from whom you borrowed the shares, calls you to tell you that
they want the shares back (or more money). Can you figure out
what just happened to your investment?
Transaction Result
Borrow 500 shares of LM (price 10) 0.00
Sell 500 shares of LM at 10 +5,000.00
Buy 500 shares of LM at 35 -17,500.00
Return the 500 shares of LM you borrowed 0.00
You just lost $12,500 on an investment that had a maximum

profit potential of $5,000. The fact that you can lose substantially
more than you can gain, that your loss potential is unlimited, is
why short selling is best left to experienced traders.
One thing to note about short selling — the borrowing and

returning of shares is “transparent”. That is, the person selling
short doesn’t ever see the borrowing and selling aspects of the
transaction on their statement (although they will see the impact of
it when they look at the margin interest section of their statement).
All the short seller sees is that they sell something at the inception
of the trade, and that they buy it back at a later date to close out the
trade.
27
Review
Before we go any further, let’s take a quick opportunity to

review what we’ve covered so far:
1. Options give you the right to buy or sell an asset at a prede-

termined price during a specified time period.
2. There are five factors that impact an option’s value.
3. Selling short is a method by which you can make money

from falling prices.
4. By using a particular type of option strategy, you can con-

struct a trade that automatically puts the probabilities in
your favor.
5. Exchange-traded options give you the benefit of instant

liquidity and eliminate counter-party risk.
The next several chapters are designed to give you a thorough

understanding of how the option trading process works and how
profits and losses from trading are generated. The process involves
a comprehensive review of valuing calls and puts, and then calcu-
lating the profits and losses from buying and selling options.
THE CALCULATIONS ARE EXTREMELY EASY. But they

can also be rather tedious. During the monotony, please don’t lose
sight of our ultimate goal – to make money from trading – some-
thing very few traders ever achieve.
The following chapters are an essential first step on the path

towards consistent profits. If the process ever seems tiresome, just
remember why you got this book, and think about how trading
options profitably and consistently could change your life forever.
Calculating Profits and Losses on Option Trades
Up to now, we’ve discovered what an option is, what types of

options there are, and how options gain or lose value. The next
step is to determine how an option transaction impacts your bottom
line.
A quick example would be, if you bought something for 3 and

sold it (via an offsetting transaction) for 6, you’d have a profit of 3.
This is calculated in the following manner: You spent 3 to buy
something. Whenever you buy something, you pay someone,
taking money out of your account, so it shows up as a debit. Once
you’ve purchased something, you need to sell it via an offsetting
transaction to turn a paper profit into a real profit. When you sell
this particular item, you sell it for 6. Whenever you sell something,
you get money. Money goes into your account, so it shows up as a
credit. Therefore the 3 appears as a (-3) minus 3, and the 6 appears
as a (+6) plus 6. Add the two together and you get the net profit
(or loss). The net profit in this case is +3 (calculated by adding -3
and +6).
Simple enough, but vitally important.
In the next four chapters, we will be providing you with ex-

amples that show how to calculate profits and losses on buying and
selling puts and calls. Each section provides you with two ex-
amples. The thought here is that, for the novice, “practice makes
perfect”.
Because the examples are somewhat redundant, if at any time

you feel that you understand the analysis process, feel free to skip
ahead to the next chapter.
29
Types of Options and Determining Their Values - Part I - Calls
As everyone knows, there are two types of transactions – buying

and selling.
There are also two types of options. So far we’ve covered the
type that gives the buyer of the option the right to buy the asset.
That type of an option is known as a call option.
It is called a “call option” because the owner of the option can

do just that, call away the underlying asset. That is, the option
owner can call upon the seller of the option to deliver the asset,
provided the option buyer pays the agreed upon exercise price.
The seller (also called the grantor) of a call option has the obliga-
tion to sell the asset to you at the preset price.
The other type of option is called a put option because it gives

the option owner the right to “put” the asset in the option seller’s
hands. That is, the option owner has the right to sell the asset to
the option seller at the agreed upon exercise price. The option
seller has the obligation to buy the asset at the preset price. We’ll
cover this more in a later chapter.
Let’s get back to an example of a call option, this time using a

stock, instead of real estate, as our asset. The stock we are going to
use is General Electric. We’re not using GE because we feel that it
is the right stock to trade. Instead, we chose GE because of its
widespread familiarity. To make things simple, let’s assume that
GE shares are 100. We didn’t choose 100 because that’s the
current price of GE. Instead, we chose 100 because it’s a nice
round number. After all, it’s far easier to learn about a new topic
when the name is familiar and the numbers are easy to work with.
Let’s say it is October. You think that the market will rally into
the end of the year. General Electric shares tend to rise and fall
with the market, so you think that GE will go up with the market.
Let’s assume GE is currently trading at 100 (the actual price of GE
is not 100, but let’s use this familiar stock and this nice round
figure as an example). Let’s also assume that you want to acquire
the right to buy GE shares if they increase in value during this
seasonally favorable time period. So you buy a call option with a
strike price of 100 and an expiration date of December 20. Re-
member, the strike price is the price at which the option can be
exercised. This means that you will have the right to buy GE
shares at 100 before the December options expire on December 20,
no matter how high or how low GE shares are.
The seller of the option, who will be obliged to deliver to you

the shares of GE if you ask for them, requires compensation for
giving you the right to buy GE at 100. The compensation you give
him (e.g., the price of the option you pay) is called the option
premium. The price of the option in October is 5. That’s 1/20th of
the price of the stock itself. So your out-of-pocket expenses are
substantially reduced when compared to buying the stock.
Now let’s fast forward to December. Let’s look at what the

option will be worth as GE shares fluctuate. Remember, the
December call option with a strike price of 100 gives you the right
but not the obligation to buy GE shares at 100 before December
20.
If GE shares are trading at 80 on the New York Stock Exchange,

would you want to exercise your right, call away the stock and pay
100? Of course not. Why would you want to pay 100 when the
market price of GE is 80? Therefore, when GE shares are at 80,
the option has no “exercise” value. In this case, it would be worth-
less at expiration.
31
How about if GE is trading at 90? Same thing. No one would
want to pay 100, as is your right, if you can buy GE in the open
market at 90. Therefore, when GE shares are at 90, the option has
no “exercise” value. In this case, it would be worthless at expira-
tion.
In both instances, there is no value in exercising the option.

This brings up a term that you will hear more about, “out-of-the-
money”. Out-of-the-money options are options that have no value
if the option were to be exercised.
What if GE shares were at 100? In this case, it really doesn’t

matter. You could either buy the shares in the open market for 100,
or exercise your option for 100. At the very least, one could state
that there is no added value to exercising the option, so it is essen-
tially worthless. An option whose exercise price is identical to the
current market price is said to be “at-the-money”.
How about 110? You could exercise your right to “call” away
GE and buy it at the agreed upon exercise price of 100 and then
instantly sell the shares in the open market at 110. In this case, you
make 10 from exercising your option. Options that can be exer-
cised for any value are called in-the-money options.
Finally, what happens if GE shares go to 120? Again, you could

exercise your right to “call” away and buy the shares at 100, sell
them at 120, making 20 from the exercise.
This “exercise value” goes by another term used by option

traders. It is called “intrinsic value”.
Here is a plot of the option’s intrinsic value:
Figure 4
Intrinsic Value of a Call Option on GE
20
15
Option
Value
10
0
80 90 100 110 120
Price of GE shares
Notice that the call option’s value is zero until the price of GE
climbs above the exercise price of 100.
In this book, we are not going to get into commodity options in

depth. But I do want to say that, in most cases, they work in the
very same way as stock options work. The only difference is that
commodity options are options on futures contracts, not options on
stocks. Therefore, if you exercise a commodity option that is not
cash-settled, you will be delivered a futures contract, not shares of
stock.
33
Types of Options and Determining Their Values - Part II - Puts
Let’s review what we’ve covered so far. There are two types of
transactions – buying and selling. Also, we know that there is at
least one type of option — a call option. A call option gives the
holder of the option the right to buy. As we showed, call options
tend to increase in value as the price of the underlying asset in-
creases in value.
As you might surmise, since there is an option that gives you the
right to do one type of transaction (in the case of a call option, it
gives you the right to buy), there is also an option that gives you
the right to do the other type of transaction. That option is called a
put option.
A put option gives the holder of the option the right, but not the
obligation, to sell the underlying asset at specific price during a
preset period of time.
When you have the right to sell, the other party to the transac-
tion has the obligation to buy. That is why it is called a put –
because you are “putting” the asset into the hands of the option
seller at the agreed upon exercise price. This causes put options to
increase in value as the price of the asset drops.
Let’s take a look at our earlier example of GE to see how puts

