Research Methodology: Back to Basics

By
Dr. Shaukat Ali1
Visiting Professor in Marketing
MBA Program
Czech Management Center
Celakovice, Czech Republic
E-mail : shaukata@hotmail.com

 Abstract
 Introduction
 The Research Process
 Research methods
 Research design
 Qualitative and Quantitative Methodologies
o Introduction
o Qualitative research
o Quantitative research
o Differences between qualitative and quantitative methods
 Data collection and sources
 Concluding comments

Abstract

Research is the lifeblood of not only any individual academic but any university worthy
of the name, yet most of us face a constant battle between teaching, administrative and
research commitments. Many, if not most academics, while not openly research fanatics,
are, in my opinion latent researchers, who, given the opportunity, resources and time,
would welcome the opportunity to contribute to human knowledge. Often academics not
versed in the fundamentals of research ask basic questions such as how does one begin
research, what types of research are there, what are the pitfalls, how can we collect data,
how can we analyse it. To address these issues, this article, the first of a trilogy, goes
back to the fundamental issues involved in research methodology.

Introduction

Errors, like straws,

upon the surface flow;
he who would search for pearls must dive below.

Dryden, "All for Love"

While some universities position themselves as "teaching" institutions, this is a fairly

recent phenomenon. Traditionally and indeed historically, research has been the raison de
etre of universities, with teaching either designated as a necessary evil, or indeed left to
other, more humble institutions2. While an exploration of the reasons for this shift in
focus and emphasis is outside the scope of this paper, one cannot help but be aware of
the enthusiasm that academics in "teaching" institutions have for research. Yet many, if
not most, unless they have followed a traditional "research" Ph.D. program such as those
offered in Europe and in some other Anglophile countries, are bewildered by the research
process. Often they have not been exposed to the basic fundamental concepts, let alone
the rigors of research. Largely as a result of the advent of the Ph.D. by "course work" in
America, a hideous invention, and the even more recent, but far more sinister "DBA",
one sees academics, particularly in the business and management field, often with
Ph.D.'s, who are struggling to ask even the basic research questions.

To address some of the issues, this article describes how a research project is conceived,
planned and implemented, furthermore it examines important issues in research
methodology. It begins by examining the research process, focusing on the role of theory
in business research, how the broad subject area and topic may be chosen. It goes on to
deal with the research design and problems related to the choice of design. It looks at
types of research methods, the methodological issues surrounding exploratory,
descriptive and casual research. It reviews and critically examines the justification
surrounding the use of qualitative, and quantitative approaches. Subsequent articles
examine problems associated with measurement and operationalisation of research
findings and data, the design of the questionnaire, the choice and source of the sample,
and the issue of non-response.

The third article in particular concludes the research methodology trilogy by reviewing
the subject of classification, i.e. the statistical techniques that will be used. Classification
being a fundamental method of summarising large amounts of data, is often overlooked
in discussions on research methodology. Although a general discussion of statistical
techniques which can be used to classify subjects will be given, the emphasis will be on
Factor Analysis. Factor Analysis is chosen not only because it is widely used in many
disciplines, but also, because clustering techniques-of which Factor Analysis is one form
- are misunderstood, often misused, and invariably criticised as a subjective set of
procedures which are of limited practical usefulness. For comparative purposes, other
commonly used classification techniques are also briefly described. These series of
articles continuously move from, and between, the conceptual and the practical,
examining, exploring, explaining, commenting, observing and where necessary,
justifying every step of the research project from inception to conclusion.
The Research Process

Those who wish to succeed must ask the right preliminary questions.
Aristotle, Metaphysics II

Choosing the appropriate research methodology and formulating the research questions
is not an easy and clear cut process as it first may appear so. Numerous idealised,
theoretical approaches have been suggested but as Bechhofer, (1974, p.73) commented:

"........the research process is not a clear-cut sequence of procedures following a neat

pattern but a messy interaction between the conceptual and empirical world, deduction
and induction occurring at the same time"

Morgan, (1983, p.11) was:

".......struck by the realisation that the conduct of empirical research was much more
problematic than as presented in textbooks and that the results of such reports must be
less solid than appeared from a reading of scientific reports".

Pettigrew (1985, P.222) described the research process as best:

".......characterised in the language of muddling through, incrementalism, and political

process than as rational, foresightful, goal-directed activity".

Echoing the above sentiments, Kulka (1982), suggests that the choice and formulation of
research problems are more often than not, largely influenced by factors such as
availability of funds and ease of access to data, rather than philosophical considerations.
The problem of the research process is succinctly presented by (Becker, 1965, p.602-3):

".......As every researcher knows there is more to doing research than is dreamt of in
philosophies of science, and texts in methodology offer answers to only a fraction of the
problems one encounters. The best laid research plans run up against unforeseen
contingencies in the collection and analysis of data; the data one collects may prove to
have little to do with the hypothesis one sets out to test; unexpected findings inspire new
ideas. No matter how carefully one plans in advance, research is designed in the course
of its execution. The finished monograph is the result of hundreds of decisions, large and
small, made while the research is under way and our standard texts do not give us
procedures and techniques for making those decisions. It is possible, after all, to reflect
on one's difficulties and inspirations and see how they could be handled more rationally
the next time around. In short one can be methodological about matters that earlier had
been left to chance and improvisation and thus cut down the area of guesswork.
Research methods

Having chosen the broad area of study, selected a topic, and formulated broad research
questions, deciding the appropriate approach as suggested by Gill and Johnson (1991)
needs to be addressed. In this phase much can be learned from the role of theory in
research methods. Gill and Johnson (1991) use ideas of Kolb et al (1979) to explain the
theoretical basis of research as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1 Kolb's experiential learning cycle

Source : Gill and Johnson (1991)

Gill and Johnson (1991) suggest that Kolb's processes in figure 1 should be seen as
attempts at constructing and evaluating explanatory statements, or theories, about what is
happening around us and conclude that these enable us to differentiate between research
methods that are deductive (based on logic) and those that are inductive (based on
empirical evidence).

