True Stress and True Strain

h For engineering stress (ı) and engineering strain (İ),

the original (gauge) dimensions of specimen are employed.
However, length and cross-sectional area change in plastic
region. True stress (ı‫ )މ‬and true strain (İ‫ )މ‬are used for
accurate definition of plastic behaviour of ductile materials
by considering the actual (instantaneous) dimensions.

h True stress (ı‫ )މ‬is the force divided by the actual area: V c F A
F F
h By the constancy of volume: V A L Ao Lo , we can obtain:
F L L  Lo
Vc
F
& H
L
1 Ÿ V c
F
1  H  V 1  H 
A Ao Lo Lo Lo Ao

h True strain (İ‫ )މ‬is change in length with respect to the instant length: Lo Ao
L A
ln L Lo  & L 1  H Lo ln 1  H 
L
Hc ³L0
dL L Ÿ Hc

h True strain can also be in terms of reduction in area: H c ln  Ao A

h This can be rewritten for cylindrical specimens: H c 2 lnDo D 

1
 True Stress and True Strain
h Fig. 21 shows conventional vs true stress-strain diagrams for two different
steels in which the portion beyond ultimate strength is significant. When
necking starts, only way to define the gauge length is to measure it.

h However, if loads at ultimate and fracture points

are recorded, this portion can be approximated by
a straight line using the fracture area.

h Thus, true strain at point 90

True Fracture
of fracture is determined True Stress ( kg / mm2 ) C22 steel x x
by equation below: St
60
St
H cf
1 e
1% Ni Steel
RA x
30 x
True Diagram
RA : reduction in area
Conventional Diagram
e : natural logarithm
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
ıǰf : true fracture strain Figure 21 True Strain (mm / mm)
2
 True Stress and True Strain
h There is an approximate linear relationship between true stress and true
strain when plotted on log-log scale, as shown in Fig. 22 for various steels.

h For many materials, the correlation between true stress and true strain has
been found to be approximately represented by equation below:

Vc K H 
c n

K : strength coefficient
n : strain hardening exponent
(i.e. slope of log-log plot)
n = 0 (perfectly malleable solid)
n = 1 (elastic solid)

Figure 22

3
 Tensile Properties of Steel
h Alloy content, heat treatment and fabrication (production) process are
the variables affecting tensile and other properties of steel. The following
factors influence the selection procedure of steels:

a. Rigidity is purely a design problem. Elastic modulus of steels falls within

the range of 19.6 - 20.1 * 104 kg/mm2, regardless of composition or form.

b. Yield and tensile strength of carbon steels are strongly affected by their
carbon content regardless of alloy content. Increasing carbon content will
increase yield and tensile strength, but decrease ductility (see Fig. 23).

Some designers use tensile

strength while others use
yield point. Whichever used
is modified by a factor of
safety to allow uncertainties
in stress calculations and
possible overloads. Figure 23
4
 Tensile Properties of Steel
c. Heat treatment gives useful and important properties due to hardenability
in order to obtain proper combination of strength, ductility and toughness.
Heat-treatable steel for non-cylindrical part must be picked based on ruling
section-size (i.e. the maximum diameter of round bar in which the specified
tensile strength or hardness can be produced by employed heat treatment).

d. Hardness is related to strength as: S t f BHN where f is a conversion

factor (0.33 - 0.36) and BHN is the Brinell Hardness Number. Steels with
the same hardness usually have the same tensile strengths.

e. Ductility of carbon steels decreases as hardness increases. For the same

BHN or strength, alloys steels are more ductile than carbon steels. An alloy
steel can give better strength, ductility and toughness. Thus, it should be
preferred to carbon steel under high stress or impact loading.

f. Fabrication process is also significant for the properties of steels. When

an annealed steel is cold worked (by rolling, wire drawing or elongation in
tension), its strength and hardness increase, but its ductility decreases.
5
 Factors Affecting Tension and Compression Tests
h In tension or compression test, the specimen is subjected to a gradually
increasing uniaxial load until failure occurs.

h The test is fundamentally dynamic, but due to the low speed of testing
involved, it is considered to be quasi-static for all practical purposes.

h There are several factors affecting these tests (e.g. metallurgical factors
as well as testing and environmental conditions).

h Such factors are mainly grouped into two categories:

1. Variables related to test specimen (size and shape effect)

2. Variables related to testing machine (strain rate, rigidity of machine,

load and extension measuring device, gripping arrangement)

6
 Variables Related to Test Specimen
h In theory, if a material is of uniform quality, the geometrically similar size of
specimens would not affect the test results considerably. However, in
practice, mechanical properties change with size.
h This is called “size effect”,
which is observed in fatigue
and brittle fracture according
to the statistical distribution of
defects in microstructure.
h Different sizes for the same
material would give different
property values (as in table).