work and why they gain value when the underlying asset price
drops.
It is September. You know that the stock market has shown an

extremely powerful seasonal tendency to drop during September
and October. Because GE shares tend to rise and fall with the
market, you want to own an option that rises in value when the
market falls. You want to own a put option.
GE is trading at 100 in September. You want to acquire the

right to sell GE shares if they drop in value, so you buy a put
option with a strike price of 100 and an expiration date of October
18 (stock options and stock index options expire on the third
Friday of every month). Remember, the strike price is the price at
which the option can be exercised. This means that you will have
the right to sell GE shares at 100 before the October options expire
on October 18, no matter how high or how low GE shares are.
The seller of the option, who will be obliged to buy from you
the shares of GE if you want to sell, requires compensation for
giving you the right to sell GE to him at 100. The compensation
you give him (e.g. the price of the option you pay) is called the
option premium. The price of the option in September is 3.
Now let’s fast forward to October. Let’s look at what the option
will be worth as GE shares fluctuate. Remember, the October put
option with a strike price of 100 gives you the right but not the
obligation to sell GE shares at 100 before October 18.

here’s what would happen. You would have the right to sell the
stock to the person who sold you the option. The price at which
you would sell GE would be the exercise price of 100. Remember,
the person who sells the option has the obligation to buy it from
you at the preset price. Therefore, you could buy the stock in the
open market at 80 and immediately sell it to the option grantor at
100, as is your right under the option. By buying GE at 80 and
immediately selling it for 100, your net is 20. Therefore, the
exercise value of a put option with strike price of 100 is 20 when
the asset is at 80.
What about when GE is at 90? You could buy the stock at 90 in

the open market, and exercise your right to sell the stock to the
35
option grantor at 100. When you buy at 90 and sell at 100, you
earn 10, which is the option’s value.
How about if GE is trading at 100? In this case, it really doesn’t

matter. You could buy the shares in the open market for 100, and
exercise your right to sell them at 100. But that would merely be a
breakeven transaction. At the very least, one could state that there
is no added value to exercising the option, so it is essentially
worthless. As with a call option, any option whose exercise price
is identical to the current market price is said to be “at-the-
money”.
How about if GE was at 110? You could exercise your right to

put the stock to the option seller. But why would you? If you
bought GE at 110, your right would be to sell it at 100. And why
would anybody buy anything at 110, only to sell it at 100? It
automatically locks in a loss of -10. Because you have the right and
are not obliged to do this, you would do nothing – the option is
worthless.
Finally, what happens if GE shares go to 120? Your right is to

sell GE at 100. But GE shares are trading at 120. So you would
have to pay 120, only to sell the shares at 100, thus locking in a
loss of -20. Because you have the right and are not obliged to do
this, the option is worthless.
Here is a plot of the put’s intrinsic value:
Figure 5
Intrinsic Value of a Put Option on GE
20
15
Option
Value
10
0
80 90 100 110 120
Price of GE shares
As you can see through this example, a put’s exercise value

increases as the price of the underlying asset decreases. It does so
by giving the option holder the right to sell at a predetermined
price. When the price of the asset drops, the option holder can buy
the asset at the current market price, put the asset into the option
grantor’s hands (i.e., sell it to the option grantor), and collect the
agreed-upon sale price, which is the strike price of the option.
37
Offsetting Transactions
It is extremely important to note that what we’re going to do is

calculate the exercise value of the options. You do not need to
exercise your option in order to realize a profit (e.g., turn a profit
on paper into an actual profit in real dollars and cents).
As noted earlier, options are traded on major stock and com-

modity exchanges world wide. Traders buy and sell options all the
time. Almost always, options trade at or above their exercise value
(there are some rare exceptions).
Because of this, if you had an option that had an exercise value

of, say, $400, you could pretty much guarantee that instead of
exercising the option, you could sell it on one of the options ex-
changes for at least $400.
When you sell an option that you’ve already bought, it is called

an offsetting transaction.
You can also short sell options. That is, you can sell them at the
inception of the trade and buy them back later. If you sell an
option short, the transaction to close out the position is a “buy” or a
“purchase”. That purchase is also called an offsetting transaction.
Because of the availability of offsetting transactions, few op-

tions are ever exercised. Almost all options are offset. Options
that are bought are usually sold, and options that are sold short are
usually repurchased. The ability to offset an “opening” transaction
via a “closing” transaction is an important feature that makes it
simple to trade options without worrying about the headache of
actually exercising the option.
Calculating Profit and Loss Potential on a Call Option Purchase
Let’s quickly review. A call option gives the option buyer the
right to buy an underlying asset at a predetermined price. Also,
whenever we buy something, we have to give the seller money, so
money is debited from our account. When we sell, we receive
money from a buyer, so money is credited to our account. After
buying something, we need to sell it in order to realize a profit or
loss.
Now let’s look at a call option purchase. Let’s take our original
example: the GE call option. It is October, let’s assume GE is
currently trading at 100. You want to acquire the right to buy GE
shares if they increase in value between now and the Christmas
holidays, so you buy a call option with a strike price of 100 and an
expiration date of December 20. Remember, the strike price is the
price at which the option can be exercised. This means that you
will have the right to buy GE shares at 100 before the December
options expire on December 20, no matter how high or how low
GE shares are.
The seller of the option, who will be obliged to deliver to you

the shares of GE if you ask for them, requires compensation for
giving you the right to buy GE at 100. The compensation you give
him (e.g. the price of the option you pay) is called the option
premium. The price of the option in October is 5. All stock
options are worth $100 per point. Therefore the GE option costs
$500. If you buy this option, it will show up on your account
statement as a debit of $500 (plus commissions).
Now let’s fast forward to December. Let’s look at what your

profit or loss will be as GE shares fluctuate. Remember, the
December call option with a strike price of 100 gives you the right
but not the obligation to buy GE shares at 100 before December 20.
39
would you want to exercise your right, call away the stock and pay
100? Of course not. Why would you want to pay 100 when the
open market price of GE is 80? Therefore, when GE shares are at
80, the option has no “exercise” value. In this case, it would be
worthless at expiration. If you tried to sell the option, no one
would want to buy it. So you just let it expire.
If you let the options expire worthless, the transaction looks like
this:
Transaction Result
Buy one GE December 100 call (price 5) -500.00
GE December 100 call expires worthless 0.00
Net Profit or Loss -500.00
How about if GE is trading at 90? Same thing. No one would

want to pay 100, as is your right, if you can buy GE in the open
market at 90. Therefore, when GE shares are at 90, the option has
no “exercise” value. In this case, it would be worthless at expira-
tion. If you tried to sell the option, no one would want to buy it.
You just let it expire.
If you let the options expire worthless, the transaction look like
this:
Transaction Result
In both instances, there is no value in exercising the option, so

the options expired worthless.
What if GE shares were at 100? In this case, it really doesn’t

matter. You could either buy the shares in the open market for 100,
or exercise your option for 100. At the very least, one could state
that there is no added value to exercising the option, so it is essen-
tially worthless. If you tried to sell the option, no one would want
to buy it. You just let it expire.
this:
Transaction Result
How about 110? At 110, the options have value. You could
exercise your right to “call” away and buy GE at 100 and then
instantly sell the shares in the open market at 110. In this case, you
make 10 from exercising your option. Also, as we showed, you
could simply offset the transaction by selling the option. If you
sold the option for its exercise value (10), it would show up on
your account as a plus.
If you exercise your option, the transaction would look like this:
Transaction Result
Exercise the option (buy 100 shares of GE at 100) -10,000.00
Sell 100 shares of GE at 110 +11,000.00
Net Profit or Loss +500.00
41
If you sell the option, the transaction looks like this:
Transaction Result
Sell GE December 100 call (price 10) +1,000.00
Finally, what happens if GE shares go to 120? Again, you could