Ghauri et al (1995) suggest that through induction, general conclusions can be drawn
from empirical observations, implying that induction relates to the right hand side of
Kolb's learning cycle in figure 1.

Induction for Gill and Johnson (1991) is learning by reflecting upon certain previous
experiences and through the formulations of abstract concepts, theories and
generalisations that explain past, and predict future, experience.

Deductive research methods on the other hand require the development of a conceptual
and theoretical structure prior to its testing through empirical observation, corresponding
therefore to the left hand side of Kolb's experiential learning cycle in figure 1. Here the
researcher begins with abstract conceptualisation, proceeding to testing through the
application of theory so as to create new experiences or observations (Gill and Johnson,
1991).

Ghauri et al (1995) building on the work by Chalmers (1982) summarise the difference
between induction and deduction by asserting that in induction, facts acquired through
observation lead to theories and hypotheses, while in the case of deduction the
hypotheses are either accepted or rejected, thereby facilitating explanation or prediction.
This is shown in figure 2.

Figure 2 Induction and deduction (source : Chalmers, 1982), in Ghauri et al , 1995

In deciding upon a methodology for a particular piece of research, potential researchers

can find great empathy with the previously stated views of Bechhofer, (1994). The
boundary between inductive and deductive approaches is often blurred by the nature of
the study. Initially, the inductive approach may appear to be the most appropriate, i.e.
specifically, observe the patterns, outcomes and behaviours, and draw conclusion from
the empirical data. However, sometimes the researcher is very much aware of the wider
contextual framework surrounding his topic. Bearing in mind that initial thoughts for a
project often germinate for months, if not years, the researcher needs to continuously
review and assess the myriad opportunities and perils presented by the research
opportunity. Moreover, the phenomenon often demands new data, insight, frameworks
and grounded experience from which not only to draw broad conclusions and suggest
policy recommendations, but also, perhaps, suggest and offer new approaches to
examining commonly accepted viewpoints. This often means that the research project
offers opportunities to contribute towards a grounded understanding of a broader trend.

In view of the above, whilst the main thrust of a research project may be inductive, the
interaction between the conceptual and empirical aspects of the subject matter may
implicitly imply a deductive element inherent throughout the research.

Research design

The research design, in the view of Ghauri et al (1995), is the overall plan for connecting
the conceptual research problems to the pertinent (and achievable) empirical research.
They go on to comment that since empirical research is undertaken to answer research
questions, the appropriate research design needs to be effective in producing the required
answers within the constraints placed on the researcher. Furthermore, they argue, since
the choice of research design influences subsequent research activities, for example, what
and how, data is to be collected, it is essential that the research problem is understood if
errors and/or irrelevant design choices are to be avoided.

Research can be divided into three main categories: exploratory, descriptive and causal.
Each has its advantages and disadvantages, each has its optimal use in certain types of
situation. As the spectrum of research category is traversed from exploratory, through
descriptive, to causal, there tends to be an increasing degree of formality, and a
decreasing degree of flexibility, in the way in which the research can be carried out
(Webb, 1992).

Ghauri et al (1995), relate research design and the three categories, in terms of the
problem structure as shown in figure 3.

Figure 3 Research Design

Exploratory research, it is said (Philips and Pugh, 1987; Webb, 1992; Ghauri et al; 1995)
is most useful in the preliminary stages of a research project when the levels of
uncertainty and of general ignorance of the subject in question are at their highest, when
the problem is not very well understood and unstructured in Ghauri et al's framework.
Such research is characterised by a high degree of flexibility; and a lack of formal
structure. The flexibility arises from a desire to learn from the experience of the
investigation and from the need to avoid being blinkered by any preconceived notions
(Webb, 1992).

The main aim of exploratory research is to uncover the boundaries of the environment in
which the problems, opportunities or situations of interest are likely to reside and to
uncover the salient variables that may be found there and which are relevant to the
research project (Webb, 1992).

If the primary aim of exploratory research, as mentioned previously, is to discover the

important variables in a given situation, then the aim of descriptive research is to provide
an accurate and valid representation of those variables; where exploratory research
discovers something of interest and gives directions, descriptive research encapsulates it.
Importantly, descriptive research does not attempt to show or establish any causal links
between variables, it merely describes them (Webb, 1992). In causal research, the
problem under investigation is structured; the aim being to establish a "cause and effect"
relationship between one or more variable with other variables.

The methodological approach selected for any research, therefore, needs to be relevant to
the specific demands and constraints of the subject and elicit the optimum data and
insight from the available sources. Often, given the substantial volume of work, both
theoretical and empirical, on a particular topic, the research can appear to suggest a
descriptive approach, however, the investigation could equally be pursued via an
exploratory approach, with the main priority being to plot and depict phenomenon from
grounded, empirical observation. From a methodological point of view it is feasible to
use a combination of exploratory and descriptive research so that the objectives of the
research can be fulfilled. Such a multi-facet approach can, in many cases, transform a
routine piece of research into an outstanding one.