7
 Variables Related to Test Specimen
h Shape also affects the results.
Fig. 24 shows standard tensile
test specimens (TS 138).

h In case of compression tests,

specimens of circular section
are used for uniform straining.
Height-to-diameter ratio (h/d)
is important to avoid buckling
and ensure free shear plane
in case of brittle materials:
Type h/d Purpose
Short 0.9 Testing bearing materials
Medium 3 General purpose uses
Long 8-10 To determine stiffness

Figure 24
8
 Variables Related to Test Specimen
h Fig. 25a shows how ductility and shape of stress-strain diagram varies with
Lo/do ratio. The reduction of area is independent of Lo/do for values of > 2
and drastically reduced for values of < 2. This is called “notch sensitivity”.
The term “notch” implies any kind of stress concentration effect.
h Small ratios convert ductile type of stress-strain curves to brittle type (as in
Fig. 25b). Stress concentrations are unimportant where static loads are
acting on ductile materials. However, brittle materials have limited capacity
of plastic flow, so a notch adversely affects strength causing sudden failure.
Figure 25

9
 Variables Related to Testing Machine
h Fig. 26 illustrates two commonly used testing machines by which tension
and compression tests in uniaxial direction can be performed. Electronic
version of these testers are also available.
Figure 26
Hydraulic Universal Testing Machine
Screw (Crosshead) Type Testing Machine

1 Frame
2 Tension space
3 Pump
4 Valve
5 Dynamometer
6 Compression space

h The factors related to the testing machine are: strain rate and strain history,
rigidity of machine, load and extension measuring device, gripping devices.
10
 Variables Related to Testing Machine
h Strain rate (dİ/dt) is related to the speed of gripping

stress
High strain rate
heads. Fig. 27 shows the effect of strain rate (curve
shifts upwards at higher speeds). Low strain rate

h ASTM, Turkish and DIN standards for appropriate

strain rates to be used in testing various materials
Figure 27
are given in tables below: strain

Various ASTM requirements on strain rate Strain rates for metallic materials (DIN)
Material ASTM Max. Crosshead Speed (mm/min) For determination of dı/dt 1 (kg/mm2s)
Tested Ref. To yield To ultimate Load rate upper yield point dİ/dt 0.3 (% / minute)
Metallic E8 0.062 mm 0.5 mm per Maximum 70 For determination of
dİ/dt 10 (% / minute)
materials* per mm of mm of gauge kg/mm2/min lower yield point
Steel prod.* A370 gauge length above to yield For determination of
Gray CI A48 length 10 kg/mm2 tensile strength (before dİ/dt 40 (% / minute)
Specified Grip Speed (mm/min) reaching max. force)
Plastics D638 1.30 5 - 6.35 1.32 - 1.4 kg/s
Hard rubber D530
Soft rubber D142 500
* The values are also recommended in TS 138
11
 Variables Related to Testing Machine
h Strain history also modifies the stress-strain diagram. When a material is
subjected to a cycle of loading and unloading, some energy is dissipated
by the specimen, which is called “hysteresis effect”. It is an important
consideration in the treatment of “anelasticity” and “fatigue”.

h Rigidity of machine contributes to the deformation measurements. Under

loading, not only the specimens but also components of machine elongate.
Due to the deformation of machine itself, it is also difficult to maintain
constant strain rate of the specimen, which again affects the test result.

h Load and extension measuring device: Mechanical systems with high

inertia will cause changes in measurements especially at high speeds
when acceleration comes into play. In contrast, electronic systems with
negligible inertia always provide the same measurement at all speeds.
Hence, it is better to use low inertia measuring devices for accurate results.

h Similar to rigidity of machine, gripping devices also must be stiff and rigid
(i.e. no bending effect on the specimen should occur).
12
Variables Related to Testing Machine

13