exercise your right to “call” away and buy the shares at 100, and
then sell them at 120, making 20 from the exercise. Or you could
simply sell your option in an offsetting transaction.
If you exercise your option, the transaction would look like this:
Transaction Result
Exercise the option (buy 100 shares of GE at 100) -10,000.00
If you sell the option, the transaction looks like this:
Transaction Result
Sell GE December 100 call (price 20) +2,000.00
Here is a plot of the call option purchase’s profit and loss as the
price of GE fluctuates:
Figure 6
Profit/(Loss) From Buying a Call Option on GE
15
10
Profit/(Loss)
-5
80 90 100 110 120
Price of GE shares (dollars per share)
Remember, the option starts gaining value once GE shares start

climbing above 100. But notice how the line does not cross the
zero mark until the price of GE reaches 105. This is the option
purchase’s breakeven. In other words, if GE finishes below 105,
the option buyer loses. That’s because the option does not gain
enough value to overcome the purchase price. If it finishes above
105, the option buyer will earn a profit.
Notice that the breakeven price is equal to the price of the

option when purchased (5), plus the option’s strike price (100) [ 5
+ 100 = 105]. This is a very simple rule of thumb for calculating
the breakeven of a call purchase. The breakeven of a call purchase
43
is equal to the price of the option plus the option’s strike price.
Here are the important characteristics of call buying:
1. Small cash outlay - Compared to buying the asset, the cost

of a call option is much, much smaller.
2. Bullish bias - The underlying asset must go up in order for

you to make money.
3. Limited risk - If you’re wrong and the underlying asset

declines in value, your maximum loss potential is limited to
the purchase price of the option.
4. Unlimited profit potential - If you’re right about direction,

the profit potential is virtually unlimited. The percentage
profit available is much larger than the risk potential.
5. Poor probability - As indicated at the beginning of the

report, most traders find it almost impossible to accurately
guess direction consistently. When you purchase an option,
you not only have to be right about market direction, your
forecast must take place during a limited amount of time
(prior to option expiration). In other words, you must guess
direction accurately and your forecast has to take place
quickly.
Calculating Profit and Loss Potential on a Put Option Purchase
Let’s quickly review the put option process. A put option gives
the put holder the right to sell an underlying asset at a predeter-
mined price in a preset period of time. Because of this, when an
underlying asset drops in price, the put holder can buy the asset in
the open market at the current price (which is now lower), and, by
exercising the put, immediately sell it at a higher price (the prede-
termined exercise price from when the option was purchased).
This gives the put owner the ability to buy low and sell high, thus
giving them the ability to earn a profit.
Also, whenever we buy something, we have to give the seller

money, so money is debited from our account. When we sell, we
receive money from a buyer, so money is credited to our account.
After buying something, we need to sell it in order to realize a
profit or loss.
Let’s take a look at our earlier example of GE to see how we

can determine our profit and loss potential from a put purchase.
Recall from our example which showed how to determine the

value of a put option, it’s September. You know that the stock
market has shown an extremely powerful seasonal tendency to
drop during September and October. Because GE shares tend to
rise and fall with the market, you want to own an option that rises
in value when the market falls. You want to buy a put option.
GE is trading at 100 in September. You want to acquire the

right to sell GE shares if they drop in value, so you buy a put
option with a strike price of 100 and an expiration date of October
18 (stock options and stock index options expire on the third
Friday of every month). Remember, the strike price is the price at
which the option can be exercised. This means that you will have
45
the right to sell GE shares at 100 before the October options expire
on October 18, no matter how high or how low GE shares are.
The seller of the option, who will be obliged to buy from you
the shares of GE if you want to sell them, requires compensation
for giving you the right to sell GE to him at 100. The compensa-
tion you give him (e.g. the price of the option you pay) is called the
option premium. The price of the option in September is 3. All
stock options are worth $100 per point. Therefore the GE option
costs $300. If you buy this option, it will show up on your account
statement as a debit of $300 (plus commissions).
Now let’s fast forward to October. Let’s look at what our profit/
loss will be as GE shares fluctuate. Remember, the October put
option with a strike price of 100 gives you the right but not the
obligation to sell GE shares at 100 before October 18.

here’s what would happen. As the option buyer, you would have
the right to sell the stock to the person who sold you the option at a
price of 100. Remember, the person who sells the option has the
obligation to buy it from you at the preset price. Therefore, you
could buy the stock in the open market at 80 and immediately sell
it to the option grantor at 100, as is your right under the option. By
buying GE at 80 and immediately selling it for 100, your net is 20.
Therefore, the exercise value of a put option with strike price of
100 is 20 when the asset is at 80. So if you exercised your option,
you would earn 20 from the exercise. Also, as we showed earlier,
you could simply offset the transaction by selling the option. If
you sold the option for its exercise value (20), it would show up on
If you exercise your option, the transaction would look like this
(Remember, you bought the option for 3. Stock options are worth
$100 per point):
Transaction Result
Buy one GE October 100 put (price 3) -300.00
Buy 100 shares of GE at 80 -8,000.00
Exercise the put (Sell 100 shares of GE at 100) +10,000.00
If you sell the option for 20, the transaction looks like this:
Transaction Result
Sell GE October 100 put (price 20) +2,000.00
What about when GE is at 90? You could buy the stock at 90 in

the open market, and exercise your right to sell the stock to the
option grantor at 100. When you buy at 90 and sell at 100, you
earn 10, which is the option’s value. Also, as we showed earlier,
you could simply offset the transaction by selling the option. If
you sold the option for its exercise value (10), it would show up on
If you sell the option for 10, the transaction looks like this:
Transaction Result
Sell GE October 100 put (price 10) +1,000.00
How about if GE is trading at 100? In this case, it really doesn’t

matter. You could buy the shares in the open market for 100, and
exercise your right to sell them at 100. But that would merely be a
47
breakeven transaction. At the very least, one could state that there
worthless. In this case, the put option is “at-the-money”. If you
tried to sell the option, you would receive nothing for it. You
already paid 3 for the option.
this:
Transaction Result
GE October 100 put expires worthless 0.00
How about if GE was at 110? You could exercise your right to

put the asset to the option seller. But why would you? If you
bought GE at 110, your right would be to sell it at 100. And why
would anyone buy anything at 110, only to sell it at 100? It auto-
matically locks in a loss of -10. Because you have the right and are
not obliged to do this, the option is worthless. You paid 3 for the
option.
this:
Transaction Result
Finally, what happens if GE shares go to 120? Your right is to

sell GE at 100. But GE shares are trading at 120. So you would
have to pay 120, only to sell the shares at 100, thus locking in a
loss of -20. Because you have the right and are not obliged to do
this, the option is worthless. You paid 3 for the option.
The net result is the same as it would be if GE shares were at

any price above 100. If you let the options expire worthless, the
transaction looks like this:
Transaction Result
Here is a plot of the put’s profit and loss:
Figure 7
Profit/(Loss) From Buying a Put Option on GE
20
15
Profit/(Loss)
10
-5
80 90 100 110 120
Remember, the option starts gaining value once GE shares start

falling below 100. But notice how the line does not cross the zero
49
mark until the price of GE reaches 97. This is the option
purchase’s breakeven. In other words, if GE finishes above 97,
you lose. That’s because the option does not gain enough value to
overcome the purchase price. If it finishes below 97, you will earn
a profit.
Notice that the breakeven price of the put is equal to the

option’s strike price (100) minus the price of the option when
purchased (3) [ 100 - 3 = 97]. This is a very simple rule of thumb
for calculating the breakeven of a put purchase. The breakeven of
a put purchase is equal to the option’s strike price minus the price
of the option.
Here are the important characteristics of put buying:
1. Small cash outlay - Compared to short selling the asset, the

cost of a put is much, much smaller.
2. Bearish bias - The underlying asset must drop in order for

you to make money.
3. Limited risk - If you’re wrong and the underlying asset gains

value, your maximum loss potential is limited to the pur-
chase price of the option.
4. Unlimited profit potential - If you’re right about direction,

the profit potential is virtually unlimited. The percentage
profit available is much larger than the risk potential.
5. Poor probability - As indicated at the beginning of the

report, most traders find it almost impossible to accurately
guess direction consistently. When you purchase an option,
you not only have to be right about market direction, your
forecast must take place during a limited amount of time
(prior to option expiration). In other words, you must guess

direction accurately and your forecast has to take place
quickly.
Review
We’re rapidly progressing toward our goal, which is to grasp a

basic understanding of options, and how they can be used to put
the probabilities in our favor. Here’s what we’ve learned so far:
1. A call option gives the option buyer the right to buy an