Qualitative and Quantitative Methodologies

Introduction

An important issue following on from above is what methodology to use. As Adler et al.
(1989) point out: "choosing a methodology determines what we can study as well as the
range of possible results and conclusions" (p.61). Often the choice is whether to use a
qualitative, quantitative or even an ethnographic approach to obtain data. Depending on
the "freshness" of the subject matter and constraints faced by the researcher-both in terms
of time and resources-the ethnographic approach can be very useful. However, given that
few researchers are blessed with ample funding and research time, a realistic (and by
necessity practical) choice therefore is between quantitative or qualitative. Fortunately,
the choice does not have to exclude one or the other. Before reviewing the theoretical
basis for using one or even both methodologies it is helpful to set out a working
definition of what is meant by qualitative and quantitative research.

Qualitative research

Different authors use different terms to define qualitative research. Clark (1991) uses the
term "descriptive study"; Schatzman and Strauss (1973) "field study"; Jorgensen (1989)
"participant observation"; Yin (1984) "case study"; Kidder (1981) "naturalistic research".
Wright (1995) describes qualitative research to mean any research where number
counting and statistical techniques are not the central issues, where an attempt is made to
get close to the collection of data in their natural setting. She includes an array of
methods which include participant observation and case studies, content analysis, formal
and informal interviewing, videotaping, unobtrusive measures, archival data surveys,
frame analysis, issue-area analysis, ethnomethodology, and discourse analysis.

Wright (1995) suggests that because qualitative research emphasis's comprehensive,

interdependent, holistic structures that are dynamic and predictive, it can reconcile
contradictory findings of individual studies because the role of any given variable is seen
as the outcome of different combinations of variables, and what is important is the
interaction, a view shared by Kleiner and Okeke, 1991. A distinguishing feature of much
qualitative research is that it usually utilises multiple sources of data, rather than one
(Van Maanen et al. 1982).

In the area of international management, for example, many authors (Ricks, 1993; Miller
1993; Nasif et al. 1991; Black and Mendenhall (1991); Sekaran 1983; Adler 1984; Gill
and Johnson, 1991; Ghauri et al. 1995) argue that international management is still a
field characterised by a lack of theoretical understanding, suggesting this as one of the
strongest reasons for advocating the importance of qualitative research in the field, given
it is the most vigorous way of generating theory (Wright, 1995). Glaser and Strauss
(1967), by outlining precisely the domains of theory generation and theory verification,
give a concise explanation for the difference between verification of the theory, to which
rigorous quantitative methods are more appropriate, and the important prior step of
generating theory, to which qualitative methods are more germane.

In addition to the theoretical reasons for using qualitative research, there are several
practical reasons. International management involves "messy" problems and complex
issues. Qualitative research gives the researcher more flexibility, allows one to take
advantage of the richness of data and thus to obtain more meaningful results. It affords
the opportunity to examine the process of "why" and "how", not just "what"; to explore
the complex, interdependent issues that constitute international management. The "what"
are the factor that need to considered; the "how" refers to how they are related; and the
"why" are the underlying dynamics that justify the selection of those factors and their
relationship (Wright, 1995).

Further theoretical conceptuali- sation of qualitative methods is given by Weick, 1989;

Hofstade and Bond, 1988; Yeh, 1989; Holbrook, 1981, Boyacigiller and Adler, 1994;
Parkhe, 1993; Brislin, 1976; Triandis, 1976; Adler et al. 1989; Van Maan et al. 1982;
Kleiner and Okeke, 1991; Ghauri et al. 1995).

Quantitative research

Quantitative research methods entail the use of systematic and sophisticated procedures
to test, prove and verify hypotheses (Glaser and Strauss, 1968). As Van Maanen (1983)
comments, the main focus in quantitative research is on matters pertaining to structural
rather than on more complex issues of the process. Quantitative methodology, it is
suggested, is applicable where the aim of the research is to ascertain how many, what and
where. In seeking such answers, a quantitative approach relies on the use of
predetermined response categories by means of standardised data collection instruments
such as mail survey, or structured or semi-structured interviews so as to enable statistical
techniques to be used to assist in the interpretation of data (Demirbag, 1994). The
standardised measurement and sampling procedures are intended to enhance the
reliability of observation, facilitate replication studies, and allow generalisation to a
larger population (McClintock et al. 1983).

Differences between qualitative and quantitative methods

The process of data collection, analysis and theory generation are much more closely
linked in qualitative than in quantitative research (Glaser and Strauss 1967; Jorgensen
1989). As Glaser and Strauss (1967, p.39) state:

".....When he begins to hypothesize with the explicit purpose of generating theory, the
researcher is no longer a passive receiver of impressions but is drawn naturally into
actively generating and verifying his hypotheses through comparisons of groups.
Characteristically, in this kind of joint data collection and analysis, multiple hypotheses
are pursued simultaneously".

In comparing qualitative and quantitative methods, Wright (1995) argues that because
quantitative methods by themselves are not sufficient, what is required is the capability
to study the non-linear, interactive, interdependent phenomena that makes up the field of
international management. She suggest that qualitative methods provide such capability
and warns that because of the dangers of hypothesising in advance of data in such
unknown waters, we also need the inductive approach that is more common to the
qualitative methods.

In the social sciences, certain disciplines have been more open to qualitative methods
than others. Sociology and anthropology have traditionally relied to a greater extent on
the qualitative methods, while psychology and economics have adhered more rigidly to
the more quantitative approach. In management, the broad trend has been to follow a
quantitative approach, although work by Brislin (1976); Frijda and Jahoda (1966); and
Chapman (1993) stress the need and value of qualitative and more interdisciplinary
methods, advocating pursuing the anthropological literature, which tends to be based on
ethnographic research. Wright (1995) suggests that the prennial debate about the merits
of quantitative versus qualitative research, and rigor versus relevance, with the
assumption that quantitative is the more rigorous, is an example of a false dichotomy and
one which is not particularly helpful. She goes on to say that one method is not a priori
better than the other, both have merits and weaknesses. This view is echoed by Downey
and Ireland(1983): who state:

".....The most relevant of the presuppositions that determine one's research perspective is
that methodological issues must always be answered within the context of a particular
research setting. That is to say, methodologies are neither appropriate nor inappropriate
until they are applied to a specific problem.

In management research generally and perhaps more so in international management,

there is a widespread view that the process of asking the right questions has only recently
begun, and by only taking a straight-jacketed approach at what is measured, much that is
of importance may be missed out (Wright, 1995). Hayek(1978), in his Nobel Memorial
Lecture commented that:

"......Unlike the position that exists in the physical sciences, in economics and other
disciplines that deal with essentially complex phenomena, the aspects of the events to be
accounted for about which one can get quantitative data are necessarily limited and may
not include the important ones."

In the light of the above comments, Wright(1995) suggests a more helpful question to
ask would be how to use quantitative and qualitative methods together. Research
methodologists such as Triandis (1976); Brewer and Hunter 1989; McGrath et al. 1982)
have for many years advocated triangulation-using more than one method in conducting
a research study to gather more reliable results. By combining qualitative research
techniques to the researcher's arsenal of quantitative techniques, one is guarded against
the danger of research driving us in the direction of "knowing more and more about less
and less" (Wright, 1995).

Wright(1995) further comments that the larger questions and complex issues that are the
important areas of inquiry in international management are not always amenable to neat
statistical analysis. Worse, trying to force the fit leads to biased results-biases even more
dangerous for not being recognised. It is, of course, wise to avoid the other extreme of
suggesting that that which can be measured should be disregarded. Measurement can add
to our sum total of knowledge, particularly when married to more qualitative methods.

In choosing the appropriate methodology, Holbrook(1981) castigates researchers for

being ruled by their methodology, while Schatzman and Strauss(1973) comment that
researchers-in being driven by their methodology- may end up "searching for problems
that are amenable to favoured research procedures". Wright(1995) suggests that such
a situation not only becomes a case of the tail wagging the dog, but fertile ground for
being unequipped to see anything beyond the bounds of those procedures. Furthermore,
Boyacigiller and Adler (1994) note the lack of fit between much of the research in social
science, with its dependence on rigorous quantitative methods and internal validity, with
the nature of international studies that is dependent on context, requiring high levels of
external validity. They further comment: ".....research methods are driving knowledge
production rather than the problems and needs of managers, policy makers, and
students" (p.270). This view is shared by Parkhe(1993) with regard to international joint
ventures. He shows in his study of the international joint venture (IJV) literature, that
many studies focus on factors (e.g., partner selection characteristics, motives,
performance) but few show any linking mechanisms between them. He diagrams a "soft"
core of concepts consisting of reciprocity, trust, opportunism, and forbearance but
complains that the "hard" data sources of large sample multivariate statistical studies
favoured by IJV researchers are unlikely to capture such "soft" concepts-the "why" does
not appear at all.

The previous sections have attempted to outline theoretical and practical basis for using
qualitative and quantitative methods of conducting research. Theoretically, qualitative
research allows us to generate better, more durable theories because it is induced from
actual data. It allows us to address the broader, more complex issues that are the
important areas of consideration in international management. Practically it gives us
flexibility and a way to address the "how" and "why" as well as the "what" questions. It
helps us to avoid the cultural biases and instrumentation blinkering to which more
quantitative methods are prone (Wright, 1995).

Qualitative research is not, however, a panacea. It needs to be used judiciously and in

conjunction with quantitative methods in multi-method fashion. If international
management research is viewed on a continuum, as shown in figure 4, the vast majority
of the research conducted would benefit from a triangulation of both types of methods.
At either end of the continuum, (Wright, 1995) suggests that qualitative methods have
the greater strengths in the area of theory generation, while quantitative methods are most
useful for testing the generalisability of particular factors.

Figure 4 Comparison of methods in international management research

Quantitative Methods Qualitative Methods
 Independence  Interdependence
 Linear  Linear and non-linear
 Cumulative, additive  Multiplicative, interactive
 Deriving realities from measures of other  Interdependent measures of the
realities various realities
 Deductive  Inductive
Source: Wright, 1995 (Adapted from Kleiner and Okeke 1991) 
 Emphasis on testing and verification  Emphasis on understanding
 Focus on facts and/or reasons of social  Focus on understanding from
events informant's point of view
 Logical and critical approach  Interpretation and rational approach
 Controlled measurement  Observation and measurements in
natural settings
 Objective `outsider view� distant from  Subjective `insider view� and
date closeness to data
 Hypothetical/deductive-focus on  Explorative orientation
hypothesis testing
 Result orientated  Process orientated
 Particularistic and analytical  Holistic perspective
 Generalisation by population membership  Generalisation by comparison of
properties and contexts of individual
organisms
Source: Ghauri et al., 1995 (Adapted from Reichardt and Cook, 1979)
 Figure 5 Appropriate use of qualitative and quantitative methods in international
management research. Source : Wright (1995)

Wright (1995) goes on to argue forcefully that by combining qualitative methods to

quantitative methods (Fig 5), the resulting research will be much more meaningful and
will have a greater probability of being valid, of actually measuring what it purports to
measure. Researchers then will have less tendency to be slaves to their methodology.
They will be less concerned with whether their techniques are "scientific" and more with
whether specific operations might lead to the most meaningful information (Schatzman
and Strauss, 1973). Then the field of international management will progress, and we
will avoid the trap that Weick (1989, p.516) describes of "theorists often writing trivial
theories because their process of theory construction is hemmed in by methodological
strictures that favour validation rather than usefulness."