underlying asset at a predetermined price. Because of this,
when an underlying asset rises in price, the call option
holder can buy the asset at a lower price (the predetermined
exercise price from when the option was purchased), and
immediately sell it at a higher price (the current open market
price which is now higher). This gives the call owner the
ability to buy low and sell high, thus giving them the ability
to earn a profit.
2. A put option gives the option buyer the right to sell an

when an underlying asset drops in price, the put holder can
buy the asset in the open market at the current price (which
is now lower), and immediately sell it at a higher price (the
predetermined exercise price from when the option was
purchased). This gives the put owner the ability to buy low
and sell high, thus giving them the ability to earn a profit.
3. Whenever we buy something, we have to give the seller

money, so money is debited from our account.
4. Whenever we sell, we receive money from a buyer, so
51
money is credited to our account.
5. After buying something, we can sell it (via an offsetting

transaction) in order to realize a profit or loss.
6. Selling short allows an investor to sell something that they

don’t already own. By selling an asset now, they hope that
the price will drop so that they can buy back the asset at a
lower price. This gives the short seller the ability to buy low
and sell high, thus giving them the ability to earn a profit —
only the process is reversed. The short seller sells high first,
and then buys low.
7. The breakeven at expiration of a call option is equal to the

strike price plus the price of the option.
8. The breakeven at expiration of a put option is equal to the

strike price minus the price of the option.
9. Buying an option offers unlimited profit potential with

limited risk.
10. When you buy an option, the odds of success are against
you.

Part I — Selling a Call
In the previous chapters, we’ve learned what an option is and

how profits and losses from option purchases are generated. Prior
to that, we learned how a trader can sell short and make money as
an asset drops in price.
The next two chapters are going to combine both concepts —

options with short selling. That is, we’re going to sell an option
short at the inception of the trade. We will then close out the
position by buying the option back in an offsetting transaction.
We’ll also show you how this automatically puts the probabili-
ties in your favor! First, we’re going to show you what happens
when you sell a call option short. In the next chapter we’re going
to sell a put option short.
It is very important to note that when you sell an option short,

the buyer has all the rights. You, the option seller, have none. The
option seller only has obligations.
When you sell a call option short, you are expecting the underly-
ing asset to remain stable or decline in value. Here’s why. When
you sell a call, you are not selling short the underlying asset itself –
you are selling short a call option. Remember that calls increase in
value as the underlying asset increases in price. Calls drop in value
as the underlying asset’s price declines. Because we’re selling
short a call, we want the value of the call option to drop. Because
a call’s value drops when the underlying asset’s price drops, we
want the asset to drop in price!
Let’s take a look at our example of GE (the one where we

expect GE shares to drop) to see how we can determine our profit
53
and loss potential from the short sale of a call option.
Recall in our bearish example that it’s September. You know

that the stock market has shown an extremely powerful seasonal
tendency to drop during September and October. Because GE
shares tend to rise and fall with the market, you want to implement
a strategy that makes money when the market falls. You want to
sell a call option.
GE is trading at 100 in September. Just as you would when you

sell anything, you receive money when you sell an option. In this
instance, when you sell a call, you receive money from the call
option buyer. Whenever you receive money, you give the payer
something, usually a service or a product. In this instance, you are
giving the call option buyer a right. The right you are giving the
call buyer is the right to buy GE shares from you at a preset price
during a fixed time period. The option you sell is an October 105
call; the price of the call is 3.
The strike price of the option is 105. That means that the option
buyer has the right to buy from you GE shares at 105, no matter
how high or how low GE shares are. The October date means that
the options expire in October (stock options and stock index
options expire on the third Friday of the month). As the seller, you
have received compensation from the buyer. The compensation you
receive (e.g., the price of the option) is called the option premium.
The price of the option in September is 3.
Now let’s fast forward to October. Let’s look at what the option
will be worth as GE shares fluctuate. Remember, the October call
option with a strike price of 105 gives the option buyer the right to
buy GE shares from you at a price of 105 before October 18.
Therefore, as a seller of a call option, you have the obligation to
sell someone GE shares at a price of 105, no matter how high or
how low the stock price actually is at the time the option is exer-
cised.

would the option buyer want to exercise their right, call away the
stock and pay 105? Of course not. Why would someone want to
pay 105 when the open market price of GE is 80? Therefore, when
GE shares are at 80, the option has no “exercise” value. In this
case, it would be worthless at expiration. You, the option seller,
could buy back the option you sold at a price of zero, but that
would generate an unnecessary commission. A more likely sce-
nario would be for you, the option seller, and the option buyer to
just let the call expire.
If the options expired worthless, the transaction, from your

perspective, would look like this:
Transaction Result
Sell one GE October 105 call (price 3) +300.00
One GE October 105 call expires worthless 0.00
How about if GE is trading at 90? Same thing. No trader

would want to pay 105 (as would be the call buyer’s right) if they
could buy GE in the open market at 90. Therefore, when GE shares
are at 90, the option has no “exercise” value. In this case, it would
be worthless at expiration. As the person who sold the call option
short, you could buy it back for zero, but that would generate an
unnecessary commission. A more likely scenario would be for you,
the option seller, and the option buyer to just let the call expire.
55
If the options expired worthless, the transaction, from your
perspective, would look like this:
Transaction Result
In both instances, there is no value in exercising the option. The

same thing is true if GE shares were at 100.
But what if GE shares were at the strike price — 105? In this

case, it really doesn’t matter. The option buyer could either buy the
shares in the open market for 105, or exercise the option and buy
GE shares from you at 105. If the option buyer exercised his right
to buy GE shares from you, you would simply buy the stock in the
open market for 105 and sell the shares to the call buyer for 105.
You, however, have previously been paid for the option that you
sold. In the stock portion of this transaction, you are simply buying
at one price (105, the open market price) and then immediately
selling the stock at the same price (105, the option’s exercise
price). Since there is no added value to exercising the option, it is
essentially worthless. Again, as the person who sold the call option
short, you could buy it back for zero, but that would generate an
unnecessary commission. A more likely scenario would be for you,
the option seller, and the option buyer to just let the call expire.
If the options expired worthless, the transaction from your

perspective would look like this:
Transaction Result
If you buy back the option for nothing, the transaction looks like
this:
Transaction Result
Buy back one GE October 105 call (price 0) 0.00
If the call option buyer happened to exercise his option to buy,

the transaction would look like this from your perspective:
Transaction Result
How about when GE is at 110? At 110, the options have value.

The option buyer could exercise his right to “call” away the stock
from you and buy it at 105. This forces you to deliver the stock. If
the stock is at 110, you would have to buy the stock in the open
market at 110 and sell it at 105, the exercise price of the option. In
this instance, you lose -5 from the exercise, but you’ve already
collected 3, so your net loss is -2. Also, as we showed, you could
simply offset the transaction by buying the option. If you bought
the option for its exercise value (5), it would show up on your
account as a debit, or as a minus.
If you held the call option until the option buyer exercised it, the
transaction would look like this:
Transaction Result
57
If you bought back the call option in an offsetting transaction, it
would look like this:
Transaction Result
Buy back one GE October 105 call (price 5) -500.00
Finally, what happens if GE shares go to 120? Again, the option

buyer could exercise his right to “call” away and buy the shares at
105. This would force you to buy the stock in the open market at
120, then sell the shares you just bought for 120 to the option buyer
at the exercise price of 105. In this instance, you lose -15 from the
exercise, but you’ve already collected 3, so your loss is -12. Also,
as we showed, you could simply offset the transaction by buying
the option. If you bought the option for its exercise value (15), it
would show up on your account as a debit, or as a minus.
If you held the call option until the option buyer exercised it, the
transaction would look like this:
Transaction Result
If you bought back the call option in an offsetting transaction, it

would look like this:
Transaction Result
Buy back one GE October 105 call (price 15) -1,500.00
Here’s a graph of the call short sale’s profit and loss:
Figure 8
Profit/(Loss) From Selling a Call Option on GE
0
Profit/(Loss)
-5
-10
-15
80 90 100 110 120
This graph is critical to understanding why the odds are in your