Data collection and sources

Having decided from both a theoretical and practical point of view that in order to find
answers to the research questions, a quantitative approach would be used, with
qualitative insights also used whenever possible, the next step is to determine the optimal
method to achieve this. Given the nature of the topic and its purpose, primary data often
needs to be collected that is relevant to the study and research problem. Primary data can
be collected by several means. Ghauri et al. (1995) provide a useful summary of primary
data sources as shown in figure 6.

Figure 6 Sources of Primary data (source : Ghauri et al., 1995)

Sometimes, it is quite obvious that for the purposes of a particular research, data
collection by observation is inappropriate and that the survey method needs to be
employed. Gill and Johnson (1991) argue that in terms of a methodological continuum,
survey research occupies a variable, intermediate position somewhere between
ethnography and experimental research. For Ghauri et al. (1995), whether surveys are to
be descriptive and/or analytical is largely determined by the purpose of the study and
they suggest that different surveys lead to different problems and issues, requiring
distinct types of planning and handling. Gill and Johnson (1991) provide a useful format
for planning a survey as shown in figure 7. Such a format can be helpful in
conceptualising and structuring the research problem.

Using the format in figure 7, the research problem needs to be structured, a literature
review carried out to determine what questions to ask, the extent and availability of
resources have to be quantified, and problems of accessibility assessed. In deciding
whether to conduct interviews (face to face or by telephone)-with the associated problem
of interviewer bias (Boyd and Westfall, 1970), or use a mail survey-at the risk of high
rate of "non-response" (Scott, 1961) - the researcher is often very much influenced by
issues such as sample size, location, availability of funds, complexity of information
required, constraints of time and the logistics of the overall data collection process.
Whilst personal interviews do tend to provide more insight, resources and the above
factors usually dictate that a mail questionnaire be designed and administered.

Concluding comments

This articles has purposefully gone back to the basic concepts in research methodology.
It has explored how a research project is conceived, planned and implemented, However,
in describing and justifying a chosen methodology and its practical implementation, one
ultimately attempts to formulate a rational chronicle of the progress made over many
months, even years. In doing so, the author is conscious of the pitfall of conveying a
sense of all-knowing foresight, relentlessly and purposefully moving towards stated
objectives. Whilst this account is a "true and fair view" in the accounting sense, the
reality is somewhat different. All research is, among other things, a learning experience,
where mistakes are, and need to be, made. Frustrations, bereavements, accidents, crisis of
confidence, lost computer files, unhelpful and often abusive respondents are just some of
the problems experienced in the course of many research projects.

With the luxury of hindsight, the towering view of the research journey presented in this
article fails to convey the prolonged and uncharted waters that all researchers face. Given
the opportunity-and the desire- to pursue their research again, most researchers would do
many, if not most, things differently. It is the nature of the task that one only knows the
"appropriate" questions to ask and the "most useful" analytical techniques to use after the
research has been concluded and not before.

One hopes, though, that this humble attempt to clear some of the mysteries of research
will act as catalyst to spur latent researchers into taking the plunge and in doing so, join
the ranks of scholars.

The second part of this trilogy will deal with issues surrounding questionnaires (design,
focus, phraseology, form of the response, scaling, question sequencing, validity,
reliability), fieldwork, sampling, sources of data, questionnaire production and mailing,
and response rate. The third and final part will examine the important issue of data
analysis.

References

Aczel, A. D., (1996), Complete Business Statistics, Irwin, Boston.

Adlar, N. J., (1984), "Understanding ways of understanding: Cross-cultural management

methodology reviewed, in R. N. Farmer (ed.) Advances in International Compar-ative
Management, Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Adlar, N. J., Campbell, J., and Laurent, A., (1989), "In search of appropriate
methodology: From outside the People's Republic of China looking in", Journal of
International Business Studies, 20:1.

Akaah, I. P., and Yaprak, A., (1988), "Identifying target segments for foreign direct
investment (FDI) attraction: An application of conjoint methodology". Internatio-nal
Marketing Review, 5:3.

Bailey, K. D., (1974), Cluster analysis. In D. Heise (ed.), Sociological methodology. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Bailey, E. K.; Shenkar, O.; Bangert, D., (1992), "Human Resource Practices in a
Transitional Economy". Proceedings of the Third Conference on International Personnel
and Human Resources Management. Berkhamsted, UK.

Beamish, P. W. and Calof, J. L., (1989), "International Business Education: A Corporate

View", Journal of International Business Studies, 20:3.

Bechhofer, F., (1974), Current approaches to empirical research: some central idea, in J.
Rex (ed.), Approaches to sociology, Routledge, London.

Becker, H.S., (1965), Sociological Work, Aldine, Chicago.

Berry, J.L., (1961), "Basic patterns of economic development", in N Ginsburg (ed.),

Atlas of economic development, Chicago, University of Chicago Press.

Black, J.S., and Mendenall, M., (1991), "A practical but theory-based framework for
selecting cross--cultural methods, in M. Mendenhall and G. Oddou (eds.), International
Human Resource Management, PWS-Kent, Boston.

Boyd, W.B., and Westfall, R., (1970), "Interviewer bias once more revisited", Journal of
Marketing Research, Vol. 7.

Boyacigiller, N.A. and Adler, N.J., (1994), "Insiders and outsiders: Bridging the worlds
of organizational behaviour and international management", in B. Toyne and D. Nigh
(eds.) International Business Inquiry: An Emerging Vision, Columbia, USC Press.

Brewer, J. and Hunter, A., (1989), Multimethod Research: A Synthesis of Styles, Sage
Library of Social Research, Vol. 175, Sage, California.

Brislin, R., (1976), (ed.) Translation: Applications and Research, New York, Wiley.

Bryman A., and Cramer D., (1990), Quantitative Data Analysis for Social Scientists,
Routledge, London.

Bryman, A. and Burgess, R.G., (1994), "Reflections on qualitative data analysis", in A.

Bryman and R.G. Burgess (eds.), Analysing Qualita- tive Data, Routledge.

Bynner, J. and Stribley, K.M., (1978), (eds.), Social Research, Principles and Procedures,
Longman, London.

Calantone, R.J., Benedetto, C.A. & Cooper, R.G., (1986), "Variations in new product
development management: A clustering approach. In T. Shrimp (ed.), Proceedings of the
American

Marketing Association. Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association.

Cannell, C.F., Miller, P.U., and Oksenberg, L., (1981), "Research on interviewing
techniques", in S. Leinhart (ed.), Sociological Methodology, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.

Cattell, R.B., (1978), The scientific use of factor analysis in the behavioral and life
sciences. New York: Plenum Press.

Chalmers, A.F., (1982), What is this Thing called Science?, 2nd ed., Philadelphia, Open
University.

Chapman, M., and Buckley, P. J., (1993), "Economics and social anthropology-theory
and method in international business research", in George M. Chryssochoidis (ed.)
"Internationalisation Strategies", Proceedings of the 20th Annual Conference of the UK
Academy of International Business, Pontypridd, April 5-6.

Chisnall, P.M., (1986) Marketing Research, Maidenhead, McGraw-Hill.

Churchill, G.A., (1979), "A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing
constructs", Journal of Marketing Research, 16, February.

Churchill, G.A., and Peter, J.P., (1986), Research design effects on the reliability of
rating scales: a meta-analysis, Journal of Marketing Research, 21, November.

Churchill, G.A., (1994), Marketing Research: Methodological Founda- tions, Dryden

Press.

Cronbach, L.J. and Meehl, P.E., (1955), "Construct validity in psychological tests", in
Brynner and K. Stribley (1978).

Davidson, W.H. and McFetridge, D.G., (1985), "Key characteristics in the choice of
international technology transfer mode", Journal of International business, Vol. 11..

Day, E., Fox, R.J. & Huszagh, S.M., (1988), "Segmenting the global market for
industrial goods: Issues and implications". International Marketing Review, 5:3.

Demirbag, M., (1994), "The Dynamics of Foreign-Local Joint Venture Formation and
Development in Turkey", unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Bradford Management
Centre, Bradford, UK.

Dillon, W.R., & Goldstein, M., (1987), Multivariate analysis. New York: John Wiley &
Sons.

Dillman, D.A., and Frey, J.M., (1975), "Contribution of Personalisation to Mail

Questionnaire Response as an Element of a Previously Tested Method", Journal of
Applied Psychology, 59, June.

Dillman, D.A., (1978), Mail and telephone surveys: The Total Design Method, New
York, Wiley.

Douglas, S.P., and Rhee, D.K., (1989), "Examining generic competitive strategy types in
U.S. and European markets", Journal of International Business Studies, 20:3.

Doyle, P., Saunders, J., & Wong, V., (1992). Competition in global markets: A case
study of Japanese competition in the British market. Journal of International Business
Studies, 23:3.

Douglas, S.P., and Craig, S.C., (1983), International marketing research, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Downey, H. K., and Ireland, T, (1983), "Quantitative versus Qualitative: The Case of
Environmental Assessment in Organizational Studies", in J. Van Maan (ed.) Qualitative
Methodology, Beverley Hills, Sage.

Drummond, H., (1989), "A note on applying lateral thinking to data collection",
Graduate Management Research, Summer.

Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. and Lowe, A., (1991), Management Research: An

Introduction. Sage.

Everitt, B.S. and Dunn, G., (1983) Advance Method of Data Exploration and Modelling.
London: Heinemann.

Fink, A., and Kosecoff, J., (1985), How to conduct surveys, Newbury Park, CA, Sage.

Frijda, N. and Jahoda, G., (1966), "On the scope and methods of cross-cultural research,
International Journal of Psychology 1:2.

Futrell, C., (1981), "Effects of Using Both Confidentiality and Anonymity in Survey
Research of the Sales Force", Proceedings of the American Marketing Association
Educators' Conference.

Galtung J., (1967), Theory and Methods of Social Research, Allen & Unwin, London.

Ghauri, P., Gr�nhaug, K. and Kristianslund, I., (1995), Research Methods in Business
Studies: A Practical Guide, Prentice Hall, Hemel Hempstead.

Ghymn, K., (1983), "The relative importance of import decision variables", Journal of
the Academy of Marketing Science, 11:3.

Gill, J. and Johnson, P., (1991), Research Methods, Paul Chapman, London.

Glaser, B.G. and Strauss, A.L., (1967), The Discovery of Grounded Theory, Chicago,
Aldine.

Goodnow, J.D., & Hansz, J.E., (1972), "Environmental determinants of overseas market
entry strategies", Journal of International Business Studies, 3:1.

Gray, P.G., (1957), "A Sample Survey with both a Postal and an Interview Stage",
Applied Statistics, 6, June.

Green, R.T., & Larsen, T.L., (1987), "Environmental shock and export opportunity",
International Market- ing Review, 4:4.

Greer, T., (1984), "The future of the international code of marketing of breastmilk
substitutes: The socio-legal context", International Marketing Review, 1:3.

Greer, T. and Lohtia, R.,(1994), "Effects of Source and Paper Color on Response Rates
in Mail Surveys", Industrial Marketing Management, 23.