favor when you sell an option. Remember, GE shares are trading
at a price of 100. Notice that the place in which the profit/loss line
drops below zero (the breakeven) is somewhere between 100 and
110. The exact price is 108 – the price of the option when you sold
it, plus the strike price. As long as GE shares stay below 108, you
make money. If GE shares are above 108 at expiration, the option
seller loses. This is the same breakeven as the option buyer, only
the option buyer wins if GE goes above 108 and loses if they are
below 108 at expiration.
59
Notice that, if you are bearish, and the stock goes down, you
make money. If you are bearish and the stock stands still, staying
at 100, you still make money. If you are bearish and the stock goes
up 5% to 105, you still make money. It is the location of the
breakeven which is crucial to explaining why option selling has
such a high probability of success. For the option seller to lose,
GE shares have to rise more than 8% in less than two months (from
early-September to mid-October)!! A rise of that magnitude over
such a short period simply doesn’t happen very often.
That means the odds of GE shares being below 108 in about 6

weeks are going to be extremely high. Consequently, because there
are three possible ways in which the call option seller makes
money (if GE drops any amount, if GE stands still, and if GE rises
less than 8% during a six-week period) the option seller’s odds of
success are extremely high. On the other hand, the option buyer’s
odds of success are very low, as they win in only one scenario, an
extremely large move upward in GE share’s price.
However, as the word suggests, an extreme move is highly

improbable. So the odds of suffering a loss from the sale of the
call are remote. Thus, the probability is high, but so is the risk
potential.
Characteristics of call selling:
1. Small cash outlay - Compared to selling the asset short, the

margin requirements are reduced.
2. Slight bearish bias - The underlying asset can stand still or

decline in price for you to make money.
3. Unlimited risk - If you’re wrong and the underlying asset

increases in value, your risk is as large as if you were selling
short the asset. (The good news is that there is a solution to
the unlimited aspect to the risk component, which we’ll
discuss in a later chapter.)
4. Limited profit potential - If you’re right about direction, the

profit potential is limited to the premium you receive when
you sell the call.
5. High probability of profit - Selling a call option automati-

cally puts the odds in your favor. By selling a call, the asset
can drop in price, stand still, or even go up a little, and
you’ll still make money. The only situation in which you
can lose is if the asset goes up in price by a substantial
amount.
61
Part II — Selling a Put
In the world of elementary school arithmetic, we all learned that

when you multiplied a negative number by another negative num-
ber, the resulting product was a positive number.
This concept has a loose link to the final strategy we’re going to
look at, because we’re going to combine short selling (a strategy
that we showed makes money in a negative market environment)
with a put option (which we showed increases in value in a nega-
tive market environment) to come up with an overall option strat-
egy that makes money in a positive market environment!
That is, we’re going to combine two negatives to create a posi-

tive.
What we’re going to do is sell short a put option. When you sell
short a put, you make money if the underlying asset increases in
value or if it stands still. Here’s why:
Remember that when you sell short, you make money if the
“thing” you’ve sold short declines in price. That’s because if the
“thing” drops in price, you can buy it back for less than what you
sold it for. That is, you’ve bought low and sold high. Only you
bought and sold in reverse, selling high first and then buying low.
It is critically important that you realize what it is we’re selling

short when we sell a put. You are not selling short the underlying
asset itself – you are selling short a put. Remember that puts
increase in value as the underlying asset declines in price. Puts
drop in value as the underlying asset’s price rises. Because we’re
selling short a put, we want the value of the put to drop. Because a
put’s value drops when the underlying asset’s price rises, we want
the asset to rise in price! A few examples will obviously help.
Remember, whenever we buy something, we have to give the

seller money, so money is debited from our account. When we
sell, we receive money from a buyer, so money is credited to our
account. After selling an option, it can either expire worthless, the
option buyer can exercise his right, or it can be “bought back” in an
offsetting transaction.
Let’s look at stock PQR, which is trading at 100 in December.

You are bullish on PQR. You expect the stock to rise in price.
That means you expect the put options to drop in price. You
decide to sell short a January at-the-money put. At-the-money
means that the option’s strike price and the stock’s current price are
the same. That means the option’s strike price must be 100. Janu-
ary corresponds to the option’s expiration date.
By selling a put, you are giving someone the right to sell PQR
shares if they drop in value, so you sell them a put option with a
strike price of 100 and an expiration date of January 19 (stock
options and stock index options expire on the third Friday of every
month). Remember, the strike price is the price at which the option
can be exercised. This means that the buyer will have the right to
sell PQR shares to you for 100 before the January options expire
on January 19, no matter how high or how low PQR shares are.
As the seller of the option, you will be obliged to buy PQR

shares if the buyer of the option exercises his right. You require
compensation for taking on that obligation. The compensation you
require (e.g. the price of the option) is called the option premium.
The price of the option in December is 6.
Now let’s fast forward to January. Let’s look at what the option
will be worth as PQR shares fluctuate. Remember, the January put
63
option with a strike price of 100 gives the buyer the right but not
the obligation to sell to you PQR shares at 100 before January 19.
If PQR shares are trading at 80 on the New York Stock Ex-

change, here’s what would happen. The option buyer would have
the right to sell the stock to you at a price of 100. Remember, the
person who sells the put option has the obligation to buy the
asset at the preset price. Therefore, the option buyer could buy
the stock in the open market at 80 and immediately sell it to the
option grantor at 100. You, the option seller, would have to buy the
stock at 100. You could then do one of two things: hang on to the
stock, or, more likely, sell it in the open market where PQR shares
are trading at 80.
If you hold the option you sold short until it was exercised, the
transaction would look like this (Remember, you sold the option
for 6. Stock options are worth $100 per point):
Transaction Result
Sell one PQR January 100 put (price 6) +600.00
Buy 100 shares of PQR at 100 when the option is exercised -10,000.00
Sell 100 shares of PQR at 80 +8,000.00
If you choose to offset the short sale of the put by buying it back
for its exercise value of 20 (the exercise value is 20 because that is
how much the option buyer would get if he or she exercised their
right), the transaction looks like this:
Transaction Result
Buy one PQR January 100 put (price 20) -2,000.00
What about when PQR is at 90? The option buyer could exer-
cise the option, buy the stock in the open market at 90, then sell it
to you for 100. You would have to buy the stock at 100. Like
before, you could then do one of two things: hang on to the stock,
or more likely sell it in the open market, in which PQR shares are
trading at 90.
If you hold the option you sold short until it was exercised, the
transaction would look like this (Remember, you sold the option
for 6. Stock options are worth $100 per point):
Transaction Result
for its exercise value of 10, the transaction looks like this:
Transaction Result
Buy one PQR January 100 put (price 10) -1,000.00
65
How about if PQR is trading at 100? In this case, it really
doesn’t matter. If the option buyer exercised his option to put PQR
in your hands, you’d have to buy it at 100. But you could immedi-
ately sell it for 100. So you wouldn’t have a profit or a loss on the
exercise; it would merely be a breakeven transaction. Thus, there
worthless. In this case, the put option is “at-the-money”. If you
bought back the option, you would pay a commission, but nothing
else. You already received 6 for the option when you sold it short.
Transaction Result
for its exercise value of 0, the transaction looks like this:
Transaction Result
Buy one PQR January 100 put (price 0) 0.00
this:
Transaction Result
PQR January 100 put expires worthless 0.00
How about if PQR was at 110? The put buyer could exercise
his right to put the stock to you at 100. But why would he? No
one would ever willingly buy PQR at 110, only to sell it to you for
100. It automatically locks in a loss of -10 for him. Because he has
the right but is not obliged to do this, he would just do nothing, so
the option is worthless. You sold the option for 6.
If the options expire worthless, the transaction looks like this:
Transaction Result
Finally, what happens if PQR shares go to 120? The put option

buyer’s right is to sell PQR at 100. But PQR shares are trading at
120. So he would have to pay 120, only to sell the shares at 100,
thus locking in a loss of -20. Because selling is his right and not
his obligation, he does nothing. Therefore, the option is worthless.
You received 6 for the option.
The net result is the same as it would be if PQR shares were at

any price above 100. If the options expire worthless, the transac-
tion looks like this:
Transaction Result
67
Here is a profit/loss graph showing the results from selling the
put option on PQR shares:
Figure 9
Profit/(Loss) From Selling a Put Option on PQR
10
5
Profit/(Loss)
-5
-10
-15
80 90 100 110 120
Price of PQR shares (dollars per share)
As with the graph associated with selling a call, this graph is

critical to understanding why the odds are in the put seller’s favor.
Remember, PQR shares are trading at a price of 100. Notice that
the place in which the profit/loss line drops below zero (the
breakeven) is somewhere between 90 and 95. The exact price is 94
– the price of the option when you sold it, minus the strike price.
As long as PQR shares stay above 94, you make money. If PQR
shares are above 94 at expiration, the option seller wins. This is
the same breakeven point as for the put option buyer, only the
option buyer wins if PQR shares are below 94. The option buyer
loses if the shares are above 94 at expiration.
Notice that, if you are bullish, and the stock goes up, you make
money. If you are bullish and the stock stands still, staying at 100,
you still make money. If you are bullish and you are wrong, and
the stock goes down 5% to 95, you still make money. It is the
location of the breakeven which is crucial to explaining why option
selling has such a high probability of success. For the option seller
to lose, PQR shares have to drop more than 6% in a little more
than a month! For most stocks, a drop of that magnitude over such
a short period simply doesn’t happen very often.
That means the odds of PQR shares being above 94 in about 5

weeks are going to be extremely high. Consequently, because there
are three possible ways in which the put option seller makes money
(if PQR rises any amount, if PQR stands still, and if PQR drops by
less than 6% during a five-week period) the option seller’s odds of
success are extremely high. On the other hand, the option buyer’s
odds of success are very low, as he wins in only one scenario, an
extremely large move downward in PQR’s share price.
69
Characteristics of put selling:
1. Small cash outlay - Compared to buying the asset itself, the

margin requirements are much smaller.
2. Slight bullish bias - The underlying asset can stand still or

rise in price for you to make money.
3. Unlimited risk - If you’re wrong and the underlying asset

drops in price, your risk is as large as if you were buying the
asset itself.
4. Limited profit potential - If you’re right about direction, the

profit potential is limited to the premium you receive when
you sell the put option.
5. High probability of profit - Selling a put option automati-

cally puts the odds in your favor. By selling a put, the asset
can rise in price, stand still, or even go down a little, and
you’ll still make money. The only situation in which you
can lose is if the asset goes down in price a lot.
Putting The Pieces Together
Here’s what we’ve learned in this book, so far:
1. A call option gives the option buyer the right to buy an

when an underlying asset rises in price, the call option
holder can buy the asset at a lower price (the predetermined
exercise price established at the time the option was pur-
chased), and immediately sell it at a higher price (the current
open market price which is now higher). This gives the call
owner the ability to buy low and sell high, thus giving him
the ability to earn a profit.
2. A put option gives the option buyer the right to sell an

when an underlying asset drops in price, the put holder can
buy the asset in the open market at the current price (which
is now lower), and immediately sell it at a higher price (the
predetermined exercise price established at the time the
option was purchased). This gives the put owner the ability
to buy low and sell high, thus giving him the ability to earn
a profit.
3. Whenever we buy something, we have to give the seller

money, so money is debited from our account.
4. Whenever we sell, we receive money from a buyer, so

money is credited to our account.
5. After buying something, we can sell it (via an offsetting

transaction) in order to realize a profit or loss.
6. Selling short allows an investor to sell something that he
71
doesn’t already own. By selling an asset now, he hopes that
the price will drop so that he can buy back the asset at a
lower price. This gives the short seller the ability to buy low
and sell high, thus giving him the ability to earn a profit —
only the process is reversed. The short seller sells high first,
and then buys low.
7. The breakeven at expiration of a call option is equal to the

strike price plus the price of the option.
8. The breakeven at expiration of a put option is equal to the

strike price minus the price of the option.
9. Buying an option offers unlimited profit potential with

limited risk.
10. When you buy an option, the odds of success are against
you.
11. When you sell an option, the odds are automatically in your
favor.
12. The seller of an option has potentially unlimited risk.
13. Small cash outlay - Compared to trading the underlying

asset itself, the margin requirements for trading options are
much smaller.
While we’ve taken an important first step in the learning pro-

cess, it is just that – a first step. There are many more aspects to
option trading that one must learn before he or she begins actual
trading. It is beyond the scope of this book to cover them all, but
the next chapter will introduce those to you.
Taking It To The Next Level
What you’ve learned so far is sufficient to get started. There is,

however, additional information that you could gather to improve
your success to the next realm.
For example, we discussed how one could buy a call or a put to

limit risk while allowing for potentially unlimited profits. The bad
news is that the odds are automatically against you. We also
discussed at length how you could sell a call or a put to instantly
put the odds in your favor. But that would leave the investor
exposed to potentially unlimited risk. The good news is that there
are simple solutions.
One method for limiting risk while putting the odds in your
favor is using a contingency order. Using our PQR put sale as an
example, let’s say that if PQR shares (now at 100) dropped to 90,
we would exit the option position in an offsetting transaction. In
that instance, our loss would be limited. The problem is, what if
PQR shares gapped lower, let’s say from 91 to 70. Although this is
extremely unlikely, it is certainly possible. Such an occurrence
would be devastating, and unpreventable.
A better solution would be to use a spread. By combining

option purchases and short sales, you can create an option spread
that both limits risk and puts the probability of profit in your favor.
This is exactly the strategy I used to identify 306 trades during a
three-year period, with only 5 losers. That’s right, using a simple
spread, I discovered 306 limited risk option trades, of which only
5 lost. I didn’t have to worry about any “gap” moves in the under-
lying asset. My system simply looked for limited-risk option
strategies designed to win at least 90% of the time, and that was it.
The strategy is called a credit spread, because when you imple-

ment a credit spread, you are paid at the inception of the trade. A
73
credit spread is a strategy where you sell an option and then simul-
taneously buy an option that is further out-of-the-money. For
example, let’s say you are a stock index trader. The index you are
following is trading at 400. If you were bullish, you would sell a
380 put and buy a 375 put. As long as the index stayed above 380,
you’d win. In other words, if the index went up, you’d make
money. If the index stood still, you’d make money. If the index
dropped by 5%, you’d make money. Only if the index dropped by
more than 5% would you lose. That’s why the odds are so fantastic
– there is only one situation that’s a loser, and even then, the loss is
limited*.
You can also implement a credit spread that has a bearish bias.
In this instance, you might sell the 420 call and simultaneously buy
the 425 call. In this instance, if the index dropped, you’d make
money. If the market stood still, you’d make money. If the index
rallied 5%, you’d still make money. Only if the index rallied by
more than 5% would you lose. As it is with selling a put credit
spread, the odds are fantastic because there is only one situation in
which you lose, and even then, the loss potential is completely
limited.
What’s really special is combining a call credit spread and a put

credit spread. Remember early on we showed that the stock
market rarely trades up or down more than 5% in a month. You
can put that phenomenon to work for you by using options. By
simply selling a call credit spread and a put credit spread at the
same time, you can earn income while the market trades up and
down in a very wide range. History shows us that this type of
strategy should make money at least 90% of the time.
* - As I mentioned earlier, there seems to be an exception to nearly everything in

trading. In this instance, cash-settled, American-style index options can behave
unusually if they go “deep-in-the-money” as expiration approaches. Please be
sure to read Characteristics and Risks of Standardized Options before trading.
Historical analysis shows that in the right market, even better

results can be achieved.
Results like this come from using just one type of spread. There
are virtually an unlimited number of strategies and option combina-
tions you can utilize to make money and control risk.
That leads up to the next aspect of trading, putting the odds in

your favor. Remember in Chapter 3 Putting The Probabilities On
Your Side we showed that you could look at past market activity,
and analyze a market’s tendency to trade within a range, to derive a
probability of profit. There is actually a much better, more reliable
method for calculating probability - one that will let you instantly
spot a trade with a 70%, 80%, even 90% probability of profit.
We introduce this concept in our highly-acclaimed video ODDS

- The Key to 95% Winners. For example, let’s say you were look-
ing at selling the GE September 100 put. We stated that the ODDS
were in your favor when you sold an option. Did you know that
the precise probability of profit for that trade is 64.78%?
Recall that we stated in an earlier chapter, Understanding

Option Terminology, that one of the factors impacting an option’s
value is risk and reward of the underlying asset (i.e., its volatility).
We can use volatility5 to precisely calculate the probability of profit
using advanced algebra and volatility. We can also reverse the
process to come up with a trade based on our desired probability of
profit.
5
Volatility is not that hard to find. If you don’t already have software that
calculates volatility for you, there are a wide array of resources that can provide
that volatility number for you. There are publications that provide volatility data
for stocks and commodities, inexpensive software products, plus, in our video,
we even show you one method for calculating volatility yourself on a hand held
calculator.
75
Using these formulas (which are quite simple once you’ve
gotten the hang of it), one can easily spot trades with a 90% chance
of winning, in just a matter of moments!!
For example, in mid December 1994, the market was tumbling.