Gronhaug, K., & Graham, J.L., (1987), "International marketing research revisited"
Advances in Internation- al Marketing, 2.

Harrigan, K. R., (1985), Strategies for Joint Ventures, Lexington, MA: Lexington.

Hair, J.F., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R.L., and Black, W.C. (1984), Multivariate Data
Analysis with Readings, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

Hart, S., (1987), "The use of the Survey in industrial Marketing Research", Journal of
Marketing Management, Vol. 3, pp.25-38.

Hayek, F.A., (1978), The Pretence of Knowledge, Chicago, University of Chicago Press.

Herblein, T.H. and Baumgarter, R., (1978), "Factors affecting response rates to mailed
questionnaires: a quantitative analysis of the published literature". American Sociological
Review, Vol. 43, No. 4.

Hofstede, G.N., Bond., M.H., (1988), "The Confucian connection: from cultural roots to
economic growth", Organizational Dynamics, 16:4.

Holbrook, B., (1981), The Stone Monkey: An Alternative, Chinese-Scientific, Reality.

New York, William Morrow.

Howard, K. and Sharp, J.A., (1983), The Management of a Student Research Report,
Gower, Aldershot.

Huszagh, S.M., Fox, R.J. & Day, E., (1985), "Global marketing: An empirical
investigation", Columbia Journal of World Business, 19:4.

Jain, S.C., (1990), International Marketing Management, Boston: Kent.

Jobber, D., Mirza, H., and Wee, K.H., (1991), "Incentives and Response Rates To Cross-
National Business Surveys: A Logit Model Analysis", Journal of International Business
Studies.

Jorgenson, D.L., (1989), Participant Observation: A Methodology for Human Studies,

Newbury Park, CA, Sage.

Kachigan, S.K., (1986), Statistical analysis. New York: Radius Press.

Kalafatis, S.P., and Madden, F.J., (1994), "The effect of discount coupons and gifts on
mail survey response rates among high involvement respondents", Journal of the Market
Research Society Vol. 37, No. 2.

Kanuck, L., and Berenson, C., (1975) "Mail Survey and Responses Rates: A Literature
Review", Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 12, November.

Kendall, M., (1980), Multivariate analysis (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan.

Kidder, L.H., (1981), Research methods in social relations, New York, Rinehart &
Winston.

Kidder, L.H. and Judd, C.M., (1986), Research Methods in Social Relations, Holt
Rinehart and Winston, London.

Kirpalani, V.H. and Balcome, D., (1987), "International marketing success: on

conducting more relevant research" in Philip J. Rosson and Stanley D. Reid (eds.),
Managing Export Entry and Expansion, New York: Praeger.

Kleiner, R.J., and Okeke, B.I., (1991), "Advances in field theory: New approaches and
methods in cross cultural research", Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 22:4.

Kogut, B., (1988), "Joint Ventures: Theoretical and Empirical Perspective." Strategic
Management Journal, 9, pp. 319-332.

Kolb, D.A., Rubin, I.M. and McIntyre, J.M., (1979), Organisational psychology: An
Experiential Approach, Prentice Hall, London.

Kulka, R.A., (1982) Idiosyncrasy and circumstance: choice and constraints in the
research process, in McGrath, Martin and Kulka (1982).

McGrath, J.E., Martin. J. and Kulka, R.A., (1982), Judgements Calls in Research, Sage,
London.

McLintock, C. C., Branon, D., and Maynard-moody, S., (1983), "Applying the Logic of
Sample Surveys to Qualitative Case Studies: The Case Cluster Method", in J. Van Maan
(ed.), Qualitative Methodology, Sage.

Mansfield, M.N., (1948), "A Pattern of Response to Mail Surveys", Public Opinion
Quarterly, 12, Fall.
Maranell, G.M., (1974), (ed.) Scaling: A Sourcebook of Behavioural Scientists, Aldine
Chicago.

Martin, P., and Bateson, R.H., (1986), Measuring Behaviour: An Introductory Guide,
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Mason, E.J., and Bramble, W.J., (1978), Understanding and Conducting Research. New
York: McGraw-Hill.

Materna, R.D., (1988), "An examination of internationalization in the U.S. aircraft

industry in the 1980's: A case study of McDonnell Douglas Corporation", unpublished
Ph.D. thesis, Georgia State University, Atlanta.

Miller, E.L., (1993), "International management: A field in transition-What will it take to

reach maturity? In D. Wong-Reiger and F. Rieger (eds.) International Management
Research: Looking to the Future, New York, Walter de Gruyter.

Morgan, G., (1983), Beyond Method, Sage, London.

Moser, C.A. and Kalton, G., (1987), Survey Methods and Social Investigation,
Heinemann, London.

Nachmias, C., and Nachmias, D., (1981), Research Methods in the Social Sciences,
London, Edward Arnold.

Nasif, E.G., Al-Daeaj, H, Ebrahimi, B, and Thibodeaux, M.S., (1991), Methodological

problems in cross-cultural research: An updated review, Management International
Review, 31:1.

Neghandi, A.R., and Baliga, B.R., (1979), Quest for Survival and Growth, New York,
Praeger.

Nunnally, J.C., (1978), Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Norusis, J.M., (1995) SPSS/PC+ Advanced Statistics 4.0, Chicago, SPSS.

Paliwoda. S.J., (1981), "Using a mail questionnaire as a research tool", The Quarterly
Review of Marketing, Summer.

Parkhe, A., (1993), "Messy" research, methodological predispositions, and theory

development in international joint ventures, Academy of Management Review 18:2.

Payne, S., (1951), The Art of Asking Questions, Princeton University Press.

Peterson, R.A., (1975), "An experimental Investigation of Mail- Survey Responses,

Journal of Business Research, 3.