Everywhere you looked there was an incredible level of fear.
Mexico had just devalued its peso and was on the verge of col-
lapse. The situation caused a currency crisis in this country and
threatened to take down several big U.S. banks. At the same time,
the country’s largest mutual fund had just revealed it made a
massive $1+ billion accounting goof that resulted in a suspension
of a distribution to shareholders. And at the same time that all this
was going on, the extent of the debacle in derivatives was starting
to be realized by investors worldwide. Nick Leeson at Barings
Bank had been blown out of the water, torpedoing a centuries old
financial institution. Meanwhile, the horror of billion dollar losses
in Orange County was being made public, with certain bankruptcy
an unfortunate consequence.
While all of this was going on Fed Chairman Alan Greenspan

testified before Congress and said that the economy was still very
strong and that wholesale inflation was likely to pass through to the
consumer. Bonds tanked on his comments.
In the middle of all this, I thought gloom was too pervasive. I

wanted to try a bullish trade. But I wanted my trade to have an
overwhelming chance of success. I wanted to find a bullish trade
that had at least a 90% chance of success.
Fortunately, there was (and is) an easy solution. Using math-

ematical equations I developed from the option pricing models,
you can input readily available financial information to instantly
come up with option trades that have a 90% chance of success.
Using these equations, I did just that – I looked for a trade with
a 90% chance of winning. The exact probability of profit of the

trade I found was 87.6% and it earned a double-digit profit in just
seven days!
The final, and perhaps the most important, aspect of all is

determining how much to invest in a trade. If you’ve ever read
about the big money makers, like those in the book Market Wiz-
ards, you know that this factor is the most important part of their
decision-making process.
Amazingly, this happens to be the most overlooked aspect to

trading. Think about it. When you watch an analyst on TV, he tells
you that he likes a stock, but he doesn’t tell you how much to buy.
If you purchase a book that reveals market forecasting methods

designed to pick tops and bottoms accurately, you’re still only part
of the way there. That’s because not every signal is accurate. So if
you invest too much in the wrong signals and not enough in the
right signals, you could still end up losing money! Investing the
same dollar amount in every trade is one solution, but what if that
dollar amount is the wrong amount?
Unfortunately, software trading systems fail miserably when it

comes to this. You see, when you use “system” software, it tells
you when to buy and sell. But does it tell you how many contracts
to buy? No way, because it can’t!
Given this information, if determining the right amount to

invest is the single most crucial factor in trading, and there are no
option trading sources out there that can help with this critical
success factor, is it any wonder that there are so few millionaire
option traders?!
Again, there are solutions, even to this puzzle. There is an

interesting, yet simple, formula that uses risk and reward analysis,
77
along with probability of profit, to tell you how much of your
portfolio to invest in a trade. The answer to the formula is the
precise portfolio allocation that will literally let you maximize your
profit potential while minimizing your risk. The key element in
this is, of course probability, and that’s where probability analysis
can be vital.
Putting all of this together – risk, reward and probability –

won’t be super easy, but it will be well worth it. That’s because
once you’ve mastered these techniques (which will come naturally
as you become more familiar with options) you will be able to
instantly spot a limited risk, high probability option trade, and
invest the precise amount so that your profits are maximized and
your risk is completely limited and in control.
In other words, once you understand how to calculate risk,

reward (which you learned in this book) and probability, you’ll be
able to spot a trade that has an almost certain chance at being
correct. The trade will have completely limited risk. And you’ll be
able to know precisely how much to invest so that your reward
potential is at the highest level possible, while maintaining a safe
cushion. Best of all, once you are familiar with this process, it
will become totally automatic, so that it will take you only 30
seconds.

Don Fishback

HOW TO WIN 80% OF YOUR
TRADES OR BETTER FOR OVER
50 60 YEARS

AND COUNTING

Special Supplement For

ODDS ADVANTAGE
Copyright © Fishback Management & Research, Inc.
How to Win 80% of Your Trades Or Better For Over 50 60 Years and Counting

It is a well-known fact of the markets that prices tend to trade within ranges most of the
time. They tend to move in powerful trends infrequently. The stock market during a
recent month period is a perfect example. From August expiration 2009 to July
expiration 2011, the S&P 500 was up more than 28%. But big moves were few and far
between. There were only two months where the market moved more 5%: May and
August 2010. During the 21 other months, the gains and losses were relatively modest.
That is to say, 91.3% of the time, the market was treading water. It was volatile only
8.7% of the time. This is not uncommon. In fact it is very common for markets to
move sideways. Markets spend little time in pronounced uptrends or downtrends.
What this means to the option trader is crucial. If we can construct an option strategy
that makes money in a trendless market, we can make money a vast majority of the
time. Is there such a strategy? Of course there is. That’s the beauty of options: their
flexibility.
The easiest solution is to sell an out-of-the-money call and simultaneously sell an out-
of-the-money put. Out-of-the-money means that the option has no exercise value.
Therefore, an out-of-the-money call is an option whose strike price is above the current
market price. An out-of-the-money put is an option whose strike price is below the
current market price. If the market were to remain range-bound and trendless, as it does
most of the time, you’d keep the entire proceeds you received from the sale of the
options.
The key questions we have to answer are: how do we define range-bound and how
frequently are the markets bound with the defined range? Over the past 50 60 years,
the market has had a tendency to trade between +5% and -5% of the current
market price about 80% of the time.
As noted, one way to take advantage of that is to sell an out-of-the-money call. The call
we want to sell is one that would expire worthless as long as the market did not go up
by more than the +5%. We also want to sell an out-of- the-money put that would expire
worthless as long as the market did not go down by more than the -5%. Let’s look at
the S&P 100 Index, the OEX, as an example. The S&P 100 is an index that very
closely correlates the behavior of the S&P 500. The options are worth $100 per point.
[It’s important to note that you can use this methodology on any broad-based equity
index that is highly correlated to the S&P 500. While this example uses the OEX,
individuals are likely to find that trading options on index-based ETFs are preferable.
We tend to use the SPY more than any other index ETF option.]
Let’s say that the S&P 100 is at 655.48 on March 15 (one month prior to April option
1 | P a g e


expiration), 5% above is 688.25, 5% below is 622.71. Therefore, if we simply sell the
April 690 call (690 is the closest strike price to 688.25), we will have an option trade
that makes money if the market stays in the + or - 5% range. If we sell the April 625
put (625 is the closest strike price to 622.71), we will have another option trade that
makes money if the market stays in the +5% or -5% range. If we do both, then we
automatically will have an option strategy designed to make money 80% of the time.
Let’s say that the price of the April 690 call was 2 ($200.00); the price of the April 625
put was 3.50 ($350).
The following is a profit/loss graph (at expiration) from selling the April 690 call for 2.
2 | P a g e


Below is a profit/loss graph from selling the April 625 put for 3.50.
When you simultaneously sell to open an out-of-the-money call and put on the same
asset, with the same expiration date, you are said to be short a strangle. Conversely,
when you simultaneously buy to open an out-of-the-money call and put on the same
asset, with the same expiration date, you are said to be long a strangle.
Based on our assumed option prices, if we just sold one call and one put, we would
have a strategy that has a profit potential of $550 (Remember, when we sell an option,
the proceeds are paid to us) and a probability of profit of about 80%. That is, if the
pattern over the past 50 60 years holds true, there is about an 80% chance that the
market will stay between 690 and 625 and that the options will expire worthless (i.e.,
our short strangle will hit its target profit).
3 | P a g e


Here is the profit/loss graph for the option combination: the short April 625 put, short
April 690 call short strangle with a total credit of 5.50
Notice that what you’ve done is change the way you make money. You make money
by something not happening. What you’ve essentially done when you’ve written a
strangle is enter the insurance business; you’ve just written an insurance policy.
Insurance companies make money when something does not happen. For instance,
auto insurance companies make money when you do not have a wreck. In the
insurance business, the possibility of having to pay a claim is remote. But if you do
have to pay a claim, it could be a whopper.
The same could be said of this strangle sale. The probability of profit is 80%. The
probability of loss is 20%. So the odds are in the trader’s favor. But the loss is
potentially unlimited!
In the instance of this particular short strangle, you can see that if the market were to
suddenly make a large move in one direction or the other, the losses could be
devastating, as they were in September and October 2008, when the S&P 500 dropped
-25.06% and -14.94% respectively!
This unlimited risk is why many insurance companies, in order to control risk, utilize
what’s called reinsurance. They take some of the premium they collect and use those
proceeds to buy insurance of their own. That is, they forego some profits in order to put
a cap on the size of the losses that could occur if the improbable happens.
4 | P a g e