Pettigrew, A.M., (1985), Contextualist research: a natural way to link theory and
practice, in E.E. Lawler, A.M. Mohrman, S.A. Mohrman, G.E. Ledford, T.G. Cummings
and Associates (eds.), Doing Research that is useful for Theory and Practice, Jossey
Bass, San Francisco.

Philips, E.M. and Pugh, D.S., (1987), How to get a Ph.D., Open University Press, Milton
Keynes.

Punnett, B.J. and Shenkar, O., (1995), Handbook for International Management
Research, Blackwell, Oxford.

Ramakrishnam, K., (1986), "Towards a theory of international banking: An analysis of

international banking by U.S. banks, Ph.D. thesis, University of Texas, Dallas.

Reichart, C.S.. and Cook, T.D., (1979), "Beyond qualitative versus quantitative
methods", in T.D. Cook and C.S. Reichart (eds.) Quantitative Methods in Evaluation
Research, Beverley Hills, Sage.

Reid, S., (1983b), " Export research in crisis", in M. Czinkota, (ed.) Export Promotion:
The Public and Private Sector Interaction. Praeger, New York.

Ricks, D., (1993), "International management research: Past, present, and future", in W.
Reiger and F. Rieger (eds.) Mapping Strategic Thought, New York, Walter de Gruyter.

Rizkallah, E.G., (1980), "Multiple product: Multiple market allocations-A portfolio

approach", Paper presented at the meeting of the Academy of International Business,
New Orleans, LA.

Romesburg, H.C., (1984), Cluster analysis for researchers. Belmont, CA: Lifetime
Learning.

Ronen, S., & Shenkar, 0., (1985), "Clustering countries on attitudinal dimensions: A
review and synthesis", Academy of Management Review, 10:3.

Roth, K., & Morrison, A.J., (1990), "An empirical analysis of the integration-
responsiveness framework in global industries", Journal of International Business
Studies, 21:4.

Roth, K., (1992), "International configuration and co-ordination archetypes for medium-
sized firms in global industries" Journal of International Business studies, 23:3.

Russow, L.C., (1989), "Global screening: The preliminary identification of existing

market potential using macroeconomic and demographic factors," Ph.D. dissertation,
Georgia State University, Atlanta.

Russow, L.C. and Okoroafo, S.C., (1993), "Classification in international marketing

research", Proceedings of the Academy of International Business-Northeast Annual
meeting, University of Scranton, PA.

Rummel, R.W. and Ballaine, W.C., (1963), Research Methodology in Business, Harper
& Row, New York.

Scott, C., (1961), Research on mail survey", Journal of the Statistical Society, Vol. 24,
No. 124.

Sekaran, U., (1983), "Methodological and theoretical issues and advancements in cross-
cultural research", Journal of International Business Studies, 14:2.

Sherbini, A.A., (1967), "Classifying and comparing countries", In B. Leander, V.

Terpstra, M.Y. Yoshino & A.A. Sherbini (Eds.) Comparative analysis for international
marketing, Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Sheth, J.N., & Lutz, R.J., (1973), "A multivariate model of multinational business
expansion", in S.P. Sethi & J.N. Sheth (Eds.), Multinational business operations:
Marketing management, Pacific Palisades, CA: Goodyear Publishing.

Sethi, S.P., (1971), "Comparative cluster analysis for world markets", Journal of
Marketing Research, 8:3.

Smith, H.W., (1975), Strategies of Social Research: The Methodological Imagination,

London, Prentice-Hall.

Stewart, D.W., (1981), "The application and misapplication of factor analysis in

marketing research". Journal of Marketing Research, 18:1.

Stanton, F., (1930), "Notes on the Validity of Mail Questionnaire Returns", Journal of
Applied Psychology, 23, February.

Summers, G.F., (1970), Attitude Measurement, Rand McNally, Chicago.

Triandis, H., (1976), "Approaches toward minimizing translation", in R. Brislin (ed.),

Translation: Applications and Research, New York, Wiley.

Van de Ven, A., (1992), "Suggestions for studying strategy process: A research note",
Strategic Management Journal, 13 Summer.

Van Maanen, J., (1983), (ed.) Qualitative Methodology, Beverley Hills, Sage.
Van Riesen, E.D., (1979), "Postcard Reminders versus Replacement Questionnaires and
Mail Survey Response Rates from a Professional Population", Journal of Business
Research, 7.

Vogel, R.H., (1976), "Uses of managerial perceptions in clustering countries", Journal of

International Business Studies, 7:1.

Waterman, R.H., (1987), The Renewal Factor. Bantam Books, New York.

Webb, J., (1992), Understanding and & Designing Marketing Research. The Dryden
Press, London

Weick, K.E., (1989), "Theory construction as disciplined imagination", Academy of

Management Review 14:4.

Wolf, A., (1926), Essentials of Scientific Method, New York Macmillan.

Wright, L.W., ((1995), "Qualitative International Management Research", in Punnett,

B.J. and Shenkar, O., (eds.) Handbook for International Management Research,
Blackwell, Oxford.

Yeh, R., (1989), "On Hofstede's treatment of Chinese and Japanese values", Asia Pacific
Journal of Management, 6:1.

Yin, R.K., (1984) Case Study Research: Design and Methods, Applied Social Research
Series, Vol. 5, Sage, Beverley Hills, California.

Yu, J., and Cooper, H., (1983), "A quantitative review of research design effects on
response rates to questionnaires", Journal of Marketing Research, 20.

Zikmund, W.G., (1994), Exploring Market Research, Dryden Press.

AU Intranet, Assumption University, Thailand

Tel.3004543 ext.1315, 3004886