We’re going to do the same thing that the prudent insurance company would do. And
it’s going to shock you how easy it is to do it. The strategy even has a name. The tool
we’re going to use that duplicates this insurance/reinsurance business model is called a
credit spread. We’re going to collect a premium, and then use a portion of the premium
we’ve collected to cap our risk.
Let’s look at two examples. In the first example, let’s assume that it is May option
expiration. We want to sell a strangle that has an 80% probability of profit. The OEX is
at 671.76. We want to sell a call that is 5% above the current market price (705.35) and
a put that is 5% below the current price (638.17). The call we want to sell is the 705
call, priced at 1.75 ($175). The put we want to sell is the 640, priced at 2, ($200). Our
total credit is 3.75 ($375 per spread). Below is a graph of the short strangle.
Now let’s look at the trade using credit spreads. It is May option expiration; we are
looking for a trade with an 80% probability of profit. We want to sell a call that is 5%
above the current market price (with the OEX at 671.76, 5% above is 705.35) and
simultaneously buy a call one strike price further out-of-the-money. Also, at the same
time that we want to sell a put that is 5% below the current price (638.17), we want to
buy one put one strike price further out-of-the-money. The call we want to sell is the
705 call priced at 1.75 ($175). The call we want to buy is the 710, priced at 1.25
($125). The put we want to sell is the 640 priced at 2 ($200). The put we want to buy is
the 635 priced at 1.25 ($125).
We’ve already looked at the options we’d be selling as part of the credit spread
combination. Now let’s look at the options we’d be purchasing as part of the total
transaction. As noted, we’re buying the 710 call and buying the 635 put for a total of
5 | P a g e


2.50 ($250). Remember, when you buy an out-of-the-money call and put at the same
time, you are long a strangle.
In the credit spread strategy, we are going to combine the long strangle with the short
strangle. We are collecting 3.75 ($375) when we sell the strangle. Next, we’re going to
turn this position into two credit spreads. We’re going to take a portion of those funds
we’ve collected and buy a strangle, the 710 call and the 635 put. Both options are one
strike price further out-of-the-money than their put and call counterparts in the short
strangle. We will be paying out 2.50 ($250) for the long strangle. The net credit, for the
entire strategy is 1.25 ($125)—definitely smaller than $375. The key, however, is that
our risk is limited to only $375. That’s because the maximum risk is equal to the
difference between the strike prices, minus the net credit received.
6 | P a g e


Here is a graph of the combined credit spreads:
Here’s why credit spreads are preferable for the risk-averse investor. Note from the
graph on page 5, if the OEX were to go down to 632.5, the loss from selling the
strangle would be $375. On the other hand, the loss from selling the credit spread
would be only $375. If the market kept dropping, and the OEX fell to 610, the loss
from selling the strangle would have been $2,625.00, but the loss from the credit
spread would have been only $375—a dramatic improvement. If you’ve implemented
five strangles, your losses exceed $13,000.00. If you’ve implemented five credit
spreads, your maximum losses are $1,875.
That is one thing you have to be aware of when evaluating credit spreads is they tend to
look good only when you are comparing it to the catastrophically improbable.
In other words, if the probable happens, taking on potentially unlimited risk via a short
strangle looks great... in hindsight. But if the improbable occurs, you’re out of
business.
With credit spreads, the profits are not as great. But if the improbable does happen,
you’re not out of business. You won’t win! But the loss won’t be so devastating that it
does to your account what Hurricane Andrew did to some insurance companies—wipe
them out. You’ll be around to trade another day.
By the way, if anyone needs evidence of exactly what we’re talking about in this
report, strangle selling was the type of trading that one fellow did down in Singapore.
He was extremely successful at it for a couple of years. He made his company so much
7 | P a g e


money that they promoted him repeatedly until he was in charge of trading and
balancing the books. Then, all of a sudden, the strategy didn’t work so well. In just a
few short weeks, the tens of millions of dollars that he had accumulated in profits
disappeared.
Unfortunately for the firm, the losses didn’t stop there. Because the positions had
unlimited risk, and the trader did nothing to stop the losses once they mounted up, it
turned into a catastrophe. The trader’s losses caused the collapse of the firm he worked
for—centuries-old Barings Bank. It happened again in October and December 1997
during the Asian financial crisis, in August and September 1998, and October and
November 2008..
In each of the credit spread examples shown earlier, we talked about finding trades
based on probability of profit. We simply counted how many times the market made a
move greater than 5% in a month. But what if you want to implement a trade that lasts
a week, 21 days, or even two months? Also, what if you wanted a different probability
number, say 90%, instead of 80%.
Fortunately, there is an answer—a more scientific approach. One that uses statistics
and probability to spot high-probability winners without guessing market direction.
Some of you may have heard of it. I invented it, and revealed it to the trading public in
1994. It is called ODDS, which stands for Options and Derivatives Decision Support.
Using the ODDS methodology, you simply need to input four easy-to-derive numbers
into a formula, and you’ll be given the boundaries of the upper and lower range. Then
you’ll be able to set up your own option trades that can achieve a winning percentage
that is as high or as low as you want.
This is precisely the method taught in ODDS Advantage, and the kind of trade that is
provided each week in the Options Wizardry Profit Alert that is a part of this amazing
offer.
I encourage you to give it a try, when ODDS Advantage is available for purchase.
8 | P a g e

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Don Fishback

OPTIONS FOR BEGINNERS

© Copyright 2006, Donald M. Fishback, Jr.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

This publication is designed to provide authoritative, accurate information in

You Can Beat The Market, If You Control The Rules

It’s shocking but true. Making money trading can be incredibly

While the concept is simple, the implementation has con-

This should not come as a major surprise. One look at the

As if that 20% to 30% figure wasn’t bad enough, unfortunately,

With so many people, many of them with millions of dollars in

So how is it, if buying low and selling high is so simple to

The key is that we’re going to CHANGE THE RULES! No

Instead, this book will introduce you to a way to make money

You’ve probably heard of options. They’ve been traded on

In some cases, people have made millions using options. Top

At the other extreme, however, it is a fact that many people have

Another common practice on the path to financial ruin is repeti-

Both of these latter scenarios are, unfortunately, far more com-

The dismal performance of individuals trading options should

First, the leverage available with options is enormous. The

Also, buyers of options have limited risk. This is one of the

And sellers of options automatically put the probability of profit

Think of the following scenario. The stock market has just

Let’s look at another scenario. During a recent two-year period,

was at 1000 at the beginning of the month, in order for it to move

That final figure is critical. Because it means, if we can find a

By utilizing a strategy of this sort, we’ve changed the rules of

This is how we change the rules. We don’t care if the market

To implement a strategy that profits from market magnitude

What is an option? Whether it is in the financial world or any

In the financial world options give the owner of the option

In this introductory section, we’re going to make extensive use

The reason the owner requires compensation is because he is

Let’s say that there is a real estate bonanza, and a highway

Option Value vs. Property Value

$200,000 As you can see,

Let’s now take a look at what happens if things don’t go pre-

This is a classic example of how options give the option buyer

You might think, based on the following examples, that option

For example, how often is a piece of property you buy suddenly

Option Profit/Loss vs. Property Value

$5,000 Note that the range

Understanding Option Terminology

The best way to understand option market jargon is to look at

1. The duration of the option.

2. The agreed upon price at which the option can be exercised

3. The current value of the asset.

4. The cost of money (i.e., interest rates).

5. The risk potential and the reward potential of the asset.

Let’s look at each one of these factors individually.

The duration of the option is a factor for logical reasons. If you

The price at which an option can be exercised is a factor for the

Let’s assume that the property increased in value to $150,000.

which the option can be exercised.

The current value of the asset is an obvious factor, and here’s

On the other hand, if the property was worth $80,000 to start,

The cost of money, while esoteric, is not difficult to understand.

Also, from a different point of view, options allow you to